!#"%$'&
(

*)+-,./10/2354

68793:<;>=@?.ACBD=@EF?G8HI98:KJMLON1:P;>= Q:SR<:KTU:<VWAW:<XZY8JW739TU:[H\E^]_JW7Ha`bEcJed<:KT
f K
d ACB3:KHIdAW=_VWd[ThgiT j3H\k3=@dlXELm <D3n 6oBd<?8p<E1;K7qAW7!rsBJe=UE-R[H\d[TtTuLvrwd[?3dlXD=Ud[?!63:[d[H
x[:[d<X8:KJhAy71ACB3:
mKzy{|` f g%LD]}7J~VC7DTtT_:[VWAW=U?8;5ACB3:[H]}7JG8E n
[%#IF|!|[1 \M5%5
bw[<whKvbo
n~ =@?8X\dKT@TEc7DT@GAW=U7?3E7D]
x1 + x2 + + x2000
x41 + x42 + + x42000

= 2000

= x31 + x32 + + x32000

n = Q:K?
JW:[dKTh?G8HI98:KJeE
L
L
L
ECGV*BACBdKA
]}7J
2001
. . G8HO
x2001
0 xn 1
1 :|x
: d<V*B
[
L L
L
L?8X#xACB3
HI2d<.=@H\
QDd[TtG:17D]
n = 1 2 . . . 2001
!
!2
2001
2001
1 X
1 X 2
n
x

xn
2001 n=1 n
2001 n=1
B3:[JW:|=@E~ACBD=UEH\d>[=UHG8HdAeAWdK=U?8:[X8
n :'d[JW:-;>= Q:[?
Tt=U?8:KE~=U?1ACB3:|kTUd[?8:LD?871AN17#7D]3N1BD=UV*B#d<JW:'k8d[Jed[TtT_:T8d<?8X#?87
ACBJW:<:%7D]DN1BD=UV*B1k3d<2001
E*EACBJW7DG;KB1d'VC7H\Hq7?1k7D=@?DA n 6wB3:KEM:5Tt=U?8:KEk8d[JeAW=AW=_7?|ACB3:k3T@d<?8:
=U?DAW7'EM7HI:JW:<;>=U7?3E_?87lAs?8:[VC:KEcE*d<Je=@T j%?=Ay:o937DG8?8X8:[X-9[j|Ec:<;HI:[?DAeEh7D][ACB3:[Ec:Tt=U?8:KE n
6wB3:KEM:-EM:[;Hq:K?DAWEd<JW:1VydKT@TU:<X\*b8>>L3d<?8XACB3:1VC7DTtT_:[VWAW=_7?I7D]oACB3:-JW:<;>=U7?3E=@E5VydKT@TU:<X\d
I n 6DN17JW:[;>=_7?3E7?#ACB3:-H\d<k\d<JW:1VWd[TtT_:[X\wMU[s3[ei=@]8ACB3:Mj\EMBd[JW:-d-E*=UX8: n
6wB3:EM:>A7D]=@?DAy:KJeEM:[VWAW=_7?+k7D=@?DAWE|7D]vACB3:#T@=@?8:[E=UE'VydKT@TU:<XqACB3:Ec:A7D]sQ:[JAW=_Vy:[E n
6DN171Q:[JAW=_Vy:[Ed<JW:-VydKT@TU:<X\o@<w3<=t]ACB3:Mj\d[JW:|]}7DG8?8XI7?#ACB3:|Ecd[Hq:|EC=_X3: n
> i [e_+<}w I> =@E|dqVy7DT_7DG8Je=U?8;\7D]ACB3:\JW:<;>=U7?3E-}7?8:IVy7DT_7DG8J
k:KJ~JW:<;>=U7?lE*GV*B/ACBdA~?8:K=U;KB3987DG8Je=U?8;|JW:[;>=_7?3EBdQ:-X=tv:KJW:[?DAiVC7DTU7DG8JeE n
+ 8 <eU3%<o}o5[>MU >=UEdVy7DT_7DG8Je=U?8;7D]<ACB3:~Q:KJeAW=UVC:KEh_7?8:5Vy7DT_7DG8J
k:KJQ:[JAy:CKECGV*B/ACBdKA~?8:=_;KB3937DG8JW=@?8;Q:[JAW=_Vy:[EBd>Q:1X=tv:KJW:[?DAiVy7DT_7DG8JeE n
@= 
B dKA~=UEACB3:/H=U?=@H\G8H?G8Hq93:[J7D]VC7DTU7DG8JeE5JW:<DG3=UJW:[Xq]}7Jid1T_:[;d[TsVC7DTU7DG8JW=@?8;
7D]ACB3:|HId[k
U=t= 
B dKA~=UEACB3:/H=U?=@H\G8H?G8Hq93:[J7D]VC7DTU7DG8JeE5JW:<DG3=UJW:[Xq]}7Jid1T_:[;d[TsVC7DTU7DG8JW=@?8;
7D]ACB3:Q:[JAW=_Vy:[Ec
n 6wB3:'TU:[?8;ACBE7D]8ACB3:|E*=UX8:KE7D]8AyJe=Ud[?8;>T_:
d[JW: L L n~ 7Jhd<?ljk87D=U?DA
7?
7?8:-7D]8ACB3:|E*=UX8:KELDX3JW7k#ACB3:|k8:[JWk:K?8X=UVyG3TUd[ABC
JeE
L 4 57?D6AW71ACB3:-7lACB3:[JAN17#D
E*=UX8:KE
DP
L
d<JW:-7?#ACB3:-EC=_X3:[EW n BdA=UE~ACB3:|H\=@?=UH\
d[TQDd[DQ
TtG:17D]

P Q
PQ


3

n 68JW=@d<?8;>TU:
=U?ACB3: kTUd[?8:
=@EVWd[TtT_:[X33=t]-=ABd<EACB3: ]}7DT@TU7<N|=U?8;
ABC
k8JW7k8:[JAuj
7J1
d[?lj k87D=U?DA
=@?E*k8d<
VC:DLi?87lA-=U?ACB3:!kTUd[?8:
L~=A-=UE#k87EcEC=_9DT_:qAW7
n =U?8X dKT@T~ACB3:
VC7?3EyAyJWGVWA/d+AyJe=Ud[?8;>T_:qN|=ACB D
EC=_X3:[E7D]TU:[?8;ACB
L
L
|CD| |BD| |AD|
;K7373X#AyJe=Ud[?8;>T_:KE n

n _d> =@?8X\d-k8dK=UJ~7D]o=@?DAy:[;K:[JeE

(x, y)

ECGV*B#ACBdA
n

15x2 + y 2 = 22000

}9<73:[E~ACB3:KJW:1:C<=@ECAd1k3d[=@Ji7D]=U?DAW:<;K:KJeE

(x, y)

15x2 + y 2 = 22000

N|=tACB

73X8XoLE*GV*B/ACBdKA

 :C[A3N1:~;>=Q:hACB3:~k8JW739DT_:KHIEv7D]KACB3:m 
 Jed y=tT@=@d<? f dACB3:[H\dKAW=UVydKT[giTjHIk=Ud<X n
6wBd[?8plE#dl;dK=U? Ay7 rsBJe=UER[H\d[TtTuLirod<?3d<X=@d<? 3
6 :[d[Hx[:[d<X8:KJ|AW7 ACB3:
mKzy{` f g%L]}7J
VC7DTtT_:[VWAW=U?8;ACB3:KH ]}7JhG8E n
+#D|c|!|[1 \M

5%5

 !#"$
n x[:>A
98:d JW:<;>G3T@d<J#k8:[?DAedl;K7? ECGV*B ACBdKA1ACB3:EyAWd[J
Bd<E
ACEBD
d JW:Kd n x[ABCDE
<
93:-ACB3:/k87D=U?DA7D]s=U?DAW:[JeEc:<VWAW=U7?7D]
d<?8X
L8d[?8XI
TU:A
98:-ACB3:
:>A
1
P
AC
BE
Q
n~ =U?8X#ACB3:|
n
k7D=@?DAi7D]o=U?DAW:[JeEc:<VWAW=U7?I7D]
d<?8X
d<JW:Kd/7D]
BD
CE
AP QD
n Y8JW7[Q:#ACBdKA5ACB3:[JW:\=@E-dAT_:Kd<EyA'7?8:\?87?&%' *:KJW7 XD=_;>=A'98:>AN1:<:K?!ACB3:
(
1 000 000
( X3:<Vy=@HIdKTwXD=_;>=AWE7D] n
d<?8X#ACB3:
3 000 000
2
n g?8:1H\G8EyAik3T@dlVy:
k3=U:<Vy:[E7?ACB3:1EcG8d[JW:[E7D]sd
987d[JWXIE*GV*B#ACBdKAi?87
n
]}7DG8J5k=_:[VC:KE%d[JW:/ACB3:-Q
:KJeAW=UVC:KE'7D]dJW:<VWAed<?8;>TU:1N|=ACBEC10
=_X3:[
Ek810
d[Jed[TtT_:TwAW7IACB3:#EC=_X3:[E%7D]

ACB3:1987d[JWX n~ =@?8X#ACB3:-;JW:[dAy:KECAQDdKT@G:-7D]

]}7JN1BD=UV*B/ACBD=UEi=@Ek7E*E*=U9TU: n

)+*+,.-/10 #"$
n Y3TUd[?8:A32K7JypI=UE'E*kB3:KJW=UVydKTd[?8X Bd[E|H\d<?ljAW7<N-?3E nI 7J:[d<V*BAW7<N-?ACB3:[JW:=@E|d
VC7JWJW:[E*k7?8XD=U?8;%d[?DAW=Uk873X3dKTAW7<N-?@ACBdAh=@ELlEejHIHI:AyJe=_Vh=@?#JW:KT@dKAW=U7?1Ay7-ACB3:'VC:K?DAyJW:|7D]
ACB3:-k3T@d<?8:>A n
6wB3:KJW:d[JW:qJW7d<X3E/Vy7?3?8:<VWAW=@?8;Ik3d[=@JeE/7D]hAy7<N-?3E|=U4
? 2K7JCp n `}]ACB3:KJW:q=@E-dJW7dlX
VC7?3?8:[VWAW=U?8;~Ay7<N-?3E
d<?8X
LACB3:[?'ACB3:KJW:=UEdKTUEc7'dJW7d<X1Vy7?3?8:<VWAW=@?8;~Ay7<N-?3E
d[?8X
P:\d[?DAW=UQ
PJW07d<X3E
n
o
6
3
B
\
:
L0 N1B3:[JW:
@
=

E
C
A
3
B
8
k
3
7
8
X
\
:
D
7
]
[
d
8
?
X
U
=

E
C
A
3
B

:
<
d
D
?
W
A
@
=

k
3
7
3
X
\
:
D
7
]
0
0
Q
X87\?87lAiVCJW7EcP
E5:KdlV*B\7lACB3:[J n 7J~d<?lj#PAN17I;>= QQ:[?AW7<N-?3E
d<?8X
L=tAQ
=UEk7E*E*=U9TU:'AW7
P
Q
AyJedQ:T]_JW7H
AW7
dKT_7?8;'Ec7Hq:|Ec:<DG:[?8Vy:17D]wJW7dlXE n
6wB3:'k3JWP
=UVC:KE7DQ
] 5sJW=@kAW7?=tAed'=U8
6
? 7JW;KBEtACB3:'k3T@d<?8:>AWd[JbjVyG8JyJW:K?8Vj<v=U?1AN17|Ay7<N-?3E
VC7?3?8:[VWAy:[X#9[j1dJW7dlX1X=tv:KJ9[j1?87-Hq7JW:ACBd<?
7JW;KBE n Y8JW7[Q:ACBdAsACB3:[JW:%:C<=@ECA
AN17Id[?DAW=Uk873X3dKTAy7<N-?3E5ECGV*BACBdKAACB3:/k3JW=UVC:KE7D100
] 5sJW=@kAW7?=tAed/=@?\ACB3:[Ec:|Ay7<N-?3EXD=@s:[J
#
9[j\?87Hq7JW:%ACBd<?
7JW;KBE n
100


m
n 6wB3:KJW:d[JW:
]}737lAC93dKT@T'Ay:Kd<H\E=U? 63G8Hq937DT@=@d n V*Bd<H\k3=U7?3EMBD=@k =@E!Ay798:
7JW;d<?=
*:<X=U? N1n
BD=_V*B^:[d<V*BAW:[d[Hk3T@djE dl;dK=U?3EyA:MQ:[JbjF7lACB3:[J:C[dlVWAWT jF7?8VC: n
<Q:KJbjqHIdAyV*BIH\G8EyA~AWd<p<:/kTUd<VC:/7?qdRKG8?8XdjoLod[?8Xq?87AW:[d[HFVyd[?qk3T@djIHq7JW:|ACBd<?
7?8VC:-7?#ACB3:-Ecd[Hq:-Xdj n
=@?8X ACB3:qT_:Kd<EyA|k7EC=tAW= Q:q=@?DAy:[;K:[J
]}7JN1BD=UV*B =tA'=UE1k7E*E*=U9TU:IAW7Ec:A'G8k d
m
V*Bd<H\k3=U7?3EMBD=@k\TUd[ECAW=@?8;
RKG8?8XdjE n
m

n =Q:K?+d/AyJe=Ud[?8;>T_:
Lw:*<k3T@d[=@?+B37<NOAW7+Vy7?3ECAyJeGVWAiN|=ACBEyAyJed[=U;KBlA%c:[X8;K:#d[?8X
VC7H\k8d[EcEd'AyJW=@d<?8;>TU: ABC
7 ]oH\=@?=UHG8Hd<JW:Kd1ECGV*B/ACBdKA
0 0 0 D
ABC
C 0 AC

d<?8X

A0 AB

B 0 A0 C 0 = BAC

B 0 BC

A0 C 0 B 0 = ACB

687 JW7DG8?8X7DGA-ACB3: k3JW739TU:[H Ec:AeE]}7J-ACBD=@E\?G8Hq93:[J|N1:k8JW:KEM:K?DA1ACB3:

(

f dKACB3:KHIdAW=_VWd[TgiTjHIk=Ud<X7D]|x=ACBDG8d<?=@d n 6wBd[?8plEd<;d[=@?;K7 Ay7 rwBJW=@E\R[H\d[TtTi]}7J
k JW7KQ=UX=@?8;'G8EN|=tACB/ACBD=@EEM:>A]}7J~7DG8J~k3G yTt=U?8;'kT_:Kd<ECG8JW: n
8
  |!|[1 \M
5%%


