Θεωρία Galois

Galois

Galois

.

#

! " "
$ %
!&
"'"
(
*
!"! x3 2
!"! xn 1
-
& ' " ! " "
" !"!
"

(

.

/ " ' &"

/

0&"
1 Galois

(
Galois

.

#
$
)
+

1 ! x3 2
! ! '!!
23&
Galois
03!
' Galois
"
! Galois
Galois
0
4&
0 /
/
&"
0 /
& "

&"
!'

#
)
+
+
,

.
$
,

$

.
+
"!

.
.
..
.)

)
#
#.

, %
! 3
" #$
$,

( $

5!

3& ! 3 !
!
! 6("! 4

" ' "

' 3 (
3

f (x) C[x] deg f (x) > 0

a C
f (a) = 0

C
! !!
" "
' " "! ' " " 6
7 "

! ' !( 0 ' " f (x) C[x]
f (a) = 0 ' !/ q(x) C[x] & f (x) = (x a)q(x) 2
'" " /3 ( ( " 3' ! ! "! f (x) '
" f (x) C[x]
n = deg f (x) > 0 ' f (x) &/ n C 8& ' C
" 6 !( '9
3 !"! ! C[x]
" "'"
" '" " C[x] 4 !"!
! R[x] "(
!" !'
C[x]7 "
!"! :

!"& &/!" '
& ' " 3' !7
" 4 " " ' ! 1 "3
C7 R " "

' ; !"!
x2 + 1 R[x] " &/ R '

' ' '" " !"! ! C[x] "
!"! 3

Galois! ""#
< '6 ! ! (

" Gauss $++ < '6 !( / & '

&/

" < ( '6 4 " Argand ).
" !"&/ Gauss & !/" ( 4
&
6 ( &/!" 3 " ' ,, 6 ! !
( ! /"

!":
! !" 3'! ' " "!7 " 7 " 7 " 3
3"7
'
' 3 3"( "
= 6" !' 3 !
( '6 ! !
( /"
& &
Galois

" + "7 ' / "
" " ! ! "!:

" 6 " 1 !&"
! " 6 " '/ '
" !
" " ! " " 3
! " " 3 ("
" ' " /'9 27
/ "
/" /3 & ( "4&! " *'4"

! 3
"
( ' ! (

" " " 3 " # " > 2:
3
?dal Ferro, Cardano, Tartaglia, Ferrari@ (
" ! "
" ! " " 3
. ="! ' ! !
! &/" 6 '3A47 ! :
A
" ( !"A
/" !
!"& ! ! "! ; "
! ! "! x3 + mx n = 0 "

n
m
n
n
m
n
3
3
+ ( )2 + ( )3 + ( )2 + ( )3 .
?@
2
2
3
2
2
3
1 ! ""
'
!"! !
3 1 ! 4!" "
! " " &

! 3 ! ="! ' !:
"
" ! 3
/( " /" !(
" 4"
" 3" 2 " !
!
3! ! "! 3
"3
" ":
/!" ! " ! " " &! 3 1 !
/!
' " !/ & (" >' 3
'
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
Runi $++ '! ( 4 &""
1 Lagrange / 3& " :
&" /:!"(7 " / ' "" (
" " 3& " < ! Runi /

"

" ""

" " /( ' " 23
(
"'7

& 3 ! '! '3 "
" "
!
! &6 ) . Abel &
&:
" '6
! "
! "! &! 37
/"
!' 3& " " ! ! "! =(
"/ 3 !
"'
4
(
" 3& " " !4& "7 ' 3 3
&
3 " Abel-Runi & '
" 3& "
! !!

"
#

=! ' !/!" !"! 3 ! " ; :

3 (! !"! f (x) = x5 2 C[x] 2 ! f (x)
" b = 5 2 4 f (x) = (x b)q(x)
deg q(x) = 47 !"! q(x)7

!"&
f (x)7 "

1 ! "(43
' "' ! "' ! ":
! f (x) !"& ( "

3& " "
" ! f (x) " Galois ) < !" " " 3&:
" " ! Galois ! f (x) = '" "' 3 !
!(" " "!

3 6! 3 ! & 6(
" !'
9
$

!

%&'

%
! % ! '

Galois

< &""
&/ ' 3 '
! !!
1 " ; " 6! " 3 3 /

Galois ! 4! & &
(! k f (x) k[x] (! E

k f (x) )

E

k

Galois f (x)
! !"!
05
'
!"3(
" "
"!:

"(
( & ; 3 / :

( 6 ! " "7 ! !"! " '! 3
Galois! ""#
"! ' " &"" ! ! &/ k
!"'" ' & 4

!/!"
/ '" " (! ' "
"
!
& ! (! ' ! "!
!"&/ !
6("!
! " #

"
"'"
( B
"
3&:
" /' 2 "
"'"
" /6! & "

! 2 " :
( " /6!

! !
&" ! " "

!
!
" !

! " " ' "

! B
" '"

! 7
3! " ' !

! " '!9
( " '" !37
( " '" !3
&"" '"

( " '"!

! 2 !'" " '

!

! ! " "

! '

! /( ! " '

!
1" ! " ' " /
" /

" ! (0, 0)
(1, 0) (2, 0) "

! 4

( !3 ! " ' /

"

! &/
&" (1, 0)

" 2 " '
" !
(1, 0) 0

'

! " '
!"&" (n, 0) : n Z 2 " /6!
/' "' !3! (7
3
"
' !3
3
!3 ! " " ' 3&"

!&"
C" "
' " " " " " "

" 6

" ' " a, b "

! b = 0 '
a b7 a b7 a/b7 a "
!&

! *( ' !
!"'! {(a, b) : a2 , b2 Q} "

! 2

"

!! ! !" " /' "7 (
/' " "

! 2 " 64!
'
" 4" (
! !
/ % '
( /" :
/( ! 3
: & ' " /' = 6"
!' 3
(! " ! ( "( !
0& "

!D
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
2 "

!! " /' "D
2 "

!! "
" '
"' !
!D
2 " "! "

/" '"
"'"
(D
0
""
" "

!!D

=" "' !( 3 (! 3 !"! :
3 &4! !/" " ! &!
3
! ! ' '" k "

0 = f (x) k[x] '
f (x) & " ? k[x]@ "
3 4 ! f (x) = q1 (x)q2 (x) '!
q1 (x), q2 (x) k[x] ' &" ' !"! q1 (x)7 q2 (x) &/ 3' ,
%""
!"! " ! ! !"( ! 3! '!
! "
$

x3 2
2
/("
""
' !"! f (x) = x3 2

!
! " ! " ! f (x) Q[x]7 R[x]7

C[x] B
"
3

" ! f (x) C 0 ' b = 2 "
! f (x)7 ?"
!
' " "
3"
m = 07 n = 2@ ' !"! x b R[x] !"!
x3 2 =4 " " !
'3 ! " "

! '
f (x) = x3 2 = (x
(
2)(x2 +
2 x+
4)
f (x) = (x b)(x2 + b x + b2
&! p(x) = x2 + b x + b2
/" " " "
!3! ! "!
! ' ! x3 2 "9
1 i 3
2(
).
2
2
Galois! ) " '
,
&!
1 i 3
= +
.
2
2
0 '
0 = 3 = e2i = 1 , = e2i/3
3
2
1
2
i
= cos( ) + i sin( ) , 2 =
.
3
3
2
2
" 5! ! x3 2 C 6(9 b7 b

2b "!
9
% ' ! f (x) " "(

Q !' " ' "
!/ !"! 3 Q[x] ! " f (x) f (x)
" " " Q[x]
4 b
!"& ! q(x) "(
!" " R / ' f (x) =
(x b)q(x) " R[x] f (x) " " " " R[x] 1
! q(x) " "(
!" " R
&" q(x) " " " R[x]
="
R[x] "! ! f (x) " ! " "
"'" f (x) = (x b)q(x)
< "! ! f (x) " ! " C[x] " "
"'" f (x) = (x b)(x b)(x 2 b)

! !' "
" (
(! k f (x) k[x]

)
b k f (b) = 0 f (x) = (x b)q(x)

q(x) k[x]
deg f (x) = 1 f (x) !
deg f (x) = 2, 3 f (x) ! f (x)
k
k F
F f (x) ! F [x]'
f (x) ! k[x]
# $ !!!
$
xn 1
= !' 3 6! "!
!"! f (x) = x3 1
!"! !' " " " Q[x] 4 f (1) = 0

x3 1 = (x 1)(x2 + x + 1) .
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
% !"! 3 (x) = x2 + x + 1 !"!

" ;" ! 3 (x) " 9
" ! !
3
2 '! = e2i/3 " /( "
4! 3 " " "! ' (3 )3 = 3 = 1 1 '"
"7 ( ! ! "! x3 17 " 3 7 32

33 = 1
"! '
(x 3 )(x 32 ) = x2 + x + 1
32 + 3 + 1 = 0

3 32 = 1
!"! 3 (x) " " " R[x]
" Q[x]7 '/ &
" C[x] 1 '" ( "
!" ' &/! 1 !
" n:(
! " n 6(9
n = e2i/n = cos(
n:' n"
2
2
) + i sin( )
n
n
!"! n (x)9

n (x) = xn1 + xn2 + + x + 1 .
>/!"
9
xn 1 = (x 1)n (x)7
! n (x) C " n 7 n2 7 7 nn1 7 !
" n:& "7
(nk )n1 + (nk )n2 + (nk ) + 1 = 0 k = 1, . . . , n 17

n n2 nn1 = 1
' !"! n (x) " " Q[x] '" n "
" /( " &/!
"! 4
( " n:"
" " -
" ! "!

!
" ! "/" ! 2/n ; n = 5
&/! '
Galois! +#, )''!
'" n = 4 ' 4 = ei/2 = i 0 ' 4 (x) = x3 + x2 +

x + 1 = (x + 1)(x2 + 1)
' 4 (x) " " " Q[x] &
" ! ' ' 4
( " " "
'
'" 3"& ! n (x) !
" " 6" "
"
3" " 1 &" n (x) " " Q[x] "
'" "
n (x) " " R[x]

' k " =!

""!
'
& '
!
!! ! " " k[x] ! ! ' &" !" I ! k[x] "
"
""
'9
f1 (x), f2 (x) I ' f1 (x) f2 (x) I 7

f (x) I 7 g(x) k[x] ' g(x) f (x) I
' f (x) k[x] ' " (f (x)) := {q(x)f (x) : q(x) k[x]}
" ! k[x]
f (x)
""( ( " /
!' " I = (f (x)) &
* !"! f (x)7
g(x) " 7 (f (x)) = (g(x))7 '" f (x) = cg(x)7
c k ; "
C[x] / ' (x2 + 1) = (2x2 + 2)
>/!" 6(9
# $ !! !

1
k[x] " k:"!
' / 2 k: ! k[x] "
" {xi : i N}
dimk k[x] =
1
k[x] "
/( 1 3' ! "&"!
! " " " 3 " 3" " ! " "
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois

1
k[x] "

! " " ;
3 '"
I ! k[x] !/
f (x) k[x] & I = (f (x))
1" I = 07 "4&
""
' ""( f (x) ! I
. I = (f (x)) ! k[x] " & "
'" " f (x) "
" '" f (x) " " !"! ! k[x] ' k[x]/I
"
! k[x] "
" I " ' k[x]/I
" "
/(
' ' "
' '
! k[x] " &

4(
(f (x)) '! f (x) " " !"!
# 1" f (x) " " ' " 3 (! ' k "
!' ! k[x]/(f (x)) 4 4'
! " : k
k[x]/(f (x))7 '! (c) = c + (f (x))7 " 4!9 !(" !
" "
'
$ >/ !
'3 " k[x]9 & f (x), g(x) R7 f (x) =
0 ' !/!" "
!"! q(x)7 r(x) R & g(x) =
f (x)q(x) + r(x)7 '! r(x) = 0 deg r(x) < deg q(x)
) 1
k[x] "
"(" "!9 & 0 =
f (x) R7 f (x)
""
' ' f (x) " "'"
" "
""
" ! " " "
' ' *( !/!"
""
" q1 (x), . . . , qs (x) k[x]

3& n1 , . . . , ns N7
'! qi (x) = qj (x) i = j
ni > 0 i = 1, . . . , s7 &
f (x) = q1 (x)n1 qs (x)ns .

" f (x) = g1 (x)m1 gt (x)mt " " !
f (x) "'"
""
" " " ! " " '! i = j 7
gi (x) = gj (x)
0 < mi N i = 1, . . . , t ' t = s7 {q1 , . . . , qs } =
{g1 , . . . , qs } " "/
3& ! "
+ ' f (x), g(x) k[x] 1 &
"' & " f (x)

g(x) k[x] !/7 ! 2%*(f (x), g(x))
"
""
' !"! & 3 ! f (x)
g(x)
>/ ' ""( ! ! (f (x), g(x)) = {q1 (x)f (x)+
q2 (x)g(x) : q1 (x), q2 (x) k[x]} " 2%*(f (x), g(x)) !"!:
f (x)
g(x) " 6 ! '" 2%*(f (x), g(x)) = 1

&" (f (x), g(x)) = k[x]
# % !!!
Galois!

