Em Field Theory

Bo Thid

E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELD T HEORY
Bo Thid
Also available
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELD T HEORY

E XERCISES
by
Tobia Carozzi, Anders Eriksson, Bengt Lundborg,
Bo Thid and Mattias Waldenvik
Electromagnetic
Field Theory
Bo Thid
Swedish Institute of Space Physics
and
Department of Astronomy and Space Physics
Uppsala University, Sweden
AB
A
This book was typeset in L TEX 2
on an HP9000/700 series workstation
and printed on an HP LaserJet 5000GN printer.
Copyright 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001 by

Bo Thid
Uppsala, Sweden
All rights reserved.
Electromagnetic Field Theory
ISBN X-XXX-XXXXX-X
Contents
Preface
xi
1 Classical Electrodynamics
1.1 Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Coulombs law . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 The electrostatic eld . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Magnetostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.1 Ampres law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2.2 The magnetostatic eld . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.1 Equation of continuity for electric charge
1.3.2 Maxwells displacement current . . . . .
1.3.3 Electromotive force . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3.4 Faradays law of induction . . . . . . . .
1.3.5 Maxwells microscopic equations . . . .
1.3.6 Maxwells macroscopic equations . . . .
1.4 Electromagnetic Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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1
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Example 1.1 Faradays law as a consequence of conservation of magnetic charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Example 1.2 Duality of the electromagnetodynamic equations 18
Example 1.3 Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations for a
xed mixing angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Example 1.4 The complex eld six-vector . . . . . . . . . 20
Example 1.5 Duality expressed in the complex eld six-vector 20
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2 Electromagnetic Waves
2.1 The Wave Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.1 The wave equation for E . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.2 The wave equation for B . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.3 The time-independent wave equation for E
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Example 2.1 Wave equations in electromagnetodynamics
2.2
Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Telegraphers equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Waves in conductive media . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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ii
C ONTENTS
2.3 Observables and Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3
Electromagnetic Potentials
3.1 The Electrostatic Scalar Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 The Magnetostatic Vector Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 The Electrodynamic Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Electrodynamic gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lorentz equations for the electrodynamic potentials . .
Gauge transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.2 Solution of the Lorentz equations for the electromagnetic potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The retarded potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 3.1 Electromagnetodynamic potentials . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Relativistic Electrodynamics
4.1 The Special Theory of Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 The Lorentz transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2 Lorentz space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radius four-vector in contravariant and covariant form
Scalar product and norm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Metric tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Invariant line element and proper time . . . . . . . . .
Four-vector elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Lorentz transformation matrix . . . . . . . . . . .
The Lorentz group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3 Minkowski space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Covariant Classical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3 Covariant Classical Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.1 The four-potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.2 The Linard-Wiechert potentials . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.3 The electromagnetic eld tensor . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Electromagnetic Fields and Particles

5.1 Charged Particles in an Electromagnetic Field
5.1.1 Covariant equations of motion . . . .
Lagrange formalism . . . . . . . . .
Hamiltonian formalism . . . . . . . .
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Downloaded from http://www.plasma.uu.se/CED/Book
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Draft version released 2nd December 2001 at 19:44.
iii
5.2
Covariant Field Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

5.2.1 Lagrange-Hamilton formalism for elds and interactions 74
The electromagnetic eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Example 5.1 Field energy difference expressed in the eld
tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Other elds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6 Electromagnetic Fields and Matter
6.1 Electric Polarisation and Displacement . . . . . . . .
6.1.1 Electric multipole moments . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Magnetisation and the Magnetising Field . . . . . . .
6.3 Energy and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3.1 The energy theorem in Maxwells theory . .
6.3.2 The momentum theorem in Maxwells theory
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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85
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7 Electromagnetic Fields from Arbitrary Source Distributions

7.1 The Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 The Electric Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3 The Radiation Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4 Radiated Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.1 Monochromatic signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4.2 Finite bandwidth signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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95
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8 Electromagnetic Radiation and Radiating Systems

8.1 Radiation from Extended Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1.1 Radiation from a one-dimensional current distribution
8.1.2 Radiation from a two-dimensional current distribution
8.2 Multipole Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.1 The Hertz potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.2 Electric dipole radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.3 Magnetic dipole radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2.4 Electric quadrupole radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3 Radiation from a Localised Charge in Arbitrary Motion . . . .
8.3.1 The Linard-Wiechert potentials . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.2 Radiation from an accelerated point charge . . . . . .
The differential operator method . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 8.1 The elds from a uniformly moving charge .
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iv
C ONTENTS
8.3.3
Example 8.2 The convection potential and the convection force134

Radiation for small velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Bremsstrahlung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Example 8.3 Bremsstrahlung for low speeds and short acceleration times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8.3.4
Cyclotron and synchrotron radiation . . .

Cyclotron radiation . . . . . . . . . . . .
Synchrotron radiation . . . . . . . . . . .
Radiation in the general case . . . . . . .
Virtual photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3.5 Radiation from charges moving in matter
Vavilov-Cerenkov radiation . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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143
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F Formulae
F.1 The Electromagnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.1.1 Maxwells equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Constitutive relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.1.2 Fields and potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Vector and scalar potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lorentz gauge condition in vacuum . . . . . . . . . .
F.1.3 Force and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Poyntings vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Maxwells stress tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.2 Electromagnetic Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.2.1 Relationship between the eld vectors in a plane wave
F.2.2 The far elds from an extended source distribution . .
F.2.3 The far elds from an electric dipole . . . . . . . . . .
F.2.4 The far elds from a magnetic dipole . . . . . . . . .
F.2.5 The far elds from an electric quadrupole . . . . . . .
F.2.6 The elds from a point charge in arbitrary motion . . .
F.2.7 The elds from a point charge in uniform motion . . .
F.3 Special Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.3.1 Metric tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.3.2 Covariant and contravariant four-vectors . . . . . . . .
F.3.3 Lorentz transformation of a four-vector . . . . . . . .
F.3.4 Invariant line element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.3.5 Four-velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.3.6 Four-momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.3.7 Four-current density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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159
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F.3.8 Four-potential . . . . . . . . . . .
F.3.9 Field tensor . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.4 Vector Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
F.4.1 Spherical polar coordinates . . . .
Base vectors . . . . . . . . . . .
Directed line element . . . . . . .
Solid angle element . . . . . . . .
Directed area element . . . . . .
Volume element . . . . . . . . .
F.4.2 Vector formulae . . . . . . . . . .
General vector algebraic identities
General vector analytic identities .
Special identities . . . . . . . . .
Integral relations . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Appendices
163
163
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166
159
M Mathematical Methods
M.1 Scalars, Vectors and Tensors
M.1.1 Vectors . . . . . . .
Radius vector . . . .
M.1.2 Fields . . . . . . . .
Scalar elds . . . . .
Vector elds . . . .
Tensor elds . . . .
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Example M.1 Tensors in 3D space .
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167
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Example M.2 Contravariant and covariant vectors in at

Lorentz space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
M.1.3 Vector algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

Scalar product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Example M.3 Inner products in complex vector space . . . . 176
Example M.4 Scalar product, norm and metric in Lorentz
space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Example M.5 Metric in general relativity . . . . . . . . . . 177
Dyadic product .
Vector product .
M.1.4 Vector analysis .
The del operator
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Example M.6 The four-del operator in Lorentz space .
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178
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179
179
180
vi
C ONTENTS
The gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

Example M.7 Gradients of scalar functions of relative distances in 3D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
The divergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example M.8 Divergence in 3D . . . . . . . . . .
The Laplacian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example M.9 The Laplacian and the Dirac delta . .
The curl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example M.10 The curl of a gradient . . . . . . . .
Example M.11 The divergence of a curl . . . . . .
M.2 Analytical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M.2.1 Lagranges equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M.2.2 Hamiltons equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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182
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List of Figures
1.1
1.2
1.3
Coulomb interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Ampre interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Moving loop in a varying B eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.1
4.2
4.3
Relative motion of two inertial systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Rotation in a 2D Euclidean space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Minkowski diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.1
Linear one-dimensional mass chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
7.1
Radiation in the far zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
Linear antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electric dipole geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loop antenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Multipole radiation geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Electric dipole geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Radiation from a moving charge in vacuum . . . . . .
An accelerated charge in vacuum . . . . . . . . . . . .
Angular distribution of radiation during bremsstrahlung
Location of radiation during bremsstrahlung . . . . . .
Radiation from a charge in circular motion . . . . . . .
Synchrotron radiation lobe width . . . . . . . . . . . .
The perpendicular eld of a moving charge . . . . . .
Vavilov-Cerenkov cone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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108
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119
123
126
139
140
144
146
149
155
M.1 Tetrahedron-like volume element of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
vii
To the memory of professor

L EV M IKHAILOVICH E RUKHIMOV
dear friend, great physicist
and a truly remarkable human being.
If you understand, things are such as they are

If you do not understand, things are such as they are
G ENSHA
Preface
This book is the result of a twenty-ve year long love affair. In 1972, I took
my rst advanced course in electrodynamics at the Theoretical Physics department, Uppsala University. Shortly thereafter, I joined the research group there
and took on the task of helping my supervisor, professor P ER -O LOF F R MAN , with the preparation of a new version of his lecture notes on Electricity
Theory. These two things opened up my eyes for the beauty and intricacy of
electrodynamics, already at the classical level, and I fell in love with it.
Ever since that time, I have off and on had reason to return to electrodynamics, both in my studies, research and teaching, and the current book is the
result of my own teaching of a course in advanced electrodynamics at Uppsala
University some twenty odd years after I experienced the rst encounter with
this subject. The book is the outgrowth of the lecture notes that I prepared
for the four-credit course Electrodynamics that was introduced in the Uppsala University curriculum in 1992, to become the ve-credit course Classical
Electrodynamics in 1997. To some extent, parts of these notes were based on
lecture notes prepared, in Swedish, by B ENGT L UNDBORG who created, developed and taught the earlier, two-credit course Electromagnetic Radiation at
our faculty.
Intended primarily as a textbook for physics students at the advanced undergraduate or beginning graduate level, I hope the book may be useful for
research workers too. It provides a thorough treatment of the theory of electrodynamics, mainly from a classical eld theoretical point of view, and includes such things as electrostatics and magnetostatics and their unication
into electrodynamics, the electromagnetic potentials, gauge transformations,
covariant formulation of classical electrodynamics, force, momentum and energy of the electromagnetic eld, radiation and scattering phenomena, electromagnetic waves and their propagation in vacuum and in media, and covariant
Lagrangian/Hamiltonian eld theoretical methods for electromagnetic elds,
particles and interactions. The aim has been to write a book that can serve
both as an advanced text in Classical Electrodynamics and as a preparation for
studies in Quantum Electrodynamics and related subjects.
In an attempt to encourage participation by other scientists and students in
the authoring of this book, and to ensure its quality and scope to make it useful
in higher university education anywhere in the world, it was produced within
a World-Wide Web (WWW) project. This turned out to be a rather successful
xi
xii
P REFACE
move. By making an electronic version of the book freely down-loadable on

the net, I have not only received comments on it from fellow Internet physicists
around the world, but know, from WWW hit statistics that at the time of
writing this, the book serves as a frequently used Internet resource. This way
it is my hope that it will be particularly useful for students and researchers
working under nancial or other circumstances that make it difcult to procure
a printed copy of the book.
I am grateful not only to Per-Olof Frman and Bengt Lundborg for providing the inspiration for my writing this book, but also to C HRISTER WAHLBERG
and G RAN FLDT, Uppsala University, and YAKOV I STOMIN, Lebedev Institute, Moscow, for interesting discussions on electrodynamics and relativity
in general and on this book in particular. I also wish to thank my former
graduate students M ATTIAS WALDENVIK and T OBIA C AROZZI as well as
A NDERS E RIKSSON, all at the Swedish Institute of Space Physics, Uppsala
Division, who all have participated in the teaching and commented on the material covered in the course and in this book. Thanks are also due to my longterm space physics colleague H ELMUT KOPKA of the Max-Planck-Institut fr
Aeronomie, Lindau, Germany, who not only taught me about the practical aspects of the of high-power radio wave transmitters and transmission lines, but
A
also about the more delicate aspects of typesetting a book in TEX and LTEX.
I am particularly indebted to Academician professor V ITALIY L. G INZBURG
for his many fascinating and very elucidating lectures, comments and historical footnotes on electromagnetic radiation while cruising on the Volga river
during our joint Russian-Swedish summer schools.
Finally, I would like to thank all students and Internet users who have
downloaded and commented on the book during its life on the World-Wide
Web.
I dedicate this book to my son M ATTIAS, my daughter K AROLINA, my
high-school physics teacher, S TAFFAN RSBY, and to my fellow members of
the C APELLA P EDAGOGICA U PSALIENSIS.
Uppsala, Sweden
February, 2001
B O T HID
1
Classical
Electrodynamics
Classical electrodynamics deals with electric and magnetic elds and interactions caused by macroscopic distributions of electric charges and currents.
This means that the concepts of localised electric charges and currents assume
the validity of certain mathematical limiting processes in which it is considered
possible for the charge and current distributions to be localised in innitesimally small volumes of space. Clearly, this is in contradiction to electromagnetism on a truly microscopic scale, where charges and currents are known to
be spatially extended objects. However, the limiting processes used will yield
results which are correct on small as well as large macroscopic scales.
In this chapter we start with the force interactions in classical electrostatics and classical magnetostatics and introduce the static electric and magnetic
elds and nd two uncoupled systems of equations for them. Then we see how
the conservation of electric charge and its relation to electric current leads to
the dynamic connection between electricity and magnetism and how the two
can be unied in one theory, classical electrodynamics, described by one system of coupled dynamic eld equationsthe Maxwell equations.
At the end of the chapter we study Diracs symmetrised form of Maxwells
equations by introducing (hypothetical) magnetic charges and magnetic currents into the theory. While not identied unambiguously in experiments yet,
magnetic charges and currents make the theory much more appealing for instance by allowing for duality transformations in a most natural way.
1.1 Electrostatics
The theory which describes physical phenomena related to the interaction between stationary electric charges or charge distributions in space is called electrostatics.1 For a long time electrostatics was considered an independent phys1 The
famous physicist and philosopher Pierre Duhem (18611916) once wrote:
C LASSICAL E LECTRODYNAMICS
ical theory of its own, alongside other physical theories such as mechanics and
thermodynamics.
1.1.1 Coulombs law

It has been found experimentally that in classical electrostatics the interaction
between two stationary electrically charged bodies can be described in terms of
a mechanical force. Let us consider the simple case described by Figure 1.1 on
the facing page. Let F denote the force acting on a electrically charged particle
with charge q located at x, due to the presence of a charge q located at x .
According to Coulombs law this force is, in vacuum, given by the expression
1
|x x |
qq
40
qq
qq x x
=
3
40 |x x |
40
1
|x x |
F(x) =
(1.1)
where in the last step Equation (M.80) on page 181 was used. In SI units,
which we shall use throughout, the force F is measured in Newton (N), the
electric charges q and q in Coulomb (C) [= Ampre-seconds (As)], and the
length |x x | in metres (m). The constant 0 = 107 /(4c2 ) 8.8542 1012
Farad per metre (F/m) is the vacuum permittivity and c 2.9979 108 m/s
is the speed of light in vacuum. In CGS units 0 = 1/(4) and the force is
measured in dyne, electric charge in statcoulomb, and length in centimetres
(cm).
1.1.2 The electrostatic eld

Instead of describing the electrostatic interaction in terms of a force action
at a distance, it turns out that it is often more convenient to introduce the
concept of a eld and to describe the electrostatic interaction in terms of a
static vectorial electric eld Estat dened by the limiting process
def
Estat lim
q0
F
q
(1.2)
where F is the electrostatic force, as dened in Equation (1.1), from a net

electric charge q on the test particle with a small electric net electric charge q.
The whole theory of electrostatics constitutes a group of abstract ideas and
general propositions, formulated in the clear and concise language of geometry
and algebra, and connected with one another by the rules of strict logic. This
whole fully satises the reason of a French physicist and his taste for clarity,
simplicity and order. . .
1.1
E LECTROSTATICS
xx
q
x
O
F IGURE 1.1: Coulombs law describes how a static electric charge q,
located at a point x relative to the origin O, experiences an electrostatic
force from a static electric charge q located at x .
Since the purpose of the limiting process is to assure that the test charge q does
not inuence the eld, the expression for Estat does not depend explicitly on q
but only on the charge q and the relative radius vector x x . This means that
we can say that any net electric charge produces an electric eld in the space
that surrounds it, regardless of the existence of a second charge anywhere in
this space.1
Using (1.1) and Equation (1.2) on the preceding page, and Formula (F.71)
on page 165, we nd that the electrostatic eld Estat at the eld point x (also
known as the observation point), due to a eld-producing electric charge q at
the source point x , is given by
1
|x x |
q
40
q
q xx
=
40 |x x |3
40
1
|x x |
Estat (x) =
(1.3)
where in the last step Equation (M.80) on page 181 was used.
In the presence of several eld producing discrete electric charges qi , located at the points xi , i = 1, 2, 3, . . . , respectively, in an otherwise empty space,
1 In
the preface to the rst edition of the rst volume of his book A Treatise on Electricity
and Magnetism, rst published in 1873, James Clerk Maxwell describes this in the following,
almost poetic, manner [6]:
For instance, Faraday, in his minds eye, saw lines of force traversing all space
where the mathematicians saw centres of force attracting at a distance: Faraday
saw a medium where they saw nothing but distance: Faraday sought the seat of
the phenomena in real actions going on in the medium, they were satised that
they had found it in a power of action at a distance impressed on the electric
uids.
the assumption of linearity of vacuum1 allows us to superimpose their individual E elds into a total E eld
x xi
1
Estat (x) =
q
(1.4)
40 i x x 3
i
If the discrete electric charges are small and numerous enough, we introduce the electric charge density located at x and write the total eld as
1
xx 3
1
1
d x =
(x )
(x )
d3x
3
40 V
40 V
|x x |
|x x |
(1.5)
(x ) 3
1
=
dx
40 V |x x |
where we used Formula (F.71) on page 165 and the fact that (x ) does not depend on the unprimed coordinates on which operates. We emphasise that
Equation (1.5) above is valid for an arbitrary distribution of electric charges,
including discrete charges, in which case can be expressed in terms of one or
more Dirac delta distributions.
Since, according to formula Equation (M.90) on page 184, [ (x)] 0
for any 3D 3 scalar eld (x), we immediately nd that in electrostatics
Estat (x) =
1
40
(x ) 3
dx
|x x |
Estat (x) =
=0
(1.6)
i.e., that Estat is an irrotational eld.

