Chng 5 L Thuyt th

Ni dung
Th
nh ngha
Cc thut ng v th
Biu din th v s ng cu
Tnh lin thng
th Euler v Hamilton
Cy
Gii thiu Cy
Cc ng dng Cy
Cc phng php duyt Cy
15-03-2013 7.1. M au 3
Cac loai o th
o th la mot cau truc ri rac gom cac nh va
cac canh noi cac nh o.
Chng nay: Gii thieu cac loai o th khac nhau
bang mo hnh cac loai mang may tnh khac nhau.
nh ngha 1. Mot n o th G = (V, E) gom
V: tap cac nh
E: tap cac canh
canh la cap khong th t cua cac nh phan biet.

Tay Ninh
Can Th
B
TPHCM
A
C
Can Gi
15-03-2013 7.1. M au 4
Cac loai o th
nh ngha 2. Mot a o th G = (V, E) gom
V: tap cac nh
E: tap cac canh
ham f t E ti {{u, v}( u, v e V, u = v}. Cac canh e
1
va
e
2
c goi la song song hay canh boi neu f(e
1
) = f(e
2
).

Tay Ninh
Can Th
B
TPHCM
A
C
Can Gi
15-03-2013 7.1. M au 5
Cac loai o th
nh ngha 3. Mot gia o th G = (V, E) gom
V: tap cac nh
E: tap cac canh
ham f t E ti {{u, v}( u, v e V}.
Mot canh la mot khuyen neu f(e) = {u} vi mot nh u
nao o.

Tay Ninh
Can Th
B
TPHCM
A
C
Can Gi
15-03-2013 7.1. M au 6
Cac loai o th
Nhan xet:
Gia o th la loai o th vo hng tong quat nhat
v
co the cha cac khuyen
co the cha cac canh boi.
a o th: co the cha cac canh boi, nhng khong
cha khuyen.
o th n: khong cha khuyen, khong cha canh
boi.




15-03-2013 7.1. M au 7
Cac loai o th
nh ngha 4. Mot o th co hng G = (V, E)
gom
V: tap cac nh
E: tap cac canh
canh la cap co th t (khong can phai khac nhau) cua cac
phan t thuoc V.
Tay Ninh
Can Th
B
TPHCM
A
C
Can Gi
15-03-2013 7.1. M au 8
Cac loai o th
nh ngha 5. Mot a o th co hng G = (V, E)
gom
V: tap cac nh
E: tap cac canh
ham f t E ti {(u, v) | u, v e V}.
Cac canh e
1
va e
2
la cac canh boi neu f(e
1
) = f(e
2
).

Tay Ninh
Can Th
B
TPHCM
A
C
Can Gi
15-03-2013 7.1. M au 9
Cac loai o th
Bang 1. Thuat ng o th
Loai

n o th
a o th
Gia o th
o th co hng
a o th co hng
Canh

Vo hng
Vo hng
Vo hng
Co hng
Co hng
Co canh boi
khong?

Khong
Co
Co
Khong
Co
Co khuyen khong?

Khong
Khong
Co
Co
Co
15-03-2013 7.1. M au 10
Cac mo hnh o th
V du 1. o th lan to trong sinh thai hoc,
Moi loai c bieu dien bang mot nh
Mot canh vo hng noi hai nh neu hai loai c
bieu dien bang cac nh nay la canh tranh vi nhau
(tc la chung co chung nguon thc an).
Cu
Gau truc
Cat
Qua
Soc Thu co tui
Chuot tru
Chuot
Chim go kien
Mo hnh cua
he sinh thai rng
15-03-2013 7.1. M au 11
Cac mo hnh o th
V du 2. o th anh hng dung e mo hnh anh
hng cua cac ngi trong mot nhom ngi.
Moi ngi cua nhom c bieu dien bang mot nh
Khi mot ngi c bieu dien bang nh a co anh
hng len ngi c bieu dien bang nh b th nh a
va nh b c noi bang mot canh co hng.
Minh
Hung
Hai
Thu
Lan
15-03-2013 7.1. M au 12
Cac mo hnh o th
V du 3. Thi au vong tron. Mot cuoc thi au the
thao trong o moi oi au vi moi oi khac ung
mot lan goi la au vong tron. Mo hnh bang mot
o th co hng: Moi oi la mot nh
Mot canh i
t nh a
en nh b,
ky hieu
la (a, b),
neu oi a thang oi b.
oi 4
oi 6
oi 5
oi 1
oi 2
oi 3
15-03-2013 7.1. M au 13
Cac mo hnh o th
V du 4. o th co u tien trc sau.
Moi cau lenh c bieu dien bang mot nh.
Co mot canh t mot nh ti mot nh khac neu cau
lenh c bieu dien bang nh th hai khong the thc
thi c trc khi cau lenh c bieu dien bang nh
th nhat thc thi.
S6
S3
S1
S2
S4
S5
Chng trnh may tnh:

S1 a := 0
S2 b := 1
S3 c := a + 1
S4 d := b + a
S5 e := d + 1
S6 e := c + d
15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 14
Nhng thuat ng c s
nh ngha 1.
Hai nh u va v trong mot o th vo hng G c goi la
lien ke (hay lang gieng) neu {u, v} la mot canh cua G.
Neu e = {u, v} th e goi la canh lien thuoc vi cac nh u va
v.
Canh e cung c goi la canh noi cac nh u va v.
Cac nh u va v goi la cac iem au mut cua canh {u, v}.
nh ngha 2.
Bac cua mot nh trong o th vo hng la so cac canh lien
thuoc vi no.
Rieng khuyen tai mot nh c tnh hai lan cho bac cua
no.
Ky hieu bac cua nh v la deg(v).
15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 15
Nhng thuat ng c s
V du 1. Bac cua cac nh trong G va H la bao
nhieu?
b c d
a f e
g
b
a
c
d e
G H
deg(a) = 2
deg(b) = deg(c) = deg(f) = 4
deg(d) = 1 nh treo
deg(e) = 3
deg(g) = 0 nh co lap
deg(a) = 4
deg(b) = deg(e) = 6
deg(c) = 1
deg(d) = 5
15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 16
Nhng thuat ng c s
nh ly 1. nh ly bat tay. Cho G = (V, E) la mot
o th vo hng co e canh. Khi o



V du 2. Co bao nhieu canh trong o th co 10
nh, moi nh co bac bang 6?
Tong cac bac cua o th la 10 6 = 60. Do o: 2 e =
60. Vay e = 30.
2 e = deg (v)
v e V
15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 17
Nhng thuat ng c s
nh ly 2. Mot o th vo hng co mot so chan
cac nh bac le.
nh ngha 3. Cho (u, v) la canh cua o th co
hng G
u c goi la noi ti v.
v c goi la c noi t u.
nh u goi la nh au cua canh (u, v).
nh v goi la nh cuoi cua canh (u, v).
nh au va nh cuoi cua khuyen la trung nhau.

