.

, 2009.


.........................................................................................................................................................5
- ........................................................7
1.1 .................................................................................................................7
1.2 ...............................................................................9
1.3 ...............................................................................................................................11
.............................................................................................12
........................................................................................12
..........................................................................................12
...............................................................................................................................13
1.4 ..............................................................................................14
....................................................................................................................................................14
................................................................................................................16
.........................................................................................................................18
...................................................................................................19
..............................................................................................................................20
1.5 ....................................................................................................22
1.6 O ........................................................................................24
.........26
2.1 .........................................................................................................................26
2.2 .................................................................................................................................26
2.3 ...........................................................................................................28
2.4 .........................................................................29
2.5 ..............................................................................................................................................31
2.6 ..................................................................................................................32
2.7 ...........................................................................................................................34
....................................................................................................36
3.1 ...........................................................................................................................................................36
3.2 .....................................................................38
3.3 ...........................................................................................................40
3.4 ..........................................................................43
3.5 ....................44
3.6 ......................................................................................................47
3.7 ....................................................................................................................54
3.8 O ..........................................57
3.9 O ........................................................................61
3.10 : ....................................................................66
.................................................................................................71
4.1 ...........................................................................................................................................................71
4.2 ...................................................................................................................72
4.3 ....................................................................................................................73
4.4 ........................................................78
4.5
A ................................................................................................................................79
4.6 ............................................................................81
4.7 .............................................................................................82
4.8 .......................................................................................83
4.9 ......................................................................................................85
4.10 ........................................................................................................................87
4.11 .........................................................88
4.12 .....................................................................................89
4.13 ...........................................................................90
4.14 - ..................................................................................................94
3

4.15 :
- .............................................................96
....................................................................................100
5.1 .........................................................................................................................................................100
5.2 ...........................................................................................................................100
5.3 ...............................................................................................................103
5.4
........................................................................................................................105
5.5 ..............................................................................................................................................114
5.6 .............................................................................119
5.7 ..............................................................................................................................................121
5.8 J : .....................................121
5.9 J :
................................................................................................................................................122
......................................................................................................................................................124
..........................127
6.1 .........................................................................................................................................................127
6.2 ......................................................127
.............................................................................................................................127
6.3 ...................................................................................................................................129
6.4. ...............................................132
6.5 ....................................................................................................................136
6.6 :
........................................................................................................................137
6.7 .....................................................................................................................................................138
6.8 : ................139
6.9 : - ...................................................................140

, ,
a , .
,
"" .

, ;
, ,
. ,
,
, .
. ""
1.6.
,
, . :
.
, .
;
. .,
, .
.
, ,
. ,
, . ,
, , ,
.
,
, ;
.
.
.
, ;
. ,
. , ,
, . 1 7,
, - .
"" .
.
.

. -
; . .,
;
; , ,
5

, , , , , ,
. ,
(Introduction to Flight: Engineering and History, .." .
", McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978),
.
.
.
,
. , ,
.
, : ,
1973. . ,
.
. ,
.
- , ,
. ,
. , ,
, .
, ,
,
. ,
.
.
. ,
(John D. Anderson, Jr.)

-
,
, ,
,
.
. (J. van Lonkhuyzen), 1951, ,
1 (Bell XS-1),

1.1
1893. (The World's
Columbian Exposition) . 27 ,
2,5 km2 : ,
, .
,
400 . , ,
, 150
. , , ,
, 20. .
12,5 ,
. . .
. 1,8 m, , 2
, , .
,
- . 1.1
,
. , ,
, , -
30.000 min-1. -
20. .
1947., 14. . y, ,
. 6:00 ,
"" . ,
50- , , 1 (Bell XS-1)
, -29
. 10:00 -29, ,
6000 m. 1 () J,
-51 , . J
, .
, . 10:26, 400
(112 m/s), 1 -29.
11 (XLR-11) , 26,7 kN,
. 4
7

- a ; 1 0,85 ,
1947.
. ,
1. 0,95 .
- . 12.000 m, 1
, .
0,98, 0,99 1,02. , , 1,06.
1, ,
1129 (313,6 m/s), 1,06 13.000 m. ,
, .
, , 1,
1.2, , . (
1 2 .)

1.1 -
, , 10 ks, 1
, e ,
.
, ,
- . ,
.
80-, 90- 19. 20.
;
.
1 2
v = const.
(1.1)
2
. ,
- 1,
. , ,
. , (1.1) . ,
.
p+

" ", ,
. , , .
,
(), (), ()
() , ,
0,3 ,
8

. ,
.

1.2 1 (Bell XS-1) . (

.)

1.2
,
. , ,
; (. )
. , ,
, , ,
. ,
, (1.1), . ,
- (1.1) , ,
.
,
. .
, , p.
dp. d.
, d .
s (1.2)
s=

1 d
dp

(1.2)

,
. . ,
(. ),
, . ,
( ),
(1.3)
1
sT =

p T

(1.3)

, (
), , , (

 ), ,
(1.4)
1
sS =

p S

(1.4)

S .
. (s
510-10 m/N 101325 Pa), (s 10-5 m/N
101325 Pa, ).
, ( ), =1/.
, (1.2) (1.5)
s=

1 d
.
dp

(1.5)

, , dp, d,
(1.5)
d = s dp .
(1.6)
, .
.
, , , .
. , dp,
, (1.6) (
s), ( s). ,
,
. , .
, s,
(1.6). ,
. , .
0,3 ,
, s ; dp (1.6)
d.
. , 1903,
1939, , 400 (112 m/s),
0,3 (c=341 m/s, t=15C, p=101325 Pa)). ,
. ,
0,3 ,
.
1940. ,
, ,
.
, ,
dp, , (1.6),
, d/, .
, 5 % , .

10

1.3

1.3
17. 1903. ,
, 1 (Flyer 1),
.
,
. 20. , ,
, . ,
,
.
, ,
11

. , v.
, v .
1.3 .


, p, , , v - , , .
.
3 c ; c
. c ,
v/c . =v/c,
.
3.
.

, 1.3 .
. , <1
, () .
.
; .
4. ,
,
. A 1, .
, , M 0,8 ,
. , ,
M 0,8 .

, 1,
, 1.3 .
. 1.3 ,
1, . ,
1.3 ,
. 4.
, ,
. ,
1.3 . ( 1.1, , 1
" " =1,06.) , ,
. ,
, - . ,

. 1.3
.
, 0,8 < M 1, 2
.

>1 .
1.3 . .
, . ,
12

, , .
1.3 , ,
. (, )
.
, .

, ,
1.3 . , .
, , 1.3 .
>5, (
) , .
13 14. -
-
. , >5 - .
=5 . ,
, ,
, ,
.

; , , M 0 . M = v / c :
1) M 0 v 0
2) M 0 c .
.
. (1.6),
d = 0, s ,
. 3
s; , s = 0 .
. ,
, , .
,
, . : ,
.
, , .
. ,
, .
; ,
. :
,

.
.
. ,
, .
. , ,
, .
,
13

 13 14. , ,
( 21019 /cm3
),
.
( )
. .

, .
.
, (
60.000 m)
. .

1.4
, v2/2.
, ,
, .
,
.
,
. , ( ) ,
.
.

.

(, , , .) , , .
, .
.
. .
,
, . , ,
.

, , .
10 . ,
.
, .
,
. ,
,
- 1800.

pV = mRT
(1.7)

14

 : p [N/m2], V [m3], m [kg], R

[/(kg K)] [K].
, .
, (1.7)
p = RT
(1.8)
[m3/kg].
= 1/, (1.8)
p

= RT

(1.9)

, ,

pV = nRu T

(1.10)

n [mol] , Ru [J/mol K]
. ,
. , (2), 1 mol 32 g.
, 1 mol
. 1 mol 6,0221023 , .
(1.10), :
pV ' = RuT

(1.11)

V' [m3/mol].
(1.10) :
p = RuT

(1.12)

, [mol/kg]. ,
(1.10) ,
p = CRu T

(1.13)

C [mol/m3].
, . N
( , 6,0221023 mol-1). (1.13) N

R
p = (N AC ) u T
(1.14)
NA
, NC ( ),
Ru/N , k (k=1,3810-23 J/K).
, (1.14)
p = NkT
(1.15)
N [m-3] .

15

 , , ,
. .
, (1.8), (1.9) (1.12). ,
. :
, ,
.
Ru= 8,314 /(molK)
, ,
.
R=Ru/M, M .
R=287 /(kgK)
K , k,

k=1,3810-23 J/K
? ,
( 1 bar) ( , 273 , ),
p/RT 1 %. ,
,
. , . ,

a

(1.16)
p + ( b ) = RT

b . ,
p/3. , ,
p=R .
.

50-,
8 km/s.
(, ). ,
, , . ,
, ,
.
. , 13,
p= R. ,
R=Ru/M, M , R .

. ,
13 14.

.
. ,
, ( 13)
. ,
16

. 13.
. ,
, u, . , (
) ( 13),
.
.
, , , .
. , ,
,
. u (
), , h, , h=u+p,
u=u(,) h=h(,p)
(1.17)
.
,
,

, cp [J/kgK] cv [J/kgK], :
u = u (T )
h = h (T )

du = cv dT

(1.18)

dh = c p dT
cv cp
a 13.
, , ,

u = cvT
h = c pT

(1.19)

(1.19) h=u=0 =0 .
,
. .
.
1000 . ,
2 N2
. , 2500 2
. 4000 N2 .
, (1.17), u , h p. ( ,
,
u; p h). 13 14
.
(1.9)
cp-cv=R
(1.20)

17

 h
cp =

T p

u
cv = .
T
v
(1.20) . .
(1.20) . (1.20)
c p:
c
R
1 v = .
(1.21)
cp cp
=cp/cv. =1,4.
(1.21)
1

R
.
cp

cp
cp =

R
.
1

(1.22)

, (1.20) cv
R
.
(1.23)
-1
(1.22) (1.23) .
.
cv =

,
. .
. q [J/kg] (
). , w [J/kg] (
, ). ,
u [J/kg]. (
.) ,
, du
q + w = du
(1.24)
.
. (1.24) u [J/kg] . , du
, .
, q w .
du, ()
. :

.
. ,
.

18

 .
w=pd, d
. , (1.24)
q pd =du
(1.25)
, , - , (1.25)
. ,
.

. (
), . , (1.24)
. , ,
. . ,
, . ,
, , :
q
ds = rev
T
: s [J/kgK] , qrev [J/kg] ,
[K] . .
, qrev. ,
, . qrev
. qrev
, q. , ,

ds =

+ dsirev .
(1.26)
T
(1.26).
, q/,
,
, dsirev. :
(1.27)
dsirev0.
, . ,
(1.26) (1.27)

ds

(1.28)
T
, , q=0, (1.28)
ds0
(1.29)
(1.28) (1.29) .
.
, . ,
.
. ,
,
. ,
.

19


(1.25),
qrev = Tds ,
(1.25) :
Tds pd = du
Tds = du + pd

(1.30)

:
h = u + p .
,
dh = du + pd + dp .
(1.30) (1.31), :
Td s = d h d p .

(1.31)
(1.32)

(1.30) (1.32) , ,
(1.24).
, (1.18), dh = c p dT . (1.32) :
dT
dp

T
T
p = RT (1.33),
ds = c p

ds = c p

dT
dp
R
T
p

(1.33)

(1.34)

1 2
T2

s2 s1 = c p
T1

p
dT
R ln 2 .
T
p1

(1.35)

(1.35) . cp .
cp=const. .
(1.35)
s2 s1 = c p ln

T2
p
R ln 2 .
T1
p1

(1.36)

(1.30) du = cv dT ,
:
s2 s1 = cv ln

T2

+ R ln 2
T1
1

(1.37)

, . (1.36) (1.37)
, ,
. p T,
T, .