"" &(** !
.
I = (x2 + 1) " & " R[x] 2 " 3 :

(! ' R " !' ! R[x]/I & 4! 1 :
R R[x]/I 7 1 (c) = c + I 0 ' / ! R[x]/I
" 4( f (x) + I =4 " ' " !
'3
f (x) = (x2 + 1)q(x) + r(x) '! r(x) Q[x]7 deg(r(x)) < 17
f (x) + I = r(x) + I / ! R[x]/I " '"
4( a + bx + I 9 a, b R
' ' !"
2 : R[x]/I C7 2 (a + bx + I) = a + bi " 4' "
3 = 2 1 : R C7 3 (c) = 2 1 (c) = 2 (c + I) = c "
!"(3 4! ! R C
I = (x2 3) 1
E = Q[x]/I " 4 x2
3 Q[x] " " / ! E " 4( f (x) + I
'! f (x) Q[x] =4 " " !
'3
f (x) = (x2 3)q(x) + r(x)7 '! r(x) Q[x]7 deg(r(x)) < 2

f (x) + I = r(x) + I ; x2 + I = 3 + I 1 E
" *" "
"
" ' (x + I)1 = 13 x + I "
(x + 2 + I)1 = x + 2 + I 2 " 3 (! ' Q "
!' ! E & 4! c c + I 7 ! " (
/ c + I " "' c

!
' k " " !"! ! k[x] !" &"
"
' ' & = " "' &"
(
!"! 3 3 0
3! !
/(
(
! !"! Q[x] B

" 3 ! Gauss
(! f (x) = anxn + + a0 Z[x]

!"
' ! a0 , . . . , an *' !
deg f (x) > 0 $ f (x) ! Z[x] f (x)
! Q[x]
!! !
< '" ' " /( " " "' ! "!

&! !"&
(! f (x) = anxn + + a0 Z[x] deg f (x) = n

Q (r, s) = 1 f (x) r| a0 s| an +'
f (x)
f (a) = 0 a

a0 f (x) Q
#&
r
s
!!!
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
# % !!!

!"! x3 3x 1 " " " Q[x]
!"! x2 p
x3 p " " " Q[x]7 p
'" " " ' %( ! Eisenstein
(! f (x) = anxn + + a0 Z[x]' p Z

p ai i = 0, . . . , n 1' p an
p2 a0 ' f (x) ! Q[x]
!!!
# % !!! !"! f (x) = 2/9x5 + 5/3x4 + x3 +
1/3 Q[x] 0 ' f (x) " " Q[x] "
'" "
9f (x) = 2x5 + 15x4 + 9x3 + 3 " " Q[x]
( !
Eisenstein 4' 9f (x) p = 3
&" " " 7
f (x) " "
!!"! (! k f (x) = k[x] $ f (x) !

g(x) = f (ax + b) !'
a, b k a = 0
#&
< ' !( " /3 '"

( ! Eisenstein "
4'
# % !!'!

= f (x) = x16 + x15 + + x + 1 Q[x] " 4'
(
! Eisenstein 1 " 4'!
( ! Eisenstein
f (x + 1) p = 17
"! ' !' " " " Z[x]7
f (x) " " " Q[x]
1 7 '" p Z " 7
!

' !"! p (x) =
xp1 + xp2 + + x + 1 Q[x] " " '
4:
' "
( ! Eisenstein p (x + 1) p 0
p (x)(x 1) = xp 1

p
x+11
xp + p1 xp1 + p2 xp2 + + p1
(x + 1)p 1
=
p (x+1) =
x
x

p p2
p p3
p1
+
+
++p
=x
x
x
1
2
4' !
( ! Eisenstein q (x+1) p

' p (x + 1) " " p (x) " "
Galois! - .!
#
!"! 4 (x) = x3 +x2 +x+1 " " " Q[x]7 4
! C " 1, i
x + 1 " " "
! 4 (x)
'"
( " ' ! " f (x) Z[x] " "
"/ ' "
Zp [x]
" p Z
" 4!
' 4' : Z Zp 7 a a a mod p 1
"
" 4'
! "
: Z[x] Zp [x], a0 + a1 x + + an xn a0 + a1 x + + an xn .
(! f (x) Z[x]' p

deg f (x) = deg (f (x))
(f (x)) ! Zp [x]' f (x) !
Z[x]
#&
!!(!
"&
! !
!
"' '

Zp " &" 7
&" '" "
"
! (f (x)) " !
'
# % !!)!

!"! x2 + x+ 1
x3 + x+ 1 " " Z2 [x] 4 "
&/!" Z2 ' x2 + x + 1
x3 + x + 1 " "
Z[x] '
Q[x]
!"! x2 + 1 " " " Z2 [x] 4 x2 + 1 = (x+ 1)2
Z2 [x] " ' " Z[x] "4 '"
0' .) " /
" !"! 3 4 ! Z2 [x] " x7 x+17 x2 +x+17
x3 + x + 17 x4 + x3 + 17 x4 + x + 17 x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1 &/"
3" " 3 7 7

' !"!
x6 +x3 +1 "
!' " Z2 [x] !"! 7x4 +5x3 +3
x6 + 11x3 1 ! Q[x] " " 7 4 !"! x4 + x3 + 1
x6 + x3 + 1 " " Z2 [x]

!"! f (x) = x4 10x + 1 Z[x] " " " Zp [x]
p < 17 " ' " Z17 [x]
" "
Q[x] -& 0 '67 !
/ 3 "
" / "
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
"
Galois
$
#!
' k " 8& ' q(x) f (x) " k[x]

! ! q(x)| f (x) " !/ q(x) k[x] & f (x) = q(x)q(x)
(! f (x) k[x] $ a k f (x)

(x a)| f (x) k[x]
, =4 " " !

'3 f (x) = (x a)q(x) + r(x)7
#&
!! !
'! deg r(x) < 17

r(x) = r k (x a)| f (x) "
'" "
!' r = 0 !' ' !" "
'" " f (a) = 0 ( "
a " ! f (x)
(! f (x) k[x] deg f (x) = n < $ f (x)

n k
, " f (x) &/ s 7 & a1 , . . . , as ' 4' " /

#&
!!!
" " ' & ' f (x) = (xa1 ) (xas )g(x)

!"! g(x) k[x] =!
"" ! 3 " ! " " "
"
' s n
- f (x) k[x] deg f (x) = n <

! k[x] f (x) = c(x a1 ) (x an)

c, a1, . . . , an k
*& !!!
# % !!!

x2 + 1 " "'"
" '" " C[x]
= " 6 E = R[y]/(y 2 + 1)
= !' 3 6! ' !"! f (x) = x2 + 1
" "'"
" '" " E[x] 1! / :
/
" "! "(
!"
/ 1E = 1R + I 7 '! I " I = (y 2 + 1R )
! R[y] a = y + I 4 y 2 + I = 1R + I = 1E &/! '
(x a)(x + a) = (x (y + I))(x + (y + I))
= x2 y 2 + I = x2 + 1E = f (x) .
' " & ' a " ! f (x) E
I = (x2 3)
E = Q[x]/I 1 !&"
'
y 2 3 = (y b)(y + b) '! b = x + I
b " ! y 2 3
E
)
Galois! - .!
"
! " 6( 39
(! k p(x) !

k[x]
$ p(x) k[y]/(p(y))
, ' I = (p(y))

E = k[y]/I 4!! k E 9
!!!
k E 7 c c + (p(y)) 0 ' y + I E " ! p(x)

0 & ' p(x) = a0 + a1 x + + an xn k[x] '
p(y + I) = a0 (1 + I) + a1 (y + I) + + an (y + I)n
= (a0 + I) + (a1 y + I) + + (an y n + I) = p(y) + I = I .
8& ' F "

! k
! !
L/ k " /
' " k F '" "
" ' ! Kronecker
!!"! .Kronecker/
(! f (x) k[x]

k
)

L/ k f (x)
L[x]
, < '6 "

" 3' ! f (x) "
deg f (x) = 1 ' L = k ' deg f (x) > 1

f (x) = g(x)p(x) '!
p(x), g(x) k[x]
p(x) " " !"! " p(x) "
3 ' f (x) " "'"
" '" " &"
L7
g(x) " " "'"
" '" " "
L 1 & !/ ' " !'3 3
( (7
4 deg g(x) = deg f (x) 1 < deg f (x)
& " deg p(x) > 17 ' ' 7 !/ &

M/ k " p(x) &/ 7 & a M p(x) = (xa)h(x)
M[x]
f (x) = (x a)h(x)g(x) M[x] 1 deg h(x)g(x) < deg f (x)
&" !/ &" L &
! M & h(x)g(x)
" " "'"
" '" " % !"& f (x)
" "'"
" '" " L ! " &

! k
' ! Kronecker
' " deg f (x) = n '
L f (x) &/ " "!
f (x) = c(x a1 )s1 (x at )st

'! c k
ai L7 ai = aJ 7 1 i t " 4"' ' (3
" " ! f (x) "
n
n = s1 + + st !
"" !
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
+
3 " ! " " " " 1 4!

3 s1 , . . . , st "
' " " a1 , . . . , at "/
< '" ' " /(
&"! " " f (x) &/ &
&" L7 '! f (x) "
"
(! f (x) = c0 + c1 x + + cnxn k[x]

k ' L

f (x)
0 f (x)

! f (x)' f (x) = c1 + 2c2x + + ncnxn1 $ f (x)

L 12(f (x), f (x)) = 1
, 1 !' ! 2%*(f (x), f (x)) " !' ":
#&
!!'!
k L '
f (x) = c(x a1 )s1 (x at )st L[x] .

0 ' " si > 1
i {1, . . . , t}7 ' x ai
f (x)
f (x)7 ( 2%*(f (x), f (x)) = 1 "4

"
0 ' '" g(x) k[x] " " 7 ' '" & !
k[x] " 3 "
!"!
g(x) " /
:

( ! k " 0 ' g (x) = 0
deg g (x) = deg g(x) 1 =!
""
! 37 & ' g(x) " g (x)
2%*(g(x), g (x)) =
1 4 " 0' $7 ' ! g(x) " & "
" !"! g(x) k[x] & ! " ! &"
"! ! g(x) " & ;"
' !"! f (x) k[x]
& ! " ' " " ! f (x) " / :
&" "! ! f (x) >/ '" 6(9
(! k ' f (x) k[x] k 3

f (x) !
#& !!(!
" k &/ /

( p7 '! p 7 ' & "

" f (x) " &" ' &
"' :
& " f (x)
f (x) " f (x)
f (x) &/ & 1"
'" f (x) " "
f (x) = 0 ' f (x) " " /
# % !!)!

f (x) = x2 + 1 Z2 [x] ' f (x) = 0
f (x) = (x + 1)2 &/
'
n
f (x) = xp + x Zp [x] '! p 1 ! f (x) "

n
& 0 /

( ! Zp [x] " p7 f (x) = pn xp 1 +
1 = 1
2%*(f (x), f (x)) = 1
Galois!

#/!
f (x) = xp x + a Zp [x] '! p 4 f (x) = 17

& ' ! f (x) " &
k = Z2 [t] = {a(t)/b(t) : a(t), b(t) Z2 [t], b(t) = 0} 2

" / ' !"! f (x) = x2 t k[x] "
" 4 " &/ k 4 f (x) = 07 f (x) " "
/
k 7 f (x) k[x] =4 " 3 ! Kronecker
!/ &
L/ k '! f (x) "
"
" " !/ " &
k F L & f (x) " "

" F [x] ' L/ k & !
f (x) " ' k
# % !! +!

C
" " "! ! x2 2 "
2
' Q 4 x 2 = (x 2)(x+ 2) "

"
R[x] = '"
4 3 ' R " " "!
! x2 + 1 " ' Q
3 3! "

! !
"! ! " "
$
%
E 6 "

!"! ! Q[x] " " 9
f1 (x) = x9 + 4x + 67
f2 (x) = x + 17
f3 (x) = x4 + 47
f4 (x) = 8x3 6x 17
f5 (x) = x4 2x2 + 97
f6 (x) = x4 + 17
f7 (x) = x7 + 7x + 147
p
f8 (x) = x(p1)p + x(p2) + + x2p + xp + 17 ?p @7

f9 (x) = 4/3x5 + 6/5x2 + 27 f10 (x) = x5 10x + 27
f11 (x) = x5 10x + 1
E 6 "
!"! " " 9
x4 + 4 Z3 [x]7
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
x4 + 4 Z13 [x]7
x2 + 3 Z7 [x]
E 6 ' !"! x2 5 " " !" ! Q( 2)

. E " !"! 3 !" ! Q
E " !"! 3 !" ! Z3
Galois!

#/!

F/ k &
" F &/ " '3 ( ! k:
"!
/!7 6 !
" " "
!"(3 '9 k F F 7 (c, f (x)) cf (x) /(:
! !( ( "
!
F
&
'
!(

(! F/ k
!! a F $ a

!
k
f (x) k[x]' f (x) = 0
f (a) = 0
a
!
k' a

!
k
*& ! ! !
" ! ' '" f (x) k[x] ' f (x) F [x]
# % ! !!

" a F 7 ' a "
' " ' F 4 " !
f (x) = x a F [x]
a = 3 R "
' " ' Q7 4 a " !
f (x) = x2 3 Q[x]
=4 " 0 . Q[y]/(y 2 3) " &
! Q

a = y + (y 2 3) " ! ! "! x2 3 a "

' " ' Q

Galois!

