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ChapterOne
GirlhoodinVienna
AndeventodayIamfilledwithdeepgratitudefortheunusualgoodnessofmyparents,andtheextraordinarilystimulatingintellectualatmosphereinwhichmysistersandbrothers
andIgrewup.
LiseMeitnerwasborninViennain1878,thethirdchildofHedwigandPhilippMeitner.ShewouldliveinViennatwentynineyears,andthenshewouldleave,not
realizinghowpermanently,tomakeherprofessionalhomeinBerlin.Partofherremainedsentimentally,irreversiblyViennese.Shegaveintoit,laughingatherselfeach
timeshepaidthespecialfeetomaintainherAustrianresidency."Naja,"shewouldshrug."Foolishnesscostsmoney."Andlaterstill,aftershefledGermanyfor
Stockholm,aftereverymemberofherfamilywasgonefromVienna,afterthecommunityfromwhichshecamewaslostforever,eventhensheclungtoherAustrian
past,refusingtotakeSwedishcitizenshipuntilshecouldhaveboth.
1
HadshestayedlongerinVienna,shemightnot,perhaps,haveremainedsostronglybound.
OfLise'schildhoodwehavefewdetails.Evenherdateofbirthisnotentirelycertain.Inthebirthregister
2
ofVienna'sJewishcommunityitislistedas17November
1878,butonallotherdocumentsitis7November,thedayLiseherselfobserved.Itmaybethatherparents,alreadyambivalentabouttheirJewishaffiliations,
3

somehowdelayedtherecord,orperhapsthediscrepancywasmerelyacaseofSchlamperei,thatwellknownimprecisionthatcontributedtoVienna'scharm.Neither
explanationissatisfactory.Lise'snamealsochangedslightly,fromitsoriginalElise.InBerlinsuchthingsmighthavecausedaflurryofpaperworkinViennaitmadeno
difference.
Likemanyoftheirgeneration,Lise'sparentswererecentarrivalsinthecapital,amovewhosesenseoffuturemayexplaintheirlackofattention
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toadetailedfamilyhistory.TheMeitnerstracedthemselvesbackonlyafewgenerations,
4
tothevillageofMeietheininMoravia,thefertileregionnorthofViennathat
isnowpartoftheCzechRepublic.Towardtheendoftheeighteenthcentury,notlongbeforetheRightsofManbegandriftingtowardAustria,KaiserJosefIIinitiated
aseriesofreformsdesignedtoconsolidatepowerandsecuretheloyaltyofallhissubjects:hemadeGermantheofficiallanguageofgovernment,curtailedtheChurch,
gavepeasantssomerelieffromserfdom,andgrantedJewstheirfirstverylimitedaccesstocivicemployment,militaryservice,andeducation.TheKaiser'stolerance
didnotextendtohisownenvironsfewerthantwohundredJewishfamilieswerepermittedtoliveinViennabuthecrackedtheghettowalls,sothatJewsflooded
theschools,joinedthemilitary,andlookedtoGermanlanguageandcultureforitspromiseofemancipation,opportunity,andhumanism.
5
AmongKaiserJosef'sadministrativereformswastherequirementofafamilyname.Lise'sgreatgreatgrandfathertookthenameMeietheiner,anindicationthatthe
familyhadlivedinthevillagealongtimethenameeventuallyshortenedtoMeitheiner,Meithner,Meitner.Thefamilylivedmodestly
6
ifsomeachievedspecial
distinction,itwasfortheircharacterandgooddeeds.Lise'sgreatgrandfather,itwastold,creptthroughthetownafterdarkeveryFridaynighttolayaloafofchallah,
theSabbathbread,atthedoorofeverypoorJew.Hedidthisassecretlyaspossibleanddidnotpermitanyonetothankhim,buteveryoneknewitwastheworkof
RebMeitner."Reb"didnotmean"rabbi"therewerenoneintheMeitnerfamilybutwasatraditionaltitleofrespect.
RebMeitner'ssonMoriz,Lise'sgrandfather,marriedCharlotteKohnLowy,awidowwithtwosmallboyswhohadinheritedaninn,someproperty,andaguesthouse
inthetownofWsechowitz.Hergranddaughterswouldrememberherasbeautiful,welldressed,andascheerfulasshewasselfdisciplined."Thehousemightburn
down,"itwassaid,"andgrandmothersingsthereischolerainthevillage,andstillgrandmothersings!"MorizandCharlotte'sson,Philipp,wasblondandblueeyed
likehismotherlikehisgrandfather,RebMeitner,hewouldlaterbeknownforhisintegrityandkindness.In1873hemarriedpetite,darkeyedHedwigSkovran,
whosegrandfatherhademigratedfromRussiatoSlovakiatoescapetheongoingpersecutionofJews.
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PhilippandHedwigMeitnergrewupwithAustria'stransitionfromlatefeudalismtoarecognizablymodernsociety.Theliberalrevolutionsof1848werecrushedin
Austria,butthestruggleforindividualfreedomsandnationalautonomywenton.IndustrializationcametoViennaandwithit,agreatinternalmigrationfromthroughout
theempire.In1858,themedievalfortificationsringingtheoldinnercityweretorndownintheirplacecametheimposingRingstrasse,grandnewpublicbuildings,and
aparliamentwithlittlerealpowerwhoseLiberalmajoritypressedforamodernsecularstateandconstitutionalgovernment.Atatimewhentheoldorderwasfailing
andtheverynotionofempirewasthreatenedbynationalistdissensions,theHahsburgmonarchywashumiliatedbyastringofunwisemilitaryventuresanddiplomatic
blunders.By1867,KaiserFranzJosefsavedwhathecouldbydividingtheempireandlettingHungarygo.Hegrantedhispeopleanumberofconstitutionallaws:
nationalandreligioustoleration,alaissezfaireeconomy,animpartialjudiciary,greaterindividualfreedomsofeducation,belief,speech,andpress.ForJews,this
meantfullcivicequality,includingaccesstoprofessionsfromwhichtheyhadpreviouslybeenbarred.
7
PhilippMeitnerwasamongthefirstgroupofJewishmenwho
werefreetostudylawandbeadmittedtoitspractice.
Inthetwentyyearsfromrevolutiontoconstitution(sothesayingwent),Austriahadbeendraggedintothenineteenthcentury.BythetimeLiseMeitnerwasbornin
1878,imperialViennawasmostlytheater,setwithpalacesofimpossibleopulenceandaKaiser,thepopularandlonglivedFranzJosef.Ithardlymatteredanymore.
ThenewViennawasburstingwithlifeofitsown,sprawlingintothecountryside,itspopulationdoublinganddoublingagainwithaninfluxsoconstantthatfor
generationsmostViennesewouldbebornsomewhereelse:overwhelminglyCatholicwithsomeJewsandvirtuallynoProtestants,mostlyGermanspeakingwithlarge
contingentsofCzechs,Hungarians,Italians,Poles,Croats,Ukrainians,andotherswhoretainedtheirlanguagesandnationalidentitiesinnewspapersandethnic
associations.Tomanyofthenewarrivals,Viennawasaplaceofmarginalworkandmuchunemployment,watershortages,andsummercholera,withcongestionso
severethateventhewealthylivedinapartmentsandtheverypoorsharedbedsandsleptinshifts.ThemostheterogeneouscityinEurope,itwasamongthemost
crowdedandun
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sanitaryithadthehighestrateofsuicide.Stillpeoplecame:conditionsintheprovinceswerenotbetter.Viennaatleastpromisedimprovementandpleasure:musicof
everysort,operaandtheater,newspapersbythedozens,arenowneduniversity,famousphysiciansandscientists,goodfood,vineyardsattheedgeoftown,andblue
hillsshimmeringhazilyinthedistance.IftheDanubeseemedmuddyorthewaltzoverrated,Viennawasbeguilingnonetheless,drawingfromeverystreamofEuropean
culture,layeredwithhistoryandbeautyeverynewcomercouldaspiretomakehisown.Theintellectualfermentwasverygreat.Bytheendofthecentury,Viennahad
givenbirthtoViktorAdler'sdemocraticsocialismandTheodorHerzl'sZionismitwasthehomeSigmundFreudlovedtohateandthepoliticalbaseforKarlLueger,
thecity'slongtimemayor,whoseheadymixofpopulismandantiSemitismdrewtheraptattentionoftheyoungAdolfHitler.Ifthenineteenthcenturycamelatetothis
society,thetwentietharrivedearly.
8
WhenPhilippMeitnerenteredthelegalprofessionintheearly1870s,itwaspossiblenotonlytopracticelawbuttohaveahandinthecreationofanewpolitical
order.ThenewconstitutioncalledforsweepingreformsofAustria'sentirelegalsystem,andinVienna,afteryearsofneglectbyCrownandChurch,theLiberalcity
councilbuiltanamplewatersupplyandprovidedfloodcontrolandimprovedpublichealth,hospitals,andschools.
9
Itwasatimewhenprogressseemedthenatural
orderofthings,eachdecadeanoticeableimprovementontheonebefore.Asanattorney,"freethinker,"andhumanist,PhilippMeitnerwascommittedtotheLiberal
idealsofreasonandcivicprogress,sympathetictotheSocialDemocraticgoalsofjusticeandindividualimprovement.HeimmersedhimselfinVienna'spoliticallife.
Althoughheneversoughtelectiveoffice,heandHedwigmadetheirhomeagatheringplaceforinterestingpeoplelegislators,writers,chessplayers,lawyers.The
childrenstayedupandlistened.Yearslater,whenLisewasaskedaboutherchildhood,sherememberedmostofall"theunusualgoodnessofmyparents,andthe
extraordinarilystimulatingintellectualatmosphereinwhichmybrothersandsistersandIgrewup."
10
DuringLise'schildhoodthefamilylivedintheseconddistrict,knownasLeopoldstadt,justnorthacrosstheDanubecanalfromtheoldcity.Originallyaghetto,the
communitywasnamedforLeopoldI,whoexpelledVienna'sJewsinthe1600s,thengrudginglypermittedthemtoreturn.For
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thenexttwocenturies,thenumberofJewsinthecapitalremainedsmall,butinthe1860s,whenresidencerestrictionswereabolishedandJewsfromthroughoutthe
empireconvergedonVienna,Leopoldstadtgrew.
11
Crowdedandrundowninsomeareas,itwaspleasant,evensomewhatprosperous,inothers.
Lisewasborninthefamilyapartmentat27KaiserJosefstrasse,
12
atreelinedavenuethattraversedLeopoldstadtfromacommercialdistrictatoneendtothePrater,
Vienna'shugepark,attheother.ThereonaSundaythefamilycouldenjoyamusementsandcafs,woodedpathsandopenfields,andevenonoccasionglimpsethe
Kaiserridingby.OnthewholeLeopoldstadtwasacomfortableplacetoraiseafamily.ThefirstthreeMeitnerchildren,Gisela,Auguste(Gusti),andLise,wereborn
onlyayearapart,followednotquitesorapidlybyfivemore:Moriz(Fritz),Carola(Lola),anotherboy,Frida,andfinallyWalter,thebabybrotherLiseadored,who
wasbornin1891.
13
Thelargefamilycouldaffordfewluxuries,butPhilippMeitner'slawpracticedidprovidethemiddleclassessentials:books,afewsummerweeks
inthemountains,andvirtuallyanecessityinViennamusiclessons.
14
Gustiwasthefamily'smosttalentedmusician,achildprodigywhobecameacomposerand
pianistofconcertrank.
15
Liseplayedthepianotooallherlifemusicwouldbeapassionforher,asnecessaryasfood.Butshewasespeciallycuriousabout
mathematicsandscience,aneightyearoldwhokeptamathbookunderherpillowandwouldaskaboutthecolorsofanoilslickandrememberwhatshewastold
aboutthinfilmsandtheinterferenceeffectsofreflectedlight.
16
Inthisfamilychildrenwereseenandheardandexpectedtothinkforthemselves.Once,whenLise
wasstillveryyoung,hergrandmotherwarnedhernevertosewontheSabbath,ortheheavenswouldcometumblingdown.Lisewasdoingsomeembroideryatthe
timeanddecidedtomakeatest.Placingherneedleontheembroidery,shestuckjustthetipofitinandglancedanxiouslyatthesky,tookastitch,waitedagain,and
then,satisfiedthattherewouldbenoobjectionsfromabove,contentedlywentonwithherwork.
17
Alongwithbooks,summerhikes,andmusic,acertainrational
skepticismwasaconstantofLise'schildhoodyears.
Judaismwasnotoneofthoseconstants.InLeopoldstadttheMeitnerchildrenlivedamongJews,inaneighborhooddottedwithsynagoguesandshuls,fullyawarethat
theytoowereofJewishorigin.AndyetitisclearthatthefamilydistanceditselffromitsJewishpast.OneofLise'snephews,
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Gusti'sson,OttoRobertFrisch,wouldlaterhavethefirmimpressionthathismotherandalltheMeitnerchildrenhadbeenbaptizedandraisedasProtestants.
18
In
fact,thiswasnotso:thechildrenwereallregisteredwiththeJewishcommunityatbirthandacceptedbaptismonlyasadultsLolaandGiselaasCatholicsin1908,
LiseasProtestantthesameyear.
19
ButFrisch'simpressionwasinessencetrue:theMeitnersdidleavetheoldreligionforthenew.
Theirreasonswereneverexplicitlystated.Opportunismwasapparentlynotoneofthem:PhilippandHedwigMeitnerneverbaptizedtheirchildrenorthemselvesand
thusderivednoneoftheadvantagesconversionwouldhaveoffered,particularlyinthelegalprofessionwherediscriminationremainedstrongandconversionwasstilla
passporttojudgeshipsandothercivilservicepositions.
20
OnecanonlyassumethattheMeitnercouplelostinterestinJudaism,regardingitasaghettorelicperhaps,
oranundesirableethnicdivisiontheysurelyfeltlittlekinshipwithLeopoldstadt'smanyOstjuden,JewsfromGaliciaandotherAustrianheldPolishprovinceswhose
language,dress,andorthodoxysetthemapart.
21
Enlightenedandprogressive,HedwigandPhilippMeitnerweredrawntoGermanculturefreshlyemancipated,with
optimismborderingonfaith,theyembracedtheculturethatfreedthem.
22
Bytheturnofthecentury,suchoptimismmusthavedimmedsomewhat,asthemost
charismaticViennesemayorofalltime,thehandsomeKarlLueger(derschneKarl),ralliedhisvotersbyappealingtotheirCatholicism,nationalism,andanti
Semitism.ItisworthnotingthatnoneoftheMeitnerchildrenfollowedtheirfatherintopolitics,orevenlaw.Buttheirparents'idealisminfluencedthemnonetheless.It
waspartofthe"unusualgoodness"Liseremembered,thebasisfortheextraordinaryintellectualatmospherethatnurturedLiseandtheotherchildrenintheirparents'
home.
InthisatmospherealltheMeitnerchildren,includingthefivedaughters,pursuedanadvancededucation.Eventodaysuchafamilyrecordwouldbenotable,butatthe
timeitwastrulyextraordinary,foruntiltheendofthenineteenthcenturywomenwerebylawexcludedfromAustrianuniversitiesand,bythesamelogic,fromrigorous
secondaryschoolsaswell.WhileabrightboymightattendaGymnasiumandtaketheMatura,aleavingexaminationthatwasrequiredbeforeenteringtheuniversity,
publicschoolforgirlswasoveratagefourteen,anditwaspoor.LiseattendedtheMdchenBrgerschuleatCzerninplatz,acrowdedinter
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sectionnotfarfromhome.On15July1892,shereceivedherfinalJahresZeugnis,areportcardthatwasalsoanEntlassungsZeugnis,acompletioncertificate.
23

Shehadlearnedbookkeepingarithmeticbutnotalgebra,asmatteringofhistory,geography,andscience,therequisitedrawing,singing,and"femininehandwork,"a
littleFrenchandgymnastics.Althoughhergradeswereallgoodandherbehavior"entirelyappropriate"(vollkommenentsprechend),herdiligencewasratedonly
"satisfactory''(befriedigend)ratherthan"industrious"(ausdauernd),anindicationthatshedidnotfindschoolverychallenging.InkedatthebottomofherJahres
Zeugniswastheline:"vomweiterenSchulbesuchbefreit"(releasedfromfurtherschooling).LisehadgoneasfarinpublicschoolasanAustriangirlcouldgo.
Notyetfourteen,herchoiceswerefew.Mostgirlswouldspendthenextfewyearshelpingathome,sewing,anddaydreamingofmarriage.Theonlywayforagirlto
goonwastoattendaprivatehhereTchterschuleforyoungladiesofthemiddleclasstheonlyprofessionshecouldseekwasteachingasubjectthatdidnot
requireuniversityeducation.LisechoseFrench.Nothinginhercontemporaryrecordsorlatermemoirsindicatesthatsheeverhadarealinterestinit.Instead,she
lavishedherenergyandloveonherbabybrother,Walterhewouldalwaysbeherclosestsibling.ShealsotutoredyoungergirlstohelppayforGusti'sadvanced
musiclessonsandvolunteeredwiththepoorinrelieforganizationsandschools.
24
OftheseyearsLisewouldrememberlittlebutasenseofloss."AlthoughIhadaverymarkedbentformathematicsandphysicsfrommyearlyyears,Ididnotbegina
lifeofstudyimmediately,"shewrotelater.
25
"Thinkingbackto...thetimeofmyyouth,onerealizeswithsomeastonishmenthowmanyproblemsthenexistedinthe
livesofordinaryyounggirls,whichnowseemalmostunimaginable.Amongthemostdifficultoftheseproblemswasthepossibilityofnormalintellectualtraining."
26
InAustriatheissueofhighereducationforwomenhadbeensimmeringforageneration,certainlysince1867whenuniversitieswerefirstopenedtomenwithoutregard
toeconomicclass,religion,ornationalorigin.Overtheyearsasmallnumberofwomenhadapproachedtheuniversities,petitionedprofessors,beggedtoattenda
classortwo.Atbesttheywerepermittedtositinasunofficialauditors,notexpectingandcertainlyneverreceivinganycreditordocumentation.Mostofthesewomen
wereteacherswhoseprioreducationdidnotqualifythemforuniversityadmission.But
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eventhefewwhodidqualifyoccasionallyayoungwomanfromBohemiaorAustrianPolandwouldsomehowmanagetoattendherlocalGymnasiumandpassthe
Maturawerealsodeniedadmission.DaughtersofthewealthyandthearistocracywereroutinelyeducatedinSwitzerland.Therestweretrappedinacyclewilledby
thestate:sincetheuniversities(allpublicinstitutions)excludedwomen,thegovernmentdidnotseefittoestablishschoolsthatwouldpreparewomenforuniversity
admission.InEurope,onlyGermanyandTurkeyofferedmoreresistancetowomen'seducation.
27
Towardtheendofthenineteenthcentury,however,theresistancebegantofalter.Women'sgroups,oftenledbyheadmistressesofgirls'schools,regularlypetitioned
forimprovedsecondaryeducationaprivateMdchengymnasiumwasestablishedinViennain1891eventhoughitsgraduateswerenotpermittedtotakethe
Maturathegovernmentitself,urgentlyneedingfemalephysiciansforMoslemwomeninoccupiedBosniaandHerzegovina,recruitedforeignwomenformanyyears,
hiredthefirstAustrian(Swisstrained)in1892,butstilldeniedmedicalcertificationtootherSwisstrainedAustrianwomenphysicianswhowishedtoenterprivate
practice,although,atthesametime,ahighlycompetenteyesurgeonwhowasborninRussiaandtrainedinZurichreceivedspecialpermissionfromtheKaiserto
establishaclinicwithherhusbandinSalzburg.Publicityaccompaniedeachcase,andopiniongraduallysoftened.Itseemedplausible,finally,tosupposethatin
AustriaasinAmerica,France,andSwitzerlandwomencouldbeeducatedwithoutsufferingmentalillnessorinfertilityorsocialcatastrophe.Bythemid1890s,
evenconservativeuniversityprofessorsregardedwomenstudentsasafloodthatcouldnolongerbeheldback.In1897thegovernmentgrantedwomenaccesstothe
philosophicalfaculties(lettersandsciences)ofAustrianuniversitiesafewyearslaterwomenwereadmittedtomedicalschoolsaswell.
28
Withthis,thecycleofexclusionwasthrownintoreverse.Justice,andtheneedforuniversityeducatedwomenteachers,requiredthatuniversitiesadmitwomenat
once,evenwithoutGymnasiumpreparation.FortheinterimwomenwouldberequiredonlytopasstheMatura,anywaytheycould.Thiscameasgoodnewslate,
butnottoolateforLiseandhersisters.
Gisela,alreadytwentyone,camefirst.Aftertwoyearsofintensiveprivatelessons,GiselapassedtheMaturaandenteredmedicalschoolin
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1900.Lisemeanwhilecompletedherteachertraining(asinsurance,herfatheradvised)andin1899beganherownlessonsinagroupwithtwootheryoungwomen.
Togethertheycompressedeightmissingschoolyearsintotwo:GreekandLatin,mathematicsandphysics,botany,zoology,mineralogy,psychology,logic,religion,
Germanliterature,history.Lisestudiednightandday."You'llfail,"heryoungerbrothersandsisterswouldtease."You'vejustwalkedacrosstheroomwithoutpicking
upabook."
29
Aphotographshowsapaleyoungwomanwithdarkcirclesunderhereyes.
Forphysicsandmathematics,Lise'sgroupwastutoredbyArthurSzarvassy,ayoungphysicistwhohadjustcompletedhisdoctorateattheUniversityofVienna.
30
Dr.Szarvasy[sic]hadarealgiftforpresentingthesubjectmatterofmathematicsandphysicsinanextraordinarilystimulatingmanner.Sometimeshewasabletoshowus
apparatusintheViennaUniversity[Physics]Institute,ararityinprivatecoachingusuallyallonewasgivenwerefiguresanddiagramsofapparatus.ImustconfessthatIdidnot
alwaysgetcorrectideasfromthese,andtodayitamusesmetothinkoftheastonishmentwithwhichIsawcertainapparatusforthefirsttime.
31
LisetooktheMaturainJuly1901attheAkademischesGymnasium,adistinguishedboys'schoolonBeethovenplatzintheoldcity.
32
Thecourseofstudyhadbeenso
intenseandtheexaminationconditionssoterrifyingasExternisten(outsidestudents),Liseandtheotherwomenwereexaminedinstrangesurroundingsbyteachers
theyhadnevermetthatLiseneverfailedtomentionitinherlaterremembrances.Offourteenwhotooktheexam,onlyfourpassed
33
threewerethestudentsofDr.
Szarvassy.ThefourthwasHenrietteBoltzmann,
34
whosefatherwouldsoonbeaformativeinfluenceinLise'slife.
LisewouldalwaysthinkofArthurSzarvassyasherfirsttrueteacher.Andshewasgratefultoherparents,whomadeitpossibleforhertoachievewhatfewother
youngwomenofhergenerationcould.
Manyparentssharedtheprejudiceofthetimeagainst[women's]education,sothattheirdaughterseitherhadtoforgotheeducationtheydesired,orfightforit....[Iknew]a
youngwomanwhoatage24wantedtobeprivatelytutoredbyhercousintopreparefortheMaturaherparentsinotherrespectsveryloving,I'msureliterallykepther
prisonerintheirapartmenttokeepherfromcarryingoutherintentions.Onlywhenshedisappearedfromtheapartmentonedayandletherparentsknowthatshewouldnotreturn
unlessshehadpermissiontostudy,didtheygivein.
35
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AlthoughLiseherselfhadnosuchobstacles,shesensedthatforhermother,atleast,itwasnotalwayseasy.
Ihadthefeelingthatinthebeginning,whenfirstmyoldersister,andthenIpassedtheMatura,thatmymotherwasinwardlysomewhatdepressedbyit.Butshewasmuchtoo
lovingamotherevertoexpressitinanyway.
36
Fromherfathertherewasnosuchambivalence.Onthecontrary,hewasasteadysourceofsupportandadvice.
EvenasachildIwasstronglyinterestedinmathematicsandphysics,andasIgrewupIalsodevelopedaverypronouncedinclinationforsocialresponsibility....WhenIwas23
yearsoldandabouttoentertheuniversity,Ientertainedtheideaofprimarilypursuingmedicine,foritssocialusefulness,andstudyingmathematicsandphysicsonlyattheside.
MyfatherkeptmefromthisincorrectchoicebymakingitcleartomethatsuchacourseofstudymightbepossibleforageniuslikeHermannHelmholtz,butnotforanother
person.
37
LiseenteredtheUniversityofViennainOctober1901.Smallandslender,withafarawayexpressionandseriousdarkeyes,shelookedyoungerthanhertwentythree
years.Abluestocking,hernephewwouldjudgelater,ayoungwomanwhocaredfornothingbutstudy.Hewasprobablyright.Anxioustomakeupforlosttime,Lise
filledheruniversityregistrationbookwithphysics,calculus,chemistry,andbotanytwentyfivehoursaweekoflectures,laboratories,demonstrationanddiscussion
sections.
38
Nodoubt,likemanyotheryoungstudents,Ibeganbyattendingtoomanylectures....IcannotsayIhaveaverylivelyrecollectionofthelecturesonexperimentalphysics.These
weredeliveredalmostwithoutexperiments,betweennoonandoneP.M.,whenmostofthestudentswerealreadyverytired.SometimesIwasreallyafraidIwouldslipoffmychair.
Butforcalculus,ateighto'clockinthemorning,shewasawake.
MyfirsttermIstudieddifferentialandintegralcalculuswithProfessorGegenbauer.InmysecondtermheaskedmetodetectanerrorintheworkofanItalianmathematician.
HoweverIneededhisconsiderableassistancebeforeIfoundtheerror,andwhenhekindlysuggestedtomethatImightliketopublishthisworkonmyown,Ifeltitwouldbe
wrongtodoso,andsounfortunatelyannoyedhimforever.
HerewasLise,afirstyearstudent,refusingtopublishasherfamousprofessorasked.Assertiveinoneway,selfdeprecatinginanotherneither
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Page11
toheracademicadvantage."Thisincidentdidmakeitcleartome,however,thatIwantedtobecomeaphysicist,notamathematician."
39
Infact,thephysicscourseLiseattended,herdrowsinessnothwithstanding,hadthereputationofbeingexceptionallywelltaught.Ithadbeendesignedforpharmacy
students,butProfessorFranzExnerbroughtsuchclarityandperspectivetothesubjectthatstudentsfromalldisciplinesthrongedtoit.
40
Thelaboratorywasdirected
byAntonLampa,apromisingyoungphysicistandteacher.
41
Lisemayhavebeendrowsyinlecture,butshevividlyrememberedthelaboratory:thesomewhataloof
instructor,theprimitiveequipment,theexperimentsrequiringicethatcouldbedoneonlywhentherewassnowinthecourtyardbelow.
42
Forthisyoungwomanwho
hadneverhadscienceinschool,whoseonlypreviousencounterwithapparatuswastoviewitwithastonishment,thelaboratorywasofparamountinterest.Shewould
studyphysicsafterall.
ThephysicsinstitutewasontheTrkenstrasse,ashortsidestreetinVienna'sninthdistrict,onthesameblockastheinstitutesforpharmaceuticalchemistryand
medicinalchemistry,notfarfromtherenownedmedicalschoolanditsclinics.Theuniversityhadnocentralcampusitsbuildingswereinterspersedamongthe
residencesandshopsoftheneighborhood.Aphotographer'sstudioandacoffeehousestoodoneithersideofTrkenstrasse3SigmundFreudlivedandworkedon
thesteepBerggassenearby.Originallythestructurehadbeenasmallapartmenthouse,alreadyrundownwhentheuniversitypurchaseditasatemporarybuildingin
1875(apermanentphysicsbuildingopenedin1913).ItsentranceremindedLiseMeitnerofthedoortoahenhouse."Ioftenthought,'Ifafirebreaksouthere,very
fewofuswillgetoutalive.'"
43
Insidewerewornstairsandshakyfloors,makeshiftlaboratorieswithuntoldamountsofmercuryinthefloorcracks,alectureroomwith
neitherpodiumnordesks,ceilingbeamssorottentheylookedasthoughtheyhadbeenchewedbytermites.
44
Thelecturehallsinparticularweredownrightlifethreatening.ThiswassowidelyknownthattheViennesenewspaperArbeiterzeitungoncecarriedthisnotice:"Onceagaina
studenthasregisteredatthePhysicsInstituteontheTrkenstrasseunhappinessinloveissaidtobethemotiveforthedeed."
45
Butinthatshabbybuildingthequalityofteachingandresearchwasveryhigh.Exner,thefirstprofessorstudentsencountered,wasamultifaceted
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experimentalphysicistwhoseresearchincludedelectrochemistry,atmosphericelectricity,crystalphysics,spectroscopy,andoptics.AfriendofWilhelmRntgen,
ExnerhadintroducedxrayresearchanditsmedicalapplicationstoViennaoneofthefirsttotakeaninterestinradioactivity,Exnersecureduraniumoreresiduesfor
MarieandPierreCurie,receivedanenrichedradiumsampleinreturn,andmadeViennaanearlycenterforradioactivityresearch.AlthoughExnerlecturedonlyto
firstyearstudents,hedirectedtheadvancedphysicslaboratoriesandsupervisedalargenumberofdoctoralcandidates.OneofLise'sfellowstudents,KarlPrzibam,
rememberedExnerforhiscontagiousenthusiasmandforthecommunityspiritthatwentfarbeyondtheusualrelationshipbetweenteacherandstudents.
46
ThissenseofcommunitywasessentialforLiseinfindingherway.Shehadcometotheuniversityonherown,veryconsciousofhowfewwomentherewereandhow
visibleshewas,howsomeofthemenwentoutoftheirwaytobepleasantandothers,justasconspicuously,didtheopposite.NeverhavinggonetoaGymnasium,
shecouldonlyimaginethatshehadmissedsomevitalaspectofnormalstudentlife,inacademics,perhaps,orstudentfriendships,orrelationshipswithteachers.With
ProfessorGegenbauershehadapparentlybeenawkwardandthenembarrassedbyherawkwardnessnotreadytobesingledout,sheneededfirsttobeconvinced
thatshecouldbeastudentlikeanyother.
ForLise,thishappenedintheoldbuildingontheTrkenstrasse,intheclutteredlaboratory,duringtheinformalgiveandtakeofteachersandstudents.Ithelpedthat
thesubjectwasdifficult,chosenonlybyafew.InVienna,indeedworldwide,thenumberofphysicistswassmallnearlyallwereengagedinteachingandresearch,
veryfewinbusinessorindustry.Physicswasmoreacallingthanacareer.
47
Studentswhocommittedthemselvestophysicsdidsobecausetheycouldnotimaginea
morefascinatingwaytospendtheirlives.By1902,LiseMeitnerknewshewasoneofthem.
Inherseconduniversityyear,shebeganstudyingphysicsinearnest.Overthenextsixsemesters,herMeldungsbuchlistsanalyticalmechanics,electricityand
magnetism,elasticityandhydrodynamics,acoustics,optics,thermodynamics,andkinetictheoryofgasesaswellasmathematicalphysicseachsemesterandacoursein
philosophyofscience.Afairlytypicalcurriculum,itwashighlyunusualinonerespect:allofitwastaughtbyjustoneperson,thetheoreticalphysicistLudwig
Boltzmann.
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FiftyyearslaterLiseMeitnerwouldstillrememberBoltzmann'slecturesas"themostbeautifulandstimulatingthatIhaveeverheard....Hehimselfwassoenthusiastic
abouteverythinghetaughtusthatonelefteverylecturewiththefeelingthatacompletelynewandwonderfulworldhadbeenrevealed."
48
Onecanscarcelyimagineabetterteacherfortheatomicworldthatlayahead.In1902,Boltzmannwasfiftyeightyearsold,thefamedtheoreticalphysicistwhohad
extendedkinetictheoryandestablishedstatisticalmechanics,theleading"atomist"whotiedthesecondlawofthermodynamicstoatomictheorybyshowingthatthe
inherentirreversibilityofnaturalprocessesarisesfromthestatisticalbehaviorofatomsintheaggregate.Thenotionofunseeableatomswithindeterminatebehaviorwas
morethansomescientistscouldswallow.ForyearsBoltzmannwasforcedtodefendhisworkagainstthefairlywidespreadphilosophyofscientificpositivismthat
deniedthevalueofscientifictheoryandtherealityofanythingthatcouldnotbedirectlyobserved.
Abigman,heavy,verynearsighted,withcurlybrownhairandafullreddishbeardthatframedhisbroadface,
49
Boltzmannarousedadmirationandaffectioninhis
students.Hebeganhismechanicscoursein1902byofferinghisstudents"everythingIhave:myself,myentirewayofthinkingandfeeling,"andaskingthesameof
them:"strictattention,irondiscipline,tirelessstrengthofmind.ButforgivemeifI[first]askyouforthatwhichmeansmosttome:foryourtrust,youraffection,your
loveinaword,forthemostyouhavethepowertogive,yourself."
50
Likemanyoftheothers,Lisewassweptaway.Hewasimmenselyengaging,sheremembered,thisfamousprofessorwhoselecturesweremodelsofclarity,this
warmheartedHofrat(Excellency)whowouldshrugathistitleandlaugh,"Ach,howdumbofme!"athisblackboarderrors.
51
Boltzmannhadnoinhibitionswhatsoeveraboutshowinghisenthusiasmwhenhespoke,andthisnaturallycarriedhislistenersalong.Hewasfondofintroducingremarksofan
entirelypersonalcharacterintohislectures.Iparticularlyrememberhow,indescribingthekinetictheoryofgases,hetoldushowmuchdifficultyandoppositionhehad
encounteredbecausehehadbeenconvincedoftherealexistenceofatomsandhowhehadbeenattackedfromthephilosophicalsidewithoutalwaysunderstandingwhatthe
philosophersheldagainsthim....Iwonderwhathewouldsayaboutourhugemachinesandteamwork[today],whenIrememberhowbitterlyhecomplained...aboutthegreat
extensionofthesubjectmatterofphysicsand
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Page14
theresultingoverspecialization.Hestatedcategoricallythat[Hermann]Helmholtzwasthelastphysicistwhohadbeenabletohaveanoverallviewofthewholesubject.
52
Hisrelationshiptostudentswasverypersonal....Henotonlysawtotheirknowledgeofphysics,buttriedtounderstandtheircharacter.Formalitiesmeantnothingtohim,andhe
hadnoreservationsaboutexpressinghisfeelings.Thefewstudentswhotookpartintheadvancedseminarwereinvitedtohishousefromtimetotime.Therehewouldplayfor
ushewasaverygoodpianistandtellusallsortsofpersonalexperiences.
53
Boltzmannacceptedwomenstudentsasamatterofcourse.In1872,longbeforewomenwereadmittedtoAustrianuniversities,hemetHenriettevonAigentler,an
aspiringteacherofmathematicsandphysicsinGraz.Fromtheirfouryearcorrespondenceweknowofherdesiretoattendtheuniversity("outofeagernesstolearn
andtoqualifyforteaching"),howshewasrefusedpermissiontounofficiallyauditlectures(anadministratordeclaredhimself"delighted"tokeepwomenout,since"the
characteroftheuniversitywouldbelostandtheinstitutionendangered''bytheirpresence),thatBoltzmannadvisedhertoappeal(shedid,successfully),andthatwhen
heproposedmarriage,finally,hebegan,"Itseemstomethataconstantlovecannotendureifthewifehasnounderstanding,noenthusiasmfortheendeavorsofthe
husband,butismerelyhishousekeeperratherthanthecompanioninhisstruggles."
54
Lisemayhaveheardsomeofthisshecametoknowhiswifeanddaughtersandconsideredtheirfamilylifeharmonious.
55
Inanycase,heruniversityyearswerefree
oftheobstaclesshehadencounteredearlierandthedifficultiesthatlayahead.Withhisintellectandspirit,Boltzmanncreatedacommunitytowhichshefullybelonged.
"Hewasinawaya'puresoul,'fullofgoodnessofheart,idealism,andreverenceforthewonderofthenaturalorderofthings."
56
AllwhowereclosetoBoltzmannwerealsoawareofhisboutsofseveredepressionandhissuicideattempts.
57
Hisstudentsblameditonthebittercontroversyover
whetheratomsexisted,inwhichBoltzmanngainedmanyadherentsamongyoungerscientistsbutneverthesatisfactionofconvincinghisopponents.Itwasnotthat
simple.BoltzmannhimselfjestinglyattributedhisrapidchangesintemperamenttothefactthathewasbornduringthenightbetweenShroveTuesdayandAsh
Wednesday:hewas,almostcertainly,manicdepressive.
58
Buthewasalsoverysensitive.As
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Page15
Meitnerreflected,"[He]mayhavebeenwoundedbymanythingsamorerobustpersonwouldhavehardlynoticed....Ibelievehewassuchapowerfulteacherjust
becauseofhisuncommonhumanity."
59
Boltzmann'sacademiccareerwasaseriesofwanderings.BorninViennain1844,hegraduatedfromtheAkademischesGymnasium,whereLiseMeitnerandalsohis
daughter,Henriette,latertooktheirMatura.AttheUniversityofVienna,hewasastudentofJosefLoschmidt(18211895),whomadereliableearlyestimatesof
molecularsizeandthenumberofmoleculespermole,
60
andhewasassistanttoJosefStefan(18351893),whodevisedanempiricalformulaforblackbodyradiation
thatBoltzmannsubsequentlygaveatheoreticalbasis.
61
Between1869and1890,BoltzmannheldappointmentsinGraz,thenVienna,thenGrazagain,aperiodduring
whichhecontributedtoallbranchesoftheoreticalphysics:electromagnetictheory,kinetictheory,theMaxwellBoltzmanndistribution,statisticalmechanics.Hewent
toMunichin1890,returnedtoViennaasStefan'ssuccessorin1894,leftforLeipzigin1900,andcamebackagainin1902.Theuniversityhadkepthispositionopen
intheexpectationthathewouldreturn.
62
BoltzmannwastornbetweenhisattachmenttoAustria,especiallyVienna,andtheattractionsofGermanuniversities.MeitnerrecalledthatBoltzmannwouldtellhowin
Munichtherewas"wonderfulequipment,butfarfewergoodideas"thaninViennaandthenhastilyadd,"OnemustnotlettheAustrian[education]ministryknowthat
goodworkcansometimesbedonewithinferiorequipment."
63
Ofalluniversities,hemostpreferredBerlin,foritsintensescientificatmosphereandthepresenceof
HermannHelmholtz,whomBoltzmannregardedasthegreatestphysicistofthenineteenthcentury.Yetin1888herefusedtheofferofachairinBerlin,inpartoutof
concernforhishealth,
64
inpart,itwassaid,becausehedislikedtheformalityofthePrussiancapital.
65
Laterhewouldtellhisstudentshowmuchheregrettedthat
decision.Thepositionherefusedwenttoayoungertheoreticalphysicist,MaxPlanck.
AyearafterBoltzmanncametoViennain1894,hewasjoinedonthefacultybyoneofhisprincipalscientificadversaries,theformidableErnstMach.Theleading
proponentofthephilosophyofscientificpositivism,Macharguedthatsciencecandonomorethanconductpositivethatis,directobservations:whilescientific
theorymaybeofusefororganizingsuchdata,itmustnotcreate"pictures,"ashecalledit,ofunderlying
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reality.Mach'simpetuswasantimetaphysical,areactionagainstnineteenthcenturyattemptstoreduceallofphysicstomechanicalprinciplesheopposedthekinetic
theoryofgases,basedasitwasonmolecularmotion,anddismissedtheexistenceofatomsinbroadViennese,"'Avey'seenoneof'em?"
66
Inthe1890s,according
toBoltzmann,theattitudetowardthegastheorywas"malevolent,"
67
completewithangrydebatesatmeetings,strugglesfortheallegianceofyoungscientists,fights
overappointmentstofacultiesandjournals.
68
IncentralEuropeespecially,Machattractedasizablefollowing,including''energeticists"ledbythephysicalchemist
WilhelmOstwald,forwhomenergywastheprimaryrealityandthesecondlawofthermodynamicssuperfluous.Forhispart,Boltzmannattackedpositivismasa
modernversionofan"oldaberration,"goingbacktothephilosophyofGeorgeBerkeley.In1905hevisitedauniversityinCaliforniawhosecampushedescribedas
"theloveliestplaceonecanimagine,"exceptforits"philosophicalaura":
69
"ThenameBerkeleyisthatofahighlyreputedEnglish[sic]philosopherwhoisfamousfor
thegreatestfoolishnesseverhatchedbythehumanbrain,philosophicalidealism,whichdeniestheexistenceofthematerialworld."
70
In1898Machsufferedastroke,andheretiredfromteachingin1901.WhenBoltzmannreturnedtoViennain1902,heclaimedthephilosophyofsciencecoursethat
hadbeenMach'sformanyyears.Boltzmann'sinauguralphilosophylecturein1903wasthrongedbythepress,students,includingLiseMeitner,andsixhundred
"sensationseekers."Withhispredecessorinmind,Boltzmannconfessedtohis"dislike,evenhateofphilosophy,"comparingitto"ahallowedvirgin...[that]willremain
eternallybarren"
71
aslongasitdeniestheexistenceofphysicalreality.ThusthehostilitiesbetweentheatomictheoristsandthefollowersofMachwenton.
Butthedisputeovertherealityofatomswasnearinganend.Thediscoveryofradioactivityin1896andtheelectronin1897transformedatomsfromdisputedspecks
ofmasstocomplexstructuresthatweredivisible,measurable,packedwithamazingamountsofinternalenergy,andcomposedoffundamentalparticlesofelectric
charge."Nophysicisttodaybelievesatomsareindivisible,"
72
BoltzmanntoldanaudienceattheWorld'sFairinSt.Louisin1904.Thatwasprobablytrueforthose
whobelievedinatoms,butnotallphysicistsdid,yet.ThefinalblowcameafterAlbertEinsteinin1905andJeanPerrinin1908madedetailedstudiesof
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Brownianmotion,therandommovementofparticlessuspendedinaliquid,visibleunderthemicroscope.Byrelatingthemovementofthesuspendedparticlestothe
numberandenergyofthemoleculesintheliquidthatwerehittingthemfromonesideoranother,EinsteinandPerrinobtainedavalueforthenumberofmoleculesina
molethatwasconsistentwithother,unrelatedexperiments.ThedirectrelationshipbetweentheheatenergyofatomsandthemechanicalenergyofvisibleBrownian
particlesgavecompletecredencetoBoltzmann'sinterpretationofthermodynamiclaws.Andsomehowitmadeatomsnearlyvisibleandveryreal.Ostwaldwas
convincedandin1908concededitisuncertainifMacheverdidbeforehediedin1916.
73
Thecontroversymadeplaintostudentsthatscientificendeavorisnotcoldlyobjectivebutreliesonhumanjudgment.FromBoltzmann,LiseMeitnerunderstood
physicstobeapassionatecommitmentofintellect,strength,andintegrity.ManyyearslaterhernephewOttoRobertFrischwrote,"Boltzmanngaveherthevisionof
physicsasabattleforultimatetruth,avisionsheneverlost."
74
Meitner'sgoalinphysicswouldbetheoreticalunderstandinghermeans,nearlyalways,wouldbeexperiment.Inthesummerof1905,hercourseworkcompleted,she
beganherdoctoralresearch.InAustrianandGermanuniversitiesthethesisresearchforadoctorategenerallytooknomorethanafewmonthstocomplete.Shechose
anexperimentalproject,underFranzExnerandhisassistant,HansBenndorf,undoubtedlybecauseshewantedthelaboratoryexperiencebutalso,perhaps,because
BoltzmannwaslecturinginCaliforniathatsummerandhadbeenquiteillbeforeheleft.
75
Inherresearch,LisedeterminedthatMaxwell'sformulafortheconductionofelectricityinaninhomogeneoussolidalsoappliestotheconductionofheat.Her
inhomogeneoussolid,anemulsionafinelydividedmixtureofmercurydropletsembeddedinfat,waslayeredbetweentwohorizontalcopperplates,onwhichwas
laidathirdcopperplatethatwasinsulatedfromthebottomtwo.Thetemperatureofthebottomplatewaskeptconstantbyastreamofrunningwaterwhenthetop
platewasheatedbysteam,threestrategicallyplacedthermometersintheemulsionmeasuredthetemperaturegradientastheheatflowedthrough.Exnerwaspleased,
commendingherfora"notentirelyeasy"investigationthatwasbroughttocompletion"notwithoutexperimentalskill."Herdissertation,
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"TestofaFormulaofMaxwell's,"waspublishedunderthetitle"ConductionofHeatinInhomogeneousSolids"intheproceedingsfortheViennaPhysicsInstitute.
76

Experimentclosetotheory,ittypifiedherlaterapproachtophysics.Personally,however,Exner'sinfluenceseemstohavebeenslight:inherlatermemoirsshe
mentionshimonlyinpassing,neverwiththeaffectionatetermDoktorvaterthatGermanspeakingstudentsoftenuse.MostprobablyBoltzmann'spersonalityeclipsed
allothers.BothmentookpartinherRigorosen,theoralexaminationsthatshetookinDecember1905andpassedsummacumlaude.Shewasawardedherdoctoral
degreeon1February1906.
77
ItwasthemiddleoftheacademicyearandLisefoundherselfsomewhatatlooseends.AtthetimePaulEhrenfest,atheoreticalphysicistherownagewhohadtaken
hisdoctorateunderBoltzmannafewyearsbefore,wasinVienna.WhenheheardthatLisehadtakendetailednotesofallBoltzmann'slectures,hesuggestedthey
studyhisideasaswellastheworkofothersinanalyticaldynamics.
78
EhrenfesthadagiftforexplainingtheoreticalphysicshecalledLise'sattentiontoLordRayleigh's
scientificpapers,inparticularanarticleonopticsthatdescribedanexperimenttheBritishphysicistcouldnotexplain.Meitnernotonlyexplaineditbutalsopredicted
someconsequences,provedthemexperimentally,anddescribedtheminherreport,"SomeConclusionsDerivedfromtheFresnelReflectionFormula."
79
Morethan
herthesisproject,thisinvestigationconvincedherthatshewascapableofindependentscientificwork.
80
Whileengagedintheopticsstudy,shealsodecidedtolearnsomethingoftheexperimentalproceduresusedinthenewfieldofradioactivity.Shehadtakenan
advancedseminaronthesubjectfromEgonvonSchweidlertheyearbeforenowshebecameacquaintedwithStefanMeyer,anassistantinBoltzmann'sinstitutewho
wasonlysixyearsherseniorandalreadyquitewellknowninthefield.AtMeyer'ssuggestion,Meitnermeasuredtheabsorptionofalphaandbetaradiationinfoilsof
variousmetals.ByJuneshecompletedthestudy,
81
havingbeenintroducedtoseveralradioactivesubstances,theliteratureofradioactivity,andanewinstrument,the
leafelectroscope.
Itwasthesummerof1906,atimetoassessherfuture.FortheyoungwomanwhohadjustbecomeDr.LiseMeitner,thefuturewasnotmuchclearerthanithadbeen
atagefourteen.Asthesecondwomantoearnadoctorateinphysicsfromtheuniversity,sheknewofnoprospectsfora
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womaninphysics
82
itseemedentirelypossibleshemightneverworkasascientist.InAustriatherehadasyetbeennofemaleAssistent,thefirstpositiononthe
academicladdertherewerenowomen'scollegeslikethoseinAmericawithpositionsforafewwomenscientists,
83
nogreatlikelihoodofajobinindustry.Ofcourse,
LisehadheardofMarieCurie,whohadwonthe1903NobelPrizeinphysicswithherhusband,Pierre,andHenriBecquerelifshealsoknewofCurie'senormous
professionaldifficultiesinParisandhowlittletheprizehadalleviatedthem,shewouldnothavebeenencouraged.AtonepointshewrotetoMarieCurieabout
workinginherlaboratory,buttherewasnopositionavailable.
84
Thereseemednochoicebuttofollowherfather'sadviceonceagainandobtainthecredentials
necessarytoearnaliving.Shesignedupforpracticeteachingatagirls'school.
85
Teachingdidnotappealtoher.Great,perhapsinsurmountable,obstaclesstoodin
thewayforawomaninscience.Therewasnopathtofollow.
Latethatsummer,on5September1906,thephysicscommunitywasshockedbythenewsthatLudwigBoltzmannhadtakenhislife.Inatributetohisfriendand
scientificopponent,WilhelmOstwalddescribedBoltzmannasavictimoftheimmensesacrificesofhealthandstrengthdemandedofthosewhostruggleforscientific
truth.
86
LiseMeitner,morerealistically,ascribedhissuicideto"mentalinstability"sheneverunderstoodit.
87
ButitseemslikelythatBoltzmann'sdeathstrengthened
herdeterminationtoremaininphysics,sothatthesparkhehadkindledinherwouldremainalive.
Inthefallof1906,therefore,shecontinuedworkingwithStefanMeyer,whotemporarilytookoverBoltzmann'sinstitute.Bydayshetaughtschoolintheeveningshe
returnedtoTrkenstrasse3.Duringthatyearshebecamefamiliarwithradioactivityresearch,althoughshehadnoparticularintentionofspecializinginit.
88
Oneoftheearliestworkersinthefield,Meyerhadbeeninvestigatingthemagneticpropertiesofvariouselementswhenpolonium,radium,andthenactiniumwere
discoveredintheCuries'laboratoryin1899.
89
WithvonSchweidler,heinvestigatedtheradiationemittedbythenewelementsusingamagneticfieldtodeflectthe
radiation,theydiscoveredthatbetaradiationconsistsofparticleswithnegativecharge,
90
adiscoverymadeatnearlythesametimebyHenriBecquerelinFranceand
FriedrichGieselinGermany.AyearlaterBecquerelmeasuredtheirchargetomassratio
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andconfirmedthatbetaraysmorecorrectly,betaparticlesareidenticaltoelectrons.Inasimilarexperiment,MeyerandvonSchweidlerstudiedthealpharadiation
frompoloniumbutwereunabletoobserveadeflectionafewyearslaterErnestRutherfordwouldusestrongermagnetstodeterminethatalphaparticlesarepositively
charged.
Meyerremainedinradioactivity.Herecognizedthatthepuzzling"inducedactivity"thatearlyworkershadfoundthroughouttheirlaboratorieswasduetoradium,
thorium,oractiniumemittingaradioactivegasRutherfordcalledit"emanation"thatdiffusedintotheairandthendecayedtoasolidthatcoatedobjectsalloverthe
laboratory.Thesolid,alsoradioactive,wasthereaftertermedthe"activedeposit."
91
(Fortheradioactivedecayseries,seeAppendixfig.1.)Inthoseearlyyearsof
radioactivityresearch,Meyeralsostudiedthephysicaleffectsofradiation,suchascolorchangesinminerals.
In1900,fouryearsafterthediscoveryofradioactivity,thenumberofrecognizedradioactivespeciesstoodatfive:theelementsuranium,thorium,polonium,radium,
andactinium.WhenLiseMeitnerbeganresearchin1906,thenumberwasovertwentyandrisingmostconfusing,sinceatfirsteverynewradioactivesubstancewas
thoughttobeanewelement(theexistenceofisotopeswasnotfullyappreciateduntilabout1913,whenitbecameclearthatitwaspossiblefordifferentradioactive
speciestobechemicallyidentical).Inaddition,therelationshipbetweenradioactivesubstanceswasnotunderstood,andlittlewasknownabouttheirradiation.And
yet,chaoticasitwas,thefieldwasinviting,foranewcomerneededlittlemorethanaradioactivesourceandameasuringdevicetoquicklydiscoveranewactivityor
learnsomethingnewaboutitsradiation.
InViennathepreferredinstrumentforradiationmeasurementswastheleafelectroscope.Asimpledevice,itconsistedofaverythingoldoraluminumleaffastenedto
ametalrodwhoseendprotrudedfromanenclosedcontainerintowhichitwassealed.Whentherodwasgivenanelectriccharge,thegoldleafwasrepelledaway
fromtherodwhenaradioactivesubstancewasbroughtnear,itsradiationwouldionizethesurroundingair,thechargeonthemetalrodandthegoldleafwouldleak
away,andtheleafwoulddescendtoitsrestingposition,therateofdescentbeingameasureofthestrengthoftheradiation.FranzExnerhadimprovedthe
electroscopeforhighlysensitivemeasurementsofatmosphericradi
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ationJuliusElsterandHansGeitelhadaddedamirror,ascale,andamagnifyingglass.Theelectroscopewasasensitiveinstrument,readilymodifiedforalpha,beta,
orgammaradiationsitsdisadvantagesincludedthemindnumbingtediumofthemeasurementsandthedelicacyofthemetalleaf.KarlPrzibamrecalled"howirritating
itwaswhen[theelectroscope]wasnotcarefullychargedandthelittlegoldleafhitthetopandgotstuck,oreventoreoff!"
92
InMeitner'sfirststudy,doneinthespringof1906,shemeasuredtheabsorptioninseveralmetalsofalphaandbetaradiationemittedbytheactivedepositsofthorium
andactiniumshefound,asothershad,thatalpharadiationexhibitsawelldefinedrangeineachmetal,whereasthemorepenetratingbetaradiationtapersoff
gradually.Althoughshepointedtotheimportanceofabsorptionstudiesforunderstandingthenatureoftheradiation,shepresentedhermeasurementswithout
speculatingontheirmeaning.
Now,inlate1906,Meitnerturnedtothequestionofwhetheralphaparticlesaremerelyabsorbedastheypassthroughmatter,orwhethertheyarealsoscatteredto
someextent.Anumberofscientists,includingMarieCurieandRutherfordhadfoundevidenceofscattering,butW.H.Braggdisputedthesefindings.Thequestion
wasofconsiderableinterestforlearningsomethingofthenatureofalphaparticlesandalsothematterthroughwhichtheypassedRutherfordhadalreadynotedthat
scattering"bringsoutclearlythefactthattheatomsofmattermustbetheseatofveryintenseelectricalforces."
93
Meitnerdevisedanarrangementbywhichabeamof
alphaparticleswascollimatedmadeparallelbypassingthroughabundleoftinymetaltubes,thenallowedtopenetrateametalfoil,andthencollimatedagainby
anotherbundleoftubessomedistanceaway.
94
Theattenuationofthebeamasitpassedthroughthefirstandsecondcollimatorsvariedwiththedistancebetween
theminamannerthatcouldbeexplainedonlyifthealphaparticleswereindeedscatteredsomewhatbythemetalfoilMeitnerfoundthatthescatteringincreasedwith
theatomicmassofthemetalatoms.Inafewyears,alphascatteringwouldleadRutherfordtothenuclearatomMeitner'swasanearlyexampleofsuchexperiments,
cleverlydesignedandcarefullyexecuted.
95
ShesubmittedherreporttothePhysikalischeZeitschrifton29June1907.
Anotheryearwasover,andagainLiseMeitnerfacedadecision.InViennaherfutureappearedtoholdnothingbutteaching.
96
Behindherlay
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Page22
thethreeinvestigationsshehadindependentlycompleted.Asshelaterwrote,"ThisgavemethecouragetoaskmyparentstoallowmetogotoBerlinforafew
terms."
97
Herparentsagreed.Meitnerregardeditaspureselfindulgenceonherpartandgenerosityontheirs.Attheageoftwentyeight,shestilldependedonthem
foranallowance.
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ChapterTwo
BeginningsinBerlin
Wewereyoung,contented,andcarefree,perhapspoliticallytoocarefree.
LiseMeitnerarrivedinBerlininSeptember1907.Sheexpectedtostudythereafewsemestersshewouldstayformorethanthirtyyears.
ShechoseBerlinbecauseitwasamagnetfortheGermanspeakingworld,becauseBoltzmannhadspokenofitwithregret,andaboveallbecausesheknewthename
ofMaxPlanckandhadseenhimwhenhewasinvitedtoViennaasapossiblesuccessortoBoltzmann.Shehadnotheardofhisquantumtheory,althoughithadbeen
publishedin1900,andsheknewalmostnothingaboutBerlin,noteventhatwomenwerestillexcludedfromPrussianuniversities.
1
TheuniversityinBerlin,youngbyEuropeanstandards,wasfoundedunderFriedrichWilhelmIIIin18091810.Berlinwaslargethenbutstillamorphous,setona
sandyplainattheconfluenceoftwominorrivers,theSpreeandtheHavel.WithPrussia'sgrowingdominance,BerlindevelopedintoGermany'spolitical,social,and
intellectualcenter.ItsfocuswasthetreelinedUnterdenLinden,thelandmarkBrandenburgerTor,andanimmenseclusterofpublicbuildings:thehugeReichstag,the
Staatsoper,theCharithospitalsandclinics,museumsofart,antiquity,andanthropology,churches,palaces,libraries,theaters.LestPrussia'straditionalsourceof
strengthbeforgotten,theBrandenburgGatewastoppedbythegoddessVictorywhogazedcalmlyoverthecafsonUnterdenLindentoherleftjustbeyondthe
ReichstagstoodtheSiegesule,avictorycolumnencrustedwithceremoniouslygildedcannonbarrelscapturedfromDenmark,Austria,and,mostsatisfying,France.
TastewasnotBerlin'sstrongpoint,neitherinwomen'sfashionsnorcuisinenormonumentalarchi
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Page24
tectureitlackedthepatinaofVienna,thegraceofMunich,thesolidityofHamburg.Butthecityhadwit,nonEuropeanenergy"ChicagoontheSpree"anda
modernedginessthatleftroomfornearlyeveryformofhumanactivity.
2
AndBerlin'sbeautycouldbesurprisinglygentle,withwarmsummersandgenerousopen
space,waterwayslacingthecentralcity,andtothewestachainoflakesframedbythickpinewoodsastheHavelflowedsouthtowardPotsdam.
BytheturnofthecenturytheFriedrichWilhelmUniversittrankedasoneofthefinestinEurope.ItsmainbuildingopenedontoUnterdenLindenacrossfromthe
Opera,withotherbuildingsandinstitutesonthenarrowstreetsbetweenthehospitalcomplex,themuseums,andtheReichstag.Theuniversity'splacementasone
amongmanyculturalemblemsmaywellhaveemphasizeditsinaccessibilitytowomen,whowereexpectedtofilltheirdesignatedrolesofmother,Hausfrau,and
guardianofvirtuewithlesseducationthantheircounterpartselsewhereinEurope.AtnotimeinthenineteenthcenturycouldGermanwomenattenduniversitiesas
anythingbutunmatriculatedauditorstheirsecondaryeducationwascorrespondinglyirregular.ThestateofBadenwasthefirsttoopenitsuniversitiestowomen,in
1900othersslowlyfollowed.Prussia,whichdidnotadmitwomenuntilthesummerof1908,wasbynomeansthelast.
3
WhenLisewalkedthroughtheuniversitygates,therefore,sheenteredadomainsodecidedlymalethatshefeltnotjustastrangerbutanoddity.Shereactedwitha
reservesoextremethatsheherselfdescribeditas"borderingonfearofpeople."
4
OneofthefirstpeopletospeaktoherwasGertavonUbisch,abiologystudent
attendingclassesasanauditor.Gerta,whowasanativeofBerlin,andherparentsinvitedLiseforweekendsinthecountry."Noonewhoknewyouwhenyouwereso
shyatfirstdoubtedthatyouwoulddosomethinggreat,"shetoldLisefortyyearslater."Mysmallcontributionduringthosefirstmonthswastohelpyouovercomeyour
shynesswithrespecttoyourcolleagues,whichyouwouldhavedoneeventuallyonyourown."
5
LisehadtoaskMaxPlanckforpermissiontoattendhislectures.
Hereceivedmeverykindlyandsoonafterwardsinvitedmetohishome.ThefirsttimeIvisitedhimtherehesaidtome,"ButyouareaDoctoralready!Whatmoredoyouwant?"
WhenIrepliedthatIwouldliketogainsomerealunderstandingofphysics,hejustsaidafewfriendlywordsanddidnotpursuethematteranyfurther.Naturally,Iconcludedthat
hecouldhaveno
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veryhighopinionofwomenstudents,andpossiblythatwastrueenoughatthetime.
6
Shewasright.Planck'sopinionwasinfactonrecord,publishedin1897byaBerlinjournalistwhosurveyedsomeonehundredprofessors,teachers,andwritersfor
theirviewsonhighereducationforwomen.
7
Theresponsesvariedwidely.Impassionedsupporterstendedtobebrief:"Keepingwomenfromtheuniversitiesisan
injusticethathasgoneonfartoolong,""Itisquiteimpossibleformetounderstandhowamodernhumanbeingdeservingofthenamecandenywomen'srightand
abilityforacademicstudy,""Whatgivesusmentherighttoalwaysdeterminewhatwomenshalldo?"Thosestronglyopposedarguedatlength:womenwouldbetoo
weakforsurgery,frightful(schrecklich)intheministry,untalentedinhistory,athreattothesocialandintellectualcharacteroftheuniversity.Mathematicians
unconditionallyfavoredtheadmissionofwomen:FelixKleinreportedthathissixcurrentwomenstudents(fullymatriculatedinGttingenunderatrialprogramopen
onlytoforeignwomen)
8
wereascapableasthemen,whiletheKielmathematicianG.WeyerlistedtwentyonewomenmathematiciansandastronomersfromHypatia
toMariaMitchell,includingabiographyofSofiaKovalevskaia.SeveralrespondentsdeploredtheGermanfeminineidealofwoman'splaceinnurseryandkitchen,and
itsreverse,thecaricatureofthesexlesslearnedwoman(diegelehrteFrau)afewpointedoutthatsincemendidnotobjecttowomenworkinginfactories,their
oppositiontowomenintheprofessionswassurelyduetofearofcompetition.HugoMnsterberg,aFreiburgphilosophyprofessorwhospentseveralyearsat
Harvard,describedthevitalityofBostonsocietywithitseducated,intellectual,andinterestingwomenhenoted,however,thattheirAmericancollegediplomaswere
bynomeansequivalenttoaGermanuniversitydegree.
9
MaxPlanck'sresponsewaswelltowardtheconservativeendofthespectrum.
Ifawomanpossessesaspecialgiftforthetasksoftheoreticalphysicsandalsothedrivetodevelophertalent,whichdoesnothappenoften,butdoeshappenonoccasion,thenI
consideritunjust,fromapersonalaswellasanobjectivepointofview,tocategoricallydenyherthemeanstostudyasamatterofprincipleifitisatallcompatiblewithacademic
orderIshallreadilyadmither,onatrialbasisandalwaysrevocably,tomylecturesandmypracticalcourses....
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Ontheotherhand,Imustholdfasttotheideathatsuchacasemustalwaysbeconsideredanexception,andinparticularthatitwouldbeagreatmistaketoestablishspecial
institutionstoinducewomenintoacademicstudy,atleastnotintopurescientificresearch.Amazonsareabnormal,eveninintellectualfields.Incertainpracticalsituations,for
example,women'shealthcare,conditionsmightbedifferent,butingeneralitcannotbeemphasizedstronglyenoughthatNatureitselfhasdesignatedforwomanhervocationas
motherandhousewife,andthatundernocircumstancescannaturallawsbeignoredwithoutgravedamage,whichinthiscasewouldappearespeciallyinthenextgeneration.
10
Planckwrotethisin1897whenhewasthirtynineyearsold,alreadyaprofessorandwellknownscientist,husbandandfatheroffour.Unlikemanyofhis
contemporaries,heacceptedthesocietalstatusquowithoutquestionandelevatedhisownfamilystructuretonaturallaw.NeverthelessPlanckdidnotcompletely
depersonifywomen:hewaswillingtoadmitexceptions.WhenLiseMeitnerappearedinhisofficetenyearslater,heapparentlyrecognizedherasoneofthem.
Perhapshesawinherpainfulshynessthedeterminationittookjusttobetherehemusthavesensedhowoutofplaceshefeltandinvitedhertohishome.
EvenwithmyfirstvisitIwasveryimpressedbytherefinedmodestyofthehouseandtheentirefamily.InPlack'slectures,however,Ifoughtacertainfeelingofdisappointmentat
first....Boltzmannhadbeenfullofenthusiasm...andhedidnotrefrainfromexpressingthisenthusiasminaverypersonalway....Withthisbackground,Planck'slectures,with
theirextraordinaryclarity,seemedatfirstsomewhatimpersonal,almostdry.ButIveryquicklycametounderstandhowlittlemyfirstimpressionhadtodowithPlanck'strue
personality.
11
LisesoonrealizedthatPlanck'slectureswouldnotoccupyallhertime,andshelookedaboutforaplacetodosomeexperimentalwork.Whensheapproached
ProfessorHeinrichRubens,headoftheexperimentalphysicsinstitute,heofferedheraplaceinhisownlaboratory.
Nowitwasquitecleartomethen,asabeginner,howimportantitwouldbeformetobeabletoaskaboutanythingIdidnotunderstand,anditwasnolesscleartomethatI
shouldnothavethecouragetoaskProfessorRubens.WhileIwasstillconsideringhowtoanswerwithoutgivingoffense,RubensaddedthatDr.OttoHahnhadindicatedthathe
wouldbeinterestedincollaboratingwithme,andHahnhimselfcameinafewminuteslater.Hahnwasofthesameageasmyselfandveryinformalinmanner,andIhadthefeeling
thatIwouldhavenohesitationinaskinghimallIneededtoknow.
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Page27
Moreover,hehadaverygoodreputationinradioactivity,soIwasconvincedhecouldteachmeagreatdeal.
12
Morethanfiftyyearslater,OttoHahnwouldcite28September1907asthedayhefirstmetLiseMeitner.
13
Althoughthedate,likeotherthingsOttowouldlater
remember,isprobablynotquitecorrect,theirmeetingwasclearlyanimportanteventforhim,asitwasforLise.Theywouldworkunderthesameroofforthenext
thirtyoneyears,togetheratfirstandthenindependently,theclosestofcolleagues,thebestoffriends.Later,afterLiseleftBerlin,theircollegialitywouldnotsurvivethe
differencesthatgrewbetweenthem.Buttheirfriendshipprovedirreversible,aconstantintheirlives.
HahnwasborninFrankfurton8March1879,fourmonthsafterLise,theyoungestsonofawelltodotradesman,agoodbutnotespeciallydiligentstudentwhotook
hisdegreeinchemistryfromtheUniversityofMarburg.TolearnsomeEnglishandimprovehisprospectsforapositioninchemicalindustry,hewenttoLondonin
1904SirWilliamRamsay,thechemistfamousfordiscoveringargonandothernoblegases,introducedhimtothefieldofradioactivity.Hahn'sresearchwentso
wellhepromptlydiscoveredanewradioactivesubstance,radiothorium(
228
Th)thathedecidedonanacademiccareerasaradiochemist.Hespentthefollowing
yearinMontrealwithErnestRutherford,discoveredtwomoreactivities,thoriumC(laterrevisedtoThC'[
212
Po])andradioactinium(
227
Th),andin1906returnedto
GermanyforapositionasAssistent(assistant)intheinstituteofEmilFischer,thegreatorganicchemistinBerlin.Atthetime,veryfewphysicistsandevenfewer
chemistsworkedinradioactivity,noneinBerlin.InFischer'sinstituteHahnwassurroundedbychemistswhohadnoideawhathewasuptoFischerhimself,who
likedtosaythatnoinstrumentwasmoresensitivethanthehumannose,foundithardtobelievethatanelectroscopecoulddetectfarsmallerquantitiesofradioactive
material.
14
Hahnsoonfoundanotheractivity,whichhenamedmesothorium,amixtureofMsTh1(
228
Ra)andMsTh2(
228
Ac),andinthespringof1907wasreadyfor
hisHabilitation.OnlearningofHahn'spromotion,adepartmentheadsniffed,''It'sincrediblewhatgetstobeaPrivatdozentthesedays!"
15
IntheGermanacademichierarchy,thefirstrungontheacademicladderwasthatofAssistent,aresearchpositionthatcarriedasmallsalaryandnoteachingduties.
Afterafewyears,theAssistentwouldpreparehis
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Page28
Habilitationsschrift,awrittenandverbalpresentationofhisindependentwork,receivethevenialegendi(righttoteach)attheuniversitylevel,andbeappointed
Privatdozent(instructor),anunsalariedpositionthatprovidedacademicrank,researchfunding,andteachingassignmentsinreturnforfeespaidbystudents.Ifthings
wentwellhecouldexpectaRuf(literally,"call")toanappointmentsasausserordentlicherProfessor(extraordinaryprofessor)andifhewasexceptionalanda
positionwasavailable,ordentlicherProfessor(ordinaryprofessor,orsimplyprofessor),apositionmostacademicsneverreached.
ThetitlesdonotconveythesamerelativeimportanceascomparableAmericantitles:inGermany,thepositionofProfessorwasfarmorepowerfulthanthosebelowit
becauseofthepracticeofhavingonlyoneprofessorforagivensubjectarea.Mostuniversities,forexample,hadonlytwoprofessorsinphysics,onetheoreticaland
theotherexperimental(inBerlin,thesewerePlanckandRubens).Manyphysicistsmightworkundertheminvariousfields,butthenumberofprofessorsremained
constantunlessmajoreffortswereundertakentoconvincetheMinistryofEducationthatanewprofessorshipwasneeded.Professorsoftenheadedtheirown
institutes,werepaidfarmore,andweretheonlyfacultytohaveasayinhiring,budget,andpolicydecisions.Ordinaryandextraordinaryprofessorsweregovernment
officialswithcivilservicerankverydistinguishedprofessorsmightbegiventhetitleGeheimrat(privycouncilorinAustria,Hofrat)orevenennobledwitha"von"
beforetheirfamilyname.Ithasbeenarguedthatwiththeirpower,privilege,andgovernmentrank,Germanacademicsoftheperiodwereafunctionalrulingcaste
comparabletothemilitaryinPrussiathatsubstitutedforamoretraditionalaristocracy.
16
Withfewkindredspiritsinthechemistryinstitute,HahnregularlyattendedProfessorRubens'sWednesdayphysicscolloquium,anditwasthere,mostprobably,thathe
wasfirstintroducedtoLise.Theyweredelightedwitheachotherfromthestart.Ottolikedwomeningeneralhehadworkedwithatleastoneotherwomanphysicist,
HarrietBrooks,inMontreal,andhewasgenuinelygladtofindanotherpersonespeciallyaphysicistwithexperienceinradioactivity.
17
AndLisesensedthatOtto's
goodnaturedinformalitywouldmakeiteasierforhertoovercomehershyness.Eachsawintheothersomethingtheylacked.Liseknewthephysicsandmathematics
Ottohadneverstudied,andshehadthemiddle
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Page29
classintellectualupbringinghehadalwaysadmiredfromafarOttowascharmingandsociabletothetipsofhisWilhelminianmustache,whoseupturnedendssignaled
thataperson"wassomebody,"oratleastwantedtobe.Ineachother'scompanybothcouldescapesomeoftheformalitiesofBerlin.ForhisoutspokennessHahn
hadalreadybeendescribedas"oneofthoseAnglicizedBerliners"(notintendedasacompliment),andMeitnerhadbeenappalledatbeingaskedtosignapaper
sayingshewouldbehave"Standesgemss""accordingtoherrankandstation"whenrentingaroom.
18
InmanywaysViennaandFrankfurtwereclosertoeach
otherthaneitherwastoBerlin.LiseandOttomadeplanstobeginworktogetheratonce.
Therewasoneproblem.TheChemistryInstitutewascompletelyofflimitstowomen:EmilFischerwasafraidtheywouldsetfiretotheirhair,havingoncehada
Russianstudentwithan"exotic"hairstyle.
19
(Hemusthavebelievedhisbeardtobeflameresistant.)Asacompromise,Lisewasallowedtoworkinabasementroom,
formerlyacarpenter'sshop,whichOttohadsetupformeasuringradiationshewasnottosetfootinanyotherpartoftheinstitute,noteventhelaboratoryupstairs
whereOttodidhischemicalexperiments.FischerrelentedonlybecausethewoodshophadaseparateoutsideentrancetouseatoiletLisewalkedtoarestaurant
downthestreet.Ayearlater,whenwomenwerelegallyadmittedtoPrussianuniversities,Fischerwelcomedthem,liftedhisrestrictionsonMeitner,andinstalleda
ladies'room.
20
Manyofthechemistryassistantsresentedthechange,andLiseremainedessentially"nonexistent"inFischer'sinstitute.
21
Sometimes,whenanassistant
encounteredMeitnerandHahntogether,hewouldmakeapointofsayingonly,"Goodday,HerrHahn!"
22
Thephysicistsweremuchfriendlier.AtRubens'sphysicscolloquiumLisejoinedagroupofyoungpeoplethatincludedJamesFranck,GustavHertz,MaxLaue,Otto
vonBaeyer,RobertPohl,PeterPringsheim,andErichRegener,and,later,manyotherswhowouldbeherlifelongfriends.Asshewrote,"Notonlyweretheybrilliant
scientists,theywerealsoexceptionallynicepeopletoknow.Eachwasreadytohelptheother,eachwelcomedtheother'ssuccess."
23
Fortheirfirstinvestigation,HahnandMeitnerdecidedtosurveyallthebetaemittingradioactivesourcesattheirdisposal.Suchastudywasnecessary,theybelieved,
becauseearlierresults,obtainedbydifferentscientistsundervaryingexperimentalconditions,wereprovingdifficultto
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Page30
interpret.Althoughnoonedoubtedthatbetaparticleswerehighenergyelectrons,almosteverythingelseaboutthemwasquiteunclear,includingtheirenergyof
emissionandthemannerinwhichtheywereabsorbedinvariousmaterials.
Onthewholealpharadiationpresentedasomewhatsimplerpicture.ThenatureofalphaparticleswasnotknownwithcertaintyRutherfordhadnotyetproventhat
theywereheliumatomsthathadlosttwoelectronsbuttheirenergyandabsorptioncharacteristicswereunderstoodquitewell.In1904Bragghadshownthateach
purealphasourceemitsalphaparticleswithuniformenergyandasharplydefinedrange(penetratingdistance)thatissufficientlycharacteristicofthesourcetoserveas
ameansofidentification.
24
InMontrealOttoHahnhadusedjustthischaracteristictofindanewalphasource:theactivedepositofthorium,alreadyknowntocontain
thealphaemitterThB(laterdesignatedThC[
212
Bi]),emittedalphaparticleswithtwodistinctranges,indicatingthepresenceofasecondactivityhecalledThC(later
ThC'[
212
Po]).
25
Thismethodwasparticularlyusefulforfindingveryshortlivedsubstances.Hahn'sThC(ThC'),forexample,waslaterfoundtodecaywithahalflife
of3X10
7
secondssofastthatnotenoughcouldaccumulatefordetectionbychemicalmeans.
Asaworkinghypothesis,MeitnerandHahnassumedthatbetaparticles,likealphaparticles,wereemittedwithuniformenergytheyknew,however,thatbeta
particleswerefarmorepenetratingandwereabsorbedonlygraduallyastheytraveledthroughmatter.By1907therewasageneralconsensusthatbetaparticlesof
uniformenergywouldbeexponentiallyabsorbed.
26
Iftrue,thenanydeviationfromexponentialabsorptionwouldindicatethepresenceofmorethanonebetasource.
HahnandMeitnermeasuredtheabsorptioncharacteristicsofanumberofpurebetasourcesandmixturesmesothorium1and2,thethoriumandradiumactive
deposits,uraniumX(
234
Th),radiolead(
210
Pb),andradiumE(
210
Bi)makingchemicalseparationswherepossible,controllingphysicalparameterssuchasthe
thicknessandareaoftheradioactivesource,secondaryabsorptioneffects,andinterferencefromalphaandgammaradiation.Theirelectroscope,awellmadebrass
designwithaluminumleaves,wasclampedinplacewithscrewadjustmentsforvaryingthedistancebetweensourceandinstrumenttheabsorbingmaterialconsistedof
thinaluminumfoilsasmanyasfiftylayeredoverthesourceandheld
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Page31
downwithametalring.Withoneexception,eachpuresubstanceexhibitedexponentialabsorptionmixturesdidnot.Theloneexceptionwasmesothorium2(
228
Ac),
whosenonexponentialabsorptionMeitnerandHahnattributedtothepresenceofayetundiscoveredsubstanceattemptstoseparateitchemicallywereunsuccessful.
InApril1908theysubmittedtheirresultstothePhysikalischeZeitschrift,atwelvepagearticle,Hahnnoted,inajournalwithunusuallylargepagesize."Evidentlywe
wereverydiligentinthosedays."
27
HahnandMeitnernextturnedtotheactivedepositofactinium,knowntocontainonebetaemitter,actiniumA,anditsdaughter,actiniumB,thoughttoemitbothalpha
andbetaparticles.Thebetaradiationdeviatedconsiderablyfromexponentialabsorption,
28
sothatMeitnerandHahnsuspectedthepresenceofanotherbetaemitter
tofindandcharacterizeit,theychemicallyseparatedactiniumB,measuredalphaandbetadecaysimultaneously,andestablishedthatactiniumBisanalphaemitter
only,decayingtoanewbetaemittertheycalledactiniumC.(AcAwaslaterrevisedtoAcB[
211
Pb],AcBtoAcC[
211
Bi],andAcCtoAcC"[
207
Tl]).
29
TheactiniumworkwascompletedinAugust1908,justbeforetheinstituteclosedforthefourweeksummervacation.IntenmonthsMeitnerandHahnhad
accomplishedfarmoretogetherthaneithercouldhavedonealone,inpartbysharingthetediousphysicalmeasurements,morefundamentallybecauseradioactivitywas
bynatureinterdisciplinary,requiringthechemicalseparationsthatwereHahn'sforteaswellasMeitner'sphysicalmeasurementsandthemathematicalandgraphicskills
shebroughttotheanalysisoftheirdata.Inafieldcharacterizedbyaprofusionofstrangenewspeciesandunexplainedeffects,theircollaborationalsobenefitedfrom
theirdifferencesinscientifictemperament:Hahn'spatienceandthoroughnessinspiredconfidencethatnodetailwasoverlooked,whereasMeitnerlookedforbold
generalizationsthatwereessentialforfindingawaythroughthechaos.Thiswastrueintheirfirstyear'sworktogether,andeventhoughtheirassumptionofuniform
betaenergiesandexponentialabsorptionwouldsoonbeprovenincorrect,itprovidedastrategyforsystematicallyexploringalargenumberofradioactivesubstances
andevendiscoveringanewone.WhenLisewenthometoViennainAugust,sheaskedherparentstoextendherallowanceforanotheryear.
InVienna,Lisealsoattendedtoanothermatter.On29September1908,sheformallywithdrewfromtheJewishcommunityinwhichhernamehad
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Page32
beenregisteredatbirth,andwasbaptizedattheEvangelical(Protestant)Congregation.ThereisnorecordofwhyLisetookthatstepjustthenshemayhavebeen
promptedbythebaptismofhersistersCarola(Lola)andGisela,bothasCatholics,earlierthatyear.Althoughshealsoneverexplicitlystatedwhyshechosetobe
Protestant,shemaintainedagenuineinterestintheethicalteachingsofthereligionallherlife.
30
ItmaywellbethatheryearinBerlinhadsomethingtodowithit,
especiallyheradmirationforPlanck,whosecharacterandbehaviorexemplifiedtheGermanProtestantidealof"excellent,reliable,incorruptible,idealisticandgenerous
men,devotedtotheserviceofChurchandState."
31
OnecanalmostcertainlyruleoutopportunismasamotiveforLise'sconversionprofessionallyshewasso
thoroughlyexcludedforreasonsofgenderthatreligionplayednoessentialrole.AndinBerlin,asinVienna,everyoneknewwhowas"really"Christiananyway.
ThatfallHahnandMeitnerturnedasmalldiscrepancyintoanimportantnewmethodforisolatingindividualradioactivespecieswithexceptionalpurity.Anumberof
scientists,includingStefanMeyer,hadfoundminuteamountsofwhatappearedtobeactiniumX(
223
Ra)intheactivedepositofactinium.Thiswaspuzzling,since
actiniumXdecaystoactiniumemanation,agasthatescapesandthendecaystoformtheactivedepositsomedistancefromitsparentnoonecouldimaginehow
actiniumX,asolidincapableofevaporation,couldbetransportedtotheactivedeposit:
Towardtheendof1908,Hahndiscoveredthattheeffectdidnotoccurunlessradioactinium(
227
Th),theparentofactiniumX,wasalsopresentthisenabledhimto
explainthepuzzle.Whenaradioactiniumatom(
227
Th)expelsanalphaparticle,herealized,itdoessowithsuchforcethatitsdaughteratom,actiniumX(
223
Ra),
recoils,sometimeswithenoughenergytofreeitselffromthesolidandtraveltoanearbysurfacesomedistanceaway:
Thephenomenon,nodifferentinprinciplefromtherecoilofariflefiringabullet,hascometobeknownasradioactiverecoil.
Hahnhastenedtopreparehisresultsforpublicationpreoccupiedwithactinium,hedidnotspeculateonothersystems.WhenMeitnerreadhis
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Page33
manuscript,however,sheimmediatelyproposedthattherecoilhehadobservedfromfairlythicklayersofactiniumshouldoccurfarmorereadilyfromtheextremely
thinlayersformedbyactivedeposits.
32
Togethertheytestedtheactivedepositofthoriumandatoncediscoveredanewradioactivesubstance,thebetaemitter
thoriumD(nowThC"[
208
Tl]),whichtheycouldshowwasejectedfromtheactivedepositbythealpharecoilofitsparent,ThB(nowThC[
212
Bi]):
The
208
Tltheyobtainedwasexceptionallypure,sothattheycoulddetermineitshalflifeofthreeminuteswithunusuallyhighprecisionforsuchashortperiod.Inthe
radiumactivedeposittheysearchedforevidenceofbetarecoilexpectedtobemuchweakerandindeedfoundminusculeamountsofradiumC(
214
Bi)thatcould
onlyhavecomefromthebetarecoilofradiumB(
214
Pb).Finallytheyturnedtotheactiniumactivedeposit,andfromthealpharecoilofactiniumB(nowAcC[
211
Bi])
theycollectedapuresampleandverifiedthehalflifeofactiniumC(nowAcC"[
207
Tl]),thespeciestheyhaddiscoveredafewmonthsbefore.
Therecoilmethodwassocleanthattheirexperimentswerecompletedinafewdaysintheirreporttheyemphasized"thegreatadvantageofthisphysicalseparation
methodoverchemicalseparations,notonlywithrespecttopuritybutalsothequantityofthepreparationsobtained."
33
Recoilcontinuedtobeapowerfulmethodfor
separatingandpurifyingradioactivesubstancesmorethantwentyyearslaterLeoSzilardandT.A.Chalmerswouldusetherecoilfromhardgammaemissionto
separateradioisotopesproducedbyneutronirradiation.
InDecember1908ErnestRutherfordwasawardedtheNobelPrizeinchemistryontheirreturnfromStockholmtoManchester(wherehehadmovedfromMontreal
in1907),heandhiswifevisitedBerlinforthefirsttime.WhenhewasintroducedtoLise,heexclaimedinastonishment,"Oh,Ithoughtyouwereaman!"(eventhough
herfirstnamewasoneverypublication).
34
Thevisitwasfestive,Rutherfordmuchamusedabouthissudden"transformation,"ashecalledit,fromphysicisttochemist.
HetwittedOttoHahnandlateranother"brotherchemist,"BertramBoltwoodofYale,"Iwasverystartledatmytransformationatfirstbutafterwardssawthatitwas
quiteinaccordwiththedisintegrationtheory."
35
WhileRutherfordandHahnhadlongtalks,LiseaccompaniedMrs.Ru
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Account: s5308004

Page34
therford,whospokenoGerman,onherChristmasshoppingtrips.
36
Lisecouldnothavebeenpleasedtobeoutshoppingwhilethementalkedshop.
Hahnmadearrangementsforagrandreceptionforhisformerprofessor,includingvisitstothephysicsandchemistryinstitutesanddinnersandseminarsinhishonor.
37

AtameetingoftheDeutschePhysikalischeGesellschaft,HahnreportedontherecoilofactiniumX.Rutherfordwasmostinterestedand,toHahn'sdiscomfort,told
himthattheeffecthadbeendescribedsomeyearsbeforeinhislaboratoryinMontreal,whenhisstudentHarrietBrookshadobservedwhatappearedtobe
"evaporation"ofradiumBfromtheradiumactivedeposit.NotingthattheeffectoccurredonlywhentheactivedepositwasfreshandradiumA(
218
Po)waspresent,
RutherfordattributedittotherecoilofradiumB(
214
Pb)fromthealphadecayofradiumAhehad,moreover,discussedrecoilinseveralarticlesandinhis1904
textbookonradioactivityandits1905revision,whichhadbeentranslatedintoGerman.
38
Hahncountered,ratherstiffly,thathehadproveditwasnotevaporationbutrecoilbyshowingthatradioactiniumwasrequired,andinanycasehehaddonesowith
actinium,notradium.Forallhischarm,Hahncouldbepricklyaboutpriorities,anexpression,perhaps,oftheinsecurityfeltbyachemistinafielddominatedby
physicists.Inhismemoirsfiftyyearslaterhewasstilldefensive,insistingthatRutherford's"unexplainedresidualactivitiescannotbeexplainedbyradioactiverecoil.The
experimentalproofofitsexistencewasfirstfurnishedinthewoodshopinBerlin."
39
Hahn'sproofmayhavebeenmoreconvincing,butonewonderswhyitwasso
difficultforhimtoacknowledgethathismindhadbeenpreparedforrecoilbytheconceptRutherfordhadexplicitlyandrepeatedlyproposed.
Intheendtherewerenohardfeelings.
40
RutherfordcommiseratedwithHahnoverhislackofacademicadvancementandreturnedtoManchesterenthusiasticabout
hisreceptioninBerlin.OfHahn'scolleaguehewrote,"LiseMitner[sic]isayoungladybutnotbeautifulsoIjudgeHahnwillnotfallavictimtotheradioactivecharms
ofthelady."
41
Infact,itwastruethatLiseandOttowerecolleaguesandfriends,nothingmore.Theytookcaretoavoidtheslightestappearanceofimpropriety,anecessityfora
youngwomanandmanwhospenteachdayalonetogetherinasingleroom.AsHahndescribedit,
Therewasnoquestionofanycloserrelationshipbetweenusoutsideofthelaboratory.LiseMeitnerhadhadastrictladylikeupbringingandwasvery
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Account: s5308004

Page35
reserved,evenshy....[F]ormanyyearsIneverhadamealwithLiseMeitnerexceptonofficialoccasions.Nordidweevergoforawalktogether[a"walktogether"beingoneof
theveryfewsociallyacceptablewaysforanunmarriedcoupletospendsometimealone].Apartfromthephysicscolloquiathatweattended,wemetonlyinthecarpenter'sshop.
Therewegenerallyworkeduntilnearlyeightintheevening,sothatoneortheotherofuswouldhavetogoouttobuysalamiorcheesebeforetheshopsshutatthathour.We
neverateourcoldsuppertogetherthere.LiseMeitnerwenthomealone,andsodidI.Andyetwewerereallyveryclosefriends.
42
Warmheartedbynature,withacapacityformakingandkeepinggoodfriends,LisemayatsometimehavewantedacloserrelationshipwithOtto,orperhapswithone
oranotherofthemanyyoungmenshemet.Butthereisnorecordofit,notevenahint,noristhereanyindicationthatsheregrettednothavingchildrenofherown.
ShetookalivelyinterestinthechildrenandlaterthegrandchildrenofherrelativesandfriendsandwasalwaysespeciallyclosetohernephewOttoRobertFrisch,"a
darlinglittlefellow[,]...exceptionallyobservant,"
43
whogrewuptobeanuclearphysicist,devotedtohisTanteLise.ManyyearslateroneofJamesFranck's
daughters,DagmarvonHippel,askedLisewhyshenevermarried,sinceshewas"sobeautiful"andthereweresomanyyoungmenaround."ButDaggie,dear,Ijust
neverhadtimeforit!"Liseexclaimed.
44
Ifsheeverhadthedesire,shemusthaveburieditearlyon.
LiseandOttoenjoyedeachother'scompany,buoyedbytheimmediatesuccessoftheircollaboration.WithhisrelaxedFrankfurtaccentandeasygoodhumor,Otto
helpedLiseovercomeherreserve.Andherconnectionswiththephysicistsmeantthathewasincludedinacongenialgroupthatlookedaftereachotherandbecame
goodfriends.
Radioactivityandatomicphysicswerethendevelopingincrediblyquicklynearlyeverymonthbroughtawonderfulsurprisingnewresultfromoneofthelaboratoriesworkingin
thesefields.Whenourworkwasgoingwellwesangduets,mostlyBrahmsLieder,whichIcouldonlyhum,whileHahnhadaverygoodsingingvoice....Ifhewasinanespecially
goodmoodhewouldwhistlelargesectionsoftheBeethovenviolinconcerto,sometimespurposelychangingtherhythmofthelastmovementjustsohecouldlaughatmy
protests....Bothpersonallyandscientificallywehadaverygoodrelationshipwiththeyoungcolleaguesinthenearbyphysicsinstitute.Theyoftencametovisitus,and
sometimestheywouldclimbinthroughthewindowofthewoodshopinsteadoftakingtheusualway.Inshort,wewereyoung,contentedandcarefree,perhapspoliticallytoo
carefree.
45
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Page36
Disinterestin,evenaversiontopoliticswastraditionalamongGermanacademicstheydisdaineditssubjectivityandlackofconsensusandcertainlyrecognizedthat
theirowncareerswerebestenhancedbyjoiningtheestablishment,notchangingit.
46
AlthoughLisegrewupwiththedemocraticidealsofLiberalVienna,shetook
littleinterestinGermanissues,noteventhestruggleforequityinwomen'seducationandsuffragethatwasimportantatthetime.Beingaforeignermayhavebeenpart
ofit.Andthephysicswasallabsorbing.
EachsemesterLiseextendedherstayinBerlin.Herparentscontinuedhersmallallowance.Tosupplementit,sheoccasionallytranslatedscientificarticlesfromEnglish
intoGerman
47
andwrotequiteregularlyforthepopularscientificperiodicalNaturwissenschaftlicheRundschauunderthename"L.Meitner."Othersuch
assignmentswerehardtocomeby.TheeditoroftheBrockhausencyclopedia,impressedbytheRundschauarticles,decidedtoaskthe"HerrDoktor"foranarticle
onradioactivityfortheencyclopediaandwrotetotheRundschaueditorfor"his"address.WhentheBrockhauseditorlearnedthatL.Meitnerwasa"Frulein
Doktor,"herepliedwithsomeheatthathe"wouldnotthinkofprintinganarticlewrittenbyawoman!''
48
Liselivedfrugally,rentingsingleroomsfromasuccessionoflandladies,neverwithprivatebath,occasionallywithapianoshecoulduse,oratelephone.Shecarefully
listedherclothing"7blouses,20pairstockings,4underskirts..."andaccountedforeverypennyshespent.Byeatingverylittleshehadenoughforcigarettes,a
dailynewspaper,andconcerts,
49
whereshecouldbefoundhighupinthecheapestseatsthesectionstudentscalled"Olympus"oftenfollowingthemusicwithafull
score.
50
NotlongaftercomingtoBerlin,Lisemetanotheryoungpersononthecitytrain,wheretheirpathsregularlyjoinedontheirwaytotheuniversity.ThiswasElisabeth
Schiemann,threeyearsyoungerthanLise,whowasstudyingbotanyintheAgriculturalInstitute(LandwirtschaftlicheHochschule).Theyquicklybecameclosefriends.
LiseintroducedElisabethtohercircleofphysicists,andElisabeth'sfamily,includinghersisterGertrud,embracedLise,who"cameandwentin[her]parents'house
likeasisterandwasnotpermittedtomissasinglefamilycelebration."
51
OnSundaystheyoftentookexcursionsintothecountrysidearoundBerlin,sothatLise,who
knewandlovedtheAustrianmountains,learnedtoappreciatethelessspectacularbeautyoftheMarkBrandenburg.TheirmostambitiousWan
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Page37
derungtookplaceinthesummerof1913,whentheymadetheirwayonfootandbytrainfromMunichtoVienna,hikingwithrucksacksthroughmountainmeadows
fromhuttohut,climbingtheZugspitze,highestintheBavarianAlps,passingthroughSalzburg,andarrivingatlastinViennafortheannualmeetingoftheSocietyof
GermanScientistsandPhysicians(GesellschaftDeutscherNaturforscherundrzte),whichinauguratedtheuniversity'sfinenewPhysicsInstituteonBoltzmanngasse.
52
Itwasonthistrip,afteryearsoffriendship,thattheyfirstaddressedeachotherwiththefamiliar"Du,"anoccasionforcelebration,toasts,andannual
remembrances.
53
ItwouldbeanothertenyearsbeforeLiseandOttoHahnwoulddothesame.
WithJamesFranck,suchbarriersdidnotexist.Fromnearlythefirstdaytheymetin1907,Lisesaid,"webothknewthatwespokethesamelanguage."AfterFranck
marriedIngridJosephsonin1911,hewouldbringLisehomewithhimaftertheWednesdayphysicscolloquiaIngrid,anaccomplishedpianist,wouldplaytheBrahms
LiederLiseloved,orFranckwouldaccompanyherontheviolin.Friendsforoverfiftyyears,theyneveroncedisappointedeachother.
54
"I'vefalleninlovewithyou,"
Franckteasedwhentheywerebothintheireighties."Spt!(Late!)"Liselaughed.
55
OfallthepeopleinLise'scircleinBerlin,theonesheadmiredwithnearreverencewasMaxPlanck,thesecondgreattheoreticalphysicistwhoseextraordinaryhuman
qualitiesshecametoknow.WhereLisehadbeensweptalongbyBoltzmann'sexuberance,shelovedandtrustedPlanckforhisdepthofcharacter.
Hehadanunusuallypuredispositionandinnerrectitude,whichcorrespondedtohisoutersimplicityandlackofpretension....AgainandagainIsawwithadmirationthathenever
didoravoideddoingsomethingthatmighthavebeenusefulordamagingtohimself.Whenheperceivedsomethingtoberighthecarrieditout,withoutregardforhisown
person.
56
His"innerrectitude"wastemperedbykindness.WhatPlanckoncesaidofhisfriend,thegreatviolinistJosefJoachim,Meitnerappliedtohim:"'[He]wassucha
wonderfulperson,thatwhenheenteredaroom,theairintheroomgotbetter.'"Sheadded,"TheyoungergenerationofBerlinphysicists...feltthisverystrongly."
57
Planckbelievedphysicstobeinseparablefromethicalvalues,becausenothinglessthancompletehonestysufficestounderstandexternalreality
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Page38
Liseattributedhistoleranceforideasquiteforeigntohim,hissympathyforothers,andhisconcernforjusticetojustthisrespectforreality.Despiteatwentyyear
differenceinageandanimmeasurabledifferenceinstatus,theybecame"truefriends,"asteadyinfluenceineachother'slivesforfortyyears.
58
PlancklivedinGrunewald,anattractivenewsuburbattheedgeofthepineforestwestofBerlin,inavilla,abighousewithalargegarden.Lisedescribedthetimes
sheandhercolleaguesspentthere:
Plancklovedhappy,unaffectedcompany,andhishomewasafocusforsuchsocialgatherings.Themoreadvancedstudentsandphysicsassistantswereregularlyinvitedto[his
homeon]Wangenheimstrasse.Iftheinvitationsfellduringthesummersemester,weplayedtaginthegarden,inwhichPlanckparticipatedwithalmostchildishambitionandgreat
agility.Itwasalmostimpossiblenottobecaughtbyhim.Anditwasobvioushowsatisfiedhewaswhenhehadcaughtsomeone.
59
Asayoungman,Planckhadcontemplatedacareerinmusicbutrecognizedthatsomeofhiscompositionssoundedtoomuchlikemusicalreadyknown.
60
Hewasa
pianistofgreattechnicalabilityawayfromtheuniversity,hislifecenteredonmusic.Familyandfriendswouldgatherforregulareveningsofchambermusic,Planck
accompanyingJosefJoachimorplayinginatriowithEinstein.OrhemightdirectachoralworkofHaydnorBrahms,withOttoHahnafrequentsoloistandachorus
offriendsandneighborsthatincludedElisabethandGertrudSchiemann.Lisedidnotperform,butshewasalwaysintheaudience.
61
Shebecamegoodfriendswith
Planck'stwindaughters,EmmaandGrete,whoinheritedhisgiftformusicshefitintothePlanckfamilyasoneoftheyoungergeneration.Theretherelationshipstood
forseveralyears.
Lisecontinuedtovisitherfamilyseveraltimesayear,alwaysforChristmasandusuallyfortheEasterandsummerholidays.ThereinVienna,inherparents'home,a
senseofbelongingcameoverherthatshefeltnowhereelse."SurelywhereverelseImaybeIshallalwayshavetoovercomeacertainfeelingofbeingastranger,"she
reflected."NeverthelessIknowverywellthatleavinghomewasincertainrespectsasalvationformeifIhadstayedhereIwould,atleastinwardly,havebeen
destroyed."
62
LiseneverlosthernostalgiaforVienna,butthethingsthatmatteredmosttoherwereinBerlin.SuccessfulinhercollaborationwithHahn,secureinhercircleofgood
friends,herreticencegraduallyreceded.With
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Page39
greattrepidation,butwithOtto'sencouragementandprodding,shebegangivingtalks,firsttotheGermanPhysicalSocietyandthen,evenmoredaunting,atthe
conferenceofGermanScientistsandPhysiciansthatmetinSalzburginSeptember1909.
63
Latershewouldrecalltheconferenceprimarilyforherfirstmeetingwith
AlbertEinstein,towhomshewasintroducedbyAntonLampa,herformerlaboratoryinstructorfromVienna.
64
Einsteinwasthirty,afewmonthsyoungerthanshe,
andalreadyaphenomenon.InhisSalzburglecturehemadetherevolutionaryargumentforatheoryoflightthatwouldtreatlightasbothparticleandwave.Likemost
intheaudience,includingPlanck,LisewasnotreadyforitinsteadshewastransfixedbyEinstein'sbriefoverviewofthespecialtheoryofrelativityandhisderivationof
theequivalenceofmassandenergy.Untilthenshehadnotheardofit(althoughEinsteinhadpublisheditin1905),anditwas"sooverwhelminglynewandsurprising"
thatsherememberedthatmomentallherlife.
65
FouryearslaterPlancksucceededinbringingEinsteintoBerlin,whereheandhisviolinweresoonafixturefortheeveningsofchambermusicinPlanck'shome.Inthis
mostrevolutionaryperiodinphysics,thereseemednobetterplacetobeaphysicist.LaterLisewoulddescribethephysicssheexperiencedandthepeoplewhowere
partofitasa"magicmusicalaccompaniment"toherlife.
66
Butapartfromthedaytodayabsorptionwithworkandfriends,Lise'slifewasundefined.Itwasnotsomuchthatherlivingconditionswerepoor,orthatshewasstill
dependentonherparentsOttotoo,inlieuofacademicadvancement,wasstillonanallowance(albeitconsiderablymoregenerousthanhers).
67
Farmoretroubling
washerlackofposition,thefactthatshefitinnowhere,apermanentdoubleexception:awomanwhowasascientist,ascientistwhowasfemale.Physicswasa
personalneed,aprivateindulgenceherpleasureinitwastingedwithguilt.Shortlyafterthedeathofherfatherin1910,shewrotetoafriend,
SometimesIlackcourage,andthenmylife,withitsgreatinsecurity,theconstantlyrepeatedworries,thefeelingofbeinganexception,theabsolutealoneness,seemsalmost
unbearabletome.Andwhatdistressesmemostisthefrightfulegotismofmycurrentwayoflife.EverythingIdobenefitsonlyme,myambitionandmypleasureinscientificwork.
ItseemsIhavechosenapathwhichfliesinthefaceofmymostdeeplyheldprinciple,thateveryoneshouldbethereforothers.BythatIdon'tmeanonemustsacrificeoneself
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Page40
fornoreason,butthatsomehowourlivesshouldbeconnectedwithothers,shouldbenecessaryforothers.I,however,amfreeasabird,becauseIamofusetonoone.Perhaps
thatistheworstlonelinessofall.
68
AlthoughLiseaddedthatshewasusuallyfartoobusyforsuchnegativethoughts,itisclearthatphysicsalonewasnotenough:sheneededameasureofacceptance,
somesenseoffuture.Shedidnotdwellonitandimmersedherselfinwork.
InherfirstyearsofcollaborationwithOttoHahn,theypublishedoftenthreemajorarticlesin1908,sixmorein1909studiedeveryknownbetasource,identified
severalnewactivities,andusedradioactiverecoilasapowerfulseparationtechniquefordiscoveringmore.Theydevotedmuchof1909toradiumanditsactive
deposit.UsingthebetarecoilofradiumB(
214
Pb),theycollectedasampleofradiumC(
214
Bi)pureenoughtodetectaslightvariationinitsrateofdecaythisandthe
factthatitsbetaradiationwasnotexponentiallyabsorbedledthemtoproposethatradiumCwasfollowedbyanotherbetaemitter(radiumC",
210
Tl)withahalflifeof
1to2.5minutes.Theyalsoconfirmedthepresenceofapenetratingalpharadiation,whichtheyattributedtoaveryshortlivednewactivity(radiumC',
214
Po),also
followingradiumC.
69
Thiscompletedtheirstudyofallthreeactivedepositsineach,thenonexponentialabsorptionofbetaradiationhadledthemtonewactivities.
Confidentintheirexperimentaltechnique,theywerealsoquiteconvincedthattheirfavoritehypothesesweretrue."Puresubstancesemituniform radiation,whichis
exponentiallyabsorbed,"theywouldwrite,oftenmorethanonce,ineveryarticle."Complex radiationscorrespondtoamixtureofsubstances."
Theassumptionwassimple,useful,andnicelyresonantwithchemicalbehavior:justasapurechemicalcompounddisplaysinvariantchemicalandphysicalproperties,
itseemednaturaltosupposethatasingleradioactivesourcewouldemitradiationwithuniformenergy.NowHahnandMeitnerpressedtheanalogyonestepfurther.
Othershadleftopenthepossibilitythatagivensourcemightemitbothalphaandbetaradiation,butintheirworkwiththeactivedeposits,theyhadnotfoundthistobe
so.
70
"Eachindividualsubstance,"theyassertedconfidently,"emitsonlyonesortofhomogeneousradiation,eitheralphaorbetaradiation."
71
Theyfirstappliedtheirnewpremisetoradiumitself.InthecourseoftheirworkwithradiumC,MeitnerandHahnhadpreparedanunusuallypuresampleofthe
elementandfoundthatradium(
226
Ra),analpha
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Page41
emitter,alsoemitsaveryweakbetaradiation.Theyconcludedthatradiummustcontainanothersubstance,whichtheydenotedradiumX.Althoughtheycautioned
thattherehadneverbeenanyindicationthatradiumwascomplex,theywerequitesuretheywereright.
72
Formonthstheytriedtoseparatetheir"radiumX"fromradiumbutwereunabletodoso,eitherbychemicalseparationsorbyrecoil."Neverthelessweareconvinced
oftheexistenceofradiumX,butwecannotatthemomentseeanywaytoseparateit,"theyreportedwearily.
73
Ayearearliertheyhadfoundasimilarweakbeta
radiationassociatedwithradioactinium,anotheralphaemitter.
74
Soontheydiscoveredweakbetaradiationassociatedwithstillanotheralphaemitter,thoriumX.
75
In
eachcasetheyproposedanewsubstancetheywereunabletofind.Althoughtheydrewsomecomfortfromthefactthattheeffectappearedinallthreeradioactive
series,itseemedthattheirmeansofdetectingweakbetaradiationhadoutstrippedtheirabilitytodeterminethesource.
Butthiswasnottheironlychallenge.Inmid1909,WilliamWilsonreportedfromRutherford'slaboratoryinManchesterthatthebetaradiationfromseveralpurebeta
emittersappearedinhomogeneouswhenhecreatedahomogeneousbeambydeflectioninamagneticfield,hefoundthebeamwaslinearly,notexponentially,
absorbed.
76
Inresponse,HahnandMeitnerpointedoutambiguitiesinWilson'sexperimentandsuggestedthatitactuallysupportedtheirownhypothesis.
77
Wilson
didnotagree.
78
Toresolvetheconflict,MeitnerandHahndesignedtheirownexperimentwithmagneticallydeflectedbeamsofbetaparticles.Whenamovingchargedparticle
traversesamagneticfield,itspathisbentfromastraightlineintoacurvelowerenergy,slowermovingparticlesaredeflectedmorethanfastermoving,higherenergy
particles.Themagneticfield,ineffect,separatesmovingchargedparticles,inthiscase,electrons,byenergybetaparticlesofthesameenergywillbedeflectedequally
andbefoundatthesameposition.Tomeasurethepositionofthedeflectedbetaparticles,WilsonusedanelectroscopeHahnandMeitnerdecidedthata
photographicplatewouldmoreclearlydistinguishbetweenthecontinuousspectrumofinhomogeneousbetaradiationandthediscontinuousspectrumtheyexpectedfor
radiationofuniformenergy.
AstherewerenomagnetsintheChemistryInstitute,wecarriedouttheseexperimentswithOttovonBaeyerinthePhysicsInstitute.HahnandIattemptedtoprecipitateinas
radioactivelypureaconditionaspossiblethe
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substanceswhosebetaradiationwewishedtoinvestigateinthethinnestpossiblelayersonveryshortlengthsofverythinwire.Theprecipitationdidnotalwayswork.Wesimply
hadtotry,and,ifoureffortsweresuccessful,weracedoutoftheChemistryInstituteasifshotfromagun,uptheroadtothePhysicsInstituteakilometeraway,toexaminethe
specimensinvonBaeyer'sverysimplebetaspectrometer.
79
Forveryshorthalflives,theyarrangedforacartorushthemfromtheChemistryInstituteonHessischeStrassetothePhysicsInstituteontheReichstagsufer.
80
Fortheirfirstexperimenttheyselectedtheactivedepositofthorium.Ithadtheadvantagethatitcontainedonlytwobetaemitters,thoriumAandthoriumD(nowThB
[
212
Pb]andThC"[
208
Tl]),whoseenergytheyexpectediftheirabsorptionstudieswereatallmeaningfultobequitedifferent.Theyimmediatelyobtainedthefirst
magneticlinespectrumofbetaradiation,whichshowed,justasexpected,twostronglines.
81
Afewweaklinesappearedaswell,whichtheyattributedtosecondary
effects.ThespectrumofpureradiumEshowedtheexpectedsingleline,whilemesothorium2,whosebetaradiationwasnotabsorbedexponentially,hadseverallines
initsspectrum.Asanindicationofthesensitivityofthephotographicmethod,theyeasilyrecognizedastronglydeflectedlinefromthoriumX,whosebetaradiationwas
soeasilyabsorbedthatithadbeendetectedelectroscopicallyonlywithgreatdifficulty,
82
andasimilarlinefor"radiationless"radiumDwhoseradiationhadneverbeen
detectedelectroscopicallyatall.
83
Thespectrawerealldiscontinuous.
Toimprovetheresolutionofthelinespectra,thethreescientistsusedstrongermagneticfieldsandchangedthepositionofthephotographicplate.SuddenlyHahnand
Meitner'shypothesiswasindanger.Thenewphotographsmadeitobviousthatthehighenergylineswerenotatallwelldefinedbutquitediffusetheextralinesinthe
spectrumofthethoriumactivedepositwerestrongerandmoredifficulttoexplain.
84
Thelinespectrumofradiumactivedepositshowedninelines,ofwhichfive
originatedfromasinglesource,radiumB.Radiumitself,analphaemitter,hadabetaspectrumoftwolines.
85
Alwaystheyfoundmorethanonelinefromagiven
sourceHahnandMeitnerwereforcedtoconcedethattheirhypothesisofhomogeneousbetaradiationwasdefinitelywrong.Althoughtheystillthoughtthatthe
exponentialabsorptiontheyhadobservedforsomanypuresubstancescouldbeofuseasananalyticalmethod,theyad
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mittedthatit"couldnotbeacriterionforthehomogeneityoftheradiation,asHahnandMeitner,incontrasttootherscientists"heretheyreferredtoWilson"have
assumed."
86
TogetherwithvonBaeyer,MeitnerandHahncontinuedtodeterminethelinespectraofanumberofothersubstances,
87
butintheabsenceofaunifyinghypothesis
theirworkconsistedprimarilyofcollectingdata,muchasscientistshaddonewithopticalspectraformanyyears.Infact,betadecaywouldprovefarmorecomplex,
difficult,and,intheend,revealingthananyonefirstimagined:itwouldyieldprofoundinsightsintotheatomicnucleus.InthisLiseMeitnerwouldplayasignificantpart,
butitwouldtakesomefifteenyearsfromthefirstphotographicrecordofmagneticallydeflectedbetaparticles.In1911,theyearMeitnerandHahnabandonedtheir
simplehypotheses,nootherorderingprinciplewasevident:notfromradioactivity,burdenedwithunexplaineddatanotfromchemistry,itsperiodictablethreatenedby
theprofusionofradioactivespeciesnotfromphysicsitself,strugglingtointegratethenewdiscoveries.
HahnandMeitner'sadherencetosimplicityhadinfactheldthemback.Othershadrecognizedthephenomenonofbranching,inwhichonetypeofatomdecays
sometimesbyalphaemissionandsometimesbybetaemissiontoyieldtwodifferentdaughters,aviolationofanynotionofatomicconsistency.Meitnerworkedto
catchup,withHahnonbetaradiationinthethoriumactivedeposit,
88
withJamesFranckongasphaseradioactiveions,
89
byherselfonelectrochemicalclassification
schemes
90
andthedifficultquestionofbranchinginthethoriumdecaysequence.
91
HerreportonbranchingwassubmittedtoPhysikalischeZeitschrifton17June
1912,thelastpublicationtoemergefromthewoodshopoftheChemistryInstitute.Afternearlyfiveyears,sheandOttoHahnwerepreparingtomoveon.
ThatsummertheKaiserWilhelmInstitutfrChemiewasunderconstructionontheflatfarmlandsouthwestofcentralBerlin.Morethananewinstitute,itrepresented
anewavenueforGermanscience:academicresearch,privatelysupported,protectedbutnotdirectlyregulatedbythestate.Theneedarosefromtherapidexpansion
ofthesciencesandtheconcern,expressedbyscientistsforsometime,overtheinabilityofuniversitiestoquicklyincorporateimportantnewfieldsofresearch.
Radioactivitywasonesuchfield:in1906OttoHahnjustbarelyfoundaplaceinEmilFischer'sinstituteandwasneversubsequentlyofferedauniversity
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position.
92
ManyyoungGermanscientistswereseekingbetteropportunitiesabroadothersweregoingintoindustry.
Beginningin1905acommitteeofprominentuniversityandindustrialchemistsproposedtheestablishmentofaChemischeReichsanstalt,anindependentresearch
institute,analogoustotheexistingPhysikalischTechnischeReichsanstalt,tobejointlyendowedandadministeredbygovernmentandindustry.Despitetheamicable
relationshipbetweenthetwosectors,thenegotiationsforsuchapartnershipprovedsodifficultthatnothingcameofituntil1911,whenthestatesteppedinasfinancial
guarantorthroughtheKaiserWilhelmGesellschaftzurFrderungderWissenschaften(KWGKaiserWilhelmSocietyfortheAdvancementoftheSciences).The
Kaiserhimselfassumedthetitleof"Protector,"persuadedbyhiscloseadviseroneducation,thetheologianAdolfvonHarnack,whoarguedthat"militarymightand
sciencearethetwostrongpillarsofthegreatnessofGermany."PlansweremadefortheKaiserWilhelmInstitut(KWI)frChemieandasecondinstitute,theKWI
frPhysikalischeChemieundElectrochemie,toopenin1912othersweretofollow.TheKaiserdonatedcrownlandsfortheinstitutesitesandthesuburbofBerlin
Dahlemthatwoulddeveloparoundthem.
93
TheKWIforPhysicalChemistryandElectrochemistrywasentirelyunderwrittenbyLeopoldKoppel,anextraordinarilywealthyfinancierandchairmanoftheboardof
theAuergesellschaft,aBerlinfirmwithastronginterestinphysicalchemistryresearch.Koppel'sdesignationforinstitutedirectorwasthephysicalchemistFritzHaber,
whohaddiscoveredtheprocessforsynthesizingammoniafromnitrogenandhydrogenand,withCarlBosch,hadmadeitindustriallyfeasible.Withitsclosetiestoa
singlefirmandHaber'spracticalexpertise,theKWIforPhysicalChemistrystartedoutwithapronouncedorientationtowardindustrialresearch.
94
TheKWIforChemistrytookamoreacademicturn,financedbyaconsortiumofchemicalindustriesbutadministeredbyitsownparentorganization,theVerein
ChemischeReichsanstalt,chairedbyEmilFischer,whoseleadershipinshapingthechemistryinstitutesandtheKaiserWilhelmSocietymadehimvirtuallythe
"presidentofGermanscience."Theinstitute'sfirstdirectorwasthedistinguishedphysicalinorganicchemistErnstBeckmanntheassociatedirectorwasRichard
Willsttter,anorganicchemistfamousforhisstudiesofchlorophyllandotherplantpigments.
95
BythattimeFischerwasconvincedoftheimportanceof
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radioactivity,andapparentlyathisrequestOttoHahnwasofferedajuniorpositionasscientificassociate(wissenschaftlichesMitglied)inthenewinstitute,with
responsibilityforamodestradioactivitysection,thefirstsuchlaboratoryinGermany.
96
WithitcamethetitleofProfessorandtheverydecentannualsalaryof5,000
marks.
97
LiseMeitnerwaswelcometooasanunpaid"guest."
ShehadworkedwithHahnfornearlyfiveyears,publishedmorethantwentyarticles,andestablishedherreputationasascientistcomparabletohimandasa
physicist,independentofhim.Stillshehadnoposition,noincome,and,itnowappeared,noprospects.Andnootherplacetogo.
Yearslater,whenLisewasinherseventiesandmanyawardscameherway,shealwaysinsistedthatyoungpeopleneededthemmore.
Iknowverywellthatespeciallyinone'sdevelopingyears,oneurgentlyneedstheencouragementofexternalrecognition,toknowthatone'schosenpathisnotawrongone.I
myselfgreatlyneededsuchencouragement,andtothisdayIamfilledwithgratitudethatIreceiveditfromallofyou[inBerlin]inmanydifferentways.
98
LisefinallysawthefirstglimmerofexternalrecognitionjustassheandHahnweremovingintothenewinstituteinDahlem.Latein1912,MaxPlanckappointedherhis
AssistentthefirstwomanAssistentinPrussia,thefirstrungontheacademicladder,herfirstpaidposition.Shegradedhisstudents'papers.
99
WhyPlanckappointedherjustthenisnotknown.MostlikelythemovetothenewKWIforChemistryemphasizedtheinequityofMeitner'sstatusperhaps,withthe
deathofherfatherin1910,PlanckwasconcernedthatfinancialdifficultieswouldforcehertoreturntoVienna.Inanyevent,Meitneralwaysthoughtofher
assistantshipwithPlanckasadecisiveturningpoint.Fischer,whohadfollowedLise'sworkwithkindlyinterest,tooknotice:withinayearshetoowouldbea
"scientificassociate"intheinstitute,herpositionthesameasHahn's,theradioactivitysectiontheirs.
100
Itmadeallthedifference."Ilovephysicswithallmyheart,"shewrotetoElisabethSchiemann."Icanhardlyimagineitnotbeingpartofmylife.Itisakindofpersonal
love,asonehasforapersontowhomoneisgratefulformanythings.AndI,whotendstosufferfromaguiltyconscience,amaphysicistwithouttheslightestguilty
conscience."
101
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ChapterThree
TheFirstWorldWar
AtnightIfeelslightlyhomesickforphysics,butduringthedayIthinkonlyofthepatients.
TheKaiserWilhelmInstituteswereinauguratedon23October1912,acold,wetdayofconsiderableceremony.ThedignitariescametotheChemistryInstitutein
specialtrainsandcarriagesHisExcellencyEmilFischerspoke,thearchitectwaspraised,KaiserWilhelmIIurgedtheassembledscientiststodeviseafiredamp
detector(whichthetwoinstitutedirectors,ErnstBeckmannandFritzHaber,soondid).Duringatourofthebuilding,theKaiserglancedatRichardWillsttter's
chlorophyllcrystalsthroughamicroscopeandviewedHahnandMeitner'smesothoriumglowinginthedarkroom.AtthePhysicalChemistryInstitutetherewasmore,
andfinallyallwereinvitedtothepalaceinPotsdamforafortyfiveminuteroyaltea,themeninfrockcoatsasinstructed,thewivesinhighneckeddressesandhats,
alsoasinstructed.InhismemoirsOttoHahnalwayssavoredthatday.LiseMeitnernevermentionedit.
1
ThosewhofirstplannedDahlemanditsinstitutesenvisionedaleafyintellectualretreat,aGermanOxford.In1912itwasallverynew:twohandsomeinstitutessideby
sideonopenfields,treesnobiggerthansticks,freshlypavedstreetsnumberedbutstillunnamed.Tothesouthstretchedabroadplaindottedwithpicturesque
windmillstothewest,theGrunewaldforest.TheBerlinsubwaydidnotyetextendtoDahlemonetookthePotsdamtrainandgotoffatLichterfeldeWestand
therewasnotarestaurantorshopinsight.Thefewprofessorswhosevillaswerefinishedsharedtheirgardenswithrabbitsandpartridges.
2
Thestreetssoonacquirednames:Van'tHoff,Hittorf,Boltzmann,Landolt,FaradayWay,whichWillsttterselectedashishomeaddressthe
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ChemistryInstitutefacedThielallee.Forhisstudiesofplantpigments,Willsttterplantedfieldsoftulips,chrysanthemums,anddahliasnearthetwoinstitutes,a
gorgeoussighteachsummeruntilthewar.Hewasawardedthe1915NobelPrizeinchemistryforhischlorophyllworkawelcomefirstfortheKaiserWilhelm
InstitutesandsoonafteracceptedacalltoMunichtheinorganicchemistAlfredStocktookhisplace.
3
OttoHahn'snewpositionandsalaryprovidedthesecurityheneededtoconsidermarriage.AyearearlierhehadmetEdithJunghans,aprettyartstudentfromagood
familyshortlybeforetheinstituteopenedin1912,heshowedheraround,andafterward,ontheirwalktogetherintheGrunewald,theybecameengaged.Theywere
marriedthefollowingMarch.
4
LiseandherbrotherFritzsentatelegramfromVienna:
Outsidetherampartsofscience
Inlifesomenewthingsarefound
Wewishlonglifeandhighactivity
Toyoubothinyournewcompound.
5
Theyear1913wasgoodtoLiseMeitneraswell.LatethatyearshewasmadeaMitglied(associate)oftheinstitute,thesamepositionasHahn's,andalthoughher
salarywasstillconsiderablyless,theradioactivitysectionwasnowofficiallytheirs:theLaboratoriumHahnMeitner.
6
Howthiscameaboutisnotentirelyclear,butitis
evidentthatEmilFischertookaspecialinterestintheyoungwomanhehadoncebarredfromallbutthebasementofhischemistryinstitute.Thiscalledforcelebration,
andLisehadabigone,asplendiddinnerpartywithfriendsintheelegantHotelAdlononUnterdenLinden.
7
Forthefirsttime,financeswerenotquitesotight.ThemesothoriumHahndiscoveredin1906emittedgammaradiationsufficientlystrongtobeusefulasaradium
substitute(''Germanradium")inmedicaltherapy.InFischer'sinstituteLisehadhelpedOttopurifyseveralhundredmilligramsofmesothorium,whichKnfler,aBerlin
firmspecializinginthoriumproducts,eventuallydevelopedintoaprofitableprocess.In1913,Ottosuddenlyreceivedafewthousandmarks,then66,000marksin
1914(6,600ofwhichhegavetoLise),andagain40,000in1915,moremoneythaneithereverhadbefore.Hahncalledita"blessing"(Segen),andlikemanyother
goodthings,itendedduringthewar.
8
Professionally,Meitner'sandHahn'sgreatestgoodfortunewasthecleanlinessandspaceoftheirfinenewlaboratories.Theirsectionconsisted
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offourroomsinthenorthwingoftheinstitute'sgroundfloorWillsttterandadozencoworkersoccupiedtheentirefirstfloor,Beckmannandhiscoworkersthe
second.Thelibrary,colloquiumrooms,darkroom,andbasementcoldroomswereshared.Topreventradioactivecontamination,Hahnarrangedtostoreandhandle
theirstrongestpreparationsintheoldwoodshopinFischer'sinstituteyearslaterasmall"radiumhouse"wasbuiltforthepurposeonthegroundsoftheKWIfor
Chemistry.
9
Inthewoodshopthebackgroundradiationfromradioactivegases,spills,anddusthadmadeitimpossibletoinvestigateweakactivities.MeitnerandHahndevised
rigorousmeasurestokeeptheirnewquartersfreeofsuchcontamination.Chemicalexperimentsandphysicalmeasurementswereconfinedtoseparateroomspeople
handlingradioactivesubstanceswererequiredtofollowuniformprocedures,shieldeverythingtheytouchedarooloftoiletpaperhungnexttothetelephonesand
everydoorhandleandsitonlyonspeciallymarkedyellowchairs.Nooneevershookhandsingreeting,asuspensionoftheusualrulesofGermanetiquette.Later,
whentheyeachhadtheirownsectionandtheirresearchoccupiedmostofthebuilding,HahnandMeitnersystematicallytrainedandtestedeverystudent,assistant,
andvisitingscientistwhocametoworkwiththem.ThroughouttheinstituteMeitnerwasknownforbeingespeciallystrictandforinsistingthatstrongactivitiesbekept
outofherphysicssectiononthegroundfloor.Herprecautionswereeffective:twentyfiveyearslaterhersectioncouldstillbeusedforstudyingveryweakactivities.
10
IntheirspaciousnewlaboratoriesLiseandOttoembarkedonanintriguingproject,madedifficultbyitscomplexityandtheabsenceofstrongradioactivity:thesearch
fortheimmediateprecursorthe"mothersubstance"oftheelementactinium.Extremelyscarce,actiniumwasbyfartheleastwellunderstoodoftheradioactive
elements:itsatomicweightwasunknown,itschemistryuncertain,itshalflife,estimatedattwentyfiveyears,stillindispute.
11
Actinium,abetaemitter,wasknownto
headadecayseriesdistinctfromtheuraniumradiumdecayseries,butitappearedthatactiniumwasitselfdescendedfromuranium:itwasalwaysandonlyfound
inuraniumbearingminerals,alwaysinamountsproportionaltotheuraniumpresent.Withitsrelativelyshorthalflife,actiniumevidentlyrequiredconstantreplenishment
topreventitscompletedisappearance,yetthelinkbetweenuraniumandactiniumwasamystery:pureuraniumhadneverbeenfoundtogenerateactinium,eventhough
actiniumwasnot
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especiallydifficulttodetect.Itwasassumedthaturaniumandactiniumwereseparatedbyalonglivedintermediate.
12
Theproblem,asMeitnerandHahnsawit,was
"tofindthatsubstancewhich...formsthestartingpointfortheactiniumseries,andtodeterminewhetherandthroughwhichintermediatesactiniumisderived."
13
Thesearchwasmadepossiblebyfundamentalnewprinciplesthathadbeguntoclarifytheentirefieldofradioactivity.Foryearspeoplehadstruggledwithagrowing
burdenofseeminglydisparatedata:theyhadstudiedthethreedecayseriesandidentifiedsomethirtyradioactivespecies,observedoccasionalpatternsingenetic
sequencesandafewregularitiesinalphaandbetadecay,andlearnedthechemistryofsomespecieswellenoughtoplacethemintheperiodictable.Therewasalways
morethatwasuncertainthansure:thedecayserieswereincomplete,thechemistryoftenquestionablesomespecies,includinguranium,decayedsoslowlytheywere
falselyconsidered"radiationless,"otherssofastitwasdifficulttopurifythemandimpossibletolearntheirchemistrytherewasnoexplanationforthegrowinglistof
radioactivespeciesthatseemedchemicallyidenticalradiothoriumwiththorium,radiumBandactiniumBwithlead,amongothersnooneknewhowmanyelements
toexpectbetweenleadanduranium,orwhattheirchemistrywaslikelytobe,orevenwhethertheperiodicsystemcouldbetrustedatitsupperreachestherare
earthelements,ominouslyenough,didnotfitintotheperiodicsystemandweregroupedseparately.
Gradually,however,certainpatternsinalphaandbetadecaybecameclearenoughtobestatedexplicitly:alphadecayproducesadaughterwhosepositioninthe
periodictableistwoplacesbelowtheparentbetadecayproducesadaughteroneplacehigher.Knownasthegroupdisplacementlaws,thetwogeneralizationswere
statedindependentlyandnearlysimultaneouslyearlyin1913byKasimirFajans,aPolishradiochemistworkinginKarlsruhe,andbyFrederickSoddy,inGlasgow.
Thenewrulesimplicitlycorrelatedchargewithelementalposition:emissionofanalphaparticle,ofmass4andcharge+2,producedaspeciestwoplacesdown
emissionofabetaparticle(electron),withverysmallmassandcharge1,producedaspeciesoneplaceup.Mass,whichuntilthenwasconsideredthedeterminantof
anelement'sidentity,seemedtoplaynoroleatall.Thiswasmostclearlyseeninthecommonsequenceofanalphadecayfollowedbytwobetadecays,which
producedaspeciesatthe
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originalposition,chemicallyidenticalbutlighterby4massunits.Soddy'stermisotope("sameplace")wasuniversallyadoptedtodescribespeciesthatappearedatthe
samepositionintheperiodictablebutwereradioactivelydifferentitwasexplicitlystatedthattheywerechemicallythesamebutdifferedinmass.Thegroup
displacementlawsandtheconceptofisotopyhadincorporatedtheprofusionofradioactivespeciesintotheperiodicsystem,tiedradioactivitytochemistry,and
substitutedchargeformassasthedistinguishingcharacteristicofachemicalelement.Itwaspartofarevolutionarychangeintheunderlyingunderstandingofatomic
behavior.
By1913,fourradioactiveelementshadbeenplacedintheperiodictable,basedontheirchemicalsimilaritieswithlighterelements.Radium,divalentandsimilarto
barium,wasplacedinGroupIIthorium,tetravalent,inGroupIVuranium,hexavalent,inGroupVI.Theplacementofactiniumwasindoubtforsometime,butin
1913Soddy,Fajans,andMeitnerandHahnindependentlysiftedtheevidenceandconcludedthatactiniummostlikelybelongedinGroupIII.
14
Thesequence,
apparentlyhomologoustothethirdrowtransitionelements,hadagapintheGroupVpositionbetweenthoriumanduraniumthemissingelement,presumably
pentavalent,wasexpectedtoresembletantaluminchemicalbehavior.(SeeAppendixfig.2.)
Accordingtothegroupdisplacementlaws,onlytwochoiceswerepossibleforanactiniumprecursor:abetaemittingradiumisotopeoranalphaemittingisotopeof
theunknownpentavalentelement.Sinceactiniumhadneverbeenfoundinthepresenceofradium,Soddyconcludedin1913thatthemothersubstanceofactiniumwas
alonglivedalphaemittingisotopeofthemissingGroupVelement,whichhedesignated"ekatantalum."
15
EarlierthatyearFajansandOswaldGhringdiscoveredUX
2
,daughterofthebetaemittingthoriumisotopeUX
1
(
234
Th).Applyingthegroupdisplacementlawsthat
Fajanshadjustarticulatedafewmonthsbefore,theyassumedthatUX
2
wouldbeamemberofGroupVandchemicallybolsteredthatassumptionbyprecipitatingit
withtantalicacidtopartiallyseparateitfromitsthoriumparent.Theynamedtheirnewelement"brevium"foritsveryshorthalflifeofaboutoneminutebutrealizedthat
brevium,aGroupVbetaemitter,decayedtoanisotopeofuranium(
234
U):itcouldnotbethemothersubstanceofactinium.Theysearchedforalonglivedalpha
emitterwithsimilarchemicalpropertiesbutuncovered
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nothing.MeanwhileMeitnerandHahnmodifiedFajansandGhring'sproceduressomewhattoobtainabetterseparationofUX
2
.
16
WithinafewmonthstheonceemptyGroupVpositionhadacquiredtwomemberstheUX
2
quitecertain,theactiniumprecursorastillhypotheticalbutpotentially
moreinterestingisotopewhosediscovery,itwashoped,wouldresolvetheancestryofactinium.Bythentherewasnewevidenceforitsexistence.Theuraniumdecay
productUYhadbeendiscoveredinRutherford'slaboratorybyG.N.Antonoffin1911latein1913Antonoff,Soddy,and,mostthoroughly,MeitnerandHahn
verifiedthatUYwasathoriumisotope(nowknowntobe
231
Th)andabetaemitter.
17
ItsdaughterwasnecessarilyamemberofGroupV,butneitherSoddynor
Ghringcouldfindatraceofit.
18
Thiswasjustwhatonemightexpectoftheactiniummothersubstance,whoseslowrateofdecayandcorrespondinglylowenergy
alphaparticleswouldbeimpossibletodetectinthepresenceofstrongeractivities.
Encouraged,MeitnerandHahnsetouttofindtheactiniumprecursor.Itwasessential,firstofall,toseparatesufficientquantitiesofitfromotheractivitiesinorderto
monitoritsweakbutsteadyalpharadiationtoprovethatitwasthemothersubstance,itwouldalsobenecessarytodemonstratethatitgeneratedactinium.Lowlevels
ofbetaradiationweredifficulttodetect,however,soHahnandMeitnerdecidedtomonitornotactiniumitselfbutthealpharadiationfromitsdecayproducts,which
includedactiniumemanation(
219
Rn),AcA(
215
Po),andAcC(
211
Bi).Owingtoactinium'shalflifeofsometwentyfiveyears,thiswouldbealongtermproject.
Tolocateandseparatethemothersubstance,MeitnerandHahnexploredtwopossiblestartingmaterials:uraniumsaltsthathadbeenextractedfromuraniumoreyears
beforeandtheuntreateduraniumorepitchblende.Froman"old"uraniumnitratesalt,HahnandMeitnerseparatedthetantalumgroupusingthesameprocedureasfor
UX
2
,mountedseveralsamplesunderfixedelectroscopes,andpreparedtomonitorthemforseveralyears.Theyknewthatprecipitationofthetantulumgroupalso
coprecipitatedsmallamountsofpolonium,thorium,andvariousotheruraniumdecayproductswhoseactivitieswouldinitiallyobscuretheweakradiationfromthe
actiniummothersubstance,buttheyexpectedtheseshortlivedactivitiestofadeawaywhiletheactinium,steadilysuppliedbyitsmothersubstance,wouldgradually
increase.
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Forpitchblende,whichcontainedmuchmoremothersubstancebutalsomoreofeveryotheruraniumdecayproduct,HahnandMeitnerneededacleanerseparation
method.Earlyin1914theyfoundthattreatingpitchblendewithnitricacidleftaninsolubleresiduethatwaslargelysilicondioxidebutalsocontainedmostofthe
tantalumlikesubstancesandrelativelylittleextraneousactivity.KnowingthatSoddyandFajanswerealsolookingfortheactiniumprecursor,MeitnerandHahnkept
thispromisingnewmethodtothemselves.
Meanwhiletheyengagedinanumberofotherstudies.WithMartinRothenbach,hisfirstassistant,Hahnestimatedthehalflifeoftheveryweakbetadecayassociated
withrubidium(
87
Rb),avaluelaterusedforestimatingthegeologicalageofrubidiumstrontiumminerals.
19
Meitnerexploredthequestionofthefinalproductofthe
uraniumdecayserieswhetheritendedwithstableleadordecayedfurthertobismuthandthallium.
20
Alongwithisotopy,themostexcitingdevelopmentsatthetimewereRutherford'snuclearatom,theatomictheoryofNielsBohr,andthexraystudiesofH.G.J.
Moseleywhiletheoreticalattentionfocusedonextranuclearelectronsinatomicorbitals,therewereindicationsthatnucleimightbethesourceofradioactivity:alpha
particles,andalsotheelectronsemittedinbetadecay.
21
Meitnerbeganstudyingtherelationshipbetweengammaradiationandradioactivedecay,takingaparticular
interestinRutherford'ssuggestionthatthediscretelinesinmagneticbetaspectramightbetiedtogammaemissionandthefindingbyJamesChadwick,astudentof
Rutherford's,ofacontinuousbetaspectrumwhengammaemissionwasabsent.
22
Theproblem,offundamentalimportanceandgreatdifficulty,wouldbepursuedby
MeitnerandbymembersofRutherford'sgroupformanyyears.
Inthespringof1914,LiseMeitnerreceivedanattractiveofferfromPrague:apositionintheloweracademicranks,withtheprospectofadvancement.Lisemaynot
havewantedtoleaveBerlin,butMaxPlanckmadecertainthatEmilFischerunderstoodshewasseriouslyconsideringtheoffer.Ittookseveralmonths,butthecall
haditseffect:bysummerFischerdoubledhersalary,to3,000marks,andpraisedherwork.SheacceptedFischer'sbeneficence,thankinghimfortheincreasedpay
andforextendingitinsuch"honorableform."
23
Meitner'slettertoFischerwaswrittenon2August1914andmailedfromVienna,whereshehadrushedtoseeherbrothersofftowar.Already
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muchofEuropewasinvolved.Havingsmolderedforgenerations,theconflicthadbeenignited,finally,inSarajevothatJune,byagroupofBosnianSerbswho
assassinatedArchdukeFranzFerdinand,nephewandheirtotheagingKaiserFranzJosef.EagertocrushthesouthSlavsonceandforall,AustriaHungaryrefused
conciliation,declaredwaronSerbiaon28July,andbombardedBelgradethenextday.Withinaweekthemachineryofmutualallianceswaslockedintowar:Russia,
championoftheSlavs,mobilizedalongherAustrianfrontier,givingGermanyitslongdesiredrationalefordeclaringRussiatheaggressorandinvadingFranceand
Belgium,whichrequiredEngland,treatyboundtodefendBelgianneutrality,toenterthewar.ForthemomentTurkeyhesitated,andItaly,nominallyanAustrianally,
declareditselfneutral.OtherwiseGermanyandAustriahadenemiesoneveryside.
24
ThemoodinAustriawasjubilant.Earlyreportsgavetheimpressionofdecisivevictories."Doingscientificbusyworkseemssenselesstomenow,"Lisewroteto
ElisabethSchiemann."Mymother'sapartmentisdirectlyacrossfromthetrainstationandeachdayIseethemengoingofftowarwithunbelievableenthusiasm.Those
whoremainbehindoutdothemselvesindemonstratingloveforthosewhoareleaving,andthetrainstationpresentsafestive,joyoussightalldaylong."
25
Lisefollowed
theGermansuccessinBelgiumandFrancewith"honestadmiration''
26
afewweekslater,asAustriasufferedheavycasualtiesinGalicia(AustrianPoland),shetook
comfortinthethoughtthat"thefateoftheindividualrecedesbehindthegreatercause."
27
Germans,too,exultedinanewsenseofnationalpurpose.OttoHahn,JamesFranck,GustavHertz,HansGeiger,allinthereserve,werecalledupandleftatonce,
suretheywouldbehomevictoriousbyChristmas."Thediewascast,andhardlyanyonehadanydoubtofourwinningthisjustwar,"Hahnrecalled.Althoughhe
witnessedthekillingofciviliansandtheburningofmedievalLouvainduringtheinvasionofBelgium,thecamaraderieofarmylifeappealedtohim,andbeingasoldier
seemedquitepleasantatfirst,"ratherlikegoingforastrollinanoccupiedcountry."
28
Itmaybedifficultforus,attheendofthissavagecentury,tocomprehendsucheageracceptanceofwar,particularlyamongeducatedpeoplewhoseoutlookatleast
professionallywasquiteinternational.WemustrememberthatformostEuropeansin1914warwasanabstraction,themostrecenthavingbeentheFrancoPrussian
Warof18701871,aconflict
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neitherlongnorbloodyenoughtodiscourageGermanyfromdreamingoffurtherexpansionortokeepFrance,humiliatedbyahugeindemnitypaymentandthelossof
AlsaceLorraine,fromdesiringareturnengagement.Inplaceofwar,therehadbeenfortyyearsofnonpeace:economicbelligerence,incessanttroubleintheBalkans,
rivalalliances,anescalatingarmsrace.Forallitsstrength,Germanytendedtofeelunderappreciatedandinsecure.ItderidedEnglandasanationofshopkeepers,
Franceasdecadent,RussiaasaSlavicmenacebelievingtheyalonewereinfusedwiththedepthofspiritandintellecttheycalledKultur,Germanscouldscarcely
imaginewhytheFrenchwouldrefertothemasbarbariansortheEnglishasHuns(adesignation,incidentally,thatKaiserWilhelmIIfirstregardedaspositivein
connotation).
29
Apartfromasocialistminority,fewinanynationwerefreeofnarrownationalismthepresswashardlyobjective,universitiesevenlessso:academics
tookprideinavoidingpolitics,anactivitytheydisdainedinfavorofanalmostreflexiveidentificationwiththestate.AsitgrewdominantintheheartofEurope,
Germanyfeltencircledandconfined,aconditionseeminglyunamenabletocompromise,itsonlyallythedisheveledAustroHungarianEmpire,acauldronofendless
dissension.Intheend,warseemedtheonlywaytosetthingsright.Whenitcame,finally,itwasgreetedalmostwithrelief.
Inthefirstsurgeofnationalunity,professionalandclassdistinctionsseemedtofallaway.Everyonewantedtodotheirshare,andthosenoteligibleformilitaryservice
appliedtheirsciencetothewareffort.MaxvonLaue,rejectedformedicalreasons,spentthewarinvestigatingthephysicsofelectronictubes.
30
InDahlemand
elsewhere,scientistssearchedforsubstitutesforstrategicrawmaterialsmosturgently,nitratesfromChilethathadbeencutoffbytradeembargoesandtheBritish
blockade.EmilFischerandFritzHabertooktheleadinpersuadingindustrytogreatlyincreasetheproductionofsyntheticnitratesformunitionsandagriculture
substituteswerealsosoughtformanyothermaterials,includingcopper,sulfates,rubber,fiber,andfood.Therehadbeennoplanning,ineithertheeconomyorthe
military,forawarlastingmorethansixmonths.
FritzHaberwasfortysixyearsold,abovetheageforactivemilitarydutybecauseofhisJewishbackground,hehadbeenineligibleforcommissionasareserve
officer.Asaphysicalchemist,hewasalreadyfamous(togetherwithCarlBosch)fordevelopingtheHaberBoschprocessforthe
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industrialsynthesisofammonia,acrucialstartingmaterialforthesyntheticnitratesthemilitaryrequiredforanextendedwar:withouttheHaberprocess,thewarwould
havebeenoverinayear.
31
ForHaber,thatwasnotenough:hewasdriventoprovehisabsolutedevotiontoGermany.Inthefirstmonthsofthewar,hewasasked
bythemilitarytofindamotorfuelantifreezetoreplacetoluene,whichwasessentialforTNTandalreadyinshortsupplyhequicklydeterminedthatxyleneandother
petroleumderivativeswoulddo.Theprojectwasminor.ByDecember1914,HaberhadcommittedhimselfandhisDahleminstitutetoalargerandmoredangerous
aspectofthewareffort:tacticalmilitaryresearch,includingalternativeexplosives,nonlethalchemicalirritants,andpoisongases.
32
Whileradioactivityresearchwasnotacandidateforwarservice,LiseMeitnerherselfdefinitelywas.InViennainAugust1914,sheimmediatelyinquiredoftheRed
Crossabouttheneedfornurses,buttheagencywasdisorganizedandthenursingcourseswereallfilled.WhensherealizedtherewasnothingforherinVienna,she
contactedPlanckabouttheBerlinuniversity'swarauxiliaryandaskedErnstBeckmannwhethertheKWIforChemistrymightbeconvertedintoamilitaryhospital.
Withallanswersnegative,shereturnedtoBerlininSeptember1914andsignedupforxraytechniciantrainingandananatomycourseinthehospitalinLichterfelde.
33