20


.
q = 0 , dsirev = 0 . (1.26)
ds=0, s=const.
(1.36) (1.37) s2=s1.
(1.36)
0 = c p ln
ln

T2
p
R ln 2
T1
p1

p2 c p T2
= ln
p1 R T1

(1.38)

cp

p2 T2 R
= .
p1 T1

(1.22):
cp
R

(1.38)

p2 T2 1
=
p1 T1

(1.39)

(1.37)
0 = cv ln
ln

T2

+ R ln 2
1
T1

c T
2
= v ln 2
R T1
1

2 T2
=
1 T1

(1.40)

cv
R

(1.23)
cv
1
=
.
R 1

(1.40),

2 T2
=
1 T1

(1.41)

2 2
= ,
1 1
(1.41)

21

2 T2 1
= .
1 T1

(1.42)

(1.39) (1.42) :

p2 2 T2 1
= = .
(1.43)
p1 1 T1
(1.43) . , .
.

(1.43) .
, - -
. , ,
.
,
, . ,
.
. , -
. , .
, , .
.
(1.43) , .
.
.
13.

1.5

, ,
. Principia (1687)
.
.
, , , . ,
,
- .
.
: .
1.4. s
. p s; p = p( s) = ( s) .

. , dA
p, , , ,




1.4. n m dA.





dA = ndA ; dA dA.


1.4 dF dA :

22











dF = pndA + mdA = pdA + mdA
(1.44)


1.4 p dA .


(1.44) . F
.
(1.44):








F = dF = pdA + mdA
(1.45)
A

1.4 ;

(1.45), ,
. .
x, y, z 1.4. x y


v. F (1.45),






FL FD F y x .
v , .


. , FL
; . , (1.45) 1.4
:

FL y pdA
A

(1.46)

FD = x pdA + x mdA
A

A




(1.47)

, 1.3.
.
(1.46) .

(1.47). ,
. , (1.47)
. ,
.

23

 , ,
, .

1.6 O
1.1 -
. ,

. 1945. 1960.
'''', :

( ).

,
( ) .

. : ( )
( 11), -
( 10).

.

1945. .
.
.
1960., '''' :

,
.
.

(CFD Computational Fluid

Dynamics) ,
, . ,
- ,
.

, /
. -
, .

, . ( 18).

,
.
.
-. .
,
.
, , .
.

24

1. , 5,6 bar 1062,5 C.

.
2. , 10 bar 320
. .
3. , c p cv = R .
.
4. , p2 p1 = 4,5 T2 T1 = 1,687 ,
1 2 . .
5. .
p1 = 86200 Pa T1 = 625 , 500 .
.

25

.
14.
, 1879.



.
, 1954.

2.1
.


( p, , T , v ,... ) . ?
,


. p, , T , v ,... ,
( ), . ,
, ,
.
,
.
? ,


p, , T , v ,... ,
.
. .
.

2.2
, :
1. : , :
-
- =
- .
2. : .
3. : .
26

 2, ?
.
,
.
.
.

, 2.1.
. V A.

2.1

v



2.2

.
,
, .
.

27


2.2.
, dV.
; ,
( 1.3).


v ,
. ,
, .

, . ,
,
. ,
.
, .
, (Hirchfelder, Curtiss, Bird).
,
.
.

2.3

.
, 2.3. V,
. B


B, d. n B.





dA = ndA . v B. [kg/s]
,
. m d,
2.3,



m = (v cos )dA = vn dA = v dA
(2.1)

2.3

28

(: vn
. ,
,
.)
2.1, :



v dA
A

( , 2.3).
dV . dV.
, , :

dV .
V

dV .
t V
( )
.
, :



(2.2)
v dA = dV .
t V
A
;
, . 2.2 ,
, , .

2.4

.
:


d


(mv ) = F .
(2.3)
dt
, 2.3 :




dv


F =m
= ma
(2.4)
dt
. ,
2.3 2.4.
(. 2.3)
, 2.3.
.
, :
1. V.
" ",


. f
29

 . , dV, V;
dV


, , ( dV ) f . :


[ ]= fdV
(2.5)
V

2. . 1.5,

. ,


. dA 2.3.


pdA ,
, . , :


[ ]= pdA
(2.6)
A

2.5 2.6 F
2.3. , :






F = fdV pdA
(2.7)
V

( : ,
, ,
. , ,
, .

, 2.7.)
2.3. ,


m(d v /dt), ?
. 2.3.
, ,
. .


. , K1
. d 2.1







v dA . ( ) v dA v .


2.3 v ,



, v dA . ,


v , ,



v dA .
:






(2.8)
K1 = v dA v .

, 2.3.
, ,
.
.
2.3 ,
, .


K1 2.3.

30



V. K 2 .


, dV. ( dV )v .
:


[ V] = vdV
V

:

( v )
(2.9)
K 2 = vdV =
dV
t V
t
V
( 2.9,
.
,
2.9.)




, K1 + K 2
.
2.3:












d
( v )
(2.10)
(mv ) = K1 + K 2 = v dA v +
dV
dt
t
A
V

,
.
2.3, 2.7 2.10:










( v )
(2.11)

d
A
v
+
d
V
=
f
A
V t
V dV A pdA

2.11 ;
. 2.11
. ,
,

. Fvis , 2.11 :

(
A

v dA v +
V

( v )
dV = fdV pdA + Fvis
t
V
A

(2.11)

, 2.11.

2.5
(2.2) (2.11),
, .
,
. ,
, .
,
. .
, ()
,
31

 1.4.
, .

2.6

, , .
, 1.24.
2.3. :
B1 =
B2 =
B3 = .

:
B1 + B2 = B3

(2.12)

.

,
. , ,
( ) ;
. , ,
.
. , ,
,
. 13 14.
, q , ,
, q ( dV ) .
:
B1 = q dV

(2.13)

,


, F , 2.4.




r . r1




r2 dt, dr .










dt F dr . , , . F dr dt . dr dt = v ,




[ ]= F v .
,
. B2, .


dA 2.3.


pdA , 2.4. ()







dA v pdA v .

32

= pdA
v

A

V A

(2.14)

2.4


. f


, f




fdV v . :

V = f
dV v

(2.15)

V
(2.14) (2.15):






(2.16)
B2 = pv dA + f v dV

,
1.4 u ( ).
2.3 ;


v v2/2.
, u+v2/2.
( 2.3) ,
. , ,



. dA (2.1) vdA



dA v dA u + v 2 2 .

)(

= v dA

v2
u
+

(2.17)

.

. u + v 2 2 dV ,

u +
V

v2
dV .
2

33

2
V
= u + v dV
(2.18)

t
2

V

3 (2.17) (2.18):

v2
v2
B3 = u + dV + v dA u +
(2.19)
t V
2
2

A
:
.
. (2.12), (2.13), (2.16)
(2.19):

v2
v 2


(2.20)
dV + u + v dA
2
2

V
A
V
V
A
(2.20) ;
.

q dV pv dA + ( f v )dV = t u +

(2.20) :
-
Wos ;
- W ;
vis

.
,
Q ;
, gz, g - , z -
. ,
, : (u+v2/2+gz).

e (2.20) :

v2
v2
Q + Wos + Wvis pv dA + f v dV = u + + gz dV + u + + gz v dA
(2.20)
t
2
2

A
V
V
S

. ,
,
. (2.20) (2.20).

2.7
(2.2), (2.11) (2.20),

p = RT

u=u(,)
( u = cvT )
.
13 14.
, 6
34

 , .
: 3 5
, ,
.
, (2.2), (2.11) (2.20) ,
: , , .
. ,
.
.
.

35

.
, 1941.

3.1
14. 1947. 1 (Bell XS-1)
( 1.1),
. =1,06,
, 3.1.
, 26. 1948., je 1 =1,45 . ,
, 3.1.
3.1
3.1,
3.1. , 3.2,
. ,
, . 3.2,

.

3.1
, 3.1 3.2,
. 3.3
. ,
,
. 3.3, p, , T vx x.
, , .
3.1 3.2,
.

36

 3.2
. =33
8
(:
)

3.2
(:
, , M)

3.2 (:
)

p1
T1
1
vx1

p2
T2
2
vx2

M 1 >1

M 2 <1

3.3

, .
3.4. 3.4,
, , ,

37

 ( ). ,
, 3.4.
,
, x, y z .
=() , , , y z
, 3.4.
.
=(), p, , T
vx , .
.

=const.
p=p(x)
=(x)
T=T(x)
vx=vx(x)

=().
p=p(x)
=(x)
T=T(x)
vx=vx(x)

x
z

a)
)
3.4
,
. , ,

.

3.2
, 3.5.
. ,
. , ,
, , vx1, p1, T1, 1 u1.
, vx2, p2, T2, 2 u2.
, vx. ,
vx .
,
3.5. , vx1,
p1, T1, 1 u1 , a vx2, p2, T2, 2 u2
.
( ). , , .
, .
, (2.2) :

38




v dA = dV .
t V
A
, (2.2)

v dA = 0 .

(3.1)

A
1

vx1
p1

vx2
p2

T1
u1

T2
u2
x

3.5

3.5, v dA


, 1vx1A , v

dA , 2vx2A.




v dA
. , (3.1)

1vx1 A + 2 vx 2 A = 0

1vx1 = 2 vx 2 .

(3.2)

(3.2) .
(2.11) :










( v)
dV = f dV p dA .
( v dA) v +
t
A
V
V
A

.
, . (2.11)

( v dA) v = p dA .
(3.3)

J (3.3) . ,
(3.3)





( v dA) vx = ( p dA) x .
(3.4)

(3.4) (pdA)x je p dA .
(3.4) 3.5,

1 (vx1 A) vx1 + 2 ( vx 2 A) vx 2 = ( p1 A + p2 A)

p1 + 1 vx12 = p2 + 2 vx 2 2 .

(3.5)

(3.5) .

39

 (2.20)

q dV p v dA + ( f v ) dV =

v2
u +
2
t

v2
d
V
+

u
+

2

A

v dA .

. , Q .

. , (2.20)

v2


Q p v dA = u + v dA .
2

A
A

(3.6)

3.5,

v 2
v 2
Q ( p1 vx1 A + p2 vx 2 A) = 1 u1 + x1 vx1 A + 2 u2 + x 2 vx 2 A .
2
2

v 2
v 2
Q
+ p1 vx1 + 1 u1 + x1 vx1 = p2 vx 2 + 2 u2 + x 2 vx 2
A
2
2

(3.2) . 1vx1, a 2vx 2,

p
v 2 p
v 2
Q
+ 1 + u1 + x1 = 2 + u2 + x 2 .
1 vx1 A 1
2
2
2

(3.7)

(3.8)

(3.8). Q ( )
, 1vx1A ( ) . ,
Q / 1vx1 A , , , q. , h=u+p,
(3.8)
vx12
v 2
+ q = h2 + x 2 .
2
2
(3.9) .
h1 +

(3.9)

(3.2), (3.5) (3.9)

. , 1 2,
.
.
, , (3.2), (3.5) (3.9)
, .
[ (3.2)], [ (3.5)]
[ (3.9)]. (3.5)
(3.9) , ,
.

3.3

. ,

40

 , .
.
.
. ,
.
, ,
. ,
( , .). ,
.
, .
,
.
.
, 3.6.
,
, . . (
, ,
). , , d. ,
, 3.6, ;
p, T, a +d
p+dp, + d T+dT.

3.6

+d
p+dp
+d
T+dT

, 3.2
3.6. 1 2 , (3.2)
c =( + d )(c + dc)

c = c + c d + dc + d dc .

(3.10)

dpd ( )
, . , (3.10)
c =

dc
.
d

(3.11)

(3.5)
p + c 2 = ( p + dp) + ( + d )(c + dc)2 .