("0# '$ !
f (x) k[x] &" " !"!7 I = (f (x))
F = k[x]/I
/ x + I F "
' " ' k7

" k F E "
' "
a E "
'
" ' k ' a "
' " ' F
/ i C "
' " ' R
! Q
z = a + bi C7 a, b R ' z a = bi
z 2 2az + a2 = b2
z " ! ! "! x2 2ax+(a2 +b2 ) R[x] &"
3 / ! C "

' " ' R
a = 2
b = 3 R "
" ' Q 4 "
"/
" ! " " x2 2
x2 3 Q[x] "'"
ab = 6 "
' " ' Q 4 " ! ! "!
x2 6 Q[x]

3 a + b = 2 + 3 "
' "
' 2 Q 0
2
& c = a + b = 2 + 3 ' c = 5 + 2 67 c 5 = 2 6
(c2 5)2 = 24
c4 10c + 1 = 0 ' c " !
! "! f (x) = x4 10x + 1 =" '" "'7 0
3 ' f (x) " " Q[x] /"

" "!
" / "
R " !
' " ' Q < '6 !
':
"' /! !"(3 "
< '6 "
3' '3
' " Lindemann ))
'
3' e " !
' " ' Q7 ' &6 Hermite
)$7 " ei = 1
E = k(x)
" !
!! k[x] ' x E
" !
' " ' k
' F/ k &

"
a F ; "
! " a
"
' ( !
' " ' k 3 (! "
'

! &/ k
a
(! F/ k
!! a F 4 k[a] =
{f (a) : f (x) k[x]}' k(a) = {f (a)/g(a) : g(a) = 0, f (x), g(x) k[x]}
*& ! !!
*" "

" 6
" ' " k[a] "
' :
! &/ k

a7 " " k(a) "
'
! &/ k
a k k[a] k(a) F
k(a) "
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
"
"
/( k[a] k(a) &

&
! k ; " 6! ' k[a] &/ &""

E
" 6! ' k E
' a E "/ " 6! '
k(a) &/ &" E

" 6! ' k E
'
a E
# % ! !!

4 i2l = 1 " i2l+1 = i7 l N7 & ' !/ f (x)
R[x] / ' f (i) = a + bi7 '! a, b R R[i] = {a + bi : a, b
R} = C *( / ' R[i] = R(i) = C 2 R: ! R[i] "
" {1, i}
dimR R[i] = 2
4
2l
2l+1
3
= 3l 37 l N7 & '
Q[ 3] = {a + b 3 : a, b Q} .
3 = 3l "
0 ' "

' a, b Q " 4 ! "'7
' 0 = a2 3b2 Q
3&" c = a2 3b2 &! '
1
1
a b
= 2
ab 3=
3 Q[ 3] .
2
a 3b
c c
a+b 3
Q( 3)
Q[ 3]
Q[ 3]= Q( 3) 2 Q: ! Q[ 3] "
" {1, 3}
dimQ Q[ 3] = 2
(! "
Q[ 3 2] ' m N ' m =
3l + k 7 '! k, l N
l 2 4
3
3
3
( 2)m = ( 2)3l+k = 2l ( 2)k
i
& ' !/ f (x) =
ci x Q[x] / '
2
3
3
3
f ( 2) = a0 + a1 2 + a2 2 : ai Q .

Q[ 3 2] =
{a0 + a1 3 2 + a2 3 4 : ai Q} " {1,3 2, 3 4}
Q[ 3 2] Q:"!
' /
dimQ Q[ 3 2] 3
=" '" "' 3 ' dimQ Q[ 3 2] = 3
E1 = Q[ 2]7 E2 = Q[ 2 + 3] 6! ' E1 E2

0
1
E2 ,
2+ 3=
2+ 3
Galois!

("0# '$ !

( 2 + 3) ( 2 + 3)
E2 .
2=
2

E1 E2 ; " 6! ' E2 = E1
"
6!
'
2
+
3
/
E

0
"
!"&"

"3
'
3
=
(
2+
1
3) (
2) E1
4 Q: ! E1 " " {1, 2}
& ' 3 = a+b 2, a, b Q F5"" "

/ Q
' 3 = a2 +2b2 +2ab 27
4 2
p 7 = e2i/p 7

k N & 2%*(k, p) = 1
6! ' Q[] = Q[ k ] 1
' Q[ k ] Q[] " 4"(
4 k Q[] ; " "4
' ' !:
/!" r, t Z & rp + tk = 1 ' = rp+tk = rp tk =
t
k Q[ k ]
F/k &
"
a F
" /3 '
: k[x] k[a] ,
(h(x)) = h(a)
" 4'
! " 0 ' (c) = c '" c k "
(x) = a /!
' ' ker = {f (x) k[x] : f (a) = 0} =4 "
0 >4
' k[x]/ ker
= Im = k[a]
4'" k[a] "
/( & ' ker "
(! F/k
!! ! a F $ a

!
k k[a] = k(a) 4 a

!
k dimkk[a] =
, ' a "

' " ' k ' !/ f (x)
#& ! !!
k[x] & f (a) = 0

ker = 0 ' ker " &

k[a]
= k[x]/ ker " 4 k[a] k(a)
k(a) "

' ! &/ k
a7 & ' k[a] = k(a) " a
" !
' " ' k7 ' ker = 0
k[a]
= k[x] '

k[a] " "
' dimk k[a] =
=" '" "' 3 !! ! k:"!

/! k[a] '" a "
'
! &"" ! '
(! F/k
!! 4 F
!

k [F : k] F ! k"

*& ! !"!
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
# % ! !'!

[C : R] = 2
[Q[ 3] : Q] = 2
[k(x) : k] =
[Q[] : k] =
0 ' Q[] R %
" Q:"!

/

Q[] " Q:!/ ! R ;" !
' Q: dimQ Q[] "
"

' ( Q:
! R 4 dimQ Q[] = & ' [R : Q] =
" k F E "
' "
[F : k] = ' [E :
k] =
&
'

F/k &

"
a F
' " ' k
6
"(!
(
= " "' ' k[a] = k(a)
' "
I = {f (x) : f (a) = 0} " ! k[x]
4 I " 7 4 " 0( &
' I = (g(x)) '! g(x) " " !"! ! k[x]
" h(x) I 7 ( " h(a) = 07 ' h(x) = q(x)g(x)

! h(x) = 0 ' deg h(x) deg g(x)
. ' " h(x) k[x] " "
h(a) = 0 ' h(x) = cg(x)
'! c k[x]
1 " ( " " '" '
(! F/k
!!' a F
!

k[x] $ !
k[x]
a !
!
a
!
k
irr(k,a) (x)
*& !! !
) Galois!
("0# '$ # )'!
# % !!!

a F ' irr(F,a) (x) = x a
a = 3 R ' irr(Q,a) (x) = x2 3

p
= e2i/p C ' irr(Q,) (x) = p (x) = xp1 +
xp2 + + 1
= !"&/ 6 ! ! k[a] k[x]:"!
/!
(!
F/k
!!' a F
!

k' deg irr(k,a) (x) = n $ {1, a, . . . , an1}

k" k[a]
!!!
,
&! f (x) = irr(k,a) (x)

B = {1, a, . . . , an1 } g(a)
!/ / ! k[a] '! g(x) k[x] =4 " " !
:
'3 g(x) = f (x)p(x) + r(x) '! p(x), r(x) k[x]7
t = deg r(x) < n
*( r(x) = ct xt + + c1 x + c0
ci k i = 0, . . . , t 0
' g(a) = f (a)p(a) + r(a) = r(a) = ct at + + c1 a + c0 1
' g(a)
" k:
' !"!' / " ! !"'! B 6! '
" B "
"6 d0 1 + + dn1an1 = 07 di k
i = 0, . . . , n 1 /&
( 6 " ai : 0 i n 1
" g(x) = d0 + d1 x + + dn1 xn1 7 ' g(a) = 0
g(x) (f (x)) "
g(x) = 07 !' 4 deg g(x) < deg f (x) ' g(x) = 0
di = 0 i = 0, . . . , n 1
< '6 !
" 9
(! F/k
!!' a F $ a

!
k [k[a] : k] <
#& !!!
# % !!! 4 x3 2 " " Q[x] & ' [Q[ 3 2] :
Q] = 3
(! F/k
!! $ F
!
F F
!
k
*& !!"!
# % !!'! C "

' " ' R
R " "
' " ' Q
#& !!(! (! F/k

!! [F
$ F
!
k
: k] <
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
, ' [F : k] = n

' a !/ / ! F "
{1, a, . . . , an } &/ n + 1 /
"
6&" !/
/&
( 6 d0 1 + + dn an = 07 '! di k
i = 0, . . . , n
!/" &" ' ! " " &"
"
' !"! g(x) = d0 + d1 x + dn xn k[x] a " ! g(x)7
"
' " ' k
(! F/k
!!' a1, . . . , an F 4
k[a1 , . . . , an ]

k
a1 , . . . , an k(a1 , . . . , an )

k a1 , . . . , an
*& !!)!
*" "

" 6
" '
k[a1 , . . . , an ] = k[a1 , . . . , an1 ][an ]
k(a1 , . . . , an ) = k(a1 , . . . , an1 )(an )

# % !! +! 6!

'
Q[
2,
3]
=
Q[
2
+
=
3]
2
+
3]

Q[
2]
Q[
2
+
0 . ' 3 Q[
3]
2" '
' 3 Q[ 2 + 3]
Q[ 2][ 3] =

Q[ 2, 3]
3] ;
'
2+
" "4

'

Q[
/ 2 + 3 Q[ 2, 3] Q[ 2 + 3] Q[ 2, 3]

Q[ 2, 3] = Q[ 2 + 3] .
k F E
' " E &/ ( ! F :
"!
/!
3
( ! k:"!
/!
[E : F ] <
$
(! k F
E
[E : k] = [E : F ][F : k]
#& !! !
!!' [F
: k] < '
,
F :{a1 , . . . , an } ! E

{b1 , . . . , bm } k:
! F 6! ' " {ai bj : i = 1, . . . , n, j = 1, . . . , m} "
k: ! E
6
"(!
( "6

dij (ai bj ) = 0, dij k, i = 1, . . . , n, j = 1, . . . , m .
i,j
'

(
dij bj )ai = 0, i = 1, . . . , n, j = 1, . . . , m .

4
j dij bj F 7 F :
(
"6 " {a1 , . . . , an } "

i = 1, . . . , n 3
j dij bj = 0 ;
3 & 6 7
, Galois!
("0# '$ # )'!
k:
( "6 " {b1 , . . . , bm } "
j = 1, . . . , m "
!"( dij = 0
!
'67 ( ' / !"
" E k:"!
' / 4

0 ' " k F E
a E
' " ' k '
irr(F,a) (x) !"! irr(k,a) (x)
deg irr(F,a) (x) deg irr(k,a) (x)
# % !! !
E = Q[ 2 +

3] 2 Q: E
' "

' Q Q[ 2] E
" {1, 2, 3, 6} =
4
0
' !"! f (x) = x 10x + 1 " :

2 + 3 2 " 6! ' f (x) " "
Q[x] 0 4
4 = [Q( 2 + 3) : Q] = deg irr(Q,2+3) (x)

& ' irr(Q,2+3) (x) = f (x) Q: E "
" {1, 2 + 3, ( 2 + 3)2 , ( 2 + 3)3 }
b = 3 27 = e2i/3 7 E = Q[b, ] 4 irr(Q,b) (x) = x3 2

& ' [Q[b] : Q] = 3
' {1, b, b2 } " Q: ! Q[b]
;" ! ' irr(Q,) (x) = x2 + x + 1 irr(Q[b],) (x)
!"! irr(Q,) (x)
&/ 3' 2 1
/ Q[b]

deg irr(Q[b],) 2 '
irr(Q[b],) (x) = irr(Q,) (x) = x2 + x + 1
{1, } " Q[b]: ! E 0

' [E : Q] = 6
'
Q: ! E " " {1, b, b2 , , b, b2}
b = 5 27 = e2i/5 7 E = Q[b, ] 4
[E : Q] = [E : Q(b)][Q(b) : Q]
? @
deg irr(Q,b) (x) = 5 & ' 5 [E : Q] "/ 4
[E : Q] = [E : Q()][Q() : Q]
deg irr(Q,) (x) = 4 & ' 4 " 3' [E : Q]
, " 3' [E : Q]
&" [E : Q] 20 1
[E : Q(b)] = deg irr(Q(b),) (x)

deg irr(Q(b),) (x) deg irr(Q,) (x) = 4 .
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois

"
3" "
' [E : Q] 20 '
[E : Q] = 20
' irr(Q(b),) (x) = x4 +x3 +x2 +x+1 " irr(Q(),b) (x) =
x5 2
k E
' " F

" k F E 3 4

(! k E !! [E : k] = p' p
$

F k F E E

k
, < '6 " /!' ! ! 0 "
#& !! !
4"( ; " 7 & a E 7 a

/ k ' k k[a]

&" k[a] = E
#& !! !
* 5
,
$ !
R[x]
f (x) R[x] " =4 "

!/ a C & f (a) = 0 " a R ' (xa)| f (x)
4 f (x) " " & ' x a = cf (x) '! c R
3'
! f (x) " " a
/ R ' 4 [C : R] = 27 4 " "
' & ' R[a] = C 4 f (x) = irr(R,a) (x) & ' deg f (x) =
[R[a] : R] = 2

) !
! ! ' &" /

( &" &/ '4
Q &" &" 7 ( &" &" (3
/ " &/ /

( &" 3' p = 0 Zp "
/ /

( p
4!
3 /
:

( p
F/ Zp &" &
! Zp 7 & [F : Zp ] = n
*( F " Zp :"!
' / n F/ '"
Zp : a1 , . . . , an ! F
F = {c1 a1 + + cn an : ai Zp , 1 i n}

' !/ &" 4' "!
" / "
F
= Zp Zp Zp .
&"
|F | = |Zp |n , ( |F | = pn .
%(! & !&
Galois! & , '!
#& !! ! 2

F

"
(! p F

p
& $
|F | = pn
& n 1
<
( (F , ) ! F 7 '! F = F {0} &/
4" pn 1 / G !"& ! 3 ( ! Lagrange
&" " ! '
3 / !5"
" 6 " / " &"
a F /
n
n
n
ap 1 = 1 ap = a ap a = 0 ,
( a " ! ! "!
n
f (x) = xp x Zp [x] .
6 '" " '" 0'9
(! F

' |F | = pn
p

& $ F
! f (x) =
xp x F f (x)
#&
!!!
6! ' !/ &" F pn /

3
4!
' 3' n > 1

3 4!
' 3' p < /
:

( ! F " & p < '6 "

!
( '"
n
f (x) = xp x Zp [x] !"! f (x) &/ & 7 0
+ ' ! Kronecker !/ &" "! L/ Zp !
n
f (x) = xp x " " " M ! f (x) L7 (
n
M = {a L : ap = a} .
n
M " !' ! L 0 " a, b M ' 4 p pi
1 i pn 17 ' ! "!
' 3 ?
'
p = 2@

'
n
n
n
(a b)p = ap bp = a b a b M .