 K

P|>|


n `b?d+]_d<H=@T jACB3:KJW:!d[JW:+]}7DG8J/V*BD=tT_XJW:[?7D]5X=tv:KJW:[?DA1d<;K:[E>L:KdlV*B d<;K:93:K=@?8;+d

n j:Kd<J1dl;K7ACB3:
d<?8X ?87lA#;JW:[dAy:KJ-ACBd<?
k7EC=tAW= Q:+=U?DAW:<;K:KJ/?87lA1T_:KEcE/ACBd[?
EMDG8d<JW:#7D]wACB3:/d<;K:#7D]wACB3:#:T_X3:[EyA2V*BD=tT_XN-d[E:<DG8d[TAy7ACB3:/ECG816
HF7D]wACB3:/EcG8d[JW:[E7D]
ACB3:dl;K:KE7D][ACB3:JW:KHIdK=U?=@?8;V*BD=tT_XJW:[? n g?8:j:Kd<J]_JW7H ?87<NACB3:iE*G8H 7D][ACB3:EcG8d[JW:[E
7D]8ACB3:5j7DG8?8;K:KECAhd<?8X1ACB3:|7DT_X3:[EyAvN|=@TtT898:|:<DG8d[TAW7-ACB3:'E*G8H 7D]3ACB3:'EMDG8d<JW:KE7D]8ACB3:
n  7<N7DT_X#=UE:KdlV*B\V*BD=tT_X3
7lACB3:[JAN17 
n EM:[G:K?8VC:
L
L
L
=UE#X3:K8?8:<XE*GV*BACBdA
]}7J
a:I
n2:KHq
+93n
+7D1]ACB3:
3 k3.JW.73.XGVWA'7D]hd<?ljAN17!VC7?3Ec:<a
n Y8JW7[Qa:#1ACBadK2AACB3
d TtT
[
VyGnAW= Q=:\Hq
:[JeE1
EM:[n
G:K
?8VC:|
=@Ei=tAeEM:T@]od1HI:[HI98:KJi7D]ACB3:-;>=Q:K?IEc:<DG:[?8Vy: n
n b` ?1ACB3:5AyJe=Ud[?8;>T_:
n Y7D=@?DA
L[ACB3:%k87D=U?DA
=UEhACB3:%H=_X1%*k87D=U?DAh7D]3ACB3:%E*=UX8:
D
AB
ni = Q:[?ACBdA
X= Q=UX8:KE
=@?ACABC
B3:1JedKAW=U7
L
E
BE : EC = 2 : 1
ADC = BAE
n
X8:>Ay:KJyH=U?8: BC
BAC
n~ =@?8X\dKT@T3ACB3:'AyJe=UkT_:KE7D]wk87E*=AW=Q:'=@?DAy:[;K:[JeE L L N|=ACB
ECGV*B/ACBdKA
x y z
xyz
1
1
1
+ +
x
y
z

=UEd-k7EC=tAW= Q:'=U?DAW:<;K:KJ n



 K    h
n 7JvACB3:%dK=UJWVCJedK]@Ahk=@TU7lAWE
L L
LKN1B37-=U?DAW:[?8X3:<X-Ay7/98:[VC7HI:%ECAed<Jvo;KBlAW:[JeE>LDd[?
*: [d[H\=@?3dKAW=U7?/Vy7?3E*=@ECAW=@?8;57D]K
Ec:MQL
:[JedKM
T<Ay:KECAeEvN-d[E7JW;d<?=
*:<X n `b?/:KdlV*B%Ay:KECAMLACB3:5k3=tT_7lAeE
N1:[JW:Jed[?8p<:<X8JeECAMLhEM:[VC7?8XoLd[?8X ACBD=@JWXwLd[?8X k87D=U?DAeE|N1:[JW:d>N-d<JWX3:<Xd[E1]}7DT@TU7<N-E

k7D=@?DAWE/]}7J|8JeECAML
k7D=@?DAWE1]}7J-EM:[VC7?8XoL~d<?8X
k87D=U?DAeE/]}7J'ACBD=UJWX tN1B3:KJW:
AL
B
C
L
d<JW:\k87E*=AW=Q
:#=U?DAW:<;K:KJeE%N|=ACB
n ]@Ay:KJd[TtTvACB3:#Ay:KECAeEL
A BBdlXC
d<VCVyG8HG3TUdAy:[X
k87D=U?DAeEL[N1BD=tT_: A >
d[?8X B > BC
d<X > 0 k87D=U?DAeE:[d<V*B n 6wB3:%AW:[EyA
K
LAy7373p-EMM
n B371
7D]oJW:[d<VWAW=_7?/AW=UHI:[EhN-d[22
EN17?\9[j
:[VC7?8X#k39
T@dlVy:'=U?/ACB3:|JeG8?3?=U?8;AW:[EyAC
L

n ]UG8?8VWAW=_7?

f :

EcdAW=UECo:KEACB3:]}7DTtT_7<N|=@?8;:<DG8dKAW=U7?1]}7Jd[TtTJW:[dKT

(x + y)(f (x) f (y)) = f (x2 ) f (y 2 )

=@?8X6
v_d>h7?8:|E*GV*B#]UG8?8VWAW=_7?_9ldKT@TECGV*B#]UG8?8VWAW=_7?3E n

d[?8X

 n Tt=U?8:5X= Q=UX8:KE987lACB%ACB3:5d[JW:[dd[?8X'ACB3:5k:KJW=@Hq:>Ay:KJ7D]3dAyJW=@d<?8;>TU:=@?DAy7%AN17-:<DG8d[T
k d[JeAeE n Y8JW7[Q:'ACBdAACBD=UEiT@=@?8:-k8d[EcEc:[E~ACBJW7DG;KBACB3:|=U?8Vy:[?DAyJW:17D]oACB3:'AyJW=@d<?8;>TU: n 73:KE
8
ACB3:1VC7?lQ:KJeEM:|ECAedKAW:[HI:[?DA~dKTN-d>j3EB37DT_X3
 n 6wB3:1:[G8dAW=_7?

x2 + y 2 + z 2 + u2 = xyzu + 6
UddKAhT_:Kd<EyAi7?8:|EM7DTtGAW=_7?#=@?\k7EC=tAW= Q:'=U?DAW:<;K:KJeE 

}9<\dKAhT_:Kd<EyA
}VedKAhT_:Kd<EyA

33

=UE;>= Q:[? n~ =@?8X6

E*GV*BEc7DT@GAW=U7?3E 

100

ECGV*B\Ec7DT@GAW=U7?3E n

 7<NPN1:AWG8Jy? AW7JW:KdlX3:[JeE
%ECG93H=UE*E*=U7?3E!]}7J+k8JW739DT_:KHIE7D]-ACB3: oG8EcEC=Ud[?
f dKACB3:KHIdAW=_VWd[TogiTjHIk=Ud<X


L l (| 7JWH;>= Q:[?em <D

m  
m Dn
n 3   7IACB3:KJW:\:C<=@ECA
XD=@s:[JW:K?DA5k7EC=tAW= Q:/=@?DAy:[;K:[JeE5ACBdKAE*G8HAW7
d<?8X\ECGV*B/ACBdKAhACB3:|E*G8H7D]ACB3:119
X3:<Vy=@HIdKTwXD=_;>=AWE7D]s:KdlV*B#=@E~ACB3:-E*d<HI:<
1999
 [<S 3u>y*!
vly# ">bU

$&% U>l3
'( ) eu* $,+< * -/.33eUu o1
02
o  $3oeUu $5467- o1
81l9
:
(; $'W8>s< $  U>
='_Kbl?
.3v[ D t 8U[
 o3 $. @ $
AB=#%Kb[C
o  ED G
Feuu
'M n
x[:A

S(n)

93:'ACB3:1XD=_;>=AWdKTE*G8H7D]

n 6wBD=@E]UG8?8VWAW=U7?\=@Epl?87<N-?#AW7EcdAW=UEC]tj

n
S(m + n) S(m) + S(n) (mod 9)
`}]
=UE'ACB3:VC7H\Hq7?X=U;>=tAed[ThE*G8H7D]hACB3:
?G8Hq93:[JeE|ACBdKA5N1:N|=@EMB+AW7E*G8H
s
19
L=tAh]}7DT@TU7<N-E~ACBdA
1999
n
19s 1 + 9 + 9 + 9 (mod 9)
 :K?8VC:DL
n
s 1 (mod 9)

AW7


<

n 6oB3:
roTU:[d[JWT jwL
Vyd[?3?87lA/:<DG8d[T ~ACBDG8E>LACB3:+8JeECA-k7E*E*=U9=tT@=Auj=@E
EcH\d[TtT_:KECA
?G8sHq93:[JeE~N|=tACB\X=U;>=tAe1d[TE*G8H
L3?3d[Hq:Tj
L
L
L s L = 10
L
L
L
L
L 19 L
L
L
L
L
L 10 L
L 19L8d<28
?8X 37 46
L8E*G8H 55AW7 64 73 n
82
136
163
172
190
RK=U?8Vy91
:-ACB3109
:1?8:*K118
Ai=U?DAW:<127
;K:KJN|
=ACBqXD145
=_;>=AWdK154
TwE*G8H^
:[G8dK
ToAW7 181=@E
L
ACB3:/?8:C[AE*HI1990
dKT@TU:[EyA
10
208
n  :[?8Vy:L Vyd[?3?87lAi:<DG8d[T
n
k7E*E*=U9TU:|E*G8H=UE
1990
+EcH\
208
190
7J
ACB3:
d[TtT_
:KECA'
k7E*=
E*=U92008
TU:
?G8Hq93:[JesE/dlX3XG8k AW7HG10
V*BHq7JW:
s

19
19
ACBd<?
<N1B3:K?8VC:|=A=@Ei=UH\k7E*E*=U9TU:%Ay7739DAed[=@?#ACB3:-JW:[G3=@JW:<X\E*G8H n
1999
n   v> D  ]UG8?8VWAW=U7?
=UE'Vy7?3E*=UX8:KJW:<X n Y8JW7[Q:1ACBdKAiACB3:[JW:\:C<=@ECA
AN17JedAW=_7?3dKTo?G8HI98:KJeE
d[?8X f : E*GV*
B/ACBdA
a
b


f (a) + f (b)
a+b n
f
2
2

. [ _ Ubl1<<> Uul~ 3 u>y*vly3@">uM_$ % U>l3 '(  ) eu*$7+< *- o

o
o 33
. *<u38<$4vDu[>eC< .o t 1<}o3. e33$6 < 3  $. n
EcECG8Hq:'ACB3:#Vy7?DAyJed<JbjqtN|=ACBACB3:1dK=UH^7D]sJW:[d<V*BD=U?8;-d#Vy7?DAyJedlXD=_VWAW=U7?l n 6oB3:[?wL
d<?8X L
]}7J~dKT@ToXD=UEyAW=U?8VWA~JedAW=_7?3dKT?G8Hq93:[JeE
a
b


a+b
f (a) + f (b) n

f
<
2
2
n
6wBD=@EVy7?8X=AW=_7? =@E ?87lA dKv:[VWAy:[X 9[jd<X8XD=U?8; dVC7?3EyAWd[?DAAy7ACB3: ]UG8?8VWAW=_7?
6wB3:KJW:K]}7JW:DL~N1:!HId>jd[EcECG8Hq:ACBdA
d<?8X
LN|=tACB37DGA1TU7fEcE
f (1) 0
f (1) 0
7D]s;K:[?8:KJed[Tt=tAbj n
:#VyT@d[=@HACBdA]}7JdKT@T
d[?8X
L n LN1:#Bd>Q:
n L
{0}
n 637 k3JW7[Q:\ACBD=@n
n 7J 0 2 }LsN1:IH\G8EyA
ELw
N1:IG8
Ec:I
=@?8XGVWAW=U7x?
7? {2
f
n :-Bd>Q:
VC7(x)
?3EC=_X3
:[J n
L L
L3d[?8XInB3:K?8VC:DLG8nEC=U=
?8;|0
CL
x {1 0 1}
f (1) 0


11
f (1) + f (1)
n
f (0) = f
<
0
2
2
n
6wBDG8E>LDACB3:-VyTUdK=UH=@E~AyJWG:|]}7J
 7<N Vy7?3E*=UX8:KJd<?lj/l<:<nX = 0]}7JsN1BD=_V*B-ACB3:|VyT@d[=@HO=UEhAyJeG: n 7E*=@?8;% vd<?8X1ACB3:
=U?8XDGVWAW=_7?IB<j3k87lACB3:[EC=UE>L<N1:-BdQn
:


f (2

n1

0 2n

<

2n1 2n1

<

) = f

f (0) + f (2n )

n n

= n

2
2
2
n
R =U?8Vy:
K
AWd<p<:[E|7?Tj=U?DAW:<;K:KJQDd[TtG:[E>LoN1:H\G8EyA%BdQ:
f (2n1 ) (n + 1)
6wB3:K?wLfG8EC=U?8;| dl;dK=U?wL
f (0) = f

f (2n1 ) + f (2n1 )

(n + 1)

2
2
6wBD=@E5Vy7HIkT_:>Ay:KEiACB3:'=U?8XDGVWAW=_7?\d[?8X\k8JW7KQ:[E~ACB3:1VyT@d[=@H n
n 6oBD=UE
:#BdQ:#EcB37<N-?IACBdA
]}7Jd[TtTs?87?&%*?8:[;dKAW= Q:/=@?DAy:[;K:[JeE
=UE=UH\k7E*E*=U9TU: n 6wB3:KJW:K]}7JW:DLoACfB3(0)
:[JW:#
=@E'?8n
7q]UG8?8VWAW=_7?
ACBdKA5EcdAW=UECn
=@:[E%
f :

]}7J~dKT@ToXD=UEyAW=U?8VWA~JedAW=_7?3dKT?G8Hq93:[JeE
d<?8X n
a
b




n @%   l <U  6oB3:-=@?8Vy=UJWVyTU:17D]vG8d<X3Je=@T@dKAW:[JedKT
AW7DGV*B3:[EiACB3:1EC=_X3:[E
L
DA
L
L
=U?
L
L
L
LJW:KEck8:<VWAW= Q:KT ABCD
j n x[:A
L
L
L
93:!
ACB3:
AB
L M
N L
=U?8Vy=@JWVyT_BC
:KE|7D]vCD
AyJW=@d<?8;>TU:[K
E
L
L
LsJWS
:KEc1k8:<SVWAW2= Q:KST j3 n Sx[4:A
L
L
AKL
BLM
CM
N
DKN
L
98:5ACB3:%VC7H\Hq7?#:C[AW:[JW?3d[TDAed<?8;K:K?DAWEhAW7|ACB3:%k3d[=@JeE
d<?8X
L
d[?8X l1 L l2
ld<3?8X l4 L
n SY83JW7[S
d<?8X
LwXD=@s:[JW:K?DA]_JW7HACB3:/E*=UX8:KE%7D]DG8dlXSJW1=tTUdAy:KJed[ST 2 S2
Q3:
S
S
S
ABCD
4
4
1
n
ACBdKA
L L L
=U?DAW:[JeEc:<VWA=@?#ACB3:%Q:KJeAW=UVC:KE57D]od1JyB37Hq9DG8E
l1 l2 l3 l4
 3Ubl! .33eUu o 02 o 2$oe@Kb $46$ 3<s[\}o1[<bl n
...
..
...
...
...
...
..
...
... ....
....................................
.........................................
... .... ...........
...
...... .. ........................
... ...........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.... .. .................
... ........
. ........................................................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.........
... .. ...
. .....
..........
.
.
.
.
.
............ ....................................................................
....
.
.
.
.
... ...
.
.
.
....
...
...... ........
....
.....
..
.. ...............
.
.
.
.
... ..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
...
....... ...
....
... ........
.
...
.
.
......
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.... ....
....
.
......... ..
....
...
....
. .. .. ........ 2 ........... .......
...
.... ......
1...............................................................................................................................................................................
.......
...
.... .............................................
....
.. ......
..
... .. ....
.......
......
.... ...
........
..
... .... .......
...... ........... ..... ......
....
......
...
...
.... .......... ....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
........ ..
... ...
... .... ..
...
...............
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
... .......
...
.
... ... ..... ...
....
1
...........
.. .........
.. ........... ...... ....
..
..... ..
...... .. ........
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.....
..
......
... ...
... .... ...
... ...
.
......
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
... ..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.... ..
..
.......
..
... ...
.....
... ...
...
.......
.... ..
.. .....
......
.. ...
......
...
.....
... ...
.... .....
......
....
.....
...
.......
..
... ..... ...........
...
......
...
.........
... .... .........
....
...
...
..... ......
.
.
.
.
...
... .... ....
... ... ...........
...
... .....
.
...
...
.......
.......
...
... ...
.......
.......
...
...
.
...
.. ..
.......
..............
...
.....
...
... ..
...
.......
.... ...........
... ...........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.........
...
.......
.....
... ... ....
......
......... ....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
...
.......
... ... ....
............
.......
......
... ...
.........
....... .... ........ .......
3
... ...
.. ........
... ....
.... . ... . .
..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
... ...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
... ................. .......
. ............... ...
... .... .........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.............
.... ...
...
... ........
3
.... ............
................. ... .........
...
..
... .......
............... ... .......... ......
..... ..........
...
...
... .. ....
....... .......................... ..... ..............................
......
.....
... ...
... ...
..........................................
.. ........................
.....
.
.
.
.
... ..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
......... ...........
..
....... ... ..
..
.......
...
....... .. . ............................ ....
......... .........
.........................
....
....
....
...
...
...
.......
..
......
.............
... ..........................
...
...
........................................................................
..
....
.
...
.. ... ............
.. 4
......
.
.
...
......
.. ...............
..
...
.
.
.
... ....
...............
.
.
...
.
.
... .....
.
.......... ...
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
... ..... ..
..
....
...
.
.
.
.........
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
...
. ................................................
...
.
...
...
...
.
.
...
..
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
....
.
... ...
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
..
... .. ...........
...
.
.
.
..
... .. ..........
...
.
.
.
.
..
.............
...
..
2
...
...
..
.

