Lecture 1

ARO-401-2
Heat, mass and Momentum Transfer
April 1, 2014
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
Aerospace Engineering Department

ARO 401 Heat, Mass & Momentum Transfer Spring 2013

Instructor: Dr. Tony C. Lin
Office: Room 13-1229
Telephone: (909) 528-0493
(909) 869-2470 (Dept. office)
E-mail: tclin@csupomona.edu; lin.tony98@yahoo.com

Office hours: Tuesday/Thursday 11:30AM to 1:00Pm
Prerequisite: C or better in ARO 301.

Textbook: Theodore L. Bergman, A. S. Lavine, F. P. Incropera, and D. P. DeWitt (2011),
Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, 7th ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.

Course Outline:

1. Introduction

a. Why study heat transfer
b. Modes of heat transfer
c. Heat transfer rate equations
d. Conservation of energy
e. Surface energy balance

2. Introduction to conduction
a. Fourier's law of conduction
b. Thermal properties of matter
c. Derivation of the heat equation
d. Boundary and initial conditions

3. One-dimensional steady conduction
a. Planar wall
b. Thermal resistance
c. Contact resistance
d. Alternative conduction analysis
e. Cylindrical and spherical walls
f. Composite walls
g. Walls with internal heat generation
h. Heat transfer from fins
i. Pin, straight and annular fins
j. Fin effectiveness and efficiency

4. Two-dimensional steady conduction
a. Analytical approach - method of separation of variables
b. Graphical approach
c. Computational approach
d. Derivation of finite-difference equations
e. Matrix solution methods
f. Gauss-Seidel method

5. Transient conduction

a. Lumped capacitance method
b. Biot and Fourier numbers
c. Exact solutions for planar, cylindrical and spherical problems
d. The one-term approximation
e. Graphical solution - Heisler and Grober charts
f. Exact solutions for semi-infinite solids
g. Multi-dimensional problems
h. Discretization of the unsteady heat equation
i. Explicit formulation and stability
j. Implicit formulation and solution method

6. Introduction to convection

a. Heat, mass and momentum transfer
b. Velocity, thermal and concentration boundary layers
c. Boundary layer equations
d. Similarity parameters
e. Functional form of solutions
f. Heat and mass transfer analogy
g. Reynolds analogy
h. Chilton-Colburn analogies


7. Forced convection, external flows
a. Flat plate in parallel flow
b. Skin-friction coefficient, Nusselt no. and Sherwood no.
c. Average values of the boundary-layer parameters
d. Laminar, turbulent and mixed-flow cases
e. Cylinder in cross flow
f. Sphere in a flow

8. Forced convection, internal flows
a. Entrance and fully-developed regions
b. Critical Reynolds number
c. Darcy's friction factor and the Moody diagram
d. Constant surface heat flux case
e. Constant surface temperature case
f. Convection coefficient for laminar and turbulent flows

9. Introduction to radiation heat transfer
a. Fundamental concepts
b. Radiation intensity
c. Blackbody radiation
d. Stefan-Boltzmann law
e. Emissivity
f. Absorptivity
g. Reflectivity
h. Transmissivity
i. Kirchhoff's law
References:

1. Holman, J.P. (1990), Heat Transfer, 7th ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, NY.

1. White, F.M. (1984), Heat Transfer, 3rd ed., Addison Wesley, Reading, MA.

1. Rohsenow, W.M., Choi, H. (1961), Heat, Mass, and Momentum Transfer, Prentice-Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Grading: Based on a weighted average of the following items.

- Homework 10%
- Course notebook 5%
- Course conduct 5%
- Computer assignment 15%
- Quizzes 25%
- Midterm Exams (2) 20%
- Final Exam 20%

Quizzes will be closed-book, closed-notes, emphasizing basic concepts. Exams will be
open-book, closed-notes, emphasizing quantitative- and derivation-type problems.