Restlessanddistracted,sheneverthelessmaintainedthelaboratory,completedabetaspectrumbegunwithHahnandOttovonBaeyerbeforethewar,
34
andfinished
herownstudyoftheendproductoftheuraniumdecayseries.
35
Asacontinuationoftheirmostimportantlongtermproject,thesearchfortheactiniumprecursor,
LiseregularlymonitoredtheirsamplesandkeptaneyeoutforKasimirFajans,who,shewassure,wasdoingthesame.
Fortheduration,EnglandandGermanyeachsequesteredtheother'snationals.AGermanglassblowerwhohadworkedinManchesterforyearswasinternedamove
wasmadeintheRoyalSocietytoremovethephysicistSirArthurSchusterfromhispositionassecretaryfornootherreasonthanhisGermanbirth.
36
InGermany
somefivethousandBritishcivilianswereincarceratedforthedurationofthewarinRuhleben,adesertedracetrackonthewesternoutskirtsofBerlin.Amongthe
prisonerswereJamesChadwick,astudentofRutherford'swhohadcometoBerlintoworkwithHansGeiger,andCharlesD.Ellis,ayoungengineeringcadetwho
wastrappedinGermanywhileonvacationin1914.InRuhlebenthemen
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sufferedfromcold,extremecongestionsixmentoatwohorsestallandbadfood
37
attheinterventionofMeitner,Planck,Rubens,andothers,Chadwickwas
allowedoccasionalvisitsandevensomescientificequipment,butheremainedaprisoneruntiltheendofthewar.Ellis'sassociationwithChadwickinRuhleben
convertedhimtoacareerinphysicsonhisreturntoEnglandhestudiedinCambridgeandlaterjoinedRutherford'sgroup.Duringthe1920sEllisandMeitner
maintainedanactivecollegialrelationshipastheyworkedonsimilarproblemsofbetaspectra.
38
Attheoutset,everyonewassurethewarwouldbebriefandvictoryglorious.TheEnglishphysicistH.G.J.MoseleywasinAustraliawhenthewarbegananxiousnot
tomissthegreatadventure,heracedhome,insistedonbeingtakenintotheRoyalEngineers,andthencouldhardlywaitforcombat.
39
Nonationthoughtitnecessary
topreserveitsscientifictalent.FritzHasenhrl,successortoBoltzmannandAustria'sleadingtheoreticalphysicist,wasinductedimmediately.Bothwerekilledinbattle
in1915:MoseleyintheDardanellesexpedition,HasenhrlattheItalianfront.TheoreticalphysicsinAustriadidnotrecoverforageneration.
40
InaspiritofAustriansolidarity,StefanMeyerandLiseMeitnermaintainedasteadycorrespondence."Itwasverygoodofyou,"hewroteinSeptember1914,"to
defendusagainstthe[German]accusationthatAustriahasnotyetdefeatedtheRussians."
41
HewasappalledattheinternmentofChadwickRobertLawson,an
EnglishphysicistinMeyer'sRadiumInstitute,wasnotallowedtovisitcafsorstayoutlatebutwasotherwiseundisturbed.
42
Mostnewsconcernedcolleaguesinthe
military:ErwinSchrdingerattheItalianfront,ArthurBoltzmannaballoonistinSerbia,HasenhrlamechanicinamotorunitinCracow,othersinhospitalsasmedical
andxraytechnicians.ThefightinginPolandwasespeciallyfierce.''PoorDr.Michl(alphatracksonphotographicplates)fellinGalicia,Koflerwaskilledtherethree
monthsago.AlsoO.Scheuer,wholastworkedwithM.Curie."
43
Asthewarcontinued,themoodinGermanyturnedsomber.TheworldcommunitystronglyprotestedGermany'sviolationofBelgianneutrality,itsatrocitiesagainst
civiliansanddestructionofculturaltreasures.Germanswerepainedandsurprised:tothemthewarwaspurelydefensive.WhenEnglishnewspaperssuggestedthata
distinctionbemadebetweenGermancultureandPrussianmilitarism,intellectualsissuedthe"AppealtotheCulturedPeoplesoftheWorld"(AndieKulturwelt!Ein
Aufruf),
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proclaimingtheirsolidaritywiththeGermanarmy,justifyingtheinvasionofBelgiumasadefenseofGermanculture,andconjuringthe"shamefulspectacle...ofRussian
hordes...unleashedagainstthewhiterace."Theappealwassignedbyninetythreeprominentartistsandscientists,includingMaxPlanck,EmilFischer,FritzHaber,
PhilippLenard,WaltherNernst,WilhelmOstwald,WilhelmRntgen,andRichardWillsttter.(AcounterappealforEuropeanunityandpeacewassignedbyonly
four,oneofwhomwasAlbertEinstein.)PlanckandWillsttterlaterregrettedtheirearlyenthusiasm."Theoutbreakofwarovertookuslikeanaturaldisaster,"
Willsttterreflectedinhismemoirs."TheprofessorswereconvincedthatGermanyborenoresponsibilityforthewarandthatwarhadtakenitbysurprise."Willsttter
concludedthateducatedGermans,himselfincluded,hadfailedabysmallyintheirresponsibilitiesascitizens.Planck,whowelcomedthefirstflushofpatriotismandsaw
twosonsofftowar,laterdidwhathecouldtorepairrelationswiththeinternationalscientificcommunity.
44
InDecemberOttoHahnwasinheavyfightinginBelgium.Lisewroteconstantly,tryingforacheerfultone,withscientificdetails,newsofcolleagues,reportsonthe
wellbeingofherrelativesinthemilitary.Whenshelearnedthathisassistant,MartinRothenbach,hadbeenkilledinFrance,shecouldhardlytellhim."Iknewit10
daysago,"shefinallywroteinDecember1914,"butcouldnotgetmyselftowritetoyoubecauseIknewfromthewayitaffectedme,thatitwouldalsodepressyou
greatly.ButIthinkyoushouldwritetohisparents."
45
InJanuary1915Hahnwasrecruitedforanewassignment,aspecialunitforchemicalwarfarethatFritzHaberwasorganizing.Toallobjections,Habercounteredthat
poisongashadalreadybeenusedbytheFrenchindeed,theFrenchandBritishwereexperimentingwithteargasfordrivingsoldiersfromtheirtrenches.Almostno
onerefusedHaber:hisclosefriendRichardWillsttterdevisedagasmaskwithoutwhichagasoffensivewouldhavebeenimpossibleHahn,Franck,Hertz,andother
scientistsjoinedPioneerRegimentNo.36.Afterbrieftraininginmeteorologyandtheuseofpoisongasesandprotectivedevices,the"gaspioneers"beganfield
experimentswithchlorineinBelgium.ButthefirstcasualtiesofHaber'smilitaryresearchoccurredinhisowninstituteinDecember1914,whenatestmixtureof
explosivematerialsproducedahugedetonationthatkilledthechemistOttoSackurandcausedanother
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chemist,GerhardJust,tolosehisrighthand.
46
MeitnerdescribedthefuneraltoHahn:HaberandWillsttterweptuncontrollably."Onecanonlyhopethesedreadful
sacrificeshavenotbeeninvain.Ifonlythingswouldmoveforwardmorequickly!"
47
Thechemicalwarfareprojectwassecret,butLisesoonhada"fairlygoodidea"ofwhatitwas."[I]canwellunderstandyourmisgivings,"shereassuredOtto,"yetyou
arecertainlyjustifiedinbeingan'opportunist.'First,youwerenotasked[butordered]andsecond,ifyoudonotdoit,someoneelsewill.Aboveall,anymeanswhich
mighthelpshortenthishorriblewararejustified."
48
InApril1915thePioneerRegimentwastransferredtoGalicia,whereapotentmixtureofchlorineandphosgene
wasdirectedagainstRussiansoldiers,withgreatsufferingandlossoflife.AlthoughHahnwasshockedbytheagonyofthedyingRussians,hestayedwiththePioneer
Regimentfortheremainderofthewar,experimentingwithpoisongasesandthetechniquesfordeliveringthem.InhismemoirsyearslaterHahnexplained,''Asaresult
ofcontinuousworkwiththesehighlytoxicgases,ourmindsweresonumbedthatwenolongerhadanyscruplesaboutthewholething."
49
Theexplanationwasfacile:Hahnwasnotanintrospectiveman.Asaparticipant,hewashorrifiedandthensuppressedhishorror,perhapsanecessityatthetime.But
later,whentheimmediatenumbingmighthavewornoff,hespokeandwroteabouthismilitaryexperienceswithconsiderablepride,asoldsoldiersdo,neverreflecting
indepthontheuseofpoisongas,ortheethicsofapplyinghissciencetowar.DuringtheThirdReichandWorldWarII,thescaleofhorrorwouldbegreater,but
HahnandotherGermanswouldfind,evenintheabsenceoftoxicgases,thattheirmindsweresimilarlynumbed.
50
Throughthespringof1915Lisecontinuedtowork,managingthelaboratoryandpurchasingtheirfirstelectromagnetforbetaspectra.
51
InFebruary,twoTurkish
princestouredtheinstitute."Theirroyalhighnessesassuredmeitwasthefirsttimetheyhadthehonor!(suchflatterers)tomeetawomandoctor.NaturallyIam
swollenwithpride,which,thinasIam,Icancertainlyafford."FromBrussels,OttosentherasnapshotofhimselfandacollarofBelgianlace:"Ireallydon'tknow
whichgavememorepleasure,perhapsyourpicturealittlemore."
52
InherlettersLisewasbyturnsister,friend,colleague,tellinghimofthewhereaboutsoftheir
friends,scoldinghimwhenhedidnotwrite,planningforhisthirtysixth
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Page59
birthdaytobecelebratedatthefront,
53
andalwaysinforminghim,indetail,oftheprogressshewasmakingwiththeirresearch.AndbecauseGermansoldierstended
todisparagetheirAustriancounterparts,LisemadesureOttounderstoodthatallthemalemembersofherfamilybrothersandbrothersinlawwerefightingtoo:in
Cracow,inthePolishoffensive,intheheavyfightingattheSanRiverinGalicia.
54
Bylatespring,itwasevidentthatthewarwouldnotsoonbeover.Fightingonthewesternfrontreachedastalemate,andGermanyjoinedAustriainamajoroffensive
againstRussiainGalicia,fromwhichAustriahadretreatedinthefirstweeksofthewar.InMaytheRussianswereforcedbackfromtheSanbytheendofJunethe
GermanAustrianforcesrecapturedLemberg(Lwow,PolandnowL'vov,Ukraine),capitalofGalicia.Thewarwidened.TurkeyjoinedtheCentralPowersin1914,
andItalyfinallydeclaredwaronAustria,itsoldenemy,in1915inthehopeofredeemingTrieste,theDalmatiancoast,andtheSdtirol(Trentino).Casualtiesmounted
withoutend.ThatsummerMeitnerlearnedthatMarieCuriehadinitiatedanambulanceservicewithradiologicalequipmentandwasworkinginfieldhospitalswithher
eighteenyearolddaughter,Irne,behindthelinesinFrance.
55
InJuly1915,LiseleftforViennatovolunteerasanxraynursetechnicianwiththeAustrianarmy.
WithindaysLisewasaccepted,trained,vaccinated,andassignedtoamilitaryhospitalinLemberg,notfarfromtheRussianfront.On4AugustsheleftViennawitha
unitof220men,50nurses,10physicians,andthecompletefacilitiesforahospital,onan"endlesslylong"trainthatslowlymadeitswaytoBudapest,skirtedthe
CarpathiansinnortheasternHungary,thenwoundnorththroughthemountainstoPoland.ShewrotetoElisabeth,
Wewereunderwayfor60hours,butitdidn'tseemthatlong.Naturallyitwasaveryoldthirdclasscarwithnarrowwoodenbenches,butthedoctorsandnurseseachhadtheir
ownbenchsoonecouldstretchoutatnight,andduringthedaytherewassomuchthatwasnewandinterestingtoseethattimewentquickly.InMiskolcz[Miskolc],alittle
Hungariantown,...aGermandoctortoldusthatWarsawhadbeentaken....[Y]oucanimaginehowhappywewere.NearMezoLoborcz[nowMichalovce,Slovakia],asyoumay
remember,therewasverybitterfighting....Therearehousesthatwereshottopieces,thefrontwallaloneremains,sometimeseventhisisblownaway,andtheroofliesonthe
ground....Thesurroundings...arejustbeautiful,ononesidetheplainsandtothenorththeCarpathian
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Account: s5308004

Page60
mountainswithbeautifulforests.FromthereuntilLembergwewentthroughanuninterruptedwarzone,alwaysthesamepicture.Alltherailroadbridgesweredestroyedbymines,
andthetraincrossingsweretemporarywoodenbridgesfromwhichonecouldseetheoldbridgeontherocksbelow.
Thesufferingofthewoundedcameasashock.
WeareconvertingthelocalTechnicalInstituteintoabarrackshospital.Untilnowtherewasafieldhospitalhere,withabout6,000to7,000woundedwhohadtobetransferred
elsewhereasquicklyaspossible.Nowasabarrackshospitalatleastsomeofthewoundedcanstaylongertomakearecovery....Oh,Elisabeth,whatIhavealreadyseenInever
expectedittobeasawfulasitactuallyis.Thesepoorpeople,whoatbestwillbecripples,havethemosthorriblepains.Onecanheartheirscreamsandgroansaswellasseetheir
horriblewounds.TodaywehadaCzechwhowasseverelywoundedinhisarmsandlegswhomoanedinpainwhiletearsrandownhisface....Sinceweareonlyabout40kmfrom
thefrontwegetonlythemostseverelywoundedhere.Itellmyselfthisforconsolation.Butonehasone'sownthoughtsaboutwarwhenoneseesallthis.
56
Untilthexrayfacilitieswereready,Liseassistedinseveraloperationseachmorning,cleanedoperatingtablesandinstruments,andbandagedthewounded.
27August.TodayweamputatedthefootofaveryyoungHungarian,anditupsetmethatIcouldsaynothingtohim....AyoungPolishsoldiersaidquietly,"IknowIwilldie,"
andhedid.
2426September.Itisalreadyterriblycold.Iworkonlywiththeverybadlywounded....Itisimpossiblehowmuchtheysuffer.WehavesomanywoundedHungarians,andfartoo
fewHungariannurses.Thosewithbackwoundsareoftensobadlywoundedthatnothingcanbedoneforthem,andtheydieveryslowly.TheCatholicpriestheregiveshistime
toCatholic,Protestant,andJewalike.Therearemanygoodpeoplehere.
18October.Ihavedoneover200xrays....Thesurgeontoldmethatxrayshavesavedthelifeofatleastoneofthewounded,byidentifyingaherniaofthebladderandnota
stomachwoundasthedoctorsoriginallythought....Thisisasmallhappinessamongmuchthatisveryhard.Ihaveseenyoungsoldiers18or19yearsoldwhoareoperatedon
fourorfivetimesanddieanyway.
57
WritingtoOtto,Liseomittedthemedicaldetails.
10September1915.DearHerrHahn!...WehavemanyRussiansamongthewounded,andalsoprisonerswhoworkforus.Theyaremostlygoodnatured,patientmen,verycaring
tothesickones....Itisdifficulttounderstandthem,ofcourse.AfewwordsthatIpickedupasachild,afew
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Account: s5308004

Page60
mountainswithbeautifulforests.FromthereuntilLembergwewentthroughanuninterruptedwarzone,alwaysthesamepicture.Alltherailroadbridgesweredestroyedbymines,
andthetraincrossingsweretemporarywoodenbridgesfromwhichonecouldseetheoldbridgeontherocksbelow.
Thesufferingofthewoundedcameasashock.
WeareconvertingthelocalTechnicalInstituteintoabarrackshospital.Untilnowtherewasafieldhospitalhere,withabout6,000to7,000woundedwhohadtobetransferred
elsewhereasquicklyaspossible.Nowasabarrackshospitalatleastsomeofthewoundedcanstaylongertomakearecovery....Oh,Elisabeth,whatIhavealreadyseenInever
expectedittobeasawfulasitactuallyis.Thesepoorpeople,whoatbestwillbecripples,havethemosthorriblepains.Onecanheartheirscreamsandgroansaswellasseetheir
horriblewounds.TodaywehadaCzechwhowasseverelywoundedinhisarmsandlegswhomoanedinpainwhiletearsrandownhisface....Sinceweareonlyabout40kmfrom
thefrontwegetonlythemostseverelywoundedhere.Itellmyselfthisforconsolation.Butonehasone'sownthoughtsaboutwarwhenoneseesallthis.
56
Untilthexrayfacilitieswereready,Liseassistedinseveraloperationseachmorning,cleanedoperatingtablesandinstruments,andbandagedthewounded.
27August.TodayweamputatedthefootofaveryyoungHungarian,anditupsetmethatIcouldsaynothingtohim....AyoungPolishsoldiersaidquietly,"IknowIwilldie,"
andhedid.
2426September.Itisalreadyterriblycold.Iworkonlywiththeverybadlywounded....Itisimpossiblehowmuchtheysuffer.WehavesomanywoundedHungarians,andfartoo
fewHungariannurses.Thosewithbackwoundsareoftensobadlywoundedthatnothingcanbedoneforthem,andtheydieveryslowly.TheCatholicpriestheregiveshistime
toCatholic,Protestant,andJewalike.Therearemanygoodpeoplehere.
18October.Ihavedoneover200xrays....Thesurgeontoldmethatxrayshavesavedthelifeofatleastoneofthewounded,byidentifyingaherniaofthebladderandnota
stomachwoundasthedoctorsoriginallythought....Thisisasmallhappinessamongmuchthatisveryhard.Ihaveseenyoungsoldiers18or19yearsoldwhoareoperatedon
fourorfivetimesanddieanyway.
57
WritingtoOtto,Liseomittedthemedicaldetails.
10September1915.DearHerrHahn!...WehavemanyRussiansamongthewounded,andalsoprisonerswhoworkforus.Theyaremostlygoodnatured,patientmen,verycaring
tothesickones....Itisdifficulttounderstandthem,ofcourse.AfewwordsthatIpickedupasachild,afew
C
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t

1
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.

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PolishorRussianwordsthatIlearnedhere,ismywholevocabulary.Hungarianisevenmoredifficult.
14October.AtnightwhenIlieinbedandcannotsleeprightawayIfeelslightlyhomesickforphysics,butduringthedayIthinkonlyofthepatients....Thegratitudethatthey
showalwaysmakesmesomewhatashamed.Myyoungerbrother[Walter]isnowacadetattheIsonzofront[Italy].
28November.ThebitternessagainsttheItaliansisverygreatthesoldiersregardeverysingleItalianasapersonalenemy.
9January1916.Idosometimeshavehomesicknessforphysics,aboveallfeelIhardlyknowwhatphysicsisanymore....Myhealthisalwaysverygood.Idon'tthinkIweighas
muchas50kg[110lb.],butafterallIdidn'tcomeheretogetfattenedup....Whentherearenoxraysneeded,IhelpintheoperatingroomIhaveevendoneanesthesia,whichI
dislikeandinadditionIamthehospitalmechanic.Ifixbrokenelectricalcordsandapparatus,makeTtubes,catheters,andsoon.
58
InLemberg,Lisereceivedamarriageproposalperhapsnotthefirst,orthelast,butapparentlytheonlyoneofwhichwehavearecord.Somehowshemeta
professorfromGreece,whothenwrotetoherfromPiraeus:"Iwouldliketohavethehonorofmarryingyou.IadmireyouandtheotherGermansandyourwonderful
country.Ihopeyoutakemyofferofmarriageseriously.AlsoIwouldlikeyourphotograph.Pleaseanswerme.P.S.GreeceisnowallfortheGermans."
59
One
suspectsLisedidnotanswer.Butshedidkeepthenote,flowerywriting,purpleink,andall.
Byearly1916theeasternfrontreachedastalemateandtherewasverylittletodo.
60
Liserequestedatransfertothesouth,thesceneofheavyfightingnearTrient
(Trento)inthealpineSdtirol,aregionAustriawouldeventuallylosetoItaly.ThetransfertookmonthsshevisitedBerlinandworkedhalfheartedlyinViennafora
whileinStefanMeyer'sRadiumInstitute.
61
AssignedtoTrientinJune,Lisewasagainmostlyidleandaskedtobesent"anyplacethereiswork."
62
InJulyshewasin
LublinattheheightofarenewedRussianoffensiveinPoland,butthedoctorswerethemselvestooexhaustedorilltotreatthemanywoundedandLisecoulddolittle
onherown."Ifeelsuperfluous,"shewroteElisabethinAugust.''Withoutmethingswouldgojustaswell.Ifthisistrue,thenmydutyistogobacktotheKaiser
WilhelmInstitute.IsaymydutybecauseifIhadfollowedmywishes,Iwouldhavegonebacklongago."
63
InSeptember:"Mylastcard!IamcomingbacktoBerlin.
...ImustworksoIfeelrelievedalready."
64
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LisereturnedtoDahleminearlyOctober1916.
65
ShefoundtheKWIforChemistryalmostentirelyconvertedtowarresearch.AfterWillsttterleftforMunichin
March1916,hissectionontheinstitute'sfirstfloorhadbeenrequisitionedbytheaerialphotographycommand(Luftbildkommando)andothersfromHaber's"military
institute."InatransparentattempttodothesameforMeitnerandHahn'ssection,theHabergroupofferedMeitnerapositionwiththem,"withthespecialinducement,"
shenotedsardonically,''thatIwouldbepaid.TheyevidentlythoughtthatIlivehereshallwesayonaprivateincome."SheturnedtheHaberofferdown,
concernedaboutthefateoftheradioactivitysectionshesharedwithHahn.
25October1916....IhopethattheLion[Haber]willnotgethisclawsintoourmodestsection,especiallysinceourprivatelaboratorywithitsphysicalapparatuswouldhardlybe
usefulforthechemicalstudiesinquestion.IfIamnotpreventedfromdoingso,Iwilltrytowork.IwouldverymuchliketorepeatChadwick'swork,namely,tocountthespectrum
ofbetaradiationinamagneticfield....Whatdoyousayabout[theGerman]victoryinDobrudscha[Dobruja,Romania]?Onemustbegladaboutit,ifonestillhasthecapacityto
beglad.
66
LikemostGermans,Lisewasexhaustedbythewarbutbynomeanswithouthopeforeventualvictory.
Lisehastenedtomeasurethepreparationsshehadsetasidebeforesheleft,inparticular,thesamplesthathadbeenmonitoredsince1913forevidenceofactinium
precursor.
16November1916.DearHerrHahn!...TheHaberpeopletreatusofcourselikecapturedterritorytheydonottakewhattheyneedbutwhattheylike....Whowillguaranteethat
theywon'tcomeoverhere,andtheneverythingwillreallybelost.Iwilldoeverythingtopreventitwehavemeasurementsherethathavebeeninprogressforsolong...butthey
havethearroganceofvictory....ItreallyisverythoughtfulofyoutobeconcernedaboutwhatIeatyouimagine[theshortageoffood]tobeworsethanitactuallyis....Last
nightIwasatPlancks'.Theyplayedtwomarveloustrios,SchubertandBeethoven.Einsteinplayedviolinandoccasionallymadeamazinglynaiveandreallyquitepeculiar
commentsonpoliticalandmilitaryprospects.Thatthereexistsaneducatedpersoninthesetimeswhodoesnotsomuchaspickupanewspaper,isreallyacuriosity.
67
EinsteinconsideredhisviewsonGermanmilitarismandhishopesforthedefeatofGermanytobesofarremovedfromthoseofhisfriendsthathe
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didnotdiscussthem,excepttoaskquestions"intheSocraticmanner,tochallengetheircomplacency."Hewasquiteawarethat"peopledon'tlikethatverymuch."
68
InJanuary1917,OttoHahnwasinBerlinforseveralweeks.WithLise'spermanentreturn,theywereeagertoresumetheirsearchfortheactiniumprecursor.The
tantalumgrouptheyhadextractedfromtheolduraniumnitratesaltin1913stillgavenottheslightestindicationofactinium,itsemanationordecayproducts.They
abandoneditandturnedtothesilicaresiduetheyhadfirstseparatedfrompitchblendeearlyin1914.Atthetimetheyhaddeterminedthattheresidueincluded
essentiallyallthetantalumlikesubstancesinpitchblendeandwiththem,presumably,thehopedfor"ekatantalum,"mothersubstanceofactinium.Undertheir
electroscopesthreeyearslater,theresiduewasgivingofftheirfirstglimmerofsuccess:atinybutunmistakableamountofactiniumemanation.
Itwashardlytheidealtimeforamajorproject.Inthis,GermanyandAustria'sfirst"turnipwinter,"foodwasscarce,fuelalmostnonexistent,equipmentexpensiveand
hardtoget,pitchblendeunavailable.Perhapsthegreatestdifficultywasthatstudents,assistants,andtechnicianshadlongsincedisappearedintothemilitary.Lise
wouldhavetoworkalone.
AndasmuchasLisefavoredthewareffort,sheandHahnwereeagertoprotecttheirworkandtheirsectionfromHaber'sincursions.Supportcame,onceagain,from
EmilFischer:whereHaberwasgladtoseethewallbetweenacademiaandthemilitarycomedown,Fischerwastryingtoshoreitup.InJanuary1917,LiseMeitner
wasappointedheadofherownsectionforphysics,ineffectdividingtheLaboratoriumHahnMeitnerintotheLaboratoriumHahnandtheLaboratoriumMeitner,with
apayincreaseof1,000to4,000marks(essentiallyequivalenttoHahn's5,000marks,whichincludedamarriagesupplement).
69
Perhapsmorethananyother
appointment,Meitnertookthisasanexpressionoftrust.Althoughthehiringandpurchasingnecessarytobuildhersectionwouldbedeferreduntilafterthewar,she
hadbeengrantedtheadministrativeauthoritytodirectherownworkandthepowertoprotecthersection.
InFebruary,Ottoreturnedtohisunit,impatientfornews.
22February1917.DearHerrHahn!ThepitchblendeexperimentisofcourseimportantandinterestingbutIcannotdoitrightnowdon'tbeangry,please....Ihaveorderedthe
[platinum]vesselsforouractiniumexperiment...andwillbeginassoonastheyarrive....YesterdayIgave
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acolloquium.Ithoughtofyouandspokeloudlyandlookedatthepeopleandnottheblackboard,althoughunderthecircumstancestheblackboardseemedfarmoreappealing
thansomeofthepeople....Bewellandpleasedon'tbeangryaboutthepitchblendedelay.Believeme,it'snotduetolackofwill,butreallyonlylackoftime.Ican'tverywelldoas
muchworkaloneasthethreeofususedtodotogether.TodayIbought3metersofrubbertubingfor22M!!IgotarealshockwhenIsawthebill.
70
Theequipmentwasready,finally,inearlyMarch.Theinitialsteps,severalarduoustreatmentswithboilingconcentratedacids,weredesignedtoseparatethesilica
(SiO
2
)fromthepitchblendeandthetantalumlikesubstancesfromtheSiO
2
becausethequantityof"ekatantalum"wassominuscule,atantalumcompoundwasadded
asacarrier.Lisebeganbypulverizing21gramsofpitchblendenearlyalltheyhadandboilingitinconcentratednitricacid,decantingthesolutionandboilingthe
undissolvedremainderseveraltimesuntilaninsolubleSiO
2
residuewasobtained,whichwasfiltered,washedseveraltimes,anddried.Theresidueweighed2grams,of
which1.5gramswassetasideasacontrol.Theremaining0.5gramdissolvedalmostentirelyafterrepeatedtreatmentwithhydrofluoricacid(HF)towhichafew
milligramsofpotassiumtantalumfluoridehadbeenaddedthisreactionrequiredplatinumvessels,thoseLisehadorderedinFebruary,sinceglassandmostother
metalsdissolveinhydrofluoricacid.TheHFsolutionwasfiltered,boileddownsomewhat,andthenevaporatedtodrynessinboilingconcentratedsulfuricacidofall
thedifficultstepsinvolvinghotconcentratedacids,thiswasthemostunpleasantwhichleftasolidmaterialthatdissolvedalmostentirelywhenrepeatedlyboiledin
concentratednitricacid.Atinybitofsoliddidnotdissolve:thiscontainedallthetantalumandwithit,presumably,theactiniumprecursor.
Meitnermonitoredthepreparationforalpharadiationforseveralweeks."Accordingtoourassumptions,"MeitnerandHahnwrotelater,"sincethemothersubstance
emits rays(presumablyofshorterrangethanitsdecayproducts),ourpreparationsoughttoshowastrong activity,whichinviewofthe[25year]halflifeof
actiniumoughttoincreaseonlyveryslowly,despiteitsfive emittingdecayproducts.However,ifonefiltersouttheslow radiationofthemothersubstanceof
actinium,oneshouldobserveanactivitywhichrisesfromalmostzeroatamuchfasterrate.(Onecannotthinkofmeasuringthe activityofsuchaweak
preparation.)"
71
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Exactlyasexpected,thenewpreparationdisplayedaconstantshortrange radiationandafaster radiationwhoseintensitydoubledinseveralweeks.The
untreated1.5gramsofSiO
2
showedthesame.
Theresultscouldnothavebeenbetter,butstilltheydidnotprovethatthesourceofthealphaactivitywasinfacttheactiniumprecursoranditsdecayproducts.
BecauseMeitnerandHahn'spreparationsweretooweaktoseparatetheactiniumdecayproductsandmeasurethemdirectly,theychoseanindirectproof:eliminating
fromconsiderationanyotheractivitieswithsimilarshortrangealpharadiationandchemicalbehavior.
ThisdrewonHahnandMeitner'sentireexperienceinradioactivity.InApril,whenHahnwasagaininBerlinforashortperiod,heandMeitnernarrowedthe
possibilitiestotwo:ionium(
230
Th),alonglivedalphaemitter,andradiumD(
210
Pb),whichisabetaemitterbutdecaysto
210
Biandthen
210
Po,analphaemitteroffairly
longhalflife.TodeterminewhetherioniumorRaDwereindeedpresent,MeitnerandHahnaddedtothesilicaresiduemeasuredquantitiesoftheirrespectivebeta
emittingisotopesUX(
234
Th)andThB(
212
Pb)andprocessedthesilicaasbefore.ThecomplexityoftheindicatorexperimentmaybegatheredfromMeitner'slettersto
Hahn.
7May1917.DearHerrHahn!...Preparation#9seemsverypromising....[I]nanycasethestrongalphaactivitycannotarisesolelyfromionium....Inmyopinion,rulingoutRaDis
notascertain,sinceatfirst#9hadsomeThBthecorrespondingpolonium[
210
Po,derivedfrom
210
Pb]mustalsobethere....Iamalsodisturbedby#5its activityhasbeen
constantsinceApril20itsbetaactivity,however,hascontinuouslyincreased.AccordingtoyourexperimentsthiscannotbeduetoUXfromuranium,somaybeitisduetothe
accumulationofRaE[
210
Bi].
72
15May1917.Asit'shardlypossibleforyoutoretainallthepreparationsandtheirnumbersinyourhead,Iwillverybrieflyremindyouoftheseparations:no.8iswhatdidnot
dissolveinHF[presumablycontainingnoprecursor].No.9isthe[onewhichdiddissolveinHFandcontains]TaafterH
2
SO
4
evaporation[butwhichdidnotdissolve]inhot
HNO
3
[thiswasexpectedtocontainprecursor].No.10istheNH
3
precipitatefromthenitricacidsolution[theportionthatdiddissolveinHNO
3
noprecursorexpected].No.8
originallycontainedmostoftheThBandUX[indicatingthatmostRaDandioniumseparatedfromtheprecursor]....No.9alsomusthavesomeThBandalittleUX.Fromthe5thto
the14th[ofMay]itsbetaactivitydeclinedexactlyasUX[indicatingnootherbetaimpurities],itsalphaactivityshowsmuchlessdecrease.Thereis,therefore,aconstantalpha
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Page66
activity,whichinanycasecannotbedueonlytoionium,asonecanseefromtherelativeamountofioniumanduraniumXinno.8andno.10....Inadditionthereisanotvery
penetratingbetaradiation,possiblyRaDorRaE....No.10had(contrarytowhatyouexpected)onlyverylittleThBandalmostonlyUX,theratioofthese,asseenbydecay
measurements,isthesameinno.9,onlyno.10hasmuchlessconstantalpha[lessmothersubstance,asexpected]....No.9andno.10musthavethesameratioofThBtoUX,but
sinceno.10ismuchmorestronglyactivethanno.9,itmusthavemuchmoreRaDthanno.9,ifRaDisthereatall....No.5isthepartweworkedup(dissolvedinHF,evaporated
withH
2
SO
4
)[withnoaddedindicators]fromthe2gofSiO
2
outof21gpitchblende.Itshows,inadditiontoaquiteconstantalphaactivity,amarkedlyincreasingbetaactivity
[possiblyfromactiniumitself]....YoumustonlygivemealittletimeImeanyoumustnotgetimpatient.ThemeasurementsalltakealongtimeImustalsostandardize[the
electroscopes]exactly,verynecessarywiththeweatherwearenowhaving.
73
TheintensityoftheworkconsumedLiseshehardlymentionedthewar,andsheforgottoaskaboutOtto'shealthorsendherusualgreetingstoJamesFranck.The
oneintrusioncameinherletterof15May,afterfourpagesofscience.GretePlanckdiedthatday,aftergivingbirthtoalittlegirl."Itisterriblyhardformetobear,"
Lisewroteanddidnotmentionitagain.Perhapsshefeltnorighttoexpressherowngrief,nottoHahnafterthreeyearsofwar,nottothePlanckswhohadnowlost
twochildren,theiroldestson,Karl,havingbeenkilledinFrancetheyearbefore.Therewasnothingonecouldsay.Lise'sletterended,"Youneedhardlyworryabout
others'ekatantalumexperiments.InViennathey'renotbeingdone,Iknowthatforcertain,andIheard...thatFajansisdoingwarservice."
74
19June1917.Ihavegoodreportsaboutourwork.Preparationno.9seemsreallytobesomething,thealphaactivityisapparentlyalreadyconstant....Ithinkwecancounton
havingthesubstanceinhand.
75
Forverification,itwouldbenecessarytomeasureactiniumdecayproductsdirectlyforthis,morestartingmaterialwasneeded.InViennaatEaster,Lisehadasked
StefanMeyerforsomepitchblende,withouttellinghimmuchabouttheirwork,andshehadtriedtobuysomefromtheJoachimsthalmines.But,shetoldOtto
pointedly,asaresultofanembargoinitiatedbyGermany,nonecouldbeshippeduntilafterthewar.
76
SoMeitnerturnedtoFriedrichGiesel,theelderlyindustrialchemistwhohaddiscoveredactiniumin1902(independentlyofAndrDebierne
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Page67
buttwoyearslater)andwasassociatedwiththeradiumproducingfirmofBuchler&Co.inBraunschweig.WithconsiderabledifficultyLiseobtained100gramsof
"doubleresidue"(Rckrckstnde)pitchblendefromwhichbothuraniumandradiumhadbeenremovedandwith43grams,twicetheirprevioustrial,beganthe
separationsasbefore.ButGiesel'spitchblendewasdifferentsomehow,andtheearliermethoddidnotwork.BytheendofJuly,Lisewasexasperated.
27July1917.DearHerrHahn!Withallduerespectforyourreasonsfornotwriting,don'tyouthinkthatothersbesidesyourselfarealsopressedfortime?Youarethriftywith
everything,evenwithfriendlywords.Unfortunately,asyoucansee,IamnotattheexaltedplacewhereIdonotwritetoyou.TheextenuatingcircumstancesarethatIamnotjust
writingtobefriendlybutalsohavesomenewstoreport.AndsoasnottooffendthepracticalGodoftimeIshallgettoitrightaway....WithsomewhatunjustifiedoptimismI
attemptedtoseparate43gofGiesel'spreparationA.Itappearedtogoquitewell,butthefinalresultwasnotverysatisfactory.
Afteradetaileddescriptionofherattempts,Lisewasinterrupted.
6August.Igotthisfarwhenyourwifevisitedmeandtookmeswimming....WhenIcamehomethateveningIfound,inadditiontobothyourletters(thebeginningofmyletteris
stilljustifiedsinceyouonlywroteforradioactivereasons!),atelegramfrommybrothertellingmehewouldarrivethenextmorning.Ispent31/2dayswithhimanddidnothingin
theinstitute....Nowthatshortpleasureisover....Bewell,andwrite,atleastaboutradioactivity.Irememberatimeverylongagowhenyouwouldonceinawhilesendalineeven
withoutradioactivity.
77
24August1917.Concerningoursmallpersonalmisunderstanding,Iamunconvincedbyyourobjections.Iamstilloftheopinionthatafriendlylinefromtimetotimeisnotagreat
sacrificeforfriendshipbutIdonotwanttoleadyoutosucholdfashionedexcessesifyouyourselfdonotfeelaneedforthem.AnywayIamnotangrynow,norwasIbefore.
Concerningtheabracadabra[actiniumprecursor],theonlynewsIcantellyouisthatIworkedup10gofGiesel'spreparationB....No.6hasincreasedsignificantly,no.9inbeta
electroscopeisstilldecreasingslightly....IhopeyouwillnotbeangrywithmeifIdonottryanyfurtherseparations.First,Ireallybelieveitisofnouse,aslongasthe
preparationsaredecreasingand,second,totellthetruth,Iwouldliketofinallyhaveavacation.Withallthethingslefttomeasure,Iwillnotfinishuntilthe31st,andthenIwould
liketogotoVienna.BeforeIgoIwillsetupsomekindofsystemforcollectingactivedeposits.Aslongasthestrongpreparationsarestilldecreasing,itisdifficulttotake
convincingmeasurements....InthelastissueofElectrochem[ische]
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Z[eitschrift]Fajans...defendshisbrainchild"brevium"anddefendshimselfagainstthepossibilitythatSoddy's"ekatantalum"mighthavepriorityoverhis"brevium."(Hesays
that)Soddyproposedthatekatantalumisalonglivedmothersubstanceofactiniumthathasneverbeenfoundandforthatreasonhasneverbeennamed.Soyousee,Fajans
doesnothaveekatantalum!...Nowbewell.Yourwifetoldmeyouhaveobtainedabottleofschnapsformy"spiritual"needs.Manythanks!Itwillcomeinhandyasmylastbottle
disappearedalmostentirelyintomybrother'stravelflask.
78
WhenshereturnedtoBerlin,Meitnermonitoredtheoldandnewpreparations."Theyareincreasing[inactivity]completelyonschedule.Ihavemeasuredthecurve
[foractiniumbetaactivity]theincreasehasbeencompletelylinearforsixmonthsnow,whichisverycomforting."
79
ForLise,alldoubtsweregoneeveryexperiment
affordedunequivocalevidenceofactinium,itsemanation,itsactivedeposit,anditsprecursor.Whatremainedwastodeterminethehalflifeofthemothersubstance,
byquantitativelymeasuringtherangeofitsalphaparticlesandtheratewithwhichitsdecayproductsformed.
Forthisamuchstrongerpreparationwasrequired.InNovemberLisetraveledtoBraunschweigtoaskProfessorGieseltoperformtheextractioninquantityin
Buchler'sindustriallaboratory.
16November1917.TuesdayIwenttoBraunschweig.TheconnectionsareverypoorandIspenttwohoursinMagdeburg...butIhadagoodlunchwhichreallycountsforalot
thesedays.Gieselwasveryreservedforthefirst15minutes,butthenthawedvisiblyandattheendwasquitefriendly.Itoldhimveryfranklyaboutourexperimentsandaskedhim
tokeepitconfidential.AccordingtoGiesel,afewhundredpoundsofresiduesAandBareavailablewhichcontainahighpercentageofpitchblende.Butthefactorystopped
radiumproductionduringthewarsothatthosearetheonlyresiduesavailable.Inaddition,theyhadtogiveuptheirplatinumvessels,andofcourseonecannotboilsulfuricacid
inleadvessels.MydiscussionwithGieselwasnoteasybecauseheisasomewhatabsentmindedoldergentlemanwhofindsithardtofollowsomeoneelse'sthoughtsandin
additionseemstobesomewhatimpractical,butweagreedonthefollowing.Gieselwillpretreat1to2kgofthe[pitchblende]residuewithHFandH
2
SO
4
....Ithinkthequantitythen
willbesmallenoughformetodotheevaporationofH
2
SO
4
inourlargeplatinumvessel....IwrotetheproceduredownforGiesel,asheisterriblyforgetful.Forexample,heasked
methreetimeswhywedidnotdotheextractionwithsulfuricacid.EachtimeIaskedhimifconcentratedsulfuricacidcanbefiltered,andwhenhesaidno,Itoldhimthatradium
wouldprecipitateindilutesulfuricacid.Heforgotthisseveraltimes.
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Hecertainlyhasgottenold,completelywhiteandalittleunsteady,butstillheisquiteacharacter.Thedeathofhisonlysonapparentlydealthimaterribleblow.Personallyhewas
verykindtome,insistedthatIcometohishouseoneeveningwhereheandhisintelligentandcharmingwifeoutdidthemselvesonmybehalf....ThesuccessinItalyisverygood,
andtheeventsinRussia[revolution],howevertheymayturnout,areinanycasebetterforusthanfortheEntente.
80
VictoryforGermanyandAustriastillseemedpossible.
Aspromised,Gieselpartiallyprocessed1kilogramofpitchblendeinDecember,thethirdandmostquantitativephaseoftheinvestigationbegan.Hahn,againinBerlin
onleave,helpedMeitnerwiththedifficultevaporationofconcentratedsulfuricacid,whichtheyrepeatedseveraltimesuntiltheyobtainedafairlypureproductthatwas
intenselyradioactive.Aftersettingupsamplesformonitoring,LisewenttoViennaforChristmasandOttoreturnedtohisunitafewdayslater.
17January1918.Takeadeepbreathbeforeyoubeginreading,itwillbeaverylongletter....Ireceivedyourcardof29Dec.thedayIleftVienna.OnceIgothereIwantedtofinish
someofthemeasurementssothatIcouldtellwhatyouwantmosttohearfromme.AndIshalltellyouavarietyofdelightfulthings.
Well,thestrongGieselpreparationsarequiteallright...andall3havenowincreasedstrongly[inalphaactivity]....Alsonos.6,9,21,and22[fromthefirstandsecondtrials]have
increasednicely.Ihavealsodeterminedtherange....Themeasurementsattheendoftherange,whicharesoimportant,takehours,for10daysIleftthelabonlyat8:30or9at
night,butatleastitwasworththeeffort....Therelativelylargevalueof3.32cm(Rahas3.13cm)shouldnotworryyou.Fortheactiniumseriestherelationship
81
log =A+Blog
Ryieldsastraightlinewhoseslopediffersfromthatoftheuraniumradiumseries....Youcanonlycomparewithinthesameseries.Intheactiniumseries,though,thereisthe
difficultythateitherAcXorradioactiniumdon'tcorrespond,soonegetstwodifferentslopesdependinguponwhichisirregular.Thatalsogivestwodifferentvaluesforthehalf
life.IfonetakesthevalueofAcXasdetermining,thehalflifeofourekatantalumwouldbe1,200years,theotheronewouldgive150,000years.
82
...InadditionIhavedonethe
emanationmeasurements.Theoldpreparation25[secondtrial]ismorethandoubleasstrong,thenewGieselpreparation[from1kgpitchblende]thirtytimes!stronger.The
increaseissostrongonenoticesitfromonedaytothenext.Thatmademeespeciallyhappy,Ithinkyouwillalsobeglad....Finally,Ialsocollectedactiniumdepositfrom
preparation22[secondtrial],and10dayslaterrepeatedtheexperiment.Of
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coursetheactivityisveryweak,butitcanbemeasuredwithcompletecertaintyandcanbeverifiedbyitsrateofdecay....Inanycase,wecannowthinkofpublishingverysoon.
83
Thiselegantpieceofworkprovedtheexistenceofaradioactivespeciesthatcouldnotbeobserveddirectlybutonlybyitsradiationsandthoseofitsdaughterandits
decayproducts.Thehuntfortheelusivemothersubstancehadtakenfiveyears.In1913HahnandMeitnerfirstlookedforthemothersubstanceinanundissolved
silicaresiduefromuraniumoreapplyingtheconceptsofisotopesandthegroupdisplacementlaws,thenverynew,theyusedanisotopeofthemothersubstance,UX
2
,
asanindicatorofthecorrectnessoftheirchemistryandthepossiblehidingplaceofthemothersubstance.Theirsuspicionswereconfirmedfoursyearlater,inthe
winterof1917,whenthesilicagaveoffatinybitofactiniumemanationthathadnotbeentherebefore.Inthespringof1917theytestedthesilica,accountedforthe
radiationfromextraneousactivities,andverifiedthatsomeofthatradiationwasindeedcomingfromsomethingnew.Thenintheirlargertrials,inthesummerandfallof
1917,theyconcentratedthemothersubstanceinearnest,lettheextraneousactivitiesfadeaway,andsoonobservedanincreasingamountofactinium,whichthey
detectedbyitsemanationandtheresultingdecayproductsintheactivedeposit.Finallytheycharacterizedthemothersubstance,measuringtherangeofitsalpha
particlesandestimatingitshalflife.ThisbeautifuldiscoverycalledoneverybitofexpertiseandintuitionthatMeitnerandHahnhadacquiredovertheyears.
On16March1918,LiseMeitnerandOttoHahnsubmittedtheirpaper,"TheMotherSubstanceofActinium,aNewRadioactiveElementofLongHalflife,"to
PhysikalischeZeitschrift.Withsatisfactiontheyreported,"Thesuppositionthatpitchblendewasthesuitablestartingmaterialwasindeedjustified.Wehave
succeededindiscoveringanewradioactiveelement,anddemonstratingthatitisthemothersubstanceofactinium.Wepropose,therefore,thenameprotactinium."
84
AlthoughMeitnerhaddonenearlyallthework,Hahnwastheseniorauthorontheprotactiniumpaper.Inmattersofpriority,Meitnerwasmorethanscrupulouswith
Hahn:shewasintenselyloyal,moresensitivetotheircollaborationthantotheirseparateaccomplishments,andawarethattheysharedalaboratorywithequipmentand
materialstheyhadacquiredtogether.Thus,inJanuary1918,whenshecompletedanotherstudythatshe
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haddoneentirelyaloneoveraperiodofmanyyears,shestillaskedHahnto"frankly"tellherifhewantedtocoauthorthepaper.(Hedeclined.)
85
Perhapswith
protactiniumshethoughtsheowedhimseniorstatus,thattodootherwisemighthavebeenunfairtoasoldierservinghiscountry.Twentyyearslater,whenthesituation
wasreversed,whenshewasawayfromthelaboratoryandhewasthereforthedaytodayexperiments,shemighthaveexpectedasimilarloyaltyfromhim.Itwould
nothappenthatway.
Oncetheprotactiniumarticlewassubmitted,whatremainedwerethepleasantdutiesassociatedwithanewelement.HavingtoldStefanMeyeralmostnothingall
along,Lisehastenedtogivehimtheexperimentaldetails
86
andaskhisadviceinchoosingasymbol."Youposeaterriblydifficultquestion,"herespondedcheerfully."I
wouldpreferthenamesLisonium,Lisottonium,etc.,andIthereforeproposethesymbolLo,butunfortunatelytheseareunsuitableifonewantsgeneralacceptance....
InPnacompletelyunimportantletterisbroughttothefore,whichleavesmemostsympathetictoPa:afterallpalladiumforsomereasonisPd....AlthoughIstillprefer
Lisotto,itismuchmoresignificanttohavediscovered...PaorPnthantocomeupwiththemostbeautifulname."
87
ForMeyer,atleast,Lisecamefirst.Lisotto&Co.
decidedonPa.
TherewerealsosomedelicatediscussionswithKasimirFajans.Asthefirsttoidentifyanisotopeof"ekatantalum,"heandOswaldGhringhadtherighttonamethe
element,andtheyhadchosen"brevium"fortheirshortlivedUX
2
.Butcommonusagerequiredthataradioactiveelementberepresentedbyitslongestlived(thatis,its
mostabundant)isotope,and"brevium"wouldhardlydoforthemothersubstanceofactinium.Fajanswasknownforhissuperiormannerandaggressivetreatmentof
hiscolleagues."Hefeelsasifhe'sthepopeofradiochemistry,"
88
StefanMeyeroncecommented,andhehadtakentocallingFajans"KasimirtheGreatest.''
89
But
Fajansagreedtothenameprotactinium.
Fajanshadnotpursued"ekatantalum,"butFrederickSoddyhad.InJune1918,SoddyandJohnCranstonreportedthatahightemperaturetreatmentofpitchblende
yieldedasublimatethatgraduallygeneratedincreasingquantitiesofactinium.TheirresultsappearedataboutthesametimeasHahn'sandMeitner'sneitherknewof
theothers'untilafterthewar.MeitnerandHahn,however,hadcollectedmoreactiniumprecursorandcharacterizeditmorecompletely,sotheprioritywastheirs.
90
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Whilethediscoveryofprotactiniumidentifiedtheimmediateparentofactinium,themoredistantancestryofactinium,inparticularitsrelationshiptouranium,wasonly
slightlylessmurkythanbefore.AlthoughthesequenceUY Acseemedcorrect,andalthoughitappearedthatUYwasdirectlydescendedfromuranium,itwasstill
unclearjusthowthiscouldbeso,sincethetwoknownuraniumisotopes,UI(nowknowntobe
238
U)andUII(
234
U),werebothmembersoftheuraniumradium
series.Iftheyalsoinitiatedtheactiniumseries,thiswouldinvolvebranchingofacompletelynovelsort:ineveryotherknowncase,thebranchdivergedforonlyone
generationandthenimmediatelyhealed.
91
Toresolvethequestionitwouldbenecessarytodeterminetheatomicweightofatleastonememberoftheactiniumseries,
themostpromisingcandidatebeingthelongestlived,mostabundantmemberprotactinium.ThiswouldoccupyHahn,andtoamuchlesserextentMeitner,formany
yearstocome.
Butinthesummerof1918,itwasnotpossibletoplanfarahead.ForfouryearsGermanshadbelievedtherosypictureofthewarsuddenlytherewastalkofcollapse,
exhaustion.Stillthegeneralsfoughton,deceivingthemselvesandtheircountry,wastinglives.Nopoliticalfactionwouldaccepttheburdenofsurrenderanddefeat.
Civilians,desperatelyhungry,struggledtokeepthemselvesandtheirfamiliesalive.
ThatJuneOttosufferedanattackof"weakness,"probablymildphosgenepoisoning,andwassenttoamilitaryhospitaltorecuperate.Somefreshfoodwasstill
availableforconvalescingsoldierswhenEdithcametovisit,OttosentLisesixeggs,"ofwhichoneisbetterthantheother,orIshouldsaywasbetter,asallbuttwo
havebecomepasttense.ThelasttwoIshallbestowupontheFrancks."
92
Lisenevercomplainedoflackoffoodonlyhergratituderevealsherhunger.Likeeveryone
else,shecarriedonasbestshecould,completingalongtermstudyofthehalflivesofseveralthoriumproducts
93
andlecturingontheprotactiniumdiscovery.
DidIwritetoyouthatIrecentlygaveacolloquiumonourwork,andthatPlanck,Einstein,andRubenstoldmeafterwardshowgooditwas?FromwhichyoucanseethatIgave
quiteadecentlecture,eventhoughIwas,stupidlyenough,againveryselfconscious....Iwasgladyouweren'tthere,youwouldsurelyhavescoldedme.Thisway,Iquicklygot
overmyshynesswithafriendlyjestfromPlanckandaverycomfortingpsychologicalobservationfromEinstein....IamoptimisticenoughtoexpectpeacebyautumnsoIhope
thatwecanagainworktogethernextwinter.
94
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InViennatherewaschaos."Concerningourlivingconditions,itisbettertosaynothing,"Meyerwrote."Onecanhardlytellwhichisatfault,lackoforganizationor
actualshortageoffood.Asorganizers,weareswarmingwithReichsdeutschen[Germans,asdistinctfromGermanAustrians]thewaytheyactasiftheycannotbe
wrongandthewaytheypassjudgmentonothershasmadethembelovedinalltheworld."
95
Thefightingcontinuedthroughthesummerandintothefallof1918.On20October,Austriaaskedforanarmisticewhenitwassignedon3November,revolution
brokeoutthroughoutGermany.Sailorsmutinied,troopsleftthefront,radicalsocialistsknownasSpartaciststheonlysocialiststoopposethewarfromthestart
organizedworkers'andsoldiers'councilsmodeledonRussiansoviets.On9November,theKaiserfledtoforestallSpartacistleadersfromproclaimingasoviet
republic,moderateSocialDemocratsinthegovernmentjoinedwithcentristsandconservatives,declaredaGermanrepublic,signedanarmisticeon11November,
andendedthewar.
InthecitiesandprovincesofGermanyrivalfactionsfought,peoplebelievednothingandeverything,rumorsflew.StefanMeyerwrote,"[Iam]almostmoreconcerned
nowaboutBerlinthanaboutVienna,andwithyouthereverseseemstobetrue....WeareafflictedwithinfluenzaasmuchasyouareinBerlin,andwedon'tknow
whichisworse,influenzaorthenewmajorityofpeoplewhowishtostripusofeverythingGerman."Heandhiswifelefttheirnewbornsonwithafarmfamilyforthe
wintersuicideandnervousbreakdownswerecommonplace."Onemustnowgoabouttheworldwithblinderson,andwithoutlookingleftorrighttrytogetonandto
work,aslongasone'snervesholdout."
96
Formostofthewar,AustriaHungaryhadbeenamilitarysatelliteofGermanyattheend,astheempirefellintoitsnationalparts,manyGermanAustrianslookedtoa
unionwithGermanyasafulfillmentoftheirownnationalaspirations.AsmuchasLiseMeitnerlovedGermanyandfavoredsuchanAnschluss,
97
shedislikedthe
trappingsofGermannationalismandwasunsympathetictoherfriends'attachmenttotheoldorder.InthefirstmonthoftherevolutionshetriedtomakeElisabeth
understandthatmuchofthechangewasforthebetter.
First,allrumorsofhousesbeingsearchedarecompletelyuntrue....Theremayhavebeenafewrobberswhoavailedthemselvesoffoodfromwell
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Page74
stockedhouses.Theyweresubsequentlystoppedfromfurther"requisitions."Soyoureallyhavenoneedtobeconcernedaboutyourparents.Now,whenItrytodiscusssomeof
thequestionsinyourletter,pleaserememberthatIhavealwayshadverystrongdemocraticinclinations....Icancertainlyunderstandthatyoupersonallyareveryupsetbythe
disappearanceoftheGermannobilityandespeciallytheHohenzollerns.ButElisabeth,theenormousmistakestheymadeininternalandinternationalpoliticsbothbeforeand
duringthewarindicateveryplainlythatthesystemwasabadoneitisimpossibleforasingleindividualtocontrolthefateofmillionsofpeoplewithoutansweringtoanyonebut
himself....ThelastweeksoftheKaiser'sregimeonceagainshowedthisveryclearly.HeissuedproclamationsgrantingtheGermanpeoplebroaddemocraticrightsasifitwerehis
ownwish.Buthewouldnotnegotiatewith[Philipp]Scheidemann[oneoftwoSocialDemocratsintheKaiser'scabinet],whomhehimselfappointed....Insteadhemanipulatedthe
socialistssothattheyhadtosharetheodiumoftheunfavorableceasefireconditions....Youmustnotbeunjust,Elisabeth,andsaythatthesocialistssoldourhonorforbread,
andthatpeopleconcernedabouthonorwouldhavesecuredbetterceasefireconditions....Breadmeanshonor,life,andtheexistenceofGermanyrightnow.Becauseifwehave
starvation,theBolshevistswillriseup,whichwillnotonlyresultincivilwarbuttheEntentewillsurelyoccupythecountry,underthepretextofmaintainingorder.That,wehope,
willbesparedus....The[SocialDemocrats]arenotengagedinonesidedclasspolitics,butwantrealdemocracy....Themainconcernnowisthatdangerousfoolslike[Spartacist
leaderKarl]Liebknecht,RosaLuxembourg,andthelikedonotacquirefollowersfortheircrazyideas,andthatontheothersidesomeofthe[rightwing]generalsdonotsucceed
withtheirplans.
98
Meitner'spoliticsweresolidlySocialDemocraticshedidnotshareElisabeth'supperclassdistastefordemocracy,orthegeneraldismayofestablishedacademics
overthedisappearanceofthemonarchyandimperialGermany.InthelaboratorysheandHahnhadconstantpoliticaldiscussions,inwhich"wealmostalwayshave
differingopinions."
99
Perhapsbecauseshefeltpoliticallyisolated,shedevelopedagreaterappreciationforEinstein.Inthefallof1918theybrieflyworkedtogether,
planninganexperimenttoverifyanaspectofhislightquantumhypothesisunlikemanyotherphysicistsatthetime,Meitnerbelievedinthehypothesis.Einstein's
calculationswerenotquiterightandMeitnerneverdidtheexperiment,butsheenjoyedthescientificandprivatecontactwithhim:"Iknowoffewpeoplewhohaveas
strongandpureanindividualityasEinstein."
100
Forhispart,EinsteinbeganreferringtoMeitneras"our
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MarieCurie"greatpraise,althoughbythenshecouldcertainlyhavebeencomparednotonlytootherwomenbuttoanyphysicistinherfield.
101
InBerlinthefightingcontinued.SocialiststudentsoccupiedtheuniversityandseizedtherectorEinstein,oneofthefewacademicsstudentstrusted,wasaskedto
negotiate.
102
ForatimemoderatesocialistsintheuniversityquarterfoughtSpartacistsjustacrosstheSpreefromthePhysicsInstituteconstantgunfireforced
evacuationoftheroomsfacingtheriver.ThatwinterKarlLiebknechtandRosaLuxembourgwerearrestedandthenmurdered,therevolutionwasdefeated,anda
newGermanrepublicwascreated.TheconstituentassemblydidnotconveneinBerlin,whichwastoodangerous,butinWeimar,birthplaceandhomeofGoethe.
Germanyhadbeenruinedbyimperialismandmilitarism,andthechoiceofWeimarseemedanexpressionofhope.
Therewasnopeace,butthosewhoreturnedfromthewarwereatleastalive.ManyphysicistsweredemobilizedinBerlinawayfromthescientificliteratureforyears,
theyrequestedacolloquium.HeinrichRubens,unnervedbythefightingnearhisinstitute,askedMaxBorn,oneoftheyoungtheoreticalphysicists,tomakethe
arrangements.AndsotheWednesdaycolloquiumresumed,themenbundledintheiroldarmycoats,intentonphysics,forgettingthecoldforawhileandthegunfire
outside.
103
OttoHahnreturnedtoDahlem,andJamesFrancktookapositionasadepartmentheadinFritzHaber'sinstitute.LiseMeitneralsoheadedherownsection:withher
appointmentinJanuary1917cametheresponsibilityforestablishinganindependentphysicssectionintheKWIforChemistry.Scientifically,theindependencecould
nothavecomeatabettertime.Foraphysicist,radioactivityhadreachedacertaincompleteness,farlessinterestinginitselfthanforwhatitmightrevealofitsnuclear
origins.Radioactivitywasevolvingintonuclearphysics,atermandafieldthatdidnotyetexist.AlmostnothingwasknownoftheatomicnucleusLisewasreadyforit.
Hermostimportantyearsofresearchlayjustahead.
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ChapterFour
ProfessorintheKaiserWilhelmInstitut
WespentseveralhoursfiringquestionsatBohr,whowasalwaysfullofgenerousgoodhumor,andatlunchHabertriedtoexplainthemeaningoftheword"Bonze"(bigwig).
Germanyin1919wasexceptionallybleak:defeated,divided,poor.Bysummerpeopleknewtheyfacedafourthwinterofhungerandcold.InAustriathesituation
wasequallygrim."Wearealreadyfreezingandgoinghungry,"StefanMeyerwrotetoLiseMeitnerinOctober."Milkandmeatareunknownwords,coalis
nonexistent,woodinsufficientandexpensive."
1
Heandhiswifelefttheirchildreninthemountainvillagewhereinbettertimestheyhadspenttheirsummers.Inthe
countrysidesomefoodwasavailable,butViennawasacityofstarvationanddeath.
ForGermanstherewastheaddedfearthattheharshtermsoftheVersaillestreatywouldmakerecoveryimpossible.EvenEinstein,whohadalwaysblamedGermany
forthewarandwelcomeditsdefeat,wasmoved."ThosecountrieswhosevictoryIhadconsideredduringthewarbyfarthelesserevilInowconsideronlyslightlyless
ofanevil."Havinghopedforapeace"thatdidnotconcealafuturewar,"heregardedtheAllies'failuretoassisttheGermanpeopleandtheirnewdemocracyas
heartlessandshortsighted.
2
Thewarbroughtdisaster,butpeacewasacatastropheandthegovernmentwasblamedforit.Weimarsatisfiedalmostnoone,neithertheRightnortheLeft,certainly
notindustryorthemilitaryorculturalelite.
3
IntheuniversitiesmanyoftheseniorprofessorsweredemoralizedandbitterMaxPlanckwasoneofthefewtodevote
himselftorebuildingGermanscientificinstitutions.OnseveraloccasionsmilitaryfactionsseizedpartsofBerlin,andtradeunionsretaliatedwithgeneralstrikestostaff
essentialutilities,Berlinscientistsorganizedanemergencytechnicalser
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vice(technischeNothilfe),whichassignedOttoHahn,JamesFranck,andotherstogasandelectricityplantsasallnightstokers.
4
ForLiseMeitner,thedisturbances
were"quitedepressing,notsomuchbecause...wewerewithoutgas,lightandforatimeevenwithoutwater...butbecausethegeneralsituationmakesmefearonce
againforthehealthoftheReich."
5
ThesituationincludedavitriolicantiSemiticcampaignagainstEinstein.Planck,anxiousnottoloseGermany'schiefscientific
emblem,wasinstrumentalinkeepinghisfriendfromleavingpermanentlyforapostabroad.
6
Inthesummerof1919,friendsinvitedLisetoSwedenforashortrespite.Theresheenjoyedtheserenityofacountrythathadnotseenwarforacenturyherlettersto
OttorevealanintenseandforLise,quiteuncharacteristicinterestinfood."InGteborgFrauFranck'ssister[IngridFranckwasSwedish]cameforme,andgave
meawonderfulbreakfast(beefsteakwitheggs,sausage,milk,butter,etc.)."OntheSwedishcoastshewastheguestofEmmaJacobsson,anAustrianphysicistLise
hadmetbeforethewar,andherhusband,Malte,aSwedishengineer."Iameatinganunbelievableamount,drinkatleastaliterofmilkaday,ameatingeggs,butter,
bacon,puddings,inshorteverythinggood,andamveryspoiledbymyfriends.IshallreturntoBerlinfatandbrown."
7
Liseprobablyneverweighedmorethan50
kilograms(110lbs.),butthatsummershedidgainanewtitle,thatofProfessorintheinstitute.Shehadlittletastefortitles,"but,"shesaid,"whatgavemepleasurewas
therealpleasuremyfriendstookinit.''OnherreturntoBerlinshefoundflowersinherapartment,moreflowersinthelaboratory.
8
Whethersheappreciateditornot,itwasasignificantevent.Inalllikelihood,shewasthefirstwomaninGermany,certainlyinPrussia,withthetitleProfessor.And
althoughherstatusintheinstitutedidnotimmediatelychange,thetitle,especiallyinPrussia,washelpfulinattractingstudentsandassistants,obtaininggrants,and
workingwithofficials.Anditmusthaveprovidedyetanotherdefenseagainstthefeelingsofinsecuritythatoccasionallystillovercameher.
TheKaiserWilhelmGesellschaftmayhavefunctionedwellenoughtodispenseProfessortitles,butworkingconditionsintheinstitutewerepoorforquitesometime.
Formorethanayearaftertheprotactiniumdiscovery,MeitnerandHahndidlittlebuttieuplooseends,publishinganimprovedvalueforthehalflifeofactinium,
9

speculatingonthe
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branchpointoftheactiniumseries,
10
describingprotactinium'schemicalpropertiesinsomedetail.
11
IneverypublicationHahnwasfirstauthor,towhichMeitner
apparentlydidnotobject,eventhoughshehaddonemuchofthework.
In1919theVereinDeutscherChemiker(AssociationofGermanChemists)awardeditsEmilFischerMedaltoHahn,citingessentiallyeverythinghehaddonein
radiochemistry,includingradioactiverecoil,magneticbetaspectra,andthediscoveryofprotactinium
12
theVereinalsovotedtopresentMeitnerwithacopyof
Hahn'smedal,anoddattempttoacknowledgehercontributionwithoutreallyrecognizingit.ThefactthatMeitnerdidnotshareinHahn'sawardseemstohave
disturbedhim,butnother."Ifinditverygratifyingandveryjustifiedthatyoureceiveit,"sheassuredhim."TomeitseemslessjustifiedthatIshouldalsocomeaway
withsomething.Prof.[Theodor]Diehlwrotetome,namely,thattheVereinatthesametimeresolvedtorecognizemycollaboration[Mitwirkung]andpresentme
withacopyofthemedalheinvitedmetothefestivitiesonSeptember7.Idon'thavemuchdesiretomakethetrip[shewasonvacation]butwouldlikeyouropinion.
Ofcourseyoumustgo."
13
WhywouldMeitnerfindit"veryjustified"thatHahnalonehavetheaward,and"lessjustified"thatsheberecognizedatall?Wasthisamatterofturf,aphysicist
reluctanttojoinchemistscelebratingtheaccomplishmentsofchemistry,inwhichcontextherrolewould,almostbydefinition,beregardedassubsidiary?
14
Very
possiblythiswasanimportantfactor,forunlikeRutherford,whoin1908wasmuchamusedbyhisNobelPrizeinchemistry,Meitnerstillneededtodemonstrateher
independenceasaphysicist.Whatissurprising,however,ishowfarshedistancedherselffromprotactinium,almostasifshehadwilledherselftobelievethat
chemistrywasthekeytothediscoveryandherowncontributionshardlymattered.
AttheheartofLise'sambivalencewasherrelationshipwithOttoHahn.Scientifically,theirpartnershiphadbeenmostproductive,butsheknewthatotherswould
neverseeawomanworkingwithamanasanythingbuthissubordinateeventhoughitshouldhavebeenobviousthatforasubstantialpartoftheircollaboration,with
thebetaspectra,forexample,shewastheleaderandHahntheoneatthemargin,achemistinthedomainofphysics.Thedifficultywasthatpersonallyshewasindeed
dependenton
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him:grateful,utterlyloyal,moreinneedofhisfriendshipthanheofhers.Theasymmetrywasevidentintheircarefulformalitystill"Sie"afterallthoseyearsandin
Meitner'sdeference,especiallyvisibleduringthewarwhensheranthelaboratory,didthework,andputHahn'snamefirstoneverypublication.Tofreeherself,at
leastinscience,itappearsthatsheputprotactinium,prizeoftheirworktogether,outofmind.Thatthisrequiredsomeartfulrethinkingonherpartmaybeseeninthe
sparseand,forMeitner,unusuallyfaultymemoirshewrotein1964:"Iworkedfrommid1915toautumn1917[sic:1916]asaradiologistinAustrianhospitalsatthe
front.However,Hahn...oftencametoDahlem,whileIwasabletogetleaveofabsencefrommyvoluntarypositionfrequentlyenoughforustobeable,evenbefore
theendofthewar,topointconclusivelytoprotactinium."
15
ShewasrememberingHahn'srolebetterthanherown,dissolvingheryearofintenseandoftenlonely
effortintoaparttimeventurebyscientificcomradesinarms.
16
WhatMeitnerdidrememberaccuratelyandalwayscitedwithpridewasherassignment,in1917,toestablishaphysicsdepartmentwithintheinstitute.Shetookitasa
signofrecognition,trust,andprofessionalcomingofage:itwas,aboveall,herown.Ittookayearortwotogetready,butby1920sheandHahnwerewellalong
theirseparatescientificpaths.Herworkwithhimhadbeenprelude,radioactivitynolongeranendinitselfbutpreparationfortheworkahead.
Physicistsknewthatthesewerethemostexcitingyearsanyscientistcouldwishfor.Onlyagenerationorsobefore,brightstudents,includingMaxPlanckatage
sixteen,wereadvisedtoseekintellectualadventuresomewhereelse:physicswasnearlycomplete,itseemed,itstreatmentofenergy,motion,radiation,
electromagnetismsobrilliantlyperfectthatnothingworthwhileseemedlefttodiscover.
17
Andiflittlewasunderstoodofthenatureofmatterwell,thatsortofthing
wasbestlefttochemists.Thencamearashofdiscoveriesandeverythingchanged:xrayswereunexplainedatomicspectrawereamysteryradioactivitywasstrange
electronswereeverywhere,inatomsandelectricityandbetadecayandspectra.Anddespiteoverwhelmingevidenceforradiationasacontinuouswave,newresults
impliedjusttheopposite.In1900,Planckfounditnecessarytocalluponquanta,discontinuousenergycorpuscles,tointerpretblackbodyradiationin1905,Einstein
characterizedradiationitself
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asadiscontinuousmediumcomposedofenergyquanta,whichwereessentialforexplainingthephotoelectriceffectandotherphenomena.AlsothatyearEinstein
transformedspaceandtimewithrelativityanddeducedtheequivalenceofmatterandenergy.Thereweremorequestionsaboutmatterandenergythaneverbefore,
butphysicswasmakingprogress.
Radioactivitysuppliedsomeoftheammunition,theenergeticalphaparticlesRutherfordcalledhis"pets."Basedonalphascatteringexperimentsofhisassistant,Hans
Geiger,andhisstudent,ErnestMarsden,Rutherfordin1911proposedaplanetaryatomicarrangement:electronsorbitingatiny,massive,positivelychargednucleus.
Thenuclearatomhadagravedefect,however:itdidnotaccountforthestabilityofatoms.Accordingtoeverythingthatwasknownaboutmovingcharges,electrons
shouldhavebeenradiatingenergyandspiralingintothenucleus.
Therevolutioncamein1913.NielsBohrtookhydrogen,boldlydeclareditsenergystatestobenonradiating,quantizedthem,andcalculatedasetofdiscreteelectron
orbitsinperfectagreementwiththehydrogenspectrum.Itwasunexpectedandrightitmadequantumtheorythebasisforatomicphysics,andthenuclearatomthe
modelforeverythingradioactivity,spectroscopy,andchemistryhadtooffer.Thenuclearatomembodiedtheprimacyofchargeovermass,somethingalready
indicatedbyradioactivity'sgroupdisplacementlawsandisotopes.Nowitwasalsoevidentthatalphaparticles,beingpositive,mustoriginateinthenucleusthatan
elementischaracterizedbyitsnuclearcharge,whichfixesthenumberandenergylevelsofitsorbitalelectronsthatisotopesofanelementhavethesamenuclear
chargebutdifferentmassthatchemicalreactionsinvolveorbitalelectrons,notthenucleus.Thesiteofbetadecaywasbrieflydebated.AtfirstRutherfordandFajans
thoughtbetaelectronswereorbital,butafterBohrlistedisotopicbetaemittersthatareradioactivelydifferentandSoddypointedtotheelementalchangeassociated
withbetadecay,theconclusionwasinescapable:betadecayisanuclearprocess.
In1914,JamesFranckandGustavHertzexperimentallyshowedthatwhenenergeticelectronscollidewithmercuryatomsinthegasphase,energyistransferredfrom
anelectrontoamercuryatomonlyindistinctquanta.Thisindicatedthatquantizationappliestoallatomicprocesses,notjusttheabsorptionandemissionofradiation,
andtoallelements,eventhoughBohr'stheorywasexactonlyforoneelectronatomssuchashydrogen.
18
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Theexperimentalfieldthatadvancedmostsymbioticallywiththenewatomictheorywasspectroscopy.Fromthestartthediscretelinesinatomicspectrawere
understoodaselectrontransitionsbetweenquantizedenergylevels:opticalspectraastransitionsofouterelectrons,xrayspectraasthoseclosestin.Comparedto
opticalspectra,xrayspectratendedtobesimplerand,becauseinnerelectronsaresoclosetothenucleus,morecharacteristicoftheelementusedasthexray
source.In1914,whenMoseleymeasuredthecharacteristicxradiationemittedbyasetofconsecutiveelements,hefoundthatthefrequenciesofthexraylineswere
afunctionofatomicnumber(theordinalpositionofanelementintheperiodicsystem).Heconcludedthatthephysicalbasisforatomicnumbermustbenuclearcharge.
Moseley'sworkilluminatedtheentireperiodicsystem,affirmedtheRutherfordBohratomicmodel,andreplacedatomicweightwithnuclearchargeasthemarkof
chemicalidentity.Inturn,thequantizedatommadepossibleadetailedinterpretationofxrayspectra,whichbecameapowerfultoolforstudyinginnerelectrons,for
detectingnewelements,andforchemicalanalysis.Althoughopticalspectrawerefarmoredifficulttounravel,theywouldeventuallyrevealpropertiesofallorbital
electronsandspurtheadvanceofatomictheory.
19
Meitner,meanwhile,wasengagedwithspectraofadifferentsort,themagneticbetaspectrathatshe,Hahn,andvonBaeyerhadcollectedoveraperiodofyears.
Meitnercametobetaspectrawithaninterestinbetaradiationandpersistedbecausesolittleaboutthespectraandthedecayingnucleithatproducedthemwas
wellunderstood.Duringthewarshemadelittleprogress,butafteritwasovershewasheadofherownsectionandeagertostrikeoutonherown.Nucleiwereas
unchartedasatomsbeforeRutherford,theirstructure,energy,andevencompositionunknown:betaspectraofferedawindowintothenucleusaspromisingasoptical
andxrayspectrawerefortheatomasawhole.Infact,betaspectrawouldprovemoredemandingandinmanyrespectsmoresignificantthananyoneexpectedwith
themMeitnerwouldmakehermarkasoneoftheleadingphysicistsofherday.
Thefirstbetaspectrumwastakenin1909byWilliamWilsontoresolveadisputewithMeitnerandHahnoverthehomogeneityofbetaradiation.
20
Meitnerexpected
thespectrumofeachbetasourcetobeasingleline,theimageofelectronsexpelledwithuniformenergyinbetadecaywheninsteadeveryspectrumdisplayedseveral
lines,shehadtoconcedethatbeta
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Page82
radiationisnothomogeneous.Theadventofthenuclearatomandtherecognitionthatbetadecayisanuclearprocesspermittedarevivalofherformerview:justone
linewouldbeformedbytheprimarydecayelectrons,andallotherlineswouldbesecondary,formedbyelectronsexpelledfromtheirorbitsoutsidethenucleus.
In1914,however,JamesChadwickfoundwhatappearedtobeacontinuousbetaspectrumforradiumB+C(amixtureof
214
Pbanditsdaughter,
214
Bi),leading
Rutherfordtosuggestthatallbetalinesweresecondaryandtheprimaryspectrumcontinuous.ThisMeitnercouldnotaccept.
21
Convincedthatnuclei,likeatoms,
mustbequantized,shedidnotbelievethatidenticalnucleiwouldemitprimaryelectronsofvariableenergy.Shewasstillguidedbytheanalogybetweenalphaandbeta
decaythatshehadalwaysfavoredconsideringtheuniformenergyalwaysfoundforalphaparticles,thepresenceofdiscretebetalines,andthetriumphofearly
quantumtheory,herviewwasnotunreasonable.Shethoughtshecouldproveitbyanalyzingbetaspectrafortheirprimaryandsecondarycomponents.
Itwasnotimmediatelyobvioushowtodothis,soMeitnerfirstlookedforbetaspectrawithnoprimarylineatall.BeforethewarsheandHahnhadfoundthatthe
alphaemittersradium(
226
Ra),radioactinium(
227
Th),andradiothorium(
228
Th)exhibitedbetaspectrawithwelldefinedlines.
22
Beforeconcludingthatthesespectra
wereentirelysecondary,Meitnerwantedtobesurethesethreealphaemitterswerenotprimarybetaemittersalso.
23
Suchdualalphaandbetadecay,knownas
branching,hadbeenobservedforseveralspeciesifpresent,therespectivebetadecayproductswouldhavebeen
226
Ac,
227
Pa,and
228
Pa.
HahnandMeitnersearchedfortheseproductsandfoundnothing.
24
Thebetaspectrainquestionwere,therefore,entirelysecondary.Theresult,Meitnerbelieved,
appliedtoprimarybetaemittersaswell,forit"provedwithoutdoubtthat...thereexist particlesofdefinedenergywhichdonotoriginateinthenucleustheyarethus
ofsecondaryorigini.e.,theymustcomefromtheelectronrings.Fromthisonewouldexpectthatpartofthebetaspectrumofatypicalbetaemitter...islikewiseof
secondaryorigin."
25
Whatdrovethesesecondaryelectronsoutoftheirelectronorbits?Collisionswithalphaparticleswouldnotdoit:fromthepositionofthelines,Meitnernoted,itwas
evidentthattheenergyofthesecondaryelectronswasfartoogreattoresultfromcollisionsbetweenalphaparticles
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Account: s5308004

Page83
andorbitalelectrons.
26
Gammaradiationwastheonlyotherpossibility:itwasofnuclearorigin,veryhighinenergy,andnearlyalwaysaccompaniedalphaandbeta
decay."Allthreesubstanceshavearelativelyeasytodetect radiation,"shenoted,"andthismakesitseemlikelythatlinkedtothealpharadiationinsomewayisa
radiationwhichisemittedfromthenucleusandgivesrisetotheobserved[secondary] radiation."
27
AconnectionbetweengammaradiationandsecondarybetaspectrahadbeenrecognizedbyRutherfordin1914,afterheandhiscoworkersinvestigatedradiumB
(
214
Pb),aleadisotopethatemitsbetaandgammaradiation.WhentheyenclosedRaBinleadfoil,theyobtainedabetaspectrumthatnecessarilycamefromelectrons
inthefoil,sinceRaB'sownbetaparticlescouldnotpenetratetheleadenclosure.Surprisingly,theleadfoilspectrumandthenaturalbetaspectrumofRaBappeared
identical.Rutherfordconcludedthatbothspectramustbesecondary,bothincitedbythegammaradiationofRaB.
28
Inanotherexperiment,RutherfordandE.N.daC.AndradefoundthatRaBemittedsoftgammaradiationseeminglyidenticaltothecharacteristicLxraysoflead(x
raysemittedwhenanelectronfallsfromahigherleveltoavacancyintheLshell).TheexistenceofanorbitalvacancyintheLshellwasanotherindicationthatorbital
electronswereexpelledfromtheirorbitsduringradioactivedecay.
29
In1917,Rutherfordsuggestedthatnucleargammaradiationmightexpelsecondarybeta
particles,whoseenergymightbeusedtodeterminethewavelengthsofthegammaraysbymeansofthequantumrelation.Atthetime,however,thecalculationcould
notbedone,becausetheenergyrequiredtoremovetheorbitalelectronswasnotwellknown,norwasRutherfordconfidentthatthequantumrelationwasvalidat
suchhighenergies.
30
Inthespringof1921,LiseMeitnerspentseveralweeksinSwedenasavisitingprofessorattheUniversityofLund.TheinvitationcamefromManneSiegbahn,a
Swedishxrayspectroscopist,whoaskedhertogivecolloquiaonradioactivityandtoinstructassistantsandtechniciansinthetechniquesofbetaandgammaspectra.
EssentiallynoradioactivityresearchwasdoneinSweden,andMeitnerwassoonteachingafullcourseinradioactivity,includingtheoryandlaboratorypreparations,to
physicistsandchemists.Bythenshehadconqueredmostofherinhibitionsaboutlecturing,butshewasstillsomewhattakenabackattheendwhen,asshelaterwrote,
"thestudentsgavemealovelybouquetofflowersandanice
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Page84
thankyoufarewellspeechwhich,accordingtoSwedishcustom,endedwiththreehurrahs.I,poorthing,wastotallyunpreparedforthisandhadtothankthemforit."
31
MeitnerhadalsocometoLundtolearnsomethingaboutxrayspectroscopy.Thefieldhadmaturedrapidlysinceitsbeginningsaround1910,whenC.G.Barklafirst
detectedthecharacteristicxraysemittedbydifferentelements.Xraydiffraction,discoveredin1912bymaxLaue(MaxvonLaueafterhisfatheracquireda
hereditarytitlein1913)anddevelopedbyW.H.BraggandW.L.Bragg,madeitpossibletodeterminexraywavelengthswithprecision.Bymeasuringthe
wavelengthsofthexrayspectraofaseriesofelements,Moseleyidentifiedatomicnumberwithnuclearchargeothersbeganunravelingthecharacteristicxray
spectraoftheelementsandmappingtheenergiesoftheirinnerelectronshells.Siegbahn,whowouldreceivethe1924NobelPrizeinphysics,wasknownforthe
precisionofhisxraymeasurementsandforextendingthesetoalargenumberofelements.By1921theinnermostKshellenergiesandalsothenexthigherL,M,and
Nshellenergyvaluesfortheheaviestmetalswerequitepreciselyknown.
32
ThesewouldbeessentialforMeitner'sanalysesofbetaspectra.
InSiegbahn'slaboratoryMeitnermetDirkCoster,ayoungDutchspectroscopist,andhiswife,Miep,astudentworkingtowardherdoctorateinIndonesianlanguages
andculture.Theybecameimmediatefriends,LiseenjoyingDirk'senthusiasmforscienceandthecouple'swarmthandconcernforothers.Politicallyinvolvedand
committedtosocialequality,theCosterswerequiteapartfromtheacademicnormLise'seveningswiththemwerefilledwith"excitingtalkabouteverypossible
subject."BydayMiepandthebabysunnedthemselvesonthestepsoutsidetheinstitute,whileCosterdemonstratedforMeitnertheinstrumentsandtechniquesofx
rayspectroscopy.
33
ReturningtoBerlininMay,Meitnerpreparedforafreshlookatbetaspectra.Shehadlearnedenoughaboutspectroscopytounderstandthelimitsofitsprecision:she
wouldusespectroscopicdataandherownmagneticbetaspectratodeterminetheenergyofthegammaradiation,fromwhichshewaspreparedtodeterminewhich
betaelectronsweresecondaryandwhichwereprimary.
Fromeachbetasource,sheexpectedasingleprimarylineastherewasnowaytodirectlyrecognizewhichonethatwas,itwouldbenecessaryto
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Page85
firstidentifythesecondarylines.These,sheassumed,wereproducedbyaninternalphotoelectricprocess:agammaquantumleavingthenucleuswouldbeabsorbed
byanorbitalelectron,whichwouldusesomeofthegammaenergyasionizationenergytofreeitselffromtheatomandconverttheremainderintokineticenergy.The
deepertheelectron'sshell,themoretightlyitwasboundtothenucleus,andthelesskineticenergyitwouldhaveattheend,butnomatterfromwhichshellanelectron
came,itsionizationenergyandkineticenergy,addedtogether,wouldequaltheenergyofthegammaquantum.
Meitner'sexperimentalapparatuswassimilartotheoneusedinherearlierstudieswithHahnandvonBaeyer.Abetasourcewasdepositedonathinwire,andits
electronswerepassedthroughaslit,deflectedintoacircularpathbyamagneticfield,anddepositedontoaphotographicplate.Fromthepositionofthelinesandthe
knownstrengthofthemagneticfield,thekineticenergyoftheelectronswasreadilycalculated.
Forherfirststudy,MeitnerselectedtheleadisotopethoriumB(
212
Pb)foritsstronggammaradiationandrelativelysimplespectrumofoneweakandtwostronglines.
Todeterminewhichlinesweresecondary,sheencasedThBinathinleadtubethatabsorbedThB'sbetaparticlesbutnotitsgammaradiation.Intheresultant
secondaryspectrum,formedbyorbitalelectronsfromtheleadcase,theweaklinewasabsent,butthetwostronglineshadthesamepositionandrelativeintensityasin
thenaturalspectrum,anobservationquitesimilartoRutherford'sseveralyearsbefore.
Thedifferenceinenergybetweenthetwolinescorrespondedtothedifferenceinionizationenergies(knownfromxraydata)oftheKandL
1
shellsoflead,indicating
thattheslowerelectronscamefromtheinnermostKshellandthefasteronesfromtheL
1
shell.Theenergyofthegammaquantumwasobtainedbyaddingthekinetic
energyofeachelectrontotheionizationenergyoftheshellfromwhichitcame:thetwovaluesagreedwithinIpercent.Asacheck,MeitnerenclosedThBinplatinum,
againobtainedatwolinesecondaryspectrum,thenusedplatinumionizationenergiestocalculateagammaenergyingoodagreementwiththepreviousvalues.
34
The
betaspectrawere,therefore,gammaspectraalso:fromthemonedeterminedwhichlinesweresecondary,fromwhichshellstheelectronscame,andtheenergyofthe
gammaphoton.Thegammawavelengthfollowedatoncefromthequantumrelation,E=hc/ ,whereE=energyand =wavelength.Sinceh(Planck'sconstant)and
c(thespeedoflight)
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Page86
areknownconstants,theenergycanbecalculatedfrommeasuredwavelength,andviceversa.
Onethingremainedtoidentifytheprimaryline.Toassignitmerelybyeliminationseemedunsatisfactory:Meitnerreachedforanexplanationtotieeverything
together.Shepostulatedthattheenergyofsome,possiblymost,decayelectronswasconvertedintogammaradiationbeforetheyleftthenucleusunconvertedprimary
electronswouldformalineinthebetaspectrumcorrespondingtothegammaenergy.(Thismechanismforthegenesisofgammaradiationwastoofarfetchedtobe
true,andMeitnereventuallyabandonedit.)IntheThBspectrum,Meitnerdidfindaweaklineatpreciselythegammaenergy.Toverifyit,shetookthespectrumagain,
usinganexperimentalarrangementthatgavegreaterresolution,developedbeforethewarbythePolishphysicistJeanDanysz.Thethreepreviouslinesappeared,
alongwithaveryweakfourthlinethatcorrespondedperfectlytoasecondaryelectronfromtheL
2
energylevel.ItallfitMeitnerconsideredherhypothesisvalid.
35
Implicitwasthesequenceprimary(decay)electronfirst,thengammaemission,thensecondaryelectrons.FromthisMeitnerraisedaquestionothershadnotfully
considered:dothesecondaryelectronscomefromtheparentatomorthedaughter?ToMeitneritseemedevidentthatonceadecayelectronleftthenucleus,the
parentnolongerexistedandallsubsequenteventstookplaceinthedaughteratom.Tocalculategammaenergies,therefore,itwouldbecorrecttouseionization
energiesnotofthebetasource(inthiscase,lead)butitsdecayproduct(bismuth).Inpractice,however,Meitnerusedthevaluesforlead.Thexraydataforits
ionizationenergieswerebetterknown,andwithintheprecisionoftheexperimentthedifferencewasnegligible.
36
MeitnerthenreviewedthebetaspectrumofradiumD(
210
Pb)takenbyDanyszin1914,afewmonthsbeforehewaskilledinthewar.
37
Calculatingthegammaenergy
asbefore,shefoundabetalineatjustthatenergyandattributedittotheprimaryelectron.Asacheckshereexaminedthespectraforradium(
226
Ra)andradiothorium
(
228
Th)anddeterminedtheirgammaenergies:asexpectedforalphasources,alllinesweresecondary.Meitnerconcludedthat"typicalbetaemittersreleasefromtheir
nucleiabetaparticleofasingleenergy.Thesebetaparticlesarepartlyconvertedtogammaradiationofthesameenergy,whichejectssecondarybetaparticlesfrom
theelectronorbits,atspeedsdeterminedbythespeedoftheprimary
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Page87
betaparticleandtheionizationenergyoftheorbitalelectrons.Thegreatestspeedcorrespondstotheprimarybetaradiationanditsmeasurementgivesatoncethe
wavelengthofthegammaradiation.''
38
AfewmonthsafterMeitnerbeganherThBstudy,CharlesD.EllispublishedthebetaspectrumofradiumB(
214
Pb),calculatinggammaenergiesinthesameway.
39

ThiswasthesameElliswhohadbeeninternedalongwithJamesChadwickinRuhlebenduringthewarhehadgivenupacareerasanartilleryofficerinfavorof
physics,andnowheandChadwickwereworkingwithRutherfordinCambridge.Elliswasatfirstlessinterestedinbetaspectrathemselvesthaninusingthemto
determinegammawavelengths,whichwereingeneraltooshorttobemeasuredbycrystaldiffraction.
40
ThespectrumofRaBwasquitecomplex,inpartbecauseit
wasalwayscontaminatedwithitsdecayproductRaC(
214
Bi),alsoabetasourcetobecertainofhismeasurements,Ellisusedfourdifferentmetalsasshields.In
accordancewithRutherford'ssuggestionsomeyearsbefore,Ellisregardedthelinespectrumasentirelysecondarytoaccountfortwelvelines,hecalculatedsix
gammaenergies.InherownanalysisofEllis'sdata,MeitnerassignedtwolinestoprimarybetaparticlesandotherstoRaC,requiringonlytwogammaenergiesto
accountfortherestoftheRaBspectrum.
41
SoonafterwardEllisnotedanarithmeticrelationshipamongthefrequenciesoftheRaBgammarays,anindicationthatgammaraysareemittedintransitionsbetween
quantizednuclearenergylevels.LikeMeitner,Ellispresumedalinkbetweengammaandprimarybetadecay,buthissequencewasthereverse.BasedonRutherford
andAndrade's1914findingofsoftRaBgammaraysapparentlyidenticaltotheLxraysoflead,
42
Ellispresumedthatgammaemissionmustprecedebetadecay:"It
wouldappearthatthe rayisemitted,travelsouttotheLring,fromwhereitmayejectanelectron,thiselectrongoesclearoftheatomandanotherelectronfallsinto
avacantplaceintheLring,andthenucleushasstillnotdisintegrated."Gammaemissionnotonlyprecededbetadecay,Ellisbelieved,buttriggeredit:anelectroninan
upper(nuclear)energylevel"passestoa[lower]energylevelwiththeemissionofa ray.Finally,[theelectron]willarriveinoneofthestateswhichisconnectedwith
instability,andthenucleusdisintegrateswiththeemissionofanelectron."
43
Ellisthoughtprimaryelectronswerenotofuniformenergybutinsteadformedacontinuousspectrum,asChadwickhadfoundforRaB+Cin
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Page88
1914.WorkinginHansGeiger'slaboratoryinthePhysikalischTechnischeReichsanstaltinBerlin,Chadwickcountedelectronsusinganionizationchamberatafixed
radiuswhilevaryingthemagneticfield.Arelativelysmallnumberofelectronswereatthelinesthegreatmajoritypresumablytheprimarydisintegrationelectrons
formedacontinuousspectrumsodiffuseitbarelydarkenedaphotographicplate.
44
Fromthebeginningthecontinuousspectrumpresentedadilemma:howcould
identicalnucleiemitelectronsofcontinuouslyvariableenergyandstillproduceidenticaldaughternuclei?Thenotionwasatoddswithaquantumviewoftheatomand
defiedthefirstlawofthermodynamics.
Ellishadpostulatednuclearenergylevelstoexplainadditivegammaenergiesbutthenblurredtheideatoaccommodatethecontinuousspectrum:"Onewouldnot
anticipatethatalltheradiumBnucleiwereabsolutelyidentical."
45
Hestruggledtofindanexplanationthatdidnotviolatethelawofconservationofenergy.
Theelectronarrivesinastationarystateinwhichitisnotpermanentlystableanditfliesoutfromthenucleus.Thekineticenergyoftheelectronmustbeconsideredtodependon
otherfactorsbesidesthoseofthestationarystate,andthevariablekineticenergyispossiblyconnectedwiththetwofactsthatthenuclearfieldmustvaryconsiderablyin
distancescomparablewiththediameteroftheelectronandthattheelectroncannotbeconsideredasrigidundertheseconditions.
46
ElliscriticizedMeitner'sdataandrepeatedherThBspectrumwithsomewhatdifferentresults.
47
StronglyopposingMeitner's"simpleanalogybetween and
decay,"
48
heraisedthe"mostseriousobjection"thathertheory"givesnopossibilityofexplainingthegeneral[continuous]spectrumof rays,infactappearstodeny
itsexistence.Thisgeneralspectrumcertainlydoesexist,andnotheorywhichdisregardsitcanbecorrect.''
49
Inresponse,MeitnerrepeatedseveralofherownandEllis'smeasurementswithimprovedapparatus.Somespectracontainedsomanycloselyspacedlinesthata
slightvariationinexperimentalconditionsorionizationenergiesledtoadifferentassignment.IneachcaseMeitnerdefendedherinterpretation,ascribingdiscrepancies
toEllis'suseofoutdatedionizationenergyvaluesandspectraldatatakeninRutherford'sgroupbeforethewar.
50
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Account: s5308004