A.........................................

x[:A

98:%ACB3:-Jed<X=tG8E57D]ACB3:'=U?8Vy=@JWVyT_:-7D]sDG8dlXJW=tTUdAy:KJed[T

`4

1
A
2

1
B
2

1
C
2

ABCD

n x[:>A

1
D
2

n
7lAW:'ACBdA
+ + + = 180
68JW=@d<?8;>TU:[E
d[?8X
d[JW: Vy7?8;JWG:K?DAMLEC=U?8Vy:ACB3:Mjd[JW:!JW=U;KBlA%*d[?8;>T_:[XwL
AKI
n 6wB3:KJW:K]}7JW:DL
N|=tACB d Vy7HIHI7?
B<j3k87lAy:K?G8EMALI
:!d<?8X
n RK=@?8VC: KI =
d<?8X
=UEACLI
B3:\9=
=@EM:[rVWAy7J7D]
=U?qACAK
B3:=@EM7=EcVC:AL
T_:KE
IAK
=
IAL
=

AI
A
n 6wB3:K?wLwE*=@?8VC:
AyJW=@d<?8;>TU:
L8N1:BdQ:
3
L
1
N

:
c
E
<
:
1
:
C
A

B
dA
KAL
= 90
n  :K?8ALI
n
_d[?8AI
X\d[T@
EM7 KL

VC:DL
KLI = IAL =
LKI =
KL = 2r cos
x[:A
98:1ACB3:#k7D=@?DA5dAiN1BD=UV*BIACB3:#=@?8Vy=UJWVyTU:7D]
=U?DAW:[JeEc:<VWAeEACB3:/Tt=U?8:
ABCD
EM:[;Hq:K?DA I1 L~d<?8X TU:A
98:qACB3:XD=UEyAWd[?8VC:+]_JW7H
Ay7
N1BD=_V*B :<DG8d[T@E/ACB3:
r1 n :1VyT@d[=@HACBdKA
AL
X=@ECAed<?8Vy:-]_AI
JW7H
Ay7
d[?8X I1 d[JW:'
ACB3:/Vy:[?DAyJW:1d[?8XIJedlXD=@G8E
I1
r1 LN|=tACB
1 ACBD=@EAK
n 637qk8JW7KQI:1
7D]
L8JeEyA?87lAW:1ACBdA
d<?8X
S1
AI
=
AI
+
r <ACBdAI
1
n 6wBDG8E>LlN1:-Bd>Q:
A=UE>L = r csc
AI1 = r1 csc
r csc = r1 csc + r
n

r1 = r(1 sin )




RK=U?8Vy:|ACB3:/XD=UEyAWd[?8VC:|]_JW7H
AW7
=@E
LDACB3:/XD=UEyAWd[?8VC:|]_JW7H
I
KL
r VCsin
sin
n :q
AW7
=@E
7?8VyKLI
TtGX8:\ACB=
dArACB3
:qk7D=@?DA
=@E|ACB3:IEcd[Hq:
IX1=@ECAed<?8KL
:[rd<sin
=7D] r1
Vy:
]_JWr7H
V*BE*=UX8:L<N1BD=UV*Bk8JW7KQ:[EiACB3:-VyTUdK=UH In 1
r
4AKL
n :%X3:[?87lAW:
RK=UH=@1T@d<JVy7?3E*=UX8:KJedKAW=U7?3Ed<k3k3T j|Ay7'ACB3:=@?8Vy=UJWVyTU:[E
L
Lld[?8X
SLl4JW:[E*k:[VWAW=Q:Tj n
ACB3:K=@JVy:[?DAyJW:KEi9[j
L
Lld<?8X
Lld<?8X-ACB3:K=@JhJed<X=t=89[j S2L SLl3d[?8X
I4
r r
r4
n `_A1=@E#=UEc7EMVy:KTU:[E>LN|=ACB 2 3
n RK=U?8Vy:
 7<N VC7?3EC=_IX32:[J I3
4II1 I2
II
=
II
1
2 = r
<
L
1
N
:

B

d

Q
:
I1 II2 = AIB = 180
II1 I2 = II2 I1 =

1
(
2

+ )

bm

d<?8XIB3:K?8VC:DL


 n

I1 I2 = 2r cos 21 ( + )
x[:A
98:ACB3:5d<?8;>TU:%93:AN1:[:[?'ACB3:5Tt=U?8:KE
d[?8X
ACBdAVy7?DAWdK=U?3EACB3:5k7D=@?DA
I1 I2
`2 n
=U?=AWEi=@?DAy:KJW=U7J n :N|=@TtTk3JW7[Q:'ACBdA
I
= + 21 ( + )
 "+ * n
}7JcL3:<DG3=QDdKT_:K?DAWTjoL
Ld[E=@?#ACB3:|;>G8JW:> n
<
r >r
n x[:>A
6wB3:K?/ACB3:%Tt=U?8:KE
d[?8X
Hq:[2:A7?13 ACB3:|:C[AW:[?3EC=_7?7D]
98:Mj7?8X
BC
`2X3:[?87lAW:<X9[j
ACB3:'k87D=U?DAsN1B3:[JW:5ACB3:Mj#
HI:<:>A98:'
Lld<?8X1T_:>A
98:5BC
ACB3:'k87D=U?DAsN1B3C:[JW:
S
T
`2
n 6wBDG8E>L
n
=U?DAW:[JeEc:<VWAeE
I1 I2
I1 T S =
n 6wBD=@E/d[?8;>T_:q=@E
JW7HbmCL9[jEej3H\Hq:>AyJbjwLvN1:BdQ:
1
n
:*KAy:KJW=U7J%Ay7
7k8k87E*=Ay:IACB3:q=@?DAy:KJW=U7II
J-d[?82;>IT_3:KE = 2 ( + ) d<?8X
I
=
I2 SB L
2?8BS
n

9
@
=
M
E
[
:
W
V
W
A
E
6wB3:KJW:K]}7JW:DL 4I2 BS 1
K
R
@
=
C
V
:
I SB = 2 ( + ) = 21 ( )
SI2
T SB
n
N1:-dKTUEc7BdQ: 2
I2 ST = 21 ( )
 7<N
=@Ed[? :C[AW:[Je=_7Jqd<?8;>TU:7D]
7k3k7EC=tAW: ACB3:=U?DAW:[Je=_7Jqd<?8;>TU:[E

4T I2 S
n
[
d
8
?
X
I2 ST = 21 ( )
T I2 S = 12 ( + ) + 21 ( + ) = + 21 ( + )
6wB3:KJW:K]}7JW:DL

 "+ * n

= + 21 ( + ) + 21 ( ) = + 21 ( + )

}7JcL3:<DG3=QDdKT_:K?DAWTjoL
n
=
r 2 = r3
L
Ld<?8X
d<JW:|k8d[Jed[TtT_:T n :[?8Vy:L
6wB3:K?ACB3:%ACBJW:<:|Tt=U?8:KE
BC I2 I3
`2

= I1 I2 I3 =

 "+ * n

1
( + ) + 21 ( + )
2

= + 21 ( + ) = + 21 ( + )

}7JcL3:<DG3=QDdKT_:K?DAWTjoL
n
>
r <r
n 6oB3:
6 B3:K?-ACB3:5T@=@?8:[E
w
d<?8X
HI:<2:>Ah7?|3ACB3:%:*KAy:K?3E*=U7?#7D]
93:Mj7?8X
BC
d<?8;>TU:|dKAvN1BD=_V*B1ACB3:MjHI
:<:>Ah=UE `2
U]_JW7Hrod<Ec: L[N|=tACB
d[BC
?8X
=U?DAW:[JWV*Bd[B?8;K:<X< n
rod<Ec: LDT_:KdlXE~Ay7

n
?\d<JW;>G8HI:[?DAiEC=UH=@T@d<JAy7/ACBdAi7D]s
= + 21 ( + )
`b?IdKT@T3ACBJW:[:1VWd<Ec:[E>L
= + 21 ( + ) = + 21 (180 ) = 90 + 21 ( )

 jEejHIHI:AyJbjoLACB3:qd<?8;>TU:+93:AN1:[:[?
d[?8X
N1BD=_V*BVy7?DAWdK=U?3E
=U? =tAeE
I7D1]DIAC2BD=UEhd<?8;>`TU4:d<?8X
I:5Tt=U?8:KE
n
U
=
E
K
L
C
A
3
B
=U?DAW:[Je=_7Jv=@E
K
R
@
=
8
?
C
V

:
C
A
3
B

:
C
E
8
G
H

+d<Je21dK(
d[?8X
d<90
JW:#k3
T@TU:K
T n )
RK=@H\=tTUd[JWT jwL
d<?8X
d[JW:#k8d[Jed[TtT_:T n 6wBDG8E>180
L
L
L
L
`=U?D2AW:[JeEc:<VW`A4 =@?#ACB3:%Q:KJeAW=UVC:KE57D]wd-k3d<JedKT@TU`:K1TU73;Jed<H `3n
`1 `2 `3 `4




RK=U?8Vy:
=@E%7?8:#7D]sACB3:-AN17Id<?8;>TU:[E%93:AN1:[:[?
d[?8X
tACB3:7lACB3:KJ98:=U?8;
`2k3d<JedKT@TU:KTsAy7
2 T@=@?8:[E'
CLwACB3:k:KJyk8:[?8XD=_VyG3T@d<J%X=@ECAed<?8Vy:I98:>AN1:<:K?IAC1B3I:
ACBdA
180
G;KB
k8d[EcEAC
BJW7D
d[?8X
=@E
LN1B3:KJW:
=U`E2;>= Q:[?
1
I=U1E I2
9[jI n 6wB3:KJW:K]}I71JW:DLDACB3I:-2k8:[JWIk1:KI?82Xsin
=UVyG3TUd[=
JiXI=@EC1AeId<2?8cos[
Vy:1932:A(
N1:[:[?)] d<?8X
`2
`4

2r cos
=
=
=
=

1




( + ) cos 21 ( ) r1 r2




r cos 21 ( + + ) + r cos 21 ( + + ) r1 r2




r cos 21 (180 2) + r cos 21 (180 2) r1 r2
r sin + r sin r1 r2
n
(r r4 ) + (r r3 ) r1 r2 = 2r (r1 + r2 + r3 + r4 )

n
6wBD=@EL<9[j1Eej3H\Hq:>AyJbjwLK=UE:[G8dKTlAW7'ACB3:5k:KJyk8:[?8XD=_VyG3T@d<JXD=UEyAWd[?8VC:98:>AN1:<:K?
d<?8X
`1
`3
 :K?8VC:DL L L L
=@?DAy:KJeEM:[VWA=@?#ACB3:%Q:[JAW=_Vy:[E7D]wd-JyB37Hq9DG8E n
`1 `2 `3 `4

 n :[>*MD_  6oB3:kTUd[?8:

k3d<E*E*=@?8;-ACBJW7DG;KBIACB3:1Q:KJeAW:*
7D]vAW:AyJed<B3:<XJW7?
n Y8JW7[Q:ACBdAACB3:
U= E%AWd[?8;K:[?DAAW7ACB3:Vy=@JW
VyG8HIE*kB3:KJW:7D]ACB3:Ay:>AyJedlB3:[X3JW7? A
ABCD
d<?8;>TU:[E'93:AN1:[:[?qACB3:/Tt=U?8:KE'7D]v=U?DAW:[JeEc:<VWAW=U7?!7D]
N|=ACBIACB3:#kTUd[?8:[E
L
L

ABC ACD
n
d<?8X
d<JW:-:<DG8d[T8=@]wd[?8XI7?Tj#=t]
ABD
AB CD = AC BD = AD BC

 3Ubl! .33eUu o 02 o 2$oe@Kb $46 n

n =tACB37DGAT_7E*E-7D]
x[:A
98:ACB3:qVy:[?DAyJW:q7D]hACB3:qVy=@JWVyG8HIE*kB3:KJW:7D]
n 6dlp<:
;K:[?8:KJed[Tt=tAbjwK
Lld[EcECG8Hq:ACBdKAvACB3:%JedlXD=@G8E~7D]ACB3:%Eck8B3:[JW:=@E ABCD
Ay7/93:5ACB3:'7Je=_;>=@?
1
A
7D][Q:<VWAW7JeELKd[?8X-X8:K?87lAy: L L
K
L
[
d
8
?
X
[
9
j
L
L
K
L
<
d
8
?
X
LKJW:[E*k:[VWAW=Q:Tj n

AB L<AC
AK
b c d
k
RK=U?8Vy:
d[?8X
N1:-BAD
dQ:
KB = 1
|k| = 1
1 = KB 2 = |k b|2 = 1 + |b|2 2(k b)

n RK=@H\=tTUd[JWT jwL
n
6wB3:KJW:K]}7JW:DL
d<?8X
|b|2 = 2(k b)
|c|2 = 2(k c)
|d|2 = 2(k d)
Q:[VWAy7J5?87JyH\d[TsAW7qACB3:k3T@d<?8:
dKA
=UE Lsd<?8X+d/Q:<VWAW7J?87JWHIdKTsAy7qACB3:
A;ACB3:%
k T@=@?8:|7D]8=U?DAW:[JeEc:<VWAW=U7?7D]
n  :K?8VC:DLDdQ:<VWAW7
k3T@d<?8:
=@E
N|=ACB
JhdKT_7?8
ABC b c

ACB3:-k3T@d<?8:
=@E
ABC
k (c b) = (k b)c (k c)b =

1
2

|b|2 c |c|2 b

n

RK=UH=@T@d<JeTjoLvd#Q:<VWAW7Jd[TU7?8;/ACB3:T@=@?8:I7D]h=@?DAy:KJeEM:[VWAW=_7?7D]
N|=ACBACB3:\k3T@d<?8:

=UE 1
3
L
<
d
8
?
\
X
'
d

Q
[
:
W
V
y
A

7
~
J
[
d
U
T

7
8
?
%
;
C
A
3
B
|
:
t
T
U
=
8
?
1
:
D
7
o
]
U
=
D
?
W
A
[
:
e
J
Ec:<VWAW=U7?q7D]
N|=ACACD
B#ACB3:
2
2
|c|
d

|d|
c

n
k3T@d<2?8:
=UE 1
ADB
|d|2 b |b|2 d
x[:A L L 298:|EMVWd[TU:<X1Q:KJeE*=U7?3E57D]8ACB3:[Ec:%Q:[VWAy7JeEd<Ei]}7DTtT_7<N-E

h i j
h
i
j

6wB3:K?