Taking the divergence of the general Estat expression for an arbitrary electric charge distribution, Equation (1.5), and using the representation of the
Dirac delta distribution, Equation (M.85) on page 183, we nd that
1
xx 3
(x )
dx
40 V
|x x |3
1
1
(x )
d3x
=
40 V
|x x |
1
1
=
(x ) 2
d3x
40 V
|x x |
1
=
(x )(x x ) d3x
0 V
(x)
=
0
which is Gausss law in differential form.
(1.7)
Estat (x) =
1 In
fact, vacuum exhibits a quantum mechanical nonlinearity due to vacuum polarisation

effects manifesting themselves in the momentary creation and annihilation of electron-positron
pairs, but classically this nonlinearity is negligible.
1.2
M AGNETOSTATICS
1.2 Magnetostatics
While electrostatics deals with static electric charges, magnetostatics deals
with stationary electric currents, i.e., electric charges moving with constant
speeds, and the interaction between these currents. Let us discuss this theory
in some detail.
1.2.1 Ampres law

Experiments on the interaction between two small loops of electric current
have shown that they interact via a mechanical force, much the same way that
electric charges interact. Let F denote such a force acting on a small loop C
carrying a current J located at x, due to the presence of a small loop C carrying
a current J located at x . According to Ampres law this force is, in vacuum,
given by the expression
dl dl
C C
dl (x x )
|x x |3
C C
dl
1
|x x |
(1.8)

0 JJ
4
0 JJ
=
4
F(x) =
Here dl and dl are tangential line elements of the loops C and C , respectively,
and, in SI units, 0 = 4 107 1.2566 106 H/m is the vacuum permeability. From the denition of 0 and 0 (in SI units) we observe that
107
1
(F/m) 4 107 (H/m) = 2 (s2 /m2 )
(1.9)
2
4c
c
which is a useful relation.
At rst glance, Equation (1.8) above may appear unsymmetric in terms
of the loops and therefore to be a force law which is in contradiction with
Newtons third law. However, by applying the vector triple product bac-cab
Formula (F.54) on page 164, we can rewrite (1.8) as
0 0 =
C C
dl
1
|x x |

0 JJ
4
0 JJ
F(x) =
dl
(1.10)
xx
dl dl
3
C C |x x |
Recognising the fact that the integrand in the rst integral is an exact differential so that this integral vanishes, we can rewrite the force expression, Equation (1.8) above, in the following symmetric way
0 JJ
4
F(x) =
C C
xx
dl dl
|x x |3
(1.11)
J
C
dl
xx
dl
x
C
J
x
O
F IGURE 1.2: Ampres law describes how a small loop C, carrying a
static electric current J through its tangential line element dl located at
x, experiences a magnetostatic force from a small loop C , carrying a
static electric current J through the tangential line element dl located at
x . The loops can have arbitrary shapes as long as they are simple and
closed.
This clearly exhibits the expected symmetry in terms of loops C and C .
1.2.2 The magnetostatic eld

In analogy with the electrostatic case, we may attribute the magnetostatic interaction to a vectorial magnetic eld Bstat . I turns out that Bstat can be dened
through
def
dBstat (x)
0 J
xx
dl
4
|x x |3
(1.12)
which expresses the small element dBstat (x) of the static magnetic eld set
up at the eld point x by a small line element dl of stationary current J at
the source point x . The SI unit for the magnetic eld, sometimes called the
magnetic ux density or magnetic induction, is Tesla (T).
If we generalise expression (1.12) to an integrated steady state electric
current density j(x), we obtain Biot-Savarts law:
j(x )
1
d3x
|x x |
xx 3
0
0
j(x )
d x =
3
4 V
4
|x x |
j(x ) 3
0
=
dx
4
V xx
Bstat (x) =
(1.13)
1.2
M AGNETOSTATICS
where we used Formula (F.71) on page 165, Formula (F.60) on page 165, and
the fact that j(x ) does not depend on the unprimed coordinates on which
operates. Comparing Equation (1.5) on page 4 with Equation (1.13) on the
facing page, we see that there exists a close analogy between the expressions
for Estat and Bstat but that they differ in their vectorial characteristics. With this
denition of Bstat , Equation (1.8) on page 5 may we written
F(x) = J
dl Bstat (x)
(1.14)
In order to assess the properties of Bstat , we determine its divergence and

curl. Taking the divergence of both sides of Equation (1.13) on the facing page
and utilising Formula (F.61) on page 165, we obtain
j(x ) 3
dx
xx
=0
Bstat (x) =
(1.15)
since, according to Formula (F.66) on page 165, ( a) vanishes for any

vector eld a(x).
Applying the operator bac-cab rule, Formula (F.67) on page 165, the curl
of Equation (1.13) on the facing page can be written
1
d3x
|x x |
(1.16)
j(x )
0
4
j(x ) 3
dx =
V xx
1
0
d3x +
[j(x )
4 V
|x x |
Bstat (x) =
In the rst of the two integrals on the right hand side, we use the representation
of the Dirac delta function given in Formula (F.72) on page 165, and integrate
the second one by parts, by utilising Formula (F.59) on page 165 as follows:
j(x )
1
d3x
|x x |
1
d3x
|x x |

V
j(x )

V
d3x
1
d3x
|x x |
V
1
= xk
j(x )
xk |x x |
V
1
= xk j(x )
dS
xk |x x |
S
[j(x )
(1.17)
Then we note that the rst integral in the result, obtained by applying Gausss
theorem, vanishes when integrated over a large sphere far away from the localised source j(x ), and that the second integral vanishes because j = 0 for
stationary currents (no charge accumulation in space). The net result is simply
Bstat (x) = 0
j(x )(x x ) d3x = 0 j(x)
(1.18)
1.3 Electrodynamics
As we saw in the previous sections, the laws of electrostatics and magnetostatics can be summarised in two pairs of time-independent, uncoupled vector
differential equations, namely the equations of classical electrostatics
(x)
0
stat
E (x) = 0
Estat (x) =
(1.19a)
(1.19b)
and the equations of classical magnetostatics

Bstat (x) = 0
stat
(1.20a)
(x) = 0 j(x)
(1.20b)
Since there is nothing a priori which connects Estat directly with Bstat , we must
consider classical electrostatics and classical magnetostatics as two independent theories.
However, when we include time-dependence, these theories are unied
into one theory, classical electrodynamics. This unication of the theories of
electricity and magnetism is motivated by two empirically established facts:
1. Electric charge is a conserved quantity and electric current is a transport
of electric charge. This fact manifests itself in the equation of continuity
and, as a consequence, in Maxwells displacement current.
2. A change in the magnetic ux through a loop will induce an EMF electric eld in the loop. This is the celebrated Faradays law of induction.
1.3.1 Equation of continuity for electric charge

Let j denote the electric current density (measured in A/m2 ). In the simplest
case it can be dened as j = v where v is the velocity of the electric charge
density . In general, j has to be dened in statistical mechanical terms as
1.3
E LECTRODYNAMICS
j(t, x) = qe v f (t, x, v) d3v where f (t, x, v) is the (normalised) distribution
function for particle species with electric charge qe .
The electric charge conservation law can be formulated in the equation of

continuity
(t, x)
+ j(t, x) = 0
t
(1.21)
which states that the time rate of change of electric charge (t, x) is balanced
by a divergence in the electric current density j(t, x).
1.3.2 Maxwells displacement current

We recall from the derivation of Equation (1.18) on the preceding page that
there we used the fact that in magnetostatics j(x) = 0. In the case of nonstationary sources and elds, we must, in accordance with the continuity Equation (1.21), set j(t, x) = (t, x)/t. Doing so, and formally repeating the
steps in the derivation of Equation (1.18) on the preceding page, we would
obtain the formal result
0
4 t
(t, x )
= 0 j(t, x) + 0 0 E(t, x)
t
j(t, x )(x x ) d3x +
1
d3x
|x x |
B(t, x) = 0
(1.22)
where, in the last step, we have assumed that a generalisation of Equation (1.5)
on page 4 to time-varying elds allows us to make the identication
(t, x )
V
1
d3x =
t
40
|x x |
= E(t, x)
t
1
d3x
|x x |
(t, x )
1
40 t
(1.23)
Later, we will need to consider this formal result further. The result is Maxwells
source equation for the B eld
0 E(t, x)
t
B(t, x) = 0 j(t, x) +
(1.24)
where the last term 0 E(t, x)/t is the famous displacement current. This
term was introduced, in a stroke of genius, by Maxwell in order to make the
10
right hand side of this equation divergence free when j(t, x) is assumed to represent the density of the total electric current, which can be split up in ordinary conduction currents, polarisation currents and magnetisation currents.
The displacement current is an extra term which behaves like a current density
owing in vacuum. As we shall see later, its existence has far-reaching physical consequences as it predicts the existence of electromagnetic radiation that
can carry energy and momentum over very long distances, even in vacuum.
1.3.3 Electromotive force

If an electric eld E(t, x) is applied to a conducting medium, a current density
j(t, x) will be produced in this medium. There exist also hydrodynamical and
chemical processes which can create currents. Under certain physical conditions, and for certain materials, one can sometimes assume a linear relationship
between the electric current density j and E, called Ohms law:
j(t, x) = E(t, x)
(1.25)
where is the electric conductivity (S/m). In the most general cases, for instance in an anisotropic conductor, is a tensor.
We can view Ohms law, Equation (1.25) above, as the rst term in a Taylor
expansion of the law j[E(t, x)]. This general law incorporates non-linear effects
such as frequency mixing. Examples of media which are highly non-linear are
semiconductors and plasma. We draw the attention to the fact that even in cases
when the linear relation between E and j is a good approximation, we still have
to use Ohms law with care. The conductivity is, in general, time-dependent
(temporal dispersive media) but then it is often the case that Equation (1.25) is
valid for each individual Fourier component of the eld.
If the current is caused by an applied electric eld E(t, x), this electric eld
will exert work on the charges in the medium and, unless the medium is superconducting, there will be some energy loss. The rate at which this energy is
expended is j E per unit volume. If E is irrotational (conservative), j will
decay away with time. Stationary currents therefore require that an electric
eld which corresponds to an electromotive force (EMF) is present. In the
presence of such a eld EEMF , Ohms law, Equation (1.25) above, takes the
form
j = (Estat + EEMF )
(1.26)
The electromotive force is dened as
E=
(Estat + EEMF ) dl
(1.27)
1.3
11
E LECTRODYNAMICS
where dl is a tangential line element of the closed loop C.
1.3.4 Faradays law of induction

In Subsection 1.1.2 we derived the differential equations for the electrostatic
eld. In particular, on page 4 we derived Equation (1.6) which states that
Estat (x) = 0 and thus that Estat is a conservative eld (it can be expressed
as a gradient of a scalar eld). This implies that the closed line integral of
Estat in Equation (1.27) on the preceding page vanishes and that this equation
becomes
E=
EEMF dl
(1.28)
It has been established experimentally that a nonconservative EMF eld is

produced in a closed circuit C if the magnetic ux through this circuit varies
with time. This is formulated in Faradays law which, in Maxwells generalised form, reads
d
dt
E(t, x) dl =
S
d
m (t, x)
dt
B(t, x) dS =
E(t, x) =
dS
B(t, x)
t
(1.29)
where m is the magnetic ux and S is the surface encircled by C which can be

interpreted as a generic stationary loop and not necessarily as a conducting
circuit. Application of Stokes theorem on this integral equation, transforms it
into the differential equation
E(t, x) =
B(t, x)
t
(1.30)
which is valid for arbitrary variations in the elds and constitutes the Maxwell
equation which explicitly connects electricity with magnetism.
Any change of the magnetic ux m will induce an EMF. Let us therefore
consider the case, illustrated if Figure 1.3.4 on the following page, that the
loop is moved in such a way that it links a magnetic eld which varies during
the movement. The convective derivative is evaluated according to the wellknown operator formula
d
= +v
dt t
(1.31)
12
dS
B(x)
v
C
dl
B(x)
F IGURE 1.3: A loop C which moves with velocity v in a spatially varying

magnetic eld B(x) will sense a varying magnetic ux during the motion.
which follows immediately from the rules of differentiation of an arbitrary

differentiable function f (t, x(t)). Applying this rule to Faradays law, Equation (1.29) on the previous page, we obtain
B dS =
d
dt
dS
E(t, x) =
(v )B dS
(1.32)
During spatial differentiation v is to be considered as constant, and Equation (1.15) on page 7 holds also for time-varying elds:
B(t, x) = 0
(1.33)
(it is one of Maxwells equations) so that, according to Formula (F.62) on

page 165,
(B v) = (v )B
(1.34)
1.3
13
E LECTRODYNAMICS
allowing us to rewrite Equation (1.32) on the facing page in the following way:
B
dS
t
d
dt
EEMF dl =
E(t, x) =
B dS
(1.35)
(B v) dS
With Stokes theorem applied to the last integral, we nally get
(EEMF v B) dl =
or, rearranging the terms,
EEMF dl =
B
dS
t
B
dS
t
E(t, x) =
(B v) dl
(1.36)
(1.37)
where EEMF is the eld which is induced in the loop, i.e., in the moving
system. The use of Stokes theorem backwards on Equation (1.37) above
yields
(EEMF v B) =
B
t
(1.38)
In the xed system, an observer measures the electric eld

E = EEMF v B
(1.39)
Hence, a moving observer measures the following Lorentz force on a charge q

qEEMF = qE + q(v B)
(1.40)
corresponding to an effective electric eld in the loop (moving observer)

EEMF = E + (v B)
(1.41)
Hence, we can conclude that for a stationary observer, the Maxwell equation
E =
B
t
(1.42)
is indeed valid even if the loop is moving.
14
1.3.5 Maxwells microscopic equations

We are now able to collect the results from the above considerations and formulate the equations of classical electrodynamics valid for arbitrary variations
in time and space of the coupled electric and magnetic elds E(t, x) and B(t, x).
The equations are
E =
(t, x)
0
(1.43a)
B
=0
t
B = 0
E
B 0 0
= 0 j(t, x)
t
E+
(1.43b)
(1.43c)
(1.43d)
In these equations (t, x) represents the total, possibly both time and space dependent, electric charge, i.e., free as well as induced (polarisation) charges,
and j(t, x) represents the total, possibly both time and space dependent, electric current, i.e., conduction currents (motion of free charges) as well as all
atomistic (polarisation, magnetisation) currents. As they stand, the equations
therefore incorporate the classical interaction between all electric charges and
currents in the system and are called Maxwells microscopic equations. Another name often used for them is the Maxwell-Lorentz equations. Together
with the appropriate constitutive relations, which relate and j to the elds,
and the initial and boundary conditions pertinent to the physical situation at
hand, they form a system of well-posed partial differential equations which
completely determine E and B.
1.3.6 Maxwells macroscopic equations

The microscopic eld equations (1.43) provide a correct classical picture for
arbitrary eld and source distributions, including both microscopic and macroscopic scales. However, for macroscopic substances it is sometimes convenient
to introduce new derived elds which represent the electric and magnetic elds
in which, in an average sense, the material properties of the substances are
already included. These elds are the electric displacement D and the magnetising eld H. In the most general case, these derived elds are complicated
nonlocal, nonlinear functionals of the primary elds E and B:
D = D[t, x; E, B]
(1.44a)
H = H[t, x; E, B]
(1.44b)
1.4
15
E LECTROMAGNETIC D UALITY
Under certain conditions, for instance for very low eld strengths, we may
assume that the response of a substance to the elds is linear so that
D = E
(1.45)
(1.46)
H= B
i.e., that the derived elds are linearly proportional to the primary elds and
that the electric displacement (magnetising eld) is only dependent on the electric (magnetic) eld.
The eld equations expressed in terms of the derived eld quantities D and
H are
D = (t, x)
B
E+
=0
t
B = 0
D
H
= j(t, x)
t
(1.47a)
(1.47b)
(1.47c)
(1.47d)
and are called Maxwells macroscopic equations. We will study them in more
detail in Chapter 6.
1.4 Electromagnetic Duality

If we look more closely at the microscopic Maxwell equations (1.48), we see
that they exhibit a certain, albeit not a complete, symmetry. Let us further
make the ad hoc assumption that there exist magnetic monopoles represented
by a magnetic charge density, denoted m = m (t, x), and a magnetic current
density, denoted jm = jm (t, x). With these new quantities included in the theory,
and with the elecric charge density denoted e and the electric current density
denoted je , the Maxwell equations can be written
E =
e
0
B
= 0 jm
t
B = 0 m
E
= 0 je
B 0 0
t
E+
(1.48a)
(1.48b)
(1.48c)
(1.48d)
16
We shall call these equations Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations or the

electromagnetodynamic equations
Taking the divergence of (1.48b), we nd that
( E) =
( B) 0 jm 0
t
(1.49)
where we used the fact that, according to Formula (M.94) on page 184, the
divergence of a curl always vanishes. Using (1.48c) to rewrite this relation, we
obtain the equation of continuity for magnetic monopoles
m
+ jm = 0
t
(1.50)
which has the same form as that for the electric monopoles (electric charges)
and currents, Equation (1.21) on page 9.
We notice that the new Equations (1.48) on the preceding page exhibit the
following symmetry (recall that 0 0 = 1/c2 ):
E cB
(1.51a)
cB E
e
(1.51b)
(1.51c)
c
e
cj j
(1.51d)
j cj
(1.51e)
(1.51f)
which is a particular case ( = /2) of the general duality transformation (depicted by the Hodge star operator)
E = E cos + cB sin
(1.52a)
c B = E sin + cB cos
(1.52b)
c = c cos + sin
m
= c sin + cos
e
c j = cj cos + j sin
m
j = cj sin + j cos
(1.52c)
(1.52d)
(1.52e)
(1.52f)
which leaves the symmetrised Maxwell equations, and hence the physics they
describe (often referred to as electromagnetodynamics), invariant. Since E and
je are (true or polar) vectors, B a pseudovector (axial vector), e a (true) scalar,
then m and , which behaves as a mixing angle in a two-dimensional charge
space, must be pseudoscalars and jm a pseudovector.
1.4
17
FARADAY S LAW AS
E XAMPLE 1.1
A CONSEQUENCE OF CONSERVATION OF MAGNETIC CHARGE
Postulate 1.1 (Indestructibility of magnetic charge). Magnetic charge exists and is

indestructible in the same way that electric charge exists and is indestructible. In other
words we postulate that there exists an equation of continuity for magnetic charges.
Use this postulate and Diracs symmetrised form of Maxwells equations to derive
Faradays law.
The assumption of existence of magnetic charges suggests that there exists a Coulomb
law for magnetic elds:
V
m (x )
1
d3x
|x x |
"
0
0
xx 3
d x =
m (x )
4 V
4
x |3
|x
1
0
m (x )
d3x
=
4
|x x |
V
Bstat (x) =
(1.53)
"
[cf. Equation (1.5) on page 4 for Estat ] and, if magnetic currents exist, a Biot-Savart
law for electric elds:
V
jm (x )
0
xx 3
dx =
4
|x x |3
jm (x )
0
4
1
d3x
|x x |
(1.54)
"
Estat (x) =
Taking the curl of the latter and using the operator bac-cab rule, Formula (F.62) on
page 165, we nd that
"
jm (x )
1
d3x
|x x |
(1.55)
"
0
4
jm (x ) 3
dx =
V xx
1
0
d3x +
[jm (x )
4 V
|x x |
"
Estat (x) =
Comparing with Equation (1.16) on page 7 for Estat and the evaluation of the integrals
there we obtain
Estat (x) = 0
jm (x )(x x ) d3x = 0 jm (x)
(1.56)
We assume that Formula (1.54) is valid also for time-varying magnetic currents. Then,
with the use of the representation of the Dirac delta function, Equation (M.85) on
page 183, the equation of continuity for magnetic charge, Equation (1.50) on the facing page, and the assumption of the generalisation of Equation (1.53) above to timedependent magnetic charge distributions, we obtain, formally,
jm (t, x )(x x ) d3x
= 0 jm (t, x)
B(t, x)
t
0
4 t
m (t, x )
V
1
d3x
|x x |
"
E(t, x) = 0
(1.57)
18
[cf. Equation (1.22) on page 9] which we recognise as Equation (1.48b) on page 15.
A transformation of this electromagnetodynamic result by rotating into the electric
realm of charge space, thereby letting jm tend to zero, yields the electrodynamic
Equation (1.48b) on page 15, i.e., the Faraday law in the ordinary Maxwell equations.
By postulating the indestructibility of an hypothetical magnetic charge, we have
thereby been able to replace Faradays experimental results on electromotive forces
and induction in loops as a foundation for the Maxwell equations by a more appealing
one.
E ND
E XAMPLE 1.2
OF EXAMPLE
1.1
D UALITY OF THE ELECTROMAGNETODYNAMIC EQUATIONS
Show that the symmetric, electromagnetodynamic form of Maxwells equations

(Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations), Equations (1.48) on page 15, are invariant under the duality transformation (1.52).
Explicit application of the transformation yields
e
cos + c0 m sin
0
1
e
1
=
e cos + m sin =
0
c
0
B
1
= (E cos + cB sin ) +
E+
E sin + B cos
t
t
c
B
1 E
= 0 jm cos
cos + c0 je sin +
sin
t
c t
1 E
B
sin +
cos = 0 jm cos + c0 je sin
c t
t
= 0 (cje sin + jm cos ) = 0 jm
1
e
B = ( E sin + B cos ) =
sin + 0 m cos
c
c0
= 0 ce sin + m cos = 0 m
E=
(E cos + cB sin ) =
"
(1.60)
1
1
( E sin + B cos ) 2 (E cos + cB sin )
c
c t
1 m
1 B
1 E
= 0 j sin +
cos + 0 je cos + 2
cos
c
c t
c t
(1.61)
1 E
1 B
2
cos
sin
c t
c t
1 m
= 0
j sin + je cos = 0 je
c
OF EXAMPLE
1.2
"
QED
E ND
(1.59)
1 E
=
c2 t
"
(1.58)
1.4
19
D IRAC S SYMMETRISED M AXWELL EQUATIONS FOR A
E XAMPLE 1.3
FIXED MIXING ANGLE
Show that for a xed mixing angle such that

m = ce tan
jm = cje tan
(1.62a)
(1.62b)
the symmetrised Maxwell equations reduce to the usual Maxwell equations.

