A Cyclic Aero-mechanical Array of One-way Coupled Oscillators

Katsuo J. Maxted Physics Department The College of Wooster

A dissertation submitted in partial fulllment of the requirements of Senior Independent Study in Physics at The College of Wooster

Adviser Dr. John F. Lindner

Second Reader Dr. Cody Leary

March 26, 2012

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Abstract
One-way coupling of multi-stable elements produces novel phenomena. For example, a one-way coupled cyclic array of an odd number of bistable elements spontaneously forms solitary ways that propagate forever. Although such behavior appears to violate both energy and momentum conservation, it has been experimentally observed in hydro-mechanical and electrical arrays with externally powered coupling. This thesis describes the design, construction, and operation of a new and simpler aero-mechanical array that exhibits such phenomena. The array is designed in Mathematica and printed in ABS plastic by Shapeways. Its simplicity may make practical two-dimensional mechanical arrays where solitary waves propagate at dierent speeds in dierent directions.

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Acknowledgments
I thank my advisor John F. Lindner for his support during the entire two semesters of study; Jackie Middleton for administrating materials from Information Technology; Ron Tebbe for letting me use the shop; and Barbara Breen, A. R. Bulsara, James Gallagher, Kelly Patton, Patrick Odenthal, Zack Stroh, Stuart Tanasse, Andrew Tanasse, Jamie Grimm and Aaron Doud for their one-way coupling research through various models.

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Contents
Abstract Acknowledgments 1 Overview 1.1 Violating Newtons Laws? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Theory 2.1 Two-way Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 One-way Coupling in One Dimension . . . . 2.3 One-way Coupling in Two Dimensions . . . 2.4 Mono-stability, Bistability, and Tri-stability iii v 1 1 5 5 6 8 8 13 13 13 14 15 15 17 17 18 19 19 20 23 23 23 25 26 26 30 32

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3 Past Designs 3.1 The First Hydro-mechanical Model . . . . . . . . 3.2 Second Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Bistability and New Boundary Conditions 3.2.2 Pressurized Water and More Elements . . 3.3 Discretized Coupling Force . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Third Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 An Approach to Simplication . . . . . . 3.4.2 Consistently Manufactured Oscillators . . 3.5 Electrical Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 One Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2 Two Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Aero-mechanical Array 4.1 Design Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Options for Periodic Boundaries . . . . 4.2 Designing in Mathematica . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Cardboard Array (Version A) . . . . . . 4.3.2 ABS Plastic Array (Version B) . . . . . 4.3.3 Parts common to Version A and Version vii

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viii 5 Operation 5.1 Preparation . . . . . . 5.2 Running The System . 5.3 Recording Data . . . . 5.4 Data Analysis . . . . . 5.5 Results and Discussion

CONTENTS 37 37 37 38 40 42 49 49 49 50 51 51

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6 Aftermath 6.1 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Improving the Aero-mechanical Array 6.1.2 Building a Two-dimensional Model . . 6.1.3 Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Appendices A Virtual Array of Plastic Oscillators B Color Scheme Modication

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List of Figures
1.1 1.2 1.3 A foot kicking a soccer ball. The foot distorts the ball. . . . . . . A foot kicking a soccer ball and unrealistically not deforming the ball. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A line of tipping dominos on a table. Dominos on the left are in their fallen state and dominos on the right are neutral, making them vulnerable to the slightest nudge from a neighboring domino. 1 2

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6

The cubic force and bistable potential energy from Eq. 2.1 & Eq. 2.2 6 Five bistable elements lined in a one-way coupled array. . . . . . 9 Six bistable elements lined in a one-way coupled array. . . . . . . 9 Five tri-stable elements lined in a one-way coupled array. . . . . 10 Six tri-stable elements lined in a one-way coupled array. . . . . . 10 Examples of soliton propagation through arrays of tri-stable elements represented with blue, yellow, or red. When N is a multiple of three, the array reaches global equilibrium. Otherwise, a soliton propagates indenitely. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 a) Top view of Gallaghers array. b) The oscillator. . . . . . . . . a) Array of oscillators composed of Meccano and pillboxes. b) Pattons array and water circulation system. . . . . . . . . . . . . Odenthals entire pressurized water one-way array. . . . . . . . . a) One Meccano oscillator beside springs holding the boundary gates. b) My entire system. c) The plunger boundary conditions. d) The top view of the tower, showing the gates that hold the balls. Schematic of a hydro-mechanical oscillator in its two states. One xed rod was a pivot for the base of the oscillator while an upper parallel xed rod became a pivot for an arm that shifted a water tube in the opposite direction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) Array of hydro-mechanical oscillators. b) Zach Strohs entire system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . a) Stuart Tanasses entire system, showing submersion in a waterlled trough. b) Close-up view of the ABS plastic oscillators. . . ix 14 14 15

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4

16

3.5

17 18 18

3.6 3.7

x 3.8

LIST OF FIGURES Diagram of a CMOS inverter in its two states. High input voltage causes current to ow through the n-channel and low input voltage causes current to ow through the p-channel [4]. . . . . . 3.9 Sequence of wave propagation through a one-dimensional 24element electrical array [4]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10 Diagram of two-dimensional CMOS inverter array. Wave inuence was directed toward the top right corner [4]. . . . . . . . . . 3.11 A 13 13 array of CMOS inverters propagating a 1:1 soliton mode [4]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Sample air deection (blue) by oscillator and corresponding forces (red). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adding and removing an element from N elements. . . . . . . . . A graphical 3d design of an aero-mechanical array. . . . . . . . . Picture of assorted of Meccano pieces. From left to right: 6.5-inch girder, 2.5-inch girder, rectangular at-plate, rectangular girder, and bush wheel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Picture of assorted KNEX pieces. From top to bottom: red 5.125-inch rod, orange connector, and white 1.3125-inch rod. . . An early prototype aero-mechanical array. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cardboard pieces used in the rst successful aero-mechanical array. Top: The leftmost boundary piece. Left: A middle oscillator. Right: The rightmost boundary piece. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The masses used counter deector weight. Left: 5g mass. Right: 20g mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ABS plastic pieces used in the successful plastic array. From left to right: The leftmost boundary piece, the rightmost boundary piece, and a middle oscillator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The rib cage that eectively stopped the wings and masses of the oscillators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The washers that are used for spacers. Thicknesses varied. . . . . The entire array support, constructed exclusively out of Meccano pieces. The green bridges composed out of girders raise the rib cage to the array and the red rectangular at-plates and rectangular girders support the array at a certain height. . . . . . . . . Two Lasko jet fans with an Airking jet fan placed on top. . Side view of the cardboard array in motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . Side view of the plastic array in motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adding points in Logger Pro data acquisition. . . . . . . . . . . . Geometry of the vertical positions above and below the point of reference of the neutral position. Points above the neutral point are indicated as yhigh and points below are ylow . is the distance between 0 and the start of ylow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4.10 4.11 4.12

4.13 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4

35 35 38 39 40

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LIST OF FIGURES Color scheme modication for linear positions in a) Fig. 5.7, b) Fig. 5.8, c) Fig. 5.9, and d) Fig. 5.10. Numbers on the x axes represent the vertical positions. The middle of the scheme is shifted to the point between yhigh and ylow . In modifying the scheme this way, the black & white scale for angular positions becomes linear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Generalized color scheme modication for angular velocities in Fig. 5.9 and 5.10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 Image plots showing oscillator positions and quick soliton velocities in the cardboard odd-array of N = 5 elements. . . . . . . . . 5.8 Image plots showing oscillator positions and slower, more readable soliton velocities in the plastic odd-array of N = 7 elements. 5.9 Image plots showing oscillator positions and velocities during a transient of soliton annihilation followed by one solitary wave in an array of N = 7 plastic elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10 Position and velocity image plots showing the dissipation of a soliton to quiescence in an even array. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5

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xii

LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter 1

Overview
In 1687, Isaac Newton announced his laws of motion [1]. Perhaps the most conceptually subtle but essential law is Newtons third law of action and reaction pairs: If one object exerts a force +F on a second object, the second object exerts a force F on the rst object. In normal coupling, while obeying Newtons laws, a force on an object is met with equal opposition. As this happens, the inertial force distorts the objects shape while the reaction force is on the object exerting the initial force. Figure 1.1 shows a foot distorting the soccer ball as it is kicked.

Figure 1.1: A foot kicking a soccer ball. The foot distorts the ball.

1.1

Violating Newtons Laws?

What if there is no reaction from an object that receives a force? While Newtons second law still applies to the object that receives the force, imagine encountering absolutely no resistance when punching a hanging punching bag, jumping on a trampoline, or hitting a baseball. These scenarios resemble playing poorlymade virtual 3D games with a Wii! With the swing of the remote, you can 1

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

dislocate the punching bag, destroy the trampoline, and send a baseball to the milky-way. As a reasonable metaphor, the Wii gaming system helps to visualize the absence of physical opposition from an object. Without a reaction, you wont feel pressure from a soccer ball when you kick it. It will y upon touch, as if youre kicking air! Figure 1.2 shows a kick that is not distorting the ball.