= |d|2 |b|2 c |c|2 b

= |b|2 |c|2 d |d|2 c

L

L

= |c|2 |d|2 b |b|2 d

n

n T@EM7oLKN1:|BdQ:
n
L L d<JW:|VC7kTUd[?3d<JcLDE*=@?8VC:ACB3:Mjd[TtT3T@=U:%=U?
h i j

h+i+j = 0




:1VWd[TUVyG3TUdAy:
|h|2


2


= |d|4 |b|2 c |c|2 b


= |d|4 |b|4 |c|2 + |c|4 |b|2 2|b|2 |c|2 b c


= |d|4 |b|2 |c|2 |b|2 + |c|2 2b c

= |d|4 |b|2 |c|2 |b c|2 = |b|2 |c|2 |d|2 (AD 2 BC 2 )

n RK=@H\=tTUd[JWT jwL
d[?8X
|h| = |b||c||d|(AD
|i| = |b||c||d|(AB CD)
n BC)
|j| = |b||c||d|(AC BD)
 7<NN1:'d[k8kTj/ACB3:|pl?87<N-?JW:KE*G3TAACBdKAACBJW:[:-VC7kTUd[?3d<JvQ:<VWAW7JeE L L E*GV*B
h i j
ACBdKA
HId<p<:d<?8;>TU:[EI7D]
N|=ACB 7?8:d[?87lACB3:[J1=t]d[?8X 7?Tj =t]
h + i + n j _=
0
120
g?8:1=@?DAy:KJyk3JW:AedKAW=U7?7D]wACBD=@E=@EACBdKAACBJW:<:/VC7kTUd[?3d<J~]}7JWVy:[EiN|=ACB
|h|
JW:[ECG3=
TtAed<|i|
?DA =
*:[JW|j|
7d<JW::<DG8d[TtTj=U?8VyTt=U?8:[XAW7':KdlV*B'7lACB3:KJo=t]ld<?8X'7?Tj=@][ACB3:Mj%d<JW:7D]D:<DG8d[T
HId<;?=tAWGX3: n :IVy7?8VyT@GX3:#ACBdKA%7DG8Jk3d<JAW=_VyG3T@d<JiQ:<VWAW7JeE L L H\dlp<:d<?8;>TU:[E|7D]
h i j
N|=tACB7?8:\d<?87lACB3:KJ=@]d[?8X7?T j!=t]
L
120
AD

BC
=
AB
CD = AC BD
N1BD=_V*B#=UE~ACB3:|JW:<DG3=UJW:[XIVC7?8XD=tAW=U7? n
ACBdKA=UE>L

 :C[AN1:AWG8Jy?%Ay75ACB3!
: :<Vy:[HI98:KJm ll ?G8Hq93:[Jv7D][ACB3: .olyood[?8X|Ec7DT@GAW=U7?3E
9[j7DG8JJW:KdlX3:[JeEAy7\k8JW739DT_:KHIE;>=Q:K?\ACB3:[JW: n :/98:[;>=U?N|=tACB#ACB3:#rw7HIk87E*=AW=_7?qX8:
f dKAC
B :K HIdAW=_DG:[E


L3roT@d<E*EM:'63:[JWH\=@?3d[To5
R Wm ll


K
2K

n
n :K EM7DGXJW:1X3d[?3E

T
:[ G8dAW=_7?I:[?


(n + 3)

n
n

=

n+2
X

kn

k=3

 3Ubl!3 F C 2 83= 2$ =' }eb ( <eb 4sb[*u $ = u> 3$ n
6wB3:17?T jEM7DTtGAW=_7?3Eid<JW:
x[:A

f (n) =

n+2
P

kn

d[?8X

n=2

d[?8X

n=3

g(n) = (n + 3)n

n 6wB3:K?

k=3

f (1)
f (2)
f (3)

= 3 6= 4 = g(1)

= 32 + 42 = 52 = g(2)

= 33 + 43 + 53 = 216 = 63 = g(3)

d<?8X
d<JW:/Ec7DT@GAW=U7?3E n 637qk8JW7KQ:1ACBdAiACB3:KJW:#d[JW:/?87qEc7DT@GAW=U7?3E
2
LnN1=
l
:N|
=tT@TEcB37<nN=ACB3dA]}7J~dKT@T
L
n4
n4
6wBDG8E>L

f (n) < g(n)




`b?8:<DG8d[Tt=tAbjI =UE:Kd<EC=@T j\V*B3:<V*p<:[X]}7J
f (4)

n=4

= 34 + 44 + 54 + 64 = 81 + 256 + 625 + 1296

n
= 2258 < 2401 = 74 = g(4)

Ed<?=U?8XDGVWAW=_7?IB<jk7lACB3:KE*=@ELECG8k8k87EM:%ACBdAi hB37DT_XE]}7JEM7HI:

f (n + 1)

n+3
X

kn+1 =

k=3

n+2
X
k=3

< (n + 2)

n+2
X

n4

n 6wB3:K?

k kn + (n + 3)n+1

kn + (n + 3)n+1

k=3

= (n + 2)f (n) + (n + 3)g(n)

< (n + 2)g(n) + (n + 3)g(n) = (n + 3)n (2n + 5)

RK=U?8Vy:

g(n + 1) = (n + 4)n+1

LD=tA~ECG
Vy:[E~Ay7#EMB37<N

ACBdKA

(n + 3)n (2n + 5) < (n + 4)n+1

bm

RK=U?8Vy:
L=U?8:[G8dKT@=AujIbm
n
+ 5) < (n + 3)n (2n + 6) = 2(n + 3)n+1
N17DG3T_X\(n
98:%+AyJW3)
G:|=t(2n
]


n + 4 n+1
n

> 2
n+3
 GA


n+4
n+3

n+1

n+1
1
2
n+3


n+1
n+1
1
> 1 +
+
2
n+3
2
(n + 3)2

2 =

=
>

1+

n+1
n+3

n(n + 1)
2(n + 3)2

n2 3n 18
2(n + 3)2

n2 3n 12

1 =
n6

2(n + 3)2

2(n + 3)

n
6wB3:KJW:K]}7JW:DL=@?8:<DG8d[Tt=tAbjI CLd<?8X\B3:[?8Vy:1bmCL3B37DT_XE]}7JdKT@T
n6
B3:[?
L=U?8:[G8dKT@=Aujq}m>93:<Vy7Hq:KE 4
7J

nL=
8J 5
31213 < 32768 n
N1B3:[?
=@?8:<4DG8d[Tt=tAbj}m>93:<Vy7Hq:KE 5 7 13 <

7
6
< 531441
6wBDG8E>L8n
}m>h=
B37D5TUX3Ei]}7Jd[TtT
Ld<?8XI7DG8Jh=U8?8XDGVWAW15
=_7?<
=UEVy97HIkT_:>491520
Ay: n
n4

[

 :C[A3N1:AWG8Jy?AW7%Ec7DT@GAW=U7?3Ew]}7Jok8JW739DT_:KHIE7D]KACB3: ( `bJed[?=Ud[? f dKACB3:KHIdAW=_VWd[T

giTjHIk=Ud<X

l


L =UJeEyABw7DG8?8XoL8;>= Q:[?Wm ll


*K

n
n RKG8k8k87EM:'ACBdA

a1 < a 2 < < a n

d<JW:-JW:Kd[T?G8HI98:KJeE n Y8JW7KQ:'ACBdA

a1 a42 + a2 a43 + + an1 a4n + an a41 a2 a41 + a3 a42 + + an a4n1 + a1 a4n

 3Ubl! %l [I <:A ** $  } 3<2$+< n

n1 7J
:#k3JW7[Q:1ACB3:#JW:KE*G3TA59[jq=U?8XDGVWAW=_7?+7?
L3N1:#BdQ::[G8dKT@=Auj n
n :=Bd>2Q:'Ay7#EMB37<N ACBdKA
6wB3:1VWd<Ec:
N|=tT@T98:|?8:<:[X8:[XI98:T_7<N n~ 7J n
LlN1
n=3
n=3
a1 a42 + a2 a43 + a3 a41 a2 a41 + a3 a42 + a1 a43

6wBD=@E=@E~AyJWG:DL3EC=U?8Vy:

a1 a42 + a2 a43 + a3 a41 a2 a41 a3 a42 a1 a43

=

1
(a2
2

a1 )(a3 a2 )(a3 a1 )


n
(a1 + a2 )2 + (a2 + a3 )2 + (a3 + a1 )2 0

n
EcECG8Hq:+ACBdKA/ACB3:VyT@d[=@H =@EAyJWG:]}7J
L5d[?8X TU:A/G8EIk3JW7[Q:=tA/]}7J
1 ACBdA%=tA%=UE-ECG
Vy=U:[?DA%AW7k8JW7KQ
n:
j d<k3k3T j=@?8;ACB3:I=@?8XGVWAW=U7? B<j3k87lACB3:[EC=UE>LsN1n
:I8?8X
ACBdKA

an1 a4n + an a41 an1 a41 an a4n1 + a1 a4n a1 a4n1

N1BD=_V*B#=UE~ACB3:-Vyd[EM:

n=3

n RKG8k8k87EM:+ACBdKA
 AWG8kT_:
=@E\d ?3dKAWG8JedKT?G8Hq93:[J n 6wB3:
=@E
n]UG8JeACB3:KJyHI
(a71JW,:aL2?8,7I
. .E*.G,9aEMn:>)A7D]
EcdK=_XAy7q93:/338L3=@] n
d[?8XI
 AWG8k3TU:[E n
L
L
Bd[Ed-aEC1G8+
Ha:[2G8+dKT8 Ay7 +nia n=U?8=
Xd[2n
TtTo;K7373X
{a1 . . . an }
n
n

 3Ubl! 3byCCvly3@">uM_$ % U>l3 '( ) eu*$+l n

=@JeECA?87lAW:5ACBdKAvACB3:%k3JW739TU:[HO=UE?87lAhVyT_:Kd<J n RK=U?8Vy:5ACB3:

E~d[JW:%?87lAd<E*E*G8HI:<X
i 7D]5;K7373X
 AWG8k3TU:[E n
Ay7 93:_k87E*=AW=Q:%=@?DAy:[;K:[JeE>LACB3:KJW::*[=UEyA1d[? =@??=Ay:+?G8Hq93:[aJ/
n
f 7JW:<7KQ:[JcL<ACB3:%?87lAedKAW=U7?
L
L
=UEd<HI9=U;>G7DG8Ei98:[VydKG8EM:=AE*G8k3k7Ec:[EhACBdA
}=@EACB3:#VWd<Ec:Ld[?8Xq=t]sACB3:
ACB3:

Ed<JW:/k3d[=@JN|=@EM:/X=@EC{a
AW=@?81VWA .n . `}.]sACaBDn=UE5

E%d[JW:/k7EC=tAW= Q:
a
ai
i
 AWG8k3TU:[Ei]}7J
n
=U?DAW:<;K:KJeELlACB3:[JW:N|=@TtTo98:|?87\;K7373X
n
n>1
7DTtT_7<N|=@?8;   LoN1:#N|=@TtTd<E*E*G8HI:ACBdKA5ACB3:

E-d[JW:Ik7EC=tAW= Q:\=@?DAy:[;K:[JeE-d[?8X
n 
L
L
L?87
7D]ACB3:
=Ua?DiAW:<;K:KJeEdlX3XG8kAW7
ACBdK

A c]}7J~:MQ:[Jbj
k {1 . . . n}
k
n
n
n 6wB3:-;K7373X  AWG8k3TU:[Ed<JW:
d[?8X
roTU:[d[JWT jwL<ACB3:17?T j\;K7373X  AWG8k3TU:|=@E
1 d[JW:
(2) d<?8X\dKT@Tk8:[JWH\
2GAedKAW=U7?3E57D] (1, 3) n
L3d[?8X#ACB3:-;K7373X  AWG8kT_:KE
(3, 1)
3
(2, 2, 2)
(1, 1, 4)
:!N|=@TtTk8JW7KQ: 9[j =U?8XDGVWAW=_7?7?
ACBdAML=t]
=UEqd
n
a
=
(a
,
a
,
.
.
.
, an ) 7J
1
2
 AWG8kT_:#N|=tACB
;K7373X
LsACB3:[?:=tACB3:KJ
n
a1
a = (2, 2, . . . , 2)
n a2 a n
a = (1, 1, . . . , 1, n + 1)

<

n RKG8k3k7Ec:1ACBdAiACB3:/JW:KE*G3TA5B37DTUX3E5]}7J
6wB3:/JW:[ECG3TtAi=UEAyJWG:1]}7J
L L
n x[n
 AWG8k3TU:#N|=ACB
Ls]}7J%Ec7Hq:
:>A {1 2 3}
98:\dq;K7373X
n1
n 4
a = (a1 , a2 , . . . , an )
n
n
n RK=@?8VC:
=@E%;K7373XwLN1:Bd>Q: P
L8N1BD=UV*BI=UH\k3Tt=_:KE
a1 a 2 a n
a
ai = 2n
i=1
ACBdKAiACB3:/d>Q:[Jed<;K:#7D]sACB3:

E5=UE n `}]:=tACB3:KJ
7J
L3ACB3:K?\N1:/H\G8EyA
ai
2n 6wB3:KJW:K]}7JW:DLDaN1
HI2d>jId[EcaECnG8Hq
:'2ACBdKA
1 :BdQ:
d[?8X
a1n = a2 = = an = 2
a1 = 1
an 3
n 6wB3:K?
n :?8:-ACB3:
 AWG8k3TU:
x[:A
jN-=
max{i | ai = 1}
1j <n
(n1)
[
d
i
E
}
]
D
7
@
T
U
T
<
7

E


a0
]}7J
L
a0i = ai+1
i 6= j
n
a0j = aj+1 1

P 0
n
d[?8X n1
1 a01 a02 a0n1
ai = 2(n 1)
 7<N ECG8k8k87EM: ACBdA 0 =@E ?87lA ;K7373X n o6 B3i=1
:[?^ACB3:[JW::C<=@ECAeE d E*G9EM:>A
n :-VC7?3EC=_X3:[J
L L
L
LlN|=a
ACB
LE*GV*B/ACBdA P 0
E {1 2 . . . n 1}
E 6=
ai = n 1
iE
AN17\VWd<Ec:[E

7lAW:'ACBdA

 "+ * n

n
j
/E
n 6wB3:K?
:K8?8:
E = {1} {i + 1 | i E}
X
X
X
n
ai = a 1 +
ai+1 = 1 +
a0i = 1 + n 1 = n

 "+ * n

iE

iE

jE
n 6wB3:K?
E = {i + 1 | i E}
X
X
ai =
ai+1 = (a0j + 1) +

:K8?8:

iE

iE

iE

iE\{j}

a0i = 1 +

a0i = n

iE

`b?#:=tACB3:KJVyd[EM:iN1:Bd>Q:%Vy7?DAyJedlXD=_VWAW:<X'ACB3:B<j3k87lACB3:[EC=UEACBdA
=UE;K7373X n 6oB3:[JW:]}7JW:L
a
n
@
=

E
K
;
3
7
3
7
X
a0
 jACB3: =@?8XGVWAW=U7?B<jk7lACB3:KE*=@EL5N1:BdQ::K=ACB3:[J 0
7J
a
=
(1,
1,AC.BD.=@.E,N1
n)
n