Explicit application of the xed mixing angle conditions on the duality transformation
(1.52) on page 16 yields
1
1
e = e cos + m sin = e cos + ce tan sin
c
c
1
1 e
e
2
e
2
( cos + sin ) =
=
cos
cos
m = ce sin + ce tan cos = ce sin + ce sin = 0
1 e
1 e 2
(j cos + je sin2 ) =
j
je = je cos + je tan sin =
cos
cos
jm = cje sin + cje tan cos = cje sin + cje sin = 0
(1.63a)
(1.63b)
(1.63c)
(1.63d)
Hence, a xed mixing angle, or, equivalently, a xed ratio between the electric and
magnetic charges/currents, hides the magnetic monopole inuence ( m and jm ) on
the dynamic equations.
We notice that the inverse of the transformation given by Equation (1.52) on page 16
yields
E = E cos c B sin
(1.64)
This means that

E =
E cos c B sin
(1.65)
Furthermore, from the expressions for the transformed charges and currents above, we
nd that
e
1 e
E=
=
(1.66)
0
cos 0
and
B = 0 m = 0
(1.67)
so that
e
1 e
cos 0 =
cos 0
0
(1.68)
and so on for the other equations.
QED
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
E =
1.3
20
The invariance of Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations under the similarity transformation means that the amount of magnetic monopole density
m is irrelevant for the physics as long as the ratio m /e = tan is kept constant. So whether we assume that the particles are only electrically charged or
have also a magnetic charge with a given, xed ratio between the two types
of charges is a matter of convention, as long as we assume that this fraction is
the same for all particles. Such particles are referred to as dyons. By varying
the mixing angle we can change the fraction of magnetic monopoles at will
without changing the laws of electrodynamics. For = 0 we recover the usual
Maxwell electrodynamics as we know it.
E XAMPLE 1.4
T HE
COMPLEX FIELD SIX - VECTOR
The complex eld six-vector

G(t, x) = E(t, x) + icB(t, x)
and hence G
'
&
where E, B
(1.69)
3,
has a number of interesting properties:
1. The inner product of G with itself

G G = (E + icB) (E + icB) = E 2 c2 B2 + 2icE B
(1.70)
is conserved. I.e.,
E 2 c2 B2 = Const
E B = Const
(1.71a)
(1.71b)
as we shall see later.

2. The inner product of G with the complex conjugate of itself
G G = (E + icB) (E icB) = E 2 + c2 B2
(1.72)
is proportional to the electromagnetic eld energy.

3. As with any vector, the cross product of G itself vanishes:
G G = (E + icB) (E + icB)
= E E c2 B B + ic(E B) + ic(B E)
= 0 + 0 + ic(E B) ic(E B) = 0
(1.73)
4. The cross product of G with the complex conjugate of itself

G G = (E + icB) (E icB)
= E E + c2 B B ic(E B) + ic(B E)
= 0 + 0 ic(E B) ic(E B) = 2ic(E B)
(1.74)
is proportional to the electromagnetic power ux.
E ND
OF EXAMPLE
1.4
1.4
21
B IBLIOGRAPHY
D UALITY EXPRESSED IN
THE COMPLEX FIELD SIX - VECTOR
E XAMPLE 1.5
Expressed in the complex eld vector, introduced in Example 1.4 on the facing page,
the duality transformation Equations (1.52) on page 16 become
G = E + ic B = E cos + cB sin iE sin + icB cos
(1.75)
= E(cos i sin ) + icB(cos i sin ) = ei (E + icB) = ei G
from which it is easy to see that
while
(( ((
G G =
= ei G ei G = |F|2
(1.76)
G G = e2i G G
(1.77)
Furthermore, assuming that = (t, x), we see that the spatial and temporal differentiation of G leads to
G
t G
= i(t )ei G + ei t G
(1.78a)
t
G G = iei G + ei G
(1.78b)
G
G = iei G + ei G
(1.78c)
which means that t G transforms as G itself if is time-independent, and that

and G transform as G itself if is space-independent.
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
G
1.5
Bibliography
[1] R. B ECKER, Electromagnetic Fields and Interactions, Dover Publications, Inc.,
New York, NY, 1982, ISBN 0-486-64290-9.
[2] W. G REINER, Classical Electrodynamics, Springer-Verlag, New York, Berlin,
Heidelberg, 1996, ISBN 0-387-94799-X.
[3] E. H ALLN, Electromagnetic Theory, Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London, 1962.
[4] J. D. JACKSON, Classical Electrodynamics, third ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
[5] L. D. L ANDAU AND E. M. L IFSHITZ, The Classical Theory of Fields, fourth revised English ed., vol. 2 of Course of Theoretical Physics, Pergamon Press, Ltd.,
Oxford . . . , 1975, ISBN 0-08-025072-6.
[6] J. C. M AXWELL, A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism, third ed., vol. 1,
Dover Publications, Inc., New York, NY, 1954, ISBN 0-486-60636-8.
22
[7] D. B. M ELROSE AND R. C. M C P HEDRAN, Electromagnetic Processes in Dispersive Media, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge . . . , 1991, ISBN 0-52141025-8.
[8] W. K. H. PANOFSKY AND M. P HILLIPS, Classical Electricity and Magnetism,
second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1962,
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
[9] J. S CHWINGER, A magnetic model of matter, Science, 165 (1969), pp. 757761.
[10] J. S CHWINGER , L. L. D E R AAD , J R ., K. A. M ILTON , AND W. T SAI, Classical
Electrodynamics, Perseus Books, Reading, MA, 1998, ISBN 0-7382-0056-5.
[11] J. A. S TRATTON, Electromagnetic Theory, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.,
New York, NY and London, 1953, ISBN 07-062150-0.
[12] J. VANDERLINDE, Classical Electromagnetic Theory, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, and Singapore, 1993, ISBN 0-47157269-1.
2
Electromagnetic
Waves
In this chapter we investigate the dynamical properties of the electromagnetic

eld by deriving an set of equations which are alternatives to the Maxwell
equations. It turns out that these alternative equations are wave equations,
indicating that electromagnetic waves are natural and common manifestations
of electrodynamics.
Maxwells microscopic equations (1.43) on page 14, which are usually
written in the following form
(t, x)
0
B
E =
t
B = 0
E =
B = 0 j(t, x) + 0 0
(2.1a)
(2.1b)
(2.1c)
E
t
(2.1d)
can be viewed as an axiomatic basis for classical electrodynamics. In particular, these equations are well suited for calculating the electric and magnetic
elds E and B from given, prescribed charge distributions (t, x) and current
distributions j(t, x) of arbitrary time- and space-dependent form.
However, as is well known from the theory of differential equations, these
four rst order, coupled partial differential vector equations can be rewritten
as two un-coupled, second order partial equations, one for E and one for B.
We shall derive these second order equations which, as we shall see are wave
equations, and then discuss the implications of them. We shall also show how
the B wave eld can be easily calculated from the solution of the E wave
equation.
23
24
E LECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
2.1 The Wave Equations

We restrict ourselves to derive the wave equations for the electric eld vector
E and the magnetic eld vector B in a volume with no net charge, = 0, and
no electromotive force EEMF = 0.
2.1.1 The wave equation for E

In order to derive the wave equation for E we take the curl of (2.1b) and using
(2.1d), to obtain
( B) = 0
j + 0 E
t
t
t
( E) =
(2.2)
According to the operator triple product bac-cab rule Equation (F.67) on

page 165
2
( E) = ( E)
(2.3)
Furthermore, since = 0, Equation (2.1a) on the previous page yields

E = 0
(2.4)
and since EEMF = 0, Ohms law, Equation (1.26) on page 10, yields
j = E
(2.5)
we nd that Equation (2.2) can be rewritten
E + 0 E = 0
t
t
E 0
(2.6)
or, also using Equation (1.9) on page 5 and rearranging,

2
E 0
E 1 2 E
=0
t c2 t2
(2.7)
which is the homogeneous wave equation for E.
2.1.2 The wave equation for B

The wave equation for B is derived in much the same way as the wave equation
for E. Take the curl of (2.1d) and use Ohms law j = E to obtain
( B) = 0 j + 0 0
( E) = 0 E + 0 0 ( E) (2.8)
t
t
2.1
25
T HE WAVE E QUATIONS
which, with the use of Equation (F.67) on page 165 and Equation (2.1c) on
page 23 can be rewritten
2
( B)
B = 0
2
B
0 0 2 B
t
t
Using the fact that, according to (2.1c),

ing, we can rewrite this equation as
2
(2.9)
B = 0 for any medium and rearrang-
B 1 2 B
=0
t c2 t2
B 0
(2.10)
This is the wave equation for the magnetic eld. We notice that it is of exactly
the same form as the wave equation for the electric eld, Equation (2.7) on the
preceding page.
2.1.3 The time-independent wave equation for E

We now look for a solution to any of the wave equations in the form of a timeharmonic wave. As is clear from the above, it sufces to consider only the E
eld, since the results for the B eld follow trivially. We therefore make the
following Fourier component Ansatz
E = E0 (x)eit
(2.11)
and insert this into Equation (2.7) on the facing page. This yields
2
1 2
E0 (x)eit 2 2 E0 (x)eit
t
c t
1
= 2 E 0 (i)E0 (x)eit 2 (i)2 E0 (x)eit
c
1
2
2
= E 0 (i)E 2 (i) E =
c
2
E=0
= 2E + 2 1 + i
c
0
E 0
(2.12)
Introducing the relaxation time = 0 / of the medium in question we can

rewrite this equation as
2
c2
E+
1+
i
E=0
(2.13)
In the limit of long , Equation (2.13) tends to

2
E+
2
E=0
c2
(2.14)
26
which is a time-independent wave equation for E, representing weakly damped

propagating waves. In the short limit we have instead
2
E + i0 E = 0
(2.15)
which is a time-independent diffusion equation for E.

For most metals 1014 s, which means that the diffusion picture is good
for all frequencies lower than optical frequencies. Hence, in metallic conductors, the propagation term 2 E/c2 t2 is negligible even for VHF, UHF, and
SHF signals. Alternatively, we may say that the displacement current 0 E/t
is negligible relative to the conduction current j = E.
If we introduce the vacuum wave number
(2.16)
k=
c
we can write, using the fact that c = 1/ 0 0 according to Equation (1.9) on

page 5,
=
=
=
0 0 ck k
0
= R0
0 k
(2.17)
where in the last step we introduced the characteristic impedance for vacuum
E XAMPLE 2.1
R0 =
0
376.7
0
WAVE EQUATIONS IN
(2.18)
ELECTROMAGNETODYNAMICS
Derive the wave equation for the E eld described by the electromagnetodynamic
equations (Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations) [cf. Equations (1.48) on page 15]
E =
e
0
(2.19a)
E = 0 jm
B = 0
B
t
(2.19b)
(2.19c)
E
(2.19d)
t
under the assumption of vanishing net electric and magnetic charge densities and in
the absence of electromotive and magnetomotive forces. Interpret this equation physically.
B = 0 j e + 0 0
Taking the curl of (2.19b) and using (2.19d), and assuming, for symmetry reasons, that
there exists a linear relation between the magnetic current density jm and the magnetic
2.1
27
T HE WAVE E QUATIONS
eld B (the analogue of Ohms law for electric currents, je = e E)

jm = m B
(2.20)
that
1 E
( B) = 0 m B
0 j e + 2
t
t
c t
= 0 m 0 e E +
1 E
E 1 2 E
0 e
c2 t
t c2 t2
"
( E) = 0 jm
"
one nds, noting that 0 0 =
1/c2 ,
(2.21)
2 E,
Using the vector operator identity ( E) = ( E)

and the fact that
E = 0 for a vanishing net electric charge, we can rewrite the wave equation as
E 0 e +
m
c2
"
E 1 2 E
2 m e E = 0
0
t c2 t2
(2.22)
This is the homogeneous electromagnetodynamic wave equation for E we were after.

Compared to the ordinary electrodynamic wave equation for E, Equation (2.7) on
page 24, we see that we pick up extra terms. In order to understand what these extra
terms mean physically, we analyse the time-independent wave equation for a single
Fourier component. Then our wave equation becomes
2
c2
E+
!0
E+
2
E 2 m e E
0
c2
1 0 m e
e + m /c2
E=0
+i
2
0
0
"
m
c2
(2.23)
E + i0 e +
"
Realising that, according to Formula (2.18) on the facing page, 0 /0 is the square
of the vacuum radiation resistance R0 , and rearranging a bit, we obtain the timeindependent wave equation in Diracs symmetrised electrodynamics
1
R2 m e
0

2
245
3"
2
c2
1+i
e + m /c2
R2
0 1 0 m e
2
E+
@8
A97
B
E=0
(2.24)
From this equation we conclude that the existence of magnetic charges (magnetic
monopoles), and non-vanishing electric and magnetic conductivities would lead to
a shift in the effective wave number of the wave. Furthermore, even if the electric
conductivity vanishes, the imaginary term does not necessarily vanish and the wave
might therefore experience damping (or growth) according as m is positive (or negative) in a perfect electric isolator. Finally, we note that in the particular case that
= R0 m e , the wave equation becomes a (time-independent) diffusion equation

E + i0 e +
m
c2
"
E=0
(2.25)
and, hence, no waves exist at all!

E ND OF
EXAMPLE
2.1
28
2.2 Plane Waves

Consider now the case where all elds depend only on the distance to a given
plane with unit normal n. Then the del operator becomes
=n
(2.26)
and Maxwells equations attain the form

E
E
n
B
n
B
n
=0
=
(2.27a)
B
t
(2.27b)
=0
(2.27c)
= 0 j(t, x) + 0 0
E
E
= 0 E + 0 0
t
t
(2.27d)
Scalar multiplying (2.27d) by n, we nd that
= n 0 + 0 0
E
t
0 = n n

(2.28)
which simplies to the rst-order ordinary differential equation for the normal
component En of the electric eld
dEn
+ En = 0
dt
0
(2.29)
with the solution

En = En0 et/0 = En0 et/
(2.30)
This, together with (2.27a), shows that the longitudinal component of E, i.e.,
the component which is perpendicular to the plane surface is independent of
and has a time dependence which exhibits an exponential decay, with a decrement given by the relaxation time in the medium.
Scalar multiplying (2.27b) by n, we similarly nd that
or
n
B
=0
t
0 = n n

= n
B
t
(2.31)
(2.32)
2.2
29
P LANE WAVES
From this, and (2.27c), we conclude that the only longitudinal component of
B must be constant in both time and space. In other words, the only non-static
solution must consist of transverse components.
2.2.1 Telegraphers equation

In analogy with Equation (2.7) on page 24, we can easily derive the equation
E 1 2 E
2 E
0
=0
2
t c2 t2
(2.33)
This equation, which describes the propagation of plane waves in a conducting

medium, is called the telegraphers equation. If the medium is an insulator
so that = 0, then the equation takes the form of the one-dimensional wave
equation
2 E 1 2 E
=0
2 c2 t2
(2.34)
As is well known, each component of this equation has a solution which can
be written
Ei = f ( ct) + g( + ct),
i = 1, 2, 3
(2.35)
where f and g are arbitrary (non-pathological) functions of their respective

arguments. This general solution represents perturbations which propagate
along , where the f perturbation propagates in the positive direction and the
g perturbation propagates in the negative direction.
If we assume that our electromagnetic elds E and B are time-harmonic,
i.e., that they can each be represented by a Fourier component proportional to
exp{it}, the solution of Equation (2.34) becomes
E = E0 ei(tk) = E0 ei(
kt)
(2.36)
By introducing the wave vector

k = kn =
n= k
c
c
(2.37)
this solution can be written as

E = E0 ei(kxt)
(2.38)
30
Let us consider the lower sign in front of k in the exponent in (2.36).