Page89
Shereservedhersharpestcriticism,however,forhishypothesisthattheemissionofnucleargammaradiationwouldprecedetheprimarydecayelectron.
Imustconfessthattheseassumptionsappearveryhardtoreconcilewiththecustomaryviewofradiationprocesses,becauseingeneralitisfoundthatbyemittingradiationthe
electronfallstoamorestableenergystate.[Mr.Ellis]presumesthatjusttheoppositeoccurstheelectronbyemittinggammaradiationendsupinamoreunstablestate.In
addition,theclaimthattheelectronmayleavethenucleuswithanyallowedspeed,andnotwithasinglespeeddefinedbytheenergystateofthenucleus,ishardlyanexplanation
fortheexistenceofacontinuousspectrum,itisonlyadescriptionofit.
51
Meitnerwassimplynotimpressedbythecontinuousspectrum,despiteChadwick'sreputationandRutherford'sendorsement.Ithadbeendonejustonce,byone
person,foronlyonespeciesshemayhavethoughtitanomalous.WhileChadwickthoughtthephotographicimagefalselyexaggerateddiscretelines,
52
Meitner
consideredChadwick'sexperimentalarrangementtooimprecisetoresolvecloselyspacedlines,nothingthatindividualbetalinesarealwayssomewhatinhomogeneous
duetoelectroncollisions."Inanycase,"sheended,"onecannotconcludefromChadwick'sexperimentsthataprimarycontinuous spectrumexists."
53
Herattackon
thecontinuousbetaspectrumpartcriticism,partdenialwascommunicatedbeforepublicationtoChadwick,whovoicedhisobjectionstoHahninaroundabout
waywhenMeitnerwasinViennaforEaster.MeitnerwasirritatedChadwickoughttohavecontactedherdirectlyafteralltheseyearsheapparentlystillregarded
Hahnashersuperior.Andshethoughtitwas"reallyquiteunscientificnottobelievesomeone'sworkbeforereadingitthoroughly.Hesurelywouldn'thavedonethat
foraworkof[Hans]Geiger's,forinstancewhatisbeingexpressedhereisalackofrespectformeasawoman,andthatupsetsmealittle."Butstillshewantedto
know,"DidhesayanythingaboutEllis'snewresults?"
54
ThecontroversybetweenMeitnerandElliswasnowquitesharplydrawn.
55
InpersontheywerefriendlyandcollegialtheyhadknowneachothersinceEllis's
internmentinBerlinandtheycorrespondedamiablyandoften.Butinprinttheywereunsparinglycontentious.Certainthathisdataweresuperior,Ellisreliedheavily
onexperimentsdonebyothersinRutherford'sgroup,evenwhentheyweredifficulttointerprethisaversiontotheorizingwastypicalofRutherfordandhisco
workers.Meitneralso
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Page90
reflectedherimmediatescientificmilieu.Althoughsheconsideredherselfanexperimentalistfirstandforemost,shewasguidedbytheoryandnotatallreluctantto
criticizeorignoreexperimentaldatashethoughtmadenosense.
Fortheirnextinvestigations,MeitnerandElliseachchoseexperimentsthatmoststronglysupportedtheirownhypotheses.Inthesummerof1922,EllisandChadwick
repeatedChadwick's1914determinationoftheRaB+Cspectrum,usinganelectroscopetomeasureionization.Asbefore,thespectrumwaspredominantly
continuous,itsmagnitude"roughlywhatwouldbeexpectedifeachdisintegratingatomcontributedoneelectrontothecontinuousspectrum.Itappearstousthatthe
simplestwayofviewingthesefactsistosupposethatthecontinuousspectrumisformedbytheactualdisintegratingelectrons."
56
MeitnercounteredEllis'scontentionthatgammaradiationtriggersbetadecaybycitingtwobetaemitters,RaE(
210
Bi)andThC(
212
Bi),forwhichnogammaradiation
wasevident.AnotherexamplewasUX
1
(
234
Th),athoriumisotopewithwelldefinedbetalinesbutverysoftgammaradiation.Meitnerdeterminedthatitssecondary
electronsoriginatedintheL,M,andNshellsanditsgammaenergycorrespondedtothecharacteristicK
a
xraysofthoriumshewassuretheradiationwasnotof
nuclearorigin.
57
Tobecertainnohigherenergygammaradiationhadgoneundetected,MeitnerdecidedtomeasuretheUX
1
gammaenergybyabsorption,independentofthebeta
spectrum.WithHahn'shelp,sheextractedUX
1
fromalargequantityofuraniumnitrate."SinceUXhasahalflifeof24dayswereallyworkedintensely,"shewroteto
herbrotherafteritwasover,"andofcourse,processing40kginthelaboratorytogetaninvisibletraceofUXisnotexactlyaneasyjob."
58
Theabsorptioncurves
provedthattheonlygammaradiationpresentwasoflowenergy,ofthemagnitudeofcharacteristicxrays.
59
Theabsenceofnucleargammaradiationinabeta
emitter,Meitnernotedwithsatisfaction,"cannotbereconciledwiththeviewsofC.D.Ellis"sincehismechanismforbetadecayrequiredgammaradiationasa
trigger.
60
AccordingtoMeitner,theprimaryprocesswassimplytheemissionofadecayelectronfromthenucleus.InUX
1
,shebelieved,therewasnonucleargammaradiation
atall.Instead,thedecayelectrondirectlyejectedaKshellelectron,anLelectrondroppedintothevacancy,andtheresultantK
a
radiationwasmostlyreabsorbedto
ejectL,M,orNelectronsfromtheir
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Page91
orbits,allinthesameatom.Thepossibilityofmultipletransitionswithouttheemissionofradiationhadbeendiscussedtheoretically
61
Meitnerwasthefirsttoobserve
anddescribesuchradiationlesstransitions.Twoyearslater,PierreAugerdetectedtheshortheavytracksoftheejectedsecondaryelectronsinacloudchamber,and
theeffectwasnamedforhim.Ithasbeensuggestedthatthe"Augereffect"mightwellhavebeenthe"Meitnereffect"oratleastthe"MeitnerAugereffect"hadshe
describeditwithgreaterfanfare,butin1923itwasonlypartofathirteenpagearticlewhosemainthrustwasthebetaspectrumofUX
1
andthemechanismofits
decay.
62
IfMeitnerthoughtshehadprovedthatUX
1
didnotemitnucleargammaradiation,C.D.Ellisdidnot."Itisperfectlystraightforward,"hewrote,"toseeinthisa ray
emittedfromthenucleus,likeallothercases,anditisamerecoincidencethatitsenergyhappenstobenearthatoftheK
a
radiations....Asfaraswecansee,uranium
X
1
appearstobeaperfectlynormalbody,emittingasoftgrayfromthenucleuslikeradiumD."
63
WhileEllisdeniedthatbetadecaymightoccurwithoutnucleargammaradiation,Meitnerdeniedthevalidityofthecontinuousbetaspectrum.By1923,however,she
realizedshewouldhavetoexplainoratleastaddresstheissue.Shecouldnotdenythatsomeinhomogeneitywasassociatedwithnearlyeverybetaline,andshe
founditdifficulttoexplaintheoccasionallinesthatweresodiffuse(verwaschenen)thattheyweremorecorrectlytermedbands.IntheUX
1
spectrumMeitnerhad
assignedtheprimarybetaparticlestosuchadiffuseband,
64
andEllisquicklypointedoutthat"thediffuseband,asMeitnerstates,probablyconsistsofthe
disintegrationelectrons,andwenowseethatitconstitutesaverygoodexampleofthevaryingvelocitywhichtheseelectronsalwaysappeartopossess."
65
Meitner
ascribedinhomogeneitytoextranucleareventssuchascollisionsbetweenorbitalandprimaryelectrons.
66
In1923,MeitnerenlistedthejustdiscoveredComptoneffecttosupportherview.Adoptingacompletelyquantumapproach,A.H.ComptonoftheUniversityof
Chicagotreatedtheobservedscatteringofxrays(andgammarays)inmatterasatwoparticlecollisionbetweenxrayquantaandelectrons:whenaquantumcollided
withanelectron,theenergycouldbelostbythequantumandgainedbytheelectroninamountsthatvariedcontinuouslywiththeangleofrecoil.Compton'sclose
agreementbetweenexperimentandtheoryprovidedtheconvincingproofforEinstein'slightquantumhypothesisthatEinsteinandothershadlongsought.
67
Meitner
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wasabelieverinthelightquantumhypothesisshehadbrieflyworkedwithEinsteinonanexperimenttoverifyitin1918
68
andshequicklyappliedCompton
scatteringtoheranalysisofbetaspectra.TheComptoneffect,Meitnerthought,mightexplainthecontinuousbetaspectrum.AlthoughtheComptoneffectwasfirst
describedforfreeelectrons,Meitnerapplieditto"almostfreeelectrons,"theouter,leaststronglybound,orbitalelectrons:onbeinghitbyaquantumofgamma
radiation,orbitalelectronswouldrecoilatvariousanglesandwithvaryingenergies,formingthenearlycontinuousbackgroundofthebetaspectrum."Theshorterthe
wavelengthofthe ray,themoreitistruethateveninnerelectronsoftheatomseemlooselybound....Intheregionoffastbetaradiationingeneral,therefore,one
wouldexpectonlyveryweaklinesagainstacontinuousbackground.Thisisexactlywhatisobserved."
69
InhernextpaperMeitnerdiscussedthemagnitudeofthe
Comptoneffectandagainconcludedthatit"makesitselfevident,asIhaveshownbefore,inthecontinuous spectrumofradioactivesubstances."
70
Havingonceagainexplainedthecontinuousspectrumtohersatisfaction,Meitnerreturnedtothequestionthatinterestedhermost:thebetathengammasequenceof
decay.Ifsecondaryelectronsoriginatedinthedaughteratom,asshebelieved,thengammaenergycalculationswouldagreebetterifionizationenergiesofthe
daughter,ratherthantheparent,wereused.Meitnerturnedtoanalphasourcefirstbecauseparentanddaughterdifferedbytwounitsofcharge,makingiteasierto
distinguishthepossibilities.
Inthespringof1924,sheretookthebetaspectrumofradium(
226
Ra),
71
technicallythemostdifficultofallbetaspectra.AgainOttoHahnassistedgreatcarewas
requiredtopreventradon(
222
Rn)fromfoggingthephotographicplatesandcontaminatingtheapparatusandtheentirelaboratory.
Thespectrumshowedthreelines,withenergydifferencesconsistentwithoriginintheK,L,andMshells.Thegammaenergieswerecalculatedasbefore,butthe
radiumspectrumwasquiteblurred,andsincetheionizationenergiesofradiumanditsdaughter,radon,hadneverbeenmeasuredbuthadtobeestimated,the
experimentalerrorwassuchthatneitherpossibilitycouldbeexcluded.
Nevertheless,theexperimentwasnotacompletefailure.Bydeterminingthegammaenergyofanalphaemittermorepreciselythanhadbeen
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Page93
donebefore,Meitnershowedthatitwasmonochromaticandofsufficientlyhighenergytoproveitsnuclearorigin,"whichagainsupportsthepositionIhave
emphasized,inoppositiontoC.D.Ellis,oftheanalogybetween and decay."
72
Inadeepersense,heranalogyextendedatomicquantizationintothenucleus.Shewasthefirsttoclearlystatethatnucleargammaemissionwasentirelyanalogousto
opticalandxrayspectra.
Whenan or particlefliesoutofthenucleus,areorganizationoftheremainingnuclearparticlesmustsetin....Quantumchangesinnuclearconfigurationmayoccurwhichgive
risetomonochromatic rays....Theappearanceof raysis,sotospeak,ameasureofthemagnitudeofthedisturbanceinnuclearconfiguration,whichhasbeenincurredbythe
ejectionof or particles....Thegreaterthedisturbanceofthenucleus,themorenumerousthepossibleenergytransitions,i.e.,thegammaspectrumshowsmorelines,andin
generalextendstoshorterwavelengths.
73
HoweverreasonableMeitner'sanalogies,actualproofofthedecaysequencestilleludedher.In1924,EllisandH.W.B.SkinnermeasuredthespectrumofRaB
(
214
Pb)againandfoundbetteragreementusingionizationenergiesofthedaughteratom(bismuth)ratherthantheparent(lead).
74
Ellisstruggledtofitthenewdatato
hisoldinterpretation,suggestingthatsomehowtheslowestradiationwas"helduntilafterthedisintegration,"perhapsbecausethe"electroniclevelshadthepowerof
holdingabsorbedradiationforafinitetimebeforeemittingtheelectron."
75
Meitnerfoundthis"veryhardtoimagine.Onecanavoidthisdifficultybyrecognizingthatall
radiationfollowsbetadecay,andthereforeallsecondaryelectronscomefromthedaughteratom."
76
Turningtoanotheralphaemitter,shemeasuredthebetaspectrumofradioactinium(
227
Th),whosedecayproductsactiniumX(
223
Ra)andactiniumactivedepositwere
alwayspresent.Thespectrawereextremelycomplex.Tobecertainalllineswerevisible,itwasnecessarytousestrongpreparations,whiletakingcaretoprevent
actiniumemanation(
219
Rn)fromfoggingtheplates.WithHahn'sassistancesherecordednearlyonehundredspectraundervaryingconditionstheradioactinium
spectrumconsistedof49lines,actiniumXhad21.
77
IttookMeitnerayeartoanalyzethespectra,butwhenshewasdone,hercalculationsofgammaenergiesshowedsignificantlybetteragreementwhenionization
energiesofthedecayproductratherthantheparentwere
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Page94
used.Shebroadcasthersuccessinthetitleofherarticle:"The RadiationoftheActiniumSeries,andtheProofthat RaysAreEmittedOnlyafterRadioactive
Decay."
78
Meitnersubmittedthearticleon20October1925andsentacopytoEllis.Hehadjustobtainedsimilarresultsofhisown.Hewrote,
Iamsosorrytohavebeensolonginansweringyourletter,buteverydayIhopedtohavesomenewreprintstosendyou.IparticularlywantedtosendthembecauseIknowyou
wouldbepleasedwiththeresults.Wehavebeenatconsiderabletroubletosettlethequestionofwhetherthegammaraysometimespreceeds[sic]thedisintegrationasIdeduced
fromRutherford'sandAndrade'smeasurements,orwhetherthesimplerstandpointadvancedbyyouthatthedisintegrationalwayshappensfirstwascorrect.Wehavehadthree
differentwaysoftestingthisandtheyallshowthatthegammarayscomeoutafterwards,soyouwereright!
79
InanewandexceptionallyprecisemeasurementofseveralRaBlines,Ellisandhisstudent,W.A.Wooster,hadconfirmedthatMeitner'ssequencewastrueforbeta
decayaswell.
80
Icannothelpfeelingalittleannoyedthatwewereledastraybythatoldexperiment,andIdon'tknowyetwhattheerrorwas.IhaveseenAndrade'soldplatesandmeasurements
andeverythinglooksallrightbutyetthereislittledoubtthateverythingwasreallyallwrong.Iamverypleasedthatthisremovesone"Streitfrage"[controversialquestion]
betweenus,buttheotheroneoverthenatureofthecontinuousspectrumstillremains....Thecontinuousspectrumdoespresentverydifficultproblems,becauseIcannotsee
howsecondaryeffectslikeComptonscattering,excitationofcharacteristicradiation,oremissionofgeneralradiationcanproducealargeenougheffect....Thepositionmightbe
summedupasfollows,webothagreethatoncethedisintegrationelectronsareoutsidetheparentatomtheyarealreadyinhomogeneousinvelocity.Webothagreethata
quantizednucleusoughttogivedisintegrationelectronsofadefinitespeed,butwhereasyouthinkvarioussubsidiaryeffectsaresufficientlylargetoproducetheobserved
inhomogeneity,Ithinktheyaremuchtoosmall.Thatseemstobetheonlypointofdifference.
81
ForEllis,thecontinuousbetaspectrumwasaStreitfrage,buttoMeitneritdidnotseemverycontroversial,orevenveryimportant.Inherradioactiniumpapershe
dismisseditinasingleparagraph:"Allphotographs...showabackground.Asradioactiniumisan emitter,thisdefinitelycannotbeduetocontinuouslydistributed
primarybetaparticles...butcouldbeComptonscatteringofthegammaradiationbyorbitalelectrons,asIhave
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statedinanearlierwork."
82
Evenbeforecompletingthatstudy,shebegannewexperimentsdesignedtoprobethenucleusfromaquitedifferentperspective.
WithherworkonbetaandgammaspectraMeitnerjoinedthefirstrankofexperimentalphysicists.Forphysics,theperiodwassorichindiscoverythatitwas,evenat
thetime,referredtoasa"goldenage."Berlinwasoneofthegreatcentersforatomicphysics,Meitneraleaderinthenewerandsmallerfieldofnuclearphysics.Itwas
herwork,OttoHahnwouldlaternote,morethanhisown,thatcontributedtothegrowinginternationalreputationoftheirinstitute.
83
Hahnstayedwiththerefinementofradiochemicaltechniquesthroughoutthe1920s,atimewhenthefieldwaswidelythoughttohaveoutliveditsusefulnessfor
fundamentalinsightintoatomicornuclearbehavior.
84
AlthoughMeitner'sandHahn'sdirectcollaborationendedsoonaftertheprotactiniumdiscovery,theyremained
closecolleaguesandgoodfriends.ThebondsbecameevenstrongerwhenEdithandOtto'sonlychild,JohannOtto,wasbornin1922."Iamalreadyincrediblyeager
toseeyourson,"LisewroteOttofromVienna."Iamreallyveryhappythatthelittleboyhasarrivedsonicely,andhasnotmadeitdifficultforhismother....Isendher
akiss,andveryheartygreetingstoyou."
85
HereafteralmostfifteenyearsLisewasusingthefamiliarDu.NowlittleHanno,ashewascalled,washergodsonand
OttowasherFachbruder,hercolleaguebrother.
86
IftheHahnshadbecomealmostfamilyforMeitner,thephysicscommunitywasherhome.Hercapacityforfriendshipwasverystrong.Shelikedpeopleofallages
andsorts:employees,students,colleagues,theirwives,children,andeventuallygrandchildrensheenjoyedthecompanyoffamiliesthatweresuccessfulandinclusive,
suchastheFrancksandGustavandEllenHertz,butshehadnotroubleadjustingtothemuchlesstraditionalmaritalarrangementsofAnnemarieandErwin
Schrdinger.
87
Sheoftenformedindividualfriendshipswiththewivesofherphysicistfriends:withHediBorn,atalentedpoet,withAnnemarieSchrdingerand
MargretheBohr.WhenshewaswithMaxvonLaueshewouldtalkaboutGoethe,ancientGreece,orhisbelovedcarwithMaxandMagdavonLaue,shewouldgo
tothemoviesandoccasionallyonweekendtrips.WithArnoldBerliner,thehighlyculturededitorofNaturwissenschaften,shewoulddiscussmusicandmodern
physicswithPlanck,everything.Among
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herclosewomenfriends,besidesElisabethSchiemann,wasEvavonBahrBergius,aSwedishphysicistwhohadspentsomeyearsinBerlinbeforethewarworking
underHeinrichRubensandwhowouldlaterbeMeitner'sclosestconfidanteinSweden.Inhertravelsandatconferences,Meitnermadenewfriendsandkeptthem,
gratefultophysicsforthepeoplewhowerepartofit.Shewasfarfromtheshy,almostfearfulyoungwomanwhofirstarrivedinBerlinalthoughsheneverforgother
difficultstartandoccasionallyrelivedheroldinsecurity,shehadleftitmostlybehindher.ThematureLiseMeitnerwasaconfidentandincreasinglyassertiveperson
whowasexactlywhereandwhatshewantedtobe:aphysicist,amongfriends,inBerlin.
OneofBerlin'sattractionswasthefamousWednesdaycolloquium,heldintheolduniversityphysicsbuildingbytheSpree.FormanyyearsitwasorganizedbyLaue,
thefrontrowtraditionallytakenbythegreatprofessorsEinstein,Planck,Laue,Nernst,Haberandtherowsbehindfilledwithothersnotquitesodistinguished
Meitner,Baeyer,Franck,Geiger,Hertzandthenstudents,physicistsfromindustry,andvisitorsfromGermanyandabroad.
88
NielsBohrfirstcametoaWednesdaycolloquiuminApril1920.ItwasagrandeventBohrhadneverbeentoBerlin.HestayedwithPlanck,whomhehadnotmet
before,andhemetEinsteininpersonforthefirsttime.AfterwardEinsteinexpressedhisjoyinBohr's"merepresence,"BohrhisgratitudeforhistalkswithEinstein,the
"greatestexperience"heeverhad.GeorgedeHevesyreportedthathehad"neverexperiencedanovationsimilartothatgiventoBohrinBerlin.Youngandold
celebratedhimwithcompleteconvictionandenthusiasm."
89
AtthecolloquiumBohrlecturedonatomicspectraandthecorrespondenceprinciple.Someoftheyoungerphysicists,includingLiseMeitner,lefthistalkfeelingthey
hadunderstoodverylittleandalsosomewhatannoyedthattheprofessorshaddominatedthediscussion.
90
Inthishalfdepressedandhalfplayfulspirit,wedecidedtoinviteBohrtospendadayinDahlem,butnottoincludeinthepartyanyphysicistswhowerealreadyprofessors.That
meantthatIhadtogotoPlanckandexplaintohimthatwewantedtoinviteBohr,who[wasstaying]withPlanck,butnotPlanckhimself.Inthesameway[James]Franckhadtogo
toProfessorHaberbecause,afterall,ifweweregoingtohaveBohrinDahlemforthewholedaywewantedtogivehimsomethingtoeatandaskHaberforthe
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useofhisclubhouseforourdiscussion"withoutbigwigs"(bonzenfrei),againstressingthatwedidnotwanttoinviteHaberhimself,ashewasalreadyaprofessor.Haberwasnot
theleastputout.Insteadheinvitedusalltohisvillathis,youmustremember,wastheverydifficultperiodafterGermanyhadlostthewarandtogetsomethingtoeatwasrather
difficultinDahlem.HaberonlyaskedourpermissiontoaskEinsteintolunchaswell.WespentseveralhoursfiringquestionsatBohr,whowasalwaysfullofgenerousgood
humor,andatlunchHabertriedtoexplainthemeaningoftheword"Bonze"(bigwig).
91
AyearlaterMeitnerwasinCopenhagenforthefirsttime,tolectureinBohr'sInstituteforTheoreticalPhysicsonherstudiesofbetagammaspectra.Despiteitsname,
Bohr'sinstitutealwayshadanexperimentalsection,and,especiallyatthattime,theunityoftheoreticalandexperimentalworkwasemphasized.Itwasoneofthemany
waysinwhichBohrandMeitnerthoughtalikeonthisvisittheybecameclosefriends.LisewasfullofadmirationforBohrandcharmedbyMargretheshecould
speaktothem"abouteverythingunderthesun,whethergraveorgay."And,shetoldMargrethe,itwasenormouslyreassuringtoknowthatBohrvaluedherwork,for
ithelpedherovercometheinsecuritythatstillsometimesafflictedher.Theirfriendshipwouldbeintenseandpermanent,Liseneverforgettingthe"magic"oftheirfirst
meeting,"amagicwhichwasonlyenhanced"onhermanysubsequentvisitstoBohr'sinstituteandhome.
92
InGermany,meanwhile,thepoliticalsituationwaspoor,andtheeconomydisastrous.Followingthewarthevalueofthemarkdeclinedsteadilyin1922itsuddenly
plungedbyafactoroffifty."Inthelastfewmonthspriceshaverisenunbelievablyfast,"LisewrotetohermotherinOctober."Thewinterwillbeveryhard....Weare
alreadyfreezingintheinstituteandathome."
93
Shewastiredofherstudentroom,
94
butanapartmentandsomefurniturewereluxuriesshecouldnotafford.
Noaspectofprofessionalorprivatelifewasexemptfromtheinflation.Scientificmeetingswereoftenpoorlyattendedbecauseparticipantscouldnotaffordtotravelto
anothercityastheinflationworsened,somelackedeventhecarfaretocrossBerlin.
95
ThefinancesoftheKaiserWilhelmGesellschaftcrumbled,institutebudgets
becamemeaningless,suppliesandequipmentwereborrowedorbartered.
96
"Thingsseldomgoasonewouldlike,"LisewrotetoherbrotherWalterinMarch1923.
"SinceChristmasmypaperonthebetaspectrum[ofUX
1
]hasbeenfinished,butIamwaitingtodoagammastudy[ofUX]withHahn,becausethetwopaperswould
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gowelltogether.''
97
TheproblemwasobtainingenoughuraniumforthestrongUXpreparationsneededtomeasuregammaabsorptionformonthsLiseandOtto
wentaroundtofactoriesaskingfordonations.InMay1923,"wefinallygot40kgofuraniumnitrate.HahnandIhavebeenworking,evenonSundays,toextractthe
UX."
98
TheUX
1
paperswerefinallypublishedthatsummer,andMeitnerattemptednofurtherexperimentsthatyear.Instead,shereviewedtheoreticalstudiesofthe
interactionbetweengammaradiationandelectronsanddevotedtwoarticlestotheimportanceoftheComptoneffectforinhomogeneitiesinbetaspectra.
99
In1923themarkplummetedbyafactorofathousandmillion.Bysummersalarieswerepaideveryweek,lateralmostdaily.Evenso,Lise'ssalarywasastronomical.
InAugustherpaycheck"againcametothousandsofmillions,whichIagainanxiouslyusedup.Idon'tthinkweneedtoworryabouttheCommunists,but
altogetherthingslookverybad.Itwouldbeniceifwecouldhavealittlemoneyleftover,insteadofnervouslycalculatingeverylittlepurchase.Onecigarettecosts
50,000marks."
100
Amonthlaterpricesweretentimeshigher.
Therereallyisenoughtoeat,althoughthepricesarecompletelycrazyakilogramofmargarinecosts3040million,oneeggcosts11/22million,etc.PersonallyIfeelfine....I
myselfdon'tmindifthereislesstoeat.It'smuchworseforillpeopleandchildrennomilk,hardlyanybutter.Inthelaboratoriestheworkshopsareopenonlyfrom911and57
becauseit'ssocold.
101
ThatwasinSeptember:asalwaysLisewasmoredistressedbycoldthanlackoffood.Everytwoweekshermothersentasmallpackagecoffee,butter,sometimes
anutcake."Youshouldn'tsendsomuch.Istillhavecoffee,whichIdrinkonSundays....SometimesIwishIhadmyownapartmentbutofcourseatthemomentthat
isoutofthequestion.Whenoneisoverforty,alittlestudentroomisnotquitetherightthing."Nevertheless,sheassuredhermother,"Iamhardlysuffering."
102
Itrequiredeffortjusttocopewiththevolumeofpapercurrency.Planckandotherprofessorscouldbeseenleavingtheuniversitycashierwiththeirsalariesstuffedinto
rucksacksandsuitcases.
103
IntheinstituteMeitnerandHahn"devotedmostof[their]timetoacquiringandpayingoutsalarieswhichconstantlyincreasedinamount.
Thenalltheemployeeswouldrunouttospenditasquicklyaspossible,asthebuyingpowerofthemoneycoulddeclinemarkedlywithinafewhours."
104
In
November,theworst
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monthofall,foodriotsbrokeout,thegovernmentinBerlinwasthreatenedbyCommunists,andNationalSocialistsinMunichattemptedaputschagainsttheBavarian
government.TheirleaderwasimprisonedjustlongenoughtowriteMeinKampfandemergeaherotohisfollowers.
105
ThatautumnDirkCosterarrangedMeitner'sfirstvisittotheNetherlands,alecturetourtoDelft,Eindhoven,Haarlem,Utrecht,andAmsterdam.Itprovidedan
honorariuminstablecurrencyandescapefromthechaosinGermany.TheCosterstookhereverywhere,introducinghertothetranquillandscapeandsuperb
museums,Dirkalwaysthe"affectionate'Impresario.'...[A]filmstarcouldnothavebeenmorepampered."
106
EverywhereDutchphysicistswerediscussinghowbest
tocountertheFrench,whostillinsistedthatGermanscientistsbeexcludedfrominternationalmeetings.
107
InDelft,AdriaanFokker,anuclearphysicistwhosework
wasclosetoMeitner's,handedhersomemoneyforherstudentsandassistants,areminderthat"somescientificsolidaritystillexistsintheworld."
108
ThatChristmas,
afterMeitnerwasbackinBerlin,CostersentpackagesoffoodinhernametomanyofherfriendsinGermany,akindnesssheneverforgot.
109
Latein1923,austeritymeasureswereintroducedandthemarkwasstabilized.In1924,thesituationhadimprovedenoughforMeitnerandHahntoconcentrateon
thetechnicallydifficultinvestigationofradiumbyJune1924,thebetaspectrumandMeitner'sanalyseswerecomplete.Soonafterwardshebeganherstudyof
radioactinium,fromwhichshefinallyprovedthesequenceofradioactivedecayin1925.
HedwigMeitnerdiedinDecember1924,fourteenyears,almosttotheday,afterherhusband,Philipp.
110
Afterhermother'sdeath,Lise'stiestoViennawerenot
quiteasstrongalthoughhersistersandbrotherWalterwerestillallthere(herbrotherFritzhaddiedinamountaineeringaccidentsomeyearsbefore),shenolonger
went"home"toViennaforeveryvacation.In1927,herfavoritenephew,OttoRobertFrisch,freshfromhisphysicsdoctorateinVienna,cametoworkatthe
PhysikalischTechnischeReichsanstaltinBerlin.Hewasagoodyoung(23yearsold)experimentalistwithatalentforinstrumentationandhadmanagedtogetthe
positionwithoutareferencefromhisTanteLise,whohadscrupulouslyrefusedtoprovideone.OttoRoberttookaflatnearhisaunt'sapartment,andalthoughhewas
agoodpianistandshewasnot,theysometimesplayedduetstogether,mostlytheslowmovements,translatingAllegromanon
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tantoas"Fast,butnotauntie."Untilthen,mostofOttoRobert'smusiceducationhadcomefromhismother,Auguste(Gusti),aconcertpianistandteachernowLise
introducedhimtosymphonyconcertsunderWilhelmFurtwnglerandBrunoWalter,tochambermusic,andtomoreofthevariedandsplendidmusicalofferingsof
Berlin.
111
Nuclearphysicswasstillbeginning,butatomicphysicswasmovingremarkablyfastandwould,beforelong,beimportantforthenucleusaswell.JustasBohr'stheory
ofthehydrogenatombeganwithafusionofquantumtheoryandspectroscopy,atomicphysicsprogressedwithanongoinginterplaybetweenexperimentandtheory.
SoonafterBohr'stheoryofthehydrogenatom,ArnoldSommerfeldgeneralizedtheBohratomfromcirculartoellipticalelectronorbits.Thisquantizedthreeatomic
properties:theprincipalenergylevel,theorbitalshape,andthespatialorientationoftheorbitinanexternalmagneticfield.TheBohrSommerfeldtheoryaccountedfor
thefinestructureofthehydrogenspectrum,andspacequantizationwasexperimentallyconfirmedbyOttoSternandWaltherGerlachin1921.
Thespectraofhigherelementswereextremelydifficulttointerpret,butintimesomeyielded,withhelpfromtheoryandsometimeschemistry,guidedbyBohr's
correspondenceprinciple,whichpermittedajudiciousapplicationofclassicalphysicstoquantumprocesses.In1920,Bohrsetouttodeterminetheelectron
configurationofeveryelementintheperiodictable,anenormousundertakingthedrewoneverypossiblesource:opticalandxrayspectra,atomictheory,chemical
properties,thearrangementoftheperiodicsystemitself.WithintwoyearsBohrfoundtheregularitiesinelectronconfigurationthatunderlytheperiodicsystematonce
somepuzzlesweresolved.Oneconcernedtherareearthelements,forwhichtherehadbeennoplaceintheperiodicsystemBohrshowedthattheyintroduceanew
subshell,the4f.Thisclarifiedthepositionoftheelementsimmediatelyfollowingtherareearths,permittinghimtopredictthatelement72,whichhadnotyetbeen
found,wouldbelocateddirectlybelowzirconium,withvirtuallyidenticalchemistry.InCopenhagenin1922,DirkCosterandGeorgedeHevesyinvestigated
zirconiumoreusingxrayspectroscopyandalmostimmediatelyfoundthespectrallinesofthenewelementtheytelegraphedthenewstoBohrinStockholmjustin
timeforhimtoincludeitinhisNobellecture,whichmadehislecture,withtheannouncementofthisnewelement,amongthemostdramaticever.The
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discoverywasastunningconfirmationofBohr'stheoryoftheperiodicsystem,acceptabletobothchemistsandphysicists.CosterandHevesynamedtheelement
hafniuminhonorofCopenhagen(Latin:Hafnia)andBohr'sinstitute.
112
Withaclearerunderstandingofatomicstructure,somespectraleffectsbecameobviouswhichexistingatomictheorycouldnotexplain.In1925,WolfgangPauli,a
youngAustriantheoreticalphysicist,proposedthateveryelectronmustpossessnotthreebutfourquantumnumbers,withtheaddedrestriction,nowknownasthe
Pauliexclusionprinciple,thatnotwoelectronsinanatommaysharethesamefourquantumnumbers.Withthis,Pauliaccountedinamostsatisfactorywayforthe
maximumnumberofelectronseachenergylevelwasknowntocontain.Thefourthquantumnumberlackedphysicalmeaning,however,untiltwoyoungDutch
physicists(somuchgoodphysicswasdonebyyoungmenintheirearlytwentiesthatthisperiodofphysicshasbeendubbedKnabenphysikboys'physics),Samuel
GoudsmitandGeorgeUhlenbeck,suggestedin1925thatelectronsrotateabouttheirownaxisandthuspossessmagnetism,orspin,whoseorientation(upordown)is
twovalued.ThemodelofaspinningelectronwasresistedatfirstasbeingrelativisticallyimpossibleandtoomechanicalforaneffectPaulihadcalled"classically
nondescribable,"buttheseobjectionsweresoonovercomebyexperimentalevidenceforintrinsicelectronmagnetism.
Togetherthenewdevelopmentsdramaticallyillustratedtheinadequacyofexistingatomictheory.Immenselysuccessfuluptoapoint,itseemedexhaustedand
incapableoffurtherextension.TheproblemseemedtoliewiththeinherentcontradictionofBohr'stheory:theorbitingelectronwastreatedclassicallyexceptforthe
arbitraryimpositionofaforeignquantumcondition.Withoutaphysicalbasis,quantizationappearednomorethanaformalismintroducedforthesolepurposeof
achievingagreementwithobservation.
Theoristslookedforamorenaturaltheory,onebasedonphysicallyobservablepropertiesofmatterandenergy.Waveparticledualismunamenabletoclassical
interpretationbecamethebasisforanewquantumtheory.Einsteinhadproposedhislightquantumhypothesisearlyon,butmostphysicistsfounditcounterintuitiveto
thinkoflightasbothcontinuouswaveanddiscreteparticle,althoughtheyrecognizedthatthequantumrelationshipE=hc/ alreadyembodiedthecontradictionby
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definingtheenergyofaquantumintermsofthelengthofitswave.In1925,theFrenchphysicistLouisdeBroglieconcludedthatwavesandparticlesareaspectsof
thesamerealityusingthespecialtheoryofrelativitywhichintroducesitsowndualism,theequivalenceofmatterandenergydeBroglieextendedwaveparticle
dualismtomatter,proposingthatwavesmustbeassociatedwithmaterialparticles.
Theexperimentalproofcameverysoon,in1927,whenClintonJ.DavissonandLesterH.GermeratBellLaboratoriesinNewYorkandGeorgeP.Thomsonin
Aberdeendemonstratedthatelectronsarediffractedastheypassthroughacrystal,aphenomenonverysimilartoxraydiffractionthatphysicistshadtraditionally
interpretedasinterferenceofwaves.Bythen,ErwinSchrdingerhadincorporatedthematterwaveconceptintoanewtheory.Representingorbitalelectronsas
standingwaves,Schrdingerin1926devisedawaveequationforthehydrogenatomwhosesolutionsyieldedthehydrogenspectrumquantumnumberscameout
automaticallyasanentirelynaturalconsequenceofthewavepropertiesoftheelectron.
AverydifferentapproachcameoutofGttingentheyearbefore.MaxBorn,WernerHeisenberg,andPascualJordanhadformulatedanothertheorybasedon
physicallyobservablequantitiesonly,whichemphasizedthepositionandmomentumofaparticle,avoidingorbitsandotherunobservablerepresentations.However,its
matrixbasedmathematicsproveddaunting,eventophysicists,whiletheformoftheSchrdingerwaveequationwasfamiliartoanyonewhohadstudiedwavemotion.
Meanwhile,PaulA.M.Dirac,aCambridgemathematicalphysicist,reformulatedmatrixmechanicsinamoregeneralwayconsistentwithclassicalmechanicsfor
macroscopicsystems.In1926,anumberofphysicists,includingBorn,Schrdinger,andCarlEckartattheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology,demonstratedthat
matrixmechanicsandwavemechanicsaremathematicallyequivalentandthereforecanberegardedascomplementaryaspectsofwaveparticleduality.Fromthenew
quantummechanics,Heisenbergderivedhisfamousuncertaintyprinciple,theimpossibilityofknowingboththepositionandmomentumofaparticlewavewithperfect
precision.Thelimitationsinherentintheuncertaintyprincipleraisedprofoundquestionsabouttheeffectoftheobserveronthesubjectbeingobserved.Itappearedthat
theexperimentalconditionsdeterminedwhichofthedualaspectsofenergyormatterwouldappear:
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wavelike,asinelectrondiffractionorinterferenceeffectsoflight,orparticulate,asinelectronbeamsortheComptoneffect.Thepaceofdiscoverywasdizzying.The
physicistVictorWeisskopfwouldreflectthattherewashardlyatimeinthehistoryofscience"inwhichsomuchhasbeenclarifiedbysofewinsoshortaperiod."
113
Thenewquantummechanicswasincomplete,however.Neithermatrixnorwavemechanicsyieldedmorethanthreequantumnumbersfortheelectronthefourth
quantumnumber,requiredforspin,wasmissingfromalltreatmentsandhadtobeseparatelyintroduced.In1928,however,Diracincorporatedrelativityintowave
mechanicsbecauserelativityrequiresequivalenceofthefourcoordinatesofspaceandtime,histheoryyieldedfourquantumnumbers,withspinthenatural
consequenceofarelativisticelectron.Dirac'stheoryalsoyieldedthecorrectnumericalvaluesforthephysicalpropertiesassociatedwithelectronspin,evidencethata
truequantumtheoryhadbeenachieved.
114
Therewasgoodreasontoexpectquantumtheorytoapplytonucleiaswell:monoenergeticalphaemissionandmonochromaticnucleargammaradiationwere
obviouslyquantumeffects.Andsinceelectronsoutsidethenucleuswerequantized,therewaseveryreasontoexpectthesamefortheelectronsinside.
115
Butthecontinuousbetaspectrumraiseddoubtsaboutnuclearquantizationandevenabouttheconservationofenergyinnuclearprocesses.LiseMeitner,firminher
quantumoutlook,finallyconcededthatthecontinuousspectrumwasreal,butsherefusedtobelievetheinhomogeneitycouldbeanythingbutsecondary.Nevertheless,
theenergyofprimaryelectronshadneverbeenunambiguouslydetermined.Inanattempttodothis,in1926MeitnerusedaWilsoncloudchambertomeasurethe
rangeofbetaparticlesfromradiumD(
210
Pb),adifficultundertakingbecauseelectronsarereadilyscattered.Ofthethousandsofelectrontracksinfourhundred
photographs,Meitnerfoundonlyeightythreethatwerestraightenoughtomeasure.Thesefellintotwodistinctsetsofenergycorrespondingtothetwosecondarylines
inthebetaspectrumofRaD.Amonoenergeticgroupofprimaryelectronswasnotinevidence.
116
WhileEllisadmittedthathehadnoexplanationforthecontinuousbetaspectrum,hestaunchlybelievedthatprimaryelectronswereinhomogeneousattheinstantof
decay.Latein1925,hecitednewevidencetosupporthispremise.RadiumE(
210
Bi),whichemittedessentiallyno
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gammaradiationandthushadnosecondarybetalines,wasfoundtohaveacontinuousbetaspectrum.Withoutgammaradiation,thecontinuousspectrumcouldnot
beduetoComptonscattering.IfprimaryRaEelectronsbecomeinhomogeneousbydirectlyejectingsecondaryelectronsfromtheirorbits,onewouldexpecttofind
severalelectronsforeachprimarydecay.Elliscouldrulethisoutalso:intheCavendishlaboratory,K.G.EmeleusmeasuredthetotalnumberofelectronsfromRaE
andfoundjustoveroneelectronperdecay.
117
AstudentofMeitner's,NikolausRiehl,repeatedEmeleus'sexperimentwithaboutthesameresultsbut,likeMeitner,didnotregarditasprooforprimary
inhomogeneity.Nevertheless,Meitnerhadbecomequiteuncertainofherformerview.
118
Underherdirectiontwoofherassistants,K.DonatandK.Philipp,tested
recoilnucleifromthebetadecayofthoriumB(
212
Pb)forevidenceofthevariableenergydistributiononewouldexpectifprimaryelectronswereemitted
inhomogeneously.Theresultsweretooinexactforanyconclusiontobedrawn.
119
Ellis,meanwhile,haddecidedtodirectlymeasuretheheatproducedbythedecayofRaE.Hedevisedacalorimeterwithwallsthickenoughtoabsorballbeta
particles:sinceRaEemittednogammaradiationandnosecondaryelectrons,theheatmeasuredwouldbetheenergyoftheprimaryelectronsonly,whetherornotthat
energywasdividedintosmallercomponentsbysecondaryprocesses.IfallRaEelectronswereemittedwithidenticalenergybutlostsomeenergytosecondary
processessuchascollisions,thentheenergymeasuredperelectronwouldcorrespondtotheupperlimitofthecontinuousspectrum,about1,000kiloelectronvolts
(keV).If,however,theenergyofdecayvariedcontinuously,asElliscontended,theenergyperelectronwouldbeclosertotheaverageenergyofthecontinuous
spectrum,about390keV.IttookovertwoyearsforEllisandWoostertocompletetheirmeasurements.In1927,theyconcludedthattheprimaryelectronswere
continuous.Theyhadmeasuredanaverageenergyperelectronof34440keV,veryclosetothemeanenergyofthecontinuousbetaspectrum.
120
Theresulthadseriousconsequencesfornuclearquantizationandimpliedthatenergywasconservedonlystatisticallyandnotexactlyinnuclearprocesses.Meitner,
indeedallphysicistsclosetotheory,weredeeplydisturbed.
121
TheproblemwassoimportantthatMeitnerthoughtitwouldnotbesuperfluoustorepeatthe
experiment.Beforedoingsoshecon
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gratulatedEllisonhis"beautifulresults,"thankedhimforsendinghis"beautifulpaper,"andmadearrangementsforherfirstvisittoCambridge,whereshewouldgive
theopeninglecturetoacongressonbetaandgammaspectra.
IreceivedaninvitationfromMr.Chadwickaswell,andIamwritingtohimtodaythatIwouldverymuchliketocometoCambridge.[Meitner'sdisagreementwithChadwickwasno
longerinevidencetheymaintainedaverycordialrelationshipformanyyears.]AfewmonthsagoIbeganpreparationsforacalorimetryexperimentwithanassistantofProf.
Nernst,butsofartheapparatusisnotfinished.Thequestionisoffundamentalimportance,however,becausetheideathattheatomicnucleusmighthaveenergystatesthatare
onlystatisticallydefinedwouldbesomethingthatisnewinprinciple.
122
MeitnerimprovedEllisandWooster'sprocedureinsomerespects:wheretheyhaddeterminedthenumberofdecayelectronsofRaEindirectlybymeasuringthe
changeintherateofheatevolved,Meitnermeasuredthenumberofdecayelectronsindependentlyofthecalorimetryexperimentbyusingastandardizedpreparation
ofRaE.WithWilhelmOrthmann,Nernst'sassistant,shealsobuiltanimprovedcalorimeter.Theirvaluefortheaverageenergyperbetaparticlewas33720
keV.
123
"Wehaveverifiedyourresultscompletely,"shewrotetoEllisinJuly1929."Itseemstomenowthattherecanbeabsolutelynodoubtthatyouwerecompletely
correctinassumingthatbetaradiationsareprimarilyinhomogeneous.ButIdonotunderstandthisresultatall."
124
TheMeitnerElliscontroversywasover,butthedatawereirreconcilablewithexistingtheory.MeitnerwasparticularlydisturbedbecauserecentworkbyGeorge
GamowandbyR.W.GurneyandE.U.Condonhadprovidedatheoreticalfoundationforthemonoenergeticemissionofalphaparticlesfromthenucleus.ToMeitner
itseemednaturalthattheenergyofnuclearelectronsshouldbesimilarlymonoenergetic.Inclassicaltheoryanalphaparticlecouldneverescapethenucleusbecauseits
energyisalwayssubstantiallylessthantheenergybindingthenucleustogether,butawavemechanicalalphaparticlehasafiniteescapeprobabilitythatincreaseswith
energy.This"tunneleffect"providedatheoreticalbasisfortheempiricalGeigerNuttallrule,theinverserelationshipbetweentheenergyofanalphaparticleandthe
halflifeofitssource.Inamoregeneralsense,Gamow'stheoryofalphadecayprovedthatquantummechanicscouldbeextendedtonuclearprocesses.
125
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Butbetadecayremainedamystery.Atissuewasthevalidityoftheprincipleofconservationofenergy."Everytheorythatisconsistentwiththeprincipleof
conservationofenergyleadstothesuppositionthatthecontinuousbetaspectrummustbeaccompaniedbyacontinuous spectrumsothattheenergyemittedby
eachindividualnucleusis,intotal,thesame."
126
AlthoughgammaradiationhadneverbeenobservedforRaE,Ellishadnotexplicitlyshownthatitwasabsent.
Meitnersearchedagain.Itwasnotthere.Resigned,sheendedhercalorimetrypaper,"ItisquitecertainthatradiumEdoesnotpossessanycontinuous radiation
whoseenergymightcompensatefortheinhomogeneityoftheprimarybetaradiation."
127
ToEllisshewrote,"Wesearchedcarefullyfortheexistenceofcontinuous
gammaradiationthegammathatisthereismuchtooweak.Andyet,ifonedoesnotwishtoignorethefirstlawofthermodynamics,thereisnotheorythatwouldnot
requireacontinuousgammaspectrumtocompensateforthecontinuousbetaspectrum.Also,accordingtoquantummechanics,suchagammaradiationshouldbe
there,butitisnotthere,neitherforRaE,norforThC.Iamanxiouslyawaitingthesolutiontothisenigma."
128
Thecontinuousbetaspectrumwasbutoneofaconstellationofproblemsassociatedwithelectronsinthenucleus
129
allmostdisturbing,sincenuclearelectronswere
required,itseemed,forbetadecayandalsofornuclearcharge.AnucleusofmassnumberAandatomicnumberZrequiredAprotons(formass)andAZelectrons
(toadjustthenuclearchargedowntoZ).
Inadditiontothebetaspectrum,itappearedthatsomethingwaswrongwithelectronspinwithinthenucleus.Experimentallyitwasknownprimarilyfromatomic
spectrathatelectronsandprotonseachhaveaspinof1/2.Anucleuswithanoddnumberofconstituentparticleswasthereforeexpectedtohavehalfintegerspin
anevennumberofconstituentparticleswouldhaveintegerspin.Butforthosenucleiwhosespinswereknownagainfromspectrathepredictedspinwascorrect
whenAZwaseven(thatis,anevennumberofnuclearelectrons)butfailedfor
6
Liand
14
N,whoseAZwasodd.Withrespecttospin,thenucleusbehavedasif
nuclearelectronswerenotthere.
Relateddiscrepanciessurfacedforthesymmetryofthewavefunctionandthecorrespondingstatisticsofnuclei.ParticleswithhalfintegerspinobeythePauliexclusion
principle,aregovernedbyFermiDiracstatistics,
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Page107
andhaveantisymmetricalwavefunctions,whileparticleswithintegerspin(alphaparticles,forexample)arenotsubjecttotheexclusionprinciple,aregovernedby
BoseEinsteinstatistics,andhavesymmetricalwavefunctions.By1930,enoughexperimentaldatahadaccumulatedtoshowthatnotonlyspinbutalsosymmetryand
statisticswereincorrectlypredictedfornucleiwithoddAZ.
Thusdecay,mass,andchargeconsiderationsrequiredbothprotonsandelectronsinthenucleus,butspin,symmetry,andstatisticsbehavedasifelectronswere
entirelyabsent.Bohrspokeofthe"remarkablepassivity"ofelectronsinthenucleustherewerealsotheoreticalreasonsforconcern.Accordingtotheuncertainty
principle,aparticleaslightasanelectroncannotbeconfinedtoaregionassmallasanucleusexpressedanotherway,thedeBrogliewavelengthoftheelectronis
muchlargerthantheradiusofanucleus.
130
Perhapsmostdistrubing,however,wasthecontinuousprimarybetaspectrum,athreattotheuniversalvalidityofconservationofenergy.Bohrbelieveda"new
physics"mightberequiredfornuclearelectronsandsuggestedthatenergymightbeconservedonlystatisticallyinthenucleus,muchasthesecondlawof
thermodynamicsisvalidonlystatisticallyforthebehaviorofatoms.
WolfgangPaulistronglydisagreed.InDecember1930,hesentanopenlettertophysicistsattendingameetinginTbingen,proposinga"desperateremedy"anew
particlehecalledtheneutron(latercalledtheneutrino).Theletter,inmockformalstyle,wasdeliveredbyafriendandaddressedtoLiseMeitnerandHansGeiger.
DearRadioactiveLadiesandGentlemen!Asthebeareroftheselines,forwhomIaskyourgraciousattention,willexplaintoyouinmoredetail,Ihave,facedwiththe"false"
statisticsoftheN14andLi6nucleiaswellasthecontinuous spectrum,stumbleduponadesperateremedy.Namely,thepossibilitythatinthenucleustherecouldexist
electricallyneutralparticles,whichIwillcallneutrons,whichhaveaspinofonehalfandobeytheexclusionprincipleandinadditionalsodifferfromlightquantainthattheydo
nottravelwiththespeedoflight.Themassoftheneutronmustbeofthesameorderofmagnitudeasthemassoftheelectronandinanycasenotlargerthan0.01protonmass.
Thecontinuousbetaspectrumwouldthenbeunderstandableassumingthatin decayaneutronisemittedalongwiththeelectroninsuchawaythatthesumoftheenergiesof
neutronandelectronisconstant....
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AtthemomentIdon'ttrustmyselfenoughtopublishanythingaboutthisideaandturnconfidentlytoyou,dearradioactives,withthequestionofhowonemightexperimentally
provesuchaneutron,ifitspenetratingabilityissimilarorabout10timesthatof radiation.Iadmitthatmyremedymayatfirstseemonlyslightlyprobable,becauseifneutronsdo
existtheyshouldcertainlyhavebeenobservedlongago!But,nothingventured,nothinggained,andthegravityofthesituationwiththecontinuousbetaspectrumisillustrated
byastatementofmyrespectedpredecessorinthisoffice,Herr[Peter]Debye,whotoldmerecentlyinBrussels:''Oh,itisbestnottothinkaboutitatall,likethenewtaxes!"Thus
oneshouldseriouslydiscusseverymeansofsalvation.Therefore,dearradioactives,testanddecide!UnfortunatelyIcannotappearinTbingeninperson,sinceIam
indispensablehereduetoaballwhichwilltakeplacethenightofDecember6to7inZurich.Withmanygreetingstoyouall,yourmosthumbleandobedientservant,W.Pauli.
131
Althoughtheneutrinowasparticularlyimportantforexplainingthecontinuousbetaspectrum,Pauliwasalsothinkingofthespinandstatisticsofstablenucleiandwas,
therefore,proposinganewnuclearinhabitant.
BeginningwithHansGeigerandLiseMeitner,theneutrinowaswidelyandfavorablydiscussed,
132
butPaulididnotpublishhishypothesisforsometime.Hisneutrino
didnotresolveotherproblemsofnuclearelectrons,includingthequestionsraisedbytheuncertaintyprinciple.Duringthisperiod,GeorgeGamowwroteanuclear
physicstextbookinwhichhestampedeveryreferencetonuclearelectronsinhismanuscriptwithaskullandcrossbones(theyappearedastildes[~]intheprinted
book).
133
Adecadeofworkwithbetaspectrahadilluminatedtheproblems,butthesolutionswerestillcompletelyhiddenfromview.
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ChapterFive
ExperimentalNuclearPhysics
Wewerestruckbythesurprisinglylargenumberofalmoststraightlineelectrontracksemanatingfromthesource.
Inthe1920sitwaspossible,indeedessential,forascientisttohaveadetailedoverviewofthefieldofnuclearphysics.InthisLiseMeitnerwastypical,closely
followingtheexperimentsandtheoreticalworkofothers,writingreviewarticles,speculatingonthesignificanceofnewdevelopments.Evenattheheightofher
controversywithC.D.Ellis,sheundertookavarietyofotherexperiments,keptaneyeoutfornewinstruments,andaltogethermaintainedtheversatilityneededina
fieldthattendedtosproutsurprisesinunexpectedplaces.Inadditiontobetaandgammaspectra,theinvestigatedlongrangealphaparticles,theabsorptionand
energyofbetaparticles,nuclearscatteringinteractions,thescatteringandabsorptionofhighenergygammaradiation,andartificialnuclearreactions.
1
AlreadyatitularprofessorintheKWIforChemistry,Meitnerbeganscalingtheconventionalacademicladderin1922.ElsewhereinGermanywomenweregranted
therighttoHabilitationin1918,inPrussiain1920Meitnerwashabilitiertandreceivedhervenialegendiin1922,whichqualifiedherasthefirstwomanphysics
Privatdozent(inhercase,Privatdozentin)inPrussia,thesecondinallGermany.
2
Insupportofhercandidacy,MaxvonLauewrote,"AsFruleinMeitnerisoneof
theworld'sbestknownscientistsinradioactivity,herHabilitationiscompletelyconsistentwiththeinterestsofthefaculty.Iproposethatshebegrantedpermissionto
presentatriallectureandcolloquium....Myonlyreasonfornotproposingthatthesebewaived(ongroundsofspecialmerit)istogivehertheopportunityto
demonstrateherextremelythoroughunderstandingofotherfieldsofphysics."
3
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Withmorethanfortypublicationstohername,MeitnerwasnotrequiredtosubmitaHabilitationthesisherinauguraluniversitylecturein1922wastitled"Die
BedeutungderRadioaktivittfrkosmischeProzesse"(TheSignificanceofRadioactivityforCosmicProcesses).
4
Suchlecturesweresemipublicandoftenappeared
inprint.Anacademicpress,evidentlyabitrattled,requestedpermissionfromthenewPrivatdozentintopublishherlectureonthe"significanceofradioactivityfor
cosmetic(kosmetische)processes,"aquotesherelishedformanyyears.
5
ThevenialegendiofficiallyqualifiedMeitnerforuniversityteaching.From1923until1933,whenherteachingprivilegeswererescinded,shetaughtacolloquiumor
tutorialattheuniversityinBerlinnearlyeverysemesterandsupervisedthedoctoralresearchofuniversitystudentsinherownsectionintheKWIforChemistry.
6
In
1926,soonafterherproofofthesequenceofradioactivedecay,theuniversitypromotedhertotheadjunctpositionofnichtbeamteterausserordentlicher
Professor,makingherthefirstwomanuniversityphysicsprofessorinGermany.
7
Onerecognitionfollowedanother:thePrussianAcademyofSciences'SilverLeibniz
Medalin1924,theViennaAcademyofSciences'IgnazLiebenPrizein1925,andtheAmericanEllenRichardsPrize,whichMeitnersharedwiththeFrenchscientist
RamartLucasin1928.
8
Eachyearshebecamemoreprominent,andherphysicssectionlarger:apermanentAssistent,asizablegroupofdoctoralstudents,visiting
scientistsfromGermanyandabroad.
Throughoutthe1920sthenucleuswasstillverymuchanewcomertotheatomicscene.Theenormousdevelopmentoftheoryandexperimentthatrevealedsomuchof
theatomhaddonelittleforthenucleusexceptcreatealistofdiscrepancies.Nuclearelectronsinparticularwreakedhavocwiththeoriesthatworkedperfectlyoutside
thenucleus.Farfrombeingadiscouraginginfluence,however,theseverityofthetheoreticalproblemsmadethisasplendidtimeforexperiment:itseemedthat
somethingnewjusthadtocomealongthatwouldcutthroughthedifficultiesatasinglestroke.
9
Therewasnowaytotellwhetherthiswouldresultfromthesteady
applicationofworkinprogress,orasaboltfromtheblue.Asithappened,thetwocrucialdiscoveriestheneutronandthepositronwouldcomefromeachof
thesedirections,butnotuntil1932.
Untilthen,radioactivityremainedtheprimesourceofnucleardata.Itslargerpicturewascontradictory,alphadecayandgammaemissionbeingconsistentwithnuclear
quantizationandconservationofenergywhilethe
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continuousbetaspectrumimpliedtheopposite.Butindividualradioactivespecies,theirtransformationsandpatternsofinstability,providedinsightintonuclearbehavior
thatwasunavailablefromanyothersource.Besides,theradiationsthemselveswereimportant:alphaparticleswereusedasenergeticprojectilesinscattering
experimentsandartificialnuclearreactions,betaparticlesforstudyingtheinteractionsofelectronswithmatter,gammaraysforthehighenergyradiationonly
radioactivedisintegrationsprovided.SoimportantwasradioactivitytonuclearresearchthatRutherford,Chadwick,andEllisusedthetitleRadiationsfrom
RadioactiveSubstancesforatreatisecoveringnearlyallofnuclearphysicsin1930.
10
Reflectingtheabsenceofacomprehensivetheoreticalfoundation,theauthors
wereauthoritativeintheirpresentationofexperimentsanddatabutcuriouslyhesitantindiscussingtheimplications,givingtheimpression,onthewhole,thatmuchwas
knownandlittleunderstood.
Scatteringexperimentshadalonganddistinguishedhistory.In1906,Rutherfordobservedthatalphaparticlesdeviateslightlyfromtheiroriginaltrajectoryinair
Meitnerstudiedtheeffectin1907andrelatedittoencountersbetweenthefastmovingalphaparticlesandthemoleculesintheirpath.Rutherford'scoworkers
GeigerandMarsdenfoundsimilarsmallanglescatteringforalphaparticlespassingthroughthinmetalfoilstheirobservationofafewalphaparticleshittingthefoiland
bouncingoffbackwardwasatoddswithallexistingideasofatomicstructureandledRutherfordtohistheoryofthenuclearatomin1911.
11
Scatteringcontinuedto
beausefulprobefornonradioactivenucleiandforobservingsinglenuclearevents.In1920,JamesChadwickusedalphaparticlescatteringtodeterminetheabsolute
chargeofplatinum,silver,andcoppernuclei,thefirstdirectverificationofMoseley'sconclusionthatatomicnumberisidenticaltonuclearcharge.
12
Insimilarexperimentswithlightnucleiastargets,Rutherfordobservedthefirstartificialnuclearreactionin1919.Whenheenclosedanalphasourceinacontainerfilled
withnitrogengas,hefoundthathighspeedhydrogennucleiwereproducedandconcludedthatthenitrogennucleus"disintegratedundertheintenseforcesdeveloped
inaclosecollisionwithaswiftalphaparticle,andthatthehydrogenatomwhichisliberatedformedaconstituentpartofthenitrogennucleus."
13
Thisconfirmedwhat
hadlongbeenassumed:thatthehydrogennucleusisafundamentalparticlecommontoallnuclei.FollowingProut'scenturyoldhypothesisthatall
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atomsarebuiltupfromhydrogenatomsor"protyles,"Rutherfordnamedtheparticle"proton"in1920.Atthatpoint,thequestionofnuclearcompositionseemedtobe
settled:anucleusofmassAandchargeZrequiredAprotonsformassandAZelectronstobringthenuclearchargedowntoZ.
Toaccountforthestabilityofmultiplepositivechargesconfinedtotheexceedinglysmalldimensionsofthenucleus,Rutherfordsuggestedin1920thatthenucleus
consistsofacoreofhighlystablealphaparticlessurroundedbytheremainingprotonsandelectronshisproposalthatprotonsandelectronsmightpairupintotightly
combined"neutraldoublets"launchedthesearchfora"neutron."In1921,LiseMeitnerlookedforcluestonuclearbehaviorandstructureinpatternsofradioactive
instabilityandmodesofdecay.Nothingthatalphadecayisoftenfollowedbytwobetadecays,sheproposedthatanalphaparticleneutralizedbytwoelectronsmight
existasanotherrelativelystablenuclearsubunit.
14
RutherfordincorporatedMeitner'sneutralalphaparticleandhisown''neutraldoublet"intomodelsofnuclear
structurethathedevelopedandrefinedthroughoutthe1920s.
15
Therewashopethatartificialnuclearreactionswouldbethestartingpointforanuclearchemistryofsorts,asvaluableforcluestonuclearstructureaschemical
reactionshadbeenforatomicstructure.Overthenextseveralyearsanumberofartificialreactionswereinduced,primarilybyRutherfordandChadwickin
Cambridge,inelementsrangingfromborontopotassiumineverycasealphaparticlesweretheprojectiles,andprotonsweretheonlyproductdetected.Atfirst
Rutherfordreferredtothereactionsasdisintegrations,believingthattheenergeticalphaparticlesimplyknockedprotonsoutofthelargernucleus,butin1924,P.M.
S.BlackettphotographedanalphanitrogencollisioninaWilsoncloudchamberandsawnotraceofthealphaparticleaftercollisiononlyaprotonandaheavy
nucleus.Thereactionwas,therefore,notdisintegrationsomuchassynthesis:nitrogencapturedthealphaparticleandexpelledaproton,whichmeantthattheresultant
heavynucleushadtobeoxygen:
Alphaparticlecapturewasintriguingbutdifficulttounderstand.Theenergyofthealphaparticleswasknownandintheoryitwastoosmalltoovercomethecoulomb
repulsionofthenucleus.Itwasnecessaryto
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assumethatanew,hithertounknownstrongattractiveforcepredominatedatverycloserange.Moreover,theincidentalphaparticlesweremonoenergetic,butthe
ejectedprotonsvariedwidelyinenergywhileitwaspossiblethatcompensatinggammaradiationwassimultaneouslyemittedorthatthenewheaviernucleivaried
substantiallyinmass,thiswasdifficulttoascertainexperimentally.Inall,fewconclusionsregardingnuclearstructurecouldbemade.
16
Inanycase,itwaspossibletoinduceartificialnuclearreactionsinonlyafewlightelements:nucleibeyondpotassiumalwaysrepelledandscatteredalphaparticles
beforecapturecouldoccur.Attentionagainturnedtoscatteringexperiments.Meitnerfollowedtheseclosely,summarizingtheresultsinalongreviewarticle.
17
Close
encountersbetweenalphaparticlesandlighternucleirevealedmarkeddeparturesfromcoulombicforces,anindicationthatnuclearstructurewascomplex.Fromsuch
noncoulombicscattering,RutherfordandChadwickmadeestimatesofnuclearsize,shape,andchargedistributionandspeculatedthatelectronprotonpairs,
Rutherford'ssocalledneutraldoublets,mightformtheoutershellofthenucleus.InStefanMeyer'sinstituteinVienna,theSwedishphysicistHansPettersson
suggestedthatnoncoulombicscatteringmightbeexplainedbyinducedpolarizationofthenucleiothersthoughtmagneticeffectsmightplayarole.Onthewhole,
scatteringexperimentsweredifficulttoperformandmoredifficulttointerpretevenmoresobecausetherewasnoguaranteethatclassicalelectrodynamicswasvalid
fornuclearevents.
18
Forherownscatteringexperiments,MeitnerbuiltaWilsoncloudchamber,thefirstinBerlin.
19
Inthecloudchamber,thetracksofalpha,beta,andothercharged
particlescouldbeclearlyseenandphotographed,withthegreatadvantagethatindividualcollisionsandotherrareeventscouldbedirectlyobserved.Withherstudent
KurtFreitag,Meitnerstudiedthevastmajorityofalphaparticlesthatneveractuallycollidewithanothernucleusbutinsteadbrushpasttheouterelectronsoftheatoms
intheirpath,loseenergy,andcometoastopatadistance,orrange,characteristicoftheirinitialenergy.Fromthelargenumberofindividualtracksmadebyalpha
particlesfromThC(
212
Bi)andThC'(
212
Po),theydeterminedtherangeswithgreatprecision.MeitnerwasprimarilyinterestedintestingatheoreticalformulaofBohr's
thatrelatedstatisticalvariationsinrangetothemechanismbywhichalphaparticleslostenergytotheatomsthey
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Page114
encountered:ifBohr'sformulawerecorrect,somethingoftheelectronarrangementoftheatomsorpossiblythestructureofthealphaparticleitselfmightbeinferred.
MeitnerandFreitagmeasuredrangesinseveraldifferentgases,but,asoftenhappenedwithscatteringexperiments,agreementwiththeorywasneithergoodnorbad,
sothatonecouldhardlydecidewhichwasmoreflawed,theformulaortheexperiment.
20
ForMeitner,thegreatestbenefitmayhavebeentheexperienceshegainedwiththeWilsoncloudchamber,thesinglemostusefulinstrumentforobservingindividual
nuclearevents.InventedbyC.T.R.Wilsonneartheturnofthecenturyforstudyingthephysicsofcloudsandmist,itsoperationwasinprinciplequitesimple:asealed
chamberfilledwithmoistairisquicklyexpanded,producingasupersaturatedwatervaporthatcondensesalongthetrajectoryofachargedparticleintoavisibletrail
oftinyfoglikedroplets.Meitner'scloudchamber,whichshebuiltin1924,wasabout21centimetersindiameter,sufficientlylargetodisplaytheentirerangeofthe
alphaparticlesinquestion,andflatenoughtophotographthetrackswithoutopticaldistortionsheusedastereoscopiccameratriggeredbythemechanismthat
expandedthechamber.Overthenextseveralyears,Meitnerandhercoworkerssystematicallystudiedtheeffectsofgasesotherthanairintheexpansionchamber,as
wellascondensatesotherthanwatervapor.
21
InherworkwithFreitagonThC+C',Meitner'smostinterestingdiscoverywasthatamongthenearlyonemillionalphatracksinsomethreethousandcloudchamber
photographs,therewereafewhundredtrackswithtwodistinctrangesthatwereeachconsiderablylongerthanthenormalalpharangesfromThCandThC'.Themost
reasonableinterpretationwasthatalphaemissionwasnotabsolutelymonoenergetic,afactthathadbeensuspectedforsometime.Rutherfordhadobservedsome
longrangealphaparticlesseveralyearsbefore,
22
andasearlyas1922Meitnerhadobservedsmallvariationsintherangeofradiumalphaparticlesandsuggestedthat
thegammaradiationassociatedwithradiumalphadecaymightaccountforthedifference.
23
Inasimilarvein,GeorgeGamowproposedin1930thatslightvariationsin
themeasuredrangesofalphaparticlesfromThCrequiredthedaughternucleus,ThC"(
208
Tl),toemitgammaradiationtoequalizetheenergydifferences.
TotestGamow'sproposal,itwasnecessarytocorrectlyassignthevariousgammafrequenciestotheirnucleusoforigin,anexperiment
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Page115
requiringconsiderableingenuitysinceThC(
212
Bi)branched,emittingalphaparticlestoformThC"(
208
Tl,abetaemitter)aswellasbetaparticlestoformThC'(
212
Po,
analphaemitter),theendproductinbothcasesbeingThD(
208
Pb,stablelead).Meitner,togetherwithherassistantKurtPhilipp,focusedontheThC ThC"alone:
thesecorrespondedtoGamow'sprediction.
24
Thismeantthattheemissionofenergyinalphadecaywasanalogoustosimilarprocessesforatomicspectra:oneThC
nucleusmightloseenergybyalphaemissionalone,anotherbyalphaandgammaemissioncombined,butnomatterthemechanism,itappearedthatenergywasalways
strictlyconservedforeachindividualnucleusundergoingdecay.Atatimewhenthecontinuousbetaspectrumthreatenedthesanctityofenergyconservationinnuclear
processes,thesefindingsupheldit.
Duringthe1920s,physiciststriedtogleanwhattheycouldfromradioactivedecayandtheabundantcollectionofnaturalnuclearreactions.In1926,LiseMeitneragain
notedempiricalcorrelationsbetweentherelativestabilitiesofradioactivespeciesandtheirmodesofdecay.Fromtheseshepredictedthattheatomicmassof
protactinium,whichwasstillunknown,wouldbelessthan234,whichmeantthattheoriginoftheactiniumseries,alsostillunknown,couldnotbeuranium238.
Meitnerfavoredtheideathaturanium234headedboththeuraniumradiumandtheactiniumseriesbutnotedthatothershadsuggestedastillundiscoveredthird
isotopeofuraniumfortheprecursoroftheactiniumseries.
25
In1929,amassspectrographicanalysisoftheleadisotopesinauraniummineralrevealedthatinaddition
to
206
Pb,theknownendproductoftheuraniumradiumseries,therewasatraceof
207
Pb.Immediatelythiswashailedasapossibleendproductoftheactiniumseries,
whosefirstmemberwouldthenbe
235
U.Theexistenceof
235
Uremaineduncertainforseveralyears,however,inpartbecausetheisotopicdatawereimpreciseand
alsobecausethepossibilitycouldnotberuledoutthatsomeotherprocessproduced
207
Pbinuraniumminerals.Finallyin1934,protactiniumwaspurifiedanditsmass
determinedtobe231,whichestablishedthemassofeverymemberoftheactiniumseriesandprovedtheexistenceof
235
U.
26
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Page116
ForMeitner,alphadecaywasalwayssimplerandclearerthanbetadecay.In1928,whenshehadnearlyacceptedtherealityofthecontinuousprimarybetaspectrum
butwasdeeplydisturbedbyitsimplications,sheinvestigatedanumberofalphasourcesinthehopeofcorrelatingtheirgammaemissionandnuclearproperties.Her
studyofthebetaandgammaspectraofprotactinium(
231
Pa)didlittlemorethandemonstratethatitsgammaradiationwas,asexpected,monochromatic,
27
butthe
correspondingbetagammaspectraofradiothorium(
228
Th),anotheralphaemitter,weremoreinteresting.
28
BecauseitssecondaryelectronsoriginatedintheL,M,
andNshellsanditsgammaradiationcorrespondedtoaK
a
transition(thetransitionofanorbitalelectronfromtheLdowntotheKshell),Meitnerwasquitesurethat
nucleargammaradiationwasabsent.Theusualmechanismfortheexpulsionofsecondaryelectronsisinternalconversion,inwhichthenucleusexpelsagamma
quantum(photon)thatisthenabsorbedbyanorbitalelectronthiswasviewedasradiativecouplingbetweennucleusandelectrons,withgammaradiationservingas
anintermediary.Intheabsenceofnucleargammaemission,however,itappearedthatthenucleuswaslosingenergydirectlytoanorbitalelectron.Iftrue,thiswasa
veryintriguingradiationlesstransitionbetweennucleusandelectron,demonstratingthatorbitalelectronsarecapableofpenetratingthenucleus.
Meitner'sinterestinradiationlesstransitionswentbackto1923,whenshefirstrecognizedanddescribedtheprocessamongtheorbitalelectronsofUX
1
.
29
Alreadyin
1922theViennesetheoreticalphysicistAdolfSmekalhadproposedthatquantumeffectsofnucleusandorbitalelectronsbetreatedasinseparableheobjectedtothe
entirenotionofinternalconversionasinherentlyunobservable.PerhapsbecauseMeitnerfoundhispositivisticargumentdistasteful,shedidnotrefertoSmekalinthe
discussionofherradiothoriumfindingsin1928andonlybrieflyalludedtoa"veryclose"(sehrenge)nucleusorbitcouplingasapossibleexplanation.
30
Inthenextfew
years,severalgroups,includingC.D.EllisandhiscoworkersinCambridge,studiedradiationlesstransitionsinanumberofbetasourcesby1930,theywere
convincedthatsuchradiationlesstransitionsbetweennucleiandorbitalelectronswerepossible.Meanwhiletheideathatsubatomicparticlesmightpenetratethe
potentialbarrierofthenucleusfoundadifferentexpressioninGamow's1928theoryofalphadecayattemptstoformulatearelatedtheoryofbetadecaywereunsuc
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Page117
cessful.
31
Meitnercontinuedtostudyradiationlesstransitions,ratheringeniouslyadaptingMillikan'soildropmethodtodeterminetheprobabilityofmultipleionizations
causedbyalphaparticlecollisionswithlightatoms.
32
AmongthemostvaluablenewinstrumentsofthepostwarperiodwasF.W.Aston'smassspectrograph,capableofmeasuringatomicmassestoaprecisionofone
partin1,000.OneofAston'sfirstmeasurementsshowedthatneonisamixtureofatomsofmass20.00andmass22.00,provingthatisotopicmixturesarenotan
exclusivefeatureofradioactivenucleibutarealsopresentinstableelementsoflowatomicmass.Initselftheexistenceofstableisotopeswasofgreatinterest,butthe
mostimportantfindingwasthatthemassofeachindividualisotopeisineverycaseveryclosetoawholenumber:chlorine,forexample,wasclearlyshowntobea
mixtureofisotopes,76percentofmass35.0and24percentofmass37.0,itsatomicweightof35.45beingtheisotopicaverage.Thefindingofnearintegralnuclear
massesremovedthelastobstacleforacceptingtheprotonofunitmassasafundamentalparticlepresentinallnuclei.
33
Massspectrographicdataalsorevealedmarkeddifferencesintheabundanceandmassesofstableisotopes.Intheearth'scrust,elementsofevenatomicnumberhad
manymoreisotopesandwerefarmoreabundantpresumablyanindicationofstabilitythanelementsofoddatomicnumber.In1926,Meitnernotedthatallknown
isobarsatomswiththesamemassnumberbutdifferentatomicnumberwereofevenatomicnumber:isobaricpairs,forexample
40
Arand
40
Ca,skippedapossible
middleisobar,inthiscase
40
K,whichwaseithermissingentirelyorpresentinamountstoosmalltobedetected.ThisremindedMeitnerofseveralradioactive
sequenceswheretwosuccessivebetadecaysproducedthreeisobars,ofwhichthemiddleisobarwasusuallythemostunstable.Sheconcludedthatthemissing
40
K
mightalsobeunstable,possiblythesourceoftheveryweakbetaradiationassociatedwithpotassiumthiswaslaterfoundtobetrue.
34
Thefactthatevenatomic
numberfavorsstability,sheadded,mayindicatethatprotonsinthenucleustendtoformevennumberedcomplexes.
35
Suchempiricalcorrelationsofstabilitywith
atomicnumberandmassnumberanticipatedthe"magicnumbers"thateventuallyformedthebasisfortheshelltheoryofnuclearstructure.
36
Meitnerwasalsointerestedinusingisotopicdistributionsforestimatinggeologicalandcosmologicalages.Thedistributionofleadisotopesin
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ordinaryleadwasknowntobequitedifferentfromthatinuraniumorthoriumminerals,fromwhichitwasassumedthattheleadisotopesinradioactivemineralswere
thestableendproductsofradioactivedecay.Fromtherelativeamountsofleadandtheknownratesofuraniumorthoriumdecay,theageofthemineralscouldbe
deducedingeneralthesewerefoundtobeseveralbillion(10
9
)yearsold,providingaminimumageforthehardeningoftheearth'scrust.In1933,LiseMeitnerand
OttoHahndiscussedthepossibilitythatordinaryleadwasalsoderivedfromradioactivedecaybuthadseparatedfromitsradioactiveantecedentsbeforethecrust
congealed.Inparticular,theyattributedthesizablefractionof
207
Pbinordinaryleadto
235
Ufromtheproportionsoftheleadisotopesandthedecayratesoftheir
uraniumandthoriumantecedents,MeitnerandHahnarrivedatanageofsome10
10
yearsfortheformationoftheearth.
37
Fromthistheyplacedtheminimumageofthesunat10
11
years,whichinturnraisednewquestions.AsMeitnernoted,noknownprocessonearth,including
radioactivedecay,couldcontinuouslyemitenergyforlongerthansome20millionyears."Amoreabundantenergysourcemustexistintheinteriorofstars,andwe
havesuchasourceintheconversionofmassintoradiation."
38
Foracenturyscientistshadsupposedthatelementsarebuiltupfromatomsofhydrogensincetheearlydaysofspectroscopyitwasknownthatyoungstarsconsist
primarilyofhydrogenandheliumandthatthespectrallinesofheavierelementsaremoreintenseinstarsthatareolder.Notuntilthe1920s,however,didphysicists
understandthattheprocessofformingheavierelementsmustalsobethesourceofstellarenergy.Onceagain,massspectrographicdataplayedanessentialrole:even
theearliestmeasurementsindicatedthatatomicmassesareineverycasesomewhatlessthanthetotalmassoftheindividualprotonsandelectronsofwhichtheyare
composed.
39
Themissingmass,or"massdefect,"wasrecognizedasthebasisforbothstellarenergyandnuclearstability:attheinstantanucleusforms,itsexcess
massisconvertedintoenergyandradiatedawaythenewnucleusisstablewithrespecttodecomposition,beinglowerinmassandenergythantheparticlesfrom
whichitisformed.
WhenAston'smassspectrographwasimprovedtoaprecisionofonepartin10,000in1927,somemassdefecttrendsbecameobvious.Theproportionofmasslost
informingnucleithesocalledpackingfractionvariesslightlybutsystematicallythroughtheperiodictable,rising
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Page119
graduallytoadistinctmaximumforatomicmassesnear60,thendecliningforlargeratoms.Thismeantthatenergycouldbereleasedintwoverydifferentsortsof
nuclearreactions:thefusionoflighttoheaviernucleibelowmass60andthedisintegrationofveryheavynucleitolighteronesabovemass60.AsMeitnerpointedout
ina1931review,examplesofbothprocesseshadbeenobservedinthelaboratory,inartificialnucleartransformations,ontheonehand,andradioactivedecay,onthe
other.Neithershenorothersforesawthatathirdprocess,thesplittingofaheavynucleus,wasalsopossible,althoughMeitnerwould,beforelong,beinstrumentalin
itsdiscovery.
40
Fromthebeginningsofradioactivity,scientistsweretantalizedbytheprospectofvastnewstoresofenergy.Rutherfordhadoftenpointedtotheenormousenergy
latentintheatom,estimatingtheenergyreleasedbythedecayofradiumtobemanymillionsoftimesgreaterthanitsweightincoalartificialnucleartransmutations,
despitetheirlimitedapplicability,alsoreleasedfarmoreenergythancomparablechemicalreactions.Yetasimplecalculationshowedthattheenergyemittedinthe
fusionofhydrogenintoheaviernucleiwasgreaterstill,leadingAstontoimaginethatsomeday"thehumanracewillhaveatitscommandpowersbeyondthedreamsof
sciencefiction."
41
Untilthen,energyofthatorderofmagnitudehadbeendetectedonlyinthepenetratingraysknownascosmicradiation.In1929,Meitnerreviewedthefield,in
particulartheoriginsofcosmicradiationthathadintriguedphysicistsformanyyears.Morepenetratingthanradiationfromanyterrestrialsource,cosmicraysseemed
tocomefromalldirectionsofouterspaceandwerebelievedtoconsistofelectronsandultrahighenergygammaradiation.(Notuntilthe1930swasitdiscoveredthat
cosmic"radiation"isnotelectromagneticbutconsistsofchargedparticles.)WaltherNernstattributedcosmicradiationtothepresencethroughouttheuniverseof
transuranicelementselementsbeyonduraniumthatdisintegratedwithfarmoreenergythanordinaryradioactivedecay.ButtheAmericanphysicistRobertMillikan,
whocoinedtheterm"cosmicrays,"thoughttheseweretheenergiesreleasedwhenhydrogenfusestoformheliumandothernucleiwithaknackforthememorable
phrase,hedescribedcosmicraysas"birthcriesoftheelements"and"musicofthespheres."
42
Toestimatetheirenergy,Millikanandhiscoworkersconducted
absorptionmeasurementsandfoundthreeabsorptioncoefficients,
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indicatingthreedistinctwavelengths,whichhebelievedcorrespondedtotheformationofhelium,oxygen,andsilicon.Meitnerwasveryinterested,particularlyinthe
ideathat"cosmicradiationactuallypossessesdefinedwavelengths,thatis,itconsistsoftwoormoremonochromaticrays,becausethisindicatesthattheoriginofthis
radiationissomehowlinkedtofundamentalatomicprocesses,infacttoasmanydifferentatomicprocessesastherearegroupsofmonochromaticradiation."
43

AlthoughMillikan'shypothesiswasweakenedbytheimprobabilityofhydrogennucleifindingeachotherinthevastnessofinterstellarspace,hisabsorption
measurementsandwavelengthswereatleastopentoexperimentaltest.Meitnerhadavailableasensitivenewinstrumentandastrongnewtheoreticalapproachfor
doingjustthat.
Wavelengthsofveryhighenergyradiationsuchasgammaorcosmicradiationweretooshorttobemeasureddirectly.Instead,theirabsorptionwasmeasuredanda
formulaappliedwhichpermittedthewavelengthtobecalculatedasafunctionofabsorptioncoefficient.Suchformulasweredevelopedwithaspecificabsorption
mechanisminviewforveryhighenergygammaradiationtheonlyknownabsorptionmechanismwasComptonscattering.Twoformulas,onederivedbyA.H.
ComptonandanotherbyP.A.M.Dirac,hadbeeninuseforsometime.In1928,OskarKleinandYoshioNishinapublishedanewformula,basedontherelativistic
electrontheoryintroducedthatyearbyDirac,whichgavequitedifferentresultsforradiationofveryhighenergy."Whichformulacorrespondsbesttoreality,"Meitner
decided,"andthereforewhichwavelengthscanbeascribedtocosmicradiation,canonlybedeterminedwithmoreexperimentaldataonthescatteringof radiationof
veryshortwavelength."
44
In1929,MeitnerbeganaseriesofexperimentsdesignedtotesttheKleinNishinaformula.Asapracticalmatter,itwasimportanttoknowwhetherKleinNishinawas
morereliablethantheolderformulasfortheveryshortwavelengthsassociatedwithhighenergylightquanta(photons)morefundamentally,atestofKleinNishina
wasalsoanimplicittestofDirac'snewtheory.
Whenfirstintroduced,relativisticelectrontheorywasagreatsuccess:itaccountedfortheelectron'sintrinsicspinandmagneticmomentinanentirelynaturalway
withouttheneedtointroducethesepropertiesseparatelyashadbeenthecaseforearlier,nonrelativistictheories.Oncloser
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examination,however,Dirac'stheoryrevealedanumberofpeculiarities.Moststrikingwasthepossibilitythatelectronscouldexistinastateofnegativekineticenergy,
abizarreconceptthatimpliedtheexistenceofnegativemass.Latein1928OskarKleinpointedoutthatanelectronencounteringaverystrongpotentialgradientcould
losesomuchenergythatitcould,accordingtoDirac'stheory,passthroughthepotentialbarrierandemergewithnegativekineticenergy.
45
Aspotentialgradientsof
thismagnitudewereconsiderednecessarytocontainelectronswithinthenucleus,thesocalledKleinparadoxwastakenasyetanotherargumentagainstintranuclear
electrons.Inanyevent,electronswithnegativeenergyhadneverbeenobserved,eveninregionswithextremepotentialgradientsthestrangenessofnegativeenergy
togetherwiththelackofexperimentalevidenceforitraisedseriousdoubtsaboutDirac'stheory.
Diracboldlyclaimedthatnegativeenergyisunobservablebecausethe"normal"worldisinfactimmersedinaninfiniteseaofelectronsofnegativeenergy:because
nearlyallnegativeenergystatesarealreadyoccupied,ordinaryelectronsarebarred,bythePauliexclusionprinciple,frommakingthetransitionfrompositiveto
negativeenergy.WhilethisargumentresolvedtheKleinparadoxbydeclaringitimpossible,itpresentednewproblems.Nothingpreventedanegativeenergyelectron
fromacquiringenoughenergytobringitintotherealmofpositiveenergy,whereitwouldappearasanordinaryelectron.This,however,wouldleaveavacancyinthe
seaofnegativeenergy,which,accordingtoDirac'sequations,wouldbehavelikeapositivelychargedelectronwithpositiveenergy.Butpositiveelectronshadnever
beenobserved.Diracthoughttheholesmightbeprotons,butthedifferenceinmasscreatedgreatdifficulties.ToBohr,theinfiniteelectronseawasa"fatal"objection
PaulithoughtDirac'stheory"hopelessinthefaceofitsconsequences."
46
TorelateDirac'stheorytoaphysicalprocessmoreamenabletoexperimentaltest,KleinandNishinaappliedittoComptonscatteringin1928.Comptonhadtreated
thescatteringofgammaradiationinmatterasacollisionbetweenphotonandelectronwiththismechanicalmodelhefoundthatthewavelengthofscatteredradiation
increaseswithangleofscatteringthatis,themoreaphotonisdeflectedfromitsoriginalpath,themoreenergyitloses.Becausetheincreaseinwavelengthis
independentofthewavelengthoftheincidentradiation,theComptoneffectbecomessignificantonlyattheveryshortwavelengthsofhardxraysandgamma
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radiation,wherescatteringproducesarelativelymarkedchangeinwavelength.Compton'sformulafortheintensityofscatteringasafunctionofwavelengthagreed
withexperimentfairlywell,atleasttoafirstapproximation.ForradiationoffairlylongwavelengththeKleinNishinaformulaagreedwiththeComptonformula,butfor
shorterwavelengthsitdifferedsubstantially.
47
Thescatteringprocesscouldbestudiedinseveralways.Onecouldmeasuretheintensityofthescatteredradiationortherecoilelectronsasafunctionofscattering
anglethishadbeenattemptedwithoutclearresults.Meitnerdecidedtodeterminethescatteringcoefficient,ameasureoftheabsorptionoftheincidentgammabeam
asitpassesthroughmatter.
Theinvestigationsuitedher:foritstheoreticalsignificance,fortheconvergenceofcosmologywithnuclearphysics,andbecauseitcalledforjustthesortofexperiment
shewaspreparedtodo.Familiarwithabsorptionmeasurementsfromherearlieststudiesofbetaandgammaradiation,shehadaccesstogammasources,the
techniquesforhandlingthem,andanewandhighlysensitivemeasuringinstrumentthatshewaseagertouse.
Toobtainexactmeasurementsofscatteringcoefficientsonemustusemonochromaticradiationinaparallel,narrowlycollimatedbeam,sothatonecanbecertainthatone's
measurementsarenotaffectedbystrayradiation.Thenarrowcollimationthatisnecessaryreducestheintensityofthealreadyweakpreparationsbyafactorofabout3.10
4
to1.
Onemustthereforeuseaverysensitivemeasuringinstrument,andtheGeigerMllercounterisespeciallywellsuitedforthis.
48
Infact,thenewcounterthatHansGeigerandWilhelmMllerhadjustdevelopedwassosensitivethatwhenMeitneraskedastudenttotryit,hecomplainedthatstray
radiationfromanadjoiningroomwasaffectinghismeasurements.
49
Atthetimetherewereonlytwoknownmechanisms,eachquitedistinct,fortheinteractionofgammaradiationwithmatter.Inaphotoelectricprocessagammaphoton
losesitsenergytoanelectronandthephotondisappearsentirely.InComptonscattering,photonscollidewithelectronsandarescatteredinalldirections.Inboth
processes,however,theprimarygammabeamappearstobeabsorbedthatis,theintensityoftheincidentradiationdecreasesasittravelsthroughthematerial.
Thephotoelectriceffectoccursmostreadilywhentheenergyofthegammaphotonisonlyalittlegreaterthantheionizationenergyofthe
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electronitencounters,whileComptonscatteringdominatesforphotonenergiesmuchhigherthanionizationenergies.Meitner'sexperimentsweredesignedforhigh
energygammaradiation,wheretheobservedabsorptionoftheprimarybeamcouldbeattributedentirelytoscattering.Bymeasuringtheintensityofthegamma
radiationasafunctionofthethicknessofscatteringmaterial,shewouldobtainascatteringcoefficientshecouldcomparewiththevaluepredictedbytheKleinNishina
formula.
Forthefirstsetofmeasurements,Meitner,togetherwithherstudentH.H.Hupfeld,usedgammaradiationfromThC''(
208
Tl)andmeasureditsscatteringcoefficientin
thirteendifferentelementsrangingfromcarbontolead.ThC"waschosenforitsmonochromaticgammarayofveryshortwavelength,4.7X.U.(1X.U.=10
11
cm).
Theapparatuswasquitesimple:alargeblockofthickironplates,agammasource,andaGeigerMllercounter.Inthecenteroftheironblockwasaslendershaft
intowhichthegammasourcewasinsertedtheshaftcollimatedtheradiationintoaparallelbeamthatpassedthroughvaryingthicknessesofscatteringelementsatthe
shaftopeningandwasregisteredbythecounterseveralmetersaway.Theapparatuswasdesignedtorecordonlytheprimarybeam,excludingstrayeffectsfrom
scatteringorreflection.
ForthelightelementsMeitnerandHupfeldfoundKleinNishinainexcellentagreementwithexperiment,muchbetterthantheolderformula,
50
butforheavierelements
theyimmediatelyfounddiscrepancies.AccordingtoKleinNishina,thescatteringcoefficientperelectronwoulddependonlyonthegammawavelength,notonthe
scatteringmaterial.MeitnerandHupfeld'sscatteringcoefficientsagreedwithKleinNishinaforelementsuptomagnesium,rosedistinctlyinaluminum,andkept
increasingwithatomicnumber."ComparedtotheComptonformula,thescatteringcoefficientagreesbestwithKleinandNishina,buttherearedefinitedeviationsthat
increasewithatomicweight....Onemustconsiderthepossibilitythatahithertounknowneffectispresent."
51
MeitnerandHupfeldmeasuredthescatteringcoefficientsagain,usinglowerenergy6.7X.U.gammaradiationfromRaC(
214
Bi).Iftheexcessabsorptionweredueto
anunexpectedphotoelectriceffect,thedeviationwouldbelargerforradiationoflowerenergy.Exactlytheoppositewastrue,andMeitnerruledoutphotoelectric
absorptionasacause.
52
Underotherexperimentalconditions,however,theKleinNishinaformulawasfullyverified.Newmeasurementsoftheangulardistributionof
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recoilelectronswerejustwhattheformulapredicted,andMeitner'sownexperimentsshowedgoodagreementforscatteringinthelighterelements.Thismeantthatthe
formulawasvalidtotheextentthatitdescribedscatteringbutthatsomeotherprocessbecameimportantwithincreasingnuclearchargeandhighergammaenergy.In
anefforttocharacterizethisunknowneffect,Meitnersetouttofindthemissingradiation.
Shethoughtthenucleusitselfmightbescatteringradiation.
SincetherecanbenodoubtaboutthecorrectnessoftheKleinNishinaformula,itseemslikelythattheobserveddeviationisduetoanuclearscatteringprocess.Ifonetakesinto
accountthefactthatthewavelengthsarelongcomparedtonucleardimensions,onecantakethisasananalogtoRayleighscatteringoflight,andexpectittoshowspherical
symmetry,withnochangeinwavelength.
53
Inaseriesofexperiments,MeitnerandHupfelddidfindsomeradiationscatteredthroughanangleof90withnochangeinwavelength,incontrasttoCompton
scattering,whichincreasesthewavelength.
InEngland,L.GrayandG.Tarrantwerefindingsomethingquitedifferent.Usinggammaradiationthatwasnotmonochromatic,theytoomeasuredscatteringinexcess
oftheKleinNishinaformula.Againstabackgroundofscatteredradiationtheyalwaysidentifiedthesametwowavelengths,nomatterwhatradiationorscattering
materialtheyused.Fromthistheyproposedthatincidentgammaradiationwasabsorbedbyanucleus,thenpreferentiallyreradiatedintwocharacteristicwavelengths
byalphaparticleswithinthenucleus,aprocesstheycallednuclearfluorescence.
Meitnerwasunabletoconfirmtheirobservations.Varyingthetypeofradiationandthescatteringmaterial,shealwaysfoundsomeradiationscatteredwithwavelength
unchangedbutnotenoughtoaccountfortheentiredeviationfromtheKleinNishinaformula.
54
Thesearchforthemissingradiationspannedaperiodofalmostthree
years,from1930to1933.
55
MeitnerhadcometothisinvestigationwithaninterestincosmicradiationandthedesiretotestDirac'srelativisticelectrontheory.Ironically,thedeviationfromKlein
Nishinawasamanifestationofthetheory'smostincomprehensibleconsequence,andtheexplanationforitwouldbeginwithseeminglyunrelatedstudiesofcosmic
radiation.OnlylaterwoulditbeclearthattheKleinNishinaexperimentsprovidedjustthose
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conditionshardgammaradiationinthevicinityofheavynucleithatfavorthecreationofpositiveelectrons,those"holes"intheinfiniteseaofnegativeenergythat
wereincompletelypredictedbyDirac.UnfortunatelyforMeitnerandothersworkingonKleinNishina,theirexperimentscreatedpositronsbutexcludedthemeansfor
detectingthem.Thepositronwasfirstrecognized,directlyandwithoutbenefitoftheory,inacloudchamberin1932.
56
Forphysics,1932wasa"miracleyear,"thelikesofwhichhadnotbeenseensinceEinstein'srevolutionarytheoreticalworkin1905.Firstcametheneutron,
discoveredbyJamesChadwickinFebruary.Thisparticlewaslongawaited,especiallyinCambridge,fromRutherford'sfirstmentionofa"neutraldoublet"inhis
Bakerianlectureof1920inhisstudiesofscatteringandartificialnuclearreactions,Chadwickhadtheneutroninmindandonatleastoneearlieroccasionspecifically
testedforitspresence.
57
Althoughtherewasnotraceofitthen,RutherfordsteadfastlyincorporatedtheneutraldoubletandotherneutralsubunitssuchasMeitner's
neutralalphaparticleintohishypotheticalmodelsofnuclearstructure,primarilytoexplaintheemissionandscatteringofalphaparticles.
58
EvenafterGamow'stheory
ofalphadecaymadethesenuclearmodelsobsolete,theideaofneutralsubunitssurvived.Intheir1930treatise,Rutherford,Chadwick,andEllisweighedthe
possibilityofneutraldoublets:"Itmaybethatelectronsinanucleusarealwaysboundtopositivelychargedparticlesandthushavenoindependentexistencewithinthe
nucleus."Butitwasonlyspeculation,anattempttoevadethedifficultiesassociatedwithfreeelectronsinthenucleus.Aftertenyearstheylacked"convincingevidence
onanyofthesepoints,forwehavelittleifanydefiniteinformationontheinternalstructureofnucleitoguideus."
59
Theinformationprovidedbyartificialnuclearreactionshadbeenmeager.Inall,onlythirteenartificialreactionshadbeeninduced,inelementsfromborontopotassium.
Ineverycaseonlyasingleprotonwasemittedtherewasnoevidenceofotherproducts.Elementsbeyondpotassiumdidnotreact,presumablybecauseofcoulomb
repulsionbetweenalphaparticleandnucleus.Unaccountably,severallightelementsalsofailedtoreact,includinglithium,beryllium,carbon,andoxygen.
Thenin1930,inHeidelberg,WaltherBotheandHerbertBeckerdiscoveredthatwhenberylliumwasbombardedwithpoloniumalphaparticles,radiationwasemitted,
morepenetratingthananyeverseenfrom
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radioactivityorartificialtransmutations.Undersimilarconditionslithiumandborondidthesame,leadingBotheandBeckertoconcludethattheseelementsdid
undergoreactionafterallbutthattheonlyproductwasgammaradiationofunusuallyhighenergy.InJanuary1932,IrneCurieandherhusband,FrdricJoliot,
reportedthatthispenetratingradiationexpelledprotonsfromhydrogencontainingsubstancessuchasparaffin,cellophane,andwatertheyattributedtheeffectto
Comptoncollisionsbetweentheultrahighenergygammaradiationandprotonsinthehydrogenousmaterials.Chadwickimmediatelyrealizedthiscouldnotbetrue:the
frequencyofthescatteredradiationdidnotobeytheKleinNishinaformula,anditwasinconceivablethatanuclearreactionwouldgenerategammaradiationenergetic
enoughtosetinmotionaparticleasmassiveasaproton.Withtheneutroninmind,Chadwickchartedaseriesofexperimentsdesignedtoproveitsexistence,
exposingnotjusthydrogenbutseveralotherelementstothepenetratingradiationandmeasuringtheenergyoftherecoilatoms.ThreeweekslaterChadwickreported
thatthepenetrating"radiation"wasnotradiationatallbutaparticleasheavyasaprotonwhosepenetratingpowerisenormousbecauseithasnocharge.
60
Neutronswereproducedbythecollisionofberylliumandalphaparticles(heliumnuclei)accordingtothereaction:
Thefactthatboronandlithiumunderwentsimilarreactionswithalphaparticlesindicatedthattheneutroniscommontoallelements.
PhysicistsrushedtoconfirmChadwick'sresults.MeitnerlearnedoftheneutronjustasshewasrepeatingtheCurieJoliotexperimentsinacloudchamber.Together
withherassistantKurtPhilipp,sheproceededtoestimatetherelativepenetratingabilityofthelithium,beryllium,andboronneutronsbymeasuringtherangeofprotons
aftercollisionswithneutronsbasedoncloudchamberphotographs,theycalculateda"surprisinglylarge"crosssection,orprobability,foreffectivecollisionsbetween
neutronsandprotonsandsuggestedthatitmightbebasedonmutualattractionbetweenthetwo.Latertheyestablishedthatneutronprotoncollisioncrosssections
increaseforslowermovingneutrons,oneofthefirstindicationsthatslowerneutronsaremorereadilycaptured.
61
WhenChadwickvisitedBerlininJune1932,heand
Meitnerhadagreatdealtodiscuss.AsheleftshebroughthimaloafofhisfavoriteGerman
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bread."Thankyousomuchforyourkindgiftofpumpernickel,"ChadwickwrotewhenhewasbackinEngland."Itwassoveryniceofyou.Ilikepumpernickelso
muchandwecan'tgetithere."
62
Meitnerwasparticularlyintriguedbyareportthatneutronsmayinitiatenuclearreactions.InthecloudchamberNormanFeatherhadobservedneutronsreactingwith
nitrogen,theproductsbeingboronandanalphaparticle:
MeitnerandPhilippconfirmedthis,andobservedasimilarreactionwithoxygen:
Forbothreactionsstereoscopiccloudchamberphotographsshowedthatthetracksofreactantsandproductswerecoplanar,indicatingthatmomentumandenergy
wereconserved.Fromthegeometryofthetracks,thekineticenergyoftheneutrons,andtheapproximatemassesofthereactantsandproducts,MeitnerandPhilipp
estimatedtheenergyemittedinthecourseofreaction.FrancoRasetti,amemberofEnricoFermi'sgroupvisitingMeitner'slaboratoryfromRome,establishedthatthe
alphaparticleberylliumreactionthatproducesneutronsalsoemitsgammaradiation,animportantconsiderationinanalyzingthemassenergyrelationshipsofreactants
andproducts.
63
Theworkcenteredontheessentialquestionoftheneutron'sidentity:isitanelementaryparticleinitsownright,oracloselycombinedprotonelectroncomplex?The
questionwascrucialtounderstandingthenucleus,foranelementaryneutronwouldresolvethegreatproblemsassociatedwithelectronsinthenucleuswhileacomplex
neutronmightnot.
Chadwick'sinitialconceptoftheneutronwasnodifferentfromRutherford's:"Wemaysupposeittoconsistofaprotonandanelectroninclosecombination,the
'neutron'discussedbyRutherfordinhisBakerianlectureof1920."Hethoughttheprotonelectroncomplexmightbearrangedasadipole,orwiththeproton
embeddedintheelectron(thepopulardescriptionwas"dumbbell"or"onion"),andsuggesteddetailedstudyofneutroncollisionsforinformationabouttheneutron's
structureandfield.
64
Amoredecisiveapproachtotheidentityquestionwastodeterminethemassoftheneutron:ifitwaslessthan1.0078atomicmass
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units(themassofaprotonplusanelectron),theneutronmightwellbecomplex,stabilizedbyits"massdefect"ifgreater,theneutronhadtobeelementary.
Chadwick'sfirstmeasurementsgaveamassofabout1.0067atomicmassunits(amu),butthemarginoferrorwasconsiderable.InBerkeley,E.O.Lawrence,M.
StanleyLivingston,andG.N.Lewisusedtheir27inchcyclotrontobombardvarioustargetswithdeuterons("heavy"hydrogennucleiconsistingofaprotonand
neutron)andcameupwithanalmostshockinglowvalueof1.0006amu,whileinParisCurieandJoliotusedadifferentsatofreactionsandassumptionstoobtainthe
exceedinglyhighmassof1.012amu.Thehighvaluewassolargethattheneutronwouldhavedisintegratedspontaneouslyintoaprotonandelectron,whereasthe
Berkeleylowvaluewouldhaverequiredtheprotontocollapseintoaneutronandapositronneitherverypromisingfornuclearstability.
65
ThematterwasthesubjectofintensediscussionattheseventhSolvayconferenceinBrussels,2229October1933,whosetopicoverallwas"Structureand
PropertiesoftheAtomicNucleus."LiseMeitnerattended,asdidtheprotagonistsintheneutronmassdebate,allofwhomremainedconvincedoftheirconclusions.
Aftertheconference,Meitner,togetherwithKurtPhilipp,analyzedanumberofnuclearreactionsintheWilsoncloudchamberinanattempttodetermineupperand
lowerlimitsforneutronmass.Fortheprocess
thekineticenergyof
4
He,thepoloniumalphaparticle,wasknownthemassesoftheBe,He,andCnucleiwereknownfrommassspectroscopicstudiesandthe
neutronkineticenergywasdeterminedfromcloudchamberphotographsofprotonssetinmotionbyneutronhydrogencollisions.Thegammaenergyandneutron
mass,however,werebothunknown.MeitnerandPhilipp'sdeterminationof1.0053amuwascalculatedwithoutconsideringgammaenergyandthusrepresenteda
maximumvaluefortheneutronmass.
Similarly,fortheprocess
MeitnerandPhilippobtainedaminimumvalueforneutronmassof1.0056amu.
66
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Theseresults,likeChadwick's,wereconsistentwithacomplexneutron,buttheywereimprecise,dueprimarilytouncertaintiesintheatomicmasses.Nevertheless,
MeitnerandPhilippconcludedthatLawrence'smuchlowervalue"doesnotseempossible,"andwithinafewmonthstheBerkeleygroupdiscoveredthattheirvalue
wasanartifactofcontaminatedapparatusandretractedit.
67
Butthequestionofelementaryversuscomplexneutronwas,forthemoment,stillunresolved.
Theoreticalphysicistsweremakingtheirwaythroughthenewdatawithoutafirmsenseofdirection.Anelementaryneutroneliminatedtheproblemsofintranuclear
electronsbutcreatedsometheoreticalproblemsofitsowntherewerenewvaluesforthemagneticpropertiesoftheprotontoexplainandunresolvedquestionsofthe
originofbetadecay.Withnocompellingbasisatfirstforfavoringonetypeofneutronovertheother,theoristsdriftedtowardahybridapproach.Bylate1934,
however,Chadwickhadarrivedataneutronmassof1.008in1935,experimentsusingdifferentreactionsandimprovedatomicmasses,asdeterminedbymass
spectroscopy,confirmedtheresult.Theslightmassdifferencebetweenneutronandprotonlessthanthemassofanelectronindicatedthatbothwereelementary
particlesandneitherwasunstablewithrespecttotheother:theorycametoregardneutronandprotonasalternatestatesofthesameelementaryparticle.
68
In1934,Fermiproposedatheoryofbetadecayinwhichtheneutronwaselementaryandtheelectronnolongerinhabitedthenucleus.Instead,theneutronwas
transformedattheinstantofbetadecayintoaproton,anelectron,andaneutrino,whichexplainedthecontinuousbetaspectrumwithoutforfeitingconservationof
energyandaccountedfornuclearspinandstatistics.Sosuccessfulwasthistheorythatthe"neutrino,"Fermi'sdiminutiveforthe"neutron"Paulifirstsuggestedin1930,
wasacceptedasreal,althoughitwouldremainundetectedbyexperimentforanothertwentytwoyears.
69
In1932,MeitnerandPhilippwerestudyingberylliumpoloniumneutronsinthecloudchamberwhentheyobservedstillanothereffect.
Wewerestruckbythesurprisinglylargenumberofalmoststraightline[i.e.,veryhighenergy]electrontracksemanatingfromthesource(BeandPoina2mmthickbrass
chamber).WhentheBewasremovedfromthechamberthenumberofelectrontrackswasmuchsmallerandonlyasmallfractionofthemwerestraight.
70
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Likeothersstudyingneutrons,Meitnerconsideredtheseenergeticelectronstobeofsecondaryorigin,ejectedbythehighenergygammaradiationthataccompanied
theneutronsproducedbytheberylliumalphareaction.
71
Infact,thiswasthesecondtimepositronsweremakinganappearanceinherexperiments,thistimeina
muchmoreobviousway.
Incontrasttotheneutron,whichwaselusivebutquicklydetectedbecauseChadwickhadbeenlookingforit,thehighlyvisiblepositronwasignoredinfact,
explainedawayforquitesometimebecauseitwasalmostcompletelyunexpected.Foryearsscientistshadobservedthin,beadyelectrontracksincloudchamber
photographsofcosmicradiationandascribedthemtoordinaryelectronstraversingthechamberinanupwarddirection.Thiswaspeculiar,giventheoriginofcosmic
rays,andsomeattributedthetrackstoprotonstravelingdownward.
AstrongresearchprogramincosmicradiationhadbeendevelopedbyRobertMillikanattheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnologyinPasadena.InAugust1932,CarlD.
Anderson,oneofMillikan'sformerstudents,photographedathintrackcrossingaleadplateinsertedintoacloudchamber.Theparticle'sdownwarddirectionoftravel
couldbeseenfromtheincreasedcurvatureofthetrackaftercrossingtheplateitsdeflectioninastrongmagneticfieldprovedthatitwaspositivelycharged.Buta
particlecapableofpenetratingleadthatwasalsoappreciablydeflectedinamagneticfieldhadtobemuchlighterthanaproton.Andersonwascertainhehadfounda
positiveelectron,neverbeforeidentifiedinordinarymatteronearth,andbytheendof1932confirmedhisdiscoverywithmanymorephotographs.InCambridge,P.
M.S.BlackettandG.OcchialinisetupatriplecoincidenceGeigercounterarrangementthatenabledthemtophotographashowerofcosmicrayelectronsand
positrons.
72
Meitnerrememberedthe"surprisinglylargenumberofstraightlineelectrontracks"emanatingfromtheberylliumpoloniumsourceinthecloudchamber.InMarch
1933,sheandPhilippreported,
Wehavephotographedthesetracksinamagneticfield....Moststrikingwasthefrequentappearanceofelectrontrackswhosecurvaturewasthereverseofthatexpectedfor
negativelychargedelectrons.Asweareconsideringonlyrayswhich[onecansee]comedirectlyfromthesource,therecanbenodoubtabouttheoriginaldirectionoftravelof
therays....On14photographicplateswemeasured9negativeand8positivecurves.Of
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these,4ofeach(altogether8)had[veryhigh]energiesbetween3.44.4MeV.WithPoaloneasacontrolnopositivecurveswereobserved.
73
InParis,CurieandJoliothadobservedelectrontrackswith"reversedcurves"butattributedthemtoelectronsreturningtothesourceBlackettandOcchialini
suggestedthatthesewerepositiveelectrons.
Inourexperimentalarrangement,aswehavealreadyemphasized,thereisnodoubtthatthesepositivelycurvedtrackscomefromthesource....Itseemsobviousthatthese
particlesareinessenceidenticaltothe"positiveelectrons"observedincosmicradiationbyAndersonandbyBlackettandOcchialini.
74
Withthis,MeitnerandPhilippwerethefirsttoidentifypositronsfromanoncosmicsourceandtoshow,moreover,thatpositronsappeartogetherwithnegative
electronsinpairs.
75
NowtheconnectiontoDirac'stheorywasobvious.Accordingtothetheory,anenergyof1.02MeV(1MeV=10
6
electronvolts),equivalenttothemassoftwo
electrons,wasnecessarytoraiseanegativeenergyelectronoutoftheseaofnegativeenergy,thatis,tocreateapositiveenergyelectronandahole,anelectron
positronpair.MeitnerandPhilipphadalreadyseenthattherelativelymodest0.9MeVgammaradiationfromPoalonewasinsufficient,buttheyhadnotyet
determinedwhetherpositronswereproducedbytheneutronsfromtheBePoreaction,orbyaninteractionbetweenitsveryhighenergygammaradiationandthe
surroundingbrassenclosure.WhentheyenclosedasampleofThB+C+C"inaheavyleadcylinderthatpermittedonlythe2.6MeVgammaradiationofThC"to
passthrough,theyobservedninefastpositiveelectronsin160cloudchamberphotographstheenergyofthepositrons,asdeterminedbytheirmagneticdeflection,
wasinagreementwithDirac'spredictedvalue."Thesepositiveelectronsclearlyowetheirorigintotheinteractionoftheenergyrich radiation[ofThC"]withatomic
nucleioflead.Inourstudyofthereleaseofpositiveelectrons[along]withtheinductionofneutronsand raysinberyllium,theseelectronsoriginatedfromthebrass
enclosure,thatis,fromcopperorzincnuclei[inthebrass]."ButMeitnerandPhilippwerenotthefirstwiththeseresults.InParisjustafewweeksbefore,Curieand
JoliotfoundthatpositronsareproducedbytheintensegammaradiationoftheBePosource,nottheneutrons.Theformationofelectronpositronpairs
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associatedwithThC"gammaradiationhadbeenreportedafewweeksearlierbyCarlAndersonaswell.
76
ThedeviationfromtheKleinNishinaformulathatMeitnerandherstudentshadpursuedforsolongwasfinallyexplained:the"missing"gammaradiationhadbeen
transformedintopositronelectronpairs.Theprocess,laterknownas"materialization,"requiredgammaradiationincloseproximitytoanucleusandwasenhanced,as
Meitnerandherstudentshadfound,withincreasinggammaenergiesandgreaternuclearcharge.HerlastpaperontheKleinNishinadeviationswasinpresswhenthis
discoverywasmade.Inanoteaddedinproof,Meitner'sassistantMaxDelbrckattributedthedeviationsfromtheKleinNishinaformulato"thepositiveelectrons
thatareformedinvariouselementsofmiddletohighatomicnumberbythegammaradiationfromThC"andevenmorereadilybythehardergammaradiationfrom
[thereactionof particleswith]Be."
77
Pairformationwasanastonishingconfirmationofthemostcontroversialaspectofrelativisticelectrontheory.Atthetimeofhisdiscovery,CarlAndersonhadnot
knownthatDirac'stheoryimpliedtheexistenceofthepositron.Thisishardlysurprising,sinceDirachimselffirstthoughtthepositiveparticleswouldbeprotonsand
thusdidnotanticipatethepositronasclearlyasheforesawtheprocessbywhichitiscreated.AsDiracpredicted,anelectronintheseaofnegativeenergymay
absorbahighenergygammaphotontobecomeanordinaryelectronwithpositiveenergy,leavingaholeintheseaofnegativeenergy.Theelectronanditsholeare
matterandantimatter:theelectronpositronpair.Inmanywaysthepositronresemblestheordinarynegativeelectron,butwhentheymeet,bothdisappear:theelectron
hasfallenintothehole.Thisisannihilation,thereverseofpairformation,inwhichthemassofthepositronandelectronisentirelyconvertedintoenergy.Thetwo
recurringgammafrequenciesdetectedbyGrayandTarrantmaywellhavebeenannihilationenergies:twophotonsof0.51MeVoroneof1.02MeVaretheenergy
equivalentofthemassoftwoelectrons.
Intheyears1932and1933,Meitnerinvestigatedbetagammaspectra,alphaparticlefinestructure,cosmology,gammascatteringandtheKleinNishinaformula,
neutrons,andpositrons.Herworkspannedalmostallofexperimentalnuclearphysicsshehadtheequipment,resources,andcoworkerstoquicklystepinaseach
amazingnewfindingwasannounced.
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Yearslater,OttoFrischnotedthatsomeofherpublicationswerebrief,anindicationthatMeitnerandhercollaboratorsweretryingtokeepupwiththeheadlongpace
ofdiscovery.
78
In1933,itwasalsoareflectionofthepoliticalsituationinGermany,whichforcedLiseMeitnertothinkaboutmanythingsthathadnothingtodowith
physics.
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ChapterSix
UndertheThirdReich
Nichtarisch.
LiseMeitnerbegan1933,asalways,withanewdiaryandsomenotesforthecomingweeks.ShewouldbuyMaxundMoritz,thetaleoftworascals,fortenyear
oldHannoHahninearlyFebruaryshewouldchairameetingatwhichWernerHeisenbergandMaxBornwerescheduledtospeakOttoHahnwasleavingBerlinfor
AmericaattheendofFebruary.IntheentryforNewYear'sDayshewrote,''Plusachange,plusc'estmmechose"Themorethingschange,themoretheystay
thesame.
1
WecannotknowwhatLisewasthinkingonthatday.Thesayingwasasuntrueforphysicsafterthe"miracleyear"of1932asitwasfortheeventsthat
wereabouttoovertakeGermanyin1933.
Ofcourse,everyoneknewthatthepoliticalsituationwasdreadful.Ithadbeenforyears:depressionanddeepunemployment,constantelections,endlesspower
strugglesbetweentheRightandLeft,risingantiSemitism,theNaziseverstrongerintheReichstagandmoreviolentonthestreets.Butwhatcouldonedo?Lifewent
on,anddespitetheverydifficulteconomictimes,sodidphysics.
2
Lise'scircleofphysicistshadexpandedmostpleasantlywhenafellowViennese,ErwinSchrdinger,cametoBerlinin1927.Thenfortyyearsold,Schrdinger
succeededMaxPlanckinthechairoftheoreticalphysicsPlanckhadretiredfromtheuniversityandassumedthepresidencyoftheKaiserWilhelmGesellschaft.
ErwinandAnnemariedescendedonBerlinwithabreezyViennesesociabilityandmanyhappypartiesthatdidnot,unfortunately,reflectthestateoftheirmarriage.At
theendofJanuary1933,asthecoupleplannedtheirannualFebruaryWienerWrstelAbend
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(aViennesesausagefeastandcostumeparty),theydidnotforeseethechangesthatwerealmostuponthem.Theyinvitedtheirfriends,inverse,"fromnearandfar,"to
theirhomeonCunoStreet,"theHotel *."( *,psipsistar,indicateselectrondensityaccordingtotheSchrdingerwaveequation.)Theinvitationannounced
thatthesausageswouldbewhitethatyearinsteadofbrown,buttheSchrdingerswerenotconsideredtobepoliticalandnoonetookitascommentary.
3
Nevertheless,politicshadpeopleworried,enoughsothatonaMondaymorningattheendofJanuary,AnnemarieSchrdingersoughtoutsomecompanyandcame
overtoLise'sapartmenttolistentotheradio.Atnoononthatfatefulday,30January1933,thetwowomenheardAdolfHitlersworninaschancelloroftheGerman
Reich.
4
Itwascaricature,asuglyandsurrealasacartoonbyGeorgeGrosz:achancellorwhomadenosecretofhiscontemptfordemocracy,whoseprivatemilitia,
theSA(Sturmabteilung:stormtroops),wasfarlargerthantheGermanarmy,amanwhosefollowersspilledbloodonthestreetswhilehisNationalsozialistische
DeutscheArbeiterpartei(NSDAP),thelargestsinglepartyintheReichstag,reducedparliamentarydeliberationstothelevelofasustainedbrawl.TheNSDAPhad
neverachievedaparliamentarymajority,however.HitlerwasmadeReichskanzlerbecausethenationalistRightthoughttheycouldreinhimin,usehimtoformaruling
coalition,andconsolidatetheirownpower.
Truetohisword,Hitlerlostnotimeindestroyingconstitutionalgovernmentandallthosewhostoodinhisway.TheReichstagwasdissolved,newelectionswere
scheduledforMarch5,andtensofthousandsofSAbrownshirtswereturnedloose,inBerlinandthroughoutGermany,inabloodycampaigntosuppressthe
opposition.Aweekbeforetheelections,theReichstagbuildingwentupinflames.TheCommunistswereblamedandthousandsofthemwerejailed,astateof
emergencywasdecreed,andthecivilrightsguaranteesoftheWeimarconstitutionweresuspended.Theelectionstookplaceamidpresscensorship,arrests,beatings,
andmurders,withlocalpolicejoininginorlookingaway.Evenso,theNSDAPfailedtosecureanoutrightmajority.
"Thepoliticalsituationisratherstrange,"LisewrotetoOttoHahnafewdaysaftertheelection,"butIverymuchhopeitwilltakeacalmer,moresensibleturn."Hahn
wasscheduledtospendtheentirespringsemesterasaguestprofessoratCornellUniversity,andMeitnerwastaking
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hisplaceastemporarydirectoroftheinstitute.Shewroteonletterheadstationeryandchoseherwordscarefully,expectingOttotoreadbetweenthelines."Todaythe
accountingofficeorderedustoestimatethecostofournationalflag,becauseitistobereplacedwithablackwhiteredonewhichtheKWGwillpayfor."
5
TheblackgoldredflagofWeimarwasgone.Brownshirtsroamedthestreets,physicallyremoveduncooperativeofficialsfromgovernmentposts,hauledJewish
lawyersandjudgesoutofcourtrooms,andjailedpoliticalopponents.InDachau,nearMunich,andinOranienburg,outsideBerlin,thefirstconcentrationcampswere
madeready."Everythingandeveryoneisinfluencedbythepoliticalupheavals,"Lisewrotetwoweekslater.Shegavenodetails.Ittooktendaysforalettertoreach
AmericasurelyOttowouldreadthenewspapers.Anditwasmoreprudenttowriteonlyabouttheinstitute."AlreadylastweekwewerenotifiedbytheKWGthat
alongwiththeblackwhiteredflag,wemustalsodisplaytheswastika....ItmusthavebeenverydifficultforHabertoraisetheswastika."
6
Presumablyitwasnot
entirelyeasyforMeitner,either.
TheceremonialopeningofthenewlyconstitutedReichstagwasheldon21MarchinPrussia'sgreatshrine,theoldGarrisonChurchinPotsdam,whereBismarck
convenedthefirstReichstagandFredericktheGreatwasburied.AsLisedescribedittoOtto,"Mrs.SchiemannandEdithwereheretodaytoheartheradio
broadcastofthePotsdamceremony.Itwasharmoniousanddignifiedthroughout.[President]HindenburgsaidafewshortsentencesandthenyieldedtoHitler,who
spokeinaverymoderate,tactful,andconciliatoryway.Hopefullyitwillcontinuethisway."
7
Likemanyothers,Lisewasencouragedbythechangeintone.Inthe
evocativesetting,Hitlerhaddeferredtotheoldpresident,humblyalludingtotheunionofGermany's"oldgreatnessandnewstrength."Allofit,includingtheradio
broadcast,wasstagedbyJosephGoebbels.AsHitlerspoke,thousandsofSAandSSmassedoutsidethechurch,andtheconcentrationcampsfilledwithpolitical
prisoners.
8
TwodayslatertheReichstagputanendtoparliamentarydemocracyinGermany.WithalltheCommunistdeputiesandmanyoftheSocialDemocratsarrestedorin
hiding,theremainingdeputiesgrantedHitlertheunlimitedpowertorulebydecree.ThusHitlersucceeded,behindafacadeoflegality,inseizingabsolutepower.Inthe
ReichstagtheNSDAPdeputiesstretchedtheirarmsintheNazisaluteandsangtheirpartyanthem,
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theHorstWessellied:"SAmarching...Jewbloodinthestreets..."
9
TheThirdReichwasunderway.
Unofficiallyithadbegunweeksbefore,butnowtheNationalSocialistswerefreeofpoliticalandlegalconstraints.Oneoftheirfirstactswastocallforanationwide
boycottofJewishbusinessesandofficesonSaturday,1April.Manycitizenswantednothingtodowiththeboycott,andafewopenlyopposeditEdithHahn,for
example,madeapointofvisitingherJewishdentistthatdaybutitwasobviousthatneitherthepolicenorthecourtswouldprotectJewsortheirsympathizers.
ButisolatingandterrorizingindividualJewswasnotHitler'sfirstpriority.Hisimmediateaimwastopurgethemfrompubliclife:fromgovernment,fromthemedicaland
legalprofessions,fromeducationandthearts.OneofthefirstconfrontationsinvolvedAlbertEinstein,theworld'smostfamousscientistandGermany'smostprominent
Jew.TheincidentrevealedthebreadthofproNazisentimentandtheabsenceofeffectiveresistanceamongGermany'smostdistinguishedscientists.
EinsteinwasinCaliforniawhenHitlercametopowerfromthenewspapershelearnedthatheandotherintellectualshadbeensingledoutforattack.Havingbeenthe
targetofvirulentantiSemitismthroughoutthe1920s,Einsteindidnotunderestimatethedanger.On10March,justbeforesailingforEurope,hepubliclyannounced
thathewouldnotreturntoGermanywhere"civilliberty,tolerance,andequalityofallcitizensbeforethelaw"nolongerexistedenrouteheissuedastatement
objectingtothe"transferofpolicepowerstoarawandrabidmoboftheNazimilitia."
10
FromBelgiumon28MarchheresignedhispositionwiththePrussian
AcademyofSciences.
ThePrussianministerofeducationandculture,BernhardRust,hadhopedtohighlightthedayoftheJudenboykottbyexpellingEinsteinfromtheacademyEinstein's
preemptiveresignationinfuriatedhim.AsecretaryoftheacademydenouncedEinsteinfor"atrocitymongering"abroadanddeclaredthattheacademyhad"noreason
toregretEinstein'sresignation."WhenEinsteinobjectedtothis"deliberatedistortion,"hewasaccusedoffailingtodefendGermanyagainstthe"floodoflieswhichhas
beenunleashedagainstus.''Einsteinrespondedthat"suchtestimony...wouldhavecontributed,ifonlyindirectly,tomoralcorruptionandthedestructionofallexisting
culturalvalues.YourletteronlyshowsmehowrightIwastoresignmypositionwiththeAcademy."
11
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MaxvonLauewasappalledattheacademy'spositionbutcouldnotmusterashowofsupportforEinstein.EvenMaxPlanck,whohadbroughtEinsteintoBerlinand
urgedhimtostayonseveralpreviousoccasions,agreedthatEinstein's"political"statementsmadeitimpossibleforhimtoremainintheacademy.
12
Einsteinvowed
nevertosetfootinGermanyagain."TheconductofGermanintellectualsasagroupwasnobetterthantherabble."
13
On1April,thedayoftheJudenboykottandinthemidstofthefuroroverEinstein,LisespenttheeveningwithMaxandMagdavonLaue.Thenextdaysheguardedly
wrotetoOtto,"[Laue]isoftheopinionthatunderthecircumstancesweshallnotbeabletodowithoutyouforverylong.Theuniversityvacationhasbeenofficially
extendedto1May,obviouslytoprovidetimetoarriveatapositiononvariousquestions."
14
Whatwascomingwasthe"LawfortheRestorationoftheProfessionalCivilService"(GesetzzurWiederherstellungdesBerufsbeamtentums),enactedon7April.
"NonAryans"andpoliticalundesirablesweretobepurgedfromallgovernmentagencies,includingtheuniversities,a"nonAryan"beingdefinedasapersonwithat
leastoneJewishgrandparent.Thereweresomeexemptions:JewswhohadbeenappointedtotheirpositionsbeforeWorldWarI,orwhohadfoughtatthefront,or
whosefatherorsonhadbeenkilledinthewar.
Asanadjunctuniversityprofessor,LiseMeitnerwasrequiredtofilloutaquestionnairegivingdatesofemployment,typeofwarservice,andultimatelytheonly
questionofimportancetheRassezugehrigkeitder4Grobeltern,the"racialmembership"ofherfourgrandparents.
15
MeitnerhadneverconcealedherJewish
descent.Still,towritethewordnichtarischforthefirsttime,blackonwhite,forhergrandparentsandthusherselfwasclearlyastepintotheunknown.
Itwasunclear,however,howthelawwouldaffectMeitner'spositionintheinstitute,sincetheKWIforChemistry,unliketheuniversities,wasfundedandadministered
byanindustrygovernmentpartnershipthathadneverbeenunderdirectgovernmentcontrol.Then,too,shehadbeenemployedasanassistanttoPlanckbeforethe
war,shehadservedinthemilitary,and,beingAustrian,shewasnotsureshewassubjecttoaGermancivilservicelaw.AgainandagainMeitnerdiscussedher
situationwithMaxvonLaue.Wouldthingsgetworse?Orwouldthismadnessbebrief,asmanypredicted,anddecencyassertitself?Ifdismissed,wherewouldshe
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go?Ifpermittedtostay,shouldsheresignanyway,onprinciple?On26April,CarlBosch,directoroftheI.G.Farbenindustrie,amajorsponsoroftheKWIfor
Chemistry,assuredMeitnerthat"specialregulationsarebeingintensivelysoughtfordeservingmenandwomenofsciencewhoaresubjecttotheCivilServiceAct.
ThereforeIentirelywelcometheadvicethatProfessorvonLauehasgivenyou,nottoentertainthoughtsofresigningatthistime,buttocontinueyourverymeaningful
workattheKaiserWilhelmInstitute."
16
Butintheuniversitiesthenewlawcreatedhavoc.In1933,thereweresome600,000JewsinGermany,about1percentofthepopulation.Buttheirrepresentationin
theacademiccommunitywasmuchhigher:about20percentinthesciencesoverall,over25percentinphysics.InAprilandMay1933,JewsfromPrivatdozentto
Professorwerequicklyandsystematicallydismissed.Fromtheirstudentsandcolleaguescamenottheslightestpublicprotestnoexpressionsofoutrage,nostudent
orfacultystrikesontheirbehalf,nodemandsforacademicfreedomorappealstofairnessanddecency.Onthecontrary,theuniversitieshadbeenthebreeding
groundsforrightwingideologyforyears.
17
AsNationalSocialiststudentgroupsflexedtheirnewpoliticalmuscle,theirteachersdidthesame,fromyoung
Privatdozentstoprominentprofessors.EventherectoroftheUniversityofBerlin,oneLudwigBieberbach,woreabrownshirt:amathematician,hewasoneofthe
leadingproponentsoftheNazideutscheMathematikandeventuallyeditedajournalspecializingin"Aryanmathematics."
18
Thosewhowereexemptfromdismissalduetowarservicefaceddifficultdecisions.Shouldtheystayandfight?Shouldtheyresigninprotest?Orshouldtheyjustget
out?JamesFranckwasaNobellaureate,directoroftheSecondPhysicsInstituteinGttingen,and,untilHitlercametopower,thelikelysuccessortoWaltherNernst
intheUniversityofBerlinandeventuallytoFritzHaberasdirectoroftheKWIforPhysicalChemistryinDahlem.Franckhadservedatthefrontwithdistinction
buton17April1933hesubmittedhisresignation:
WeGermansofJewishdescentarebeingtreatedasaliensandenemiesoftheFatherland....Whoeverwasinthewarissupposedtoreceivepermissiontoservethestatefurther.I
refusetomakeuseofthisprivilege,eventhoughIalsounderstandthepositionofthosetodaywhoconsiderittheirdutytoholdoutattheirposts.
19
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Franck'sresignationwasconsideredsensationalandwaswidelypublishedEdithHahnwasalmostenviousoftheFrancks"forbeingJewsandthushavingjustice
entirelyonyourside,whilewebearthedisgraceandinextinguishable,irreparableshameforalltime."
20
AmongFranck'sGttingencolleagues,fortytwoinstructors
accusedhimofinflamingantiGermanpropagandawithhispublicresignationandcondemneditas"equivalenttoanactofsabotage."
21
MaxBorn,headoftheInstituteforTheoreticalPhysics,leftGttingenquietly.Hismilitaryserviceprovidedgroundsforappeal,butheknewhedidnothavethe
staminaforafight.TheexampleofhisfriendEinsteinwasnotencouraging.
On25April1933thenewspaperpublishedalistofcivilservantsdismissed...[including]mynameandthoseof[mathematicianRichard]CourantandothermenofJewishorigin.
Thoughweexpectedthis,ithitushard.AllIhadbuiltupinGttingenduringtwelveyears'hardwork,wasshattered....Iwentforawalkinthewoods,indespair,broodingonhow
tosavemyfamily.WhenIcamehomenothingseemedtohavechanged.Hedikeptherheadandshowednosignofdesperation.Thenvisitorsbegantodropintoexpresstheir
sympathy....Buttherewereotherswhogotonournerves....Thezoologist[Alfred]Khn...triedtoconsolemewiththeconsiderationthatwewereincrisislikewarjustasone
maniskilledinbattle,whiletheothersurvived,soithappenedthatIbelongedtothecasualties....[I]tmademeirrationallyangry.
22
Surveyingthedamage,EinsteinwrotetoBornattheendofMay,"Youknow,Ithink,thatIhaveneverhadaparticularlyfavorableopinionoftheGermans(morally
andpoliticallyspeaking).ButImustconfessthatthedegreeoftheirbrutalityandcowardicecameassomethingofasurprisetome."
23
SomeJewishprofessorswithexemptionstriedtostayonbutsoonrealizedtheirmistake.Colleaguesspreaddefamatoryrumorsstudentsjeeredanddisruptedtheir
lectures.Studentswereinnomoodforlearninganyway.Campaigningagainstthe"unGermanspirit,"theGermanStudentsAssociationwantedallbooksbyJewish
authorsmarked"translatedfromtheHebrew"andorganizedpublicbookburningstotakeplacethroughoutGermanyonthenightof10May.InBerlintheeventwas
heldinthelargesquarenexttotheOpera,acrossUnterdenLindenfromthemainentrancetotheuniversity.Sometwentythousandbookswentupinflamesthat
nightEinstein,Freud,Kafka,Marx,Heine,andothersas
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thousandsofstudentsandprofessorscarriedthebooksinbythearmful,hurledthemintothefire,andstayedforthepleasureofwatchingthemburn.
24
Thiswasthe
imageofthenewGermany,portendingthedestructionthatlayahead.
ButtothegreatmajorityofGermans,itdidnotmatterthatbookswereburnedornewspaperswereshutdownorthatJews,Communists,andSocialistswerethrown
outofworkorputinjail.MostGermanswelcomedthenewnationalspiritandthechancethattheireconomicsituationmightimproveandeventhosewhodisliked
theharshnessofthenewregimeaccepteditslegality.AmongJews,fewunderstoodthattheNaziswoulduseanymeansnotjust"laws"butdeception,threats,and
violencetoremovethemfromGermanlife.ItwouldtaketimebeforeitwasclearthatnoJew,nomatterhowfarfromJudaismorhowdevotedtoGermany,was
safe.ForthesereasonsthefateofFritzHabercameasasurpriseandarevelation.
Haber,chemist,Nobellaureate,anddirectoroftheKWIforPhysicalChemistryandElectrochemistrysinceitsinception,wasapassionateGermanpatriot.TheHaber
processforthesynthesisofammoniahadbeenessentialtothewartimeproductionofnitratesformunitionshehadorganizedandledthepoisongasunitduringthewar
andthenhadspentyearsunsuccessfullytryingtoextractgoldfromseawaterinthehopeofpayingoffGermany'scripplingwarreparations.AbaptizedJew,he
dissociatedhimselffromJudaismhischildrenwerebaptizedandheattendedchurchoccasionallybuthewassurroundedbyJewsnevertheless:hisbestfriends,his
twowives,and,inevitably,manytalentedassociateswhocouldnotfindworkelsewherebecauseoftheentrenchedantiSemitisminacademiaandthechemical
industry.
25
InmidApril1933,HaberwasinformedbythePrussianMinistryofEducationthatthenumberof"nonAryans"inhisinstitutewasintolerable.(UnlikeotherKaiser
WilhelmInstitutes,Haber'swasunderdirectgovernmentcontrol,sothatheandhisassociateswerecivilservants.)Becausehehadservedatthefrontandhadbeen
employedpriorto1914,Haberhimselfwasnotthreatenedwithdismissal,buttheministrywasdemandingthathecarryoutapurge:histhreesectionleaders,several
assistants,technicians,andsecretaries,includingIreneSackur,thedaughterofOttoSackur,thechemistwhowaskilledinatestofmilitaryexplosivesin1914.
Desperatetoprotecthisinstituteandpersonnel,Haber
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turnedtohisfriendsforadvice,includingRichardWillsttter,MaxvonLaue,andLiseMeitner.AtonetimeMeitnerhaddescribedHaberaswantingtobe"bothyour
bestfriendandGodatthesametime."Nowhesimplyneededhisfriends."IrememberourtalkswithHaber,"LauewrotetoMeitneryearslater,"whenhesought
adviceandwrestledwiththedecisionofhowtodealwiththedifferent,conflictingdemandsfromtheNazisconcerningthereopeningofhisinstituteaftertheEaster
vacation.Thespiritualsufferingthatthisgreatmanenduredisunforgettable."
26
Haberfinallyrealizedhehadnochoice:hehadbeenstrippedofhisauthoritywithinhisinstituteandhisstandingoutside.Hesubmittedhisresignationon30April:"My
traditionrequiresofmethatinmyscientificpositionIselectmycollaboratorsonthebasisoftheirprofessionalqualitiesandtheircharacter,withoutquestioningtheir
racialcondition."
ForaweekHaberheardnothing.ThenBernhardRust,PrussianMinisterofEducation,mentionedinapublicaddressthatawellknownJew,achemist,insistedon
choosinghiscollaboratorsonthebasisoftheirqualifications.Thiswascompletelyunacceptable,Rustsaid."WemusthaveanewAryangenerationintheuniversities
orwewilllosethefuture."Haberwasout,brushedawaylikeaninsect.Hewasalreadyinpoorhealthitalmostbrokehisspirit.Hefeltuseless,bitter,andalonehe
thoughthehadlivedtoolong.Hehopedtoturnhisinstituteovertoaworthysuccessor,butthattoowouldbedeniedhim.
27
MaxPlanckhadbeenvacationinginItalysincethebeginningofApril,butwhenMeitnerwrotetohimofHaber'sdismissalhehurriedbacktoBerlin.Aspresidentof
theKWGhewaspreparedtointercedeonHaber'sbehalf,buthehadnotpaiddetailedattentiontothenewsfromGermany,andtheideaofchallengingthe
governmentbewilderedhim.YearslaterMeitnerrecalledthatwhentheywerediscussingHaber,Planck"oncesaid,trulydesperately,'ButwhatshouldIdo?Itisthe
law.'AndwhenIsaid:Buthowcansomethingsolawlessbealaw?heseemedvisiblyrelieved."
28
PlanckmetwithHitleron16May1933.AccordingtoPlanck'saccount,publishedfourteenyearslater,HitlerrantedagainstJewsingeneral,workinghimselfintosuch
aragethatPlanckcoulddonothingbutwaitinsilenceuntilhecouldtakehisleave.
29
Fromcontemporaryreports,however,itappearsthatthemeetingwasnotso
discouraging.Formuchofthesummerof1933,Planck,Heisenberg,andLauewerefairlyoptimisticthatthemoreprominent"nonAryan"physicistsmightbeallowed
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tostaymostoftheolderphysicistshadmilitaryexemptionsandtheyurgedMaxBornandotherstodelaytakingpositionselsewhere.Theywerewillingtosee
someJewsgo,butforthesakeofGermanscience,notallitwas,attheveryleast,aformofcollaborationwiththeNaziregime.AsHeisenbergexpressedittoBorn,
"Since...onlytheveryleastareaffectedbythe[civilservice]lawyouandFranckcertainlynot,norCourantthepoliticalrevolution[i.e.,theNazitakeover]could
takeplacewithoutanydamagetoGttingenphysics....Certainlyinthecourseoftimethesplendidthingswillseparatefromthehateful."Heisenberg'soptimism,
especiallyhissuggestionthatitwaspossibletosacrificethe"veryleast"theyoungscientistsandstillsalvagephysicsandother"splendid"Germanthings,musthave
seemedtoBornasheartlessasthebattlefieldrationalethatsoinfuriatedhimthedayhewasdismissed.NeitherBorn,norFranck,norCourantreturnedtoGttingen
theywouldnot,ofcourse,havebeenabletostay.Themassdismissalsofscientiststheyoungandpromisingalongwiththeolderandmoreprominentdamaged
Germanscienceforyearstocome.
30
OttoRobertFrischhadbeeninHamburgsince1930,workingintheinstituteofOttoSternin1933Sternandmostofhiscollaborators,includingFrisch,were
dismissed.SterneventuallywenttotheCarnegieMellonInstituteinPittsburghFrisch,thentwentynineyearsold,hadtheadvantagesofyouth:optimismanda
willingnesstogoalmostanywhere.AlthoughhehadaRockefellerFoundationfellowshipforayearwithEnricoFermiinRome,thegrantwasrescindedbecausehedid
nothaveapermanentpositiontoreturnto(aRockefellerstatutethateffectivelyexcludednearlyalldismissed"nonAryans").Buttherewereotheropportunitiesthe
BritishwerehelpingdisplacedscholarsthroughtheAcademicAssistanceCouncil,ofwhichRutherfordwaspresident,andBohrwasdoingallhecouldtofind
positionsforrefugees,especiallyforyoungscientists,inhisowninstituteandelsewhere.
31
Inlate1933,FrischwenttoLondonforayearwithPatrickBlackettat
BirkbeckCollegeandthentoCopenhagenwherehestayeduntil1939.
32
IntheKWIforChemistry,LiseMeitner'spositionseemedsafeforthemoment,buttheoldtiesamongtheMitarbeiterweresubjecttoanewpoliticalalignment.
Hahn'schiefassistant,OttoErbacher,anactivepartymember,wasthepartysteward(Vertrauensmann)fortheinstituteKurtPhilipp,Meitner'schiefassistant,
followedenthusiastically.Oneofher
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students,GottfriedvonDroste,regularlyworehisbrownshirtafterjoiningtheSAattheurgingofanotherstudent,HerbertHupfeld,whoseviewsweresoextremethat
hesoonlefttheinstitute.PerhapsmostthreateningwasProfessorKurtHess,whoheadedanindependentsectionfororganicchemistry,thesocalledguestsection,on
thethirdflooroftheinstitutebuilding.Knowntoallasa"fanatic"Nazi,HesshadlongcovetedOttoHahn'spositionasdirectoroftheKWIforChemistry,anambition
fueledbytheeventsof1933.HesswasalsoMeitner'sneighbor:helivedintheapartmentadjoininghersintheinstitutevillaonThielallee.
33
Itwasdifficulttoconcentratethatspring.ForLise,therewereworrieddiscussionswithfriends,sleeplessnights,afeelingofhelplessnessandisolationforthe
Mitarbeiter,newpower,partymeetings,jostlingforstatuswithinthepartyhierarchy.
34
Whenstudentgroupsstagedralliesoutsidetheinstitute,thelaboratorieswould
empty.OncePhilippreturned,excitedandproud,"NowIcansingtheHorstWesselliedaswellasProfessorHess."Meitnerwasspeechlessforamoment.Philipp
wasnoboybutamannearlyfortyyearsold."I'mnotquitesurethat'swhatyou'rebeingpaidfor,"shefinallysaid.
35
Fourthousandmilesaway,OttoHahnwascomfortablyinsulatedfromtheeventsinGermany.Likemanyacademics,hehadalwaysbeenapoliticalnowhefoundit
difficulttobelievewhathereadinAmericanandCanadiannewspapers.
36
InaninterviewwiththeTorontoStarWeeklyinearlyApril,Hahnreflexivelydefended
GermanyandsuggestedthatanypersecutionofJewswasincidentaltothesuppressionofcommunismreferringtoHitler'sasceticpersonalhabits,Hahnsaidhe"lived
almostlikeasaint."Theinterviewwaspublishedundertheheadlines,"HeDefendsHitlerDeniesManWho'LivesLikeaSaint'IsGuiltyoftheAtrocitiesCharged."
37

Hahn'sinstinctivenationalismwasevidentlymorepronouncedthanhisconcernforcivilrights.Inthishewasnotalone:Planckandmanyother"good"Germanswere
willingtooverlooktheNazis'methodsatfirstinthehopethatsomething''splendid"wouldcomefromtherenewedsenseofnationalunity.
38
Hahnbecamealarmed,finally,whenhelearnedfromEdithandLisethatmanyoftheirfriendsandcolleagueshadbeendismissed.OnMay3,aboutthetimeof
Haber'sdismissal,LiseurgedOttotoreturnquickly.
Idothinkitwouldbebetterifyoureturnhereafteryourlecturesareover,anddon'tgoWestasplanned.ItishardforEdith,too,thatyouarenot
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here....Youknowhowdepressedshecanbeattimes,andIamnotexactlysuitedjustnowtomakeherfeelbetter.AratherlargeNat[ional]Soc[ialist]cellhasformedinthe
institute,itisallquitemethodical.Theuniversitiesarestartingclassesagain,nowthattheprescribedleavesofabsence[dismissals]havetakenplace....Iamquitetiredand...
somewhatuselessrightnow.
39
InhernextletterLiseapologizedfornotwritingmoreoften"for25yearsyouhaveknownofmystronginhibitionsagainstspeakingofemotionalthings"andagain
askedOttotogiveuphistriptoCaliforniaandreturntoBerlin."Thatistheopinionofallourscientificacquaintancesandcolleaguesandnotjustmypersonalwish....
Haber'sresignationisofcourseperceivedasverypainful.Alsonotverypleasantisthezealousactivityofallthosewhobelievethatanoutspokenshowof
obsequiousnesswillresultinsomepersonaladvantage."Nevertheless,Meitnerassuredhim,herrelationshipwithhisMitarbeiterandherscontinuedtobeverygood,
''andthatmakeseverythingeasier."
40
OttopreparedtoreturntoBerlinassoonashefinishedhislecturesatCornell."Itwilltakesometimebeforeyoureallyhavethefullpicture,"Lisewarned."Withsuch
greatupheavalsthelifeofanindividualplaysasubordinaterole,butevenhereitisobviouswhovaluespeopleandwhodoesnot.AndIwasnotsurprisedthatmy
housepartner[KurtHess]isofthelattertype.ButonemustadmirePlanck,Laue,[Wilhelm]Schlenk,andmanyothers....FranckwasinBerlinonceitisreallyvery
hardforhimnottobeallowedtosetfootinhis[former]institute,andthis,unfortunately,istrueformany."ShesawtheactionsagainstJewsasasymptomofadeeper
malaise."AntiSemitismisonlyoneproblemthereareproblemsasseriousorevenmoreserious,andanyonewhocaresaboutGermanyshouldbeworriedabout
whatwillbecomeofitall."
41
TheNaziswereconsolidatingtheirgriponeveryaspectofsociety.Ineducationtheyemphasizedpoliticalindoctrination"characterdevelopment"andexpressed
theircontemptforscholarshiporscientificresearch.Inthiscontext,intellectualsandscientistswhoopposedtheregimewereovercomebyafeelingofpowerlessness.
HahnencounteredthissoonafterreturningtoBerlin,whenheproposedthatalargenumberofwellknown"Aryan"professorsmightprotestthetreatmentoftheir
"nonAryan"colleagues."ButPlanck(andothers)advisedagainstit:'Iftodayyouassemble50suchpeople,thentomorrow150otherswillriseupwho
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wantthepositionsoftheformer,orwhoinsomewaywishtoingratiatethemselveswiththeMinister.'Ithereforedidnotattemptanything."
42
Becausetherewasno
groupprotest,individualsstoodalone.WilhelmSchlenk,aprominentchemistwhowasEmilFischer'ssuccessor,spokeoutagainsttheNazisandcontinuedtodefend
HaberhewasforcedtovacatehisBerlinprofessorship.
43
Planck,Hahn,andothersinpositionsofinfluencebelievedtherewaslittletheycoulddoexceptprotectthemselvesandsavewhatremainedoftheuniversities,learned
societies,andinstitutes.Butsurvivalcameataprice:immediatesubmissiononsomematters,protractedcompromiseontherest.UnderPlanck'spresidency,the
KaiserWilhelmGesellschaftdisplayedtheswastika,used"HeilHitler!"initscorrespondence,androutinelypraisedtheThirdReichinitsannualreportsinexchange,
theKWGretainedafew"nonAryan"scientistsforatimeandatenuousmeasureofscientificindependence.
44
Therewasnoquestion,however,thatitsmoraland
professionalauthoritywasgone.WhenHaberlefthisinstituteinthesummerof1933,Hahnsteppedinasinterimdirector.Inthatpositionhefollowedtheorders
Haberhadrefusedtocarryout:hedismissednearlyallpersonnelanddismantledtheinstitute,pavingthewayforthenewNaziappointeddirector,GerhartJander,
whoarrivedinthefall.JanderwouldhaveneverevenbeenconsideredforsuchapositionbyanypreNazistandardshisonlyresearch,ironically,hadbeenwith
chemicalweapons,andtheMinistryofDefensehopedtoconvertHaber'sformerinstituteintoaresearchfacilityforpoisongases.
45
Bytheendof1933,theKWIfor
PhysicalChemistrywasafullfledged"modelinstitute"staffedentirelybypartymembers,awarningtopotentialdissidentsthattheywereindeedutterlyreplaceable,
justasPlanckhadsuggestedtoHahn.Astohisownrole,Hahnwouldlaterclaimhehaddonehisbestwithan"unpleasantandthanklesstask."
46
Onecouldalsosay
thathehaddonetheNaziregime'sdirtyworkandlentthemhisgoodnameintheprocess,receivingnothingforitbutthevaguehopethatheandhisinstitutewouldbe
leftalone.Itwasapoorbargain,andnowtheNazisknewhisprice.
MembersoftheacademicelitehadneithertheideologicalstrengthnorthepoliticalexperiencenecessarytofighttheNazis.Theyweredisarmedbythepromiseofa
nationalrevival:theyhad,afterall,traditionallydisdainedthedivisivenessofpartypoliticsforthegreatergoodofservingthestate.Theideaofservingone'scountryby
opposingitsgovernment
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wasforeigntothem.Bythesummerof1933,activeresistanceorevenprotestseemedimpractical.LeoSzilard,ayoungHungarianphysicistwhoworkedbriefly
withMeitner,sensedthatattitudeevenbeforeHitlercametopower.
Many...peopletookaveryoptimisticviewofthesituation.TheyallthoughtthatcivilizedGermanswouldnotstandforanythingreallyroughhappening.ThereasonthatItook
theoppositepositionwas...[that]InoticedthattheGermansalwaystookautilitarianpointofview.Theyasked,"Well,supposeIwouldopposethisthinking,whatgoodwouldI
do?Iwouldn'tdoverymuchgood,Iwouldjustlosemyinfluence.ThenwhyshouldIopposeit?"Yousee,themoralpointofviewwascompletelyabsent,orveryweak....Andon
thatbasisIreachedin1931theconclusionthatHitlerwouldgetintopower,notbecausetheforcesoftheNazirevolutionweresostrong,butratherbecauseIthoughtthatthere
wouldbenoresistancewhatsoever.
47
Somewhoopposedtheregimeconsideredemigration.Itwasanagonizingdecision:shouldtheyabandonhopeforchangeandleavetheircountrytotheNazis?Or
shouldtheystay,lendingtheirtalentstotheThirdReich,signalingtotheworldthatfascismwastolerable?WernerHeisenberg"almostenviedthefriendswhosebasis
forlivinginGermanywasremovedfromthembyforcesothattheyknewtheyhadtoleaveourland."
48
Heisenbergdidnotleave,despiteattractiveoffersfrom
abroadhisbondstoGermanyandGermancultureweretoostrong.Tojustifyhisdecision,heimaginedthathehadembarkedonan"innerexile,"preservinganisland
ofGermancultureforthefuture,preservingthetrue,"hidden"Germanyfromtheonslaughtofnazism.Itwasafantasy:hecouldnotseparatethetwo,eitherinhis
personalactionsorinhisscientificwork.
49
ForPlanck,Heisenberg,Laue,andotherleadersofthescientificestablishment,themostappallingaspectofthenewregimewasnottheinjusticeorterrorbutthe
threattoGermanscienceandtheirownindependence.TheymayhaveregardedthetreatmentofJewishfriendsandcolleaguesasdistasteful,evenwrenching,butfor
themitwasnotintolerabletheirfocuswasnotonmoralityorindividualrightsbutontheirownprofession.Thusinthesummerof1933,PlanckandHeisenbergtriedto
keepprominentJewishscientistsinGermanybutdidnotdefendtherestlatertheysoughtthebestreplacementstheycouldfindforBornandFranckandcountless
otherswithoutworryingaboutthemoralityofreplacingpeoplewhohadbeenunethicallydismissed,orthefactthatthecontinuedsuccessofGermansciencemight
maketheNazislookrespect
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abletotheoutsideworld.Infact,scienceinGermanydeclinedduringtheNaziperiod.IthasbeenarguedthatGermansciencewasdamagedlessbythedismissal
policies(althoughthelosswassignificant,especiallyinphysics)thanbytheisolationoftheremainingGermanscientistsfromtheinternationalscientificcommunity.Asa
resultoftheirmoralweaknessandnarrownationalism,Germanswerecutofffromtheinternationalcontactsvitaltotheprogressofscience,notjustforthedurationof
theThirdReichbutfordecadesafter,notonlybydisplacedJewishcolleaguesbutbyscientistseverywhere.
50
Schrdinger,whowasnotJewish,reactedinstinctively:hefoundtheNazisdisgusting,andheleft.HisdeparturewasarebuketotheregimePlancktookitasablow
toGermanscience,whichitwas,andworriedaboutthepoliticaldamageitmightinflictonthoseleftbehind.HeaskedSchrdingertoaskforaleaveofabsenceand
tocitereasonsofhealth.SchrdingerdepartedforOxford.ThefactthatSchrdingercoulddoashepleaseddoesnot,ofcourse,meanthatotherswhowereless
prominentcoulddothesame.Schrdingerwasattheheightofhisfameandmobility:in1933theBritishscrambledtofindaplaceforhim.HewontheNobelPrize
thatyear,andwhenheleftOxfordin1936,hequicklyfoundapositioninAustria.
51
In1933manyoftheelderstatesmenofscience,includingPlanck,believedthattheNaziswouldsoonbecomemoreresponsible."Takeapleasanttripabroadand
carryonsomestudies,"Planckadvisedaworriedcolleague."Andwhenyoureturnalltheunpleasantfeaturesofourpresentgovernmentwillhavedisappeared."
52