Figure 1.2: A foot kicking a soccer ball and unrealistically not deforming the ball.

This is where the concept of one-way coupling begins. The theory must evade a widely accepted law. As physics revolves around scientically proved theories, violation of Newtons third law should rightfully come with a price. How is it feasible to demonstrate such a surreal phenomenon on an experimental basis? Within there lies a trick. The key to evading Newtons third law and maintaining both momentum and energy conservation is active (= powered) coupling, rst by falling water, then by a constant voltage, and now by wind. Without powered coupling, how exactly can one-way coupling be achieved? It cannot. One-way coupled systems, regardless of how they are prepared, constantly need external power. Arrays that receive coupling power for limited time are short-lived. For example, after observing a line of falling dominos on a table, assuming that no domino encounters resistance, we cannot observe another run until every domino is placed upright in its proper position. External coupling power is absent after all the dominos fall. See the two positions of dominos in Fig. 1.3. To acquire one-way coupling data, the use of coupling power in a short time is not the correct approach. In an absurd scenario, what if the gravity switches directions after the last domino falls so dominos could rise towards a ceiling (an inch above the table) after their preceding neighbors have fallen a certain distance away from them? If this is possible, adequate one-way coupling might be observed. The thesis is organized as follows. Chapter 2 provides theory on the universally accepted two-way coupling that leads to the concept of one-way coupling. The theory for one-way coupling will be given in one and two dimensions, providing reasons behind wave propagation. Chapter 3 outlines the history of one-way arrays, giving information of older models that developed the framework of the current version. Chapter 4 steps through the construction process of the aero-

1.1. VIOLATING NEWTONS LAWS?

Figure 1.3: A line of tipping dominos on a table. Dominos on the left are in their fallen state and dominos on the right are neutral, making them vulnerable to the slightest nudge from a neighboring domino.

mechanical model. It gives the materials and construction techniques used, and describes the reasoning behind every component in the system. Chapter 5 explains how the system is prepared and run for taking data. It also gives detail on methods used to eectively analyze data. Finally, chapter 6 suggests some future work and ends with the studys conclusion.

CHAPTER 1. OVERVIEW

Chapter 2

Theory
This chapter steps through the theory that models one-way coupling in reverser arrays and introduces concepts behind arrays with mono-stable, bistable, or tristable elements. One-way coupling in arrays with bistable elements is explained in length because they have been extensively used in previous models. The torque that attracts the the elements to one of two stable elements is represented by T = dU/d = a b3 , where a, b > 0. (2.1)

2.1

Two-way Coupling

For all studied coupling models, the bistable double well potential U = a2 /2 + b4 /4. (2.2)

The two minima of the function signify the stable equilibria of the elements two potential states and the relative maximum is the unstable equilibrium of neutrality. By varying the parameters a and b, the heights and widths of the wells are manipulated. See Fig. 2.1. Two-way coupling follows Newtons third law of action and reaction pairs. It involves an equal exchange of momentum between two elements. Two-way coupling enables everyday propagation in air, drumheads, etc. Bi-stable elements are linked with a coupling k . The total torque including a cubic bistable force and the linear coupling torque is x + x T = I
3 = ax bx k (x x1 ) k (x x+1 ).

(2.3)

CHAPTER 2. THEORY

Figure 2.1: The cubic force and bistable potential energy from Eq. 2.1 & Eq. 2.2

This has periodic boundary conditions of 0 = N and 1 = N +1 for x = 1, 2, ..., N . I is the rotational inertia and is the viscosity, and overdots symbolize dierentiation with respect to time t.

2.2

One-way Coupling in One Dimension

One way coupling is a behavior that demonstrates a uni-directional transmission of force between coupled elements. For this study, one-way coupling of bistable elements composed of aero-mechanical oscillators is thoroughly analyzed. If an element has two stable states, power from an external source will inuence the element to favor one state over the other. The cubic force is the force that attracts the element to both states and the powered coupling will direct a sequence of elements that alternates states. Every element is held in its state with a bistable potential energy until it is forced out through the powered coupling. To clarify, the cubic force is the negative gradient of the bistable potential energy. The state of a succeeding element ultimately depends on the state of its preceding element. Previous research conrms that a system composed of these elements will hypothetically strive for an equal number of the two states: a quiescent or lowest energy formation. Coupling forces will be distributed continuously until this happens [5]. If one coupling term from Eq. 2.3 is removed, the resulting equation represents one-way coupling. This is x + x = ax b3 (x x1 ) I x
3 = Ax bx x1 ,

(2.4)

2.2. ONE-WAY COUPLING IN ONE DIMENSION where A = + and is substituted with k > 0 for simplicity.

Remember that we must consider a viscous force, a cubic force, and a coupling force. An array of identical elements changing states will display these forces in action. A single coupling is demonstrated by a conjugation of two oscillators in opposite states. Physical one-way systems are most simply represented with strong damping [2, 3]. The inertial term is deleted for the equation

x = Ax b3 x1 . x This equation can be rescaled to get

(2.5)

x = x 3 x 1 x1 ,

(2.6)

where the angle is x = x b/A, the coupling is 1 = /A = /(a + ), and time is rescaled as = tA/ . The term 1 x1 in Eq. 2.6 is the reverser, which is the torque reversely proportional to a preceding oscillators deection. In one dimension, a one-way coupling model demonstrates that an element in the system cannot react to a coupling force, which ostensibly violates Newtons laws of energy and mass conservation. If there is an even number of elements, the array will minimize its energy by coming to rest. However, if there is an odd number of elements, one element will invariably be unpaired, causing the system to be topologically frustrated. In each case, the array is homogenous. This system will perpetuate a solitary wave that moves at a certain speed. The soliton speed increases with coupling, but also depends on noise and disorder. Theoretically, an odd number of elements with an incomplete coupling pair will cause an indenite wave propagation. Results show that noise will cause a decrease in wave speed regardless of parity, but results are consistent with behaviors without noise [4]. The cubic force and coupling force simultaneously act on each element at a time. The coupling force essentially directs the bistable element to a succeeding reverser. A neutral element, or an element with no distinctive state, should be considered unstable. The slightest nudge should cause a neutral element to fall in one of two states. Observing forces in motion, when a succeeding element is already in an opposite or reversely proportional orientation, the coupling force directs the element to its current state, causing no change in states. This is the deletion of a solitary wave or soliton propagated by the cubic and coupling force. If two solitons meet in the system, they will spontaneously annihilate because they are actually a soliton and anti-soliton pair. Two waves that chase one another across the system are known as a soliton-antisoliton pair due to their negating nature when met. One uncoupled element from each wave will meet to form a complete coupling, eliminating frustration altogether. A wave collision may only occur with the existence of noise or wake interaction.

CHAPTER 2. THEORY

2.3

One-way Coupling in Two Dimensions

In two dimensions, there are four coupling terms to indicate two-way links in the x and y directions. This is given by x + x = ax b3 (4x,y x1,y x+1,y x,y+1 x,y1 ). I x (2.7)

There is only the addition of two coupling terms to Eq. 2.3. Once again, coupling terms are dropped to model one-way motion. In this case, we delete a coupling term in the y direction and the x direction. x + x = ax b3 k (x x1 ) k (x y+1 ) I x
3 = Ax bx x1,y x,y+1

(2.8)

where again A = + and = k > 0. In a two dimensional model, there are many behaviors that do not exist in one-dimensional coupling. It is assumed that one model in the array is coupled to two neighboring elements. In the case of Eq. 2.8, the element of observation is coupled to elements just left and above it. On a standard XY graph, the direction of inuence would be aimed toward the arrays bottom right corner. The two-dimensional reverser equation is given as x,y = x,y 3 x,y 2 (x1,y + x,y +1 ) (2.9)

for another reverser term in the y direction. This is an overdamped, rescaled version of Eq. 2.8.

2.4

Mono-stability, Bistability, and Tri-stability

Unfortunately, the existence of multiple states creates complications when constructing one-way coupled systems. An element is forced out of a stable state through sucient coupling power. In an array of mono-stable elements, there is a critical coupling value that allows a continuous wave, but the slightest deviation from this value generates a dissipating wave. If we instead associate a cubic force, an element may be forced to one of two states before a coupled element displays its opposite state. This is the simplest case when analyzing coupled elements with multiple states. Scenarios of elements with two states are given in Fig. 2.2 & 2.3. Then, only two possible states exist, and a continuous system can only be constructed with an odd number of elements or else the last element will mimic the rst, resulting in a degenerate coupling pair. The underlying assumption is that every succeeding element does not want hold the same state as its predecessor. The coupling is characterized by the reverser. In the tri-stable case, force is given with the equation n = V [n ] sin n n1 2 . 3 (2.10)

2.4. MONO-STABILITY, BISTABILITY, AND TRI-STABILITY

Figure 2.2: Five bistable elements lined in a one-way coupled array.