What is Heat ?
A Form of Energy
Heat or thermal energy flows from a region of higher temperature to a
Region of lower temperature
Heat
Heat is defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary of a
system due to a temperature difference between the system and its
surroundings.
Heat, internal energy, and temperature are all different quantities.
Be sure to use the correct definition of heat.
You cannot talk about the heat of a system, you can refer
to heat only when energy has been transferred as a result of a
temperature difference.
9
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as:
thermal,
mechanical,
kinetic,
potential,
electrical,
magnetic,
chemical,
nuclear.
Their sum constitutes the total energy E (or e on a unit mass
basis) of a system.
The sum of all microscopic forms of energy is called the
internal energy of a system.
HEAT AND OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY
Thermodynamics M. D. Eastin
Forms of Energy
Energy comes in a variety of forms
Potential
Mechanical Chemical Electrical
Internal Kinetic
Heat
Herein, we will study internal, mechanical, kinetic, and heat energy
What is Work ?
A Form of Energy
Mechanical work = Force * distance
s F W - =
Internal Energy

Internal energy includes matter molecular motions
Random translational motion
Rotational motion
Vibrational motion
Internal energy also includes potential energy between
molecules.
13
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER
Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one system
to another as a result of temperature difference.
Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as
a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium state to
another.
Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfers as well as variation of temperature.
The transfer of energy as heat is always from the higher-
temperature medium to the lower-temperature one.
Heat transfer stops when the two mediums reach the same
temperature.
Heat can be transferred in three different modes:
conduction, convection, radiation
Internal Energy and Enthalpy
In the analysis of systems that
involve fluid flow, we frequently
encounter the combination of
properties u and Pv.
The combination is defined as
enthalpy (h = u + Pv).
The term Pv represents the flow
energy of the fluid (also called
the flow work).

v
1
=
Historical Background
Thermodynamics and mechanics (mass/momentum transfer)
were considered to be distinct branches of physics.
Until about 1850
Experiments by James Joule and others showed a
connection between them.
A connection was found between the transfer of energy by heat
in thermal processes and the transfer of energy by work in
mechanical processes.
The concept of energy was generalized to include internal
energy.
The principle of conservation of energy emerged as a universal
law of nature.
Thermodynamics Historical Background
Thermodynamics and mechanics were considered
to be distinct branches of physics.
Until about 1850
Experiments by James Joule and others showed a
connection between them.
A connection was found between the transfer of
energy by heat in thermal processes and the transfer
of energy by work in mechanical processes.
The concept of energy was generalized to include
internal energy and the conversion of work to heat.
The principle of conservation of energy emerged as
a universal law of nature.
w q e o o o =
James Prescott Joule
1818 1889
British physicist
Largely self-educated
Some formal education
from John Dalton
Research led to establishment
of the principle of conservation
of energy
Determined the amount of
work needed to produce one
unit of energy
Unification of dynamics (F =ma) and heat transfer/thermal science
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
Joule established the
equivalence between
mechanical energy and
internal energy.
His experimental setup is
shown at right.
The decrease in potential
energy associated of the
system as the blocks fall
equals the work done by the
paddle wheel on the water.
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat
Joule found that it took approximately 4.18 J of mechanical energy to raise
the water 1
o
C.
Later, more precise measurements determined the amount of mechanical
energy needed to raise the temperature of water from 14.5
o
C to 15.5
o
C is 1
cal
1 cal = 4.186 J
This is known as the mechanical equivalent of heat.
A more proper name would be the equivalence between
mechanical energy and internal energy, but the historical name is
well entrenched.
1 Joule = 1(kg*m/s
2
)*m=1 N* m= 1Watt*s
Joule developed the absolute scale of temperature, made observation on
magnetrostriction.
Joules law: Heat generated on a electric circuit: Q = (I
2
R)t
( where I =current, R = circuit resistance, t =time)
Joule led to the theory of conservation of energy, which led to the
development of the first law of thermodynamics