15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 18
Nhng thuat ng c s
nh ngha 4. Trong o th co hng,
bac-vao cua nh v ky hieu la deg

(v) la so cac canh

co nh cuoi la v.
bac-ra cua nh v ky hieu la deg
+
(v) la so cac canh co
nh au la v.
(Mot khuyen tai mot nh gop 1 n v vao bac-vao va
1 n v vao bac-ra cua nh nay.)
15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 19
Nhng thuat ng c s
V du 3. Tm bac-vao va bac-ra cua moi nh trong G.
a
b
c
d
e
f
G
Cac bac-vao la
deg
-
(a) = 2
deg
-
(b) = 2
deg
-
(c) = 3
deg
-
(d) = 2
deg
-
(e) = 3
deg
-
(f ) = 0
Cac bac-ra la
deg
+
(a) = 4
deg
+
(b) = 1
deg
+
(c) = 2
deg
+
(d) = 2
deg
+
(e) = 3
deg
+
(f ) = 0
15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 20
Nhng thuat ng c s
nh ly 3. Goi G = (V, E) la mot o th co hng.
Khi o



o th vo hng nen la o th vo hng nhan
c khi l i cac hng cua cac canh cua o th
co hng.
Nhan xet: o th co hng va o th vo hng
nen cua no co cung so canh.
deg

(v) = deg
+
(v) = |E | .
v e V
v e V
15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 21
Nhng o th n ac biet
V du 4. o th ay u n nh, ky hieu la K
n
, la
mot n o th cha ung mot canh noi moi cap
nh phan biet.
K
1

K
6
K
5

K
4

K
3

K
2

15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 22
Nhng o th n ac biet
V du 5. Chu trnh (vong) C
n
, vi n > 3, la mot o
th co n nh v
1
, v
2
,,v
n
va cac canh {v
1
, v
2
}, {v
2
,
v
3
},, {v
n 1
, v
n
} va {v
n
, v
1
}.
C
3
C
4
C
5

C
6

15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 23
Nhng o th n ac biet
V du 6. o th hnh banh xe W
n
, vi n > 3, la o
th co c t chu trnh C
n
bang cach:
them mot nh vao C
n
,
noi nh nay vi moi nh cua C
n
bang nhng canh
mi.

W
3

W
4
W
5

W
6

15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 24
Nhng o th n ac biet
V du 7. Cac khoi n chieu, ky hieu la Q
n
, la cac
o th:
co 2
n
nh,
moi nh c bieu dien bang xau nh phan o dai n,
Hai nh la lien ke neu va ch neu cac xau nh phan bieu
dien chung khac nhau ung mot bit.
Q
1

Q
2
Q
3

0 1
01
00
11 10
110 111
010
011
000 001
100
101
15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 25
o th phan oi
nh ngha 5. Mot o th n G c goi la o th
phan oi neu tap cac nh V co the phan lam hai
tap con khong rong, ri nhau V
1
va V
2
sao cho
moi canh cua o th G noi mot nh cua V
1
vi
mot nh cua V
2
.
V du 8.
C
6
la phan oi.
v
1

v
5

v
3

v
6

v
4

v
2

V
1
V
2

Cac nh cua C
6
co the chia
thanh:
V
1
= {v
1
, v
3
, v
5
} va
V
2
= {v
2
, v
4
, v
6
}
Moi canh cua C
6
noi mot nh
cua V
1
vi

mot nh cua V
2
.


15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 26
o th phan oi
V du 10.
a b
c
d
e
f
g
a b
c
d e
f
G H
15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 27
o th phan oi
V du 10.
a b
c
d
e
f
g
a b
c
d e
f
G H
o th G la phan oi, vi {a, b,
d}
va {c, e, f, g}.
o th H la khong phan oi, v
f noi vi tat ca cac nh khac;
do o V
1
= {f}.
a va b lai noi vi nhau.
15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 28
o th phan oi
V du 11. o th phan oi ay u K
m,n
la o th
co tap nh c phan thanh hai tap con tng ng vi
m nh va n nh,
co mot canh gia hai nh neu va ch neu mot nh
thuoc tap con nay va nh th hai thuoc tap con kia.
K
2,3
K
3,3

K
3,5
K
2,6

15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 29
Mot vai ng dung cua cac o th ac
biet
V du 12. Cac mang cuc bo (LAN)
Cau truc hnh sao
o th phan oi ay u K
1,n

Cau truc vong tron
Chu trnh C
n

Cau truc hon hp
o th hnh banh xe W
n

15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 30
Mot vai ng dung cua cac o th ac
biet
V du 13.
Thuat toan tuan t (hay noi tiep)
Thuat toan song song
Mang mot chieu
Mang kieu li (hay mang hai chieu)
Mang kieu sieu khoi
15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 31
Cac o th mi t o th cu
nh ngha 6. o th con cua o th G = (V,E) la
o th H = (W,F) trong o W _ V va F _ E.
V du 14. o th G la o th con cua o th K
5
.
K
5
G
d
c
b
e
e
c
b
a a
15-03-2013 7.2. Cac thuat ng ve o th 32
Cac o th mi t o th cu
nh ngha 7. (o th) hp cua hai o th n
G
1
= (V
1
, E
1
)

va G
2
= (V
2
, E
2
)

la o th n co
tap cac nh la V
1

V
2

tap cac canh la E
1
E
2
.
Ky hieu: hp cua cac o th G
1
va G
2
la G
1

G
2
.