(3.12)

, (3.12)
dp = 2c dc c 2 d

(3.13)

(3.13) d
41

dc =

dp + c 2 d
.
2c

(3.14)

(3.14) (3.11)
dp
2
d + c
.
c =
2c

(3.15)

2
c2 =

dp
.
d

(3.16)

. ,
. . , ,
. ,
( , ). , 1.4
. , , dp/d,
(3.16) (3.16)
p
c2 =
.
s

(3.17)

(3.17) .
, 1.2. ,
=1/, d=-d/2. , (3.17)
p

p
2
c2 =
.
=
=

s
1

p s

, ss , (1.4),
p
c=
=
s

ss

(3.18)

1.3 , (ss = 0),

.
, (3.18) . , [
(1.43)]
p = const.
, =1/,
p
p

, (3.18)
c=

(3.19)

42

 , p/ = RT (3.19)
c = RT
(3.20)
(3.18) ,
(3.19) (3.20). , 14. (3.19) (3.20)
() , .
(3.18) .

, , (3.20) .
, .
,
8 RT / . .
, :
s= 340,9 m/s.
, 1.3, =v/,
:
M<1
M=1
M>1

()
()
() .

, .
. v2/2 u
. 1.23 3.20, :
v2
v2
v2
2 = 2 = 2 =
RT
u cvT
1

v2
( 1) 2
2
=
M .
2
c
2
1
( u=cvT),
. .

3.4

, , .
.
3.4 3.5. , ,
2.2. ,
v, p .
( >1) ( <1) 1.
, . =1
( ),
*. 1
*, :
c* = RT * .
, ,
* * , . * ( *)
3.5. , e v,

43

e a p.
, , v=0
p0 a a 0 (
; ). v
p0 T0
(p,T).
.
:

M*=v/*.

c0 = RT0 .

( ) 0 = p0 / RT0 .

3.5

(3.9). ,
vx12
v 2
= h2 + x 2
(3.21)
2
2
1 2 1 2 3.6. ,
h = c pT , (3.21) :
h1 +

vx12
v 2
= c pT2 + x 2 .
2
2
(1.22), :
c pT1 +

RT1 vx12 RT2 vx 2 2

+
=
+
2
1 2
1

(3.22)

(3.23)

c = RT , (3.23)
v 2
v 2
c12
c2
+ x1 = 2 + x 2 .
1 2 1 2
(3.19), :

p1 vx12
p2 vx 2 2
=
.
+
+
1 1 2 1 2 2

(3.24)

(3.25)

(3.21) , ,
(3.22) (3.25), . ,
3.4. 1
2.2, 2 ,
=1 . vx.
1 ( 2 ) c* ,
vx 2 = c . (3.24) :
2

v2
c2
c*
c*
+ x =
+
1 2 1 2

44


v2
c2
+ 1 2
c .
+ x =
1 2 2 ( 1)

(3.26)

(3.26) * vx,
.
, B 2.2.
(3.26), * ( 3.4.).
2.2 (3.26) * .
cA . , B (3.26) *
B, . cB . B,
cA cB . , 2.2 , *
. ,
.

3.4. 1 (3.22)
2.2 2 (3.22)
. T vx
, T1 = T vx1=vx. , , vx2=0 T2=T0.
, (3.22) :
vx 2
= c pT0 .
(3.27)
2
(3.27) T0.
T vx, .
,
. , (3.27),
, (3.21). .
T0 (3.27)
3.4. 1.4, ; j (3.27)
T0 "" .
T0
. , , p0 0,
, 3.4.
c pT +

. (3.27)
(1.22), :
2

T0
v2
vx2
v2
1 vx2
=1+ x =1+
=1+ 2 x
=1+
.
T
2c pT
2 RT ( 1)
2c ( 1)
2 c

,
T0
1 2
(3.28)
=1+
M
T
2
(3.28)
. , , (1.43) :

( 1)

p0 0 T0
= =
p T
(3.28) (3.29), :

(3.29)

45

p0 1 2
= 1 +
M
p
2

( 1)

(3.30)

1 ( 1)

0 1 2
.
(3.31)
= 1+
M
2

(3.30) (3.31) ,
. (3.28)
- .1 ( ),
= 1, 4 ( ).
(3.27), (3.28), (3.30) (3.31)
0, p0 0 M, vx, T, p,
2.2.
. ,
. A 2.2 0, p0 0
. , B 0, p0 0
B. B , T0 A T0 B , p0 A p0 B
0 A 0 B . , 0, p0 0
.
.
. , (3.24), :

v2
c2
c2
+ x = 0
(3.32)
1 2 1
0 3.4. (3.26) (3.32)
c2
+1
c = 0
2 ( 1)
1
2

(3.33)

(3.33) c c0 (3.20),
2

c T
2
.
=
=
T0 + 1
c0

(3.34)

, p , =1; ,
(3.30) (3.31) =1 :
( 1)

p 2
=

p0 + 1

(3.35)
1 ( 1)

2
=
0 + 1

(3.36)

, =1,4, :
T
= 0,833
T0

p
= 0,528
p0

= 0,634
0
46

 . (3.26) vx2 :

( c vx )

(1 M )
1
M2 =

1
+ 1 c
=

2 2 ( 1) vx

+1 1 1

2 ( 1) M 2

2
2

[( + 1) M ] ( 1)

(3.37)

(3.37)
M*, 3.4. (3.37) :
M*=1
=1
*
M <1
M<1
M>1
M*>1

+1
M .
1
M* , .
, M*
, .
M*

, ,
, ( (3.21)).
.

3.6
.
3.1 . ,
, 3.3.
( 10-5 cm, ).
, , 3.3.
, , ,
, .
,
.
, 3.7.
.
. , 3.3,
.
, , . 3.7 ,
, v<c,
. , 3.7 , ,
(,
). , , v>c, .
, () . ,
, 3.7 .
. ,
47

 . 3.7
,
.

3.7.
,
3.3.
. ,
( 1), (
2). ( ,
, );
. , (3.2), (3.5) (3.9),
( q =0) :

1vx1 = 2 vx 2
2
1 x1

2
2 x2

p1 + v = p2 + v
2
x1

()

(3.38)

( )

(3.39)

2
x2

v
v
()
(3.40)
= h2 +
2
2
(3.38) (3.40) - . ,
, 14
. , ,
:
p = RT
(3.41)
h1 +

h = c pT

(3.42)

(3.38) (3.42) : 2, vx2, p2, h2 T2.

.
(3.39) (3.38):
p1
p
2 = vx 2 vx1
1vx1 2 vx 2

(3.43)

c = p , (3.43) :

48

c12
c2
2 = vx 2 vx1
vx1 vx 2

(3.44)

(3.44) .
(3.40), , . (3.26)
:

c12 =

+1

vx12

(3.45)
2
2
+ 1 2 1 2
c22 =
c
vx 2
(3.46)
2
2
, c* (3.45) (3.46)
( 3.5). (3.45) (3.46) (3.44) :

+ 1 c*2 1
+ 1 c*2 1

vx1
+
vx 2 = vx 2 vx1
2 vx1
2
2 vx 2
2

+1
1
( vx 2 vx1 ) c*2 +
( vx 2 vx1 ) = vx 2 vx1
2 vx1vx 2
2
( vx 2 vx1 ) ,

+ 1 *2 1
c +
=1 .
2 vx1vx 2
2
c*, :
c*2 = vx1vx 2

(3.47)

(3.47) , . ,
:
v v
1 = x*1 x*2 = M 1* M 2*
c c

M 2* =

1
M 1*

(3.48)

, . 1>1.
(3.5) M 1* > 1 . (3.48) M 2* < 1 M2<1.
. ,
.
(3.37) M* :
M *2 =

( + 1) M 2
2 + ( 1) M 2

(3.49)

(3.49) (3.48) :
( + 1) M 12
( + 1) M 22
=

2 + ( 1) M 22 2 + ( 1) M 12

(3.50)

(3.50) M 22 :

49

M2 =

1 + ( 1) 2 M 12
M 12 ( 1) 2

(3.51)

(3.51)
. 1=1 2=1.
. 1 1,
2 1.
M 1 , 2 M 2 ( 1) 2 , 0,378.
M 1 ,
(3.51). 1. ,
(3.38) (3.47) :
v2
v2
2 vx1
=
= 2x1 2 = x*21 = M 1*2 .
1 vx 2 vx 2 vx1 c

(3.52)

(3.49) (3.52) :

2 vx1
( + 1) M 12
=
=
.
1 vx 2 2 + ( 1) M 12

(3.53)

(3.39)
p2 p1 = 1vx12 2 vx 22
(3.38)
v
p2 p1 = 1vx1 (vx1 vx 2 ) = 1vx12 1 x 2
vx1

(3.54)

(3.54) p1 c12 = p1 1 :
v
p2 p1
= M 12 1 x 2 .
p1
vx1

(3.55)

(3.51) vx 2 vx1 (3.55):

2 + ( 1) M 12
p2 p1
= M 12 1
p1
( + 1) M 12

(3.56)

(3.56)
p2
2
=1+
( M 2 1)
p1
+1 1

(3.57)

, p=RT. :
T2 p2 1
=
T1 p1 2

(3.57) (3.53) (3.58) (3.59):

2
T2 h2
2
2 + ( 1) M 1
= = 1 +
( M 12 1)
.
2
T1 h1 + 1
( + 1) M 1

(3.58)

(3.59)

(3.51), (3.53), (3.57) (3.59) M2, 2/1,

p2/p1 T2/T1 : M1.
. ,
, M1 T1,
50

 , M1, T1 p1. ,
(3.51) (3.59) ,
. ,
, . ,
1=5 . 1=5
. , 1<5

.
1 vx1, o
, c1,
.
1 (3.51), (3.53), (3.57) (3.59). =1,4 :
1
lim M 2 =
= 0,378
M1
2
+1
lim 2 =
=6
M1
1
1
lim

M1

p2
=
p1

T2
=
M1 T
1
lim

1=1, (3.51), (3.53), (3.57) (3.59) :

1 = 2 1 = p2 p1 = T2 T1 = 1 . ,
.
3.3.
.
.
(3.51), (3.53), (3.57) (3.59) 1<1 1>1. ,
1>1,
( 1.4). (1.36)
s2 s1 = c p ln

T2
p
R ln 2
T1
p1

(3.57) (3.59)
2

2
2
2 + ( 1) M 1

2
s2 s1 = c p ln 1 +
M

1
M 12 1)
(3.60)
(
)
(

R ln 1 +
1
2

+
1
(
+
1)
M
+
1

1


(3.60)
1. , 1=1 s2-s1=0, 1<1 s2-s1<0 1>1 s2s1>0. s2-s10. 1
, 11.
. 1 , (3.60)
, . 11
(3.51), (3.53), (3.57) (3.59) 21, 2/11, p2/p11 T2/T11. , a
(3.3): , , ,
.

51

 ? ,
10-5 cm.
.
: .
.
,
.
:
? 3.8
. 1 ,
p1, T1, M1 s1. 1
. , 1
p01 T01. 1 s1
. 2
p2, T2, M2 s2. 2
. 2 ,
, p02 T02. 2 s2,
. (p01 T01)
(p02 T02). (3.22)
c pT1 +

vx12
v 2
= c pT2 + x 2 .
2
2

3.8 ()

(3.27) :
c pT0 = c pT +

vx 2
2

c pT01 = c pT02 .

52

T01 = T02 .

(3.61)

(3.61) .
[ (3.61) ,
(3.40), .
, ,
. ,
, . ,
, ,
.
7.]

3.9

3.8 (1.36) 1 2 :
T
p
(3.62)
s2 a s1a = c p ln 2 a R ln 2 a
T1a
p1a
, s2a=s2, s1a=s1, T2a=T0=T1a, p2a=p02 p1a=p01. (3.62) :
p
s2 s1 = R ln 02
p01

(3.63)

53

p02
= e ( s2 s1 ) / R .
p01

(3.64)

(3.64) (3.60) 1.
s2>s1, (3.63) (3.64) p02<p01.
.
p2 p1 , 2 1 , T2 T1 , p02 p01 M2 M1, ,
.2 ( =1,4).
3.9. ( )
1 T2 T1 p2 p1 , 2 1 2
.