Figure 2.3: Six bistable elements lined in a one-way coupled array.

The tri-stable potential energy is expressed as V [] = sin 3 2

2

(2.11)

Under the inuence of a tri-stable potential energy, an element may be forced into one of three basins of attraction while three elements are necessary to complete a tripled set. This process is known as one-way tripling. A starting element in a triple is randomized from three states while a succeeding element is randomized from the other two states. The third element will hold the remaining unused state. This generates a wave that propagates to repeat the pattern. Sequences of three dierent states are given in Fig. 2.4 & 2.5. From random initial conditions, every succeeding element in the array chooses the state that is unused by two consecutively preceding elements, and multiple waves propagate and collide to seek homogeneity. Though dierent initial conditions may generate dierent patterns, the overall system pursues repetition of only one tri-state pattern. Figure 2.6 shows topological frustration in a non-multiple of three arrays with one or two remainder elements, and quiescence otherwise.

10

CHAPTER 2. THEORY

Figure 2.4: Five tri-stable elements lined in a one-way coupled array.

Figure 2.5: Six tri-stable elements lined in a one-way coupled array.

Arrays with mono-stable, bistable, tri-stable elements will inevitably display dierent behaviors. Universally, using a cubic force in an array of one-way coupled bistable elements is the most practical solution for behavior analysis. These systems can be built in one or higher dimensions, but to facilitate construction, one-dimensional one-way coupling systems are the centerpieces of experimentation.

2.4. MONO-STABILITY, BISTABILITY, AND TRI-STABILITY

11

Figure 2.6: Examples of soliton propagation through arrays of tri-stable elements represented with blue, yellow, or red. When N is a multiple of three, the array reaches global equilibrium. Otherwise, a soliton propagates indenitely.

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CHAPTER 2. THEORY

Chapter 3

Past Designs
Much research in one-way coupling involved experiments in hydromechanical models and electrical models. Contributors included researchers from The College of Wooster and The University of Portland [4, 5]. The following sections list and describe the features of previous physical one-way coupling models. The evolution of the hydromechanical model is given in three generations, as well as the rst constructions of the one and two-dimensional electrical models.

3.1

The First Hydro-mechanical Model

James Gallagher built the rst hydro-mechanical model in summer 2007. He created seven oscillators composed of KNEX [6] pieces in a circular array. Falling water was directed through a tube to a bucket in the center of the system, then the gathered water was output to every oscillator through more tubes. Leaky cups caught the water to rock the oscillators longitudinally. This model was the only bistable model that oscillated longitudinally. The two states consist of a water-lled cup rocked down and an empty cup rocked up. The leaky cups were lled with water as long as water was directed into them, and were drained when the hose was shifted away from them. Data had to be recorded from a downward aerial view directly above the center of the system to analyze all oscillators in motion. See Fig. 3.1 for multiple pictures of the system. The eectiveness of water was exemplied, marking promising results for future hydro-mechanical models.

3.2

Second Generation

The next generation of hydromechanical models of one-way coupled oscillators targeted clear data readability and smooth bistable oscillations. 13

14

CHAPTER 3. PAST DESIGNS

Figure 3.1: a) Top view of Gallaghers array. b) The oscillator.

3.2.1

Bistability and New Boundary Conditions

As one of the individuals who contributed the most work in observing soliton behavior in a one-way coupled system, Kelly Patton opened a path to a newly designed one-way coupled system in years 2007-2008, including seven new bistable oscillators and new periodic boundary conditions [7]. Each oscillator was composed of pill bottles and Meccano [8] pieces and the last oscillator was connected to the rst oscillator coaxially to implement periodic boundary conditions. The transverse rocking motion of the oscillators allowed two stable equilibriums per element. And, data recording could be done on two sides of the array. Pictures of her model are given in Fig. 3.2. The main disadvantage of this design was the torsional friction at the boundaries. Oscillators would occasionally malfunction due to the weak water ow and its small surface area of contact on an oscillator. Nevertheless, Pattons design proved to be a successful example of one-way coupling between bistable oscillators.

Figure 3.2: a) Array of oscillators composed of Meccano and pillboxes. b) Pattons array and water circulation system.

3.3. DISCRETIZED COUPLING FORCE

15

3.2.2

Pressurized Water and More Elements

In summer 2008, Patrick Odenthals primary upgrade to Pattons design was the substitution of pressurized water for falling water. This allowed a faster water ow which imposed a greater force on every oscillator. After water was expended, it was pressurized again by being pumped back over the system. The array functions with transverse rocking seesaws and coaxial boundary conditions like Pattons, yet with more reliability. Fifteen oscillators were machined with custom aluminum and water tubes held larger radii. As water tubes were directed on the opposite state of a succeeding oscillator, oscillators also leaked water from compartments to the next oscillator. See a picture of his array in Fig. 3.3 The addition of more elements allowed a keener observation of the propagations and annihilations of solitons. The biggest problem was once again overcoming the torsional friction at the periodic boundaries.

Figure 3.3: Odenthals entire pressurized water one-way array.

3.3

Discretized Coupling Force

My research in one-way coupling began in summer 2010. During the last week of study, I constructed a tower of ve mechanical oscillators that was powered by discrete falling balls. When a ball fell onto one side of a see-saw, it tipped it over to its opposite conguration before dropping onto a track that redirected the ball to the other side of a succeeding see-saw. The model could not indenitely

16

CHAPTER 3. PAST DESIGNS

display soliton propagation because the system used a nite number of balls. After a single ball fell through the ve elements, a plunger boundary condition permanently opened a gate for another ball to fall, so only a maximum of three balls could be used. See my pictures in Fig. 3.4. It was questionable whether this model was accurately representing one-way coupling because the system was only powered at discontinuities while oscillators in alternating states were not experiencing forces from balls. However, if multiple balls were constantly dropped down the system, a reliable one-way coupling model might have been plausible. We imagined an elevator system replenishing balls at the top.

Figure 3.4: a) One Meccano oscillator beside springs holding the boundary gates. b) My entire system. c) The plunger boundary conditions. d) The top view of the tower, showing the gates that hold the balls.

3.4. THIRD GENERATION

17

3.4

Third Generation

The third generation did not deviate much from the second generations designs. Main focuses were small improvements such as smoother oscillations, faster soliton speeds, and simpler oscillator designs.

Figure 3.5: Schematic of a hydro-mechanical oscillator in its two states. One xed rod was a pivot for the base of the oscillator while an upper parallel xed rod became a pivot for an arm that shifted a water tube in the opposite direction.

3.4.1

An Approach to Simplication

Following in Odenthals footsteps, Barbara Breen and Zach Stroh from the University of Portland constructed a hydromechanical system that used custom aluminum, pressurized water and transversely rocking seesaws in years 20092010. The dierences from Odenthals model was the use of gears and parallel axles boundary conditions and the sole use of water pressure for the cubic force. A schematic for an oscillator in motion was given in Fig. 3.5. The gears and parallel axles, however, introduced more friction at the periodic boundaries. Their pictures are displayed in Fig. 3.6.

18

CHAPTER 3. PAST DESIGNS

Figure 3.6: a) Array of hydro-mechanical oscillators. b) Zach Strohs entire system.

3.4.2

Consistently Manufactured Oscillators

At the University of Portland of summer 2010, Stuart Tanasse constructed what was most likely the most successful hydromechanical model. While reintegrating Breen and Strohs oscillator design, Tanasse obtained 3D printed plastic oscillators from Bradley Rigdon [9]. Since oscillators were exact copies of one another, there was no danger of one or more defective elements. Two pictures are shown in Fig. 3.7. Problems consisted of imprecise water ow or friction overload at the boundaries. This model did not have problems at the boundaries thanks to the precise engineering of its pieces, including the gears that implemented the periodic boundary conditions.

Figure 3.7: a) Stuart Tanasses entire system, showing submersion in a waterlled trough. b) Close-up view of the ABS plastic oscillators.

3.5. ELECTRICAL MODELS

19

3.5

Electrical Models

Electrical models had a simpler construction process. Connections were made through wires and breadboards, and once all connections were complete, the system would function correctly. We initially resisted electrical models as almost anything can be done with electronics. For example, you can use electronics to build a robot that does whatever you want. The function of the mechanical arrays was transparent while that of the electronic arrays was not. However, our electronic array used very simple components. In particular, the inverter consisted of just two eld eect transistors.

3.5.1

One Dimension

Andrew Tanasse from University of Portland used Complementary Metal Oxide Silicon (CMOS) inverters containing n-type and p-type eld eect transistors to invert the states of bi-colored light-emitting diodes (LEDs) in summer 2010. Basically, high input voltage connected a path in an n-channel, thereby discharging the capacitor and producing a low output voltage. This low output voltage allowed current to ow through the p-channel, charging the capacitor and producing high output voltage. See Fig. 3.8. He used a 24-element array powered by 16V, and a 470 F capacitors to slow waves to one-second time scales. Electrical wave propagation was sequentially displayed in Fig. 3.9.