AccordingtoMaxBorn,Planck"trustedthatviolenceandoppressionwouldsubsideintimeandeverythingreturntonormal.Hedidnotseethatanirreversible
processwasgoingon."
53
NeitherdidLiseMeitner.BothPlanckandHahnurgedhertostay,andthatwaswhatshewantedtohear.Emigrationwashard:theworldwasgrippedbydepression
andpositionswerescarce.Lisecouldnotbringherselftoleapintotheunknown,toreliveherearlydaysinBerlin,tobeafrightenedoutsideragain,astrangerina
foreignland.Sheclungtoherphysicssection:"Ibuiltitfromitsveryfirstlittlestoneitwas,sotospeak,mylife'swork,anditseemedsoterriblyhardtoseparate
myselffromit."
54
InNovember1933,NielsBohrobtainedaRockefellergrantforhertoworkforayearinhisinstituteshewentthroughthemotionsandthenturned
itdownafterPlancksuggestedthatherabsencemightjeopardize
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herreturntoBerlin.
55
WhenshelearnedthatSwarthmoreCollegeinPennsylvaniawasseekingaphysicist,shemadeitclearthatshewouldnotconsideraposition
untilsheknewmoreabout"laboratoryspace,howmanyassistantsareavailable,whetheritiscertainthatonecanobtaincoworkersinadditiontoassistants,howwell
oneisassistedwithmechanicsandworkshopsandwhetheritispossibletoworkwithrelativelylargequantitiesofradiumorotherradioactivesubstances"conditions
theundergraduatecollegecouldnotbegintomeet.
56
AlthoughMeitnerdemandedperfectionasaprerequisiteforemigration,sheeasilyfoundreasonstostayinBerlin.Thepoliticalsituationwasbadbutwouldsurely
improve.Untilthentheinstitutewasherhaven,herpositionsafe.Itwouldbewrongtogoabroadandtakeajobfromsomeonewhohadbeenforcedtoleave.
57
And
herrelationshipwithherstaffwassomething"quiteexceptional"inthepoliticalclimateoftheday:"Therewasreallyaverystrongfeelingofsolidaritybetweenus,built
onmutualtrust,whichmadeitpossiblefortheworktocontinuequiteundisturbedevenafter1933,althoughthestaffwasnotentirelyunitedinitspoliticalviews.They
were,however,allunitedinthedesirenottoletourpersonalandprofessionalsolidaritybedisrupted."
58
IfherMitarbeiterwerewillingtoworkwitha"nonAryan,"thenshewaswillingtooverlooktheirpolitics.Studentsandassistantsmightwearbrownshirtsandinterrupt
worktoattendrallies,butitwasperfectlyunderstandable:youngpeoplefounditnecessarytocooperateabitwiththeNazis"einbisschenmitmachen,"theycalled
itthatwasall.
59
Physicswastheimportantthing,andtherewasnobetterplacetodoitthaninherownphysicssection.Andsoshestayed,"onlytoowillingtolet
myselfbepersuadedbyPlanckandHahn."
60
LiseMeitnerwouldnotleaveuntilshelosteverythingandwasdrivenout.UntilthenGermanygaveherwhatshethoughtwasessential:herworkwasuntouched,her
positionwasthesame,mostofherfriendswerestillthere.ShehadPlanck,thefatherfiguresheadmiredwithoutreservation:sheoverlookedhispoliticalstumbles,
seeingonlyhisinnerintegrityanduncompromisedmoralstrength.ShehadherFachbruderOtto,whowasnotonlyherfriendandcolleaguebutnow,inhispositionof
directoroftheKWIforChemistry,herprotection.ShehadGustavandEllenHertzforcompany,theLauesformoviesandcartripsonweekends,andherfriend
ElisabethshehadtherichmusicallifeofBerlin,andhersistersand
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brotherinViennawereonlyaday'strainrideaway.Inshort,shehadalifeshelovedandworkthatwashers,andifthingswerenotquiteasgoodasbefore,shechose
nottodwellonit.Shewasnotpreparedtogiveupwhatshehadfortheunknown.Shehadseenfirsthandtheenormousdisplacementofherexiledfriendsandthe
tragedyofHaber.
ButMeitner'sprofessionalactivitiesoutsidetheinstitutewereover.Duringthesummerof1933,Meitner'snameappearedonalistoffacultytobedismissedfromthe
UniversityofBerlinalthoughexemptionswereprovidedforthosewhohadbeenplanmssige(regular)employeespriortothewar,therewassomequestionwhether
Meitner'sassistantshipwithPlanckwasplanmssigsinceshedidnotundergoHabilitationuntil1922.Inlastminutepleas,PlanckstressedtheimportanceofMeitner's
workandHahnarguedthatherassistantshipwouldhavebeenplanmssighadwomenbeenpermittedHabilitationbeforethewar.
61
ThePrussianministrywasnot
moved.On6September1933,Meitner'svenialegendiwasrescinded:"Sofort![Atonce!]BaseduponthethirdparagraphoftheLawfortheRestorationoftheCivil
Serviceof7April1933,IrevokeherewiththerighttoteachattheUniversityofBerlin."Thereasons:"3:100%nonAryanmilitaryserviceasxraytechniciannot
atthefrontassistant1912,hab[ilitated]1922,unprotectedvote:tobedismissed."
62
ThelossofherexternalprofessorshipattheuniversityhadnodirecteffectonMeitner'sworkintheinstituteorhersalary.Butintheuniversityshewasapariah,unable
toteachortakeonnewdoctoralstudents.AndsheneveragainattendedMaxvonLaue'sWednesdayphysicscolloquium.
63
Thatwashard,butthecolloquiumwas
notthesameeither.Einstein,Haber,andSchrdingerweregonemorethanonethirdoftheBerlinphysicists,includingmanyyoungpeople,hadbeendismissedorno
longerattended,andfarfewervisitorschosetocomefromabroad.
64
NotjusttheuniversitiesbuteverypublicorganizationwasrequiredtoadoptNazigoalsandmethods,aprocessknownasGleichschaltung,oralignment.Scientific
societiesfellintoline,barringJewsandsurrenderingorganizationalcontroltoaNazileaderresponsibleonlytohigherauthorities,anarrangementknownasthe"Fhrer
principle."Meitnerwasnolongerpermittedtogivereportsatscientificmeetingseventuallyshestoppedattendingentirely.By1936,evenhernamewassuppressed.
Hahnnotedthat"oneconstantlyhearsessentiallyonlymynameforaninvestigationinwhichLiseMeitnerhasparticipatedatleastasmuchasI
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have."
65
HadMeitnernotcontinuedtopublish,shewouldhaveentirelydisappearedfromview.
AlthoughMeitnerretreatedintoherinstitute,shewasnotentirelyinsulatedfromthehostilityoutside.In1934,HermannFahlenbrach,ayoungDozentwhomaco
workerlaterdescribedasa"troublemakerinthenastiestway,"triedtobringchargesagainstherattheinstigationofhisDozentassociationleader.Thirteenyearslater,
whenhisNazipastwasunderinvestigation,FahlenbrachbeggedMeitnertoexoneratehim,explainingthathehadbeenjustanimmaturetwentyfiveyearold"West
phalianhothead"whoresentedworkingforawoman.
66
Trueornot,Meitnerknewthiswasirrelevant,foritwasrace,notgender,thatmadeheratargetforany
opportunistictroublemakerwhocamealong.
Attimesracialattacksweredisguisedasscientificcriticism.In1935,whenMeitnerandhertheoreticalassistantMaxDelbrckpublishedamonographonnuclear
structure,
67
areviewerforNaturwissenschaftensawhischancetoinflictharm."Onecannotingoodconsciencerecommendthisbookforfurtherdistribution,"he
warned,becauseitcontaineda"graveerrorwhichmightcausegreatconfusioninwidercircles."Theerror?AphotographtakenbyCurieandJoliotwasmistakenly
attributedtoChadwick,Blackett,andOcchialini.Unwillingtopublishthebiasedreview,theeditorofNaturwissenschaftensoughtadvicefromArnoldSommerfeld,
whoagreedthatthe"completelyunfoundedinvectiveagainstourdearMeitnershouldnotbeprinted."
68
Naziactivistsinthescientificcommunityclamoredforconformityinallofscience,includingscientificpublications.TheywerefuriousthatNaturwissenschaften
continuedtoacceptarticlesfromJewsMeitner,forexample,publishedalmostnowhereelsebetween1933and1935andinretaliationtheyboycottedthejournal
soseverelythatitfacedextinctionbytheendof1933.Itseditor,ArnoldBerliner,pleadedforarticlesfromfriends."Iamnowinfactlivingwiththejournalfromhand
tomouth,"hewrotetoSommerfeldinOctober1933.Andamonthlater,"Naturwissenschaftenisdoingverybadly....EveryarticleInowreceiveistrulyhelpin
need....Ithasbeengentlycalledtomyattention[bythepublisher]thatIhavetoomany'nonAryans'amongtheauthors.Thatwillgraduallycometoandendofits
ownaccord."
69
Itdid,butthatwasnotenoughtosavethejournal,forBerlinerwashimselfaJew.HugoDingler,aphilosopherofscience,regardeditas"beneathmy
dignityforobviousreasons"
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tohavehisbooksreviewedinNaturwissenschaften.
70
Twolongtimepromotersofaracist"Aryanphysics,"JohannesStarkandErnstGehrcke,accusedBerlinerof
conspiringwithPlancktosuppressfreediscussioninthesciencesby"propagatingEinstein'steachingsfordecades,totheexclusionofeveryotheropinion."
71
The
effectofsuchattackswasaugmentedbythesilenceofthegreatmajority.Naturwissenschaftendidpoorly,andinAugust1935,itspublisher,JuliusSpringer,
summarilydismissedBerliner.BerlinerhadfoundedNaturwissenschaftenandbeenitseditorfortwentytwoyears."Theformofmydismissalwastrulyanaffront,"he
notedsadly,"notbecauseitlackedfairness,butbecauseofitsclumsinessandcowardice."
72
OnhiscardhewroteundertheprintedDr.ArnoldBerliner:''hadto
leaveNw,hislifelongwork,on[13August]becausehehadbecomeunbearableforthepublisher."
73
ForNaziideologues,thepurgeofindividualJewishscientistswasnotenough:theywantedtoexpungeJewishinfluencefromscienceitself.Asadiscipline,physicswas
particularlythreatened,notjustbecauseadisproportionatenumberoftalentedphysicistshadbeendismissedbutalsobecausemoderntheoreticalphysicswasunder
attackasalientotheAryansoul.AnewgospelofGermanorAryanphysicsdeclaredthesuperiorityofGermanspiritoverdecadentmaterialism,experimentover
theory,truthoverlogic,intuitionoverincomprehensiblemathematics.Underlyingitwasthebeliefthatintellectwasafunctionofrace,productsoftheNordicmind
beinginherentlysuperiortoanythingJewish.(Curiously,Aryanphysicswasalsoacclaimedforitsmodesty.)Begunintheearly1920swiththeviciouscampaignagainst
Einsteinandrelativity,Aryanphysicswasfosteredbytwophysicistswithseeminglyimpeccablecredentials,PhilippLenardandJohannesStark.BothwereNobel
laureates,bothdifficultmen,embitteredbyscientificandpersonalslights,resentfulofsocialandscientificchangestheycouldnotfollow.Extremenationalists,theysaw
Germany'sdefeatinthewarasbetrayal,andtheydespisedtheWeimardemocracyscientifically,too,theywereunabletograsprelativityandquantumtheory.
74
The
internationalacclaimforthepacifistEinsteinandothertheoreticianswasmorethantheycouldbear.Theydistilledtheirnationalism,envy,andracisminto"Aryan
physics."
75
Asscience,Aryanphysicswassoemptythatfewtookitseriouslyatfirst.Politically,however,itposedanimmediatethreattoscientificinstitutionsalreadyweakened
bythedismissalpolicy.Itsadvocatesattackedtheore
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ticianssuchasWernerHeisenbergforteachingrelativityandquantumtheoryanddenouncedtheNobelawardsforfallingpreytoaJewishconspiracy.
76
Itappeared
thatthevacuumcreatedbythedismissalswouldsoonbefilledbymediocrepeoplewhosescientifictalentswerenotnearlyasstrongastheirpartyloyalty.
Underthesecircumstances,anumberofscientistsralliedtothedefenseoftheirprofession.Asagroup,theyhadbeenlargelysilentwhenGermandemocracyand
politicalfreedomweredestroyedsilent,too,whenracialpersecutiondrovetheircolleaguesintoexile.Theysawtheseas"political"issuesoutsidetheirsphereof
responsibility,buttheywerewillingtotakeastandwhentheirowninfluenceandthefutureoftheirscientificdisciplineswereatstake.Theirprincipalspokesmanwas
Planck,whomMeitnerreveredlessforhispoliticalacumenthanforhis"unflinchingmoralprobityanddesireforjustice."
77
Plancktirelesslyappealedforunfettered
scientificresearch,arguingthatscientificqualitywasvitaltoGermany'sstrengthanditsimageabroad.Toalargeextent,thisargumentsucceeded.Despiteitscontempt
forallthingsintellectual,theThirdReichsupportedscientificresearchoncetheuniversitieshadbeenpurgedofJews,theregimeleftmostscientists,includingknown
antiNazis,relativelyfreetocarryontheirwork.
TheKaiserWilhelmGesellschaftprospered.ItmanagedtoavoidathoroughgoingGleichschaltung,retaineditsnonNazidirectors,andkeptanumberofJewish
professorsforseveralyears.Suchindependence,however,requiredademonstrationofpoliticalallegiance.TheKWGanditsmemberinstitutesadoptedapolicyof
voluntaryselfalignment,orSelbstgleichschaltung,thatrequiredvirtuallyeverymovetobeweighedonahighlysensitivepoliticalbalance.
78
IntheKWIforChemistry,SelbstgleichschaltungpermittedOttoHahnandLiseMeitnertoremaininchargebutgavetheirassistants,OttoErbacherandKurtPhilipp,
bothpartymembers,considerableinfluenceinrunningtheinstitute.
79
SelbstgleichschaltungmeantthatthechemistFritzStrassmann,anoutspokenantiNazi,couldstay
butthathecouldnotbepromotedorpaidadecentsalary.ItmeantthattheinstitutecloseditsdoorstoanymoreJewsorantiNazis,atatimewhenJewsand
dissidentscouldfindfewotherplacestoworkasscientists.AndalthoughHahnandMeitnercouldexercisesomechoiceincoworkersHahnacceptedonedoctoral
student,W.SeelmannEggebert,becausehewastheonlyone
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whodidnotsay"HeilHitler!"duringtheinterviewtheyeventuallyexcludedanyonewhowaspoliticallytaintedintheThirdReich.Thusin1935,MartinNordmeyer,
ayoungphysicistwhohadbeenblacklistedforhisantiNaziviews,appealedtoPlanck,"FrauProf.Meitnerhasinformedmethatyoufearthatmyemploymentcould
beaburdentotheinstitute....TheKWIistheonlypossiblesolutionforme,justbecauseitisnotunderuniversityregulations....Itmeansthedifferencebetween
workinginscientificresearchorgivingupphysics."Nordmeyerwasnottakenonintheinstitute,evenasanunpaidvolunteer.
80
Inpractice,then,Selbstgleichschaltungmeantvirtuallycompletepoliticalcollaborationinexchangefornoninterferencewithscienceasusual.Scientistswhoopposed
theregimewereconvincedthiswasthebesttheycoulddo:theywerebuyingtime,preservingGermansciencebytrainingthenextgeneration.Determinedtoavoid
confrontation,theyleftpoliticstothestateandashowofmoraloutragetoothers.Politicaldefiance,theyweresure,wouldonlybecrushedandsubservience
rewarded,asshownbytheswiftdestructionofHaber'sinstituteandthenew,utterlymediocreNazimodelinstitutethattookitsplace.
Butbyrepresentingthemselvesasprofessionalsworkinginthenationalinterest,scientistsbecame,tovaryingdegrees,servantsoftheFasciststate.WithinGermany,
adherencetotheprincipleofsciencenotpoliticsmadeitimpossibleforscientiststowithholdtheirexpertisefromtheNazis,especiallyintimeofwar.Totheoutside
world,theirabilitytoconductscienceasbeforecouldbetakenasasignthattheNaziregimewastolerable.
Scientistsonlygraduallybecameawareofthisdilemma.Meitnerfoundthatshewas"constantlyvacillatingbetweenthenecessityofdoingnothing,whichwentagainst
one'sconscience,andtheresponsibilityfortheinstituteandtheMitarbeiter."Evenso,yearswentbybeforeshefullyunderstoodthatherdecisiontostayinGermany
after1933hadbeen"verywrong,notonlyfromapracticalpointofview,butalsomorally.UnfortunatelythisdidnotbecomecleartomeuntilafterIhadleft
Germany."
81
Formostscientists,however,themoralityofworkingundertheThirdReichwasneveranissue.Onthecontrary,theyconvincedthemselvesthattheyresistedthe
Nazismosteffectivelybykeepingsciencefreeofmoralorpoliticalquestions.HeisenbergobjectedstronglywhentheNazisinterferedwiththeoreticalphysics,butafter
theylefthimalone,hewasready
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toworkinanyscientificcapacityandeventuallydirectedtheGermanfissionproject.PlanckdetestedtheNazisbutacquiescedtocompromisesthatsustainedGerman
scienceingeneralandtheKWGinparticular.
82
Hahnanxiouslytriedtocompartmentalizehisprivateandprofessionallives,fearingthathisantiNaziviewsmight
jeopardizetheKWIforChemistryorhisownpositionasdirector.
OnenoticedthattherewasmuchthatIdisagreedwith.IneverparticipatedinMaydaycelebrations!Thepresenceof...L.Meitnerdidnotmakethesituationbetter.Thusatthe
yearlymeetingsoftheKWG,Iwasalwaysseatedinalessprestigiousplaceatthedinnertablethanwasappropriateformypositionandmyageandmylengthofservicewiththe
KWG.
83
Longafterthewar,Hahnwouldstillrecalltheseminorslightsas"painfulexperiences,"
84
althoughhisinstituteneveractuallysuffered.Obsessedwithhisinstituteand
frightenedforthefuture,hewouldnotcomplicatematterswithmoralreservations.
AstheNazisconsolidatedtheirhold,organizedresistancewascompromisedoreliminatedineverysegmentofsociety.TradeunionsdisappearedintotheNaziLabor
FrontpoliticalpartiesotherthantheNSDAPwerebannededucation,thepress,andtheartscameentirelyunderNazicontrol.Inareligiousversionof
Selbstgleichschaltung,theVaticanhastenedtosealaConcordatwiththeNazis,renouncingpoliticalinvolvementinreturnforreligiousprotection.Protestantchurches,
toanoverwhelmingextent,gavetheThirdReichtheirblessing.Some,likeMaxvonLaue,expectedthearmytoresist,butwhenHitlerassumedthedualroleof
presidentandsupremecommanderinthesummerof1934,hedidsowiththesupportofthemilitaryhighcommand.Fromthattimeon,everyorganizedstatefunction
wasunderHitler'sdirectcontrol.Rearmamentandconscriptionfollowedin1935,aviolationoftheTreatyofVersaillesthattheEuropeanpowerschosetoignore.
Emboldened,HitlerintensifiedhisoffensiveagainsttheJews.TheNuremberglawsof1935completedtheirlegalandsocialisolationbystrippingJewsoftheir
citizenshipandplacingthem,withoutrightsorprotection,atthemercyoftheNazistate.
AmongscientiststheonlyinstanceoforganizedprotestcenteredaroundFritzHaber,whodiedinSwitzerlandofheartfailureon29January1934,afewmonthsafter
leavingGermany.Noofficialnoticewastakenofhisdeath,althoughafewindividualsspokeout.InanobituaryforNaturwissenschaften,LauecomparedHaberto
Themistocles,theGreekmilitary
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herowhowasbanishedfromAthens:"Themistoclesdidnotgodowninhistoryasanexile...butasthevictoratSalamis.Haberwillgodowninhistoryasthegenius
whodiscoveredthemeansofbindingnitrogenandhydrogen."
85
AtLaue'surging,PlanckarrangedfortheKWGtoholdamemorialserviceonthefirstanniversaryofHaber'sdeath.
86
ThePrussianministerofeducation,Bernhard
Rust,wasenragedbythis"provocationoftheNationalSocialistState"andforbadeanyoneunderhisjurisdictiontoattendtheSocietyofGermanChemistsdidthe
same.
87
Planckfounditpainfullydifficulttodefythegovernment.Finally,theeveningbefore,hetoldLise,"Iwilldothisserviceunlessthepolicehaulmenot."
88
Theservicewasdignifiedandwellattended.MaxPlanckandOttoHahnweretheonlyspeakers.Nouniversityprofessors,notevenMaxvonLaue,
89
daredattend
theirwivescameintheirstead.Scientistsfromindustry,militaryrepresentatives,anddiplomatsfilledtheauditorium,andLiseMeitner,FritzStrassmann,Elisabeth
Schiemann,andMaxDelbrckwerethere.
90
Planckendedhisspeechwiththewords,"Haberwastruetous,weshallbetruetohim."
91
AccordingtoHahn,theHabermemorialshowedthat"duringtheearly
yearsoftheHitlerregimesomeresistanceminor,tobesurewasstillpossible."
92
ButtheHabermemorialwastheonlyconcertedactofprotestbythescientific
community.Asresistance,itwaslittlemorethanagesture.Itdidnotcallforactionorinspiretheresolvetocarryonthefight.Rather,theexperienceseemedto
exhausttheparticipants.Hahnfearedhehad''distinctlyweakened"hisinstitute.
93
Likemostofhiscolleagues,heavoidedfurtherprotestfromthenon.
Thereweresomewhohadmorecourage.OnewasFritzStrassmann,whoriskedhiscareerandevenhisliferatherthanfollowtheNationalSocialistmajority.
StrassmannhadcometotheKWIforChemistryin1929withadoctorateinanalyticalchemistry,expectingthatayearwithOttoHahnwouldimprovehischancesfor
apositioninindustry.Findingtheworkandthepeopletohisliking,Strassmannextendedhisstayevenafterhissmallstipendexpiredin1932.By1933,hewasthirty
poundsunderweight,severelymalnourished,andsufferingfromfaintingspells,yetheturneddownalucrativeindustrialofferbecausethecompanyrequiredpolitical
trainingandpriormembershipinaNaziassociation.AnotherofHahn'sassistantstookthepositioninstead,andMeitnerprevailedonHahn
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topayStrassmann50marksamonthbarelyenoughforfoodoutofthedirector'sfundforspecialcircumstances.
94
ByrefusingtojoinNationalSocialistorganizations,Strassmannwasunemployableinacademiaorindustry.HeresignedfromtheSocietyofGermanChemistsin1933,
shortlyafteritbecamepartoftheLaborFront,aNazicontrolledpubliccorporationwithcompulsorymembershipforemployersandemployees.Thesocietylethim
knowhewouldbeblacklisted:"Weshallundertaketoplaceanappropriatenotationinyourfile."Strassmanndidnotbackdown:"Itwouldinterestmeverymuchto
knowifthatsentence...isintendedtoinfluencemeinaparticulardirection."
95
StrassmannhadnoprofessionalfutureexceptintheKWIforChemistry.In1935,Hahn
andMeitnerfoundanassistantshipforhim,athalfpay.
96
Heconsideredhimselffortunate,for"despitemyaffinityforchemistry,Ivaluemypersonalfreedomsohighly
thattopreserveitIwouldbreakstonesforaliving."
97
Whenhemarriedin1937,hiswife,alsoachemist,agreed.DuringthewarFritzandMariaHeckterStrassmann
concealedaJewishfriendintheirapartmentformonths,atenormousrisktothemselvesandtheirthreeyearoldson.
98
AphotographofStrassmanntakenjustafter
thewarshowsamanexhaustedbyyearsofdeprivationandanxiety.
In1934,MeitnerandHahnaskedStrassmanntojointhemintheirinvestigationofelementsbeyonduranium,aprojectthateventuallyculminatedinthediscoveryof
fission.Politicallyisolatedintheinstitute,MeitnerandStrassmannbecamecloseduringtheirlonghoursinthelaboratory.Helookedtoherastheintellectualleaderof
theirteam,whilesheinturndrewstrengthfromthetrustofheryoungercolleague.
99
OutsidetheinstituteMeitner'sclosestconfidantewasMaxvonLaue.WhentheNazisfirstcametopower,Lauefeltpowerlesstoopposethem.Hebelievedscientists
shouldnotactivelyengageinpoliticsand,afterfightingEinstein'sexpulsionfromthePrussianacademy,chidedhimforhispublicstatements."Politicalbattlescallfor
differentmethodsandpurposesfromscientificresearch.Scholarsareusuallychewedupbythem."Inreply,EinsteincitedscholarsfromSpinozatoAlexandervon
HumboldtwhohadtakenpoliticalstandsLaue'sresponsewassopedanticthatEinsteindecidednottoanswer.
100
Butduringthesummerof1933,Lauechanged.HefoughtbitterlytokeepJohannesStarkoutofthePrussianacademy.
101
InSeptember1933,
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LaueopenedaphysicsconferencebyreferringtoGalileo,condemnedbytheChurchfor"atheorythatarousedoppositionjustastherelativitytheoryhasdoneinthis
century....Powermayobstructknowledgeforatime,butknowledgewillprevail....Evenunderoppressionscholarscantakeheartwiththevictoriousknowledge...
'andstillitmoves!'"
102
Andagain,inthespringof1934,LauepraisedHaberinanobituaryforNaturwissenschaften.TheGalileospeechandtheobituaryprovoked
reprimandsfromtheMinistryofCulture."Someonetheremusthavefeltaneedtodosomethingformyamusement,"Lauecommented.
103
MaxvonLauehadachievedspiritualindependence.Thisqualitywasrare.Whileothersanxiouslyweighedeverywordanddeed,Lauewasfreetofollowhis
conscience.AsEinsteinwrote,"Thespinalcordplaysafarmoreimportantrolethanthebrainitself....Wereallyshouldnotbesurprisedthatscientists(thevast
majorityofthem)arenoexceptiontothisruleandiftheyaredifferentitisnotduetotheirreasoningpowersbuttotheirpersonalstature,asinthecaseofLaue.Itwas
interestingtoseethewayinwhichhecuthimselfoff,stepbystep,fromthetraditionsoftheherd,undertheinfluenceofastrongsenseofjustice."
104
On4August1934,thedayHitlerseizedcontrolofthearmy,LauebelievedGermanyhadreceiveda"final,mortaldaggerinitsback."
105
Heleftthepoliticalarena
anddevotedhimselftohelpingindividuals.AsArnoldBerlinerbecameincreasinglyisolated,depressed,andill,Lauewashismostfaithfulfriend.In1936,togetherwith
PlanckandHeisenberg,LauetriedtoforceaNobelPrizeforLiseMeitnerandOttoHahn,inthehopethattheawardwouldgivethemsomepoliticalprotection.
106

(After1936,whentheNobelPeacePrizewenttoCarlvonOssietzky,animprisonedpacifist,GermanswereforbiddentoacceptNobelawards.)OccasionallyLaue
wasabletowarncolleagueswhowereabouttolosetheirpositionsoftenhesmoothedtheirwayabroadwithinquiriesandtestimonials."Becausemailwascensored,
theseletterswentbymoresecureroutesovertheborder.OnetimeIbroughtsomeonewhowasbeingfollowedovertheCzechborderinmycar....Allthiswasdone
assecretlyaspossible."
107
Mostofwhathedidwillneverbeknown.AccordingtohisfriendJamesFranck,Laue"wasnotadaredevil,blindedagainstperilbyvitality
andgoodnerveshewasratherasensitiveandevenanervousmanwhoneverunderestimatedtheriskheraninopposingNazidom.Hewasforcedintothislineof
conductbecausehecouldbearthedangerthus
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incurredbetterthanhecouldhavebornepassiveacceptanceofagovernmentwhoseimmoralityandcrueltyhedespised."
108
LauewasproudofhisobituaryforHaberbutwaryofpurelysymbolicprotest.HedidnotattendtheHabermemorialservice:"Icouldnot...goagainstRust's
prohibition.Shortlybefore,IwentovertoHarnackHouseandestablishedthatmyspecialfriendLudwigAugustSommerwaslyinginwait,quitecertainlyforthe
purposeofdenouncingme,ifatallpossible."
109
In1937,LauesenthissontotheUnitedStates,sothathewouldnotbeforcedtofightforHitler.ButLauehimself
wouldnotleave.HewantedsomethingtosurviveoftheGermanyhevalued,andhewanted,aboveall,towitnessthedestructionoftheregimehehated.
110
Duringa
visittotheUnitedStatesin1937,anervousLauetoldEinstein,"IhatethemsomuchImustbeclosetothem.Ihavetogoback."
111
DuringthoseyearswhenMeitnerwasprofessionallyisolatedoutsideherinstitute,LauecameregularlytotheKWIforChemistrytotalktheycametorelyoneach
other'sintegrityandjudgment.AftertheendofWorldWarII,MeitnerwasnotsurprisedtofindthatLauewasamongtheveryfewwhotookresponsibilityforwhathe
haddone,andfailedtodo.Hewrotetoherin1958,
Iamnotoftheopinionthatwewereallfreeofguiltandonly"thoseontop"wereresponsible.Weallknewthatinjusticewastakingplace,wedidnotwanttoseeit....Camethe
year1933Ifollowedabannerthatweoughttohavetorndownatonce.Ididnotdoitandthereforemustalsobearresponsibility.
DuringthoseyearsLauehadlookedtoMeitnerforcourageandstrength.
Atthattime,inspiteofeverything,youtriedtounderstandus,guideduswithsuchtactthatImustadmireitmoreandmore....Oneday[inMay1933]thedoorbellrang.Itwas
JamesFranck.Onecouldseewhatlaybehindhim.Eveninthedepthsofourinstitutehehadnopeace,hefearedhispresencewouldjeopardizeit.Whenheleftmuchtoosoon
youspokewithusverycalmlyaboutthemanandthescientistFranck.QuiteincidentallyyoumentionedhisIronCrossI[aWorldWarImilitaryhonor].Didyourealizehow
deeplyyourwordsaffectedus?...[Y]ourgoodness,yourconsiderationhadtheireffect.Thenotionofhumanityacquiredsubstance.ForthisIamgratefultoyou....Iwassaved
fromthingsforwhichIwouldneverhavebeenabletoforgivemyself.
112
AslongasMeitnerremainedinBerlin,shehadnopremonitionofphysicaldangeranduntil1938freelytraveledabroadforinterludesof
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normalcy.InOctober1933,MeitnerattendedtheSolvayconferencedevotedtothesensationalfindingsof19321933:theneutron,thepositron,andthedeuteron
(theheavyisotopeofhydrogen),whichtogetherreshapednuclearphysics.ThemeetingmayhaveconvincedMeitnernottoleaveherlaboratory,whereshewas
engagedwithsomanyofthenewdiscoveries.AyearlatershetraveledtoLeningradforthecentennialcelebrationofMendeleev'sbirth,andshewasoftenin
CopenhagenforNielsBohr'sphysicsconferences.ShevisitedherfriendsDirkandMiepCosterinHollandandwelcomedvisitorsfromabroad.Itmaybethat
Meitnersensedhowurgentlyshewouldneedherfriendslateron.
Meanwhile,physicsgaveherstrength:itsobjectivityanduniversalvalidityseemedtorepudiatetheturmoiloutsidethelaboratory.Thesewords,fromaspeechgivenby
Planckin1935,heldspecialmeaningforher:"Thescientificincontrovertibilityofphysicsleadsdirectlytotheethicaldemandforveracityandhonesty.Andjusticeis
inseparablefromtruth....Justasthelawsofnatureworkconsistentlyandwithoutexception,ingreatthingsasinsmall,sotoopeoplecannotlivetogetherwithout
equaljusticeforall."
113
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ChapterSeven
TowardtheDiscoveryofNuclearFission
IfoundtheuseexperimentssofascinatingthatassoonastheyappearedItalkedtoOttoHahnaboutresumingourdirectcollaboration.
Thejourneytothediscoveryofnuclearfissionwasajumbleofpathsandblindalleys"WegeundIrrwege,"LiseMeitnerwouldlatersaythatmisledphysicistsand
chemists,experimentalistsandtheoreticiansforyearswhenfissionwasrecognized,finally,itwasasensationalsurprisethatwouldchangethehistoryofitstime.Had
fissionbeenbornintoaworldatpeace,itsenergymightfirsthavebeenusedtoprovidelightandheatforpeople'shomes.Hadfissionbeendiscoveredinaworldfree
ofracialpersecution,itmightwellhavebeenthecrowningachievementofLiseMeitner'scareer.
Thejourneybeganwiththediscoveryoftheneutronin1932.WhenMeitnerattendedtheseventhSolvayconferenceinBrusselsinOctober1933,theessentialnature
oftheneutronwasstillunknown,althoughexperimentswereunderwaytodetermineitsmass.Positrons,alsonewin1932,werebizarreinsomewaysbut,onthe
whole,betterunderstoodtheformationofpositronelectronpairswasconsistentwiththeoryanddemonstratedthatnewparticlescanbecreatedbythedirect
conversionofenergyintomatter.ReturningtoRomefromtheSolvayconference,EnricoFermimadeuseofthisidea,incorporatingWolfgangPauli'sproposedneutral
particle,theneutrino,intoatheoryofbetadecaythataccountedmostsatisfactorilyforthecontinuousbetaspectrum.Nuclearphysicswasmaturingrapidly,and
almostanythingseemedpossible.
1
InJanuary1934,yetanotherdiscoveryastonishedthephysicscommunity.Intheprocessofbombardinglightelementswithalphaparticles,IrneCurieandFrdric
Joliotfoundthatnewradioactiveisotopeswere
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producedthefirstinstanceofartificialradioactivity.Aluminum,forexample,reactedwithalphaparticlestoproduceradioactivephosphorus,
whichdecayedtostablesiliconbyemittingapositron,
Thehalflifeof
30
Pwasaboutthreeminutes.
2
"Thesignificanceoftheseextraordinarilybeautifulresultsiscertainlyveryfarreaching,"Meitnercommented.Atonestroke,artificialradioactivityenlargedthenumber
ofknownnuclearreactions,extendedradioactivitytotheentireperiodictable,anddemonstratedthatpositronscanbeemittedinthecourseofradioactivedecay.
MeitnerquicklyconfirmedtheCurieJoliotfindingsbyphotographingphosphorusdecaypositronsinacloudchambersometimeafterthealphaparticlealuminum
reactionhadbeeninterrupted.
3
Afewmonthslatersheshowedthattheenergyspectrumofthephosphorusdecaypositronswasanalogousineveryrespecttothe
betaspectraofnegativeelectrons.
4
ForseveralyearsFermiandhisgrouphadbeenpreparingtoreorienttheirresearchfromatomictonuclearphysicstolearntheexperimentaltechniques,theymade
extendedvisitstovariouslaboratoriesinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.Forradioactivity,FrancoRasettiwenttoMeitner'slaboratoryinlate1931andagainin1932,
justafterthediscoveryoftheneutron.OnhisreturntoRome,Rasettiwasthe"movingspirit"inthepreparatorywork,buildinganumberofGeigerMllercounters
andalargecloudchamber,basedonMeitner'smodelinBerlinDahlemfromMeitner,hehadalsolearnedhowtoprepareneutronsourcesbyevaporatingpolonium
ontoberyllium.Withthis,Fermihadtheideaofusingneutronsratherthanalphaparticlestoinduceartificialradioactivity.
5
Fermirightlysupposedthatneutronswouldbemoreeffectivethanalphaparticlesforinitiatingnuclearreactions:becausetheyhadnocharge,neutronsweremore
likelytoreachandpenetrateatargetnucleus.Thedifficulty,however,wasthatmostneutronsourceswereveryweak:thousandsofalphaparticlesmightbombarda
lightelement(usuallyberyllium)andproduceonlyafewneutrons.HeretheRomegroupwasfortunate.Theyhadaccesstoalargequantityoveragramofradium,
whichproducedcopiousamountsofradon,agasreadilyseparatedfromits
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radiumparent.Whenmixedwithpowderedberylliuminasealedcapsule,thealphaemittingradonwasamuchstrongerneutronsourcethanthepoloniumberyllium
mixturestheninuse.
6
Startingwithhydrogen,Fermiandhiscoworkersbeganworkingtheirwaythroughtheperiodictable,systematicallyirradiatingoneelementafteranotherwith
neutrons.Fluorinewasthefirsttodisplayartificialradioactivityaluminumwasnext.On25March1934,FermireportedtheseresultsinalettertothesmallItalian
journalLaRicercaScientifica,chosenforitsrapidpublicationtime.
7
AfewweekslaterFermilistedtwentyelementsmore,uptolanthanum.
8
Toinformtheir
colleaguesquickly,theRomescientistsmailedpreprintsofthepaperstofortyofthemostactivenuclearphysicistsworldwide.
9
ThusLiseMeitnerwasamongthefirsttolearnoftheneutronirradiationexperimentsinRome.Shewasinterestedfromthestart,asweknowfromanoteshewroteto
Fermion16May1934askinghimtosend"oncemorethereprintsofbothofyourarticlesaboutneutrons.UnfortunatelyImisplacedthereprintsyousokindlysent
andcannotfindthemagain."
10
ThatweekMeitnerreportedtoNaturwissenschaftenthatshehadverifiedtheartificialradioactivitiesFermihadfoundfromtheneutron
irradiationofaluminum(Al),silicon(Si),phosphorus(P),copper(Cu),andzinc(Zn)(thefirstthreealsoinaWilsonchamber)andmeasuredthehalflivesoftheAl,Si,
andPactivities.
11
TheRomeexperimentsattractedwideattention.RutherfordjoviallycongratulatedFermionhis"escapefromthesphereoftheoreticalphysics."
12
InNielsBohr's
instituteinCopenhagen,OttoRobertFrischwasoneofthefewwhocouldreadItalian:"WheneachnewcopyoftheRicercaarrivedIfoundmyselfthecentreofa
crowddemandinginstanttranslationofFermi'slatestdiscoveries.Andwhatanexcitingtimeitwas!"
13
On10May1934,FermiandhiscoworkerssubmittedtheirthirdreporttoLaRicercaScientifica.
14
Theyhadarrivedatthelastelement,uranium.Onneutron
bombardment,uraniumyieldedseveralnewbetaactivitieswhosechemistryappeareddifferentfromuranium(element92)oranynearbyelementdowntoradon(86).
Fermicautiouslysuggestedthe"spontaneoushypothesisthattheactivesubstanceofUmighthaveatomicnumber93"thefirstelementbeyonduranium.Theideaofa
newelementasyntheticnewelementattractedwideattention.OneItaliannewspaperhaileditasproofthat"intheFascistatmosphereItalyhas
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Page164
resumedherancientroleofteacherandvanguardinallfields"anotherfantasizedthatFermihadpresentedasmallvialofelement93tothequeenofItaly.
15
Beyond
theaberrationsofthepopularpress,scientistswereequallyfascinated.
Afewweekslater,Ferminotedthattheobservedneutroninducedreactionsfellintothreecategories:
1.Emissionofanalphaparticle,an(n, )reaction.Forexample,
2.Emissionofaproton,(n,p):
3.Neutroncapturewithgammaemission,(n, ):
Ineachcase,thenewartificiallyradioactivenucleusdifferedfromtheoriginalnucleusbynomorethantwoatomicnumbers.Theoreticallythismadesense:aparticleas
modestasaneutronwasexpectedtoinflictonlyminordamage.
Inaddition,eachnewradioactivenucleuswas,withoutexception,abetaemitter.Forexample,
Fermialsonotedthatthe(n, )andthe(n,p)reactionswerefoundonlyforthelighterelements,whileheavierelementsfavoredneutroncapture(n, ).Thusitwasnot
onlypossiblebutplausiblethaturaniumwouldcaptureaneutron,thendecaywithbetaemissiontoelement93:
Buttherewasmore:underneutronbombardment,uraniumproducedatleastfournewbetaactivities.ThissuggestedtoFermiasequenceofbetadecays,perhapsto
element94or95.Hecautioned,however,thatitwas"prematuretoformanydefinitehypothesisonthechainofdisintegrationsinvolved."
16
AtthispointMeitnerspoketoOttoHahn:"Ifoundtheseexperimentssofascinating,thatassoonastheyappearedinNuovoCimentoandinNatureItalkedtoOtto
Hahnaboutresumingourdirectcollaboration,afteraninterruptionofseveralyears,inordertoresolvetheseproblems."
17
Fermi's
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investigations,sherememberedlater,wereof"consuminginteresttome,anditwasatthesametimecleartomethatonecouldnotgetaheadinthisfieldwithphysics
alone.ThehelpofanoutstandingchemistlikeOttowasneededtogetresults."
18
ButittookLiseseveralweekstogetOttointerested.
19
Whatsparkedhisinterest,finally,wasapublicationbyAristidevonGrosse,aformerstudentwhohadsince
emigratedtotheUnitedStates.ForseveralyearsvonGrosseandHahnhadbeenembroiledinacontroversyoverthediscoveryandpropertiesofprotactinium,an
unpleasantdisputethathadtwicespilledontothepagesofNaturwissenschaften.
20
Nowinthe1August1934issueofPhysicalReview,vonGrossearguedthatthe
chemicalbehaviorofFermi'sproposedelement93wasclosertothatofprotactinium.
21
AtthispointHahntooknotice.
AftertheappearanceofthearticlesbyFermi,etc.,cameanarticlebyv.GrosseandAgruss,accordingtowhichitwasnotatallcertainthattheFermiactivitieswereelement93or
so,butthatitwasmostlikelyelement91:ekatantalum[protactinium].AfterthesepublicationsL.MeitnerandIdecidedtorepeatFermi'sexperimentsandtestGrosse's
assumptions.
22
SoHahnremembereditin1945andinallhismanyreminiscencesandautobiographies.
23
Whileitmaybetruethatthisreflectedhisownfirstengagementwiththe
uraniumexperiments,itcertainlywasnotMeitner's:theissueofPhysicalReviewwithvonGrosse'snotewouldhavearrivedinGermanyonlytowardtheendof
August,weeksafterMeitnerfirstapproachedHahn,monthsaftersheherselffirstbecameinterestedinFermi'swork.Indeed,intheirfirstjointuraniumpublication,
HahnandMeitnerclearlystate,"Inthecourseofseveralotherexperiments"heretheycitetwoearlierneutronstudiesbyMeitner
24
"wehavenowundertakena
thoroughinvestigationoftheseuraniumprocesses."
25
BeforeMeitnerandHahncouldbegintheirinvestigation,theyattendedthegreatcelebrationinLeningradforthecentenaryofthebirthofDmitriMendeleev.Forher
conferencelecture,Meitnerspokeon"TheAtomicNucleusandthePeriodicSystem."Concernedasalwayswiththeinterplaybetweentheoryandexperiment,she
surveyedthedramaticchangesbroughtbytheneutron,citedtheimportanceofneutronmassforunderstandingnuclearstability,anddiscussedHeisenberg'snew
theorythatneutronsandprotonswereboundbyexchangeforcesthattransformedoneintotheother.Akeytothenucleus,theneutronwasalsothesourceofnew
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Page166
reactionsandnewradioactivenuclei.Itwasentirelypossible,Meitnerconcluded,thatFermi'srecentneutronexperimentshadextendedtheperiodictablewiththe
creationoftwonewelements,93and94.
26
OnherreturntoBerlin,Meitnerpreparedfortheuraniumexperimentsbyinvestigatingneutronsources.LeoSzilardandT.A.Chalmershadjustreportedthatradium
gammaradiationactingonberylliumgeneratedneutronsthatwerecapturedbyiodine,thesamereactionFermihadobservedwithneutronsfromaradon( )+
berylliumsource.WhenMeitnerrepeatedtheSzilardChalmersexperiment,shefoundthatthegamma+berylliumneutronswerecapturedbyiodine,silver,andgold
butdidnotreactwiththelighterelementssodium,aluminum,orsilicon.Meitnersurmisedthatthegamma+berylliumneutronsweresubstantiallylowerinenergythan
thosegeneratedbyradon( )+berylliumandweretherefore''moresuitedfor[captureprocesses],whicharejustthoseprocessesfavoredbyAg,I,andAu.In
contrast,theprocessesinvolvingNa,Al,andSirequirehigherneutronenergiesbecausetheysplitoffanalphaparticleoraproton,whichmustacquiresubstantial
energyinordertobeabletoleavethenucleuswithfiniteprobability."
27
Meitnerwasthusoneofthefirsttosuggestthatneutronenergyaffectsthecourseofreaction,inparticularthatslowerneutronsaremorereadilycaptured.She
submittedhernotetoNaturwissenschafteninmidOctober.Afewdayslater,on22October,Fermiandhiscoworkersobservedadramaticincreaseinthe
neutroninducedactivitiesofsilver,copper,andiodinewhenparaffin,water,orsomeotherhydrogencontainingmaterialwasplacedbetweentheneutronsourceand
thetarget.Theyquicklyestablishedthatsuchhydrogenoussubstancesenhancedneutroncapturereactionsonly,"apossibleexplanationofthesefacts[being]that
neutronsrapidlylosetheirenergybyrepeatedcollisionswithhydrogennuclei."TheysenttheirresultstoLaRicercaScientificathatnight.
28
Efficientasalways,theRomegroupmailedthisnewestpreprinttotheircolleagues.Meitnerrespondedimmediately,writingtoFermion26October,"Enclosedisa
smallnoticecurrentlyinpressinNaturwissenschaften,fromwhichyoucanseethatbyquitedifferentmeansIarrivedatsimilarconclusions...toyours,asyourlatest,
soverybeautifulcommunicationshows."
29
BythenMeitnerandHahnhadbeguntheirownexperimentswiththeneutronirradiationofuranium.OfthefouractivitiesfoundbyFermi's
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group,withhalflivesof10seconds,40seconds,13minutes,and90minutes,thetwolongerlivedsubstanceswereeasiesttostudy.InDecember1934,Meitnerand
Hahnreportedaseparationprocedurebasedontheexpectedchemicalsimilaritiesoftransuranicelementstorheniumandplatinum.UsingaRn( )+Besourcesimilar
toFermi's,theyirradiatedseveralgramsofauraniumsaltwithneutrons,thendissolveditandaddedpotassiumperrhenateandplatinumchloridetothesolution.The
additionofsodiumhydroxidequantitativelyprecipitatedelements90,91,and92elementsbeyond92wereexpectedtoremaininsolution.HahnandMeitnerfound
the13and90minuteactivitiesinthesolutionandconcludedthatneitherwasanisotopeofelements90,91,or92.Whenthesolutionwasacidifiedandsaturated
withhydrogensulfide,firstplatinumsulfideandthenrheniumsulfideprecipitated,carryingthe13and90minuteactivitieswiththem.Therefore,itseemedlikelythat
thesewereelementsbeyonduranium,withchemistrysimilartothetransitionelementsrheniumandplatinum.
Asaspecifictestforprotactinium,HahnandMeitneraddedtheknownprotactiniumisotopeUZ(
234
Pa)totheirradiateduraniumsolution.Byvariousprecipitations
UZwascompletelyseparatedfromthe13and90minuteactivities.HahnandMeitnernotedwithsatisfaction,"Ithasthusbeendirectlyshownthatthesetwo
substancesarenotisotopesofelement91,asA.v.Grossehasclaimed."Infact,theirchemicalreactionsruledoutallelementsdowntomercury(80),"whichagain
makesitveryprobablethatthe13and90minutesubstancesareelementsbeyond92."
30
Fermi,Meitner,andHahn,indeedallwhoworkedinthefield,wereguidedfromtheoutsetbytwoprevailingprinciples.Thefirstwasageneralizationofallprevious
experienceinnuclearphysics:ineveryknownnuclearreaction,includingneutroninducedreactions,thechangeswerealwaysminor:theproductnucleusneverdiffered
fromtheoriginalbymorethanafewprotonsorneutrons.Thisobservationcorrespondedtooneofthefewsuccessfulapplicationsofquantumtheorytothenucleus,
GeorgeGamow'stheoryofalphadecay,whichshowedthatonlysmallparticlesalphaparticles,protons,neutronshaveachanceoftunnelingthroughthenuclear
barrierandescapingthenucleus.
31
Thus,ifthe13and90minuteactivitieswerenotelementsjustbelowuranium,itwasconsistentwithbothexperimentandtheory
tosupposetheywouldbeelementsjustabove.Thethoughtthatauraniumnucleusmightshatter,split,orotherwisedrasti
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callychangewhenhitbyaneutronwasneverentertainedbyeitherexperimentalistsortheoreticiansuntilfissionwasfinallydiscoveredfouryearslater.Withone
exception:inSeptember1934,IdaNoddack,chemistandcodiscovererofrhenium,criticizedFermi'schemistryandhisassumptionofsmallnuclearchanges."Itis
conceivable,"shewrote,"thatwhenheavynucleiarebombardedbyneutrons,thesenucleibreakupintoseverallargerfragments,whichwouldofcoursebeisotopes
ofknownelementsbutnotneighborsoftheirradiatedelements."
32
Nooneexploredtheidea,notevenNoddackherself.InRomeherarticlewasreadbutignored,
andinBerlinitwasneverseriouslyconsidered.
33
Thesecondguidingprinciplewasthatelementsbeyonduraniumwouldbehigherhomologuesofthirdrowtransitionelements.(SeeAppendixfig.2.)This,too,was
basedoninduction:becausetheknownelementsAc,Th,Pa,andUchemicallyresembledLa,Hf,Ta,andW,itwasassumedthattheelementsbeyondUwould
resembleRe,Os,Ir,Pt,andsoon.Insomerespectsitisdifficulttounderstandwhythisassumptionwentunchallengedforsolong,sincechemistsdidhaveatheoryof
theperiodictable,firstproposedbyBohrin19211922,inwhichelementsbeyonduraniumwereexpectedtoformasecondrareearthseriesandthusresemblethe
lanthanidestheelementsfollowingLamorethantransitionelements.ButBohrwasunabletopredictjustwherethissecondrareearthserieswouldbegin(see
Appendixfig.3),andforthemostpart,Bohr'sproposalwassetaside,evenbyBohrhimself.AnexceptionwasAristidevonGrosse,whonotedin1935thatthe
transuraniumelements"mightbelongtoasecondgroupofrareearthelementsinN.Bohr'ssense."Buttheevidencewasnotthere.Whenthefirsttruetransuranium
elementswerefound,theydidindeedresemblelanthanidesandnottransitionelements,andin1944GlennT.Seaborg,thediscovererofseveraltransuranium
elements,firstproposedthatthesecondrareearthseriesbeginswithactinium
34
entirelyhomologoustothelanthanidesandsoitisfoundonthemodernperiodic
tabletoday.(SeeAppendixfig.4.)
Butforseveralyearsthetwoerroneousprinciples,theonefromphysicsandtheotherfromchemistry,gavecredencetoeachother.Physicsclaimedthattheneutron
irradiationofuraniumwouldproduceonlyminorchanges.Chemistryconfirmedthattheresultingproductswere"transuranes,"chemicallysomuchlikethirdrow
transitionelementsthattheyweredesignatedekarhenium,ekaosmium,andsoon,totheelementsbeyond.
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EarlyinMarch1935,HahnandMeitnerreportedthatthe13and90minuteactivitieswerenotisotopesofeachother.Modifyingtheirseparationprocedure
somewhatforspeed,theyirradiatedauraniumcompoundwithneutrons,dissolveditinacidichydrogensulfide,thenaddedrheniumandosmiumcompoundsas
carrierstoselectivelyprecipitatetheirsulfides.Uranium,itsdecayproducts,andallotherspeciesdowntoelement85remainedinsolution,the90minuteactivity
precipitatedwithosmiumsulfideandthe13minuteactivitywithrheniumsulfide.Withimprovedseparationofthetwospecies,itwasevidentthatthe90minute
substancecontainedanother,considerablylongerlivedactivity.
35
Theuraniuminvestigationwasgrowingmorecomplex.Althoughitwouldalwaysbedrivenbyquestionsofnuclearphysics,itrelied,atleastatfirst,onradiochemical
data.AsdirectoroftheKWIforChemistry,Hahncouldnotdevotehisfullattentiontoresearch,andinthespringof1935,heandMeitneraskedFritzStrassmann,
oneofhisassistants,tojointhem.Strassmann,aphysicalinorganicchemist,wasexpertinchemicalanalysishehadalreadyhelpedMeitnerandHahnwiththeirfirst
transuraneseparations.Scientifically,thethreewereremarkablysuitedtooneanotherandtotheprojectpoliticallyandpersonally,theiraffinitywasalsoverystrong.
By1935,Meitnerhadbecomequiteisolatedprofessionally,HahnwasknownforhisantiNaziviews,andStrassmannhadmadehimselfunemployableinacademiaor
industrybyrefusingtojoinanyNaziaffiliatedprofessionalorganizations.
36
ForMeitnerandStrassmannparticularly,itwasfarmorecongenialtoworktogetherthan
withothersintheinstitute.IntheirfirstjointpublicationthatAugust,theyverifiedHahnandMeitner'spreviousfindings,confirmingthe13minuteactivityasekarhenium
andthe90minuteactivity(revisedto100minutes)asekaosmium.Forthenewlonglivedactivity,alsoatransurane,theyobtainedahalflifeofabout3.5days.
37
Probingaradioactivemixturefortinyamountsofunknownactivitieswasnosimpletask.Becausetheneutroninducedactivitieswerealwaysmuchweakerthanthe
naturalradioactivityofuranium,theBerlinteamalwaysbeganbyseparatingthetransuranesfromtheirradiateduranium.Oncetheyestablishedthatthetransuranes
precipitatedquantitativelyfromasolutionofuraniumanditsdecayproducts,theyignoredthefiltrateandpursuedonlytheprecipitate,usingevermorerefined
techniquestodis
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entangleitsmultipleactivities.
38
Theyfeltjustifiedindoingthis,sincetheyhadestablishedattheoutsetthatprecipitationseparatedtheactivitiesofinterestthe
presumed"transuranes"fromelements90,91,and92.Theapproachwasbasedontraditionalanalyticalmethodsofchemicalseparationandprecipitation.Asit
turnedout,theirfailuretoinvestigatethefiltratecriticallyrestrictedthescopeoftheirinvestigation.
Fromcloudchamberphotographs,Meitnerdeterminedearlyonthatthetransuranesemittedonlybetaparticles.
39
ThebetadecaywasmeasuredwithGeigerMller
counters,andadecaycurvelogarithmofintensityversustimewasplotted.Forasingleradioactivesubstance,thedecaycurveisastraightlinefromwhoseslope
itscharacteristichalflifeisobtainedforamixture,theshapeofthedecaycurvemayindicatethenumberofactivitiesandtheirsequence.Ashortlivedparentdecaying
intoalongliveddaughterproducesadecaycurvethatdropsrapidly,thenlevelsofftothemoregradualslopeofthelongliveddaughterbysubtractingthe
contributionfromthelongerlivedspecies,theshorterhalflifecanbedetermined.Butiftheparentislongerlivedthanthedaughter,thedecaycurveisastraightline
determinedbytheparentandtheshortliveddaughtercanonlybedetectedbyother,usuallychemical,means.Whenstillmoreactivitiesarepresent,thedecaycurve
becomesincreasinglydifficulttointerpret.Thiswasparticularlytruefortheneutronirradiationproducts,whereseveralsimultaneousreactionseachinitiatedasequence
ofdisintegrations.Chemicalseparationswereattemptedwheneverpossible,butthesewerealwaysdifficultowingtotheminusculequantitiesanduncertainchemistryof
thetransuranes.
Todisentanglethe"genetic"linkstheparentdaughterrelationshipsamongthevariousactivities,itwasessentialtoknowwhethertheneutronirradiationofuranium
initiatedmorethanoneprimaryreaction.Earlyin1935Fermiandhiscollaboratorsreportedthatneutronsslowedbyparaffinorwaterincreasedtheamountsofsome
activitiesbutnotothers,anindicationthatatleasttwodifferentprimaryreactionsweretakingplace.
40
TheBerlingroupwasunabletoverifyFermi'sobservationsand
begantheirownstudiesoftheeffectsofslowandfastneutronsandofvariationsinthelengthofneutronirradiation.
Comparedtoothergroupsworkingontheuraniumproducts,theBerlinteamhadtheadvantageoflaboratoriesthatwereuncontaminatedbyradioactivity.Toconfine
thespreadofradioactivityincaseofaccident,the
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variousprocedureswerecarriedoutinseparaterooms,allinMeitner'ssectiononthegroundfloor.Neutronirradiationsweredoneinoneroomchemicalseparations
wereperformedinalaboratoryseveraldoorsdown,justacrossthehallfromathirdroomwheretheactivitiesweremeasured.Mostofthephysicalapparatuswas
simpleandselfmade:neutronsourcesconsistingofradiumandberylliumsealedintosmallglasstubes,paraffinblocksinseveralsizesGeigerMllertubes,batteries,
counters,andamplifiersandanassortmentofleadblocksforshieldingandleadvesselstoenclosetheactivesamples.
41
InMarchof1936,Hahn,Meitner,andStrassmannsubmittedtheirfirstcomprehensivereporttoachemicaljournal,reviewingtheentiredevelopmentoftransurane
researchanddescribingindetailtheirownchemicalseparationsandradioactivitydata.Theylistedatotaloftenradioactivespeciesandtheirhalflives:
U:24minutes
ekaRe:16(formerly13)minutes
ekaOs:12hours
ekaIr:3days
U:10seconds
ekaOs:59(formerly90100)minutes
Th:4minutes
U:40seconds
ekaRe:2.2minutes
Pa:veryshort
Thespecieswereidentifiedwithvaryingdegreesofcertainty.Theonlytrulyunambiguousassignmentwasthe24minuteU,whichwasisolatedandchemically
identifiedasuranium.The10and40secondactivitiesweretooshortlivedforchemicalidentificationbutwereattributedtouraniumbecausetheywerebetaemitters
thatprecededthetwoactivitieswiththeexpectedchemicalbehaviorofekarhenium.SuchreasoningwasthebasisfortheekaOsandekaIrassignmentsaswell.Thus,
evenwhengeneticsequencesweredifficulttoevaluateandchemicaldataabsentorshaky,theassignmentswereconsideredfirmiftheradioactivityandchemistrydid
notcontradicteachotherandwereconsistentwiththeexpectedcharacteristicsoftransuranicelements.Asaresult,thechemistryreportwasinpartbasedoncircular
reasoning.
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Page172
Forthe2.2minuteandthe16minutesubstances,thereisnooptionbuttoassignthemtoekarheniumnotonlythegeneticrelationships[tothe10and40secondactivities
ascribedtoUbecausetheyprecededthesupposedekaRe]butalsothechemicalcharacteristicsleavenodoubtthattheyareelement93.
Andonthewhole,itexudedaconfidenceunjustifiedbyitsindividualdata.
Fortherepresentativesoftheelements9496wearecertainfromtheirgeneralchemicalpropertiestowhichgroupstheybelong[eventhough]wecannotyetgivesatisfactory
chemicalseparationmethodsfortheindividualspecies.
42
Hahnwasseniorauthorforthechemistryreport,publishedinChemischeBerichte.Appearingatthesametimewasthephysicalinterpretation,publishedin
Naturwissenschaften,forwhichMeitnerwaschieflyresponsible(hernameappearedfirstonthepublication,andStrassmann'swasabsent).
43
ItwasuptoMeitner
toincorporatethevariousspeciesandtheirgeneticsequencesintonuclearreactionsthatmadesense.
Theexistenceofthreeuraniumisotopesrequiredthreedifferentprimaryneutronuraniumreactions,eachinitiatingaseriesofbetadecays:
Neutroncapture(n, ):
An(n,2n)reaction:
An(n, )reaction:
Atthispointtherewasnodirectphysicalevidenceforanyofthesereactions.Onthecontrary,asearchforthealphaparticlesemittedinthe(n, )reactionhadbeen
unsuccessful.Fromthephysicist'sperspective,thesituationwasquiteunsatisfactory.Notonlywere(n,2n)processesunknownforotherheavynucleibutthe(n, )
reactionwaseffectiveonlywithslowneutrons,somethingMeitnerfound"remarkable,"sincetheoryandallpreviousexperiencepredictedthatenergetic(fast)neutrons
wouldbeneededtoexpelanalphaparticle.Thusthechemistryandradioactivitydatathatinspiredsuchconfidenceinthechemistsledtoaphysicalinterpre
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Account: s5308004

Page173
tationthatwasdecidedlyweak.Ifin1934MeitnerthoughtshecouldnotgetanywherewithoutachemistofHahn'sability,by1936shemusthavereflectedthatthe
relentlessaccumulationofnewspecieshadcastchemistryintheroleofsorcerer'sapprentice.
Therewasnochoicebuttogoon.WhileHahnandStrassmannrefinedthechemistryandgeneticrelationships,Meitnerdevisedexperimentstodeterminethe
mechanismofthereactionprocesses.InMay1937,theyagainissuedtwoparallelreports,oneinZeitschriftfrPhysik
44
withMeitnerasprincipalauthorandthe
otherinChemischeBerichtewithHahnasseniorauthor.
45
Hahnpresentedwhatappearedtobeironcladchemicalevidencefortheexistenceofthetransuranes.In
contrast,Meitner'sworkdemonstratedthattheuraniumproblemhadbecomemuchlarger,moredifficult,andmoresignificantthanthediscoveryofnewelements
alone.
Theirnewresultscalledforasubstantialrevisionoftheneutronuraniumreactionstheyhadproposedtheyearbefore.Nowthethreeprocesseswereallneutron
capture(n, )reactions:
1.
2.
3.
The23minute(formerly24minute)Uofprocess3wasunambiguouslyuranium.Theextremelyshort10and40secondactivitiescouldnotbeconfirmedasuranium,
but,asbefore,geneticrelationshipsseemedtoexcludeanyotherpossibility:bothwerebetaemittersthatapparentlydecayedtoanekarheniumofatomicnumber93.
Inaddition,anew2.5hourekaPtwasfound,andthehalflivesofthe12hourekaOsandthe3dayekaIrweremodifiedto5.7hoursand66hours,respectively.
Withimprovedtests,theactivitieswereconsistentwiththechemicalandphysicalpropertiesexpectedofthehigherhomologuesofrhenium,osmium,iridium,and
platinum.
Thegeneticrelationshipsinprocesses1and2wereestablishedbyseveralmethods.Inafewcasesactivitiescouldbeseparatedchemicallysothatthedecayofthe
parentandgrowthofthedaughtercouldbeobserved.Moreoftenthesequencesweredeterminedfromdecaycurvestakenwith
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Page174
variationsinneutronirradiationtimefromafewsecondstoseveralhours,IneverycasegeneticrelationshipswereconsistentwithchemistryforthesequenceU
ekaPt.Forexample,decaycurvesindicatedthatthe16minuteactivitydecayedtothe5.7houractivitychemically,the16minuteactivityhadthepropertiesexpected
forekaReandthe5.7houractivity,forekaOs.Thusindependentdatafromradioactivityandchemistryweremutuallysupporting.Likeinterlockingpiecesofapuzzle,
theymadeacompellingcasefortheexistenceoftransuranicelements.Moreover,thestrikingparallelismofthetwodecaysequenceswasreassuring,fortheevidence
presenteditselfnotjustoncebuttwice.
Fromachemicalviewpoint,thetransuraneswereaspectacularfeat:newelementsweresynthesized,periodicbehaviorwasconfirmed,theperiodictablewaslaunched
intotheunknown.Aseachnewtransuranefitthesequence,itgavecredencetothosebefore.Chemistswereconvinced.Summarizingthesimilaritiesanddifferences
betweenthetransuranesandtheirlowerhomologues,Hahnendedhisreportemphatically:"Ingeneral,thechemicalbehaviorofthetransuranes...issuchthattheir
positionintheperiodicsystemisnolongerindoubt.Aboveall,theirchemicaldistinctionfromallpreviouslyknownelementsneedsnofurther
discussion"(emphasisinoriginal).
46
AsthephysicistontheBerlinteam,Meitner'staskwastoincorporatethedatafromchemistry,radioactivity,andherownphysicalexperimentsintoacoherent
explanationofthenuclearprocesses.HerreportinZeitschriftfrPhysikclearlyshowshowdifficultthatwas.Uraniumwasdifferentsomehowfromotherheavy
nuclei,reactingwithneutronsinthreedistinctways,givingthreesetsofproducts.Equallydisturbingwasthelengthofthedecaysequenceinprocesses1and2andthe
parallelsbetweenthem.
Tofindaphysicaldistinctionbetweenthethreeprocesses,Meitherstudiedtheenergyoftheeffectiveneutronsforeach.Herradium( )+berylliumsourceproduced
fastneutronsofenergy10
5
to10
7
electronvolts(eV),whichcouldbeslowedbyenclosingthesourceinparaffin.Whenthermalneutrons(theslowestpossible,of
energy0.025eV)weredesired,theneutronsourceandtheuraniumtargetwerebothenclosedinparaffinforneutronsthatwereslowbutnotthermal,onlythesource
wasenclosedinparaffin.Forfastneutrons,noparaffinwasused.
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Wehavedonesuchexperimentsintwodirections.First,wehaveinvestigatedtheenergyoftheeffectiveneutronsforthethreeuraniumtransformationprocesses,andsecond,we
haveattemptedtoseeiftherelativeintensityofprocesses1and2maybeinfluencedbyvariousfilters.
47
Meitnernotedthatinotherelementsthecaptureofslowneutronswasaresonanceeffect,occurringonlyforneutronsofcharacteristicenergy.Cadmium,forexample,
capturedthermalneutronsbutwasalmosttransparenttoneutronshigherthan1volt,silverhadaknownresonanceabsorptionat2.5eV,goldat4.5eV,andsoon.
Theseandotherelementswereusedasfilterstocontroltheenergyoftheneutronsused.
Todeterminetheextenttowhichthereactionsinprocesses1and2weretheresultofslowneutrons,irradiationwasdoneinsidealargeparaffincylinderwithand
withoutthecadmiumfiltersthatabsorbedthermalneutrons.Meitnerfoundthatabout90percentoftheactivationwasduetothermalneutronsand10percenttofast
neutronsandthatbothprocesseswereinducedinthesameproportion.Andnomatterwhichneutronswereselectedforirradiationfastorthermal,filteredornot
theactivitiesproducedinprocesses1and2werealwaysthesame.Thesignificanceofthis,Meitnerconcluded,wasthatthesamereactionmechanismoperatedwith
bothfastandslowneutrons,forbothprocesses.
Asitwasinconceivablethatslowneutronswouldinduce(n,2n)or(n, )reactions,itappearedthattheonlypossiblemechanismforprocesses1and2wasneutron
capture(n, ).In1937,neitherMeitnernoranyotherphysicistimaginedsplittingoranyothermassivedisintegrationthequestionwasneverdiscussed.Moreover,the
existenceoftransuranes,soconvincinglyprovedbythechemistry,notonlysupportedneutroncapturebutrequiredit.
Meitnerconsideredthepossibilitythatprocesses1and2mighteachoriginatewithadifferenturaniumisotope.Uraniumwasknowntocontain
238
U(99.3%),
235
U
(0.7%),andatraceof
234
U.Aftermeasuringtheabsoluteyieldofthe16minuteekaRe(process2)withfastneutrons,Meitnercalculatedthecrosssectionanindex
ofprobabilityforthecaptureoffastneutronsbyuranium.Thecrosssectionwaslarge,whichexcludedfromconsiderationisotopesotherthanthemostabundant,
238
U.Sincetheyieldforprocess1wassimilar,itscrosssectionandeffectiveisotopehadtobethesame."Sinceprocesses1and2areinducedbyfastneutrons,and
thecrosssectionfor
238
Uis1.610
25
cm
2
,onecaneasily
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Page176
seethatthetwoisotopes235and234areoutofthequestionasstartingisotopesfortheseprocesses,astheywouldhavecrosssectionsforthecaptureoffast
neutronsthatwouldbeimpossiblylarge.''
48
Fastneutronsthereforereactedwith
238
Uonlyandsincefastandslowneutronsinducedexactlythesameactivities,
Meitnerconcludedthatslowneutronsalsoreactedonlywith
238
U.Thusprocesses1and2bothbeganwith
238
Uandbothproceededwithfastandslowneutrons.The
mysteryremained:therewasnodifferenceinthereactionmechanismsofprocesses1and2.
Process3wasclearlydifferent.The23minuteuraniumwasonlyweaklyproducedbythermalneutronsandnotatallbyfastneutrons,anindicationthatprocess3was
primarilyaresonancecaptureofneutronswithanenergyofafewvolts.Todeterminetheenergyoftheresonanceneutrons,Meitnermeasuredtheirabsorptionin
boronandcomparedittotheabsorptionofthermalneutronsinboron,obtainingaresonanceenergyof2510eV.Finally,shedeterminedtheeffectiveisotopefor
process3bymeasuringthereactionabsorptioncoefficientinuraniumandagainobtainedacrosssectioncompatibleonlywith
238
U.Thusthreeprocessesallvery
differentseemedtostartwithneutroncaptureby
238
U.
Theresultwasincomprehensible.Meitnerreachedforanewexplanation.Fortheparallelprocesses1and2,inducedbyneutronsofthesameenergy,sheproposed
that
two"isomeric"uraniumnucleiwithatomicweight239mightbecreated,whichdespitetheiridenticalnuclearchargeandmassmightdecaywithdifferentdecayconstantsandgive
risetotworadioactiveseries.Totheextentthatthetwoseriesareparallel,theymustexhibittwocomparableseriesof"isomeric"nuclei.These"isomeric"nucleimustdifferonlyin
theirlevelofexcitation,andtheirbetadecaymustoccurbeforegammaemissiondeexcitesthemfromoneenergyleveltotheother,whichmeansonestatemustbemetastable.
49
Thenotionofisomericnucleiwasnotentirelynew.In1922,OttoHahnhaddiscovereduraniumZ,identicalinnuclearchargeandmasstoUX
2
(
234
Pa)butwitha
longerhalflifemorerecentlytherehadbeenexperimentalevidenceforisomericnuclearstatesinbromine.Hahn'sdiscoveryofisomerismmayhavepredisposed
Meitnertoapplyisomerismtothetransuranesforatheoreticalinterpretation,sheworkedcloselywithCarlFriedrichvonWeizscker,ayoungphysicistwhohadbeen
herassistantinthesummerof1936andhadsincemovedovertothenearbyKWIfor
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Page177
PhysicsinDahlem.InWeizscker'stheoreticalmodel,twoisomericnucleiwouldhavealmostthesameenergybutdifferentangularmomentumandthushavedifferent
halflives.
50
Buttheexistenceofathirdisomer,the
239
Uofprocess3,weakenedtheargument."Thesuppositionofthreeisomericnucleiinvolvesconsiderabledifficultyforvon
Weizscker'ssuggestedmodel,"Meitnernoted,andshesuggestedthatnuclearisomerismmightinsteadbeanalogoustomolecularisomerism.Butitwasjust
speculation.Sheendedherreportabruptly."Theprocessesmustbeneutroncapturebyuranium238,whichleadstothreeisomericnucleiofuranium239.Thisresult
isverydifficulttoreconcilewithcurrentconceptsofthenucleus."
51
ItseemedtheBerlinteamhadgoneasfarasitcouldgo.Thechemistrywasconsistent,thegeneticsequencessensible,thephysicalmeasurementsimpeccable.The
evidenceforthe23minuteUwasparticularlystrong.Andbecauseitcapturedneutronslikeotherheavynucleiandunderwentbetadecaytoproducethenexthigher
element,itaddedtothecredibilityoftheneutroncaptureandtransuranesofprocesses1and2.IftheBerlingrouphadlookedforthedecayproductofthe23minute
U,theymighthavefoundthetrueelement93andlearnedfromitschemistrythatthe16and2.2minuteactivitieswerenotelement93atall.Buttheydidnotdoit.
Theirneutronsourcesweretooweak,theuraniumfiltratewasdifficulttoprobe,andtheyhadtransuranesenough,orsoitseemed,inprocesses1and2.Noone
suggestedanythingelse.TotheextentthattheBerlinexperimentswererepeatedbyothers,theresultswerethesame.NeitherIrneCurieinParisnorPhilipAbelson
inBerkeleynortheotherscientistsinVienna,Cambridge,AnnArbor,andZurichcametoadifferentconclusion.By1936,Fermiandhiscoworkersweresosureof
thetransuranesthattheygavenamestothefirsttwo:ausoniumandhesperium.
52
Everythingaboutthetransuraneswasmostimpressive.Onlyaphysicalfoundation
waslacking.
Thedifficultylaynotinthemethodsorthedatabutintheunderlyingassumptionsthatframedtheinvestigationfromthestartthesmallnuclearchangesordainedby
physics,themistakenchemistryofthetransuranes.Thedifficultywascompoundedwhenthesetwofalseprinciplesunserendipitouslydovetailed,eachlendingtheother
anappearanceoftruth,eachinhibitingacriticaltestoftheother.InBerlinandelsewhere,falseconfidencerestrictedtheexperimentstothetransuraneprecipitateand
preventedasearchforotheractivities.LaterMeitnerrecalled,
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DuringirradiationswithfastneutronsourprecipitationswerealwaysdoneinsuchawayastoleaveU,Pa,andThinthefiltrate,fromwhichwedrewacertainsupportforthe
transuranicnatureoftheprecipitatedelements.Forthisreasonandthiswasourmistakeweforatimeneverexaminedthefiltrateafterprecipitation,noteveninthetrialswith
slowedneutrons.
53
Thatwasaremarkableoversight,becausetheBerlingroupdidfindthatthe23minuteUisformedonlywithslowneutronsandshouldhavesuspectedthatothernew
activitieswouldbeformedbyslowneutronsaswell.Buttheyhadlittledesiretosearchthefiltratenotwhenthetransuranesweresoaccessibleandfarmore
interesting.Therewassomethingdazzlingaboutthesenewelements,amixofscientificadventureandgeneralappeal.ForMeitner,Hahn,andStrassmann,aspolitically
vulnerableasanygroupstillinGermany,theinternationalattentionthatcamewiththetransuraneswasthebestprotectiontheycouldhopetosecureforthemselvesand
theirinstitute.
Buttheirfailuretothoroughlysearchthefiltratealsoreflectedthenatureoftheirteamwork.Foralltheircollectiveexpertise,theymaintainedapronounceddisciplinary
dividebetweenchemistryandphysics.Standingontheinstitutestairs,Meitnercouldbeheardtosay,"Hhnchen,Geh'nachoben,vonPhysikverstehstDu
nichts!"(Hahndear,goupstairs,youunderstandnothingofphysics!),
54
andHahndidnotdenyit.NordidStrassmann.Atonetimein1936,Strassmannthoughthe
hadevidenceofbariumamongtheuraniumproductswhensheshruggeditoff,heletitgo.
55
Astheteam'sleaderandonlyphysicist,Meitnerwasresponsibleforthe
projectasawhole,moreawareofitsdifficultiesandmoretroubledbythoseaspectsshedidnotfullyunderstand.YetshewascompletelydependentonHahnand
Strassmanninmattersofchemistry.Althoughtheirassignmentofthetransuraneswasthebasisforhermeasurementsandherphysicalinterpretation,shedidnot
couldnotquestiontheiranalyticmethods,andevenwhenshehadgravedoubtsaboutthemeaningoftheresults,shewasunabletoconvincethemtosearchthe
filtrateforproductsofslowneutronirradiation.Sheacceptedtheirjudgmentthatitwastoodifficult.Inaninterviewyearslater,sheremembered,
Ofcoursewhatwedidwaswrong,HahnandI.Ireallythinkourmisfortunewasthatwedidn'tsearchthefiltrate.Wecouldn'tsearchitbecauseuraniumwasinit,youknow,we
couldn'tseeanything.Ourneutronsourcesweretooweak....Thechemistsabsolutelydidn'twantto,Ibeggedthemtowhile
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IwastherebecauseIwassodisturbedbyit.JustbecauseIunderstandtoolittlechemistry,Inaturallywasalwaysworriedaboutwhatwasn'tdone.
56
Bothfieldscontributederrors,butchemistryprovidednomeansfordetectingthem.ReportsinChemischeBerichteseamlesslyansweredquestionsofchemical
interest:Dotransuranesexist?Yes.Aretheyhigherhomologuesofrheniumandtheplatinummetals?Yes.Chemistryhadnofurtherquestions.Butphysicsrequiredan
understandingoftheunderlyingnuclearreactions.Didtheirradiationofuraniumwithneutronsgiverisetotransuranes?Apparently.Didtheneutroninducedreactions
makesense?No.Itdidnotmakesensethatthermalneutronsandfastneutronswouldinitiatethesamereactionsinnotjustonebuttwodifferentprocesses.And
despiteexperimentalprecedentandtheoreticaljustificationforisomerism,tripleisomerismwasunexplainedandinheritedisomerismforfivegenerations
incomprehensible.
Apartfromisomerism,Meitnerwastroubledbythelengthofthebetadecaysequencesinprocesses1and2:sheknewthatthecaptureofjustoneneutronby
238
U
oughtnotproduceanucleussounstablethatfiveormoresuccessivebetaemissionswererequiredtorelieveit.Latersherecalled,"Iwasalwaysunhappyaboutit
becauseIcouldn'tunderstand,'Howcantheatomicnumberkeeprisingwiththesamemass?'That'swhatIkeptaskingWeizscker:Howisthatpossible?Yousee,I
wasneversatisfiedwithourexperimentsbeforefission."
57
Meitner'sstudiesoftheeffectsofneutronenergiesonreactionprocesses,describedinherMay1937article,providednoobvioussolution.TheBerlingroupturnedto
theneutronirradiationofthorium,inthehopethatinsightmightcomefromanotherdirection,orpossibly,asStrassmannwrylyremarked,"torecoverfromthehorror
oftheworkwithuranium."
58
HahnandMeitnerhadworkedwiththoriumbefore.In1935,theyfoundtwodistinctneutroninducedprocessesinthorium.
59
One,quite
stronglyenhancedbyslowneutrons,yieldeda30minutebetaactivitywiththechemicalpropertiesofthorium,aclassicexampleofneutroncapture:
233
Thwasthefirstexampleofanucleusofmass4n+1,unknownamongthenaturalradioactivespecies.MeitnerandHahnemphasizedthenoveltyintheirreport,
submittedinearlyMay1935.Laterthatmonth,IrneCurie,HansvonHalban,andPeterPreiswerkindependentlyreportedthe
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Page180
samediscovery,withoutcitingHahnandMeitner.Hahn,whocountedonscientificrecognitiontobolsterhisshakypoliticalposition,was"alittleangry"withCurie.
60

ApolitebutpronouncedrivalrydevelopedbetweenthegroupsinParisandBerlin.
Withfastneutrons,HahnandMeitnerfound1and11minuteactivities,bothbetaemitters.Theyproposedan(n, )reaction,followedbytwobetadecays:
Thefastneutronreactionwasbynomeanscertain:no(n, )processhadbeenfoundforotherheavynuclei,nor,forthatmatter,werealphaparticlesactuallydetected.
Laterin1935,IrneCurieandhercoworkersidentifiedthe1minutesubstanceasradium.Theyalsofoundasecondactiniumisotopewitha3.5hourhalflife,andin
1936,ElizabethRonaandElisabethNeuningerinViennareportedathirdactiniumisotopewitha12hourhalflife.Aswiththeuraniumstudies,itwasassumedthat
irradiationwithneutronsproducednucleinearthorium,andlowerhomologuesofthesuspectedproductswereusedascarriersforseparationandprecipitation.Thus
anactivitythatprecipitatedwithbariumcompoundswasassumedtoberadium,andonethatfollowedalanthanumcarrierwasattributedtoactinium.
WhentheBerlinteamreturnedtothethoriumreactionsin1937,FritzStrassmannwasresponsibleformostofthechemistry.
61
Comparedtouranium,workwith
thoriumwasinherentlymoredifficultbecauseitsdecayproductradiothorium(
228
Th)tendedtomasktheweakerneutroninducedactivities.HeretheBerlinteamhad
theadvantageofathoriumpreparationthatHahnandMeitnerhadpurifiedovertheyearsbyregularlyextractingmesothorium(
228
Ra),theprecursorofradiothorium
unreplenished,theradiothoriuminitiallypresenthadalmostdisappeared.
62
Evenso,theworkwasnotsimple.Unlikethetransuranes,whichcouldbequicklyand
cleanlyseparatedfromuraniumanditsdecayproducts,theartificialthoriumactivitiespresumablyradium,actinium,andthoriumwereisotopicwiththenatural
productsofthoriumdecay.Thusthethoriumexperimentswerealwaysmoretediousandtheresultslesscertain.
InMay1938,Meitner,Strassmann,andHahnreportedthatthereactionoffastneutronswiththoriumwasconsiderablymorecomplexthanthey
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Page181
hadpreviouslythought.Altogethertheyfoundthreeradiumandthreeactiniumactivities,allbetaemitters.
63
Fromthistheyproposedthreedifferent(n, )reactions,
initiatingthreeparalleldecayseries:
1.
2.
3.
Here,asintheuraniumstudies,radioactivityandchemistryofferedapparentlyunassailableresultsthathadneverbeenseenforothernuclei.Thethreeparalleldecay
seriesreinforcedtheuraniumresultstosomeextentbutwerenoeasiertoexplain.Andan(n, )processwasunknownforanyotherheavyelement.
Toseeifafastneutron(n, )reactionwiththoriumwasatallfeasible,Meitnermadearoughtheoreticalcalculationandfoundthatitwas,butjustbarely.With2.5
MeVkineticenergyfortheincidentneutron,6to7MeVforitsbindingenergy,and3to4MeVforalphaemission,sheestimatedatotalenergyof12to13MeV,
which,accordingtotheGamowformula,correspondedtoalphadecaysofastthatitcouldindeedtakeplacebeforeenergywaslostintheformofgammaradiation.If
theincidentneutronswereanyslower,however,alphadecaywouldtakelongerandgammaradiationwouldbeemittedfirst.Justthiswasobservedintheslow
neutron(n, )capturereactionthatformed
233
Th.
Accountingforthethreeparallel(n, )reactionswasagreaterproblem,
Withfastneutrons...threeisomericradiumnucleiareformedwhicharethestartingpointforthreeisomericseries.Sincethoriumpossessesonlyoneisotope,
232
Th,weareforced
toconcludethatthreeisomericnucleihavebeenformed.Thesimplestassumptionfortheoriginoftheseisomericnucleiisthatidenticalintermediatenuclei(
232
Th+n)ejectoneof
threetypesofalphaparticles,withtheresultthatthree[radium]isomersareformed,ofwhichtwoaremetastable.
64
Butthehighenergyrequiredforrapidalphadecaymeantthatthethreetypesofalphaparticlescouldnotdiffersignificantlyinenergy,whichmadeithardtoimagine
howthreedistinctisomericseriesmightresult,Moreover,thealphaparticlesthemselveswereelusive.InZurich,A.Braun,PeterPreiswerk,andPaulScherrer
reportedsomehighenergyalphaparticles,buttheydidnotfindthreedistinctgroupsofalphaparticles.
65
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Tripleisomerismwashardtojustifyandinheritedtripleisomerismthroughseveraltransformationsstillacompletemystery."Theoccurrenceofisomericnuclei
meansthatanucleusisnotuniquelycharacterizedbyitsmassandcharge,butthatanotherdefiningpropertyisnecessary.v.Weizsckerhastentativelysuggested
mechanicalangularmomentumassuchaproperty....Thishypothesismeetswithconsiderabledifficultywhen,ashasbeenfoundforthoriumanduranium,isomerism
persistsoveroneorevenseveraltransformationprocesses....Thedifferencesinmomentumwouldthenbesogreatastobecomeveryimprobable."Intheend,it
madenomoresenseforthoriumthanforuranium.AgainMeitnerconcludedabruptly,"Perhapsonemustsearchforamoregeneralbasisfortheexistenceofisomeric
nuclei,"
66
andreferredtoanarticlebyNielsBohrandFritzKalckar,publishedin1937,onthecollectivebehavioroftightlyboundintranuclearparticles,aliquidlike
nuclearmodeldescribedasthe''liquiddrop."Thiswasclosertotheanswerthansheoranyoneelseimaginedatthetime.
67
WhiletheBerlinteamwasworkingonthorium,IrneCurieandhercoworkerPavelSavitchinParistookanewapproachtotheuraniumreactions.Insteadof
precipitatingthetransuraneswithhydrogensulfide,CurieandSavitchmeasuredtheactivitieswithoutchemicalseparation,usinganarrangementofpairedcountersand
copperfilterstocompensateforthenaturalactivityofuraniumanditsdecayproducts.Withthisarrangement,theyfoundtheknown40second,2minute,and16
minuteactivitiesandinadditionanew,surprisinglystrong3.5houractivity.Theactivitywasintenseand,likethetransuranes,wasproducedbyfastneutronsand
enhancedbyslowneutronsithadnotbeendetectedbeforebecauseitremainedinthefiltrateafterthetransuraneswereprecipitated.The3.5houractivitycouldbe
separatedfromuraniumitwas,therefore,neitheratransuranenoruranium.Inlate1937,CurieandSavitchpostulatedthatitwasanisotopeofthorium.
68
TheBerlingroupwasstartledtothinktheyhadmissedsuchastrongactivity.Intheirearlyexperimentstheyhadproposedthatthoriumwasaproductoftheneutron
irradiationofuraniumbutsubsequentlyproveditwasnot.TheytendedtobeskepticalofCurie'schemistry,thinkinghermethodofexaminingtheentireradioactive
mixturewithoutseparationwasliabletogrossmisinterpretation.Inanyevent,Meitnerwassurethatslowneutronscouldneverreactwithuraniumtogivethorium:that
wouldbe
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Page183
aslowneutron(n, )reaction,andtherewerestrongtheoreticalargumentsagainstit.Nevertheless,MeitneraskedStrassmanntosearchthefiltrateforthorium.She
laterwrote,"Unfortunately,werepeatedtheexperimentoftheFrenchscientistsonlysofarastolookforathoriumisotopeinthefiltrateweestablishedwithcertainty
thatitwasnotthere."
69
ConvincedthatCurieandSavitchwerewrong,theydidnottrytolocateoridentifythe3.5houractivity,anomissionMeitnerwouldsorely
regret.
TheParisandBerlingroupswerecompetitors,viewingeachotherwithconsiderablerespect,occasionalirritation,andsomecondescension.InBerlin,Hahnand
MeitnerwereoftheopinionthatCurie'schemistrywasnotnearlyasgoodastheirs.MeitnerandCuriekneweachother'sworkandhadmetatconferences,butthere
wasnospecialrapport.Theymaintainedadefinitecollegiality,however,andratherthancontradictingCurieinprint,Meitnerdecidedtoinformherprivatelyoftheir
failuretofindthoriuminthefiltrate.On20january1938,MeitnerwrotetoCurie,describedtheirexperiments,andsuggestedaretraction.
70
Intheirnextpublication
CurieandSavitchacknowledgedMeitner'sletterandretractedthethoriumisotopetheyhadmeanwhileprecipitatedthe3.5hoursubstancewithlanthanumand
concludedthatitwasactinium.
71
AccordingtoStrassmann,atthispointMeitner"lostinterestinthesituation.Shecouldrightfullypointtothefactthatitwouldbe
tremendouslyimprobableforslowneutronstoknockout particlesandprotonsfromuranium...especiallysincealphaparticlescouldneverbeobserved."
72
CurieandSavitchpersisted.InMay1938,theyreportedthatthe3.5hoursubstance,afterprecipitationwithalanthanumsaltascarrier,"wasputthroughafractional
separationprocesswhichwasusedbyMarieCurieforconcentratingtheactivityoflanthanummixedwithactinium....The3.5hoursubstanceseparateditselfentirely
fromactinium,"behavingmorelikelanthanum(element57).Unwillingtosupposethatitmightactuallybelanthanum,CurieandSavitchconcludedthatit"cannotbe
anythingexceptatransuranicelement,possessingverydifferent[chemical]propertiesfromthoseofotherknowntransuranics,ahypothesiswhichraisesgreat
difficultiesforitsinterpretation."
73
InBerlintheylookedatitwithajaundicedeyeandcalledthe3.5hoursubstance"Curiosum.''
Bythen,Meitnerhadmoreimmediateworries.ThepoliticalsituationinGermany,grimsince1933,hadtakenaturnfortheworse.
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ChapterEight
Escape
Onedarenotlookback,onecannotlookforward.
On12March1938,GermantroopspouredovertheborderintoAustria.Notashotwasfired.DeliriouscrowdsgreetedHitlerateveryvillagealonghisrouteinLinz
thateveningacrowdofonehundredthousandcheeredwildlyasheaddressedthemas"Germanracialcomrades."Spurredbytheecstaticwelcome,Hitlerproclaimed
thetotalAnschlussannexationofhisnativeAustria,reducingoncemightysterreichtoaprovinceofgreaterGermany.On15March,hundredsofthousandsof
Viennese,thelargestcrowdinAustrianhistory,throngedtheHeldenplatztowelcometheirFhrer.Thepolicewerealreadyinbrownshirts,andthechurches,bells
ringing,weredrapedwithswastikas.Thecelebrationsover,VienneseturnedonJews,haulingthemoutoftheirhomesandbeatingandrobbingthemwithavicious
enthusiasmthatstartledevenGermanobservers.ManyJewswerekilledmanycommittedsuicide.
1
TheunqualifiedsuccessandeaseoftheAnschlussemboldened
NazisandtheirsympathizersthroughoutgreaterGermanyandabroad.
OvernightLiseMeitnerlostthethinprotectionofherAustriancitizenship.ThemostimmediatethreatcamefromKurtHess,theavidNaziwhoheadedthesmall
"guest"instituteonthetopflooroftheKWIforChemistry.ThedayaftertheAnschlusshedenouncedher:"TheJewessendangerstheinstitute."
2
WordreachedGeorg
Graue,anassistantinthenearbyKWIforPhysicalChemistryandElectrochemistry.Haber'sformerinstitutewasaNazi"modelinstitute"staffedentirelybyparty
members,butGrauehadbeenastudentofOttoHahn'sandwasstillquiteattachedtohisDoktorvater.
3
On14March,GrauereportedHess'sde
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nunciationtoHahn,whodiscusseditwithMeitnerthesameday.
4
AccordingtoGraue,hercasehadalreadycometotheattentionofRudolfMentzel,headofthe
ReichResearchCouncil.
5
ThetensionwastoomuchforHahn."AtthatpointItoolostmynervesomewhatandspoketo[Heinrich]Hrlein[treasureroftheEmilFischerGesellschaft,sponsor
organizationfortheKWIforChemistry]aboutLiseMeitnerandthenewfoolishsituationsincetheincorporationofAustria."
6
Asyettheregimehaddonenothing,but
Hahnwasanxiouslytryingtoheadofftrouble.
On17March,Hahnnotedinhispocketcalendar,hewentbytraintoElberfeld"tospeakwithProf.HrleinaboutHess,aboutLise."Thenextmorningat9:30the
"discussionaboutHessandLise"tookplace.
7
HegavelecturesthatdayinElberfeldandnearbyLeverkusenLisemeanwhilesawalawyer,Dr.ErichLeist,todiscuss
herchangedlegalstatus.WhenHahnreturnedtoBerlinontheafternoonof20MarchandtoldherofhismeetingwithHrlein,Lisewasstunned."Hrleindemanded
thatIleave,"sherecordedinherdiary."HahnsaysIshouldnotcometotheinstituteanymore.''Thenextmorningshewenttotheinstituteanywaytobeginwritingup
theresultsoftheirneutronirradiationexperimentswiththorium.Butshewasinshock,"veryunhappy"aboutHahn."Hehas,inessence,thrownmeout."
8
Thefollowingday,22March,wasOttoandEdithHahn'stwentyfifthweddinganniversary.SoasnottospoilthedayforEdith,Lisewentthroughthemotionsof
congratulatingthecoupleintheirhomethatmorning.LaterthatdayHrleintelephonedHahn.Hehadchangedhismind:"'Wewanttodotherightthing.'"The
anniversarycelebrationdidnotgowell."7P.M.Hahncalled,sentformetotellmewhatHrleinsaid.[Wetalkedfor]10minutes.ThenwithEdith,[Ottovon]Baeyer
andHannototheGermaniaPalace,silverweddinganniversary.Laterhomebycar.Iveryupset."
9
Inhercalendarsheadded,"NothingbutViennawaltzes
(runarounds):enoughtodriveonetodespair."
10
ForOtto,too,"theeveningwasquitedepressing,becauseEdithandHannoknewnothingofourconversationearlier.
...LisewasveryunhappyandangrywithmethatnowItoohadleftherinthelurch."
11
On23March,LiseaskedherfriendEllenHertztocometotheinstitute."WetalkedaboutHrlein.ButIcouldnottellEllenthetruthaboutOtto."
12
Thetruth,too
painfultoarticulate,wasthathehadbeenready
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Page186
tosacrificehertosavehisinstituteandhimself.Instinctively,hehaddistancedhimselffromher.
LiseturnedtoPaulRosbaud,oneofthefewpeoplesheknewwithreliableinsideinformation.Theyhadbeenfriendsforseveralyears,beginninginthelate1920s
whenPaul,afellowAustrian,wasaphysicsstudentinDahlemandBerlin.Wittyandgregarious,Paulandhiswife,Hilde,werepartofalivelycircleofscientists,
theaterpeople,musicians,andathleteshisbrotherHanswasconductoroftheFrankfurtRadioOrchestra.Intheearly1930s,Rosbaudtookthepositionofscientific
advisertoSpringerVerlag,publishersofscientificreferenceworksandperiodicalsafterArnoldBerlinerwasforcedoutin1935,Rosbaudassumedmuchofthe
editorialresponsibilityforNaturwissenschaften.Hetraveledwidelyforhisworkandcultivatedcontactsamongscientistsinacademia,industry,andthemilitaryhe
hadfriendswhohatedtheNazisasmuchashedid,andhealsohadfriendswellplacedwithintheregime,somewithverylowpartynumbers.
13
Ontheafternoonof
26March,LisetalkedtoRosbaud,andtogethertheyvisitedherlawyer.TheydecidedsheshouldaskErnstTelschow,GeneralDirectoroftheKaiserWilhelm
Gesellschaft,toclarifyherstatus,includingherpensionrightsshouldshebedismissed.
14
TelschowwasapartymemberwhohadreplacedthenonNaziFriedrichGlumasgeneraldirectoroftheKWGin1937.Hahnhadwelcomedthechange.Glum,he
thought,hadtriedtoplacatetheregimebyslightingtheKWIforChemistryinfavoroftheNazidominatedinstitutes,whileTelschow,achemistwhohadbeenoneof
Hahn'sfirstdoctoralstudents,could,despitehispartyaffiliation,bereliedontosupporttheinstitute.TelschowmayhavebeenquiteloyaltohisDoktorvaterHahn,but
hewasanenthusiasticandambitiousNaziwhodiligentlyenforcedtheregime'sstatutes,withnosympathyforthefewJewswhoremainedand(alsoinlinewithNazi
precepts)adistinctantipathytoprofessionalwomen.
15
MeitnermetwithTelschowon31March.Hahnwaspresent."Telschowdoesnotwantmetoleave,"she
noted.CarlBosch,presidentoftheKWGsincePlanckretiredin1937,hadinsistedthatshestay.
16
TheassurancesdidlittletocalmMeitner'sfears.Fiveyearsunderalawlessregimehadtaughtherthatthingscouldchangefromonedaytothenext,thatshehadno
rightswhatever,thattheKWG,howeverwellintentionedatsomelevels,waslargelyineffectual.Controlwasinthe
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Page187
handsofthegovernmentanditseducationministries.WithrespecttoMeitner,however,theyhadbeensilent.
Itwasimpossibletoassesshowseriouslyherpositionwasthreatened.Ifsheweredismissed,shehadtoleaveatonce.Butwherewouldshego?Wherecouldshe
work?Emigrationrequiredpreparation:contacts,letters,visas,settingherscientificandpersonalaffairsinorder,activitieslikelytojeopardizethepositionshestill
hopedtosalvage.ForweeksLisewasparalyzedwithindecision.
Herfriendsabroadunderstoodthatshewasintrouble.TwodaysaftertheAnschluss,PaulScherrerwrotefromZurich:"WewillalmostcertainlyhaveaCongress
herethissummer.Incaseitdoesn'ttakeplace,IwouldliketoinviteyoutogivealectureinanycaseonApril23.WehaveacolloquiumeveryWednesdayfrom35
P.M."
17
Theletterservedseveralpurposes.ItprovidedMeitnerwithaprofessional(inthiscase,fabricated)reasonforleavingGermanyquicklyandbeingadmittedto
Switzerland.Theinvitationwasspecificenoughintheshorttermbutextendedintothesummer.AnditprovidedevidencethatscientistsoutsideGermanywere
concernedaboutherwelfare.
AfewweekslaterasimilarlettercamefromNielsBohr.
ThelocalPhysicalSocietyandtheChemistryAssociationhavedelegatedmetoaskyouifyouwouldgivetheirmembersthegreatpleasureandgenerousinstructionbyholdinga
seminarinthenearfutureconcerningyourveryfruitfulinvestigationsoftheartificiallyinducednewradioactivefamiliesofradioactiveelements.Astothedate,wecanentirely
accommodateourselvestoyourconvenience.Itwouldsuitusparticularlywell,however,ifyouwereabletoarrangetocomeheresometimeinthefirsthalfofthemonthofMay.It
goeswithoutsayingthatthePhysicalSocietyandtheChemistryAssociationwillcoverallyourtravelexpenses,andyouwouldgivemywifeandmespecialpleasureifyouwould
livewithusduringyourstayinCopenhagen.
18
Bohrhadbeenhelpingrefugeescientistssince1933.LikeScherrer's,hisletterwasexpertlycomposed.Undertheletterheadofhisinternationallyknowninstitute,Bohr
mentionedtwicethattwoDanishacademicsocietieswereinterestedinMeitner,tookcarenottospecifyadatebuturgedhertocomesoon,andanticipatedpossible
currencyrestrictionsbypromisingthatallherexpenseswouldbepaid.
EarlyintheHitlerregimesuchevidenceofforeigninterestsometimeshadaneffect.Butinthespringof1938onecouldnolongerbesure.Over
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theyearsHitlerhadsuccessfullyappeasedforeignprotests,andtheAnschlusshadprovokedbarelyamurmurfromhisEuropeanneighbors.ForMeitner,the
"invitations"fromScherrerandBohrwereinsurance,nothingmore.Shedidnotwanttoleaveherinstituteorhercircleoffriendsandcolleaguessheclungtothehope
thatshecouldkeepherpositionandstayinBerlin.HrleinhadsaidsheshouldleavebutthenchangedhismindBoschhadurgedhertostay.Neverdidshethinkof
physicaldanger.Hergreatestfearwasthatshewouldbeforcedfromherinstitute,heronlyhopethatshecouldsomehowretainherstatusasanexception.Butthe
newsfromAustriathatAprilwasverybad.InViennaespecially,wheretheproportionofJewsinacademiawashigh,thecivilservicelawwascarriedoutwitha
vengeance.StefanMeyerpreemptedhisdismissalbyresigningasdirectoroftheRadiumInstitute,butother"nonAryans"weresimplythrownout.Theirformer
associatesandcolleagueseagerlyviedfortheirpositions.
19
DuringEastervacation,MaxandMagdavonLauetookLisewiththemforafewdaysbycarinthespringcountryside.Whentheyreturned,LisesignedLaue's
Autogstebuch(autoguestbook)withsomelinesfromGoethe:whentroubleddayscomeintoourlives,Godgivesussunshine,friendship,andbeauty.Shethanked
the"dearLauecouple"forthebeautifulEasterouting.
20
Itwouldbetheirlasttriptogetherforaverylongtime.
TowardtheendofApril,MeitnerlearnedthatasaconsequenceofHahn'stalkwithHrlein,theMinistryofEducationwasconsideringhercase.Itwasanominous
sign.OnFriday,22April,shemetCarlBoschattheHotelAdlon,wherehestayedwhenhevisitedBerlin.Shewroteinherdiary,"HerelatedwhatHrleintoldhim
abouttheconversationwithHahn,saidhemustfindout[fromtheMinistry]whatthetruthis.Promisesareofnouse,theyarenotkept.Possibilitiesnarrowing."
21
FromthatmomentLiseMeitnermetfriendsandcolleaguesnearlyeveryday,endlesslysiftingthemeagernewsavailable,weighingthealternatives.Inparticular,she
soughtoutvisitorsfromabroadastheyrelayedmessagesthatcouldnolongerbeentrustedtothemail.LestherbehaviorattractattentionamongtheMitarbeiterinthe
institute,shecontinuedhernormalscheduleofwork.Inherdiarysherecorded.
April23.Planck's80thbirthday.[Torkild]Bjerge[fromBohr'sinstitute]cametotheinstituteearly,[Maxvon]LauecameforHahnandmeandtookustoPlanck's.Speeches,
addressesfromtheAcademy.Planckanswered,wonderfullyfresh.Igavehimaphotographalbum.Thentotheinstitute,haddiscussionswithHahnconcerningHrleinBosch.
Noon,Bjergeand
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Page189
[Arnold]Flammersfeld[oneofMeitner'sMitarbeiter]withusforlunch.Bjergeverynice,open,toldusthatinCopenhagentherearetoofewpeopleforthelargeapparatus.[Dutch
physicistA.D.]Fokkercametotheinstituteandthengothisverynicewife,showedpicturesofhischildren(agirlandaboy)fromhisfirstmarriage.EveningwithHahnstothe
Planckcelebration.SatwithFokkeratdinner.
April24.Afternoon,[AnnemarieandErwin]Schrdinger[visitingfromGraz]fortea.
April25.Afternoon,teawiththeFokkers.Letterto[James]Franck[inBaltimore].
April26.Afternoon,[Annemarie]Schrdinger.Evening,withNellyPlanckatHertz's.
April27.TeaatPlancks.FirsttalkedtoPl[anck]alone,hewasverytired.SchrdingervisitedPl[anck]for3hourswithoutsayinganythingabouthimself.
April28.WithGertrud[Schiemann]toconcert.VerybeautifulChopin.
April29.EveningwithElisabeth[Schiemann].
April30.Evening,[Hilde]Rosbaudwithme.IwrotetoLola[Allers,Meitner'ssister]andJ.F.[Franck].
May5.WithHahnearlytoBosch...HahnaskedB[osch]whetherhehadtoldHrl[ein]thatHahnwasverysorryabouthistalk[withHrlein].Boschansweredno,therewasno
pointtoit.EveningwiththeLaues.
May7.Afternoon,teawithPlanck.HewantedtoknowwhatBoschsaidand[beforeleavingonatriptoLondon]tookgreetingsforLotteandWaltl[Lise'sbrotherandsisterinlaw
whohademigratedtoEngland].
22
InthenearlytwomonthssincetheAnschluss,Meitnerslowlygraspedtheinevitable:shehadtogetout.SheinformedhersisterLola,whohadleftViennaafew
monthsbeforeandwaslivinginWashington,D.C.,
23
andshealsowrotetoJamesFranck,whowasabouttoleavetheJohnsHopkinsUniversityfortheUniversityof
Chicago.AssoonashereceivedLise'sletter,Francksubmittedanaffidavit,thefirststepforU.S.immigration.Asrequired,hepledgedtosupportherifnecessaryso
that"shenevercouldbecomeapublicchargeintheUnitedStates,"listedhisannualsalaryatJohnsHopkins($6,000)andhisexpectedsalaryinChicago($10,000),
andprovideddetailsofhislifeinsurancepoliciesandhisownapplicationforAmericancitizenship.
24
ButMeitnerneverseriouslyconsideredgoingtotheUnitedStates.Americawastoodistant,tooforeign.ExceptforhersisterLola,Franck,andafewotherfriends,all
refugeesthemselves,herAmericanconnections
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wereslightandthecountry,recoveringfromthedepression,hadfewpositionsformigrscientists.Bohr'sinstitutewasmoretoherliking,andBjergehadtoldher
thatmorepeoplewereneededtooperatethecyclotron.SheknewBohr'sinvitationwasonlytemporary,butCopenhagenwouldbeahaven,asithadbeenformany
refugeescientists,untilshecouldfindapermanentpositionsomewhereelse.ShelovedBohr,hisfamilyandhisinstitute.Andherfavoritenephew,OttoRobertFrisch,
wasworkingthere.On9May,shemadeherdecision.Asrecordedinherdiary,"O[tto]R[obert]called[fromCopenhagen],whetherIcouldcome.Saidyes."
25
ButattheDanishconsulatethenextday,shewasrefusedatravelvisa:withtheAnschluss,shewastold,DenmarknolongerrecognizedherAustrianpassportasvalid.
Thiswasasevereandunexpectedsetback.AttheHahns'thateveningLisediscussedthesituationwithGustavandEllenHertzbutwenthome"verydissatisfied"with
their"superfluoustalk,beatingaboutthebush."
26
Thenextmorning,11May,Meitner"telephonedBoschearly,whetherhecouldtalk.WaitedwithHahninthe[Hotel]Adlonforoveranhour.Boschveryfriendly,
wantedtoinquirewithacertainDr.Gatmienaboutpassportregulations."
27
AgainMeitnerturnedtoherfriendsandforeigncolleagues.
May12.SwedishmineralogistProf.QuenselvisitedHahn.IrememberedthatImethimin1919inStockholm,herememberedtooandaskedHahnaboutmerightaway.KnowsEva
v.Bahr[Bergius]andEvaRamstedtverywell,tookgreetingsfrommealsotoNiels[Bohr].IntheeveningHahnleftforRome.ImetElisabethandshespenttheeveningwithme.
May13.Dr.GatmientelephonedfromVienna.AfterdinnerRosbaudcameandthenwith[Vilhelm]BjerknesfromOslo.
May15.DinnerwithPlancks.Theytoldabouttheirtrip[toLondon],aboutLotteandWaltl[Meitner]andGisela[GiselaLionMeitner,Lise'ssister,alsoinLondon].
May16.WenttoDr.Gatmien.Wasmadetowaitalmost1hour.Thenspokebrieflywithhim,quitefriendly.Hehadpromisedtogivemeadvice,whichhedidnotdo.
28
Thedelaywasnotonlymaddeningbutfrightening.TheregimewasinnohurrytoissueMeitneranewpassport,andperhapshadnointentionofdoingso.InRomefor
ascientificmeeting,Ottowasquietlybuturgentlyseekinganewpositionforher,butwithoutvalidtravelpapersshecould
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Page191
notgoanywhere.Veryworried,shemetagainwithCarlBoschon20May.HedecidedtoopenlyrequestpermissionforMeitnertoleaveGermanyandwrotetothe
ministeroftheinterior,WilhelmFrick,thatday.
HonorableHerrReichsminister!InmypositionasheadoftheKaiserWilhelmGesellschaft,Ihaveconcernedmyselfwithanassignmentwhich,inouropinion,onlyyoucan
decide.ItconcernsFrauProf.Meitner,whoworksscientificallyintheKWIforChemistry.FrauMeitnerisnonAryan,butwiththeagreementoftheMinistryofCulturehasbeen
permittedtowork,asshepossessesgreatscientificexperience,especiallyinhercapacityasaphysicist.DuringcontinuousscientificworkwithProfessorHahnshehassolved
manylargeproblems.FrauMeitnerhasAustriancitizenship.WiththereturnofAustriashehasbecomea[German]citizen,anditmaybeassumedthatthequestionofher
separationwillsoonerorlaterbecomeacute.BecauseFrauMeitneriswellknownininternationalscientificcircles,Iregarditasdesirablefortheinterestsoftheinstitutetomakeit
possibletofindasolutionforthissituation.FrauMeitnerispreparedtoleaveatanytimetoassumeascientificpositioninanothercountry.Shehasreceivedproposalsofthis
kind.ItisonlyaquestionofobtainingforFrauMeitner,whohasanAustrianpassport,noticethatshemayreturntoGermany,otherwisetravelabroadforpurposesof
employmentisimpossible,orthatFrauMeitnerbeissuedaGermanpassport.Iwould,honorableHerrReichsminister,beverygratefulif,intheinterestsoftheinstituteandits
scientificconcerns,youcouldputmeinthepositionofsettlingthissituation.HeilHitler!C.Bosch.
29
Thecardswerenowonthetable.Meitnercoulddolittlemorethanwait,notknowinghowlongitwouldtakeorwhethertheauthoritieswouldrespondatall.The
tensionwasverygreat,anditaffectedeventhosenotdirectlyinvolved.EdithHahnhadalwaysbeenpronetonervousnessanddepressioninMay,shebecame
unusuallydisturbed.
May22.IwastogotoEdithshecalled,Ishouldn'tcome,Hannohadwrittendumbletters,etc.HahnreturnedfromRomeintheevening.
May31.MainmeetingoftheKWG.Edithwantedtocometomeintheevening,totellmethingsaboutHanno.Irefused,asIhadthefeelingthattalkingwouldincreaseher
agitation.
June1.ItelephonedEdithintheafternoon,shesoundedveryagitated....9:30atnight,Dr.Wolffcalled,Edithhadsaidverystrangethingsonthetelephone.IcalledEdithagain,
spoketoher1hour,triedtotalkheroutofsomeofherideas,andtoldhertotelephoneme.
June2.Edithdidnotcall,soIcalledher.Shesoundeddistant,saidshe
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Page192
wantedtosleep.Tomyfrightenedquestion"notnow"sheanswered...intheevening.Spentthewholeeveningwithher.Shelayonthesofa,saidstrangethingsaboutOtto,how
muchtheylovedeachother,butheissounpsychological....Saidtwoorthreetimes,Idon'twanttogocrazy....Shealsospokeaboutourrelationship.Icomfortedherandwe
kissedwhenIleft."Forthefirsttimein20yearswecouldspeakabouteverything!"shesaid.
June3.CalledEdith,sheseemedquieter.IproposedthatwegowithFrauRosbaudtothemovies....Edithlaughedalot,thenapatheticagain.
June4.Morning:IcalledEdith,calm.HalfanhourlaterFrauRosbaudbicycledover,saidEdithkeptrepeatingonthetelephone,"Lise,Lise,thegreatmisfortunehashappened."I
tookHannowithme.Afternoon:Ottocame.Aftermuchtelephoning,Prof.ZutttookEdith,completelybewildered,tohisclinic.
30
EdithHahnhadsufferedaseverenervousbreakdownandwouldremainhospitalizedformonths.
NowLise'sowndifficultiescametothefore.WeekshadgonebysinceCarlBoschhadrequestedpermissionforhertoleaveGermanywitheachpassingday,the
outlookgrewbleaker.
NewsspreadtoLise'sfriendsandcolleaguesoutside.InMay,DirkCosterwrotefromtheNetherlands,urginghertospendthesummerwithhimandhisfamilyin
Groningen.Amostunusualacademiccouple,DirkandMiepCosterlivedbytheirsocialistconvictions,alwaysreadytoextendahandtoothers.Althoughtheyhad
fourchildrenandDirkwasofteninpoorhealth,theyhadgivenhelpandatemporaryhometoanumberofGermanJewishrefugeessince1933.
31
Knowingthis,Lise
wrote,"Iwouldacceptyourlovinginvitationwithouthesitation,butmysituationatthemomentissuchthatIcannottravelatall,oratleastamveryuncertainitwould
bepossible."
32
FromZurich,PaulScherrerwroteagain,thistimemoreforcefully.
IreturntomyletteratthestartofthesemesterinwhichIinvitedyoutolecturetoourcolloquiumorseminar.Wewereallverydisappointedthatyoudidn'tcomeafteryousaid
youwould....NextFridayisourlastseminaraboutnuclearquestions....Sogatheryourselftogetherandcomethisweek,byairplaneitisonlyashorthop.Youcouldgiveyour
lectureWednesdayorFriday,57P.M.
33
Buteventhemostinsistent"invitations"wereofnouseMeitnercouldnotenterSwitzerlandoranyothercountrywithoutvalidtraveldocuments.
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On6June,NielsandMargretheBohrpassedthroughBerlin.Lisemetthemforlunch,thenwentwithBohrtoseePeterDebye."D[ebye]toldBohrthereistime,there
isnotgreathurry[formetoleave]."
34
Debye,aDutchphysicistwhohadspentmostofhisprofessionallifeinGermany,wasdirectoroftheKaiserWilhelmInstitute
forPhysicsinDahlemthededicationceremoniesforthenewinstitutehadtakenplacejustaweekbefore.PerhapstheafterglowhadleftDebyewithanartificiallyrosy
viewofthepoliticalsituation.
35
Bohr,however,wasalarmed.OnhisreturntoCopenhagenhebeganseekingapositionforMeitnerintheScandinaviancountriesandaskedtheLeidentheoretical
physicistH.A.KramerstonotifyDutchphysiciststhatshewasinurgentneedofhelp.
36
KramersimmediatelycontactedCosterinGroningenandAdriaanFokkerin
Haarlem."LiseMeitnerwillprobablybethrownoutofBerlinDahlemshortly,"CosterwrotetoFokkeron11June."ItwouldbesplendidifshecouldworkinHolland
foratime,"perhapswithasubsidyfromtheLorentzFoundation.
37
FokkerhadseenherinAprilinBerlin.''ItoldyoualreadyamonthagothatLiseMeitnerisvery
unstableinDahlem,"heremindedCoster."AtthetimeIdoubtedwecouldfindthemeanstoofferheraplacehere.IamgladthatwiththeattentionofHansKramers,
wecannowbemorehopeful."
38
Withthat,thetwophysicistsbegananintensecampaigntofindsupportfortheirfriendandbringheroutofGermany.
FokkerandCosterbothknewthatuniversitypositionswerevirtuallyunavailableforforeigners.Laboratoryspacewasnotaproblem,however,eitherinGroningenor
Haarlem."Perhapswecantapcolleaguesforregularcontributions,"Costersuggested."Iampreparedtocommitmyselffor5yearstoanamountbetweenf.50and
f.100peryear.IfLiseMeitnercouldworkinGroningen,therewouldalsobeagrantofaboutf.500peryearoutofGroningen[University]funds.Shewouldhave
outstandingworkingconditionshere,aswehaveaneutrongeneratorof400,000volts,i.e.,equivalenttomorethan100gramsofRa+Be.Iwouldliketohaveher
here,butwouldnotmakemypersonalcommitmentdependentuponthat."Itwasessential,Costeradded,thattheymovequickly."IhavegivenmywordthatifI
shouldgettheimpressionthatthereisnothingforL.M.inHollandIshallletBohrknowinaweeksothathecanseekhelpinDenmarkorSweden.ButIwouldregret
itverymuchifwecouldn'tgethertoHolland."
39
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Costerhopedthatlargeindustrycouldaffordtobemoregenerousthantheuniversities,whichwerechronicallyshortoffunds.
40
ToA.Bouwers,headofthexray
divisionofN.V.PhilipsinEindhoven,hewrote,"IhaveheardthatLiseMeitnerwillmostprobablybedismissed.AslongassheremainsinGermanyshewillreceive
herfullpensionbut...ifsheleavesGermanyshelosesallherpensionrights.BohristryingtofindsomethingforherinDenmarkorSweden,butisnotatallsurehe
can.HewouldbeverygratefulifwecouldofferherafiveyearstipendhereinHolland...butitseemstomef.2000ayearistheabsoluteminimumsheneeds."
41
Ina
similarlettertoProfessorG.J.SizooinAmsterdam,whohadworkedinMeitner'slaboratoryforatime,Costercautionedhim"nottowritetoL.M.inBerlinsinceI
understandthattheprivacyofmailisnotrespectedinGermany."
42
Fokkersetagoaloff.20,000,enoughtosupportMeitnerforfiveyears,andimmediatelybegancontactingcolleaguesforadviceanddonations.Someweeksearlier
hehadaskedJohannaWesterdijk,directorofthephytopathologylaboratoryinBaarn,tocontacttheInternationalFederationofUniversityWomenonMeitner's
behalf.Thefederation'sLondonofficemaintainedasmallfundtohelpwellknownrefugeewomen,Westerdijkinformedhimatthetime,butshehadhearditwas
exhausted.
43
InJune,FokkerwrotetoWesterdijkagain.
Itwouldbeofgreatvaluetoourcountryifwecouldofferheraplacetowork.PerhapsIwastooskepticalbefore,thinkingitwasnotpossible.Iwouldbehappytoofferherwork
here...andCosterwouldbeequallygladtohaveherinGroningen.Butweneedspecialsourcesforhersalary,saythreethousandforlivingexpensesandathousandforscientific
materials....Bohrthinksthatifwecan'tgetithereweshouldperhapsgototheRockefellerFoundation.
44
Westerdijkdoubtedthattheywouldgarnermuchinstitutionalsupport:"FromthebudgetcommitteeoftheInternationalFederationofUniversityWomenIhavelearned
thatthereare30applications...forsupportfromAustriaaloneandthattheyhave100poundsintheiraccount.Theywillmeettomaketheirdecisionsnextweek."
45

Fokkerwasoptimistic,however."Ican'tcomplain,"hetoldWesterdijkon17June.Severalcolleagueshadalreadyrespondedwithpledgesofassistanceand
money.
46
"Ofthenecessarytwentythousand,Ihavealreadygottenthree.Ihopethatwhenwearriveat15thousandwecanasktheRockefellerFoundationforthe
rest."
47
AsfortheLorentzFund,heinformedCoster,''Weshouldtryfirst
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togetmoneyfromlivingpeople....LiseMeitner'sworkisexperimental,andthestatutesoftheLorentzFundexplicitlystatethatitistobeusedfortheoretical
research."
48
CosterandFokkersoonrealizedthatoneweek'stimewasnotenoughtotellBohrwhattheycoulddo.
49
Theinitialresponsehadbeenpromptandquiteencouraging,
buttheeffortwasdaunting.FokkerbegantowonderhowseriousMeitner'sproblemsactuallywere,"whetheritiscertainthatLiseMeitnerwillbedismissed,and
whethersheislivingbadlyorinfear.IwouldgladlywritetoOttoHahnaboutthis,"hetoldCoster,"butIdon'tknowwhetherhislettersareopenedifitbecame
knownthatheistryingtofindworkforherabroadshemightbedismissedatonce.IthinkiftheNazisletherkeepherposition,thenweshouldnottrytogether
here."
50
FokkerhadheardthatOttoWarburg,aJew,hadbeenallowedtoworkundisturbedinGermany"tobesureourattemptstogetL.M.arereallyneeded,"he
wantedtoknowwhetherornottheNaziswouldleaveherbe.
51
Evenbeforethosewordswerewritten,Meitnerhadthedefinitiveanswertothatquestion.On14June,shelearnedofnewrestrictionsonemigrationfromGermany.
Hurriedlyshenotedinherdiary,"Go...forinformation.Hearthattechnicalandacademic[people]willnotbepermittedtoleave.ThesamefromLaue,fromthelegal
faculty."Thenextday,15June,sheheard"thesamefromBosch."
52
Theinformationhadtheringoftruth,butuntilthenewrestrictionswereofficiallyannounced,Meitnercouldhopethatsheatleastmightstillgetout.Bosch'sappealon
herbehalfhadbeensentweeksbeforetherewasstillachanceshewouldbegrantedpermissiontotravel.Thatslimexpectationwaslaidtoresttwodayslater,on16
June,whenBoschreceivedaresponsefromtheMinistryofInterior.MeitnermetBoschattheHotelAdlonandtranscribedtheletterinshorthandontohotel
stationery.
PerinstructionsoftheReichsministerDr.Frick,Imaymosthumblytellyou,inresponsetoyourletterofthetwentiethoflastmonth,thatpoliticalconsiderationsareineffectthat
preventtheissuanceofapassportforFrauProf.Meitnertotravelabroad.ItisconsideredundesirablethatwellknownJewsleaveGermanytotravelabroadwheretheyappearto
berepresentativesofGermanscience,orwiththeirnamesandtheircorrespondingexperiencemightevendemonstratetheirinnerattitudeagainstGermany.SurelytheK.W.G.can
findawayforFrauProf.MeitnertoremaininGermanyevenaftersheresigns,andifcircumstancespermitshecanworkprivatelyintheinterestsoftheK.W.G.Thisstatement
representsinparticulartheviewof
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Page196
theReichsfhrerSSandChiefoftheGermanPoliceintheReichsministryoftheInterior.
53
Plainlybeforeher,distilledontoasinglepage,waseverythingMeitnerhadfeared.Her"resignation"wasaforegoneconclusion.Shewasforbiddentoleave.Andshe
hadlostanonymity:hercasehadcometotheattentionoftheReichsfhreroftheSS,HeinrichHimmler.BoschpreparedadirectappealtoHimmler,butMeitnerknew
shehadtogetoutfast.OttoHahnaskedPaulRosbaudtotrytogetheraforgedpassport.
54
Meanwhile,RosbaudtelephonedScherrer,whosentatelegramon17
June:AREYOUCOMINGFORA"PHYSICSWEEK"?29JUNETO1JULY.
55
Butwithherinvalidpassport,shecouldnevergetintoSwitzerland.HollandandSwedenwereconsideredmorelenient.
Atthispoint,PeterDebyebecameLiseMeitner'scriticalcontacttofriendsoutside.Hewaspoliticallyadept,nonGermanandheadofamajorinstitute,altogetherless
likelythanotherstoarousesuspicionwithhisextensiveinternationalcorrespondence.Evenso,whenDebyewrotetoBohron16June,hedescribedMeitner's
situationwiththeutmostcaution,neveroncementioninghername:"Whenwelastspoke[6June]...Iassumedeverythingwasquiteallright,butinthemeantimeithas
becomecleartomethatcircumstanceshavesubstantiallychanged."TrustingBohrtoreadbetweenthelines,Debyewenton,"Inowbelieveitwouldbegoodif
somethingcouldhappenassoonaspossible.Evenaverymodestofferwouldbeconsideredandfollowedupifonlyitprovidesthepossibilitytoworkandtolive.That
ishowthesituationwasrepresentedtome,anditwasemphasizedthatapoorerbutearlierofferwouldbepreferredoveronethatisbetterbutlater.Ihavetakenthe
responsibilityofwritingallthismyself,sothatyoucanseethatItooconcurwiththeopinionoftheconcernedparty."TobesureBohrunderstoodthatMeitner's
dismissalwasnolongerconjecturebutabouttobeforced,Debyestressedthat"eventhemostdispassionateobserverofthesituationwouldnotcometoadifferent
conclusion."
56
Bohrunderstood.On21June,hesentFokkeracopyofDebye'sletter.Believingthat"itevenmaybenecessaryforhersafetytoleaveGermanyattheearliest
opportunity,"Bohraskedforareplybyreturnpost"exactlyhow[the]matterstandsinHollandandwhatproposalyouandCosterareabletomakeatthemoment."
Tohisregret,Bohrwrote,hecouldnotoffer
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MeitnerapositioninCopenhagen,itbeing"quiteimpossibletoobtainthenecessarypermissionoftheauthoritiesonaccountofthegreatnumberofforeignersworking
alreadyinthisInstitute,"amongthemMeitner'snephew,Frisch.Nevertheless,Bohrbelieved,"apersonwithheruniquequalificationsshouldhardly[have]difficultiesto
findsome...solutionforthelongrun,ifonlyshecangetoutofherfor[the]presentmostprecarioussituation."
57
TherewasachancethatManneSiegbahncouldtake
MeitnerintohisnewphysicsinstituteinStockholm,but"thepossibilitiesthereareonlysmall,anditwillthereforebemostdesirableifyouandCostercontinueyour
endeavoursinHollandwithoutdelay."
58
Bohr'sletterreachedCosterandFokkerjustastheyhadbecomequitediscouraged."AtthemomentIstillhavenoresults,"Costerhadwrittenafewdaysbefore.
TherewasnothingforLiseMeitnerinAmsterdam,heexpectedlittlehelpfromotherphysicists,hehadheardnothingfromindustry."Ishalltrytogetsomethingfrom
theinstitutionsinGroningen....Thatwouldbelimitedtoafewhundredguldenayear,anamountscarcelyworthcounting."
59
Aftertendaysofconstanteffort,they
hadcollectedonlyf.4,000,farshortoftheirgoaloff.20,000.
60
AndFokkerhadjustlearnedfromanAmsterdamcolleague,ProfessorD.Cohen,thatgettingMeitnerintotheNetherlandswould"notbeentirelyeasy."
61
Likemany
countries,theNetherlandshaderectedmajorbarrierstoimmigration.
OnlythoseareadmittedforwhomitcanbeshownthattheirpresencedeliversimportantbenefitstotheNetherlands.ThewaytogoaboutitistodirectarequesttotheMinisterof
JusticefortheadmissionofMevr[ouw]Meitner.Theletterwillgoto[theMinistryof]Educationforadvice,andyoushouldatthesametimeinformEducation,preferablyin
person,andconvincethemthatherpresenceintheNetherlandsisofgreatimportance.Ifearthateventhentherewillbedifficulty,inthattheregulationsinfactapplytoGermany
andnottoAustria.Butifyouandyourfriendspushhardenoughitseemstomeyoucanshowthatthisisaveryspecialcase....Ihopefrommyheartthatyousucceed.
62
FokkeraskedW.J.deHaasofLeiden,afriendofMeitner's,totelephonetheMinistryofJusticeintheHagueforspecificadvice.
63
TohelpFokkerwiththedifficult
andunfamiliartaskofpetitioningthegovernment,CostertraveledtoHaarlemonFriday,24June.Asrequired,theirrequesttotheMinisterofJusticetooktheformof
ahighlystylized
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Page198
resolution.Theyappealedtonationalhonor:"WhereasthemeasuresoftheGermangovernmenthavealreadyforcedtheexpulsionofmanyscientificscholarsand
othersofthefirstrank,whohavefoundpositionsinFrance,England,Belgium,DenmarkandAmerica,andwhereasthesamemisfortunenowawaitsMevrouwProf.
Dr.LiseMeitner..."TheyappealedtotheDutchreputationforscientificexcellence:"Whereasitwouldbeofgreatvalueandalsoesteemtothedevelopmentof
physicsintheNetherlandsifascientistofthequalityofMevrouwMeitnercouldworkinthiscountry..."TheyindicatedthatLiseMeitnerwouldbewelcomein
Holland:"WhereasthisproposalhastheconsentoftheRoyalAcademyofSciencesinAmsterdam....WhereassheispreparedtoworkinlaboratoriesinHaarlemas
wellasGroningen..."Perhapsmostimportant,theyexplainedthatMeitner'spresencewouldnotcauseeconomicdistresstoasingleDutchcitizen:"Whereasthe
money[forMeitner'ssupport]hasbeendonatedthusfarbyprivateparties...shewouldnotdepriveanyDutchscientistofemploymentopportunities."Aftertestifying
tohermentalandpoliticalstability"WhereasMevrouwMeitnerhasneverbeenmentallyill,nortakenpartinpoliticalactionsorpropaganda''CosterandFokker
concluded,"ThesereasonscommendthemselvestoyourExcellencywiththerespectfulrequestthatMevrouwMeitnerbegrantedherrequesttobeadmittedtothe
Netherlands."
64
On28June,thepetitionwassenttotheMinistryofJustice.ItwasaccompaniedbyalessformalbutmoredetailedappealtotheMinistryofEducation.
65
According
todeHaas,JusticewouldviewthemattermostfavorablyifEducationcouldmakethecasethattheadmissionofLiseMeitnerservedDutchinterestsforthisitwould
bebestifshehadadefiniteuniversityposition.
66
Asforeignerswerenotpermittedtoworkforpay,theunsalariedpositionofprivaatdocente(lecturer)wastheonly
option.
67
Thisrequiredfacultyconsent,normallyalengthyprocess.IthappenedthatameetingofthefacultyinLeidenwasscheduledfor28JunedeHaasanda
Leidenchemist,Dr.A.E.vanArkel,sawtoitthatthepositionwasquicklyapproved.
68
AfterassuringEducationthatGroningen,too,wouldbehonoredtohave
Meitner,CosterformallyrequestedthatshebeadmittedintotheNetherlandsasaprivaatdocentewhowouldmaintain"closecontactwithphysicsandchemistry
students...inGroningenandLeiden...directlysupervisingtheirresearchandgivinglecturesintheuniversi
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Page199
ties."
69
PrivatelyCosterwarnedtheministrythattherewas"periculuminmora"dangerindelay.
70
Therewasstilltheproblemofmoney.Universityfacultyhadlittletospare."Idon'tknowhowIcanbeofservicetoyou,"onephysicistwrotefromAmsterdam,"butI
shallgladlybeavailable."
71
VanArkelexpressedhiswillingnesstohelpbyfindingstudentsforMeitnerinLeiden,but''financiallyIcannotdomuch."
72
Fundswould
havetocomefromwealthierindividualsandfromindustry.CosterobtainedtheaddressesoffourJewishindustrialistsandaskedeachforf.1,000.GillesHolst,director
ofresearchatN.V.PhilipsinEindhoven,pledgedapersonalcontributionandthoughtthecompanymightunderwritesomeofMeitner'sexpenses,especiallyifthey
couldarrangeforhertogivelecturesthereeachyear."Isuggestedf.500peryear,buthecouldnotatthemomentgivemeananswer."
73
FokkerappealedtoA.F.
Philipsdirectly,referringtoMeitneras"oneofthepioneersinradioactivity"whoseworkin"ourland,withourstudents"wouldbea"stronginspiration,"remindinghim
thatMeitnerhadinthepastlecturedalloverHolland,"includingyourphysicslaboratoryinEindhoven."
74
Itwastolittleavail.Forfiveyears,EuropeandAmericahadabsorbedrefugeescientistsfromNaziGermany,sometimesgladly,oftenwithdifficulty
75
in1938,the
numberofrefugeesrosesharplyandresourceswerespreadthin."Weunderstandtheunhappycircumstancesofsomanyunfortunatepeople,"oneindustrialistwroteto
Fokker,"butwehavesomanyresponsibilitiestofulfillthatitisnolongerpossibletotakepartinyourfund."
76
Anotherregrettedthat"owingtothedirecircumstances
ofrelativesandfriendsinGermanyandnowalsoinAustria,thedemandsonmearesuchthatIamnolongerfreetoofferphilanthropichelptopeopleoutsidemyown
circle."
77
"Economicallythingsarebad,"onebusinessmanresponded,citingthe"Americandebacleof1929"andRoosevelt's"anticapitalisticpolitics."
78
P.F.S.
Otten,directorofN.V.Philips,respondedcoolly:thecompanydidsupportscientistsbutonlyindirectlythroughgrantstouniversities."Internalbudgetary
considerationsaswellasconsiderationsofapoliticalsort"madeitimpossibletohelp.
79
FokkerspoketoanotherDutchindustrialist,inchargeofalargeconcernin
Germany."Icouldnotpersuadehim.Somanyunbelievablethingshavehappened[inGermany],hesaid.HeaskedmeL.M.'sage,andsaidmany
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peopletherewereforcedtoretirewhoaremuchyoungerthansheis.Itallsoundsveryhard."
80
EvencolleagueswhoknewandlikedMeitnerfoundithardtobelievehersituationwastrulydesperate.Sizoothoughthewasactinginherbestinterestsbywarning
Coster,"SinceLiseMeitnerwillloseherpensionrightsuponleavingGermany,theresponsibilityoneassumesbyofferingherapositionhereisverygreat."
81
Another
friendofMeitner's,ProfessorH.R.KruytofUtrecht,declaredhimself"ofcoursegladlywilling"tousehisinfluencewiththegovernment,butonly"ifthequestionreally
becomesacute"andthencautionedFokkerandCoster"tothinkaheadcarefullyaboutwhat[youare]doing,especiallysince[thelossofpensionrights]apparently
cannotbereversed."
82
Clearlyitwasdifficultforpeopletocomprehendtheinjusticeoflifewithoutwork,tounderstandthatMeitnercouldnotremaininGermanya
despisedoutcast,evenwithapensionfromherforced''retirement."Andalmostnoone,includingMeitnerherself,wasabletotruly"thinkaheadcarefully"andforesee
whatlayaheadfortheJewsofEurope.
Afterthreeweeksofconstanteffort,CosterandFokkerhadcollectedonlyenoughtosupportMeitnerforoneyearattimeseventheythoughtshemightbebetteroff
stayinginBerlin.Theyknewshewasabouttobedismissedandtheyknewofherpassportandvisaproblems,butDebye'sletterof16Junehadbeensoguardedthat
theywereunawarethatshehadbeenexpresslyprohibitedfromleavingGermanyandthustheydidnotrealizehowessentialitwasforhertogetoutquickly,beforethe
prohibitionswerestrictlyenforced.Communicationswerepoorinbothdirections."Outoffearofpartyspies"FokkerandCosterhadneverdirectlywrittentoMeitner
orDebyethattheycouldsupportherforayeartheydidinformBohrbutheardnothinginresponse.
83
TowardtheendofJune,CosterthoughtitbesttogotoBerlintoseeforhimselfhowbadthingswereandifnecessarytobringMeitnerbackwithhim.
84
Beforehe
left,Fokkerofferedsomeambivalentlastminuteadvice."Don'tpanic!Don'tletyourpresenceinBerlin...makeL.M.leavetoohastily.Lethercalmlyconcludeher
businessandpackhersuitcaseremembershecannottravelaloneaswellaswithyou.Forgivemeforsayingthis,butdon'tfallvictimtothemasculineprotective
instinct....ThinkofWarburg,whosaysheisleftundisturbedandmakesnotrouble.ThereisnoaxiomthatsaysyoumustbringL.M.tome.Alsoyoumust
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lethercalmlymakethedecisionherself."UnawareofMeitner'sincreasinglydangeroussituation,Fokkerstillthoughtthatperhaps"L.M.cangetanordinarypassport,
withoutswearingthatshewillnevercomebacktoG[ermany]."Hisambivalencereflectedhisfear:"Itisalwayspossiblethatthetwoofuswillnotgetthemoney!"
85
On27June,CostersentDebyeashort,codedmessage:hewascomingtoBerlintolookforan"assistant"(Meitner)tofillaoneyearappointment.Thatday,Ebbe
Rasmussen,oneofBohr'scloseassociatesinCopenhagen,cametoBerlinwithnewsforMeitnerofanotheroffer:apositionwithManneSiegbahn,whosenew
instituteinStockholmwouldsoonbefinished,thefirstinSwedendevotedtonuclearresearch.MeitnermetRasmusseninPeterDebye'shomeMaxvonLauewas
alsopresent.TogethertheyweighedthealternativesbetweenHollandandSweden.
86
Meitner'stiestotheNetherlandsweremuchcloser,butshewasbynomeansastrangertoSweden,havingvisitedseveraltimes,andshehadanumberofgoodfriends
andcolleaguestherealthoughshedidnotknowSiegbahnwell,theyhadbeenacquaintedforsometwentyyears.(ItwasatSiegbahn'sinstituteattheUniversityof
LundthatshefirstmetDirkCosterin1921.)Moreover,Siegbahn'snewinstitutewaspartoftheRoyalSwedishAcademyofSciences,which,itappeared,would
makeiteasierforhertobeadmittedtoSwedenandobtainpermissiontowork.
87
ForMeitner,however,thedecidingfactorwasthatexperimentalnuclearphysics
wasundevelopedinSweden:shebelievedshecouldbeofuse.ShedecidedtotaketheStockholmoffer.WhenCoster'sletterarrivedtwodayslater,shedidnot
changehermind.
DebyewrotetoCoster,
Dr.RasmussenwasherealreadyonMonday[27June].Withhisvisithepursuedthesamegoalasyourletter,heisseekinganassistantforSiegbahn'snewlaboratory.Even
thoughIhadnotyetreceivedyourletteritseemedtomethatIcouldcountonasimilarofferfromyoursideIgatheredthisfromaletterofFokker's.Iregret,actually,thatImust
writethatintheendStockholmwon.IwouldhavepreferredthatitbeGroningen,butIletmyselfbepersuadedbytheassistanthimself[Meitner],whothinkshewillbeableto
accomplishmoreinStockholm....OfcourseIstilllethimknowthismorningwhatwasinyourletter.Iknewinadvancethatnothingcouldbechanged,butontheotherhandI
believeditscontentswouldhaveagoodeffectonhisspirits.Iwasnotmistakenevenunderthemostordinarycircumstancesappreciationissomethingthathasexcellenteffects,
andinthis
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caseitseffectwasevenbetter,asyoucanimagine....WhatapleasureitisformetoseewhatacoupleofsplendidDutchfellowslikeyouandFokkercando!
88
SatisfiedthatMeitnerwasingoodhands,CosterandFokkernotifiedthevariousdonorsthattheircontributionswouldnotbeneededafterall.
89
Severalcommented
thattheSwedishofferwasagoodone,enablinghertobetakendirectlyintoanewworkinggroup.
90
Meitner,meanwhile,visitedtheSwedishconsulate,thenquietly
arrangedforherlawyertotransferherbankaccountandshipherbooksandfurnitureaftershewasgone.Planck,shenoted,was"verydeeplyshaken[sehr
erschttert]"bythefinalityofherplanstoleave.
91
Adayortwolater,however,FokkerreceivedasomewhatunsettlingletterfromBohr:theSwedishoffer,itseemed,wasnotentirelyfirm.
Allformalitiesregardingherinvitationandherpermissionto[enter]Swedenare...notyetinorder,andincaseunforeseendifficultiesshouldarise,Ishallofcourseletyouknow.
OtherwiseLiseMeitnerintendstogotoSwedeninthebeginningofAugusttostaywithprivatefriendsuntilshecanstartworkinSiegbahn'sinstituteinthebeginningofthe
autumnsemester.
92
Difficultiesarosealmostatonce.On4July,CarlBoschinformedMeitnerbyletterthatthepolicyprohibitingscientistsfromleavingGermanywouldsoonbestrictly
enforced,ineffectsealingtheGermanbordersfromwithin.MeitnerandDebyeagreed:shemustleaveimmediately.
93
Swedenwasinaccessible,Hollandtheonly
possibility.Urgently,DebyewrotetoCoster,
Theassistantwetalkedabout,whohadmadewhatseemedlikeafirmdecision,soughtmeoutonceagain....Heisnowcompletelyconvinced(thishashappenedinthelastfew
days)thathewouldrathergotoGroningen,indeedthatthisistheonlyavenueopentohim.HeintendstokeephisagreementwithRasmussen,butthatisonlyinthefutureunder
nocircumstancescanhestartthererightaway.IbelieveheisrightandthereforeIwanttoaskwhetheryoucanstilldoanythingforhim.PerhapsImaynowhavethepleasureof
showingyoumylaboratory.IfyoucometoBerlinmayIaskyoutobesuretostaywithus,and(providingofcoursethatthecircumstancesarestillfavorable)ifyouweretocome
rathersoonasifyoureceivedanSOSthatwouldgivemywifeandmeevengreaterpleasure.
94
Whilewaitingforareply,Meitnercontactedherformerassistant,CarlFriedrichvonWeizscker,toaskhisfather,BaronErnstvonWeizscker,
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Page203
ahighofficialintheForeignMinistry,aboutherapplicationforaGermanpassport.Thereplywasswiftandnegative:"ForeignOfficesameopinionasMinistryofthe
Interior."Itwasauselessexercise.TheelderWeizsckerinhiscapacityasStaatssekretrwasatthatmomentsigningorderstoGermanembassiesabroad,forbidding
emigratingJewsfromtransferringfundsoutofGermany,anorderthatgreatlyincreasedthedifficultyofemigration.Andthefactthathercasehadnowcometothe
attentionoftwoministriesmadeitevenmoreurgentthatsheleave.
95
Debye'sSOSwentoutonWednesday,6July.ItdidnotreachGroningenuntiltheafternoonofSaturdaythe9th.Costerunderstoodandtelegraphed:"Iamcomingto
lookovertheassistantandifhesuitsmeIwilltakehimbackwithme."
96
ButCostercouldnotsaywhen:hehadnotyetreceivedpermissionforMeitnertoenter
Holland.BythetimeFokkercalledtheHague,itwasSaturdayeveningandgovernmentofficialshadlefttheiroffices.Hedidreachtheheadoftheborderguard,who
promisedhimananswerMondaymorning.OnSundaytheycoulddonothingbutwait.OnMondaytheyheard:Meitnerwouldbeadmitted.Costerimmediatelyset
outforBerlin.
97
InDahlem,meanwhile,MondaymorningcameandwentwithoutawordfromCoster.AtnoonDebyesentFokkerafrantictelegram:"WITHOUTANSWERFROM
COSTERCLARIFICATIONURGENTLYREQUESTED."
98
Fokkertelegraphedback:"DIRKWITHYOUTHISEVENINGINBESTCONDITION.""Inbest
condition"wasFokker'sattempttoreassureDebyeandMeitner."Itisreallyrotten,''hewrotetoKramerslater,"thatIcouldnoteventelegraphthatwehadofficial
permissionforhertoenter."
99
InBerlin,onlyDebye,Hahn,MaxvonLaue,andPaulRosbaudknewofMeitner'splans.Thesecrecyheightenedthetension.OnMonday,MeitnertoldPlanck'swife,
Marga,"aboutBosch'sletterbutnothingmore.ThesamewithElis[abethSchiemann]."
100
Therewerenofarewells.
CosterarrivedinBerlinlateMondayevening,stayingthenightwithDebyeandhisfamily.HeplannedtoleaveonWednesday,13July,takingMeitneronalightly
traveledtrainroutethatcrossedtheborderatthesmallstationofNieuweSchans.OneofCoster'sGroningenneighbors,E.H.Ebels,wasaninfluentiallocalpolitician
fromalargefarmingfamilyneartheborder.OnMonday,beforeCosterleftforBerlin,EbelshaddrivenhimtoNieuweSchanswheretheytalkedtotheimmigration
officials.
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Page204
CosterhopedthattheDutchborderofficers,whowereongoodtermswiththeirGermancounterparts,wouldpersuadethemtoletMeitnerpassthroughundisturbed.
101
OnTuesday,12July,Meitnerarrived"earlyintheinstitute.HahntellsmewhatCosterDebyepropose.MeetCosterinthemorningwithHahn.Workintheinstitute
until8o'clockatnight."CostertookcarenottobeseeninDahlemthatday.
102
Meitnerwascareful,too."Soasnottoarousesuspicion,Ispentthelastdayofmylife
inGermanyintheinstituteuntil8atnightcorrectingapapertobepublishedbyayoungassociate.ThenIhadexactly11/2hourstopackafewnecessarythingsinto
twosmallsuitcases."
103
OttohelpedLisepack."Hahnverynervoustoomanythings.At10:30Rosbaudcomes,wedrivetoHahn's."
104
"AtRosbaud'ssuggestionIcalledScherrersothat
ifIcouldn'tgetintoHollandtheremightbethepossibilityofSwitzerland.ScherrerunderstoodimmediatelywhyIcalledandsaidhewaswaitingformylecture."
105
MeitnerspentthenightatHahn'shouse.
Weagreedonacodetelegraminwhichwewouldbeletknownwhetherthejourneyendedinsuccessorfailure.ThedangerconsistedintheSS'srepeatedpassportcontrolof
trainscrossingthefrontier.PeopletryingtoleaveGermanywerealwaysbeingarrestedonthetrainandbroughtback.
106
...Wewereshakingwithfearwhethershewouldget
throughornot.
107
In1907,LiseMeitnerhadcometoBerlinasanimpoverishedstudent.Thirtyoneyearslater,shewrote,"IleftGermanyforeverwith10marksinmypurse."
108