'7 " a, b M 7 b M {0} '
n
(ab1 )p = ap (bp )1 = ab1 ab1 M .

M " !' ! L (3 " / " ! M " (3
"

&" " " ! f (x) ! "
pn 4 f (x) &/ &
'" %(! & !& ' M " pn /
' "

!( ! 3 '" 39
6
p & n > 1

pn
!!!
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois

# % !!!

E &" ) / 4 " !/ l N &
8 = 4l & ' E " &/ &" . /

!! &" . / F &"
|F | = 4 = 22 " 4"' ' /

( ! F "
'
F " &
! Z2 3
' ' F = {0, 1, a, b}
0 ' / a + 1 F
' a + 1 = b 0 "
a + 1 = a ' 1 = 07 "" " a + 1 = 1 ' a = 0 "" "
a + 1 = 0 ' a = 1 a = 1 "" "
" "
3
( (F, +)9
0
1
a
b=a+1
0
0
1
a
b
1
1
0
b
a
a a+1=b
a
b
b
a
0
1
1
0
<
( (F , ) ! F &/ /7 "
!

(
' a ' b F = {1, a, a2 =
b} 1 "
(F , ) "
1
a
b = a2
1
1
a
b
a a2 = b
a
b
.
b
1
1
a
0
' ' 4 a2 = b & '
a2 = a + 1 a2 a 1 = 0 a2 + a + 1 = 0 ,
4 1 = 1 " Z2 *( a " ! ! "! x2 + x +
1 Z2 [x] 1 x2 + x + 1 " " 7 0 .+
F = Z2 (a)
irr(Z2 ,a) (x) = x2 + x + 1 1 ! x2 + x + 1 " a7
a2 = a + 1
3
x8 x = x2 x Z2 [x]
F ) / !

! 4 " (! (
! F 0
/(" '
( (F , )
! F &/ $ / 4 $ " F "
!

(

3 / 1 = b F " F ' "
0, 1 = b F '
3 "
' / ! F

.
Galois! ) Galois!

" ! b
&" F = Z2 (b)7 0, 1 = b F 0
' [F : Z2 ] = 3 < "! ! x8 x "'" " "
! " " Z2 [x] "9
x8 x = x8 + x = x(x + 1)(x3 + x2 + 1)(x3 + x + 1) .

a F ! x3 + x2 + 1 *( irr(Z2 ,a) (x) = x3 + x2 + 1

Z2 (a) = F / 1, a, a2 " Z2 : ! F !' " '
F = {c0 + c1 a + c2 a2 : ai Z2 , 0 i 2}
= {0, 1, a, 1 + a, a2 , 1 + a2 , a + a2 , 1 + a + a2 } .
=!

&" 4 irr(Z2 ,a) (x) = x3 + x2 + 1 & '
a3 = a2 + 17
a4 = aa3 = a2 + a + 1
a5 = a2 a3 = a + 17
a6 = aa5 = a2 + a7
a7 = 1
1 ! x3 + x2 + 1 " a, a2 , a4 " ! x3 + x + 1 "
a3 , a5 , a6 < "/ "! " "
a F
! x3 + x + 1
4 " ""
*
Galois
(! F/ k
!! $ ! "
& F
k'
*& !! !
Autk (F ) = { : F F, (c) = c, c k}
Galois F
!
k Gal(F/k)
#$ !!! " G = Gal(F/k) " '" 7 6
"3 !"( " 0 "
"
" '
" f, g G ' f g : F F " !4'
" c k '
f g(c) = f (g(c)) = f (c) = c7 f g G " f G '

f 1 : F F " 4'
" c k ' f 1 (c) = f 1 (f (c)) =
(f 1 f )(c) = idE (c) = c7
f 1 G ' G " !
" 4" ' F F " ! ' G " " "
"3
(
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
' a F "

' " ' k
& '
G = Gal(F/k) ' a
(a) &/!" " !"!
& "

(a) " ' ! irr(k,a) (x)
(! F/ k
!! a F
!

k (! Autk(F ) (a) = b $ b F
!

k irr(k,a) (x) = irr(k,b) (x)
#& !!!
i
0
ci x i 4
a "i ! q(x) =
i
i
& ' c
ci a ) = (ci a ) = (ci )(a ) =
i a = 0 &" 0 = (

i
i
ci (a) = ci b ' q(x) = irr(k,b) (x)
, q(x) = irr(k,a) (x) =
; " "4

3!" !( ' / 6(9
(! F/ k
!!' a, b F
!

k irr(k,a) (x) = irr(k,b)(x) )
& !!
: k(a)k(b) |k = idk (a) = b
!!!
, %/(" ' k(a) = k[a]

"/ k(b) = k[b]
I ! k[x] ""( irr(k,a) (x)9 I = (irr(k,a) (x))
1 4' 1 : k[x] k[a]7 1 (f (x)) = f (a) " " 4'
1 : k[x]/I k[a]7 1 (f (x) + I) = f (a) =!

&" 1 (x + I) = a "
1 (c+I) = c c k "/ &/! " 4' 2 : k[x]/I k[b]7
1
1 (f (x) + I) = f (b) ' "3 " 4" 2 1 :
k[a] k[b] " " 4'
"
"
" ' " : k k " 4' "7
' !"
: k[x] k [x],
ai xi
(ai )xi
" 4' ="! & " "

! ! (
..7 "! &"
'6
4("! &
'6 " ! 3" ' " ""
(! k F ' k F
!!' b F ' b F

! ! k' k ' : k k &

!!!
(irr(k,b) (x)) = irr(k ,b ) (x) .
)
& !! : k[b]k[b ] |k =
(b) = b
Galois! ) Galois!
#
,
? =
@
: k[x] k [x] &

! "

k[x] I = (irr(k ,b ) (x)) " & "
k [x] 1 !("
!
""
4
1 : k[x] k [x]/I,
f (x)
(f (x)) + I
" J = (irr(k,b) (x)) =4 " 0 >4

*
! " &/! " 4' "
2 : k[x]/J k [x]/I,
f (x) + J
(f (x)) + I .
&/! ! 4
3 : k[b] k[x]/J,

4 : k [b ] k [x]/I,
f (b) f (x) + J
g(b) g(x) + I
< "3 = 41 2 3 " 4' " 3!&

'
= '" 3 !! " Gal(F/k) '!
F/ k &
" 4 %/("
' idF Gal(F/k) '" F = k(a1 , . . . , an )7 Gal(F/k)

b = f (a1 , . . . , an ) F
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) k[x1 , . . . , xn ] '
(b) = (f (a1 , . . . , an )) = f ((a1 ), . . . , (an )) .

*( & (a1 ), . . . , (an ) !" ( " !4'
# % !!"!

Gal(Q/Q) = AutQ (Q) = {idQ }
;"
' " k " ' Gal(k/k) = Autk (k) = {idk }
G = Gal(C/R) ' G
= Z2 0 C = R(i) "
"! ! f (x) = x2 + 1 !" ! R 1 !4 " G

" !" / ! R " !' !

3 " '
"
'" ! i =4 " 0' .
4 f (x) "
/
&/
7 G &/
/ 4 R(i) = C7 4 " .. G
&/ /9 G = {0 , 1 } '! 0 : i i
1 : i i
*( 0 = idC
1 (a + bi) = a bi
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
$
F = Q() '! = e2i/3 4 irr(Q,) (x) = x2 + x + 1

3
/ ! F " 4( c + d : c, d Q " Gal(F/Q)
' (c) = c, c Q
3"&
'" "9

() =
2
4 F = Q( 2 )7 .. ! ' !/ 4'
: F Q( 2 )7 () = 2 ' Gal(F/Q)
= Z2
E = Q( 2) = {c0 1 + c1 2 : ci Q} !!

"
2
G = Gal(Q/E) 4 irrQ 2 = x 2 & ' ( 2) = 2
G " !/ / a ! E " 4(
a = c0 1 + c1 2 .

2) = (c0 1) + (c1 2)
= (c0 ) (1) + (c1 )( 2) = c0 1 + c1 ( 2) .
' G
3 ( ' "
'"
2) =4 "
(
0' . |G| 2 0 ' idE ( 2) = 2
'

..
!
'
!/
4'
:
E
Q(
2)7
( 2) = 2 4 E = Q( 2) & ' G "

/ G |G| = 2
G
= Z2
E = Q( 3 2)7 G = Gal(Q/E) b = 3 2 ' irr(Q,b) (x) =

x3 2
Q: ! E " " {1, b, b2 } a E 7
G '
a = c0 + c1 b + c2 b2 : ci Q
(a) = (c0 1 + c1

(a) = (c0 ) + (c1 )(b) + (c2 )(b2 ) = c0 + c1 (b) + c2 (b)2 .

3 G
3 ( ' "
'" (b) =4 "
0' . (b) " ! irr(Q,b) (x) 4 '"
! x3 2 ! "(
E " b & ' (b) = b
= idE
' G = {idE }

E = Q( 2, 3)7 G= Gal(Q/E) ;" ! ' G
:
3 ' ( 2)
( 3) =4 " 0' .
G &/ . / 4 " G 3"& & ( 2)
)
Galois! ) Galois!
" 27 " 3"& & ( 3)

"
0
' idE G "/ " !"!' 2 2 7 3 3

6! '
!"' "/" /
! G
0 3 E ( &

! E1 = Q( 2)9
E = E1 ( 3) .
=4 " .. !/ 4' " 1 9
1 : E1 ( 3) E1 ( 3), 1 ( 3) = 3, 1 (c) = c, c E1 .
4 E1 ( 3) = E1 ( 3) & ' 1 G7

1 ( 2) = 2, 1 ( 3) = 3 .
1 " " E ( &

! E2 = Q( 3)

' !/ !4' 2 9
2 ( 2) = 2, 2 ( 3) = 3 .

3 = 1 2 G, 3 ( 2) = 2, 3 ( 3) = 3 .
"

6 ! 3

' " 4( ! (:
. 0 4 E1 = Q( 2)7 4 "
.. !/
: E1 E1 , 1 ( 2) = 2 , 1 (c) = c, c Q .
*(
(a + b 2) =
a b 2 =4 " . !/
: E1 ( 3) E1 ( 3) !
" "

" 3
3 < " 3
*6 '" ' |G| = 4 F/!"
"
/ " & 49
!

( . / !
" '4 " Z4
! Klein ! " '4 "
Z2 Z2 0 ' G &/ &" / 6
/
6 ;
21 : 2 2 2,
3 3 ( 3) = 3 ,
( 21 = idE
1 &/ 6 ' G
= Z2 Z2
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
+
= '"
4 3 6!
39
(! : k k & !! !

L/ k f (x)' L / k f (x) $

& : L L

!!'!
1
"! !(" " "' " &3 ! &/!
!3(
" G = Autk (F )
-
! " !"! / !

F
-
! 3"&
'" "
" / " "
" " ! " " !
3" / G

"! " 6 / " G /"
.
"
%
E 4" 9 Q( 5, 77 Q(i 11)7 Z2 (x2 )7 Z2 (x + 1)7

Z2 (x2 + 1)
E 3 !"! irr(Q,a) (x) '"
a = 7 + 1/27
a = i 3 1/2
E 3 !"! irr(Z3 (x),a) (x) '" a2 = x + 1
. a, b C7 & irr(Q,a) (x) = x2 2
irr(Q,b) (x) = x2 4x+2
E 63 "
Q(a)/ Q7 Q(b)/ Q " '4
E

!3"
Q(a)/ Q '" !"! irr(Q,a) (x)
"
x2 57
x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 17
x3 + 2
=
3 " !3 Galois Gal(Q(a)/Q)
# E 3" 3 "
"9
Galois!