Figure 3.8: Diagram of a CMOS inverter in its two states. High input voltage causes current to ow through the n-channel and low input voltage causes current to ow through the p-channel [4].

20

CHAPTER 3. PAST DESIGNS

Figure 3.9: Sequence of wave propagation through a one-dimensional 24-element electrical array [4].

3.5.2

Two Dimensions

The rst two-dimensional system, created by Jamie Grimm and Aaron Doud from the University of Portland during summer 2010, propagated solitons with a passive averager circuit. The breadboards and the LEDs were soddered into a 13 13 board that they had manufactured. The general schematic is shown in Fig. 3.10. In this array, where two CMOS inverter outputs were connected to each node before the node used the average voltage of the two to send a current ow in two directions. Figure 3.11 shows a 1:1 soliton in motion.

3.5. ELECTRICAL MODELS

21

Figure 3.10: Diagram of two-dimensional CMOS inverter array. Wave inuence was directed toward the top right corner [4].

Figure 3.11: A 13 13 array of CMOS inverters propagating a 1:1 soliton mode [4].

22

CHAPTER 3. PAST DESIGNS

Chapter 4

Aero-mechanical Array
For this thesis, an aero-mechanical model is designed and constructed to facilitate the study of one-way coupling. Using air instead of water to power the coupling paves a path to multiple simplications in the systems design.

4.1

Design Goals

Simulating air ow for various designs is computationally demanding, so physical trial-and-error experimentation is implemented for designing eective oscillators. Though it is troubling to simulate pumped water through pressurized tubes in hydro-mechanical systems, air ow poses a greater challenge with turbulence. Even if a successful simulation is produced, it would be dicult to physically imitate the virtual system. A trial-and-error method of experimentation encourages materials that are easily attainable and manipulatable. While some materials needed to be bent, others required unawed straightness. The ultimate goal is to most eectively create a working aero-mechanical system that is simpler than previous hydro-mechanical models. The basic idea for powering the array is to direct a downward air ow onto two sides of the rotational oscillators. When one side is rotated down to a stable equilibrium, air ow to the same side of a succeeding oscillator should be shielded. This in turn causes air to ow to the opposite side, reversely rotating the oscillator. The diagram of the impact of air ow is given in Fig. 4.1. Since a non-tunneled wind is favorable, oscillators must be designed to endure a longitudinal wind force on the axle. This is solved with an annular frame because back-torque exists in all degrees of rotation, giving smoothness for transverse oscillatory motion.

4.1.1

Options for Periodic Boundaries

There are three designs to consider for the periodic boundaries. One is to connect the last and rst element, resulting in the construction of a circular array. 23

24

CHAPTER 4. AERO-MECHANICAL ARRAY

Figure 4.1: Sample air deection (blue) by oscillator and corresponding forces (red).

Another design is to regard the last element as the rst element in a line array, so when the last element oscillates, the rst element oscillates in the same direction. A third design is a modication of the second design in which the last element is divided into two components, where one component is at the end of the array and the other is at the beginning of the array. While the combination of the two components represents one element, the combination may not consistently emulate the design of a middle oscillator as both components inevitably lose complementary eectiveness from their other half in a raw or unmodied division. The rst design is only found in James Gallaghers array. Boundary conditions are not considered here because the last element in the array is physically neighboring the rst element, allowing a connection identical to ones between middle elements. Since the arrays circular shape contains no breaks or gaps in its structure, it is even unnecessary to label any element as rst or last. The simplicity without periodic boundary conditions ensures viability if all connections between the elements are feasible. Though the forces on the see-saws are vertical, torques are radially outward from the center of the bucket. It is an inconvenience to include more elements into the array because all existing connections have to be altered due to the arrays radial expansion. And in vice versa, the array must undergo a shrinkage when elements are extracted. The second and third design allow the cubic force to be directed in a line

4.2. DESIGNING IN MATHEMATICA

25

to simplify the arrays structure. See Fig. 4.2. However, the necessity of periodic boundary conditions challenges functional reliability at the rst and last elements in the array. Mechanical devices such as gears and co-axial rods must be used to continue coupling at the boundaries. The assembly of these devices creates problems with friction and torque imbalances. When adding more elements to the array, only connections at the boundaries are severed. Connections with existing middle elements may not be adjusted and oscillators may remain in place.

Figure 4.2: Adding and removing an element from N elements.

The major dierence between the second and third designs is the demand of material. The third design is the preferred option over the second because it uses less material. This is only the case, however, if an element can be split and modied to retain the functionality of a whole element. The two systems built in this study eectively utilized the third design. One boundary used only wings and the other is composed of the axle and deector.

4.2

Designing in Mathematica

Ideas derived in the goals are modeled in Mathematica [10] to create references for construction. The rst prototype used weathervane-shaped wings. The weathervane-shaped wings on the oscillator are meant to receive wind. This design is disposed because the angled nature of the wings meant losing exposure to air ow in a rotation less than 90 . At this point, the ideal rotation angle is unknown, but it is preferred to nd a design with a higher exibility to wind exposure. A better design used wings oriented horizontally. They could then experience contact with wind during a 90 rotation if necessary. The deector or wind shield on top of the oscillator originally covered half of the circumference, but is shortened to require a smaller degree of rotation to expose a wing from a neighboring oscillator. The wings are elongated for a larger area exposed to wind pressure and the axle is expanded in direct proportion. Thickness is reduced to save weight and reduce cost. Minor factors such as rods, notches, and holes for weight are also considered. The RegionPlot command in Mathematica allowed the exporting of .stl les which could be checked for quality in Pleasant 3D .stl reader app. The picture of one array is given in Fig. 4.3 and the Mathe-

26

CHAPTER 4. AERO-MECHANICAL ARRAY

matica notebook used to compile this is shown in Appendix A. Satisfactory les would then be uploaded to the Shapeways website [11].

Figure 4.3: A graphical 3d design of an aero-mechanical array.

4.3

Construction

There are technical procedures involved to physically shape components from nal designs. Specic cardboard components from all cardboard oscillators had to be taped together in similar fashions. The axle of the cardboard oscillator is not steady enough for smooth rotation so black plastic inverse pendulums from Stuart Tanasses model are attached as extensions of the axle. Parts of the pendulums that interfered with oscillatory motion or alignment in the array are removed through cutting and ling. Powder that tended to accumulate in holes of plastic oscillators during 3D printing had to be forced out before alignment. The nalized components that are used in operation are given below in Fig. 4.4 & 4.5.

4.3.1

Cardboard Array (Version A)

Cardboard Oscillator Many simplications are made on the oscillators design while maintaining delity to theory. Uniform traits for every oscillator include one unstable equilibrium and two stable equilibria. The slightest perturbation on an oscillators unstable position should cause it to fall to one of the two stable positions. Ideally, the oscillator should only move when it experiences a torque pointed to its opposite state. An ideal design is unknown, so materials exible to fallible

4.3. CONSTRUCTION

27

Figure 4.4: Picture of assorted of Meccano pieces. From left to right: 6.5inch girder, 2.5-inch girder, rectangular at-plate, rectangular girder, and bush wheel.

Figure 4.5: Picture of assorted KNEX pieces. From top to bottom: red 5.125inch rod, orange connector, and white 1.3125-inch rod.

designs are prepared. Manual cutting and shaping of cardboard with a thickness of 1.5 mm is easily done, facilitating tests with many prototypes. An array composed of one prototype is shown in Fig. 4.6. Prototypes are continuously upgraded to larger and stronger models. Final construction includes ve components: Axle, Axle Extender, Wings, Deector, and Tail. A picture showing all the components is given later in Fig. 4.7. Axle A and Axle Extender A The axle is a circular cardboard disk with a radius of 90 mm. It is 1.5 mm thick. The circular nature is designed to cancel any excess torque that points to a neighboring oscillator. A hole with a radius 3.6 mm is drilled in the center for rotation about a copper or steel pipe with an outer radius of 3.5 mm. The

28

CHAPTER 4. AERO-MECHANICAL ARRAY

Figure 4.6: An early prototype aero-mechanical array.

axle extender is a plastic extension of the central area, reaching 38 mm. The axle extender and tailanother componentare included from the 2010 hydromechanical model of a plastic oscillator.

Wings A Also made of cardboard, the wings reach from the top middle of the axle extender to the edges of the axle. They are connected to the axle and axle extender so that they are perpendicular to the disk. The wings width is 38 mm, designed to directly overlap length of the axle extender. A shorter width would only allow a lower wind exposure while a longer width would not allow the deectora component for coupling inuenceto readily redirect more air ow.