Units of Heat
Historically, the calorie was the unit used for heat.
One calorie is the amount of energy transfer necessary to
raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5
o
C to
15.5
o
C.
The Calorie used for food is actually 1 kilocalorie.
In the US Customary system, the unit is a BTU (British Thermal
Unit).
One BTU is the amount of energy transfer necessary to
raise the temperature of 1 lb of water from 63
o
F to 64
o
F.
The standard in the textbook is to use Joules.
1 cal =4.186 J .
1 Btu (British thermal unit) =1055.06 J =2.931 10
-4
kWh =0.252 kcal
1 BTU (British Thermal unit) =778.16 ft.lbf =1.05510
10
ergs =0.293 watt-hours

The most common units for heat are
-------- BTU (Btu) - British Thermal Unit
-------- Calorie
--------- Joule

The calorie was first defined by Nicolas Clment in 1824 as a unit of heat,
The word comes from Latin calor meaning "heat".
A calorie (cal) is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram
of water by 1 C (at sea level).
Joule is a unit of energy equal to the work done when a force of one newton acts
through a distance of one meter
the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water
through 1
o
F (58.5
o
F - 59.5
o
F) at sea level (30 inches of mercury).


Units of Heat
Temperature and Heat
Kinetic energy of the molecules is the
energy of motion
Temperature is the measure of the average
kinetic energy of molecules motions
Kelvin scale
The Kelvin scale is a metric temperature scale
measured in Kelvin units (K)
Formula (273+C)= Kelvin
The important parameters
All of thermodynamics can be expressed in
terms of four quantities
Temperature (T)
Internal Energy (U)
Entropy (S)
Heat (Q)
These quantities will be defined as we progress
through the lesson
The basic Laws in Thermodynamics
(3 laws+ a - zero
th
law)
According to British scientist C. P. Snow, the
three laws of thermodynamics can be
(humorously) summarized as
1. You cant win (1
st
law)
2. You cant even break even (2
nd
law)
3. You cant get out of the game (3
rd
law)
FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
E = q + w
heat energy transferred
energy
change
work done
by the
system
Energy is conserved!
You cant win (1
st
law)
The first law of thermodynamics is an
extension of the law of conservation of energy
The change in internal energy of a system is
equal to the heat added to the system minus the
work done by the system
U = Q - W
Slide courtesy of NASA
First Law of Thermodynamics)
Process Terminology
Adiabatic no heat transferred
Isothermal constant temperature
Isobaric constant pressure
Isochoric constant volume
Heat Capacity
The amount of heat required to raise a certain
mass of a material by a certain temperature is
called heat capacity
Q = mc
x
T
The constant c
x
is called the specific heat of
substance x, (SI units of J/kg K)
You cant break even
(2
nd
Law of Thermodynamics)
Think about what it means to not break
even. Every effort you put forth, no matter
how efficient you are, will have a tiny bit of
waste.
The 2
nd
Law can also be stated that heat flows
spontaneously from a hot object to a cold
object (spontaneously means without the assistance of external work)
This implies there is a direction of heart flows (one-way street)

Second Law of Thermodynamics
S
2
= S
1
S
2
> S
1
Concerning the 2
nd
Law
The second law of thermodynamics introduces
the notion of entropy (S), a measure of system
disorder (messiness)
Direction of a Process
The 2
nd
Law helps determine the preferred
direction of a process
A reversible process is one which can change
state and then return to the original state
This is an idealized condition all real
processes are irreversible
A restatement of the Second Law which turns out to be
equivalent:
Heat will not flow from a colder body to a hotter body unless
some other process (which does work) is also involved.

Another restatement to be discussed next time:
The entropy of an isolated system can only increase or
remain constant. Its entropy cannot decrease.
Heat Engine
A device which transforms heat into work is
called a heat engine
This happens in a cyclic process
Heat engines require a hot reservoir to supply
energy (Q
H
) and a cold reservoir to take in the
excess energy (Q
C
)
Q
H
is defined as positive, Q
C
is less than Q
H
A schematic representation of a
heat engine. Heat is taken in at
high temperatures, T
H
. Some
heat is converted to work, and
the remainder is released at a
lower temperature, T
C
.
0 >
C
Q
W Q Q
C H
+ =
C H
T T >
C H
T T >
You cant get out
(3
rd
Law of Thermodynamics )
No system can reach absolute zero temperature
This is one reason we use the Kelvin
temperature scale. Not only is the internal
energy proportional to temperature, but you
never have to worry about dividing by zero in
an equation!
There is no formula associated with the 3
rd

Law of Thermodynamics
The 3
rd
law defines the zero temperature (0K)



Third Law of Thermodynamics
The third law of thermodynamics is sometimes stated
as follows:
The entropy of a perfect crystal at absolute zero
is exactly equal to zero.