3.1: .
1=3, p1=0,5 bar T1=200 K.
M2, p2, T2 vx2 .
: .2 1=3 p2 p1 =10,33 , T2 T1 =2,679 2=0,475
:
p
p2 = 2 p1 = 10,33 0,5 = 5,165 bar
p1
T2 =

T2
T1 = 2,679 200 = 535,8 K
T1

c2 = RT2 = 1,4 287 535,8 = 464 m/s

vx 2 = M 2 c2 = 0, 4752 464 = 220 m/s

3.2: 2
. .
: ,
.
. ,
: t1=15 C, p1=101325 Pa.
.1 M1=2 T01 T1 = 1,8 p01 p1 = 7,824 .
T01 = T02 ,
T
T02 = T01 = 01 T1 = 1,8 288 = 518, 4 K
T1
.2 1=2: p02 p01 = 0,7209 .
p p
p02 = 02 01 p1 = 0,7109 7,824 101325 = 563578 Pa .
p01 p1

3.7
3.6 .
,
. ,

54

 , .
(3.38)

v x 2 = v x1

1
2

(3.65)

(3.65) (3.39)

p1 + v = p2 + 2 1 vx1
2

2
1 x1

(3.66)

(3.66) vx12 :

vx12 =

p2 p1 2
2 1 1

(3.67)

(3.38) :

vx1 = vx 2

2
1

(3.39) vx 22 , :

vx 22 =

p2 p1 1
2 1 2

(3.68)

(3.40)

vx12
v2
= h2 + x 2
2
2
h = u + p , :
h1 +

u1 +

p1

vx12
v2
p
= u2 + 2 + x 2 .
2
2 2

(3.69)

(3.67) (3.68) (3.69)

u1 +

p1

p2 1 p2 p1 1
1 p2 p1 2
+

= u2 +

2 2 2 1 2
2 2 1 1

(3.70)

p1 + p2 1
1

2 1 2

(3.71)

u2 u1 =

p1 + p2
(3.72)
(1 2 )
2
(3.72) (Hugeniot)
. , ,
(3.72) , ,
. , (3.72) u = psr , .

. (1.25),
q=0 .
u2 u1 =

55


, u=u(p, ). (3.72)
e a a :

p2 = f ( p1 ,1 ,2 )

(3.73)

p1 1 (3.72) p2 2.
p 3.10.

, 1 3.10. (. 3.10)
vx1.
vx1.
( 2) ?
(3.67) =1/:

vx12 =

p2 p1 1
1 2 1 1 2

(3.74)

(3.74) :
2

v
p2 p1
= x1
(3.75)
2 1
1
1 2
3.10. .
2

( vx1 1 ) 1
2 3.10.
2 vx1, a p1
1.
( , ) .
(p1, 1)
3.10. (
1 . ). ,
. ,
. ,
, , .
.
, u=cvT T=p/R, (3.72)
+ 1 1

1
p2 1 2
=
.
p1 + 1 1

1 2

56

 3.10 .

3.8 O
3.5, .
2
1. ,
,
. ,
3.5 1
2 .
3.5 ,
. , ,
1 2.
.
.
3.5, 2 1.
- , .
,
.
;
. , ,
.
.
, , 3.9.
3.5, ( )
1 2. (3.2), (3.5) (3.9), :

1 vx1 = 2 vx 2

(3.2)

p1 + 1vx12 = p2 + 2 vx 22

(3.5)

57

vx12
v 2
+ q = h2 + x 2
(3.9)
2
2
1 ,
, q, , , 2.
. , ,
. ,
.
h1 +

(3.9) q, h = c pT ,

v2
v2
q = c pT2 + 2 c pT1 + 1
2
2

(3.76)

, (3.27), (3.76)
:

q = c pT02 c pT01 = c p (T02 T01 )

(3.77)

(3.77) o
. , T0 ; a a , T0 .
1 2
1 2. (3.5), :

v2 = c2 M 2 =

p 2
M = pM 2

p2 p1 = 1v12 2 v22 = p1M 12 p2 M 22

p2 1 + M 12
=
p1 1 + M 22

(3.78)

, (3.2),

T2 p2 1 p2 v2
.
=
=
T1 p1 2 p1 v1

(3.79)

(3.20) ,
12

v2 M 2 c2 M 2 T2
=
=
.
v1 M 1 c1 M 1 T1
(3.78) (3.80) (3.79)
2

(3.80)

T2 1 + M 12 M 2
=

.
T1 1 + M 22 M 1

(3.81)

2 1 = ( p2 p1 )(T1 T2 ) , (3.78) (3.81)

2 1 + M 22 M 1
=

1 1 + M 12 M 2

(3.82)

(3.30) (3.78),

58

 1 2
M2
1+
p02 1 + M
2
=

p01 1 + M 1 + 1 M 2
1

2
2
1
2
2

( 1)

(3.83)

(3.28) (3.81),
1 2
2
2 1+
M2
T02 1 + M 12 M 2
2
=
.


T01 1 + M 22 M 1 1 + 1 M 2
1

(3.84)

, (1.36) T2 T1 p2 p1
(3.81) (3.78).
, . M1=1;
: p1 = p* , T1 = T * , 1 = * , p01 = p0* T01 = T0* .
M1=1 M2= (3.78) (3.81)
(3.84), :

p
1+
=
*
p 1+ M 2
T
1+
= M2
*
2
T
1+ M

(3.85)
2

(3.86)

1 1+ M 2
=

* M 2 1+
2
p0
1 + 2 + ( 1) M
=

p0* 1 + M 2
+1

(3.87)
( 1)

2
T 0 ( + 1) M
2 + ( 1) M 2 .
=
*
2
2
T0 (1 + M )

(3.88)

(3.89)

(3.85) (3.89) = 1, 4 .3.

, , (
) .

3.3 M1=0,2, p1=1 bar, T1=273 K.

; q=1 MJ/kg.
: M 2 , p2 , T2 , 2 , T02 p02 .
: .1: M 1 = 0, 2 : T01 T1 = 1,008 p01 p1 = 1,028

T01 = 1,008 T1 = 1,008 273 = 275, 2 K

p01 = 1,028 p1 = 1,028 1 = 1,028 bar
cp =

R 1, 4 287
=
= 1005 J kgK
0, 4
1

(3.77):

T02 =

q
1 106
+ T01 =
+ 275, 2 = 1270 K
cp
1005
59

 .3: M 1 = 0, 2 : T1 T * = 0, 2066 ,

p1 p* = 2,273 , p01 p* = 1, 235 T01 T0* = 0,1736 .

T02 T02 T01 1270

=
=
0,1736 = 0,8013
T0* T01 T0* 275, 2
.3, M 2 = 0,58 .
.3, M 2 = 0,58 : T2 T * = 0,8955 , p2 p* = 1,632 , p02 p0* = 1,083 .

T2 =

T2 T *
1
T1 = 0,8955
273 = 1183 K
*
T T1
0, 2066

p2 =
p02 =

p2 p*
1
p1 = 1,632
1 = 0,718 bar
*
p p1
2, 273

p02 p0*
1
p01 = 1,083
1,028 = 0,902 bar
*
p0 p01
1, 235

2 :
p
0,718 105
2 = 2 =
= 0,218 kg/m 3
RT2 278 1183
:

1. 1, .., M 1 > 1 ,
a. , M 2 < M 1
b. , p2 > p1
c. , T2 > T1
d. T , T02 > T01
e. , p02 < p01
f. , v2 < v1
2. 1, .., M 1 < 1 ,
. , M 2 > M 1
b. , p2 < p1
c. M 1 < 1 2 , M 1 > 1 2
d. , T02 > T01
e. , p02 < p01
f. , v2 > v1
( ), .
, 1,
, . 3.11,
(h-s) . 3.11
. 1
1, 3.11, 1
2. q.
; , .
; .
1 3.5 1 3.11,
2 ,

60

 . q, 2 . ,
q, 2. ,
, q 1.
, 1 ,
, 2
, 1
.

3.11
1 3.5 ,
1 3.11. , 2
. q , 2
. , q
1. q , ,
1 , 1
3.11.
3.11
( ), .

( ), .
, ,
.
, , .

3.9 O
,
. , , (3.2), (3.5)
(3.9) . , ,
,
. ,

61

 , 3.12,
3.2, ,
.
, .
. 3.12,
w ;
. (3.4)
x ;
,



(3.90)

v
dA v x = ( pdA ) x w dA

3.12
, D L,
3.12, (3.90)
L

1vx12 A + 2 vx 22 A = p1 A p2 A D w dx

(3.91)

A = D 2 4 , (3.91)

( p2 p1 ) + ( 2 vx 22 1vx12 ) = w dx
D

(3.92)

w x ,
(3.92). dx L, 3.12;

dp + d ( vx2 ) =

4
w dx
D

(3.93)

(3.2) vx=const.

d ( vx2 ) = vx dvx + vx d ( vx ) = vx dvx + vx ( 0 ) = vx dvx .

(3.93)

dp + vx dvx =

4
w dx
D

(3.94)

62

 , w =

1 2
vx f .
2

(3.94)

1
4 fdx
dp + vx dvx = vx2
(3.95)
2
D
3.12,
x-, ,
(3.95). , (3.95)
.
, c 2 = p , M 2 = vx2 c 2 , p=RT, vx=const, c pT + vx2 2 = const.
;
1

4 f dx
2
1
dM
=
1 M 2 ) 1 + ( 1) M 2
2 (
D
M
2
M

(3.96)

(3.96) : x=x1 ( =1) x=x2 ( =2),

4 fdx
1
+1
M2
=

ln

D M 2 2
x2
1+ 1 M 2

x1

M2

M1

(3.97)

(3.97)
.
, , e
. , 0=const. , (3.28),
2
T2 T0 T1 2 + ( 1) M 1
=
=
T1 T0 T2 2 + ( 1) M 22

(3.98)

, 1v1=2v2, c 2 = p = RT ,

2 c22
p2
c 2v
M c
M T2
.
= 2 = 22 1 = 1 2 = 1
p1 1c1
c1 v2 M 2 c1 M 2 T1

(3.99)

(3.98) (3.99),
12

2
p2 M 1 2 + ( 1) M 1
=

p1 M 2 2 + ( 1) M 22

(3.100)

(3.98) (3.100) , 2 1 = ( p2 p1 )(T1 T2 ) ,

2 M 1 2 + ( 1) M 1
=

1 M 2 2 + ( 1) M 22
2

1 2

(3.101)

, (3.30) (3.100),
2
p02 p02 p2 p2 2 + ( 1) M 2
=
=

p01 p01 p1 p1 2 + ( 1) M 12

( 1)

M1
M2

12

2 + ( 1) M 12

2
2 + ( 1) M 2

63

2
p02 M 1 2 + ( 1) M 2
=

p01 M 2 2 + ( 1) M 12

( +1)

2( 1)

(3.102)

,
,
p*, *, T* p0* . (3.98) (3.100) (3.102),

T
+1
=
*
T
2 + ( 1) M 2

(3.103)
12

p
1
+1
=

*
2
p
M 2 + ( 1) M

(3.104)
12

2
1 2 + ( 1) M

* M
+1

2
p0 1 2 + ( 1) M
=

p0* M
+1

( +1)

(3.105)
2( 1)

(3.106)

, x=L*, =1, (3.97)

L
4 f dx
1
+1
M2
=

ln
0 D M 2 2 1 2
1+
M
2

2
4 fL* 1 M 2 + 1 ( + 1) M
=
+
ln

2
D
2
M 2
2 + ( 1) M

(3.107)

f
L*

1
f = * fdx .
L 0
(3.107) (3.107) .4 =1,4.
,
, , .
, .
,
; , . ,
=0,005, Re > 105 0,001D.

3.4 d=0,15 m L=30 m.