Andonethingmore:adiamondringOttohadinheritedfromhismother.Hegaveittoherwhentheysaidgoodbye."Iwantedhertobeprovidedforinan
emergency."
109
Rosbauddrovehertothetrainstation.Atthelastminute,overwhelmedbyfear,shebeggedhimtoturnback.
110
ButCosterwaswaitinginthetraintheygreeted
eachotherasifbychance.Thetripwasuneventful.AstheynearedtheDutchborder,Lisebecameverynervous.Tohelpherfeelunobtrusive,Costeraskedherto
removethediamondringandslippeditintohiswaistcoatpocket.
111
Theycrossedtheborderwithoutincident.InherdiaryLisewrote,"13July.Saidgoodbyeearly
toHahn.Ring.MetCosteratthestation.InNieuweSchansthecustomsofficerwasinformed.6P.M.Groningen."
112
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Page205
Itwasover.Lisewasout.Thedangerhadbeenevengreaterthansherealized.KurtHess,whoseapartmentintheinstitutevillaadjoinedhers,hadsentahandwritten
notetotheauthoritiesinformingthemthatshewasabouttoflee."FortunatelythereweretwodecentpeopleinthenotoriousSicherheitsdienst[SD,police]who
authorizedascientistwhoseattitudetheyknew[probablyGeorgGraue]tocheckonthis.ItwasonlywhenOttoHahnreportedthatFrauMeitnerwasinStockholm
[morelikelyGroningen]thatthenotificationwentback[throughpolicechannels]."
113
MaxvonLaueremembered,"Theshotthatwastobringyoudowninthelast
minutemissedyou.Youyourselfprobablydidnotnoticeit.Themoresobecauseofit,Iwaitedfornewsthatyouhadarrivedsafely."
114
FromGroningen,CostersenttheprearrangedtelegramtoHahn:the"baby"hadarrived,allwaswell.Hahnsent"heartiestcongratulations,"adding,"Iwasofcourse
veryhappyaboutthenews,asweweresomewhatworriedrecently.Whatwillbethelittledaughter'sname?"
115
Costerwasdelugedwithcongratulations,includinga
telegramfromWolfgangPauli:''YouhavemadeyourselfasfamousfortheabductionofLiseMeitnerasfor[thediscoveryof]hafnium!"
116
Forthefirsttimeinmonths,Lisewasfreetothinkbeyondthemomentofescape.Reliefturnedtoshock.Completelyuprooted,shehadbeentornfromwork,friends,
income,language.WhenFokkercametoseeher,hehadthefeelingthat"hersenseofbeinginwardlytornapartismuchworsethanwecanimagine.Shecompletely
suppressesitshespeaksonlyaboutfactualmattersonthesurface,butunderthemostseveretension."
117
Howunbearable,Miepthought,tobeforcedatagefifty
nineto"leapintothevoid."
118
Stateless,withoutapassport,shedidnotknowwhereshewouldliveorhowshecouldtravel.Exceptforafewsummerclothesintwosmallsuitcases,shehadno
belongings.Andshehadnomoney,noneatall.OnherfirstdayinGroningen,Costergaveherasmallsum,implyingthatitcamefrom"someimpersonalfundor
another,"butshesoonfoundoutthatitwasinfactcollectedfromFokker,Coster,andafewotherfriends.Upset,sheinsistedonconsideringthemoneyaloan.
119
Butmoneywasnothergreatestworry.Overridingallelsewasthefearthatshemightnotfindaplacetowork.ItwasphysicsthathadkeptherinGermanyallthose
years,thelossofherpositionthatfinallydroveherout.NowtheStockholmofferwasunaccountablydelayed.Shortlyafter
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Page206
MeitnerarrivedinGroningen,Hahnrelayedamessagetoherfrom"theSwedefromBerlin....Hisproposalsfortheevaporationpossibilitiesofoverheatedgasesfrom
sealedvesselsare,however,notsufficientlythoughtthroughandwouldnothavebeenusefulforourwork."
120
ManneSiegbahn,whowasofGermandescent(the
"SwedefromBerlin"),hadapparentlynotyetobtainedpermissionforMeitnertoenterSwedenafterherescapefromGermany("evaporationfromsealedvessels").
FromZurich,PaulScherrersentMeitnerhisfirstuncodedletterinmonths."Ihavenoideahowyoursituationdeveloped,asnoonecomesherefromGermany
anymore.OnthetelephoneIcouldlearnnothingfromDr.RosbaudhespokeinthestyleoftheKoran.PauliandIwerealwaysveryconcernedforyou.Naturally,as
anAustrian,Pauliisgladtobehere."
121
"ThereisapossibilityofapositioninStockholm,startinginSeptember,"Meitnerreplied,withacomposureshedidnotfeel."Ihopeitworksout.Yousee,my
situationisnotverypleasant,butthereisnosensedwellingonit,thingswilldevelop."
122
FokkerandCostercouldnotunderstandwhytheSwedishformalitiesweretakingsolong.HavingcanceledtheirowneffortsintheNetherlands,theynowfelt
responsibleforsecuringherpositioninStockholmandpressedSiegbahntomovemorequickly.
123
Meanwhile,Meitnerstayedbusy,spendingherdaysinCoster's
institute,hereveningswiththeCosterfamilyandtheirfriends.Herworriesdidnotpreventherfromappreciatingthechildreninthehousehold.Inherdiaryshenoted,
"Coster'syoungestsonHermannveryintelligent,hasabsolutepitch,"alongwith,"IamtryingtofindouthowtogettoSweden,shiporplane?"
124
AtlasttherewasnewsfromSweden:herentrancevisawasapproved.On21July,MeitnerleftGroningenforFokker'shomeinHaarlemtobeclosertotheconsulates
intheHagueandtheportsofAmsterdamandRotterdam.ButwhenFokkertelephonedtheSwedishlegation,hewastoldthattheywereauthorizedtoadmitherifshe
hadaGermanpassport,orifshehadanAustrianpassportwithanexplicitstatementthatshewasallowedtoreturntoGermanyatanytime.
Fokkerwasfurious.AgainhewrotetoSiegbahn.
Itold[theconsulate]thatsheonlyhadanAustrianpassportwithoutthatstatement,andthatshecouldnevergetitfromtheGermanauthorities....Youwillunderstandthatifthe
Swedishgovernmentisnotwillingtoadmit
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Page207
herwithoutrestriction,thenshewillbelost.ItakeitthatyouwillsucceedinmakingthepointquitecleartoyourMinisterofForeignAffairsortowhomsoeveritregards....Our
guestisabravewomanstillshelivesunderagreatstressofanxietyandshewillonlyberelievedfromitwhenshewillhavesetfootinSweden.
125
Anotherdelay.MeitnervisitedW.J.deHaasandhisfamily,oldfriends,inLeiden,thenreturnedtoGroningen.Finallyon26July,shelearnedthatherSwedishvisa
hadbeengranted,thistimewithoutrestrictions.ToavoidpassingthroughGermanyshewouldflytoCopenhagen,whereshewouldspendafewdayswithBohr,his
family,andOttoRobertFrisch,thencontinuebyboatandtraintoherfriendEvavonBahrBergiusinSweden.Costergaveher200guilders,enoughfortravelwitha
littleleftover.
126
Beforesheleft,Fokkerwrote,"Thedepthslieopen.Onlytheyarenotalwayscalmenoughforonetolookwithin....Maythedifficulttimethat
awaitsyouuntilyouaresettlednotlastlong."
127
On28July,LiseMeitner"flewwithhiddenmoneytoCopenhagen...fearfulthewholetimewhatwouldhappentomeiftheairplaneshouldbeforcedtolandin
Germany."
128
Buttheweatherwasbeautifulandallwentwell.IntheInstituteforTheoreticalPhysics,Frischshowedhisauntthenewcyclotronunderconstruction,
thenNielsandMargretheBohrwelcomedhertoTisvilde,theirsummerhomebythesea.Itwasmidsummer,splendidweather,perfectforswimmingwiththechildren
andlazinginthesun.MeitnerhadalwaysconsideredBohr'sinstituteaphysicist'sparadiseCopenhagenwasasbeautifulasever.Thistimenothingwasthesame.
Memoriesofearlier,happiervisitscontrastedstarklywiththepainfulrealityofthepresent.
On1August,sheleftforSweden.Againthetripwasbeautiful.EvavonBahrBergiuswaswaitingforherattheGteborgstation.Togethertheycontinuedbytrain
andthensteamertoEva'shomeinKunglv,asmalltownonthewestcoastwhereLiseplannedtostayuntilSeptember.Exhaustedanddepressed,shehopedthata
fewweeksrestwouldgiveherthestrengthtoplanahead.
129
ShewasnotentirelycertainshewantedtoremaininSweden.TheStockholmofferwasthemostsubstantialshehadreceived:nominallyforoneyearonly,itseemed
likelythatitwouldbeextendedforseveralyears,untilshereachedthemandatorySwedishretirementageofsixtyfive.Allotheroffers,includingtheonecobbled
togetherbyCosterandFokker,had
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Page208
beenextremelyprovisional.Scherrer'sandBohr'sinvitationshadbeenonlyapretextforgettingheroutofGermanyinAugustshereceivedinvitationsfromthe
CaliforniaInstituteofTechnologyandfromE.O.LawrenceinBerkeleytogiveafewlecturesinthefall.
130
MeitnerwouldhavepreferredEngland,andindeedseveralcolleaguesweretryingtofindsomethingforherthere.C.D.Elliscommendedheras"themost
distinguishedwomanscientisttoday...butowingtoherhavingaJewsomewhereinthebackgroundsheseemstobeindangeroflosingherpost.[Shewasalreadyin
Swedenwhentheletterwaswritten.]Shehasareallymagnificentrecordofwork."Ellis'sletterwasforwardedtoF.A.LindemanninOxford,whowasnotoriously
unsympathetictowomen.HejudgedMeitner'splight"contingentratherthanactual,"andnothingcameofit.
131
ButinCambridgeseveralphysicistsweremoresuccessful.InlateAugust,W.L.BragginformedManneSiegbahnthatGirton,awomen'scollege,waspreparedto
offerMeitnerroom,board,andastipendforoneyear,"butwecouldnotpromiseanythingforalongertime."Meitnerdidnotunderstandwhyawomen'scollegewas
involved,orwhyBraggdidnotwritetoherdirectlybutinsteadgaveSiegbahntheoption:"Ifyoudonotliketheproposal,andprefertosaynothingtoMissMeitner
aboutit,Ishallquiteunderstand."
132
Nevertheless,CambridgewashomeoftheCavendishLaboratoryanda"powerfulsourceofattraction."
133
Throughhernephew,Lisetriedtofindoutwhatthe
chancesmightbefortheappointmenttobeextendedbeyondoneyear.J.D.Cockcroft,amanknownforhiseconomyofwords,
134
wouldnotspeculate."We
[P.I.]Dee,[Norman]FeatherandIhopedthatafterGirtonhadseenMissMeitnertheywouldofferherafellowship[apermanentappointment]butwecannotsay
whatthechanceswouldbe."
135
MeitnerthoughtherreputationshouldhavebeenwellenoughknownbythenunfamiliarwiththeBritishnegotiatingstyle,shedidnot
knowwhattomakeofit.ShedecidedagainsttheCambridgeoffer.Atherage,FrischtoldCockcroft,shedidnotwishtopostponehernewstartinSweden.
136
A"newstart."Thewordsweremockinglyoptimistic.NotsinceherarrivalinBerlinthirtyoneyearsbeforehadshefeltsoalone.Knowingthatthousandswereexiles
likeherselfonlyaddedtoherdespair.Hergratitude
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toDirkCosterwasmarredbytheknowledgethatsomanyothers,lackinginfluentialanddevotedfriends,wereunabletoescapefromGermany.Shewasanoutcast,
suspendedbetweenapastthatwasgoneandafuturethatheldnothingatall."Onedarenotlookback,"shewrotetoCosterfromSweden,"onecannotlook
forward."
137
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ChapterNine
ExileinStockholm
Ioftenappeartomyselflikeawindupdollwhodoescertainthingsautomatically,withafriendlysmile,butwithnoreallifeinher.
Inthesummerof1938,onlyafewfriendsknewthatLiseMeitnerwouldnotreturntoGermany.On13July,thedayshetookthetraintoHolland,OttoHahntoldthe
institutestaffthatshehadlefttovisitrelativesandevenwroteinhisownpocketcalendar,"LisegoestoVienna."
1
Afewdayslatertheinstituteclosedforthesix
weeksummervacation.InAugust,theMinistryofEducationmovedtodismissher.
FrauProfessorLiseMeitner,formerlyanAustriannational,isworkingasaguest[sic]attheKaiserWilhelmInstituteforChemistry.Insofarastheabovenamedhasbecomea
GermannationalthroughtheAnschlussofAustria,itmustbecertifiedwhatfractionJewishbloodshepossesses.PreviousstipulationindicatedthatFrauMeitnerhas25percent
[sic]Jewishblood....Irequestanexpeditiousresponseinthismatter.
2
TheorderwenttoErnstTelschow,generaldirectoroftheUnawarethatMeitnerwasgoneforgood,TelschowturneditovertoHahn.
PerhapsyoucanspeakaboutthesituationwithProfessorMeitner,andletmeknowtheanswer.Ibelievethatitwouldnowthattheministryhasbecomeinvolvedinthematter
beexpedientifFrauMeitnerherselfwouldrequestaleaveofabsenceuntilthequestionofherdismissalorretentionbytheKWGissettled.Sucharequestwouldbeusefulin
furtherdiscussionswiththeministry.
3
Telschow,evertheefficientfunctionary,wasfollowingordersfromhigherupandmakingsureHahnunderstoodthatitwastohisadvantagetodothesame.
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OttosentcopiesoftheletterstoLise.Hewasexhaustedbytheeventsofthepastmonthsandfearfulofwhatlayahead.WithLisegonehehadlosthistrustedfriend,
thescientificleaderoftheuraniumproject,thepersonwhohadsharedwithhimthedirectionoftheinstitute.Ofcourse,herdeparturerelievedhimofhismostpressing
politicalproblem,buthewasstillvulnerable:asanonNazihisverypresencekepttheinstituteandtheKWGfromacompleteGleichschaltungwithNazidoctrine.
Thisfueledtheambitionsofthoseseekinghisposition,requiringthatheweigheverymovewiththeutmostcare."Startingworkandsoonwillsurelynotbeeasy,"Otto
wrotetoLiseinAugust."AloneIfeelquitehelpless."
4
Lise,meanwhile,hadarrivedinStockholm.Tornfromeverythingsheknew,shewaspreoccupiedwithwhatshehadleftinBerlin.Shehadgone,butherlifewasstill
there,eerilyuntouched:everyonesheknew,allshehad,herlabcoatstillonahookinheroffice,unansweredlettersonherdesk,experimentsinprogress.Addingto
herlosswastheviolationofhercharacter.She,whoalwaystriedtobeuprightineveryaspectofherprofessionalandprivatelife,hadcrossedbordersillegally,given
upherpositionwithoutpropernotification,leftwithoutawordtohercoworkersorsomeofherclosestfriends.ShecouldnotbeginanewlifeinStockholmuntilshe
broughtsomeordertotheonesheleftbehind.
Theinstitutewasscheduledtoreopenon29August.Onthe23d,shewrotetoCarlBosch,presidentoftheKWG,withaformalrequestforretirement,andsheasked
Telschowtomeetherlawyertodiscusstheconditionsofherpension.ToOttoshewroteofthe
deepdividethisbringsintobothourlives....Wedonotneedtospeakofhowwefeelsurelywebothknowhowitis.SurelynodaywillpassinwhichIdonotthinkwithgratitude
andlongingforourbeingtogetherinfriendship,forourworktogetherandabouttheinstitute.ButInolongerbelongthere,andwhenIthinkbackonthelastmonths,itseemsto
methatmydeparturemightalsocorrespondtothewishesoftheMitarbeiter.Thereisnosensetalkingmuchaboutit,factsarefacts,onecannotchangethem....ActuallyIfeelthe
needtopersonallythankalltheMitarbeiterandtheemployeesoftheinstituteforthemanygoodyearsofworkingtogether.Butperhapsyoumaythinkitbetterifyoualonetell
them....Letusnot,however,discussthefactofmyleaving,please....ImyselfhavenotyetreallycomprehendedthatwhatIhavewrittenhereisareality,butitisareality.
5
Preoccupiedwithhisownworries,Ottoagreedtooreadilythatitwas"ofnousetodiscussthesefactsanylonger.Howdifficulteverything
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alsoisandwillbeforme,Idonothavetotellyou.IntheinstituteIfeelcompletelyunsureofmyself,andIamafraidofthedaysahead."KurtHess,theambitiousNazi
onthethirdflooroftheinstitute,wasaconstantthreat,andHahnwassurethathisassistant,OttoErbacher,andMeitner'sformerassistant,KurtPhilipp,bothactive
Nazis,wouldexpectadvancementoncetheylearnedthatLise'spositionwasvacant.Afewdayslaterhewrote,"OnMondayIwillfirsttellErbacherandPhilippand
afterthatIwillcalltogetherallthemembersoftheinstituteandtellthemaboutitwithaperspectiveonour30yearstogetherandyourbuildingofthephysicalsection."
6
AfterthemeetingHahnreportedthestaff'sreaction:PhilippaskedifshemightcometoBerlintogetherthingsinorderandArnoldFlammersfeld,oneofMeitner's
students,"wonderedif[she]hadn'tlost[her]nervesomewhat."
7
Lisewasenormouslyupset.
IfFlammersfeldaskswhetherIhavelostmynerve,itisbecausehethinksIhaveabandonedmyresponsibilities.WhyisitnotfranklysaidthattheministryandDr.Telschow
proposedthreeweeksagothatItakealeaveofabsence?...AndHhnchen,thisoverlyhastyTotenfeier(memorialservice)forme,beforemyresignationisevenineffectwhat
couldthatmeanforthosepeoplewhowereperhapssomewhatattachedtome?TheymustsurelythinkIevadedmyresponsibilitiesifyoudonotexplicitlytellthemitwas
impossibleformetostay....Myfutureiscutoff,shallthepastalsobetakenfromme?...Ihavedonenothingwrong,whyshouldIsuddenlybetreatedlikeanonperson,orworse,
someonewhoisburiedalive?Everythingishardenoughasitis.
8
Hahnwastakenaback.
ShallIansweryouasbitterlyasyouhavewritten?...Haveyouabsolutelynoideaofthedevelopmentsofrecentweeks?[AllsummerHitlerhadmountedafrenziedpropaganda
campaignagainstCzechoslovakiaoverthequestionofautonomyforitsethnicGermansnowinvasionappearedimminent,andwarhysteriaservedaspretextandcoverfor
increasedterroragainstJews.]Canyouseriouslythinkthatanyoneconsidersyouadeserter?...Believeme,Iknowitishardtobeofgoodcheerwheneverythingissonew.But
youareperhapstoooptimisticaboutourcurrentgoodfortunehere.
9
Lisepersisted.
Whatupsetme,andIbegyoutounderstand,isthepossibilitythattheyoungMitarbeitersuchasFl[ammersfeld]mightloseconfidenceinme.Ihave
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regardedthisworktogetherasthebestandmostbeautifulpartofmylife,andithurtsmetothinkthesepeoplemightnowthinkIlefttheminthelurch....Perhapsyouwill
understandthatIamnotreallybitter,althoughIcannotsaythatIfeelgood,andIknowthatyoualso,unfortunately,donothaveiteasy....Don'tbebitterorangry,wewantto
helpeachother,notmakethingsworseforeachotherthantheyalreadyare.
10
OttohadalreadygivenconsiderablethoughttoLise'ssuccessor.HewasinterestedintheViennesephysicistJosefMattauch,awellknownmassspectroscopistwho
wasinsomedifficultyinViennabecause,likeStrassmann,hehadnotjoinedtherequisitepartyorganizations."Withhimhere,"Hahnnoted,"itwouldbeeasierto
requestanenlargementoftheinstitute(laboratory,highvoltage)thannow.Ontheotherhand,thereisthedangerthatourmanupstairs[Hess]wouldsurelymake
[political]demands,sothatprogressmightbeevenmoredifficult....ErbacherandPhilippwouldbesectionleaderswithoutsections.Icanhearthemalready,asking
whichsectiontheywillget....Pleasetellmewhatyouthink."
11
HoweverpainfulitmayhavebeenforLisetodiscussherownreplacement,shewasgratifiedthatOttowasstillseekingheradvice.Thiswastrueevenforminor
matters:"[KarlErik]Zimenhasjustgottenmarried.DoyouthinkIoughttogivehimapresent,orhasn'thebeen[withme]longenough?"Herreply:"Ithinkyou
shouldgivehimasmallpresent,itdoesn'thavetobeanythingsplendid.Justtoemphasizethepersonalrelationshipsalittle,whicharereallynotinsignificantinyour
group."
12
MeitnerandHahnwerebothphysicallyandpsychologicallyexhausted."EventhoughIsleepquitewell,IamastiredasifIhadjustfinishednotsixweeksofvacation
butayearofhardwork,"HahnwroteinSeptember.SixteenyearoldHannohadjustbeenconscriptedintotheHitlerYouth,andEdithwasstillveryillina
sanatorium.
13
InStockholm,Lise,too,was"astiredasifIneverhadavacation.Thingsarenotgoingverywell."
14
Infact,LisehardlyknewwhattomakeofManneSiegbahnorhisinstitute.Setintheopen,hillyregionofFrescati,justnorthofthecity,theNobelInstitutefor
ExperimentalPhysicswasinviewofthepalatialmuseumandofficesofitssponsororganization,theRoyalSwedishAcademyofSciences.Inside,thenewinstitute
buildingwasspaciousandmodern,butinsteadoftheexpectedhumofabusylaboratory,Lisefounditemptyandstillquitedisorganized.Siegbahngreetedherwhen
shearrived,butthatwasall.Herpay,shefound,wasnotaninstitutesalarybut
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averymodeststipendfromtheRoyalAcademy,approximatelythatofayoungassistant.ToOtto,Lisewrotenothingatfirstexcept,"Itwillnotbeeasy."
15
LisehadcometoSwedenwithoutpossessionsormoneyorevenafirmideaofwhattoexpectunabletospeakthelanguage,chillyinhersummerclothes,shewas
livingonborrowedmoneyinatinyroominaresidentialhotelwhileherbankaccountwasfrozeninBerlinandherpensioninquirieswentunanswered.Herfinancial
dependencedistressedhergreatlyalreadyinearlySeptembersherepaidsomemoneytoDirkCoster,overhisstrenuousprotests
16
andshepressedOtto
continuouslywithdetailsofeverysort,aboutherbooksandequipment,misplacedpapersandhouseholdbelongings,journalsubscriptionsandpensionarrangements.
DearOtto!...FrauProf.Lampasentme2smallmanuscriptsofherhusband'saboutBoltzmannandMach.Theymightbeinanenvelopeinmyinstituteorapartmentwritingdeskor
inmybriefcase.Couldyousendthemtoher?
17
DearOtto!Sofartherehasbeennomentionofsomethingveryimportanttome,namelythequestionofmyscientific"estate."IhopeitisselfunderstoodthatIwillreceivemy
journals,cardfiles,slides,diagramsofmyexperimentalapparatus,andsoon.
18
DearHhnchen!...Pleasedonotsendanyreprintsthatarenotaboutradioactivity....ForthebooksofwhichIhave2copies,givemyChadwickEllisRutherfordtoFlammersfeld,
theKohlrauschhandbooktovonDroste....Inroom9arebookcatalogs,whichIdon'twant,butIwouldliketohavetheequipmentcatalogs....Pleasedonotsendthe[old]bed
andrug...andgiveawaytheplants,perhapsyouwouldliketheficus,yougaveittome....Thebicycleinthecellar,perhapsthatcangotoPlanck'sgranddaughterifshewants
it.
19
DearHhnchen!Aboutmyfurnitureandbooks,EmmaJ[acobsson]offeredtostoreallofitinGteborg.Givenmyunsettledsituation,thatseemsmostsensible,andifIshould
evergetanapartmentagain,atleastIwon'thavetopayforstorageuntilthen.
20
ButOttocouldnotsimplyshipLise'sbelongingstoSweden.Typicaloftheharassmentofthetime,theEducationMinistrystipulatedthateverythingsheowned,even
herclothes,mustremaininGermany.
21
WhenHahnappealed,theReichcalledforaninventory,intriplicate,ofeveryiteminherapartment:"3glassplates,1cigar
cutter,1KWGmedal,1LeibnizMedal,1EmilFischerMedal,1StefanMeyerMedal,2linen
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towels,2toothbrushholders...''PurchasesmadeafterJanuary1933werelistedseparately:"1radio(325RM),6handtowels..."Theinventoryconcludedwitha
commentabout"theverymodestfurnishingsofthisrelativelylargeapartment."
22
DearOtto!...Hereeveryoneisveryfriendly,butIamalwaysremindedof[thesaying]:ifonemustrelyuponthefriendlinessofpeople,onemusteitherbeveryselfconfidentor
haveagreatsenseofhumorthefirstIneverpossessed,andthelatterisdifficulttocallforthinmycurrentsituation.AndthenMaxjun[ior][vonLaue]writestomethatIamtobe
envied.Peoplejustdon'thavetheimaginationtopicturethesituationthatothersreallyarein....Tellabitwhat'shappeningintheinstitute....Whatisourgoodfriendupstairs
[Hess]doing?
23
DearLise!...Concerningyourbelongings...thethreesuitcaseswithclothingarelyingtherefullypacked,butstillopen.Whenpermissionisgrantedtheycanbesentrightaway.
...HertzhastoldmethatIshouldinanycasetrytogetMattauchfortheinstitutetobringinsomefreshblood....IfM.weretobe"called"asanassociate,hecouldbeofferedyour
apartment....Surelythisisverybitterforyoutoreadthesethings.ButImustthinkaboutit,especiallysinceatthemomentImyselfamastiredandmentallyexhaustedasnever
before.
24
DearOtto!...Don'tbeangry,Imustwritenowaboutmysituation,Ifeelsocompletelylostandhelpless.Andthesewrittenconversations,theyareenoughtodriveonecrazy.Here
Iamcompletelyaloneandcannotaskanyoneforadvice....L[eist,Meitner'slawyer]sendsmeaformtofilloutandsign,whosemeaningIdonotunderstandatall,andwhich
givesmethefeelingthatIamsellingmyselfbodyandsoul.HewritesfurtherthatmypensionisheldupbecauseIhavetakenupresidenceoutsidetheGermanReichwithoutthe
approvaloftheKWG.Sowhycan'ttheKWGgiveitsapproval?...Iamnotatallimpatient,butitseemseverythingisgoingwrong[,]...everythingatasnail'space:justtogetridof
me!Iknow,Hhnchen,thatyouhavealottothinkaboutandthatitishardforyou,but...after30yearsofworkshallIbeleftwithoutevenafewbooks?...Ibegyouagain,please
don'tbeangry.Ifyouonlyknewhowmylifenowappears.
25
Beyondherowntroubles,Lisewasconcernedaboutherfamily.WalterandLotteMeitnerwerestrugglingfinanciallyinEngland,hersisterGiselaandGisela's
husband,KarlLion,wereabouttoleaveViennaforEngland,andhersisterAuguste(Gusti)andGusti'shusband,Justinian(Jutz)Frisch,weredesperatelytryingtofind
aplacetogoJutz,alawyeremployedbyapublishingfirm,hadlosthisjob.AtthatmomentthesituationforJews
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Page216
inViennawasmoredangerousthanelsewhereintheReich.AdolfEichmann,alieutenantintheVienneseGestapo,waspursuingaprogramofextortionandterrorthat
wouldlaterbeamodelfortherestofGermany:Jewsweredismissedfromjobsandschools,imprisoned,taxed,fined,robbed,attacked,and,notinfrequently,killed.
Everyonewastryingtogetout.Astherefugeesgrewpoorerandtheirnumberslarger,fewercountrieswereinterestedintakingthemin.
26
OneofthefirstthingsLise
didinStockholmwastoapplyforanimmigrationpermitforGustiandJutz.
DearOtto!...IknowexactlyhowburdenedyouarethatjustaddstothepressureIfeel.EverytimeIwritetoyouIfeelnauseatedaboutmyself,butwhatcanIdo?...Youare
unjustwhenyousaythatIamonlyconcernedaboutmyself.Ihaveconsiderableproblemswithmybrotherandsisters,whomIamtryingtohelp,andIreadthenewspapers
carefullyeverydayandknowhowdreadfulthingsareeverywhereintheworld.AndnodaypassesinwhichIdonotthinkofyouandEdithespecially,butitisimpossibletokeep
tellingyouallthis....
YesterdayIsawtheZ[eitschrift]f[r]PhysikwithReddemann'sarticle.Iamimpressedthathewasabletowriteitwithoutasinglewordofthankstome.[ShortlybeforeMeitner
left,herassistantHermannReddemannhadfinishedbuildingahighvoltagedeuteronaccelerator,aprojectMeitnerhadinitiatedin1935andsupervisedcloselyuntilits
completion.]
27
Formonthshediscussed[it]withmealmostdailybecauseatfirsthedidnotunderstandthebasicprinciplesofit....Hedoesn'tmentionmyname,butfeelshehas
therighttothankBoschforthemoneythatBoschgaveme,atatimethatReddemannwasn'tevenintheinstitute.Ifinditquitedepressingfromahumanpointofview,but
perhapsyouwillagainthinkIaminthewrong.Perhapsyoucan'tquiteunderstandhowunhappyitmakesmetonoticethatyoualwaysbelievethatIamunjustandbitter....Ifyou
wouldthinkaboutit,itshouldn'tbehardtoimaginewhatitmeansformetohavenoneofmyscientificthings.Forme,thatismuchharderthananythingelse.ButIamreallynot
bitter,itisjustthatatthemomentIfindnorealmeaninginmylifeandIamveryalone.
28
Otto,too,wasatthelimitofhisstrength."Inthesecondhalfof1938,becauseofEdith'sillnessandtheagitationaboutLise,Imyselfwassoterriblyexhausted
psychologicallythatduringconversationstearswouldoftencome,whichembarrassedmegreatly."
29
Hehadlittletimeforresearch
30
andwasdistractedbythefear
ofwar."Intimesliketheseone'snervesareextremelytense,"hewroteattheendofSeptember.''Yourclotheswillbesent....Thenervousnesshereisextreme."
31
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Page217
HitlerwasabouttoinvadeCzechoslovakiaallEuropewaspreparingforwar.Inafinaleffort,BritainandFrancecalledfornegotiationsandthen,intheirmeetingwith
HitlerinMunichon2930September,forcedthePraguegovernmenttoaccedetoallhisdemands.Czechoslovakiawasdismembered,buttherestofEuropewas
overcomewithreliefandevenhope:Hitlerhadpromisedtogonofurther.NevilleChamberlainreturnedtoEngland,thearchitectof"peaceinourtime."
DearOtto!...Hopefullynowtheworldwillbesomewhatcalmer....Pleasesendmydressesandunderwearsoon.Ineedsomeofthemurgently....GoodnightdearOtto,andmany
thanksforeverything.
32
DearLise!...ThelaboratoryishalfdesertedbecausemanyhavegonetothereceptionforHitler,asoneissupposedtodo.Yesterdayeveningaround6wehadalittlechampagne
tocelebratethepastcriticaldays....Thispastweektherewasinfactpracticallynoworkdone,theanxietywasdreadful,andnowweare,thankGod,freedofthisterrible
pressure.
33
AvividdescriptionofthepreparationsforwarcamefromErwinandAnnemarieSchrdinger,whofledAustriaandmadetheirwaytoEnglandinthelastdaysof
September.AlthoughSchrdingerwasneitherJewishnorpoliticallyactive,heleftBerlinin1933,goingfirsttoOxfordandthenin1936toGraz,wheretheAnschluss
caughtupwithhimbynomeansadissident,hewasdismissedforreasonsof"politicalunreliability,"alegacy,undoubtedly,ofthedisdainfortheNazishehadshown
in1933.
34
FromOxfordafewweekslater,AnnemariewrotetoLise,
Our"trip"washighlydramatic,asitcoincidedexactlywiththeheightofthepoliticalcrisis....Completelyunaware,wereturned[fromvacation]toGrazonSeptember8and
discoveredthatErwinhadbeendismissed....ErwinwenttoViennatotalktotheministry.Duringtheirtalk,Erwinwasasked,"Tellme,doyoustillhaveyourpassport?"Erwin
remainedcompletelyquiet,butyoucanimaginethatatthisinstantherealizedwhatmustbedone.Itwascleartohimthatitwasonlybecauseofsomebureaucraticmistakethatwe
stillhadourpassports.Wewastednotime.OnSeptember14wewenttoRomewiththreesmallsuitcases,justasifweweregoingtoRomeonapleasuretrip.Italywastheonly
countrywhichdidnotrequireavisa,andinRomeotherembassieswereavailable.Weshallneverforgetthefriendship,admiration,andhelpwereceived!Soonwehadallthevisas
weneededandwenttoSwitzerlandonthe22d.Asthepoliticalsituationbecamemoreandmorecritical,wewantedtogettoEnglandasquicklyaspossiblebeforetheoutbreakof
war.SoonthecriticalnightofSeptember
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27to28wetraveledfromZurichtoEngland.TherewasablackoutinSwitzerland.OntheothersideoftheRhineonecouldseethebrightlightsofGermany.Trainswere
overflowing...andgreatlydelayed.InFrancewepassedairportswithcountlessairplanesstandingready.Allbridgesandtunnelswereundermilitaryguard....TheninEnglandin
HydeParkbombshelterswerebeingfeverishlyprepared,antiaircraftgunspointedtothesky,everyonehadgasmasks....InPaddingtonweheardreportsoftheFourPower
Conference[inMunich].Thatday80,000childrenwereevacuated!Onthe28thwereachedOxford.
35
SchrdingereventuallyacceptedanappointmentatDublin'sInstituteforAdvancedStudies,whichhadrecentlybeenestablishedbytheIrishprimeminister,Eamonde
Valera.
Meitner'sanxietyaboutwarwassetasideforatime,butherfinancialworrieswereconstant.Shecouldnotunderstandwhyherpensioninquiriesweregoing
unansweredcolleagueswhohadbeendismissedearlierhadreceivedtheirpensionswithoutquestion.
36
AtonepointHahnhintedthatthedelaymightbeconnected
toherillegaldeparture."Theremaybesomedifficultybecauseapersonaldiscussionaboutyouwasplannedwiththehighestheaven[obersteHimmel,Heinrich
Himmler].WhentheynowhearthatyouarenotinGermany,theymightperhapsbeupset."
37
Infact,amassiveconfiscationprocesswasunderway,andneitherthe
privatesectornorgovernmentagencieswereobligedtohonorcontractualagreementswithJews.
38
IttookmonthsbeforeMeitnerunderstoodthatshewouldnotreceiveherpension.Shealsocametounderstand,butwithfarmoredifficulty,thatitwasimpossiblefor
hertosustainevenminimaltiestoherformerMitarbeiter.Forfiveyearssheandhercoworkershadmanagedtosetpoliticsasideandworkamiablytogether,
althoughnearlyallwerepartymembersnowMeitnerwassurprisedandpainedtofindherselfcutofffromalmosteveryoneexceptHahnandStrassmann.Onlyoneof
herformerMitarbeiter,ArnoldFlammersfeld,wrotetohermost,accordingtoHahn'sreports,hadnotevenaskedabouther.WhenHahnsuggestedthatMeitner
congratulateKurtPhilipponhispromotiontoprofessorsherespondedangrily,"IwillnotwritetoPhilipp.Whenamanwhohasworkedforandwithmefor15
yearswhomIhelpedwheneverheneededittothebestofmyabilityandknowledgedoesnotfeeltheneedtoreacttotheendofthosetimeswithasingleline,then
Ireallycannotcongratulatehimonhisprofessorshipasifnothinghashappened."
39
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Deeplyhurt,Lisewouldfeelestrangedattimesfromevenherclosestfriends:"Itisalwaysalittledifficultwith[ElisabethSchiemann].AfewdaysagoIgotaletterfrom
Gertrud[Elisabeth'ssister]thatwassowarmandfriendlyandnatural...butElisabethneverwantstoknowhowIreallyam,rathershewantstobeassuredthat
everythingisgoingwell.Ofcourse,thatisnotalackoffriendshiponherpartbutageneralreluctancetofacereality."
40
LiseknewthatElisabethwasoutspokenly
opposedtotheoppressionofJewsandnotwithoutherowndifficultiesasawomaninacademiaundertheNaziregime.Buttheirfriendshipsuffered.LaterElisabeth
wouldrecallthatLise'sletterswere"woundedintone,oftenbitter,indicatinghowharditwasforhertoadjusttohernewsituation."
41
AtthecoreofLise'sunhappinesswasherdissatisfactionatwork."TheSiegbahninstituteisunimaginablyempty,"shewroteOttoinOctober."Averyfinebuilding,in
whichacyclotronandlargexrayandspectroscopicinstrumentsarebeingprepared,butwithhardlyathoughtforexperimentalwork.Therearenopumps,no
rheostats,nocapacitors,noammetersnothingtodoexperimentswith,andintheentirelargebuildingfouryoungphysicistsandaveryhierarchicalwork
organization."
42
Andinthatorganization,Meitnerseemedtohavenoplace.NeitheraskedtojoinSiegbahn'sgroupnorgiventheresourcestoformherown,shehad
laboratoryspacebutnocollaborators,equipment,ortechnicalsupport,notevenherownsetofkeystotheworkshopsandlaboratories.
43
Lateritwouldbeevident
thatSiegbahnneverconsideredheramemberofhisstaffinhisannualreportshewouldalwayslistheras''apartfromtheinstitute'sownpersonnel"
44
butatfirst
Meitnerdidnotunderstandwhyshewassocoollyreceivedorwhyherpositionwasneitherdefinednordiscussed.
InherowninstituteMeitnerhadenjoyedthestatusofprofessor,anexcellentsalary,studentsandassistantsathercommand,technicalhelp,collaboratorsofher
choosing.SuccesshadnotmadeherhumbleheryearsatamajorinstituteinalargescientificcommunityhadnotpreparedherforthesmallerscaleofSwedish
science.SheknewManneSiegbahnwasamajorfigureinSwedishphysics,asuperbinstrumentalistwhohadbeenawardedthe1924NobelPrizeinphysicsforhis
precisionxrayspectroscopy.Shemayhavethoughthehadfargreaterresourcesathisdisposalitisdoubtfulifsheappreciatedhiscareerlongstruggleforfunding,or
howhardhehadfoughttoestablishhisnewinstitute.WhenSiegbahnturnedtonuclearresearchin1937,hishighestprioritywastheconstructionofa
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cyclotronandotherparticleaccelerators.AlthoughMeitnercertainlydidnotdisagreewiththis,andinfacthadjustcompletedherownacceleratorinDahlem,
Siegbahnmaywellhaveregardedherasoldfashionedeightyearsolderthanhe,shehadcometonuclearphysicsmuchearlierandhadmadeimportantdiscoveries
withsimpleequipment.Hehadalwaystiedhisexperimentstotheadvancementofhisinstrumentsshehadlookedforproblemswheretheoryandexperimentprogress
together.Sheassumedhewouldbegladtohaveherhemayhavethoughtshewouldbecontentwithlaboratoryspaceandnothingmore.
45
WhenBohrvisitedStockholminOctober,Meitnerwelcomedthechancetotalktohim."Ofcourse,Bohr'svisitwasverycomforting,"shetoldOtto,"andpossiblyit
wasalsouseful,ashespoketoManneS.ButS.isveryuninterestedinnuclearphysics,andIamveryuncertainwhetherhewantstohaveindependentpeoplearound
him.Bohradvisedmetobepatient,whatelsecouldhedo?AndIcandonothingelsebutlivemylifeasitactuallyis.Havemyclothesbeensent?"
46
Lise'sclothingfinallyarrivedinmidOctober,subjecttoasubstantialcustomslevy.
47
IfIextrapolatetothevalueofmyfurnitureandbooks,thenitwillbeasumIsimplycannotpay.MysalaryissuchthatIcanpayformyroom,food,andsmalldailyexpenseslike
busfare,postage,etc.,onlybybeingverythrifty.Stockholmisveryexpensive,andIdarenotthinkofwhatmighthappenifIshouldbecomesick....Couldyousendmemyfever
thermometer?Imissallthoselittlethings,andIdon'twanttobuytoomuch.Togetphanodorm[sleepingpills],forinstance,onemusthaveaprescription.
48
LisewasquiteawareoftheburdenshewasimposingonOtto"Iamalwayssorrytobesuchabother,"shewouldwritebutshecouldnothelpit.
Iwouldbegratefulifyouwouldhavemybookspackedseparatelyandinsured.Itishardforsomeoneelsetocarryoutamovetoanothercountry,especiallyaseachofyouhas
somuchtodo.Anditishardforme,too,sinceofcoursethingshappenquitedifferentlythanifIwoulddoit.Pleaseunderstand,itisnotingratitude.Itisjustinevitable.Justtry
foroncetoimagineEdithorElisabethinmysituation,whoaresuchindividualsandareoftheopinionthatthereisonlyonerightwaytodothings.People(includingme)areso
strange,theyhavecertainsmallwishes,evenwhentheirheadisfulloftroubles.Ihope,Hhnchen,youunderstandthatwhatIhavejust
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writtenissupposedtobeanapologyforthespecialwishesIsometimeshave.
49
Shehadstillanother.
PleaseHhnchen,onemorethingIaskofyou.Ihopethatnoonewillthinkofgivinganyspecialmeaningtomybirthdaythisyear[Meitner's60th]....Itwouldnotgivemethe
leastpleasureifpeopleherewouldtakenoticeofitonthecontrary,itwouldonlybeunpleasantandwouldmakemeunhappy.
50
InOctober,MeitnerwasaskedtolectureinGteborgontheneutronirradiationexperimentswithuraniumandthorium.SheaskedHahntobringheruptodate.
23.X.38.DearOtto!...Wereportedseveralmethodsforseparatingthe2.5h[ekaPt]fromthe66h[ekaIr]....Theheatingmethodmustberightorisn'tit?Whatdoyouand
Strassmannthinkofit,andwhatcanyousaywithcertainty?Anddoyoubelieveinthe3.5hsubstance?
51
Meitner'sreferencestoekaPtconcernedsomedoubtsHahnhadexpressedaboutitsseparationbysublimationfromekaIr.The3.5hoursubstancewasadifferent
and,asitturnedout,afarmoreinterestingmatter.ThiswasthefairlyintensenewbetaactivitythatIrneCurieandPavelSavitchhadfoundinlate1937,whenthey
irradiateduraniumwithneutronsandsearchedtheentiremixturewithoutseparatingthe"transuranes,"aswasalwaysdoneinBerlin.CurieandSavitchfirstsupposed
thatthenewactivitywasthorium,butafterMeitnerinformedtheminJanuary1938thatsheandStrassmannhadsearchedforthoriumbutcouldnotfindit,Curieand
Savitchnotedthatthe3.5houractivityfollowedalanthanumcarrierandattributedittoactinium.Afterfailingtoseparateitfromlanthanum,however,theyproposed
thatitwasatransuranewithlanthanumlikechemicalproperties,ahypothesis,theyadmitted,thatwasdifficulttointerpret.
52
TheBerlingroup,thinkingthattheFrench
hadbeenledastraybysomecontamination,dubbedthe3.5hoursubstanceCuriosumanddidnotpursueit.Buttheycouldnotignoreitentirely.CurieandSavitch
maintaineditsexistence,anditwasstillverymuchonMeitner'smind.
WhenshewrotetoHahnon23October,MeitnerhadnotyetseenCurieandSavitch'slatestpublicationinJournaldePhysiqueetleRadium.Inanattemptto
separatethe3.5houractivityfromitslanthanumcarrier,
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theParisteamfoundthatitfollowedlanthanumratherthanactiniumbutcouldbeseparatedtosomeextentfromthelanthanumfraction:"Takentogether,theproperties
ofthe3.5hoursubstancearethoseoflanthanum,fromwhichitcannotbeseparatedexceptbyfractionation"forsuchasubstancetobeatransurane"wouldimply
somesingularirregularitiesinchemicalproperties."
53
Noneofthiswasnew,andHahnsimplyglancedatthepaper,assumingthattheFrenchwere,asusual,muddling
thingswiththeirsecondratechemistry.Offhandedly,hepassedthejournaltoStrassmann.ButinthispaperCurieandSavitchdescribedtheirexperimentsindetailfor
thefirsttimeandgavedecaycurvesforthe3.5hoursubstance.Readingit,StrassmannrealizedthattheFrenchreallydidhavesomethingnew,that"theexperimental
conditionsinParisandBerlinwerecomparable,andtheobservedeffectwastoolargetobeattributedtoan'infection'(contaminationduetouncleanprocedures)."
Suspectingthatthe3.5houractivitymightcontainradium,Strassmanndecidedtorepeattheexperimentusinghisown,cleanermethodfortheseparationofradium.
54
25.X.38.DearLise!DespitedreadfulwearinessIwanttoansweryourletterofthe23d,atleastbriefly....TowardtheendoflastweekanewpaperbyCurieandSavitchaboutthe
3.5hoursubstanceappeared....Curvesarealsoshown.Wearenowworkingonreproducingthemandwedonowbelieveintheirexistence.AccordingtoCurie'sresultswehave
foundthesubstance,perhapsevenbetterthanCurieandSavitch....Curiemakesremarkableclaimsaboutitsproperties.Thepropertiesdoinfactappeartoberemarkable.The
substanceiscertainlynotidenticaltothe2.5hoursubstance.(PerhapsaRaisotopehassomethingtodowithit.Itellyouthisonlywithgreatcautionandinconfidence!)...A
greatpitythatyouarenotherewithustoclearuptheexcitingCurieactivity.
55
28.X.38.DearOtto!...TodayIobtainedtheCuriepaperandfindmanystatementshardtounderstand.Shegivestheintensityofthe3.5hour[relative]tothe16minute[ekaRe]as
1:2.Thatmakesitaveryintensesubstance....Theveryhardbetaradiationisalsoremarkableforthelonghalflife.Whydidn'twefindthissubstanceinUX[
234
Th,usedasa
carrierforthesuspectedthorium]whenwerepeatedtheCurieexperiment[inJanuary1938],ifitdoesnotprecipitatewithH
2
Sin2N[Ndenotesnormality,aunitofconcentration
forsolutions]orevenin1/2NHCl?...PleasewriteaboutEdith,andanswermyquestionsaboutthe3.5hoursubstance.
56
MeitnercouldnotunderstandhowsheandStrassmanncouldhavemissedsuchanintenseactivity.ButinJanuary1938,whentheysearched
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thefiltratethesolutionremainingafterthetransuranesprecipitatedinacidicH
2
Stheywerelookingonlyforthorium.Strassmannnowthoughtthattheactivitymight
beamixtureofradiumanditsdecayproducts.
57
30.X.38DearLise!...Withthorium(UX)[ascarrier]wecouldnotfindititisn'tthorium,ofcourse.Atmostthoriumisgraduallyproducedfromit.AccordingtoCurieitisas
capableofbeingenhanced[yieldincreasedbyusingslowedneutrons]asekaRe(16min)....Ifanythingmoredefiniteturnsupnextweek,I'llwriteagain.
58
1.XI.38DearOtto....Howareyourexperimentsgoing?[InGteborg]IwilldefinitelysayonlythatI.Curiehasfoundthosesubstancesandyouaretryingtoverifythem.ButI
wouldliketoknowformyselfhowyourexperimentsaregoing....Ihope,Hhnchen,thatafter30yearsofworktogetherandfriendshipintheinstitute,thatatleastthepossibility
remainsthatyoutellmeasmuchasyoucanaboutwhatishappeningthere.
59
2.XI.38DearLise!...Iamcertainlynotkeepingsecretsfromyouaboutworkorinstitutematters!Wereallycouldnot(orcannot)sayanythingdefiniteaboutthe3.5hour
substancein2weeks,despiteworkingdayandnight,whenCuriehasbeenatitfor11/2years.Wearenowalmostconvincedthatwearedealingwithseveral2or3radium
isotopes,whichdecaytoactinium,etc.Youknowfromthethoriumworkthatonecannotbereallysureuntilmanytrialsaredone.PerhapswewillfeelsureenoughbySundayso
thatonMonday[7November]...wecanwritealettertoNaturwissenschaften.Becausethefindingradiumprobablybywayofanalphaemittingthorium,perhapsalsocapableof
beingenhancedisreallysointerestingandimprobablethatwewouldliketopublishitbeforeCuriegetstoit,andbeforeshehearsofitfromanyoneelse.ThatwasthereasonI
wrotethatyoushouldpleasenotsay...anythingaboutit.
60
HahnandStrassmannhadfoundseveralradiumisomersandtheiractiniumdecayproducts.Theformationofradium,Hahnwassuggesting,wastheresultofatwo
stepprocess:
Iftrue,itwashighlyunusual,since(n, )reactionswithslowneutronshadneverbeforebeenobserved,andaneutroninduceddoublealphaemissionseemed
unimaginable.
Ottocontinued,
Naturallywewouldlikeitverymuchifyouwouldthinkaboutthesituation,howanalphatransformationcancomeabout,probablyalsowithslowneutrons,andatthesametime
produceseveral[radium]isomers.Asyoucan
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imaginewearemakingmanytrials,sothatwecanruleouterrors.Ontheotherhand,it'shot:[Leslie]Cook[aformerstudentofHahn's],forinstance,wrotefromCambridgethat
[Norman]Feather,[Egon]Bretscher,anIndian,andheareworkingwithstrongneutronsourcesonuraniumreactionsorwilldoso.
61
4.XI.38DearOtto!...IamextremelyeagertothinkoverhowRaorAcisotopescouldbeproducedifyouwouldonlywritemorefactualdetails.Iwoulddefinitelysaynothingto
anyone.Whyisitthatyouthinkthatthereareseveralsubstances,didyouobtainseveralhalflives?Whydoyouthinkitcanbeenhanced?Didyougetconsiderablymorewith
slowneutrons?Andhowstrongistheactivitywithequivalentradiation...comparedtothe16minute[ekaRe]?Whydoyouthinkthereareseveralisomers?Aremorethantwo
substancesobserved?Pleasebeniceandanswerthesequestions,evenifit'snotsodefinite.
62
Meitnerwasastonished:severalhalflives?severalisomers?sheaskedagainandagain.Shecouldscarcelybelieveit.Anentirelynewsetofisomers,withuranium
alreadyinvolvedinmorereactionsthantheycouldexplain?Withherquestionsabouttherelativeintensityofthe3.5hoursubstancetothe16minuteekaRe,shewas
tryingtodeterminewhetherthestartingnucleuswasauraniumisotopeotherthan
238
U.In1937,shehadmeasuredtheabsoluteyieldofekaReandhadconcludedthat
238
Uwasthenucleusoforiginforallthetransuranes.On5November,Hahnrepliedwithmoredetails:reactionconditionsforthenewradiumisomerswereessentially
thesameasforthetransuranes,indicatingthattheeffectivenucleuswas,onceagain,
238
U.
63
HahnandStrassmannsubmittedtheirresultstoNaturwissenschaftenon8Novemberasalwaysintheirjointpublications,Hahnwrotethereport.Helistedthree
radiumandthreeactiniumisomersandnotedinpassingtheresemblancetothethoriumexperimentsreportedbytheBerlinteamearlierin1938.Inbothcasesit
appearedthattheprocessthatproducedradiumwastheneutroninducedexpulsionofanalphaparticlewithonemajordifference:forthoriumonlyfastneutrons
wereeffective,whilethenewuraniumprocesswasfavoredbyslowneutrons."Here,surelyforthefirsttime,"Hahnemphasized,"isacaseof particlesbeingsplit
offbyslowneutrons."
64
TheseventhofNovemberwasLiseMeitner'ssixtiethbirthday.Innormaltimestherewouldhavebeenlettersandtelegrams,aspecialissueofNaturwissenschaften
perhaps,afestivedinnerwithfriendsandcolleagues.
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NowLisewassurethatanycelebrationwouldonlyremindherofwhatshehadlost.
ButOttoRobertFrisch,notwishinghisaunttospendherbirthdayaloneinahotelroom,wrotetoOskarandGerdaKlein,whogatheredsomeoldfriendsandnew
acquaintancesforanafternoonteainherhonor.Itturnedouttobeapleasantafternoon.MeitnerhadmetOskarKleininCopenhageninthe1920sandhadcometo
knowhimwellwhenshetestedandverifiedthescatteringformulahehaddevelopedwithYoshioNishinain1928.Anerudite,humorousman,Kleingrewupin
Stockholmthesonofaliberal,scholarlyrabbi,marriedaDane,andbecameoneofSweden'sfewquantumphysicistsandthenoneofitsyoungestprofessorswhenhe
wasappointedtoStockholmUniversityin1931attheageofthirtyseven.
65
Asamoderntheoreticalphysicist,however,hewasnotamemberoftheinnercirclesof
Swedishphysics,andhewasgenuinelygladtohaveMeitnerinStockholm.
Thatafternoon,theKleinsinvitedGudmundBoreliusandhiswife,Magnhild,friendsofMeitner'ssincetheirfirstmeetinginSiegbahn'sinstituteinLundin1921.
Borelius,asolidstatephysicist,wasprofessorattheRoyalInstituteofTechnologyakilometerorsodownthehillfromSiegbahn'sNobelInstitute.Thereweresome
newfacesaswell.MeitnerstruckupaconversationwithLilliandHansEppstein,apianistandmusicologistwhohadrecentlyemigratedfromGermany.Despiteanage
differenceofthirtyyears,theywouldquicklybecomeveryclosefriends.
66
Andherbirthdaywasnotforgottenelsewhere.Ottosentanalbumwithphotographs,"toevokememoriesofour30yearpaththroughlifetogether,memoriesthat
comeclearlytomeagainandagainintheinstituteeachday."
67
MaxvonLauewishedher"beautifulresults,assooftenhappenedhere,rightuptotheend."
68
From
Princeton,Einsteincongratulatedherforleaving"thedearandgratefulFatherland....Imyselfamgladtobehereandwouldbetrulyhappyifthehumansufferingand
vilenesswerenotsodepressing."
69
FriedrichHundwrote,asdidHansGeiger:"Onsomeofyourworkbelongsalittlestar."FromtheCavendishlaboratoryin
CambridgecameajointletterfromBragg,Cockcroft,Dee,Feather,andAstonanoticeappearedinNature.
70
WernerHeisenbergexpressedgratitudeforMeitner's
work,which"sogreatlyenrichedourscienceandtherebyourentirelives,''butheendedonastrangenote,thankingher"forhavingdonethisworkinGermany,and
forallyouhave
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doneforGermanphysics."
71
By"Germanphysics"Heisenbergdidnot,ofcourse,meanthe"Aryanphysics"ofLenardandStark(althoughinothercontextstheterms
wereusedsynonymously).Nevertheless,thenationalistictoneofHeisenberg'sbirthdaygreetingwassomewhatpeculiar,giventhecircumstances,andstoodout
unpleasantlyfromtherest.
ArnoldBerlinerwasstillinBerlin.TheformereditorofNaturwissenschaftenhadagedconsiderablysincehewasdismissednowhekepttohisapartment,asmuch
anexilefromhisformerwayoflifeasMeitnerwasfromhers."AlthoughIcannolongerdistinguishmyselffromotherwellwishersbyaspecialissuefortheseventhof
November,"hewrote,"Ihaveofcoursedonesoinmythoughts....NowitmakesmehappytothinkthatIwasabletobeatyourservicenowandthenandthatIdid
itwithpleasure....Iwoulddoitagainandwiththesamedisposition,ifonly...yes,ifonly."
72
By1938,theconditionofJewsinGermanyhadbecomemuchworse.StepbysteptheReichwasbringingthemunderitscompletecontrol:liquidatingJewish
businesses,rescindingthelicensesofJewishphysiciansandlawyers,requiringJewstoregistertheirproperty,payspecialtaxes,assumethemiddlenamesSaraor
Israel,carryspecialidentitycardsatalltimes.AsmoreandmoreJewstriedtoleave,thegatestoothercountriesbegantoswingshut.Switzerland,forexample,hada
longstandingnonvisaagreementwithGermany,butinthesummerof1938,alarmedbytheprospectofaJewishdeluge,theydemandedsomeformoftravel
identification.TheReichobligedbystampingthepassportsofallGermanJewswithalargered"J,"whichimmediatelyrestrictedtheirentryintoSwitzerlandandlater
servedtoidentifyJewishrefugeesinFrance,Belgium,andothercountriessubsequentlyoccupiedbyGermany.
73
Untilthen,nothinginthehistoryofGermanantiSemitismmatchedthegovernmentincitedpogromof910November.ThroughoutGermanythatnightmobsattacked
Jews,destroyedtheirhomesandproperty,burnedsynagoguestothegroundanightofdestructionsogreatitbecameknownasKristallnachtfortheshatteredglass
thatfilledthestreets.Inthedaysthatfollowed,theNaziregimebarredJewsfrompublicplaces,expelledchildrenfromschools,andfinedthealreadyimpoverished
JewishcommunityonebillionmarksforthedamageofKristallnacht.MostterrifyingwastheincarcerationofthirtythousandJewishmeninconcen
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trationcampsthroughoutGermanywhocouldbereleasedonlyiftheyemigratedimmediately.
74
OnTuesday,8November,HahnwasinViennatogivealectureandalsototalktoJosefMattauchaboutcomingtoDahlemasMeitner'ssuccessor.Ontheeveningof
9November,hehaddinnerinhishotelwiththelastofLise'srelativesinVienna,GustiandJutzFrischandGiselaandKarlLion.Unawareofanydisturbances,hehad
a"fineevening"thenextmorninginthePhysicsInstitutetherestillseemednothingamiss.Thatafternoon,however,Gusticalled:Jutzhadbeenarrested.
75
After
promisingGustihewouldspeaktoOttoRobert,HahntookthenighttrainbacktoBerlin.
Knowingonlywhatshereadinthenewspapers,LisearrivedinCopenhagenon10November.Sheplannedtostayaweek,
76
andalthoughthetriphadbeena
struggletoarrangeherinvalidpassportmadeitdifficulttogetavisasheverymuchneededtoleaveStockholm,ifonlybriefly,forthefriendshipandstimulationof
Bohr'sinstitute.AvisitwithNielsandMargretheBohralwaysdidhergoodalthoughshehadnotyetlearnedofJutz'sarrest,shealsowantedtotalktoOttoRobert
abouthisparents'situation.Inaddition,BohrhadinvitedHahntocometoCopenhagen,ostensiblytogiveatalk,andshewaseagerlylookingforwardtoseeinghim.
77
WhenHahn'strainpulledintothestationat6:48onthemorningof13November,Lisewasthere,fourmonthstothedaysincetheylastsaweachotherinBerlin.They
hadbreakfastinHahn'shotelandtalkedforhours,wenttoSundaydinnerattheBohrs',andreturnedtotheBohrhome,thesplendidCarlsbergResidenceof
Honor,
78
foragatheringthatevening.MindfuloftheGermanimageabroad,Hahnwaspleasedbythe"verynicereception."Mostlyitwasadayofintensetalk."Long
conversationswithLise,Bohr,etc.,"Hahnnotedinhispocketcalendar.Thenextmorning,afterbreakfastwithNielsandMargretheBohr,LiseandOttoRoberttook
Hahntothetrainandsawhimoffonthe11:13toBerlin.
79
MeitnerandHahnkepttheirmeetinganabsolutesecretoutsideCopenhagen:theydidnotmentionitintheirletters,andHahndidnotspeakofit,notevento
Strassmann,whenhegotbacktoDahlem.Thesecretwasburied,somuchsothatyearslater,whenthefearwasgoneandtheneed
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forsubterfugewasover,HahnstillsaidnothingabouthismeetingwithLise,althoughinhismemoirshedidrecallthathewenttoCopenhagenandthathetalkedto
Frisch,andhealwaysrememberedthatBohrwasskeptical,indeed"quiteunhappy"aboutthenewradiumisomers.
80
Therecanbenodoubt,however,thatthe
personwhowasmostskeptical,theonewhocommandedHahn'sclosestattention,wouldhavebeenLiseMeitner.Facetoface,inthestrongestpossibleterms,she
musthavetoldhimthatforallhertrustinhisandStrassmann'schemicalexpertise,theirnewresultswereaphysicist'snightmare,acatalogofeverythingwrongwiththe
transuranes,andmore.WeknowthatitwasshewhourgedHahntorigorouslyreexaminetheirfindings.ThiswasthemessageHahntookbacktoBerlin.
Theradiumresultspresentedseveralsevereproblemsininterpretation.Asagroup,theyaddedtothesheernumberofspeciessixteenatlatestcountthat
originatedwith
238
Uthemultipleisomerismandespeciallytheinheritedmultipleisomerismofradiumanditsdecayproductswereasinexplicableforradiumasithad
beenforthetransuranes.Butthemostseriousdifficultywithradiumwasthemechanismofitsformation.Foruranium(element92)tobetransformedintoradium
(element88),auraniumnucleuswouldhavetoexpeltwoalphaparticles(heliumnuclei)thiscouldnothappen,accordingtotheory,unlesstheneutronthatinitiatedthe
reactionwashighlyenergetic.
81
Meitnerwaskeenlyawareoftheparametersforsuchreactions.Earlierin1938,inherstudyofthefastneutronreactionwiththorium,
shehadconcludedthatan(n, )reactionwastheoreticallypossiblebutonlybecausetheneutronswerefast,withjustenoughenergy,accordingtohercalculations,to
chipanalphaparticlefromthethoriumnucleus.Hadtheneutronsbeenanyslower,theywouldsimplyhavebeencapturedinstead.
82
Itwasatjustthispointthatthe
radiumisomersdefiedexplanation:HahnandStrassmannhadfound,ashadCurieandSavitchbeforethem,thattheprocessleadingtoradiumwassignificantly
enhancedwhenslowneutronswereused.Somethingwasverywrong.MeitnerurgedHahntotestforradiumagain,morerigorouslythanbefore.
HahndidnottellStrassmannhehadseenMeitnerinCopenhagen,butStrassmannunderstoodthatthedirectivehadcomefromher.HethoughtshehadwrittenHahn
aletterhestillregardedMeitnerastheintellectualleaderoftheirteam.LaterStrassmannremembered,"Inanycase(ac
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Page229
cordingtoastatementfromO.Hahn)sheurgentlyrequestedthattheseexperimentsbescrutinizedverycarefullyandintensivelyonemoretime....FortunatelyL.
Meitner'sopinionandjudgmentcarriedsomuchweightwithusinBerlinthatthenecessarycontrolexperimentswereimmediatelyundertaken."
83
Thesewerethe
experimentsthatleddirectlytothediscoveryofnuclearfission.
84
StockholmisdarkinNovember,thedaysbriefandgray.MeitneradaptedtothegloomyclimatefarmorereadilythantotheatmosphereinSiegbahn'sinstitute."When
itsnowsitismuchbetter,"shetoldOtto
85
atworktherewerenocomparablesignsofimprovement.Collegialrapportwasnotextendedtoherequipmentand
materialswererestricted.Havingtoaskforeventhesmallestitemmadeherfeelpermanentlyunwelcome.Shebegantoblameherselfforcomingemptyhandedto
Stockholm."Itwouldbesomuchnicer,"shetoldOtto,"if,insteadofarequest,IcouldcometoSiegbahnwithanoffering,sotospeak,evenifitwereonlyadrawing
forapparatus."
86
TheofferingsshedidbringtoSwedenexperience,talent,ideasdidnotseemtointeresthim.
Itwasnothergreatestworry.AfterKristallnacht,JutzFrischwasimprisonedinViennaandthenshippedtoDachau.Emigrationwastheonlywaytogethimout,and
LisewasdesperatelytryingtoobtainaSwedishvisaforhimandGusti."Onealwaysthinkslifeinthisworldcannotgetmuchharder,"shewrotetoLaueonherreturn
fromCopenhagen,"butoneismistaken."
87
"Icanhardlytellyou,"Ottowrote,"howdepressedIalsoambyJutz'ssituation.Andperhapsmostlybecauseofyourfearandworryforhim."OttohadtalkedtoCarl
FriedrichvonWeizsckerinthehopethathisfather,StateSecretaryBaronErnstvonWeizscker,mighthelp,but"theoldv.W.isonvacation.Anyway,itisunlikely
thathewouldhaveintervenedorwouldhavebeenabletointervene."Hahnwasabletowritemoreopenlythanusual,asBohr'sassociateEbbeRasmussenwas
visitingBerlinandwouldmailthelettertoMeitnerfromCopenhagen."Wearealloftheopinionthatwiththesemassarrestsitwouldbeimpossibletohavethecruelty
andharshnessthatwasthecaseearlier,when[political]undesirablescametothec[oncentration]camps.Butnaturallythisissmallcomfort."
88
ForsomereasonHahn
believedthatlargenumbersofJewswouldbetreatedbetterthansmallergroupsofCommunistsorpacifists.
MeitnerwrotetoHahninearlyDecember,
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Thereislittleornothingtotellaboutme.WithGustieverythingisunchanged[i.e.,JutzwasstillinDachau].Andbesidesthat?Ioftenappeartomyselflikeawindupdollwho
doescertainthingsautomatically,withafriendlysmile,butwithnoreallifeinher.Fromthatyoucantellhowusefulmyworkis.AndyetintheendIamgratefulforit,becauseit
forcesmetocollectmythoughts,whichisnotalwayseasy.
89
ShebeganbuildingsomeapparatusandcontinuedtoplyHahnwithquestionsabouttheradiumisomers.
90
TheNobelceremoniestakeplaceeachyearinStockholmon10December,theanniversaryofAlfredNobel'sdeath.In1938,thephysicsprizewenttoEnricoFermi
forhisneutronirradiationoftheelements,forthenewradioactivesubstancesitproduced,andfordiscoveringtheeffectsofslowneutrons.InhisNobellecture,Fermi
spokeconfidentlyofthefirsttwotransuraniumelements,93and94,whichtheRomegrouphadnamedausoniumandhesperium,andoftheothersupto96,which
hadbeenstudiedextensivelyinBerlin.
91
Afterthefestivities,FermiandhisfamilywouldleaveforNewYork,nevertoreturntoItaly.Althoughheapedwithhonors,
theytoowererefugees.PerhapsthatwaswhyLauraFerminoticedhowworriedandtiredLiseMeitnerlooked,withthe"tenseexpressionthatallrefugeeshadin
common."
92
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Page231
ChapterTen
TheDiscoveryofNuclearFission
WhatyouwroteaboutoururaniumandthoriumstudiesbeinganecessarypreparationforyourandStrassmann'sbeautifulendresultsisquiteright....Andperhapsitwouldbenice
ifyoucouldsomehowexpressthisquiteclearlyinyournextpaper.
AttheverymomentthatEnricoFermiwasspeakingtoafestiveNobelaudience,theworkhehadbeguninRomewasreachingadramaticandunexpectedclimaxin
Berlin.OttoHahnandFritzStrassmannwereracingtoverifytheirearlierfindingsbyearlyDecembertheythoroughlycharacterizedwhatappearedtobethreeradium
andthreeactiniumspecies,determinedtheirhalflives,andeliminatedneighboringelementsfromconsideration.Asbefore,theyassumedthatactivitiesfollowinga
bariumcarrierwouldberadium,andthosefollowinglanthanumandzirconium,respectively,wouldbeactiniumandthorium.Then,spurredbytheobjectionsLise
MeitnerhadvoicedinCopenhagen,theybeganaquitedifferenttest:anattempttoverifythepresenceofradiumbypartiallyseparatingitfromitsbariumcarrier.
1
MeitnerandHahncontinuedtocorrespondabouttheradiumfindings.
2
Herownprogresswasfarfromsatisfactory."MysocalledworkifIthinkaboutit,Icanonly
thinkandsay,OhGod!Ihavegraduallyputtogetherasingleneedleelectrometer,afewusablecounters,anamplifier,averypoorautomaticcounter,absolutelyno
help.MostofthetimemyheadissofullofotherthingsIdon'tcareabouttherest."
3
Neithercouldconcentratefullyonwork.AfterKristallnacht,GermanywasvolatileanddangerousOtto'slettersweremorecrypticthanbefore."Unfortunately,there
isstillnothingnewtoreportaboutJutz[Frisch,stillinDachau],"OttoreportedinDecember."Herequiteafewhavecomeback[fromconcentrationcamps].One
hearsthatothershavethesamefate[asJutz],e.g.,ourargonandkryptonsupplier.Hewantedtogo[emigrate],
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Page232
buthastechnicalexpertise[thesameprohibitionthatpromptedMeitnertoflee].Howeverourformercolleagueabove,Richard,laterinMunich,isfineatthemoment
inSwitzerland."Actually,RichardWillsttterwasstillinMunichandnotfineatall:ThedayafterKristallnachthehadnarrowlyescapedbeingsenttoDachau,andafter
thathedesperatelytriedtogetoutofGermany.
4
HahnconcludedwithamessagefromArnoldBerliner,whohopedMeitnerwouldbeawarded"theprizeofthenoble
physicist."
5
Suchcircumlocutionswerenecessary:NobelPrizeshadbeenforbiddeninGermanyafterCarlvonOssietzky,abrilliantpoliticaljournalistandpacifistwho
hadbeeninaconcentrationcampforseveralyears,wasawardedtheNobelPeacePrizein1936.
6
Ottohimselfwasoccasionallymistakenfora"nonAryan,"theresult,hewouldlaterjoke,ofhisthree"Jewish"traits:borninFrankfurt,namedHahn,workedin
Dahlem.
7
InDecember1938,however,itwasnotamusingtofindhisnamelistedinthedefamatorytravelingexhibit"TheEternalJew"notknowingifitwasamistake
orathreat,heplacatednervousKWGadminstratorswithanewsetofaffidavitsattestingtohis"Aryan"heritage.
8
Hahnthoughtitwasduetohisresignationfromthe
UniversityofBerlinin1933,butrumorspersistedthatheindeedhadadistantJewishforebearortwo.Trueornot,itmusthavecausedhimsomeanxiety.
9
Lise'sfinancesgaveOttoconstanttrouble.WithgreatefforthemanagedtogetherfrozenbankaccounttransferredtoViennasoGustiFrischcoulduseit,
10
buthe
hadnosuccesswithLise'spension.Aftermanyattempts,HahnwenttothefinancebureauinDecemberandwastoldtofilloutanewapplicationandstartover."After
Ihadoneofmysmalltemperfits,thingswentalittlebetter.Believeme,theseobstructiontacticsaffectmetoo,especiallysinceyoumustsurelythinkwehavedone
nothing."
11
Buttherewasnothingthatcouldbedone.Thepaperworkwasacharade,agreementswerenothonored,andMeitner'spensionnevercamethrough.The
ReichintendedtoridGermanyofJewsbutnotbeforeitsystematicallystolealltheyhadorleftbehind.InMunich,Willsttterobtainedemigrationdocumentsonly
afterhehadsignedovertotheReichhishomeandeverythinginit,includinghisbooksandpapersashecrossedthebordertoSwitzerland,hislastfewmarkswentto
an"exportfee"onhissuit,soap,andtoothbrush.
12
InDahlemthatDecember,HahnworkedwhenhecouldandStrassmannworkedconstantly,assistedbyClaraLieber,anAmericanchemist,
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Page233
andalaboratoryassistant,IrmgardBohne.JustbeforeChristmasvacation,HahnwrotetoMeitnerwithstartlingnews.
19.12.38Mondayeve.inthelab.DearLise!...Itisnowjust11P.M.at11:45StrassmanniscomingbacksothatIcaneventuallygohome.Actuallythereissomethingaboutthe
"radiumisotopes"thatissoremarkablethatfornowwearetellingonlyyou.Thehalflivesofthethreeisotopeshavebeendeterminedquiteexactly,theycanbeseparatedfromall
elementsexceptbarium,allreactionsareconsistent[withradium].Onlyoneisnotunlessthereareveryunusualcoincidences:thefractionationdoesn'twork.OurRaisotopesact
likeBa.
13
Thiswasthefinaltestforradium,designedtoseparateitpartiallyfromitsbariumcarrierbythemethodoffractionalcrystallization("fractionation")firstdevisedby
MarieCurie.Startingwithasolutionofthepresumedbariumradiummixture,HahnandStrassmannaddedbromidetothesolutioninfourstepswitheachstep,a
fractionofthebarium(andradium)wouldprecipitateascrystalsofbariumbromide.Becauseradiumwasknowntocoprecipitatepreferentiallywithbariumbromide
thatis,theproportionofradiumthatprecipitatedwaslargerthantheproportionofradiuminsolutionthefirstbariumbromidefractionwasexpectedtobericherin
radiumthanthosethatfollowed.Totheirsurprise,HahnandStrassmannmeasurednodifferenceatall:the"radium"activitieswereevenlydistributedamongthe
successivebariumbromidefractions.Thinkingthatsomethingmighthavegonewrongwiththeirprocedure,theyrancontrolexperimentsusingknownradium
isotopes.
14
NowlastweekIfractionatedThX[
224
Ra]onthefirstflooritwentexactlyasitshould.ThenonSaturdayStrassmannandIfractionatedour"Ra"isotopeswithMsTh
1
[
228
Ra]as
indicator.Themesothoriumbecameenriched[inthebariumbromidefractionation],ourRadidnot.Itcouldstillbeanextremelystrangecoincidence.Butwearecomingsteadily
closertothefrightfulconclusion:ourRaisotopesdonotactlikeRabutlikeBa....Allotherelements,transuranes,U,Th,Ac,Pa,Pb,Bi,Poareoutofthequestion.Ihaveagreed
withStrassmannthatfornowweshalltellonlyyou.Perhapsyoucancomeupwithsomesortoffantasticexplanation.Weknowourselvesthatitcan'tactuallyburstapartintoBa.
NowwewanttotestwhethertheAcisotopesderivedfromthe"Ra"behavenotlikeAcbutLa.Allverycomplicatedexperiments!Butwemustclearitup.
NowChristmasvacationbegins,andtomorrowistheusualChristmasparty.YoucanimaginehowmuchI'mlookingforwardtoit,aftersuchalongtimewithoutyou.Beforethe
institutecloseswedowanttowritesomething
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forNaturwissenschaftenaboutthesocalledRaisotopes,becausewehaveverynice[decay]curves.
SopleasethinkaboutwhetherthereisanypossibilityperhapsaBaisotopewithmuchhigheratomicweightthan137?Ifthereisanythingyoucouldproposethatyoucould
publish,thenitwouldstillinawaybeworkbythethreeofus!
15
Hahnwasnotsuggestingthattheypublishtogether.HeandMeitnerbothknewthatitwaspoliticallyimpossible.ButthetoneanddetailofHahn'sletterclearlyshow
thatMeitnerwasstillverymuchamemberoftheirteamandthatthebariumfindingwasanintegralpartandanaturalconsequenceoftheirfouryearsofworktogether.
Indeed,inthefivemonthssinceMeitnerleftBerlin,thepatternoftheirworkhadnotchangedmuch.Asbefore,nearlyalltheexperimentsweredoneinherformer
sectiononthegroundflooroftheinstitute,usingtheneutronsources,paraffinblocks,leadvessels,counters,andamplifiersthatshehadassembledandbuilt.
16

AlthoughMeitnerwasnolongerpresenttoperformtheirradiationsandphysicalmeasurements,shefollowedtheexperimentsandprovidedintellectualdirection
throughhercorrespondencewithHahnandtheirmeetinginCopenhagen.AnditwasMeitner'sobjectionsthathaddriventhemtomakethisfinaltestforthe"radium"
thatnowappearedtobebarium,amostunexpectedresult.
Andnow,assooftenbefore,HahnandStrassmannwereexpectingMeitnertointerpretthefindingsandplacethemintheirphysicscontext.Withouther,Hahnwas
somewhatadrift.Theideaofuranium"bursting"crossedhismind,buthewasthinkingofnuclearmassratherthanatomicnumber:hedidnotyetrealizethaturanium
hadsplitintwo.
17
ItwasnotsolicitudeforMeitnerthatkeptHahnandStrassmannfromtalkingtootherphysicistsasateamtheyhadbeensoclose,sofamiliarwith
eachother'sworkandthoughtprocesses,thatshewasstill,ineveryessentialway,oneofthem.
18
"Howbeautifulandexcitingitwouldbejustnowifwecouldhave
workedtogetherasbefore,"Hahnwroteon21December."Wecannotsuppressourresults,eveniftheyareperhapsphysicallyabsurd.Yousee,youwilldoagood
deedifyoucanfindawayoutofthis."
19
Anxioustopublishquickly,HahnandStrassmanndidnotwaitforMeitner'sreplybeforesubmittingtheirreporttoNaturwissenschaftenon22December.Thearticle,
writtenentirelybyHahn,
20
displaysthedualitythatcharacterizedtheuraniuminvestigation:theradiochemicaldatawere
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firm,thephysicalmeaningsostrangethatHahnwaveredbetweenconfidenceanddisbelief.Hechangedtheoriginaltitleofthereport,''ConcerningtheDetermination
andRelationshipsoftheRadiumIsotopesDerivedfromtheNeutronIrradiationofUranium,"bysubstituting"alkalineearth"for"radium,"ageneralizationthat
permittedhimtodistancehimselffromradiumwithoutfullycommittinghimselftobarium.
21
Indeed,thebulkofthearticlewasadetaileddescriptionofthe"radium"
isomers,withthebariumexperimentsmentionedonlyattheendandthen"hesitantly[zgernd],duetotheirpeculiarresults."
22
Assooftenintheuraniuminvestigation,
thechemistryinspiredconfidence,thephysics,doubt:"Aschemists...weshouldsubstitutethesymbolsBa,La,CeforRa,Ac,Th.As'nuclearchemists'fairlycloseto
physicswecannotyetbringourselvestotakethisstepwhichcontradictsallpreviousexperienceinnuclearphysics.Therecouldstillperhapsbeaseriesofunusual
coincidencesthathavegivenusdeceptiveresults."
23
Hahn'sletterof19DecemberarrivedinStockholmonthe21st,Meitner'sfirstnewsofthebariumfinding.Sheansweredinstantly.
Yourradiumresultsareverystartling.Areactionwithslowneutronsthatsupposedlyleadstobarium!Bytheway,areyouquitesurethattheradiumisotopescomebefore
actinium?...Andwhatabouttheresultingthoriumisotopes?Fromlanthanumonemustgetcerium.Atthemomenttheassumptionofsuchathoroughgoingbreakup
[weitgehendenZerplatzens]seemsverydifficulttome,butinnuclearphysicswehaveexperiencedsomanysurprises,thatonecannotunconditionallysay:itisimpossible.
24
ImaginewhatthatlettermeanttoHahn!InNovember,Meitnerhadvehementlyobjectedtotheradiumisomersnowshewassurprisedbutnotopposed,readyto
considerthebariumanexpansionratherthanacontradictionofpreviousexperience.UnlikeHahn,Meitnerunderstoodthatexistingnucleartheoryappliedonlyto
minordisruptionsofthenucleus:intuitively,shewasreadyforitsmassivedisintegration.HerresponsearrivedinBerlinon23December,surelythebestChristmas
presenthereceived.
25
Yearslater,HahnwasknowntosaythatifMeitnerhadstayedinBerlin,shemighthavetalkedhimoutofthediscovery,mightevenhave"forbidden"himtomakeit.
26

Manysuchreportsaresecondandthirdhandandrequireexaminationofthepersonalandpoliticalagendasoftheirsources,buttheyareconsistentwithHahn'slater
refusaltocreditMeitner
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withanybutanegativeroleinthediscovery.Herletterof21Decemberindicatesquitetheopposite.Onthedayshefirstlearnedofbarium,sheinstantlyresponded:it
isnotimpossible.Andatthetime,Hahnmusthavefoundherresponsemostreassuring,foritwasonlyafterhereceiveditthathebegantorecognizethesignificance
ofthebariumfinding.
LiseleftStockholmonFriday,23December,tospendtheholidayswithEvavonBahrBergiusandherfamilyinKunglv,onthewestcoastofSweden.OttoRobert
Frischwasinvited,too,andcameupfromCopenhagen.ChristmasinSwedenpresentedsomeunfamiliartraditions:LiseandOttoRobertwouldlongremember
Christmasdinnerwiththeirhosts"wherewebothstruggledmightilywiththetraditionalSwedishlutfisk."
27
Alwaysclose,auntandnephewsharedtheirworryabout
OttoRobert'sparents.Buttheirthoughtswereneverfarfromphysics.
OnFrisch'sfirstmorninginKunglvprobablythedaybeforeChristmashefoundhisauntmullingoverHahn'sletterof19December.
28
Shehadnothingelsetogo
on.HahnhadmailedacopyoftheNaturwissenschaftenmanuscripttoherStockholmaddress,andshewouldnotseeitforaweek.ButshehadOttoRoberttotalk
to,agreatadvantageoverherisolatedexistenceinStockholm.
InhismemoirsFrischrecalled,
WhenIcameoutofmyhotelroomaftermyfirstnightinKunglv,IfoundLiseMeitnerstudyingaletterfromHahnandobviouslyverypuzzledbyit.Iwantedtodiscusswithher
anewexperimentthatIwasplanning,butshewouldn'tlistenIhadtoreadthatletter.ItscontentwasindeedsostartlingthatIwasatfirstinclinedtobeskeptical.Hahnand
Strassmannhadfoundthatthosethreesubstanceswerenotradium...[but]barium.
ThesuggestionthattheymightafterallhavemadeamistakewaswavedasidebyLiseMeitnerHahnwastoogoodachemistforthat,sheassuredme....Wewalkedupanddown
inthesnow,Ionskisandsheonfoot(shesaidandprovedthatshecouldgetalongjustasfastthatway),andgraduallytheideatookshapethatthiswasnochippingorcracking
ofthenucleusbutratheraprocesstobeexplainedbyBohr'sideathatthenucleusislikealiquiddropsuchadropmightelongateanddivideitself....Weknewthattherewere
strongforcesthatwouldresistsuchaprocess,justasthesurfacetensionofanordinaryliquiddropresistsitsdivisionintotwosmallerones.Butnucleidifferedfromordinary
dropsinoneimportantway:theywereelectricallycharged,andthiswasknowntodiminishtheeffectofthesurfacetension.
Atthispointwebothsatdownonatreetrunk,andstartedtocalculateonscrapsofpaper.Thechargeofauraniumnucleus,wefound,wasindeed
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largeenoughtodestroytheeffectofsurfacetensionalmostcompletelysotheuraniumnucleusmightindeedbeaverywobbly,unstabledrop,readytodivideitselfatthe
slightestprovocation(suchastheimpactofaneutron).
Buttherewasanotherproblem.Whenthetwodropsseparatedtheywouldbedrivenapartbytheirmutualelectricrepulsionandwouldacquireaverylargeenergy,about200MeV
inallwherecouldthatenergycomefrom?FortunatelyLiseMeitnerrememberedhowtocomputethemassesofnucleifromthesocalledpackingfractionformula,andinthatway
sheworkedoutthatthetwonucleiformedbythedivisionofauraniumnucleuswouldbelighterthantheoriginaluraniumnucleusbyaboutonefifththemassofaproton.Now
whenevermassdisappearsenergyiscreated,accordingtoEinstein'sformulaE=mc
2
,andonefifthofaprotonmasswasjustequivalentto200MeV.Soherewasthesourcefor
thatenergyitallfitted!
29
Frisch'sstoryistoowelltoldtobeomittedfromanaccountofMeitner'slife.Itconveystheexcitementanddelightofatrulynewidea,thefirstrecognitionthata
nucleuscansplit,andthefirstunderstandingofhowandwhyitdoes.
Atitsheartwasanucleuswiththepropertiesofaliquiddrop,amodelthatbeganwithGeorgeGamowinDecember1928.
30
EarlierthatyearGamowhadexplained
alphadecayasaquantummechanicaltunneleffect,ahighlysuccessfultheorythatconvincedphysiciststhatonlysmallparticlescouldescapethenucleus.Theliquid
dropnucleuswasbasedonacompletelydifferentpremise.Insteadofassigningindividualnuclearparticlestoquantizedenergystatesandshells,Gamowtreatedthem
allasessentiallyequivalent,drawntogetherbymutualattractionandsurfacetension,likemoleculesinaclassicliquiddrop.Themodelwasfruitful.Amongothers,
Heisenbergappliedittohistheoryofneutronprotonexchangeforces,andhisassistantC.F.vonWeizsckeruseditasthebasisforasemiempiricalformulafor
nuclearmassdefects("packingfractions")thatagreedwellwithexperiment.InmanyrespectsthetheorycorrespondedtoMeitner'sexperimentalinterests,andshe
followeditclosely.SheknewGamowquitewell,sawHeisenbergoften,andthoughthighlyofWeizscker,whowasher"housetheoretician"(Haustheoretiker)fora
timein1936.
31
Bythentheliquiddropmodelhadprovenitselffornuclearstabilityandmassenergyrelationshipsacrosstheperiodictable.
ButthemodeldidlittlefornuclearreactionsuntilBohrandayoungassociate,FritzKalckar,placeditinadifferentcontext.LikeGamow,theybeganwithanucleus
thatwasliquidlikeinitsinternalcohesionandsurface
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tensionwhenstruckbyanenergeticparticle(suchasaneutronoralphaparticle),nucleusandprojectilemergedtoformanexcitedsemistablecompoundnucleusthat
oscillatedandvibratedasawhole,likealiquiddrop,untilthereactionwenttocompletion.Onlytworeactionoutcomeswereconsidered:energyemissionandparticle
expulsion("evaporation")andtheexpelledparticles,itwasassumed,wouldbesmall.StillundertheinfluenceofGamow'salphadecaytheory,physicistsmissedthe
fullimplicationsoftheliquiddrop:theideaofamassivesplitoccurredtonoone.
FirstoutlinedbyBohrinlate1935,thecompoundnucleuspromisedanunderstandingofnuclearprocessesandemissionspectra.Meitner,strugglingtofinda
theoreticalinterpretationfortheneutroninducedreactionsofuraniumandthorium,referredbrieflybuthopefullytotheworkofBohrandKalckarsoonafteritwas
publishedin1937.
32
OttoFrischwasinCopenhagen,directlyengagedwiththecompoundnucleus.Withothers,hemeasuredtheabsorptionofslowneutronsin
variouselements,participatedintheoreticaldiscussions,andmadeexcellentsketchesofthecompoundnucleustoillustrateBohr'slecturesandarticles.
WhenauntandnephewcametogetherinKunglvthatChristmas,sodidthetwofacetsoftheliquiddropnucleus.OnceMeitnerassuredFrischthatbariumwasa
fact,bothbeganthinkingofuraniumasanucleardroplet.Frisch,visuallygifted,mayhavebeenthefirsttopictureitssurfaceoscillations,andbothenvisionedan
elongatednucleusinadumbbellshape.Togethertheyestimatedthesurprisinglysmallsurfacetensionoftheuraniumnucleus:Frischcalculatedtheenergyneededto
drivethetwofissionfragmentsapartMeitner,themassdefectformulainherhead,estimatedtheenergyreleasedwhenuraniumcleavedintotwosmallernuclei.Itwas
beautiful.Everythingfit.
Butstillitwasbasedononlyonepieceofexperimentaldata:barium.Where,Meitnerwantedtoknow,wasthesecondfissionfragment?Itwasobviousthatifuranium
(with92protons)splitintwo,andonepiecewasbarium(56),thentheotherwouldhavetobekrypton(36).Inaddition,shesuspectedaconnectionbetweenbarium
andthetransuranes:theywereformedunderthesamereactionconditionsandexhibitedwhatappearedtobemultipleinheritedisomerismandanextendedsequence
ofbetadecays.Coulditbethatthetransuraneswerenothigherelementsatallbutsmallernucleilikebarium,whichwereformedwhenuraniumsplit?For
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Meitner,thiswascauseforgreatanxiety.Afterfouryears,itappearedthatthetransuranesmightbeterriblywrong.
Hahn,meanwhile,wasthinkingalongthesamelines.AfterhereceivedMeitner'sletterof21December,hetoosuspectedthatthetransuranesmightbelighter
elements.AfewdayslaterhetelephonedPaulRosbaud,editorofNaturwissenschaften,toaddthenewideatothepageproofs.
33
ToLisehewrote,
28.XII.38DearColleague!IwanttoquicklywriteafewmorethingsaboutmyBafantasies,etc.PerhapsOttoRobertiswithyouinKunglvandyoucandiscussitabit....Wouldit
bepossiblethattheuranium239[
238
Uplusaneutron]breaksupintoaBaandaMa?[Masurium,theunconfirmedelement43,wassubsequentlynamedtechnetium(Tc).]ABa138
andaMa101wouldgive239.Theexactmassnumberisnotimportant.Itcouldalsobe136+103orsomethinglikethat.Ofcourse,theatomicnumbersdon'taddup.Some
neutronswouldhavetochangeintoprotonssothatthechargeswouldworkout.Isthatenergeticallypossible?IdonotknowIonlyknowthatourradiumhasthecharacteristics
ofBathatourAcdoesnothavethecorrectcharacteristicsofthetrueelement89.Everythingelseisnotproved....Ifthere'ssomethingtoit,thenthetransuranes,including
"ausonium"and"hesperium"[93and94]woulddie.Idon'tknowifthatwouldmakemeverysadornot.
34
Hahnhadcorrectlyguessedthaturaniumsplits,butheagainmadethemistakesurprisingforanuclearchemistofconsideringmassratherthanatomicchargeand
thusfailedtorecognizethatthenumberofprotonsinthetwofissionfragmentsmustaddupto92.UnfortunatelyforHahnandStrassmann,thiserrorinprintledothers,
includingEinstein,tobelievetheydidnotunderstandtheirownwork.
35
29.12.38DearOtto!Manythanksforyourletterofthe28th....YourRaBaresultsareveryexciting.OttoR.andIhaverackedourbrainsunfortunatelythemanuscripthasnotyet
beenforwardedtome,butIhavejustsentforitandhopetogetittomorrow.Thenwecanthinkaboutitbetter.Concerningthetransuranes,itseemstomethat[ourchemical]
proofthat23minuteUand40secondUareuraniumisotopesmustnecessarilyleadtotransuranes.Ordoyouthinkthosereactionsdidnotconfirmthepresenceofuranium
isotopes?Also,whatisgoingonwiththesocalledactinium[isotopes]?Cantheybeseparatedfromlanthanumornot?
36
Meitnerwasaskingquitealot,andtellingverylittle.SheknewHahncouldnotpubliclyacknowledgeanythingshewrotetohim,andshedidnot
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wanthimortheinstitutephysiciststolearntoomuchaboutwhatsheandFrischwerethinking.
OnNewYear'sEve,Lisewroteagain.
1.I.1939,12:30A.M.Ibegintheyearwithalettertoyou.Mayitbeagoodyearforusall....Wehavereadandconsideredyourpaperverycarefullyperhapsitisenergetically
possibleforsuchaheavynucleustobreakup.However,yourhypothesisthatBaandMowouldresultisimpossibleforseveralreasons.
Inhistiny,crampedscriptHahnhadactuallywrittenMaandnotMo,butMeitnerwouldhaveobjectedanyway:theatomicnumberswerewrongineithercase.She
didnotexplain,however.Shewasterriblyanxiousaboutthe"transuranes,"almostcertainbythenthattheywerenotelementsbeyonduraniumbutthefragmentsinto
whichuraniumhadsplit.
Youunderstand,ofcourse,thatthequestionofthecorrectnessofthetransuraneshasaverypersonalaspectforme.Ifalltheworkofthelast3years[sic:4]
37
hasbeenincorrect,
itcannotbedeterminedfromjustoneside.Isharedtheresponsibilityforitandmustthereforefindsomewaytoparticipateintheretraction.Ajointretractionissurelynotfeasible
[forpoliticalreasons],soweshouldconsidersimultaneousstatements,onefromthetwoofyouandonefromme(thelatterperhapsinNature).Ifthetransuranesdisappear,you
areinamuchbetterpositionthanI,sinceyouhavediscoveredityourselves,whileIhaveonlythreeyears[sic]ofworktorefutenotaverygoodrecommendationformynew
beginning.
OttoRobertadded,
Ifyournewfindingsarereallytrue,itisofthegreatestinterest,andIameagerforfurtherresults.HerewehadbeautifulsnowyweatherandIdidsomeskiing.
Meitneragain:
Thequestionofisomerismalsobecomesverydoubtfulshouldthetransuranesdisappear.
Andonaseparatepieceofpaper:
Ihaveanideathatperhapsonlythe23minuteUleadstoanekaRe[element93](whichmaybealpharadiating).IfthisturnsouttobetrueIhavecertaintheoreticalreasonsfor
thinkingitisthiscouldbeastartingpointformyretraction.(Onemustbecareful...thatmyretractionisnotentirelynegative.)
38
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Meitner'sdesireforasimultaneouspublicretractionofthe"transuranes"wasaneffortatdamagecontrol.Itnevertookplace,inpartbecauseHahnandStrassmann
believedinthe"transuranes"longafterMeitnergavethemup,inpartbecauseitwouldhavebeenaspoliticallyimpossibleforHahnandStrassmanntocoordinatea
retractionwithherastoactuallyincludeherintheirpublications.Inanycase,the"transuranes"weregone.ToMeitneritcameasastaggeringdoubleblow:tobe
excludedfromasensationaldiscovery,andthentohavefouryears'workprovedwrong!
Theinjusticewasbitter.HercontributionstothediscoveryformedacontinuumfromherfirstworkinBerlintothefindingofbariumandbeyondattheendonlyher
physicalpresencewasmissing.MeitnerandHahn'sownexperienceshowsthatphysicalpresenceisnotrequiredatalltimesforeverymemberofateam:in1917and
1918,Hahnwasinthearmy,Meitnerdidnearlyallthework,andboth,withoutquestion,werecreditedwiththediscoveryofprotactinium.
39
LaterStrassmann
expresseditclearly.
WhatdifferencedoesitmakethatLiseMeitnerdidnotdirectlyparticipateinthe"discovery"??HerinitiativewasthebeginningofthejointworkwithHahn4yearslatershe
belongedtoourteamandshewasboundtousintellectuallyfromSweden[through]thecorrespondenceHahnMeitner....[She]wastheintellectualleaderofourteam,and
thereforeshebelongedtousevenifshewasnotpresentforthe"discoveryoffission."
40
Meitnerknewtherewasnothingshecoulddo,thatithadnothingtodowithscienceandeverythingtodowithrace,thatthesameracialpoliciesthathadforcedherout
ofGermanymadeitimpossibleforHahnandStrassmanntoincludeherinthebariumfinding,madeitdifficultforthemeventoadmittheircontinuedcollaborationwith
a"nonAryan"inexile.Thetimingwasbad.UnsettledinSweden,shefearedforherreputation,worryingthatthosewhodidnotknowherworkorconsiderthe
politicalsituationmightthinkshehadcontributednothingtothediscoveryorworse,impededit.SheneverimaginedthatHahnhimselfwouldsoonsuppressanddeny
notonlytheirongoingcollaborationbutthevalueofnearlyeverythingshehaddonebeforeaswell.
VacationendedonNewYear'sDay.OttoRobertandLiseparted,arrangingtotelephoneinafewdays,afterFrischtalkedtoBohrandMeitnerhadachanceto
studytheliterature.BackinStockholm,Meitner
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plungedintoanintensereviewofthechemistryofthe"transuranes."Adaylatershewasconvinced:thechemistryofthe"transuranes"resembledtheplatinummetals,
buttheycouldbethelightplatinummetalsMa(Tc),Ru,Rh,PdthatliejustaboveRe,Os,Ir,andPtintheperiodictable.(SeeAppendixfig.2.)Iftrue,these
lightnucleigavecredencetonuclearsplitting,eliminatedtheneedforisomerism,andaccountedforthelongsequenceofbetadecays.Thefactthatshecouldusethe
falsetransuranestosubstantiatesplittingandexplainfindingsthathadplaguedtheuraniuminvestigationbegantoconsoleMeitner.HernextlettertoHahnwasalittle
moreoptimistic.
3.I.39DearOtto!IamnowalmostcertainthatthetwoofyoureallydohaveasplittingtoBaandIfindthattobeatrulybeautifulresult,forwhichImostheartilycongratulateyou
andStrassmann....AsIalreadywrotetoyou,Ihaveseveralreasonsforthinkingthatthe23minuteuraniummostprobablyreallyisuraniumthetwootherseries[theformer
processes1and2]probablyconsistofthelightplatinummetals.Iwasalwaysdisturbedbythoselongdecayserieswiththerelativelylowatomicweightof239withthis
completelydifferentsortofprocessitisquitepossible.Inanycase,bothofyounowhaveabeautiful,widefieldofworkaheadofyou.Andbelieveme,eventhoughIstandhere
withveryemptyhands,Iamneverthelesshappyforthesewondrousfindings.
41
InherNewYear'slettertoHahn,shehadbeenunabletocontainherdisappointment.Inturn,Ottowrote
[Iam]terriblyupsettoseeyousodepressedaboutourexperimentsandmyvaguesuspicionsaboutthetransuranes....Neitherwenoranyotherphysicistcouldthinkofelements
withlowatomicweight....MustHerrFermi,mustwe,beashamedofthis,andsayeverythingwedidinthelastthree[sic]yearswaswrong?[Hethoughtshewasangrywithhim
forpublishingthebariumfindingwithouther.]Youwrite:"Thatcannotbedeterminedbyonesideonly."WhatelsecouldIhavedone?Intheinstitutenooneknowsanything
aboutthesenewestthings.Imightperhapshavewantedtodiscussthingswith[C.F.von]Weizscker,[Siegfried]Flggeor[Arnold]Flammersfeld....Itoldthedetailsonlyto
you,sothatyoucanformanopinionandperhapspublishsomethingaboutit....Butitwouldhavebeenwrongforusnottopublishourresultsasquicklyaspossible....You
write:"Thequestionofisomerismalsobecomesdoubtfulifthetransuranesdisappear."Why?TheisomericRaBaisotopesaredefinite,whynottheotherstoo?...Believeme,it
wouldhavebeenpreferableformeifwecouldstillworktogetheranddiscussthingsaswedidbefore!
42
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4.I.39DearOtto!Idon'treallyknowhowtoansweryourlastletter.NotforaseconddidIthinkanythingelsebutthatyourBaRaresultsmustbepublishedasquicklyaspossible.
Ionlyspokeofrefutingthetransuranes,forwhichIfeltresponsiblewithyou....Ithurtsthatmisunderstandingscancomesoeasily.Couldn'tyoutrustmyfriendshipalittlemore?
43
FrischechoedMeitner'sthoughts.
4.I.39DearProf.Hahn,Youhavemisunderstoodourlettersomewhat.NotforamomentdidL[ise]meantoreproachyouforyourforthcomingpublication.Allshemeantwasthatif
theresultsofyourjointwork(transuranes,isomerism)provetobefalse,thentherecalloftheseresultsshouldnotcomefromyouandStrassmannalone,orelsepeoplewillsay
thatthreedidnonsenseandnowthatoneisgonethetwoothersmadeitright.Naturallythatisnotarecommendationforthethird....Weareofcourseveryenthusiasticabout
yourandStrassmann'snewresultssurelyitisunderstandablethatL.wasalittlesadnottobeapartofit,butthisfeelingofdejectionwassuppressedadaylaterbyjoyforthe
beautifuldiscovery.
44
IthadtakenseveraldaysforLisetorealizewhatOttoRobertinstantlyknew:theirtheoreticalinterpretationwasalsoabeautifuldiscovery,embodyingandextending
existingnucleartheory,makingsenseofresultsthathadneverbeenclearbefore.AndasMeitnersuspected,the23minute
239
Uwasreal.Ofallthemanyuranium
products,thishadalwaysbeenthemoststraightforward:formedbyanentirelynormalresonanceneutroncapture,withahalflifelongenoughtobecertainofuranium,
itnecessarilydecayedtothefirsttrueelement93.Theother"transuranes"werefalse,tobesure,butintheirplacesheandFrischhaddiscoveredsomethingfarmore
satisfyingandright.
FromCopenhagen,OttoRobertdescribedBohr'senthusiasticreaction,openingwiththeaffectionateViennesediminutive:
DearTanterl,IwasabletospeakwithBohronlytoday[3January]aboutthesplittingofuranium.TheconversationlastedonlyfiveminutesasBohragreedwithusimmediately
abouteverything.Hejustcouldn'timaginewhyhehadn'tthoughtofthisbefore,asitissuchadirectconsequenceofthecurrentconceptofnuclearstructure.Heagreedwithus
completelythatthissplittingofaheavynucleusintotwobigpiecesispracticallyaclassicalphenomenon,whichdoesnotoccuratallbelowacertainenergy,butgoesreadily
aboveit.(Thatisalsoconsistentwiththeverygreatstabilityofnormaluraniumandtheverylargeinstabilityofthe[notmuchhigher
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energy]compoundnucleus[ofuraniumandaneutron].)Bohrstillwantstothinkquantitativelyaboutitthiseveningandtomorrowwewilltalkaboutitagain.
45
LaterFrischdramatizedandcondensedthisconversationwithBohr:"Ihadhardlybeguntotellhim,whenhestruckhisforeheadwithhishandandexclaimed:'Oh,
whatidiotsweallhavebeen!Oh,butthisiswonderful!Thisisjustasitmustbe!HaveyouandLiseMeitnerwrittenapaperaboutit?'Isaidwehadn'tyet,butwould
atonce,andBohrpromisednottotalkaboutituntilthepaperwasout."
46
Tospeedpublication,MeitnerandFrischdecidedtosubmitanoteratherthanafullarticletoNature.Withintheallottedspaceofonepage,theywoulddefineand
describethesplittingofanucleusforthefirsttimeandgiveittheoreticaljustification.Inaddition,Meitnerwantedtoaddexperimentalweighttotheirargumentby
showingthatifthe"transuranes"werefragments,thenotionofmultipleisomerismwasunnecessaryandthelongsequenceofbetadecaysmadesense.
OutliningherargumenttoFrischshortlyafterherreturntoStockholm,Meitnerreasonedthaturaniumnucleicoulddividewithvaryingproportionsofneutronsand
protonstoformavarietyofdifferentfragments.Thebarium,shenoted,couldbeBa(56protons)andKr(36),whilethe"transuranes"mightbepartofadecay
sequencebeginningwithZr(40)andTe(52),orperhapsSr(38)andXe(54),orothercombinations.Inaddition,shenoted,apparentmultipleisomerismcouldnow
beexplainedasseveraldifferentisotopesofeachlightelement,forexample,
141
Bawith
98
Kror
143
Bawith
96
Kr.Furthermore,sincetheneutrontoprotonratiois
higherinuraniumthaninlighterelements,thefragmentswouldtendtobeheavywithneutronscomparedtotheirnormalisotopes,necessitatinganextendedseriesof
betadecaystoreducetheneutronexcess.Meitner,whohadalwaysbeendisturbedbythelongsequenceofbetadecaysandneversatisfiedwithmultipleisomerism,
wasrelieved,finally,toseethetransuranesgo.
47
TheprocesswasstilluncleartoHahn.On7January,hewrotetoLisethatheandStrassmannhadagainverifiedBabutfoundnochemicalevidenceforthesequence
Ma(Tc)RuRhPdhehadproposedbefore."Thereforeitseemsalmostcertainthatthetransuranesstay,andthesumofatomicweightswasanunusual
coincidence."
48
MeitnerdelightedlyevaluatedtheinformationforOttoRobert.
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ThemoreIthinkofourtransuranes,themorelikelyitseemstomethattheschemeIdescribedinmyearlierlettertoyouiscorrect....Hahnwrotetodaythattheyactuallybelievein
thetransuranes:theirpropertiesdonotcorrespondtothelowerhomologues....[But]HahnandStrassmannhavejusttriedanotherBaRaseparation,withthesameresult,soIdo
notdoubtthat[uranium]splitsintotwonuclei....FornowIdonotwanttotellHahnaboutmy...hypothesis,becauseifitisrightandheverifiesitexperimentally,thenforpolitical
reasonshecannotrefertoawrittencommunicationfromme.Whenitispublished,however,hecanciteit....NaturallyIamreallycuriousaboutthetheoreticalexplanationBohr
andyouhavecomeupwithforsplitting.Iftheresultisgood,Iwouldliketocarefullybringuptheaboveexplanationforthetransuranes,ifyouagree.Normally,Iamreallynotso
concernedaboutpublishingonthecontrary.ButinmycurrentbadsituationImust,unfortunately,thinkofsuchthings,toshowpeoplethatIamnotcompletelydimwitted.
49
Havinglaboredforyearsoverthefalsetransuranes,Meitnernowhadthepleasureofminingthemforchemicalevidenceforthesplittingofuranium.Frisch,withno
suchemotionalinvestmentinthem,wasquickertoseethephysicalimplicationsofnucleardisintegrationmoreover,inBohr'sinstitutehewassurroundedbysuperb
physicistsandampleequipment,includingahightensionapparatusandacyclotroncapableofgeneratingastrongsourceofneutrons.On8January,heincludedina
lettertoMeitnerafirstdraftoftheirNaturenote.
50
Whatdoyouthinkabouttryingtofindthe''recoil"nuclei[fragments]withaproportionalamplifier?Allsuchnucleioughttohaveabout100MeVkineticenergy,thatwouldgive
anincrediblenumberofions,whichoneshouldseeevenwiththeuraniumalpharadiationbackground(onesurelymustnotcoverit,Iwilltrytoestimatetheirrange)....OnFriday
[6January]...Bohrdiscusseditatlengthwithmeagain.HehadmeshowhimhowIarrivedatmyestimateofsurfacetension,andagreedcompletelywithithehimselfhadthought
oftheelectricaltermbutnotthatitmadesuchadifference....ThenextmorningIbeganthisdraftandwasabletobringtwopagestoBohratthetrainstation(at10:29)wherehe
pocketedthemhehadnotimetoreadit....Yesterday,whenHahnandStrassmann'spaperappearedhere,Idiscussedthewholethingalittle,mostlywith[George]Placzekwho
wasskeptical,butthenhealwaysis....When[Georgede]Hevesysawthepaperheimmediatelysaidthat[Irne]Curiehadtoldhimalreadylastfallthatshefoundverylight
elementsfromuranium,butsheobviouslydidnottrustherselftopublishit.Well,shealreadyhastheNobelprize,shecanbesatisfied.
51
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Withhis"recoil"experimentFrischwaslookingforthefirstphysicalevidencefornuclearsplitting.Expectingthefragmentstobeviolentlyexpelledfromtheirradiated
uraniumsample,hepreparedtodetectthehugenumberofionstheywouldcreateinaproportionalamplifier.AfterMeitnerremindedhimaboutthestrongnatural
alphaemissionofuranium,Frischbiasedthecountertomeasureonlythehugeburstsofionizationfromtherelativelymassivefragments.ForseveraldaysMeitnerand
Frischdiscussedtheexperimentbyletterandtelephone,assessingtheenergy,range,andmagnitudeoftheinducedionization.
52
Itwouldhavebeentotheiradvantage
tosubmittheirtheoreticalnotefirst.HahnandStrassmann'sNaturwissenschaftenarticlehadappearedon6Januaryandwasattractingconsiderableattention.Butat
thatmomentMeitnerandFrischhadbasedtheirtheoreticalinterpretationonasinglepieceofexperimentalevidencebariumandtheyverymuchwantedtohave
physicalevidencetosupportit.
HahnandStrassmann,meanwhile,hadnewresults.
10.January39...OurRafromthoriumalsoappearstobeBa!Anexperimentwedidtodayindicatesthatabsolutely.Tomorrowwewilldoanother....Ourtheoreticalpeoplehave
beguntodiscusstheBathingandthinkaboutit.TheyknownothingaboutthethoriumBawe(StrassmannandI)willsaynothingaboutitfornow.IfyouandOttoRobertare
goingtowritesomething,doitsoon....Youcouldalsoincludethorium.Perhapsstilllowerelementscouldbeburstwithhigherenergyneutrons.WhyBashowsupprimarily,I
don'tknow.
53
On13January,Frischperformedtherecoilexperimentanddetectedthefragmentsimmediately.
54
Hedelayedtheirjointpaperforanotherthreedayswhileherefined
hisdataandwroteaseparatenotedescribinghisexperiment.
55
On16January,hefinallymailedbothpaperstoNature,
56
wheretheirjointpaperappearedon11
Februaryandhisrecoilpaperappearedon18February.Whilehewaswritingthepapers,FrischaskedWilliamA.Arnold,anAmericanbiologistworkingwith
GeorgedeHevesyinBohr'sinstitute,whatnamebiologistsusefortheprocessofcelldivision."Binaryfission,"Arnoldreplied.Frischvisualizedthedroplikenucleus
dividinglikealivingcell.InhispaperwithMeitnerheproposedthattheprocessbenamed"fission."
57
Intheirpaperthetwophysicistslikenednuclearfissiontothe"essentiallyclassical"divisionofaliquiddropandestimatedthatthe200MeV
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Page247
ofenergyreleasedwas"availablefromthedifferenceinpackingfractionbetweenuraniumandtheelementsinthemiddleoftheperiodicsystem."Theyexpectedeach
fissionfragmenttoinitiateachainofdisintegrationsasits"highneutron/protonratio...readjustediselfbybetadecaytothelowervaluesuitableforlighterelements."
Theypredicted,"Ifoneofthepartsisanisotopeofbarium,thentheotherwillbekrypton(Z=9256),whichmightdecaythroughrubidium,strontiumandyttriumto
zirconium."Theythoughtit"ratherprobable''thatallthe"transuranes"werelightelements,possibly"masuriumdecayingthroughruthenium,rhodium,palladiumand
silverintocadmium"andthatit"mightnotbenecessarytoassumenuclearisomerism."TheytookcaretociteHahnandStrassmannonlyforresultsalreadyinprint.For
thefissionofthorium,theynotedthatin1938theBerlinteamhadobtainedisotopesfromtheneutronirradiationofthoriumsimilartothosefromthefissionofuranium,
"suggestingafissionofthoriumwhichislikethatofuranium."(TheycouldnotreportthatHahnandStrassmannhadalreadyconfirmedthefissionofthoriumnordid
theywishtoomitthoriumentirely,sincetheyhadthoughtofthepossibilitythemselves.)
58
ThepaperconcludedwiththeoneaspectoftheearlierworkMeitnerstill
believedtobetrue:"Thebodywith24minutehalflife...isprobablyreally
239
U,andgoesoverintoanekarhenium[element93]whichappearsinactivebutmay
decayslowly,probablywithemissionofalphaparticles.(Frominspectionofthenaturalradioactiveelements
239
Ucannotbeexpectedtogivemorethanoneortwo
betadecaysthelongchainofobserveddecayshasalwayspuzzledus.)Theformationofthisbodyisatypicalresonanceprocess."
59
Itwasanexcellentpieceofwork,briefyetelegantinitstheoreticaldiscussion.AlthoughitcouldnotcompensateMeitnerforbeingexcludedfromthebariumfinding,it
tiedhertoit,permittinghertobethefirsttoburyinheritedisomerismandthefalsetransuranesandtopointtotheonespeciesthatwasstillvalid,theprecursortothe
firsttrueelement93.
ThentherewasgoodnewsfromVienna.On14January,LiseandOttoRobertlearnedthatGustiandJutzFrischhadaSwedishvisa,Jutzwouldsoonbereleased
fromDachau,andtheywouldcometoStockholm.
60
RelievedofherworriesaboutherfamilyandfinishedwithherworkwithOttoRobert,hersituationinStockholmsuddenlyseemedbleakerthanbefore.Shehadideas
forfollowupexperimentsbutnomaterialorequipmentwithwhichtodothem.AndshecouldnotpenetrateSiegbahn's
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Page248
coldnessandlackofcollegiality.WhenHahnsentSiegbahnacounterhewanted,atMeitner'srequest,shewrotetoHahn,"Onceagainhesaidnotawordtome,
althoughIaskedhimaboutit.Itisallverydepressing,butIseenopossibilityofchangingit."
61
Frischhaddetectedthelargeionizationpulsesfromfissionfragmentsbyconnectingalinearamplifiertoanionizationchamberthatwaslinedwithuraniumand
irradiatedwithneutrons.Suchphysicalevidenceforfissionwasdramatic,butthequantitywasfartoosmallforanalysis.Meitnerwasinterestedincollectingalarger
sampleofthefissionproducts,determininghalflivesandsomechemicalcharacteristics,comparingtheformertransuraneswithfissionproducts,andpossibly
identifyingthefirsttruetransuraniumelement.Themethodsheproposedwasatypicalrecoilseparation:"Ifametalplateisplacedclosetoauraniumlayerbombarded
withneutrons,onewouldexpectanactivedepositofthelightatomsemittedinthe'fission'ofuraniumtoformontheplate,"
62
whileelements93andabovewould
remainembeddedintheuranium.Recoil,whichMeitnerfirstusedthirtyyearsbefore,wasstillapracticalseparationtechnique.
Buttheexperimentrequiredcounters,supplies,andastrongneutronsource,noneofwhichwasavailabletoherinStockholm.Shethoughtshemightbeableto
measurehalflivesofthefissionfragmentswithabasiccounter,andperhapsperformsomesimplechemicalseparations.Frischwasreadytoprovidelongdistance
assistanceirradiatinguraniumwithneutrons,collectingthefissionproductsonaplate,andsendingitviathreehourairexpresstoStockholm.
63
AsMeitnerandFrischplannedthenewexperiments,theywereunawareoftheexcitementthatfissionwascausingelsewhere.WhenBohrleftCopenhagenforNew
Yorkon7January1939,hepromisednottomentionMeitnerandFrisch'sworkuntilaftertheirpaperwassubmittedforpublication:Americanscientistswouldnot
receivethe6JanuaryNaturwissenschaftenforanothertwoweeks.
64
OnboardtheDrottningholm,ablackboardinhisstateroom,Bohrwentoverandoverthe
mechanismoffissionwithanotherphysicist,LonRosenfeld,untilatlastBohrwassatisfiedthatheunderstoodit.BohrthenspentafewdaysinNewYork,while
RosenfeldattendedaseminarinPrincetonwhereheimmediatelytoldeveryoneaboutfissionBohrhadforgottentotellhimtokeepittohimself.WhenBohrheard,
hetriedtoprotectMeitnerandFrisch'spriority,butasFrischlaterrelated,itwasalmosttoolate."[A]fantasticracewasalreadygoingonin
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Page249
anumberofAmericanlaboratories,wherethenewshadspreadfromPrinceton,toperformthesameeasyexperimentsIhadalreadymadetodetectthefission
fragments."
65
Thesecretwasout,andBohrwaitedimpatientlyfornewsfromFrischthathehadsubmittedhisandMeitner'stheoreticalnote.Unawareofthecompetition,Frischdid
hisexperimentfirst,tookhistimewiththeNaturenote,anddidnotsendthenewsthatBohrwasanxiouslyawaitinguntil22Januaryandthenhesentitsurfacemail
toNewYork.By20January,HahnandStrassmann'sNaturwissenschaftenpaperreachedAmericanshores,andtherewasnoholdingback.On26January,ata
meetingofphysicistsinWashington,D.C.,BohrannouncedHahnandStrassmann'sfindinganddidhisbesttopreservethepriorityforMeitnerandFrisch's
interpretation.HestilldidnotknowofFrisch'srecoilexperiment.
Sointensewastheinterestthat"[a]groupoflocalphysicists,who...onlyheardofthematteratthemeeting,rushedtotheirlaboratoryandworkedwithoutpausefor
twodaysinordertobeabletoannounceatthemeetingthattheytoohadseenthefissionfragments....Rosenfelddescribedtome[Frisch]thesceneheandBohr
witnessed:aphysicistsimultaneously...recordingfragments...andphoningtoananxiousnewspaperman:'Now,there'sanotherone.'"
66
Othersgottheresooner:
wordfromPrincetonreachedColumbiaUniversity,whereHerbertAndersonhadalreadydetectedfissionfragmentson25January.
NotknowingwhenMeitnerandFrischhadsubmittedtheirpaper,BohrsentFrisch"telegramaftertelegram,askingforfurtherinformationandsuggestingfurther
experiments...butwe[Frisch]hadnoideaofthereasonswhichcouldpromptBohrtosuchunusualimpatience."
67
Tohisaunt,Frischwrote,"Ihadtosend[Bohr]a
reportbytelegram,whichcosttheinstitute40Kroner.Whenhefinallygotmyletter[on2February]withthecopiesofbothmanuscriptshesentmeacongratulatory
telegram,probablyatthesametimeasyours."
68
Bohrwasevidentlyimmenselyrelieved:thepriorityforthefissioninterpretationdidremainwithMeitnerandFrisch,
andthefirstphysicaldetectionoffissionwasFrisch's.
AletterofFrisch'stoMeitner,written6February1939,providesasamplingofthevarietyofphysicalexperimentsspawnedbythediscoveryoffission.
InonetelegramBohraskedifthesplittingoccursimmediatelyafterneutroncaptureorifbetaemissionoccursfirst.Perhapshewasthinkingthatthe
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Page250
nucleusemitsabetaparticlefirstandthusbecomesevenmoreunstable(itseemstomeyouthoughtofthattoo,inKunglv).Ithendidafewexperimentswithasourceonthe
edgeofarotatingdiskandcansaythattheaveragedelayinfissionmustalwaysbesmallerthanatwentiethofasecond....Ibuiltasecondamplifierforthehightension,wherewe
shallsoonhaveneutronsandthenwanttotestforthesplittingofBi,Pb,Tl,Hg,Au,etc.WeshallalsotrytoinitiatefissionwithLigammaradiation,asyouproposed.Assoonas
wehaveneutronsIwilldoirradiationsforyou.Itwouldreallybeverynicetofindthe"transuranes"intherecoilevidentlyHahnstillbelievesinthem,buttheyseemterribly
unlikelytome.
69
Noneoftheexperimentswasverydifficult,butinStockholm,Meitnerlackedtheequipmenttodoanything."Ifonlyyoucouldseemydailywork!"shecomplainedto
Hahn."Ihaveabsolutelynohelp,Iputcounterstogether,evacuatethem,testthemforleaks,inshortIamdoingtheworkthatHerrDorffel[atechnicianinDahlem]
did,onlyverypoorly."
70
Infrustration,shewatchedasotherscompletedexperimentsshehadthoughtofweeksbefore.BytheendofJanuary,Meitnerwasso
discouragedthatsheinquiredagainaboutapositioninCambridge.SirWilliamBragginvitedhertovisitinMarch,butwithherpassportproblemsshecouldnottravel
thatsoon.
71
ShewrotetoHahn,"IsleepverypoorlyandpeoplesayIamthinasaline,butIfeelquitehealthy,eventhoughmyheadisfulloftroubles.''
72
Hahn,meanwhile,wasalsounderconsiderablestress.Inthehardeningpoliticalclimate,hispositionseemedvulnerable.KurtHess,theNazionthetopfloorofthe
institute,wasalwaysathreat,andnowthatthe6JanuaryNaturwissenschaftenarticlewasout,physicistsinhisinstitutenearlyallofthempartymemberswere
complainingloudlybecausehehadnotsharedthebariumresultwiththembeforepublication.
73
Scientifically,too,Hahnwasfloundering.Withoutdirectionfromphysics,helackedconfidenceinthebariumfinding,sothatheandStrassmannspentthefirstweeksof
January1939verifyingitoverandoveragain.Theyalsotestedforafewofthelightplatinumelementsinthetransuraneprecipitate,primarilybecauseMeitnerinsisted
thiswasthecase,butfoundnothing.Withoutfirmchemicalevidencetothecontrary,Hahnmaintainedthatthetransuraneswerestillvalid.Inpart,itmayhavebeen
reluctancetoabandontheresultsthathadledtothebariumfinding."Thereissomuchgoodworkinoururaniumandthoriumresearchthathaditnotbeenforthat
experience,StrassmannandIwouldsurelynotbemovingaheadquicklynow."
74
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Page251
InthefirstweeksofJanuary,MeitnerdeliberatelytoldHahnverylittle.OnlyaftersheandFrischsubmittedtheirarticlestoNaturedidshetellhimmoreandthen,
cautiously.
18.I.39DearOtto!...IfIwassomewhatsecretiveaboutthis,itwasbecauseyoureallyarenotinapositiontociteitbeforepublication,anditincludesanumberofcontentions
whichcouldbeprovedexperimentally.Anditwillappearattheearliestin3weeks.Theoretically,themostamusingthingisthatalthoughtwoormore decaysareenergetically
impossible,asplitintotwolighternucleiis,incontrast,energeticallypossiblebecauseofthedeepvalleyinthemassdefectcurvebetweenZ=40andZ=60andisalso
understandableonthebasisoftheliquiddropmodelforthenucleus.Ibegyou,however,nottotellanyoneelseaboutthis.Iamquiteconvincedthatthetransuraneseriesare
thoseoflightnuclei,exceptfortheresonanceprocess[thatforms
239
U]....IsitpossiblethatekaIrispalladiumandekaPtissilver?...Whenwehavereceivedanacceptancefrom
Nature,Iwillsendyouacopyofthemanuscriptthenyoucanrefertoitasifitwerealreadyinprint.Whatyouwroteaboutoururaniumandthoriumstudiesbeinganecessary
preparationforyourandStrassmann'sbeautifulendresultsisquiterightandIalsothoughtitoverinthesameway.Andperhapsitwouldbeniceifyoucouldsomehowexpress
thisquiteclearlyinyournextpaper,nottojustifyourearlierworkwedon'tneedthatbuttoindicatethatwithouttheearlierresultsandthedevelopmentofthechemicaland
physicaltechniquesitwouldnothavebeenpossibletoclarifytheCurieSavitchobservationssoquickly.Butifyoudon'tfeellikedoingthat,it'sallrightwithme.
75
Meitner'sletter,itseems,finallypromptedHahntoconsiderthefissionfragmentsintermsofatomicnumberratherthanmassandtorecognize,finally,thatwhen
bariumisonefissionfragment,kryptonmustbetheother.HerletterarrivedinDahlemon20Januaryonthe23d,Strassmanntestedforandfoundradioactive
strontiumandyttrium.Itisuncertainwhethertheyregardedtheseasindicatorsforkrypton(bywayofthebetadecaysequence
36
Kr
39
Y)oriftheyweremerely
testingforstrontiumasapossiblealternativeforbarium,alsoagroupII(alkalineearth)element.
76
On24January,HahnreceivedcopiesoftheMeitnerFrischNaturemanuscripts.
24.I.39DearLise....ItiswonderfulhowquicklyyouandOttoRobertthoughtofthephysicalexperimentsandcarriedthemout,sothatsomeofourlaboriouschemicaltrialswould
havebeencompletelyunnecessary....
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WealsohaveconfirmedthatourradiumsareBafromthoriumaswell,despitefrightfullylowactivities,butnotsoelegantlyaswithuranium.Nowafteryourexperiments,this
confirmationwouldnothavebeensonecessary....Wedonotbelieveinyourviewofthe"transuranes"[beingfalse]intheabsenceofsomethingbetterwethinktheyarestill,or
perhapsagain,transuranes.Theircharacteristicsdonotagreewith[thesequence]MatoAg.Butmoreexperimentsarenecessarythere.Ontheotherhand,wehavealsothought
ofkrypton,etc.,asthesecondproductofsplitting.Untilnowwehavenotbeenabletoconfirmthepresenceofkrptonorrubidium.Butperhapsstrontiumandyttrium....Howshall
wehandlethis[inprint]?Ithinkthatwewillbrieflydescribeourresultsandsaythatthetwoofyoualsosuggestedthispossibility.Othershavemadethesamesupposition....The
physicistsherenaturallyhavealsothoughtaboutthedifferencebetweentheatomicnumbers9256,afterthedifferenceinatomicweightsdidn'tworkout.
77
HahnwasimpressedenoughbyFrisch'sphysicalexperimenttoconsidersomeofhisowntrialsuseless,buthisonlyreactiontothetheoreticalargumentsofthe
MeitnerFrischpaperwastoinsistthatkryptonhadoccurredtomanyothers,includinghimselfandStrassmann,beforetheylearnedofitfromher.Perhapshewas
irritatedwithMeitnerfornotconfidinginhimsoonerundoubtedlyhewasnervousaboutthegrumblingwithinhisinstitute.Butwhateverthereason,hewas
ungenerous,possiblyevendishonest,aboutthekrypton.ForheandStrassmannhadnotlookedforstrontiumuntil23JanuaryaftertheyreceivedMeitner'sletterof
18January,whichpointedtotheimportanceofatomicnumbersandtheydidnotbegintheirsearchforkryptonorrubidiumuntiltheeveningofJanuary24after
copiesoftheMeitnerFrischmanuscriptsarrivedinDahlem.
78
Dismayed,MeitnerthoughtHahnsoundedangry.
79
Butsheknewhowtiredhewas,andthinkinghewasjustfeelingabitsorryforhimself,sherespondedwithan
especiallyaffectionateletter.
25.I.39DearHhnchen!...Yourlaboriousexperimentsarebynomeans"unnecessary."WithoutyourbeautifulresultBainsteadofRawewouldneverhavehadanythingto
consider,andyoucanhardlyimaginewhatitmeanttomeforoncetodosomethingthatreallyseemedlikescientificthinkingforafewdays.NaturallyyoushouldpublishyourSr
Yresults,theyarejustbeautiful,justcitethatwehavestateditinourNaturenoteonthebasisofoursimpleconsiderations....Therecoilexperimentsconfirmonlythefactof
splitting,butnotintowhatitsplits.That,afterall,canonlybedeterminedbychemistry,andthereforeeveryoneofyourexperimentsisextremelyimportant.
80
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AfterMeitnerhadsuggestedinher18Januaryletterthatoneofthe"transuranes"mightactuallybesilver,Strassmannhadtestedforiton20Januaryandfoundnone.
81
ThisbolsteredHahn'sfaithinthetransuranes,hewroteLiseonthe25th,although
thepuzzlingsimilarity[toBa]inexcitationandenhancementfactorsseemstoindicatetheopposite.Sodoyourarguments,whichwedon'tunderstandindetail....Ofcoursewedo
notdoubtit,butsincewecannotshowyourmanuscriptwithoutyourpermission,wecannotaskanyphysicist.Pleasewritewhenwecanshowyourmanuscript.V[on]Drosteand
Reddemannhaveorhadtheideaoflookingforfastbetaradiation(orsomethinglikethat)asaconsequenceofsplittingusingDroste'sapparatusandReddemann's[neutron]
source.IamsurethiswouldtakeayearatDroste'space,butperhapstheywon'tevenbeginoncetheyknowofOttoRobert'sresult....Lastnotleast:InadditiontotheSr(+Y)(no
Ba!)whichwedeterminedafewdaysagowefoundthecorrespondingrubidium,asashortlivedsubstance,twicewhendeliveringthehypotheticalkryptonintodiluteacid....
Pleasetreatth[is]asconfidential(exceptforOttoRobert).Nowwewanttowriteourworkupquickly....Forreasonsofexpediencyourchemistsintheinstitute!itmightbe
advisableifinyourpaperyoucitedthechemicalreferencesforthetransuranepapersinadditiontothoseinZs.fPhysik.
82
26.I.39DearOtto!...Yourresultsarereallywonderful!...ThefactthatKrRbSr+Y+Zrshouldbepresent,wededucedfromtheconstancyofnuclearcharge(56+36)andwe
mentionedonlythatoneoranotheroftheBaLaseriescouldbeSrorY....O.R.telephonedMondayevening,toldmethatthepageproofswerethereandthathewouldsendthem
offrightawayIdidnotseethematall.Thereforetheliteraturecitationscannot,unfortunately,bechanged.UnhappilyIoverlookedthefactthatonlyourjointpapersfromZs.f.
Physikarecited(O.R.didtheliterature,asthepaperiswritteninEnglish)andnotourfirstpapersfromNaturwiss[enschaften]orthoseinChem[ische]Ber[ichte].Iamreallyvery
sorry,butIhopethatnoonewillthinkitwasonpurpose,especiallysinceyourandStrassmann'sreallywonderfulresultsarestressedasthebasisasamatterofcourseinboth
notes.Ithinkthateverythingyouhavedonesincethenisabsolutelymarvelous.Reallyhalftheperiodicsystemisincludedinthesplittingofuranium,andinthesefewmonths
youhaveearnedseveral"first"prizes....Youcancertainlyshowournoticetoanyone,asIassumethatitwillappearquickly.
83
On28January,HahnandStrassmannsubmittedtheirnewestfindingstoNaturwissenschaften.
84
Hahnwasexhausted.Aftermailingacopyofthemanuscriptto
Meitner,hepreparedtoleavefortwoweeksintheItalianAlps.
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HahnandStrassmanndevotedthefirstpartoftheirpapertotheirbariumproof,thesecondparttootherfissionproducts,includingtheunsuccessfulsearchforlight
elementsamongthetransuranes,thediscoveryofstrontiumandyttrium,andtheirearlyevidenceforkrypton.ThroughouthisnarrativeHahngavenottheslightest
indicationthattheideaforseveraloftheexperimentshadcomefromMeitner.WhenhefinallymentionedtheMeitnerFrischpaper,itwasalmostasapostscript:"As
wewerewritingupourlastexperiments[thesearchforkrypton]wereceivedmanuscriptsoftwocommunicationswhichwillappearinNature,kindlysenttousby
theirauthors,LiseMeitnerandO.R.Frisch,andO.R.Frisch.MeitnerandFrischdiscussthesplittingofuraniumandthoriumnucleiintotwolargefragmentsof
approximatelyequalsize,e.g.,bariumandkrypton,andbasethepossibilityofsuchanoccurrenceonBohr'snewliquiddropmodelfornuclei."
Byplacingthisparagraphdirectlyaftertheexperimentaldiscussion,HahnintentionallyornotcharacterizedtheMeitnerFrischworkasafairlymeaningless
descriptionofknownresults.Moreover,theMeitnerFrischmanuscriptdidnot,infact,arriveasHahnandStrassmannwerewritinguptheirkryptonresultsbutbefore
thatexperimentbeganandmayhavebeentheimpetusforit.AndHahnsaidnothingtoindicatethatMeitnerpromptedthesearchforlightelementsandanticipated
thediscoveryofstrontiumandyttrium.
AlreadydepressedabouthersituationinSweden,thepaperplungedMeitnerintodespair.Itseemedthatnothingshehaddonebeforeorafterfissionwouldbe
recognized.ShefearedherreputationwasirreparablydamagedandshewouldneverimproveherstatusinStockholm.
5.II.39DearOtto!...Yourresultspresentawonderfulclosedchainofresults,anditismarvelouswhatyouhaveaccomplishedinthesefewshortweeks.UnfortunatelyIfearfrom
themannerinwhichyoubroughtupournotethatyouarepersonallyangeredbythelapseinourliteraturecitations.Ireallyamterriblysorry.Ihadhopedalittlethatournote
wouldhavegivenyousomepleasurealso,anditwouldhavebeensoniceformeifyouhadjustwrittenthatweindependentlyofyourwonderfulfindingshadcomeuponthe
necessityfortheexistenceoftheKrRbSrseries.
85
Youyourselfwroteinyourfirstanswertoourmanuscript(24.I.1939),"IbelievewewillbrieflydescribeourexperimentswithSr
andYandsaythatyoualsostatedthissupposition."...Withmethingsarenotgoodatall.Ihaveaplacetoworkherebutnopositionthatgivesmetheleastrighttoanything.
Tryfor
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amomenttoimaginehowitwouldbeifinsteadofyourownbeautifulinstitute,youhadoneworkroominastrangeinstitute,withouttheslightesthelp,withoutanyrights,and
withSiegbahn'sattitude:heonlylovesbigmachines,isverysureofhimselfandselfconfident,andprobablydoesnotwantanyoneindependentaroundhim.
86
AndIwithmy
innerinsecurityandselfconsciousness,thatIhavetodoallthelittlejobsthatIhaven'tdonefor20years.OfcourseitismyfaultIshouldhavepreparedmydeparturemuch
betterandmuchearliershouldhavehadatleastadrawingforthemostimportantapparatus,etc.Siegbahnsaidtomeonce,Debyewrotenothingaboutcoworkersorassistants(I
askedDebyetodothatseveraltimes)andhehaslittleroom.Tomethatdoesn'tseemtrue,theinstitutelooksempty,therearefewpeoplearound.ButtheimportantthingisthatI
camewithsuchemptyhands.NowSiegbahnwillgraduallybelieveespeciallyafteryourbeautifulresultsthatIneverdidanythingandthatyoualsodidallthephysicsin
Dahlem.Iamgraduallylosingallmycourage.Forgivethisunhappyletter.Ineverwrotehowbaditreallyis.
87
SometimesIdonotknowwhattodowithmylife.Probablythereare
manypeoplewhohaveemigratedwhofeelasIdo,butstillitisveryhard.
88
ShewrotethenextdaytoherbrotherWalter,
UnfortunatelyIdideverythingwrong.AndnowIhavenoselfconfidence,andwhenIoncethoughtIdidthingswell,nowIdon'ttrustmyself.TheSwedesaresosuperficialI
don'tfitinhereatall,andalthoughItrynottoshowit,myinnerinsecurityispainfulandpreventsmefromthinkingcalmly.Hahnhasjustpublishedabsolutelywonderfulthings
basedonourworktogetheruraniumandthoriumnucleisplitintolighternucleisuchasbariumandlanthanum,krypton,strontium,etc.Andmuchastheseresultsmakemehappy
forHahn,bothpersonallyandscientifically,manypeopleheremustthinkIcontributedabsolutelynothingtoitandnowIamsodiscouragedalthoughIbelieveIusedtodo
goodwork,nowIhavelostmyselfconfidence.
89
7.II.39DearLise,IjustreceivedyourletterofFebruary5,andIwanttoansweritrightaway.Youcannotimaginehowyoursituationaffectsme,andhowgladIwouldbeifIcould
helpyou.WithsmallthingsItriedtodosowhenIcould.WithlargethingsIcouldnot.Andnow,completelyunintentionally,IhavedonesomethingwronginthewaythatIhave
citedyou.Ionlyknowthatatfirstmycitationwasevenbriefer,thenIaddedsomethingabouttheBohrliquiddropmodeltomakeitalittlelonger.NowIseethatinsteadof
[saying]2pieces,IshouldhavementionedSrandYbyname.NeverthelessIcannotimaginehowthatcanmakeadifference.StrassmannandIalreadyhadthoughtofSr(and
thereforenaturallyofKrasthesource),thenthiscamefromallsides....WerefusedalldiscussionsIrefused
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Wefelmeyer[sic:Wefelmeier]threetimesdespiteWeizscker'srecommendation.Thereforewecouldnotwriteanythingotherthanwhatwedid.Ifearthattosomeextentitisalso
heldagainstmethatwestrictlyrefusedtotellanyoneaboutourfindings.Iheardsomethinglikethat:ifwehadtoldothersalittlemore,thenDrostehenowsayscouldhave
donesomeexperimentswithReddemannearlier,andhewouldautomaticallyhenowsayshavegottenFrisch'sresults.OfcourseIassignnovaluetosuchthings,butIdonot
wanttoconfesstothesegentlementhatyouweretheonlyonewholearnedofeverythingimmediately....Believeme,attimesIamsomewhatashamedthatwegotsuchclear
resultssoquicklywhileyousitinStockholminanemptyinstitute.Butwiththeothersatourheels,youunderstandthatwewantedtomovequickly.OnceduringtheDroste
commotion,PhilippsaidtomedirectlythatperhapsweshouldhavediscussedourresultsintheinstitutefirstandnotpublishedrightawayIhadtoanswerhimthatwithour
previousexperiencewithIrne[Curie]wedidnotwanttobetoolateagain.Heagreedwiththat.
Idon'tunderstandhowyoucanbelievethatSiegbahnthinksthatStrassmannandIalsodidthephysics.Inallourworkweabsolutelynevertoucheduponphysics,insteadwe
onlydidchemicalseparationsoverandoveragain.Weknowourlimitsandofcoursewealsoknowthatinthisparticularcaseitwasusefultodoonlychemistry.Thequestionof
[whowillget]yourapartmentisnotsettled....Inthatregardtheuraniumwork[fissiondiscovery]isformeaheavensentgift.NamelyIwasfearfulsometimesthatDr.K.would
first[takeover]yourapartment,theneventuallypartsoftheinstitute.
90
Hahn'sletteristestimonytotheselfdeceptionbroughtonbyfear:fearofhiscollaborators,oftheopportunistic"Dr.K."andothers,oftheambitiousKurtHess,of
anyoneandeveryonewhowaspoisedtotakeadvantageofhispoliticalvulnerability.Ayearbefore,justaftertheAnschluss,whenLise'spresenceseemedto
endangertheinstitute,hehadinstinctivelydistancedhimselffromher.Nowthatshewasgone,hedidnotwanttoadmitthattheyhadcontinuedtheircollaboration.Ifin
DecemberhestillthoughtofapublicationbyMeitneralmostas"workbythethreeofus,"itwasbecausehestillneededheractivecontribution.ByFebruary,hecould
barelybringhimselftocitehername.Inthosesixweeks,hehadcometothinkofthebariumfindingasanisolateddiscoverythatreliedonlyonthechemical
separationsheandStrassmannhaddoneinDecember.Politically,itwasmuchsaferthatway.Fissionwasa''giftsentfromheaven"toprotecthimandhisinstitute,a
giftwithnostringsattached,notiestothepast,owingnothingtophysicsorMeitner:"Inall
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thisworkweabsolutelynevertoucheduponphysics."HahnwasdivorcingfissionfromphysicsandhimselffromMeitner.Itwasanexceedinglyexpedientthingto
do.
Meitnerdidnotcomprehendallofthisrightawayshe,too,wasconcernedforHahn'swellbeingandtheintegrityoftheinstitutetheyhadshared.Andshewas
preoccupiedwithherownprofessionaldifficultiesinStockholm.
12.II.39DearOtto!...Icameherewithcompletelywronginformation.IhavegraduallygottenitoutofEvav.B[ahrBergius]justhowitwent.Siegbahnactuallydidnotwantto
haveme.Atthetimehesaidhehadnomoney,hecouldonlygivemeaplacetowork,nothingmore.ThenEvawroteto[C.W.]Oseen[anUppsalatheoreticalphysicist]andhe
saidthattheNobelFoundationcouldgrantsomemoney.ButnoonethoughtofthefactthatIcannotworkwithouthelp,particularlynotinaninstitutewherenothingisavailable
formyfield.AndwhenInoticedthathereIwasquitedespondent,andofcoursethatisnottherightsituationforassertingoneself.InDahlem,ifIneededsomethingfromashop,
ItalkeditoverwithGille,hedidthemechanicalworkandalsothenecessarydrawings.HereIamtoldeverytime:pleasemakeadrawing.SoIdotheworkthatDorffeldid,and
actuallyIdon'tknowhow.AndSiegbahn,whoisawonderfuldraftsmanandtechnicallyverygifted,nowwillgraduallybelievethatIcandonothing.Perhapsheisright.Iamoften
soterriblydespondent.OfcourseIamatfault,IshouldnothaveleftthewayIdid,shouldhavetakenalongmanymoredrawingsoftheimportantapparatus...andaboveallI
shouldhavediscussedthepertinentworkingconditionsbeforeIcame.
91
AndtoEvavonBahrBergius,
Allthesethingsweighonmeso,thatIamlosingallmyselfconfidence.IammakingarealefforttoholdontomycourageandItellmyselfagainandagainthatuntilnowIhave
doneveryrespectablephysics.ButunderthecurrentconditionsIwon'tbeabletodoanythingsensibleandthefearofsuchanemptylifeneverleavesme.
92
LiseMeitnerhadcometoSwedenwithnothingbutherscientificreputation.Now,seeinghowlittlethatmeantinexile,shewasrelivingtheterrifyinginsecurityofher
firstmonthsinBerlin:againshewasastrangerinaforeigncountry,unwelcomeinamaleprofession.livingpoorlyonbreadandblackcoffeeinatinyroomand
devastatedtofindthatthirtyyearsinphysicshadnotkeptitfromhappeningagain.
93
Inthewinterof1939,herunhappinessdeepenedintodespair.Sheblamedherself
forher
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decisiontocometoSweden,forherinabilitytocopewithManneSiegbahn,forfailingtoprepareherselfforemigration.Shelosthopeofeverimprovinghersituation
inStockholm:shefearedthatherprofessionallifewasover,herscientificpastdestroyed.Inherdespondency,Meitnerexaggeratedtheimportanceofrecognitionfrom
GermanyandgreatlyunderestimatedtheimpactofhertheoreticalnotewithFrisch.Theterm"fission"thattheyproposedwasinstantlyacceptedasthenameofthe
newprocess,
94
andoverthenextseveralmonthstheirfissioninterpretationwouldreceivewideattentionasBohruseditasastartingpointforfurthertheory.Bohr
alsoreliedonphysicalmeasurementsdonebyMeitnerin1937todeducethat
235
Uandnot
238
Uundergoesfissionwiththermalneutrons.
ButherconditionsinSiegbahn'sinstitutedidnotimprove.InSwedentherewasnogeneralsympathyforrefugeesfromNaziGermany:thecountrywassmall,witha
weakeconomyandnoimmigranttradition,anditsacademicculturehadalwaysbeenfirmlyproGerman,atraditionthatwouldnotchangeappreciablyuntilthemiddle
ofthewarwhenitbecameobviousthatGermanywouldnotwin.
95
MembersofSiegbahn'sgroupsawMeitnerasanoutsider,withdrawnanddepressed
96
theydid
notunderstandthedisplacementandanxietycommontoallrefugees,ortheterribleworriesaboutfriendsandrelatives,ortheexceptionalisolationofawomanwho
hadsinglemindedlydevotedherlifetoherwork.
AlthoughLiseMeitnerwouldadjust,work,andliveinSwedenforanothertwentyyears,herforcedemigration,herexclusionfromfission,andherpoorrelationship
withSiegbahnwouldhavelastingeffects.Forcedoutofonecountry,heldatarm'slengthintheother,shewouldnotfullyestablishherselfinphysicsagain.Andshe
wouldneverbeathome.
LiseMeitner,about1900,agetwentytwo.(Courtesy
ChurchillCollegeArchivesCentre,Cambridge)
PhilippMeitner,Lise'sfather.(Courtesy
ChurchillCollegeArchivesCentre,Cambridge)
HedwigSkovranMeitner,Lise'smother.(Courtesy
ChurchillCollegeArchivesCentre,Cambridge)
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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/7/2014 11:55 AM via FLORIDA STATE UNIV
AN: 8685 ; Sime, Ruth Lewin.; Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics
Account: s5308004