In 1912 Nernst stated the law as : "It is impossible for
any procedure to lead to the isotherm T = 0 in a finite
number of steps."
Implications of 3
rd
Law
MIT researchers achieved 450 picokelvin in 2003
(less than of one billionth!)
Molecules near these temperatures have been called
the fifth state of matter: Bose-Einstein Condensates
Awesome things like super-fluidity and super-
conductivity happen at these temperatures
K 0 (thermal conductivity)
0 (gas viscosity)
Exciting frontier of research

Helium II will "creep" along surfaces
(anti-gravity and anti-surface tension)
Superfluidity of liquid helium
The Third Law of Thermodynamics
The third law: The entropy of a perfect crystal at
0 degree Kelvin is zero.

The third law provides the reference state for use
in calculating absolute entropies.

What is a Perfect Crystal?
Perfect crystal at 0 K
Crystal deforms at T > 0 K
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics (thermodynamic equilibrium)
Thermodynamics M. D. Eastin
Energy Conservation
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that total energy is conserved for any
thermodynamic system energy can not be created nor destroyed
energy can only change from one form to another
constant ) ( = E Energy
constant
electrical chemical heat
mechanical potential kinetic internal
= + +
+ + + +
E E E
E E E E
Our main concern in this course are : internal, mechanical, and heat
Thermodynamics M. D. Eastin
Internal Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy
(of the molecules in the system)

Depends only on the current system state (p,V,T)
Does not depend on past states
Does not depend on how state changes occur


Changes are the result of external forcing
on the system (in the form of work or heat)
First Law of Thermodynamics
t environmen t environmen internal
Heat Work E + = A
dQ dW dU + =
dQ pdV dU + =
Thermodynamics M. D. Eastin
Joules experiments

Valve
Closed
Air Vacuum
Thermally Insulated System
Thermodynamics M. D. Eastin
Joules experiments
Thermally Insulated System
Valve
Open
Air Air
Joules experiments

dQ pdV dU + =
Valve
Open
Air Air
Air expanded to fill the container
Change in volume
Change in pressure

No external work was done
Air expanded into a vacuum
within the system

No heat was added or subtract
Thermally insulated system

No change in internal energy
No change in temperature


What does this mean?
This is essence of 1
st
law of
thermodynamics 0 dU=
Thermodynamics M. D. Eastin
First Law of Thermodynamics
Valve
Open
Air Air
What energy
transformations occur as
air parcels move around
within thunderstorms?
Heat Transfer
The movement of heat is from a warmer object to a
colder one
Heat transfer process can be quantified by appropriate
rate equation
----- These equations are used to compute the
amount of energy being transferred per unit time
Forms of heat transfer
Three forms (Modes) of heat transfer:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
53
Modes of heat transfer
Conduction: diffusion of heat due to temperature gradients. A
measure of the amount of conduction for a given gradient is the
heat conductivity.
Convection: when heat is carried away by moving fluid. The
flow can either be caused by external influences, forced
convection; or by buoyancy forces, natural convection.
Convective heat transfer is tightly coupled to the fluid flow
solution.
Radiation: transfer of energy by electromagnetic waves
between surfaces with different temperatures, separated by a
medium that is at least partially transparent to the (infrared)
radiation. Radiation is especially important at high
temperatures, e.g. during combustion processes, but can also
have a measurable effect at room temperatures.
Heat Transfer
The science of how heat flows is called heat transfer.
There are three ways heat transfer works: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
Heat flow depends on the temperature difference.
Thermal Equilibrium
Two bodies are in
thermal equilibrium with
each other when they
have the same
temperature.
In nature, heat always
flows from hot to cold
until thermal equilibrium
is reached.
Heat Conduction
Key Question:
How does heat pass
through different
materials?
Conduction
When you heat a metal strip at one end, the heat
travels to the other end.
As you heat the metal, the particles vibrate, these
vibrations make the adjacent particles vibrate, and so on
and so on, the vibrations are passed along the metal and
so is the heat. We call this?
Conduction
Metals are different
The outer e______ of metal atoms
drift, and are free to move.