1=0,3 , p1=1 bar =273 K. =const.=0,005,
, 2, 2, 2 02.
: .1: 1=0,3 , 01/1=1,064. 01=1,0641=1,064 bar
.4: 1=0,3, 4 fL*1 D = 5,299 , 1/*=3,619 , 1/*=1,179 01/*=2,035.

64

 L=30 m= L*1 L*2 je L*2 = L*1 L

4 fL2 4 fL*1 4 fL
4 0,005 30
=

= 5, 2993
= 1, 2993
D
D
D
0,15
.4: 4 fL* D = 1, 26993 , M 2 = 0, 475 , 2/*=1,148 , 2/*=2,258 p02 p0* = 1,329 .

p2 =

p2 p *
1
p1 = 2,258
1 = 0,624 bar
*
p p1
1,169

T2 =
p02 =

T2 T *
1
T1 = 1,148
273 = 265,8 K
*
T T1
1,179

p02 p*
1
p01 = 1,392
1,064 = 0,728 bar
*
p p01
2,035

, :

1. , .., 1>1,
, 2<1
, 2>1
, 2>1
, 02<01
, v2< v1
2. , .., 1<1,
, 2>1
, 2<1
, 2<1
, 02<01
, v2>v1

3.13
, ,
, . 3.13,
. 3.13
. a

65

, . ()
() . , 1 3.13,
,
. 1 L.
L , . , L,
(). , , L
. , ( 1)
, L
1,
.
, 1
3.13. L, . L ,
. L
, 1
3.13.
, ,
. , ,
.
, ,
,
. .

3.10 :
1.1, :
? ?
? .
. ,
1687,
350 m/s.
,
. 50, II, ,
( ,
1.2). ,
, :

c=

1
sT

s 1.1. ,
298 m/s 15 %
. , :
.

''Annales de Chemie et de Physique'' (1816) ''Sur la vitesse du son dans l`air et l`eau''
, .
:

66

c=

1
sS

sS 1.1.
3.18 3.2. ,
.

3.14 ... (1820-1872)

,
, . . 1858.
. ,
. , 12 ,
(1820-1872). () ,
, 5. 1820, . 25
, 24.
1872. , ,
, ,
.
. ,
.
- 2 .
''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'' ''
''. ,
3.38 3.40. (
'' ''
.) ,
, .
.

3.7. (
, cp/cv, , ( ,
, . .). 1,41 , ,
, 1,3.)

(Hugoniot). , 1887. ''Journal de
l`Ecole Polytechnique'' ''Memoire sur la Propagation du Mouvement dans les Corps et
Specialement dans les Gases Parfaits'' ,

67

 3.7. ,
, . .
, .
( ) (
) . 3.6.
1910. ,
( 3.15) .. , ,
( ) , . -
. 84 ''Proceedings of the
Royal Society'' 15. 1910. '' ''. ,
:

" , , .
(),
. ,
.

."
, , ,
. ( ,
.)
, , .. (
)
'' '' .
, 40 , ,
.
, ,
.
. ,
,
.
, .

3.15 (1842-1919)

68


(: . ,
'''' ''''
.)
3.1 , ,
0,7, 0,9 bar 250 . p0, T0, p*, T* c* .
3.2 5104 N/m2 200 K.
1,5106 N/m2. .
3.3 914,4 m/s 500 .
* .
3.4 . 1= 3, p1= 1 bar, 1= 1,23 kg/m3.
p2, T2, 2, M2, v2, p02, T02.
3.5 .
.
.
.
:
= 1,22105 N/m2, = 1,01105 N/m2
= 3,4105 N/m2, = 1,01105 N/m2
= 6,3105 N/m2, = 0,5105 N/m2
3.6 () () .
, p1 1, . p
. .
3.7 ,
=38, 270 .
, =1,4. ?
, ? , ?
3.8 p1=1 bar, T1=288 K. .
( J/kg) ,
, :
() 1=2,0
() 1=0,2.
3.9 p1=10 bar, T1=1000 , M1=0,2.
, 0,06.
42 MJ/kg. = 1,4
, 2, p2, T2 .
3.10 3.9,
.
3.11 (SCRAMjet),
1, . 0,03
6000 C, .
= 1,4,
42 MJ/kg.
3.12 0,02 m 40 m.
M2=0,5, p2=1 bar, T2=270 K.
, 0,005, 1, p1 1 .

69

3.13 0,06 m 0,91 m.

M1=2,5, p1=0,5 bar, T1=650 C.
0,005, : M2, p2,T2, p02.
3.14
.
0,1 m. 10 bar,
100 bar, ?
, , 0,005.
3.95, 3.96.

70




.
, 1947

4.1

.
3.1 3.2. '' '', 4.1.
, .
. , ,
.
. .
, ,
. , ,
.

4.1
, '' '', 4.1,
. .
, . ,
. ,
4.1.
. ,
4.1. ,
,
. , ,
.
- .
,

71

 3. ,
x y 4.1.
.

4.2
3.6;
,
. ,
, 4.2.
, ''''.
.
, 4.2.
c. t (t)
4.2. t .
, , ,
t 4.2.
t, ,
. ,
<c.

4.2 () ()

4.2) 22
. , ,
.
4.2. ( , )

72

 , v>c.
4.2. , .
t, ct. ,
vt B. , ,
, t 4.2.
, ,
. v>c. .
BC,
. , . . ,
ABC , .
4.2 :

sin =

ct c 1
= =
vt v M

1
(4.1)
M
4.2.

= arcsin

,
4.3,
.
, >.
. , .
.

4.3

4.3
4.4. v1 .
1. v1. ,
. v2 2.
v1 vn1 vt1. v2
vn2 vt2, 4.4. n1
M t1, n2 M t2.
3.2
,
3.6. .
, 4.4 .
a d . (2.2)
. (2.2) .

73

 d 4.4 1v1A1+2v2A2,
1=2= d. b, c, e f ,



(. v dA = 0 ). ,

1 vn1 = 2 vn 2

(4.2)

4.4
(2.11) .
, () ()
4.4. ,
(2.11) 4.4


( p dA d,
b f. c )

( 1vn1 ) vt1 + ( 2 vn 2 ) vt 2 = 0

(4.3)

(4.3) (4.2)

vt1 = vt 2

.
4.4 (2.11).

( 1vn1 ) vn1 + ( 2 vn 2 ) vn 2 = ( p1 + p2 )

p1 + 1vn21 = p2 + 2 vn22

(4.3)
74

 (2.20).
4.4 ,

v2
v2
( p1vn1 + p2 vn 2 ) = 1 u1 + 1 vn1 + 2 u2 + 2 vn 2
2
2

v12
v22
h1 + 1vn1 = h2 + 2 vn 2
2
2

(4.4) (4.2)
h1 +

v12
v2
= h2 + 2 .
2
2

(4.4)

(4.5)

4.4 v 2 = vn2 + vt2 , vt1 = vt 2

) (

v12 v22 = vn21 + vt21 vn22 + vt22 = vn21 vn22 .

, (4.5)

vn21
v2
= h2 + n 2 .
(4.6)
2
2
(4.2), (4.3) (4.6)
, , (3.38) (3.40). ,
. ,
. , ,
3.6, (4.2), (4.3) (4.6)
Mn1.
,
h1 +

M n1 = M 1 sin

(4.7)

( + 1) M n1
2
=
1 ( 1) M n21 + 2

(4.8)

p2
2
=1+
M 2 1
p1
+ 1 n1

M n22 =

M n21 +

2
1

2
M n21 1
1

T2 p2 1
=
T1 p1 2
, 2, Mn2 4.4
M n2
M2 =
sin ( )

(4.9)

(4.10)

(4.11)

(4.12)

3.6,
. (4.7) (4.11)
: 1 . , ,
=/2.

75

 (4.12) 2 . ,
1 . 4.4
v
(4.13)
tg = n1
vt1

tg ( ) =

vn 2
vt 2

(4.14)

(4.13) (4.14), vt1 = vt 2 ,

tg ( )
tg

vn 2
.
vn1

(4.15)

(4.15) (4.2), (4.7) (4.8),

tg ( )
tg

2 + ( 1) M 12 sin 2
( + 1) M 12 sin 2

(4.16)

M 2 sin 2 1
tg = 2ctg 2 1

M 1 ( + cos 2 ) + 2

(4.17)

(4.17) - - 1 .
,
4.5 =1,4.
, . :
1. 1, max. >max,
. , ,
4.6,
max .

2. <m, ,
4.7. (
(4.8) (4.9)), , a ,
. .
4.7 .
. 4.7.
,
. 2 .
2 max ( 4.5).
3. =0 =/2 ( ) = ( )
4. , ,
, ( ). ,
. =max.
( 4.6)

76

 4.5 -- .

4.6
.
. 4.5 (4.7)
(4.12), , , , , p2, T2 2
2. , max . ,
1 , , 1
=max ( Bell XS-1
3.1). , , , p2, T2, 2 2 .
. .

77

 4.7

4.1 1=3, p1=1 bar 1=288 o

( 4.1) =20. p2, T2, M2,
po2 2 .
: 4.4. , 4.5, 1=3 =20, =37,5.
n1=M1sin=3sin37,5=1,826
.2, n1=1,826 : p2/p1=3,723, T2/T1=1,551, Mn2=0,6108 p02/p01=0,8011.
p
p2 = 2 p1 = 3,723 1 = 3,723 bar
p1
T2 =

T2
T1 = 1,551 288 = 446,7 K
T1

M2 =

M n2
0,6108
=
= 2,03
sin ( ) sin 17,5

.1, 1=3: p01/p1=36,73 01/1=2,8.

p02 =

p02 p01
p1 = 0,8011 36,73 1 = 29,42 bar
p01 p1

T02 = T01 =

T01
T1 = 2,8 288 = 806, 4 K
T1

4.4

o , 4.6.
. p2,
4.8.
, , , 4.8.
. ,
,
, . 4.8, ,
ps p2 . ,
,
.
. ,
. , 4.8
20 53 1 = 2. ,
20 37 p2, 2 2 . ,
10.

78

 4.8 ;

4.9 ()

4.5

. ,
.
v1 B,
4.9. , v1. 4.9
. vx1, vy1, vx2 v2 .
vx v , 4.10.
. v1 . B
v2 . , 4.10
1 4.9.

4.10

79

 , B 2 .
4.9 , , v2
, . ,
4.9 (<max),
4.11. . ,
4.10 4.11 v1.

4.11 v1
, 4.11 *,
3.4., , * .
, 2* 1*,
4.12. * v ,
, *2,45 ( 3.5). ,
*.
*=1 4.12.
, .

4.12
4.12:

1.

, , B D. B D
. D ,
.

80

2.
3.
4.

5.

, , max
1* ( 1). >max .
. ,
.
, H , HOA
.
,
. ( ).
, 4.13.
1* = 2,45 (1) .

4.13
(vy /c* v /c*)
4.3. , . (Ferri) (Shapiro).
O
2

* vx v x

*
M 1 * * M 1 1
vy
c
c

* = 2
2
v
c
*
*
x

M1 * M 1 + 1
+1
c
2

( )

(4.18)

4.6
, 4.14.
: ? ,
? ,
. 4.14 1,
1, .
. 2, ,
. 2 1
4.5. ,
, .
, , ,
2. . 2
3. 2<1 ,
, 1 (. ).

81

 4.14

4.7

4.15 1
4.6
.
.
,
,
. 4.15,
.
. 2

82

 . , .
, '2 .
, =0, 1. , =2, 2.
1 2 4.15.
, 2 '2 ( ), 2'
2. 2'. ||<max
, ( 1 1)
, 4.15. , .

4.16 -
() 4.6 (-)
4.16. - 1, 1 1 4.15.
2 2 - . ,
2. 2
2 . 3
=0, - .
3 4.16, . , 4.16
1 2 , 2 3 .

4.8
4.17.
. 2 3.
C D . 2>3.
,
D. 4 4' .
, F
. . ,
, 4.17:

1. , 4=4', ,
4.17.

83

2. 4 4' ,
.
.