G
A
@
=
|
E
8
?
l
7
%
A
8
k

7
c
E
C
E
_
=
D
9
_
T
D
:
s
L
*
E
@
=
8
?
C
V
#
:
D
7
3
G
T_X
a0 = (2, 2, . . . , 2)
a0 = (2, 2, . . . , 2)
n 6oB3:[JW:]}7JW:L
=UH\k3T j!ACBdA
LwN1BD=_V*B X373:[E-?87lA'BdQ:
a = (1, 3,
2,B3.:[.? . , 2)
a 2 a3
n 6o
n
7J
0
a
=
(1,
1,
.
.
.
,
1,
n)
a
=
(1,
1,
.
.
.
,
2,
n)
a
=
(1, 1, . . . , 1, n
n + 1)
g9[Q=U7DG8E*T j
=UE?87lAi;K73737
X B3:K?8VC:
a = (1, 1, . .Lo. d<, ?8
1,XInACB3+:/1)
6wBDG8E>L (1, 1, . . . , 2, n)
7J
=@?8XGVWAW=U7?
a
=
(1,
1,
.
.
.
,
1,
n
+
1)
a
=
(2,
2,
.
.
.
,
2)
=UEVy7HIkT_:>Ay: n

 AWG8kT_:KEd<JW:

n
Ud/ACB37EM:-739lAWdK=U?8:[XI9[j\d-k8:[JWH\GAedKAW=U7?q7D]

(1, 1, . . . , 1, n + 1)
}9<
LD=t]
=UE73X3X n
(2, 2, . . . , 2)
n
*
*  * /1, *

`_A]}7DT@TU7<N-E:Kd<EC=@T j/ACBdKAhACB3:-;K7373X

  % }w I U .olsb>U 
 5  # C8 o  3
Ubl3
n
}C *[wq}o #
= l 8L3:[X=Ay:[XI9[j#6 n 8
? XJW:<:KEMVyGId<?8X82 no :[?8;lL f

m
n [
x :A
93:|ACB3:-=@?8VC:K?DAyJW:#7D]oACB3:|AyJe=Ud[?8;>T_:
d<?8X
Hq:[:AACB3:/Vy=@JWVyG8HqVy=@JWVyT_:
I dKAk7D=@?DA
n :[?87lAW:1ACB3:#]}737lA57DABC
7D]
]k:KJyk8:[?8XD=_VyAI
G3T@d<JeE|XJW7k8k8:<X]_JW7H
7?
ABC
D
I
n
LD8?8X#ACB3:%QDdKT@G:-7D]
1
IE + IF = 2 AD
BAC
 [< 9 .38e@Kb w> 02 o 2$ oe@Kb $346 
 I @  K<MDu  M < $
6 F <; $
0 w n

D 


< n
6wBD=@E=@Ek8JW739DT_:KH^m<m < 




n x[:A
n R<:KTU:<VWAk87D=U?DAeE
93:/d1AyJe=Ud[?8;>T_:'N|=tACB
7?
n 6wB3:'Vy=@JWD
d<?8X
7ABC
?-ACB3:':C[AW:[?3EC=_7?/7D]
ECGBC
V*B|ACB>
dKA CA > AB
VyG8HqVy=@BC
JWVyT_:
= BE = AC
7D] E
=U?DAW:[JeEc:<VWAeE
dAAB
k7D=@?DA
d[?8X BD Hq
:[:AeE5ACB3:Vy=@JWVyG8HqVy=@JWVyT_:#7D]
P
BP
ABC
n R<B37<NACBAC
n
dKA~BED
k87D=U?DA
dA
Q
AQ + CQ = BP
 [< 9 .38e@Kb w> 02 o 2$ oe@Kb $346 
 I @  K<MDu  M < $
6 F <; $
0 w
l 

9 

m K


6wBD=@E=@Ek8JW739DT_:KH



m 
n

RKG8k8k87EM: ACBdA
=@Eqd k87E*=AW=Q: =@?DAy:[;K:[J\d[?8X
5
2 Ay:[<
n- d=@1?8X<dKT@Twd=@?D
ACB3:/]}7DG8JE*HIdKT@TU:[EyAkn
7EC=tAW= Q:1=U?DAW:<;K:KJeE'XD=QD=_XD=U?8;
;K:[JedE 3
n = d21 + d22 + d23 + d24

d<JW:
<
E*dKAWd
=@E*4]tjD=U?8;

 [<
% l [I < A ** $  } K 3[e$G+l - o 3byC>vly#">bU
$
% U >l3 '( ) eu*$+l 9G#
= %u[A c C D Feb9'c n

`}]
=UE|73X3XwLoACB3:K?
L
d21 + d22 + d23 + d24 n 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 0 (mod 4)
d<?8XqN1:In
VWd<?3?87lA%BdQ:
w
6
D
B
8
G
>
E
o
L
1
N
I
:
W
V
<
d
!
?
<
d
*
E
*
E
8
G
I
H
#
:
C
A

B

d
A
2
2
2
2
n =
2
n 6wB3:K?
X= Q=UX8:KE
d[?8d
X 1 + d2 +
Ld<d
?83XI+
B3:Kd
?84VC:DL
n
d1 = 1
d2 = 2
6wBDG8E>L

n 1 + 0 + d23 + d24 6 0 (mod 4)

 4 :K-?8nVC:DL

7J
, d:K2E , d3L , dn 4`b)?/=
(1,
(d1 , d2 , d3 , d4LD)d-=
}] 7JEc7Hq:|73X3X(d
k3JW1=@Hq
ACB3:'
8Je2,
ECA~p,
VWd<Ecq)
:L
Vy7?D(1,
AyJedl2,
XD=_p,
VWAW=U2p)
7? n
p
q
n

3
(mod
4)
n
n
6wBDG8E>L
<
d
8
?
X
w
6
3
B
K
:
W
J
K
:
}
]

7
W
J
D
:
L
<
d
8
?
X
n = 5(1 + p2 )
5|n
p = d3 = 5
n = 130

n RKG8k8k87EM:-ACBdKA
L
L
L
d<?8X
L
L
L
d<JW:-AN17
{b
b293:/.AC.B3.:b
Ec:<DG:[?8Vy:[E n 6oA
B3:I=XD=U{a
EyAWd[1?8VCa:27D] . . . ]_JWa7nH } =UE'B
X3:K=
8?8:<
Xq1Ay7+
?n
G8}
Hq93:[J7D]
0/1
i
n
]}7JN1BD=UV*B
d<?8A
X=@EX8:K?8B
7lAy:[XI9[j
ai 6= bi (1 i n)
d(A, B)
RKG8k8k87EM:'ACBdA
L
L
d[JW:'ACBJW:[:
EM:[G:K?8VC:KEd[?8X
A B C
0/1
d(A, B) = d(A, C) = d(B, C) =

=UEd[?I:MQ:[?\?G8Hq93:[J n

}9<Y8JW7KQ:%ACBdKAhACB3:[JW:-:*[=UEyAWEd
EM:[G:K?8VC:
ECGV*B#ACBdA
0/1
D

_d>Y8JW7[Q:%ACBdKA

d(D, A) = d(D, B) = d(D, C) =

1 n


 [ <!9 % w t * $ >
$ +l - o>3u>y* vly3@">uM_$ % @l'
( 2) e b$+< G=#%u[ @
D > U ul n
n
:1X3:[?87lAW:19[j
ACB3:-?G8HI98:KJ7D]
E=U?d<?lj
Ec<
: DG:[?8Vy:

N ()
1
0/1

L
L
L
d[?8X
L
L
L
d[JW:
EM:[G:K?8VC:KEL
X
=
{x
x
.
.
.
x
}
Y
=
{y
y
.
.
.
y
}
0/1
1
2
n
1
2
n
T_:>A
98:#ACB3:
Ec:<DG:[?8Vy:
L
L
L
LoN1B3:KJW:
n {x
rT_1:Kd<+
JeTjoyL 1 x2 + y2 . . . xn + ynn }x[:>A
dlX3XX
=AW=_7+?IY
=UE5k:KJW]}7JWHq0/1
:[XHI73XG3TU7
93:
d(X, Yn )6w=
k ]}7J
]}7JN1BD2=_V*B
ACB3:I?G8Hq93:[J'7D]h=@?8X=UVC:KE
B3:K? N (X + YL )
x=U?8
iJ = 1
i XD=
=U?8XD=_Vy:[E>Lvd<?8X i
L xi = y]}7
=_Vy:[1E n y6oiB3=
:[JW:0]}7JW:L
N (X) k
x i = 0 yi = 1
N (Y
)

k
n
d(X, Y
+
2k
L
d<JW: N (Y )Ec
:<DG
:[?8Vy:[EN|=tACB
RKG8)k8=
k87N
EM:-(X
?87<N +ACY
BdK)A = L N (X)
A B C
0/1
n
d(A, B) = d(A, C) = d(B, C) =
n g?qACB3:
x[:A
98:1ACB3:#?G8Hq93:[J7D]v=@?8X=UVC:KE
E*GV*B\ACBdKA
i
a i + bi = bi + ci = 1
7?8:1m
Bd[?8XwL

`}]

N (A + B) + (B + C)
g?ACB3:-7lACB3:[J~Bd<?8XoL

= N (A + C) = d(A, C) =

= N (A + B) + N (B + C) 2m
n
= d(A, B) + d(B, C) 2m = 2 2m
n
6wBDG8E>L
Ld<?8XIUdv=UEk3JW7[Q:[X n `b?\dlX3X=AW=_7?wL[N1:-Ec:<:%ACBdA 1
=m
2 N|=@?8;\JeG3T_:

 7<=NL2(
L
L
L
X8:?8:[X9[j!ACB3:I]}7DTtT_7<
VC7?3
EC=_m)
X3:[J
D = L3{d
=@]
d[?81X d2 . . .7lACd
B3n
:KJ}N|=@EM:-@]}7J
n
di = 1`b?q7N
(a
,
b
,
c
)

2
d
=
0
1in
JWX3:[JiAy7\i739lAWidK=U?
L<iN1:1739EM:KJbQ:'ACBdA
d(D, B)
=@] =@EE*GV*B/ACBdKA
LlACB3:[?
d[EN1:KTtTuLlG8?T_:KEcE

i
bi = 0
di = 0
ai = c i = 1
n
=@] =@EE*GV*B/ACBdKA
LlACB3:[?
d[EN1:KTtTuLlG8?T_:KEcE
i
bi = 1
di = 1
ai = c i = 0
n 6wBDG8E>LsACB3:I?G8Hq93:[J
:qBdQ:
:C[dlVWAWT jN1B3:K?
dE*i G6=
n  j
7D]i=U?8XD=_Vy:[E/
V*BbACiBdA
=@E ai + bi1 =n b6wi BD+
=@E|cji=U:K=
TUX3E 1
di 6= bi
m = 2
d(D, B) = 21
n

L
<
d
8
?
\
X
}

<
9

@
=

E
8
k
W
J
K
7

Q
<
:
X
Eej3H\Hq:>AyJbjwL
d(D, C) = 21 = d(D, A)
N (A + B) + (B + C)

 :C[Ad<JW:%Ec7DT@GAW=U7?3EAy71k3JW739TU:[H\Ei7D]3ACB3:'R<:[VC7?8X w 7DG8?8X7D]ACB3:
f dKACB3:KHIdAW=_VWd[TogiTjHIk=Ud<X

l


;>=Q:K? em <D

2Dn
n
 :K8?8:'ACB3:|EM:[G:K?8VC:

{xi }
i=0

9[j

x0 = 0

(

`bJed<?=@d<?

d[?8XwL

3r 1 
L
=@]
L
n = 3r1 (3k + 1)
2
3r + 1 L=@]
L
xn = xn1
n = 3r1 (3k + 2)
2
N1B3:[JW:
d<?8X
d<JW:/=@?DAy:[;K:[JeE n Y8JW7[Q:1ACBdA:MQ:KJbj=@?DAy:[;K:[J573VCVyG8JeE':C[dlVWAWT j+7?8VC:/=@?
ACBD=UEEM:[kG:K?8VC: rn
xn

= xn1 +

>

 [<
% l [I < A ** $  } K3[e$G+l - o 3byC>vly#">bU
$
% U >l3 '( ) eu*$+l 9G
 =#%u[Cvly#">bUD  3Ubl 

*

"

n `}]

ACB3:[?

p
P

n=

i 3i

=UEvACB3:Ay:KJy?3d[Jbj1:*<k8d[?3E*=U7?17D]d?87?&%C?8:<;dAW=Q:=U?DAW:<;K:KJ

i=0

xn =

iUn

N1B3:[JW:

3i

3i

iTn

d ?8X
<
d<JW:|ACB3:/Ec:AeE7D]oQDd[TtG:[E7D]wACB3:1=@?8X8:C
E*GV*BACBdKA
d[?8X
U
i
i = 1
LJWn:KEck8:<VWAWT= Qn:KT j n
i = 2
n x[:>A
*3< n :iG8EM:=@?8XGVWAW=U7?17? n 3DG8dKAW=U7?1 8=UEVyT_:Kd<JeTj%AyJeG:]}7J
L
n
n {0 1}
p
P
93:%D<:[XwLld<?8X/TU:A
98:ACB3:5Ay:KJy?3d[Jbj\:Clk3d<?3EC=_7?7D] n RKG8k3k7Ec:
n1
n=
i 3i
n
i=0
ACBdKAi hB37DTUX3Ei]}7J n
n
n
 "+ *  n
0 = 0
p
P
6wB3:K?
L3]}7JiEM7HI:-=U?DAW:<;K:KJ n  :[?8Vy:L
n+1 = 1+
i 3i = 30 (3k + 1)
k
i=1

n
31 1
= xn +
= xn + 1
2

xn+1

xn+1

iUn

3
3

iTn

iUn+1

:1Bd>Q:

+1 =

3 +3

iUn

3i

iTn

iTn+1

N1BD=_V*Bk8JW7KQ:[E~ACB3:-JW:KE*G3TA=U?#ACBD=@EVyd[EM: n

 "+ * n

n
0 = 1
p
P
6wB3:K?
L3]}7JiEM7HI:-=U?DAW:<;K:KJ n  :[?8Vy:L
n+1 = 2+
i 3i = 30 (3k + 2)
k
i=1

xn+1

n
31 + 1
= xn
= xn 2
2

xn+1

iUn

iUn+1

3
3i

iTn

3i

:1Bd>Q:

2 =

iUn

3 3

iTn

3 +3

iTn+1

N1BD=_V*Bk8JW7KQ:[E~ACB3:-JW:KE*G3TA=U?#ACBD=@EVyd[EM: n

 "+ * n

:K80?8: = 2

:1Bd>Q:

p+1 = 0
n = 2

n x[:>A

t1
X
i=0

t = min{i | i 6= 2}

3i +

X
it

n 6wB3:K?

i 3i = 3 t 1 +

X
it

1 t p+1

i 3i

d<?8X
X

xn =

3i

iUn

3i

iTn

3i

3i

iUn

iUn

3i

3i

iTn
i>t

iTn
i>t

t1
X

3i

i=0

3t 1 n
2

P
L[]}7JEc7Hq:=U?DAW:<;K:KJ n 6wBD=@EhTU:[d<X3E
n + 1 = 3t +
i 3i = 3t (3k + t + 1)
k
it
Ay7/AN17#E*G93Vyd[EM:KE

6wB3:K?

  

6wB3:K?

_d> n

t = 0

n + 1 = 3t (3k + 1)
xn+1

iUn

Ld<?8X\B3:[?8Vy:L

3
i

iTn
i>t

3 +3

iUn

6wB3:K?