V du 15. o th hp cua G
1
va G
2
.
a
d
e
b c
d f
c
b
a a
d e f
c b
G
1
G
2
G
1
G
2
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 33
Bieu dien o th
V du 1. Dung danh sach lien ke e mo ta o th
n: liet ke tat ca cac nh lien ke vi moi nh
cua o th.
a
e d
b
c
a
b
c
d
e
nh nh lien ke
b, c, e
a
a, d, e
c, e
a, c, d
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 34
Bieu dien o th
V du 2. Bieu dien o th co hng: liet ke tat ca
cac nh cuoi cua cac cung xuat phat t moi nh
cua o th.
a
e d
b
c
a
b
c
d
e
nh au nh cuoi
b, c, d, e
b, d
a, c, e

b, c, d
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 35
Ma tran lien ke
Bieu dien o th bang ma tran: Ma tran lien ke. Cho G
= (V, E) la o th n co n nh, cac nh cua G la v
1
,
v
2
,, v
n
.
Ma tran lien ke A hay A
G
cua G la ma tran khong-mot
(0-1) cap n n co phan t hang i cot j la a
ij
bang
1 neu v
i
va v
j
lien ke nhau,
0 neu chung khong c noi vi nhau.
Nhan xet:
Ma tran lien ke cua mot o th tuy thuoc vao th t liet
ke cac nh.
Ma tran lien ke cua mot o th n la oi xng. o th
n khong co khuyen nen a
ii
= 0 vi i = 1, 2,, n.
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 36
Ma tran lien ke
Bieu dien o th bang ma tran: Ma tran lien
ke.
V du 3. Cac nh c sap xep theo th t: a, b,
c, d.
a
d c
b
0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 37
Ma tran lien ke
V du 4. Cho ma tran lien ke vi th t cac nh
la a, b, c, d. Ve o th tng ng.


a
c d
b
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 38
Ma tran lien ke
Ma tran lien ke co the dung e bieu dien o
th vo hng co khuyen va (hay) co canh boi.
Khuyen tai nh a
i
c bieu dien bang 1 tai v
tr (i, i) cua ma tran lien ke.
Khi co canh boi, phan t v tr (i, j) cua ma tran
bang so cac canh noi cac nh a
i
va a
j
.
Nhan xet: Tat ca cac o th vo hng (n o
th, a o th, gia o th) eu co ma tran lien
ke oi xng.



15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 39
Ma tran lien ke
V du 5. Dung ma tran lien ke e bieu dien gia
o th .
Th t cac nh la a, b, c, d.



a
c d
b
0 3 0 2
3 0 1 1
0 1 1 2
2 1 2 0
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 40
Ma tran lien ke
Cho G = (V, E) la o th co hng co n nh, cac nh cua
G la v
1
, v
2
,, v
n
.
Ma tran lien ke A hay A
G
cua G la ma tran khong-mot (0-
1) cap n n co phan t hang i cot j la a
ij
bang
1 neu co canh i t v
i
ti v
j
,
0 trong cac trng hp khac.
Nhan xet:
Ma tran lien ke cua mot o th tuy thuoc vao th t liet ke cac
nh.
Ma tran lien ke cua o th co hng khong co tnh oi xng.
Cung co the dung ma tran lien ke e bieu dien a o th co
hng. Khi o a
ij
bang so cac cung i t nh v
i
ti nh v
j
.
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 41
Ma tran lien thuoc
Bieu dien o th bang ma tran lien thuoc. Cho G
= (V, E) la o th vo hng co n nh va m canh:
cac nh cua G la v
1
, v
2
,, v
n
,
cac canh cua G la e
1
, e
2
,, e
m
.
Ma tran lien thuoc M hay M
G
cua G la ma tran
M = [m
ij
] trong o m
ij
bang
1 neu canh e
j
noi vi nh v
i
,
0 neu canh e
j
khong noi vi nh v
i
.
Nhan xet:
Ma tran lien thuoc cua mot o th tuy thuoc vao th
t liet ke cac nh va cac canh.
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 42
Ma tran lien thuoc
Ma tran lien thuoc
V du 6. Xac nh ma tran lien thuoc.
v
1
v
3

v
5

v
2

v
4

e
4

e
3

e
2

e
1

e
5

e
6

e
1
e
2
e
3
e
4
e
5
e
6

v
1
1 1 0 0 0 0
v
2
0 0 1 1 0 1
v
3
0 0 0 0 1 1
v
4
1 0 1 0 0 0
v
5
0 1 0 1 1 0
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 43
Ma tran lien thuoc
V du 7. Bieu dien canh boi va khuyen bang ma
tran lien thuoc.
v
5

e
4

e
5
e
6

v
1

v
4

v
3

v
2

e
3

e
2

e
1

e
8

e
7

e
1
e
2
e
3
e
4
e
5
e
6
e
7
e
8

v
1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
v
2
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
v
3
0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
v
4
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
v
5
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 44
S ang cau cua cac o th
nh ngha 1. Cac o th n G
1
= (V
1
, E
1
) va G
2

= (V
2
, E
2
) la ang cau neu co ham song anh f t
V
1
len V
2
sao cho cac nh a va b la lien ke trong
G
1
neu va ch neu f(a) va f(b) la lien ke trong G
2

vi moi a va b trong V
1
. Ham f nh the c goi
la mot ang cau.

15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 45
S ang cau cua cac o th
V du 8. Cac o th G = (V, E) va H = (W, F) la
ang cau
u
2
u
1

u
4
u
3

G
v
2

v
4

v
3

v
1

H
inh ngha ham f nh sau f(u
1
) = v
1
, f(u
2
) = v
4
, f(u
3
) = v
3
, f(u
4
) = v
2
. Ham f la
1-1 gia V va W. Ham f bao toan quan he lien ke v:
trong G cac nh lien ke la u
1
va u
2
, u
1
va u
3
, u
2
va u
4
, u
3
va u
4

moi cap f(u
1
) = v
1
va f(u
2
) = v
4
, f(u
1
) = v
1
va f(u
3
) = v
3
, f(u
2
) = v
4
va f(u
4
) = v
2