4.3. CONSTRUCTION Deector A

29

The deector is a strip of cardboard curved to form a shield against air ow. It is taped with masking tape to the top of the axle, covering a fourth of its circumference, or 141 mm. Its width is the same as the wings width. Due to its curvature, air ow directed on the deector does not aect the motion of the oscillator. During oscillation, it blocks the air ow onto one wing of its succeeding element, imposing the opposite stable equilibrium of its host element.

Left and Right Pieces A The left and right pieces belong to the endmost positions of the array. They are essentially components divided from a middle oscillator to function like one middle oscillator while separated. The left piece includes the axle and deector while the right piece includes the wing and tail.

Figure 4.7: Cardboard pieces used in the rst successful aero-mechanical array. Top: The leftmost boundary piece. Left: A middle oscillator. Right: The rightmost boundary piece.

30 Tail

CHAPTER 4. AERO-MECHANICAL ARRAY

The tails are the ends of the inverse pendulums, providing as counterweights to the deector. To prevent undesired torque in the forward and backward directions, they are supported with styrofoam blocks taped between them and the axles. Walls For the cardboard oscillators, metal at-plates are connected to the slidable rectangular girders to encase the tails. Their purpose is to stop oscillatory motion after an approximate 45 rotation. Because of their high rigidity, oscillators are stopped in their stable positions with little wavering.

4.3.2

ABS Plastic Array (Version B)

The Nature of ABS Plastic and 3D Printing ABS is the acronym for Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene, which has a chemical formula of (C8 H8 )x (C4 H6 )y (C3 H3 N)z . Acrylonitrile is known for its thermal and chemical resistance and Butadiene supports the compound with a ductile structure and shock absorbance. The materials surface is kept smooth with Styrene, which also provides exibility with shaping [12]. The plastics most notable features are its heat resistance, impact resistance or shock absorbance and toughness. If the plastic is molded at high temperatures, it is given a higher heat resistance. At low temperatures, it is given a greater impact strength. Generally, the plastic can withstand temperatures between -20 to 80 C, accommodating the operation environments temperature of 21 C. This means that the material is strong against accidental dropping and high-powered drilling in a laboratory setting. It has a density of 1.04 cm3 , which is slightly above the highest density of water. Its application to 3D printing serves the needs to create durable and perfect replicas of Mathematica generated designs. For guaranteed creation of an unawed series of oscillators with 3D printing, the company Shapeways accepts .stl les of oscillator designs to be uploaded to their website. Upon uploading, Shapeways calculates and presents a price quote within two minutes. The cost increases with size. A cost of $150 per oscillator balances cost and eectiveness. To reduce the amount of 3D printed material while retaining eectiveness, the uniform thickness of the oscillators components are thinned. If the price quote is below $150, eectiveness is upgraded by expanding the circumference of the oscillator. ABS Plastic Oscillator Unlike its cardboard alternative, the ABS plastic oscillator is structurally robust. All oscillator components except the mass are plastic. Instead of a tail, slotted masses are tted to the bottom. A qualitative observation suggested that

4.3. CONSTRUCTION

31

the cardboard axle design allows a longitudinal force along the array, so this is redesigned. All components have a thickness of 6 mm. A middle plastic oscillator includes the Wings, Axle and Axle Extender, Deector, and Additional Mass. All components are shown later in Fig. 4.9. Axle and Axle Extender B The disk shape of the axle is converted to an annulus with an outer radius of 72 mm and an inner radius of 52 mm. The open areas of the top and bottom hemicycles release wind that would otherwise push against a disk axle. The axle extender protrudes 39 mm from the center of the wings reaching across the annuluss inner diameter. It has an outer radius of 11 mm and an inner radius of 3.6 mm. Unlike the cardboard oscillator, a tail is not added due to nancial constraint. Deector B The plastic deectors only dierences with deector A is its thickness and material. Again, it covers the top fourth of the axles circumference. Its solid infrastructure and printed attachment to the axle make it immune to bending from wind, which is a large advantage over the cardboard deector. Wings B The wings sprout out horizontally from the axle extender instead of resting on top of the axle extender like in Version A. This means a greater coverage of area for downward wind. Additional Mass Slotted masses are tted into a printed notch at the middle bottom of the axle. For bistability, this mass has to be less than the mass of the deector. However, the additional mass cannot be too little because it will render the oscillator immovable against wind. To calculate the mass balancing the weight of the deector, the volume of the deector Vd is found. Since the deector covers the top of the axle, this is determined by quartering the volume dierence in a cylinder with the axles radius of R and cylinder with a radius of R + t, with t as the thickness of the deector. The volume is Vd = 1 h((R + t)2 R2 ), 4 (4.1)

where h is the height of the cylinders. Vd is computed to be 27 cm3 , which is multiplied with the plastic density of 1.04 g/cm3 to obtain a mass of 28g. Experiments require masses lesser than this for bistability. The additional mass that works best is 25g, given in Fig. 4.8.

32

CHAPTER 4. AERO-MECHANICAL ARRAY

Figure 4.8: The masses used counter deector weight. Left: 5g mass. Right: 20g mass.

Left and Right Pieces B The largest discrepancy between the boundary pieces from Version A and Version B is the omission of the tail from the right pice. The left piece includes a minor axle extender and wings, but they only serve as support for the pipe.

Rib Cage The tails from the cardboard oscillators are substituted for masses in the 3D printed array. These masses do not jut out far enough to be stopped by walls. To stop the masses and wings without interfering with other components in the oscillators, a ribbed cage is placed around the array. Depending on the number of elements in the array, the rib cage is either raised or lowered and ribs are either removed or added. A rib acts as a stopper for wings and masses. See Fig. 4.10. It is optimally eective to dissipate unwanted oscillations at stable positions when propped to solely stop the wings. The cage is constructed exclusively out of KNEX pieces.

4.3.3
Spacer

Parts common to Version A and Version B

Shown in Fig. 4.11, washers are used to space oscillators at consistent distances. They guarantee the absence of cardboard or plastic contact between elements. The number of washers varies between the cardboard oscillators but is consistently at two between the plastic oscillators.

4.3. CONSTRUCTION

33

Figure 4.9: ABS plastic pieces used in the successful plastic array. From left to right: The leftmost boundary piece, the rightmost boundary piece, and a middle oscillator.

The Coaxial Pipe, Coaxial Rod, and Bush Wheels The coaxial rod is inserted through the coaxial pipe that supports all oscillators, middle and end pieces alike. It is meant to be long enough to be exposed on the left and right sides. Bush wheels, which are metal Meccano pieces attached to the centers of the left and right pieces, are screwed rmly onto the coaxial rod just outside the ends of the coaxial pipe. The rotation of the right piece then enables a simultaneous rotation of the left piece, comprising periodicity in the boundaries for indenite wave propagation.

Array Support Meccano pieces compose the arrays support. The current aero-mechanical models use supports positioned before the boundaries. These two vertical metal rectangular at-plates hold a steel or copper pipe through drilled holes and connect to metal slidable rectangular girders. See Fig. 4.12. The rectangular girders slide on metal rods to facilitate adjustments in the array.

34

CHAPTER 4. AERO-MECHANICAL ARRAY

Figure 4.10: The rib cage that eectively stopped the wings and masses of the oscillators.

Figure 4.11: The washers that are used for spacers. Thicknesses varied.

Fans A controlled laminar air ow is vital for usable, smooth mobility of the oscillators. This is achieved through Lasko and Airking jet fans. To extend the force of the fans to all elements, three jet fans are combined. They are oriented as shown in Fig. 4.13. Air ow is directed down, perpendicular to the oor.

4.3. CONSTRUCTION

35

Figure 4.12: The entire array support, constructed exclusively out of Meccano pieces. The green bridges composed out of girders raise the rib cage to the array and the red rectangular at-plates and rectangular girders support the array at a certain height.

The array works best at a certain zone of air ow. The oscillators would experience weak gaps in air ow if they are too close to the fans and turbulence when they are too distant. The gaps may not provide sucient force to the wings and the chaotic swirls of turbulent air render unusable forces exerted on the wings.

Figure 4.13: Two Lasko jet fans with an Airking jet fan placed on top.

Rack The rack is the backbone of the entire system. It supports the array and fans. Heights of its shelves are adjusted to serve the consistent stream of laminar air ow to the array. The spaces between the metal bars that compose the shelves allow air to pass through.

36

CHAPTER 4. AERO-MECHANICAL ARRAY

Chapter 5

Operation
5.1 Preparation

Alignment of ve middle oscillators, one left piece and one right piece form an odd-numbered array of seven elements; Four middle oscillators, one left piece and one right piece form an even-numbered array of six elements. The end pieces must be screwed to the rod while simultaneously upright to perform exactly like a middle oscillator. When adjusting the masses, it is helpful to position all oscillators upright in their neutral position. Malfunction of an oscillator or weak air ow produces negligible oscillatory motion upon a wings exposure to wind. The array requires equal spacing between all elements and equal additional masses for every element.