}9< n

t = 1

xn+1

iUn

iUn

3t+1 1 n 6wBDG8E>L
2

3t+1 1
2

3i =

iUn+1

iTn
i>t

3i

3i

iTn+1

n + 1 = 3t (3k + 2)
X

3t 1
3
2
i

d<?8X#ACB3:|JW:[ECG3TtAiB37DTUX3Ei=U?#ACBD=@EVyd[EM: n

  

xn+1 = xn +

3
i

Ld<?8X\B3:[?8Vy:L

iTn
i>t

3 3

xn+1 = xn

3t 1
3
2
i

d<?8X#ACB3:|JW:[ECG3TtAiB37DTUX3Ei=U?#ACBD=@EVyd[EM: n

3 +3

iTn
i>t

3t+1 + 1 n 6wBDG8E>L
2

3t+1 + 1
2

iUn+1

3i

3i

iTn+1

6wBDG8E>L=@?|:MQ:[Jbj|VWd<Ec:hN1:Bd>Q:~ACB3:X8:KE*=@JW:<X|:Clk3JW:[E*E*=U7?%]}7J
LMN1BD=UV*B':[?8XE
xn+1
ACB3:|=U?8XDGVWAW=_7?\d[?8X\k8JW7KQ:[E~ACB3:|TU:[H\HId n
x[:A
98:5d5D<:[X1k87E*=AW=Q:=U?DAW:<;K:KJML<d[?8X-TU:A
L L
L
d[?8X
p
Ep = {0 1 . . . 3p+1 1}
n
o
L
L L L
L 3p+1 1 n `_Aw=UEwN1:KTtTDp<?87<N-?'ACBdA:MQ:KJbj
3p+1 1 L
Fp =
. . . 1 0 1 . . .
2
2
p
P
=U?DAW:<;K:KJ
VWd<? 98:#N-Je=tAeAW:[?!=U?dIG8?=UG:#N-dj!=@?+ACB3:\]}7JyH
L
n Ep
n =
i 3i
n
N1B3:[JW:
L L
]}7J-:KdlV*B n 6wBD=@E1=@E _G8EyA'ACB3:\Ay:KJy?3d[Jbj :Clk3d<?3EC=_i=0
7? 7D]
i
n:
G8JACB3:[JWHqi 7
JW:DL{0
:MQ:[1Jbj+2}
=U?DAW:<;K:KJ
VWd<? 93:/N-JW=AeAy:K?!=U?!d\G8?=_DG:#N-d>j+=U?+ACB3
m Fp
p
P
]}7JyH
>
L
1
N
3
B
K
:
W
J
:
L L
]}7Jv:[d<V*B
_Ec:<3
: Wm l<

 m K
  n
m=
j 3j
j {1 0 1}
j

j=0

x[:A

fp : E p F p

98:%ACB3:|]UG8?8VWAW=_7?IX3:K8?8:<XI9[j

fp

p
X

i 3

i=0

p
X

j 3j

j=0

n 6oB3:1]UG8?8VWAW=U7?
N1B3:[JW:
=t]
L8d<?8X
=@]
=@EVyTU:[d[JWT j
iE*=@?8VC
i = 1 LlN1:1i X8=
2GVy:|ACBdA
f<pVWAW= Q:-]_JW7H
=U? b:[VWAW=Q:DiL3=
d<?8X\
: i 6= 2
[
:

X
U
=

E

9
=
b:
p+1
|E
|=
n 6wB3:|TU:[H\
n
7?DAW7
HIpd|
=@HI3
kT@=U:[E~AC=
Bd|F
A p|
]}7J~:[d<V*B fp
Ep x[:A Fp 98:|d[?=@?DAy:[;K:[J n 6oB3:[JW:-:*[=UEyAWEi
fpd-(n)
=
x
n
n
n
k87E*=AW=Q:%=U?DAW:<;K:KJ
ECG
V*B/E
ACBpdA
k Fp n
ECGV*B|ACBdKpA
6wB3:K?wL<]_JW7H k d<987KQ:LKACB3:[JW:':C<=@ECAeEd[?1=U?DAW:<;K:KJ
n k = fp (n) = xn
`_A~]}7DTtT_7<N-EACBdAi:MQ:[Jbj=@?DAy:[;K:[Ji73VyVyG8JeE=@?#ACB3:-nEc:<DGE:[p?8Vy:
{x
}
n
 7<NECG8k8k87EM:1ACBdKAACB3:[JW:d[JW:/AN17?87&? %C?8:<;dAW=Q:#=@?DAy:[;K:[JeE
d[?8X
E*GV*B
n 6wB3:KJW:/:C<=@ECAeEd-k7EC=tAW= Q:|=@?DAy:[;K:[J
ACBdKA
E*GV*B#ACBdA
d[m
?8X
d[JWn
:/937lACB
xn m = xn
p
m
n
n 6w
=U?
RK=@?8VC:
=UE=@? b:<VWAW= Q:LDN1:#Bd>Q:
BDG8E>Ld<?I=@?DAy:[;K:[JVWd<?3?87lA73VyVyG8J
E
f
m
=
n
p
p
Hq7JW:%ACBd<?I7?8VC:'=U?#ACB3:|EM:[G:K?8VC:DL3d[?8X/N1:|d<JW:-X87?8: n
n RKG8k8k87EM:ACBdKA
X3:[?87lAW:[EACB3:?G8HI98:KJh7D]3k7D=@?DAWEN|=ACB|=U?DAW:<;K:KJhVy737JWX=@?3dKAW:[E
n Y8JW7KQ:'ACBdAML
7?\d/Vy=@JWVyT_:-7D]wJed<X=tn(r)
G8E
r>1

n
3
n(r) < 6 r 2

 [<
% l [I < A ** $  } K 3[e$G+l - o 3byC>vly#">bU
$
% U >l3 '( ) eu*$+l 9G#
= %u[A c C D Feb9'c n

`}]
LhACB3:K?wL~E*=@?8VC:
d<?8X
LN1:!Bd>Q:
L
3
3
2
n <n 6x[:A%
r
 7<N^ECG8k8k87EM:\ACrBd>
d<E1JW:[G3=@n
JW:<X n 8
A']}71J'EM7HI6: > 8N1:Bd>Q:
ACB3:
n > 8
k7D=@?DAWE5N|=ACBq=U?DAW:<;K:KJ%Vy737JWX=@?3dKAW:[E5ACBdKAT@=U:\7?qrACB3>
:\Vy1=UJWVyTU:\93:
L
L
L
Lw=@?
P
P2 . . . P n
1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.....
......
.....
......
VC7DG8?DAW:[JWVyTU73V*pKN|=@EM:-7JWX8:KJ n RK=U?8Vy: .....
L87?8:-7D]oACB3:
P1 P3 + P2 P4 + + Pn P2 = 4
....................................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.... =UEdKA~HI7ECA
n 6wB3:'AyJe=Ud[?8;>T_:
d<JWVWE ....
=@E=@?3EMVCJe=_93:<X=@?Id[?Id[JWV
Pi+2
Pi Pi+1 Pi+2
n 4/n
7D]wd<?8P;>iTU:dA~Hq7EyA
687 E*=@HIkT@=t]tj4/n
ACB3:!?87lAedKAW=U7?wLhN-Je=tAW:
L
L
=@?kTUd<VC:!7D]
L
L
L
A B C
Pi Pi+1 Pi+2
..............................n 6wB3:K?
............................. d<?8X
JW:[E*k:[VWAW=Q:Tj n x[:A
L3d[?8X
= AC
t = AB
0 < t < 4/n





t

t
2r
sin
2r
sin
2r
sin
abc
2
2
2
[ABC] =
=
4r
4r
  


t
r 2 t( t)
2 t
2r
=
2
2
2
4




2
2
2 4 3
2
3
r 2
r
r
4r 2 3 n
n

=
4
16
16
n3
n 6oB3:[JW:]}7JW:L
6wBd[?8plEiAW7+Y3=_V*

p
Ei6oB3:<7JW:KH!L<N1:-pl?87<NACBdA
[ABC] 21

1
4r 2 3 L

2
n3

8r 2 3 = 2

n
3
3
r 2 < 6 r 2

RKG8k8k87EM: ACBdKA
=UEd^VC7?lQ:C
ABCDEF
n Y8JW7K
Ld<?8X
Q :'ACBdA
CD = DE
EF = F A

B3:C[dl;K7?

N|=ACB

AB = BC

BC
DE
FA
3 n
+
+

BE
DA
FC
2

 [<53byC vly3@">uM_$ % @l' ( 2) eb$ +l - w [<cb  M < $

6 F <;$
0 w  =#%
Kb[   D  3
Ubl n
F

.........................................................
....................
.. ...
.......... ........ .................
..........
......... .... ......
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
..
......... .
.. ...
..........
...........
.
.. ....
..........
.
.
.
......... ......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
...
......... ...
..
..
..........
......... ...
...
..
..
..........
.
.
...........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
... .
.
.
......
....................................................................
...
..........
..........
..............................................................
... .
..........
.....................................................
... ....
.....
.
....
.
.................................................................
.
.. ...
........
.
.. ...
.
.
.
.
.
.
........
..
.... ...
... ....
........
...
... ...... ...
........
...
...
........
........
..
...
...
........
...
...
.
..
........
.
.
...
.
.
. .
........
.
..
.... .... ....
........
... ....
...
.
.
.
........
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
........
.. ...
....
......
........
.. .. ....
.........
........
... ... ....
.........
........
... ... ...... .....................
........
.
.
.
.
.
.
........
.
........ ...............................
....................

.....

...
.

n
: k3GA
L
L1d<?8X
=TU:[H/
aj
Ei
CE
cT
;K:[?8:KJed[Tt= CdAW=_7?IAC
7D]YAy7D
6wB3:[7=JW:[H b ]}7J~G8AE
d<X3Je=@T@dK=
AW:[JedK

ACBdKA=@EL

jACB3: 1
N :KTtT %*pl?87<N-?
L[N1:-BdQ:
ABCE

AC BE AB CE + BC AE = BC(CE + AE)
a BE BC(b + c)

n :K?8VC:DL
BC
BE

b+c

RK=UH=@T@d<JeTjoL
DE
DA

6wBDG8E>L
BC

d<?8X
ACBdKA=@EL

BE
j#ACB3: 5f l f


DE

d<?8X

FA

c+a

FA

FC

DA
FC
b+c
`b?8:<DG8d[Tt=tAbjwL<N1:1Bd>Q:

1
1
1
+
+
b+c
c+a
a+b

(b + c) + (c + a) + (a + b) 3
a+b+c

s
3

p
3

c
a+b

b
c+a

a+b

bm

1
1
1

b+c c+a a+b

(b + c)(c + a)(a + b)

3p
3
(b + c)(c + a)(a + b)
2

f G3TtAW=@k3T j=@?8;-}m>h9[j\ CL<N1:1;K:>A

a+b+c
b+c

a+b+c
c+a

a+b+c
a+b

9 L
2

N1BD=_V*BE*=@HIkT@=to:KE~AW7
b
c
3 n
a
+
+

b+c
c+a
a+b
2
=@?3d[TtTjoLD]_JW7H d<?8XI
yL
BC
BE

n~ =@?8X\dKT@T8]UG8?8VWAW=U7?3E

DE
DA

FA
FC

3 n
2

E*dKAW=@E*]tjD=U?8;lL



L
f f (x) + y = f (x2 y) + 4f (x)y
n
]}7J~dKT@TJW:Kd[T?G8Hq93:[JeE L
x y
 [<! %l <I [C
A ** $  } 3<2$ +< *- % w @  $
>
$
+l - o 3byC vly3@ ">uM_ $ % @l' ( 2 ) eb$ +<  =# Kb[
t D
 3Ubl n
f :

n :-?87<NOEMB37<N
6wB3:-]UG8?8VWAW=_7?3E
d<?8X
2 d[JW:#VyTU:[d[JWT jIEc7DT@GAW=U7?3E
ACBdKAhACB3:KJW:|=UE?87\7lACB3:KxJ~7
Ec7DT@G0AW=U7? n x 7 x
RKG8k8k87EM:
EcdAW=UECo:KE
f : 



f f (x) + y = f (x2 y) + 4f (x)y
n
n x[:A
]}7J~dKT@T L
a = f (0)
63x
d<p<=@y?8; 
=U?I
h;>= Q:[E
x=0
bm
f (a + y) = f (y) + 4ay
]}7J5dKT@T n `b?!}m>5L8N1:/8JeECAiAWd<p<:
Ay7;K:A
LACB3:K?
AW7+;K:>A
y
y = 0n 6wB3:K?wL]_fJW(a)
n
7H }=
m>yL a =@Ed<?+y:MQ=
:K?qa
]UG8?8VWAW=_7? n
2 `_A]}7DTtT_7<N-EACBdKA
a
f d<?8X
rs7=
H\k8ad[
JW=@?84a
;\ACB3:JW:KE*G3TAWE/7D]ACB3:qaE*G=
9ECAW0=AWGAW=_7?3E
=@?
y = f (x)
y = x2

2
n 6oBDG8EL
n
7J
:[d[E*=tTj#TU:[d<X3E~AW7
2
f (x)
f AC(x)
f (x)n =6oB3
x:[2?
EcECG8Hq:?847<N
ACBdA5AC=
B3:K4x
JW:I:*f
[=U(x)
EyAWE
ECGV*B
BdA = 0
0 dj/ECG8k8k87EM:5fAC(x
n
d<?8X
=@Ei:MQ:[?wLKN1:%xH\
BdK0A ) 6= 0 n x[:A x980:%6=
d[?l0
j
2 RK=@?8VC:
f
(x
)
=
x
f
x
>
0
x
0
0
0
n  j\ sN|=ACB
?87&
? %' *:KJW7JW:[dKTo?G8HI98:KJ 
L<N1:-739DAed[=@?
y = x0


n
f f (x) x0 = f (x2 + x0 ) 4f (x)x0
`}]
LlACB3:K?
f (x) = 0
n
f (x2 + x0 ) = f (x0 ) = f (x0 ) = x20 6= 0



n
6wBD=@E1=@HIkT@=U:[E|ACBdA
2
2
2 Ld<?8XACBDG8E>L
2
2
2
(x
(x
6wBD=@E=@E?87lA~k7E*E*=U9TUf:LD
E*=@?8VC+
: x0 ) = d<
?8X + x0 ) n 6wB3:KJW:K]}7JW:DL (x + x02)n = x0
x >0
x 6= 0
f (x) = x
]}7Jd[TtT 0 7J
]}7Jd[TtT n
6wBDG8E>L
f (x) = 0
x
f (x) = x2
x
n `b?AyJe=Ud[?8;>T_:
n
LvACB3:d[?8;>T_:9=@EM:[VWAy7J|7D]
HI:<:>AWE
dA|k7D=@?DA
BC
=UEhACB3:|Vy=UJWVyTU:5N1BD=UV*B1=UEhAWd[?8;K:[?DAAWBAC
7
dA
d<?8X#
k3d<E*EM:KEhACBJW7DGD
;KB
R G8k8k87EM:ACBdKA ABC
K
n x[:>A
ACB3:qk87D=U?DA
93:ACB3:qEc:<Vy7?8Xk7D=@?DA|7D]h=U?DBC
AW:[JeEc:<VWAWD
=U7?7D]
d<?8X
d[?8X
A
M
n Y8JW7[Q:%ACBdKA
HI:<:>AWE~ACB3:-Vy=UJWVyTU:-dA
=UEd-Hq:[X=@d<?I7D]AyJe=Ud[?8;>T_: AC n
BM
P
AP
ABD