, f(u
3
) = v
3
va f(u
4
) = v
2
la lien ke trong H.
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 46
S ang cau cua cac o th
V du 9. Cac o th G va H la khong ang cau.
d e
H
d
e
G
b
c a c
b
a
Ca G va H eu co 5 nh va 6 canh. Tuy nhien H co nh e bac 1 con G th
khong co nh nao bac 1 ca. Vay G va H la khong ang cau.
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 47
S ang cau cua cac o th
Nhan xet:
So nh, so canh, bac cua nh la cac bat bien oi
vi phep ang cau: neu hai o th la ang cau th
chung co cung so nh, so canh
hai nh tng ng nhau trong phep ang cau co cung
bac.
Neu cac bat bien cua hai o th la khac nhau th
chung la khong ang cau.
Tuy nhien, neu cac bat bien cua hai o th la nh
nhau th cha chac rang chung la ang cau.
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 48
S ang cau cua cac o th
V du 10. Cac o th G va H co ang cau hay
khong?
a b
c d
e f
g
h
s t
u v
x
y z
w
G H
Xet cac bat bien: Ca hai o th eu co 8 nh, 10 canh, 4 nh bac 2,
va 4 nh bac 3.
Tuy nhien G va H la khong ang cau: v deg(a) = 2 nen a phai ng vi
mot trong cac nh bac 2 cua H la t, u, x, y; nhng ca 4 nh nay eu
co noi vi mot nh bac 2 khac cua H, trong khi a ch noi vi nh bac
3 cua G ma thoi.
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 49
S ang cau cua cac o th
V du 10. (tiep theo) Cach khac: G va H la khong
ang cau v cac o th con cua G va H tao nen t
cac nh bac 3 va cac canh noi chung la khong
ang cau.
d
h
b
f
v
z
w
s
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 50
S ang cau cua cac o th
Dung ma tran lien ke e chng to ham f la bao
ton cac canh:
Ma tran lien ke cua G, (vi mot th t cac nh)
Ma tran lien ke cua H, vi hang va cot c gan nhan
tng ng vi anh qua f cua cac nh trong G.
Neu cac ma tran lien ke tren giong nhau th G va H la
ang cau.
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 51
S ang cau cua cac o th
V du 11. o th G va H co ang cau khong?
u
2
u
1

u
3
u
4

G
v
3
v
1

v
4
v
5

H
u
5

u
6

v
2

v
6

Ca hai o th eu co 6 nh, 7 canh, 4 nh bac 2, 2 nh bac 3.
nh ngha f nh sau:
f(u
1
) = v
6
, f(u
2
) = v
3
, f(u
3
) = v
4
,
f(u
4
) = v
5
, f(u
5
) = v
1
, f(u
6
) = v
2
15-03-2013 7.3. Bieu dien o th va s ang cau 52
S ang cau cua cac o th
V du 11. (tiep theo)
Cac ma tran lien ke cua G va H la







V A
G
= A
H
nen f bao ton cac canh. Vay f la mot phep
ang cau.
u
1
u
2
u
3
u
4
u
5
u
6

u
1
0 1 0 1 0 0
u
2
1 0 1 0 0 1
u
3
0 1 0 1 0 0
u
4
1 0 1 0 1 0
u
5
0 0 0 1 0 1
u
6
0 1 0 0 1 0
A
G
=
v
6
v
3
v
4
v
5
v
1
v
2

v
6
0 1 0 1 0 0
v
3
1 0 1 0 0 1
v
4
0 1 0 1 0 0
v
5
1 0 1 0 1 0
v
1
0 0 0 1 0 1
v
2
0 1 0 0 1 0
A
H
=
15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 53
ng i
nh ngha 1. ng i o dai n t u ti v, vi n
la mot so nguyen dng, trong mot o th vo
hng la mot day cac canh e
1
, e
2
,, e
n
cua o th
sao cho f(e
1
) = {x
0
, x
1
}, f(e
2
) = {x
1
, x
2
},, f(e
n
) =
{x
n 1
, x
n
}, vi x
0
= u va x
n
= v .
Khi o th la n, ta ky hieu ng i bang day cac
nh x
0
, x
1
,, x
n
.
ng i c goi la chu trnh neu no bat au va ket
thuc tai cung mot nh, tc la u = v.
ng i hay chu trnh goi la n neu no khong cha
cung mot canh qua mot lan.

15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 54
ng i
V du 1.
a, d, c, f, e la ng i n o dai 4 v {a, d}, {d, c},
{c, f}, {f, e} eu la cac canh.
d, e, c, b khong la ng i v {e, c} khong la canh.
b, c, f, e, b la chu trnh o dai 4 v {b, c}, {c, f}, {f, e},
{e, b} la cac canh va ng i nay bat au va ket thuc
tai b.
a, b, e, d, a, b o dai 5 khong la ng i n v cha
canh {a, b} hai lan.
a
e d
b c
f
15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 55
ng i
nh ngha 2. ng i o dai n, vi n nguyen
dng, t u ti v trong a o th co hng la day
cac canh e
1
, e
2
,, e
n
cua o th sao cho f(e
1
) =
(x
0
, x
1
), f(e
2
) = (x
1
, x
2
),, f(e
n
) = (x
n 1
, x
n
), vi x
0
= u va x
n
= v .
Khi khong co canh boi trong o th, ta ky hieu ng
i nay bang day cac nh x
0
, x
1
, x
2
,, x
n
.
ng i bat au va ket thuc tai cung mot nh c
goi la mot chu trnh.
ng i hay chu trnh goi la n neu no khong cha
cung mot canh qua mot lan.
15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 56
Tnh lien thong trong o th vo hng
nh ngha 3. Mot o th vo hng c goi la
lien thong neu co ng i gia moi cap nh
phan biet cua o th.
V du 2.
o th G la lien thong, o th H la khong lien thong.
e
a b
c
f
d
e g
f
b a
c
d
G H
15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 57
Tnh lien thong trong o th vo hng
nh ly 1. Gia moi cap nh phan biet cua mot
o th vo hng lien thong luon co ng i n.
Mot o th khong lien thong la hp cua hai hay
nhieu o th con lien thong, moi cap cac o th
con nay khong co nh chung. Cac o th con lien
thong ri nhau nh vay c goi la cac thanh
phan lien thong cua o th ang xet.
15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 58
Tnh lien thong trong o th vo hng
V du 3. o th G la hp cua ba o th con lien
thong ri nhau G
1
, G
2
, G
3
.
G
1