5.2

Running The System

The system of an odd number of elements must function with both a preconceived wave and random initial conditions. Running the system from just one or the other results is an incomplete demonstration of one-way coupling. To construct a wave, oscillators are ipped alternately while the rst and last oscillators are in the same states. A discontinuity is the location of the wave where two elements are rotated in the same direction. A single pre-made discontinuity in an odd array before powering allows skipping a transient to immediately observe single wave behavior. Initial conditions range from one to six discontinuities in successive adjacent pairs. Transient lengths depend on initial conditions because some congurations are subject to more excitations than others before dissolving into one wave. Figures 5.1 and 5.2 show a single soliton in motion. All initial conditions self-organize to a single wave, despite how many discontinuities exist before powering. An even-numbered array of elements settles into only one outcome: quiescence. All prompted discontinuities lead to global equilibrium. Though one or more waves can exist in the transient, all solitons totally annihilate one another. 37

38

CHAPTER 5. OPERATION

Figure 5.1: Side view of the cardboard array in motion.

When deectors succumbing to air pressure from the cardboard array bend far down enough to impede the motion a wing from a neighboring oscillator, they are re-taped. Axles that become warped from air pressure have more spacers slid against them to prevent contact with another oscillator. The initial pipe for the cardboard array is copper with dents that dampened oscillatory motion. This is replaced by a steel pipe. Oscillators from the cardboard system are fast and bump into the walls hard, requiring frequent maintenance of the array support. Though the plastic oscillators are slower, sometimes additional masses would slide out from the lower middle position, creating unequal stable equilibriums. If these masses are not repositioned, the oscillator becomes cumbersome to rotate to one stable equilibrium. Loose screws in the support are occasionally tightened to adapt to vibrations during operation.

5.3

Recording Data

A Canon R video camera pointed at one side of the array is set 3 feet away while zoomed at a point where the whole array lled the view. This produces minimal distortion from the cameras wide angle lens. The fans are electrically plugged into a series of extended outlets which could be powered on or o with

5.3. RECORDING DATA

39

Figure 5.2: Side view of the plastic array in motion.

a single switch. For all arrays, the camera begins recording before the fans are turned on. For usable one-way coupling behavior, odd and even systems are recorded for at least a minute of wave propagation or quiescence, depending on the outcome. Transients of wave annihilation for even and odd systems are recorded to exhibit the trend of energy dispersion throughout a one-way coupled system. The cardboard array displays poor functional longevity, so many 1 minute videos are recorded before selecting the most usable one. Since the array is only composed of the available ve elements while the minimum number to observe clear wave propagation is also ve, only one-way coupling behaviors of odd arrays are featured in the videos. In contrast to the inferior cardboard designs, the ABS plastic oscillators function with an unparalleled consistency for periodic wave propagation. The precisely printed designs and immunity to distortion from wind give longer functional time-spans, permitting longer videos to be taken. Data for soliton annihilation from random initial conditions is taken for the seven-element array and a six-element array to show the decrease in global energy. The best videos are imported into iMovie [13]. With iMovie opened, the camera is connected to the computer and an automatic import dialog box comes into view. The cardboard array videos are imported and saved as projects and

40

CHAPTER 5. OPERATION

exported as .mov les. The plastic array videos are imported, saved as projects, then trimmed to nd the most usable one-minute sections before being exported as well. The videos are inserted one at a time into Logger Pro [14] to record the vertical positions of the corner ends of the deectors while the systems are in motion. The scale is set by indicating the cardboard wing width of 3.8 cm or a plastic wing width of 3.9 cm. For the cardboard array, a point is added on top of the deectors corner while advancing every frame of 0.0333 seconds because solitons are fast. Points are added to the plastic array while advancing every two frames, which is a time jump of 0.0667 seconds. Figure 5.3 shows adding a blue point to the corner of a plastic deector. Data for every oscillator is exported as a text le before clearing and taking new data to avoid memory-ridden, sluggish video advancing.

Figure 5.3: Adding points in Logger Pro data acquisition.

5.4

Data Analysis

The vertical positions, the velocities, and times of all the data runs are saved in text les as columns. The columns are renamed to dierentiate between

5.4. DATA ANALYSIS

41

dierent data runs before importing the text les into Igor Pro [15]. The names of the columns are reserved as wave names. Next, the vertical or y positions are used to calculate the rotation angles in radians using geometrical properties given in Fig. 5.4.

Figure 5.4: Geometry of the vertical positions above and below the point of reference of the neutral position. Points above the neutral point are indicated as yhigh and points below are ylow . is the distance between 0 and the start of ylow .

Notice that the deectors neutral position has a vertical point that is closer to the top extreme. Quantitatively, the deectors vertical position of neutrality is + , (5.1) 4 where is the minimum vertical position that is measured, assuming > 0. To calculate positions in radians, lets say yhigh > yn for > 0 and ylow < yn for < 0. Saying 1 = cos1 (yhigh /R) and 2 = sin1 (ylow /R), we dene = /4 2 and = /4 1 Data from the angular positions of every oscillator in a data run are plotted against time in an image plot. Stable equilibriums are represented with black and white and neutral is schemed as gray. This color scheme correlates with a linear gradation starting from the lowest ylow and ending at the highest yhigh . This is adjusted to accurately model the degrees of rotation between /4 to +/4. To visually disguise the vertical y positions with their respective yn = R sin

42

CHAPTER 5. OPERATION

angles, the darker half of the black and white color scheme is stretched with custom functions to have the greyest shade represent yn in Eq. 5.1. Thus, in doing so, the gradation of becomes linear. The visual process is given in Fig. 5.5. The below functions are constructed using the FindRoot command in Mathematica to locate intersections at /4 and +/4 between the linear y = x function and nonlinear functions. They generate optimized color schemes where y1 is used in Fig. 5.7, y2 is for Fig. 5.8, y3 corresponds to Fig. 5.9, and y4 is eective in Fig. 5.10. Explicitly, y1 = e( y2 = e(
x14.35 1.8

) + cos ) + cos

x18.40 2.0

x14.50 y3 = e( 1.6 ) + cos

y4 = e(

x14.35 1.8

) + cos

x 14.35 2.2 x 18.40 1.9 x 14.50 2.2 x 14.35 2.2

3.65, 3.80, (5.2) 3.65, 3.65.

Angular velocities are plotted against time too, with blue showing positive velocities and red portraying negative velocities. Like the position plots, higher saturations of color display higher absolute values. Using trigonometry, we can calculate the angular velocity with the expression Vy cos2 () = Vy (R + t)2 . + (R + t)2 (5.3)

y2

Here, R + t is the total length of the oscillators radius and the deectors thickness. y is the vertical position and Vy is the vertical velocity. Noise is easily recognized in the image plot so another custom function can be used to visually dilute movement shown at the equilibriums. The function ys = 2.37 |max | cos5 x 3 + |max | 2 (5.4)

works for all ranges of oscillation, where max is the largest angle of rotation from the oscillator with the smallest rotation range. The customizing process is given in Appendix B. This function is used in adjusting the color scheme for angular velocities during soliton annihilation and is represented in Fig. 5.6.

5.5

Results and Discussion

As intended, wave behavior of the cardboard and plastic arrays resembles observations in the hydro-mechanical arrays. Inconsistencies between element structure and wind turbulence produce natural noise. This dampening inuences transients to dierent lengths, eventually advancing an energy-dissipating system to a single soliton or a quiescent state. The systems seek their lowest

5.5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

43

Figure 5.5: Color scheme modication for linear positions in a) Fig. 5.7, b) Fig. 5.8, c) Fig. 5.9, and d) Fig. 5.10. Numbers on the x axes represent the vertical positions. The middle of the scheme is shifted to the point between yhigh and ylow . In modifying the scheme this way, the black & white scale for angular positions becomes linear.

excitement state and remain in global equilibrium until oscillators are manually repositioned. Odd-numbered arrays always dissipate to one soliton in their lowest energy states, with some initial conditions taking longer to induce a single soliton than others. This is a successful repeat in behavior from previous models. If multiple solitons are initialized in a transient, they will annihilate to one in a few seconds. See Fig. 5.7, 5.8, and 5.9. In Fig. 5.10, the retirement of a transient from an even array leads to com-

44

CHAPTER 5. OPERATION

Figure 5.6: Generalized color scheme modication for angular velocities in Fig. 5.9 and 5.10.

plete stagnancy of all elements, just like older models. Though an uninteresting outcome with only one variation, it is another conrmation of the validity of the current model.

5.5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

45

Figure 5.7: Image plots showing oscillator positions and quick soliton velocities in the cardboard odd-array of N = 5 elements.

46

CHAPTER 5. OPERATION

Figure 5.8: Image plots showing oscillator positions and slower, more readable soliton velocities in the plastic odd-array of N = 7 elements.

5.5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

47

Figure 5.9: Image plots showing oscillator positions and velocities during a transient of soliton annihilation followed by one solitary wave in an array of N = 7 plastic elements.