 [<  % @8D A >33 .oD

.38e@Kb w> 02 o 2$Boe@Kb $C467= %Kb[A 8
#
D  3Ubl n

$
w

. [+ @8D $ % @ l
K<MDu  M < $B6 F

$  w
_  < $ 0 w


.......................................................
.............
.. . . ....
.........
....... ... ...............
........
.....
....... ... ...
......
.
.....
.
... .. .. ......
.
.
....
...
.... .... .....
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
....
.. ... ...
...
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
.
...
..
.. ...
..
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
...
...
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
...
...
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
..
...
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
..
...
..
..
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
...
..
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
...
...
.
..
...
.
.
.
.
...
...
.
.
.
.
...
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
.
... ...
..
..
... ..
... ......
.
.
.
.
... ...
.
... ....
.
.
.
.
.
.....
........
...
..
..........................................................................................................................................................................................
.
......
.... . .
..
...
.............. ...... .. ...
.... ..
............. ......... .... ......
..
..
... ....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
..
. ............
...
...
..... .....
...
...
...............
...
...
.....
.
... ....
.............. ....
....
...
.....
.... .. .........................
....
...
.
.....
....
...
.....................
...
.....
..
.
.
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
...
...
...................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
...
..
. .........
........
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
........
....
. ........
.
.. .....................
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
.
. ..
.....
.. .......
...................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

x[:A
93:\ACB3:qEc:<Vy7?8X k7D=@?DA|7D]~=@?DAy:KJeEM:[VWAW=_7?7D]
d<?8X
Ld<?8XTU:A
N
AWd[?8;K:[?D
AB
n w:[VydKT@Tt=U?8;1ACBdKAACB3:Id[?8;>T_:I93:AN1:[:[?!d
Hq:[:A
dKA
A%d[?8X!dqV*B37JWAP
X!=@E
Q?8;>T_:\ECG9DAW:[?8X3:<X9[j+ACB3:IV*B37JWX!dKAdIk87D=U?DA%7?ACB3:IVy=UJWVyG8H]}:[JW:K?8VC:
:<DG8d[TvBC
Ay7qACB3:\d[
n 6wB3:K?
7?#ACB3:17k8k87E*=Ay:|EC=_X3:-7D]ACB3:1V*B37JWXoL<N1:1;K:>A
M DC = CAD = 21 A
ADM

= ADC M DC

= (180 CAD DCA) M DC

= 180 21 A C 21 A
n
= 180 A C = B

TUEc7oL
LEC=U?8Vy:!ACB3:KEM:d<?8;>TU:[E\d<JW:E*G9lAy:K?8X8:[X9[j ACB3:
n 6oBDG8E=
cE d[Hq:!d[JWV7D] ADM
L AN M
N1BD=_V*B EcB37<N-E/ACBdA
=@Ek3d<JedKT@TU:KT
AN M = B
n RK=U?8N
Ay7
n  :K?8VC:DL
Vy:1M
N1:#dKTUEc7BdQ:
BC
QP
AN
M =
L[ACB3:B
AyJe=U=
d[?8;>AP
T_:KE M =d[?8
X
d<JW:%B
EC=UH=@T@d<J n 6wB3:K?wLl]_JW7HOACB3:
BQP
=
BQA
BP
Q
ABQ
k8JW7k87JeAW=U7?3d[TE*=UX8:KEL[N1:-;K:A
BQ
=
QA
n :1d[T@EM7IBd>Q:
;>=QD=U?8;
2
=JW:[QP
k7D=@?DA BQ
N|=ACB
E*k:[VWAhQA
AW7
n :[?8Vy:
Q n

BQ
7D]
4ABD

QP L
BQ

2 tACB3:/k87<N1:[J7D]wACB3:
QP QA
L3:KECAe=
dl9DT@QD
=@EMBD=@?8;
d[Ed-Hq:[X=@d<?
= QD
AP

<

n RKG8k3k7Ec:ACBdKA
=UEhdAyJW=@d<?8;>TU: n `}]lN1:5k3d[=@?DAvACB3:5k7D=@?DAWE7D]DACB3:5k3T@d<?8:=U?1JW:[X
ABC
d<?8X ;JW:<:K?wLk3JW7[Q:
ACBdKA':K=ACB3:[J5ACB3:KJW::C<=@ECA5AN17!JW:[Xk7D=@?DAWE%N1BD=UV*Bd[JW:q7?8:\G8?=tA
n
d<k3d<JA7JACBJW:[:1;JW:<:K?Ik87D=U?DAeEi]}7JyH=U?8;'d'AyJW=@d<?8;>TU:1:[G8dKT8Ay7
ABC
 3Ubl!  3byCC
vly3@ ">uM_
$ % U>l3
'( ) eu* $+l 9

=tACB%?87%TU7EcE7D]D;K:[?8:KJed[Tt=tAbjwLN1:H\dj'ECG8k8k87EM:~ACBdAoACB3:KJW:5:C<=@ECAeEdAwTU:[d[ECAs7?8:
JW:<X+k7D=@?DA%@=@]?87lAMLoACB3:\Vy7?8VyT@G8EC=_7?!B37DTUX3EAyJe=QD=UdKT@T jl~d<?8XqACBdAACB3:EC=_X3:[E'7D]
ABC
n
BdQ:|TU:[?8;ACBE L L N|=tACB
d[?8X
a
b
c
a

b
a

c
EcECG8Hq:DL8]}7JACB3:/k3G8JWk7Ec:#7D]VC7?DAyJed<X=UVWAW=_7?wL3ACBdAiACB3:KJW:#:*[=UEyA?8:K=ACB3:[J~AN17
JW:<X/k7D=@?DAWEN1BD=_V*B1d<JW:%7?8:G8?=tAd<k3d<JAh?87JsACBJW:<:';JW:<:K?#k87D=U?DAeE]}7JyH=U?8;5dAyJe=Ud[?8;>T_:
n
:<DG8d[T8AW7
n
d[?8X
E*GV*BACBdKA
RKG8k8ABC
k87EM:-ACBdKA~ACB3:[JW:/d[JW:-AN17IJW:<Xqk87D=U?DAeE
n x[:>M
98:#ECGV*BIACBdKAiAyJW=@d<?8;>TU:
=@E':[G8dKTwAyM
7\AyJW=@d<?8;>N
TU:
A NL = aL
x[:A
d<?8X P
98:ACB3:Vy=UJWVyTU:[E7D]5Jed<P
X=tM
G8E N Vy:[?DAyJW:[XdA
L
Lid[ABC
?8X
LiJW:[E*k:[PVWAW=Q:M
Tj n
N
1 n
P M
N
6wB3:K?
d[?8X
d[JW::K?DAW=UJW:Tj ;JW:[:[?
`}]
=@E1:K?DAW=UJW:TjJW:<XoLvACB3:K?wLE*=@?8VC:
Bd<E/Jed<XM
=tG8E LAC
B3N
:KJW:d<JW:IAN17JW:<Xk87D=U?DAeE#7? P N1BD=UV*Bd[JW:+7?8:qG8?=A-d[k8d[JeA Pd
1
n| JW7H
LEcd>j
VC7?DAyJed<X=UVWAW=_7? n 6oB3:[JW:]}7JW:L8ACB3:KJW:#HG8ECA98:/d;JW:[P:[?k87D=U?DA7?
P
X
d[?8X
LG8EC=U?8;%ACB3:'AyJed<?3ECTUdAW=_7?/N|=tACB/Q:[VWAy7J

LlN1:1VC7?3EyAyJWGVWA;JW:[:[?Ik7D=@?DAWE
P;X
M 7?
N d[?8X
7?
E*GV*BIACBdKA
=@E%dI
JW:[:[?AyJe=Ud[?8;>T_:\:[G8dKTsAW7
L
Y
Z=UVWAW=_7? n N
XY Z
ABC
;>=QD=U?8;'d1MVC7?DAyJed<X
n
6wBDG8E>LDACB3:KJW:1X37?87lAi:*[=UEyA~JW:[X\k87D=U?DAeE
d[?8X
ECGV*B/ACBdKA
M
N
M
N
=
a
 7<NLTU:A
93:#d#JW:<Xk7D=@?DAMLod[?8XqT_:>A
93:1ACB3:Vy=@JWVyT_:|N|=tACBqJed<X=tG8E
d[?8X
dl937[Q:DL
a 98:
n- JW7H^
n x[:>A
VC:K?DAyJW:
=@E%:[?DAW=@JW:KT j+;JW:[C:[
? n x[:A
Cn @6wBDG8E>L
U C n 1RK=U?8V
Vy: C
d/k7D=@?DAECGV*BACBdA
d[?8X

U
V
=
a
U
V
=
(mod
2)
U:C<=@ECAeE5Vd
3
987lACB\Tt=_:17?
LACB3:MjId<JW:/937lACBq;JW:[:[? n RK=U?8Vy:
L L
LACB3:[JW:/
n rT_:Kd<JeTjoL
k7D=@?DA
7DGAWC
EC=_
X3:
E*GV*B\ACBdKAiACB3:1AyJe=Ud[?8;>T_: a = min{a
=UE%:<DG8d[bTwAW7 c}
T
C
T
U
V
H\G8EyAi98:-JW:[XI@=@]w?87lAML<N1:N17DG3T_X\Bd>Q:-d1;JW:<:K?AyJe=Ud[?8;>T_:-:<DG8d[T8AWABC
7
n
T
B3:[?\N1:/JW7lAWdAy:
7?
ACB3:#Ec:A7D]Vy7JyJW:KEck87?8X=@?8;/k87D=U?DAeE ABC
=UEdVy=@JWVyT_:
N|=ACBqVC:K?DAyJW:
d<?8XqJed<UX=tG8E C n RK=U?8Vy:
=@E:[?DAW=@JW:KT jqJW:<XoLN1:/H\Tdj\?8X\AN17

r >a

JW:<X\k87D=U?DAeE57?=AMLE*dj
d<?8X
LECGV*B/ACBdKA
Ld-8?3d[ToVy7?DAyJedlXD=_VWAW=U7? n
M
N
MN = a
*
"
n f 7JW:%;K:K?8:[JedKT@T jwL<7?8:%VWd<?1k8JW7KQ:%#   
=Q:K?
L L L
d[?lj
CVC7DD}
d<Jy9=AyJed<JbjVy7?o;>G8JedAW=_7?7D]]}7DG8Jk7D=@?DAWE%=U?ACB3:k3T@d<?8:DLvd<?8X!;>={A
Q:K?B
d[?lj
TU7DG8JW=@?8;
7D]~ACB3:+k3T@d<?8:IN|=ACBAN17 VC7DTU7DG8JeELE*djJW:<X d[?8X ;JW:<:K?wLN|=tACB?87AN17JW:[X k7D=@?DAWE
dKA#X=@ECAed<?8Vy:
]_JW7H :KdlV*B7lACB3:[JcL~ACB3:[JW: :C<=@ECAeE\d ;JW:<:K?VC7?;>G8JedKAW=U7? N1BD=UV*B =@E
n
VC7?8;JeG:[?DAAW7 1
L
L L
{A B C D}
*
*  * /1, *

   n  GBd[ E L od[HIEc:Mj6Dj3k8:i6oB3:<7JW:KHIEs=U?5ACB3:'Y3T@d<?8:DL0[y <E.o [U ule

 o<l L3R<:[Je=_:KE L 

CL3k n m l <n
[

 :C[AN1:|AWG8JW?\Ay7\EM7DTtGAW=_7?3E]}7Jk3JW739TU:[H\E7D]wACB3:-6wBD=@JWX w 7DG8?8X7D]wACB3:
`bJed<?=@d<? f dKACB3:KHIdAW=_VWd[TogiTjk3=@dlX

D


;>= Q:[?Wm ll


n

(

n RKG8k8k87EM:-ACBdA
L
L
d<JW:/Vy=UJWVyTU:[E57D]vJed<X=tG8E%7?8:-=@?\ACB3:1k3T@d<?8:1E*GV*BACBdA
?87%AN17-7D]lACB3:KHd[JWC
:1Aed<?8. ;K. :K. ?DC
AML<nd[?8X'ACB3:5ECG93Ec:Av7D]lACB3:5kTUd[?8:LK]}7JWHq:[X19[j'ACB3:G8?=_7?
7D]ACB3:[Ec:1Vy=@JWVyT_:KELl=UEVC7?3?8:[VWAy:[X n `}]
L3k3JW7[Q:'ACBdA
S = {Ci Cj | 1 i < j n}
n
|S| n
 3Ubl!  3byCC
vly3@ ">uM_
$ % U>l3
'( 
) eu* $+l n
7Jh:KdlV*B LDX3:[?87lAW:|9[j
ACB3:%?G8Hq93:[Jh7D]o:T_:KHq:K?DAWEi7D]
N1BD=_V*B#93:KTU7?8;
n(C
n RK=@?8VC:1ACB3i:/G8?=U7?!7D]sACB3
n1 7J
Ay7
:Vy=@iJW)VyT_:KE5=UE%VC7?3?8:[VWAy:[XwL3N1:Bd>Q: S
n
LvX8:K?87lAy:\9[j
ACB3:\?G8HI98:KJ'7D]hVy=UJWVyTU:[E
N1BDn(C
=UV*B!iVC)7>
?DAed[0=@?
:[d<V*C
B i
n(M )
Ci
M
n
6wBDG8E>L M S
n(M ) 2
n
x[:A
Ld[?8XTU:A
98:~d[?lj'7D]ACB3:;>= Q:[?G8?=AwVy=UJWVyTU:[EwE*GV*BACBdA
?8S
MVC7?DAeC
RK=U?8Vy:ACB3:[JWM
:=UE
7-AWd[?8;K:[?8VujwCLDi:[d<V*B#7D]3ACB3:
7lACB3:KJhVy=UJWVyTU:[EN1BD=UV*B#
d[=@i?
17D=@?DAWE-d[JW:qk3d[=@JN|=@EM:IX=@ECAW=@?8VWAML
n 6wB3:K)EM
HG8ECA=U?DAW:[JeEc:<VWA
=@? d[?87lACB3:[J%k7D=@?DA n(M
:Ik
M
C
i
98:[VydKG8EM:DLv]}7Jd[?ljAN17;>= Q:[?!k7D=@?DAWE-7D]ACB3:IkTUd[?8:LwACB3:KJW:Id[JW:\dKAHq7EyAAN17G8?=tA
LDACB3:1Vy=UJWVyTU:
Vy=UJWVyTU:[E~N1BD=UV*BIVy7?DAWdK=U?ACB3:'AN17\7D]ACB3:[H n 6oBDG8EL=@?Id<X8XD=tAW=U7?Ay7
n `_A']}7DTtT_7<N-M
VC7?DAed[=@?3E1dA%T_:Kd<EyA
7lACB3:[J':KTU:[HI:[?DAeE/7D]
E%ACBdKAML]}7J':[d<C
V*B i
n(M
)

1
S
n
d<?8XI:KdlV*B\Vy=@JWVyT_:
E*GV*B/ACBdA
L<N1:1Bd>Q:
M S
Ci
M Ci
n(M ) n(Ci )
P
x[:A
E*GV*B%ACBdA
1 L>N1B3:KJW:iACB3:5ECG8H =UEv]}7JoACB3:5k3d[=@JeE
N =
(M, Ci )
(M,Ci ) n(Ci )
n :-BdQ:
=@E7?8:-7D]ACB3:1
;>= Q:[?G8?=tAiVy=@JWVyT_:KEd<?8X
Ci
M S Ci
!
X
X
X
1
1
n
N =
=
n(Ci )
= n
n(Ci )
n(Ci )
C
M C S
C
i

g?ACB3:-7lACB3:[J~Bd<?8XoL3EC=U?8Vy:

6wBDG8E>L

|S| n

n(M ) n(Ci )

(M,Ci )

L<N1:-BdQ:

X
1
=
n(M )
M S

Ci :M Ci

1
n(M )

X
1
n
n(M )
=
1 = |S|
n(M )
M S
M S
X

n RKG8k8k87EM:~ACBdKA
=UEvdVy7?lQ:*B3:*[d<;K7?N|=tACB
ABCDEF
B +D+F = 360
d<?8X
AB

Y8JW7[Q:%ACBdKA

BC
BC
CA

CD
DE
AE
EF

EF
FA
FD
DB

= 1

= 1

 [ < % w @ $ D$ <+ *- 3

 u>y* vly#">bU
$% @l'
( 2) e b$:+l  - o K <MDu  M < $:6 F < $ 0 w  =#\u[   D
 3Ubl 
C

.............................................................................................
........ .................
.... ..............
....... ....................
....... ............
.......
..........
............................. ................. ..............
....
..........
............
....
....
.
..........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
..
.... .............
..........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
.........
..........
..
.....
.
.
.
.
.
..........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
.........
..........
......
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.........
.... .......
..........
.
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
......... ....................
..
..........
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..........
............ .....
.. ...........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.. ............
.............................................................................................................................................................................
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......................................
.............
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. ....
................................
... ....
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..............................................................................
..
...... ..
...................
.........
...... ...
..... .............
.........
...... ......
............
.........
.....
.....
............
.........
.....
...
............
......
.........
.
.
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.............
.....
...
.........
......
............
.....
.........
...
............ ...........
.....
... ...........
..
.....
..... ...................... .....................
.....
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
....
.........
.....
...... ...........
..... .................................
............