This corresponds to a wave which propagates in the direction of increasing .
Inserting this solution into Equation (2.27b) on page 28, gives
n
E
= iB = ik n E
(2.39)
or, solving for B,

B=
k
1
1
n E = k E = k E = 0 0 n E
(2.40)
Hence, to each transverse component of E, there exists an associated magnetic eld given by Equation (2.40) above. If E and/or B has a direction in
space which is constant in time, we have a plane polarised wave (or linearly
polarised wave).
2.2.2 Waves in conductive media

Assuming that our medium has a nite conductivity , and making the timeharmonic wave Ansatz in Equation (2.33) on the preceding page, we nd that
the time-independent telegraphers equation can be written
2 E
2 E
+ 0 0 2 E + i0 E = 2 + K 2 E = 0
2
(2.41)
where
2
c2
1+i
= k2 1 + i
K 2 = 0 0 2 1 + i
(2.42)
where, in the last step, Equation (2.16) on page 26 was used to introduce the
wave number k. Taking the square root of this expression, we obtain
K=k
1+i
= + i
0
(2.43)
Squaring, one nds that
or
k2 1 + i
= (2 2 ) + 2i
(2.44)
2 = 2 k2
(2.45)
(2.46)
k2
20
2.2
31
P LANE WAVES
Squaring the latter and combining with the former, one obtains the second
order algebraic equation (in 2 )
k 4 2
42 2
0
2 (2 k2 ) =
(2.47)
which can be easily solved and one nds that

+1
(2.48a)
D
CDD
) E
) E
=k
1+
CDD
=k
1+
(2.48b)
As a consequence, the solution of the time-independent telegraphers equation,

Equation (2.41) on the facing page, can be written
E = E0 e ei(t)
(2.49)
With the aid of Equation (2.40) on the preceding page we can calculate the
associated magnetic eld, and nd that it is given by
B=
1
1
1
K k E = ( k E)( + i) = ( k E) |A| ei
(2.50)
where we have, in the last step, rewritten + i in the amplitude-phase form

|A| exp{i}. From the above, we immediately see that E, and consequently also
B, is damped, and that E and B in the wave are out of phase.
In the case that 0 , we can approximate K as follows:
= (1 + i)
20
= 0 0 (1 + i)
0
=k i
1i
0
1
2
G
1
2
k(1 + i)
0
2
K = k 1+i
0
20
(2.51)
From this analysis we conclude that when the wave impinges perpendicularly upon the medium, the elds are given, inside this medium, by
)
0
( n E )
)
B = (1 + i)
0
exp i
2
0
t
2

H
E = E0 exp
(2.52a)
(2.52b)
32
Hence, both elds fall off by a factor 1/e at a distance

=
2
0
(2.53)
This distance is called the skin depth.
2.3 Observables and Averages

In the above we have used complex notation quite extensively. This is for
mathematical convenience only. For instance, in this notation differentiations
are almost trivial to perform. However, every physical measurable quantity is
always real valued. I.e., Ephysical = Re {Emathematical }. It is particularly important to remember this when one works with products of physical quantities. For instance, if we have two physical vectors F and G which both are
time-harmonic, i.e., can be represented by Fourier components proportional to
exp{it}, then we must make the following interpretation
F(t, x) G(t, x) = Re {F} Re {G} = Re F0 (x) eit Re G0 (x) eit
(2.54)
Furthermore, letting denotes complex conjugate, we can express the real part
of the complex vector F as
1
Re {F} = Re F0 (x) eit = [F0 (x) eit + F (x) eit ]
0
2
(2.55)
and similarly for G. Hence, the physically acceptable interpretation of the

scalar product of two complex vectors, representing physical observables, is
F(t, x) G(t, x) = Re F0 (x) eit Re G0 (x) eit
1
1
= [F0 (x) eit + F (x) eit ] [G0 (x) eit + G (x) eit ]
0
0
2
2
1
= F0 G + F G0 + F0 G0 e2it + F G e2it
0
0
0
0
4
(2.56)
1
= Re F0 G + F0 G0 e2it
0
2
1
= Re F0 eit G eit + F0 G0 e2it
0
2
1
= Re F(t, x) G (t, x) + F0 G0 e2it
2
I
I
2.3
33
B IBLIOGRAPHY
Often in physics, we measure temporal averages ( ) of our physical observables. If so, we see that the average of the product of the two physical
quantities represented by F and G can be expressed as
1
1
F G Re {F} Re {G} = Re F G = Re F G
2
2
(2.57)
since the temporal average of the oscillating function exp{2it} vanishes.
Bibliography
New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
34
3
Electromagnetic
Potentials
Instead of expressing the laws of electrodynamics in terms of electric and magnetic elds, it turns out that it is often more convenient to express the theory in
terms of potentials. In this chapter we will introduce and study the properties
of such potentials.
3.1 The Electrostatic Scalar Potential

As we saw in Equation (1.6) on page 4, the electrostatic eld Estat (x) is irrotational. Hence, it may be expressed in terms of the gradient of a scalar eld. If
we denote this scalar eld by stat (x), we get
Estat (x) = stat (x)
(3.1)
Taking the divergence of this and using Equation (1.7) on page 4, we obtain
Poissons equation
2 stat
(x) = Estat (x) =
(x)
0
(3.2)
A comparison with the denition of Estat , namely Equation (1.5) on page 4,

shows that this equation has the solution
1
40
stat (x) =
(x ) 3
d x +
|x x |
(3.3)
where the integration is taken over all source points x at which the charge
density (x ) is non-zero and is an arbitrary quantity which has a vanishing
gradient. An example of such a quantity is a scalar constant. The scalar function stat (x) in Equation (3.3) above is called the electrostatic scalar potential.
35
36
E LECTROMAGNETIC P OTENTIALS
3.2 The Magnetostatic Vector Potential

Consider the equations of magnetostatics (1.20) on page 8. From Equation (M.94) on page 184 we know that any 3D vector a has the property that
( a) 0 and in the derivation of Equation (1.15) on page 7 in magnetostatics we found that Bstat (x) = 0. We therefore realise that we can always
write
Bstat (x) =
Astat (x)
(3.4)
where Astat (x) is called the magnetostatic vector potential.

We saw above that the electrostatic potential (as any scalar potential) is not
unique: we may, without changing the physics, add to it a quantity whose spatial gradient vanishes. A similar arbitrariness is true also for the magnetostatic
vector potential.
In the magnetostatic case, we may start from Biot-Savarts law as expressed by Equation (1.13) on page 6. Identifying this expression with Equation (3.4) above allows us to dene the static vector potential as
0
4
Astat (x) =
j(x ) 3
d x + a(x)
|x x |
(3.5)
where a(x) is an arbitrary vector eld whose curl vanishes. From Equation (M.90) on page 184 we know that such a vector can always be written
as the gradient of a scalar eld.
3.3 The Electrodynamic Potentials

Let us now generalise the static analysis above to the electrodynamic case, i.e.,
the case with temporal and spatial dependent sources (t, x) and j(t, x), and
corresponding elds E(t, x) and B(t, x), as described by Maxwells equations
(1.43) on page 14. In other words, let us study the electrodynamic potentials
(t, x) and A(t, x).
From Equation (1.43c) on page 14 we note that also in electrodynamics the homogeneous equation B(t, x) = 0 remains valid. Because of this
divergence-free nature of the time- and space-dependent magnetic eld, we
can express it as the curl of an electromagnetic vector potential:
B(t, x) =
A(t, x)
(3.6)
3.3
37
T HE E LECTRODYNAMIC P OTENTIALS
Inserting this expression into the other homogeneous Maxwell equation, Equation (1.30) on page 11, we obtain
E(t, x) =
[ A(t, x)] = A(t, x)

t
t
(3.7)
or, rearranging the terms,
A(t, x) = 0
t
(3.8)
E(t, x) +
As before we utilise the vanishing curl of a vector expression to write this

vector expression as the gradient of a scalar function. If, in analogy with the
electrostatic case, we introduce the electromagnetic scalar potential function
(t, x), Equation (3.8) above becomes equivalent to
E(t, x) +
A(t, x) = (t, x)
t
(3.9)
This means that in electrodynamics, E(t, x) can be calculated from the formula
E(t, x) = (t, x)
A(t, x)
t
(3.10)
and B(t, x) from Equation (3.6) on the facing page. Hence, it is a matter of taste
whether we want to express the laws of electrodynamics in terms of the potentials (t, x) and A(t, x), or in terms of the elds E(t, x) and B(t, x). However,
there exists an important difference between the two approaches: in classical
electrodynamics the only directly observable quantities are the elds themselves (and quantities derived from them) and not the potentials. On the other
hand, the treatment becomes signicantly simpler if we use the potentials in
our calculations and then, at the nal stage, use Equation (3.6) on the preceding page and Equation (3.10) to calculate the elds or physical quantities
expressed in the elds.
Inserting (3.10) and (3.6) on the preceding page into Maxwells equations (1.43) on page 14 we obtain, after some simple algebra and the use of
Equation (1.9) on page 5, the general inhomogeneous wave equations
(t, x)
( A) =
t
0
1 2 A
1
2
A 2 2
A+ 2
c t
c t
+
(3.11a)
= 0 j(t, x)
(3.11b)
38
which can be rewritten in the following, more symmetric, form
A+
1
c2 t
1
A+ 2
c t
A+
(t, x)
0
(3.12a)
= 0 j(t, x)
(3.12b)
1 2
c2 t2
1 2 A
c2 t2
These two second order, coupled, partial differential equations, representing

in all four scalar equations (one for and one each for the three components
Ai , i = 1, 2, 3 of A) are completely equivalent to the formulation of electrodynamics in terms of Maxwells equations, which represent eight scalar rstorder, coupled, partial differential equations.
3.3.1 Electrodynamic gauges

As they stand, Equations (3.11) on the previous page and Equations (3.12)
look complicated and may seem to be of limited use. However, if we write
Equation (3.6) on page 36 in the form A(t, x) = B(t, x) we can consider
this as a specication of A. But we know from Helmholtz theorem that
in order to determine the (spatial) behaviour of A completely, we must also
specify A. Since this divergence does not enter the derivation above, we are
free to choose A in whatever way we like and still obtain the same physical
results!
Lorentz equations for the electrodynamic potentials

With a judicious choice of A, the inhomogeneous wave equations can be
simplied considerably. To this end, Lorentz introduced the so called Lorentz
gauge condition1
A+
1
=0
c2 t
(3.13)
because this condition simplies the system of coupled equations Equation (3.12) into the following set of uncoupled partial differential equations
1 In
fact, the Dutch physicist Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, who in 1903 demonstrated the covariance of Maxwells equations, was not the original discoverer of this condition. It had been
discovered by the Danish physicist Ludwig Lorenz already in 1867.
3.3
39
which we call the Lorentz inhomogeneous wave equations:

1 2
c2 t2
1 2
c2 t2
1 2
(t, x)
2 =
c2 t2
0
2A
1
A = 2 2 2 A = 0 j(t, x)
c t
=
def
def
(3.14a)
(3.14b)
S
S
where 2 is the dAlembert operator discussed in Example M.6 on page 180.

We shall call (3.14) the Lorentz potential equations for the electrodynamic
potentials.
Gauge transformations
We saw in Section 3.1 on page 35 and in Section 3.2 on page 36 that in electrostatics and magnetostatics we have a certain mathematical degree of freedom,
up to terms of vanishing gradients and curls, to pick suitable forms for the
potentials and still get the same physical result. In fact, the way the electromagnetic scalar potential (t, x) and the vector potential A(t, x) are related to
the physically observables gives leeway for similar manipulation of them
also in electrodynamics. If we transform (t, x) and A(t, x) simultaneously into
new ones (t, x) and A (t, x) according to the mapping scheme
(t, x)
t
A(t, x) A (t, x) = A(t, x) (t, x)
(t, x) (t, x) = (t, x) +
(3.15a)
(3.15b)
where (t, x) is an arbitrary, differentiable scalar function called the gauge

function, and insert the transformed potentials into Equation (3.10) on page 37
for the electric eld and into Equation (3.6) on page 36 for the magnetic eld,
we obtain the transformed elds
A
( ) A ( )
A
=
+
=
t
t
t
t
t
A = A ( ) = A
E =
(3.16a)
B =
(3.16b)
where, once again Equation (M.90) on page 184 was used. Comparing these
expressions with (3.10) and (3.6) we see that the elds are unaffected by the
gauge transformation (3.15). A transformation of the potentials and A which
leaves the elds, and hence Maxwells equations, invariant is called a gauge
transformation. A physical law which does not change under a gauge transformation is said to be gauge invariant. By denition, the elds themselves are,
of course, gauge invariant.
40
The potentials (t, x) and A(t, x) calculated from (3.11) on page 37, with
an arbitrary choice of A, can be further gauge transformed according to
(3.15) on the preceding page. If, in particular, we choose A according
to the Lorentz condition, Equation (3.13) on page 38, and apply the gauge
transformation (3.15) on the resulting Lorentz potential equations (3.14) on
the preceding page, these equations will be transformed into
1 2
c2 t2
1 2
c2 t2
(t, x)
0
= 0 j(t, x)
1 2
c2 t2
1 2 A
c2 t2
(3.17a)
(3.17b)
We notice that if we require that the gauge function (t, x) itself be restricted
to full the wave equation
1 2
c2 t2
=0
(3.18)
these transformed Lorentz equations will keep their original form. The set of
potentials which have been gauge transformed according to Equation (3.15)
on the previous page with a gauge function (t, x) which is restricted to full
Equation (3.18), i.e., those gauge transformed potentials for which the Lorentz
equations (3.14) are invariant, comprises the Lorentz gauge.
Other useful gauges are
The radiation gauge, also known as the transverse gauge, dened by
A = 0.
The Coulomb gauge, dened by = 0,
A = 0.
The temporal gauge, also known as the Hamilton gauge, dened by

= 0.
The axial gauge, dened by A3 = 0.
The process of choosing a particular gauge condition is referred to as gauge
xing.
3.3.2 Solution of the Lorentz equations for the

electromagnetic potentials
As we see, the Lorentz equations (3.14) on the previous page for (t, x) and
A(t, x) represent a set of uncoupled equations involving four scalar equations
3.3
41
(one equation for and one equation for each of the three components of A).
Each of these four scalar equations is an inhomogeneous wave equation of the
following generic form:
2
(t, x) = f (t, x)
(3.19)
where is a shorthand for either or one of the vector components of A, and

f is the pertinent generic source component.
We assume that our sources are well-behaved enough in time t so that the
Fourier transform pair for the generic source function
def
1
2
f (x) eit d
(3.20a)
f (t, x) eit dt
(3.20b)
def
F [ f (t, x)] f (x) =
F 1 [ f (x)] f (t, x) =
exists, and that the same is true for the generic potential component:
1
2
(x) =
(t, x) =
(x) eit d
(t, x) eit dt
(3.21a)
(3.21b)
Inserting the Fourier representations (3.20a) and (3.21a) into Equation (3.19),
and using the vacuum dispersion relation for electromagnetic waves
= ck
(3.22)
the generic 3D inhomogeneous wave equation, Equation (3.19) above, turns

into
2
(x) + k2 (x) = f (x)
(3.23)
which is a 3D inhomogeneous time-independent wave equation, often called

the 3D inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation.
As postulated by Huygens principle, each point on a wave front acts as
a point source for spherical waves which form a new wave from a superposition of the individual waves from each of the point sources on the old wave
front. The solution of (3.23) can therefore be expressed as a superposition of
solutions of an equation where the source term has been replaced by a point
source:
2
G(x, x ) + k2G(x, x ) = (x x )
(3.24)
42
and the solution of Equation (3.23) on the preceding page which corresponds
to the frequency is given by the superposition
f (x )G(x, x ) d3x
(x) =
(3.25)
The function G(x, x ) is called the Green function or the propagator.

In Equation (3.24) on the previous page, the Dirac generalised function
(x x ), which represents the point source, depends only on x x and there
is no angular dependence in the equation. Hence, the solution can only be dependent on r = |x x | and not on the direction of x x . If we interpret r as the
radial coordinate in a spherically polar coordinate system, and recall the expression for the Laplace operator in such a coordinate system, Equation (3.24)
on the preceding page becomes
d2
(rG) + k2 (rG) = r(r)
dr2
(3.26)
Away from r = |x x | = 0, i.e., away from the source point x , this equation
takes the form
d2
(rG) + k2 (rG) = 0
dr2
(3.27)
with the well-known general solution

G = C+
eikr
eik|xx |
eikr
eik|xx |
+ C
+ C
C+
r
r
|x x |
|x x |
(3.28)
where C are constants.

In order to evaluate the constants C , we insert the general solution, Equation (3.28) above, into Equation (3.24) on the preceding page and integrate
over a small volume around r = |x x | = 0. Since
1
1
+ C
,
|x x |
|x x |
G( x x ) C +
xx 0
(3.29)
The volume integrated Equation (3.24) on the previous page can under this
assumption be approximated by
( x x ) d x
1
d3x + k2 C + + C
|x x |
C+ + C
1
d3x
|x x |
(3.30)
3.3
43
In virtue of the fact that the volume element d3x in spherical polar coordinates
is proportional to |x x |2 , the second integral vanishes when |x x | 0. Furthermore, from Equation (M.85) on page 183, we nd that the integrand in the
rst integral can be written as 4(|x x |) and, hence, that
1
4
C+ + C =
(3.31)
Insertion of the general solution Equation (3.28) on the facing page into
Equation (3.25) on the preceding page gives
f (x )
eik|xx | 3
d x + C
|x x |
f (x )
(x) = C +
eik|xx | 3
dx
|x x |
(3.32)
The Fourier transform to ordinary t domain of this is obtained by inserting the

above expression for (x) into Equation (3.21a) on page 41:
|x x |
exp i t + k|xx |
|x x |
d d3x
(3.33)
V
WG
T
f (x )
+ C
f (x )
exp i t k|xx |
V
WG
(t, x) = C
d d3x
If we introduce the retarded time tret and the advanced time tadv in the following
way [using the fact that in vacuum k/ = 1/c, according to Equation (3.22) on
page 41]:
k |x x |
|x x |
= t
c
k |x x |
|x x |
= t+
tadv = tadv (t, x x ) = t +
tret = tret (t, x x ) = t
(3.34a)
(3.34b)
and use Equation (3.20a) on page 41, we obtain

f (tret , x ) 3
d x + C
|x x |
(t, x) = C +
f (tadv , x ) 3
dx
|x x |
(3.35)
This is a solution to the generic inhomogeneous wave equation for the potential
components Equation (3.19) on page 41. We note that the solution at time t at
the eld point x is dependent on the behaviour at other times t of the source
at x and that both retarded and advanced t are mathematically acceptable
solutions. However, if we assume that causality requires that the potential at
(t, x) is set up by the source at an earlier time, i.e., at (tret , x ), we must in
Equation (3.35) set C = 0 and therefore, according to Equation (3.31) above,
C + = 1/(4).
44
The retarded potentials

From the above discussion on the solution of the inhomogeneous wave equation we conclude that, under the assumption of causality, the electrodynamic
potentials in vacuum can be written
(tret , x ) 3
1
dx
40
|x x |
0 j(tret , x ) 3
A(t, x) =
dx
4
|x x |
(t, x) =
(3.36a)
(3.36b)
Since these retarded potentials were obtained as solutions to the Lorentz equations (3.14) on page 39 they are valid in the Lorentz gauge but may be gauge
transformed according to the scheme described in subsection 3.3.1 on page 39.
As they stand, we shall use them frequently in the following.
E XAMPLE 3.1
E LECTROMAGNETODYNAMIC POTENTIALS
In Diracs symmetrised form of electrodynamics (electromagnetodynamics),

Maxwells equations are replaced by [see also Equations (1.48) on page 15]:
E =
e
0
(3.37a)
E = 0 jm
B = 0
B
t
B = 0 j e + 0 0
(3.37b)
(3.37c)
E
t
(3.37d)
In this theory, one derives the inhomogeneous wave equations for the usual electric
scalar and vector potentials (e , Ae ) and their magnetic counterparts (m , Am ) by
assuming that the potentials are related to the elds in the following symmetrised
form:
e
A (t, x) Am
t
1
m (t, x) 2 Am (t, x) + Ae
c t
E = e (t, x)
B=
1
c2
(3.38a)
(3.38b)
In the absence of magnetic charges, or, equivalenty for m 0 and Am 0, these

formulae reduce to the usual Maxwell theory Formula (3.10) on page 37 and Formula (3.6) on page 36, respectively, as they should.
Inserting the symmetrised expressions (3.38) above into Equations (3.37), one obtains
[cf., Equations (3.11) on page 37]
45
B IBLIOGRAPHY
e (t, x)
Ae =
t
0
m (t, x)
2 m
Am =
+
t
0
1 2 Ae
1 e
2 Ae +
Ae + 2
c2 t2
c t
(3.39b)
Am +
Am +
= 0 je (t, x)
1 m
c2 t
"
1 2 Am
c2 t2
(3.39a)
2 e
"
3.3
(3.39c)
= 0 jm (t, x)
(3.39d)
By choosing the conditions on the vector potentials according to Lorentz prescripton

[cf., Equation (3.13) on page 38]
1 e
=0
c2 t
1
A m + 2 m = 0
c t
these coupled wave equations simplify to
Ae +
(3.40)
(3.41)
e (t, x)
1 2 e
2 e =
(3.42a)
c2 t2
0
1 2 m
m (t, x)
2 m =
(3.42b)
c2 t2
0
1 2 Ae
2 Ae = 0 je (t, x)
(3.42c)
c2 t2
1 2 Am
2 Am = 0 jm (t, x)
(3.42d)
c2 t2
exhibiting once again, the striking properties of Diracs symmetrised Maxwell theory.
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
3.1
Bibliography
[1] L. D. FADEEV AND A. A. S LAVNOV, Gauge Fields: Introduction to Quantum
Theory, No. 50 in Frontiers in Physics: A Lecture Note and Reprint Series. Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1980, ISBN 08053-9016-2.
[2] M. G UIDRY, Gauge Field Theories: An Introduction with Applications, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1991, ISBN 0-471-63117-5.
New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
46

ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
4
Relativistic
Electrodynamics
We saw in Chapter 3 how the derivation of the electrodynamic potentials led,

in a most natural way, to the introduction of a characteristic, nite speed of
propagation in vacuum that equals the speed of light c = 1/ 0 0 and which

can be considered as a constant of nature. To take this nite speed of propagation of information into account, and to ensure that our laws of physics be
independent of any specic coordinate frame, requires a treatment of electrodynamics in a relativistically covariant (coordinate independent) form. This is
the object of this chapter.
4.1 The Special Theory of Relativity

An inertial system, or inertial reference frame, is a system of reference, or
rigid coordinate system, in which the law of inertia (Galileos law, Newtons
rst law) holds. In other words, an inertial system is a system in which free
bodies move uniformly and do not experience any acceleration. The special
theory of relativity1 describes how physical processes are interrelated when
observed in different inertial systems in uniform, rectilinear motion relative to
each other and is based on two postulates:
1 The Special Theory of Relativity, by the American physicist and philosopher David Bohm,
opens with the following paragraph [4]:
The theory of relativity is not merely a scientic development of great importance in its own right. It is even more signicant as the rst stage of a radical
change in our basic concepts, which began in physics, and which is spreading
into other elds of science, and indeed, even into a great deal of thinking outside
of science. For as is well known, the modern trend is away from the notion of
sure absolute truth, (i.e., one which holds independently of all conditions, contexts, degrees, and types of approximation etc..) and toward the idea that a given
concept has signicance only in relation to suitable broader forms of reference,
within which that concept can be given its full meaning.
47
48
R ELATIVISTIC E LECTRODYNAMICS
vt
y
v
P(t, x, y, z)
P(t , x , y , z )
O
z
F IGURE 4.1: Two inertial systems and in relative motion with velocity v along the x = x axis. At time t = t = 0 the origin O of
coincided with the origin O of . At time t, the inertial system has
been translated a distance vt along the x axis in . An event represented
by P(t, x, y, z) in is represented by P(t , x , y , z ) in .
Postulate 4.1 (Relativity principle; Poincar, 1905). All laws of physics (except the laws of gravitation) are independent of the uniform translational motion of the system on which they operate.
Postulate 4.2 (Einstein, 1905). The velocity of light in empty space is independent of the motion of the source that emits the light.
A consequence of the rst postulate is that all geometrical objects (vectors, tensors) in an equation describing a physical process must transform in a
covariant manner, i.e., in the same way.
4.1.1 The Lorentz transformation

Let us consider two three-dimensional inertial systems and in vacuum
which are in rectilinear motion relative to each other in such a way that
moves with constant velocity v along the x axis of the system. The times and
the spatial coordinates as measured in the two systems are t and (x, y, z), and t
and (x , y , z ), respectively. At time t = t = 0 the origins O and O and the x
and x axes of the two inertial systems coincide and at a later time t they have
the relative location as depicted in Figure 4.1.
For convenience, let us introduce the two quantities
v
=
(4.1)
c
1
=
(4.2)
1 2
4.1
T HE S PECIAL T HEORY
OF
49
R ELATIVITY
where v = |v|. In the following, we shall make frequent use of these shorthand
notations.
As shown by Einstein, the two postulates of special relativity require that
the spatial coordinates and times as measured by an observer in and ,
respectively, are connected by the following transformation:
ct = (ct x)
(4.3a)
x = (x vt)
(4.3b)
y =y
(4.3c)
z =z
(4.3d)
Taking the difference between the square of (4.3a) and the square of (4.3b) we
nd that
v2
c2
v2
c2
2 2
= c t x2
1
c2 t 2 1
x2 1
v2
c2

c2 t 2 x 2 = 2 c2 t2 2xct + x2 2 x2 + 2xvt v2 t2
(4.4)
From Equations (4.3) we see that the y and z coordinates are unaffected by
the translational motion of the inertial system along the x axis of system
. Using this fact, we nd that we can generalise the result in Equation (4.4)
above to
c2 t 2 x 2 y2 z2 = c2 t 2 x 2 y 2 z 2
(4.5)
which means that if a light wave is transmitted from the coinciding origins
O and O at time t = t = 0 it will arrive at an observer at (x, y, z) at time t
in and an observer at (x , y , z ) at time t in in such a way that both observers conclude that the speed (spatial distance divided by time) of light in
vacuum is c. Hence, the speed of light in and is the same. A linear coordinate transformation which has this property is called a (homogeneous) Lorentz
transformation.
4.1.2 Lorentz space

Let us introduce an ordered quadruple of real numbers, enumerated with the
help of upper indices = 0, 1, 2, 3, where the zeroth component is ct (c is the
50
speed of light and t is time), and the remaining components are the components
of the ordinary 3 radius vector x dened in Equation (M.1) on page 168:
x = (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (ct, x, y, z) (ct, x)
(4.6)
We want to interpret this quadruple x as (the component form of) a radius

four-vector in a real, linear, four-dimensional vector space.1 We require that
this four-dimensional space to be a Riemannian space, i.e., a space where a
distance and a scalar product are dened. In this space we therefore dene a
metric tensor, also known as the fundamental tensor, which we denote by g .
Radius four-vector in contravariant and covariant form

The radius four-vector x = (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (ct, x), as dened in Equation (4.6)
above, is, by denition, the prototype of a contravariant vector (or, more accurately, a vector in contravariant component form). To every such vector there
exists a dual vector. The vector dual to x is the covariant vector x , obtained
as (the upper index in x is summed over and is therefore a dummy index and
may be replaced by another dummy index ):
x = g x
(4.7)
This summation process is an example of index contraction and is often referred to as index lowering.
Scalar product and norm

The scalar product of x with itself in a Riemann space is dened as
g x x = x x
(4.8)
This scalar product acts as an invariant distance, or norm, in this space.

If we want the Lorentz transformation invariance, described by Equation (4.5) on the preceding page, to be the manifestation of the conservation
1 The British mathematician and philosopher Alfred North Whitehead writes in his book The
Concept of Nature [13]:

I regret that it has been necessary for me in this lecture to administer a large
dose of four-dimensional geometry. I do not apologise, because I am really
not responsible for the fact that nature in its most fundamental aspect is fourdimensional. Things are what they are. . .
4.1
OF
51
R ELATIVITY
of the norm in a 4D Riemann space, then the explicit expression for the scalar
product of x with itself in this space must be
x x = c2 t 2 x 2 y2 z2
(4.9)
We notice that our space will have an indenite norm which means that we deal
with a non-Euclidean space. We call the four-dimensional space (or spacetime) with this property Lorentz space and denote it 4 . A corresponding real,
linear 4D space with a positive denite norm which is conserved during ordinary rotations is a Euclidean vector space. We denote such a space 4 .
Metric tensor
`a
g =
By choosing the metric tensor in
as
1
if = = 0
1 if = = i = j = 1, 2, 3
0
if =
(4.10)
ac
or, in matrix notation,
hh
ig
(4.11)
deef
(g ) =
1 0
0
0
0 1 0
0
0 0 1 0
0 0
0 1
i.e., a matrix with a main diagonal that has the sign sequence, or signature,
{+, , , }, the index lowering operation in our chosen at 4D space becomes
nearly trivial:
x = g x = (ct, x)
(4.12)
Using matrix algebra, this can be written
deef
x0
x1
x2
x3
x0
x1
x2
x3
hh
ig
hh
ig
deef p
deef
1 0
0
0
0 1 0
0
0 0 1 0
0 0
0 1
hh
ig
hh
ig
p
x0
x1
x2
x3
(4.13)
deef
Hence, if the metric tensor is dened according to expression (4.10) above the
covariant radius four-vector x is obtained from the contravariant radius fourvector x simply by changing the sign of the last three components. These
52
components are referred to as the space components; the zeroth component is

referred to as the time component.
As we see, for this particular choice of metric, the scalar product of x with
itself becomes
x x = (ct, x) (ct, x) = c2 t2 x2 y2 z2
(4.14)
which indeed is the desired Lorentz transformation invariance as required by

Equation (4.9) on the preceding page. Without changing the physics, one can
alternatively choose a signature {, +, +, +}. The latter has the advantage that
the transition from 3D to 4D becomes smooth, while it will introduce some
annoying minus signs in the theory. In current physics literature, the signature
{+, , , } seems to be the most commonly used one.
The 4 metric tensor Equation (4.10) on the previous page has a number of
interesting properties: rstly, we see that this tensor has a trace Tr g = 2
whereas in 4 , as in any vector space with denite norm, the trace equals
the space dimensionality. Secondly, we nd, after trivial algebra, that the following relations between the contravariant, covariant and mixed forms of the
metric tensor hold:
(4.15a)
g = g
g g =
g g =
g = g
g
=
=
(4.15b)
(4.15c)
(4.15d)
Here we have introduced the 4D version of the Kronecker delta , a mixed

four-tensor of rank 2 which fulls
= =
1
0
if =
if =
(4.16)
Invariant line element and proper time

The differential distance ds between the two points x and x + dx in 4 can
be calculated from the Riemannian metric, given by the quadratic differential
form
ds2 = g dx dx = dx dx = (dx0 )2 (dx1 )2 (dx2 )2 (dx3 )2
(4.17)
where the metric tensor is as in Equation (4.10) on the preceding page. As we

see, this form is indenite as expected for a non-Euclidean space. The square
4.1
OF
53
R ELATIVITY
root of this expression is the invariant line element

2
dx 3
+
dt
CDD
E
1
(v x )2 + (vy )2 + (vz )2 dt = c
c2
c
= c 1 2 dt = dt = c d
=c
dx 2
+
dt
dx 1
dt
ds = c
1
1 2
c
dt
v2
dt
c2
(4.18)
where we introduced
d = dt/
(4.19)
Since d measures the time when no spatial changes are present, it is called the
proper time.
Expressing Equation (4.5) on page 49 in terms of the differential interval
ds and comparing with Equation (4.17) on the facing page, we nd that
ds2 = c2 dt2 dx2 dy2 dz2
(4.20)
is invariant during a Lorentz transformation. Conversely, we may say that

every coordinate transformation which preserves this differential interval is a
Lorentz transformation.
If in some inertial system
dx2 + dy2 + dz2 < c2 dt2
(4.21)
ds is a time-like interval, but if

dx2 + dy2 + dz2 > c2 dt2
(4.22)
ds is a space-like interval, whereas

dx2 + dy2 + dz2 = c2 dt2
(4.23)
is a light-like interval; we may also say that in this case we are on the light
cone. A vector which has a light-like interval is called a null vector. The
time-like, space-like or light-like aspects of an interval ds is invariant under a
Lorentz transformation.
54
Four-vector elds
Any quantity which relative to any coordinate system has a quadruple of real
numbers and transforms in the same way as the radius four-vector x does, is
called a four-vector. In analogy with the notation for the radius four-vector we
introduce the notation a = (a0 , a) for a general contravariant four-vector eld
in 4 and nd that the lowering of index rule, Equation (M.32) on page 174,
for such an arbitrary four-vector yields the dual covariant four-vector eld
a (x ) = g a (x ) = (a0 (x ), a(x ))
(4.24)
The scalar product between this four-vector eld and another one b (x ) is
g a (x )b (x ) = (a0 , a) (b0 , b) = a0 b0 a b
(4.25)
which is a scalar eld, i.e., an invariant scalar quantity (x ) which depends

on time and space, as described by x = (ct, x, y, z).
The Lorentz transformation matrix

Introducing the transformation matrix
hh
ig
p
deef
0 0
0 0
0
0
1 0
0
0
0 1
(4.26)
the linear Lorentz transformation (4.3) on page 49, i.e., the coordinate transformation x x = x (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ), from one inertial system to another
inertial system , can be written
x = x
(4.27)
The inverse transform then takes the form

x = (1 ) x
(4.28)
The Lorentz group

It is easy to show, by means of direct algebra, that two successive Lorentz
transformations of the type in Equation (4.28) above, and dened by the speed
parameters 1 and 2 , respectively, correspond to a single transformation with
speed parameter
=
1 + 2
1 + 1 2
(4.29)
4.1
OF
55
R ELATIVITY
X0
X
x1
x1
F IGURE 4.2: Minkowski space can be considered an ordinary Euclidean
space where a Lorentz transformation from (x1 , X 0 = ict) to (x 1 , X 0 =
ict ) corresponds to an ordinary rotation through an angle . This rotation
2
2
leaves the Euclidean distance x1 + X 0 = x2 c2 t2 invariant.
$ #
$ #
This means that the nonempty set of Lorentz transformations constitutes a

closed algebraic structure with a binary operation which is associative. Furthermore, one can show that this set possesses at least one identity element and
at least one inverse element. In other words, this set of Lorentz transformations
constitutes a mathematical group. However tempting, we shall not make any
further use of group theory.
4.1.3 Minkowski space

Specifying a point x = (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) in 4D space-time is a way of saying
that something takes place at a certain time t = x0 /c and at a certain place
(x, y, z) = (x1 , x2 , x3 ). Such a point is therefore called an event. The trajectory
for an event as a function of time and space is called a world line. For instance,
the world line for a light ray which propagates in vacuum is the trajectory
x0 = x1 .
Introducing
X 0 = ix0 = ict
(4.30a)
X 1 = x1
(4.30b)
(4.30c)
(4.30d)
X =x
X =x
dS = ids
(4.30e)
56
x0
= ct
x0
x0 = x 1
x1
ct
O=O
x1 = x
F IGURE 4.3: Minkowski diagram depicting geometrically the transformation (4.34) from the unprimed system to the primed system. Here w
denotes the world line for an event and the line x0 = x1 x = ct the world
line for a light ray in vacuum. Note that the event P is simultaneous with
all points on the x1 axis (t = 0), including the origin O while the event
P , which is also simultaneous with all points on the x axis, including
O = O, to an observer at rest in the primed system, is not simultaneous
with O in the unprimed system but occurs there at time |P P | /c.
where i = 1, we see that Equation (4.17) on page 52 transforms into

dS 2 = (dX 0 )2 + (dX 1 )2 + (dX 2 )2 + (dX 3 )2
(4.31)
i.e., into a 4D differential form which is positive denite just as is ordinary 3D

Euclidean space 3 . We shall call the 4D Euclidean space constructed in this
way the Minkowski space 4 .1
As before, it sufces to consider the simplied case where the relative
motion between and is along the x axes. Then
dS 2 = (dX 0 )2 + (dx1 )2
(4.32)
and we consider X 0 and x1 as orthogonal axes in an Euclidean space. As in all

Euclidean spaces, every interval is invariant under a rotation of the X 0 x1 plane
through an angle into X 0 x 1 :
X 0 = x1 sin + X 0 cos
x 1 = x1 cos + X 0 sin
(4.33a)
(4.33b)
1 The
fact that our Riemannian space can be transformed in this way into an Euclidean one
means that it is, strictly speaking, a pseudo-Riemannian space.
4.2
57
C OVARIANT C LASSICAL M ECHANICS
See Figure 4.2 on page 55.

If we introduce the angle = i, often called the rapidity or the Lorentz
boost parameter, and transform back to the original space and time variables
by using Equation (4.30) on page 55 backwards, we obtain
ct = x sinh + ct cosh
(4.34a)
x = x cosh ct sinh
(4.34b)
which are identical to the transformation equations (4.3) on page 49 if we let

sinh =
(4.35a)
cosh =
(4.35b)
tanh =
(4.35c)
It is therefore possible to envisage the Lorentz transformation as an ordinary

rotation in the 4D Euclidean space 4 This rotation i 4 corresponds to a
coordinate change in 4 as depicted in Figure 4.3 on the facing page. Equation (4.29) on page 54 for successive Lorentz transformation then corresponds
to the tanh addition formula
tanh 1 + tanh 2
(4.36)
tanh(1 + 2 ) =
1 + tanh 1 tanh 2
The use of ict and 4 , which leads to the interpretation of the Lorentz
transformation as an ordinary rotation, may, at best, be illustrative, but is
not very physical. Besides, if we leave the at 4 space and enter the curved
space of general relativity, the ict trick will turn out to be an impasse. Let us
therefore immediately return to 4 where all components are real valued.
4.2 Covariant Classical Mechanics

The invariance of the differential distance ds in 4 , and the associated differential proper time d [see Equation (4.18) on page 53] allows us to dene
the four-velocity
v2
c2
v
1
v2
c2
u fd
dx
= (c, v) =
d
u =
= (u0 , u)
(4.37)
which, when multiplied with the scalar invariant m0 yields the four-momentum
v2
c2
u fd
m0 c
m0 v
1
v2
c2
dx
= m0 (c, v) =
d
p = m0
= (p0 , p)
(4.38)
58
From this we see that we can write

p = mv
(4.39)
where
m = m0 =
m0
(4.40)
1 v2
c
We can interpret this such that the Lorentz covariance implies that the masslike term in the ordinary 3D linear momentum is not invariant. A better way to
look at this is that p = mv = m0 v is the covariantly correct expression for the
kinetic three-momentum.
Multiplying the zeroth (time) component of the four-momentum p with
the scalar invariant c, we obtain
m0 c2
cp0 = m0 c2 =
v2
c2
= mc2
(4.41)
Since this component has the dimension of energy and is the result of a covariant description of the motion of a particle with its kinetic momentum described
by the spatial components of the four-momentum, Equation (4.38) on the previous page, we interpret cp0 as the total energy E. Hence,
cp = (cp0 , cp) = (E, cp)
(4.42)
Scalar multiplying this four-vector with itself, we obtain

cp cp = c2 g p p = c2 [(p0 )2 (p1 )2 (p2 )2 (p3 )2 ]
= (E, cp) (E, cp) = E 2 c2 p2
1 v2
c
v2
1 2
c
(4.43)
2 2
(m0 c2 )2
= (m0 c )
Since this is an invariant, this equation holds in any inertial frame, particularly
in the frame where p = 0 and there we have
E = m 0 c2
(4.44)
This is probably the most famous formula in physics history.
4.3
59
C OVARIANT C LASSICAL E LECTRODYNAMICS
4.3 Covariant Classical Electrodynamics

In the rest inertial system the charge density is 0 . The four-vector (in contravariant component form)
j = 0
dx
= 0 u = 0 (c, v) = (c, v)
d
(4.45)
where we introduced
= 0
(4.46)
is called the four-current.