4.17
, 1 2 3,
4.17. , ,
, 4 4'.

4.18 4.17

. - 1 4.18. 1
1, . 2 4.17 2. 2 -
=2. 2 -
2, .
4' . , 3
3. , .

84

 3 3 4.17. 3 - 3
4.18. 4
. 4=4', 4 4' 4.18
- . ( )
4 4', 4.17 4.18. ,
D : 4=3 4'=2.
3 2 D .
4.17 , 2=3, ,
.

4.9
4.19, 1
.
. , . 1
? , (4.7), , , :

vn1 = v1 sin

sin =

vn1
v1

(4.19)

4.19
(4.1)

sin 1 =

c1
v1

(4.20)

, ,
. vn1>c1. (4.19) (4.20) >1.
, (4.19) ,
.
. (4.12)

vn 2 = v2 sin( )
85

sin ( ) =

vn 2
v2

(4.21)

(4.1)

sin 2 =

c2
.
v2

(4.22)

. , vn2<c2.
, (4.19) C ,
.

4.20.
2, ,
4.20.
.

4.20
1, 2 3 4.20.
3 3, 1 2 3.
3 . ,
1 5. 5 5 5. 5
CD. ,
, , .
4.8, .
, 3=5 3=5.
CD
, 1. ,
. 1
2, .

86

 4 4=5 4=5,
. D
4 5.

4.10
4.6
4.14. 2 3
.
max 2, ,
. 1 2 4.21. 4.6,
max 2 4.21. , (max
2)<<(max 1)? 4.21.
1 <max .
4.22.

4.21

4.22
, 2 2
, >max 2, . ,
.
,
. 4.22
4.6.

87

 11
12.

4.11

4.23
4.23.
.
. , .
, ,
( ).
, ,
1. , 1
4.24. . b 4.23,
4.24. ,
. , max.
4.23, ' . '
. ' . ,
,
( =1) ,
4.23.

88

 4.24 4.23

, (
) 1 .
. ,
1950- 1960-
. 1957.
( (Liepmann) (Roshko)), ,
, , .
, ,
.
12.

4.12
()
. , ,
.
,
4.25. ,
.
, d ,


4.25. n .




M n1 = ( M 1 i ) n
(4.23)

(4.23), p2, 2, T2, h2 i Mn2
(4.8) (4.11).
. ,

.

89

 4.25

4.13
, 4.1,
4.1.
4.1. .
, ( 4.1):

1.
2.
3.

4.
5.

2>1. .
p2

T
< 1, 2 <1, 2 < 1. , .
p1
T1
1
,
, 1 2 ( 4.26),
1 = arcsin(1/ M 1 ) 2 = arcsin(1/ M 2 ) .
.
, ds = 0
, .

90

 4.26 -

4.27 ;
- . .
4.1 4.26
. , 1907. , ,
1908. , , -
.
-
( 4.26): M1, p1, T1 1 M2, p2, T2.
( )
, d , 4.27.

v + dv
=
v

sin +
2

sin d
2

(4.24)

sin + = sin = cos

2

sin d = cos( + d ) = cos cos d sin sin d .

2

(4.25) (4.26) (4.24):

(4.25)
(4.26)

91

1+

dv
cos
=
.
v cos cos d sin sin d

(4.27)

d , sin d d cos d 1 . (4.27)

1+

dv
cos
1
.
=
=
v cos d sin 1 d tg

(4.28)

( x<1),

1
= 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + ...
1 x
(4.28) ( ),
dv
= 1 + d tg + ...
v
, (4.28)
1+

dv
d = v .
tg

(4.28)

(4.29)

(4.1)

= arcsin

1
M

tg =

1
M 2 1

(4.30)

(4.30) (4.29)

dv
.
(4.31)
v
(4.31) - .
:
d = M 2 1

1. d , d 0 .
2. , .
, .
3. , d . 4.26, (4.31) 2 .
(4.31) 1 2,
2

d =

M2

M1

M 2 1

dv
.
v

(4.32)

dv v ,
. ,
v = M c
ln v = ln M + ln c .
(4.33)
(4.33)

92

dv dM dc
=
+ .
v
M
c
, (3.28)

(4.34)

1 2
c0 T0
M
= =1+
T
2
c
,

1 2 2
c = c0 1 +
M .
2

(4.35)

(4.35)

dc
1 1 2
=
M dM .
M 1 +
c
2
2

(4.36) (4.34)
dv
1
dM
=
.

1
v 1+
M2 M
2

(4.36)

(4.37)

(4.37) dv v ; (4.32)
2

d = 2 0 =

M2

M 2 1 dM
1 2 M .
M1 1 +
M
2

(4.38)

(4.38),

M 2 1 dM
(4.39)
1 2 M
1+
M
2
- , . , (4.39)

(M ) =

(M ) =

+ 1 1 1 2
tg
( M 1) tg1 M 2 1
1
+1

(4.40)

(4.40) ,
(4.40) (4.38). , ( M ) =0 =1. ,
(4.38), (4.39),

2 = ( M 2 ) ( M1 )

(4.41)

( M ) (4.40) . - ( (4.40))
.5 = 1, 4 , .
4.26, (4.41) (4.40) -
, :
1. 1 .5 (1).
2. (2) (4.41) 2 (1) .
3. 2 .5 (2) 2.
4. a , , 0 p0 ,
(3.28) (3.30)

93

 1 2
M2
1+
T1
2
=
;
T2 1 + 1 M 2
1
2

1 2 1

1+
M2
p1
2
.
=

p2 1 + 1 M 2
1
2

4.2 1=1,5, p1=81396 Pa 1=255,5

( 4.26) 2=20.
M2, p2, T2, p02, T02 .
: 5 1=1,5 : 1=11,91 1=41,81.
2=1+1=11,91+20=31,91
5 2=31,91 :
2=2,207 2=26,95
1 1=1,5 :
p01
T
= 3,671 01 = 1, 45
p1
T1
1 2=2,207 :
p02
T
= 10,81 02 = 1,974
p2
T2
, p02=p01 i T02=T01. :
p p p
p2 = 2 02 01 p1 = 10,811 1 3,671 81396 = 27641 Pa
p02 p01 p1
T T T
T2 = 2 02 01 T1 = 1,9751 1 1, 45 255,5 = 187,6 K
T02 T01 T1
p
p02 = p01 = 01 p1 = 3,671 81396 = 298804 Pa
p1
T
T01 = T02 = 01 T1 = 1, 45 255,5 = 370,5 K
T1
4.26 :
1=41,81
2-2=26,95-20=6,95.

4.14 -


. ,
4.28.
. , 2 .
, ;
. ,

94

 ,
- .
,
;
. (1.47), ,

FD = x pdA

, 4.28,

t
FD = 2 ( p2l sin p3l sin ) = 2 ( p2 p3 ) .
2

4.28
,

FD = ( p2 p3 ) t

(4.42)

,
. ( .)
, , (4.42)
.

.

95

 4.29
. 1907. 1908. .

4.15 :
-

96

 ,
. 1211 ,
. , ,
. ,

, , 1737. II (
).
" ", , , , , , , , , .
, , . ,
, 4. 1875. , 1904.
. ,
- . ,
1912. 1919. ,
- .
.
. ,
. ( 9.10
.)
.
, 1905. 1,5
.
; 4.29

. (
5, " "
4.29 " " . ;
.

; 60 km/h!

. , (Meyer), ,
1908. "
". ,
-
. (4.1).
, 4.26, -
[ (4.40) 4.13 ] , ,
p p0 .( " " ;
20 ,
1870. . ,
.) j ,
,
, , . , j
,
4.30. - .
1908. .
.

97

 4.30 .
. ,1908 .

1910. ( 3.10).
.

.
,
; ,
9.9. ,
,
. , .

4.1 35. , 95760 Pa,

=288 , v1=1022 m/s. O p2, 2 v2 .
4.2 10 2 .
.
4.3
3 .
4.4 3,5, 1
bar. , 5,48 bar. .
4.5 20 3
. , , .
4.6 1=3,6 20.

, 4.14.
.
4.7. , 30, .
1=2,8, 1=1 bar 1=300 , , ,
.
4.8. 1=4, 1=1 bar.
: () ()
=40, .
() (). ,

( )?
98

4.9. , 4.17. 1=3, 1=1 bar

2=20 3=15, 4 4, , .
4.10. 30, 4.26.
: 1=2, 1=3 1=400 . : 2, 2, 2, 02 02.
4.11. - , 3,
2/1=0,4.
.
4.12. 4 1 bar.
=15, =15,
. .
4.13. 4.14.
.
4.14. =20. 1=3,
1=101325 . .
.
4.15.
, 4.17?
4.16. -
=15 ( 4.28) 5
2, 101325 . t=15 cm.
1 .
4.17. ( ) 1 m.
: 1=3, 1=1 bar 1=270 . - ,
0 30 ( 5):
)
)
)
)
)
)
) .

99



, ,
: ,
, .
.
. . , 1951.

5.1

3.1. 3.1, ,
. , , ,
, 3.4.
,
( t ).
: A=A(x), p=p(x), =(x) v=vx=vx(x) ,
. 5.2

.
3.4 , ,

11 12. , ,
, .
,
, .

5.2

, 5.1.
, (2.2), ,



v dA = dV
t V
A
5.1, ,
1 v 1 A1 = 2 v 2 A2 .
(5.1)
.
(5.1) 1v1A1 1,
2v2A2 2.
1 2 ;





v , v dA = 0 .
, (2.11),

100

(
A

( v )




v dA v +
dV = f dV p dA .
t
V
V
A

5.1
5.1, ,

A2

p1 A1 + 1v12 A1 +

p dA = p A
2

+ 2 v22 A2

(5.2)

A1

. e

1 2.
, (2.20),

v2

q

d
V

p
v

d
A
+

(
f

v
)
d
V
=

u
+

2
V
V
V t

v2


dV + u + v dA .
2

5.1, ,

v2
( p1 v1 A1 + p2 v2 A2 ) = 1 u1 + 1
2

( v1 A1 ) + 2

v2 2
u
+
2
2

v2 A2 .

v2
v2
p1v1 A1 + 1v1 A1 u1 + 1 = p2 v2 A2 + 2 v2 A2 u2 + 2 .
2
2

(5.3) (5.1) :

p1

+ u1 +

v12 p2
v2
=
+ u2 + 2 .
2 2
2

(5.3)

(5.4)

h=u+p/, (5.4)

101

v12
v2
= h2 + 2
(5.5)
2
2

:
h0=const.
(5.6)
(5.5) (5.6)
3 [ (3.40)]. ,
: ,
6. , (5.1) (5.2),
1=2, , (3.2) (3.5),
.
h1 +

6,
.
, . ,
(5.1)
vA = const.

d(vA) = 0
(5.7)
, (5.2)
5.2, dx:

pA + v 2 A + pdA = ( p + dp) ( A + dA) + ( + d ) (v + dv) 2 ( A + dA)

,

p + dp

A + dA

v + dv

+ d

dx
5.2

Adp + Av 2 d + v 2 dA + 2 vA dv = 0

(5.8)

(5.7) v

v 2 dA + v A dv + Av 2 d = 0
(5.8)
dp =-vdv.

(5.9)

102

 (5.9) 6. . ,
(5.5)

v2
= const.
2

h+

dh+vdv=0.

(5.10)

5.3

.
(5.7)

dv dA
+
=0
v
A

(5.11)

d/ , (5.9):

dp

dp d
= v dv
d

(5.12)

, , , .
, . , , dp,
, d. ,

dp p
2
=
=c .
d s

(5.13)

(5.12) (5.13)

c2

= v dv

v dv
v 2 dv
dv
=

=M2
.
2
2
c
cv
v

(5.14)

(5.14) (5.11)

dA
dv
= M 2 1
(5.15)
A
v
(5.15) . :

1. 0, , (5.15)
v= const. .
2. 0<1 ( ), ( dv)
( d), . , ,
, ,
( 5.3).
3. >1 ( ), . ,
. ,
, ( 5.3).
4. =1 ( ), (5.15) dA/A = 0,
. , .
103

 5.3

, ( ),
5.4. ,
, 4, . .
,
, ,
5.4.