When the metal is heated, this
sea of electrons gain kinetic
energy and transfer it
throughout the metal.
Insulators, such as wood does not have these sea of
electrons which is why they do not conduct heat as well as
metals.
lectrons

Heat Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat through
materials by the direct contact of matter.
Dense metals like copper and aluminum are
very good thermal conductors.
Heat Conduction
A thermal insulator is a material that conducts
heat poorly.
Heat flows very slowly through the plastic so that
the temperature of your hand does not rise very
much.
Heat Conduction
Styrofoam gets its
insulating ability by
trapping spaces of
air in bubbles.
Solids usually are
better heat
conductors than
liquids, and liquids
are better
conductors than
gases.
Heat Conduction Equation (Fouriers Law)
q = -k A (T
2
-T
1
)
L

Area of cross section (m
2
)
Length (m)
Thermal conductivity
(watts/m
o
C)
Heat flow
(watts)
Temperature
difference (
o
C)
T k q V = In vector form:
Convection
Can moving matter carry
thermal energy?
4 processes of convection:
(a) forced convection;
(b) Free or natural convection;
(c) Boiling
(d) Condensation
Convection
Convection is the transfer of
heat by the motion of
liquids and gases.
Convection in a gas occurs
because gas expands when
heated.
Convection occurs because
currents flow when hot gas
rises and cool gas sink.
Convection in liquids also
occurs because of differences
in density.

Convection
When the flow of gas or
liquid comes from
differences in density and
temperature, it is called
free convection.
When the flow of gas or
liquid is circulated by
pumps or fans it is called
forced convection.
Convection
Convection depends on
surface area.
If the surface contacting
the fluid is increased, the
rate of heat transfer also
increases.
Almost all devices made
for convection have fins
for this purpose.
Free Convection and Sea Breezes
On a smaller scale near coastlines,
convection is responsible for sea
breezes.
During the daytime, land is much
hotter than the ocean.
A sea breeze is created when hot air
over the land rises due to convection
and is replaced by cooler air from the
ocean.
At night the temperature reverses so a
land breeze occurs.
Convection Currents
Much of the Earths climate is regulated by giant convection
currents in the ocean.
Heat Convection Equation
(Newtons Law of cooling)
q = h A (T
2
-T
1
)

Area contacting fluids (m
2
)
Heat transfer coefficient
(watts/m
2o
C)
Heat flow
(watts)
Temperature
difference (
o
C)
Radiation
Key Question:
How does heat from
the sun get to Earth?
Radiation Heat Transfer (Black Body Radiation)
Blackbody a perfect emitter & absorber of radiation
Emits radiation uniformly in all directions no directional
distribution its diffuse
Joseph Stefan (1879) total radiation emission per unit
time & area over all wavelengths and in all directions:

o=Stefan-Boltzmann constant =5.67 x10
-8
W/m
2
K
4
( )
2 4
m W T E
b
o =
73
Radiation with surrounding


Stefan-Boltzman law

[ W / m
2
]

q
rad
= h
r
A (T
s
T
sur
) [ W ]


radiation heat transfer coefficient,
Stefan Boltzman const. , = 5.67 x 10
-8
[ W/m
2
.K
4
]
= emissivity (grey body), c=1 for black body