The contravariant form of the four-del operator = /x is dened in
Equation (M.69) on page 180 and its covariant counterpart = /x in
Equation (M.70) on page 180, respectively. As is shown in Example M.6 on
page 180, the dAlembert operator is the scalar product of the four-del with
itself:
= = =
1 2
c2 t2
(4.47)
Since it has the characteristics of a four-scalar, the dAlembert operator is invariant and, hence, the homogeneous wave equation is Lorentz covariant.
4.3.1 The four-potential

If we introduce the four-potential
,A
c
A =
(4.48)
where is the scalar potential and A the vector potential, dened in Section 3.3
on page 36, we can write the inhomogeneous wave equations (Lorentz potential equations), Equations (3.14) on page 39, in the following compact (and
covariant) way:
2
A = 0 j
(4.49)
With the help of the above, we can formulate our electrodynamic equations
covariantly. For instance, the covariant form of the equation of continuity,
Equation (1.21) on page 9 is
j = 0
(4.50)
60
and the Lorentz gauge condition, Equation (3.13) on page 38, can be written
A = 0
(4.51)
The gauge transformations (3.15) on page 39 in covariant form are

A A = A + (x )
(4.52)
If only one dimension Lorentz contracts (for instance, due to relative motion along the x direction), a 3D spatial volume transforms according to
1 2 = dV0
1
dV = d3x = dV0 = dV0
v2
c2
(4.53)
then from Equation (4.46) on the preceding page we see that

dV = 0 dV0
(4.54)
i.e., the charge in a given volume is conserved. We can therefore conclude that
the elementary charge is a universal constant.
4.3.2 The Linard-Wiechert potentials

Let us now solve the Lorentz equation (the inhomogeneous wave equation)
(3.14) on page 39 in vacuum for the case of a well-localised charge q at
a source point dened by the radius four-vector x = (x 0 = ct , x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ).
The eld point (observation point) is denoted by the radius four-vector
x = (x0 = ct, x1 , x2 , x3 ).
In the rest system we know that the solution is simply
,A
c
=
v=0
1
q
,0
40 c |x x |0
(4.55)
where |x x |0 is the usual distance from the source point to the eld point,
evaluated in the rest system (signied by the index 0).
Let us introduce the relative radius four-vector between the source point
and the eld point:
R = x x = (c(t t ), x x )
(4.56)
Scalar multiplying this relative four-vector with itself, we obtain
R R = (c(t t ), x x ) (c(t t ), (x x )) = c2 (t t )2 x x
(4.57)
4.3
61
We know that in vacuum the signal (eld) from the charge q at x propagates to x with the speed of light c so that
x x = c(t t )
(4.58)
Inserting this into Equation (4.57) on the facing page, we see that
R R = 0
(4.59)
or that Equation (4.56) on the preceding page can be written
R = ( x x , x x )
(4.60)
Now we want to nd the correspondence to the rest system solution, Equation (4.55) on the facing page, in an arbitrary inertial system. We note from
Equation (4.37) on page 57 that in the rest system
v2
c2
v
1
v2
c2
= (c, 0)
(4.61)
u fd
(4.62)
v=0
Q
and
(R )0 = ( x x , x x )0 = ( x x
, (x x )0 )
As all scalar products, u R is invariant, which means that we can evaluate

it in any inertial system and it will have the same value in all other inertial
systems. If we evaluate it in the rest system the result is:
= (u )0 (R )0
= (c, 0) ( x x
, (x x )0 ) = c x x
0
u R = u R
(4.63)
0
We therefore see that the expression

A =
q
u
40 cu R
(4.64)
subject to the condition R R = 0 has the proper transformation properties

(proper tensor form) and reduces, in the rest system, to the solution Equation (4.55) on the facing page. It is therefore the correct solution, valid in any
inertial system.
According to Equation (4.37) on page 57 and Equation (4.60)
u R = (c, v) x x , (x x ) = c x x v (x x )
(4.65)
62
Generalising expression (4.1) on page 48 to vector form:

v
c
def
= v
(4.66)
and introducing
v (x x )
x x (x x )
c
def
s xx
(4.67)
we can write
u R = cs
(4.68)
and
1 v
,
cs c2 s
(4.69)
u
=
cu R
from which we see that the solution (4.64) can be written
1 v
,
cs c2 s
q
40
,A
c
(4.70)
A (x ) =
where in the last step the denition of the four-potential, Equation (4.48) on
page 59, was used. Writing the solution in the ordinary 3D-way, we conclude
that for a very localised charge volume, moving relative an observer with a
velocity v, the scalar and vector potentials are given by the expressions
1
q 1
q
=
40 s 40 |x x | (x x )
q
v
v
q
=
A(t, x) =
2 s
2 |x x | (x x )
40 c
40 c
(t, x) =
(4.71a)
(4.71b)
These potentials are called the Linard-Wiechert potentials.
4.3.3 The electromagnetic eld tensor

Consider a vectorial (cross) product c between two ordinary vectors a and b:
c = ab =
i jk ai b j xk
= (a2 b3 a3 b2 ) x1 + (a3 b1 a1 b3 ) x2 + (a1 b2 a2 b1 ) x3
(4.72)
We notice that the kth component of the vector c can be represented as

ck = ai b j a j bi = ci j = c ji ,
i, j = k
(4.73)
4.3
63
In other words, the pseudovector c = a b can be considered as an antisymmetric tensor of rank two.
The same is true for the curl operator . For instance, the Maxwell equation
B
(4.74)
E =
t
can in this tensor notation be written
E j Ei
Bi j
=
(4.75)
xi x j
t
We know from Chapter 3 that the elds can be derived from the electromagnetic potentials in the following way:
A
B=
(4.76a)
A
t
In component form, this can be written
E =
(4.76b)
A j Ai
= i A j j Ai
(4.77a)
xi x j
Ai
Ei = i
= i t Ai
(4.77b)
x
t
From this, we notice the clear difference between the axial vector (pseudovector) B and the polar vector (ordinary vector) E.
Our goal is to express the electric and magnetic elds in a tensor form
where the components are functions of the covariant form of the four-potential,
Equation (4.48) on page 59:
Bi j =
,A
c
(4.78)
A =
Inspection of (4.78) and Equation (4.77) makes it natural to dene the fourtensor
A A
F =
= A A
(4.79)
x x
This anti-symmetric (skew-symmetric), four-tensor of rank 2 is called the electromagnetic eld tensor. In matrix representation, the contravariant eld tensor can be written
deef
hh
ig
F =
0
E x /c Ey /c Ez /c
E x /c
0
Bz
By
Ey /c
Bz
0
B x
Ez /c By
Bx
0
(4.80)
64
The covariant eld tensor is obtained from the contravariant eld tensor in the
usual manner by index contraction (index lowering):
F = g g F = A A
(4.81)
It is perhaps interesting to note that the eld tensor is a sort of four-dimensional

curl of the four-potential vector A . The matrix representation for the covariant
eld tensor is
hh
ig
(4.82)
deef
F =
0
E x /c Ey /c Ez /c
E x /c
0
Bz
By
Ey /c Bz
0
B x
Ez /c By
Bx
0
That the two Maxwell source equations can be written

F = 0 j
(4.83)
is immediately observed by explicitly setting = 0 in this covariant equation

and using the matrix representation Formula (4.80) on the previous page for the
covariant component form of the electromagnetic eld tensor F , to obtain
E x Ey Ez
+
+
x
y
z
1
F 00 F 10 F 20 F 30
+
+
+
= 0+
0
1
2
3
x
x
x
x
c
1
=
E = 0 j0 = 0 c
c
(4.84)
or, equivalently,
E = 0 c2 =
(4.85)
which is the Maxwell source equation for the electric eld, Equation (1.43a)
on page 14.
For = 1, Equation (4.84) above yields
F 01 F 11 F 21 F 31
Bz By
1 E x
+0
+
= 0 j1 = 0 v x (4.86)
+ 1 + 2 + 3 = 2
0
x
x
x
x
c t
y
z
or, using 0 0 = 1/c2 ,
By Bz
E x
0 0
= 0 j x
z
y
t
(4.87)
4.3
65
B IBLIOGRAPHY
and similarly for = 2, 3. In summary, in three-vector form, we can write the

result as
B 0 0
E
= 0 j(t, x)
t
(4.88)
which is the Maxwell source equation for the magnetic eld, Equation (1.43d)
on page 14.
The two Maxwell eld equations
E =
B
t
B = 0
(4.89)
(4.90)
correspond to (no summation!)

F + F + F = 0
(4.91)
Hence, Equation (4.83) on the preceding page and Equation (4.91) constitute
Maxwells equations in four-dimensional formalism.
Bibliography
[1] J. A HARONI, The Special Theory of Relativity, second, revised ed., Dover Publications, Inc., New York, 1985, ISBN 0-486-64870-2.
[2] A. O. BARUT, Electrodynamics and Classical Theory of Fields and Particles,
New York, NY, 1982, ISBN 0-486-64290-9.
[4] D. B OHM, The Special Theory of Relativity, Routledge, New York, NY, 1996,
ISBN 0-415-14809-X.
[5] W. T. G RANDY, Introduction to Electrodynamics and Radiation, Academic
Press, New York and London, 1970, ISBN 0-12-295250-2.
Oxford . . . , 1975, ISBN 0-08-025072-6.
[7] F. E. L OW, Classical Field Theory, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, NY . . . ,
1997, ISBN 0-471-59551-9.
66
[8] C. M LLER, The Theory of Relativity, second ed., Oxford University Press,
Glasgow . . . , 1972.
[9] H. M UIRHEAD, The Special Theory of Relativity, The Macmillan Press Ltd.,
London, Beccles and Colchester, 1973, ISBN 333-12845-1.
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
[11] J. J. S AKURAI, Advanced Quantum Mechanics, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Company, Inc., Reading, MA . . . , 1967, ISBN 0-201-06710-2.
[12] B. S PAIN, Tensor Calculus, third ed., Oliver and Boyd, Ltd., Edinburgh and
London, 1965, ISBN 05-001331-9.
[13] A. N. W HITEHEAD, Concept of Nature, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge . . . , 1920, ISBN 0-521-09245-0.
5
Electromagnetic
Fields and
Particles
In previous chapters, we calculated the electromagnetic elds and potentials

from arbitrary, but prescribed distributions of charges and currents. In this
chapter we study the general problem of interaction between electric and magnetic elds and electrically charged particles. The analysis is based on Lagrangian and Hamiltonian methods, is fully covariant, and yields results which
are relativistically correct.
5.1 Charged Particles in an Electromagnetic

Field
We rst establish a relativistically correct theory describing the motion of
charged particles in prescribed electric and magnetic elds. From these equations we may then calculate the charged particle dynamics in the most general
case.
5.1.1 Covariant equations of motion

We will show that for our problem we can derive the correct equations of motion by using in 4D 4 a function with similiar properties as a Lagrange function in 3D and then apply a variational principle. We will also show that we
can nd nd a Hamiltonian-type function in 4D and solve the corresponding
Hamilton-type equations to obtain the correct covariant formulation of classical electrodynamics.
67
68
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELDS
AND
PARTICLES
Lagrange formalism
Let us no introduce a function L(4) which fulls the variational principle
1
L(4) (x , u ) d = 0
(5.1)
where d is the proper time dened via Equation (4.18) on page 53, and the
endpoints are xed. We shall show that L(4) acts as a kind of generalisation to
the common 3D Lagrangian.
We require that L(4) fulls the following conditions:
1. The Lagrange function must be invariant. This implies that L(4) must be
a scalar.
2. The Lagrange function must yield linear equations of motion. This implies that L(4) must not contain higher than the second power of the fourvelocity u .
According to Formula (M.96) on page 185 the ordinary 3D Lagrangian is
the difference between the kinetic and potential energies. A free particle has
only kinetic energy. If the particle mass is m0 then in 3D the kinetic energy is
m0 v2 /2. This suggests that in 4D the Lagrangian for a free particle should be
1
free
L(4) = m0 u u
2
(5.2)
For an interaction with the electromagnetic eld we can introduce the interaction with the help of the four-potential given by Equation (4.78) on page 63 in
the following way
1
L(4) = m0 u u + qu A (x )
2
(5.3)
We call this the four-Lagrangian and shall now show how this function, together with the variation principle, Formula (5.1), yields covariant results which
are physically correct.
The variation principle (5.1) with the 4D Lagrangian (5.3) inserted, leads
to
1
m0
u u + qu A d
2
0
A
m0 (u u )
u + q A u + u x
2 u
x
R
m0 u u + q A u + u A x

0
1
L(4) (x , u ) d =
(5.4)
d = 0
5.1
C HARGED PARTICLES
IN AN
69
E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELD
According to Equation (4.37) on page 57, the four-velocity is

u =
dx
d
(5.5)
which means that we can write the variation of u as a total derivative with
respect to :
=
d
x
d
dx
d
u =
(5.6)
Inserting this into the rst two terms in the last integral in Equation (5.4) on
the facing page, we obtain
1
L(4) (x , u ) d
d
d
m0 u
x + qA
x + qu A x d
d
d
(5.7)
Partial integration in the two rst terms in the right hand member of (5.7)
gives
1
L(4) (x , u ) d
(5.8)
du
dA
m0
x q
x + qu A x d
d
d
where the integrated parts do not contribute since the variations at the endpoints vanish. A change of irrelevant summation index from to in the rst
two terms of the right hand member of (5.8) yields, after moving the ensuing
common factor x outside the partenthesis, the following expression:
1
0
L(4) (x , u ) d
=
0
du
dA
m0
q
+ qu A x d
d
d
(5.9)
Applying well-known rules of differentiation and the expression (4.37) for

the four-velocity, we can express dA /d as follows:
dA A dx
=
= A u
d
x d
(5.10)
70
AND
PARTICLES
By inserting this expression (5.10) into the second term in right-hand member
of Equation (5.9) above, and noting the common factor qu of the resulting
term and the last term, we obtain the nal variational principle expression
1
L(4) (x , u ) d
du
m0
+ qu A A
d
(5.11)
x d
Since, according to the variational principle, this expression shall vanish and
x is arbitrary between the xed end points 0 and 1 , the expression inside
in the integrand in the right hand member of Equation (5.11) must vanish.
In other words, we have found an equation of motion for a charged particle in
a prescribed electromagnetic eld:

du
= qu A A
d
m0
(5.12)
With the help of Equation (4.79) on page 63 we can express this equation in
terms of the electromagnetic eld tensor in the following way:
m0
du
= qu F
d
(5.13)
This is the sought-for covariant equation of motion for a particle in an electromagnetic eld. It is often referred to as the Minkowski equation. As the reader
can easily verify, the spatial part of this 4-vector equation is the covariant (relativistically correct) expression for the Newton-Lorentz force equation.
Hamiltonian formalism
The usual Hamilton equations for a 3D space are given by Equation (M.101)
on page 185 in Appendix M. These six rst-order partial differential equations
are
H dqi
=
pi
dt
H
dpi
=
qi
dt
(5.14a)
(5.14b)
where H(pi , qi , t) = pi qi L(qi , qi , t) is the ordinary 3D Hamiltonian, qi is a
generalised coordinate and pi is its canonically conjugate momentum.
5.1
C HARGED PARTICLES
IN AN
71
We seek a similar set of equations in 4D space. To this end we introduce a

canonically conjugate four-momentum p in an analogous way as the ordinary
3D conjugate momentum:
p =
L(4)
u
(5.15)
and utilise the four-velocity u , as given by Equation (4.37) on page 57, to

dene the four-Hamiltonian
H(4) = p u L(4)
(5.16)
With the help of these, the radius four-vector x , considered as the generalised
four-coordinate, and the invariant line element ds, dened in Equation (4.18)
on page 53, we introduce the following eight partial differential equations:
H(4) dx
=
p
d
dp
H(4)
=
x
d
(5.17a)
(5.17b)
which form the four-dimensional Hamilton equations.

Our strategy now is to use Equation (5.15) on the preceding page and Equations (5.17) to derive an explicit algebraic expression for the canonically conjugate momentum four-vector. According to Equation (4.42) on page 58, c times
a four-momentum has a zeroth (time) component which we can identify with
the total energy. Hence we require that the component p0 of the conjugate fourmomentum vector dened according to Equation (5.15) on the facing page be
identical to the ordinary 3D Hamiltonian H divided by c and hence that this
cp0 solves the Hamilton equations, Equations (5.14) on the preceding page.
This later consistency check is left as an exercise to the reader.
Using the denition of H(4) , Equation (5.16), and the expression for L(4) ,
Equation (5.3) on page 68, we obtain
1
H(4) = p u L(4) = p u m0 u u qu A (x )
2
(5.18)
Furthermore, from the denition (5.15) of the canonically conjugate fourmomentum p , we see that
L(4)
=
u
u
1
m0 u u + qu A (x ) = m0 u + qA
2
p =
(5.19)
72
AND
PARTICLES
Inserting this into (5.18), we obtain

1
1
H(4) = m0 u u + qA u m0 u u qu A (x ) = m0 u u
2
2
(5.20)
Since the four-velocity scalar-multiplied by itself is u u = c2 , we clearly

see from Equation (5.20) that H(4) is indeed a scalar invariant, whose value is
simply
H(4) =
m0 c2
2
(5.21)
However, at the same time (5.19) provides the algebraic relationship

1
p qA
m0
u =
(5.22)
and if this is used in (5.20) to eliminate u , one gets
p p 2qA p + q2 A A
(5.23)
p qA
p qA
1
1
p qA
p qA
m0
m0
m0
2
1
=
2m0
1
=
2m0
H(4) =
That this four-Hamiltonian yields the correct covariant equation of motion can
be seen by inserting it into the four-dimensional Hamiltons equations (5.17)
and using the relation (5.22):
H(4)
q
A
= (p qA )
x
m0
x
A
q
= m0 u
m0
x
A
= qu
x
du
dp
A
=
= m0
q u
d
d
x
(5.24)
where in the last step Equation (5.19) on the previous page was used. Rearranging terms, and using Equation (4.80) on page 63, we obtain
du
= qu A A = qu F
d
m0
(5.25)
5.1
C HARGED PARTICLES
IN AN
73
which is identical to the covariant equation of motion Equation (5.13) on

page 70. We can then safely conclude that the Hamiltonian in question is
correct.
Recalling expression (4.48) on page 59 and representing the canonically
conjugate four-momentum as p = (p0 , p), we obtain the following scalar products:
p p = (p0 )2 (p)2
1
A p = p0 (p A)
c
1
A A = 2 2 (A)2
c
(5.26a)
(5.26b)
(5.26c)
Inserting these explicit expressions into Equation (5.23) on the preceding page,
and using the fact that for H(4) is equal to the scalar value m0 c2 /2, as derived
in Equation (5.21) on page 71, we obtain the equation
which is the second order algebraic equation in p0 :

2q 0
q2
p (p)2 2qp A + q2 (A)2 + 2 2 m2 c2 = 0
0
c
c
x
iw
v
(pqA)2
y
(p0 )2
1
2
q2
m0 c2
=
(p0 )2 (p)2 qp0 + 2q(p A) + 2 2 q2 (A)2
2
2m0
c
c
(5.27)
(5.28)
with two possible solutions
q
p0 =
c
(p qA)2 + m2 c2
0
(5.29)
Since the fourth component (time component) p0 of a four-momentum vector

p multiplied by c represents the energy [cf. Equation (4.42) on page 58],
the positive solution in Equation (5.29) must be identied with the ordinary
Hamilton function H divided by c. Consequently,
H cp0 = q + c
(p qA)2 + m2 c2
0
(5.30)
is the ordinary 3D Hamilton function for a charged particle moving in scalar

and vector potentials associated with prescribed electric and magnetic elds.
The ordinary Lagrange and Hamilton functions L and H are related to each
other by the 3D transformation [cf. the 4D transformation (5.16) between L (4)
and H(4) ]
L = pvH
(5.31)
74
AND
PARTICLES
Using the explicit expressions (Equation (5.30) above) and (Equation (5.31)),
we obtain the explicit expression for the ordinary 3D Lagrange function
L = p v q c
(p qA)2 + m2 c2
0
(5.32)
and if we make the identication

m0 v
p qA =
= mv
2
1 v2
c
(5.33)
where the quantity mv is the usual kinetic momentum, we can rewrite this expression for the ordinary Lagrangian as follows:
L = qA v + mv2 q c m2 v2 + m2 c2
0
2
= mv q( A v) mc = q + qA v m0 c
v2
1 2
c
(5.34)
What we have obtained is the relativstically correct (covariant) expression for

the Lagrangian describing the motion of a charged particle in scalar and vector
potentials associated with prescribed electric and magnetic elds.
5.2 Covariant Field Theory