LudwigBoltzmann,1898,shortlybeforehebecameLise'steacher.
(CourtesyBildarchivdersterreischischenNationalbibliothek)
StefanMeyerasayoungman,about1900.
(CourtesyDeutschesMuseum,Munich)
MaxPlanck,asheappearedaround1900.
(CourtesyDeutschesMuseum,Munich)
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.
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/7/2014 11:55 AM via FLORIDA STATE UNIV
AN: 8685 ; Sime, Ruth Lewin.; Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics
Account: s5308004

EmilFischer,thegreatorganicchemist,about1900.He
reluctantlyallowedMeitnertoworkinhisinstitutein
1907.(CourtesyDeutschesMuseum,Munich)
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AN: 8685 ; Sime, Ruth Lewin.; Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics
Account: s5308004

MeitnerandOttoHahn,intheirlaboratoryinFischer'sinstitute,about
1910.(CourtesyArchivzurGeschichtederMaxPlanckGesellschaft,Berlin)
C
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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/7/2014 11:55 AM via FLORIDA STATE UNIV
AN: 8685 ; Sime, Ruth Lewin.; Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics
Account: s5308004

Hahn,Meitner,andEmma(orGrete)Planck,about1910.ThePlancksisterswereidenticaltwins
usuallyonlyonewouldbeinaphotograph,nodoubtbecausetheotherwastakingit.(Courtesy
ChurchillCollegeArchivesCentre,Cambridge)
Grete(orEmma)Planck,Meitner,andElisabethSchiemann,about1913.
(CourtesyChurchillCollegeArchivesCentre,Cambridge)
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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/7/2014 11:55 AM via FLORIDA STATE UNIV
AN: 8685 ; Sime, Ruth Lewin.; Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics
Account: s5308004

ThesmallinstrumentisthesimplebetaspectrometerfirstusedbyMeitner,Hahn,
andOttovonBaeyerin1910.Meitnerusedthelargerinstrumentforherstudiesof
betagammaspectrainthe1920s.(CourtesyDeutschesMuseum,Munich)
Inthesmallinstrument,figure1,sampleAemitsbetaparticles(negativeelectrons)
thattravelupwardthroughslitBandarerecordedasadarklineonphotographicplateC.
Inamagneticfieldperpendiculartotheplaneofthediagram,theelectronsaredeflectedinto
acircularpath,thedeflectionbeinggreaterforlessenergeticelectrons.Meitner,Hahn,and
vonBaeyerobserveddiscretelinesonthephotographicplate,evidenceofmonoenergeticelectron
groupswhoseenergytheydeterminedfromthepositionofthelines.Inthelargerinstrument,figure2,
theorientationofthephotographicplateChasbeenchangedtoimprovetheresolutionofthe
electronlines.(CourtesyDeutschesMuseum,Munich)
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AN: 8685 ; Sime, Ruth Lewin.; Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics
Account: s5308004

MeitnerwithEvavonBahrBergius,KaiserWilhelmInstituteforChemistry,about1920.Thewomen
metbeforeWorldWarI,whenEvawasastudentinBerlinlater,EvawouldbeLise'sclosestfriend
inSweden.(CourtesyChurchillCollegeArchivesCentre,Cambridge)
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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/7/2014 11:55 AM via FLORIDA STATE UNIV
AN: 8685 ; Sime, Ruth Lewin.; Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics
Account: s5308004

ColloquiumwithNielsBohrinBerlin,1920.Fromleft:OttoStern,WilhelmLenz,JamesFranck,
RudolfLadenburg,PaulKnipping,Bohr,E.Wagner,OttovonBaeyer,Hahn,GeorgedeHevesy,
Meitner,WilhelmWestphal,HansGeiger,GustavHertz(withpipe),PeterPringsheim.
(CourtesyArchivzurGeschichtederMaxPlanckGesellschaft,Berlin)
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AN: 8685 ; Sime, Ruth Lewin.; Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics
Account: s5308004

MiepandDirkCosterinGroningenontheirsilverweddinganniversary,
1944.(CourtesyAdaKlokkeCoster,Epse)
KaiserWilhelmInstituteforChemistry,about1930viewfromThielallee.Thesmallerbuildingattheleftistheinstitute
villa,whereMeitnerlivedinanapartmentduringthisperiod.(CourtesyChurchillCollegeArchivesCentre,Cambridge)
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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/7/2014 11:55 AM via FLORIDA STATE UNIV
AN: 8685 ; Sime, Ruth Lewin.; Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics
Account: s5308004

LiseMeitner,about1930.(AtelierLotteMeitnerGraf,Courtesy
ArchivzurGeschichtederMaxPlanckGesellschaft,Berlin)
Inthelaboratory,about1930.(CourtesyArchivzur
GeschichtederMaxPlanckGesellschaft,Berlin)
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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/7/2014 11:55 AM via FLORIDA STATE UNIV
AN: 8685 ; Sime, Ruth Lewin.; Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics
Account: s5308004

SolvayCongress,Brussels,1933,whichwasattendedbytheleadingatomicandnuclearphysicistsofthetime.
Seated,fromleft:ErwinSchrdinger,IrneJoliotCurie,NielsBohr,AbramJoff,MarieCurie,PaulLangevin,
OwenRichardson,ErnestRutherford,ThophiledeDonder,MauricedeBroglie,LouisdeBroglie,LiseMeitner,
JamesChadwick.Standing:E.Henriot,FrancisPerrin,FrdricJoliot,WernerHeisenberg,HendrikA.Kramers,E.
Stahel,EnricoFermi,ErnestWalton,PaulDirac,PeterDebye,NevillMott,B.Cabrera,GeorgeGamow,Walther
Bothe,PatrickM.S.Blackett,M.Rosenblum,J.Herrera,E.Bauer,WolfgangPauli,M.Cosyns,J.Verschaffelt,
E.Herzen,JohnD.Cockcroft,CharlesD.Ellis,RudolfPeierls,AugustePiccard,ErnestO.Lawrence,LonRosenfeld.
(InternationalInstituteofPhysicsandChemistry,CourtesyAmericanInstituteofPhysics,EmilioSegrVisualArchives)
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AN: 8685 ; Sime, Ruth Lewin.; Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics
Account: s5308004

OttoRobertFrisch,age29,shortlybeforeemigrating
fromGermanyin1933.(CourtesyUllaFrisch)
FritzStrassmannin1936,age34.(Hanne
ZappBerghuser,CourtesyIrmgardStrassmann)
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MaxvonLaueinhisautomobile,mid1930s.(CourtesyArchiv
zurGeschichtederMaxPlanckGesellschaft,Berlin)
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MeitnerandHahn,about1935.(CourtesyArchivzurGeschichtederMaxPlanckGesellschaft,Berlin)
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Meitner'sphysicalapparatus,usedbytheBerlinteamfrom1934to1938fortheworkthatled
tothediscoveryofnuclearfission.ErroneouslydisplayedintheDeutschesMuseum,Munich,
asthe''WorktableofOttoHahn."(CourtesyDeutschesMuseum,Munich)
ArrangedonawoodentableliketheoneinMeitner'slaboratory,thedisplayincludesaneutron
source,uranium,andaparaffincylinder(rightrear),detectors,amplifiers,andcounters(center),abank
ofbatteries(below),andleadhousings(front)forshieldingthecountersandhandlingtheradioactive
specimens.Thedisplayisacomposite:inpractice,itwasnecessarytocarryouttheirradiations,the
measurements,andthechemicalseparations(symbolizedbytheflaskatright)inthreeseparaterooms.
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KaiserWilhelmInstituteforChemistryandtheinstitutevilla(right)afterairraids,
February1944.(CourtesyArchivzurGeschichtederMaxPlanckGesellschaft,Berlin)
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.
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MeitnerandPresidentHarryS.Truman,9February1946,Washington,D.C.Meitner
washonoredas"WomanoftheYear"bytheNationalWomen'sPressClub.(Courtesy
ChurchillCollegeArchivesCentre,Cambridge)
MeitnerlecturinginBonnafterreceivingtheMaxPlanckMedalofthe
GermanPhysicsSociety,23September1949.(CourtesyTheodoreVonLaue)
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ElisabethandGertrudeSchiemannwithMeitner,about1950.
(CourtesyArchivzurGeschichtederMaxPlanckGesellschaft,Berlin)
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MeitneratBrynMawrCollege,1959.(Courtesy
AmericanInstituteofPhysics,NielsBohrLibrary)
Hahn,WernerHeisenberg,Meitner,andMaxBornattheLindauconference
ofNobelLaureates,1962.(FranzThorbeck,CourtesyArchivzurGeschichte
derMaxPlanckGesellschaft,Berlin)
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The1966EnricoFermiPrize,presentedtoLiseMeitnerinOctober1966inCambridgebyGlennT.Seaborg,
chairmanoftheUnitedStatesAtomicEnergyCommission.OttoFrischisatMeitner'sright.(CourtesyMaxPerutz)
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Page259
ChapterEleven
Priorities
Butitissoeasyformisunderstandingstocropupwiththesethings.
WhileLiseMeitnerlanguishedinStockholm,physicistselsewherewererushingahead.Thepacewashectic,theexperimentsoftensimpleandquick.Bytheendof
February1939,dozensofphysicistshadconfirmedthefissionprocess.OttoRobertFrischhadbeenthefirsttodetectthehugepulsesofionizationfromfission
fragments,on13January,buthisNaturenotedidnotappearuntilmidFebruary,bywhichtimeFrdricJoliothadpublishedasimilarexperimentinComptes
Rendus
1
andphysicistsallovertheUnitedStatesandEuropehadmadesimilarobservations.
2
Joliotcollectedthefissionfragments,asdidEdwinMcMillanin
Berkeleyalittlelater,
3
butneitherattemptedtoidentifythecollectedmaterialwiththeformer"transuranes."LiseMeitnerwoulddothatexperimentinCopenhagenat
theendofFebruary.
Meanwhile,severalotherinvestigatorsfoundthattheionizationpulsesfellintotwodistinctenergygroups,anindicationthaturaniumsplitsintotwofragmentsof
differentsizethealmostcontinuousvariationwithineachgroupindicatedthatsplittingcanoccurinmanydifferentways.
4
IonizationchamberexperimentsbyFrisch,
Joliot,andothersshowedthatfissioninthoriumoccursonlywithfastneutronswhileuraniumfavorsslowneutrons,inagreementwiththereactionconditionsreported
byMeitner,Hahn,andStrassmannintheirinvestigationsseveralyearsbefore.
InFebruary,Joliotirradiateduraniuminacloudchamber,photographingthethicktracksoffissionfragmentsthatstartedatacommonpointanddivergedinopposite
directions.
5
D.R.CorsonandR.L.ThorntoninBerkeley,notingthatthefissionfragmentswereundeflectedbycollisions
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Page260
withlighternucleiinthecloudchamber,estimatedthemassofthefissionfragmentstobeatleast75.
6
Priortothediscoveryofbarium,PhilipAbelsoninBerkeleyhadbeenstudyingthecharacteristicxradiationofthe"transuranes"associatedwiththe66hour
"ekaIr"(presumablyelement95),hedetectedarelativelysoftradiationthatheassumedwasitsLxrays.AfterlearningofHahnandStrassmann'sresult,however,he
realizedthatthesewereinfactKxraysfromiodinesubsequentchemicaltestsshowedthatthe66hour"ekaIr"wasanisotopeoftellurium(element52),andits
daughter,the2.5hour"ekaPt,''wasindeediodine(53),thesourceoftheobservedKxrays.
7
Abelson'sfinding,verifiedbyNormanFeatherandEgonBretscherin
Cambridge,
8
wasanindependentchemicalconfirmationoffissionandthefirstidentificationof"transuranes"withisotopesoflighterelements.
9
Withthat,theentire
chemicalfoundationoftheuraniuminvestigationcrumbled,sinceall"transuranes,"including"ekaIr"and"ekaPt,"hadbeenthoughttoresembleplatinuminchemical
behavior,yettelluriumandiodinearenotplatinumlikeatall.
10
Buttheearlierphysicalmeasurementsheld,andtheywereessentialtoadeeperunderstandingofthefissionprocess.IntwoshortnoteswritteninPrincetonattheend
ofJanuaryandearlyFebruary1939,BohroutlinedatheoreticalapproachthattiedMeitner,Hahn,andStrassmann's1937findingstotheexpectedbehaviorof
compoundnuclei.Theexperimentalpicturewascomplex:fissioninuraniumoccursslightlywithfastneutrons,readilywiththermalneutrons,andnotatallwith
moderateenergyneutrons,which,Meitnerhadfound,undergoatypicalresonancecaptureby
238
Utoform
239
U.
11
Bohr'sfirstnote,submittedafewdaysafterhis
arrivalintheUnitedStates,waswrittenprimarilytodefendMeitnerandFrisch'spriorityagainsttherushofAmericanresultsinhissecondnote,submittedtoPhysical
Reviewon7February,heagainmadeapointofemphasizingFrisch's"directproof"offissionandMeitnerandFrisch's"ingenioussuggestions"thatfissionbeexplained
intermsofthecompoundnucleus.Accordingtocompoundnucleustheory,Bohrnoted,anucleusthatcapturesresonanceneutronsofmoderateenergyrequiresfaster
neutronsforotherreactions,suchasfission,tooccur.The"peculiareffect"thaturaniumundergoesfissionwithbothfastandthermalneutronsseemedtoindicatetwo
independentfissionprocesses,onefortheabundant(99.3%)
238
Uisotopeandanotherfortheveryscarce(0.7%)
235
U.ForBohr,the
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Page261
resonanceprocesswasthekey:if
238
Uisnotsplitbymoderateenergyneutrons,hereasoned,itsurelywillnotbesplitbythermalneutronssotheenhancedfission
seenforthermalneutronsmust,therefore,comefrom
235
U.
12
InPrincetonoverthenextseveralmonths,BohrandJohnA.Wheelerdevelopedaquantitativetheory
forthemechanismoffissionthatexplainedknownfissionphenomenaandestablishedcriteriaforotherfissilenuclei.
13
Crucialtothetheory,however,wasBohr's
proposalthatfissioninnaturaluraniumisdueprimarilyto
235
U.ThatwouldbeverifiedexperimentallyinFebruary1940,whenAlfredO.NierinMinnesotaseparateda
tinyamountof
235
UinhismassspectrometerandmailedittoColumbiaUniversitywhereJohnR.Dunning,AristidevonGrosse,andEugeneT.Boothdeterminedthat
itwasindeedfissilewithslowneutrons.
14
Meanwhile,newexperimentsraisedtheprospectthatfissionmightbeusedtogenerateimmensequantitiesofenergy.InMarch,HansvonHalban,Joliot,andLew
KowarskiinParis,followedimmediatelybyHerbertAnderson,Fermi,andH.B.HansteinatColumbia,reportedthatseveralfreeneutronsarereleasedforeach
uraniumthatsplits.Theyrecognizedthatundersuitableconditionssuchsecondaryneutronsmightinturninducefissioninothernuclei,settinginmotionachainreaction
capableofsustainingitselfuntiltheuraniumwasentirelyconsumed.
15
Thepossibilityofachainreactionarousedfascinationandfear.Frischreported,
[My]immediateanswerwasthatinthatcasenouraniumoredepositscouldexist:theywouldhavebeenblownuplongagobytheexplosivemultiplicationofneutronsinthem!
ButIquicklysawthatmyargumentwastoonaiveorescontainedlotsofotherelementswhichmightswallowuptheneutronsandtheseamswereperhapsthin,andthenmostof
theneutronswouldescape.Withthat,theexcitingvisionarosethatbyassemblingenoughpureuranium(withappropriatecare!)onemightstartacontrolledchainreactionand
liberatenuclearenergyonascalethatmattered.Ofcourse,thespectreofthebombwasthereaswell.
16
ThisalltookplacebeforetheendofMarch1939morewouldfollowinthemonthsahead.Thefieldwaswideopen,theexperimentsfastandexciting.
17
Asphysicists
rushedintoprint,someneglectedtofullycitetheworkofotherssomeresultsappearedinnewspapersandmagazinesweeksbeforepublicationinscientificjournals.
Theworkwassurestandquickest
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Page262
wherebothtalentandneutronsourceswerestrong:inCopenhagen,Paris,Cambridge,Berkeley,NewYork,andPrinceton.
OttoHahnfeltleftout.HavingconvincedhimselfthatthediscoveryofbariumowedlittletoMeitnerandnothingtophysics,hewasirkedtofindfissionsothoroughly
dominatedbyphysicsandbyphysicistswithnospecialconnectiontohim.Thelocalphysicistsdidcredibleworkbuthaddifficultykeepingup.althoughmany
resentedthefactthatHahnhadnotinformedthemearlierandcontinuedtocomplainfordecadestocome
18
nonehadbeencloseenoughtotheuraniumproject
whenMeitnerwasstillinDahlemtotaketheinitiativeforthephysicsaftersheleft.Meitner'sformerassistantsHermannReddemannandGottfriedvonDrostehada
goodneutronsourceandampleelectronicequipmentbuttookseveralmonthstopublishtheirmeasurementsofsecondaryneutrons
19
vonDrosteandSiegfried
Flgge,theinstitute'stheoreticalphysicist,quicklyarrivedatsomeofthesametheoreticalconclusionsasMeitnerandFrisch,buttheirworkdidnotappearuntil
March.Andnearlyamonthafterthepublicationofbarium,WilfridWefelmeierandCarlFriedrichvonWeizsckersubmittedtworelatedtheoreticalarticlesinwhich
theystilldiscussedtheisomerismofthetransuranes.
20
Throughoutthespringof1939,HahnworriedconstantlyabouthisandStrassmann'spriorityforfissionsensitivetoeveryinadequatereferencefromabroad,
apprehensiveaboutthegrumblingwithinhisinstitute,hefearedthathis"giftfromheaven"mightslipaway.
21
Inparthisanxietybefittedhissituation:hewasanonNazi
underduressinGermany,aGermanbecomingestrangedfromtheinternationalcommunity.Butmuchofitwashisowndoing.Tobolsterhisprofessionalstanding,he
hadclaimedfissionforchemistryalone,distancedhimselffromMeitner,andbeenungeneroustoCurieandSavitchonlytofindhimselfoutofthefissionmainstream.
Inthefirstfewmonthsafterthediscovery,whenMeitnerandFrischwerehighlyvisibleamongphysicistsandtheFrenchwereignoringHahnandStrassmannasbest
theycould,Hahnwasexceedinglyunhappy.
3.III.39DearLise!...IamquiteconvincedthatyouandOttoRobertwanttobeasobjectiveaspossibleinyourpublications.Therecan'tbeanydoubtofthat.Theremay,perhaps,
besomedoubtwhetheryourmannerofsettingthingsforthwasveryadept.BecausegraduallyImustsay[Otto]Erbacherand[Kurt]Philipparerightwhentheysaythatthe
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Page263
priorityforsplittinguraniumisgraduallyslippingawayfromStrassmannandme.
22
HahnangrilylistedseveralreportsfromAmericanandelsewherethatattributedtheobservationofbariumtoHahnandStrassmannandtheinterpretationtoMeitner
andFrisch(trueenough),butHahndidnotseeitthatway:lackinganunderstandingofphysics,especiallytheoreticalphysics,hebelievedthathismentionofsplitting
constitutedaninterpretationonaparwithMeitnerandFrisch's.HahnwasespeciallylividabouttheFrenchscientists,whooccasionallyomittedhimandStrassmann
entirelywhilediligentlycitingJoliot,CurieandSavitch,andMeitnerandFrisch(revenge,perhaps,forHahn'sstingyreferencestotheworkofCurieandSavitch).
WhatbotheredHahn,ofcourse,wasthepolitics:"Thesethingsarewidelydiscussedduringtheinstitutecoffeehour,andmostthinktheworkbyStrassmannandme
hasnotbeentreatedjustly....Thefanaticsamongourpeoplearemakingitsomewhatpolitical,andIregretthatespecially."
23
InhisNaturenoteof20January,writtentoemphasizeMeitnerandFrisch'spriority,BohrhadmentionedHahnandStrassmann'sfindingintheopeningsentencesbut
citedonlythepublicationsofMeitnerandFrisch.Hahnwasannoyedbythis,andhemisunderstoodthetitleofMeitnerandFrisch'snote.HecomplainedtoMeitner,
Yourtitlewassomewhatdisturbing."ANewNuclearReaction,etc."...Ourpeoplesay:Str[assmann]andIalreadymentioned[fission]inJanuaryagainsttheopinionsofevery
physicistevenapossiblesecondfragment(masurium)isalreadyinit.InthisregardPhilippissomewhatangrywithmeandsaysitservesusright.Becausewesaidnothingabout
ourresultsbeforethearticlewasoutifwehad,Flggeandtheotherscouldhaveobtainedphysicalverificationasquicklyasseveralothersdidinafewdays.(Ipersonallyamnot
convincedofthat.ButofcourseIdarenotsaythatIalwayskeptyoucompletelycurrentandnottheinstitute.Thatwouldbegreatlyheldagainstme.WhenStrassmannwas
askedifwesentyouthemanuscripthehadthegoodsensetodenyitindignantly.)...TheonlyonewhoobservesthesethingsabsolutelycalmlyisStrassmannhimselfwho,one
mustsay,comesawaytheworstineverysense.Hesays:everythinkingpersonwhoreadsourpapercannotdoubtthatweobservedthefissionofuraniumandalsostatedthatit
wasso.Perhapsitwaswrongthatinourconscientiousnesswewroteitsocautiously.Butwehadtoassertsomethingquitealone,contrarytoeveryphysicalauthority....Ifwe
wereascareless
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Page264
asIrneCurie,wewouldhavepublishedtheBainNovember.Evenyoucouldhardlymakeupyourmindtobelievetheresults.
24
ItishardtoknowwhatHahnmeanshere:Meitnerneverdoubtedthebariumfinding.Whatisclear,however,isthathewantedfullrecognitionnotjustforbariumbut
forfissionasawhole.Andyet,inhis6Januaryarticlehehadweakenedtheirclaimbyhedging"asnuclearchemistsclosetophysicswecannotyetbringourselvesto
takesuchadrasticstep"andthenbymakingthetrulyfundamentalerrorofusingatomicmassratherthanchargetoproposemasurium(technetium)asthesecond
fissionfragment.ThisledotherstobelievethatheandStrassmannwereunawareofthemeaningofbariumuntilMeitnerexplainedit.
25
AnddespiteHahn'sdenials,this
waslargelytrue.ForitwasnotuntilafterMeitnerassuredhimthatalargescalenucleardisintegrationwaspossiblethatheaddedtheideaofsplitting(andthe
unfortunatemasurium)tothebariumarticle.Hahnhadapparentlyforgottenallthis.
StrassmannandIknowthatwewereassureaspossibleofthesplittingofuranium,withoutleaningonanyotherobservationorhypothesis.Afterweknewatthebeginningof
Januarythatthetransuraneswerenotmasurium,etc.,thesearchfortheotherfragmentswasselfunderstood.
26
HereagainHahn'smemorywasselective.HeandStrassmanndidnotsearchforstrontiumandyttriumuntilaftertheyreceivedMeitner'sletterof18Januaryorfor
kryptonuntilaftertheyhadreadtheMeitnerFrischmanuscripton24January.
27
If[creditforfission]turnsoutotherwise,asitnowappears,thereisnothingwecando.Weboth(youandI)alreadyexperiencedthiswiththoriumImyselfwithradioactive
recoil.
28
...Ihavenottheslightestdoubtthatyou[andOttoRobert]andalsoBohrareloyal.Ifothersarenot,wewilldoourbesttostraightenthingsoutobjectively.Wewillnot
stooptothemethodsoftheFrench,thatwouldbejusttooshabby.
29
OneisstruckbyHahn'sexaggerateddefensiveness.Afterall,noonecoulddenythattheyhadfoundbarium,nomatterhowhesitantlytheymayhaveannouncedit,and
noonecoulddisputethattheywerethefirsttopublishtheidea,howeverpoorlyarticulated,thaturaniumhadsplit.ThedangerthatHahnandStrassmannmightlose
theirplaceinthehistoryofthediscoverywasnil.Why,then,washesoupset?
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Hahn'sproblemwasthathewantedmorefromfissionthanaplaceinitshistory:itwastobehissalvation,theheavensentgiftthatwouldrenderhimpoliticallyand
professionallyinvulnerable.Forthis,hehadtotransformthediscoveryintosomethingthatwashisandhisalone,theproductofhisinstitute,hisMitarbeiter,his
disciplineunencumberedbytiestootherscientistsandotherdisciplines.
Whatmadethisdifficultwasthatthediscoverywassoinherentlyinterdisciplinary.Everyoneinthefieldknewthattheinvestigationwasbegunbyphysicistsand,forall
itsrelianceonanalyticalandradiochemicaldata,drivenbyphysicsateverystepthatfissionwasbeinginterpreted,verified,andextendedbyphysicistsintoafertile
newfieldofnuclearphysicstowhichchemists,includingHahnandStrassmann,werecontributingrelativelylittle.Itwasobvious,too,thatothershadcontributed
mightilyandcomeveryclose,thatCurieandSavitch'sworkhadpointedHahnandStrassmannintherightdirection,thatMeitner'sabsencefromDahlemwasa
politicalartifactthatkeptherfromsharinginadiscoverythatinnormaltimeswouldhavebeenregardedastheculminatingachievementofaninterdisciplinaryteam.
Hahn'sresponsewastodefinethediscoveryasthethreeweeks'workheandStrassmannhaddoneinDahleminDecember.AlthoughatChristmas1938hestill
regardedMeitnerasapartnerandthediscoveryas"akindofworkbythethreeofus,"byFebruary1939hewassureheandStrassmannhad"absolutelynever
toucheduponphysics,insteadweonlydidchemicalseparationsoverandoveragain,"andinMarchhebelievedthediscoverywas"contrarytoeveryphysical
authority."Theevolutionwasinexorable:physicsandMeitnerwereabsent,irrelevant,opposed,obstructive.Foraradiochemistintheshadowofphysics,the
successofhisdisciplinemusthavebeenasappealingashisdisengagementfromMeitnerwaspoliticallyuseful.Hehadnothingtolose,exceptforonething:bycutting
himselfofffromphysics,Hahnriskedbeingsubmergedbythefloodofnewphysicaldiscoveries.Hishypersensitivityinthespringof1939wasanexpressionofhisfear
thatphysicistsmightbeignoringhimjustashewastryingtocuthimselfofffromthem.
Heneednothaveworried.InGermanytherewasanearlyandpronouncedinterestinpowerfulnewexplosives.AlthoughHahndidnotinitiatecontactwiththemilitary,
hedidnotavoiditwhenitcame.
30
Bysummerthethreattohisinstitutewasover:hewassafe,hispositionsecure.
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Asherecalledafterthewar,"Thesplittingofuraniumsavedthatwholesituation."
31
Lise,meanwhile,triedtosootheOtto'snervesandcorrecthismoreobviouserrors.
6.III.39DearOtto!...Ithink...thatyouoryourgentlemenhavemisunderstoodsomethings.[Our]title,"ANewTypeofNuclearReaction,"referredasamatterofcoursetoyour
andStrassmann'sfindings,andweonlytriedtoshowthatonecanexplainthis"newnuclearreaction"onthebasisofthepurelyclassicalliquiddropmodel,andthatitmustbe
accompaniedbyenergiesoftheorderofmagnitudeof200MeV.ThatisexactlywhatBohrmeantwhenhesays,wordforword,"thattheauthors(i.e.,we)proposean
interpretationoftheremarkablefindingsofHahnandStrassmann."...Hediscussesinconceptualdetailonlythetheoreticalaspect,andtakesyourfindingsassocertain,thathe
baseshisdiscussiononthem.
32
Thenextday,7March,LisewrotetoOttoagain,asixtiethbirthdayletterwithnounpleasantdiscussionsaboutcredit.
YougaveyourselfthemostbeautifulpossiblebirthdaypresentthewonderfuldiscoverybyHahnandStrassmann....TonightOttoRobertandIwilldrinkaglassofwinetoyou.
Andperhapsin10yearstherewillbeabottleofwineforusalltogetherthatwillhavetobeabigone.
33
LisehadbeeninCopenhagensincemidFebruary.WithOttoRobertshecarriedouttheexperimentshehadearlierproposedforcollectingfissionfragmentsand
testingthemforthepresenceoftheformertransuranes.TheBohrinstitute'snewhighvoltageapparatusservedasapowerfulneutronsource
34
athinlayerofuranium
hydroxidewasirradiatedwithneutrons,andthefissionfragmentswerecollectedonthesurfaceofwateramillimeteraway.Onlylightfissionfragmentshadtheenergy
tofreethemselvesfromtheuraniumandreachthewaterheavynuclei,includinganytruetransuranicelements,wereexpectedtoremainembeddedintheuranium.
Afterapplyingthestandard"transurane"hydrogensulfideprecipitationtothecollectedactivities,MeitnerandFrischobtaineddecaycurvesinperfectagreementwith
anoldcurvefor"transuranes."Theyconcludedthat"the'transuraniumnuclei'originatebyfissionoftheuraniumnucleus....Soitappearsthatthe'transuranium'
periods,too,willhavetobeascribedtoelementsconsiderablysmallerthanuranium."
35
Inotherwords,thehydrogensulfideprecipitatecontainednothingbutfission
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fragmentsforelementsthatweretrulytransuranic,onewouldhavetolookelsewhere.
TheexperimenthadbeendoneearlyinMarch,butLisewaiteduntilafterOtto'sbirthdaytotellhim.
10.III.39DearOtto!...Itreallyisthecasethatthetwolongtransuraneseriesmustbelighterelements.Obviouslytheonlyprocessthatproducesaheavyelementistheresonance
process.ActuallyIamnotsurprisedatourresult,sinceafteryourdiscoveryofthesplittingoftheuraniumnucleusInolongerbelievedinthetransuranes,asIwrotetoyoumany
times...Wehadthisresultseveraldaysago,butsinceIthoughtyoumightfeelsadatfirst,Ididnotwanttowritetoyouaboutitjustbeforeyourbirthday.Butyouand
Strassmanncouldnothavemadeyourbeautifuldiscoveryifwehadnotdonetheearlieruraniumwork....Ourevidenceisverysimpleand,itseemstome,unequivocal.We
collectedtherecoilnucleiandIdidtheusualhydrogensulfideseparations.Andinthehydrogensulfideprecipitatewewereabletofindthe16min,59min,5.7h,66h,+2.5h
substances....Itseemstomethatthereis,therefore,nodoubtthatthetransuranesarelighternuclei.Exactlywhichonestheyareyouwillhavetofindoutwearenotgoingtotry.
36
13.III.1939DearLise,Thistimeitiswewhoheartilycongratulateyouuponyourexcitingresultwiththerecoilparticlesandthetransuranes.Wecannotfindanyholesinyour
interpretationandfromyourfindingswemustindeeddeclarethatthetransuranesaredead.ForusStrassmannandmethisresultwas,however,completelyincomprehensible
untilnowbecauseweabsolutelycouldnotsaywhatthetransuranesmightbe....Inanycaseyou[andFrisch]werethefirsttoachieveacompletelyclearresultforthephysicists
basedonexperimentandnotonvaguesuppositions.
37
Actually,Abelsonhadbeenthefirsttoidentifya"transurane"asalighterelementand,Meitnersurelymusthavethoughttoherself,thetheoreticalargumentsamounted
tomorethan"vaguesuppositions."
Inasimilarexperiment,Meitnercollectedthefissionfragmentsofthoriumandfound,inadditiontobariumandlanthanum,activitieswiththechemicalpropertiesof
"transuranes."Inpreviousthoriumstudies,nosuchsearchhadbeenmade,sinceneutronirradiationofthoriumhadnotbeenexpectedtoyieldtransuranicelements.
Thefactthatessentiallythesameelementswereproducedinthefissionofbothuraniumandthoriumprovidedadditionalproofthatnucleicansplitinsomanyways
thatatleastsomefissionproductsfromtwodifferentnucleicanbethesame.
38
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BeforeleavingCopenhagenattheendofMarch,MeitnerwrotetoBohr,whowasstillinPrinceton,totellhimherresultsandthankhimforthe"beautiful,productive
time"inhisinstitute."Notonlydideveryonefrom[Georgede]HevesytotheyoungestMitarbeiterstrivetohelpmeinthefriendliestwaywithnecessarymaterialsand
workingspace.Theentirescientificattitude,thenaturalwayofdiscussingproblemswithmeinwhichIcouldaskandbeaskedanything,iswonderfullybeneficial.Of
courseIowemythanksforthisbeautifulatmosphereabovealltoyou."
39
ThenMeitnerreturnedtoSiegbahn'sinstituteandanatmospherethatwasanythingbutfriendly.Whileshewasaway,GustiandJutzFrischhadcometoStockholm.
Lisewasplanningtoshareanapartmentwiththem,buttheyhadalreadyreceivedtheirfurnitureandbooksfromViennawhileherbelongings,aftermonthsof
bureaucraticwrangling,werestillimpoundedinDahlem.SheappealedtoOtto.
Perhapsyoucannotimaginewhatitmeansforapersonmyagetolivefor9monthsinalittlehotelroom,withnoneofthecomfortsofhome,withnoscientificmaterialandwiththe
fearthatnoonehasthetimetomovemysituationforward.Mysisterandbrotherinlawhaverentedanapartmentbeginning1Mayandarecountingonme,butIdon'thavemy
thingsandtheyhavebarelyenoughforthemselves.
40
AsOttodescribedit,therewasnoendtotheharassment.
Youmustthinkwehaven'tdoneathing,buttheoppositeistrue.Aftertheofficialexpertexaminedyourthings,yoursilver,etc.,wethoughtitwouldgoquickly.Thencameanew
orderthatallbooks,etc.,mustbeexamined.Thatcouldn'tbedonewithoutalistofeverybookandpublisher....AftermanytelephonecallstotheLiteratureOffice,theyturnedus
overtothesuperiorauthority:theMinistryofPropaganda....Tomorrowtwomenwillfinallycometoinspectallyourbooks.
41
InhisnextletterHahnincludedagovernmentmemo:"AsrequiredbytheReichLiteratureDepartmentthelibraryintheroomsofFrauLiseSaraMeitnerhasbeen
inspectedtoday.Partwasdesignatedforbidden/undesirableorofimportancetothestate.TheCustomsBureauoftheNationalFinanceOfficeisrequiredtosecurethe
excludedbooksanddeliverthemtotheReichLiteratureDepartment."
42
"Yourbookswereinspected,"Ottoexplained,"andsomewereremoved.IhadalreadytakenawaysomeThomasMann,Werfel,Zweig,etc.,
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butIcouldn'tcleareverythingout,thatwouldhavebeentooobvious.Thereforenow,e.g.,theLilyBraun,Gorki,therestoftheThomasMann,etc.,weretaken.A
pity,butnothingcanbedone....Everythinghasbecomeunbelievablystrict....Onlyoneortwosettingsofsilvermaybesentout![Everything]waspacked,thencame
theneworderandalltheutensilshadtobeunpackedbecauseofthesilver,etc.Howthingsstandrightnow,Idon'tknow."
43
Thisletter,moreopenthanusual,was
mailedfromParisbyClaraLieber.
Lise'sfixationonherbelongingswentbeyondpracticalnecessity.Herfewpiecesofsilvercamefromhermother'shomeherbookswerecollectedoveralifetime.It
wasalsoamatterofselfrespect.Onewantedtokeepsomething:theNazisshouldnothaveitall.Forhelp,LisehadanewlawyerinBerlin,whosestationerybore
thenameDr.F.W.IsraelArnoldandthenotice,"LicensedforthelegalrepresentationofJewsonly."
44
(Asof1January1939,GermanJewshadbeenrequiredto
addtotheirownnamesthemiddlenamesSaraorIsraelJewishlawyershadlosttheirlicensessometimebefore.)ShealsocalledaSwedishlawyer.Shewroteto
Otto,"Onthetelephone[he]offeredtolendmeabedandlinens.Thusaftermorethan30years'work,Ihavegottentothepointwhereatotalstrangermustlendmea
bed."
45
Ottoanswered,
Trulyitisascandal.Icannottellyouinaletterallthatwehavedoneinthelastweeksandmonths.Ijustgettooangry....Yourcaseisdifferentsomehow,perhapsbecauseyou
areout.Somethingdoesnotfittheusualpattern,andoverandoveragainsomeoneorotherpronounceshimselfnotresponsible.Youmusthavepatienceforafewdays....Surely
thiswillnotmakeyoufeelbetter,butbelieveme,thescandalwithshippingyourthingshasaffectedmynervesmorethanallthetransuranesandtheothernotsopleasantthings
takentogether.
46
PaulRosbaudassuredLisethatOttowasdoingallhecould:"Yourfurniturewillbesent,butheiscompletelyatthemercyorlackofmercyoftheofficialincharge.
WhenIwassendingfurnituretomywife[inEngland]Ipracticallyhadanervousbreakdown,andIrememberseveraltelephonecallsduringwhichIwasseizedbyan
insanedesiretokill."
47
WhatwasleftofLise'shouseholdbelongingsandbooksarrivedinStockholminMay.TheSwedishmoverwhodeliveredtheshipmenttoldLisehehadneverseen
anythinglikeitfurnitureinsplinters,thebed
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broken,bookswithtornpagesthrownrandomlyinwiththefurniture,thechinacabinetfilledwithshattereddishesandglasswarethathadneverbeentakenoutand
packed.
48
LisemusthaveweptbitterlyatthismessagefromGermany.ToOtto,shewroteonly,''Intwoweeksitwon'tseemimportant,butrightnowitmakesme
feelprettylow."
49
Shenevermentionedittohimagainbutafewweekslaterreportedthatherhealthwaspoor."InthelastweekIcollapsedthreetimes,but
recoveredquickly.ProbablyIamtoothin.Iweighedmyselfyesterday,47kg[103lb]withclothing,abitlow."EdithHahn,homewithOttoandfeelingmuchbetter,
beggedLiseto"eattirelessly"togetbacktoherpreviousweight.
50
Despitehertroubles,LiseknewthatinGermanyshewouldhavebeenfarworseoff.Between1933and1938,onethirdofallGermanJewshademigrated,mostina
fairlyorderlyfashioninthetenmonthsbetweenKristallnachtandthebeginningofWorldWarII,anotherthirdgotout,anywaytheycould.Asagroup,thoseleft
behindwereolderandweaker,weredisplacedfromtheirformerlivelihoods,hadhadtheirpropertyconfiscated,andwerecutofffromnormalsocialcontactwiththe
Germanpopulation.Bythebeginningof1939,Jewswereforbiddentousehospitals,schools,anduniversities,forbiddentopracticelicensedoccupations,and
requiredtocarryidentifyingpapersandtoassumethenameSaraorIsraelbytheendoftheyear,therewerefoodrations,forcedwork,punitivetaxes,and
restrictionsonhousing,transportation,andcommunication.Withnoaspectoftheirexistenceexemptfromcoercion,Jewswereacaptivepopulationwhoseonlyhope
wasthatthingswouldnotgetworse.
OttodidnotwritetoLiseaboutsuchthings.ItwasMaxvonLauewhokeptLiseinformedabouteventsinGermany."Pleasedonotfeelinhibitedaboutwritinghere!"
heassuredherinthewinterof1939."Anabsolutelyblacksheepneednotfearbecomingblacker.FormeitisatleastasmallsubstituteforourtalksintheKWI."
51
LaueandMeitnerwereparticularlyconcernedaboutArnoldBerliner.TheseventysixyearoldformereditorofNaturwissenschaftenwasinpoorhealth,confinedto
hisapartment,isolatedfromnearlyallhisformercolleaguesandfriends.InJanuaryLauewrote,"YesterdayIspoketoouroldfriendBertholdCharlottenburger....Do
youunderstandthisletter?WhenIuseapseudonym,youmustemitapositronfromthefirstletter,sothattheletterdeclinesoneplaceintheperiodicsystem[i.e.,
'BertholdCharlottenburger'wasArnoldBerliner.]"
52
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February:"Herethingsaregettingreallyinteresting.Doyourememberfromyourschooldaysthestoryofhowtocatchacrocodile?...Becausetheanimalcanbite
throughanyrope,onecapturesitusinganumberofthinthreadsthattogetherhavethestrengthofarope.Butwhenthebeastbites,thethreadsgobetweenhisteethso
thathecandonothingwiththem.Whenyoureadaboutintellectuals,rememberthis!IvisitBerlineronceaweek.Hespeaksofmanythings:formeitisalwaysalesson
ingeneraleducation.IgetmorefromthesevisitsthanIdidbeforefromhispresenceatlunch,becausenowIhavehimtomyself,andifheneedstolooksomethingup
hecangotothebookcaserightaway."
53
March:"Your...lettercametoday,poorlysealed.IsentitontoArnold."Laueignoredthecensors."Intheuniversityoneoftheorganizationshungalarge,large
poster,exhortingeverystudenttodohisdutytomakesurethat'distinguishedspecialistsineveryfieldshouldleavetheuniversity.'Really,thosewerethewords!"
54
April:"OurfriendonKielganstrasse[Berliner]isnotverywellhehasbeencomplainingforweeksabouthisheart....HereadsagreatdealofGoetheandtheEpistle
totheRomans,isintellectuallyasalertasever,butextremelysad."
55
In1937,LauehadsenthissonTheodortotheUnitedStatessothathewouldnotbeforcedtofightforHitler.
56
Butin1939whenTheodecidednottoreturn,Laue
wastorn.
TheowritesthathewishestoremainpermanentlyintheUSA.Itistohiscreditthathewouldratherbeonhisownthere,withnosupportfromhome,thantocomebackheretothe
presentsituation....[But]IwouldadvisehimnottodoanythingthatwouldmakehisrelationshiptoGermanyimpossibleinthelongrunheshould,forinstance,reportformilitary
trainingifheiscalledup.Ifearthathemightgethomesicksometime,andthenhewouldhaveabadtimeifevenashortvisithomewouldbeforbidden....Atthemomentlifeis
easyfornoone.
57
ThatwascertainlytrueforOttoHahn.Inhisprioritydisputeswithforeigners,hecouldassumetheroleofembattledGerman,butwithotherGermans,hewas
vulnerable.WhenIdaNoddackenteredthefrayinMarch1939,hewasespeciallyupset.HewroteLise,
AnothernotverypleasantsituationisalettertoNaturwissenschaftenbyIdaNoddack,inwhichsheaccusesmeofnotcitingher,aftershepredictedalreadyin1934thaturanium
splitsintolighternuclei.I'msureyoure
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memberherarticle....ThelettertoNaturwissenschaftenisunusuallyunfriendly....ShemockswhatStrassmannandIhavedone:wealwaysretractedandchanged,etc.,etc.
"Oneneedonlyreadallthearticlesoneaftertheothertoseehowwehavecontradictedourselves,"etc.Withallthisoneissupposedtohaveone'sheadclearforwork.
58
Forsomeonewhodidnotengageinnamecalling,Lise'sresponsewasunusuallystrong:"IamsosorrythatyounowhavethisuglydifficultywithFrauIda.Ihave
alwaysknownthatsheisadisagreeablething[theGermaneineunangenehmeUrscheismorepungent].Irememberthearticleitselfonlydimly,evidenceofhow
meaninglessitwas.Wherediditappear?"
59
Noddack'sarticle,writtenforAngewandteChemieinSeptember1934,wasnotmeaningless,butithadneverbeentakenseriously.InacriticismofFermi'sfirst
tentativeproposalofelement93,Noddackhadobjectedtohischemistryandsuggestedthatnucleicouldbreakapartintoseveralsizablefragments.
60
Asitturnedout,
shewasright,butin1934,noone,includingNoddackherself,pursueditexperimentally.HersuggestionwasbrieflydiscussedinRomeandthendismissedinBerlinit
washardlyconsidered.MembersofFermi'sgrouplaterremembereda"slightbias"againstherwithHahnandMeitnertherewasactivedisdain.
61
Noddack'sidea
wentnowhere.Itinfluencedneitherthedirectionoftheuraniuminvestigationnortherecognitionoffissionwhenitfinallycame.
NowNoddackwaspubliclyattackingHahnwithunconventionalhostility.Furious,HahnandStrassmannpreparedasharpresponse,buttheeditorof
Naturwissenschaften,PaulRosbaud,withhelditforapossiblesecondround,notinginstead,"ThegentlemenOttoHahnandFritzStrassmanninformusthattheyhave
neitherthetimenorthedesiretoanswer....TheywanttheircolleaguestobethejudgesofthecorrectnessofFrauIdaNoddack'sdemandsandthemannerofher
presentation."
62
Withthatthecontroversydied,atleastonthepagesofNaturwissenschaften."Ididnotsuppressit,"RosbaudwrotetoMeitner."Nowshehasmadeafoolof
herself,andthatiswhatIwantedtoaccomplish."Meitneragreed.''Nothingcouldbetterillustrateherunscientificsmallmindednessandenvythanherownwords.She
reallyhasmadeagreatfoolofherself."
63
Strongwords,especiallyfromMeitner,whotendedtobequitecircumspect.Theanimosityapparentlygrewoutofalongstandingscientificcontroversythatbeganin
1925whenIdaTacke,togetherwithherfuturehusband,WalterNoddack,andtheircolleagueOttoBerg,reportedthe
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discoveryofthetwomissinghigherhomologuesofmanaganese:element43,whichtheynamedmasurium,andelement75,rhenium.Theirinitialidentificationofboth
elementswasbasedinpartonxrayspectroscopicdatathatweredifficulttointerpret,butaftertheyisolatedenoughrheniumtodetermineitschemicalandphysical
properties,theexistenceofRewasconfirmed.Theirevidenceformasurium,however,wasconsideredinconclusivetheNoddacksneverthelessinsistedtheyhad
foundit.MeitnerandHahnwerehighlycritical,judgingthemasuriumaffairtobelongonselfpromotionandshortonscientificintegrity.InDahlem,itwassaid,the
Noddacksweretaboo.
64
InPalermoin1937,EmilioSegrandCarloPerrieranalyzedmolybdenumtargetsthathadbeenbombardedwithdeuteronsintheBerkeleycyclotronandfound
severalradioactiveisotopesofelement43.BecausetheNoddackshadalwaysdescribedmasuriumaspresentinnaturalores,withtheimplicationthatitwasquite
stable,theirclaimwasseriouslyeroded.ThediscoverywascreditedtoSegrandPerrier,andtheirnamefortheelement,technetium,wasadoptedafterWorldWar
II.AlthoughtheNoddacks'discoveryofrheniumwasasignificantachievementthatgarneredthemseveralNobelnominations,
65
themasuriumcontroversyseemsto
havediminishedtheirreputationoverallandcontributedtothedismissalofIdaNoddack'sideasin1934.
66
In1939,Hahnviewedherdemandsasyetanotherattempt
atselfpromotion,thistimeathisexpense.
Still,thedegreeofacrimonyisevidenceofsomethingmorevisceral.Yearslater,severaloftheNoddacks'associatesclaimedthattheirenthusiasmfornational
socialismwasneververygreat,whileEmilioSegr,justasfirmly,believedthatitwas.
67
Suchretrospectivejudgmentsaredifficulttoevaluate,andMeitnerandHahn's
correspondenceoffersonlyahint:"Shedoesn'thavemanyfriendshereamongus,"OttoremarkedinApril1939,"butobviouslysomeinothercircles!"Thatwasallhe
wouldcommittopaperRosbaud,however,regardedtheNoddacksasproNaziopportunists.
68
IdaNoddack'spoliticalconnectionscouldnothavebeenextremely
strong:heremploymentstatus,likethatofmostprofessionalwomen,remainedpoor.
69
HahnandRosbaudtreatedhermoreasanuisancethanathreat,andshehad
littletosayafterthat.
ButNoddack'sattackandtheotherprioritydisputesin1939permanentlyshapedandhardenedHahn'sview.Hewasadamant:thediscoverywashisand
Strassmann'sonly.ToIdaNoddackhewouldnotyieldso
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Page274
muchasafootnote.AstoCurieandSavitch?Theydidnotknowwhattheyweredoing.AndLise,oncehisbestfriendandclosestcolleague?Fromthattimeforward,
Hahnwouldinsisttheywerefriendswhiledoingallhecouldtodestroythememoryoftheirscientificties.Bytheendofthewar,Hahnwouldimplythatfissioncould
notbediscoveredaslongasMeitnerwasinDahlem.
70
NeartheendofhislifehewasknowntosaythatLisemighthaveforbiddenhimtomakethediscovery.
71
In1939,LiseunderstoodonlythatOttowasstrugglingtosecurehisposition.Shecompletelyconcurredinthis:shewantedhimtoretaincontroloftheinstitutethey
onceshared.Inher18MarcharticlewithFrischshemadeapointofcitingHahnandStrassmannrepeatedly.Hahnwasgratefulbutincensedthatinthesameissueof
Nature,Halban,Joliot,andKowarskifailedtocitethematall."InFranceJoliotisregardedasthediscovereroffission,"hecomplainedangrily."Fromthisonesees
howsystematicsuppressionandfalsecitationshavetheirintendedeffect."
72
Lisesympathized,butshewasnolongerentirelyinOtto'scamp.
TheFrencharecrazywiththeirnoncitations.NowagainthepaperbyJoliotandHalban!ButIalmostgotalaughoutofit,becauserightafteritwasthepaperofours[Meitnerand
Frisch]thatbeginswithyournames.
73
Butitissoeasyformisunderstandingstocropupwiththesethings.Youevendoubtedourloyalty,andincontrast,IheardinCopenhagen
thatperhapsinyourfirstBapaperyoushouldhavecitedCurieandSavitchmoreexplicitly,astheyactuallydidsaytheyhadasubstancewiththepropertiesoflanthanum.
74
InMay1939,whentheBritishphysicistNormanFeathersurveyedseveraldozenfissionreportsinareviewarticleforNature,hediscussedCurieandSavitch's
contributionsinsomedetail.
75
Upset,HahnprotestedthatFeathermadeitappearthatCurieandSavitchbelievedtheir3.5hoursubstancetobelanthanumwhile
Strassmannandhemerelyverifiedtheirfindingandidentifiedbarium.
76
LiseagreedthatFeatherhadmadeamistake,butshewasgrowingtiredoftheendless
quarrels.
Featherisnotquitefairtoyou,butyouonceagainarenotquitefairtoCurieSavitch....InoneoftheirC[omptes]R[endus]articlestheyemphasizedstronglythattheir3.5h
substancehadveryremarkablechemicalpropertiesandemphasizedthesimilaritytolanthanum.Thefactthattheytriedtoplaceitamongthetransuranesdoesn'tchangetheir
experimentalfindings.Andthesefindingsledyoutobeginyourexperiments.Andagainyouhavenotstatedthatquiteclearly....Onemustnottakepeople'swordssoliterally.
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Page275
Curieobviouslysawthatsomethingremarkablewasgoingon,evenifshedidnotthinkoffission.InNovember[1938]Hevesyheardhersayinalecturethattheentireperiodic
systemarisesfromU+nbombardment....Ifoneweretotakeyourwordsoutofcontext,yourJanuary6Naturwissenschaftenarticlecloseswiththesewords,"Asnuclearchemists
whoareclosetophysics...wecannotcommitourselvestotakethisdrasticstep,etc."and"Itcouldstillbeaseriesofunusualcoincidencesthathavegivenusfalse
indications."...Italwaysmakestroubletotakepeople'swordstooliterally....IfImaygiveyousomeadvice,Ithinkyoushouldnotgetinvolvedindiscussionsofpriority....The
Englishdon'tlikethatsortofthing.
77
Afewweekslater,afterHahnwroteanarticlewithseveralincompletecitations,
78
Lisenotedtartly,
Feathercouldperhapsholditagainstyouthatyoudidnotmentionhischemicalenrichmentofthe2.5hoursubstancewithAgI,andthesameistrueof[Philip]Abelson'sarticles...
forwhichyouciteonlyhisfirstshortnote....Also,IdidnotquiteunderstandwhyyouattributedthetheoreticalexplanationofthefissionprocesstoBohr's(3yearold)liquid
dropmodelandnotto[Frisch'sandmy]work.
79
...AboutFeather,wefounditsurprisingthatyoudemandedacorrectionfromhimaboutanincorrectsentenceandatalmostthe
sametimefailedtocitehischemicalproofofI(andindirectlyTe).Doesn'tthatshowthatyou'realittleangryandaren'tseeingthingssoclearlyanymore?
80
LiseandOttohadmetonlytwicesincesheleftBerlin:inNovember1938inCopenhagenandagaininApril1939whenHahnlecturedinStockholm.OntheSwedish
tripOttowasaccompaniedbyacolleaguewithpoliticalcredentials,andalthoughhehadmadetimeforLise,hehadbeencautious.InJune,HahnwasinLondon,
againwithachaperone."SincethismorningIamhere,"hewroteLise."Togetherwithapartymember.ThereforeIcannotyettellwhenIshallhavethefreetimeto
visityourbrother.ButIshalldoitonanyaccount....Mycolleagueisverynice,butIbetteramalittlecareful."Hahn's"colleague,"achemistnamedWever,later
submittedasecretreportcitinghis"disgust"atmeetingGermanrefugeesinEngland.
81
LisetoldherbrotherWaltertoexpectOtto'svisit."Hewillnotbecompletelyfreebecauseofacolleague.Andperhapsinwardlyheisalsonotcompletelyfree."
82
Despiteeverything,LiseandOttowerestillfriends,andhestillturnedtoherwithquestionsofphysics.Severaltimesheaskedwhysomany
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Page276
differentfissionfragmentswereobtainedfromuranium,andhowuraniumandthoriumcouldhavefissionfragmentsincommon.
83
"BohrwillperhapsthinkI'macretin,
butevenafter2ofhislongexplanationsIagaindon'tunderstandit."
84
PatientlyLiseexplained,"Therearemanypossiblewaysforfissiontooccur,andthe
evaporationofneutronsincreasesthenumberofpossibilitiesevenmore."
85
Oneofthemostconfusingfindingsoftheuraniuminvestigationhadbeenthefactthatslowandfastneutronsseemedtoproducethesame"transurane"activities,
misleadingphysicists,includingMeitner,toconcludethatbothslowandfastprocessesoriginatedwiththesameisotope,
238
U.Afterthediscoveryoffission,physicists
realizedfromtheprofusionoffissionfragmentsthatthefissionofdifferentnucleiwouldyieldsomefragmentsthatwerethesame.Becausethe"transurane"precipitation
alwaysselectedoutthesamefewspeciesfromthewiderangeofdifferentfissionproducts,theproductsoftheslowneutronirradiationof
235
Uandthefastneutron
irradiationof
238
Uappearedtobeidentical.
BohrhadpublishedasuccinctexplanationalreadyinFebruary,
86
butHahnfounditdifficulttograsp.Meitnerwroteagain.
NowIwanttotryonceagaintosetforthwhatBohrmeantwhenhesaidthatthesameproductscanbeproducedinthefissionof
239
Uand
236
Uaswellas
233
Th.Forthesenuclei
thereareverymanyfissionpossibilities,becauseintheatomicweightrangefromabout80150allprocessesarealmostequallypossible....Inthisway,despitedifferentatomic
weightsanddifferentnuclearcharges,uraniumandthoriumcanyieldaseriesofidenticalisotopes...aswellasisotopesthatarenotidentical.
87
Hahnwasalsointerestedintheconditionsforafissionchainreaction.Bythenmostscientistshadconcludedthatacontrolledchainreactionwouldbedifficultto
achieve,anexplosivedeviceevenmoreso.Becausefissioninnaturaluraniumwasdueprimarilytothereactionofthermalneutronswith
235
U,afairlyslow,controlled
chainreactionmightsucceedifacriticalmassofuraniumcouldbeassembledandifneutronswithintheuraniumcouldbesufficientlyslowed,ormoderated,to
promotethefissionof
235
U.Butarapid,uncontrolledchainreactionabombseemedimpossible,atleastinnaturaluranium,because
235
Uwastoosparseand
thermalneutronstooslow,andbecause
238
Ucapturedneutronsofmoderateenergyandextinguishedthechainreaction.AsLiseexplainedtoOttoinJuly1939,
"Naturally,assoonasachainreactionproducesa
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Page277
temperaturecorrespondingto2510[electron]volts,theresonancecapturetakesoverandthechainisbroken.Iamsurprisedthat[Siegfried]Flggedidn'tseethat,
sincehehasdoneacalculationwhichinitselfisverynice."
88
(FlggehadjustpublishedanarticleinNaturwissenschaftendiscussingthehugeenergypotentialofa
fissionableuranium"machine.")
89
"Wedon'tunderstandit,"Hahnpersisted,"neitherFlgge,norStrassmann,norI....Flggethinkstheexplosionwilltakeplacelongbeforetheresonanceenergyis
reached."
90
"Bohr'sopinion,"Meitnerreplied,"isthatanexplosionofuraniumcancertainlybeinitiatedatfirst,butwithrisingtemperatures,whenthe'thermal'neutronsalso
becomemoreenergetic,thecapturecrosssection[ofneutronsby
235
U]fallsrapidly,andwhentheresonanceenergyisreached,resonancecapture[by
238
U]
predominatesovereverythingelse.Joliotandhiscoworkersdemonstratedexperimentallythatevenatnormaltemperaturestheresonanceprocessextinguishes16%
ofallfission,andthisfractionwillriserapidlywithhighertemperatures.ThereforeauraniumH
2
(Cd)mixturewouldcertainlybeveryexplosive,butnotnearlysomuch
aswithouttheresonanceprocess."
91
Hahn'squestionsmaynothavebeenentirelyacademic.BeginninginApril1939,hehadbeeninvitedtosecretmeetingswithmilitaryofficialsandcivilianscientists
exploringthemilitarypotentialoffission.BythentherewasnodoubtthatEuropewasheadingforwar.InMarch,GermanytooktherestofCzechoslovakia,causing
EnglandtounilaterallyguaranteethesecurityofPolandandtheSovietUniontoseekanagreementwithGermany.MeanwhiletheSpanishRepublicsuccumbedto
Franco,MussoliniinvadedAlbania,HitlerclamoredforthereturnofDanzigandpreparedtoinvadePoland.
Buttothereliefofmostscientists,afissionbombseemedunlikelyunless
235
Ucouldbeseparatedinquantityfromnaturaluranium,anisotopicseparationthatseemed
virtuallyimpossible.Nevertheless,scientistswereafraidtocompletelyruleitout.Noonecouldbesuretheirexperimentswerecorrectortheirtheoriescomplete.As
Germanscientists,includingHahn,attendedsecretgovernmentmeetings,
92
refugeephysicistsintheUnitedStatesandBritain,impelledbyfearofHitler'sGermany,
warnedofthepotentialfor"extremelypowerfulbombsofanewtype."
93
Onbothsidesattemptsweremade,unsuccessfullyatfirst,tosuppresstheopenpublication
offissionrelatedscientificreports.
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MeitnerwasmoreanxiousthanevertoleaveStockholm.ShehadgivenuphopeofimprovingherworkingconditionsinSwedenorwhatamountedtothesame
developingacollegialrelationshipwithManneSiegbahn.
InJuly1939shewenttoCambridge,with"anespeciallyfriendlyinvitation"fromW.L.Bragg.
94
ThereJ.D.CockcroftandBraggofferedherapositionatthe
CavendishLaboratoryandathreeyearcontractwithGirtonCollege,
95
adecidedimprovementovertheiroffertheyearbefore.On3Augustshe"practically
accepted"
96
butthendecidedtodelayhermovetoCambridgeuntilthesummerof1940.Itwasamajormistake."IfIhadatalentforregret,"shewouldwritelater
andinthiscaseshecertainlydid"IwouldnotbeabletogetoverthefactthatIreturnedtoStockholmfromCambridge."
97
Shehadpromisedtotakeonayoung
DutchphysicistinStockholmthatwinter,andsheknewitwouldtakemonthstogetthenecessarypermitsforemigrationtoEngland.Verylikelyshewasreluctantto
gothroughanotherunplannedandsemilegalemigration.
"ItwouldbenicerforyouifyoucouldgotoC[ambridge]alreadyinthefall,"Hahnadvised,thinkingitbestshemovebeforewarbegan.
98
InGermanysummer
vacationshadbeencanceled,apreludetomobilization."Itiscompletelyimpossiblenowtothinkaboutordoanythingscientific.Thepoliticalsituationistoointeresting
forthat,"Hahnwroteon24August,thedayGermanysignedanonaggressionpactwiththeSovietUnion.
99
ThepactsealedthefateofPoland."Atthemomentthe
worldreallylooksmenacing,"Liseagreed."Onecannotmakeplansmorethantwodaysahead."
100
HitlerinvadedPolandon1September1939.Twodayslater,BritainandFrancedeclaredwaronGermany.
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Page279
ChapterTwelve
Again,WorldWar
Iwillhavenothingtodowithabomb!
Althoughexpected,thewarcameasashock.Civiliansweresomber,displayinglittleoftherecklesspatriotismof1914."Welivedthroughallthis25yearsago,"Edith
HahntoldLise."Weknowwhatitmeans."
1
Ottowasgloomy,too."Onecannottellhowlongthiswilllast,andwhatwillthenbecomeofGermany."
2
Polandwas
crushedbytheendofSeptember,BritainandFrancehavingdonenothingtohelp.Thenthewarstalledformonths,a"phonywar,"potentialratherthanactual.
Meitner'sBerlinfriendssufferedfromlittleatfirstexceptsomeconsumershortagesandafeelingofisolation.LisebegansendingsmallpackagestoOttoandEdith:
soap,cigars,coffee.WhenOtto'sNatureandComptesRendusstoppedcoming,heaskedLisetoinformhimofnewdevelopmentsinfission
3
MaxvonLaue
designatedLisegobetweenshouldhebeunabletoreachhissonTheodorinPrinceton.AlthoughthemailbetweenGermanyandSwedenremainedregular,theywere
allawareofwartimecensorship.Planckbecame"UncleMaxsenior"Laue"UncleMaxjunior"or"Theo'sfather"
4
ArnoldBerliner,wholivedonKielganstrasseinthe
CharlottenburgdistrictofBerlin,wasvariously"Arnold,"''Charlottenburger,"or"Dr.Kielgan"thehatedKurtHesswasgiventheendearment"Krtchen."
Themostnotablefeatureofthatfirstwinterofwar,however,washowlittletherewasofit.Berlinbracedforattack,butnoenemyplanesappearedintheblackedout
skies.AccordingtoLaue,thefamilyairraidshelterwassocomfortable"weshallsoondeclareitourparlor,"whiletheblackouthad"thepleasantconsequencethat
onecaneasilyseestars,unusualfora
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Page280
largecity.Onemustcertainlybecareful,though,whenwalking.Manymensmokewhilewalking,asaburningcigaristheonlysourceoflightthatdoesnothavetobe
extinguished."Anavidmotorist,Laue'sonlycomplaintwasthathecouldnotusehiscar."EvenIamforcedtogointotownontheStrain....Charlottenburgerisnow
stillmoreisolated,asitishardformetogettohim."
5
ThewardefeatedLise'splansformovingtoCambridge."Practicallythewholeofthenuclearphysicsschoolisnowdoinggovernmentworkinotherplaces,"J.D.
CockcroftwroteinOctober."InviewofthisIthinkyououghttothinkoververycarefullythequestionastowhetheryoustillwishtocometoCambridge."Ifthiswas
asignalforLisetobowoutgracefully,sheignoredit."IalwayscometotheconclusionthatitisnexttohopelesstodoanyusefulworkinStockholm.Soifthereisa
possibilityofworkinCambridgeatall...Iwishtocome.''ButtheCambridgephysicistswereworkingonradarandothermilitaryproblems,andnuclearphysics
seemedlessrelevanttothewareffort.W.L.Braggtriedtosugarcoattheirdecision:"Oneofthegreatattractionsofyourcomingherewasthatthemembersofour
researchteamwouldhavethebenefitofcollaboratingwithyou.Sincetheyareallaway,Ihadmuchratherthatyoushouldcomehereinhappiertimes."Mailbetween
EnglandandSwedenwassporadic,andLisedidnotgetBragg'sletteruntilearlyDecember.
6
HavingtoldManneSiegbahnofherintentiontoleave,shewasnow
moreunwelcomethanbefore.
AndtheyoungDutchassistantforwhomshehaddelayedhermovetoCambridgedidnotcometoStockholmafterall.
DearOtto!...Perhapsinprinciple[Siegbahn]doesnotdislikethatitworkedoutthisway,hewouldmuchratherusetheinstitutemoneyformechanicsandbigmachinesthanforan
academicpersonandscientificproblems.Inthewholebiginstitute,only5academicpeopleareemployed,andtheytooworkalmostentirelyonproblemsofapparatus.
ScientificallyIamcompletelyisolated,formonthsIspeakwithnooneaboutphysics,sitaloneinmyroomandtrytokeepmyselfbusy.Youcannotcallit"work."
7
LisewouldalwaysbeastrangerinSiegbahn'sinstitute.InBerlin,shehadmoldedherprofessionalandpersonallifeintoasatisfyingwhole,withfriendshipand
collegialityanintegralpartofdoingphysicsinStockholm,herideaswereofnointerestandherexperiencewasnotsoughtafter,so
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Page300
wouldbeseparablefromuraniumbyordinarychemicalreactionsandmightthusbeextractedinsufficientquantityforanatomicbomb.
Longbeforethefirstplutoniumnucleiwereactuallydetected(inBerkeleyinthewinterof1941),
113
itsmilitarypotentialwasrecognizedonbothsidesoftheAtlantic:
byBritishscientists,whoangrilyprotestedMcMillanandAbelson'sopenreportofelement93bythePrincetonphysicistLouisA.Turner,whothoughtaboutusing
238
Utobreedplutoniumbutdecidednottoputhisideasintoprint
114
byC.F.vonWeizscker,whomulleditoverwhileridingtheBerlinsubwayonhiswayto
Dahleminthesummerof1940.
115
BytheendoftheyearfissionhaddisappearedfromAmericanjournals,aclearsignalthattheUnitedStateshadfinallyenteredthe
raceforanatomicbomb.
InStockholm,Lisereadbetweenthelines,payingparticularattentiontothewhereaboutsandactivitiesofWernerHeisenberg.Yearsbefore,whenLiseknewhim,he
hadnotbeenaNaziasatheoreticalphysicist,hehadinfactbeenattackedasa"whiteJew"forhisfailuretorenouncethe"spiritofEinstein."
116
Andyet,disturbing
characterhintscametomind:Heisenberg'svisittoMaxBorninCambridgein1934withagovernmentinvitationforhimtoreturntoGermanywithouthiswifeand
children
117
Heisenberg'stactlesslynationalisticgreetingtoLiseonhersixtiethbirthday
118
Heisenberg'sutterdevotiontohishomeland,widelydiscussedby
AmericanphysicistsafterhevisitedtheUnitedStatesinthesummerof1939andrefusedeventoconsiderseveralexceedinglyattractiveofferstostay.
119
Unlike
RosbaudandLaue,whohadstayedtofighttheregimetheyhated,HeisenberghadmadeitclearthathecouldnotliveawayfromtheGermanyheloved.Whatwashe
doingnow?Workingonanuclearweapon?Orwithholdinghistalentsomehow,maskingresistancewithashowofnationalism?
Likemanyothers,LisereservedjudgmentuntilshelearnedofHeisenbergandWeizscker'svisittooccupiedCopenhageninSeptember1941.Thetwowere
scheduledtospeakatalectureseriesonastrophysics,aneventunilaterallyarrangedbythelocalpropagandaofficeforGermancultureanddesignateda"German"
conference.
120
RejectingtheimplicationthatDenmarkhadbecomepartofGermany,thescientistsinBohr'sinstituteboycottedtheconference
121
butwelcomed
HeisenbergandWeizsckerneverthelessascolleaguesandoldfriends.Itsoonbecameobvious,however,thatHeisenberg'sattitudewas"quitepeculiar,"so
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Page301
muchsothatMargretheBohrwouldlaterdescribeitasa"hostilevisit."
122
AsayoungDanishphysicist,ChristianMller,toldLiseafewmonthslater,Heisenberg
cametoCopenhagen"tostageaGermanphysicscongress,andwasabsolutelyunabletounderstandthatthiswasnotfair.Hewasentirelyimbuedwiththewish
dream[Wunschtraum]ofGermanvictoryandhaddevelopedatheoryofhigherlevelpeopleandserfpeopletoberuledbyGermanyinthisconnectionhe
consideredtheoccupationofDenmarkandNorwaytobe'regrettable'[presumablybecauseDanesandNorwegianscouldbeclassifiedas"Aryans"]."
123
Mller's
reportandMeitner'slateraccountofitweresecondedbyothers.StefanRozental,aPolishmigrinBohr'sinstitute,heardHeisenbergspeak''withgreatconfidence
oftheprogressoftheGermanoffensiveinRussia"Stalingradwasyettocomeandstress"howimportantitwasthatGermanyshouldwinthewar."
124
TheDanish
scientistsconcludedthatHeisenberg'schiefpurposeinCopenhagenwastoinduceorcoerceDanishculturalcollaborationandtoestablishhisownpoliticalreliability
withtheNaziregime.
Underthecircumstances,BohrwaswarywhenHeisenbergapproachedhimforsomeprivateconversation.WhenHeisenbergbegantalkingaboutthewartimeuseof
nuclearenergy,BohrthoughttheworstthattheGermansattachedgreatmilitaryimportancetoatomicenergy,thattheyweremakingprogress,thatHeisenbergwas
betrayingtheironceclosefriendshipbyprobinghimforAlliedsecrets.
125
ForBohr,theotherDanishphysicists,andtheAlliedscientistswhoweresooninformed,the
questionofHeisenberg'sintegritywasdecided.
126
FollowingChristianMller'svisittoStockholm,LisefeltitnecessarytowarnLauethatHeisenbergandWeizsckerwerenottobetrusted.Unabletowriteplainly,
shesaidonly,
Dr.Mllerwashereforafewdays....HetoldmealotaboutNielsandtheinstitute...andaboutthevisitofWernerandCarlFriedrich....Inadditiontootherpeculiarthings,C.F.
seemstohavecuriousthoughtprocesses:heappearstobelieveincertain"constellations"[astrologicalsigns],butIbegyoutokeepthisconfidential.Iwasquitesadtohearall
this,asatonetimeIthoughthighlyofbothofthem.Itwasamistake.
127
Lauealreadyknew.
IhaveoftenwonderedabouttheinnerattitudeofWernerandCarlFriedrich,butIbelieveIunderstandtheirpsychology.Manypeople,especiallyyoungerones,cannotbring
themselvestocometotermswiththe
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Page302
greatirrationalityofthepresent,andsointheirimaginationtheyconstructcastlesintheair.Itisanenormoustasktheyhaveundertaken,tofindsomegoodaspectsinthingsthey
candonothingabout.Theonesnamedarenotaloneinthis.
128
Afterthewar,Heisenbergrepeatedlytriedtomendhisdamagedreputation.Althoughheneverexplainedhis"peculiar"attitude,heandhissupportersofferedseveral
versionsofhismeetingwithBohr.J.HansD.Jensen,anotherGermanphysicistvisitingCopenhagenatthetime,suggestedthatthe"highpriestofGermantheoretical
physics"(Heisenberg)hadgoneto"thePope"(Bohr)seeking''absolution"forhisworkwithfission.Heisenberghimselfclaimedotherwise:troubledbythe"spectreof
theatomicbomb"andafraidthattheAllieswoulddeveloptheirownatomicbombanduseitonGermany,hehadintendedtoproposetoBohraninternationalboycott
ofworkonnuclearweapons.
129
Itappearsthatafterthewar,atleast,Heisenbergwasindeedseekingabsolution,ifnotforthe"sin"ofnuclearweaponsresearch(he
alwaysinsistedhisresearchwasdirected"only"towardareactor),thenforhiscompromisedbehaviorduringtheThirdReich.Overandoveragain,he,andlaterhis
wife,portrayedhisdecisiontoremaininGermanyasan"innerexile,"describinghisworkonthefissionprojectasimportantforkeepingyoungscientistsoutofthe
militaryandprovidingan"islandofstability"forthepreservationofGermanscience.Thenotionwasexceedinglyselfserving.Unliketrue"innerexiles"whowere
deeplyopposedtotheNazisandinsomeinstancessufferedgreatlyforit,Heisenbergwasafavoredmemberoftheestablishmentwhohadnothingtolosefromthe
continuedsuccessoftheNaziregimehisidentificationwithGermanywassoreflexivethatheappearstohavewelcomedNazimilitaryvictoryasameansofimposing
German"culture"onothers.HisbiographernotesthatwhileHeisenbergfounditimpossibletoseverhisattachmenttoGermanyundertheNazis,hewouldhavebeen
readytoemigrateimmediatelyintheeventofaRussiantakeover.
130
Afterthewar,Heisenbergintimatedthathehadbeenonmoralhighground,thathehadsoughtinternationalcooperationwhileAlliedscientistshadnot,thatheandthe
otherGermanscientistshadworkedonlyonareactorwhiletheAllieshadbuiltandusedatomicbombs.
131
Withthis,however,hestumbled.Whetherthrough
insensitivity,arrogance,or(asLiseMeitnerbelieved)intellectualdishonesty,
132
hedidnotseemto
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Page303
recognizethatGermany'scrimeshadmadeinternationalcooperationimpossibleandmoralparitynonexistent.
TheDanes,itshouldbenoted,werenotaloneintheirperceptionofHeisenberg'sattitude.Earlyinthewar,PaulRosbaudhadlistenedtoHeisenbergtalkaboutthe
necessityforGermanvictoryandtheensuing"purification"andhadjudgedHeisenberg'sviewstobe"childish,Ialmostwouldsayimmoral."
133
WhenHeisenberg
visitedtheNetherlandsin1943,hetoldtheDutchphysicistHendrikB.G.Casimirthatithad"alwaysbeenthemissionofGermanytodefendtheWestanditsculture
againsttheonslaughtofeasternhordes...andso,perhaps,aEuropeunderGermanleadershipmightbethelesserevil.''Talkof"Asiatichordes"wasastapleofWest
Europeanwarpropaganda,andHeisenberg'sstatementsmighthavebeencamouflage,butitseemedcleartohiscolleaguesthatherelishedtheroleofGerman
goodwillambassador,thathetraveledwidelyandoftenanunmistakablestampofpoliticalapprovalandthatheseemedunperturbedbythegenocidalproclivities
ofGerman"leadership."
134
In1943whenDirkCosterappealedforhelpingettingSamuelGoudsmit'sparentsreleasedfromaDutchconcentrationcamp,Heisenberg
respondedvaguelythathewouldbe"verysorryif,forreasonsunknowntome,difficultiesweretoariseforhisparentsinHolland."TheelderlyGoudsmitshadalready
beendeportedtoAuschwitzandkilled.
135
ToCosterandothers,itseemedthatHeisenberghadblindedhimselftoeverythingbutphysicsandtheGermantribe.His
andhissupporters'laterattemptstochangethatimpressionneverdispelledit.
136
AfterHeisenberg'sCopenhagenvisit,Alliedscientistsfollowedhisactivitiesclosely.
137
Inearly1942,themomentumofthewarbegantoturntheGermanarmywas
stoppedatMoscowandLeningrad,andAmericaenteredthewar.Nolongerconfidentofspeedyvictorywiththeweaponsathand,theGermanmilitaryreevaluated
thefissionproject.WhenLauetoldMeitnerinJune1942thatHeisenbergwouldleaveLeipzigtoheadtheMaxPlanckInstituteforPhysicsinDahlem,
138
she
gatheredthatfissionresearchhadbecomemoreimportant."HeisenberghasbeenappointeddirectoroftheMaxPlanckInstitute,"shewrotetoMaxBornin
Edinburgh."Ithinkthattobequiteaninterestingfact."
139
Earlierin1942Germanphysicistshadmadeaconcertedefforttoconvinceauthoritiestoincreasethestatus
andfundingofthenuclearfissionproject
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Heisenberg'sappointmentwasindeedanindicationoftheirsuccess,althoughthescaleoftheirprojectneverapproachedthatoftheAllies'.
ThetoneofMeitner'snotetoBornimmediatelyraisesthequestion,wasthismerecollegialchitchat?Orwassheactingasaconduitforinformation,transmitting
scientificintelligencetotheAllies?
ToLise'sfriendsinSweden,theveryquestionisbothpreposterousandabhorrent.Theybelieveshecouldneverhavebeenaninformant:itwouldhaveviolated
everythingtheyknowofhercharacterandpersonality.Lisewaspoliticallyaware,theysay,butneveranactivistmoreimportant,shewasbynatureopen,incapableof
deceit.Aboveall,theyinsist,Lisewouldneverhaveputfriendshiporherprofessiontopoliticalormilitaryuse.Shewouldhaveregardedthisasabetrayal,notonlyof
friendsbutofhermoststronglyheldvalues.
140
Andyet,Meitner'sinnateopennessmayhavemadeitimpossibleforhernottopassonwhatsheknewtopeopleshetrusted.FromLaue,andperhapsothers,she
learnedbitsandpiecesofthefissionproject:Heisenberg'sassignment,thecomingsandgoingsofotherscientists,thelevelofactivity,thefactthattheprojectwas
importantenoughyetstillsufficientlysmalltobemovedtosouthernGermanywhenBerlinbecametoodangerousin1944.ItisunlikelythatLaue'sinformationwas
eververytechnicalhewasnotamemberoftheuraniumclubbutitmayhavehelpedtheAlliesformageneralpictureofthescopeandprogressoftheGerman
fissionproject.AlthoughLaue'sinformationwasperipheral,itwasreliableandLiseknewheexpectedhertopassiton.Andshedid,inlettersandprivatetalkswith
trustedcolleagues:toMaxBorn,aswehaveseentoOttoRobertFrischwhenhewasstillinEnglandtoBohrafter1943throughDanishscientistswithtiestoBritish
intelligenceandverypossiblythroughMargretheBohrwhoremainedinStockholmuntiltheendofthewar.Lisewasnotapoliticalandshewasnotnaive:sheknew
thatbothsideswereengagedinthemilitarydevelopmentoffission,shemadeherdisclosuresinonedirectiononly,andsheunderstoodthatbynotdoingsoshewould
benefitonlyGermany.Astorisk,shemayhavetoldherselfthatLaue'sinformation,takenalone,wasofnogreatvalue.Lauemayhavethoughtthesame.Afterall,
everyoneoftheirletterswasreadandcensored.
WithPaulRosbaud,thesituationwasdifferent:hewasaspywhogatheredscientificintelligenceofgreatimportance.FromRosbaudthe
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BritishlearnedofGermanweaponsandmilitaryinstallations,theprogressofthefissionproject,theheavywaterplantinoccupiedNorway,andtherocketinstallation
inPeenemndedataofsuchastoundingquantityandqualitythatforatimetheincredulousBritishsuspectedhimofbeingadoubleagent.ItisunlikelythatRosbaud
sentmuchvitaldatathroughMeitner:hehadother,moredirectroutestohisBritishcontacts,andtheworkwasdangerous:Stockholmwasaprimelisteningpost
duringthewar,teemingwithagentsofeverynationality.Nevertheless,itisknownthatRosbaudusedbookcodes(anaturalchoiceforapublisher'sagent)anditistrue
thatheregularlysentscientificbookstoLise
141
Rosbaud'sbiographerbelievesthatLiseonoccasionpassedcodedbookstoBritishagentsorpossiblytoNjlHole,
ayoungNorwegianphysicistinSiegbahn'sinstitutewhoreportedthroughtheNorwegiandelegationtoBritishintelligence.Lise'sfriendSigvardEklund,a
contemporaryandfriendofHole's,doesnotbelievethatsheorHolewasaninformantoragent,
142
andindeeditmayhavebeenmoreimportanttoRosbaudthat
Lise'sfunctionasintermediarytohiswifeanddaughternotbejeopardized.Unsurprisingly,thereisnowrittencorroboration:exceptforoccasionalveiledreferencesto
amutualfriendinaprisonorconcentrationcamp,thereisnoobviousclandestineundercurrenttotheirwartimecorrespondence,andafterthewarMeitnerexpressed
onlygratitudetoRosbaudforthebookshehad"sokindlyselected."
143
Passingoninformationwasonething,activeparticipationinthewareffortquiteanother.In1943,MeitnerwasaskedtojoinagroupofBritishscientists,including
OttoRobertFrisch,whowereboundforLosAlamostoworkontheatomicbomb.Theofferpromisedintriguingphysics,valuedcolleagues,andescapefrom
Sweden.
144
Yetsherefused.Herswasnotanintellectualdecision,carefullyconsideredandweighed.Itisunlikely,forexample,thatsheknewenoughaboutthe
Germanfissionprojecttobereassuredbyitslackofprogress,orthatshewastoldofthesuccessfulselfsustainingreactionFermiandhiscolleagueshadachievedin
ChicagoinDecember1942.Rather,itappearsthatsherecoiledfromputtingherlife'sworktomilitaryuse.Herrefusalarosefromadeeprevulsion:"Iwillhave
nothingtodowithabomb!"
145
Amongscientistsworldwide,almostnonerefusedoutrighttoworkonweaponsduringthewaramongtheAllies,nearlyallscientists,especiallyrefugees,weredriven
byfearoftheNaziregime,thehugeearlysuccesses
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oftheGermanmilitary,andthepresumedsuperiorityofGermanscience.Theyhadnomoralcompunctionsaboutworkingonthebomb:theysawitasaracewith
Hitlerthattheyhadtowin.OnlyafterGermanywasdefeatedwithoutthebomb,anditwasusedonJapanovertheprotestsofmanyleadingscientists,didthey
understandthattheyworkedonsomethingoverwhichtheyhadnocontrol.PerhapsLisealreadyunderstoodthat,afterherexperienceinWorldWarI.Hahnlater
suggestedthatMeitnercouldnotbeartoworkonaweaponthatmightbeusedagainstthecountrythathadbeenherhomeandpeoplewhowerestillherfriends.
146

Thismaybepartofthetruth,butnotall.Meitnerwantednopartofdeathsanywhere:shecouldnotcommitherselfandherphysicsthetwowerenotdistincttoa
weaponofwar.Shehadseenthecasualtiesfirsthandin19151916shehadheardthescreams.Shecouldnotdoit.Herdecisionwasinstantaneousandabsolute:
therewasnodiscussion.Shewouldnotworkonthebomb.
LisedidnotjointheAllies,yetshenolongersharedtheoutlookofherGermanfriends.WhenHahnvisitedStockholmintheautumnof1943,Lisetriedtoconvince
himthatevendecentGermanshad,withtheirpassivity,contributedtotheterriblemisfortuneGermanyhadbroughtontheentireworld.OttofoundLise'sposition
unjust,asdidMaxvonLauewhovisitedLisein1944.OnlyMaxPlanckagreedwithherthatGermany'sdefeatwasnecessaryandthatallGermans,himselfandother
antiNazisincluded,sharedresponsibilityforthecrimesoftheThirdReich."Terriblethingsmusthappentous,"hetoldLiseinthesummerof1943."Wehavedonethe
mosthorriblethings."Lise'sloveforPlanckwasunqualified.''Heusedthewords'we'and'us.'Andyetthis85yearoldmanwasmorecourageousinhisresistance
thanalltheothers."
147
ItdidnotmattertoLisethatPlanck,likenearlyeveryoneelse,hadacquiescedandcompromisedtosurvivetheresistancesheadmiredwas
deepwithin,hiscourageanexpressionofhismoralstrength.
148
Lisewaitedfortheendofthewarinanxiousisolation.HersituationinSiegbahn'sinstituteremainedpoor.Attimesshewasexhaustedbythedemandsofher
correspondence,particularlythetwicewrittenrelayedmessages,someinEnglish,whichshedidnotfindeasy.
149
SheworriedconstantlyaboutStefanMeyer,about
friendsinBerlin,abouttheCostersgoinghungryinoccupiedHolland.HannoHahn,hergodchild,wasseverelywoundedinactionin1944andlostanarm.Thetension
was
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unrelenting.Herweightdroppedtoninetypoundsattimesherhealthfaltered.
AfterpartsofDahlemwereheavilydamagedbyairraidsin1944,severalscientificinstitutes,includingMaxvonLaue'sandOttoHahn's,wererelocated,withtheir
personnel,totherelativesafetyofsouthernGermany.RelievedthatthesefriendswerenolongerinBerlin,LisewasneverthelessdisturbedtolearnthatHeisenberg's
fissionprojectwasalsorelocated,eventhoughithadnotbeendamaged.
Lise'scontactwithMaxPlanckandhiswifebecameintermittent.SheknewthattheirhouseinBerlinwasdestroyedearlyin1944andthattheirvisitstofriendsand
relativesinothercitiesseemedtocoincidewithheavyairattacks.Thentoherhorror,LiselearnedthatPlanck'soldestson,Erwin,hadbeenseizedandtorturedto
deathbytheGestapoforhispartinCountvonStauffenberg'sbungledattempttoassassinateHitler.
150
Latein1944,theRoyalSwedishAcademyofSciencesawardedtheNobelPrizeinchemistrytoOttoHahn.BecauseGermanswereforbiddentoacceptNobel
awards,Hahnwasnotifiedsecretlyandnopublicannouncementwasmade.
151
Nevertheless,wordspreadamongSwedishscientists,andLisefearedforOtto's
safety.Ottohastilywrotethathecouldnotpossiblyaccept,andMaxvonLauestressedthatevenamentionoftheprizemightbedisastrousforOttoandthemall.
"Pleasedonotspeakofthis,"LisebeggedHansPettersson."ItcouldbedangerousforHahn."
152
ThefearofaGermanatomicbombwasneverfarfromLise'sthoughts.InJune1944,shortlyafterDDay,LisewrotetoEvavonBahrBergius,
Iamcertainlygladthattheinvasionhasfinallybegun,butIfearwhattheGermanswilldowhentheirsituationappearshopeless.Iamveryanxioustoknowifthe[German]robot
bombshavesomethingtodowithuraniumbombs.Idon'tactuallythinkso,butIdoknowthattheinstitutethatwasworkingonthosethings[Heisenberg's]wastransferredto
southernGermany,eventhoughitwasnothitbybombsatall.Thatmakesmewonder,andIamdisturbedtothinkthatitmaybepossibletomakeuraniumbombsafterall.
153
LiseknewlittleabouttheGermanfissionprojectonlythattheyhadbeenunabletoseparate
235
Ubutshewasafraidtheymighthavefoundanotherpathtoa
bomb.
154
Withthisfearshewaitedoutthefinalmonthsofthewar.Thebrutalfightingwenton.AstheAlliedarmiesclosedin,theutterhorrorandunimaginedscaleof
theHolocaustwererevealed.
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Germany'sdefeatwasinevitable,yetLisewasdeeplypessimisticaboutthefuture.ShewrotetoEvainMarch1945,
ThelettersfromGermanfriendssoundverydepressed,yetIdonotthinktheycomprehendjustwhatsortoffatehasbefallenGermanythroughtheirpassivity.Andthey
understandevenlessthattheysharereponsibilityforthehorriblecrimesGermanyhascommitted.Thesethoughtsmakemeterriblyunhappy.Howshalltheworldtrustanew
Germanywhenitsbestandintellectuallymostprominentpeopledonothavetheinsighttounderstandthisanddonothaveaburningdesiretomakewhateveramendsare
possible?Notonlymusttheyfeelthisstrongly,butatthepropertimetheymuststatethisopenly.ButIfeartheyarefarfromit.ForthisreasonIdonotbelievethatforthemost
parttheyhadastronginnerresistance.
155
ItwasdifficulttoimaginealastingpeaceamongtheruinsofEurope.
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ChapterThirteen
WarAgainstMemory
ThatisindeedthemisfortuneofGermany,thatyouhavealllostyourstandardsofjusticeandfairness.
ThewarinEuropeendedon8May1945,andthenumbingsearchforsurvivorsbegan.LiseMeitnerlostcontactwithOttoHahnandMaxvonLauewhentheirregion
ofsouthernGermanyfelltotheAlliesinherthoughtsshecomposedletterafterlettertothem,worriedasalwaysthattheywouldnolongerunderstandeachother.
1

ShedidnotknowifMaxPlanckandhiswife,Marga,werealive,anddespiteappealstotheRussianlegationinStockholm,shecouldnotfindoutifPaulRosbaudand
ElisabethSchiemannhadsurvivedthefightinginBerlin.InlateJune,whenanAmericanonhiswaytoGermanyofferedtohandcarryalettertoHahn,Lisefinallyset
downonpaperthethoughtsshehadrehearsedsoofteninhermind.
YourlastletterisdatedMarch25,soyoucanimaginehowanxiousIamtoreceivenewsfromallofyou.IfollowedtheEnglishwarreportsverycarefullyandthinkthattheregion
thatyouandLaueareinwasoccupiedwithoutfighting.SoIhopethatyoupersonallydidnotsuffer.Naturallyitwillnowbeveryhardforyou,butthatwouldbeunavoidable.On
theotherhand,IamveryworriedaboutthePlancks,therewasbitterfightingnearthem.DoyouknowanythingaboutthemandtheBerlinfriends?Thisletterwillbetakenbyan
Americanheiscomingsoon,andsoIamwritinginagreathurry,eventhoughIhavesomuchtosaythatweighsonmyheart.Pleasekeepthisinmind,andreadthiswiththe
certaintyofmyunbreakablefriendship.Ihavewrittenmanyletterstoyouinmythoughtsinthelastfewmonths,becauseitwascleartomethatevenpeoplelikeyouandLaue
havenotcomprehendedtherealityofthesituation.InoticedthiswhenLauewrotetomeatthetimeofWettstein'sdeath,thathisdeathwasalossinthegeneralsensebecause
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W.couldhavebeenveryusefulwithhisdiplomaticexpertiseattheendofthewar.Nowhowcouldsuchaman,whoneverspokeagainstthecrimesofthelastyears,beusefulfor
Germany?ThatisindeedthemisfortuneofGermany,thatyouhavealllostyourstandardsofjusticeandfairness.YouyourselftoldmeinMarch1938that[KWGofficialHeinrich]
HrleintoldyouthathorriblethingswouldbedonetotheJews.Soheknewofallthecrimesthatwereplannedandlatercarriedout,butdespitethathewasaPartymemberand
youalsoinspiteofeverythingconsideredhimtobeaverydecentpersonandyoupermittedhimtoinfluenceyourrelationshipwithyourbestfriend.
YouallworkedforNaziGermanyandyoudidnoteventrypassiveresistance.Granted,toabsolveyourconsciencesyouhelpedsomeoppressedpersonhereandthere,but
millionsofinnocentpeopleweremurderedandtherewasnoprotest.Imustwritethistoyou,assomuchdependsuponyourunderstandingofwhatyouhavepermittedtotake
place.HereinneutralSweden,longbeforetheendofthewar,therewasdiscussionofwhatshouldbedonewithGermanscholarswhenthewarisover.Whatthenmustthe
EnglishandtheAmericansbethinking?Iandmanyothersareoftheopinionthatonepathforyouwouldbetodeliveranopenstatementthatyouareawarethatthroughyour
passivityyoushareresponsibilityforwhathashappened,andthatyouhavetheneedtoworkforwhatevercanbedonetomakeamends.Butmanythinkitistoolateforthat.
Thesepeoplesaythatyoufirstbetrayedyourfriends,thenyourmenandyourchildreninthatyouletthemgivetheirlivesinacriminalwar,andfinallyyoubetrayedGermany
itself,becauseevenwhenthewarwascompletelyhopeless,youneveroncespokeoutagainstthemeaninglessdestructionofGermany.Thatsoundspitiless,butneverthelessI
believethatthereasonthatIwritethistoyouistruefriendship.YoureallycannotexpectthattherestoftheworldfeelssympathyforGermany.Inthelastfewdaysonehasheard
oftheunbelievablygruesomethingsintheconcentrationcampsitoverwhelmseverythingonepreviouslyfeared.WhenIheardonEnglishradioaverydetailedreportbythe
EnglishandAmericansaboutBelsenandBuchenwald,Ibegantocryoutloudandlayawakeallnight.Andifyouhadseenthosepeoplewhowerebroughtherefromthecamps.
OneshouldtakeamanlikeHeisenbergandmillionslikehim,andforcethemtolookatthesecampsandthemartyredpeople.ThewayheturnedupinDenmarkin1941is
unforgettable.
PerhapsyouwillrememberthatwhileIwasstillinGermany(andnowIknowthatitwasnotonlystupidbutverywrongthatIdidnotleaveatonce)Ioftensaidtoyou:aslongas
onlywehavethesleeplessnightsandnotyou,thingswillnotgetbetterinGermany.Butyouhadnosleeplessnights,youdidnotwanttosee,itwastoouncomfortable.Icould
giveyoumanylargeandsmallexamples.IbegyoutobelievemethateverythingIwritehereisanattempttohelpyou.
2
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Lisewrotethisletterintheearlysummerof1945.Justsevenyearsbefore,atthatsametimeofyear,shehadbeendesperatelytryingtofindawayoutofBerlin.In
thosesevenyears,LisehadneverbeenanimmigranttoSwedensomuchasarefugeefromGermany:arefugeewhosereferencepointwasstillGerman,whosefriends
wereGerman,whosestrongestmemoriesanddeepestlongingswereforthelifeandworkthathadbeenhersinBerlin.Duringthewarshedidnotknowifitwould
everbepossibletoreturn,butsheherselfdidnotruleitout.Onlyafterthefightingwasoverdidshebegintounderstandthatthingswouldneverbethesame.
"ConcerningGermany,"shewrotetoDirkCoster,"Iappeartomyselflikeamotherwhoseesclearlythathermostbelovedchildhasgonehopelesslyastray."
3
The
metaphorwasnotespeciallyaptinmanywaysshewasmoretheabusedchildthantheanguishedparentbutemotionallyitwasright.Forallherangerandgrief,
shecouldnotcuthertiestoGermanyorherGermanfriends.HerlettertoOttoshowshowinvolvedshestillwas,withhimandwithGermany.
Later,OttotoldLisethatheneverreceivedthisletter,andLise,perhapsdisbelieving,wrotewithquotationmarks,"Aletterthatdidnotreachhim"atthetopofher
copy.
4
Butitwastrue.TheAmericanwhopromisedtodeliverit(andmayhavesuggestedshewriteit)wasMorris(Moe)Berg,abookishJewishbaseballplayerwho
hadretiredascatcherfortheBostonRedSoxin1942andbecomeanintelligenceagentfortheAmericansecretservice,theOSS.In1944,BergwasinZurich,
wherePaulScherrer,Meitner'sfriendattheSwissFederalInstituteofTechnologyandastrongantiNazi,suppliedhimwithwhateverinformationhehadaboutthe
locationandactivitiesofGermanatomicscientists.BergcametoStockholminJune1945toprobeMeitnerforwhatsheknewaboutGermanfissionresearch,to
makesureshekeptquietaboutitinpublic,andalwaysabedrockofAmericananxietytodiscoverifsheorotherscientistswerelikelytogototheSovietUnion.
AsanintroductionhebroughtachattyletterfromScherrer,offeringheratemporarypositioninhisinstitute.Althoughtheofferwasgenuineenough,itwasdesigned
primarilytokeepMeitnerawayfromRussia,somethingBergsurelydidnottellheratthetime.
5
Hetookherreply,apleasedbutcautious"maybe,"
6
backtoScherrer,
buthenever,itseems,hadanyintentionofdeliveringherlettertoHahn.TherecordshowsthathereaditandturneditovertotheOSS.
7
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HollandwasnotliberateduntilthefinalsurrenderinMay1945.ForfiveyearsGermanshadeatenDutchfoodandexploitedDutchlabor,killedHolland'sJews,and
broughtseveredeprivationtonearlyeveryoneelse.DirkCosterfirstcontactedLiseinJune1945.HewroteinEnglish,"notbeingabletousethelanguageofour
criminaloppressors,"andwithashakyhandtheyearsofseveremalnutritionandcoldhadworsenedhismultiplesclerosis."But,"hecontinued,"youcanhelpmeby
answeringmeinGermansothatIagainbecomeaccustomedtotheideathatitisstillusedbydecentandkindheartedpeoplealso....Forthreedaysstifffightingtook
placeinGroningen....Allourautomobilesarestolen.''
8
TheGermanoccupationhadcreatedthe"gravestdifficulties"fortheeducationoftheCosters'fourchildren
theiroldestson,Hans,auniversitystudent,hadbeeninprisonforatimebuttheyweregratefultobealive.Costerwroteagainafewweekslater.
Allisquitewellwithallofus,thoughfromtimetotimewehadanarrowescape.Ihopeyouwillnotthinkthatwedidanyimportantsocalledillegalworkbutwhensomething
cameinourdirectionwetriedtodoourdutyanddidnotevade....Hereinthenorthweneverhadrealhungerasinthebigcitiesinthewest.Agricultureismuchdevelopedhere
andthoughallgoodthingswerestolenbytheGermanbandits,therestillremainedenoughpotatoes,e.g.,tosaveusfromstarvation.Butinthe...westwiththeirdensepopulation
itwasmosthorribleandyoumaybelievealltheterriblestoriestold....Forusitwasnottobear:weknewourfriendsandrelativesweredyingfromhungerandtheGermanbandits
madeitimpossibleforustogiveanyhelp.Atanyratetheytriedtomakeitimpossiblebutneverthelesswesucceededfromtimetotimetodeceivethemandtosendfoodtosome
friends([Hendrik]Kramers,e.g.)andtothemanyrelativesIhave.Butittookallourenergyatdayandatnightyoucouldnotsleepattheideathatatsome100kmdistanceall
thoseterriblethingshappened....TheGermanshaveleftatotalvacuumhere,stolenthelocomotivesandrailwaywagons,themachineryofmanyfactories,blownupthebridges,
theharbourinstallations,andmanyfactories....IthinktheGermanpeoplewillrouseyourpity.ButIhopeyouwillnotforgetthatthepeopleasawhole(withtheexceptionofsome
fewasHahnandvonLaue)isguiltyofthehorriblecrimescommittedinthenameoftheReich.YesterdayIspokewithamanfromtheAmericanscientificmission[possiblySamuel
Goudsmit]
9
whohadbeeninGermany.TheGermanscientists,hesaid,areeagertoworkunderourdirection,theywilldoallwecommand.Butwearenotinterested:theyhave
prostitutedscienceonbehalfofthemostterriblecriminalswhoeverhadpower.Wewillhelpthemtorestoreeducation,theyneedphysiciansandthelike,butasfar
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aspuresciencethisdoesnot(concern)us.Don'tyouthinkhewasright?ButOttoHahnandvonLaue!IhopetheywillleaveGermanyinthenearfuture....Heisenbergwasina
scientificcommitteeduringwartimetostudythepossibilityofusingnuclearfissionforwarpurposes.DoyouunderstandthementalityofthemajorityoftheGermanscientists?
10
StefanMeyerandhiswifehadcomethroughthewarinBadIschl."Itisreallyamiracletobealive,"hewrotetoLise."Mywifeandmymotherinlawwereonthelist
tobedeporteduntiltheendofthewartheNazishadarrestordersformydaughterandmemybrother,aprofessorinPrague,andhissonandalargenumberof
relativesweremurderedinconcentrationcamps.Onedaresnotthinkaboutit.EverythingweownedinViennawasseizedandconfiscated,butwestillhadthehouse
inIschlandthatsavedus."MeyerreturnedtoViennaandtheRadiumInstitutein1945.
11
JulypassedwithoutawordfromOttoHahnorMaxvonLaue.InAugustLiseleftStockholmforthepeacefulcountrysidenearLeksand,Dalecarlia,whereshestayed
inasmallhotelnotfarfromthecountrycottageofGudmundandMagnhildBorelius.Noonedisturbedthelongsummereveningsbyturningontheradio,andtherefore
Lisedidnotlearnwhathadhappenedon6Augustuntilearlythenextday,whenalongdistancetelephonecalljarredthemorningquiet.Alarmedatfirst,shewas
momentarilyrelieved.ItwasnotarelativeorfriendbutareporterfromtheExpressen,aStockholmnewspaper.Thenhiswordsburnedthrough:"Thefirsturanium
bombhasbeenusedoverHiroshima,saidtobetheequivalentof20,000tonsofordinaryexplosives."
12
Stunned,Liseescapedtoopenair.Forfivehoursshewalked,oncountryroadsandfootpaths,throughwoodsandfields,alone.Laterthatday,perhapstocalm
herself,sherecordedindetailtherouteshehadtaken,butnotwhethersheweptorscreamedorkeptsilent.Whenshereturnedtoherhotel,shefoundastackof
telephonemessagesandareporterandphotographerfromanewspaperinLeksand.Hastilyshewroteabriefarticle
13
ascallsfromtheSwedishpressand
internationalnewsagenciespouredin."Alotofnonsensewillsurelybeprinted,"shenotedinherdiarythatnight."EveryoneItalkedtounderstoodnothingaboutit."
14
Lisespentthenextdaytryingtofendoffthepressandcorrecttheirmoreblatantmistakes.Botheffortswerefutilethepresswentafterherwithanintensitythat
borderedonassault.Reportersspentthenightinanearby
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boardinghouseandcampedonherdoorstep.Whenshetoldthemshecouldtellthemnothingaboutthebomb,theyinventedinterviewsmanycolumnslong,complete
with"stupid,tactlessstatements"shenevermade.
15
"Iwastooawkwardtogetridofthem,"shetoldHildeRosbaud."TheyfollowedmewhenItriedtoescape,and
neglectingallmyproteststookthesilliestsnapshots."
16
InoneSwedishnewspaperphoto,Liseisstandingnearagoatoutsideherhotelinanothersheis"discussing
atomicfission"withalocalwomaninpeasantdress.
17
Underthebannerheadline"FLEEINGJEWESS,''anarticledescribedhowLiseescapedfromHitlerwiththe
secretofthebombandgaveittotheAllies.
18
Besiegedwithrequests,LiseagreedtoaradiointerviewwithEleanorRooseveltinNewYorkonthenightof9August.Thatdaythesecondatomicbombdestroyed
Nagasaki.TheinterviewwentbadlyspeakingfromaradiostudioinLeksand,Lisewasexhaustedandtense."Nothingwastested.IdidnotknowhowloudIshould
speak,orhowclosetothemicrophonetobe.Mrs.R.began.IunderstoodonlyhalfofitandlostmycomposurewhenIanswered.Muchtoonearthemicrophone,
andtoosoft.Itwasquiteidiotic....Iwasinwardlyashamedofmyhelplessness."ThenexteveningshewenttoOskarandGerdaKleins'fordinnerandlistenedtoa
rebroadcast:"Horrible."
19
Butafewdayslater,LiseagreedtoanotherinterviewwithadifferentradiostationinNewYorkshewantedtocounterpressreportsthatHahnwasaNazi.Thistime
shewasbetterpreparedandtherewasasurprise:Lise'ssisterFrida,wholivedinNewYork,wasinthestudio.
20
Hearinghersister'svoiceforthefirsttimeinmany
years,shewasovercomewithanintenselongingforherfamily.
Lise'sfriendshadneverseenhersodistraught.Sheknewnoneoftheintricaciesofbombphysics,noneofthetricksthebombbuildershadusedtomultiplyneutronsor
thespecificsofbombassemblyordetonationshedidnotknowhowtheAmericanshadmanagedtoseparatethe
235
UtheyusedoverHiroshima,orthedetailsofthe
reactorthatbredtheplutoniumthatdestroyedNagasaki.Sheknewonlythatthesethingshadbeendoneandthatshehadbeenpresentatthebeginning.Shehadsplit
uraniumnucleiforfouryearswithoutknowingit,recognizedfission,explainedit,andcalculatedtheenergyreleasedshehadanticipatedthecreationofplutoniumby
showinghow
239
Uwasformedandthatitdecayedtoelement93,theprecursortoplutonium.Sheknewthephysicsbutcouldnot
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comprehendwhatithadcometo.Physicswouldneverbethesametheworldwouldneverbethesame.
Lisewastheunwillingcenterofamediacircusthatlastedforweeks.Asthepressavidlysoughtahumanfacefortheatomicbomb,shewasthecelebrityofchoice:the
"fleeingJewess,"thewomanscientistwhohadsnatchedthesecretofthebombfromHitleranddeliveredittotheAllies.Thiswasfiction,ofcourse,afablewhose
originscanbetracedtoanarticlewrittenin1940fortheSaturdayEveningPostbyWilliamL.Laurence,lateranesteemedsciencewriterfortheNewYorkTimes.
Inamixofgeewhizscienceanddocudrama,LaurencedescribedMeitnerstaringsadlyoutthetrainwindowonherwayfromBerlintoStockholmastheideaof
fissionbeganforminginhermindandtoldhowshetelegraphedtheideatoher"friend"OttoFrischinCopenhagenwhothencabledhis"fatherinlaw"NielsBohr,who
passeditontoscientistsinAmerica.
21
Afterthebombs,whenemotionswererunninghighandfactswereinshortsupply,the1940storywasresurrected,repeated,
andembellisheduntilMeitnerwasnothinglessthanthe"Jewishmotherofthebomb''wrongoneverycountandallaspectsofherprivateandprofessionallife,even
herlooks,clothes,andpersonalhabits,werefrontpagenews.
22
Manyyearsbefore,MaxPlancktoldLisehowupsethewaswheneverheinadvertentlygaveoutwronginformation,whetherinscientificpublicationsorcasual
conversation,sincedespitealleffortsatretraction,heknewthatatleastsomeuntruthwouldalwayspersist.
23
ThiscertainlyappliedtothestoryofLiseMeitnerand
thebomb:someofitwasroughlytrueshedidfleeGermany,sheandFrischdidtellBohr,BohrdidbringthenewsoffissiontoAmericabuttherestwaswrong
HahnandStrassmannwereusuallyleftout(orinsomeversionsmadeintoNazis),thechronologyofthediscoverywaswrong,itwasnotasecretatthetime,Meitner
wasneverinvolvedwithmakingabomb.ButasPlanckwouldhavepredicted,thestorywastoodramaticandfartooappealingevertocompletelydisappear.
24
Lisewasstungbythedisregardforthetruth,embarrassedamonghercolleagues,andunhappytofindherselfembracedbytheJewishcommunity,forwhichshefeltno
specialaffiliation."Ifeellikeanimposter,"sheconfidedtoFrida,"whenAmericanJews(orfrommypointofviewoneshouldsayJewishAmericans)praiseme
especially,becauseIamofJewishdescent.IamnotJewishbybelief,knownothingofthehistoryofJudaism,
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anddonotfeelclosertoJewsthantootherpeople.Andjustnow,whenonewishessostronglythatallracialprejudicebeeliminatedfromtheworld,isn'tit
unfortunateifJewsthemselvesdocumentsuchracialprejudice?"
25
Inthelimelightshefeltherlonelinessmoreacutelythanbefore.Knowneverywhere,shebelongednowhere:isolatedfromphysics,farfromfamily,a"Jew"whowas
notJewish,anAustrianexiledfromGermanytoSweden,apersonwithnorealhome."Ilivehereamongpeoplesomeofwhomareveryfriendlytome,buttheydo
notspeakmylanguageinthedeepersenseoftheword.Ialwaysfeelhomeless."
26
AttheendofAugust1945,HildeRosbaudwrotethatPaulwasalive.
27
FromBerlin,PaulhimselfwroteeuphoricallytoLise.
Ihaveexperiencedthegreatesttriumphofmylife:Iexist,andthosewhowishedtoexterminateusallhavevanishedforever....Thegreatesthappinessforme,ofcourse,istobein
contactwithmywifeanddaughteragain....IcanhardlyexpresshowthankfulIamforeverylineyouwrotetometheselastyears.Formeeveryletterwasamessagefromanother
andbetterworld,andyouhelpedmetoholdonandnevertolosecourage.
28
InDecemberanexhaustedandstarvedPaulRosbaudwassmuggledoutofBerlinbytheBritishandjoinedhisfamilyinLondon.
29
OttoHahnandMaxvonLauewerealreadyinEngland,butnotvoluntarily.TheyandeightotherscientistshadbeentakenintocustodybyAlsos,anAmerican
intelligencemissionchargedwithfindinganddisablingtheGermanfissionproject.TheAlsosscientificgroup,ledbytheDutchbornphysicistSamuelGoudsmit,entered
southernGermanywiththefirstAlliedtroopsinlate1944andquicklylearnedthattheGermanprojectposednoimmediatethreatnobomb,notevenacritical
reactor.ByApril1945,theAlsosgrouphadlocatedanddismantledanunfinishedreactorinHaigerloch,trackeddownHeisenberginBavaria,andfoundHahnathis
instituteinTailfingenandMaxvonLaueandCarlFriedrichvonWeizsckerinnearbyHechingen.Altogether,tenscientistswereroundedupandtakentoFarmHall,a
comfortablecountryestatenearCambridgethatwaswiredthroughoutwithhiddenmicrophonesinpreparationforthedistinguishedprisoners.Thereasonsfortheir
"detainment"(Hahnlikedthatterm)wereneverfullyspecified.OriginallytheywereseizedtostoptheirworkandtokeepthemfromtheRussiansandalso,giventhe
leftwingreputationofFrdricJoliot,awayfromtheFrenchwhowereaboutto
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occupysouthernGermany.TheFarmHall"guests"(theBritishofficerinchargeenjoyedthatterm)wouldbereleasedonlyattheendof1945,whenconditionsin
GermanywerebetterandtheywereconsideredunlikelytosuccumbtoSovietenticementsontheirreturn.
30
InSeptember1945,LiselearnedthatHahnwasinEnglandandalsothatEdithHahnwaswell,Hannomarried,andthePlanckssafe."NaturallyIdon'tknowifyouare
allowedtowritetomeitwouldmakemeveryhappy,"shewrote,worriedthatOtto'slongsilencewasduetothecriticallettershesentinJune."Ihopeyou
understoodthatinspiteofsomeharshsoundingthingsIsaidabouttheGermansituationthatitwasintendedinthesincerestfriendshipforyou....Ihaveheardnothing
fromthePlanckssinceFebruary,butIhaveheardthattheyarenowintheAmericanzoneandsoIhopethatthingsarenotsohardforthemnow.Itistrue,isn'tit,that
theirsonwastorturedtodeathbytheNazis?Thatpooroldman,thathehadtolivetoexperiencethat!"
31
ErwinPlanck,aformerundersecretaryinthegovernment,
hadbeeninclosecommunicationwithsomeoftheleadingplottersintheabortiveattempttoassassinateHitlerinJuly1944.Hewasarrestedandtortured,and
althoughatonepointhisfamilywastoldtoexpecthisrelease,hewashung,inanexceptionallycruelway,inthePltzenseeprisoninBerlinon23February1945.
32