, 5.5, ,
. , ,
,
, .
5.6.
. ( ) .
, . ,
, ,
.

5.4 -

104

 , , ,
, ,
. , 5.6,
, ,
(5.15). , (
) , . . ,
XIX , 1.1 5.8.

5.5
(5.15) ,
. , (5.15) ,
, . 14.

5.6

5.4

, ,
14. , 3 4, ()
.

105

 , 5.7. , . ,
, *=1 v*=c*. *.
, , , v.
(5.1) :
*

*v* A* = vA

(5.16)

A * c* * 0 c*
=
=
A* v 0 v

(5.17)

v =c , (5.16)

0 3.4,
. (3.31)
1

0 1 2 1
= 1+
M

2

,
1

0 1 1
=
* 2

(5.18)

, , (3.37)

+1 2
2
M
v
*2
2
=
M
=
*
1 2
c
M
1+
2

(5.19)

5.7
(5.17) (3.31), (5.18) (5.19),
2

*
*
A 0 c
=
*
A 0 v
2

106

 1 2
2
2
2
1+
M
A 2 1 1 2 1
2
=
+
1
M
*

+1
2
A +1

M2
2

+1

1 2 1 2 1
A
M
* = 2
1 +
M +1
2
A

(5.20)

(5.20) , .
, (5.20) =f(A/A*), .
.
(5.15), , , *. <*
. , (5.20)
/*>1, . (5.20) 5.8
. /* .1
. /*,
, .

5.8
5.9.
ul/* , ul/*,
0 0.
, 0, 0 0 ( ) . ,
.

107

Aul
A*

Aiz
*

= (x)

p0
(a)

M
T0

M=1
Ag=A*

Miz>1
piz

. (5.20)

(b)

1,0

0
p
p0

1,0
0,528

(c)

1 2 1
= 1 +
M
p0
2

0
T
T0

1,0
0,833

T 1 2
= 1 +
M
T0
2

(d)

x
5.9

108

 ,
(5.20) .
/* .
5.8. 5.9. ,
g=* =1.
/*,
5.8.
5.9. , ,
(3.28), (3.30) (3.31). e e 5.9
. , .
, , iz/0, iz/0 iz/0,
, iz/*, (5.20).
, iz/* ( ) 0
0 ( ).
,
. .
, , (5.9). ,
,
, . iz/0<1. ,
, 5.9, iz/0
5.9.
iz/0 o 5.9? ,
(
)? 5.10.
, iz=0. iz
0.
.
, 1 4.10.
. , . ,
, * , . =1.
, <1 , , g,
*,
. ,
, 5.10.
1 5.10. iz .
,
, 2 5.10 .
g= *.
5.10 . ,
- 5.10
, iz /0 /g
.
,
/*
( ).

109

( )

(b)

p
p0

(c)

5.10 -
5.10, , iz .
(5.1) , m = g vg Ag . iz iz3,
, m = *c* A* . iz , iz<iz3,
=1. (5.15). ,
, , , iz<iz3, .
iz<iz3. ,

110

 , . iz,
, . 5.11. ,
(3.35), */0=0,528 =1,4. ,
, iz3/0
() 0,528, 5.10 5.11.

5.11 ;

( )

(b)

(c)

5.12 -
iz iz3? , je ,
. 3
5.10 . , .
iz

111

5.9. , iz3,
. 5.12.

5.13
-
iz4. .
, , iz4 .

iz4.
.

112

 iz=iz5, iz5
. 5.13, .
5.13 iz6 .
iz6<<iz5,
5.9, , .

, . 5.13.
iz6, ,
5.13. 5.13, ,
, iz6<. ,
5.13, ,
, iz6>,
.
. ,
. ,

.
,
. ,
.
, 11.

5.1 .
10 bar 300 . /*=6.
, . , , v .
: . .1, /*=6
: =0,097; 0 /=1,006 0/=1,002.
p
p=
p0 = (1,006) 1 (10) = 9,94 bar
p0
T
T = T0 = (1,002) 1 (300) = 299, 4 K
T0
m
c = RT = 1, 4 287 299, 4 = 346,8
s
m
v = M c = 0,097 346,8 = 33,6
s
. .1, /*=6 :
=3,368; 0/=63,13 0/=3,269.
p=

p
p0 = (63,13) 1 (10) = 0,1584 bar
p0

T
T0 = (3, 269) 1 (300) = 91,77 K
T0
m
c = RT = 1, 4 287 91,77 = 192
s
m
v = M c = 3,368 192 = 646,7
s
5.2 2,5
( ).
T=

113


.
: .1 iz=2,5 :
iz/*=2,637

0 /iz=17,09

0 /iz=2,25

, , iz=1 bar iz= 288 .

p0
piz = 17,09 1 = 17,09 bar
piz
T
T0 = 0 Tiz = 2, 25 288 = 648 K
Tiz

p0 =

5.5
.
3 ( 5.6).
.1: =3, iz/*=4,23 0/iz =36,7.
. 0
? .
, 5.14.
, iz
, . iz=1 bar. 0/iz=36,7 , , 36,7 bar.
,
, , 5.15.
, ,
.

5.14
, .
2, , p2 = p = 1 bar . ,
0
p p
1
p0 = 0 iz p = 36,7
1 = 3,55 bar
piz p1
10,33
2/iz 3, .2.

3,67 3,55 bar.
, , , 5.15,
, .

114

5.16. , , ,
.
,
. p02 p = 1 bar . .2, 2=0,475,
( .1) p02 p2 = 1,17 .
p0 =

p0 piz p2
1
1
p = 36,7
1 = 3,04 bar
piz p2 p02
10,33 1,17

- 3,04 bar.
? .2,
3 p02 p01 = 0,328 . p01 p02 = 1 0,328 = 3,04 ;
5.16!

5.15 ,

5.16 .
.
, ,
( ),
M 0
.
5.16
.
,
. , ,
. , 5.6.
, ,

,
. ,
, . ,
. 4.
, .
, ,
. .

115

 ,
5.16?
,
(
4.8). 5.16
5.17.
e pe
,
, .
pd p. ,
( )
. 5.17

.
5.18.
- .
.
.

5.17
.

pd 0 p0 ,
, p02 p01 ( 3.8). D
.

D =

( pd 0 p0 )
( p02 p01 )

(5.21)

5.18
. 5.
D=1 .

D<1.
5.6 5.17 ,
.

116

 Ag1=A*; Ag2.
Ag2> Ag1.
. (5.1) ,

1* Ag1c1* = 2* Ag 2 c2*

(5.22)

Ag 2
Ag1

1*c1*
2*c2*

(5.23)

3.4 3.5, c* T* . ,
c1* c2* = 1 , (5.32)

Ag 2
Ag1

1*
2*

(5.24)

, ,

1* p1* RT1* p1*

=
=
2* p2* RT2* p2*

(5.25)

(5.25) (5.24),

Ag 2
Ag1

p1*
p2*

(5.26)

1=2=1, (3.30) 1 2,
( 1)

+1
=

( 1)

+1
=

p01 1 2
= 1 +
M1
p1*
2

p02 1 2
M2
= 1 +
p2*
2

( 1)

( 1)

(5.26)

Ag 2
Ag1

p01
p02

(5.27)

, 02
01. , (5.27), . ,
, (5.27)
. g2 (5.27),
;
. (5.27) (
) .
, D g2,
5.19. g2 , D ,
, . g2
(5.27). g2 (5.27)
.
, . g2
(5.27) 5.19. g2,

117

 , ,
, .

5.19 .
, ,
. ,
.
(,
). , g2, ,
5.19.
-
. 5.6.
( ),
,
.
. , o
. ,

. g2 (5.27) p02/p01
. g2
5.19
a. g2 ,
. g2
, ( )
. 5.19,
, ,
.
,
. , ,
.
,
,
.

118


. ,
.
( (Shapiro) (Zucrow) (Hoffman)).
.
,
. ,
.
Ag 2 Ag1 , , , .
.
. ,
.

5.6
5.13 d e
, ,
.
.
4, ,
p .
5.13d 5.13
.
4, .
, ,
5.20. 1 p, . 2
p2>p. ( 5.20)
p. , ,
3 p. p3=p<p2
5.20.
.
4.

5.20

119

 5.21
, 5.21
. .
5.21 11.
4, :
1. , .
.
2. , .
.

5.22
5.13,
5.22.
. ,
5.23.
, 5.13.

120

 5.23 (
). W- .

5.7
.
, , 3 4,
.

5.8 J :
-
. 1.1, , .. (Carl G. P. de Laval),
1800-
( 1.1). , -
. ?
? ?
(Blasenborg) , 9 1845.
, ,
. ,
, 1866. .
, ,
. ( .) ,
, 1872. , 3

121

 (Kloster Iron Works) 1875. ,

:
. ,
, .
, 1877.
. ,
.
, . 1882
.
, .
.
. 0,5. ,
5.3 5.4,
. 1882,
. 1888,
.
30000 .
,
, , , , ,
, . (World
Columbian Exposition) 1893., ( 1.1).
.
.
, 1888. 1890.,
. ,
.
, .. 1912. 67.
. , .
, 1888.
.
, 1903.
.

5.9 J :

( 1.1 5.8)
- .

(Aurel Boleslav Stodola) .
,
. ,
.
10. 1859. (Lipovsky Mikulas) ,
, . ,
, 1876. , 1877.
, (Eidgenossische Tehnische Hochschule)

122

, 1878. . 1880. .
(Ruston & Co.)
.
1929.
,
. , .

. ,
. 1903. (
) :

. ,
, , ,
, - .
.

.

. 5.8,
, ,
. -
5.24.
.
( 5.24),
.
5.24.
1903.
. 5.24
( 5.9). D L 5.24
, ( 5.12). A, B C
5.24
( 5.10).
5.24 :

(von Riemann);
.

123

 5.24 , 1903.

( .. 3.10;
(Rankine) (Hugoniot),
3.10.)
5.24
. ,
.

, 4.15.
25. 1942. 83. .
,
.

5.1 =2,4
. :
124

)
) .

5.2 10 bar.
0,627 bar. .
5.3 5 bar.
, .
.
) 4 bar ) 2,64 bar ) 0,5 bar
5.4 aa - . ,
1 m 2 , 0,7 m 2 0,85 m 2 . 0,3 80000 ,
:
) p
) p .
5.5 aa A 2 A1 = 1,7 .
=300 v = 250 m s 2=1 bar. :
) 1
) v2.
5.6 :
m =

p0 A
T0

R +1

( +1)( 1)

5.7 15 bar 750 ,

1,5 kg s . p0 = 20 bar T0=600 K,
.
5.8 . :
10 bar 1000 . n
2,5. .
5.9 a .
10 , 10 bar. a
0,05 m2 0,0844 m2. .
5.10 .
10 bar 500 . 0,6172 bar.
0,3 m2. :
)
)
)
) .
5.11 -a 0,5 m2 0,25
m2. 1 bar, 0,6 bar.

125

, , o .
( A A ) .

5.12 Ae/Ag1=104,1.
Ag1=10 cm2. Ag2,
.
5.13 c ,
( 0,1 ). 1,8 bar, 2,6.
D.
5.14 , 10, p0=10 bar,
=0,04 bar. ,
.
5.15 1=4 =50.
, 5.20.
, 3 .

126

,
,

.
.
.. , 1953 (H.S. Tsien)

6.1
a :
1. a .
2.
.
3. .
2, . O e
,
. e
3, 4 5.

a. , ,
a a .
, . ,
2
,
. ,





(6.1)
fdA = f dV
A

f
d
A
= ( f )dV

(6.2)

f f , V
, 2.3.