G
2

G
3

15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 59
Tnh lien thong trong o th vo hng
nh cat (hay iem khp) la nh khi xoa i cung
vi tat ca cac canh lien thuoc vi no se tao ra
mot o th con mi co nhieu thanh phan lien
thong hn o th xuat phat.
Canh cat (hay cau) la canh khi bo i se tao ra
mot o th con mi co nhieu thanh phan lien
thong hn o th xuat phat.
15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 60
Tnh lien thong trong o th vo hng
V du 4. Tm cac nh cat va canh cat cua G.
Cac nh cat la b, c, e.
Cac canh cat la {a, b} va {c, e}.

g f
h e c b
d a
G
15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 61
Tnh lien thong trong o th co hng
nh ngha 4. o th co hng goi la lien thong
manh neu co ng i t a ti b va t b ti a vi
moi nh a va b cua o th.
nh ngha 5. o th co hng goi la lien thong
yeu neu co ng i gia hai nh bat ky cua o
th vo hng nen.
15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 62
Tnh lien thong trong o th co hng
V du 5.
G la lien thong manh.
H la khong lien thong manh v khong co ng i co
hng t a ti b, nhng la lien thong yeu.
c
d e
b a
c
d e
b a
G
H
15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 63
ng i va s ang cau
Dung ng i va chu trnh e xet xem hai o th
co ang cau hay khong.
Bat bien ang cau: so nh, so canh, bac cua nh
Bat bien ang cau: chu trnh n vi o dai ac biet.
Dung ng i e xay dng anh xa gia hai o th.
Hai o th G va H co la ang cau khong?

u
1

v
1

u
6

u
5
u
3

u
4

u
2

v
5

v
6

v
4

v
3

v
2

G
H
15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 64
ng i va s ang cau

u
1
v
1

u
6

u
5
u
3

u
4

u
2

v
5

v
6

v
4

v
3

v
2

G H
Ca G va H co ba bat bien bang nhau: so canh, so nh, bac cua cac nh
(4 nh bac 3, va 2 nh bac 2). Tuy nhien H co chu trnh n o dai 3,
con G khong co chu trnh n o dai 3. Vay G va H la khong ang cau.
15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 65
ng i va s ang cau
V du 7. Hai o th G va H co la ang cau khong?
G va H eu co 5 nh va 6 canh, 2 nh bac 3 va 3 nh bac 2; ca hai eu co
1 chu trnh n o dai 3, 1 chu trnh n o dai 4, va 1 chu trnh n o dai
5. e tm phep ang cau co the co, i theo ng i qua tat ca cac nh sao
cho cac nh tng ng co cung bac. V du: u
1
, u
4
, u
3
, u
2
, u
5
trong G va u
3
,
v
2
, v
1
, v
5
, v
4
trong H. nh ngha anh xa f : f(u
1
) = u
3
, f(u
4
) = v
2
,
Kiem tra f la phep ang cau.

v
1

v
5
v
2

v
4
v
3

u
1
u
3

u
5
u
4

u
2

G H
15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 66
em ng i gia cac nh
nh ly 2. Cho G la mot o th vi ma tran lien
ke A theo th t cac nh v
1
,

v
2
,,

v
n
(vi cac
canh vo hng hoac co hng hay la canh boi, co
the co khuyen). So cac ng i khac nhau o
dai r t v
i
ti v
j
,

trong o r la mot so nguyen
dng, bang gia tr cua phan t (i, j) cua ma tran
A
r
.

15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 67
em ng i gia cac nh
V du 8. Co bao nhieu ng i o dai 4 t a ti d
trong o th n G?
a b
o th G
c d
15-03-2013 7.4. Tnh lien thong 68
em ng i gia cac nh
Ma tran lien ke cua G, theo th t a, b, c, d,
la
0 1 1 0
A = 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0
2 0 0 2
A
2
= 0 2 2 0
0 2 2 0
2 0 0 2
8 0 0 8
A
4
= 0 8 8 0
0 8 8 0
8 0 0 8
a
14
= 8. Vay co ung 8 ng i
o dai 4 t a ti d.
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 69
M au
V du 1. o th nao co chu trnh Euler? Neu
khong, co ng i Euler khong?

e
d
a
c
b
e
d
a
c
b
d
a
c
b
e
G
1
G
2
G
3

G
1
co chu trnh Euler, v du a, e, c, d, e, b, a.
G
2
va G
3
eu khong co chu trnh Euler
G
3
co ng i Euler: a, c, d, e, b, d, a, b
G
2
khong co ng i Euler.
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 70
M au
V du 2. o th nao co chu trnh Euler? Neu
khong, co ng i Euler khong?
a b
d
c
g
c
e d
b
a
f
c d
a
b
H
1
H
3
H
2

H
2
co chu trnh Euler: a, g, c, b, g, e, d, f, a
H
1
va H
3
khong co chu trnh Euler
H
3
co ng i Euler: c, a, b, c, d, b.
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 71
Cac ieu kien can va u cho chu trnh
va ng i Euler
nh ly 1. Mot a o th lien thong co chu trnh
Euler neu va ch neu moi nh cua no eu co bac
chan.
Giai bai toan cau Konigsberg:
a o th bieu dien cac cau nay co 4 nh bac le nen
khong ton tai chu trnh Euler.
Khong co cach nao e mot ngi co the xuat phat t
mot a iem nao o trong thanh pho i qua tat ca cac
cau, moi cau khong qua nhieu hn mot lan, roi lai tr
ve iem xuat phat.
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 72
Cac ieu kien can va u cho chu trnh
va ng i Euler
V du.
a b
c d
e
f
c d
e
G H
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 73
Thuat toan 1. Xay dng chu trnh Euler
procedure Euler(G: a o th lien thong vi tat ca cac nh bac chan)
chu_trnh := chu trnh trong G bat au tai mot nh c chon tuy y
va cac canh c them vao e xay dng ng i qua cac nh va
cuoi cung quay lai nh nay.
H := G vi cac canh cua G sau khi bo i chu_trnh
while H con cac canh
begin
chu_trnh_con := chu trnh trong H bat au tai nh trong H cung la
nh au mut cua mot canh thuoc chu_trnh.
H := H vi cac canh cua chu_trnh_con, va tat ca cac nh co lap b
loai
bo.
chu_trnh := chu_trnh vi chu_trnh_con c chen vao tai mot nh
thch hp
end
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 74
Cac ieu kien can va u cho chu trnh
va ng i Euler
nh ly 2. Mot a o th lien thong co ng i
Euler nhng khong co chu trnh Euler neu va ch
neu no co ung hai nh bac le.
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 75
Cac ieu kien can va u cho chu trnh
va ng i Euler
V du 4. o th nao co ng i Euler?
a
d c
b
d
e g
c b
f a
a
f
b
c
e d
g
G
1
G
2
G
3