WithErwin'sdeath,Planckhadlostallfourchildrenfromhisfirstmarriage.
HearingfromLisemadeOtto"especiallyhappy."HehadnotreceivedherJuneletter.(MoeBergwasannoyedthatshefoundout."It'sfuntobedoublecrossedlike
this,"hecomplainedtohiscommandingofficer.''Whydidn'ttheLondonpeoplecensorMeitner'slatterlettertoHahniftheysawfittodeliverit?")
33
Hahnexplained,
Wewerereallycompletelyshutofffromtheoutsideworld.IfoundoutthatHannogotmarriedonlylongafterwards.Howyouknowofitisapuzzletome.Personallywearefine,
thatiseating,drinking,livingspace.Neverthelesswearestillcarefullyguardedandnaturallywearenotpermittedtoleavethehouseandthepartofthegardentowhichweare
assigned....IheardfromEdithtwicesinceApril.IamverygladthatHannoandIlse[Hanno'swife]arelivingwithher,shecouldn'tmakeitalone.IfonlyIcouldsendthemsomeof
ourgoodfood.InthelastfewmonthsHannohaslost30pounds.Heisbynomeanscompletelyhealthyandunderthecurrentconditionscannotgetenoughtoeat.IntheFrench
zoneitisdifferentfromtheAngloSaxonzoneswhichdonotrequisitionfoodfromourland,whichhasbeenbleddry.
34
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OttocertainlyknewthatGermanyhadstrippedeverycountryitoccupiedoffood,labor,andresourceshissuggestionthatGermanywasnowunjustlybeing"bleddry"
didnotescapeLise.
35
Abouttheatomicbombs,HahnhadlittletosayexceptthattheFarmHallscientistshadallbeen"tremendouslysurprised."
Infact,theyhadbeenincredulous,thenshockedandchagrined.Atfirst,earlyontheeveningof6August,Heisenbergwassuretheannouncementwasfalse,just
Americanpropaganda.(ThosewhofirstreadthesecretlyrecordedFarmHallconversationstookHeisenberg'sutterdisbeliefasevidenceofhisarroganceandhow
farbehindtheGermanfissionprojectactuallywas.)"IftheAmericansreallyhaveauraniumbomb,"Hahnremarked,"thenyou'reallsecondraters.Poorold
Heisenberg."
36
Laterthatevening,whenthescientistsrealizedthereportwasgenuine,theirreactionsvariedgreatly.WaltherGerlach,aphysicistwhohadenjoyedthe
titlePlenipotentiaryforNuclearPhysicsunderReichmarshalHermannGring(BevollmchtigterdesReichsmarschallsfrKernphysik),actedlikea"defeatedgeneral,"
wenttohisroom,andsobbed.MaxvonLaueexpressedreliefthathehadneverbeenpartofthefissionproject,Hahnthathehadnotconstructedabomb.
37
Others,
especiallytheyoungerphysicists,wereveryupset.AsBritishofficerslistenedonhiddenmicrophones,recriminationsflew:theyhadbeenhamperedbythelackof
cooperationandleadership,byinsufficientgovernmentsupport,bytheheavyAlliedbombingthatdisruptedtheirresearch.
Thenextmorning(asLiseMeitnerwaswanderingtheSwedishcountryside)theFarmHallscientistslearnedfromthenewspapersthattheAllieshadseparated
235
Uon
ascaletheyhadneverattemptedthreedayslater,aftertheplutoniumNagasakibomb,theyrealizedthattheAllieshadproducedelement94inquantity,which
requiredaworkingreactor.Theythemselveshadnevercomeclosetoseparating
235
U,neverisolatedelements93or94inquantity,neverdeterminedtheirchemical
propertiesortestedthemforfissibility,neverevenbroughttheir"uraniummachine"(reactor)toaselfsustainingchainreaction,somethingEnricoFermiandhisgroup
hadachievedinChicagoin1942.
AsGermans,theyweredefeatedandtaintednowtheywerefailuresasscientistsaswell.Withinhoursanexplanationbegantotakeform.OnHiroshimanight,Carl
FriedrichvonWeizsckersuggested,"Ibelievewedidn'tdoitbecauseallthephysicistsdidn'twanttodoit,onprinciple.If
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wehadallwantedGermanytowinthewarwewouldhavesucceeded.""Idon'tbelievethat,"Hahnresponded,"butI'mthankfulwedidn'tsucceed."
38
Outofearshot
oneoftheyoungerphysicists,ErichBagge,objectedangrily,"IthinkitisabsurdforWeizsckertosayhedidn'twantthethingtosucceed.Thatmaybesoinhiscase,
butnotforallofus."
39
AbsurdasWeizscker'ssuggestionmayhavebeen,itwasalsoexceedinglyattractive.Byimplyingcouldhavealongwithwouldnot,itturnedGermanscientific
shortcomingsintoevidenceofmoralscruples:nowtheAmericanswerethemassmurderersandtheGermanslate,atleastwithrespecttofission,waswipedclean.
ThewhiffofmoralsuperiorityinfuriatedthosewhofirstreadtheFarmHalltranscripts.JustbeforetheAlsosmissionenteredGermany,SamuelGoudsmithadgoneto
theruinsofhisboyhoodhomeinTheHagueandlearnedhowhisparentshadbeentakenawaytotheirdeaths.HecouldnotcomprehendhowamanlikeHeisenberg
couldhavestayedinGermanyandworkedonfission,andhedidnotbelievethatHeisenbergandtheotherswouldnothavecreatedaweaponiftheycould.Goudsmit
wasconvincedthattheGermanscientistshadtriedhard,knownlittle,andaccomplishedlessheattributedittothecontrolofscienceandrepressionofintellectby
theNazisandthatanythingtheysaidtothecontrarywasaselfservingattempttoexplainawaytheirlackofscientificprogressandabsenceofmoralscruples.
40
Inaprotractedpublicdebate,Heisenberglaterinsistedthathehadbeenscientificallysuccessfulandethicallyuncompromised,astancelaterhistorianshavetermeda
"postwarapologia."
41
Heisenberg'swartimedilemmasmighthavebeenbetterunderstoodoutsideGermanyifhehadbeenmorecandidafterthewar.HisAmerican
biographernotesthattheeffortbyHeisenbergandhissupporters"todistancethemselvesfromtheNaziregimewhileatthesametimeclaimingtheyhaddonegreatbut
harmlessworkunderit"wasapositionalmostimpossibletomaintain.
42
SucheffortswereendemicinpostwarGermany.SodeliberatelyandsopervasivelydidGermansturnawayfromtheirpastthattheysoonbelievedthattheywere
responsiblefornothingandthattheywerethemselvesvictims,oftheNazisandthewar.SuchwilledamnesiamayhavehelpedGermanscometogetherforthe
rebuildingprocess,butoutsideGermanyotherscouldnotgoonwithouttryingtounderstand,oratleastexamine,thementalityandbehaviorthathadsohorrifiedthe
world.Thefactthat
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nearlyallGermans,even"good"Germans,hadnodesiretodothesamecreatedanenormouspsychologicalgulfbetweenthemandnonGermans,andeventually
betweenthoseGermanswhoexperiencedtheThirdReichandthegenerationthatfollowed.
43
InJune1945,whenLiseurgedOttoandhiscolleaguestoopenlyadmit
theirpassivityandexaminetheirresponsibility,shewasaskingthemtotakethefirststepstonarrowthatgulf.OttoHahn'sgenerationassumedtherighttoforgive
themselvesandsuppressthememoryofwhathadbeendonetoothers,bythemandintheirname.Theywishedonlytoforgetandignore,andthegulfremainedopen.
ThecontroversyovertheGermanfissionprojectisaprimeexample.AfterthedeathsofhundredsofthousandsofciviliansinHiroshimaandNagasaki,manyAllied
scientistsexperiencedgreatmoralanguishoverthefactthattheyhadbeenwillingtobuildweaponswithouteverbeinginapositiontocontroltheiruse.Theywere
appalledtoseenoevidenceofcomparablesoulsearchingamongtheirGermancounterparts,onlysmugselfcongratulationfornothavingbuiltanatomicbombandan
apparentlackofcandorabouthowhardtheytried.Asaresult,thecontroversycontinuestothisday,flaringinstantlywitheachnewsetoffactsorinterpretation.
44
In
Germany,especially,thelegendofheroicGermanscientistswhorefusedtobuildabombpersists
45
inthatveinoneAmericanwriterhasrecentlysuggestedthat
Heisenberg'ssteeplearningcurveafterHiroshimaindicatesthatheunderstoodagreatdealandevenconcealedwhatheknewduringthewartoavoidbuildingabomb
forHitler.
46
Othersseethetruthasclosertotheexactreverse:tothem,Heisenberg'sinitialdisbeliefandwrongguessesinFarmHallshowthatheunderstood
relativelylittleofreactorconstructionandhadnorealideaofbombphysicsuntilhegleanedkeyparametersfromthenewspapers.
47
Stillothershaveanalyzedthe
GermanfissionprojectindetailandfoundnoevidencethatHeisenbergdeliberatelyhinderedtheGermanfissionprojectorindeedthathehadmuchcontroloverit
thesehistoriansregardthelegendofheroicresistanceasanoutgrowthofthe"oldapologeticstory"thatwasborninFarmHallimmediatelyafterthewar.
48
TheFarmHalltranscripts,recentlymadepublic(presumablyinfull)afternearlyfiftyyears,donotshedmuchnewlightonthetangledissuesofcompetenceandintent.
Buttheconversationsamongthescientists,recordedoveraneightmonthperiod,dorevealtheirintensenationalism,thoroughlypermeatedwiththestandardsofthe
ThirdReich.Themen
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appearatoncenaiveandcallous,devoidofhistoricalsensibility,unabletoseetheconnectionbetweenGermany'saggressionanditsultimatedefeat.Inthetranscripts
WeizsckercomplainsrighteouslyaboutEnglishairraidskillingGermanwomenandchildren,asifGermanyhadneverbombedBritain
49
Hahnadmitshehadhoped
forGermany'sdefeatbutneverimaginedsuch"terribletragedy"forhiscountry
50
HeisenbergsuspectstheAllieswerefearfulofbeingattackedbytheRussians"justas
wewereattacked[sic]"
51
GerlachexpresseshisdisapprovaloftheNazisbutwishesneverthelessthatthefissionprojecthadsucceededandGermanyhadwonthe
war.
52
Afterlisteningformonths,theBritishofficerincharge,MajorT.H.Rittner,commentedonhisguests'"inbornconceit"
53
andtheirgeneralattitude,which"seem
[ed]tobethattheGermanwarwasamisfortuneforcedontheGermansbythemalignancyoftheWesternPowers,whoshouldbynowhaveforgottenthatithad
takenplace(theguestsseemtohavedoneso)andthattheUnitedNationsshouldallbelargelyconcernedtosetGermanyonherfeetagain."
54
Thescientistsallknewofmurdersandatrocities,butagaintherecordshowsreactionsthatarecuriouslyflat.PaulHarteckthinksGoudsmitisunlikelytohelpgetthem
outofFarmHallbecause"Goudsmitcan'tquitegetawayfromthefactthatwekilledhisparents"
55
HeisenbergtellshowhehadbeenaskedtohelpfivePolishand
Belgianscientistswho"weremurderedbyourpeople"KarlWirtzrecognizesthatGermansdidthings"uniqueintheworld,"murderingJewsinPolandandmurdering
Polishhighschoolgirlsto"wipeouttheintelligentsia."
56
YetnoonedisagreeswhenErichBaggelikenstheirinternmenttoGermanatrocities:"IfHitlerorderedafew
atrocitiesinconcentrationcampsduringthelastfewyears,onecanalwayssaythattheseweredoneunderthestressofwarbutnowwehavepeace...andtheycan't
dothesamethingstousnow.''
57
DuringWorldWarI,OttoHahnworkedwithpoisongases,withtheresult(helaterwrote)that"ourmindsweresonumbedthatwenolongerhadanyscruplesabout
thewholething."
58
Intheirrecordedconversations,theFarmHallscientistsappearsimilarlynumbed.Theyknewtheircountryhadinitiatedworldwarandcommitted
unimaginablecrimes,yettheyfeltnothing:nogrief,noresponsibility,noshame.
SeveralscientistsexpressedhorroroverHiroshima,butonlyLaueseemedtounderstandthatGermanyitselfhadunleashedthefearandhatethatproducedthebomb.
"The...migrs'passionatehatredofHitler
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was...thethingthatsetitallinmotion,"hewrotetohissonTheo,afterlearningthatGermanimmigrantsinEnglandhadbeenthefirsttobringatomicenergytothe
attentionofBritishmilitaryauthorities.
59
Otherswereunabletomakesuchconnectionstheywerethinkingalongdifferentlines.Intheearlypartofthewar,whentheplutoniumalternativewasfirstconsidered,
Weizscker,thesonofadiplomat,hadtheideaofgoingtoHitlerandtellinghimaboutatomicbombs,intheexpectationthatHitlerwouldbesensibleandstopthewar
beforethingsgotoutofhand.
60
WeizsckerneverdidtalktoHitler,buthestillthoughtofhimselfassomeoneclosetopower,andevenattheendofthewar,hestill
thoughtHitler'sGermanywouldhaveasalvageablemorallegacy.InFarmHall,onedayafterHiroshima,heannounced,"HistorywillrecordthattheAmericansand
theEnglishmadeabomb,andthatatthesametimetheGermans,undertheHitlerregime,producedaworkablemachine[criticalreactor].Inotherwords,the
peacefuldevelopmentoftheuraniummachinewasmadeinGermanyundertheHitlerregime,whereastheAmericansandtheEnglishdevelopedthisghastlyweaponof
war."
61
Weizsckerwasmistakenabouthistory'seventualjudgmentofHitler'sGermany,andhisstatementwasfactuallyfalse:Germanscientiststriedbutneverachieveda
criticalreactor,andtheywerewellawarethatoncetheyhadareactoritwouldnotonlysupplyenergytofurtherthewareffortbutcouldbeusedtobreedelement94
(plutonium)foraweapon.Inabriefmemorandumwrittenon8Augustandintendedasapressrelease,theFarmHallscientistscloselyfollowedWeizscker'sline,
refutingBritishpressreportsthattheyhadworkedonabomb,stressinghowclosetheyhadcometoacriticalreactor,sayinglittleoftheireffortstoseparate
235
Uand
nothingabouttheplutoniumalternative.
62
Theyoungerscientistsrefusedtogoalongatfirst,presumablybecausemuchoftheirresearchwasomitted,butHeisenberg
urgedthemtosign,andsolidarityprevailed.TheystillthoughttheirreactorexpertisewasmoreadvancedthantheAlliesitwastheironebargainingchip,and
Heisenbergsawthe"possibilityofmakingmoney."
63
ThenextdaytheylearnedthattheAllieswerewayahead,havingproducedandseparatedenoughplutoniumfor
thebomboverNagasaki.
WithitsdescriptionofGermansengagedinpeacefulatomicresearchintimeofwar,the8Augustmemorandummarksthebeginningofthe"mythoftheGermanatomic
bomb."
64
AlthoughMaxvonLauehadnot
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participatedintheGermanfissionproject,hebelievedtheothers,agreedwiththememorandum,andsignedit.
65
Manyyearslater,inalettertoPaulRosbaud,Laue
repudiateditasaLesartliterallya"reading,"orversionofthefactsthatwasnotactuallytrue."TheLesartwasdevelopedthattheGermanatomicphysicistsreally
hadnotwantedtheatomicbomb,eitherbecauseitwasimpossibletoachieveitduringtheexpecteddurationofthewarorbecausetheysimplydidnotwanttohaveit
atall.TheleaderinthesediscussionswasWeizscker.Ididnothearthementionofanyethicalpointofview.Heisenbergwasmostlysilent."
66
Thememorandumof8AugustwasnottheonlyLesarttocomeoutofFarmHall.AfterHiroshima,OttoHahnwasdistressedtoseeLiseMeitner'snameinallthe
newspapersatypicalarticleon7August,headlined"AJewessFoundtheClue,"attributedthediscoveryoffissiontoherandnevermentionedhim.
67
"Inpartuntrue
reportsaboutthediscovery,"henotedgloomily."EspeciallyatfirstLiseMeitnerplayedabigroleinitImyselfwasnotmentioned."
68
Thepressinaccuracieswere
annoyingbecauseHahnandtheentireFarmHallgroupwereanxioustoclaimthatpureresearch,includingthediscoveryoffission,wasintheGermandomain.An
addendumtothejointmemorandumof8Augustpointedlystatesthat"ProfessorMeitnerhadleftBerlinahalfyearpriortothediscoveranddidnotparticipateinthe
discovery."
69
OnthesamedayHahnexpandedthisintoasecondmemorandumthatwasasmuchaLesartasthefirst.
AslongasProf.MeitnerwasinGermanythefissionofuraniumwasoutofthequestion.Itwasconsideredimpossible.Basedonextensivechemicalinvestigationsofthechemical
elementswhichresultedfromirradiatinguraniumwithneutrons,HahnandStrassmannwereforcedtoassumebytheendof1938thatintheseprocessesuraniumsplitsintotwo
pieces,ofwhichonepiece,thechemicalelementbarium,wasdeterminedwithcertainty.
TheproductionofbariumfromuraniumwascommunicatedtoProf.MeitnerinStockholminanumberoflettersevenbeforepublicationinGermany.WithhernephewDr.O.R.
FrischsheexplainedtheexperimentalfindingsofHahnandStrassmann,the"nuclearfission"whichhadpreviouslybeenthoughtimpossible.
70
AboutMeitner'scontributionsbeforeleavingBerlin,Hahnsaidnotaword,excepttorepeatthatfissionwasconsideredimpossiblewhileshewasthere.(Infact,the
ideaofnucleisplittingwasnotconsideredatall.)Hedidnotactuallysay,butstronglyimplied,thatMeitnerhaddonenothinginBerlinexceptpreventfissionfrombeing
discoveredsooner.
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Thiswasthesummerof1945.ItcouldhavebeenatimeforHahntoreflectonthepastandsettherecordstraight:atimetorememberMeitner'sintellectualleadership
oftheBerlinteam,theinjusticeofherforcedemigration,hercrucialcriticisminCopenhagen,thefactthatherparticipationintheuraniumproject,scarcelydiminished
byherabsence,continueduntilthediscoveryofbariumandbeyond.Instead,HahnwasrestatingtheversionofthediscoveryhefirstexpressedinFebruary1939:that
heandStrassmann"nevertoucheduponphysics,butonlydidchemicalseparationsoverandoveragain."
71
In1939,Hahnmadeitclearthatfearforhisprofessional
survivaldrovehimtopullthediscoveryoutofitsphysicscontextandtodistancehimselffromLiseMeitner.Butin1945thewarwasoverandtheThirdReichgone.
Whywashestillpushingheraway?
Hahnwascallingonfissiontoserveagainnotjusthimselfthistime,buthisdefeatedcountry.Hewasfamous,andfissionwasmoresensationalthanever.Hewould
usetheimportanceofthediscoveryandhispersonalprestigetocallattentiontoGermany'smiseryandrebuildGermanscience.Hesawnopurposeinlookingbackto
theinjusticesoftheThirdReichhefeltnopersonalnecessitytomakeamends.Hewantedthediscoverytobehis,alone.AndGermany's.
Intheyearsahead,HahnwouldbecomeamajorpublicfigureinGermany.Tirelesslyhewouldrepeathisversionofthediscovery,incountlessinterviews,articles,
reminiscences,andmemoirs,scarcelyreviewingthescientificliteratureandnever,apparently,checkinghis"memory"againstcorrespondenceorpersonaldiaries.In
time,hisLesartwouldassumealifeofitsown.Followersandassociatesnoneclosetothediscovery,andnonewithfirsthandknowledgewouldechohis
contentionthatphysicsandMeitnerhadnothingtodowiththediscoveryoffission.Fission,theywouldinsist,hadbeendiscoveredbythechemistsinspiteofthe
physicist.
72
AmongthemostardentsupportersofHahn'sLesartwouldbeseveralmembersoftheFarmHallfraternity:ErichBagge,WaltherGerlach,Heisenberg,and
Weizscker.FarmHallhadforgedthemintoanexceedinglyloyalgrouptheywouldspeakwithonevoiceaboutfissionanditsdevelopment.Theirmessagewas
simple:thediscoveryoffissionbelongedtochemistry,toHahn,andtoGermany.IncreatingascientificheroforthenewGermany,theyelevatedHahnandset
Strassmanntooneside.A
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detailed,openexaminationofthesciencewasneverontheiragenda:itwouldhaveexposedtheinterdisciplinarityofthediscoveryandtheinjustice,fear,and
dishonestyofthattime.Mostespecially,LiseMeitnerwasnottobepartofthehistorytheywereconstructing.Withrespecttoher,aswithsomuchelse,they
abandonedwhateverstandardsofjusticeandfairnesstheymayoncehavehad.
Thusthefalsificationofmemoryandreality
73
thatbeganundertheNazispersistedlongaftertheThirdReichwasgone.Strassmann,Laue,andMeitneroccasionally
spokeout,butinGermanyitwasextremelydifficulttocounterthephenomenonofOttoHahn.Elsewhereitwasnotmucheasier,inpartbecausethe1944NobelPrize
forthediscoverywasawardedtoHahnalone.AnnouncedjustafterthewarthetimingwasperfectforHahn'sagendatheNobelPrizewouldstampOttoHahn
withthescientificcommunity'smostprestigioussealofapprovalandtherebycementhisLesartintothehistoricalrecord.
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ChapterFourteen
SuppressingthePast
IfthebestGermansdonotunderstandnowwhathashappenedandwhatmustneverhappenagain,whoshouldinstructyoungpeoplethatthepaththatwastriedwastragicfor
Germanyandtheworld?
AutumnisNobelseasoninSweden.SpeculationbeginsinOctober,buildstoaflurryofNovemberannouncements,andendsinaglitteringroyalceremonyeach10
December,theanniversaryofthedeathofAlfredNobel.In1945,rumorsfloatedforweeksthatLiseMeitnerwouldshareinoneoranotheroftheprizes.On16
November,theRoyalAcademyofSciencesannounceditsNobeldecisions:the1944chemistryprizetoOttoHahnandthe1945physicsprizetoWolfgangPauli.
AtFarmHalltheGermanscientistscelebrated,raisingtheirglassestoOttoHahn.
1
ButinSweden,Lise'sfriendswerefurious.
2
Theyviewedherexclusionasneither
omissionnoroversightbutdeliberatepersonalrejection,theworkofManneSiegbahn.FromGteborg,HansPetterssonwroteangrily,"[We]areindignantaboutthe
onesidednessofthedistributionoftheNobelPrize.WearecertainlygladthatHahngotthechemistryprize,butbyallrightsthephysicsprizeshouldhavegoneto
you.IpersonallyamquitesurethatthiswouldhavebeenthecasehadnotSweden'smostpracticedkrokbenslggare[onewhopullsothersdown,i.e.,Siegbahn]
beenagainstit,fordarkreasonsofprestige."
3
BoreliusandKlein,certainthatSiegbahnhadkeptMeitnerfromthephysicsprize,regardedherasavictimof"royal
Swedishjealousy[kungligaSvenskaavundsjuka]."
4
TheinjusticewasapparentbeyondLise'simmediatecircle.BirgitBroomAminoff,ascientistherselfandthewifeofaprominentmineralogistontheboardofthe
NobelFoundation,wrote,
Longbeforethereleaseofnuclearenergyhadbeenrealizedonapracticalscale,itseemedtomethatProfessorMeitnerhadreachedastatusequivalent
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tothatofmanyNobelPrizerecipients.Itmustthereforehavebeenverybitterthatforcompletelyunrelatedreasonsyouwereforcedtoleavethelaboratorywherethenow
rewardeddiscoverywassoclose,andtherebylostthepossibilitytocompleteaworkwhichpromisedtobethenaturalclimaxofalonganddevotedcareerasascientist.
5
Liseresponded,
SurelyHahnfullydeservedtheNobelPrizeinchemistry.Thereisreallynodoubtaboutit.ButIbelievethatFrischandIcontributedsomethingnotinsignificanttotheclarification
oftheprocessofuraniumfissionhowitoriginatesandthatitproducessomuchenergy,andthatwassomethingveryremotefromHahn.ForthisreasonIfounditabitunjust
thatinthenewspapersIwascalledaMitarbeiterinofHahn'sinthesamesensethatStrassmannwas.Yourletter,therefore,wasadoublepresentawarm,understandingwordcan
meansomuch.Athousandthanksforit.
6
Thepresscoveragehadaddedinsulttoinjury.Justthreemonthsbefore,SwedishnewspaperscouldhardlygetenoughofMeitnernowifshewasmentionedatall,it
wasasHahn'smedarbetare
7
atermthatinSwedish,German(Mitarbeiter),orEnglish(coworker)meansajuniorassociate,asubordinate.
8
"ThearticleinD[agens]N[yheter],[aleadingStockholmnewspaper]wasalmostinsulting,"LisewrotetoEvavonBahrBergius."Really,Iwasneverjusta
MitarbeiterofHahn'sIam,afterall,aphysicist,andhaven'tIdoneafewquitedecentphysicalthings?IknowsomethingabouttheparticularsofthedecidingNobel
sessionandhopetobeabletotellyouaboutitsometimeinperson."
9
Detailsofthephysicssessionsmayneverbefullyknown,butfromcontemporaryaccountsitisevidentthatthechemistrydeliberationswerestormy.Afterthewarthe
Nobelchemistrycommitteevotedtoreconsiderits1944awardtoHahnanunprecedentedmove,andevidencethattheoriginaldecisionwasflawed.OskarKlein,
newlyelectedtotheRoyalAcademy,
10
providedBohrwiththedetails.InSeptember1945,KleinwrotethatBohrwouldsurelybe"pleasedtohear"thatthe
chemistrycommitteeandklass(section)hadjustvotedtopostponedistributionofthe1944prizeforayear,toassessthecontributionsthatothershadmadetothe
discoveryoffission.
11
AccordingtoKlein,TheSvedberg,amemberofthechemistrycommittee,andArneWestgren,anacademymember,"stronglypointedout"that
thefoundationforthecommittee's1944
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decisionhadchangedwithnewinformationfromAmericaandFranceregardingMeitnerandFrisch'scontributionsandalsothenewimportanceofMeitnerandHahn's
earlierdiscoveryof
239
U,precursortoplutonium.Butlater,insessionsoftheacademyasawhole,therewasresistancetoamendinganearlierdecision.Itwasargued
thatWestgrenandSvedberghadreversedtheir1944position(whichtheyadmitted)andthatthefieldwastoocomplextoevaluatefullyKleinsuspectedanimportant
factorwastheacademy'sdesiretoavoidtheappearanceofyieldingtoAmericaninfluence.InthefinalplenarysessioninNovember1945,aslimmajorityvotedto
leavetheawardunchanged,toHahnalone.
12
Thevotewasproceduralratherthansubstantive:Strassmann'srolewasnotconsidered,norwastheeffectofMeitner's
forcedseparationfromtheBerlinteam,norwasthefactthatherphysicalmeasurementsinBerlinpermittedBohrtodeduce,shortlyafterthefissiondiscovery,that
235
Uundergoesfissionwiththermalneutrons.QuitepossiblythedecisiontostaywithHahnwasalsoconstrainedbytheNobelthreepersonrule:ifMeitnerjoined
Hahn,itwouldbedifficulttoexcludeStrassmannandFrisch.
13
Thediscussionsthattookplacein1945illustratethecomplexityofevaluatinganinterdisciplinarydiscovery,giventhestatutoryrequirementsoftheNobelawards,the
jurisdictionaldivisionbetweenchemistryandphysics,andthevariousprecedentsthathadgrownovertime.
14
Incontrast,the1944decisionappearstobeimpulsive
anduninformed.OnewondersaboutthehastetoawardtheprizetoHahnatatimewhenitcouldnotbeannounced,orevenmentioned,withoutendangeringhim.One
wondersalsohowthechemistsontheNobelcommitteecouldhavemissedStrassmann'scontributionsitappearstheymistakenlyregardedhimasalatecomertothe
investigation
15
andwhytheyignoredMeitner'srole,giventhatTheSvedberghadalreadynominatedHahnandMeitnerforthechemistryprizein1939.
16
In1944,itseems,Hahnwassimplythesentimentalfavorite:histimehadcome.
17
Becausethecommitteewordeditscitationforhisachievementsinradiochemistry
andthediscoveryoffissiontorecognizeallofHahn'sscientificcareerandnotjustthefissiondiscovery,Meitnerandotherscouldnothelpbutagreethathe"fully
deserved"it,butthechemistrycommittee,notrecognizingthatfissionwouldbetheoverwhelmingfocusoftheaward,completelyfailedtoexaminetheextenttowhich
analyticalchemistryandphysicshadcontributedtoit.
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In1944,theremayalsohavebeenapoliticaledge:atatimewhentheiroldculturaltiestoGermanywerecrumbling,Swedescouldstilltakeprideinhonoringaman
likeOttoHahn.
18
Andtheyvaluedhimpersonally,asacolleagueandfriendwhohadbeenDoktorvatertoSwedishscientistsandawelcomevisitortoSwedish
universitiesandinstitutesin1943,hehadbeenelectedaforeignmemberoftheRoyalAcademyofSciencesandhadcometoSwedentolectureonfissionin
StockholmandGteborg.
19
The1944Nobeldecisionfollowedsoonafter.Perhapsitisnotsurprisingthatthechemistrycommittee'sviewoffissioncoincidedso
exactlywithOttoHahn's.Onlywhentheattentionoftheworldwasrivetedonfissionin1945didtheyhavesecondthoughtsandbegintoseriouslyevaluatethe
science.
Muchlater,someofHahn'sassociatescontendedthatthedisputeoverhisawardin1945waspurelypolitical,motivatedbyanimositytowardGermanyandrevulsion
againsttheuseofnuclearweapons.
20
ThereisnoevidenceforthisinKlein'sreportstoBohr.Onthecontrary,itappearsthatthe1944decisionwasswayedby
personalityandpolitics,whilethe1945votetopostponewasabelatedefforttoproperlysortoutthescience.Underlyingtheirchangeofheart,Kleinbelieved,was
"thechemists'desiretoeraseapossiblebadimpressioninthechoiceofHahn."
21
KleinwasdismayedthattheacademyelectedtostaywithHahn,takingitasamajorsetbackforMeitner.Hethoughtitunlikelythatanotherchemistryprizewouldgo
tofissionandregardedSiegbahn'sinfluenceinthephysicscommitteeandklassasa"dangerousobstacle"toaprizeinphysics.
22
Nevertheless,KleinhopedBohr
wouldsubmitanomination:"Iregarditasafairness,aneededrehabilitationaftertheunderestimationinanycaseonthepartoftheSwedishphysiciststhatshehas
hadtoputupwith(andperhapsisstillexposedto)andtowhichHahn'sreferencestoherandFrisch'sachievementsundoubtedlycontributed,whileshehasalways
beenfairtoHahninallherpublications."
23
Bohrwasoftheopinionthatthe1944chemistryprizeforfissionshould"innoway"preventMeitnerandFrischfrom
receivingaphysicsprize.HenominatedMeitnerandFrischforphysicsin1946andchemistryin1947and1948,tonoavail.
24
Lise'sfriendswereconvincedshe
wouldhavesharedinoneoranotheroftheNobelPrizeshadsheemigratedtoanyotherplacebutSweden.
25
Afterthefuroroverthe1945prizessubsided,Meitner'sfriendsweredeterminedtofindapositionforheroutsideofSiegbahn'sinstitute.GudmundBoreliuswas
proposinganewfacilityfornuclearphysicsatthe
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RoyalInstituteofTechnologyhewantedMeitnertojoinhimthere,possiblyinajointappointmentwithKleinatStockholmUniversity.
26
Thiswasnotmerelyanact
offriendshipbutanefforttomobilizeresourcesforthedevelopmentofnuclearenergy,afieldthathadscarcelybeentouchedinSwedenduringthewar,notleast
becauseofthereluctancetoincludeMeitnerinthemilitary/scientificestablishment.AsshewasabovethemandatorySwedishretirementageofsixtyfive,however,
suchanappointmentwouldrequirespecialapprovalfromparliament,butthegovernmentwasnewlysupportiveofnuclearresearchandtherewasconsiderable
sympathyforMeitneringovernmentandacademiccircles.
LisemeanwhilewaspreparingforherfirsttriptotheUnitedStates.Shewantedtospendtimewithhersisters,LolainWashingtonandFridainNewYork,andtosee
OttoRobert,whowasstillinLosAlamos,andthemanyfriendswhohadscatteredallover.Lola'shusband,RudolfAllers,aprofessorofpsychologyattheCatholic
UniversityofAmericainWashington,D.C.,arrangedforavisitingprofessorshipforLiseforthespringsemesterof1946.
AsLiseleftfortheUnitedStates,OttoRoberthadsomelastminuteadvice.
Asregardspublicity,youhadbettercultivateaphilosophicalattitude.HalfofwhatisprintedinAmericannewspapersisfalseanyway,sowhyworry?Thebestschemeistobe
nicetonewspaperreporters,thentheywillatleastwritenicethingsaboutyou....Andremember,inthiscountryitisregardedasperfectlynaturaltohaveone'sbreakfasthabits,
one'sfavoritecolorinstockings,andone'sopinionofBeethovenandMickeyMousediscussedinthenewspapers,soyouneednotfeelselfconsciousaboutit.Theideathat
peoplehaveaprivatelifeisastuffyandunAmericannotion.
27
Thusfortified,LisearrivedinNewYorkon25January1946.Timereportedthatwhenthe"pioneercontributortotheatomicbomb"steppedfromtheairplaneand
sawtheswarmofreportersandphotographersbelow,shewentbackintocollectherself.Onceontheground,shewasgivena"pushandpullwelcome"from
newsmen,murmured"I'msoawfullytired,"andrushedintothearmsofherrelativesFridaandLola,theirhusbands,LeoandRudi,and,tohersurprise,OttoRobert,
whohadtraveledbytraintwodaysandnightsfromLosAlamos.Withherfamilyagain,shewas"utterlyhappy"forthefirsttimeinyears.
28
Lisewassweptintoawhirlofactivitythatcontinuedunabateduntilsheleftfivemonthslater.ItbeganinNewYorkinFebruarywhendozensof
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acquaintancesandoldfriendswelcomedhertoameetingoftheAmericanPhysicsSocietyinWashingtonafewdayslater,morefriendsandcolleaguesgatheredata
receptioninherhonorattheCatholicUniversity.On9FebruaryatabanquetgivenbytheWomen'sNationalPressClub,shewasdesignated''WomanoftheYear"
seatednexttoPresidentHarryTruman,sheacceptedaninscribedsilverbowlwithasmile,abow,andnospeech"painless,"shetoldOttoRobertlaterand
enjoyedthepoliticalreparteebetweenreportersandtheattending"bigwigs."Thepresidentgavetheimpressionofa"jovial,laughingyouth,"anAmericantrait,she
supposed.Theytalkedaboutthebomb,bothexpressingthehopethatitwouldneverbeusedagain.ThenTrumangaveaspeechthatbeganwithafewjokes
anotherAmericanism,shetoldEvaandendedwithaveryseriousappealtoAmericanstogivefoodtostarvingEurope.
29
ThechillofLise'ssevenyearsinSweden
wasbeginningtothaw.
AttheCatholicUniversity,Lisewasscheduledtoteachacourseinnuclearphysicsandconductaweeklyseminar.AtfirstsheworriedaboutherspokenEnglishand
alsoaboutherabilitytounderstandAmericanEnglish,butthefourhundredpeoplewhocrowdedintoherfirstlecture"didnotseemunhappy,"andmorethanone
hundredcontinuedtoattendhersubsequentlectures,fifteeninherseminar.Shewasinconstantdemand.ShetalkedtohighschoolwinnersoftheScienceTalent
Search,gavescientificseminarsatuniversities,addressedwomen'scollegesandorganizations,attendedcountlessmeetings,andacceptedhonorarydegrees.
Everywheresheleftanindelibleimpression:asmallfigure,agentlevoice,andanunmistakableairofauthoritywhenthesubjectwasphysics.
EarlyonLiseheldapressconference,hopingtobesparedprivateinterviewswiththeir"idioticquestions."
30
Itdidn'thelp.Thepresspursuedhereverystepherface
waseverywhere,fromtheNewYorkTimestothecenterofacrosswordpuzzleintheSanFranciscoNewstoarticleafterarticleinnewspapersandmagazines.
31

ShewaseventhesubjectofasonnetquiteagoodonepublishedinAmericanScholar.
32
"Iseeyouhatepublicityasbefore,"JamesFranckwroteduringher
stay."Itisasignofrespect,achildishnessofthisyoungnation."
33
Butitwastoomuch.Strangersstoppedheronthestreet,waitressesandtaxidriverswantedher
autograph,andmailfloodedin,300lettersbytheendofMarch,500byMay:requestsfrompublishers,magazines,schools,GirlScouttroops,individualswithodd
causes,organizationsofeverysort.Lisefeltobliged
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toanswereventhoseforwhomshecoulddonothing."I[amasked]tohelpkeepsouthTyrolinAustria,tojoinaBoardofTrusteesforaviation,tohelp5,000Jewish
childrenemigratetoPalestine,togetradioactivesubstancesfromthebombforamanwithcancer,etc.AmongothersIreceivedtwohatelettersforgivinglecturesat
theCatholicUniversity,accusingmeofsellingmyselfbodyandsoultothesecriminals."
34
Hollywoodwasinterested,ofcourse.LisewasshownascriptforaMetroGoldwynMayerfilm,TheBeginningoftheEnd,whichshedismissedas"nonsensefrom
thefirstwordtothelast.ItisbasedonthestupidnewspaperstorythatIleftGermanywiththebombinmypurse,thatHimmler'speoplecametotheDahleminstitute
toinformmeofmydismissalandmorealongthesamelines.Iansweredthatitwasagainstmyinnermostconvictionstobeshowninafilm,andpointedouttheerrors
intheirstory."
35
WhenMGMcounteredwithamuchhigheroffer,Lisethreatenedtosue.
36
"IwouldratherwalknakeddownBroadway!"shetoldOttoRobert.
37

Suchscruplesoldfashionedandperhapsabitsnobbishwerenottoherimmediateadvantage.Withasizablesum,shecouldhaveleftSwedenandworked
anywhere,butcarelesspublicexposureperhapsespeciallytheAmericanbrandofexposurewasmorethanshecouldbear.
Forthemostpart,however,Lise'sAmericanvisitwasanexhilaratingreturntolife,areunionwithfamily,friends,andphysicsthathelpedassuagetheisolationofthe
yearsinStockholm.WhenshegaveseminarsinPrinceton,shespenteveningswithRudolfLadenburgandhisfamily,talkedforhourswithEinsteinandHermannWeyl,
discussedphysicswithHylleraas,Yang,andLee.InNewYork,shelecturedatColumbia,discussedexperimentsrelevanttobetadecaytheorywithI.I.Rabi,and
visitedSelmaFreud,herstudentfriendfromVienna.ShespokeatHarvardandMIT,visitedGoucherandPembroke,receivedanhonorarydegreefromBrown,
addressedprofessionalwomen,theAmericanAssociationofUniversityWomen,andcongresswomeninWashington.VisitingHedwigKohnandHerthaSponerin
Durham,NorthCarolina,shetooktimeouttoenjoythedogwoodandspiraeiainbloom.Everywhereshesawthatformermigrshadfoundplacesforthemselvesin
AmericainwaysnotavailabletoherinSweden.
By1946,peacehadalreadygivenwaytotensionbetweenEastandWest.Manyscientistswhohadworkedontheatomicbombwereurgentlyconcernedwithits
politicalimplications:thebalancebetweeninterna
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tionalcooperationandnationalsecurity,theconsequencesofscientificsecrecy,thedangersofanucleararmsrace.Manyoftheseproblemshadbeenforeseenbefore
Hiroshima.Inthespringof1945,whenitwasevidentthatthewarinEuropewouldendwithoutanatomicbomb,acommitteeofChicagoscientistschairedbyJames
Franckhadurgedthegovernmentagainstmilitaryuseofthebombin1946,theChicagocommitteeintroduceditsbimonthlyBulletinoftheAtomicScientistsasa
forumforpublicdebate.InWashington,LisespentaneveningwithJamesChadwick,whohadservedforthreeyearsasheadoftheBritishmissiontotheAmerican
bombproject.Shehadhopedtodiscusstheseissueswithhimbutwasinhibitedbyunspokenconstraints:"Chadwickwasverynice,althoughseveralproblemswere
anxiouslyavoided.Iwouldhavelikedtoknowhowhestoodonthequestionofthebomb,andthewishesoftheScientists'Committee,butIfeltthatthemannerin
whichhespokeoftheworkonthebombwasintendedtocutoffanyquestionsfromme."
38
AmoreamusingencountertookplaceafewdayslaterwhenLisemetLeslieGroves,directoroftheManhattanProject.Drilysherecordedtheirconversation:
"Cocktailparty,GeneralGrovesandwife.GrovestoldmethatwhenhesawthefirstpileinChicago,heunderstoodeverythinginhalfanhour,andwasabletogive6
or7goodsuggestions.He:Bohrwasofnohelpatall.I:Nevertheless,heisthegreatestlivingphysicist.He:Alltheoreticalphysicistsareprimadonnas.(Hepraised
Oppenheimerhighly)."
39
InMay,LisevisitedOttoSternattheCarnegieMellonInstituteinPittsburgh,wenttoPurdueUniversityforanhonorarydegree,andthentotheUniversityofIllinois.
EarlyinJuneshearrivedinChicagoforanextendedvisitwithJamesFranckandhisdaughtersandtheirfamilies.IngridFranckhaddiedin1942,afterbeingillfor
yearswithmultiplesclerosis.NowheandHerthaSponerplannedtomarry,andLisewasgladtoseethem"happyaschildren"together.
40
ShefoundFranck"as
lovableasever,withanadmirable,wiseunderstandingformanythingsthatscarcelyconcernedhimbefore."
41
FranckbelievedAmericaandtheimmigration
experiencehadtaughthimtolerance,somethinghesupposedLisehadlearnedlongbeforeinVienna.
42
Travelingagain,LisespoketoSmithCollegegraduatesaboutwomen'seducationinheryouth,thenreturnedtoChicago,whereshemetFermi,EdwardTeller,Victor
Weisskopf,andLeoSzilardatameetingofthe
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AmericanPhysicalSociety.Themeetingitselfwascloudedby"oppressivesecrecy,"sothatLisefelt"morelikeamemberofasecretsocietythatexcludesthepublic
thanaparticipantatascientificmeeting."
43
Wheneverthesubjectwasnuclearphysicsorreactorconstruction,"allpapershadbeencensoredbythemilitary
authoritiesandstoppedjustatthepointwhereyoucouldhopetolearnsomethingnew.On[Eugene]Wigner'sscriptonecouldseethatlargepartshadbeenclipped,
whereattheaudiencebrokeoutintoaroaroflaughter.Icouldnothelpfeelingratherunhappy,itwaslikeacaricatureofascientificmeeting,onedidnotdareaska
question.''
44
AfterafinalweekinNewYorkwithFridaandLeo,LiseboardedtheQueenMaryforEnglandon8July.Thecrossinggaveherafewquietdaystorestandthink.
Shewasconsciousofhowgoodithadbeentobewithherfamily,howstimulatingtobepartofthephysicscommunityagain.
45
BytheendofJuly,Lisewasin
CambridgeforanentirelyunfetterednuclearphysicsmeetingandareunionwithErwinandAnnemarieSchrdinger,WolfgangPauli,andMaxBorn.
InLondontheBritishwerebelatedlycommemoratingthe300thanniversaryofNewton'sbirththeonlyGermantheyinvitedwasMaxPlanck.
46
SinceLisehadseen
himin1943,hehadsufferedbeyondallmeasure:hishouseandpossessionsdestroyed,thefinalterriblebattlesofthewar,hissontorturedandputtodeath.Lise
grievedtoseehimnow,frailandforgetful.Butwhenshewasalonewithhim,"hishumanandpersonalqualitieswerewonderfulasever."
47
Itwastheirlastmeeting.
MaxvonLauewasalsoinLondonthatsummer,theonlyGermaninvitedtoaninternationalcrystallographyconference.Hehadbeenlookingforwardwithgreat
anticipationtoseeingLiseagain,andwhentheymethegreetedherwithunqualifiedjoy."Whatareunionthatwas!"hewrotetoTheoinAmerica."AlmostasifIhad
foundyouthere."
48
PhysicallyLauehadhardlychanged,butLisethoughthewasundertheutmosttension,onthevergeofweepingorafitofrage.Inhispresence
LisewastornbetweenaffectionandhurtthetensionshesensedinLauereflectedherown.Itwaspainfultoseehowmuchtheirliveshaddiverged,morepainfulstillto
seethatLauetookforgrantedwhatshehadnotyetfullyaccepted:thepermanenceofherexile.Comingbetweenthemweretheseparateexperiencesofmanyterrible
years,LisestillstrugglingtocomprehendthingsthatLauehadalreadysetaside.
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HeseesGermany'smisery,butforthemostpartheseestoolittlewhatelseishappeningintheworld....WediscussedhowpoorEnglandhasbecome,andthatthedisasterthat
nazismbroughttoGermanydidnothappenbychance,butwastheconsequenceofanideologythatdevelopedforoverahundredyears,andthereforeitisunderstandablethat
theEnglishandtheAmericansdonotwantthesetraditionstocontinue.
49
WhereLisewaspreoccupiedwiththequestion,"HowandwhydidithappeninGermany?"Lauesoughtareturntonormalcy.Whensheexpressedoutragethat
HeisenbergandothershadcontributedtotheGermanwareffort,LauecounteredthatEnglish,American,andFrenchscientistshaddonethesamefortheAllies.He
didadmittoanethicaldistinction,buthebelievedoutsidershadnorighttojudge:"Iamnotsurethatallthosewhoassignblamewouldhaveacteddifferentlyifthey
happenedtohavebeenborninGermany."Itshouldbeforbidden,hethought,tospeakofthepastintermsofaccusationsagainstindividuals,becausetheoccupation
forcescouldneverjustlyassesstheindividualguiltofmillions.HeadvocatedpunishmentformajorNazicriminals,generalamnestyforeveryoneelse.
50
LisehadheardmuchthesamefromOttoHahn.OnhisreturnfromFarmHallinJanuary1946,hehadacceptedthepresidencyoftheKaiserWilhelmGesellschaft,
newlyrelocatedtoGttingenintheBritishoccupationzone.TheGermanyhecamebacktowasmiserable,cold,andhungry,andhisletterstoLisewerealitanyof
hardships:shortagesoffood,coffee,cocoa,cigarsproblemswithBritishandAmericanofficialsdemeaningtravelrestrictionsapartmentsrequisitionedbyoccupation
forcesthedeathsofHansGeiger,OttovonBaeyer,andothershastenedbypoorfoodanddifficultlivingconditions.Lisesympathizedbutthensharplyremindedhim
ofthesufferinganddeaththatGermanyhadinflictedonothers."Thequestion,'Whygoon?'isoneIaskedmyselfoftenenough,especiallyintheearlyyearsin
Stockholm.Andformillionsofpeoplewiththesamequestion,ahorribledeath(gas,etc.)cutoffanyanswer.Icannoteverforgetit."
51
Otto'snationalisticself
absorptionworriedLisedeeply."HowcanGermanyregaintheworld'strustifthebestGermanshavealreadyforgottenwhathappened?"
52
Evenbeforetheendofthewar,Lisehadurgedherfriends,asrepresentativesofGermany's"best,"toopenlyacknowledgetheirnation'scrimes,admitthe
contributionsoftheirownpassivity,anddisavowthe
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GermanyoftheThirdReich.MaxPlanckhaddonesoalreadyin1943,whenhehadtoldherinStockholm,"Wehavedonethemosthorriblethingsterriblethings
musthappentous."Planckrecognizedindividualresponsibilityandcollectiveguilt,butamongLise'sfriends,almostnooneelsedid.
ToHahn,Lisestressedthepracticalbenefitsofsuchpenance,forwithoutittheworldcouldnottrustGermanyorknowwhichGermanstotrust.Butforherselfshe
wasseekingsomethingdeeper:horror,rage,anguishanemotionalreactiontomatchherown.SamuelGoudsmit,whohadbeenunabletosavehisparentsin
Holland,remarkedatthetime,"Iwasgrippedbythatshatteringemotionallofushavefeltwhohavelostfamilyandrelativesandfriendsatthehandsofthemurderous
Nazisaterriblefeelingofguilt."
53
WasitonlyJewsandothervictimsoftheNaziswhowerestrickenwithgriefandguilt,whileGermansprofessedinnocenceor
ignoranceorremarkablytheirownvictimization?DidGermansfeelnothing,didtheyhavenothingwhatevertosay?Wasit,intheendasinthebeginning,alwaysto
bea"Jewishproblem"andnevera''Germanproblem"?Ifso,LiseknewthatheroldfriendshipsweremostlymemoryandnothingremainedoftheGermanyshehad
oncecherished.
Lise'sexperiencesinAmericahadclarifiedherperspective.ThepersonwhomostcloselysharedherviewswasJamesFranckhe,too,hadnohesitationabout
sendingfoodpackagestoGermany,buthefoundtheprocessofrenewingoldtiespainfulandsubjecttomisunderstanding.OthersjudgedGermanyfarmoreharshly.
EinsteinturnedhisbackonGermanyforever,vehementlydismissingreportsofpostwardifficultiesasashopworn"campaignoftears[Trnencampagne]."The
Germanswouldslaughteragain,heinsisted:"IseeamongGermansnotatraceofguiltorremorse."
54
OttoStern'sdistrustnearlymatchedEinstein'sevenJames
ChadwickheldwhatLisethoughtwasthe"verysharp"opinionthateventhemostdecentGermanssharedresponsibilityforthecrimesoftheThirdReich.
55
IntheUnitedStates,LisefoundthatmostAmericanssimplylumpedallGermanstogether.WhenshebeganhertalkswithapleaforaidtostarvingGermany,the
responsewasinvariably,"HaveyouforgottenwhattheGermansdid?"
56
AndwhenshetriedtorefutethewidespreadpressreportsthatHahnhadbeenaNazi,she
realizedthatfewseemedtothinkitmademuchdifference.TheodorevonLaue,freshfromPrincetonwith
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adoctorateinhistory(andaslightAmericanizationofhisname),agreed."AtpresentthedistinctionbetweenNazisandGermannationalistsoftheoldnationalliberal
school,greatasitwasinGermany,meanslittletotheworldatlarge....AndthereisnoassurancethatfromthecivilizednationalismofourGermanfriends(whoarea
smallminority)therewillnotariseamorebrutalversionofitamongthemasses.Ifullysharetheworld'ssuspicion."He,too,hadnoticedthathisfatherandHahn
seldomlookedbeyondthehardshipsofoccupationtotheunderlyingcausesofGermany'sruin."Nowtheyprobablyfindthedistancebetween[A]lliedmentalityand
theirownattitudestillmoreimpassablethanthatbetweenNazisandthemselves.Whattragedy,ontopoflosingoncemorealltheirmaterialsecurity."
57
InEngland,Liseheardthesame.BritishscientistswhohadvisitedGermanyafterthewarreportedthattheirGermancolleagues,almostwithoutexception,knewthe
factsbuthadnorealunderstandingofwhathappenedandwere,moreover,fullofselfpity.LiselookedatthebombedbuildingsandstreetsinLondon,sawhowmuch
wasruinedandpoor,andneverheardanEnglishpersoncomplain.
58
InLondon,shewasaskedbytheBritishcommissionerforscienceinGermanytoconvinceLauethatchangingthenameoftheKaiserWilhelmGesellschaftwas
essentialforasymbolicbreakwiththemilitarismofthepast.PlanckunderstoodLaueresisted.AndinGttingen,Hahnobjectedbitterly:"Thefactthatthenameisso
repellenttotheU.S.doesnot,inmyopinion,speakforagreatdealofgenerosity....IfnoweveryonewhohadheldapositioninGermanysince'33,andeverything
thathashappenedbedamned,thenonemustwonderwhytheoutsidepowersdidnotbreakoffrelationsafter'33."Hahn'sargumentwasthatresponsibilityfornazism
wassowidespreadthatnosinglegroup,certainlynotGermans,couldbeheldaccountable.Inthisversionofhistory,atrociousbehaviorwasnotconfinedtoGermans
orNazisbutwasageneralattributeofallnationsandpeople."Iwouldalmostdoubtthatthebehavioroftheoccupyingforcesissomuchnoblerthanthatofthe
Germansintheoccupyingcountries....Naturallyonemustnotgeneralize,andcertainlywedidnotdoitdifferentlyinPolandorRussia,buttheAlliesclaimtohave
foughtforhumanityandjustice,andtodaythewarisover.Whythendothewarmethodscontinue?"
59
Lisewasaghast.
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ThefactthattheAlliesconsidertheeraofKaiserWilhelmtobeunfortunateandforthatreasonwantthenameoftheKWGchanged,isconsideredeverywheretobesoself
evidentthatnoonecanunderstandtheresistancetoit.TheideathatGermansaretheselectpeopleandhavetherighttosubjugate"inferior"peoplebyanymeanswasconstantly
repeatedbyhistorians,philosophers,andpoliticians,andfinallytheNazistriedtocarryitout.[HereLisecitedapassagefromFichte'sRedenandiedeutscheNation.]Whatthe
bestpeopleamongtheEnglishandtheAmericanswishisthatthebestGermansunderstandthatthisunfortunatetradition,whichhasbroughtthewholeworldandGermanyitself
thegreatestmisfortune,mustfinallybebroken.AndasmalltokenofthisinsightistochangethenameoftheKWG.Whatmeaningisthereinaname,whenoneisconcernedwith
theexistenceofGermany,andwithit,Europe?
ThatathoughtfulGermancouldseriouslysay,"IwouldalmostdoubtthatthebehavioroftheoccupyingpowerstodayissomuchnoblerthanthatoftheGermansinsomeofthe
occupiedcountries."InPoland2millionpeoplewerekilled,notinwar,butmethodicallykilled.[Thecurrentestimateisover3million.]When[pastorMartin]Niemllergavea
speechdeclaringthathesharestheguilt,hesaidthat6millionJewsweremurdered,andthatinDachau283,765peoplewereputtodeathbetween1933and1945.InEnglanda
prominentphysicistwhovaluesGermanscienceandcultureveryhighlytoldmethatGermanprofessorsweresenttoPolandwithinstructionstodestroyallbooksofPolish
history,andthatthisassignmentwascarriedoutwithGermanexpertiseandthoroughness.The"serfpeople"[Helotenvolk]ofPolandwerenottoretaineventhememoryoftheir
independentexistence.IwriteallthisinhonestloveforGermany.IfthebestGermansdonotunderstandnowwhathashappenedandwhatmustneverhappenagain,whoshould
instructyoungpeoplethatthepaththatwastriedwastragicforGermanyandtheworld?InthereportsoftheNrnbergtrialsitwassaidthateverytimevisualevidenceofthe
horrorsoftheconcentrationcampswasshown,[formerReichsbankPres.Hjalmar]Schachtlookedaway.Asifbydoingthatitdidn'texist.TheenormousproblemsthattheNazis
havecreateddonotpermitonetolookaway.Onemustnotforgetthiswithdailyconcerns.IcertainlydonotdoubtthattheoccupationofGermanybringswithitvarious
unnecessaryhardships,howcouldtheAmericansortheEnglishbeperfect?PleasesendmeHanno'scurrentaddressIwouldliketosendhimapackage.Unfortunatelyalmostall
foodhereisstillrationed....Doyouthinkhislittleboycouldusedrymilk?
60
InSeptembertheBritishdecidedthattheKaiserWilhelmGesellschaftwouldbedissolvedandsucceededbythenewlyformedMaxPlanckGesellschaft.(Inthe
AmericanandFrenchzones,thecorrespondingreorganizationtookanothertwoyears.)Ottoacceptedthat(hehadno
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choice)butrespondedtotheotherissuesLiseraisedinamostsuperficialmanner.
WhenmynephewwasonaJapaneseshipfromCeylontoJapanhemetanEnglishmanwhoseemedverynice.AfterawhiletheEnglishmangavewhatwasintendedasaserious
compliment:"YouaresuchanicepleasantpersonyoucouldbeEnglish."Suchthingsprobablyhappenallover.Idon'tknowifournationisworsethananyother.[Hahnwas
makingnodistinctionbetweensimplemindedchauvinismandgenocide.]IhopethatI'mnotirritatingyouwiththiscontroversy.Don'tbeangry.Butbelieveme,wealsowantto
knowwhathappenedandhowallofthiscouldhavetakenplace....DoyoureallybelievethatthemajorityofGermansknewofthehorrorsoftheconcentrationcampsorthegas
chambers?
Edithenteredapleafortruce.
Againyouarefightingwitheachother.Thatissuchapity,asbasicallyweallagree,don'twe?Butwesimplycan'tcontinue,andyoumustunderstandthatonenervous
breakdownin1938wasenoughforme,andIsimplycan'tgoon.Wedon'tcarewhatFichtesaid,therearepeoplelikethathereandthere,andthereareevenquitedecentNazis,
onlyIthinkverystupid,justasthereareindecentantiNazis.Andhorribletosay,therewillalwaysbewars,andwecanonlyhopethatwewon'tlivetoseethenextone.Itwould
bebetterifyouwroteaboutyourselfandyourfamily,don'tbeangry,really.YourEdith.
61
BythenitwasNovember1946,andtheHahnswouldsoonarriveinStockholmfortheNobelceremonies.Edithhadwrittenthattheywerelookingforwardto
"perhapstheonlydayswewillspendinafreecountryfortherestofourlives...andtotheshops,andgoodfood,andnopoliticalarguments,Lise,wearesotiredof
them,andtiredandwornoutourselves.Itwas12years,ofwhichyouexperiencedonlythe5easiestones."
62
Lisestoppedarguing.Ithadbeenfutileanyway,andshedidnotwanttospoiltheNobeloccasionforOttoandEdith.Novemberbroughtonemoredisappointment:
the1946NobelPrizeinphysicswasawardedtoPercyBridgman.Onthedayoftheannouncement,LisesentOttoacard."ThechancethatImightbecomeyour
Nobelcolleagueisfinallysettled.Ifyouareinterested,Icouldtellyousomethingaboutit."
63
Ottodidnotrespond.
"TheHahnsarecomingearlyinDecemberfortheNobelceremonies,"LisewrotetoMargretheBohr."OfcourseIamlookingforwardtoit,butitwillnotbeeasy."
64

Lisehadaneweveningdressmadetoreplacethe
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oneblackvelvetdressshehadwornforeightyears."Likeitornot,ImustattendtheNobelbanquet,whichI'veneverdonebefore.ButifIdon'tgothistime,when
theHahnsarebeinghonored,Ifearitmightbemisunderstood."
65
ToOttoRobertsheconfided,"MentallyitwillbeabitofanEiertanz[likewalkingoneggs]."
66
itbeganthemomentOttoandEdithsteppedfromthetrainon4December.OnhandwereLise,aSwedishofficial,friends,andjournalists.DagensNyhetercarrieda
frontpagephotoofHahn'sarrival,notingthepresenceofLiseMeitner,Hahn's"formerpupil."OnthefrontpageofStockholmsTidningen,Hahnwasshownopen
mouthed,eatinggrapes"onhandwasProf.LiseMeitner,Prof.Hahn'sworldfamouspupil,whomheheartilyembracedwhenshecametomeethim."Svenska
DagbladetreportedthatHahnspokeatlengthaboutStrassmann,aboutthebombingofhisinstituteinDahlemandthelossofhiscorrespondencewithRutherford,
aboutRussiaandhishopesforthepeacefuluseofatomicenergy.
67
HahnhimselfhadnotmentionedLise'sname.
Thatafternoon,asLisesharedamomentwiththeHahnsintheirsuiteintheGrandHotel,aSvenskaDagbladetreportercametointerviewEdith."Doyouhelpyour
husbandwithhiswork?""No,Iamonlyalayperson.ItisLisewhowasmyhusband'srighthandintheinstituteformanyyears."Herethereporternotedthat
ProfessorMeitner"politelybutunmistakably"cutinwiththeremarkthatFrauHahnwasstillveryweakfromthehardshipsinGermany.Whereuponthe"splitterof
atoms"askedhiswife,''Won'tyouhaveanothercupofcoffee,Mammi?"
68
Theinterviewwasover.
OttoandEdith'spresencestirredoldloyalties,bitterdisputes,theunresolvedtensionoftheirrecentcorrespondence.AtdinnerthateveningwiththeHahnsandseveral
friends,Lise'sEiertanzfalteredbriefly."AgitateddiscussionswithLise,"Ottonotedinhisdiary."Butthesesubside.Lisedoesnotmeanitbadly.Buttheothersagree,
inSwedenweshouldforgetpoliticsforonce."
69
TheproblemwasthatHahnhimselfhadnointentionofforgettingpolitics.HehadcometoSwedentouseeveryiotaofhisNobelpublicityasaplatformtopleadfor
Germany.Lise'spreparationsweremorepersonal.ShehoveredoverOttoandEdith,sentchocolatestotheirhotelroom,tookthemsightseeingaroundStockholm
andshoppingonthe
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elegantKungsgatan.Theyneededeverything:warmclothesandshoes,formaleveningwearfortheNobelceremonies,housewares,gifts,andaboveall,food.They
lookedforwardtoeverymealandprepareddozensoffoodparcelstosendbacktoGermany.
70
NearlyeverydayLisearrangedsmalldinnersforthematherhome
orlargergatheringswithSwedishfriendsandotherswhohadcometotown:WolfgangPauliwasthere,GeorgedeHevesyandhiswifecameforavisit,andOtto
Stern,alwaysoneofLise'sfavoritepeople,hadcomefromPittsburghtocollecthis1943NobelPrizeinphysics.
71
Meanwhileinpressconferences,interviews,andradiobroadcasts,OttosinglemindedlycampaignedforGermany.UnhappyGermany!OppressedbytheNazisfirst
andnowtheAllies,strugglingtomakeafutureforitsunfortunateyouth!Liseexpectedthat,butshewastakenabackbyOtto'smetamorphosisfromapoliticalscientist
tozealouspropagandist.IndisbeliefsheheardhimsayhewasgladGermanyhadnotbuiltthebombandcausedtheneedlessdeathsofthousands.Whenheclaimed
thattheAlliedoccupationofGermanywasasunjustandcruelasGermany'sformeroccupationofPolandandRussia,Meitner,Stern,andPauliobjectedangrily.Hahn
wasundeterred.
SeveraldayswentbybeforeLisefullyunderstoodthatshenolongerhadaplaceinOtto'slife,orevenhismemory.Whenaskedbythepresstoreflectonhislife's
work,hedidnotspeakoftheirthirtyyearstogether.Whenhetalkedaboutfission,hedidnotmentionhercontributions.Notonce,inanyofhispublicstatements,did
hesomuchasspeakhername.Lise'sfriendswereshocked.Theywonderedatherrestraint,
72
buttherewasnothingshecoulddo:shecouldnotbegforfairness,
forcehimtorememberwhathehadwilledaway,breathelifeintoafriendshipthathadbecomeahollowshell.
TheNobelceremoniestookplace,asalways,on10December.Bytradition,thekingofSwedendispensestheawardsandagreatbanquetfollows,atwhichthe
sciencelaureatesusuallysayafewwordsandtheliteraturelaureatedeliversthemainspeechoftheevening.In1946,thepersonwiththemosttosaywasOttoHahn.
SpeakingforGermany,"probablythemostunfortunatecountryintheworld,"hewantedhisinternationalaudiencetoknowthatitwas"reallynottruethatallGermans
andespeciallyGermanscientistssubscribedtotheHitlerregimewith
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flyingcolors."HeaskedthatGermanyouthnotbejudgedharshly,fortheyhad"nochancetoformtheirownopinion,nofreepress,noforeignradiobroadcasts,and
theycouldnotgettoknowforeigncountries."Infact,mostGermansdeservedsympathy,for"notmanypeopleoutsideGermanyknowtheextentoftheoppression
whichmostofusexperiencedforthelast10or12years."
73
Hahn'sspeechwaswellreceived,"goingstraighttotheheart,"accordingtoonenewspaper.
74
CertainlyHahnwaspleaseditestablishedhimasaleadingvoicefor
Germanscience,andforGermanyasawhole.
InhisNobellecturethreedayslater,hecouldnotignoreMeitnerentirely,butbydescribingthediscoveryexclusivelyintermsofradiochemistryhegavenosenseof
theirongoingcollaborationandemphasizedinsteadthatthediscoveryhadbeenmadeinoppositiontotheexperienceofnuclearphysics.
75
Inherdiarythenextday
Meitnernoted,"Hislecture:showedhimhisletterof21December1938."
76
In1938Hahnhadwritten,"Howbeautifulandexcitingitwouldbejustnowifwecould
havedoneourworktogetherasbefore!"and"Yousee,you'llbedoingagooddeedifyoucanfindawayoutofthis."
77
Hahn'sbehaviorinSwedenhurtMeitnerpersonally,damagedherprofessionally,andcontributedtoherongoingisolationinSweden.Thereisnoindicationthathe
everunderstood,orcared.Inapersonalautobiographymanyyearslater,hescrambledthefacts,meaning,andemotionalcontextoftheirdiscussionsinStockholm,
retainingonlythebitteraftertaste.
OnhisfirstnightinStockholm,accordingtoHahn,
IhadquiteanunhappyconversationwithLiseMeitner,whosaidIshouldnothavesentheroutofGermanywhenIdid.Thediscordprobablystemmedfromacertain
disappointmentthatIalonewasawardedtheprize.IdidnottalktoLiseMeitneraboutthat,however,butanumberofherfriendsalludedtoitinaratherunfriendlymanner.ButI
wasreallynotatfaultIhadonlybeenlookingafterthewelfareofmyrespectedcolleaguewhenIpreparedheremigration.Andafterall,theprizewasawardedtomejustforworkI
didaloneorwithmycolleagueFritzStrassmann,andforherachievementsLiseMeitnerreceivedmanyhonorarydoctoratesintheUSAandonceevenwas"Womanofthe
Year."
78
Becausesomuchofthispassageispatentlyuntrue,itrevealsmorethanHahnmayhaverealized.NeverdidLisebelieveshehadleftGermanytoo
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soonnotatthetimein1938,andcertainlynotwithhindsight
79
andHahnneither"sentherout"(anabsurdnotion)nor"preparedheremigration."Norhadhebeen
concernedforherwelfareonly.AsisevidentfromhisimpulsivevisittoHeinrichHrleininMarch1938,Hahn'sinstincthadbeentoprotecthimselfandhisinstitute,
nother:thetruthwasnotthatshebelievedshehadlefttooearlybutthathebelievedshehadstayedtoolong.
80
Washisfaultymemorytheguiltyexpressionofhaving
wishedheraway?ClearlyHahnwasmisleadingthereaderbypresentinghimselfashersaviorandMeitnerasadisappointedalsoranwhobegrudgedhimhisNobel
Prize.
Hahnwrotethepassagelateinlife,afterdecadesofunparalleledpublicacclaim.Onewonders:WhydidhefeeltheneedtomakehimselflookgoodandMeitnerbad,
whenhecouldeasilyhavesaidnothingatall?WhywouldheportrayMeitnerasungrateful,unreasonable,andunjustifiedinherclaimforscientificrecognitionwhenhis
ownprestigewasnotthreatened?Whywashismemorysofaultyand,withrespecttoMeitner,soconsistentlyselfserving?
Hahnwasnotrestingcomfortablyonhislaurels.Atthecenterofhisdiscomfort,always,wasLise.Withher,hischaracterwasalwayssomewhatinquestionwithher,
hecouldneverbecompletelysurehisversionofthediscoverywouldhold.Andso,inwhatheknewwouldbehisfinalmemoir,writtenwhenhewasinhiseighties,he
assertedhisLesartonelasttime:hedistortedthefactsofLise'semigrationtoavoidacknowledgingthatshewouldhavesharedineverythinghadshenotbeenforced
tofleehedeniedthatshetookpartinthediscoverybecausehecouldnotadmithehadexcludedhertoprotecthimselfandthenliedaboutiteversincehetwistedthe
issueoftheNobelPrize,becausehewouldnotconcedethatitwaswrongforhimtoberewardedforworkallthreehaddone.ThelastsentenceofHahn'spassageis
oddlydefensive,abaldassertionthathealonedeservedtheprizeandLiseshouldhavebeensatisfiedwithwhateverelsecamealong.Lesthebeconsidered
ungenerousoraversetogivingcreditwheredue,HahnpointedlylethisreadersknowthathegavepartofhisNobelaward"asubstantialsum"toFritzStrassmann.
Again,thiswasmoreselfservingthanaccurate.Theamountwaslessthan10percent.Strassmann'swifecalledita"tip"(Trinkgeld),andStrassmannrefusedtouse
it.
81
Here,too,Hahnleavesthedistinctimpressionthathisconsciencewasnotclear.Forallhisfame,hewasnotatpeace.
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In1946,HahndepartedSwedenfarmorecontentthanhislaterremembranceswouldindicate.Acharmingperson,accustomedtobeinglikedbyeveryonehemet,he
hadrelishedthewarmthofhisreceptioninStockholm."WehadawonderfultimeinSweden!"hegushedinacardtoLiseontheirwayhome."Athousandgreetings!"
82
Later,stillglowing,hewrotefromGttingentothankheragain"forallyourfriendshipforEdithandme.TheChristmascandlesyougavemeandtheLaueswereon
thelittletreethatEdithandIenjoyedonChristmaseve."Heappreciatedtheir"productivediscussions''withSternandPauli:"Wedifferonlyinouropinionof
Germany."Andhewasstillsavoringhiscontactwithroyalty."IwassomewhatshockedbytherapiddeclineinPlanck'sintellectualstrength.Hehasagedgreatlyinthe
last6months,whenIcomparehim,forinstance,totheKingofSweden."
83
ItcannotbesaidthatOttoHahnwasasensitiveman.
AftertheHahnsleft,Lisecouldbarelysummonthestrengthtodoanythingatall.Slowlysheunburdenedherselfinaseriesofletters.Herfirstwasaverytired
ChristmaslettertoEvavonBahrBergius.
Ifounditquitepainfulthatinhisinterviews[Hahn]didnotsayonewordaboutme,tosaynothingofourthirtyyearsofworktogether.Hismotivationissomewhatcomplicated.
HeisconvincedthattheGermansarebeingtreatedunjustly,themoresointhathesimplysuppressesthepast.Thereforewhilehewasherehisonlythoughtsweretospeakfor
Germany.Asforme,Iampartofthesuppressedpast,themoresoasIwrotehimbeforehecamehereandtriedinthefriendliestpossiblewaytolethimknowthatdecent
GermanscanhelpGermanyonlyiftheyareobjective.Inalettertomehewrote,forinstance,thattheAmericansinGermanyarenowdoingthesameastheGermansusedtodoin
theoccupiedcountries.Iansweredhim,thathecouldnothavemeantthatseriously,thatalthoughundoubtedlyeveryoccupationisunpleasantandinjusticesdooccur,hecannot
disregardthefactthattheGermanskilledmillionsofinnocentpeople.Buthedidnotrespondtothisandwhenhewashereheaskedmenottodiscusspoliticswithhim....Hahn
himselfsurelydidnotwanttoworkonabomb,butinoneinterviewhemadethestatement,"HewasgladtheGermanswerenotburdenedwiththeresponsibilityforthebomband
theresultingmeaninglessdeathsofthousandsofpeopleinHiroshima."...WhatheoughttohavesaidwasthathewasgladaboutitbecauseGermanyhasdonesomanyother
thingsthatweremuchworse,buthewasunabletosaythat.Perhapsitisaskingtoomuch,Idon'tknowmyself.Ihavestruggledalltheseyearsnottobecomebitterordistrustful,
onemusttakepeopleastheyare.Butjoyinlivingsufferswiththisattempt.
84
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TohersisterLola,Lisewrote,
TheHahnsenjoyedallthematerialcomfortsandtheveryattentivewaythattheywerecelebratedhere....Forthefirstfewdaystheysimplycouldnotgetenoughtoeat....Hahn
cameherecompletelypermeatedwiththeideathatGermansarebeingtreatedunjustly,especiallybytheAmericans,whichfromacertainpointofviewisunderstandable.Less
understandabletome,heabsolutelysuppressestheNazicrimes,andistherebyledtoverywrongconvictions.Hedoeshavethefaultsofhisvirtues.Probablyonecannotbesuch
acharmingpersonandalsoverydeep.
85
AndfinallyinJanuary1947,LisewroteindetailtoJamesFranck.
HahnsaidthattheAlliesaredoinginGermanywhattheGermansdidinPolandandRussia...atwhichpoint[Otto]Sternbecameveryupset.Heabsolutelydidnotrespondtoour
objectionshesuppressesthepastwithallhismight,eventhoughhealwaystrulyhatedanddespisedtheNazis.Asoneofhismainmotivesistogaininternationalrespectfor
Germanyonceagain,andsincehedoesnothaveaverystrongcharacternorisheaverythoughtfulperson,hedeceiveshimselfaboutthefacts,orbelittlestheirimportance....
Sterntoldmethat...alegendisnowbeingpropagated,similartotheDolchstosslegende,thattheGermansdidnotproducethebombformotivesofpurestdecency.
AfterWorldWarI,thelegendoftheDolchstoss(daggerstab)heldthattheGermanarmyhadbeenstabbedinthebackbyJewsandCommunistsathome.Although
notentirelyanalogous,thenewlegendalsorationalizeddefeatwithafictionthistime,thesuperiormoralityofGermanswhorefusedtobuildanatomicbomb.Like
thefirst,itwouldproveexceedinglydifficulttodislodge.
NaturallyItoldHahnthathewouldnothelpGermanybymakingincorrectassertions,thattheAlliesknowpreciselyhowsurprisinglylittletheGermansknewofthenecessary
conditionsforanexplosivechainreaction....Foramomentitseemedtomakesensetohim,buthedidnotpursueit,andallhissubsequentinterviewssoundedthesame.Just
forgetthepastandstresstheinjusticehappeningnowinGermany.AsIampartofthesuppressedpast,Hahnnever,inanyofhisinterviewsabouthislifework,mentionedour
longyearsofworktogether,nordidheevenmentionmyname.IreceivedaseriesofindignantquestionsabouttheoriginsofHahn'sbehavior,fromEvavonBahrBergiusamong
others.ItiscleartomethatHahnwashardlyawareofhislackoffriendship,andhewrotetomeafterhisreturnthankingmecompletelynaivelyformy"greatfriendship."...
Perhapsourgeneration
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istoooldtoseethingsclearlyandnolongerhasthestrengthtobattletheprevailingspiritualdisordersthatgobackmorethanahundredyearsandhappenedtofindanespecially
gruesomeexpressioninnazism.
86
Lisewassuddenlyverytired.
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ChapterFifteen
NoReturn
WhenIwrotethatIwasnotsureofthetrustoftheMitarbeiter,inpartbecauseIamAustrian,andinpartbecauseofmyJewishorigins,HahnsaidnothingandLauewrotethatit
wasapity,astheyhadnoobjectionstoAustrians.
AfterOtto'svisittoStockholm,Lisewasattheendofheremotionalandphysicalstrengthandspentthefirsttwomonthsof1947slowlyrecovering.
1
Itwasnota
goodtimetobesoexhausted,asshewasjustthenintheprocessofmovingoutofSiegbahn'sinstituteandintoherownlaboratoryattheRoyalInstituteofTechnology
(KTH).GudmundBoreliushadlongwantedtobringnuclearphysics,andLiseMeitner,totheKTHaftertheatomicbomb,thepoliticalclimateforsuchaproposal
wasveryfavorable.ConcernedthatSwedenhadnocapabilityinafieldthatmightbevitalfordefenseandenergy,thegovernmenthastilyappointedablueribbon
scientificpanelinthefallof1945forthepurposeofdevisinganationalpolicyforatomicenergytheAtomicCommittee'sfirstreportwasissuedafewmonthslaterand
unanimouslyapprovedbytheRiksdag(parliament)inthespringof1946.Itwasevidenttoallthatthelongrangedevelopmentofweaponsandciviliannuclearreactors
wouldfirstrequirefundingforbasicresearch.
2
Thebeginningsweremodest,however.TherehadbeenessentiallynofissionresearchinSweden,dueinparttothelackofsupportforMeitner'sworkinSiegbahn's
institute.
3
PendingtheconstructionofanewlaboratoryforatomicresearchattheKTH,Meitner'sfacilitywastemporarilyhousedintheAcademyofEngineering
Sciences(IVA)researchstation,asmallbuildingonDrottningKristinasVgnotfarfromtheKTH.Initshehadthreesmallrooms,twoassistants,technicalhelp,and
anequipmentbudget:alaboratoryofherown.OccupyingadjoiningroomswasSigvardEklund,afriendfromSiegbahn'sinstitute,a"verygoodyoungerphysi
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Page348
cist"anda"fairandpleasantperson."
4
TogethertheyplannedaVandeGraaffgeneratorandasmallhighvoltageapparatus.
5
Meitnerwastohavethetitleof
"researchprofessor"(thatis,withoutteachingduties)andaprofessorialsalary,awelcomeimprovementafternineveryleanyearsonaminimalstipend.Althoughher
appointmentstillrequiredspecialparliamentaryapproval,thatwasexpectedinthespring1947sessionoftheRiksdag.Shewassupportedbytheministerof
education.TageErlander,aSocialDemocrat,whohadabackgroundinscience,aphysicistwife,andaninterestinwartimephysicsdevelopmentshewasalsothe
ministerresponsiblefortheAtomicCommittee.
6
Meitner'sassignment,withEklund,wastocreateanuclearphysicssectionfortheKTH.Itwasthesortofposition
shehadhopedforwhenshefirstcametoSweden,anditpermittedher,onceagain,tothinkshemightreallybeofuse.Atheragesheregardeditas"awonder."
7
ButforatimeLisewastootiredforoptimism.Shewasgratefulforthenewpositionbutworried,suddenly,whethershewasuptoitnotthesciencebuteverything
else.
8
DespitethefriendshipandsupportofBoreliusandOskarKlein,she"couldnotgetoverthefeelingthat[shedidn't]fitin,withthemorwithSweden"afterher
visittoAmericashewasevenmoreconsciousofhowaloneshewasinStockholm.
9
TheyearsinSiegbahn'sinstitutehadlefttheirmark.AsshetoldJamesFranck,
"ThatlittlebitofselfconfidencethattheBerlincolleagues,aboveallyouandPlanck,workedsohardtoinstillinme,theSwedeshavedrivenout."
10
GiventhatLise
hadgoodfriendsinSwedenandopportunitiesforwork,thestatementseemsoverlynegative,butitexpressedherstruggletomaintainherselfassuranceinaplacethat
gavehernosenseofhome.
11
Sherealizedthatsheherselfhadnotadjustedverywell."Themainreasonformydissatisfactioncanbefoundwithinme,thereforeitisinthatsensemyfault.I
absolutelydonotfitinhere."
12
Whenshetriedtoanalyzewhythatwasso,however,shetendedtoblametheSwedish"mentality,"insweepinggeneralitiesthatwere
notalwaysfairoraccurate.Sometimessheascribedittogenderdiscrimination:"Here,justbeingawomanishalfacrimeand...havingone'sownopinionis
completelyforbidden."
13
AlthoughsherecognizedthatsocialequalityforwomenwasmorepronouncedinSwedenthaninmanyothercountries,shebelievedthat
womenwerestillexcludedfromhigherpositions.
14
Oftenshecomplainedabouta"generallackofcollegiality,bynomeansjustagainstme,thatIwould
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nothavethoughtpossibleinscientificcircles."
15
HavinglivedincitieswithpopulationscomparabletothatofallSweden,shethoughtthecountry'ssmallsizemight
explainthe"sharpenedcompetition"and"generallackofcourtesy."
16
Thelanguagewasaproblem:"toreallylearnacompletelystrangelanguageinadditionto
scientificworkwouldrequiremoreeffortthanIamabletomuster,"andforthisreasonsheexpectedtobealways"halfexcludedfromthings."
17
Comparedto
German,Swedishisbynomeansacompletelystrangetongue,butLisefeltforeign,notjustinspeechbutthoughtprocesses,withallbutafewclosefriends.
18
Shedid
notmentionantiSemitismasafactor,butitcouldonlyhaveaddedtoheroutsiderstatusinahomogeneoussociety.Sherepeatedlydescribedherselfashomeless,
''neverreallyanequal...alwaysinwardlyalone."Theconditionofbeingwithoutahomeland,shetoldLaue,wassomethingshewishedhewould"neverexperience,or
evenunderstand."
19
Hadshebeenyoungerwhensheimmigrated,hadshelearnedtospeakthelanguagewell,hadshenothadthedebilitatingyearswithSiegbahn,shemightperhapshave
likedSwedenwellenough.ApartfromhergoodfriendsinSwedentheKleins,LilliEppstein,Boreliusshehadlostnearlyalltheconnections,largeandsmall,that
hadgivenmeaningtoherlifeandworkinGermany.
20
SheblamedSwedenforacertaincoldnessofspirititisimpossibletoknowifshewouldhavebeenmuch
happiersomewhereelse.AftereightyearsshehadyettosetfirmrootsinSweden,andsosheclungtopastties,howeverfrayed.
In1947thatmeantsendingfoodandothernecessitiestoGermanfriends:tothePlanckstotheLauesandtheirdaughter,Hilde,andherhusbandandchildtothe
HahnsandtoHannoandhiswifeandson.
21
ForOtto'sbirthdayshepreparedaspecialsupplementofsugar,cigars,andcigarettestoothersshesentclothing,shoes,
householditems,anythingshecouldspare.Shesentpackagestopeopleshehardlyknew,includingoneofBoltzmann'srelativeswhosehusband"probablylethiscoat
blowthewind[i.e.,wasaNazi].Butwhenitcomestosendingpackages,"Liseshrugged,"itmakesnodifferencetome.Ifpeoplecouldonlylookaheadtobetter
times!"
22
ButwhenformerMitarbeiteraskedMeitnerforhelpwiththeir"denazification"proceedings,herreactionwasfarmorereserved."Denazification,"asmandatedbythe
AlliedpowersandadministeredbyGermancourts,requiredallGermanstodeclaretheirpreviousaffiliationwiththe
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Nazipartyorrelatedorganizationscivilservants,includingteachersinschoolsanduniversities,werecloselyscrutinized.Apersoncouldbedemoted,dismissed,or
senttoprison,butindividualswereallowedtopresentaffidavitsfromwellknownpeopleintheirdefense.
23
NearlyallofMeitner'sformerMitarbeiterhadbeenpartymembers,andveryfewhadcontactedheraftersheleft.WhenherformerassistantGottfriedvonDroste
wrotetoherinFebruary1947,forthefirsttimesincesheleftBerlin,heallowedthathehada"somewhatbadconscience"forhislongsilencebutquicklygottothe
point.Hismembershipinthepartyhadbeenamistake"Ineversubscribedtothepartyprogram,neverletmyselfbepulledintopartydutiesandneverparticipatedin
partyevents"butnowhislivelihoodwasthreatened,andheneededhertoconfirm"whatapoorNaziIwas....Youwouldbeoneofthebesttogiveanopinionof
me."
24
Meitnerhardlyknewhowtoreact.SherememberedthatvonDrostehadwornanSAbrownshirttotheinstituteforyears,andshewasquitesurethatanother
ofherstudents,HerbertHupfeld,hadrecruitedhimintothepartyearlyon.
25
AsimilarrequestcamefromHermannFahlenbrach,theyoungAssistentwhohadbroughtchargesagainstherin1934.Nowwith"threelittlechildren,aged9to3
years,"hewasthreatenedwith"lossofemploymentandbread,perhapsevenarrest!"Heregrettedhis"wretchedaccusations,"which,hewantedhertounderstand,
were"notpoliticalorantiSemitic...butbasedonanimmaturecharacter...[that]could,asaman,subordinateitselfprofessionallytoawomanonlywithinner
resistance.VeryrespectedFrauProfessorMeitner,ifyoucananswermeinmyneedquitesoon,Iwouldbeexceptionallygrateful.''
26
Ofthetwoletters,MeitnerjudgedFahlenbrach's"themoredecent"vonDroste's,"liesfrombeginningtoend."Nevertheless,becausesheregardeddenazificationas
"sheermadness,"
27
leadingonlyto"bitternessandlying,"andbecauseshedidnotwanttoseeyoungpeoplewhohadgrownupinan"atmosphereofmadness"
permanentlydeprivedoftheirprofessions,
28
shecarefullyvouchedfortheirbehavior,withoutmentioningtheircharacter.
"Iknewverylittleaboutthedetailsofyour[party]membershipandposition,"MeitneransweredvonDroste,"sointhatsenseIcanstate...thatyoudidnotpropagate
Naziideasorexpressthembyyourmanner."
29
ForFahlenbrach,sheevensummonedaglimmerofwarmth."Themotives
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ofpersonalrelationships,goodandbad,areusuallymuchmorecomplicatedthantheyseem....IamcertainlywillingtobelievethatantiSemitismwasnotthedriving
forceforyou.Youdidapply...forapositionasassistantinmysectioninMay1934."
30
ForLise,theentireexchangeproducedaflashbacktotheHitleryears,the"emotionalequivalentofphysicalnausea."ShewassurprisedthatOttowroteapositive
letteronvonDroste'sbehalf:"IntheinterestsofGermany,Ihopetherearebetterrepresentativesofthe35to50yearoldgenerationthantheseformerMitarbeiter
ofours."
31
Afewmonthslater,duringtheinvestigationofKurtHess,theNaziwhodenouncedherin1938andtriedtosabotageherescape,theprosecutorsentMeitnerasetof
detailedquestions.Sherefusedtoanswer.
32
HeropinionofdenazificationcoincidedwiththatofPaulRosbaud,whoconsidereditdishonestanddangerous.Upset
thatwellplacedNazisandtheirsympathizers,amongthemWalterandIdaNoddack,werebeingrehabilitatedandrestoredtotheirformerpositions"theyallseem
tobeinhighspirits"hecalledtheexercise"renazification"andsentAlliedfriendslengthycharacterdescriptions,goodandbad,ofpeopleheknew.
33
Meitner,
however,wouldnotmakenegativestatementsfortherecord.SherefusedtotestifyagainstHess,probablythemostmalevolentNazishehadknownpersonally,and
she"strictlydeclined"toprovidetheAllieswithheropinionofErnstTelschow,thegeneralsecretaryoftheKaiserWilhelmGesellschaft,althoughprivatelyshenoted
thathehadbeenan"enthusiasticNazi"whowas''humanlyuntrustworthy"fortheposition.
34
Mostlikelyshewasrepulsedbytheentireprocess,withitsquestionnaires
andtestimonialsthatwereremindersofthenotoriousFragebogen,defamationsanddenouncementsoftheNaziperiod.
InApril1947,LisemetElisabethSchiemanninLondon.Elisabethhadbeenreinstatedintheuniversitypositionshehadlostin1940andwasinEnglandforseveral
monthsattheinvitationofBritishgeneticiststosurveytheliteratureforaneweditionofherbook.
35
Ithadbeennineyearssincetheyhadlastseeneachother,and
theirmeetingwasawkward.Overlunch,whenMeitnermentionedHahn's"admittedantiSemitism,"Schiemannremarkedthat"therewasagreatdealofantiSemitism
inEngland."AtonepointElisabethaskedLiseifshewasthinkingofreturningtoAustria."WhenItoldherthatIcouldn'treturntoAustriasinceIneverheldaposition
there,onlyinGermany,shethensaidinaroundaboutwaythat
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theAustrianscouldsurelyfindsomethingforme....DidshemeantosaythatIamnotwantedinGermany?...Despitemuchreflection,Idonotunderstandhowshe
reallyfeelsaboutme."
36
LiseknewofElisabeth'sdifficultyearsundertheNazisshemayhaveknownthatatonetimeElisabethandhersisterGertrudconcealedaJewishfriend,thepianist
AndreaWolffenstein,intheirapartmentformonths,atgreatrisktothemselves.(WhenWolffensteinhadtomove,FritzandMariaStrassmannhidherintheir
apartmentforseveralmonths,endangeringtheirownlivesandthatoftheir3yearoldson.Wolffensteinsurvived,
37
andin1986StrassmannwashonoredatYad
Vashem,theIsraeliHolocaustmemorial.)
38
LisedidnotdoubtElisabeth'sessentialdecency,butshewashurtthatElisabethseemednottocareifshecamebackor
not,andshewasdistressedtoseethatElisabeth'spoliticswereasnationalisticasbefore,withoutmuchconcernorunderstandingforanythingbutGermany.Where
ElisabethregardednazismasanaberrationinanotherwisesuperiorGermanculture,LisesawitastheendresultoftaintedGermanideologyLisejudgedElisabeth
unpleasantlystridentandpoliticallynaive,whereasElisabeththoughtthatLisehadbecomebitterandunforgiving.
39
Theyremainedfriends,butmostlybecausethey
hadknowneachothersuchalongtime.AswithOttoHahn,thefriendshipwasdamaged.
LisewasnotreadyeventovisitGermany.WhenMaxvonLaueinvitedhertoattendaphysicsconferenceinthesummerof1947,shehesitated,thenrefused,inpart
becauseshestillhadnopassport,morebecauseofwhatshecalled"aspiritualproblem."Unlikeherfriends,shetoldLaue,shedidnotlookatworldproblems"only
fromtheGermanpointofview,"andthereforeshewasafraidshemightjeopardizeherfriendshipswithpoliticalarguments.HerrecentexperienceswiththeHahnsand
Elisabethworriedher.''IamreadytoconsideranyhonestviewpointandifIcannotshareit,thathasnothingtodowithmyfriendship.Buthowisitontheotherside?I
havewrittenveryfrankly,dearLaue,pleasetrytounderstandmecorrectly."
40
TosomeextenthermisgivingsappliedtoLaueaswell,whomsheconsidered"better
qualifiedforthoughtfulreflectionthanHahn...buthisfundamentalattitudeisnotverydifferentfromHahn's."
41
InNovember1947,LisetraveledthroughGermanybytrainonherwaytoParis,wheresheparticipatedinaFrenchcommemorationofthetenthanniversaryof
Rutherford'sdeath.Secureinhercompartment,Lisebegantoreplacetheimaginedwiththereal:here,greatheapsofdebriswhere
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townsoncestoodthere,peopleatlocalstationsinwarmcoastsandgoodshoeswhodidnotlookunderfed.
42
JustbeforeleavingforParis,LisereceivedanunexpectedofferfromFritzStrassmann.FortwoyearsStrassmannhadbeenengagedinreorganizingandrebuildingthe
KaiserWilhelmInstituteforChemistryatitsnewpermanentsiteinMainz,onthegroundsofanewuniversitythatwasalsounderconstruction.(In1949,theKaiser
WilhelmGesellschaft[KWG]wouldbereplacedbytheMaxPlanckGesellschaft[MPG]andtheinstitutesrenamedaccordingly.)
43
Strassmannhadadual
appointmentasprofessorofchemistryattheuniversityandheadofthechemistrysectionintheinstitute.JosefMattauch,theAustrianphysicistwhosucceededMeitner
in1939,hadoriginallybeenappointedinstitutedirector,butMattauchwasillwithtuberculosisandunabletowork,andnowStrassmannwasaskingMeitnertoreturn
asheadofthephysicssectionheroldpositionanddirectoroftheinstitute.AspresidentoftheKWG,OttoHahnhadagreed."[He]wasasconvincedasIamthat
thiswouldbebestsolutionfortheinstitute,"Strassmannwrote,"buthedidnotthinkyouwouldevenconsidersuchaproposal.SinceIamanoptimist,Iwillaskyou
anyway."Helistedthepositives:heandLisewouldworkwelltogether,thecompletedinstitutepromisedtobebetterthantheoneinDahlem,andamongthe
Mitarbeitertherewouldprobablybenoonewhowouldnotworkenthusiasticallyunderherdirection.Admittedly,conditionsinpostwarGermanyweredifficult,buthe
hopedshewouldgivetheofferseriousconsideration.
44
LisedidthinkitoverforseveralweeksandthenplainlyexpressedherconcernstoStrassmann.
Quitefrankly,iftheproposalhadcomefromanyonebutyou,Icouldonlyhaveanswered"No,"eventhoughIhaveneverstoppedlongingformyoldworksituation.Butwhat
remainsofthis,andwhatisgoingonintheheadsoftheyoungergeneration?...Amutualhumanunderstandingisindispensablefortruecooperation.Idonotdoubtyou,butthat
aloneisnotsufficient.
45
"FornowIansweredsomewhatevasively,"LiseconfidedtoEvavonBahrBergius,"butIpersonallybelievethatIcannotliveinGermany.FromallIseeinletters
frommyGermanfriends,andotherthingsIhearaboutGermany,theGermansstilldonotcomprehendwhathashappened,andtheyhavecompletelyforgottenallthe
horrorsthatdidnotpersonally
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happentothem.IthinkIwouldnotbeabletobreatheinsuchanatmosphere."
46
InOctober1947,MaxPlanckdied,attheageofeightynine.Lisegrieved.Hehadbeenacentralfigureinherlifeforfortyyears,andshehadlovedhim,asshedidno
oneelse,withabsolutetrustinhiswisdomandcharacter.
47
ThecommemorationwastotakeplaceinGttingenon23April1948,hisninetiethbirthday,forwhicha
celebrationhadalreadybeenplanned.
48
ItgavehertheimpetussheneededtovisitGermany,andanexcusetodelaytheMainzdecisionuntilshecouldtalkto
Strassmanninperson.
SheapproachedGermanywarily.ShepreferrednottoacceptlodgingfromtheKWG,shetoldHahn,becauseshedidnotwishtobe"aguest,sotospeak,of[KWG
GeneralSecretaryErnst]Telschow...who,amongotherthings,fullyacceptedtheHitlerismdecreedinferiorityofwomenandputitintopractice."
49
InGttingen,Lise
hadnosenseofhomecoming.ThiswaswhereJamesFranckhadbeenformanyyears,andMaxBornasLisewalkedthefamiliarstreetsoftheundamagedoldtown,
Germansweregoingabouttheirlivesasifnothinghadhappenedasifnooneweremissingwhileshewasthinkingonlyaboutthosewhowerenotthereshecould
notlookatthefacesofstrangersonthestreetorformerassociateswithoutwonderingwheretheyhadbeenallthoseyearsandwhattheyhaddone.Beingamong
GermansarousedhalfburiedmemoriesoftheHitlerperiod,andshewasupsettoseethatanambitiouspartymemberlikeTelschowwasbeingreinstatedintoahigh
position,withHahn'swholeheartedsupport.
50
ReturningtoStockholm,shefocusedherangeronanarticlebyMaxvonLauethathadjustappearedintheApril1948issueoftheBulletinoftheAtomic
Scientists.
51
Duringtheprevioustwoyears,SamuelGoudsmitandWernerHeisenberghadbeendebatingthecompetenceoftheGermanatomicscientistsandtheir
fissionproject,HeisenberginsistingthattheGermanshadbeenablebutunwillingtobuildabombandGoudsmitsayingtheoppositepositionsthatonehistorianhas
labeled"apologetic"and"polemical."
52
AfterHiroshimaandNagasaki,whenmanyAlliedatomicscientistsweregrapplingwiththeirconsciences,theywereincensed
thattheirGermancounterpartsseemedtohavenosimilarqualmsabouthavingworkedfortheThirdReichandwereevensuggestingthatmoralscrupleshadkeptthem
frombuildingabomb.In1947,Goudsmitpub
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lishedhisaccountoftheAlsosmission,includingasummaryofthetranscribedFarmHallconversationsthatbolsteredhisargumenthecalledtheGermanscientists'
claimofpeacefulintentionsa"brilliantrationalizationoftheirfailure"tomakeabombandridiculedHeisenberg'spostwarapologiaas"thenewthemesongofGerman
science."
53
InhisreviewofAlsosfortheBulletinoftheAtomicScientists,thephysicistPhilipMorrisonstatedflatlythatalthoughbothAlliedandGermanscientistshadworked
forthemilitary,itwould"neverbepossibletoforgive"thosewhoworked"forthecauseofHimmlerandAuschwitz,fortheburnersofbooksandthetakersof
hostages"thefactthatsome''braveandgoodmenlikevonLaue"couldresisttheNazisprovedthatitwouldhavebeenpossibleforscientiststostayalooffromthe
Germanwareffort.
54
Lauerespondedforcefully.HearguedthatGermanscientistsasagrouphadnotgivenstrongsupporttoHitler,thatMorrisonwas"keep[ing]
alivehate,"andthatGoudsmitandotherswhohadlostrelativestotheNazismustfeel"unutterablepain"atthementionofthe"merewordAuschwitz"andwere"for
thatveryreason"incapableofunbiasedjudgment.Laue'simplicationthatGermanscouldbeobjectivebutJewscouldnot
55
andthatAmericansingeneralmightgive
GermansafairhearingbutJewswouldnotindicatesthathehadnotbeencompletelyunaffectedbytheracismoftheThirdReich.Itwasnothisfinestmoment.
Morrisonlashedback:"ItisnotProf.Goudsmitwhocannotbeunbiased,nothewhomostsurelyshouldfeelanunutterablepainwhenthewordAuschwitzis
mentioned,butmanyafamousGermanphysicistinGttingentoday...whocouldliveforadecadeintheThirdReich,andneveronceriskhispositionofcomfortand
authorityinrealoppositiontothemenwhocouldbuildthatinfamousplaceofdeath."
56
TheexchangewenttotheheartoftheemotionaldividebetweentheAlliesandtheGermans:ononeside,moraloutragewithoutmuchthoughtforthefutureonthe
other,selfservingdenialswithnoapparentremorseforthepast.CertainlyLauewasnotunreasonableinaskingforcollegialunderstanding,buthestumbledbadlyin
hisremarksaboutGoudsmit,andhewascuriouslyblindtotherevulsionandanger,notjustamongJews,thatGermansandGermanystillevokedintheWest.That
veryblindness,Morrisonwassaying,wasevidenceofthe"tragicfailure"ofmanylearnedGermans:theyhadignoredtheirhumanobligationsandworkedtothe
advantageoftheNazistate,amoralfailuretheystillseemedunableto
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recognize.AndifLaue,whoseintegrityhadbeenmuchpraisedbytheAllies,nowsawfittoindiscriminatelydefendhiscompatriots,hewouldbelumpedinwiththe
rest.
ThatwaswhatMeitnerhadbeensayingallalong.ShebelievedthatLauehaddamagedhiscredibility,andshedisagreedwithhispremise."Thereistoomuchevidence
thatmanyscientists(withorwithoutconviction)wentalongwithHitler,"shewroteheatedlytoOtto,citingEinstein'simmediateexpulsionfromscientificacademiesin
1933,theGttingenDozentswhowentonrecordagainstFranck,theverysmallnumberofscientistswhodaredattendtheHabermemorial,andmore.AtMeitner's
request,HahnshowedthelettertoLaue,whorepliedthatEinstein'spoliticalinvolvementmadehisexpulsionfromtheBerlinAcademyinevitable,
57
aresponse
Meitnerregardedas"sonaive"thatshedidnotdiscussitfurther.
58
SheconcludedinalettertoHahn,
IthinkIcannottakethepositioninMainz.Ihavelittlefearofuncomfortablelivingconditions,butconsiderableconcernsaboutthementality.Exceptforphysics,everytimeI
wouldhaveadifferentopinionfromtheMitarbeiterIwouldsurelybemetwiththewords:ofcourseshedoesn'tunderstandtheGermansituation,becausesheisAustrian,or
becauseofherJewishorigins.IstressedthesedoubtstoStrassmannalso,andherespondedonlybyrepeatinghownecessaryIwouldbefortheinstitute.Thushedidnotdareto
refutemydoubts....ItwouldbeasimilarbattletotheoneIwagedwithverylittlesuccessintheyears'33'38,andtodayitisverycleartomethatIcommittedagreatmoral
wrongbynotleavingin'33,becausestayinghadtheresultofsupportingHitlerism.Thesemoralconflictsdonotexisttodayofcourse,but...mypersonalsituationwouldnotbe
verydifferentnowthanitwasthen,IwouldnothavethetrustofmyMitarbeiterandthereforewouldnotbetrulyuseful.
59
Hahncountered,
Youspeakofthebattleyouwaged.Whatbattlewasthat?Wouldyou,ifyouhadbeeninourplace,haveacteddifferentlyfromsomanyofus,namelytomakeforcedconcessions
andtobeinwardlyveryunhappyaboutthem?...ThinkoftheconcessionsmadebyGeheimratPlanck,soreveredbyyouandbyusall!...Onecannotdoanythingtocounteracta
terrorregime....Howcanoneconstantlyreproachanentirepeoplefortheirbehaviorduringsuchtimes?...WeallknowthatHitlerwasresponsibleforthewarandtheunspeakable
miseryallovertheworld,buttheremustbesomesortofworldunderstandingalsofortheGermanpeople.
60
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Hahn'sview,thatHitlerwasresponsiblebutGermansasawholewerenot,wasexactlythepointonwhichheandLisewouldneveragree.
LisecitedarecentinternationalgeneticsconferenceinStockholm,fromwhichGermanshadbeenexpresslyexcludedattherequestofforeignscientists,especiallythe
NorwegiansandtheDutch."Imentionthisonlytoshowthatyoudonotalwaysassessforeignopinioncorrectly,andaboveallthatyoudon'tfullyunderstandthateven
yourdevotedpersonalfriendscannotalwaysdismisseverythingthathappenedandcannotgraspthatsuchfairpeopleas,forinstance,Lauewanttoretroactively
defendalmosteverything,eventhoughtheywereveryunhappyaboutmanythingsatthetime."
61
ThiswasLiseandOtto'slastexplicitlypoliticalargument.Liseneverunderstoodtheextenttowhich"good"GermanslikeHahnandLauefeltharmedbytheNazis.
AndOttoneverunderstoodthatshewasreproachinghimandothersnotsomuchforfailingtofighttheNazisasfortheirattitudeafterward:forrememberingsolittle
andcaringless,forrefusingtoexaminetheirpast,andforreflexivelydefendingGermanhonor,asiftheNazishadnotbeenGermanandtheGermanshadnotbeen
Nazis.
62
LiseandOttohadbeenarguingfruitlesslyforyears,andshewastiredofit.WhatstruckhermostaboutOtto'sletterwasthathesaidnotonewordabout
Mainz.
"TheywantedmetogotoMainz,"shetoldJamesFrancklaterthatsummer."WhenIwrotethatIwasnotsureofthetrustoftheMitarbeiter,inpartbecauseIam
Austrian,andinpartbecauseofmyJewishorigins,HahnsaidnothingandLauewrotethatitwasapity,astheyhadnoobjectionstoAustrians."
63
Franckhad
declinedanofferfromHeidelbergwithsimilarmisgivings,convincedthat"misunderstandingswouldarisefromdifferencesinexperiencealone."
64
Bytheendof
summer1948,thediscussionwasover.
Still,theMainzoffermeantsomethingtoLise.ItwasanattemptatrestitutionandthuseasedthetensioninherrelationswithGermancolleaguesandinstitutions.
GraduallysheacceptedthefactthatthereweremanyinGermanywhowishedherwell.InNovember1948,shewasdelugedwithseventiethbirthdaygreetingsfrom
formerMitarbeiter,colleagues,andgovernmentofficials,includingAustria'spresidentandtherectoroftheUniversityofVienna,andsheacceptedherelectionasa
foreignmemberoftheMaxPlanckGesellschaftwithgenuinepleasure.
65
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FromthenonshevisitedGermanyoftenandassociatedquitefreelywithGermansatconferencesandcommemorations.Herpoliticalantennaewerestillsensitiveand
hermemorywassharp,butsheallowedherselftosoftenpersonally.InBonnin1949,formerstudentsandcolleaguesgreetedhersowarmlythatshewassurprised
andmovedinBasel,shewasdisheartenedbythe"idiotictheories"someGermanshaddevelopedtoavoidresponsibilityfortheThirdReichataconferenceinComo
in1949,shetalkedtoHeisenbergseveraltimes,althoughtheyboth"verycarefully"avoidedpolitics.
66
Meitnerwouldeventuallyresumeareasonablycordial
relationshipwithHeisenberg,butwhenshemetCarlFriedrichvonWeizsckerin1948inGttingen,shefoundhisattitudesostrangethatshehardlyeverspoketohim
again.MargretheBohr,undoubtedlythinkingofHeisenbergandWeizscker's"hostilevisit"toCopenhagenin1941,wantedtohearaboutMeitner'stalkwith
Weizscker."ItisadifficultproblemwiththeGermans,''Margrethewrote,"verydifficulttocometoadeepunderstandingwiththem,astheyarealwaysfirstofall
sorryforthemselves."
67
Thereweremanymigrs,includingEinsteinandOttoStern,whoadamantlyrejectedalloverturesfromGermansandGermanyEinsteininparticularstatedhis
"irrefutableaversion"totakingpartinGermanpubliclife,"simplyoutofaneedforcleanliness."
68
Butothers,includingJamesFranckandMaxBorn,weredoingthe
sameasLise:tentativelyrenewingoldcontacts,visitingGermany,acceptingmembershipinthesocietiesandacademiesfromwhichtheyhadbeenexpelled.They
believeditwasimportanttohelpGermanybecomelessisolated,morenormal.
69
In1949,whenMeitner(togetherwithHahn)wasawardedtheMaxPlanckMedalof
theGermanPhysicsSociety,shewasverypleased,inpartbecauseofher"loveandreverence"forPlanck,inpartbecausesheregardedasa"veryvaluablegiftevery
bondthattiesmetotheoldGermanythatIlovedverymuch,theGermanytowhichIcanhardlybegratefulenoughforthecrucialyearsofmyscientificdevelopment,
forthedeeppleasureinscientificworkandaverydearcircleoffriends."
70
Clearly,Lise'srenewedtiestoGermanywentalongwaytowardmakingherownlife
wholeagain.
Meitner'ssituationinSwedenwasalsoquitesatisfactory.In1949,shemovedoutofhertemporaryquartersintheIVAresearchstationintoherownpermanent
laboratoryattheKTHnearby.Contrarytoallpromises,however,herprofessorshipfellthroughtheministerofeducationwho
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Page359
wassponsoringherappointment,TageErlander,becameprimeministerafewmonthslater,andtheproposalwasneverevenbroughttotheRikstag.
71
ButBorelius
andOskarKleinmanagedtofundherposition,sothatshewas,officially,aresearchscientist"withprofessor'ssalary"andwithoutimmediatefinancialworriesforthe
firsttimesincearrivinginSweden.
72
In1949,shebecameaSwedishcitizenherpetitionfordualcitizenshipwithAustriarequiredaspecialactoftheRiksdagthatdid
gothrough.
73
In1945,shehadbeenelectedaforeignmemberoftheRoyalAcademyofSciencesin1951,herforeignmembershipwasconvertedintoafull
membership,permittinghertoparticipate,asdoallmembers,intheNobelprocess.
74
Herscientificworkwasalsomakingprogress.Inthespringof1947,planswereapprovedforanexperimentalnuclearreactor,Sweden'sfirst,tobebuiltdeepintothe
graniteunderlyingDrottningKristinasVg.
75
SigvardEklundwastheprojectdirectortogetherwithMeitner,theyattractedyoungphysicistsandengineersinterested
inbasicnuclearresearchandreactortechnology.
76
Amongotherstudies,Meitnermeasuredneutroncapturecrosssectionsforseveralheavyelements,forfastand
slowneutrons.Theresultswereoftheoreticalinterest,asitappearedthatcertainspinselectionrulesmightberesponsibleforsomeabnormallysmallslowneutron
capturecrosssectionsinleadandbismuththeinvestigationwasalsorelevanttoreactorfunction,asfissionproducesnumerousnewisotopeswithawiderangeof
neutronabsorptioncharacteristics.
77
WhilestillinSiegbahn'sinstitute,Meitnerhadattemptedtorelatetheenergyreleasedbyuraniumfissiontothemannerinwhichthenucleusdivides.Inherexperimental
arrangement,auraniumsamplewasbombardedwithfastneutronsinthecyclotronandthefissionproductswerecollectedbyrecoilonlayersoffoil.Theexperiments
weredifficultandtheresultsnotveryconclusive,butthequestionwasofconsiderabletheoreticalinterest,astheBohrWheelertheorypredictedthatthehighestenergy
releasewouldbeassociatedwiththemostsymmetricaldivisionofthenucleus.
78
Afterthewar,Meitnerreturnedtothesubjectinanumberofspeculativearticles,thistimerelatingthemodesoffissiontothestabilityoftheproductnuclei.Sincethe
early1920s,shehadlookedforempiricalcorrelationsbetweennuclearstabilityandstructure:in1921,shepostulatedtheexistenceofsubnuclearalphaparticlesto
explainpatternsofradioactivedecay
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Page360
in1926,shesuggestedthatthehigherabundanceofelementsofevenatomicnumbermightbeduetoevennumberedprotoncomplexesinthenucleusinLeningradin
1934,shelecturedontheroleofneutronsinnuclearstabilityoverallandshehadalwaysbeeninterestedinrelatingnuclearmassesandbindingenergiestogeological
andcosmologicalquestionsofelementformationandabundance.
79
Thesespeculativesurveys,interspersedwithhermajorexperimentalinvestigations,typified
Meitner'sapproachtophysics.Shelookedforthepointwhereexperimentandtheorymightadvancetogether,relyingontheorytochooseandguideherexperiments
andusingherexperimentalresultstoresolvesometheoreticalproblemsandraisenewones,surveyingthefieldforexistingdatathatmightilluminateunderlyingpatterns
ofstructureandbehavior.
Othershaddonethat,too.Intheearly1930s,WalterElsasserandKurtGuggenheimerpointedoutthatparticularlystableandabundantnucleiareassociatedwith
certainrecurringnumbersofprotonsorneutrons.Tinandlead,forexample,with50and82protons,respectively,areespeciallyabundantandhavemanystable
isotopesmoreover,thereexistanunusuallylargenumberofnuclidesthathave50neutronsor82neutrons.Therecurrenceofthese"magicnumbers"(asEugene
Wignerfirstcalledthem)suggestedtheexistenceofashellstructurewithinthenucleusanalogoustotheelectronicstructureoftheatomwithprotonsandneutrons
occupyingshellsthataremoststablewhencompletelyfilled.AfterWorldWarII,whenaccumulateddatawerereleasedforalargenumberofnewspecies,thelistof
magicnumbersgrewlonger(2,8,20,28,50,82,128)andthenuclearshellmodelwaswidelydiscussed.In1950,MariaGoeppertMayerinChicagoandJ.HansD.
JenseninHeidelbergindependentlypublishedafundamentaltheoryofnuclearshellsthataccountedforallthemagicnumberstheysharedtheNobelPrizeinphysics
withWignerin1963.
80
Inanotethatwaswrittenbeforethetheoryappearedbutpublishedataboutthesametime,Meitnerappliedmagicnumberstofissionshepostulatedthatevenamajor
nucleardisruptionlikefissionwouldleavefillednuclearshellsintact,withtheexcessenergybeingdistributedamongthe"loose"protonsandneutronsoutsidetheclosed
shells.Theslowneutronfissionof
235
Uisasymmetric,shereasoned,becauseits144neutronscandivideintofillednuclearshellsof50and82neutrons(withsomeleft
over),while
209
Bi(whichundergoesfissionbyneutronsor
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Page361
deuterons)hasfewerthan132neutronsandthussplitssymmetrically,intotwonearlyequalnucleiwithfilledshellsof50neutronseach(andagainsomeextras).
MeitneralsonotedthatbombardingUwithveryfastparticlescoulddisrupttheshellsandproducesymmetricalfission,aneffectthathadbeenexperimentally
observed.
81
ThisworkwaspublishedinApril1950andexpandedthefollowingyearMeitnerwaspleasedwithitandgratifiedthatsubsequentexperimentsbyothers
seemedtoconfirmherthesis.
82
ThesewereamongMeitner'slastscientificpublications,
83
althoughshecontinuedtoworkwithEklundonthedesignandconstruction
ofthenuclearreactor.
Earlyin1954,attheageofseventyfive,sheretiredandmovedtoEklund'slaboratory,wheretheundergroundreactorwasnearlycomplete.Thereactorreached
criticalityon13July1954,markingtheendofSweden'ssocalledheroiceraofreactordevelopmentanditsentryintotheatomicage.
84
Swedenembarkedonan
ambitiousprogramofnuclearreactorconstructionthatendedinthelate1970s.Anuclearweaponwasapparentlyneverdeveloped.
85
InEklund'sinstituteMeitnerhadacarefullyfurnishedwritingroom"anoldagehome,"shecalleditandnoformalresponsibilitiesotherthanthoseshechose:
attendingweeklycolloquiaandfollowingnewdevelopmentsinphysics.
86
In1960,sheretiredfullyandmovedtoCambridgetobeclosertoOttoRobertFrischand
hisfamily.AyearlaterSigvardEklundleftSwedenforViennatoserveasdirectoroftheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(IAEA).
87
Withthis,LiseMeitner's
modestinfluenceontheSwedishphysicscommunitywasessentiallyover.
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Page362
ChapterSixteen
FinalJourneys
Science...teachespeopletoacceptreality,withwonderandadmiration,nottomentionthedeepjoyandawethatthenaturalorderofthingsbringstothetruescientist.
Whenthewarwasover,anditbecamepossibletothinkbeyondthepresentonceagain,reminiscencesandmemoirsbegantoappear.Amongthefirstwasanotice
writtenbyOttoHahnin1947forStefanMeyer'sseventyfifthbirthday."Theeventsofthetimedidnotallowhis70thbirthdaytobeopenlymentioned,"Hahnbegan.
"AtthetimehewasrobbedofhispositionofdirectoroftheRadiumInstituteinVienna."MeyerhadreturnedtoViennaandhisformerpositionin1948,hepresented
aseventiethbirthdaygifttoHahnandLiseMeitner,his''MemoriesoftheEarlyDaysofRadioactivity."Meyerrememberedeverything:hisfirstmeetingwithLiseinthe
oldphysicsbuildingontheTrkenstrasse,herinterestinradioactivity,eventhebundleofslendermetaltubesthatsheusedin1907forherstudiesofthescatteringof
alphaparticles.MeyerbeganworkinginradioactivitysoonafterMarieCuriehehadparticipatedinitsentiredevelopment.Hediedin1949ofaheartattack,inBad
Ischl.
1
RichardWillsttter'sautobiography,writteninSwitzerlandshortlybeforehisdeathin1942,waspublishedin1949.LiseandOttobothagreedthatitwasaworkof
art,illuminatingtheirownexperiencesandbringingtolifepeopletheyhadknown.LisethoughtbacktothetimeshelecturedinMunichin1925,shortlyafterWillsttter
resignedhisprofessorshiptoprotesttheuniversity'santiSemitichiringpractices.Hecametohertalkwithabouquetofroses,invitedhertodinner,andtoldherthe
detailsbehindhisresignation."Ihadthedistinctfeeling,"Liseremembered,"thathehadtakenthisstep...inthehopethatitwouldbringpeopletotheirsenses."
2
Like
Lise,WillsttterhadexperiencedaGermanythatwas
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"tolerant,liberal,just"inhisautobiographyheexpressed"consuminggrief...atthehumanretrogression"thatdestroyedthesocietyhehadknown.
3
Afterthewar,Meitnerwasaskedrepeatedlytocontributetoabiographyofherself,ortowriteanautobiography.Shealwaysrefused,insistingthatherscientific
paperswereavailableandthatbiographiesoflivingpeoplewere"eitherinsincereortactless,usuallyboth."
4
Herexperienceswiththepresshadmadeherwaryof
exposure,andshewasunwillingtosurrenderherprivacytoabiographer,butshedidpreservealargecollectionofherpersonalcorrespondenceanddocuments.
Perhapsshedidsomerelybecauseshewastoomuchthescientisttodiscardvaluabledatamorelikely,shewantedtoleavearecordthattherewasmoretoherlife
thanscienceandmoretohersciencethanappearedinherscientificpublications.Meanwhileshebegantoevaluatethepast,inalimitedwayandonherownterms,
mostoftenintheGermantraditionofcommemoratingmajorbirthdaysandanniversaries.
ForthesilverjubileeofDirkCoster'sprofessorshipin1949,LiselookedbacktotheirfirstmeetinginLundin1921herfirstlecturetourinHollandin1923,when
Costerwasher"affectionateimpresario"Coster'svisittoDahlemin1935,whentheyheardgoldenoriolesinhergarden,birdswhosepenetratingcryseemed
"oppressiveandforeboding,asymboloftheconditionsofthetime."Aboveallsherememberedthesummerof1938andhis"enormousactoffriendship,"forwhich
shehadnowords,"onlytheheartfeltfriendshipthatbindsmetoyou."
5
Theyneversaweachotheragain.Illwithmultiplesclerosisformanyyears,DirkCosterdiedon
12February1950,attheageofsixty.MiepCosterdiedthreeyearslater,atagefiftyseven,ofastroke.
6
OnJamesFranck'sseventiethbirthdayin1952,Lisewentbackfortyfiveyears,toherarrivalinBerlin."Almostfromthefirstday,weknewwespokethesame
language,"shewrote,recallingthemanyeveningsintheirhome,Ingridatthepiano,Jameswhistlingorplayingtheviolin,BrahmsLiederperhaps,Lisehummingalong.
"Itmakesmehappyjusttoremember."Twentyyearsbefore,onFranck'sfiftiethbirthday,sheandGustavandEllenHertzhadspentawholedayofvacationinthe
Tyroltryingtocreateanamusingpoemandfinallysentatelegram:"Senemsenilessalutant"(Thesenilesalutetheold).
7
Suchsillypleasuresnowseemed
inconceivablydistant,andinnocent,buttheirfriendshipwasunchanged.
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MaxvonLaue,too,wentbacktoearliertimes."Idon'tknowwhenwefirstmet,"hewrotetoLiseafterhisseventiethbirthdayin1949,"butwefirstgottoknoweach
otherin1920....YoulivedinaboardinghouseinDahlemandhadthemajorproblemofbuyingafloormop.Afteryoudiscussedthisproblemforquitesometimewith
mywife,Iallowedmyselftoremarkthatdiscoveringanewchemicalelement[protactinium]musthavebeensimplerthanfindingamop."Lauealsoremembered
darkerevents:FritzHaber's"spiritualtorment"inApril1933thesuicidesofArnoldBerlinerandthewidowofHeinrichRubens,whentheywereabouttobedeported
in1942.
8
ShortlyafterBerlinerdied,Lauewroteanobituarythatwasnotpublisheduntil1947.Itbegan,"Fiveyearsafterthedeathofitsfounder,
Naturwissenschafteniscomingaroundtomentioningitinacommemorativearticle."
9
InthepostwaryearsLauesufferedfromboutsofdepression,
10
andinthat
condition''betweenmentaldeathandphysicaldeath,"hethoughtdeeplyabouttheNaziperiodandhisownactions.
HislettertoMeitnerforhereightiethbirthday,in1958,wasalmostconfessional."Weallknewthatinjusticewastakingplace,butwedidn'twanttoseeit,we
deceivedourselves....Cometheyear1933Ifollowedaflagthatweshouldhavetorndownimmediately.Ididnotdoso,andnowmustbearresponsibilityforit."He
wasgratefultoLiseduringthoseyears,hewrote,"fortryingtomakeusunderstand,forguidinguswithremarkabletact....Yourgoodness,yourconsiderationhad
theireffect....Ihavemademanymistakes,Idoknowthat,butIwaspreventedfromcertainthingsforwhichIwouldneverhavebeenabletoforgivemyself."
11
ManyyearshadpassedsincehisinternmentatFarmHall,andLauenolongerdefendedGermanscientistsasagroup.In1959,inalettertoPaulRosbaud,he
repudiatedtheideathat"Germanatomicphysicistsreallyhadnotwantedtheatomicbomb."ItwasaLesart,Lauesaid,a"version"developedduringFarmHall
discussionsthatwereledbyCarlFriedrichvonWeizscker,inwhichHeisenbergwas"mostlysilent"andLaue"didnothearthementionofanyethicalpointsof
view"except,presumably,torationalizetheirfailuretobuildabomb.
12
Laue'srepudiationwasaresponsetoRobertJungk'sBrighterthanaThousandSuns,ahighlyreadablechronicleoftheatomicbombthatportrayedGerman
scientists"obey[ing]thevoiceofconscience"whiletheirAlliedcolleagues"concentratedtheirwholeenergies"onbuilding
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bombs.
13
Jungk,anAustrianJewishmigrjournalist,reliedheavilyondiscussionswithWeizsckerandHeisenbergyearslaterheconcededthathehadnotbeen
sufficientlycriticalbecause,duringtheMcCarthyerainAmerica,hehadbeenanxioustoshowthatnogovernment,notevenatotalitarianNaziregime,couldforce
scientiststodoitsbidding.
14
Atthetime,however,manyrecognizedthatthebookwasunreliable.MeitnerandHahndiscussedJungk'sinaccuratedescriptionoftheir
research,
15
Lauefoundsomanymistakeshedidnotfinishreadingit,
16
andRosbaudwasmade"quitesickreadingofGerman'resistance'totheNazis"
17
hedidnot
doubtthesincerityoftheauthorbuthad"everydoubtinthesincerityofsomeofthepeoplehehasinterviewed....Itisfullofhalftruthsandmanythingsarecompletely
wrongordistortedDamnitall!"
18
Overall,theseobjectionshadlittleimpact,andLaueaskedthathislettertoRosbaudnotbemadepublicduringhislifetime.
PubliclyMeitnerandHahnalsoavoidedcontroversy.Formanyyears,inarticlesforeachmajorbirthday,theyengagedinaritualexchangeofmutualadmiration.For
Lise'sseventieth,inNovember1948,OttoreviewedherworkinGermany,her"success"inSweden,her"admirableintellectualactivityandphysicalhardiness"he
usedthesanitizedphrase"underpressureofexternalconditions"toexplainheremigrationbutotherwisedidnotdiscussit.
19
FourmonthslaterOttoturnedseventy
Lisenotedhis"uncommonintuitivetalent"and''almostindefatigablecheer."
20
ForLise'sseventyfifth,Otto'sarticleemphasizedherworkonthenuclearshellmodel,
her"enviable"intellectualproductivity,andherhikesintheAustrianmountains
21
MeitnerrespondedwithamemoiroftheirDahleminstitutethatstressedthe"strong
feelingofcommunity"and"mutualtrust,"butshedidnotmentionfission.
22
Andsoitwenttoageeightyfive:Lise'scareerandawardsOtto'smusicalabilityand
charm
23
allkindwords,wisesayings,andquotationsfromGoethebutnoseriousevaluationoftheirscientificworkandnohintthatanydisagreementhadevercome
betweenthem.
TheharmonywasunderscoredbythemanyawardsandhonorsMeitnerreceivedinAustriaandGermanyafterthewar:thecityofVienna'sPrizeforScienceandArt
in1947theMaxPlanckMedalin1949(jointlywithHahn)theprestigiousOttoHahnPrize,ofwhichshewasthefirstrecipient,in1955theOrdenpourlemrite,
WestGermany'shighestcivicaward,in1957(thesameyearasHahn)theWilhelmExnerMedalin
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Viennain1960theDorotheaSchlzerMedalofGttingenin1962andassortedhonorarydoctoratesandawardsfromuniversitiesandmembershipsinscientific
societiesandacademies.Sheacceptedthemall:fromAustria,withnostalgicpleasurefromGermany,withhercriticalfacultiessomewhatmoreintact,awarethatthose
makingtheawardsweremotivatedbyanynumberofthings,fromgenuineappreciationforhertoimagerepairforthemselves.Shesometimesshrankfromthe
formalities,andsheoftensaidthatyoungpeopleneededtherecognitionmore,butshetooktheawardsastheycame.Especiallyatfirst,thestipendswereimportantto
her,
24
andshewelcomedtherenewedrelationshipwithGermany.ExactlytheoppositeofEinstein,shebelieveditwasrighttoparticipateinGermanpubliclifeagain.
YetMeitnerwasneverreallypartofGermanlifeagain:herrolewasthatofhonoredguest,visitorfromthepast.Andtheawards,foralltheirnumberandprestige,
werewithoutscientificresonance.Shewasassociatedprimarilywithfission,butonlyatthemarginherearlierworkwasoftencited,butnotitsrelationshiptothe
discovery.Shewasneitherherenorthere:herworkwasregardedasimportant,butitwasnotclearwhy.ItmaybethatafullevaluationofMeitner'swork,especially
hercontributionstofission,wasnotpossiblesosoonaftertheThirdReich:itwouldhaveexposedtheconditionsthathadseparatedherfromherlaboratoryinBerlin,a
Pandora'sboxveryfewGermanscaredtoopen.Andsotheysidesteppedtheissue,honoringLisethepersonfarmoregenerouslythanMeitnerthescientist.Themany
awardsfunctionedasGermany'sconciliatorygestureforhavingforcedherout,ratherthanasscientificrestitutionforwhatshehadlostintheprocess.
Thedifficulty,always,washerconnectiontoOttoHahn.Whenitcametofission,hiswasthedecidingvoiceandhedidnotbelieveshewasowedanyscientific
restitutionatall.Tohimitwassimple:shehadmissedthediscoveryoffissionnotbecauseshewasdrivenoutbutbecausethediscoverywaschemicalandshewasa
physicist.Henever,apparently,reviewedtherecordtoseewhatshehadactuallycontributedorwhathehimselfmighthaveforgottenorrepresseditwaseasierto
writeaboutMeitner's"success"inSwedenthantoconsidertheinjusticeofherforcedemigrationorthedifficultyofherexile.Afterthewar,EinsteinaccusedGermans
ingeneraloflackingremorsewithHahnitwasalackoffairness,anunwillingnesstolookbelowthesurface.
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Duringhislifetimeandforsometimeafter,Hahnwasaccordedtheunusualluxuryofdeterminingthehistoryofthediscovery,unhinderedbysubstantivecriticalanalysis
fromhistoriansofscienceorothercontemporaries.Atthetimeonlyafewpeoplesawitdifferently.Strassmannlaterwrote,"Whatdiditmatterthatshedidnot
directlyparticipateinthediscovery??...LiseMeitnerhadbeentheintellectualleaderofourteam."Lauesawherforcedemigrationasan"unprecedentedtragedy...
otherwiseshewouldundoubtedly,inonewayoranother,haveparticipatedinthediscoveryoffission."
25
Others,notquitesoclose,simplysensedthatthingswere
notright.MaxVolmer,aprofessorofphysicalchemistryinBerlin,andhiswife,thephysicistLotteVolmerPusch,hadknownMeitnerandHahnsincethe1920s.
TheyquestionedtheawardingoftheNobelPrizetoHahnaloneandwereconvincedthatHahnwassuppressingMeitner'scontributions.
26
Hahn'sattitudewastypicalofthewilledhistoricalamnesiaoftheperiodwhatmadethesituationunusualwashisoverwhelmingprominence,inGermanyandabroad.
HewasGermany'sanointedpostwarscientificicon,veneratedbyscientistsandeveryoneelse:thedecentGerman,greatscientist,Nobellaureate,presidentofthe
MaxPlanckGesellschaft,discovereroffissionbutagainstthebomb,nationalistbutneveraNazi,decoratedveteranofWorldWarI,presentableabroad,affable,
witty,photogenicinshort,asymbolofallthatwasgoodabouttheoldGermanyandthenew,withnounpleasantremindersofthetwelvebadyearsinbetween.
Duringhislifehewasmadeanhonorarymemberofnearlyeveryscientificsocietyonearthandawardedcountlesshonorarydoctorates,medals,keystocities,and
honorarycitizenshipshisfacewasonastampandhisnamewasonbuildings,institutes,schools,libraries,streets,anuclearpoweredship,aprestigiousprize,andan
unknownnumberofbabyboys.(Andposthumously:trains,amooncrater,coins,anelement,anAntarcticisland,plaquesofthe"Washingtonslepthere"type,
brigades,bridges,plazas,andmore.)
27
Atthecenterwasnuclearfission,adiscoveryheincreasinglyreferredtoas"mine."Strassmann,makingexcellentprogressin
Mainz,waspermanentlyinhisshadow.
28
ItisnowonderthattheworkMeitnerdidindependentlyofHahnwasmostlyignoredandherworkwithhimconsistently
undervalued.
Andyet,despitethephenomenal"OttoHahnEffect,"the"LiseMeitnerQuestion"neverquitewentaway.Itcamethroughinacertaintension,
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especiallyinofficialmatters.AwelldocumentedexampleinvolvesthededicationofachemistrybuildingandthenamingofaresearchinstituteinBerlininthemid
1950s.BythentheoldKWIforChemistryinDahlemhadbeenrestoredandwasbeingusedbyWestBerlin'sFreeUniversityasachemistrybuildingthedecision
wasmadetonameittheOttoHahnBau(OttoHahnBuilding).JustdownthestreetwasMaxvonLaue,thedirectorsince1951ofHaber'sformerKWIforPhysical
Chemistry,whichhadbeenrenamedtheFritzHaberInstitutandwasalsopartoftheFreeUniversity.Laueandotheruniversityprofessorswerechafingunderthe
restrictionstheAllieshadimposedonnuclearresearchinWestBerlinamajorceremonydedicatingtheOttoHahnBauandhonoringHahnatthesiteofthefission
discoveryseemedanidealwaytocallattentiontotheircase.Bronzetabletswereordered,allofofficialBerlinwasinvited,andLaue,rathertactlessly,askedMeitner
togivethespeechoftheday.Hahnthoughtthatmightbeaskingtoomuch,given"hermanypainfulmemoriesofbeingdrivenoutin1938,"especiallysince"shewould
otherwise,asfarasanyonecantell,haveparticipatedinthediscoveryoffission"(anadmissioncompletelyatoddswithhispublicstatements)heunenthusiastically
agreedthatsheshouldperhapsbehonoredinsomeway,"althoughnotinconnectionwithfission."TheceremonywasheldinDecember1956.Meitnerdidnotattend
andwasnothonoredinanyway.BronzetabletsbearingHahn'sandStrassmann'snamesweremountedinsideandoutsidetheOttoHahnBau,butMeitner'sname
wasentirelyabsentfromthebuildinginwhichsheworkedforovertwentyfiveyears.TheincidenthasbeencitedasanexampleofRobertK.Merton'sMatthew
effect,inwhichhonorsareheapedonanalreadyfamoushonoreebecausedoingsobenefitsthehonorers.Acorollary,alsoevidentinthiscase,isthattheinordinate
attentionpaidtoonepersondetractsfromtheother.
29
TheepisodeleftLauewithabadconscience.Thedayaftertheceremony,heproposedthatanewinstitutefornuclearresearch,thenunderconstructioninWannsee,
ontheoutskirtsofBerlin,benamedforLiseMeitner.Whenthedecisioncameupin1958,however,hernameseemedincongruous:noonecouldimaginenaminga
nuclearresearchfacilityforanyonebutHahn.Buthisnamealonewouldnotdo,astherewasalreadytheOttoHahnBauinBerlinandanOttoHahnInstitutinMainz.
Accordingly,theWannseeinstitutewasnamedtheHahnMeitnerInstitutfrKernforschung(nuclearresearch).Inthewordsofacontemporary
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Germanhistorianofscience,"ThusdidHahnprofitonelasttimefromLiseMeitner."
30
Butinthisinstance,onecouldalsosaythatMeitnerprofitedfromOttoHahn.Aninstitutewithhernamewasasignificanthonorandapermanenttribute.Atthe
dedicationceremonyinMarch1959,MayorWillyBrandtturnedtothankherandthen,notingthatshe"hadnotbeensparedbittersuffering,"thankedher"allthe
more"fortheworkshehaddoneinBerlin.
31
Itwasnotscientificrestitution,butitensuredthathernameatleastwouldnotdisappearfromview.
ThusMeitnermaintainedarelationshipwithGermany.IfshehadnotbeensoisolatedinSwedenifshehadestablishedherselfwithworkandfriends,perhapsin
EnglandortheUnitedStatesshemightnothaveremainedsoboundtoGermancultureandfriends.ButGermanyhadgivenherthebestyearsofherlifeandthen
takenthemaway.Shereturnedagainandagain,iffornootherreasonthantosalvagewhatshecould.
ThatneedwasevidentinherfriendshipwithHahn.Hehadbeenher"colleaguebrother"formanyyears,andalthoughthecollegialitywaslonggone,thefamilial
relationshipwasstrong.Shewasinformedofeveryfamilyevent,illness,oremergency:oftheassassinationattemptonOttoin1951ofEdith'snervousbreakdownsof
thedeathsofHannoandhiswife,Ilse,inanautomobileaccidentin1960,fromwhichEdithdidnotrecover,leavingOttotocareforherandhisteenagedgrandson,
Dietrich.
32
AndLisesharedhersorrowswithhim,includingthedeathsofsisters,brothersinlaw,andherbelovedyoungerbrother,Walter,in1961.Ottowasalmost
theonlypersonwhohadknownthemallifnothingelse,Liseneededhimforthat.Sheexpresseditquitepoignantlyin1951,whenshethankedhimforwriting
"warmheartedlyandaffectionately"soonafterGustiandJutzFrischdied."Therearenopeopleherewhowouldhaveknownmeormybrotherandsistersintheearly
yearstowhomonecouldsay:Doyouremember?orDoyoustillknow?IoncereadthatChamisso'sPeterSchlemihl,themanwithoutashadow,issupposedto
representamanwithoutafatherland.Ioftenthinkofthat.ButwhenIreadyourletter,Ihadashadow."
33
Itexplains,atleastinpart,Lise'sloyaltytoOtto,aloyalty
thatmightotherwiseseemincomprehensible.
PrivatelyHahnmayhavegivenMeitnerashadow,buthispublicimagehugelyovershadowedhers.InGermany,heloomedsolargethatMeitnerwas,asamatterof
course,almostalwaysconsideredhisMitarbeiterin,a
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subordinateratherthananequal.Thisinfuriatedher,notonlybecauseitwasuntrue,butbecauseitwassocarelesslyuntrue:heroworship,prejudice,andgenderbias
wipedoutherindependentscientificrecordwithasingleword.AndwhenofficialsintheMPGineffect,herformeremployersandphysicistssuchasHeisenberg,
whoknewherworkandhadbeenhercolleague,alsoreferredtoherasHahn'sMitarbeiterin,shewasespeciallydismayedandangry.
34
In1953,shewrotetoHahn,
NowIwanttowritesomethingpersonal,whichdisturbsmeandwhichIaskyoutoreadwithourmorethan40yearfriendshipinmind,andwiththedesiretounderstandme.Inthe
reportoftheMPGthereisareferencetoalectureIgaveinBerlin(apurelyphysicslecture)andIamreferredtoasthe"longtimeMitarbeiterinofourpresident[Hahn]."Atthe
sametimeIreadinanarticleinNaturwissenschaftlichenRundschaubyHeisenbergabouttherelationshipbetweenphysicsandchemistryinthelast75years,wheretheonly
mentionofme...isasfollows:"Hahn'slongtimeMitarbeiterin,Frl.Meitner."In1917IwasofficiallyentrustedbythedirectorsoftheKWIforChemistrytocreatethephysics
section,andIheadeditfor21years.Tryforoncetoimagineyourselfinmyplace!Whatwouldyousayifyouwereonlycharacterizedasthe"longtimeMitarbeiter"ofme?After
thelast15years,whichIwouldn'twishonanygoodfriend,shallmyscientificpastalsobetakenfromme?Isthatfair?Andwhyisithappening?
35
Hahnneveransweredthosequestions,nordidheeversettherecordstraight.HehimselfdidnotrefertoherashisMitarbeiterin,ofcourse,buthedidlittletodispel
theimpressionthatshewasjustthat.Inhisautobiographiesandmemoirs,hisportrayalofMeitnerthepersonwasperfunctoryexceptforafewcoarseanecdotes,
36

sheappearsmoreastickfigurethanarealpersonandhistreatmentofMeitnerthescientistwascorrespondinglythin.(Infact,Hahn'sautobiographiesare
uncommonlysuperficialfornearlyeveryoneelse,includinghimself,butevencasualreaderssensesomethingamissinhisdepictionofMeitner.)Inallhismemoirs,in
hundredsofretrospectivearticles,talks,andinterviews,indozensoflanguagesandcountries,HahnsinglemindedlystayedwiththecoursehesetinFebruary1939:
fissionbelongedtochemistry,alone.Hewouldalwaysstresshisradiochemistry,usuallyunderstateStrassmann'sanalyticalchemistry,andneverfailtorepeat,
mantralike,thatphysicistshaddeemedfissionimpossiblethattheyhad"forbidden"itandtherebydelayedthediscovery.
37
Notonce,inanythinghewroteorsaid,
didheevermentionMeitner'sinitiativein1934,herleadershipofthe
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Berlinteam,theirongoingcollaborationaftersheleft,ortheircrucialmeetinginCopenhageninNovember1938.Doingsowouldnothavediminishedhisand
Strassmann'sachievementintheleast,butanhonestdescriptionthatincludedphysicsandMeitnerwouldhaveshownthatshewasunjustlydeniedhershareofthe
discoverythathehadbeenafraidandthereforeliedtohisMitarbeiterabouthiscontinuingcontactswithLise,failedtoacknowledgeherhiddencollaboration,and
deceivedhimselfintothinkingthediscoveryhadbeenmadewithoutphysicsorher.Andthatwouldhavespoiledhispoliticalmessage:thatfissionwasapure
achievementofGermanscience,thatGermanscientistswereuprightmenwhohadnotsuccumbedtoHitlerortriedtoturnfissionintoaweaponofwar.(That,too,
wasmostlyfalse,aswasHahn'sclaimthathisinstituteneverdidmilitaryworkduringthewar.)
38
Meitner'sreactionwasmuted.In1963,however,shortlyaftertheappearanceofHahn'sscientificautobiography,
39
shewroteanarticleforNaturwissenschaftliche
Rundschau,anontechnicalscientificperiodical.WithoutcontradictingHahndirectly,sheplacedtheuraniuminvestigationsolidlyinitsphysicscontext,beginningand
endingwithreferencestoFermi,andforthefirsttimestatedpubliclythatshehadrecruitedHahnfortheinvestigation,thatshehadbeenverydisturbedbythephysical
implicationsoftheirresults,andthattheirgreatmistakehadbeentoinvestigateonlythe"transurane"precipitateandnotthefiltrate.
40
Inanoralhistoryinterview,also
in1963,sheemphasizedthatwhileshewasinBerlinshehad"tormented"thechemiststotrytogetthemtoexaminethefiltrate,butthey"absolutelydidn'twantto."
41