#/!
.,
C/ Q7
Z5 (x)/ Z5 7
R( 5)/ R7
Q( 7 3)/ Q

$ E = Q( 2, 3, 5) E 6 ' [E : Q] = 8
) f (x) = x3 + x2 + 2x
E &" "! E ! f (x) !" ! Z3 [x]
E 5 / ! E
E &" / a & E = Z3 (a)
+ ' a, b E "
!" ! F E 6

'!3
[F (a + b) : F ]
,
/ a + b "

' !" ! F

E 6 ' Q( 5 + 2) = Q( 5, 2)

E " !"! ! 5+ 2 !" ! Q( 2)

E " !"! ! 5+ 2 !" ! Q( 5, 2)
E " !"! ! 5 + 2 !" ! Q
E 6 ' !/ " !"! 3 # !" ! Z5
15
F &" "! ! ! "! f (x) = x3 x !"
! Z3 E 6 ' " E " " ! f (x) "
315 / ! &/ Z3 E " 3' [E : Z3 ]
L/ k &" &

f (x) k[x] " E
6 ' " 4!
3 deg f (x) > 1
[L : k] "
6 !7 ' f (x) " &/ L
!
" # Galois

* # x3 2

!
!"! f (x) = x3

2 Q[x] 1 ! f (x)
C " b, b, 2b '! b = 3 2
= 3 = e2i/3
E = Q(b, b, 2b) " '" "! ! f (x) " ' Q
0 '
E = Q(b, b) = Q(b, 2 b) = Q(b, 2 b) = Q(b, ) .

G = Gal(E/Q) " G '
3 ( '
'"
(b)7
()7 " 0' . " ' &/! # /
" G 4 E = Q()(b)

irr(Q(),b) (x) = irr(Q,b) (x) = x3 2,

4 " .. !/!" !4 ! E &
c c7 c Q()
b "
" ' ! x3 2
*(
b
.
b b
2
b
"/ 4 E = Q(b)()

irr(Q(b),) (x) = irr(Q,) (x) = x2 + x + 1,

!/!" !4 ! E & c c7 c Q(b) "

.
2
.
Galois! ) Galois!
="! ' '"

b b ' c c c E
&/! "
!
' !4' ! E '" &/! . 4

/ G 1 !"3& ! "!" ! !49
b b 2b b b 2 b
2 2 2 ,
idE 1 2 3 4 5
'! 2 = 12 7 4 = 1 3 " 5 = 3 1 G " " ":

3
( a E
!! "
'" 1 (a) =4 "
0 Q: E " " {1, b, b2 , , b, b2}
4
a = a0 + a1 b + a2 b2 + a3 + a4 b + a5 b2
1 (ai ) = ai 7 1 (b) = b7 1 () = & ' 1 (b2 ) = 2 b2 7 1 (b) = 2 b
1 (b2 ) = 3 b2 = b2 4 " ! ! "! x2 + x + 1

& ' 2 = 1
1 (a) = a0 a4 b + (a2 + a5 )b2 + a4 + (a1 a4 )b a2 b2 .

' |G| = 6 ;" ! ' & 4 !/ '"
"3
( # /
' !( " S3 "
3& " / " 6!"(! !(" " /& "
' " X = {b, b, 2b} '
G {(b), (b), ( 2b)} = X .

; 1 (b) = b7 1 (b) = 1 ()1 (b) = 2b " 1 ( 2 b) = 3 b =
b ;"
! x3 2
" " ! x3 2

4
&
" " 4
& 4 /
G " 4""' !"( ! E
3 / G
3 ! X 7 ( 4"' !" ! X " !'
! SX " " 3& " ! X 1 ! " !"
: G SX 7 '! G7 () SX " 3
() : X X,
ib ( ib) .
"!

'" " ()7 G "9

b b 2 b
b b 2b
b b 2 b
idE
, 1
, 2
,
b b 2 b
b 2 b b
2 b b b

b b 2 b
b b 2 b
b b 2 b
3
, 4
5
.
b 2 b b
b b 2 b
2 b b b
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
.
< SX " & 7

" " 4"' !"
" "7 4' " 0
3 ,
G7 / '
( ) = () ( )
'
" /3 4 (i )
(i ) ( ) !4 ""
!/ t b '
G
= SX .
0 ' G " '4 " " !:
" ! '!! "! 3 t b
!4&
! '!! "! 1 ! ! "/" 4&
" 07 2/3
4/3 3
"(!" "& 3& !
!
"" ' 3& idE 7 1 7 2 1 ! ! " ":

/'! " !" 3
"(!"
"& 3& ! !
"" ' 3& 3 7 4 7 5

+,
Galois
6
"(!
' 3 !( 4!7 ! "

& " "'
(! f (x) k[x] ! !' deg f (x) = n

! E f (x) $ Gal(E/k) &
! ! Sn
, X = {b1 , . . . , bn} " " " ! f (x) '
!! !
E = k(b1 , . . . , bn ) / ! SX " 4"' !"( !

X " !' !
SX
= Sn " G = Gal(E/k)
G ' 3
" !" : X X, (bi ) = (bi ) i = 1, . . . , n "
"
6
" ' SX 7 ( '
(bi ) = (bj ) bi = bj
" '" '9
: G SX ,
1 ""
" &6 '
' /!"
( ) = = = () ( ) , G

" "4'7 ( () = ( ) = , G7
..
Galois! ) Galois!
!" " "4' "
Sn
" 4"' ' Gal(E/k) " " "( !
# % !!! f (x) = x4 2 " b = 4 27 ! f (x)
C " b7 bi
E = Q(21/4 , i) " "! ! f (x) 6!
' G = Gal(E/Q) " '4 " " !" !
"! 0 G &/ ) / 4 " G7 '
b
i
.
, (i) =
(b) =
i
ib
ib
< G &/ '"

) / !
!" ' ! !4
: b ib, i i7 : b b, i i
!"3& ! "!

/ G "9
b
i
b b b b ib ib ib ib
i
i i i i i i
i .
idE
1 !4
"/" 3&

b ib b ib
b ib b ib

.
ib b ib b
b ib b ib
<
'" ! " &"

(
! .9 '
""
!

6 <
'" ! " "39 ""
&"!" 3& 3& ! 3" !

f (x)
!4& "' "! '4 b, ib, b, ib 7
' "/ '4 4( " 3/2 =
2/4 3 " "/ "
' " ! "
'
!4& b, b
),

Galois
/! ' " : E1 F1 " 4' "7 '

: E1 [x] F1 [x],
ai xi (ai )xi
" 4'
! " !' 4' 3 /3
'" 3
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
(! : E1 F1 & !!' f (x) = ai xi

E1 [x] ! (! E f (x)
! E1 ' F

(f (x))
! F1 )
[E : E1 ]

: E F |E =
, 3

5 ( " 3' [E : E1]
!! !
" [E : E1 ] = 1 ' E = E1
' ! f (x) "(
!"
E 4
" 4'
! " & ' !
(f (x))
"(
!" F1
F = F1
!3&! ' 3 / '" 3' &

[E : E1 ] "
' ! n
' [E : E1 ] = n ' !/ b E \ E1 & f (b) = 0
' E1 (b) = E1
4
[E : E1 ] = [E : E1 (b)][E1 (b) : E1 ]
&! ' [E : E1 (b)] < n b !/ !
(f (x)) F

=4 " . !/ 4' : E1 (b) F1 (b )
& |E1 = ' " !'3 ( & '
!/
: E F &
|E1 (b) =
!/!" [E :
2&" '" " ' &
E1 (b)] & 4
/ b 1 4 f (x) " / / ' &
b '
! f (x) 1 3' " " ! f (x) "
deg f (x)
! deg f (x) = [E1 (b) : E1 ] '
!"
&/!
[E : E1 (b)][E1 (b) : E1 ]
&7
!' 3' " [E : E1 ]
=" '6 ! ( /( " !'3 '

f (x) " / '" '! ! !4
!
"!" "
'/ " 6 " !4" 0

'" '" '
(! f (x) F [x]' E, E

f (x)
! F $
&
: E E

F f (x) !
[E : F ]
&
F
#& !!!
Galois! ) Galois!
.#
, " !

' 4' idF : F F 0
'
(f (x)) = f (x)
4' !
< E = E 0' & " !! "
3!
' Gal(E/F )
(! f (x) F [x] !'
!
F $ | Gal(E/F )| = [E : F ]
#& !!!
f (x)

# % !!!

E = Q( 2, 3, 5)7 G = Gal(E/Q) E " "!
! / ! ! "! f (x) = (x2 2)(x2 3)(x2 5) 4
[E
?

87
$@ & ' |G| = 8 G '
: Q] =
2 27 3 37 5 5 %3 / G &/ 6
G " "3
(
G
= Z2 Z2 Z2 .
b = 21/3 7 = e2i/3 7 F = Q()7 E = Q(, b) = F (b) '
Gal(E/F )
= Z3 .
0 & H = Gal(E/F ) E " "! !
x3 2 " ' Q
" ' F /! ' [E : Q] = 6
4 [F : Q] = 2 & ' |H| = [E : F ] = 3
irr(F,b) (x) = irr(Q,b) (x) = x3 2 .

/ H
3 " ' "
'" ! b9
b
b b
2
b
4 H &/ 3!
' /7
6
3 /! H
& " 7 & ' " idE = H ' 6 ! "
; " (b) = b7 '
2 (b) = (b) = () (b) = b = 2 b

3 (b) = ( 2 (b)) = ( 2 b) = ( 2) (b) = 2 b = 3 b = b .
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
.$
2 ! E !" ! F " {1, b, b2 }

&" !/ /
! E " F :
' !"!'9
a = a0 + a1 b + a2 b2 , ai F .
" H 7 (b) = b '
(a) = (a0 + a1 b + a2 b2 ) = a0 + (a1 )b + (a2 2)b2 .

= !"&/ 3 / & ' 1 "
3&! / '6
!!!
.Cauchy/
(! G

' p
p |G|
)
g G , g p
(! g1, g2 S5 , g1 # g2
' 5
$ g1, g2 = S5' S5

! ! ! g1' g2
6! ' " !"'" " !! " Gal(E/F ) '!

E " "! "' ! "! f (x) F [x] / " &/!
(
" " ( " " ! f (x)
# % !!"! f (x) = x5 4x + 27 E "! !
f (x) !" ! Q

G = Gal(E/Q) !"! f (x) " "
4 "
( ! Eisenstein p = 2 " / 4 Q
&/ /

( ,
&/ 4
& 4 f (x) = 5x4 47
f (x) = 20x3 4 ! f (x)
' !"" " 6"
" x
4&
10
5
-2
-1
1
-5
-10
Galois! ) Galois!
.)
C f (x) &/

& a1 , a2 , a3 a4 7 a5
' a4 = a5 *( " a4 = a + bi7 ' a5 = a bi
4 E = Q(a1 , . . . , a5 )
irr(Q,a1 ) (x) = f (x) & '
|G| = [E : Q] = [E : Q(a1 )][Q(a1 ) : Q] = 5[E : Q(a1 )] .

=4 " ! Cauchy G &/ &" / ! &/
6 3 (! " !4' ! C9
: C C, c + di c di .
0 '
|Q = idQ
(ai ) = ai i = 1, 2, 3
(a4 ) = a5
'
|E : E E ,
( " b E ' (b) E

|E G 1 |E "/
"3 " ! f (x) =4 " &
' G " '4 " S5

!

Galois
f (x) F [x]
E/F "! ! f (x) =" "' !(
3 6!

/& " " F
B E
! Gal(E/F )
#& !! !

, "
Gal(E/F )
(! F
B E
Gal(E/F )

!! $ Gal(E/B)
Gal(E/B) ' (b) = b7 b B '
(! F B E
!! B, E

!
F $ Gal(E/B)

Gal(E/F )
!!!
Gal(E/F )/ Gal(E/B)
= Gal(B/F ).
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
.+
, 4 B " "! " ' F & ' B =
F (b1 , . . . , bn ) '! bi "
! ! "! g(x) F [x]
Gal(E/F ) 6! ' " b B ' (b) B 0
4 / ! B " ! "!
!"! " bi i = 1, . . . , n

" 6! ' (bi ) B !' '

4 (bi ) "
! g(x) 4 " .7 ( (bi ) = bj

j = 1, . . . , n |B : B B " 4' "

(c) = c, c F *(
|B Gal(B/F ).
" !"
: Gal(E/F ) Gal(B/F ),
|B .
"
"
" ' " 4' " =4 "
0 >4 1 " & ' ker "
""
( !
Gal(E/F )
'
Gal(E/F )/ ker
= Im.
= !"&/ 3 6! ' ker = Gal(E/B)
' Im = Gal(B/F )
4 idB " !& / Gal(B/F )7 4 "
" ' ! !(" "' 4 " & ' ker "
"
{ Gal(E/F ) : () = idB } = { Gal(E/F ) : |B = idB }
= Gal(E/B) .
>/ ' Im Gal(B/F ) & " 6! ' " Gal(B/F )
' !/ Gal(E/F ) & |B = /(!
!' ' E " "! ! F 4 E "
"! ! F ' "
"! ! B =4 "
!/ " !4' ! E
# % !!! b = 21/3

= e2i/3 7 F = Q()7 E = Q(, b)7
G = Gal(E/Q) /! Q F E /! ' |G| = 6
'
H = Gal(E/F )
= Z3 5! ! / / G9
b
b b 2 b

4 F " "! ! Q & ' H G

G/H
= Gal(Q()/Q)
= Z2
Galois! ) Galois!
*& !!! (! E

F ' G = Gal(E/F ) H
"
G $ ! ! H
E H = {a E : (a) = a, H .
*" "
" /3
'
#& !!!
$ E H F E H E (

H 1 H 2 E H1 E H2 .
,
< '6 4 " ""
# % !!"!