RK=U?8Vy:

B + D + F = 360

L<N1:-;K:A

A + C + E = 360

XD=UJW:[VWAWTjEC=UH=@T@d<JAy7
L>d[EsEMB37<N-?5=U?ACB3:~;>G8JW: n 6oB3:[?
4BAT
4BCD
n 6wB3:KJW:K]}7JW:DL
n
d<?8X
CBA
BC/AB = DB/BT
4BCA 4BDT
 :K?8VC:DL = DBT
:iVC7?3EyAyJWGVWA

RK=U?8Vy:

4BCD 4BAT

BC
BD n
=
CA
DT
L[N1:1Bd>Q:

bm

AT n
CD

AB
BC

R =U?8Vy: AB CD EF
K
L8]_JW7HF N1:/EM:[:-ACBdA AT CD EF


=1

=1
BC
DE
F
A
CD
DE
F
A
ACBdKA=@EL
FA
EF n
=
AT
DE

AE
TD n
=
EF
DF
JW7Hbmd<?8XI sN1:-739lAWdK=U?

JW7H

n
RK=U?8Vy:
BCD +LsN1
BAF
+
F
ED = 360 n 6oBD=UE
\
:

8
?
!
X
C
A

B

d
A
BAT + BAF
AT = 360
n 6oF
Ay73;K:>ACB3:[JhN|=ACBI
=@+
HIkF
T@=U:[E~
ACBdKA
B3:[? AT = F ED
L
4F
AT

4F
ED
4F AE 4F T D
N1BD=_V*B#=UH\k3Tt=_:KE~ACBdA
yLIN1:BdQ:

BC

d<?8XIB3:K?8VC:DL

CA

AE
EF

BD
DT

TD
DF

BC AE F D
n

= 1
CA EF DB

BD L
DF

RKG8k3k7Ec:ACBdKA
L
L
d<JW: JW:Kd[T%?G8Hq93:[JeE n Y8JW7KQ:ACBdKAACB3:[JW::C<=@ECAeE
rE*G
. .ACB
. dKA rn HI:<:>AWE
1 V*B#
L L
L
L
L
=@?qdA~TU:[d[ECAi7?8:1d[?8XIdKA
IHq
2 :K.TU:[. HI
. :[n}
I
{id[?8iX + 1 i + 2}
7EyAh{1
AN17
?DAeELD]}7J
1in2


n
X 
1X
n


|ri |
ri 



6 i=1
iI

 3Ubl! %l [I <:A ** $  } 3<2$+< n

x[:A

r=

n
P

i=1

|ri |

n~ 7J

si =

L L L3X8:?8:
i=0 1 2
X

rj

d<?8X

r = s 0 + s 1 + s 2 t0 t1 t2
2r

rj

rj <0
ji (mod 3)

rj 0
ji (mod 3)

6wB3:K?#N1:-BdQ:

ti =

Ld[?8X

= (s0 + s1 ) + (s1 + s2 ) + (s2 + s0 )

n
(t0 + t1 ) (t1 + t2 ) (t2 + t0 )

6wB3:KJW:K]}7JW:DLACB3:[JW::*[=UEyA
d[?8X
N|=ACB
E*GV*B+ACBdKA
i1
i2
i1 6= i2
s i1 + s i2
1 n E*E*G8HI:L[N|=tACB37DGATU7EcE7D]s;K:K?8:[JedKT@=AujoLDACBdA
t i1 + t i2 3 r

6wB3:K?

s i1 + s i2

d<?8X

1
r
3

s i1 + s i2 + t i1 + t i2 0

si1 + si2 (ti1 + ti2 )

s i1 + s i2 + t i1

7J

Ld[?8X/N1:1Bd>Q:

(si1 + si2 + ti1 ) + (si1 + si2 + ti2 ) si1 + si2

 :K?8VC:DL87?8:-7D]

1
r
3

d[?8X

s i1 + s i2 + t i2

1
r
3

HG8ECAi93:-dKAhT_:Kd<EyA

n
1 n
r
6

687VC7H\k3TU:AW:1ACBD=UE%?G8HI98:KJ7D]sACB3:>.olyoN1:/TU7373p\dA5Ec7DT@GAW=U7?3E5]_JW7H 7DG8J



rsBD=@?8:[Ec: f dACB3:[H\dKAW=UVydKTgiT j3H\k3=@dlX;>= Q:[?
JW:[d<X8:KJeEAW7 k8JW739DT_:KHIE 7D]/ACB3:
Wm ll



2Dn
n `b?#d<VyGAy:AyJW=@d<?8;>TU:
n Y7D=U?DA
L
=@E~7?
E*GV*B|ACBdA
Dn
=@E739lAWG8EM: n x[:4ABC
A
93:%ACACB
B3:17JACB373>
VC:KABC
?DAyJW:17D]
RKG8k3k7BC
Ec:-k87D=U?DA
=@E
ADB
4ABD
n Y8JW7[Q:ACBdKAk87D=U?DA
=U?3EC=_X3:
d<?8X7?/ACH
B3:-Vy=@JWVyG8HqVy=@JWVyT_:|7D]
=UEFACB3:
4ABD
F 7?\ACB3:
7JeACB373Vy:[4ABC
?DAyJW:#7D]
=@]vd[?8X7?T jI=t]
=UE5k3d<JedKT@TU:KTAW7
d<?8X
=@E%
4ABC n
HD
CF
H
Vy=UJWVyG8HIVy=UJWVyTU:17D]
4ABC



 [<-9:.33eUu o02 o $7oeUu $4 67- o K<MDu   $6 F < $

0  w G=#%u[  M < D GFeuu'M n
A

...........
....

....
....
...
..
.............
.....................
.
.
..... ... ... ....
.
.
.. .. ... .. ..
... . .. .. ..
... ... ... ... ..
... .. ... .. ...
... .... ..... .... ....
.
.
... ..
.. .
.....
... ...
... ...
... ...
... ..
....
......
... ....
...
...
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
..
.
.
....
.
.
.
..
....
.
....
.
.
.
.
...
.. ....
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
. ...
.
...
.........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
........
...
... .....
... ............... ....
... ....
...
........
...
... ..
. ..
...
..
.. ..............
. ...
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
............ .. ... ............ .........
.
..
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
....................................
..
.
.
.
.
..
.. ........................... .... .............
...
......
.
.
.
.
. ............
........
........
.......
.. ...
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......
........
.
....
.
.. .......... ....................
.
.
.
.
.
........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
........ ....
..
. ..................................... ...........
..........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .
.
............ ..............
....................................................................................................................................................................................................................
........
............
.
.
.
.
.
.
............ ........ .......
.
.............
.....
............ ..............
..
............ .......
.................... ....
...................
...

=U;>G8JW:
=@JeECAT_:>AG8E~E*G8k3k7Ec:5ACBdKA
=UEhACB3:'7JACB373VC:K?DAyJW:|7D]
_Ec:<: =_;>G8JW: n
4ABC
n E
n
6wB3:K?
=UEiACB3:1F
7JeACB373Vy:[?DAyJW:17D]
LlN1:1BdQ:
H
4ABD
HD AB
6wBDG8E>L CF AB n
RKHD
=U?8Vy: k CF
L
L
Ld<?8X
d<JW:-VC7?8VujVyT@=UVL
A B D
F
n

AF B = ADB
E
d[?8X
d<JW:-7JACB373VC:K?DAyJW:[E7D]
d<?8X
LJW:KEck8:<VWAW= Q:KT jwL[N1:-Bd>Q:
F
HL
4ABCLid[?8X 4ABD
n `_A1]}7DT@TU7<N-E1ACBdKA
L
AF BC BF AC d[AD
BH
BD AHn 6wB3:K?wLwG8E*=@?8; CL
8
?
X

AF B + ACB n = 180
6wB3:KJW:K]}7JW: ADB
L
L L+
d[?8AHB
X
d[JW:1=
Vy7?8180
VjVyTt=_V n
ACB
 7<=NAHB
N1:1VC7?3EC=_X3:[JhACB3:/VC7?lAQ:KJeBEM:/C
UEM:[: =_;>H
G8JW:#m n E*E*G8HI:|ACBdA
HD
d<?8X#ACBdKA
L
L
Ld<?8X
d<JW:1Vy7?8VjVyTt=_V n RK=U?8Vy:
L
L
Ld<?8X
d[JW:1
VC7?8VukjVyCF
T@=UVL
A B C n RK=@?8VCH
A
B
D
F
n
L
L
L8d<?8X
d[JW:/VC7?8VujVyT@=UVL
:
B=UE1=ACB3ADB
ACB = AHB n
AF
E
:!7JeACB373Vy:[?DAyJW:!A
7D] B C LN1H
:!BdQ:
4ABD
ADB + AHB = 180
n
6wBDG8H
E>L

B
+ACB3ACB
n 6wB3:K?
93:|
:-JW:
:<VW=
AW=U7180
?q7D]
ACBJW7DG;KB
d[?8X
x[AF
:A
G
F
AB
AGB = AF B
n 6wBDG8E>L
ABG = ABF
n
AGB + ACB = AF B + ACB = 180
 :K?8VC:DL L L Ld<?8X
d[JW:1VC7?8VujVyT@=UV n
AVy: G B
C d<?8X
n 6oB3:[?wLE*=@?8VC:
RK=U?8
LwN1:IBdQ:
k7DHD
HD
AB
LlCF
ACB3:|k
=@?DAWE
L L
d<?8X H
G8ECAi93:1VC7DTtT@=@?8:[CF
d[J n  :K?8AB
VC:DL
F G AB
C F
G
n
ACF = ACG = ABG = ABF
L/N1:Bd>Q:
L/N1BD=UV*B;>= Q:[EG8E
RK=U?8Vy:
CF AB
ACF
+ BAC
=EL 90=UE1ACB3:7JACB373VC:K?DAyJW:
n
n
w
6
3
B
K
:
?
o
6
D
B
8
G
ABF
+ BAC
= 90
BF AC
F
n
7D]
4ABC

....
...
.................................................................
.
..............
.
................................ .................
..........
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
........
....
..... ....... .... .......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.
.
.
.
.
. .. .... ... ...
.....
.....
.
.
.
......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
. . ... .. ..
...
........
....
... .... ........ .... ....
....
........
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
. .. ...... ... ...
......
....
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
........ .... ...
.. ...
.. ..............
.
.
.
.
...
.....
.. ...
.. ...
.
.. .............
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.. ..
......
. ..
............
.
.
.
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.....
.....
.
......
..
..
.
.
.
.
...........................
.
.
.
..
......
...
.
..
........
.
.
.
.
...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
......
. .
........
.
....
..
...
.
.
.
.
... ....
.
.
........
.
......
.
. ...
...
..
.
........
.
.
.
.
... ...
.
.
.
.....
.
. ...
..
........ .........
.
.
... ...
.
.
.
.
.
.
......... ...
....
.
. ....
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.... ....
...
.
.
.
...... ..
...
.. ............. ...
.
..
... ....
.
.
.
.
...
.........
...... ..
..
..
.
... ..
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
....... ..
. ...........
..
.
.. ...
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
........ ........ ... ..
...
.. ...
.
.
..
.......... .. .... ....................... ...
... ..
..
...
..
...
...
.. ...
...
... ........................
..
...
... ..
...
..
..
....................
...
...
... ...
..
.. .............................. ..... ..............
.
.
.
.
.
.
.......
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
........
.
.. .. ... ..
..
............
.......
....
........ ............ .....
...
........ ..... ....................................................................
......
............ .. ...
...
......... ..... ... ... .................... .. ...............
..... .. ..
......
..............................
.
................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
.
.
.
....................
.
.
...
...
..... ....................... ................
...
....
.............. ........
.....
......
............. ........
........
.......
.
..................... .....
.
.
........
.
.
.
.
..................... ... ...........
..........
....... . ...
...............
....................................................

....

.
...

=U;>G8JW:/m
n x[:A
9 :|d1;>= Q:[?#=U?DAW:<;K:KJ n Y8JW7[Q:ACBdKAACB3:[JW:-:C<=@ECA=U?DAW:<;K:KJeE L Ld[?8X
3
E*GV*B
a b
k
ACBdKAi937lm
ACB
L d<JW:|?87lAiX= Q=@E*=U9TU:-9[j L
Ld<?8X
a b
2 k0
n
2m = a19 + b99 + k 21999

 3Ubl! %l [I <:A ** $  } 3<2$+< n

x[:A
98:d\k87E*=AW=Q:#=@?DAy:[;K:[JcLsd<?8XT_:>A
93:\d[?73X3X!k87E*=AW=Q:/=U?DAW:<;K:KJ n\ 7J
r
d<?ljI73X3X\k8n7E*=AW=Q:'=@?DAy:[;K:[JeE
d[?8X
x
y
L
xr y r (mod 2n )
=
x y (mod 2n )
98:[VydKG8EM:


xr y r = (x y) xr1 + xr2 y + + y r1
d<?8X r1
=@E73X3X n `_Ah]}7DTtT_7<N-EhACBdAACB3:'EM:>A7D]wVy7?8;JWG:K?8VC:
r2
+L y r1
VyTUd[EcEcx:[E#7D] + rxL r L y +
L
HI73XG3TU7
=UE1ACB3:+E*d<HI:+d<E1ACB3:+Ec:A17D]
r
n
1VyTUd[3

1)r LMN1BD=UV*B=@Eo
2n
VC7?8;JeG:[?8Vy:
EcEc:[Es57D] .L . .L (2
L
L n
ACB3:iEM:>Aw7D]<d[TtT[73X8X'Vy7?8;JWG:K?8VC:
VyTUd[EcEc:[EiHq73XDG3T_7 n n 1 3 5 . . . 2 1
2
63d<p<=@?8;
d[?8X
LDN1:1EM:[:|ACBdA~ACB3:KJW:#:C<=@ECAeE5d[?73X3XI?G8Hq93:[J
r = 19
n = 1999

n rsB3737Ec:

AW7/98:
ECGV*B|ACBdKA
19
1999
a
a

a0Ec7DT@mod
2=UE 1999
n
E*

G 0qVy=_:K?DAWTj\?82m
:[;dKAW
= Q1:-
Ec7/a
ACB0 dA mod 2
o
6
3
B
[
:
\
?
1
d

G
W
A
U
=

7
#
?
2m 1 a19 > 0


2m 1 a19 n
(a, b, k) = a, 1,
21999
6wBdAVy7HIkT_:>Ay:KEACBD=UE?G8Hq93:[J7D]DACB3: .olyo n :5d[JW:=U?1giT j3H\k3=@dlX-Ec:[d[EM7? n
R<:[?8X\Hq:j7DG8J~?=UVC:|EM7DTtGAW=_7?3Eid<?8XI;K:K?8:[JedKT@=
CdKAW=U7?3Ed<EN1:T@Td[EgiTjHIk=Ud<X3E n