G
1
co ung hai nh bac le la b va d, do o co ng i Euler nhan b va d la
iem au mut, d, a, b, c, d, b.
G
2
co ung hai nh bac le la b va d, do o co ng i Euler nhan b va d
la iem au mut, b, a, g, b, c, g, f, c, d, f, e, d.
G
3
co 6 nh bac le nen khong co ng i Euler.

15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 76
ng i va chu trnh Hamilton
nh ngha 2. ng i x
0
, x
1
,, x
n 1
, x
n

trong o th G = (V, E) c goi la ng i
Hamilton neu V = {x
0
, x
1
,, x
n 1
, x
n
} va x
i
=

x
j
vi 0 s i < j s n. Chu trnh x
0
, x
1
,, x
n
1
, x
n
, x
0
(n > 1) trong o th G = (V, E) c
goi la chu trnh Hamilton neu x
0
, x
1
,, x
n 1

, x
n
la ng i Hamilton.
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 77
ng i va chu trnh Hamilton
V du 5. o th n nao co chu trnh Hamilton?
Neu khong, co ng i Hamilton khong?
d
e
c
b
a
d c
b a
c f e d
g
b
a
G
1
G
2
G
3

G
1
co chu trnh Hamilton a, b, c, d, e, a.
G
2
khong co chu trnh Hamilton v bat c chu trnh nao cha moi nh cung
phai cha canh {a, b} hai lan, nhng G
2
co ng i Hamilton: a, b, c, d.
G
3
khong co chu trnh Hamilton, khong co ng i Hamilton, v bat ky
ng i nao cha moi nh cung phai cha mot trong cac canh {a,b}, {c,d},
{e,f} qua mot lan.
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 78
ng i va chu trnh Hamilton
V du 6. G va H eu khong co chu trnh
Hamilton.
G H
c
d
b
e
c
e b
d a
a
G khong co chu trnh Hamilton, v co nh bac 1 (nh e).
Cac nh a, b, d, e co bac la 2 nen moi canh lien thuoc vi chung phai
thuoc chu trnh Hamilton nao o. Khong ton tai chu trnh Hamilton
trong H v neu ngc lai th chu trnh o phai cha ca 4 canh lien thuoc
vi c, ay la ieu khong the.
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 79
ng i va chu trnh Hamilton
nh ly 3. Gia s G la mot n o th lien thong
vi n nh trong o n > 3, khi o G co chu trnh
Hamilton neu bac cua moi nh t nhat bang n/2.
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 80
ng i va chu trnh Hamilton
V du 8. V tr cua kim ch th xoay tron co the
c bieu dien di dang so.
Chia ng tron thanh 2
n
cung, moi cung ng vi mot
sau nh phan chieu dai n.
Bieu dien so cua v tr cua kim ch th c xac nh
bang n cho tiep xuc; moi tiep xuc tng ng vi mot
bit.

15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 81
ng i va chu trnh Hamilton
V du 8. (tiep theo)
Co the lam lan khi kim ranh cua cung, v v tr tng
oi cua cac cung vi nhau thng khong chnh xac!

15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 82
ng i va chu trnh Hamilton
V du 8. (tiep theo) Ma Gray
Ma Gray la cach gan nhan cho cac cung cua ng
tron sao cho cac cung ke nhau c gan bang cac xau
khac nhau ung mot bit.
Giai:
Mo hnh bai toan bang khoi n chieu Q
n
,
Tm chu trnh Hamilton trong Q
n
.


110 111
011
010
100
000 001
101
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 83
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 84
Cay tm kiem nh phan
Cay tm kiem nh phan: Cay nh phan, trong o:
moi con cua mot nh hoac la con ben phai hoac la con ben
trai, khong co nh nao co hn mot con ben phai hay con
ben trai,
moi nh c gan mot khoa;
Khoa cua nh ln hn khoa cua tat ca cac nh thuoc cay
con ben trai, va nho hn khoa cua tat ca cac nh thuoc cay
con ben phai cua no.
V du 1. Tao cay tm kiem nh phan dung th t t
ien cho cac t sau: mathematics, physics, geography,
zoology, meteorology, geology, psychology va
chemistry.
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 85
Cay tm kiem nh phan: Xay dng cay tm kiem nh
phan

15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 86
Cay tm kiem nh phan: Thuat toan tm kiem nh phan
procedure insertion(T: cay tm kiem nh phan, x: phan t)
v := goc cua T
{nh khong co trong T se co gia tr bang null; vi moi x, label(null) = x}
while v = null va label(v) = x
begin
if x < label(v) then
if con ben trai cua v = null then v := con ben trai cua v
else them nh mi la con ben trai cua v va at v := null
else
if con ben phai cua v = null then v := con ben phai cua v
else them nh mi la con ben phai cua v va at v := null
end
if goc cua T = null then them nh r vao cay va gan cho no nhan la x
else if label(v) = x then gan nhan cho nh mi la x.