E = Q(i) ' G = Gal(E/Q) = {idE , 1 : i i}
= Z2
/! a + bi = 1 (a + bi) = a bi b = 07 &" E G
Q
=
E = Q(21/3 )7 G = Gal(E/Q) ' G = {idE }
E G
= E
E = Q(, b) '! = e2i/3 7 b = 21/3 7 G = Gal(E/Q)
H = 1 7 '! 1 : b b, 6! ' E H = Q()
0 " 6
3 ' Q() E H Q: ! E
{1, , b, b, b2, b2 } %3 / a ! E "
' !"!'
a = a0 + a1 + a2 b + a3 b + a4 b2 + a5 b2 , ai Q .
'
1 (a) = a0 + a1 + a2 b + a3 b 2 + a4 b2 2 + a5 b2 3
= a0 + a1 + a2 b + a3 b( 1) + a4 b2 ( 1) + a5 b2
= a0 + a1 + (a2 a3 )b a3 b + (a5 a4 )b2 a4 b2 .
&"

1 (a) = a a2 = a3 = 0 = a4 = a5 .
E H = {a0 + a1 : ai Q} = Q() .
!&

/ "!
! "
(! ' [E : Q()] = 3
" !/ "
B & Q() B E 4 (b) = b & ' E H = E

E H = Q()
=" '" "' 3 ' "

"( !"3(
"
/ /&
E Gal(E/F ) = B
" E " " "! "' / ! ! "! f (x) F [x]
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
"
Galois
-! -! - Galois
&
E/F 7 G = Gal(E/F ) ! ! G " "
! " G 8& ' &
E/F "
Galois " '
F " E " "! "' / ! ! "! f (x) F [x]
! ! P " "
" ! F ! " !
! E
(! E
Galois
!
F ' G = Gal(E/F ) )
& "
P !
!! E

F G !
! G 0 '

, Galois
Gal(E/ ) : P G,
B Gal(E/B)

&
E : G P,
H E H .
+ 7
[B : F ] = [G : Gal(E/B)]
[G : H] = [E H : F ]
Gal(E/E H ) = H
B
Galois
!
F Gal(E/B) G
E Gal(E/B) = B
2
( ' E Gal(E/B) = B
"

3
!! !
(! E
Galois
! F $
E Gal(E/F ) = F .
,
G = Gal(E/F ) ' |G| = [E : F ] G = {1 . . . , n }

4 F E G

[E : F ] = [E : E G ][E G : F ] ,
" [E : E G ] = n ' [E : E G ] = 1
E G = F
'" " 6! '
[E : E G ] = n
" n = 1 ' G = {idE }

E = E G 4 |G| = [E : F ] & '
[E : F ] = 1
E = F E G = F
Galois! ) Galois!
' n > 1

[E : E G ] = m < n
(6!
{a1 , . . . , am } E G : ! E %3 / b E 4
E G :
' !"!'9

b = c1 a1 + + cm am =
ci ai , ci E G .
' " G ' (ci ) = ci i = 1, . . . , m
!:
4' " E G :
( !"9

(b) = (
ci ai ) =
c1 (ai ) .
"& m 6
n "!

!"& E 9
1 (a1 )x1 + + n (a1 )xn

=0
1 (am )x1 + + n (am )xn = 0

4 m < n7 &/ "
( (y1 , . . . , yn ) =
0 & *( i = 1, . . . , m / '

y1 1 (ai ) + + yn n (ai ) =
yj j (ai ) = 0 .
?@
j
>/! ' ' "/ /& /

3 b E
6! ( '
3 b E / '
y1 1 (b) + + yn n (b) = 0 .

? @
0 4 " "

(7 !/!" !"&

G
ci E & b =
c1 (ai ) 0 ! " 6
ci
' ci j (ai ) = j (ci )i (ai ) = j (ci ai ) ;
i = 1, . . . , m
'" 6

yj j (ci ai ) = 0 .
j
03&" !& /& i = 1, . . . , m

:
"9
yj j (ci ai ) =
yj j (c1 a1 + + cm am ) =
m

j=1
yj j (b) = 0 .
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
4 (y1 , . . . , yn ) = 07 / ' "

' "
!3&! ' yn = 0 6! '
3 b E /
/& "/ ' '! " 5! "
3& 0 3 &6!
c E 7 &
n (c) = 1 (c) 0 ' c = 0
1 (c)n (c) = 0 < /&
/
3 b E 7 /
/ bc 0
'
y1 1 (bc) + + yn n (bc) = 0 .
%"" 6
" 1 (c)
! '
y1 1 (b) + y2
2 (c)
n (c)
2 (b) + + yn
n (b) = 0 .
1 (c)
1 (c)
?@
4" ' " 6 " 6

'
y2
2 (c) 1 (c)
n (c) 1 (c)
2 (b) + + yn
n (b) = 0 .
1 (c)
1 (c)
&"
zi = yi
&/!
?.@
i (c) 1 (c)
1 (c)
b E, z2 1 (b) + + zn n (b) = 0 ,
'! zn = 0 ""! !(

& '! 4!
6 &"" '" 3&9
b E, tn (b) = 0, t = 0 .
b E 7 n (b) = 0 !' ' " " 4 n " !:
4' ! E
6! ' /

"4 ! (
(! [E : F ] < ' G = Gal(E/F )' E G = F $ E

!
!
! F
, 6! ' E = F (a1, . . . , an) '! ai " "' :
!!!
/ ! ! "!
" E = F ' 3&" f (x) = x ' f (x) " / :

' E " "! ! f (x) " ' F
Galois! ) Galois!

E = F !/ a1 E \ F 4 [E : F ] < 7 &
' a1 "
' !" ! F p1 (x) = irr(F,a1 ) (x)
6! ' ! p1 (x) " &
' p1 (x) " /
0 & X = {(a1 ) : G} = {a1 , . . . , an } =4 "
. " X " !" ! !"'! " "
! p1 (x) 0
3
! p1 (x) " &/
""'" !"!
g1 (x) = (x a1 ) (x a1 ) =
xn (a1 + + an )xn1 + (a1 a2 + + an1 an )xn2 + + (1)n a1 an

=
cj xj
1 !"( cj ! xj " &
4 !
( ai 7
i = 1, . . . , n ' " G ' (cj ) = cj cj E G 4
E G = F & ' g1 (x) F [x] 1 g1 (a1 ) = 0 " deg g1 (x)
deg p1 (x) 4 p1 (x) " !"!
'! 3 F [x]
a1 & '
g1 (x) = p1 (x)
p1 (x) " / &" F1 = F (a1 , . . . , an )

" "! ! / ! ! "! p1 (x) " F1 = E
' 3 &/ /3 = 4
( [E : F1 ] <
[E : F ]
!/ b1 E \ F1 ""! "

&"! F2 = F1 (b1 , . . . , bt ) '! b1 , . . . , bt "
! / ! p2 (x) = irr(F1 ,b1 ) (x)
F2 = F (a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bt )
" "! ! / !
p1 (x)p2 (x) .
=!"/ ! " ' <
!( 3 ( '"
[E : Fi ] = 1
"! &" ' ! " '69
(! E
Galois
! F ' p(x) F [x]
p(b) = 0
b E $ p(x) !

E[x]
#& !!!
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
' " E &

Galois " ' F 7 B "! !
g(x) F [x]7 '! B !' ! E ' B " &
Galois "
' F ' " '6 ! ( & ' &
B/F
'! B E " &
Galois " ' F "
'" " (B) = B

3 Gal(E/F ) &!
/
(9
$ !!!
0& " "" ! Galois &
:
E " ' &" F ?/ E 7 F @D
0& " "" ! Galois &
:
E " ' QD
$
) .
# % !"! ! E &

Galois " ' F 7 G = Gal(E/F )7
& ' f (x) F [x] "

" E[x]
X = {1 , . . . , n } " " " ! f (x)

= (n n1 )(n n1 ) (2 1 ) .
" G ' "
"
" ' () =
(2 ) = 2
4 E G = F & ' 2 F / 2 "
! f (x)
" 6 ' " 3 " i " () = '
F "
/ F ' B = F () " "! ! x2 2 F [x]
" ' F '
2 = [F () : F ] = [G : Gal(E/F ())]

Gal(E/F ()) G .
= '" 3 4'! " '" f (x) " "
3
# % !"!! f (x) F [x]7 deg f (x) = 37 f (x) "

/ " E " "! ! f (x) " ' F " !
/ F '
' G = Gal(E/F ) 4! S3
&/ 6 ( # " 2
|G|
G
= S3 ' F
' ! f (x)
" 1 , 2 , 3 4
= (3 2 )(3 1 )(2 1 )
() =
3 G & ' " !/ G7 "3
" / G &/!" 6 (
G
= Z3
= A3
Galois! ) Galois!
#& !"!! (! E

Galois
!
F )

"
! !! F B E
,
< Gal(E/F ) " &"

&/ &" 3'
! "
= '" 3 ' " /":
Galois
# % !"!! f (x) = x4 2 Q7 E = Q(b, i) '! b =
21/4 1 ! f (x) " {b, ib}

E " &
Galois "
' Q 0 ' ! E Q " "
{1, b, b2 , b3 , i, ib, ib2 , ib3 } G = Gal(E/Q) =4 " 0
7 G
= D8
/ G
3 " '
" " b7
i ' 4" ' " "

b
i
b
b b b ib ib ib ib
i i i i i i i
i .
idE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
F/!"
/ " G 6
G &/ !
6 4 &/ 6 .7
!

( <4 > &/ 6 . <
G &/ ! 6 . =!

&" "( &"
! G "9
H1 = <4 > = {0 , 4 , 2 = 42 , 6 = 43 }
H2 = {0 , 2 , 1 , 3 }
H3 = {0 , 2 , 5 , 7 }
<3 > = {idE , 3 }
<1 > = {idE , 1 }
<2 > = {idE , 2 }
<5 > = {idE , 5 }
<7 > = {idE , 7 }
'" " ! " G "9
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
(1) TJTTT
jjjtjt
JJ TTTT
j
j
j
JJ
t
jjj ttt
JJ TTTTTTT
j
j
j
j
JJ
t
TTTT
j
t
j
j
J
t
j
T
t
jj
<1 >
<2 >J
<5 >
<7 >
<3 >J
JJ
JJ
t
tt
t
J
JJJ
t
t
JJJ
tt
tt
JJ
JJ
tt
tt
JJ
t
t
J
t
t
t
t
H2 JJ
H1
H3
JJJ
tt
JJJ
ttt
t
t
JJJ
t
ttt
G
*" "
"
" ' '"
""
( ! 6 "
<2 > 1 ! 6 . "
""
& ;
3 ! G 3
!! "/ " 6
"(! "
<5 > E '!
y = a0 + a1 b + a2 b2 + a3 b3 + a4 i + a5 ib + a6 ib2 + a7 ib3 ,
ai Q '
5 (y) = a0 + a1 ib a2 b2 ia3 b3 a4 i + a5 b + a6 ib2 a7 b3
/ 5 (y) = y "
'" "
a1 = a5 , a2 = 0, a3 = a7 , a4 = 0,

y = a0 + a1 b(1 + i) + a3 b3 (1 i) + a6 ib2 .
E <5 > = Q(b(1 + i), b3 (1 i), ib2 ),
4 (b(1 + i))2 = 2ib2 7 (b(1 + i))3 = 2b3 (1 i)7 &/! '
E <5 > = Q(b(1 + i)).

= !"&/ 3 E <2 > = !(
' [G : <2 >] = 4 4 2 (i) = i
2 (b2 ) = 2 (b)2 = (b)2 = b2 &
' Q(b2 , i) E <2 > 4
Q Q(i) Q(i, b2 ) E
& ' [Q(i, b2 ) : Q] = 4 &" E <2 > = Q(i, b2 ) 2 " '

!
" ! E

" 9
) Galois!
("0# '$ # )'!
E = Q(b, i) WW
Q(b)
PPP WWWW
WW
PPP
PPP WWWWWWWW
WWWWW
PPP
WW
jj r
jjjjrrrr
j
j
j
jj
rr
jjjj
rrr
jjjj
Q(bi)
GG
GG
GG
GG
Q(b2 )
Q(b2 , i) O
Q(b(1 + i))
Q(i)
Q(b2 i)
r
rrr
r
r
r
rrr
MMM
MMM
MMM
MMM
& '9
OOO
OOO
OOO
OO
nnn
nnn
n
n
nnn
nnn
Q(b(1 i))
ooo
ooo
o
o
o
ooo
B2 = Q(b2 ) " "! ! x2 2 " ' Q

Gal(E/B2 )
=
H2 7
B1 = Q(i) " "! ! x2 +1 " ' Q
Gal(E/B1 )
=
H1 7
B3 = Q(b2 i) " "! ! x2 + 2 " ' Q

Gal(E/B3 )
= H3 7
B4 = Q(b2 , i) " "! ! (x2 b)(x2 + 1) " '
Q
Gal(E/B4 )
=< 2 >
/ )'
'
!
/
/ ' 3 " " " '
'" !&
#& !'! ! C = a , n <
d
n

C , d
a = ak 12(k, n) = 1

(n) = {k : 1 k n, 12(k, n) = 1}
C

< !" : N N " " ( !" ! Euler
G &"
C
!

( ! !!
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
g(C) (3 " '" " / " C " ( |C| = m '
|g(C)| = (m) 0 ' " C1 = C2 ' g(C1 ) g(C2) =
'
G=
g(C)
?@
'! C &/ '

!