6.2

(2.2)

127



vdA =
dV
A
V t
(6.1)





( v )dA = ( v )dV
A

(6.3)

(2.2) (6.3)

+ ( v ) dV = 0

V t

(6.4)

(6.4)
, .
, , (6.4)
.


p
+ ( v ) = 0
(6.5)
t
(6.5) .

, (2.11)






( v )

f
d
V

p
d
A
=
d
V
+
v

A
t
A dA v
V
V

(6.2)

pdA = ( p )dV
A

(6.6)

(2.11) (6.6)




( v )




V fdV V pdV = V t dV + A v dA v .

(6.7)

(6.7) ;
x, y z ( 2.3). (6.7)
( vx )
p



(6.8)

=
+

f
d
V
d
V
d
V

v
x

x
t
A dA vx
V
V
V

, (6.1)

( v dA ) v x = ( v x v ) dA = ( v x v ) dV

(6.9)

(6.9) (6.8)

p ( vx )

( vx v ) dV = 0
x
t

(6.10)

(6.5) (6.4), (6.10)

( vx )
p


+ ( vx v ) = + f x
(6.11)
t
x
(6.11) x .
y z

128

( vy )

p


+ ( vy v ) = + f y
y

(6.12)

( vz )
p


+ ( vz v ) = + f z
t
z

(6.13)

(2.20)

v2
v2

q

d
V

pv

d
A
+

v
d
V
=

u
+
d
V
+

u
+

t 2
A 2
V
V
V

v dA

(6.1)

u +
A

v2


v2

v

d
A
=

u
+

2 v dV
2
V

(6.14)

( v dA ) v = ( v ) dV
A

(6.15)

(2.20), (6.14) (6.15)

v2
v2





pv
+

u
+

u
+
(
)

v dV = 0

t
2
2
V

(6.16)

v2
v2



u + + u + v = ( pv ) + q + f v
t
2
2

(6.17) .

(6.17)

(6.5), (6.11) (6.13) (6.17)

.
,
. , ,
.













v , vx v , v y v , vz v ( u + v 2 2 ) v dA v .

( )

.

. 6.3 6.4.

6.3
,
6.1 6.1. x, y, z . 6.1

129

 1 t = t1 , 6.1 2
t2. (x, y, z), :








v = vx i + v y j + vz k
:

v x = v x ( x, y , z , t )
v y = v y ( x, y , z , t )
vz = v z ( x, y , z , t )




i , j k x, y z . :

= ( x, y , z , t )
t1, 1 = ( x1 , y1 , z1 , t1 ) . t2
je 2 = ( x2 , y2 , z2 , t2 ) . = ( x, y , z, t ) ,
1 :

( y2 y1 ) +
( x2 x1 ) +
( z2 z1 ) +
( t2 t1 ) +
x 1
z 1
t 1
y 1

2 = 1 +

6.1 (xyz
1 2)

( t2 t1 )

( x2 x1 ) ( y2 y1 ) ( z2 z1 )
=
+
+
+

.
t2 t1 x 1 ( t2 t1 ) y 1 ( t2 t1 ) z 1 ( t2 t1 ) t 1

2 1

(6.18)

(6.18). ( 2 1 )
1 2. ( t2 t1 )

130

 1 2. t2 t1

1 d
lim 2
=
t2 t1
t2 t1 dt
1.
d dt . d dt
. .
( t )1 , 1.

( t )1 1
. d dt t .
,
:

lim

x2 x1
vx
t2 t1

lim

y2 y1
vy
t2 t1

lim

z2 z1
vz
t2 t1

t2 t1

t2 t1

t2 t1

(6.18) t2 t1 ,

.
= vx
+ vy
+ vz
+
x
y
z t
dt
:

d

+ vx
+ vy
+ vz
= + (v )
dt t
x
y
z t

(6.19)

.
. :

du u
u
u
u u


=
+ vx
+ vy
+ vz
=
+ ( v )u
dt t
x
y
z t
du dt
, u t , :

vx

u
u
u
+ vy
+ vz
x
y
z

. , ,
( )
(
).

131

6.4.

(6.5) (

( )

aB = a B + B a , , B ),

+ v + v = 0
t

(6.20)

+ ( v ) + v = 0
t

(6.21)

(6.19) (6.20)
d


+ v = 0
dt

(6.22)

(6.22) (6.5). , (6.22)

, ( ),
. [ ,

; ,
(6.22) .]

(6.11) ,

v x

p
+ vx
+ v x ( v ) + v v x = + f x
t
t
x

(6.23)

vx :

+ vx ( v ) = 0.
t

(6.24)

vx


p
+ v v x = + f x
t
x

(6.25)

vx

(6.24) (6.23)

(6.19) ,

d v x p
=
+ fx
dt
x

(6.26)

(6.12) (6.13),

dv y

p
= + fy
dt
y
dv
p
z = + fz .
dt
x

(6.27)
(6.28)

, (6.26) (6.28)

132

dv
= p + f
dt

(6.29)

(6.26) (6.29) ,
(6.11) (6.13).

, F = ma ,
.

(6.17)
v2
)
2
2 + u + v

2
x

(u +

v2
+
u
+

2
t

v2

v
+
v

u
+

( )

= ( pv ) + q + f v .

(6.30)

(6.30), (6.5),

v2
u +
2

v2
+ ( v ) = u + ( 0 ) = 0

2

t

, , (6.30)

d(u + v 2 / 2)


= ( pv ) + q + f v
dt

(6.31)

(6.31) (6.17). (6.31)

; ,
, , , u + v 2 / 2 , .
.
-
. . , (6.31)
u. (6.31),





d(u + v 2 / 2)
du
d(v 2 / 2)
du d(v v )
du

dv

=
+
=
+
=
+ v
(6.32)
dt
dt
dt
dt 2 dt
dt
dt
(6.31)





( pv ) = p v + v p

(6.33)

(6.32) (6.33) (6.31) :

du

dv

+ v
= p v v p + q + f v .
dt
dt

(6.34)

(6.29) v :






dv


v = v p + p ( f v )
dt

(6.35)

(6.35) (6.34)

du


= p v + q.
dt

(6.36)

133

 (6.36)
.
. ,
h = u + pv = u + p /

dh du d( p / )
=
+
.
dt dt
dt

du dh d( p / ) dh (dp / dt ) p (d / dt )
=

dt dt
dt
dt
2

du dh 1 dp
p d
=

+ 2
dt dt dt dt

(6.37)

(6.22),

d


= v
dt

(6.38)

du dh 1 dp p


=

v .
dt dt dt

(6.39)

(6.39) (6.36)

(6.39) (6.36)
dh dp
=
+ q
(6.40)
dt dt
(6.40)
.

h0=h+v2/2.
(6.31) (6.40) :



d(u + v 2 / 2)

dp

= ( pv ) +
+ 2 q + f v
(6.41)
dt
dt

dp p

=
+ v p
dt t
(6.36) (6.41),

d h + v2 2

) =

p

+ v p + q + f v
dt
t








p

= p v v p +
+ v p + p v + q + f v
t
(6.42) h0=h+v2/2,

( pv ) +

( )

(6.42)

( )

134




dh0 p
=
+ q + f v .
(6.43)
dt
t
, (6.43)
.
:
1. , . p t 0
2. , . q 0



3. , . f v = 0 .

( )

, ,
. , (6.43)
dh
p
0 =
.
(6.44)
dt
t
, (6.44)
dh
0 =0
dt

h0 = const.

(6.45)

(6.45) ,
, .
; 3 4,
, 5,
. (6.45)
. ,
,
, ,
(6.45) . , (6.45)

.
,
(6.45), .
.


. (6.22) v ,

1 d
v =
dt

(6.46)

du p d
=
+ q
dt dt

(6.47)

(6.46) (6.36)

1 = ,

d
1 d
= 2
dt
dt

(6.47)

du
d
= p
+ q
dt
dt

135

d
du

+p
q = 0
dt
dt

du
d
(6.48)
+p
q = 0
dt
dt
(6.48) (1.25),
. , (6.48)
, du d (1.25)
du/dt d/dt. , (6.48)
(1.25) . ,
(6.48) ,
(6.31), . ,
-

, (6.48).

.
,
. ,
6.2, .
- -
.
; , ,
, ( 11,12 13).
.

6.5
, (1.30)
6.4, (1.30) ,

ds du
d
=
+p
dt dt
dt

(6.49)
(6.49)
. , , (6.48)

du
d
+p
=0
dt
dt

(6.50)

(6.49) (6.50)

ds
=0
dt

(6.51)

s = const

(6.52)
(6.51) (6.52) .
, , . ,
, ,
136

 , (6.52)
. (6.51) (6.52) .
,
;
. , , (6.51) (6.52)
.
.

6.6 :

.


. v .


.






2 = v = rotv ;


. v ; .
( )
. , (6.29)
,

dv
= p
dt

(6.53)

, (6.53)

v




+ (v )v = p .
t

(6.54)

(1.32).
, (1.32)
- ,

T s = h p = h

(6.55)

(6.54) (6.55),

1
v




T s = h
(v ) v
t

v




T s = h +
+ (v ) v .
t

(6.56)

h = ho

v2
2

v2
h = ho
2

(6.57)

(6.57) (6.56):
137



v 2 v




T s = ho + + ( v ) v
2 t

(6.58)

v2






( v ) v = v ( v )
2
(6.58)

v
T s = ho v ( v ) +
t

(6.59)

(6.59) , . (L. Crocco) 1937.

"Eine neue Stromfunktion fur die Erforschung der Bewegung der Gas mit Rotation", Z.
Angew. Math. Mech. vol.17, 1937.pp.1-7.

T s = ho v ( v )

(6.60)

(6.59) (6.60)
.
(6.60),

v ( v ) =


h


s


(6.61)

(6.61) .
/ , (6.61) .
, 4.23.
1 ,
, ho1 = h + v2 / 2 . ;
2 , ho 2 = ho1 . ,
; ho = 0 . 4.23 ()
(),
. 2, s 0 .




(6.61) , v ( v ) 0 . ,

v 0

. ,
. .

6.7
, ,
.
. , ,
, .

138

 ,
. . ,
, .
. (
)
. .
,
,
. , ,
, ,
. 9.
, ,
.
7, 10,
. .
, ,
. , ,
1930-, ,
.
, 7,
11.
, ;
11, 12 14.
,
.

6.8 :

1687. ,
.
. ,
,
, .
, ;
.
, ""
, .
12.4, ,
, .
,
,
. , .
12.4
sin2. "-" ; ,
, . ,
139

 1950- "-"
.
12.4 12.9. ,
,
.
, (Daniel)
(Johann) (Bernoulli), (Leonhard Euler)
1730.-1760. . Ojler
. ,
, ,
. ,
(6.26) (6.29) . ,
1748.
.

. ,
( 1.5).
(6.5) 18. .
,
1749. . ,
(Jean le Rond d'Alembert) Essai diune
nouvelle theorie de la redidtance des fluids
. ,
(6.5) 8
1757. .

,
(George Washington) (homas Jefferson).
, (6.17) (6.31)
19 . 1839. (B. de Saint Venant)

. (6.17)
.

(R Giacomelli) (E Pistolesi) I
Aerodinamic theory (W. F. Duran) 1934. .
1930. .

6.9 : -
.
, ,
,
( (6.26) (6.29) ).
6.8
.
? .
140

 15. 1707. , .
,
. 13
100 19 . ,
.
.

, ,
.
, 1725.,
. .
, .

.
1738. .
, .
, . (
(1.1) ) ,
! ,
. .
,
. ,

( (6.29)
).
( (1.1)). ,
.
1733.
. , 1741. 90
.
. 1749.:

.
1740.
, .
25 , .
, 380 . ,
, .
1766. ,
. .
. 1771. ,
.
. , .
, . ,
1765. !

141

18. 1783. - ,
, .
17 . : .
23 .

.
, , , .
, ,
. (
, 11 12).
.
, ,
.
.

142