15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 87
Cay tm kiem nh phan
o phc tap
Cay tm kiem nh phan T ng vi n phan t
Xay dng cay nh phan ay u U t T bang cach them vao T
cac nh khong co nhan sao cho moi nh co khoa eu co 2
con.
So phep so sanh nhieu nhat e them phan t mi la o dai cua
ng i dai nhat trong U t goc ti mot la
U co n nh trong, (ii) nh ly 4 Chng 8.1 U co n + 1 la
He qua 1 Chng 8.1 chieu cao cua U > log(n + 1)(
Phai thc hien t nhat log(n + 1)( phep so sanh e them phan t
mi vao cay.
Neu T la can oi th U la can oi, He qua 1 Chng 8.1 chieu cao
cua U la log(n + 1)( .
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 88
Cay tm kiem nh phan
Them cac nh khong nhan e tao cay tm kiem nh
phan ay u
15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 89
Cay quyet nh
Cay quyet nh: cay co goc, trong o:
moi nh tng ng vi mot quyet nh, va moi cay
con tai cac nh nay ng vi moi mot ket cuc co the
cua quyet nh.
V du 2. Co bay ong xu, tat ca co trong lng
nh nhau, va mot ong gia co trong lng nho
hn cac ong khac.
Neu dung mot chiec can co co hai a can th phai can
bao nhieu lan can e xac nh ong xu nao trong tam
ong xu nay la ong xu gia.
Hay e xuat mot thuat toan tm ong xu gia.

15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 90
Cay quyet nh
Co 3 kha nang xay ra moi lan can:
1. Hai a co trong lng bang nhau
2. a th nhat nang hn
3. a th hai nang hn
Vay cay quyet nh cho mot day cac lan can la cay 3-
phan.
Cay quyet nh co t nhat 8 la
So lan can nhieu nhat e xac nh ong xu gia la chieu cao cua
cay quyet nh
Chieu cao cua cay quyet nh thoa
h > log
m
l( = log
3
8( = 2
Can t nhat 2 lan can.
Co the xac nh ong xu gia bang 2 lan can.


15-03-2013 Do thi va Cay 91
Cay quyet nh
Cay quyet nh e xac nh ong xu gia
15-03-2013 92 Do thi va Cay
He a ch pho dung
He a ch pho dung la cach gan nhan cho tat ca cac
nh bang phng phap truy hoi nh sau:
Gan nhan cho goc bang so nguyen 0. Sau o k nh con cua no
( mc 1) t trai sang phai c gan cac nhan la 1, 2, 3,, k.
Vi moi nh v mc n co nhan la A, th k
v
nh con cua no t
trai sang phai c gan cac nhan la A.1, A.2,, A.k
v
.
Nhan xet: Theo thu tuc nay, nh v mc n, vi n > 1,
co nhan la x
1
.x
2
x
n
, trong o nh x
i
mc i.

ng dung: sap tat ca cac nh cua cay theo th t t
ien cua cac nhan cua chung trong he a ch pho dung.
15-03-2013 93 Do thi va Cay
He a ch pho dung
V du 1. Gan nhan theo a ch pho dung cho tat ca cac nh
cua cay sau. Th t t ien cua cac nhan la: 0 < 1 < 1.1 < 1.2
< 1.3 < 2 < 3 < 3.1 < 3.1.1 < 3.1.2 < 3.1.2.1 < 3.1.2.2 < 3.1.2.3
< 3.1.2.4 < 3.1.3 < 3.2 < 4 < 4.1 < 5 < 5.1 < 5.1.1 < 5.2 < 5.3
0
1 2 3 4 5
1.2 1.1 1.3
3.1 3.2 4.1 5.2 5.3 5.1
3.1.1 3.1.3
3.1.2
3.1.2.3 3.1.2.2
3.1.2.1 3.1.2.4
5.1.1
15-03-2013 94 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
nh ngha 1. Gia s T la cay co goc va c
sap th t vi goc r.
Neu T ch co r th r la cach duyet tien th t cua
T;
neu khong th goi T
1
, T
2
,, T
n
la cac cay con tai
r t trai qua phai cua T.
Duyet tien th t se vieng tham r au tien;
tiep tuc duyet T
1
theo kieu tien th t, sau o duyet T
2

theo kieu tien th t, cho en khi T
n
c duyet
theo kieu tien th t.
15-03-2013 95 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
Duyet cay theo kieu tien th t
Bc 1: tham r
Bc 2:
tham T
1

kieu tien th t
Bc 3:
tham T
2

kieu tien th t
Bc n + 1:
tham T
n

kieu tien th t
r
T
1
T
2
T
n
15-03-2013 96 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
V du 2. Duyet kieu tien th t se vieng tham
cac nh cua cay co goc va c sap di
ay theo th t nao?
a
d
g
i h
m l
o
n p
f
b
e
j
c
k
15-03-2013 97 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
V du 2.
a
o
n p
f
b
e
j
k
d
g
i h
m l
c
o
n p
e
j
k
a b f g
i h
m l
d c
a b e
j
o
n p
k f g
d c
m l i h
a b e
j k
n p o f g
d c
m l i h
15-03-2013 98 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
Thuat toan 1. Duyet kieu tien th t

procedure preorder(T: cay co goc va c sap)
r := goc cua T
liet ke r
for moi cay con c cua r t trai sang phai
begin
T(c) := cay con vi goc c
preorder(T(c))
end
15-03-2013 99 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
nh ngha 2. Gia s T la cay co goc va c sap
th t vi goc r.
Neu T ch co r th r la cach duyet trung th t cua T;
neu khong, th goi T
1
, T
2
,, T
n
la cac cay con tai r t
trai qua phai cua T,
duyet trung th t se bat au bang viec duyet T
1
theo kieu
trung th t,
sau o vieng tham r,
tiep tuc duyet T
2
theo kieu trung th t, tiep tuc duyet T
3
theo
kieu trung th t, cho en khi T
n
c duyet theo kieu
trung th t.
15-03-2013 100 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
Duyet cay theo kieu trung th t
Bc 2: tham r
Bc 1:
tham T
1

kieu trung th t
Bc 3:
tham T
2

kieu trung th t
Bc n + 1:
tham T
n

kieu trung th t
r
T
1
T
2
T
n
15-03-2013 101 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
V du 3. Duyet trung th t se vieng tham cac
nh cua cay co goc va c sap di ay
theo th t nao?
a
d
g
i h
m l
o
n p
f
b
e
j
c
k
15-03-2013 102 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
V du 3.
l
d
g
i h
m l
o
n p
f
b
e
j
k
a c
l
o
n p
e
j
k
a c g b f d h i
m
j e
o
n p
k
a c
b f d h i l g m
j e o p
n k
a c
b f d h i l g m
15-03-2013 103 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
Thuat toan 2. Duyet kieu trung th t