& ! G n 3
'

&
G = Zn "
3" /&
""
3!
'
'
& 6
! '
|Zn | =
|g(C)|
'! C &/ '

!

& ! Zn
n=
(d) ,
'! d &/ ! & ! n

3 d 4" ' 4&
'
!

& ! &/ Zn 7 (
'
'
" 0' $
3 3
'
& n
'" /&9
n=
(d) .
?#@
d/n
1dn
6! "4 0' $ /"
/&
#
1 G , n

d n

, d
, " G "

!

( ' !&
' " 0':
!'!!
$ F3&! "4 '

3 & d|n !/

!

( ! 6 d 6! '
3 & d ! n
!/
!

( ! 6 d ' /&
#

'

n=
|g(C)|
(d) = n .
C
d|n
1dn

3 d & ! n !/

!

( ! G
6 d &" !' !"
d = n7 ( G "
!

(
#, Galois!
("0# '$ # )'!
3 '" 3
!'!! 2

k
, G ! (K {0}, ) 6 n

d|n " C
"
!

( ! G 6 d ' ' 3 ! Lagrange
cd = 1, c C " !(/

!

( ! G 6 d '
3 !(/" !/" d + 1 / x G !
"" " 6
xd = 1 1 !"! xd 1 &/ d &"
!/
!

( ! 6 d G
3 d & !
n &" ' $ G "
!

(
k

k = (k {0}, )
k = Zp (a)

p

a
" /
( k &
!
! k ="! ' "
( " " " (
#& !'!!
&3 /

" / "
# % !'!!

2 " /
' / ! Z11
!"! f (x) = x2 2 " " " ' Z5 7 4 "
&/ Z5 k &" "! ! f (x) " '
Z5 " a k " ! f (x) ' ! f (x) "
a ' k = Z5 (a)
' |K| = 25 / ! k "
4( k + la7 '! k, l Z5 0 ' a " " /
'
4 a2 = 2 *" "
' " 6
" ! "
/
!" ! b = 2 + a ' b " /
' " 4"'
' k = Z5 (b)
="! "
/( '
(! k

pn ' a
!
k $ a
! n
, 4 k = Zp (a) & ' 3' [k : Zp ] " 3'
#& !'!"!
! f (x) = irr(Zp ,a) (x) 2

|k| = |Zp |[k:Zp ]

& ' deg f (x) = n
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
#
= !"&/ 3 !! " Galois Gal(k/Zp )
!'!'!
(! k

pn
Gal(k/Zp )
= Zn
, G = Gal(k/Zp )7 a /

' / ! k7 f (x) =
irr(Zp ,a) (x) ' k = Zp (a)
4 " " 0' $#7 deg f (x) =
n k &/ n ! f (x) "
k "
"! ! f (x) " " /(! 0'
" 6! ' |G| = [k : Zp ] = n 4 " &/! 6 ' f (x) "
/ 0 ' ' " G '
3 ( '
(a) 0 !/ "
' / ! K " " ! a
(ai ) = (a)i 4 (a) " ! f (x)7 deg f (x) = n7

f (x)
&/ n 4
& 7 & ' (a) " 3
n 4
'!
|G| n .
?$@
= !"&/ 3 6! ' '/ '" |G| = n

' G "
!

(7 " &"" ' ! ""( G < !"
: k k,
b bp
"(
" G7 ( " !4' ! k ! / !
Zp 3 0 4
( Zp &/ p 1 /7
& ' c Zp {0}7 cp1 = 1
cp = c7 c Zp / !
Zp
" " " !' !
" /3 ' " :
4'
! "
' !(" " &" "

4 k " &" "4' "
4:
'7 ( !4' ! k =!"! '" ' G
'
/ , 2 , . . . , n "

&" / G *4

i < n 3 / ' i = idk

b k 3 /! '
i
i (b) = b bp = b bp b = 0 .
i
*( b k 3 (" ! ! "! xp x

4 |k| = pn "
i
deg xp x = pi < pn ! " "" || n
4 G
& ' |G| n =!"! " " "' /& $

' |G| = n
' G = &" G "
!

( 6 n7 "
'4 " (Zn , +)
' '" |k| = pn 7 p 7 ' Zp :!4' ! k
: k k,
b bp
" ""( Gal(k/Zp ) 1 !4' !' & !4:

' ! Frobenius
Galois!

("0# '$ # )'!
0 )' #

!
6
"(! &"" '9
Zn = {a Zn : (a, n) = 1} .
"
"
" ' Zn "
' |Zn | = (n)
# % !(! ! (8) = 4

Z8 = {1, 3, 5, 7} 0 ' 6
" 37 57 7 " Z8 "
#& !(!!
Z8 " "

!

(
4 p
Zp
,
Zp "

( ! ! Zp !&:
& ' $
" 4"' ' " k " &"
n &" 3
'
& &
/

( ! k " n ' !"! f (x) =
xn 1 k[x] " / = !( & E &"
"! ! "! f (x) " ' k " " " ! f (x)
" !
( ! E {0} n /

3
! n"
!
k
4 " $ & ' ! !( "
!

( "
" / !( &
! n"
! ' k
# % !(!!

/ e2i/n " /
( n: " " ' Q
F . / ! 0 . =
!( F = Z2 (a) '! a " /
' / ! F
/
(
3: " " ' Z2
(! k k

n' f (x) = xn 1 k[x] L f (x) 8
Gal(L/k) &
Zn
, G = Gal(L/k)7 /

( n: "
!(!!
L ' L = k() 4 " " n: "
L "
!

( & ' " G ' () = i

i {1, . . . , n} 1
= | : ,
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
#
" 4' " 4 " "4' &"

&" i " " / 4 Im = i
4 " " 0' $ 2%*(i, n) = 1 "

'"
: G Zn , i, '! () = i .
"
" /3 ' " 4' "
' ker =
{ G : i = 1} = { G : () = } = {idL }
" "4'
# % !(!! = e2i/p '! p /! '
irr(Q,) (x) = p (x) = xp1 + + x + 1
| Gal(Q()/Q)| = p 1 .
=4 " ). Gal(Q()/Q) " ! Zp
4 |Zp | = p 1 & '
Gal(Q()/Q)
= Zp .
=4 " 0' ) Zp "
!

( Gal(Q()/Q) "
!

(
6! !"&/ !"! f (x) = xn a k[x] 4(
" !&" "7 '" /

( ! k " n '
k &/ 7 /
( n: "
' L &"
"! ! f (x) 6! " G = Gal(L/k) 1
! f (x) " b, b, , b n1 '! b " ! f (x) '
L = k(b) " " &" / G ' (b) = b i
i 4
(b) & " " ! f (x) ' "
3&
i " "/
: G Zn ,
i .
0 ' "
, G () = ( ) (b) = (b) ,
( " 4"' !" " 4"' ' " :
4' " G 4! " Zn
' f (x) " " k[x] ' irr(k,b) (x) = f (x)

|G| = [L : k] = deg f (x) = n G " '4 " Zn "4
" G " '4 " Zn
" 4'7 '
#.
Galois! ) Galois!
( !
"! " ' ' ! f (x) "

&"
6! ' f (x) " " '" '
f (x) = g(x)h(x),
g(x), h(x) k[x], 2%*(g(x), h(x)) = 1 .
C ' "

' & ' g(b) = 0
h(b i ) = 0

i 4 " 4'7 & ' !/ G & (b) = b i
4 g(b) = 07 & ' irr(k,b) (x) g(x) =4 " 0'
. & '
irr(k,(b)) (x) = irr(k,b) (x).
irr(k,b) (x) h(x)

(! 4 irr(k,b) (x)
2%*(g(x), h(x)) " "" 6 '" '9
(! k ' k n'

k

! n" L
f (x) = xn a k[x] $ Gal(L/k) & (Zn , +) 8 Gal(L/k)
& Zn f (x) !
!(!"!
# % !(!'! B = Q()7 E = B() '! b = 21/3 7 :

/
( : " E " "! ! " !
! "! x3 2 B[x] ' Gal(E/B)
= Z3
)# '" !&9
(! p
& ' k
"
p

p" ' a k
xp a ! k[x] xp a "

! k[x]
, L "! ! xp a ' Gal(L/k) :
#& !(!(!
4! Zp !/!"

< "
Gal(L/k)
= {0}
" Gal(L/k)
= Zp < "
!"( '" '" L = k =4 " )#
/
'" xp a " "
1 #
' !"! ! Q[x] 3' 4 "

*(
! !"!7 ! "" ' &"" ! &/
'" !"(3 6 '37
6 (
" ' 3 " !/
&"" !'
! " '

/
& ( ! 3
&5!" " " !" " """
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
*& !)! ! 1 G

G = G0 G1 . . . Gn = {e}
Gi+1 Gi Gi/Gi+1

2 !'" " ' &"
9
%3 "( "

" G " 7 '
3 ! H G "
" G "
H "
""
( ! G '
G/H "

!( "' "9
(! f (x) Q[x]' E f (x) $

Gal(E/Q)

!)!!
f (x)
; " &! "

"(! " 3 " /(
" 3&! " '" '
(! f (x) F [x]' E f (x) $
f (x)

B/E a1 , . . . , at B B = F (a1 , . . . , at ) Bi = Bi1 (ai )
ami Bi1 mi N
, < '6 0' + 4

<
:
#& !)!!
i
3!" " /'" !

( '" 6 "
3!"
# % !)!! f (x) = x3 + q(x) + r Q[x] " " ' '
! f (x) "" ' ! ! y + z, 3 y + 32 z, 32 y + 3 z '!
3 = e2i/3 ,
1
4q 3 13
r + r2 +
)
2
27

1
4q 3 13
) .
z = ( r r2 +
2
27
y=(

0 ' ! f (x)

4 " " (3 " 6 "
'3
!
" 6 ( " !&!
##
Galois! ) Galois!
! 3
' f (x) "
L =
Q(y + z, 3 y + om23 z, 32 y + 3 z) " "! ! f (x)

4q 3
2i/12
, a3 = y, a4 = z
a1 = e
, a2 = r 2 +
27
B = Q(a1 , . . . , a4 ) " 4"' ' L B B0 = Q7 B1 = B0 (a1 )7

B2 = B1 (a2 )7 B3 = B2 (a3 )7 B4 = B3 (z) = L 4 3 = i7 4 = 3

a12
1 Q7
a22 = r 2 +
4q 3
27
Q B1 7

3
1
3
a3 = 2 (r + r 2 + 4q
) B2 7
27
a34 = 12 (r

r2 +
4q 3
)
27
B2 B3
ai 7 i = 1, . . . , 4
"" !& 0' +
*" 3 ! " "!
( '6 ! ( + ; "
'
!3" "! 6( f (x) Q[x]

7 E "! ! f (x) 2 " &6! " &
:
B = Q(a1 , . . . , at ) 0' + & B " " &

Galois " ' Q7 a1 " "
/
( "

mi 0' + " " 3 ' Gal(B/E)
"
""
( ! Gal(B/Q)

Gal(E/Q)
= Gal(B/Q)/ Gal(B/E) .

" 6! ' Gal(B/Q) " !'

' Galois
" "/ " !:
"
" " " " 0 "' ' &/! "

Q = B0 B1 Bt1 Bt = B
'! Bi = Bi1 (ai ) i = 1, . . . , t
)#
Gal(Bi /Bi1 ) /
i = 1, . . . , t !& ' Gal(Bi /Q)
"
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
#$
2 3
, (

6
"(!
(9
(! [Q(c) : Q] = 2 $ c

6
!!
#$ ! +! !
Q = K0 K1 Kt = Q(c)
[Ki+1 : Ki ] = 2' i = 1, . . . , t 1 c
, " [Q(c) : Q] = 2 ' irr(Q,c)(x) &/ 3' c

4

4 " "

"! (3 "'
(a d)/b
" 4"' ' " d "

! ' c "

!
1
&/! " ( ' " d "

! ' d "
!'

! !& &
! +!! (!

c
$ c
! Q [Q(c) : Q] = 2l
l N
, ' c

! ' n

!"
"'"
(
& ui / !

!
i:' ( u1
"' !( ! "!:

" 6 " !&! 3 !"& Q@

3 "(
Q 3
4 "
"! &"
u1 "(

&" Q( v1 ) '! v1 Q

[Q(u1 ) : Q] = [Q( v1 ) : Q] ' [Q(u1 ) : Q] = 1 '" v1 Q (
[Q(u1 ) : Q] = 2 '" v1
/ Q
= '" (

!( ! c7 u2 "(
" &

Q(u1 , u2 ) '! [Q(u1 , u2) : Q(u1 )] " ( 2 !'" ' &!
' &/! 6(
"9
Q Q(u1 ) Q(u1 , u2) Q(u1 , u2, . . . , un )

'! u2i Q(u1 , u2 , . . . , ui1)
[Q(u1 , u2, . . . , ui ) : Q(u1 , u2 , . . . , ui1)] "
? 2 i n@ &" c Q(u1 , u2 , . . . , un )
[Q(u1 , u2, . . . , un ) :
Q] 2n ' c "
'
[Q(c) : Q] = 2l
! +!! >/ "4D *(7 & c R

[Q(c) :
Q] = 2l 7
' c "

!D
Galois! ) Galois!
#)
#& ! +!!