48

CHAPTER 5. OPERATION

Figure 5.10: Position and velocity image plots showing the dissipation of a soliton to quiescence in an even array.

Chapter 6

Aftermath
This chapter will go over future work in one-way coupling and the conclusion of the study. One-way coupling corresponds to many areas, and few of them are mentioned here.

6.1

Future Work

There are three areas to consider for future work in one-way coupling: Improving the one-dimensional model, constructing a two-dimensional model, and applications.

6.1.1

Improving the Aero-mechanical Array

The working aero-mechanical array may be improved with several modications in the design. Since the absence of an oscillators tail creates complexities in the supports structure, it should be preferred over hanging masses. In addition, walls should be used to stop the tail. An array of larger than seven elements would be easier if oscillators can function at smaller sizes. Another improvable property is the weight of an oscillator. As demonstrated by the cardboard array, faster rotations provide shorter transients, allowing ecient observations of soliton behavior. The soliton speeds in the array are vitally dependent on the structures of its components. The torsional friction at the periodic boundaries may be reduced through ball bearings and lubricants. To maintain a laminar air ow on the system, the jet fans could be placed in a wind tunnel, using fans that force air in one opening and suck out air in the other. With an array that eciently exhibits one-way coupling, more data may be taken, such as observing soliton behaviors in longer aero-mechanical arrays and investigating one-way coupling through mono-stable elements. Bistability in the current aero-mechanical array may be transformed to mono-stability by making the neutral position stable. The central masses may be adjusted so that 49

50

CHAPTER 6. AFTERMATH

coupling power counters the masses at maximum rotations. Coupling can be tempered with variations in air pressure. If the array can be tilted sideways to function with a horizontal air ow, it may be mounted to the front of a road, road-rail, or rail vehicle to support one-way coupling behavior while the vehicle moves forward. A large advantage of this model is its use of a perfect laminar air ow. Instead of using gravity like the studied model, the new model must adapt to it. One idea is to use counterweights. Since it is supposed that the oscillators are tilted horizontally, a counterweight should be added midway between existing weight and deector and adjusted so the deector and the side opposite of the oscillator are the same height above ground. Walls are stuck out on either side and at equal distances from the oscillators center. For the array to function properly, the vehicle must be driven at a speed that will allow the force of air to overcome the stable equilibriums. To give exibility to the systems functionality, the array should be as light as possible without losing structure, permitting a lower inuence from gravity.

6.1.2

Building a Two-dimensional Model

An existing goal since the rst generation of one-way coupling has been the creation of an array that demonstrates one-way coupling in two-dimensions. Though this is done electronically, this is never achieved through hydro-mechanical constructions. It is imperative to create a working model of an aero-mechanical array due to the impracticality of all models of two-dimensional one-way coupling in hydro-mechanical arrays. The reason, intuitively, is because an aeromechanical model can be simplied beyond any potential hydro-mechanical design. The hydro-mechanical model requires pressurized water, water tubes, a pump, splash shields, a catching tub, and springs, all of which are omitted from the aero-mechanical model. The complexity of any one-way coupling model is prone to rise when adding another dimension. This is why simplifying a model of onedimensional one-way coupling is worthwhileit promises lesser complexities in two dimensions. Practical solutions to the construction of an aero-mechanical model of twodimensional bistable one-way coupling may be introduced. The axles, axle extender, wings, deector from version B and the tails from version A may be implemented. The orientations of the components will dier from the onedimensional model, but they may function similarly. Further additions are multiple rods for oscillatory pivoting and seesaw pairs for a double-element inuence onto one element. The seesaws may be rotated by horizontal shafts jutting out from the left and rights sides of the circular axle and deector pieces. A pair of seesaws is positioned so the force from a shaft may only rotate one seesaw at a time.

6.2. CONCLUSIONS

51

6.1.3

Applicability

Although we are primarily interested in investigating the nonlinear dynamics of these arrays, we are considering some applications. Near-noiseless homogeneous even-arrays employing one soliton-antisoliton pair might be used for detecting noise. The wave pair may be separated in relation to the necessary sensitivity for detection. In the presence of enough noise, soliton speeds will uctuate until the solitons meet and annihilate. Noise may be detected when the array reaches quiescence. It may even be analyzed with the time it takes for a soliton-antisoliton pair to annihilate. Using a xed sensitivity, degrees of noise may be compared with dierent noisy systems. An example of a noisy system is a vibrational factory machine, where a mechanical one-way coupling system may be attached to measure the time for a soliton-antisoliton pair to annihilate. In future work, if an aero-mechanical one-way coupling system can successfully function while horizontally attached to a vehicle in linear motion on a at surface, the noise from the car vibrations may be measured with time. Shorter times to soliton annihilation would indicate greater noise. This is less complex and costly then other methods including in-vehicle analogue data loggers, telemetry systems, instrumentation grade tape recorders, etc [16]. Using a mechanical one-way coupled system would be simpler than an electrical system because mechanical systems are directly open to outside noise. One-way coupling in two dimensions supports wave propagation at multiple speeds in multiple directions. For example, these waves may serve as a basis of clocks with dierent frequency standards, where frequencies can be determined by the array size and coupling strength. Typically, larger array sizes and lower coupling strengths decrease frequencies while increasing them in vice versa. Both mechanical and electrical designs may be used.

6.2

Conclusions

On-way coupling is a newly-explored topic in nonlinear dynamics. It introduces unidirectional wave motion that is highly dependent on the parity, or oddness and evenness of an array. Arrays seek their lowest energy states, and these outcomes either support a single soliton in an odd-numbered array or quiescence in an even-numbered array. Wave propagation in anisotropic media, such as the propagation of light through calcite, is a concept that stems one-way coupling [17, 18]. Unidirectional wave propagation is always observed, and natural examples include solar wind, light propagation near a black hole, and a nerve propagating along an axon. Designs for one-way coupling of bistable oscillators are unlimitedly prospective for improvement. One main accomplishment in the aero-mechanical model is its simple design because as models evolve to simpler designs, they become more practical. The beauty is that in simplicity, it surpasses any hydromechanical or electrical model ever built while producing wave propagation and annihilation behaviors consistent to those of past experiments. Any simpli-

52

CHAPTER 6. AFTERMATH

cation in the one-dimensional coupling design, regardless of size, steps closer to discovering applicable systems and eliminates detrimental complexities in potential aero-mechanical designs in higher dimensions.

Appendix A

Virtual Array of Plastic Oscillators

The Mathematica notebook that compiled the graphical 3D one-way coupled array is showed in the following page. The code for left and right pieces is compiled once and the code for the middle piece is compiled six times.

53

54

APPENDIX A. VIRTUAL ARRAY OF PLASTIC OSCILLATORS

Array of ABS Plastic Elements

Initialization
Clear@"Global`*"D R = 72; H* outer radius in mm *L iR = 57; H* inner radius in mm *L t = 6; H* thickness *L d = 6; H* depth of annulus *L q = 45 ; q1 = 45; r = 3.6; H* inner axle radius *L ro = 11; H* outer axle radius *L h = 40; d = 4; H* separation between elements *L wh = 18; H* wing height *L gap = 2; H* space between deflector and wing *L ra = 1.5; H* inner anchor radius *L rr = 3.5; H* rod radius *L rl = 6;H* rod length *L rbH = 1.3;H* bolt hole radius in mm *L RbH = 12.5; H* distance of bolt hole from axle in mm *L rNotch = 2.2; H* radius of notch in mm *L SetOptions@RegionPlot3D, PlotPoints 150 81, 1, 1<, Boxed False, Axes False, Mesh False, PlotRange AllD;

Middle Pieces
deflector@z0_D := R< x2 + y2 < R + t h 2 < z - z0 < h 2 -q < ArcTan@x, yD < q h 2 - d < z - z0 < h 2 h 2 h 2

notch@z0_D := Hx + iRL2 + y2 rNotch2 axle@z0_D := iR <

x2 + y2 < R Not@notch@z - z0DD h 2

- d < z - z0 < h 2

axleExtender@z0_D := - wh < x < wh r < wing@z0_D := t t - <x< r< 2 2 x2 + y2 < ro - d < z - z0 < h 2 +h-d h 2

x2 + y2 < R - gap

- d < z - z0 <

+h-d

55

AeroMechArray3.16.12.NB

mOscillator@z0_D := RegionPlot3D@deflector@z0D axle@z0D axleExtender@z0D wing@z0D, 8x, - 1.3 R, 1.3 R<, 8y, - 1.3 R, 1.3 R<, 8z, z0 - 1.3 R, z0 + 1.3 R<, BoxRatios AutomaticD mOscillator@0D