So far, we have considered two classes of problems. Either we have calculated the elds from given, prescribed distributions of charges and currents, or
we have derived the equations of motion for charged particles in given, prescribed elds. Let us now put the elds and the particles on an equal footing
and present a theoretical description which treats the elds, the particles, and
their interactions in a unied way. This involves transition to a eld picture
with an innite number of degrees of freedom. We shall rst consider a simple
mechanical problem whose solution is well known. Then, drawing inferences
from this model problem, we apply a similar view on the electromagnetic problem.
5.2.1 Lagrange-Hamilton formalism for elds and

interactions
Consider N identical mass points, each with mass m and connected to its neighbour along a one-dimensional straight line, which we choose to be the x axis,
by identical ideal springs with spring constants k. At equilibrium the mass
5.2
75
C OVARIANT F IELD T HEORY
i1
m
k
a
i
m
k
a
i+1
k
a
k
a
F IGURE 5.1: A one-dimensional chain consisting of N discrete, identical mass points m, connected to their neighbours with identical, ideal
springs with spring constants k. The equilibrium distance between the
neighbouring mass points is a and i1 (t), i (t), i+1 (t) are the instantaneous deviations, along the x axis, of positions of the (i 1)th, ith, and
(i + 1)th mass point, respectively.
points are at rest, distributed evenly with a distance a to their two nearest neighbours. After perturbation, the motion of mass point i will be a one-dimensional
oscillatory motion along x. Let us denote the deviation for mass point i from
its equilibrium position by i (t) x.
The solution to this mechanical problem can be obtained if we can nd a

Lagrangian (Lagrange function) L which satises the variational equation
L(i , i , t) dt = 0
(5.35)
According to Equation (M.96) on page 185, the Lagrangian is L = T V where

T denotes the kinetic energy and V the potential energy of a classical mechanical system with conservative forces. In our case the Lagrangian is
1 N
m 2 k(i+1 i )2
i
2
i=1
(5.36)
L=
Let us write the Lagrangian, as given by Equation (5.36) above, in the

following way:
N
i=1
L = a
(5.37)
Here,
i+1 i
1 m 2
ka
2 a i
a
G
(5.38)
76
AND
PARTICLES
is the so called linear Lagrange density. If we now let N and, at the same
time, let the springs become innitesimally short according to the following
scheme:
a dx
m
dm
=
a
dx
ka Y
i+1 i
a
x
(5.39a)
linear mass density
(5.39b)
Youngs modulus
(5.39c)
(5.39d)
we obtain
(5.40)
, , , t =
t x
2
t
(5.41)
where
dx
L=
Notice how we made a transition from a discrete description, in which the mass
points were identied by a discrete integer variable i = 1, 2, . . . , N, to a continuous description, where the innitesimal mass points were instead identied by
a continuous real parameter x, namely their position along x.
A consequence of this transition is that the number of degrees of freedom

for the system went from the nite number N to innity! Another consequence
is that has now become dependent also on the partial derivative with respect
to x of the eld coordinate . But, as we shall see, the transition is well
worth the price because it allows us to treat all elds, be it classical scalar
or vectorial elds, or wave functions, spinors and other elds that appear in
quantum physics, on an equal footing.
Under the assumption of time independence and xed endpoints, the variation principle (5.35) on page 74 yields:
L dt
(5.42)
t
x

t
x
G F
G F
dx dt
=0

,
t x
dx dt
5.2
77
The last integral can be integrated by parts. This results in the expression
G F
fd
G F
fd
dx dt = 0
(5.43)
where the variation is arbitrary (and the endpoints xed). This means that the
integrand itself must vanish. If we introduce the functional derivative
G F
fd
G F
fd
we can express this as
(5.44)
=0
(5.45)
which is the one-dimensional Euler-Lagrange equation.

Inserting the linear mass point chain Lagrangian density, Equation (5.41)
on the preceding page, into Equation (5.45), we obtain the equation of motion
for our one-dimensional linear mechanical structure. It is:
2
2
2
2
2 =0
(5.46)
2Y 2 =
t
x
Y t2 x
i.e., the one-dimensional wave equation for compression waves which propa
gate with phase speed v = Y/ along the linear structure.
A generalisation of the above 1D results to a three-dimensional continuum
is straightforward. For this 3D case we get the variational principle
d4x
=0
(5.47)
fd
d3x dt
L dt =
d4x
where the variation is arbitrary and the endpoints are xed. This means that
the integrand itself must vanish:
fd
=0
(5.48)
78
AND
PARTICLES
This constitutes the four-dimensional Euler-Lagrange equations.

Introducing the three-dimensional functional derivative
xi
fd
we can express this as
G F
fd
xi
(5.49)
=0
(5.50)
In analogy with particle mechanics (nite number of degrees of freedom),

we may introduce the canonically conjugate momentum density
(5.51)
G F
(x ) = (t, x) =
and dene the Hamilton density

,

,
t xi
(5.52)
;t =
i
x
t
, ,
If, as usual, we differentiate this expression and identify terms, we obtain the
following Hamilton density equations
(5.53a)
(5.53b)
The Hamilton density functions are in many ways similar to the ordinary
Hamilton functions and lead to similar results.
The electromagnetic eld

Above, when we described the mechanical eld, we used a scalar eld (t, x).
If we want to describe the electromagnetic eld in terms of a Lagrange density
and Euler-Lagrange equations, it comes natural to express
in terms of
the four-potential A (x ).
The entire system of particles and elds consists of a mechanical part, a
eld part and an interaction part. We therefore assume that the total Lagrange
density tot for this system can be expressed as
mech
inter
tot
eld
(5.54)
5.2
79
where the mechanical part has to do with the particle motion (kinetic energy).
It is given by L(4) /V where L(4) is given by Equation (5.2) on page 68 and V is
the volume. Expressed in the rest mass density 0 , the mechanical Lagrange
density can be written
mech
1
2
0u
(5.55)
The inter part which describes the interaction between the charged particles and the external electromagnetic eld. A convenient expression for this
interaction Lagrange density is
inter
= j A
(5.56)
For the eld part eld we choose the difference between magnetic and
electric energy density (in analogy with the difference between kinetic and
potential energy in a mechanical eld). Using the eld tensor, we express this
eld Lagrange density as
eld
1
F F
40
(5.57)
so that the total Lagrangian density can be written

tot
1
2
0u
1
F F
40
u + j A +
(5.58)
From this we can calculate all physical quantities.

F IELD ENERGY DIFFERENCE EXPRESSED IN THE FIELD TENSOR
E XAMPLE 5.1
Show, by explicit calculation, that

1 B2
1
F F =
0 E 2
40
2 0
i.e., the difference between the magnetic and electric eld energy densities.
(5.59)
"
From Formula (4.80) on page 63 we recall that

E x /c E y /c E z /c
0
Bz
By
Bz
0
B x
By
Bx
0
2445
and from Formula (4.82) on page 64 that

E x /c
0
Bz
By
E y /c
Bz
0
Bx
E z /c
By
B x
0
@@ B8
2445
F =
0
E x /c
E y /c
E z /c
@@ 8B
F =
0
E x /c
E y /c
E z /c
(5.60)
(5.61)
where denotes the row number and the column number. Then, Einstein summation
80
AND
PARTICLES
and direct substitution yields

F F = F 00 F 00 + F 01 F 01 + F 02 F 02 + F 03 F 03
+ F 10 F 10 + F 11 F 11 + F 12 F 12 + F 13 F 13
+ F 20 F 20 + F 21 F 21 + F 22 F 22 + F 23 F 23
+ F 30 F 30 + F 31 F 31 + F 32 F 32 + F 33 F 33
2
2
= 0 E 2 /c2 E y /c2 E z /c2
x
(5.62)
E 2 /c2 + 0 + B2 + B2
x
z
y
2
E y /c2 + B2 + 0 + B2
z
x
2
E z /c2 + B2 + B2 + 0
y
x
2
2
= 2E 2 /c2 2E y /c2 2E z /c2 + 2B2 + 2B2 + 2B2
x
x
y
z
= 2E 2 /c2 + 2B2 = 2(B2 E 2 /c2 )

or
1
2
B2
0 E 2
0
(5.63)
"
where, in the last step, the identity 0 0 = 1/c2 was used.
QED
E ND
OF EXAMPLE
1 2
B2
E
0 c 2 0
"
1
1
F F =
40
2
5.1
Using tot in the 3D Euler-Lagrange equations, Equation (5.48) on page 77

(with replaced by A ), we can derive the dynamics for the whole system. For
instance, the electromagnetic part of the Lagrangian density
inter
EM
eld
= j A +
1
F F
40
(5.64)
inserted into the Euler-Lagrange equations, expression (5.48) on page 77, yields
two of Maxwells equations. To see this, we note from Equation (5.64) and the
results in Example 5.1 that
EM
= j
(5.65)
5.2
81
Furthermore,
EM
1
=
F F
( A )
40
( A )
1
=
( A A )( A A )
40
( A )
(5.66)
A A + A A
A A A A
20
( A )

9
A A A A
40
( A )

But
A A = A
A + A
A
( A )
( A )
( A )
A + A
g g A
= A
( A )
( A )
= A
A + g g A
A (5.67)
( A )
( A )
= A
A + A
A
( A )
( A )
= 2 A
Similarly,
A A = 2 A
( A )
(5.68)
so that
EM
1
1
= A A = F
( A )
0
0
(5.69)
This means that the Euler-Lagrange equations, expression (5.48) on page 77,
for the Lagrangian density EM and with A as the eld quantity become
EM
1
= j F = 0
( A )
0
EM
(5.70)
82
AND
PARTICLES
or
F = 0 j
(5.71)
which, according to Equation (4.83) on page 64, is the covariant version of

Maxwells source equations.
Other elds
In general, the dynamic equations for most any elds, and not only electromagnetic ones, can be derived from a Lagrangian density together with a variational principle (the Euler-Lagrange equations). Both linear and non-linear
elds are studied with this technique. As a simple example, consider a real,
scalar eld which has the following Lagrange density:
1
m2 2
2
(5.72)
Insertion into the 1D Euler-Lagrange equation, Equation (5.45) on page 77,

yields the dynamic equation
m2 ) = 0
(5.73)
with the solution

= ei(kxt)
em|x|
|x|
(5.74)
which describes the Yukawa meson eld for a scalar meson with mass m. With
=
1
c2 t
(5.75)
we obtain the Hamilton density

1 2 2
c + ( )2 + m2 2
2
(5.76)
which is positive denite.

Another Lagrangian density which has attracted quite some interest is the
Proca Lagrangian
inter
EM
eld
= j A +
1
F F + m2 A A
40
(5.77)
5.2
83
B IBLIOGRAPHY
which leads to the dynamic equation

F + m2 A = 0 j
(5.78)
This equation describes an electromagnetic eld with a mass, or, in other

words, massive photons. If massive photons would exist, large-scale magnetic
elds, including those of the earth and galactic spiral arms, would be signicantly modied to yield measurable discrepances from their usual form. Space
experiments of this kind onboard satellites have led to stringent upper bounds
on the photon mass. If the photon really has a mass, it will have an impact on
electrodynamics as well as on cosmology and astrophysics.
Bibliography
[1] A. O. BARUT, Electrodynamics and Classical Theory of Fields and Particles,
[2] V. L. G INZBURG, Applications of Electrodynamics in Theoretical Physics
and Astrophysics, Revised third ed., Gordon and Breach Science Publishers,
New York, London, Paris, Montreux, Tokyo and Melbourne, 1989, ISBN 288124-719-9.
[3] H. G OLDSTEIN, Classical Mechanics, second ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing
[4] W. T. G RANDY, Introduction to Electrodynamics and Radiation, Academic
Press, New York and London, 1970, ISBN 0-12-295250-2.
Oxford . . . , 1975, ISBN 0-08-025072-6.
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
[7] J. J. S AKURAI, Advanced Quantum Mechanics, Addison-Wesley Publishing
[8] D. E. S OPER, Classical Field Theory, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, London, Sydney and Toronto, 1976, ISBN 0-471-81368-0.
84
AND
PARTICLES
6
Electromagnetic
Fields and
Matter
The microscopic Maxwell equations (1.43) derived in Chapter 1 are valid on all
scales where a classical description is good. However, when macroscopic matter is present, it is sometimes convenient to use the corresponding macroscopic
Maxwell equations (in a statistical sense) in which auxiliary, derived elds are
introduced in order to incorporate effects of macroscopic matter when this is
immersed fully or partially in an electromagnetic eld.
6.1 Electric Polarisation and Displacement

In certain cases, for instance in engneering applications, it may be convenient
to separate the inuence of an external electric eld on free charges and on
neutral matter in bulk. This view, which, as we shall see, has certain limitations, leads to the introduction of (di)electric polarisation and (di)electric
displacement.
6.1.1 Electric multipole moments

The electrostatic properties of a spatial volume containing electric charges and
located near a point x0 can be characterized in terms of the total charge or
electric monopole moment
(x ) d3x
q=
(6.1)
where the is the charge density introduced in Equation (1.7) on page 4, the
electric dipole moment vector
p(x0 ) =
(x x0 )(x ) d3x
(6.2)
85
86
AND
M ATTER
with components pi , i = 1, 2, 3, the electric quadrupole moment tensor

Q(x0 ) =
(x x0 )(x x0 )(x ) d3x
(6.3)
with components Qi j , i, j = 1, 2, 3, and higher order electric moments.

In particular, the electrostatic potential Equation (3.3) on page 35 from a
charge distribution located near x0 can be Taylor expanded in the following
way:
q
1
1
(x x0 )i
+
p
2 i |x x |
40 |x x0 | |x x0 |
0
3 (x x0 )i (x x0 ) j 1
i j + . . .
2 |x x0 | |x x0 | 2
1
Qi j
+
|x x0 |3
(6.4)
stat (x) =
where Einsteins summation convention over i and j is implied. As can be

seen from this expression, only the rst few terms are important if the eld
point (observation point) is far away from x0 .
For a normal medium, the major contributions to the electrostatic interactions come from the net charge and the lowest order electric multipole moments induced by the polarisation due to an applied electric eld. Particularly
important is the dipole moment. Let P denote the electric dipole moment density (electric dipole moment per unit volume; unit: C/m2 ), also known as the
electric polarisation, in some medium. In analogy with the second term in the
expansion Equation (6.4) on page 86, the electric potential from this volume
distribution P(x ) of electric dipole moments p at the source point x can be
written
P(x )
xx 3
1
d x =
3
|x x |
40
V
1
P(x )
d3x
|x x |
V
P(x )
1
d3x
|x x |
1
40
1
=
40
p (x) =
(6.5)
Using the expression Equation (M.83) on page 182 and applying the divergence theorem, we can rewrite this expression for the potential as follows:
(6.6)
P(x )
P(x ) 3
d3x
dx
|x x |
V
V |x x |
P(x ) n 2
P(x ) 3
d x
dx
|x x |
|x x |
S
V
1
40
1
=
40
p (x) =
6.1
E LECTRIC P OLARISATION
AND
87
D ISPLACEMENT
where the rst term, which describes the effects of the induced, non-cancelling
dipole moment on the surface of the volume, can be neglected, unless there is
a discontinuity in P n at the surface. Doing so, we nd that the contribution
from the electric dipole moments to the potential is given by

1
40
p =
P(x ) 3
dx
|x x |
(6.7)
Comparing this expression with expression Equation (3.3) on page 35 for the
electrostatic potential from a static charge distribution , we see that P(x)
has the characteristics of a charge density and that, to the lowest order, the
effective charge density becomes (x) P(x), in which the second term is a
polarisation term.
The version of Equation (1.7) on page 4 where true and polarisation
charges are separated thus becomes
E =
(x) P(x)
0
(6.8)
Rewriting this equation, and at the same time introducing the electric displacement vector (C/m2 )
D = 0 E + P
(6.9)
we obtain
(0 E + P) =
D = true (x)
(6.10)
where true is the true charge density in the medium. This is one of Maxwells
equations and is valid also for time varying elds. By introducing the notation pol = P for the polarised charge density in the medium, and
total = true + pol for the total charge density, we can write down the following alternative version of Maxwells equation (6.23a) on page 90
E =
total (x)
0
(6.11)
Often, for low enough eld strengths |E|, the linear and isotropic relationship between P and E
P = 0 E
(6.12)
is a good approximation. The quantity is the electric susceptibility which

is material dependent. For electromagnetically anisotropic media such as a
88
AND
M ATTER
magnetised plasma or a birefringent crystal, the susceptibility is a tensor. In

general, the relationship is not of a simple linear form as in Equation (6.12)
on the previous page but non-linear terms are important. In such a situation
the principle of superposition is no longer valid and non-linear effects such as
frequency conversion and mixing can be expected.
Inserting the approximation (6.12) into Equation (6.9) on the preceding
page, we can write the latter
D = E
(6.13)
where, approximately,
= 0 (1 + )
(6.14)
6.2 Magnetisation and the Magnetising Field

An analysis of the properties of stationary magnetic media and the associated
currents shows that three such types of currents exist:
1. In analogy with true charges for the electric case, we may have true
currents jtrue , i.e., a physical transport of true charges.
2. In analogy with electric polarisation P there may be a form of charge
transport associated with the changes of the polarisation with time. We
call such currents induced by an external eld polarisation currents. We
identify them with P/t.
3. There may also be intrinsic currents of a microscopic, often atomic, nature that are inaccessible to direct observation, but which may produce
net effects at discontinuities and boundaries. We shall call such currents
magnetisation currents and denote them jM .
No magnetic monopoles have been observed yet. So there is no correspondence in the magnetic case to the electric monopole moment (6.1). The lowest
order magnetic moment, corresponding to the electric dipole moment (6.2), is
the magnetic dipole moment
1
2
m=
(x x0 ) j(x ) d3x
(6.15)
For a distribution of magnetic dipole moments in a volume, we may describe

this volume in terms of the magnetisation, or magnetic dipole moment per unit
6.2
M AGNETISATION
AND THE
89
M AGNETISING F IELD
volume, M. Via the denition of the vector potential one can show that the
magnetisation current and the magnetisation is simply related:
jM =
(6.16)
In a stationary medium we therefore have a total current which is (approximately) the sum of the three currents enumerated above:
jtotal = jtrue +
P
+ M
t
(6.17)
We might then, erroneously, be led to think that

P
+ M
t
B = 0 jtrue +
(6.18)
Moving the term M to the left hand side and introducing the magnetising
eld (magnetic eld intensity, Ampre-turn density) as
H=
B
M
0
(6.19)
and using the denition for D, Equation (6.9) on page 87, we can write this
incorrect equation in the following form
H = jtrue +
E
P
D
= jtrue +
0
t
t
t
(6.20)
As we see, in this simplistic view, we would pick up a term which makes

the equation inconsistent; the divergence of the left hand side vanishes while
the divergence of the right hand side does not. Maxwell realised this and to
overcome this inconsistency he was forced to add his famous displacement
current term which precisely compensates for the last term in the right hand
side. In Chapter 1, we discussed an alternative way, based on the postulate of
conservation of electric charge, to introduce the displacement current.
We may, in analogy with the electric case, introduce a magnetic susceptibility for the medium. Denoting it m , we can write
H=
(6.21)
where, approximately,
= 0 (1 + m )
(6.22)
90
AND
M ATTER
Maxwells equations expressed in terms of the derived eld quantities D

and H are
D = (t, x)
B = 0
E =
(6.23a)
(6.23b)
B
t
(6.23c)
H = j(t, x) +
D
t
(6.23d)
and are called Maxwells macroscopic equations. These equations are convenient to use in certain simple cases. Together with the boundary conditions and
the constitutive relations, they describe uniquely (but only approximately!) the
properties of the electric and magnetic elds in matter.
6.3 Energy and Momentum

We shall use Maxwells macroscopic equations in the following considerations
on the energy and momentum of the electromagnetic eld and its interaction
with matter.
6.3.1 The energy theorem in Maxwells theory