,
1 ! 60

' (" !"'" " /3 " " 60 ' 3

(" !"'" "

!3 &" 3' " " 20
70 :
&" 3 (" !"'" "

!3

' 3' cos(20)

! " 3" 1 ' " &/!
'
cos(3) = 4 cos3 () 3 cos()
4 cos(60 ) = 1/27 &/! ' cos(20) " ! ! "! 8x3
6x 1 !"! !' " &/ Q
" " Q[x]
[Q(cos(20 )) : Q] = 3 ' cos(20 ) " "

!
3'
" 60 " " /3
"'"
(

*'
, 1 &"
3 / ! a = 2 " :
#& ! +!!
!"! ! a " x3 2

[Q(a) : Q] = 37 a " "

!:
3'
!

*'
, ' !/

"

'

!
1
#& ! +!"!

!"&
" "
3 " ' Q

" " "

!
6!
""
p: " "

! '" p "
' 3' 0 ' !' ' " "

!( !
3 e2i/p ! "!

!
' 3 " 3 / " '" '9
(! G |G| = 22m $ G

, 5'

G
#& ! +!'!
G = Gt Gt1 {e}
[Gi : Gi1] = 2, i = 1, . . . , t
'" 4& '" ! Gauss
! +!(! .Gauss/
p

'
p"!
m
p = 22 + 1, m N .
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
#+
,
p ' 7 = e2i/p =4 "

, 7 " z "

! ' [Q(z) : Q] 3 " " !
4
irr(Q,) = xp1 + + x + 1
& ' p 1 = 2s
s & '
s " " "
! 0 " !/ ' 3' k & s = k '
3'
p = 2s + 1 = (2 )k + 1
&/ " 2 + 17 "" 4 p p 1 = 22
m 0 "4 " " p / '

p = 22 + 1 m N ,
m
'
| Gal(Q()/Q)| = [Q(z) : Q] = p 1 = 22
=4 " 0' ,$ Gal(Q()/Q) &/

""
(
" 6 9
G = Gt Gt1 {e} .
' Galois & ' !/
!:
3 "
Q = K0 K1 Kt = Q()
[Ki+1 : Ki ] = 27 i = 1, . . . , t 1 "

!
m
1 3 4( 22 + 1 &" 3 ! Fermat "4&! / '6 ! 4 !
""
n:"!
! +!)!
( n"!

n = 2 s p1 pr ,

& s'
p1 , . . . , pr

Fermat
Galois! ) Galois!
$,

-! -! 4 &
=" "' !( 3 6!

/" Galois ' 1 " 3 "
/(
' !
' ( ! Sylow

! 3&! / '6
(! G

!
5
G 2m7 |G| = 2m k'
(m, k) = 1
$ 1 n m G
H |H| = 2n
#&
! ! !
/(! " 6( 4( ! ( &

( !
39
.9 / ( f (x) R[x]
a, b R
f (a) > 0 f (b) < 0 f (x)

!' &/ '" !"&9
# $ ! !!

(! a R' a 0 $

r R r2 = a
,
f (x) = x2 a R[x] ' f (1 + a) = 1 + a2 + a

f (1 + a) > 0
' f (0) = a < 0 ' !/ a &
f (a) = 0
2
f (x) C[x] deg f (x) = 2
!
,
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c C[x] 1 ! f (x)

:
!" ' "
"!
(b b2 4c)/2a .

'" " 6! '
3
' 3' z C &/ :
"
( C 0 z = rei , r R+
rei/2 C "
"
( ! z

$ C
5
,
[E : C] = 2
a E \ C ' E = C(a)7

" !"! ! a !" ! C " 3 !' '
" "" 4 " " 0(
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
.
Galois
$
2
f (x) R[x]

"
(
! !
f (x) R[x]

,
0 ' c0 + c1 x + + cn xn &/

( "
'" " c0 /cn + c1 /cn x + + xn &/

( '"
f (x) = a0 + a1 x + + xn R[x] '! deg f (x) ' &!
t=1+
i=n1

|ai |.
i=0
'
t1 =
i=n1

|ai | |ai | t 1, i = 1, . . . , n 1
i=0

|a0 + a1 t + + an1 tn1 | (t 1)(1 + t + + tn1 ) = tn 1 < tn .

f (t) = (a0 + a1 t1 + + an1 tn1 ) + tn > 0.
4 n " ' ' (t)n = (1)tn < 0

"
! " /& f (t) < 0 =4 " 3
& ( f (x) &/
(

L/R
*
,
L/R &

7 [L : R] > 1
a L/R ' '
" 0( . 3' ! irr(R,a) (x) & " " ! 3
'
[L : R] = [L : R(a)][R(a) : R]
" 3'
, -,%
C[x]
2

, f (x) C[x] " f (x) " !"! !

"
" !"" ! f (x) ! ! ! ! C '
' !"& ! f (x)f (x) " ! ! ! !
f (x)f (x) R[x]

' ' z " ! f (x) "

Galois! ) Galois!
'" " z " ! f (x) f (x) &/

( "
'"
" f (x)f (x) &/
( =!"! " !& (
&! '
" 6! '
3 3' !"! ! R[x]
&/
(
'" p(x) &" " !"! ! R[x]
L "!
! (x2 + 1)p(x) ! " &/ C 4 L &/ /

( ,7
!"! (x2 + 1)p(x) " /
L " &
Galois
G = Gal(E/R)7 |G| = 2m k 7 (2, k) = 1 " H " ! G 6 2m
M = LH 7 ' ' Galois & '

[M : R] = k 1 ' " 0( " !/ &
!
R 3 > 1 M = R7 k = 1
|G| = 2m 4 R C L7
Gal(L/C) " ! G
6 " " ! 7 &
| Gal(L/C)| = 2n =4 " 7 " n 1 ' Gal(L/C)
&/ ! J & |J| = 2n1
[E J : C] = 2 1 !'
" " 4 " " 0( n = 07 | Gal(L/C)| = 1
[L : C] = 17 ( L = C

%
;
3 '
" &"

" Q B E ( " 6( " "" " !9
E &
Galois !" ! B7 B &
Galois !" !
Q E " " " &
Galois !" ! Q7
E '/ &
Galois !" ! B 7 B &
Galois !"
! Q
E &
Galois !" ! Q7
E &
Galois !" ! B 7 B " " " &
Galois
!" ! Q
E " " &
Galois !" ! Q
f (x) !"! f (x) = x4 4 Q[x]7 E "!
! f (x) !" ! Q
G = Gal(E/Q)
E ! E
E 5 / G / ! S4
E 6 ' G
= Z2 Z2
; ! B1 = Q(i 2), B2 = Q(i), B3 = Q( 2) ! E 7

" ! Gal(E/B1 ) Gal(E/B2 ) Gal(E/B3 ) G
a = 2 + i E ! "

'" ! a7
3 &""
' ! !4 ! E E 6 ' E = Q(a)
! $%
&'( ) !( &*
Galois
$
E 5 / a1

' !"!' !" " !
a

E = Q( 3, 5)
E 6 ' E " &
Galois !" ! Q7 " !:
" 3' [E : Q]7
" ! E !"
! Q
E 5 / G = Gal(E/Q)
E ' " B ! E !" ! Q
"
! Gal(B/Q)
Gal(E/B)
E " !"! f (x) & E " "
"! ! f (x) !" ! Q
. E = Q(,
3)
G = Gal(E/Q)7 '! = e2i/5
E !"! f (x) Q[x] & E " "

"! ! f (x)7
" ! " 3' [E : Q]
E 6 ' G 4! " S5
' G S5
E / G1 = Gal(E/Q( 5 3)) E !

(a) '! a !/ / E
G1 7 = idE 7 ? &"
'" & /@ E 6 ' G1 "
!

(
E / G2 = Gal(E/Q()) E 6 ' G2
"
!

( E ! (a) '! a !/ /
E
G2 7 = idE 7 ? &" '" & /@
E / G = Gal(E/Q) ! " ":
3"
E = Q()7 '! = e2i/5
E 6 ' E " &

Galois !" ! Q
"
" 3' [E : Q]
G = Gal(E/Q) E 6 ' G "
!

(
E ' " ! E
# |E| = 28 7 G = Gal(E/Z2 )
E 6 "!
' !" : E E 7 (b) = b2 "
!4' ! E
G
$.
Galois! ) Galois!

E 6 "!
' 6 ! " )
&" G =

= Z8
$ E &
Galois ! F 7 a E 7 G = Gal(E/F ) E 6
' N(a) F '!

N(a) =
(a) .
G

Θεωρία Galois

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Θεωρία Galois

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

 Galois

       

       Galois

  5!  

     " '  "

f (x) C[x]  deg f (x) > 0 

       Galois! ""#

<  '6 ! !  (   

      

   " 3& "

  1  " ; " 6!   " 3 3 / 

(! k   f (x) k[x] (! E     

       Galois! ""#

  !"'"    ' & 4

  !  "  #

 3! "  '   !

0&   "

       Galois! ) " '

  "  5!     ! x3 2  C  6(9 b7 b

% '    ! f (x) " "(

(! k    f (x) k[x]

# $  !!!

%  !"! 3 (x) = x2 + x + 1     !"!

 !"! n (x)9

       Galois! +#, )' '!

 '" n = 4 ' 4 = ei/2 = i 0 ' 4 (x) = x3 + x2 +

     

 ' k "  =!

f1 (x), f2 (x) I ' f1 (x) f2 (x) I 7

# $  !! !

f (x) = q1 (x)n1 qs (x)ns .

# % !!!

       Galois!

  I = (x2 + 1) " & " R[x] 2 " 3 :

!   !"!  Q[x] B

(!  f (x) = anxn + + a0 Z[x] 

(!  f (x) = anxn + + a0 Z[x]  deg f (x) = n

# % !!!

(!  f (x) = anxn + + a0 Z[x]' p Z

# % !!!   !"! f (x) = 2/9x5 + 5/3x4 + x3 +

!!"! (! k   f (x) = k[x] $ f (x)  !

< ' !(  " /3 '" 

# % !!'!

       Galois! - .!

(! f (x) Z[x]' p

# % !!)!

 x6 + 11x3 1 ! Q[x] " "  7 4  !"! x4 + x3 + 1

 x6 + x3 + 1 " "    Z2 [x]

(! f (x) k[x] $ a k    f (x) 

, =4 "  " !

'! deg r(x) < 17

(! f (x) k[x]  deg f (x) = n <  $  f (x)

-   f (x) k[x]  deg f (x) = n < 

# % !!!

       Galois! - .!

(! k   p(x)  !

,  ' I = (p(y))

k E 7 c c + (p(y)) 0 ' y + I E "   ! p(x)

8& '   F " 

(! f (x) k[x] 

  L[x]

, < '6 "  

deg f (x) = 1 ' L = k  ' deg f (x) > 1

f (x) = c(x a1 )s1 (x at )st

Galois

Galois

5!

" ' "

f (x) C[x] deg f (x) > 0

Galois! ""#

< '6 ! ! (

" 3& "

1 " ; " 6! " 3 3 /

(! k f (x) k[x] (! E

Galois! ""#

!"'" ' & 4

! " #

3! " ' !

0& "

Galois! ) " '

" 5! ! x3 2 C 6(9 b7 b

% ' ! f (x) " "(

(! k f (x) k[x]

# $ !!!

% !"! 3 (x) = x2 + x + 1 !"!

!"! n (x)9

Galois! +#, )''!

'" n = 4 ' 4 = ei/2 = i 0 ' 4 (x) = x3 + x2 +

' k " =!

f1 (x), f2 (x) I ' f1 (x) f2 (x) I 7

# $ !! !

# % !!!

Galois!

I = (x2 + 1) " & " R[x] 2 " 3 :

! !"! Q[x] B

(! f (x) = anxn + + a0 Z[x]

(! f (x) = anxn + + a0 Z[x] deg f (x) = n

# % !!!

(! f (x) = anxn + + a0 Z[x]' p Z

# % !!! !"! f (x) = 2/9x5 + 5/3x4 + x3 +

!!"! (! k f (x) = k[x] $ f (x) !

< ' !( " /3 '"

# % !!'!

Galois! - .!

(! f (x) Z[x]' p

# % !!)!

x6 + 11x3 1 ! Q[x] " " 7 4 !"! x4 + x3 + 1

x6 + x3 + 1 " " Z2 [x]

(! f (x) k[x] $ a k f (x)

, =4 " " !

'! deg r(x) < 17

(! f (x) k[x] deg f (x) = n < $ f (x)

- f (x) k[x] deg f (x) = n <

# % !!!

Galois! - .!

(! k p(x) !

, ' I = (p(y))

k E 7 c c + (p(y)) 0 ' y + I E " ! p(x)

8& ' F "

(! f (x) k[x]

L[x]

, < '6 "

deg f (x) = 1 ' L = k ' deg f (x) > 1

3 " ! " " " " 1 4!

(! f (x) = c0 + c1 x + + cnxn k[x]

k L '

(! k ' f (x) k[x] k 3

" k &/ /

# % !!)!

f (x) = xp + x Zp [x] '! p 1 ! f (x) "

Galois!

f (x) = xp x + a Zp [x] '! p 4 f (x) = 17

# % !! +!

' Q 4 x 2 = (x 2)(x+ 2) "

E 6 "

f8 (x) = x(p1)p + x(p2) + + x2p + xp + 17 ?p @7

E 6 ' !"! x2 5 " " !" ! Q( 2)

Galois!

" ! ' '" f (x) k[x] ' f (x) F [x]

# % ! !!

Galois!

3 / ! C "

' F/ k &

*" "