( )
4 4
sur s
T T q =
' '
co
( )( )
2 2
sur s sur s r
T T T T h + + =co
Conduction
Conduction involves the transfer of
heat through direct contact
Heat conductors conduct heat well,
insulators do not
76
Heat conduction - Fouriers law
The heat flux is proportional to
the temperature gradient:



where k(x,y,z,T) is the thermal
conductivity.
In most practical situations
conduction, convection, and
radiation appear in combination.
Also for convection, the heat
transfer coefficient is important,
because a flow can only carry heat
away from a wall when that wall
is conducting.
x
hot wall cold wall
dx
dT
temperature
profile
Q
q k T
A
= = V
T k q
vector a is q q Note
V =
= :
77
T
body

T
T A h T T A h A q Q
body
A = = =

) (
average heat transfer coefficient (W/m
2
-K)
= h
q
Newtons law of cooling Convection
Newton described the cooling of objects with an arbitrary
shape in a pragmatic way. He postulated that the heat transfer
Q is proportional to the surface area A of the object and a
temperature difference AT.
The proportionality constant is the heat transfer coefficient
h(W/m
2
-K). This empirical constant lumps together all the
information about the heat transfer process that we dont know
or dont understand.
78
Convection heat transfer
Convection is movement of heat with a fluid.
e.g., when cold air sweeps past a warm body, it draws
away warm air near the body and replaces it with cold
air.
flow over a
heated block
t coefficien transfer heat h
T h T T h q
law cooling s Newton Transfer heat Convection
ambient wall
=
A = = ) ( ) (
' :
79
Forced convection example
Developing flow in a pipe (constant wall
temperature).

T
w
T

T
w
T

T
w
T

T
w
T
x
bulk fluid temperature
heat flux from wall
T
w
T
80
Natural convection around a person
Light weight warm air tends to
move upward when surrounded by
cooler air.
Thus, warm-blooded animals are
surrounded by thermal plumes of
rising warm air.
This plume is made visible by
means of a Schlieren optical system
that is based on the fact that the
refraction of light through a gas is
dependent on the density of the gas.
Although the velocity of the rising
air is relatively small, the Reynolds
number for this flow is on the order
of 3000.
Radiation Heat Transfer (Black Body Radiation)
Blackbody a perfect emitter & absorber of radiation
Emits radiation uniformly in all directions no directional
distribution its diffuse
Joseph Stefan (1879) total radiation emission per unit
time & area over all wavelengths and in all directions:

o=Stefan-Boltzmann constant =5.67 x10
-8
W/m
2
K
4
( )
2 4
m W T E
b
o =
82
Radiation with surrounding


Stefan-Boltzman law

[ W / m
2
]

q
rad
= h
r
A (T
s
T
sur
) [ W ]


radiation heat transfer coefficient,
Stefan Boltzman const. , = 5.67 x 10
-8
[ W/m
2
.K
4
]
= emissivity (grey body), c=1 for black body

( )
4 4
sur s
T T q =
' '
co
( )( )
2 2
sur s sur s r
T T T T h + + =co
Energy balance at the surface:





since a control surface is a special control volume that
contains zero volume, energy generation and storage terms
are zero; this leaves:


0 =
out in
E E

Surface Energy Balance
E
in

E
out

84
The Surface Energy Balance





in
-
out
= 0

q
cond
- q
conv
- q
rad
= 0
Surface Energy Balance
Since no volume or mass is encompassed by the control surface.
Conservation Energy (Instant in Time):
(1.12)
Applies for steady-state and transient conditions
Consider surface of wall with heat transfer by conduction, convection and radiation.
0
cond conv rad
q q q '' '' '' =
( )
( )
4 4 1 2
2 2 2
0
sur
T T
k T T T T
L
c o

= h
With no mass and volume, energy storage and generation are not pertinent to the energy
balance, even if they occur in the medium bounded by the surface.
THE SURFACE ENERGY BALANCE
0 =
out in
E E

Read Chapter 1 Introduction
Homework Problem PS1
Chapter 1
Problem 19
Problem 30
Problem 44
Problem 65
Due on April 10, 2013

1.30 A spherical interplanetary probe of 0.5-m diameter contains electronics that dissipate
150 W. If the probe surface has an emissivity of 0.8 and the probe does not receive
radiation from other surface, as, for example, from the sun, what is its surface
temperature ?