procedure inorder(T: cay co goc va c sap);
r := goc cua T
if r la la then liet ke r
else
begin
l := con au tien t trai sang phai cua r
T(l) := cay con vi goc l
inorder(T(l))
liet ke r
for moi cay con c cua r t trai sang phai tr l
T(c) := cay con vi goc c
inorder(T(c))
end
15-03-2013 104 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
nh ngha 3. Gia s T la cay co goc va c
sap th t vi goc r.
Neu T ch co r th r la cach duyet hau th t cua
T;
neu khong, th goi T
1
, T
2
,, T
n
la cac cay con tai
r t trai qua phai cua T,
duyet hau th t se bat au bang viec duyet T
1
theo
kieu hau th t, tiep tuc duyet T
2
theo kieu hau th
t,, cho en khi T
n
c duyet theo kieu hau th t.
cuoi cung vieng tham r.
15-03-2013 105 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
Duyet cay theo kieu hau th t

Bc n + 1: tham r
Bc 1:
tham T
1

kieu hau th t
Bc 2:
tham T
2

kieu hau th t
Bc n:
tham T
n

kieu hau th t
r
T
1
T
2
T
n
15-03-2013 106 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
V du 4. Duyet kieu hau th t se vieng tham
cac nh cua cay co goc va c sap di
ay theo th t nao?
a
d
g
i h
m l
o
n p
f
b
e
j
c
k
15-03-2013 107 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
V du 4.
o
n p
f
b
e
j
k
c d
g
i h
m l
a
o
n p
e
j
k
m l
i f b c g h a d
o
n p
j k e f b c m l g i h a d
j o k p
n e f b c m l g i h a d
15-03-2013 108 Do thi va Cay
Cac thuat toan duyet cay
Thuat toan 3. Duyet kieu hau th t
procedure postorder(T: cay co goc va c sap)
r := goc cua T
for moi cay con c cua r t trai sang phai
begin
T(c) := cay con vi goc c
postorder(T(c))
end
liet ke r
15-03-2013 109 Do thi va Cay
Cac ky phap trung to, tien to va hau
to
Bieu thc so hoc cha cac toan t +, , -, /, |
(luy tha)
Dung dau ngoac e bieu th th t cac phep toan.
Bieu dien bieu thc bang cay co goc va c
sap:
nh trong bieu th cac phep toan,
la bieu th cac so hay cac bien,
moi phep toan tac ong len cac cay con ben trai va
ben phai (theo th t nay).
15-03-2013 110 Do thi va Cay
Cac ky phap trung to, tien to va hau
to
V du 5. Tm cay co goc bieu dien bieu thc
((x + y) | 2) + ((x 4) / 3).
Xay dng cay nh phan cho bieu thc tren t di len.
+

x y x 4
|
2 +
x y
/
3
x
4
|
2 +
x y
/
3
x
4
+
15-03-2013 111 Do thi va Cay
Cac ky phap trung to, tien to va hau
to

Nhan c dang trung to cua bieu thc khi duyet
cay co goc theo kieu trung th t va dung cac
dau ngoac moi khi gap mot phep toan.
15-03-2013 112 Do thi va Cay
Cac ky phap trung to, tien to va hau
to
+ +
x y x
3
/
+
+ 3
x /
y x
y +
x
3
/
+
x
(x + y) / (x + 3)
((x + (y/x)) + 3 x + (y/(x + 3))

Duyet kieu trung to cac cay nh phan tren eu dan ti bieu
thc trung to x + y / x + 3. Can dung ngoac n trong cach
duyet trung th t moi khi gap mot phep toan!
15-03-2013 113 Do thi va Cay
Cac ky phap trung to, tien to va hau
to
Nhan c dang tien to cua bieu thc khi duyet
cay co goc theo kieu tien th t.
Bieu thc di dang tien to c goi la ky phap
Ba lan.
15-03-2013 114 Do thi va Cay
Cac ky phap trung to, tien to va hau
to
V du 6. Dang tien to cua bieu thc ((x + y) |
2) + ((x 4) / 3)
Duyet cay nh phan bieu dien bieu thc tren theo
kieu tien th t
Dang tien to: + | + x y 2 / x 4 3
15-03-2013 115 Do thi va Cay
Cac ky phap trung to, tien to va hau
to
V du 7. Tnh gia tr cua bieu thc tien to
+ * 2 3 5 / | 2 3 4

+ 1 2
1 + 2 = 3
15-03-2013 116 Do thi va Cay
Cac ky phap trung to, tien to va hau
to
Nhan c dang hau to cua mot bieu thc bang
cach duyet cay nh phan theo kieu hau th t.
Bieu thc di dang hau to c goi la ky phap
Ba lan ngc.
15-03-2013 117 Do thi va Cay
Cac ky phap trung to, tien to va hau
to
V du 8. Dang hau to cua bieu thc ((x + y) |
2) + ((x 4) / 3)
Duyet cay nh phan bieu dien bieu thc tren theo
kieu hau th t
Dang hau to: x y + 2 | x 4 3 / +

15-03-2013 118 Do thi va Cay
Cac ky phap trung to, tien to va hau
to
V du 9. Tm gia tr cua bieu thc hau to
7 2 3 * 4 | 9 3 / +
7 2 3 * 4 | 9 3 +
2*3 = 6
7 6 4 | 9 3 / +
7 6 = 1
1 4 | 9 3 / +
1**4 = 1
1 9 3 / +
9 / 3 = 3
1 3 +
1 + 3 = 4
15-03-2013 119 Do thi va Cay
Cac ky phap trung to, tien to va hau to
V du 10. Cay co goc va c sap bieu dien menh e logic phc hp

( (p . q)) ( p v q)
Xay dng cay nh phan co goc cho menh e tren t di len.
.

p q
p

q
.
p q

v
p q


.
p q
v
p q


15-03-2013 120 Do thi va Cay
Cac ky phap trung to, tien to va hau
to
( (p . q)) ( p v q)
Dang tien to
. p q v p q
Dang hau to
p q . p q v
Dang trung to
( (p . q)) (( p) v ( q))

.
p q
v
p q


Het.