Left Piece
boundaryHoleL = x2 + Hy - RbHL2 rbH2 x2 + Hy + RbHL2 rbH2 ; axleExtenderL@z0_D := h h r < x2 + y2 < 1.75 ro Not@boundaryHoleLD - d + < z - z0 < 2 2 wingL@z0_D := t t - <x< r < x2 + y2 < R - gap Not@boundaryHoleLD 2 2 h h -d + < z - z0 < 2 2 lOscillator@z0_D := RegionPlot3D@deflector@z0D axle@z0D axleExtenderL@z0D wingL@z0D, 8x, - 1.3 R, 1.3 R<, 8y, - 1.3 R, 1.3 R<, 8z, z0 - 1.3 R, z0 + 1.3 R<, BoxRatios AutomaticD

56

APPENDIX A. VIRTUAL ARRAY OF PLASTIC OSCILLATORS

AeroMechArray3.16.12.NB

lOscillator@0D

Right Piece
boundaryHoleR = Ix2 + Hy - RbHL2 rbH2 x2 + Hy + RbHL2 rbH2 M; axleExtenderR@z0_D := r< x2 + y2 < 1.75 ro Not@boundaryHoleRD h 2 - d < z - z0 < h 2 +h-d

wingR@z0_D := t t - <x< r < x2 + y2 < R - gap Not@boundaryHoleRD 2 2 h h - d < z - z0 < +h-d 2 2 rOscillator@z0_D := RegionPlot3D@axleExtenderR@z0D wingR@z0D, 8x, - 1.3 R, 1.3 R<, 8y, - 1.3 R, 1.3 R<, 8z, z0 - 1.3 R, z0 + 1.3 R<, BoxRatios AutomaticD

57

AeroMechArray3.16.12.NB

rOscillator@0D

Axle
s = h + d; aNum = 8; pipes = Graphics3D@ 8 Gray, Cylinder@880, 0, 3.5 d<, 80, 0, aNum s - 6 d<<, rD, Red, Cylinder@880, 0, - 2.5 d<, 80, 0, aNum s<<, 0.5 rD <, Boxed False D;

58

APPENDIX A. VIRTUAL ARRAY OF PLASTIC OSCILLATORS

AeroMechArray3.16.12.NB

Array
Show@rOscillator@0D, Table@mOscillator@n sD, 8n, 1, aNum - 2<D, lOscillator@HaNum - 1L sD, pipes, ViewPoint 81, 2, 2.5<, ViewVertical 81, 0, 0<, ImageSize Large, BoxRatios Automatic, PlotRange AllD

Appendix B

Color Scheme Modication

The next page shows the Mathematica notebook used to construct Eq. 5.4.

59

60

APPENDIX B. COLOR SCHEME MODIFICATION

Global Color Function Used to Clean Velocity Plots

Linear to Sinusoidal
ShowBPlot@x, 8x, - 10, 10<, PlotStyle 8Thick, Red, Dashed<D, x PlotB3 CosB F 3
5

, 8x, - 10, 10<, PlotStyle 8Blue, Thick<F,

Frame True, AspectRatio 1F

10

-5

-10 -10 -5 0 5 10

Shifting The Modified Function

d=3 p 2 ; x
5

Ybare@x_D := 3 CosB

+ dF 3 Ybare@- 5D === - Ybare@5D True

61

goodstuff2.nb

ShowBPlot@x, 8x, - 10, 10<, PlotStyle 8Thick, Red, Dashed<D, PlotB3 CosB x 3 + dF
5

, 8x, - 10, 10<, PlotStyle 8Blue, Thick<F,

Frame True, AspectRatio 1F

10

-5

-10 -10 -5 0 5 10

Finding a Universal Constant

c = 2.3701;

62

APPENDIX B. COLOR SCHEME MODIFICATION

goodstuff2.nb

TableBFindRootBx c n KCosB

+ dFO , 8x, n<F, 8n, 1, 100<F n H* find intersection near n *L 88x 1.00004<, 8x 2.00008<, 8x 3.00012<, 8x 4.00016<, 8x 5.0002<, 8x 6.00024<, 8x 7.00027<, 8x 8.00031<, 8x 9.00035<, 8x 10.0004<, 8x 11.0004<, 8x 12.0005<, 8x 13.0005<, 8x 14.0005<, 8x 15.0006<, 8x 16.0006<, 8x 17.0007<, 8x 18.0007<, 8x 19.0007<, 8x 20.0008<, 8x 21.0008<, 8x 22.0009<, 8x 23.0009<, 8x 24.0009<, 8x 25.001<, 8x 26.001<, 8x 27.0011<, 8x 28.0011<, 8x 29.0011<, 8x 30.0012<, 8x 31.0012<, 8x 32.0013<, 8x 33.0013<, 8x 34.0013<, 8x 35.0014<, 8x 36.0014<, 8x 37.0014<, 8x 38.0015<, 8x 39.0015<, 8x 40.0016<, 8x 41.0016<, 8x 42.0016<, 8x 43.0017<, 8x 44.0017<, 8x 45.0018<, 8x 46.0018<, 8x 47.0018<, 8x 48.0019<, 8x 49.0019<, 8x 50.002<, 8x 51.002<, 8x 52.002<, 8x 53.0021<, 8x 54.0021<, 8x 55.0022<, 8x 56.0022<, 8x 57.0022<, 8x 58.0023<, 8x 59.0023<, 8x 60.0024<, 8x 61.0024<, 8x 62.0024<, 8x 63.0025<, 8x 64.0025<, 8x 65.0025<, 8x 66.0026<, 8x 67.0026<, 8x 68.0027<, 8x 69.0027<, 8x 70.0027<, 8x 71.0028<, 8x 72.0028<, 8x 73.0029<, 8x 74.0029<, 8x 75.0029<, 8x 76.003<, 8x 77.003<, 8x 78.0031<, 8x 79.0031<, 8x 80.0031<, 8x 81.0032<, 8x 82.0032<, 8x 83.0033<, 8x 84.0033<, 8x 85.0033<, 8x 86.0034<, 8x 87.0034<, 8x 88.0034<, 8x 89.0035<, 8x 90.0035<, 8x 91.0036<, 8x 92.0036<, 8x 93.0036<, 8x 94.0037<, 8x 95.0037<, 8x 96.0038<, 8x 97.0038<, 8x 98.0038<, 8x 99.0039<, 8x 100.004<< q = 2.5; Yvel@x_D := 2.3701 q CosB + dF q FindRoot@x Yvel@xD, 8x, q<D 8x 2.5001< FindRoot@x Yvel@xD, 8x, -q<D 8x - 2.5001< x
5

63

goodstuff2.nb

Plot
Show@Plot@x, 8x, - 3, 3<, PlotStyle 8Thick, Red, Dashed<D, Plot@Yvel@xD, 8x, - 3, 3<, PlotStyle 8Blue, Thick<D, Frame True, GridLines 88-q, q<, 8-q, q<<, FrameTicks 888- 3, - 2.5, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 2.5, 3<, None<, 88- 3, - 2.5, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2, 2.5, 3<, None<<, ImageSize Medium, AspectRatio 1D
3 2.5 2

-1

-2 -2.5 -3 -3 -2.5 -2 -1 0 1 2 2.5 3

64

APPENDIX B. COLOR SCHEME MODIFICATION

Bibliography
[1] I. Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, Book 2 (Joseph Streater for the Royal Society, 1687). [2] V. In, A. R. Bulsara, A. Palacios, P. Longhini, A. Kho, J. D. Ne, Phys. Rev. E., 68, 045102(R) (2003). [3] J. F. Lindner, A. R. Bulsara, Phys. Rev. E, 74, 020105 (2006). [4] B. J. Breen, A. B. Doud, J. R. Grimm, A. H. Tanasse, S. J. Tanasse, J. F. Lindner, K. J. Maxted, Phys. Rev. E, 83, 037601 (2011). [5] K. M. Patton, P. M. Odenthal, J. C. Gallagher, B. J. Breen, Phys. Rev. E, 78, 066604 (2008). [6] KNEX: KNEX : knex.com [7] K. Patton: Experimental Observation of Solitons Propagating in a Hydromechanical Array of One-way Coupled Oscillators : (College of Wooster, 2008) [8] Meccano: Meccano : meccano.com [9] Bradley Rigdon: Print to Printer : printo3d.com [10] Wolfram Research Group: Mathematica : wolfram.com [11] Shapeways: Shapeways : shapeways.com [12] T. Lenau, ABS - acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (Design inSite, 1996-2003). [13] Apple Inc.: iMovie : apple.com [14] Vernier Software & Technology: Logger Pro : vernier.com [15] Wavemetrics: IGOR Pro : wavemetrics.com [16] G. J. Stein, R. Chm urny, V. Ros k, Measurement Science Review, 11, 10048 (2011). 65

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

[17] J. M. Carcione, Wave Fields in Real Media: Wave Propagation in Anisotropic, Anelastic, Porous and Electromagnetic Media, 2nd Ed. (Elsevier Science, 2007) [18] A. A. Fuki, Y. A. Kravtsov, O. N. Naida, Geometrical Optics of Weakly Anisotropic Media (CRC Press, 1998)