Finally,shedefendedherselfandphysics:HahnandStrassmann's''wonderfulresult...didnotjustifythechemists'oftenexpressedopinion"thatphysicistshad
declaredfissionimpossibleandthereforeweretoblamefordelayingthediscovery:"Noonereallythoughtoffissionbeforeitsdiscovery."
42
Hermessagewasclear:in
thiscomplexinterdisciplinaryproblem,bothdisciplineshadmademistakes,andbothwereresponsibleforthefinalsuccess.Shedidnotexplicitlysay,perhapsbecause
itwassopainfullyobvious,thattheobstaclestorecognizingthecomplexfoundationsofthediscoverywerenotscientificbutpoliticalatthetimeofthediscoveryand
since.
Hahn'sversiondominated.In1953,itwasenshrinedintheDeutschesMuseum,ascienceandtechnologymuseuminMunich.There,inthemuseum'schemistry
section,wasadisplayoftheapparatususedinthe
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fissiondiscovery:neutronsources,paraffinblocks,leadvessels,GeigerMllertubes,powersupply,counters,amplifiersthephysicalapparatusthatLiseMeitner
builtandassembledinherlaboratoriesinherphysicssectiononthegroundflooroftheDahleminstitute.
43
Abovethetablewasalargesign:Arbeitstisch
[Worktable]vonOttoHahn.AsmallersignonthewallmentionedHahnandStrassmannMeitnerdidnotappearatall.Somethirtyyearslater,inresponseto
criticismfromthepublic,themuseumpostedaverysmallsigntooneside,citingMeitnerforthefirsttimeasHahn'sMitarbeiterin.Thedisplay,inawellknown
museumemployinghistoriansofscience,wasaccurateonlyinreflectingthemajorityopinionofthehistoryofthediscovery.
44
Overtheyears,Hahn'sunparalleledcelebritystatusspawnedanenormousquantityofderivativematerial.Achorusofformerassociates,noneclose,echoedhis
contentionthatfissionhadnothingtodowithphysicsorMeitner.ThechemistKurtStarke,ignorantofMeitner'sadvicetoHahninCopenhagen,wrotethat"nohint
from[thephysicists]hadeverinducedHahnandStrassmanntodotheircrucialfractionalcrystallizations."
45
(Starke'spoliticalacuitycanbededucedfromhis
explanationthatMeitner'semigration"wasforceduponherbythelossofher[Austrian]citizenship.")KarlErikZimen,achemistanddirectoroftheHahnMeitner
Institute,insistedthatphysicists,includingMeitner,hadbeenconvincedoftheimpossibilityoffission,thattheydelayedthediscovery,thatfissionwas"discoveredby
thechemistsinspiteofthephysicists."
46
As"proof,''ZimensuggestedthatManneSiegbahnknewMeitnerpersonallyandwouldhavenominatedherforaNobelPrize
hadshedeservedit.Thestatementisdisingenuousandmean:Zimen,whowasworkinginSwedenattheendofthewar,surelyknewthatitwaspreciselythepoor
relationshipbetweenMeitnerandSiegbahnthatkeptherfromtheprize.
47
Thedenialofphysicsbythechemistswas,tosomeextent,aformofdisciplinechauvinism.By1949,itwassoblatantthatthetheoreticalphysicistSiegfriedFlgge
thoughtitnecessarytoreviewthephysicsbehindfissioninorderto"rescueitfromoblivion."FlggehadbeentheHaustheoretikerintheKWIforChemistryin1938
1939andthus,exceptforMeitner,thephysicistclosesttothediscoveryheregardedtheoreticalphysicsastheframeworkfortheentireinvestigationand,like
Strassmann,thoughtthatthephysicists'objectionstothe"radium"isomersweretheimpetusforHahnandStrassmann'sfinalexperiments.
48
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Flgge,thetheoreticalphysicistCarlFriedrichvonWeizsckerknewfarlessaboutthediscovery,buthehadalreadymadeuphismind.Weizsckerhasrepeatedly
writtenandspokenof"Hahn'sdiscovery,"alwaystotheexclusionofMeitnerandusuallyStrassmann:heclaimsthatMeitnerhadnodesiretoinvestigatethefiltrate
becauseitwouldhavebeentoomuchtrouble(obviouslyuntrue,asthatwouldhavebeenajobforthechemists)thatHahn"nobly"creditedMeitnerwithashareinthe
discoveryalthoughshehadnothingtodowithit(bothfalse)thathisfather,theStaatssekretr,somehowassistedMeitner'sescapeinJuly1938(forwhichthereisno
evidence,excepttothecontrary).
49
Otherphysicistsgladlyrepeatedandpublishedwhateversecondandthirdhandtidbitscametheirway.AccordingtoRudolfFleischmann,ErichBaggetoldhimthat
HahntoldtheFarmHallgroupin1945,"IfMissMeitnerhadstillbeenintheinstituteinDecember1938,shewouldhavetalkedusoutofbarium"
50
accordingto
Heisenberg,Hahnwould"letslip"overaglassofwine,"Idon'tknow,I'mafraidLischenmighthaveforbiddenmetomakethediscovery."
51
Toevaluatetheirstatements,onemustknowwhothesepeoplewere:FleischmannwasaphysicistwhoworkedontheGermanfissionprojectduringthewarinthe
NationalSocialistuniversityofStrassburgBaggewasthescientistatFarmHallwhoregardedhisinternmentasworsethantheatrocitiesinconcentrationcamps
Heisenberg,asweknow,hadmanyreasonsforwantingfissiontobeGerman.Thesemenwerenotmotivatedbythedesireforhistoricalaccuracy.Someofthemwere
truebelievers,preachingthegospelaccordingtoHahn.Otherswerepropagandistswithagendasoftheirown.
Inpartthiscanbeseenasanexampleofpeoplegravitatingtoafamousmansothathisaurawouldextendtothosewhoagreedwithhim.Mostcertainlythiswasalso
anexerciseinmalechauvinism,renderingMeitnerasasubordinate,misguided,obstructivewomanwhodidn'tknowherplaceanddoingitwithcalculatedimpunity,
awarethatotherswhoknewevenlesswouldtendtoacceptthestereotype.ItishighlyunlikelythatHeisenbergwouldhavereferredtoamalecolleagueofMeitner's
prominenceasanyone'sMitarbeiterorwouldhaverelishedrecalling(orimagining)andthenpublishingachummysceneinwhichtwomendisparageathirdwhile
reminiscingoveraglassortwoofJohannesbergRiesling.
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ButinthehostilitytoMeitnerthereisalsoapronouncednationalism.Afterthewar,whenitbecameknownthatMeitnerandFrischhadbeeninformedofthebarium
findingbeforepublication,somephysicistsreactedasifGermanphysicshadbeenthevictimofascientificDolchstoss.OvertheyearsthemoreaggressiveMeitner
detractorsclaimedthatanynumberofGermanandViennesephysicistswouldhavebeenthefirsttointerpretandconfirmfission,ifonlyMeitnerandFrischhadnot
beengivenadvancenotice.ThesemenhadnothingtosayaboutthefairnessofMeitner's(orFrisch's)forcedemigration,buttheywereapparentlyquiteaggrievedthat
they(orGermany)hadnotreapedthemaximumbenefitfromit.AlthoughitwastoolatetoaccuseHahnofnotplayingbytherules,Fleischmann,Zimen,andothers
countedthedaysofMeitner'sandFrisch's"headstart"andvirtuallydisputedtheirpriority.
52
(Occasionally,theircomplaintsreachedsympatheticears.InSweden,for
example,theauthorsofarecenthistoryofphysicsgarbledMeitner'scontributionstofissionandincorrectlyassertedthatpublicationsbyothergroupspreceded
Meitner'sandFrisch's.TheauthorsareformerassociatesofSiegbahn's.)
53
ToinsistthatMeitnercontributednothingtothefissiondiscovery,toimplythatMeitnerandFrischhadbeengivenanunfairadvantagethesewerewaysofdenying
thatshehadbeentreatedunjustlyand,inalargersense,ofrefusingtoconfronttheinjusticeandcrimesoftheNaziperiod.RatherthanacknowledgingthatMeitner's
exclusionfromfissionwaspolitical,Hahnandhishangersoninventedspuriousscientificreasonsforit.Arrogantly,andwithmisplacednationalpride,theydeniedthe
injustice,creatednewinjusticeandimplicatedthemselves.
MeitnerherselfdidnotdobattlewithOttoHahn.Therewereotherthingsshewantedtodowithherlife,andinanycaseshewouldhavepreferredtobeknownfor
herearlierworkandnotexclusivelyforsomethingthathadalreadykilledhundredsofthousandsandcontinuedtoterrifypeopletheworldover.
54
Inpartforthat
reason,shewas"notparticularlydisappointed,"notevenatthetime,thatshedidnotsharetheNobelPrizewithHahn.And,shetoldJamesFranckin1955,shewould
nothavewantedtheprizewithoutFrisch.Inanyevent,theabsenceofaNobelPrizewas"innowayanopenwound."
55
Shewasgreatlytroubledbytheperilousstateoftheworldandthedegreetowhichscience,especiallyphysics,addedtothedanger.Nevertheless,sherefusedtosign
appealsthatcalledfornucleardisarmamentor
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anucleartestban,callingthemuselessand,worse,dangerousillusions
56
insteadshethoughteveryeffortshouldgointomakingwaritselfobsolete.
57
Heropinion
wasclosetothatofNielsBohr,whobelievedthatthesheerdestructivenessofnuclearweaponswouldmakealloutworldwarimpossible.Andinthistherewassome
roomforoptimism:peopleandtheirgovernmentswouldhavetochooserestraint,openness,andglobalcooperation.
58
InaspeechinViennain1953,Meitnerpointed
outthatalthoughscienceandtechnologyhadbeenusedforwarthroughouthistory,theethicaltraditionsofscientificresearchandinternationalscientificcooperation
offeredamodelforhumanbettermentandunderstanding."Sciencemakespeoplereachselflesslyfortruthandobjectivityitteachespeopletoacceptreality,with
wonderandadmiration,nottomentionthedeepjoyandawethatthenaturalorderofthingsbringstothetruescientist."Herpassionforphysicswasasstrongas
ever.
59
Butworldproblemsrestrictedthe"unconditionalnature"ofherloveforphysics.SometimesLisethoughtbacktotheyearsbeforeHitler,whendespitewar,inflation,
andothertroubles,"onecouldloveone'sworkandnotalwaysbetormentedbythefearoftheghastlyandmalevolentthingsthatpeoplemightdowithbeautiful
scientificfindings."
60
WhentheRussianSputnikwentupin1957,shethoughtthesatellitewas"wonderfulinitself,"butsheworriedthatitmightdriveanewwedge
intotherelationshipbetweenEastandWest
61
shewroteLilliEppstein,''spirituallyandmorally,weareinnowaykeepingpacewithtechnicaladvances."
62
Herheart
poundedeachdayasshereadthenewspaper.
63
IntheseyearsherclosestconfidantwasJamesFranck.Theysaweachotherfrequentlyandwroteoften,trustingeachother'sviewsonpeople,science,andpolitics.
Theyspokethesamelanguage,asLiseoftensaid,andlaughedatthesamethings."Yourtruefriendshipisamongthemostcherishedandpreciousexperienceslifehas
givenme,"
64
shewroteforhisseventyfifthbirthdayitwas"nevermarredbyeventheslightestdisappointment."
65
In1952,HerthaSponer,Franck'ssecondwife,
spentasabbaticalyearinStockholm,andLisebecameclosetoheraswell.Liseenjoyedbeingwithhappycouples,andJamesandHerthawere"sohappywitheach
otherthatitmakesonegladjusttoseethemtogether."
66
SheworriedaboutFranck'shealthandbeggedhimnottoworktoohard."Butofcourse,"shewrotewhenhe
waseightyoneandsheeightyfive,"Istilldounderstandhowwonderfulitistobepossessedbyone'sownwork."
67
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Shetraveledasoftenasherhealthallowed,oftenmore.AletterwritteninJuly1959atageeightyisrepresentative:"InJanuaryIwasinEngland,midMarchin
Gttingen(forHahn's80thbirthday)andBerlin,andAprilandMayinAmerica[atBrynMawrCollege]whereIgaveseverallectures,andinWashington,Durham[to
seetheFrancks],Chicago(Argonne),andofcourseNewYork,whereIvisitedmysistersandtheirchildren,friendsandlaboratories....NowIamgettingreadyto
gotoKitzbhelonThursday."
68
AlthoughhighbloodpressureandoccasionaldizzyspellsalmostmadehercancelherAmericantrip,
69
shedeliveredthreelecturesat
BrynMawr,includingaperspectiveonthestatusofwomenintheprofessions.
70
"AslongasIdon'treadthenewspapers,Ifeelfine,"shetoldFranck.
71
InKitzbhel
shehikedeveryday,slightlychagrinedabouthavingtotakeacablecartothetopandwalkingfromthereinsteadofhikingallthewayuponherown.
72
ShetookgreatpleasureinhervisitstoVienna.ReturningtoGermanyatfirst,especiallyDahlem,waspainful,"asifIweregoingthroughtheruinsofmyownpast."But
inViennathedayswere"almostunbelievablybeautiful"
73
"Iwalkedaroundinadreamlikestatemyentirehappyyouthcamealiveandallthedifficultyears...
retreatedintothebackground."
74
LaterhertravelsinGermanywerelesstraumatic,butViennawasstilltheplaceforunencumberedsentiment.Itprobablyhelpedthat
shedidnotknowmanypeopleinViennaandthatthoseshedidknowwereveryclosefriends.Whenshevisited,shestayedwithSigvardEklund,hercolleaguefrom
StockholmwhowasdirectoroftheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency,andhiswife,AnnaGreta,acharming,livelycouplewhosecompanyLiseespecially
enjoyed.
75
In1963,MeitnerwasaskedtogiveaspeechattheUraniaVolksbildungsanstalt,aculturalcenterinVienna,onthetopic"MemoriesofFiftyYearsinPhysics."
PerhapsbecausethetalkwasinVienna,perhapsbecauseitwasgiventoageneralaudiencewithmanyyoungpeople,Lise'sportrayalofherlifeinphysicswas
glowingandyouthful,almostinnocentshedescribedthephysicsshehaddoneandthe"greatandlovablepersonalities"shehadknownasa"magicmusical
accompanimentto[her]life."
76
Whenshefinished,theenthusiasticcrowdnearlymobbedLise,theneightyfiveyearsoldandtinierthanever,inanefforttogetcloser
toher.
77
Sheneverwentlongwithoutmusic.Forherseventyfifthbirthdayin
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1953,OskarKleinorganizedfriendsfromallovertobuyheragoodphonographandrecordsLise'sbrotherWaltercamefromLondon,andshewokeuponthe
morningof7NovembertoahousefilledwithflowersandMozart'sclarinetquintet.
78
Whetherathomeortraveling,shewenttoconcerts:chambermusicand
symphony,mostlyclassical,butshealsoenjoyedCarlNielsenandothercontemporarycomposersandconscientiouslytriedtoappreciatemoremodernmusic.In
BonnshewasintroducedtoPaulHindemithandhiswifeandheardoneofhisquartetsperformedinconcert,whichshe"justabout"understood.
79
Inaconcertin
Viennain1963,DavidandIgorOistrakhperformedMozart'sSinfoniaconcertanteunderthedirectionofYehudiMenuhin,andthenMenuhinplayedtheBeethoven
violinconcerto"overwhelminglybeautiful."
80
AndinGenevathatyear,sheheardRudolfandPeterSerkinplayMozart'sConcertoforTwoPianos."Itwasso
incrediblybeautifulthatIwasunderaspellfordays."
81
In1960,atageeightytwo,LisemovedtoCambridgetobenearOttoRobert,whowasaprofessorofphysicsandaFellowofTrinityCollege.Theyhadbeenclose
sincehewasaboyandshehadthoughthimcleverandobservantsheadmiredhis"excellentcombination"ofclearthinkingandwarmheart.In1951,OttoRoberthad
marriedUllaBlau,anartistwhowasalsoofVienneseextraction,andtheyhadtwochildren.OttoRoberthelpedLisemoveoutofherStockholmapartmentandfinda
placeinCambridgeheplayedthepianoforher,talkedtoheraboutphysics,attendedtothepracticaldetailsthatshedisliked.HeandUllamadeTanteLisepartof
theirfamily,lookingafterher"likelovingchildren."
82
Lisewasverygrateful.
83
AndshewassurprisedtofindthatherSwedishexperiencehadbeenmorepositivethan
sherealized.Inthosetwentytwoyearsshehadmadegoodfriends,andshemissedthem.
84
LisehadanaffinityforEnglandandtheEnglish:sheadmiredtheirstoicqualitiesduringthewarandafter,
85
andsheappreciatedtheirhelpfulness:whenevershe
steppedfromabusorpreparedtocrossastreet,severalpeoplewouldreachoutahandwhensheaskeddirectionstoashop,peoplewouldoffertotakeherevenif
itwasblocksaway.AndCambridgewasbeautiful,itshugebeechesandoaksmorespectacularthananyshehadseenelsewhere.Heronlycomplaint,typicalforLise,
wasthechill:underheatedhouses,singlepanedwindows,doorsthatflewopeninastrongwind.
86
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wasverythin,about41kilograms,or90pounds.
87
Fooddidnotinterestherinarestaurantshecouldbecomeabsorbedinconversationandcompletelyforgetabout
lunch.
88
Shekeptupwithphysicstotheextentpossible,butitwasincreasinglyhardtodo."Physicskeepsslippingfurtherawayfromme,"shecomplainedwhenshewas
eightytwo."Forthoseofuswhodon'tworkanymore,manyofthearticlesseemtobewritteninakindofsecretcode....Eventhesymbolsintheequationsarenot
explained."
89
Ateightyfour,shedecidedthatphysicshadbecometooabstract.MaxBornfeltthesame:whenaskedaboutthefutureofphysics,hefeltlike"aretired
captainofsailingships[whoisasked]tocommentontheconditionandfutureofsteamboattravel."Hearingthisfromoneoftheinventorsofquantummechanics
consoledMeitnerquiteabit:"IfaMaxBornsaysthat,whatcanIexpect?"
90
Ateightyfive,shewasstilltryingtokeepup.ShereliedonOttoRoberttoexplainnew
developmentsandkeptasmallnotebookwitha"QuestionsforO.R.''sectionthatincluded"spinspinrelaxationeffects?"and"nuclearformfactor?"alongwith
"highfalutin?"and"jukebox?"
91
SheregularlyreadPhysikalischeBltterandNatureforanoverview,somehistoryofscienceandnonscienceforpleasure,andshe
generallyhadanopiniononthemostrecentNobelPrizes.
92
Theseverestpenaltyforgrowingoldwasoutlivingherfriendsandcolleagues.WhenEnricoFermidiedofcancerin1954,attheageoffiftythree,everyonewas
shocked:"Hewasoneofthemostgiftedphysicistsofourtimehowharditmustbeforhiswife."
93
IrneCuriediedin1956,atfiftyeight,alsoofcancer:"Beneathher
almostunfriendlyexterior,fewpeoplerecognizedherinnerwarmheartedness."
94
Einsteindiedin1955:"ForallmygreatadmirationandaffectionforEinstein,during
theBerlinyearsIoftenstumbledinwardlyoverhisabsolutelackofpersonalrelationships....OnlylaterdidIunderstandthatthisseparationfromindividualswas
necessaryforhisloveandresponsibilitytowardhumanity."
95
LiselastmetErwinandAnnemarieSchrdingerinthesummerof1959nearKitzbhelshesawthat
Erwin'shealthwasverybad,andshewrotetotheFrancks"I'mafraidheknowsit."HediedinJanuary1961attheageofseventythreeAnnylivedanotherfour
years.
96
In1960,MaxvonLauediedofinjuriesafteranautomobileaccident,andhiswife,Magda,diedayearlater."Howsmalltheolddearcirclehasbecome!"Lisewrote
toFranck."Andhowmuchmorevaluableeverydear
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friendonestillhas."
97
HerbrotherWalter,thebabybornwhenshewasalreadythirteen,diedin1961."Hewasmyfriendevenasachild...andremainedsoallhis
life."
98
"Ihavelostoneofmytruestanddearestfriends."
99
WhenBohrdiedinNovember1962,shewasshattered."But,"shewroteLilliEppstein,''myheadand
heartarefullofwonderfulmemoriesof...hisgreatnessandharmonyinintellectandheart."
100
InCopenhagenthenextsummer,atacommemorationofthefiftieth
anniversaryoftheBohratomicmodel,LisefeltBohr'sinfluencesostronglyshealmostforgothewasnotthere.Asever,sheadmiredMargrethe's"lovingcharmand
deliberatecomposure."
101
"Takecareofyourselves!"LiseurgedJamesandHertha."Idon'twanttoloseanymorefriendsbeforeImyselfamonthatlist."
102
InMay1964,LisetookanextendedtripwiththeFrancksinGermany.Returninghome,shedescribedittoJamesas"adreamcometrueeverydayajoyfulholiday,
everyconversationamutualunderstandingeveninthefewsituationswherewemightthinkdifferentlyandalwaysthefeelingofimmutablereciprocalfriendship."
103

InGttingenafewdayslater,on21May1964,Franckcollapsedfromaheartattackanddied.TryingtocomfortHertha,Lisemanagedafewlinesinashaky
hand.
104
Attheendof1964,OttoRobertattendedameetingintheUnitedStates,andLisewentalongwithhimtovisitfriendsandfamily.Whilethereshesufferedaheart
attackfromwhichsheneverfullyrecoveredshehadconsiderablepaininherarms,walkedwithdifficulty,andwasveryweak.
105
Stillshehadphysicsquestionswhen
OttoRobertcametoseeher,wentforsmallwalkseachdayinthegarden,andgraduallyimproved.
In1966,Hahn,Meitner,andStrassmannwerejointlyawardedtheU.S.AtomicEnergyCommission'sEnricoFermiPrize"fortheirindependentandcollaborative
contributions"tothediscoveryoffission.AlthoughHahnhadproposedStrassmannalonefortheprize,
106
theAEC,underthechairmanshipofGlennSeaborg,
decidedtohonorthemasateam.
107
InalettertoHahn,LisesaidshewasgladforhimandStrassmannbutthatherownfeelingswere"somewhatmixed"shedid
have"akindofpleasure"init.
108
HahnaskedOttoRobert,whyonly"akindofpleasure?"DidTanteLisestillhave"resentments,"thinkingshehadleftGermanytoo
soon?
109
No,OttoRobertrepliedgently,sheneverthoughtshehadleftGermanytoosoon,shewasalwaysgratefultothepeoplewhohelpedhergetout.Shehad
mixedfeelingsbecauseofthebomb.
110
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AsneitherHahnnorMeitnerwerestrongenoughtotraveltoWashington,theawardceremonywasheldinViennainSeptember1966HahnandStrassmann
attended,butMeitnerwastooill,andOttoRobertwentinherplace.LaterGlennSeaborgcametoCambridgewherehepresentedtheawardtoLiseMeitneratthe
homeofMaxPerutz,aViennabornmolecularbiologist,on23October1966.
111
Shewasnotwell,butshehadpreparedafewwordsofthanks.Seaborgnoticed
howdifficultitwasforhertorememberwhatsheintendedtosay.
112
In1967,LiseMeitnerbrokeherhipinafallandsufferedseveralsmallstrokesitwasdifficultforhertospeakorrecallwords,butshehadnopainandmadeapartial
recovery.
113
Shegraduallygrewweakerandspentthelastseveralmonthsofherlifeinanursinghome,quiteunawareofhersurroundings.OttoRobertdidnottellher
ofOttoHahn'sdeathon28July1968,orofEdith'sdeathtwoweekslater.LiseMeitnerdiedinhersleep,justaftermidnighton27October1968,afewdaysbefore
herninetiethbirthday.
114
ShehadaskedtobeburiedinthesamecountrygraveyardinBramley,Hampshire,whereWalterhadbeenburiedafewyearsbefore.Adjoiningthegrassygravesis
theoldstonechurchofSt.James,aChurchofEnglandparishchurch,wheretheburialservicewasheld.Onlyfamilymembersattendedtherewerenoeulogies.The
churchorganistplayedBach.
115
OttoRobertselectedtheheadstoneandtheinscription:
LiseMeitner:aphysicistwhoneverlostherhumanity.
Itwasexactlythewayshewouldhavewantedtoberemembered.
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Page381
Appendix
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Page383
Fig.1.
Radioactivedecayseries.FromSamuelGlasstone,SourcebookonAtomicEnergy,3ded.,
(NewYork:D.VanNostrand,1967),152154.ReprintedbypermissionofVanNostrandReinholdCo.
(figurecontinuedonnextpage)
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Page384
(figurecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fig.1.
Continued.
(figurecontinuedonnextpage)
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Page385
(figurecontinuedfrompreviouspage)
Fig.1.
Continued.
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Page386
Fig.2.
Representativeperiodictableofthe1920sand1930s(AndreasvonAntropoff,1926).Ac(89)toU(92)wereclassified
astransitionelementstherareearthelements5871weregroupedbelow.FromJ.W.vanSpronsen,ThePeriodicSystem
ofChemicalElements(Amsterdam:Elsevier,1969),160.
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Page387
Fig.3.
PeriodicsystemofBohr,1922.Fromhistheoryofelectronicstructure,Bohrproposedthatasecond
rareearthseries(dashedlines)wouldappearsomewherebeyonduranium.FromSpronsen1969:156.
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Page388
Fig.4.
Periodictable,1995.AfterthediscoveryofNp(93)andPu(94)itwasevidentthattheactinidesarehomologoustothelanthanides.
In1994,theInternationalUnionofPureandAppliedChemistry(IUPAC)approvedthenamemeitneriumforelement109,butseveralothersarestillunresolved,includingthe
placementofhahnium,andthenameseaborgium(forGlennT.Seaborg)forelement106.SeeChemical&EngineeringNews,5December1994,pp.2529,and
Chemical&EngineeringNews,8May1995,p.7.Source:LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory,UniversityofCalifornia.
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Page389
Abbreviations
ArchivesandCollections
AIP AmericanInstituteofPhysics,NewYork(laterMaryland)
BPC BohrPrivateCorrespondence,NielsBohrArchive,Copenhagen
BSC BohrScientificCorrespondence,NielsBohrArchive,Copenhagen
DM DeutschesMuseumArchives,Munich
EC Meitnercorrespondence,privatecollectionofLilliEppstein
FP JamesFranckPapers,JosephRegensteinLibrary,UniversityofChicago
GP SamuelA.GoudsmitPapers,AmericanInstituteofPhysics,NewYork
LP MaxvonLauePapers,DeutschesMuseumArchives,Munich
MB AdriaanFokkerPapers,MuseumBoerhaave,Leiden
MC MeitnerCollection,ChurchillCollegeArchivesCentre,Cambridge
MPG ArchivzurGeschichtederMaxPlanckGesellschaft,Berlin
NBA NielsBohrArchive,NielsBohrInstitute,Copenhagen
OHN OttoHahnNachlass,ArchivzurGeschichtederMaxPlanckGesellschaft,
Berlin
JournalsandPeriodicals
Alman.sterr.Akad.Wiss.AlmanachdersterreichischenderWissenschaften
Amer.J.Phys.AmericanJournalofPhysics
Angew.Chem.AngewandteChemie
Angew.Chem.Intl.Ed.Engl.AngewandteChemie,InternationalEditioninEnglish
Ann.Phys.AnnalenderPhysik
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Page390
Ann.Rev.Nucl.Part.Sci.AnnualReviewofNuclearandParticleScience
Ark.Mat.Astr.Fys.ArkivforMatematik,AstronomiochFysik
BildderWiss.BildderWissenschaft
Biog.Mem.Fell.Roy.Soc.Lond.BiographicalMemoirsofFellowsoftheRoyalSociety,London
Ber.Dt.Chem.Ges.BerichtederDeutschenChemischenGesellechaft
Ber.Wissenschaftsgesch.BerichtezurWissenschaftsgeschichte
Brit.J.Appl.Phys.BritishJournalofAppliedPhysics
Bull.Atom.Sci.BulletinoftheAtomicScientists
Chem.Rev.ChemicalReviews
ComptesRendusComptesrendushebdomadairesdessancesdel'AcademiedesSciences,Paris
Dict.Sci.Biog.DictionaryofScientificBiography
Ergebn.Exakt.Naturwiss.ErgebnissederExaktenNaturwissenschaften
Hist.Stud.Phys.Sci.HistoricalStudiesinthePhysicalSciences
J.Amer.Chem.Soc.JournaloftheAmericanChemicalSociety
J.Chem.Educ.JournalofChemicalEducation
J.Phys.Rad.LeJournaldePhysiqueetleRadium
K.Dansk.Vid.Selsk.Mat.fys.Medd.DetKongeligeDanskeVidenskabernesSelskab:MathematiskfysiskeMeddelser
Mitteilg.sterr.Ges.Gesch.Naturwiss.MitteilungendersterreichischenGesellschaftfrGeschichtederNaturwissenschaften
Naturwiss.DieNaturwissenschaften
Naturwiss.Rdsch.NaturwissenschaftlicheRundschau
Phil.Mag.PhilosophicalMagazine
Phys.Bl.PhysikalischeBltter
Phys.Bull.PhysicsBulletin
Phys.Rev.PhysicalReview
Phys.Z.PhysikalischeZeitschrift
Proc.Amer.Phil.Soc.ProceedingsoftheAmericanPhilosophicalSociety
Proc.Camb.Phil.Soc.ProceedingsoftheCambridgePhilosophicalSociety
Proc.Roy.Soc.Lond.ProceedingsoftheRoyalSocietyofLondon
Radiochim.Act.RadiochimicaActa
Rev.Mod.Phys.ReviewsofModernPhysics
Ric.Sci.LaRicercaScientifica
Roy.Soc.Lond.Obit.Not.RoyalSociety,London,ObituaryNoticesofFellows
S.Ber.Akad.Wiss.WienSitzungsberichtederAkademiederWissenschafteninWien
Sci.Am.ScientificAmerican
Verh.Dt.Phys.Ges.VerhandlungenderDeutschenPhysikalischenGesellschaft
Wiss.Z.HumboldtUniversittWissenschaftlicheZeitschriftderHumboldtUniversittzuBerlin
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Page391
Z.Angew.Chem.ZeitschriftAngewandteChemie(laterAngew.Chem.)
Z.Naturforschg.ZeitschriftfrNaturforschung
Z.Phys.ZeitschriftfrPhysik
Z.Phys.Chem.ZeitschriftfrPhysikalischeChemie
Z.Ver.Dt.Ing.ZeitschriftdesVereinesDeutscherIngenieure
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Notes
Chapter1.GirlhoodinVienna
1.BertaKarlik,''LiseMeitner:Nachruf,"AlmanachdersterreichischenAkademiederWissenschaften119.Jahrgang64(1969):345354BertaKarlik,"Lise
Meitner,18781968,"inNeuesterreichischeBiographie,BandXX(Wien:AmaltheaVerlag,1979),5156CharlotteKerner,Lise,Atomphysikerin:Die
LebensgeschichtederLiseMeitner(Weinheim:Beltz,1986),117."Naja,NarrheitenkostenGeld."
2.GeburtsBuchfrdieisraelitischeCultusgemeindeinWien,1878,entry1820.
3.Oneindication:TheGeburtsBuchentryforEliseMeitnergivesnoindicationofanamingceremony,whichforothernewborngirlstookplaceduringsynagogue
servicessoonafterbirth.
4.GiselaLionMeitnertoLiseMeitner,n.d.butafter1950(MC).
5.GeorgeE.Berkley,ViennaandItsJews:TheTragedyofSuccess,1880s1980s(Cambridge:AbtBooks/Lanham,Md.:MadisonBooks,1988),3031Arieh
Tartakower,"JewishMigratoryMovementsinAustriainRecentGenerations,"inJosephFraenkel,ed.,TheJewsofAustria:EssaysonTheirLife,Historyand
Destruction(London:Vallentine,Mitchell,1967),285310,on286.
6.StefanZweig,TheWorldofYesterday(NewYork:VikingPress,1943reprintLincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1964),6."[InMoravia]theJewish
communitieslivedinsmallcountryvillagesonfriendlytermswiththepeasantsandpettybourgeoisie."
7.IlsaBarea,Vienna(NewYork:AlfredA.Knopf,1966),244248FranzKobler,"TheContributionofAustrianJewstoJurisprudence,"inFraenkel,Jewsof
Austria,2540P.G.J.Pulzer,TheRiseofPoliticalAntiSemitisminGermanyandAustria(NewYork:Wiley,1964),2124.
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8.WilliamM.Johnston,TheAustrianMind:AnIntellectualandSocialHistory(Berkeley,LosAngeles,andLondon:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1972)Arthur
J.May,ViennaintheAgeofFranzJoseph(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1966),30CarlE.Schorske,FindeSicleVienna:PoliticsandCulture
(NewYork:Vintage,1981),116180Zweig,WorldofYesterday,1215.
9.Schorske,FindeSicleVienna,25Kobler,"ContributionofAustrianJews."
10.LiseMeitnertoIlseWeitsch,9November1955(MC).
11.ForadescriptionofLeopoldstadt,seeStephenS.Kalmar,Goodbye,Vienna!(SanFrancisco:StrawberryHillPress,1987),chap.1alsoBerkley,Viennaand
ItsJews,43.
Forpopulationstatistics,seeTartakower,"JewishMigratoryMovements":Between1869and1890,thenumberofJewsinViennaincreasedveryrapidly,then
moreslowly.Altogether,between1857and1900,thenumberofJewsincreasedfromabout7,000toalmost150,000,nearly10%ofthecity'spopulation.
Twentyfivepercentofthese,thelargestsinglegroup,wereOstjuden,"easternJews,"fromGalicia.
12.ThestreetwasrenamedHeinestrassein1919AugusteDick,pers.comm.1985.AplaquecommemoratingMeitner'sbirthplacewasmountedonthebuildingin
1988DietmarGrieser,"ImSchattenderBombe,"inKpfe(Vienna:sterreichischerBundesverlag,1991),134.
13.TheinformationcomesfrominterviewsofOttoFrisch,1975,andUllaFrisch,1982,fromAugusteDick,Vienna,pers.comm.1985,andfromtherecordsofthe
israelitischeCultusgemeinde,Vienna.
14.BertaKarlik,Sondermarke:"100.GeburtstagvonLiseMeitner,"sterreichischeStaatsdruckerei,1978seealsoKarlik,"LiseMeitner,18781968."
15.SallieA.Watkins,"LiseMeitner,18781968,"inLouiseS.Grinstein,RoseK.Rose,andMiriamH.Rafailovich,eds.,WomeninChemistryandPhysics:A
BiobibliographicSourcebook(Westport,Conn.:GreenwoodPress,1993),393402.
16.Ibid.OttoRobertFrisch,"LiseMeitner,"inCharlesGillespie,ed.,Dict.Sci.Biog.(NewYork:Scribners,1974),9:260263.
17.LilliEppstein,pers.comm.,Stocksund,12September1987.
18.O.R.Frisch,"LiseMeitner,18781968,"Biog.Mem.Fell.Roy.Soc.Lond.16(1970):405420.
19.Giselaon22March1908:TaufmatrikelderDompfarreSt.Stefan,Wien.Liseon29September1908:Taufschein(evangelisch)(Baptismalcertificate,
Protestant)(MC),andentry1820inisraelitischeCultusgemeinde,"ausgetreten29September1908."
20.Kobler,"ContributionofAustrianJews,"29,describestheseverediscriminationagainstJewsinpublicofficeandtheresultant"influxofneoChristiansintothe
legalprofession,whichprobablyrepresentedahigherpercentageofconverts"thananyotherprofession.
ForpossibleinsightintotheMeitners'nonconversion,seeRichardWillsttter,
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inFromMyLife:TheMemoirsofRichardWillsttter,trans.LilliS.Hornig(NewYork:W.A.Benjamin,1965),420:"ConversiontoChristianitywasalways
outofthequestionformebecauseitentailedsignificantadvantages,whileremainingaJewcarriedwithitonlycivildisadvantages."
21.Berkley,ViennaandItsJews,4647.
22.Zweig,WorldofYesterday,3:"thisfaithinanuninterruptedandirresistible'progress'trulyhadtheforceofareligionforthatgeneration."Zweigalsonotes(p.6)
that,incontrasttothemoreobservantJewsofeasternEurope,JewsfromMoraviawere"earlyemancipatedfromtheirorthodoxreligion,[becoming]passionate
followersofthereligionofthetime,'progress.'"
23.EliseMeitner,JahresZeugnis,1892(MC).
24.LiseMeitnertoFrl.Hitzenberger,29March/10April1951(MC).
25.LiseMeitner,"LookingBack,"Bull.Atom.Sci.20(November1964):27.
26.MeitnertoFrl.Hitzenberger,29March/10April1951(MC).
27.MarthaForklundElisabethKoffmahn,Hrsg.,FrauenstudiumundAkademischeFrauenarbeitinsterreich(Wien:WilhelmBraumller,1968).
MilevaMaric*,AlbertEinstein'sfirstwife,wasbornin1875insouthernHungaryandreceivedspecialpermissiontoattendGymnasiumtotakeclassesinphysics.
Tocontinue,sheattendedsecondaryschoolinZurichfortwoyearsbeforeenrollingintheSwissFederalInstituteofTechnology.SeeGeraldHolton,"OfLove,
PhysicsandOtherPassions:TheLettersofAlbertandMileva,Part1,"PhysicsToday47,no.8(1994):2329.
28.Womenwereadmittedtolegalfacultiesin1910butexcludedfromtechnical(engineering)schoolsuntilafterWorldWarI.
29.MeitnertoFrl.Hitzenberger,10April1951toHildeHess,20January1952(MC).Frisch,BiographicalMemoirs,405.
30.B.KarlikandE.Schmid,FranzS.ExnerundseinKreis(Wien:VerlagdersterreichenAkademiederWissenschaften,1982),149150:ArthurSzarvassy
(18731919)completedanexperimentalthesisunderFranzExnerin1898,wasalecturerinViennaforseveralyears,thenatheoreticalphysicistinBrunn,nowBrno
(Czechoslovakia).
31.Meitner,"LookingBack,"2.
32.AugusteDick,pers.comm.,Vienna,1985:TheinstitutionalrecordsoftheAkademischesGymnasium,Beethovenplatz1,WienI,showthatEliseMeitner,age22
and8/12,wasawardedherMaturittzeugnison11July1901(recordsoftheUniversity,RigorosenProtokoll).OthergraduatesofthisGymnasiumincludeLudwig
Boltzmann,StefanZweig,andErwinSchrdinger.ForSchrdinger,seeWalterMoore,Schrdinger:LifeandThought(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,
1989),2024alsoGabrieleKerber,AugusteDick,andWolfgangKerber,Dokumente,MaterialienundBilderzur100.WiederkehrdesGeburtstagesvon
ErwinSchrdinger(Wien:Fassbaender,1987),2022.
33.Meitner,"LookingBack,"2.
34.AugusteDick,pers.comm.,Vienna,1985.
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35.MeitnertoFrl.Hitzenberger,29March/10April1951(MC).
36.Ibid.
37.Ibid.
38.LiseMeitner,UniversityofViennaMeldungsbuch(MC).
39.Meitner,"LookingBack,"2.Gegenbauer'snameismisspelledthecorrectspellingisinherMeldungsbuch.
40.KarlPrzibam,"ErinnerungenaneinaltesphysikalischesInstitut,"26inO.R.Frisch,F.A.Paneth,F.Laves,andP.Rosbaud,eds.,TrendsinAtomicPhysics:
EssaysDedicatedtoLiseMeitner,OttoHahn,andMaxvonLaueontheOccasionofTheir80thBirthday(NewYork:Interscience,1959).
41.AndreasKleinert,AntonLampa,18681938(Mannheim:BionomicaVerlag,1985).
42.Meitner,"LookingBack,"3.
43.Ibid.
44.SeePrzibam,"Erinnerungen,"2KarlikandSchmid,FranzS.Exner,84HansBenndorf,"ZurErinnerungF.S.Exner,"PhysikalischeZeitschrift28(1927):
397409,quotedinMoore,Schrdinger,51.
45.Przibam,"Erinnerungen,"1.
46.Ibid.,3.SeealsoKarlikandSchmid,FranzS.Exner,6566.
47.Foradiscussionofcontemporaryphysics,seeE.N.daC.Andrade,RutherfordandtheNatureoftheAtom(NewYork:Doubleday,1964),46J.L.
Heilbron,"LecturesontheHistoryofAtomicPhysics,19001922,"inHistoryofTwentiethCenturyPhysics(NewYork:AcademicPress,1977),4852:Heilbron
estimatesthatalltoldtherewereabout700academicphysicistsinEuropeandtheUnitedStates.AlsoseeJeffreyA.Johnson'sreview,Science254(1991):1529
1530,ofKathrynM.Olesko,PhysicsasaCalling:DisciplineandPracticeintheKnigsbergSeminarforPhysics(Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,1991).
48.EngelbertBroda,LudwigBoltzmann:Mensch,Physiker,Philosoph(Wien:FranzDeuticke,1955),910.
49.Ibid.,15.
50.Ibid.,1112.
51.Ibid.,11.
52.Meitner,"LookingBack,"3.
53.MeitnertoE.Broda,n.d.butca.spring1954(MC)inBroda,LudwigBoltzmann,19.
54.BoltzmannAigentlercorrespondence,18721876,inDieterFlamm,"AusdemLebenLudwigBoltzmanns,"inRomanSexlandJohnBlackmore,eds.,Ludwig
BoltzmannGesamtausgabe:Band8InternationaleTagung,5.8.September1981AusgewhlteAbhandlungen(Graz:AkademischeDrucku.Verlagsanstalt,
1982),2156.
55.MeitnertoE.Broda,spring1954and3May1954(MC):MeitnerwritesofBoltzmann's"ausgezeichnetenVerhltnissezuFrauundKindern"andreferstotheir
familylifeas"sehrharmonisch."
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56.MeitnertoBroda,n.d.butca.spring1954(MC)inBroda,LudwigBoltzmann,19.Meitnerusestheterm"ReinheitseinerSeele"inalettertoBroda,14April
1955(MC).
57.Flamm,"AusdemLebenLudwigBoltzmanns,"25MeitnertoBroda,spring1954and3May1954(MC).
58.Broda,LudwigBoltzmann,68WalterHflechner,pers.comm.,27August1994.
59.MeitnertoBroda,3May1954(MC).
60.Usingkinetictheory,gasviscosities,andcondensationcoefficients,Loschmidtin1866calculatedmoleculardiametersandthenumberofmoleculesinagiven
volumeofgas.SimilartoAvogadro'snumber,whichcanbedefinedasthenumberofmoleculesin22.4Lofgasatstandardconditionsoftemperatureandpressure,
theLoschmidtnumberisthenumberofmoleculesinIcm
3
ofgasatstandardconditions.
61.TheStefanBoltzmannLaw,E T
4
,wasformulatedempiricallybyStefanin1879andgivenatheoreticalbasisbyBoltzmannin1884.
62.Broda,LudwigBoltzmann,45.
63.MeitnertoBroda,n.d.,spring1954(MC)quotedinBroda,LudwigBoltzmann,67.
64.HerbertHrz,"HelmholtzandBoltzmann,"inSexlandBlackmore,LudwigBoltzmannGesamtausgabe,191205,on194.
65.Broda,LudwigBoltzmann,6,recountstheoftenheardstorythataftertheBerlinnegotiationswerecompletedandBoltzmannaccepted,adinnerwasarranged,
where,itissaid,FrauHelmholtztartlyremarkedonhislackofformality:"HerrProfessor,IfearyouwillnotbecomfortableinBerlin!"andBoltzmannthereupon
withdrew.Withoutcompletelydiscountingthis,WalterHflechnerattributesBoltzmann'srestlessnessandattimeserraticdecisionmakingtowhatwasatthetime
diagnosedas"neurasthenia"andisnowmorerecognizableasmanicdepressiveillness.WalterHflechner,"LudwigBoltzmann:SeinAkademischerWerdegangin
sterreich,"Mitteilg.sterr.Ges.Gesch.Naturwiss.2(1982):4362.
66."Hab'nS'ein'sg'sehn?"Broda,LudwigBoltzmann,84.
67."Feindselig."Ibid.,37.
68.SeeGeraldHolton,"TheMillikanEhrenhaftDispute,"inHist.Stud.Phys.Sci.,ed.RussellMcCormmachandLewisPyenson(Baltimore:JohnsHopkins
UniversityPress,1978),9:172.
69.LudwigBoltzmann,"AGermanProfessor'sTriptoElDorado,"trans.BertramSchwarzschild,PhysicsToday45,no.1(January1992):4451.
70.Broda,LudwigBoltzmann,114115.GeorgeBerkeley(16851753)wasIrish,althoughofEnglishdescent.
71.Broda,LudwigBoltzmann,8889.AlsoseeEngelbertBroda,LudwigBoltzmann,trans.LarryGayandE.Broda(Woodbridge,Conn.:OxbowPress,1983),
98100,andHrz,"HelmholtzundBoltzmann."
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72.Broda,LudwigBoltzmann,40.
73.AbrahamPais,'SubtleIstheLord...':TheScienceandtheLifeofAlbertEinstein(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1982),100,103104.StefanMeyer
relatesthatMachwaswonovertoatomismlateinlifebyaradioactivesourceproducinglightflashesonascintillationscreen,butothersourcesregardthestoryas
implausible.SeePaulK.Feyerabend,"PhilosophyofScience:ASubjectwithaGreatPast,"inRogerH.Stuewer,ed.,HistoricalandPhilosophicalPerspectives
ofScience(Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1970),178n.15.
74.Frisch,BiographicalMemoirs,406.
75.WalterHflechner,"LudwigBoltzmann,seinakademischerWerdeganginsterreich,"59.
76.BerichtberdieDissertationvonFrl.L.Meitner:PrfungeinerFormelMaxwellssignedbyExnerandBoltzmann,28November1905(UniversityArchives,
Vienna).
77.Meitner'sdissertation,"PrfungeinerFormelMaxwells,"wassubmittedon20November,refereedbyExnerandBoltzmann,approvedon28November1905
(RigorosenProtokoll18962268),andpublishedon23February1906as"WarmeleitungininhomogenenKorpern,"S.Ber.Akad.Wiss.WienIIa,Bd.115
(February1906):125137.
Meitner'sFachprfung(orals)on19December1905wereconductedbyExner(excellent,"ausgezeichnet"),Boltzmann("ausgezeichnet"),andthemathematician
vonEscherich(sufficient,"gengend").HerNebenrigorosumon22December1905wereheldbyProfessors(Thirring?)andStohr(both"ausgezeichnet").
78.MartinJ.Klein,PaulEhrenfest(NewYork:AmericanElsevier,1970),49.Kleinsuggeststhattheirjointstudytookplacein1904in"LookingBack,"Meitner
placesEhrenfest'sinfluencein1907(p.25).Bothappeartobeincorrect:MeitnerhadnotcompletedhercourseswithBoltzmannbytheearlierdate,andheroptics
paperisdatedJune1906.
79.LiseMeitner,"bereinigeFolgerungen,diesichausdenFresnel'schenReflexionsformelnergeben,"S.Ber.Akad.Wiss.WienIIa,Bd.115(June1906):259
286.
80.Meitner,"LookingBack,"3.
81.LiseMeitner,"berdieAbsorptionder und Strahlen,"Phys.Z.7(1906):588590submittedJune1906.
82.Thefirst,OlgaSteindler,receivedherdoctoratein1903,marriedthephysicistFelixEhrenhaft,andfoundedVienna'sfirstcommercialschoolforwomen.Athird
woman,SelmaFreud,whoworkedwithLiseinthesamelaboratoryandearnedherdoctoratealittlelaterin1906,alsodidnotgooninphysics.SeePrzibam,
"Erinnerungen"Karlik,Sondermarke.
83.MargaretRossiter,WomenScientistsinAmerica:StrugglesandStrategiesto1940(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1982).
84.AccordingtoKerner,Lise,Atomphysikerin,23,MeitnerlaterregardeditasfortunatethatshedidnotgotoParisshebelievedshehadlearnedmorefromStefan
Meyer.M.F.RaynerCanhamandG.W.RaynerCanham,in"Pioneer
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WomeninNuclearScience,"Amer.F.Phys.58(1990):10361043,notethatmensuchasErnestRutherfordmayhavebeenmoresupportiveofwomenin
sciencethanwasMarieCurie.
85.Meitner,"LookingBack,"3.
86.Klein,PaulEhrenfest,77.
87.MeitnertoBroda,3May1954(MC).
88.Meitner,"LookingBack,"3.
89.Przibam,"Erinnerungen,"5.
90.M.Malley,"TheDiscoveryoftheBetaParticle,"Amer.F.Phys.39(1971):14541460.
91.LawrenceBadash,RadioactivityinAmerica:GrowthandDecayofaScience(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1979),chap.1.
92.Przibam,"Erinnerungen,"5.
93.J.L.Heilbron,"Scatteringof and ParticlesandRutherford'sAtom,"ArchiveforHistoryoftheExactSciences4(Berlin:SpringerVerlag,19671968):
247307.
94.StefanMeyer,"ZurErinnerungandieJugendzeitderRadioaktivitt,"Naturwiss.35(1948):161163.
95.LiseMeitner,"berdieZerstreuungder Strahlen,"Phys.Z.8(1907):489491.
96.ManyyoungAustrianscientistsleftforpositionsabroadaccordingtoErwinSchrdinger,thelackofopportunitycausedAustriatoloseitsinitialleadershipin
atmosphericelectricityandradioactivity.SeeMoore,Schrdinger,58.
97.Meitner,"LookingBack,"3.
Chapter2.BeginningsinBerlin
1.LiseMeitner,"LookingBack,"Bull.Atom.Sci.20(November1964):27.
2.ForthefirstimpressionsofaVienneseinBerlinatthesametimeasMeitner,seeStefanZweig,TheWorldofYesterday(NewYork:VikingPress,1943reprint
Lincoln:UniversityofNebraskaPress,1964),110113.
3.ElisabethBoedeker,MarksteinederDeutscherFrauenbewegung(Hannover:Selbstverlag,1969),5.Datesforadmissionofwomentouniversities:Baden,1900
Bavaria,1903Wrttemberg,1904Sachsen,1906Thringen,1907Hessen,May1908Prussia,August1908AlsaceLorraine,19081909Mecklenberg,1909.
4.LiseMeitnertoGertavonUbisch,1July1947(MC).
5.GertavonUbischtoMeitner,28February1947(MC).
6.Meitner,"LookingBack,"4.
7.ArthurKirchhoff,Hrsg.,DieAkademischeFrau(Berlin:HugoSteinikVerlag,1897).
8.FormoreonAmericanwomeninGttingenandeventuallyelsewhere,seeMargaretRossiter,WomenScientistsinAmerica:StrugglesandStrategiesto1940
(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1982),4043.
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9.Kirchhoff,DieAkademischeFrau:Prof.Dr.HubertLudwig,zoology,Bonn,p.279Dr.LudwigFulda,Mnchen,p.320Prof.Dr.phil.RudolfSturm,
mathematics,Breslau,p.242FelixKlein,p.241G.Weyer,pp.243255HugoMnsterberg,pp.344354.
10.Kirchhoff,DieAkademischeFrau,256257.
11.LiseMeitner,"MaxPlanckalsMensch,"Naturwiss.45(1958):406408.
12.Meitner,"LookingBack,"45.
13.OttoHahn,AScientificAutobiography,trans.anded.WillyLey(London:MacGibbon&Kee,1967),51.If,asislikely,thetwowereintroducedatthephysics
colloquium,thedatemustbeincorrect:28September1907wasaSaturday.
14.Ibid.,52.
15.Ibid.,50OttoHahn,MyLife,trans.ErnstKaiserandEithneWilkins(NewYork:HerderandHerder,1968),8687.
16.ForageneraloutlineoftheGermanacademichierarchy,seeFritzK.Ringer,TheDeclineoftheGermanMandarins:TheGermanAcademicCommunity,
18901933(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1969),3335,38.ForadetailedstudyoftheoreticalphysicsprofessorshipsinPrussiaandelsewhereabout
1900,seeChristaJungnickelandRussellMcCormmach,IntellectualMasteryofNature:TheoreticalPhysicsfromOhmtoEinstein.Vol.2:TheNowMighty
TheoreticalPhysics,18701925(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1986),esp.chap.15,33ff.
17.Hahnatteststohisfondnessforwomeninhisbiographieshisorientationtowardradioactivitywasbasedonhisearliercollaborationwithphysicists.Fromhis
biographies(e.g.,AScientificBiography,51)itisevidentthatHahnwasimpressedwithMeitner'sprioraccomplishmentsinradioactivityinVienna.SeeFritzKrafft,
"OttoHahn18791968,"inLotharGall,ed.,DieGrossenDeutschenunsererEpoche(Berlin:PropylenVerlag,1985),173185.
ForBrooksinMontreal,seeMarelyneF.RaynerCanhamandGeoffreyW.RaynerCanham,HarrietBrooks,PioneerNuclearScientist(Montrealand
Kingston:McGillQueen'sUniversityPress,1992),chap.6.
18.NikolausRiehl,"ErinnerungenanOttoHahnundLiseMeitner,"VortragzurErffnungderAusstellung"50JahreKernspaltung"imWilliGrafGymnasium,30
November1988,FridolinHaugg,ed.(Mnchen,1989),9.Riehl,astudentofMeitner'sinthe1920s,describesHahn'spreWorldWarImustacheas"ala
Wilhelmzwo"(laWilhelmII).
"AnglicizedBerliner":Hahn,AScientificBiography,68.
"standesgemb":Interview,UllaFrisch,16January1982,andNancyArms,AProphetinTwoCountries:TheLifeofF.E.Simon(Oxford:PergamonPress,
1966),27.
19.Meitner,"LookingBack,"5.
20.Inhisautobiography,writtenin1918,Fischerlistsanumberofwomenstudentsinhisinstitute(presumablyafter1908)andnotesthatseveralwereasgoodasany
ofthemen.Fischerexpressesaconservativeview,however,onadmitting
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womentothestudyofchemistry:mostwillmarry,andtheeffortandexpenseoftheireducationwillbefornothing.EmilFischer,AusMeinemLeben(Berlin:Julius
Springer,1922),191192.
21.Hahnnoted,"Despitemanyyearsofsuccessfulwork,intheChemicalInstituteshewas,sotospeak,'nonexistent.'"InOttoHahn,"LiseMeitner80Jahre,"
Naturwiss.45(1958):501502.
TheconditionsinFischer'sinstitutearedescribedbyMeitnerin"LookingBack,"byHahninhisautobiographies,andbyothers,includingFriedrichHerneck,"Zum
wissenschaftlichenWirkenvonOttoHahnundLiseMeitnerinChemischenInstitutderBerlinerUniversitt,"Wiss.Z.HumboldtUniversitt16(1967):833
836FriedrichHerneck,BahnbrecherdesAtomzeitalters:GrosseNaturforschervomMaxwellbisHeisenberg(Berlin:BuchverlagderMorgen,1965),365
400FritzKrafft,ImSchattenderSensation:LebenundWirkenvonFritzStrassmann(Weinheim:VerlagChemie,1981),chap.2.2,166168FritzKrafft,
"LiseMeitnerundihreZeitZumhundertstenGeburtstagderbedeutendeNaturwissenschaftlerin,"Angew.Chem.90(1978):876892,andAngew.Chem.
Intl.Ed.Engl.17(1978):826842.
22.Meitner,"LookingBack,"5.
23.Ibid.
24.JohnL.Heilbron,"TheScatteringofAlphaandBetaParticlesandRutherford'sAtom,"ArchiveforHistoryofExactSciences(Berlin:SpringerVerlag,1967
1968),4:256LawrenceBadash,RadioactivityinAmerica:GrowthandDecayofaScience(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1979),4345.
25.Hahn,AScientificAutobiography,2627.
26.Heilbron,"ScatteringofAlphaandBetaParticles,"266269.
27.Hahn,AScientificAutobiography,54OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"berdieAbsorptionder StrahleneinigerRadioelemente,"Phys.Z.9(1908):321333.
28.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"berdie StrahlendesAktiniums,"Phys.Z.9(1908):697702.
29.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"AktiniumC,einneueskurzlebigesProduktdesAktiniums,"Phys.Z.9(1908):649655.
30.LiseMeitner,Taufschein,evangelish(baptismalcertificate,Protestant),29September1908,andentry1920inisraelitischeCultusgemeinde,Wien:
"ausgetreten[withdrew]29September1908."
Forviewsonreligion,seeMeitnertoMaxvonLaue,15August1941(MC):Meitner'sfriendEvavonBahrBergius(aCatholic)"alwayssaysthatIamso
thoroughlyorientedtowardsprotestantism."
31.MaxBorn,"MaxKarlErnstLudwigPlanck,18581947,"Roy.Soc.Lond.Obit.Not.6,no.17(1948):161188.
32.OttoHahn,"bereineneueErscheinungbeiderAktivierungmitAktinium,"Phys.Z.10(1909):8188.Hahn,AScientificAutobiography,61DietrichHahn,
ed.,OttoHahn,ErlebnisseundErkenntnisse(Dsseldorf:EconVerlag,1975),
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33.Hahn,AScientificAutobiography,6162.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"EineneueMethodezurHerstellungradioaktiverZerfallsprodukte:ThoriumD,ein
kurzlebigesProduktdesThoriums,"Verh.Dt.Phys.Ges.11(1909):5562.
34.Meitner,"LookingBack,"5.
35.E.N.daC.Andrade,RutherfordandtheNatureoftheAtom(GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday,1964),108LawrenceBadash,ed.,RutherfordandBoltwood:
LettersonRadioactivity(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1969),205.
36.Hahn,MyLife,89.
37.Badash,RutherfordandBoltwood,205206.
38.SeedescriptioninThaddeusJ.Trenn,"RutherfordandRecoilAtoms:TheMetamorphosisandSuccessofaOnceStillbornTheory,"Hist.Stud.Phys.Sci.6
(1975):530531.ForBrooks,seeRaynerCanhamandRaynerCanham,HarrietBrooks,4041.Fortheradioactivitycontextofrecoilca.1903,seeThaddeusJ.
Trenn,TheSelfSplittingAtom:AHistoryoftheRutherfordSoddyCollaboration(London:Taylor&Francis,1977),91.
39.Hahn,AScientificAutobiography,63.
40.Ittookseveralmonths,however,fortherepercussionstodiedown.NotlongafterRutherford'svisit,hisManchestercoworkersSidneyRussandWalter
MakowerstatedthatHahnandMeitnerhadmerely"repeatedtheexperimentsofMissBrooks,"obtaining"indicationsofsimilarprocessesforactiniumand
thorium"(Phys.Z.10[1909]:361,atranslationfromProc.Roy.Soc.Lond.A82[6May1909]).Inarathersharpresponse,HahnandMeitner("DieAusst ung
radioaktiverMateriebeidenUmwandlungendesRadiums,"Phys.Z.10[1909]:422)insistedtheyhadproposedrecoilwithoutknowingofBrooks'sexperimentsand
objectedtotheterm"indications"(Anzeichen)fortherecoiltheyhadestablishedwith''absolutecertainty"(mitabsoluterSicherheit).
41.Badash,RutherfordandBoltwood,206.
42.Hahn,MyLife,88.
43.MeitnertoElisabethSchiemann,27March1913(MC).
44.OttoRobertFrisch,interview,1975.
45.LiseMeitner,"EinigeErinnerungenandasKaiserWilhelmInstitutfrChemieinBerlinDahlem,"Naturwiss.41(1954):9799LiseMeitner,"OttoHahnzum
80.Geburtstagam8.Mrz1959,"Naturwiss.46(1959):157158.
46.Ringer,TheDeclineoftheGermanMandarins.
47.SallieA.Watkins,"LiseMeitner,18781968,"inMareleneF.RaynerCanhamandGeoffreyW.RaynerCanham(forthcoming).In1911thepaymentfor
translatinganarticlewas$10.
48.LiseMeitner,"TheStatusofWomenintheProfessions,"PhysicsToday13,no.8(August1960):1621alsoHahn,AScientificAutobiography,65.
49.LiseMeitner,diaries,1907,1908(MC).
50.ElisabethSchiemann,"FreundschaftmitLiseMeitner,"NeueEvangelischeFrauenzeitung3,no.1(Januar/Februar1959).
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51.Ibid.
52.BertaKarlikandErichSchmid,FranzS.ExnerandseinKreis(Wien:VerlagdersterreichischenAkademiederWissenschaften,1982),88WalterMoore,
Schrdinger:LifeandThought(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1989),70.
53.ElisabethSchiemanntoO.R.Frisch,14July1969(MC).
54.MeitnertoJamesFranck,zum29August1952(Franck's70thbirthday)(MC)HeinrichG.Kuhn,"JamesFranck,18821964,"Biog.Mem.Fell.Roy.Soc.
Lond.11(1965):5274.
55.O.R.Frisch,pers.comm.,22March1975,Cambridge.
56.LiseMeitner,"MaxPlanckalsMensch,"406,407.
57.Ibid.,406.
58.J.L.Heilbron,TheDilemmasofanUprightMan:MaxPlanckasSpokesmanforGermanScience(Berkeley,LosAngeles,andLondon:Universityof
CaliforniaPress,1986),3739.
59.LiseMeitner,"MaxPlanckalsMensch,"406.
60.MaxvonLaue,"ZuMaxPlancks100.Geburtstage,"Naturwiss.45(1958):221226.
61.WilhelmWestphal,"MaxPlanckalsMensch,"Naturwiss.45(1958):234236LiseMeitner,"OttoHahnzum80."
62.MeitnertoElisabethSchiemann,31December1913(MC).
63.LiseMeitner,"StrahlenundZerfallsproduktedesRadiums,"Verh.Dt.Phys.Ges.11(1909):648653.Thistalk,partofastudyofbetaemittersintheradium
series,wasgiveninSalzburgon22September1909.
64.Meitner,"LookingBack,"4.AndreasKleinert,AntonLampa,19681938(Mannheim:BionomicaVerlag,1985),1011.LampaalsometEinsteinforthefirst
timeinSalzburg.
65.Meitner,"LookingBack,"4.Einstein'sSalzburgtalkwastitled"OntheDevelopmentofOurViewsontheNatureandConstitutionofRadiation."SeeAlbert
Einstein,CollectedPapers,ed.JohnStachel(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1989),2:564587RonaldW.Clark,Einstein:TheLifeandTimes(New
York:Avon,1971),163164JungnickelandMcCormmach,IntellectualMasteryofNature,304309RogerH.Stuewer,TheComptonEffect:TurningPoint
inphysics(NewYork:ScienceHistoryPublications,1975),2931.
66.Meitner,"LookingBack,"2.
67.FritzKrafft,"OttoHahn,18791968,"173185.
68.LiseMeitnertoJenny[lastnameunknown],6February1911(MC).ReproducedinJostLemmerich,ed.,DieGeschichtederEntdeckungderKernspaltung:
Ausstellungskatalog(Berlin:TechnischeUniversittBerlin,Universittsbibliothek,1988),58.
69.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"NachweisderkomplexenNaturvonRadiumC,"Phys.Z.10(1909):697703.
70.Ibid.
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71.Meitner,"StrahlenundZerfallsproduktedesRadiums,"651.
72.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"bereinetypische StrahlungdeseigentlichenRadiums,"Phys.Z.10(1909):741745.
73.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"Eineneue StrahlungbeimThoriumXAnalogieninderUranundThoriumreihe,"Phys.Z.11(1910):493497.
74.HahnandMeitner,"berder StrahlendesAktiniums."
75.HahnandMeitner,"Eineneue StrahlungbeimThoriumX."
76.WilliamWilson,"OntheAbsorptionofHomogeneous RaysbyMatter,andontheVariationoftheAbsorptionoftheRayswithVelocity,"Proc.Roy.Soc.
Lond.A82(1909):612628.
77.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"berdasAbsorptionsgesetzder Strahlen,"Phys.Z.10(1909):948950.
78.WilliamWilson,Phys.Z.11(1910):101104.
79.Meitner,"LookingBack,"6.
80.DietrichHahn,OttoHahn,29alsoG.HettnerandOttoHahn,"ZurErinnerunganOttov.Baeyer,"Naturwiss.34(1947):193194.
81.Ottov.BaeyerandOttoHahn,"MagnetischeLinienspektrenvon Strahlen,"Phys.Z.11(1910):488493.ItisnotclearwhyMeitnerwasnotacoauthoron
thisfirstdeflectionexperiment.ThepaperwassubmittedinMay1910possiblyherfatherwasillandshewasinVienna.HediedinDecember1910(Meitnerto
Hahn,12December1924[MC]).
82.HahnandMeitner,"Eineneue StrahlungbeimThoriumX."
83.O.v.Baeyer,O.Hahn,andL.Meitner,"Nachweisvon StrahlenbeiRadiumD,"Phys.Z.12(1911):378379.
84.Ottov.Baeyer,OttoHahn,andLiseMeitner,"berdie StrahlendesaktivenNiederschlagsdesThoriums,"Phys.Z.12(1911):273279.
85.Ottov.Baeyer,OttoHahn,andLiseMeitner,"MagnetischeSpektrender StrahlendesRadiums,"Phys.Z.12(1911):10991101.
86.Baeyer,Hahn,andMeitner,"Nachweisvon StrahlenbeiRadiumD."
87.OttovonBaeyer,OttoHahn,andLiseMeitner:"DasmagnetischeSpektrumder StrahlendesThoriums,"Phys.Z.13(1912):264266"Dasmagnetische
Spektrumder StrahlendesRadioaktiniumsundseinerZerfallsprodukte,"Phys.Z.14(1913):321323"DasmagnetischeSpektrumder StrahlendesUranX,
Phys.Z.15(1914):649650"DasMagnetischeSpektrumder StrahlenvonRadiothorundThoriumX,"Phys.Z.16(1915):67.
88.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"berdieVerteilungder StrahlenaufdieeinzelnenProduktedesaktivenNiederschlagsdesThoriums,"Phys.Z.13(1912):390
393.
89.J.FranckandLiseMeitner,"berradioaktiveIonen,"Verb.Dt.Phys.Ges.18(1911):671675.
90.LiseMeitner,"bereinigeeinfacheHerstellungsmethodenradioaktiverZerfallsprodukte,"Phys.Z.12(1911):10941099.
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91.LiseMeitner,"berdasZerfallsschemadesaktivenNiederschlagsdesThoriums,"Phys.Z.13(1912):623626.
92.InGermanyandelsewhere,supportforradioactivityresearchgenerallycamefromphysics,notchemistry,laboratories.SeeBadash,RadioactivityinAmerica,
261262.
93.LotharBurchardt,WissenschaftspolitikimWilhelminischenDeutschland:Vorgeschichte,GrndungundAufbauderKaiserWilhelmGesellschaftzur
FrderungderWissenschaften(Gttingen:Vandenhoeck&Ruprecht,1975),33Krafft,ImSchattenderSensation,165166OttoHahn,DerKaiserWilhelm
InstitutfrChemie,Jahrbuch1951derMPG,GeneralverwaltungderMPG(Gttingen:Hubert,1951),175198Lemmerich,GeschichtederEntdeckungder
Kernspaltung,6268JeffreyAllanJohnson,TheKaiser'sChemists:ScienceandModernizationinImperialGermany(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorthCarolina
Press,1990).
94.Burchardt,Wissenschaftspolitik,9899.DietrichStoltzenberg,FritzHaber:Chemiker,Nobelpreistrger,Deutscher,Jude(Weinheim:VCH
Verlagsgesellschaft,1994),199201.
95.RichardWillsttter,FromMyLife:TheMemoirsofRichardWillsttter,trans.LilliS.Hornig(NewYork:W.A.Benjamin,1965),210212.
96.Johnson,TheKaiser'sChemists,125128.InafeaturedaddresstotheKaiserWilhelmSocietyinJanuary1911,Fischerdelivereda"scientificmanifesto"
outliningthemajorachievementsanddirectionofGermanchemicalresearch.Heincludedradioactivity,referringtoHahn'sworkwithmesothorium.
97.Lemmerich,GeschichtederEntdeckungderKernspaltung,6667:Hahn'scontract,dated14June1912,listshissalaryas5,000marks.
98.MeitnertoMaxvonLaue,6September1955(MC).
99.Meitnerwasofficiallyinformedon18November1912seeLemmerich,GeschichtederEntdeckungderKernspaltung,58,andHeilbron,Dilemmasofan
UprightMan,39.
100.Personnelfiles,MPG,BerlinDahlem.
101.MeitnertoElisabethSchiemann,22December1915(MC),printedinLemmerich,GeschichtederEntdeckungderKernspaltung,75.
Chapter3.TheFirstWorldWar
1.LotharBurchardt,WissenschaftspolitikimWilhelminischenDeutschland:Vorgeschichte,GrndungundAufbauderKaiserWilhelmGesellschaftzur
FrderungderWissenschaften(Gttingen:Vanderhoeck&Ruprecht,1975),146149RichardWillsttter,FromMyLife:TheMemoirsofRichardWillsttter,
trans.LilliS.Hornig(NewYork:W.A.Benjamin,1965),217220OttoHahn,MyLife,trans.ErnstKaiserandEithneWilkins(NewYork:HerderandHerder,
1970),102DietrichStoltzenberg,FritzHaber:Chemiker,Nobelpreistrger,Deutscher,Jude(Weinheim:VCHVerlagsgesellschaft,1994),212ff.
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2.LiseMeitner,"EinigeErinnerungenandasKaiserWilhelmInstitutfrChemieinBerlinDahlem,"Naturwiss.41(1954):9799.Willsttter,FromMyLife,216
217,222.SeealsoJostLemmerich,"DahlemeinDeutschesOxford,"Ausstellung,VereinderFreundederDomneDahlem,March1992.
3.Meitner,"EinigeErinnerungen"Willsttter,FromMyLife,216217OttoHahn,DerKaiserWilhelmInstitutfrChemie,Jahrbuch1951derMPG,
GeneralverwaltungderMPG(Gttingen:Hubert,1951),177179.
4.OttoHahn,AScientificAutobiography,trans.anded.WillyLey(London:MacGibbon&Kee,1967),8182DietrichHahn,ed.,OttoHahn,Erlebnisseund
Erkenntnisse(Dsseldorf:EconVerlag,1975),35OttoHahn,MyLife,104.
5.TelegramfromLiseandFritzMeitnerfor"WeddingJunghansHahnStettin.Breitestrasse14,"22March1913(MPG).
6.Meitner's1913salarywas1,500marks,muchbelowHahn's5,000marks,presumablybecauseheracademicrankwaslowerthanhisandherassistantshipwith
Planck,whichcontinueduntil1915,providedadditionalincome.In1914hersalarywasraisedto3,000marksandin1917,whenshewasgivenherownphysics
section,to4,000marks,essentiallyequivalenttoHahn's5,000marks,whichincludedamarriagesupplement.(MarionKazemipersonnelfilesoftheMPG,Berlin
Dahlem.)
InKWIfrChemie,BerichtdesDirektorsOkt.1913bisOkt.1914(MPG),HahnandMeitnerarebothlistedasderzeitMitglieder(provisionalasopposedto
permanent[stndige]associates)thesectionislistedasLaboratoriumHahnMeitner,butOttoHahnreferstoitasAbteilung(section)HahnMeitnerin"MitLise
MeitnervonderHolzwerkstattinBerlinzumKaiserWilhelmInstitutinDahlem,"AuszugausVortrag,Akademikerinnenbund,Berlin1958(MPG).
7.Printedinvitation(unclearifgivenbyorforMeitner)29November1913fordinnerattheHotelAdlon(MC).Foranadmiringhistoryofaluxuryhotel,seeHedda
Adlon,HotelAdlon:TheLifeandDeathofaGreatHotel,trans.NormanDenny(London:BarrieBooks,1958NewYork:HorizonPress,1960).
8.LawrenceBadash,RadioactivityinAmerica:GrowthandDecayofaScience(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1979),185WaltherGerlach,Otto
Hahn:EinForscherlebenunsererZeit,ed.DietrichHahn(Stuttgart:WissenschaftlicheVerlagsgesellschaft,1984,3536(GrosseNaturforscherBand45)Otto
Hahn,"OttoHahninBerlin,"Phys.Bl.23(1967):388389.D.Hahn,Erlebnisse,25,3133.
9.KaiserWilhelmGesellschaftreportfor1928(MPG)Hahn,KaiserWilhelmInstitutfrChemie,183Hahn,AScientificAutobiography,83Willsttter,From
MyLife,218.
10.TikvahAlper,astudentofMeitner'saround1930,mentionsthetrainingstudentsreceived(tapedinterviewwithStevenWeininger,SarisburyGreen,Southampton,
Hampshire,21October1989).TheprecautionarymeasuresandMeitner'senforcementaredescribedinFritzKrafft,ImSchattenderSensation:LebenundWirken
vonFritzStrassmann(Weinheim:VerlagChemie,1981),108
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109.Meitner'sstrictnessisalsoemphasizedbyO.R.Frisch,"LiseMeitner,18781968,"Biog.Mem.Fell.Roy.Soc.Lond.16(1970):405420.
11.Theacceptedvalueforthehalflifeofactiniumisnow21.8years.
12.Badash,RadioactivityinAmerica,171175.
13.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"DieMuttersubstanzdesActiniums,"Phys.Z.19(1918):208218.
14.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"ZurFragenachderkomplexenNaturdesRadioactiniumsundderStellungdesActiniumsimPeriodischenSystem,"Phys.Z.14
(1913):742758.
15.Badash,RadioactivityinAmerica,208F.Soddy,"TheOriginofActinium,"Nature91(1913):634635.
16.Badash,RadioactivityinAmerica,202203OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"berdasUranX
2
,"Phys.Z.14(1913):758759.
17.Badash,RadioactivityinAmerica,174O.HahnandL.Meitner,"berdasUranY,"Phys.Z.15(1914):236240.
18.HahnandMeitner,"DieMuttersubstanzdesActiniums."
19.Hahn,AScientificAutobiography,8387.
20.LiseMeitner,"berdie StrahlungdesWismutsausPechblende,"Phys.Z.16(1915):46.
21.RogerH.Stuewer,"TheNuclearElectronHypothesis,"inWilliamR.Shea,ed.,OttoHahnandtheRiseofNuclearPhysics(Dordrecht:D.Reidel,1983),19
22AbrahamPais,NielsBohr'sTimes,inPhysics,Philosophy,andPolity(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1991),17,150151.
22.LiseMeitnerandOttoHahn,"berdieVerteilungder StrahlenaufeinzelnenProduktederThoriumreihe,"Phys.Z.14(1913):873877O.v.Baeyer,O.
Hahn,andL.Meitner,"DasmagnetischeSpektrumder StrahlendesUranX,"Phys.Z.15(1914):649650JamesChadwick,"Intensittsverteilungim
magnetischenSpektrumder StrahlenvonRadiumB+C,"Verh.Dt.Phys.Ges.16(1914):383391.
23.ThePragueoffercameviaAntonLampa,Meitner'sfirstyearlaboratoryinstructorinVienna,recentlyappointedprofessorattheDeutscheUniversittinPrague.
Theoffercameinthespring.Aftersomedelay,PlanckremindedFischertohurry,andMeitnerreceivedFischer'sofferinJuly.SeeJ.L.Heilbron,TheDilemmasof
anUprightMan:MaxPlanckasSpokesmanforGermanScience(Berkeley,LosAngeles,andLondon:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1986),39MaxPlanckto
EmilFischer,17May1914MeitnertoEmilFischer,2August1914,BancroftLibrary,UCBerkeley.
ThenegotiationstoraiseMeitner'ssalaryinDahlemwerenotentirelyeasy,buttheradioactivitysectionwasrelativelyinexpensiveandFischerjuggledvarious
fundingsources.SeeJeffreyAllanJohnson,TheKaiser'sChemists:ScienceandModernizationinImperialGermany(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorth
CarolinaPress,1990),173175.
24.BarbaraTuchman,TheGunsofAugust(NewYork:Dell,1962),9094.
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25.MeitnertoElisabethSchiemann,11August1914(MC).Lise'smother,Hedwig,livedinanapartmentonthesecondfloorofHauptstrasse1(thirddistrict)nextto
Vienna'scentralstation(BahnhofWienMitte)seeMeitner's1915Meldzetteln(policeregistrationrequiredofvisitors)inDietmarGrieser,"ImSchattenderBombe:
LiseMeitner18781968,"inKpfe(Wien:sterreichischerBundesverlag,1991),117.
26.MeitnertoSchiemann,26August1914(MC).
27.MeitnertoSchiemann,9September1914(MC).
28.Hahn,MyLife,112115Gerlach,OttoHahn,54.
29.Tuchman,GunsofAugust21.
30.P.P.Ewald,"MaxvonLaue,"Biog.Mem.Fell.Roy.Soc.Lond.6(1960):135156.
31.Stoltzenberg,FritzHaber,30,137ff.
32.MorrisGoran,TheStoryofFritzHaber(Norman:UniversityofOklahomaPress,1967),75ff.FriedrichGlum,ZwischenWissenschaft,WirtschaftundPolitik
(Bonn:H.BouvierVerlag,1964),287288.Stoltzenberg,FritzHaber,230ff.Johnson,TheKaiser'sChemists,184189.
33.SabineErnst,ed.,LiseMeitneranOttoHahn:BriefeausdenJahren1912bis1924:EditionundKommentierung(Stuttgart:Wissenschaftliche
Verlagsgesellschaft,1992),132133.
34.Ottov.Baeyer,OttoHahn,andLiseMeitner,"DasmagnetischeSpektrumder StrahlenvonRadiothorundThoriumX,"Phys.Z.16(1915):67.
35.Meitner,"berdie StrahlungdesWismutsausPechblende."
36.LawrenceBadash,ed.,RutherfordandBoltwood:LettersonRadioactivity(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1969),305309.J.J.Thomson,presidentof
theRoyalSociety,supportedSchusterseeLordRayleigh,TheLifeofSirJ.J.Thomson,O.M.(London:Dawsons,1969),194196.
37.TheGermaninternmentmayinparthavebeenaresponsetotheBritishinternmentofGermannationals.TheuniquesocietyformedbytheBritishinRuhlebenis
describedinJ.DavidsonKetchum,Ruhleben:APrisonCampSociety(Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,1965).
38.SirHarrieMasseyandN.Feather,"JamesChadwick,18911974,"Biog.Mem.Fell.Roy.Soc.Lond.22(1976):1170SirKennethHutchison,J.A.Gray,
andSirHarrieMassey,"CharlesDrummondEllis,18951980,"Biog.Mem.Fell.Roy.Soc.Lond.27(1981):199233E.N.daC.Andrade,Rutherfordandthe
NatureoftheAtom(GardenCity,N.Y.:Doubleday,1964),161AbrahamPais,InwardBound:OfMatterandForcesinthePhysicalWorld(Oxford:
ClarendonPress,1986),160.
39.J.L.Heilbron,H.G.J.Moseley:TheLifeandLettersofanEnglishPhysicist,18871915(Berkeley,LosAngeles,andLondon:UniversityofCalifornia
Press,1974),79,116ff.
40.WalterMoore,Schrdinger:LifeandThought(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1989),93.
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41.StefanMeyertoMeitner,24September1914(MC).
42.MeyertoMeitner,16October1914(MC).InhisobituarynoticeforMeyer,LawsonwroteofMeyer's"innatekindliness"hadMeyernotvouchedforhimand
suppliedhimwithmoneyduringthewar,Lawsonalsowouldhave"stagnate[d]inaninternmentcamp."R.W.Lawson,"StefanMeyer,"Nature165(1950):549.
43.MeyertoMeitner,2December1914(MC).
44.FritzK.Ringer,TheDeclineoftheGermanMandarins:TheGermanAcademicCommunity,18901933(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1969),
180183Glum,ZwischenWissenschaft,WirtschaftundPolitik,124125OttoNathanandHeinzNorden,eds.,EinsteinonPeace(NewYork:AvenelBooks,
1981),35Heilbron,DilemmasofanUprightMan,6981Willsttter,FromMyLife,241243.
MaxBorn,inMyLife:RecollectionsofaNobelLaureate(NewYork:CharlesScribner'sSons,1978),162,recountsthe"Asiatichordes"propagandaandPaul
Ehrenfest'sresponse.
StefanMeyerthoughtthe"Appeal"verysharpitreinforcedhisopinionthat"aslongasweaponsspeak,scholarsandartistsshouldkeepstill"(MeyertoMeitner,8
March1915[MC]).
45.MeitnertoHahn,16December1914(OHN).AllletterscitedfromthisperiodarefromtheMeitnertoHahncorrespondence,OHN,andarereprintedinErnst,
LiseMeitneranOttoHahn.(Hahn'sletterstoMeitnerarenotextant.)
46.L.F.Haber,ThePoisonousCloud:ChemicalWarfareintheFirstWorldWar(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1986),22ff.Stoltzenberg,FritzHaber,232,580
Johnson,TheKaiser'sChemists,190ff.Willsttter,FromMyLife,250254.Sackur'sdeathwastreatedasabattlefielddeathandhiswidowcompensated
accordinglyforhisworkwithpoisongases,Haberobtainedtherankofcaptain.
47.MeitnertoHahn,5January1915(OHN).
48.MeitnertoHahn,14March1915(OHN).
49.Hahn,MyLife,118128Gerlach,OttoHahn,5459.
50.Foradifferentopinion,seeLawrenceBadash,"OttoHahn,Science,andSocialResponsibility,"inWilliamR.Shea,ed.,OttoHahnandtheRiseofNuclear
Physics(Dordrecht:D.Reidel,1983),167180.
51.MeitnertoHahn,5February1915(OHN).
52.MeitnertoHahn,27February1915(OHN).
53.Hahndescribesthebirthday"cake,"alogwith2candles,inhisMyLife,p.119JamesFranckarrangedthe"party"atMeitner'ssuggestionseeMeitnertoHahn,
16March1915(OHN).
54.MeitnertoHahn,16December19145,9,24,28January5,27February14March25April14May6June1915(OHN).
55.EmilioSegr,FromXRaystoQuarks:ModernPhysicistsandTheirDiscoveries(SanFrancisco:W.H.Freeman,1980),41,43Pais,InwardBound,236.
56.MeitnertoSchiemann,4and5August1915(cards),910August1915(letter)(MC).
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57.MeitnertoSchiemann,13,22,27Augustand2426September1915(MC).
58.MeitnertoHahn,10September,14October,28November1915,9January1916(OHN).
59.Dr.Prof.Hatjidakis,Piraeus,toMeitner,[?]1915(MC).
60.MeitnertoSchiemann,2December1915(MC).
61.MeitnertoSchiemann,15March,1May,22May,4June1916(MC).
62.MeitnertoSchiemann,4June,26June,1July1916(MC).
63.MeitnertoSchiemann,27August1916(MC).
64.MeitnertoSchiemann,26September1916(MC).SeealsoErnst,LiseMeitneranOttoHahn,133136.
65.MeitnertoSchiemann,11October1916(MC)MeitnertoHahn,11October1916(OHN).In"LookingBack,"Bull.Atom.Sci.20(November1964):27,
Meitnerincorrectlygivestheyearofherreturnas1917,andthemistakehasbeenrepeatedelsewhere.
66.MeitnertoHahn,25October1916(OHN).Johnson,TheKaiser'sChemists,191,notesthatby1917Haberhad1,500peopleonhisstaff,including150
scientificworkers.
67.MeitnertoHahn,16November1916(OHN).
68.NathanandNorden,EinsteinonPeace,15.
69.Forpay,seeMarionKazemi,MPGpersonnelfiles,BerlinDahlem.FischermanagedthepayincreasethroughfundingfromtheI.G.Farbenindustrie.SeeFritz
Krafft,"AnderSchwellezumAtomzeitalter:DieVorgeschichtederEntdeckungderKernspaltungimDezember1938,"Ber.Wissenschaftsgesch.11(1988):227
251,on233alsoKrafft,"LiseMeitner7.XI.187827X.1968,"inWilliSchmidtandChristophJ.Scriba,eds.,FrauenindenexaktenNaturwissenschaften:
Festkolloquiumzum100.GeburtstagvonFrauDr.MargaretheSchimank(18901983)(Stuttgart:FranzSteinerVerlag,1990),3370,on39.ForFischer's
attitudetowardtheendofthewar,seeJohnson,TheKaiser'sChemists,194196.
70.MeitnertoHahn,22February1917(OHN).
71.HahnandMeitner,"DieMuttersubstanzdesActiniums,"211.
72.MeitnertoHahn,7May1917(OHN).
73.MeitnertoHahn,15May1917(OHN).
74.Ibid.
75.MeitnertoHahn,19June1917(OHN).
76.MeitnertoHahn,7May1917(OHN)MeyertoMeitner,card,22June1917(MC).
77.MeitnertoHahn,27July6August1917(OHN).
78.MeitnertoHahn,24August1917(OHN).
79.MeitnertoHahn,16November1917(OHN).
80.Ibid.
81.ThisistheGeigerNuttallrule,arelationshipbetween ,thedecayconstantforagivenspecies(inverselyproportionaltohalflife),andR,themea
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suredrangeofitsalphaparticles.AandBareempiricallydeterminedconstantsforagivendecayseriesthehalflifeofanunknownmemberoftheseriescanthus
beestimatedfromameasurementofitsrange.
82.Currentvaluefortheprotactiniumhalflifeis33,000years.
83.MeitnertoHahn,17January1918(OHN).
84.HahnandMeitner,"DieMuttersubstanzdesActiniums."
85.MeitnertoHahn,17January1918(OHN).Thearticle,submitted25March1918,waspublishedbyMeitneraloneitrepresentednearly10yearsof
measurementsonrelativelylonglivedspecies:LiseMeitner,"DieLebensdauervonRadiothor,MesothorundThorium,"Phys.Z.19(1918):257263.
TheincidentiscitedasanexampleofMeitner'sloyaltyandteamworkbyKrafft,"LiseMeitner,"3839.Krafftcitesanotherstudy,alsodonebyMeitneralone,
whichHahncoauthoredin1909,simplybecausethelaboratorywas"his"hewasreprimandedby[Otto?]vonBaeyerandadmittedhewaswrong.Meitner
believeditwasnot"badintentions"onHahn'spart,only"thoughtlessness."ThelatterincidentiscitedwithoutreferencesinCharlotteKerner,Lise,
Atomphysikerin:DieLebensgeschichtederLiseMeitner(Weinheim:Beltz,1986),31.
86.MeyertoMeitner,23and26March1918(MC).
87.MeyertoMeitner,5June1918(MC).
88.MeyertoMeitner,card,14November1914(MC).
89.MeyertoMeitner,23November1917(MC).ForthecontroversybetweenFajansandothers,inparticular,GeorgedeHevesyandFritzPaneth,seeErnst,Lise
MeitneranOttoHahn,145147.
90.Hahn,AScientificAutobiography,9293Badash,RadioactivityinAmerica,208F.SoddyandJ.Cranston,"TheParentofActinium,"Proc.Roy.Soc.
Lond.A94(1918):384405.SeealsoR.L.Sime,"TheDiscoveryofProtactinium,"J.Chem.Educ.63(1986):653657.
91.Ineveryknowncaseofbranching,asinglespeciesunderwentalphaandbetadecaytoformtwodifferentdaughters,whichwouldthendecaybybetaandalpha
emission,respectively,toasinglegranddaughter.Forexample,
212
Biemitsbetaradiationtoform
212
Poandalsoalphatoform
208
Tl
212
Pothenundergoesalphadecay
and
208
Tlundergoesbetadecaytoform
208
Pb.
92.MeitnertoHahn,23June1918(OHN).
93.Meitner,"LebensdauervonRadiothor."
94.MeitnertoHahn,23June1918(OHN).
95.MeyertoMeitner,30June1918(MC).
96.MeyertoMeitner,29November1918(MC).
97.MeitnertoSchiemann,12November1919(MC):forMeitneritwas"verypainful"whenthemovementforGermanAustrianunionfailed.ForMeitnerSchiemann
correspondencefromthisperiod,seeErnst,LiseMeitneranOttoHahn,151156.
98.MeitnertoSchiemann,29November1918(MC).InfullinErnst,LiseMeitneranOttoHahn,153155.
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99.MeitnertoSchiemann,29November1918(MC).MeitnernotesthatherdifferenceofopinionwithHahndidnotdamagetheirfriendship.
100.MeitnertoSchiemann,15October1918(MC)quotedinErnst,LiseMeitneranOttoHahn,130,144.In1918,EinsteinwrotetoMeitner,''Althoughinour
eyestheresult[provingthelightquantumhypothesis]cannotbeindoubt,nearlyallotherphysiciststhinkdifferentlyaboutit."
101.The"ourMarieCurie"quotecomesfromPhilippFrank,Einstein:HisLifeandTimes(London:JonathanCape,1948),139.AccordingtoFrank,inprivate
EinsteinwouldsometimesexpresstheopinionthatMeitner"wasamoretalentedphysicistthanMarieCurieherself."Krafft,Frauenindenexakten
Naturwissenschaften,33,andErnst,LiseMeitneranOttoHahn,130,wonderifEinstein'suseof"our"meant"German"or"Jewish."GivenEinstein'sorientation
andMeitner'snonaffiliationwithJudaism,itisinconceivablethatEinsteinwouldhavemeant"Jewish"andhemaynothavemeant"German"either,certainlynotina
heavilynationalisticwaymorelikelyhisuseof"our"wasafriendlyacknowledgmentthattheybothinhabitedthesamescientificcommunity.
102.MaxBorn,MyLife,184185.
103.Ibid.,187188.
Chapter4.ProfessorintheKaiserWilhelmInstitut
1.StefanMeyertoMeitner,16October1919(MC).
2.LetterfromEinsteintoPaulEhrenfest,22March1919citedinOttoNathanandHeinzNorden,eds.,EinsteinonPeace(NewYork:AvenelBooks,1960),29
RonaldW.Clark,Einstein:TheLifeandTimes(NewYork:Avon,1971),272.
3.PeterGay,WeimarCulture:TheOutsiderasInsider(NewYork:Harper&Row,1968).
4.OttoHahn,MyLife,trans.ErnstKaiserandEithneWilkins(NewYork:HerderandHerder,1968),133MeitnertoEvavonBahrBergius,3April1920(MC).
5.MeitnertoHedwigMeitner,EasterSunday1920(MC).
6.J.L.Heilbron,TheDilemmasofanUprightMan:MaxPlanckasSpokesmanforGermanScience(Berkeley,LosAngeles,andLondon:Universityof
CaliforniaPress,1986),chap.3.
7.MeitnertoHahn,13August1919letter,19August1919(OHN).Meitner'sletterstoHahnthrough1924arereprintedinSabineErnst,LiseMeitneranOtto
Hahn:BriefeausdenJahren1912bis1924:EditionundKommentierung(Stuttgart:WissenschaftlicheVerlagsgesellschaft,1992).
8.MinisteriumfrWissenschaft,KunstundVolksbildung(Science,Art,andEducation)toLiseMeitner,31July1919(MC).MeitnertoHedwigMeitner,27
September1919(MC).
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9.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"berdasProtactiniumunddieLebensdauerdesActiniums,"Phys.Z.20(1919):127130.
10.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"DerUrsprungdesActiniums,"Phys.Z.20(1919):529533.
11.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"berdasProtactiniumunddieFragenachderMglichkeitseinerHerstellungalschemischesElement,"Naturwiss.7(1919):611
612OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"berdiechemischenEigenschaftendesProtactiniums,"Ber.Dt.Chem.Ges.52(1919):18121838.
12.DietrichHahn,ed.,OttoHahn,BergrnderdesAtomzeitalters:EineBiographieinBildenundDokumenten(Mnchen:ListVerlag,1979),100.
13.MeitnertoHahn,Fiskebckskil,Sweden,19August1919(OHN).
14.Ernst,LiseMeitneranOttoHahn,99n.1.TheoriginaldesignationoftheEmilFischerMedalwas"foraGermanchemist...inthefieldoforganicchemistry...
especiallydyeorpharmaceuticalchemistry...forthesynthesisof...productsthathavebeenofparticularservicetotheGermanchemicalindustry."Thiswascertainly
farafieldfromMeitner,butHahndidnotfitthedescriptioneither.
15.LiseMeitner,"LookingBack,"Bull.Atom.Sci.20(November1964):27.
16.In"EinigeErinnerungenandasKaiserWilhelmInstitutfrChemieinBerlinDahlem,"Naturwiss.41(1954):9799,Meitnercitesthesameincorrectdateasin
"LookingBack"butgivesmoredetails.However,herprivatecorrespondenceandtheofficialreportsoftheKWIfrChemieforthatperiod(1136,MPGBerlin
Dahlem)verifythatshereturnedtotheinstitutepermanentlyinOctober1916andworkedmostlyalonethroughthepublicationofprotactiniuminMarch1918.See
alsochap.3.
17.MaxvonLaue,"ZuMaxPlancks100.Geburtstage,"Naturwiss.45(1958):221226.LawrenceBadash,"TheCompletenessofNineteenthCenturyScience,"
Isis63(1972):4858.
18.Sources:LawrenceBadash,RadioactivityinAmerica:GrowthandDecayofaScience(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,1979)HenryA.Boorse
andLloydMotz,eds.,TheWorldoftheAtom(NewYork:BasicBooks,1966)AbrahamPais,NielsBohr'sTimes,inPhysics,Philosophy,andPolity(Oxford:
ClarendonPress,1991)Pais,InwardBound:OfMatterandPhysicsinthePhysicalWorld(Oxford:ClarendonPress,1986)EmilioSegr,FromXRaysto
Quarks:ModernPhysicistsandTheirDiscoveries(SanFrancisco:W.H.Freeman,1980)J.L.Heilbron,"LecturesontheHistoryofAtomicPhysics1900
1922,"inC.Weiner,ed.,ProceedingsoftheInternationalSchoolofPhysics"EnricoFermi,"CourseLVII(NewYork:AcademicPress,1977),40108,on
5878RogerH.Stuewer,"TheNuclearElectronHypothesis,''inWilliamR.Shea,ed.,OttoHahnandtheRiseofNuclearPhysics(Dordrecht:D.Reidel,1983),
1921.
19.J.L.Heilbron,H.G.J.Moseley:TheLifeandLettersofanEnglishPhysicist,18871915(Berkeley,LosAngeles,andLondon:UniversityofCalifornia
Press,1974),88ff.
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20.ForMeitnerandHahn'searlywork,seechap.2forabriefoverviewofbetaspectra,seeSallieA.Watkins,"LiseMeitnerandtheBetaRayEnergyControversy:
AnHistoricalPerspective,"Am.J.Phys.51(1983):551553forbetaspectrainthecontextofatomicphysics,seePais,InwardBound,chaps.8,14foran
exceedinglydetailedandthoroughtreatment,seeCarstenJensen,"AHistoryoftheBetaSpectrumandItsInterpretation,19111934,"Ph.D.dissertation,NielsBohr
Institute,UniversityofCopenhagen,1990.
21.Meitnerthoughtothereffects,suchasgammaradiation,mighthaveobscuredthefastbetalinesinChadwick'sspectrum,whichshedescribedasonly"apparently
continuous."InOctober1916,justbackfromherwarservice,shewaseagertorepeatChadwick'sexperiment,convincedthatshecoulddisproveit.Meitnerto
Hahn,25October1916(OHN).
22.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"bereinetypische StrahlungdeseigentlichenRadiums,"Phys.Z.10(1909):741745Ottov.Baeyer,OttoHahn,andLise
Meitner,"MagnetischeSpektrender StrahlendesRadiums,"Phys.Z.12(1911):10991101O.v.Baeyer,O.Hahn,andL.Meitner,''Dasmagnetische
Spektrumder StrahlendesRadioaktiniumsundseinerZerfallsprodukte,"Phys.Z.14(1913):321323Ottov.Baeyer,OttoHahn,andLiseMeitner,"Das
magnetischeSpekktrumder StrahlenvonRadiothorundThoriumX,"Phys.Z.16(1915):67.
23.HahnandMeitnerhadsearchedunsuccessfullyforbetadecayproductsbeforethewarin1917Meitnernoted(MeitnertoHahn,24August1917[OHN])thatin
theirpreviousbetastudiesofradium,donein1909and1911,"wewerefumblinginthedarkregardingthechemicalproperties[ofthepossiblebetaproduct]and
aboveallwedidnotthinkofbranching."Ra radiationwasfairlystrong,andMeitnerthoughtbranchingshouldhavebeenevidentifpresentbutsuggestedanew
investigationtobesure.
24.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"berdieAnwendungderVerschiebungsregelaufgleichzeitig und StrahlenaussendendeSubstanzen,"Z.Phys.2(1920):60
70.
25.LiseMeitner,"berdieEntstehungder StrahlSpektrenradioaktiverSubstanzen,"Z.Phys.9(1922):131144,on132.
26.HahnandMeitner,"AnwendungderVerschiebungsregel,"6970.
27.Meitner,"Entstehungder StrahlSpektren,"131132.In1920(n.24,p.70)Meitnerwas"withoutasatisfactoryexplanation"(ohneeinebefriedigende
Erklrung)forthesecondarybetaspectraofalphaemitters,butby1922shehadmadetheconnectiontogammaradiation,citingRutherford'spapersof1914(seen.
28below)and1917(seen.30below).Jensen,in"HistoryoftheBetaSpectrum,"106,suggestsMeitnermaynothavehadaccesstoRutherford's19141918
papersuntilwellafterthewar.
28.SirErnestRutherford,"Spectrumofthe RaysExcitedbythe Rays,"Phil.Mag.28(1914):281286"TheConnexionbetweenthe and RaySpectra,"
Phil.Mag.28(1914):305319.
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29.SirErnestRutherfordandE.N.daC.Andrade,"TheWavelengthoftheSoft RaysfromRadiumB,"Phil.Mag.27(1914):854868.
30.SirErnestRutherford,"PenetratingPoweroftheXRadiationfromaCoolidgeTube,"Phil.Mag.34(1917):153162.
31.MeitnertoHahn,24April,4May,18May1921(OHN).
32.RobertMarcFriedman,"KarlManneGeorgSiegbahn,"inFredericL.Holmes,ed.Dict.Sci.Biog.,Supplement2(NewYork:CharlesScribner,1990),
18:821826.
33.Dr.AdaKlokkeCoster,pers.comm.,11February1986MeitnertoHahn,11/12May1921(OHN),inErnst,LiseMeitneranOttoHahnMeitnertoDirk
Coster,zum9.Dezember1949(MC).
34.Meitner,"Entstehungder StrahlSpektren,"133137.Thelogicoftheexperimentisreadilyseenfromthedata.
Thetwoelectronlineshadenergy:
Fromxraydata,severalionizationenergiesforleadwereknown:
TheenergydifferencebetweenthetwosecondaryelectronscorrespondedmostcloselytothedifferencebetweentheKandL
1
ionizationenergies:
Thismeantthatthe
1
electronsoriginatedintheL
1
level,andthe
2
electronsoriginatedintheKlevel.Twoindependentcalculationsforgammaenergycouldthen
bemade,withagreementwithin1%:
35.Meitner,"Entstehungder StrahlSpektren,"132,143LiseMeitner,"berdieZusammenhangzwischen und Strahlen,"Z.Phys.9(1922):145152.
36.Meitner,"Entstehungder StrahlSpektren,"132133.
37.Ibid.,140141J.Danysz,"Surlesrayons desradiumsBCDE,"LeRadium10(1913):46Jensen,"HistoryoftheBetaSpectrum,"5961.
38.Meitner,"Entstehungder StrahlSpektren,"143.
39.C.D.Ellis,"TheMagneticSpectrumofthe RaysExcitedby Rays,"Proc.Roy.Soc.Lond.99(1921):261271.
40.C.D.Ellis," RaySpectraandTheirMeaning,"Proc.Roy.Soc.Lond.A101(1922):117,on1:"theline rayspectrumis,byitself,ofconsiderableinterest,
butoffargreaterimportanceisthefactthattheseexperimentsgiveamethodoffindingthewavelengthsof rays."ForEllisand spectra,seePais,
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InwardBound,303309andSirKennethHutchison,J.A.Gray,andSirHarrieMassey,"CharlesDrummondEllis,11August189510January1980,"Biog.
Mem.Fell.Roy.Soc.Lond.27(1981):199231.
41.Meitner,"Zusammenhangzwischen und Strahlen."
42.RutherfordandAndrade,"Soft RaysfromRadiumB."
43.Ellis," RaySpectra,"1316.
44.J.Chadwick,"IntensittsverteilungimmagnetischenSpektrender StrahlenvonRadiumB+C,"Verh.Dt.Phys.Ges.16(1914):383391.
45.Ellis," RaySpectra."
46.C.D.Ellis,"TheInterpretationof Rayand RaySpectra,"Proc.Camb.Phil.Soc.21(1922):121128,on122.
47.C.D.Ellis,"berdieDeutungder StrahlspektrenradioaktiverSubstanzen,"Z.Phys.10(1922):303307.
48.Ibid.,307.
49.Ellis,"Interpretationof Rayand RaySpectra,"128.
50.LiseMeitner,"berdie StrahlSpektraundihrenZusammenhangmitder Strahlung,"Z.Phys.11(1922):3554.
51.Ibid.,50.
52.Atthetime,thenonlinearityofexposureanddevelopmenttimesonphotographicemulsionswasalsonotunderstood.SeePais,InwardBound,157158.
53.Meitner," StrahlSpektraundihrenZusammenhangmitder Strahlung,"52.
54.MeitnertoHahn,17April1922(OHN).
55.Foradetaileddiscussion,seeJensen,"HistoryoftheBetaSpectrum,"chap.3.
56.JamesChadwickandC.D.Ellis,"APreliminaryInvestigationoftheIntensityDistributioninthe RaySpectraofRadiumBandC,"Proc.Camb.Phil.Soc.21
(1922):274280.
57.LiseMeitner,"Das StrahlenspektrumvonUX
1
undseineDeutung,"Z.Phys.17(1923):5466.K
a
xraysarethoseemittedwhenanelectrondropsfromanL
shelltoavacancyinaKshell.
58.MeitnertoWalterMeitner,4May1923(MC).
59.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"DiegStrahlenvonUranXundihreZuordnungzuUranX
1
undUranX
2
,"Z.Phys.17(1923):157167.
60.Meitner,"bStrahlenspektrumvonUX
1
,"62.
61.SeeJensen,"HistoryoftheBetaSpectrum,"chaps.3and4,forthetheoreticalcontributionsofSveinRosselandandAdolfSmekal.
62.In"bStrahlenspektrumvonUX
1
,"pp.61and64,Meitnerdescribedtheprocessesnowknownas"internalconversion"(thedecayelectrondirectlyejectingaK
electron)andtheradiationlesstransitionnowknownasthe"Augereffect."SeeRichardSietmann,"FalseAttribution:AFemalePhysicist'sFate,"Phys.Bull.39
(1988):316317.
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63.C.D.EllisandH.W.B.Skinner,"TheInterpretationof RaySpectra,"Proc.Roy.Soc.Lond.A105(1924):185198,on196197.ItturnedoutthatElliswas
correct:thesoftgammaradiationofUX
1
isofnuclearorigin.
64.Meitner," StrahlenspektrumvonUX
1
."
65.EllisandSkinner,"Interpretationof RaySpectra,"197.
66.Meitner," StrahlSpektraundihrenZusammenhangmitder Strahlung,"5152" StrahlenspektrumvonUX
1
,"6263.
67.RogerH.Stuewer,TheComptonEffect:TurningPointinPhysics(NewYork:ScienceHistoryPublications,1975),chap.6.
68.Seechap.3,page74alsoErnst,LiseMeitneranOttoHahn,130.In1918EinsteinwrotetoMeitner,"Althoughinoureyestheresult[provingthelightquantum
hypothesis]cannotbeindoubt,nearlyallotherphysiciststhinkdifferentlyaboutit."
69.LiseMeitner,"bereinemglicheDeutungdeskontinuierlichen Strahlenspektrums,"Z.Phys.19(1923):307312,on311.
70.LiseMeitner,"bereinenotwendigeFolgerungausdemComptoneffektundihreBesttigung,"Z.Phys.22(1924):334342,on341342.Foranoverviewof
Meitner'spositionin1924,seeLiseMeitner,"DerZusammenhangzwischen und Strahlen,"Ergebn.Exakt.Naturwiss.3(1924):160181alsoMeitner,
"berdieEnergieentwicklungbeiradioaktivenZerfallsprozessen,"Naturwiss.12(1924):11461150.
71.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"Das StrahlenspektrumvonRadiumundseineDeutung,"Z.Phys.26(1924):161168.
72.LiseMeitner,"berdieRolleder StrahlenbeimAtomzerfall,"Z.Phys.26(1924):169177,on169.
73.Meitner,"Rolleder Strahlen,"169170.Here(p.170)sheconceded,"ThisinterpretationdiffersinprinciplefromtheviewIexpressedinmyfirstpublication
[seen.25,above],inwhichtheenergyofa raywascloselylinkedtotheenergyoftheprimarybetaparticle.Suchalinkisentirelyunnecessaryandapparentlydoes
notexist."
74.C.D.EllisandH.W.B.Skinner,"TheAbsoluteEnergiesoftheGroupsinMagnetic RaySpectra,"Proc.Roy.Soc.Lond.A105(1924):6069.
75.EllisandSkinner,"Interpretationof RaySpectra,"192.
76.Meitner,"Rolleder Strahlen,"172.
77.OttoHahnandLiseMeitner,"Die StrahlenspektrenvonRadioactiniumundseinenZerfallsprodukten,"Z.Phys.34(1925):795806.
78.LiseMeitner,"Die StrahlungderActiniumreiheundderNachweis,dassdie StrahlenerstnacherfolgtemAtomzerfallemittiertwerden,"Z.Phys.34(1925):
807818.
79.C.D.EllistoMeitner,8December1925(MC).
80.C.D.EllisandW.A.Wooster,"TheAtomicNumberofaRadioactiveElementattheMomentofEmissionofthe Rays,"Proc.Camb.Phil.Soc.22
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(1925):844848andEllisandWooster,"The RayTypeofDisintegration,"ibid.,849860.SeealsoPais,InwardBound,307309.
81.C.D.EllistoMeitner,8December1925(MC).
82.Meitner," StrahlungderActiniumreihe,"816.
83.DietrichHahn,ed.,OttoHahn,ErlebnisseundErkenntnisse(Dsseldorf:EconVerlag,1975),43.Hahnwrotein1945,"Onecancertainlysaythatintheyears
afterabout1920,alargepartoftheinstitute'sreputation,especiallyabroad,wasduetotheworkintheMeitnersection."
84.Ibid.OttoHahnquotesKasimirFajansinthemid1920s:"Hahn,there'snopointinworkinginradioactivityanymorethere'snothingworthwhiletogetoutofit
anymore."
Badash,RadioactivityinAmerica,213,similarlyreferstoradiochemistry's"suicidalsuccess"bytheearly1920s,thefield"effectivelyceasedtoexist."
85.MeitnertoHahn,12and17April1922(OHN).
86.AslateasAugust1921,MeitnerandHahnwerestillusingtheformal"Sie.""Fachbruder"appearsinaletterfromMeitnertoHahn,23October1922(OHN).For
thenickname"Hanno,"seeD.Hahn,OttoHahn,190.
87.ForthelivesandlovesofAnnemarieandErwinSchrdinger,seeWalterMoore,Schrdinger:LifeandThought(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,
1989).
88.Clark,Einstein,393OttoFrisch,WhatLittleIRemember(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1979),3439.
89.ForEinstein,seePais,NielsBohr,227ff.forHevesy,seeHildeLevi,GeorgedeHevesy:LifeandWork(BristolandBoston:AdamHilger,1985),47.
90.WilhelmWestphal,inK.E.BoetersandJ.Lemmerich,eds.,Gedchtnisausstellungzum100.GeburtstagvonAlbertEinstein,OttoHahn,MaxvonLaue,
LiseMeitner(BadHonnef:PhysikKongre AusstellungsundVerwaltungs,1979),105.
91.Meitner,"LookingBack,"7.
92.Ibid.FinnAaserud,RedirectingScience:NielsBohr,Philanthropy,andtheRiseofNuclearPhysics(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress,1990),102
MeitnertoMargretheBohr,31May1921(BPC).
93.MeitnertoHedwigMeitner,19October1922(MC).
94.MeitnertoHedwigMeitner,n.d.1921(MC).In1920,forexample,Meitnerwasrentingasingleroomintheapartmentofafamilywith5childreninLichterfelde:
OtfriedBronischtoMeitner,18September1955(MC).
95.Clark,Einstein,381.
96.ForageneraldescriptionoftheeffectofinflationontheKWG,seeFriedrichGlum,ZwischenWissenschaft,WirtschaftundPolitik(Bonn:H.BouvierVerlag,
1964),293ff.
Fordetails,seeannualreports(BerichtdesDirektorsberdenBetriebu.diewissenschaftlicheTtigkeit)ofKWIfrChemietotheKWGGeneralverwaltung
(MPG).WithinflationMeitner'ssalaryrosefrom4,000marksin1919to9,800in1920to78,200inMarch1922.InNovember1922,itwasnotedthatinflation
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Page419
hadmade"frighteningprogress"(erschreckendeFortschritte),pricesofmaterialsincreasingbyfactorsof17(forgas)and95(forbrass)in1922alone.InMarch
1923,theinstitute'stotalbudgetof222millionmarks,although100timesgreaterthanthepreviousyear's,wasconsideredonlyhalfitsprewarvalue.
SeeFritzK.Ringer,ed.,TheGermanInflationof1923(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1969)includesGeorgSchreiber,"TheDistressofGerman
Learning."Seealson.104,below.
97.MeitnertoWalterMeitner,12March1923(MC).
98.MeitnertoWalterMeitner,4May1923(MC).
99.Meitner,"bereinemglicheDeutungdeskontinuierlichen Strahlenspektrums"Meitner,"bereinenotwendigeFolgerungausdemComptoneffekt."
100.MeitnertoWalterMeitner,26August1923(MC).
101.MeitnertoHedwigMeitner,19September1923(MC).
102.MeitnertoHedwigMeitner,3October1923(MC).
103.Glum,ZwischenWissenschaft,293.
104.Meitner,"EinigeErinnerungen,"98.InNovember1923Meitner'sweeklysalarywas2billion(10
9
)markson7November,12billionmarkson16November,
116billionmarkson17December,withretroactivepayaddedoneachweekforlossofvalueoftheprevioussalary.InNovemberthemarkwentfrom10
9
/$1to
10
12
/$1.Thatmonthanewcurrency,theRentenmark,wasintroducedandtheprocessofstabilizationbegan(Meitner,budget1923[MC]).Foreconomicdata,see
CarlLudwigHolfrerich,TheGermanInflation,19141924:CausesandEffectsinInternationalPerspective,trans.TheoBalderston(Berlin:WalterdeGruyter,
1986).
105.KonradHeiden,"TheInflationandHitler'sPutschof1923,"inRinger,GermanInflationof1923.
106.MeitnertoDirkCoster,zum9.Dezember1949(MC).
107.MeitnertoMaxvonLaue,26December1923(MC).
108.A.D.FokkertoMeitner,10November1923(MC).
109.MeitnertoCoster,zum9.Dezember1949(MC).
110.MeitnertoHahn,12December1924(OHN).
111.Frisch,WhatLittleIRemember,1314,3334.FormusicinBerlininthelate1920s,seeGay,WeimarCulture,130131.
112.Heilbron,"Lectures,"9095.IttookseveralyearsforCosterandHevesytoestablishundisputedpriorityforelement72:HelgeKragh,"AnatomyofaPriority
Conflict:TheCaseofElement72,"Centaurus23(1980):275301Levi,GeorgedeHevesy,5156.
113.BarbaraLovettCline,MenWhoMadeaNewPhysics(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1965,1987),172.SeealsoVictorWeisskopf,TheJoyof
Insight:PassionsofaPhysicist(NewYork:BasicBooks,1991).
114.Forgeneralreferences,seen.18,above.AlsoseeOskarKlein,"GlimpsesofNielsBohrasaScientistandThinker,"inS.Rozental,ed.,NielsBohr:HisLife
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andWorkasSeenbyHisFriendsandColleagues(Amsterdam:NorthHolland/NewYork:JohnWiley&Sons,1967)GeorgeE.Uhlenbeck,"Personal
Reminiscences:FiftyYearsofSpin,"PhysicsToday29,no.6(1976):4348Cline,MenWhoMadeaNewPhysics,chaps.10,11MaxJammer,The
ConceptualDevelopmentofQuantumMechanics,2ded.,vol.12inHistoryofModernPhysics,18001950(n.p.:TomashPublishers,AmericanInstituteof
Physics,1989).
115.JoanBromberg,"TheImpactoftheNeutron:BohrandHeisenberg,"Hist.Stud.Phys.Sci.3(1971):308309:"theneedtoputelectronsinthenucleuswasthe
chiefreasonforconnectingnuclearphysicswithrelativisticquantumtheory."
116.LiseMeitner,"ExperimentelleBestimmungderReichweitehomogener Strahlen,"Naturwiss.14(1926):11991203.
117.EllisandWooster,"The RayTypeofDisintegration"K.G.Emeleus,"TheNumberof ParticlesfromRadiumE,"Proc.Camb.Phil.Soc.2(1924):400
405.Fortheresolutionofthecontroversyinthisperiod,seealsoJensen,"HistoryoftheBetaSpectrum,"chap.5.
118.AsrelatedbyMeitnertoPauli,14October1958(MC):"EvenbeforemycalorimetrymeasurementwithOrthmann(1929)Iwasquiteuncertainaboutmy
hypothesisregardingprimary rays,andassignedtwocoworkerstoseeifrecoilnuclei(after decay)showedaninhomogeneousenergydistribution."
Bythen,otherphysicistsagreedwithEllis.WritingtoMeitnerin1956,Paulirememberedthe"oldpolemicbetweenyourselfandElliswhichwasfinallyresolved
withthecalorimetryexperimentofyoursandOrthmann's.AndIremembertoo,thatonce,tryingtobediplomatic,Igreetedyouwiththewords,'Itreallyisvery
nicetoseeyouhere.'Thatwasfarbeyondthelimitedboundariesofmyusualpleasantriesandsoyoureactedquitelogically,'Youdon'tusuallypaysuch
complimentstheremustbesomethingbehindit!'Thatwasso,sinceIwasoftheopinionElliswasright."(PaulitoMeitner,3November1956[MC].)
Jensen,in"HistoryoftheBetaSpectrum,"237238,notesthatPaulisubsequently(andtemporarily)changedhisopinion,probablyinearly1929,inthehopeof
retainingconservationofenergy.
119.N.Riehl,"DieBrauchbarkeitdesGeigerschenSpitzenzhlersfr StrahlenverschiedenerGeschwindigkeitenunddieZahlder StrahlenvonRaEundRaD,"Z.
Phys.46(1927):478505K.DonatandK.Philipp,"DieAusbeutebeim RckstossvonThoriumB,"Z.Phys.45(1927):512521,andNaturwiss.16(1928):
513.
120.C.D.EllisandW.A.Wooster,"TheAverageEnergyofDisintegrationofRadiumE,"Proc.Roy.Soc.Lond.A117(1927):109123.
121.O.R.Frisch,"LiseMeitner,18781968,"Biog.Mem.Fell.Roy.Soc.Lond.16(1970):408,saysthatMeitnerwas"shocked"bytheresult,butherbetarecoil
attempt(seen.116)andherstatementtoPauliin1958(seen.118)makesitseemunlikelythatshewasverysurprised.Jensen,"HistoryoftheBetaSpectrum,"230
236,243244,contraststheunconcernshownbyEllisandtheRutherford
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groupwiththedismayfeltbyphysicistsontheContinentandattributesittoagenuinedifferencebetweenthetwoscientificcommunities:"Withouthesitation[Ellis]
wasreadytoabandonthefundamentalaccuracyofthequantumpostulate,"whereasMeitner"fullyrealizedtheseriousconsequences"ofthecontinuousspectrum.
122.MeitnertoC.D.Ellis,14February1928(MC).TheCambridgeconferencetookplaceon2327July1928.SeeJensen,"HistoryoftheBetaSpectrum,"235
alsoKaiserWilhelmInstitutfrChemie1928budgetreport,1150KWGGeneralverwaltung,MPG,BerlinDahlem.
123.LiseMeitnerandWilhelmOrthmann,"bereineabsoluteBestimmungderEnergiederprimren StrahlenvonRadiumE,"Z.Phys.60(1930):143155.
124.MeitnertoC.D.Ellis,20July1929(MC).
125.RogerH.Stuewer,"Gamow'sTheoryofAlphaDecay,"inEdnaUllmannMargalit,ed.,TheKaleidoscopeofScience(Dordrecht:D.Reidel,1986),147186.
126.MeitnerandOrthmann,"BestimmungderEnergie,"153.
127.Ibid.,154.
128.MeitnertoC.D.Ellis,14February1928(MC).
129.Stuewer,"NuclearElectronHypothesis,"3242.
130.Ibid.LaurieM.Brown,"TheIdeaoftheNeutrino,"PhysicsToday31,no.9(September1978):2328.
131.WolfgangPaulitoMeitnerandHansGeiger,4December1930(MC)alsoinBrown,"IdeaoftheNeutrino,"andinR.KronigandV.F.Weisskopf,eds.,"Zur
alterenundneuerenGeschichtedesNeutrino,"W.PauliCollectedScientificPapers(NewYork:Interscience,1964),13131337,on13161317.
132.AsstatedbyMeitnertoW.Pauli,14October1958(MC).AlsoinKronigandWeisskopf,PauliScientificpapers,1317.
133.GeorgeGamow,ConstitutionofAtomicNucleiandRadioactivity(Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1931)Pais,InwardBound,297.
Chapter5.ExperimentalNuclearPhysics
1.Haushaltsplan(budget)inKWGGeneralverwaltungrecords,MPG,BerlinDahlem1148to1151(19261933).
2.FritzKrafft,ImSchattenderSensation:LebenundWirkenvonFritzStrassmann(Weinheim:VerlagChemie,1981),169ElisabethBoedeker,Marksteine
derDeutschenFrauenbewegung(Hannover:Selbstverlag,1969)ElisabethBoedekerandMariaMeyerPlath,50JahreHabilitationvonFrauenin
Deutschland:EineDokumentationberdenZeitraumvon19201970(Gttingen:O.Schwarz,1974).ThefirstwomanPrivatdozentinphysicswasHedwig
KohninBreslauin1919.
3.ArminHerrmann,DieNeuePhysik(Mchen:HeinzMoos,1979),64Herrmann,TheNewPhysics:TheRouteintotheAtomicAge.InMemoryofAlbert
Einstein,MaxvonLaue,OttoHahn,LiseMeitner,trans.DavidC.Cassidy(Bad
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EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 5/7/2014 11:57 AM via FLORIDA STATE UNIV
AN: 8685 ; Sime, Ruth Lewin.; Lise Meitner : A Life in Physics
Account: s5308004