Scalar multiplying (6.23c) by H, (6.23d) by E and subtracting, we obtain
H ( E) E ( H) = (E H)
B
D
1
= H
EjE
=
(H B + E D) j E
t
t
2 t
(6.24)
Integration over the entire volume V and using Gausss theorem (the divergence theorem), we obtain
1
(H B + E D) d3x =
2
j E d3x +
(E H) nd2x
(6.25)
But, according to Ohms law in the presence of an electromotive force

eld, Equation (1.26) on page 10:
j = (E + EEMF )
(6.26)
which means that
j2 3
dx
j E d3x =
j EEMF d3x
(6.27)
6.3
E NERGY
AND
91
M OMENTUM
Inserting this into Equation (6.25) on the preceding page
x
iw
Field energy
v y
x
iw v
Joule heat
1
(E D + H B) d3x +
2
(E H) nd2x
x
w
x
iw
Applied electric power
j2 3
dx +
Radiated power
j EEMF d3x =
(6.28)
which is the energy theorem in Maxwells theory also known as Poyntings
theorem.
It is convenient to introduce the following quantities:
1
E D d3x
2 V
1
H B d3x
Um =
2 V
S = EH
Ue =
(6.29)
(6.30)
(6.31)
where U e is the electric eld energy, U m is the magnetic eld energy, both
measured in J, and S is the Poynting vector (power ux), measured in W/m2 .
6.3.2 The momentum theorem in Maxwells theory

Let us now investigate the momentum balance (force actions) in the case that
a eld interacts with matter in a non-relativistic way. For this purpose we
consider the force density given by the Lorentz force per unit volume E+jB.
Using Maxwells equations (6.23) and symmetrising, we obtain
D
B
t
D
= E( D) + ( H) B
B
t
= E( D) B ( H)
B
(D B) + D
t
t
= E( D) B ( H)
(D B) D ( E) + H( B)
t
H
E + j B = ( D)E +
(6.32)
y iw v
x
=0
= [E( D) D ( E)] + [H( B) B ( H)]
(D B)
t
92
AND
M ATTER
One veries easily that the ith vector components of the two terms in
square brackets in the right hand member of (6.32) can be expressed as
1
D
E
E
D
+
2
xi
xi
x j
1
E i D j E D i j
2
(6.33)
[E( D) D ( E)]i =
and
1
B
H
H
B
+
2
xi
xi
x j
1
Hi B j B H i j
2
(6.34)
[H( B) B ( H)]i =
respectively.
Using these two expressions in the ith component of Equation (6.32) on
the preceding page and re-shufing terms, we get
+ H
B
H
B
xi
xi
1
1
E i D j E D i j + Hi B j H B i j
2
2
(D B)i
t
D
E
D
xi
xi
x j
1
2
(E + j B)i
(6.35)
Introducing the electric volume force Fev via its ith component
D
E
B
H
D
+ H
B
xi
xi
xi
xi
1
2
and the Maxwell stress tensor T with components

1
1
T i j = E i D j E D i j + Hi B j H B i j
2
2

H
(Fev )i = (E + j B)i
(6.36)
(6.37)
we nally obtain the force equation

T i j
= ( T)i
(D B) =
t
x j
i
Fev +
(6.38)
If we introduce the relative electric permittivity and the relative magnetic

permeability m as
D = 0 E = E
(6.39)
B = m 0 H = H
(6.40)
6.3
93
B IBLIOGRAPHY
we can rewrite (6.38) as
T i j
m S
= Fev + 2
x j
c t
(6.41)
i
where S is the Poynting vector dened in Equation (6.29) on page 91. Integration over the entire volume V yields
x
iw
m 3
Sd x =
c2
Field momentum
d
dt
T n d2x
x
iw
x
iw
Force on the matter
(6.42)
Fev d3x
Maxwell stress
which expresses the balance between the force on the matter, the rate of change
of the electromagnetic eld momentum and the Maxwell stress. This equation
is called the momentum theorem in Maxwells theory.
In vacuum (6.42) becomes
S d3x =
d mech d eld
p
+ p
=
dt
dt
1 d
c2 dt
T n d2x
or
(E + v B) d3x +
T n d2x
(6.43)
(6.44)
Bibliography
[1] E. H ALLN, Electromagnetic Theory, Chapman & Hall, Ltd., London, 1962.
New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
94
AND
M ATTER
7
Electromagnetic
Fields from
Arbitrary Source
Distributions
While, in principle, the electric and magnetic elds can be calculated from the
Maxwell equations in Chapter 1, or even from the wave equations in Chapter 2,
it is often physically more lucid to calculate them from the electromagnetic
potentials derived in Chapter 3. In this chapter we will derive the electric and
magnetic elds from the potentials.
We recall that in order to nd the solution (3.35) for the generic inhomogeneous wave equation (3.19) on page 41 we presupposed the existence of a
Fourier transform pair (3.20a) on page 41 for the generic source term
1
2
(x) =
(t, x) =
(x) eit d
(7.1a)
(t, x) eit dt
(7.1b)
That such transform pairs exists is true for most physical variables which are
neither strictly monotonically increasing nor strictly monotonically decreasing
with time. For charge and current densities varying in time we can therefore,
without loss of generality, work with individual Fourier components w (x) and
jw (x), respectively. Strictly speaking, the existence of a single Fourier component assumes a monochromatic source (i.e., a source containing only one
single frequency component), which in turn requires that the electric and magnetic elds exist for innitely long times. However, by taking the proper limits,
we may still use this approach even for sources and elds of nite duration.
This is the method we shall utilise in this chapter in order to derive the
electric and magnetic elds in vacuum from arbitrary given charge densities
(t, x) and current densities j(t, x), dened by the temporal Fourier transform
95
96
AND
M ATTER
pairs
(t, x) =
1
2
and
1
2
(7.2b)
j (x) eit d
j (x) =
(7.2a)
(t, x) eit dt
j(t, x) =
(x) =
(x) eit d
(7.3a)
j(t, x) eit dt
(7.3b)
under the assumption that only retarded potentials produce physically acceptable solutions.1
The temporal Fourier transform pair for the retarded vector potential can
then be written
1
2
(x) eit d
(t, x) eit dt =
(x) =
(7.4a)
1
40
(x )
(t, x) =
eik|xx | 3
dx
|x x |
(7.4b)
where in the last step, we made use of the explicit expression for the temporal
Fourier transform of the generic potential component (x), Equation (3.32)
on page 43. Similarly, the following Fourier transform pair for the vector potential must exist:
1
2
A (x) =
A (x) eit d
A(t, x) eit dt =
Clearly, we must require that

A = A ,
(7.5a)
0
4
j (x )
A(t, x) =
eik|xx | 3
dx
|x x |
(7.5b)
(7.6)
in order that all physical quantities be real. Similar transform pairs and requirements of real-valuedness exist for the elds themselves.
1 In
fact, John A. Wheeler and Richard P. Feynman derived in 1945 a fully self-consistent
electrodynamics using both the retarded and the advanced potentials [6]; See also [1].
7.1
97
T HE M AGNETIC F IELD
In the limit that the sources can be considered monochromatic containing

only one single frequency 0 , we have the much simpler expressions
(t, x) = 0 (x)ei0 t
(7.7a)
i0 t
(7.7b)
(t, x) = 0 (x)ei0 t
(7.7c)
i0 t
(7.7d)
j(t, x) = j0 (x)e
A(t, x) = A0 (x)e
where again the real-valuedness of all these quantities is implied. As discussed

above, we can safely assume that all formulae derived for a general temporal
Fourier representation of the source (general distribution of frequencies in the
source) are valid for these simple limiting cases. We note that in this context,
we can make the formal identication = 0 ( 0 ), j = j0 ( 0 ) etc.,
and that we therefore, without any loss of stringence, let 0 mean the same as
the Fourier amplitude and so on.
7.1 The Magnetic Field

Let us now compute the magnetic eld from the vector potential, dened by
Equation (7.5a) and Equation (7.5b) on the preceding page, and Formula (3.6)
on page 36:
B(t, x) =
A(t, x)
(7.8)
The calculations are much simplied if we work in space and, at the

nal stage, Fourier transform back to ordinary t space. We are working in the
Lorentz gauge and note that in space the Lorentz condition, Equation (3.13)
on page 38, takes the form
k
A i = 0
c
(7.9)
which provides a relation between (the Fourier transforms of) the vector and
scalar potentials.
Using the Fourier transformed version of Equation (7.8) and Equation (7.5b)
on the preceding page, we obtain
A (x) =
B (x) =
j (x )
eik|xx | 3
dx
|x x |
(7.10)
98
FROM
A RBITRARY S OURCE D ISTRIBUTIONS
Using Formula (F.60) on page 165, we can rewrite this as

eik|xx |
d3x
|x x |
V
xx
j (x )
eik|xx | d3x
|x x |3
V
x x ik|xx |
1
+ j (x ) ik
e
d3x
|x x |
|x x |
V
j (x )eik|xx | (x x ) 3
dx
|x x |3
V
(ik)j(x )eik|xx | (x x ) 3
+
dx
V
|x x |2
0
4
(7.11)
j (x )

0
4
0
=
4
B (x) =
From this expression for the magnetic eld in the frequency () domain,
we obtain the total magnetic eld in the temporal (t) domain by taking the
inverse Fourier transform (using the identity ik = i/c):
v y
x
w
Induction eld
d3x
(7.12)
ret , x ) (x x )
j(t
d3x
2
|x x |
x
w
Radiation eld
|x x |
(i)j (x )ei(k|xx |t) d (x x )
|x x |
j(tret , x ) (x x ) 3
0
dx +
3
4c
|x x |
V
d3x
0
4

1
c
j (x )ei(k|xx |t) d (x x )
0
4
B (x) eit d

B(t, x) =
v
where
j
t
ret , x ) def
j(t
(7.13)
t=tret
The rst term, the induction eld, dominates near the current source but falls
off rapidly with distance from it, is the electrodynamic version of the BiotSavart law in electrostatics, Formula (1.13) on page 6. The second term, the
radiation eld or the far eld, dominates at large distances and represents energy that is transported out to innity. Note how the spatial derivatives ( )
gave rise to a time derivative ()!
7.2
99
T HE E LECTRIC F IELD
7.2 The Electric Field

In order to calculate the electric eld, we use the temporally Fourier transformed version of Formula (3.10) on page 37, inserting Equations (7.4b) and
(7.5b) as the explicit expressions for the Fourier transforms of and A:
E (x) = (x) + iA (x)
eik|xx | 3
eik|xx | 3
i0
j (x )
dx +
dx
4 V
|x x |
|x x |
V
(7.14)
(x )eik|xx | (x x ) 3
dx
3
V
|x x |
(x )(x x ) j (x ) eik|xx | 3
ik
dx
c
|x x |
|x x |
V
(x )
1
40
1
=
40
Using the Fourier transform of the continuity Equation (1.21) on page 9

j (x ) i (x ) = 0
(7.15)
we see that we can express in terms of j as follows

(x ) =
j (x )
(7.16)
Doing so in the last term of Equation (7.14), and also using the fact that
k = /c, we can rewrite this Equation as
x
iw
1
c
(x )eik|xx | (x x ) 3
dx
|x x |3
[ j (x )](x x )
eik|xx | 3
ikj (x )
dx
|x x |
|x x |
(7.17)
y
1
40
E (x) =
The last vector-valued integral can be further rewritten in the following

way:
(7.18)
j (x )](x x )
eik|xx | 3
ikj (x )
dx
|x x |
|x x |
eik|xx | 3
jm xl xl
ik jl (x ) xl
dx
xm |x x |
|x x |
[
I =
100
FROM
But, since
xl xl ik|xx |
e
|x x |2
xl xl ik|xx |
+ jm
e
xm |x x |2
jm
xm
(7.19)
xl xl ik|xx |
e
|x x |2
jm
xm
we can rewrite I as
(7.20)
xm
xl xl
eik|xx | 3
dx
xl eik|xx | + ikj
|x x |
|x x |2
xl xl
jm
xl eik|xx | d3x
|x x |2
xm
jm
I =
where, according to Gausss theorem, the last term vanishes if j is assumed

to be limited and tends to zero at large distances. Further evaluation of the
derivative in the rst term makes it possible to write
|x x |3
ik|xx |
eik|xx |
+ j
|x x |
d3x
(7.21)
dx
j (x x ) (x x )
ik
eik|xx |
2
j (x x ) (x x )eik|xx |
+
2
4
|x x |
|x x |
I =
Using the triple product bac-cab Formula (F.54) on page 164 backwards, and
inserting the resulting expression for I into Equation (7.17) on the preceding
page, we arrive at the following nal expression for the Fourier transform of
the total E eld:
1
40
1
=
40
E (x) =
ik
c
1
c
1
c
i0
eik|xx | 3
eik|xx | 3
dx +
dx
j (x )
4 V
|x x |
|x x |
V
(x )eik|xx | (x x ) 3
dx
V
|x x |3
[j (x )eik|xx | (x x )](x x ) 3
(7.22)
dx
|x x |4
V
[j (x )eik|xx | (x x )] (x x ) 3
dx
V
|x x |4
[j (x )eik|xx | (x x )] (x x ) 3
dx
V
|x x |3
(x )
7.3
101
T HE R ADIATION F IELDS
Taking the inverse Fourier transform of Equation (7.22) on the preceding

page, once again using the vacuum relation = kc, we nd, at last, the expression in time domain for the total electric eld:
Retarded Coulomb eld
Intermediate eld
x
w
1
40 c2
Intermediate eld
[ ret , x ) (x x )] (x x ) 3
j(t
dx
|x x |3
Radiation eld
(7.23)
[j(tret , x ) (x x )] (x x ) 3
dx
|x x |4
x
iw
v
v
+
1
40 c
[j(tret , x ) (x x )](x x ) 3
dx
|x x |4
x
w
1
40 c
(tret , x )(x x ) 3
dx
|x x |3
1
40
x
iw
E (x) eit d
E(t, x) =
Here, the rst term represents the retarded Coulomb eld and the last term
represents the radiation eld which carries energy over very large distances.
The other two terms represent an intermediate eld which contributes only in
the near zone and must be taken into account there.
With this we have achieved our goal of nding closed-form analytic expressions for the electric and magnetic elds when the sources of the elds
are completely arbitrary, prescribed distributions of charges and currents. The
only assumption made is that the advanced potentials have been discarded;
recall the discussion following Equation (3.35) on page 43 in Chapter 3.
7.3 The Radiation Fields

In this section we study electromagnetic radiation, i.e., the part of the electric and magnetic elds elds, calculated above, which are capable of carrying
energy and momentum over large distances. We shall therefore make the assumption that the observer is located in the far zone, i.e., very far away from
the source region(s). The elds which are dominating in this zone are by denition the radiation elds.
From Equation (7.12) on page 98 and Equation (7.23), which give the total
102
FROM
electric and magnetic elds, we obtain
Erad (x) eit d
1
40 c2
where
Erad (t, x) =
Brad (x) eit d =
j
t
ret , x ) def
j(t
0
4c
Brad (t, x) =
ret , x ) (x x )
j(t
d3x (7.24a)
2
|x x |
[ ret , x ) (x x )] (x x ) 3
j(t
dx
|x x |3
(7.24b)
(7.25)
t=tret
Instead of studying the elds in the time domain, we can often make a
spectrum analysis into the frequency domain and study each Fourier component separately. A superposition of all these components and a transformation
back to the time domain will then yield the complete solution.
The Fourier representation of the radiation elds Equation (7.24a) above
and Equation (7.24b) were included in Equation (7.11) on page 98 and Equation (7.22) on page 100, respectively and are explicitly given by
1 rad
B (t, x) eit dt
2
j (x ) (x x ) ik|xx | 3
k0
dx
= i
e
4 V
|x x |2
0
j (x ) k ik|xx | 3
e
= i
dx
4 V |x x |
1 rad
Erad (x) =
E (t, x) eit dt
2
[j (x ) (x x )] (x x ) ik|xx | 3
k
dx
= i
e
40 c V
|x x |3
1
[j (x ) k] (x x ) ik|xx | 3
= i
dx
e
40 c V
|x x |2
Brad (x) =
(7.26a)
(7.26b)
where we used the fact that k = k k = k(x x )/ |x x|.

If the source is located inside a volume V near x0 and has such a limited
spatial extent that max |x x0 | |x x |, and the integration surface S , centred
on x0 , has a large enough radius |x x0 | max |x x0 |, we see from Figure 7.1
on the next page that we can approximate
k x x k (x x ) k (x x0 ) k (x x0 )
k |x x0 | k (x x0 )
(7.27)
7.3
103
T HE R ADIATION F IELDS
S
dS = nd2x
xx
x x0
x x0
x0
V
O
F IGURE 7.1: Relation between the surface normal and the k vector for
radiation generated at source points x near the point x0 in the source
volume V. At distances much larger than the extent of V, the unit vector
n, normal to the surface S which has its centre at x0 , and the unit vector
k of the radiation k vector from x are nearly coincident.
Recalling from Formula (F.48) and Formula (F.49) on page 164 that
dS = |x x0 |2 d = |x x0 |2 sin d d
and noting from Figure 7.1 that k and n are nearly parallel, we see that we can
approximate.

k dS
k n
=
dS d
2
|x x0 |
|x x0 |2
(7.28)
Both these approximations will be used in the following.

Within approximation (7.27) the expressions (7.26a) and (7.26b) for the
radiation elds can be approximated as
0 ik|xx0 | j (x ) k ik(x x0 ) 3
e
e
dx
4
V |x x |
(7.29a)
0 eik|xx0 |
ik(x x0 ) 3
dx
i
[j (x ) k] e
4 |x x0 | V
[j (x ) k] (x x ) ik(x x0 ) 3
1
Erad (x) i
eik|xx0 |
dx
e
40 c
|x x |2
V
1 eik|xx0 | (x x0 )
[j (x ) k] eik(x x0 ) d3x
i
40 c |x x0 | |x x0 |
V
(7.29b)
Brad (x) i
104
FROM
I.e., if max |x x0 | |x x |, then the elds can be approximated as spherical

waves multiplied by dimensional and angular factors, with integrals over points
in the source volume only.
7.4 Radiated Energy

Let us consider the energy that is carried in the radiation elds Brad , Equation (7.26a), and Erad , Equation (7.26b) on page 102. We have to treat signals
with limited lifetime and hence nite frequency bandwidth differently from
monochromatic signals.
7.4.1 Monochromatic signals

If the source is strictly monochromatic, we can obtain the temporal average of
the radiated power P directly, simply by averaging over one period so that
1
1
Re E B =
Re E eit (B eit )
20
20
1
1
=
Re E B eit eit =
Re E B
20
20
(7.30)
S = EH =
Using the far-eld approximations (7.29a) and (7.29b) and the fact that 1/c =
0 0 and R0 = 0 /0 according to the denition (2.18) on page 26, we obtain

dx
(j k)e
ik(x x0 ) 3
1
1
S =
R0
322 |x x0 |2
x x0
|x x0 |
(7.31)
or, making use of (7.28) on the preceding page,

2
(j k)eik(x x0 ) d3x
dP
1
=
R0
d 322
(7.32)
which is the radiated power per unit solid angle.
7.4.2 Finite bandwidth signals

A signal with nite pulse width in time (t) domain has a certain spread in frequency () domain. To calculate the total radiated energy we need to integrate
7.4
105
R ADIATED E NERGY
over the whole bandwidth. The total energy transmitted through a unit area is
the time integral of the Poynting vector:
(E H) dt
S(t) dt =
(7.33)
(E H )ei(+ )t dt
If we carry out the temporal integration rst and use the fact that
ei(+ )t dt = 2( + )
(7.34)
Equation (7.33) above can be written [cf. Parsevals identity]
(E H ) d
(E H ) d +
(E H ) d
(E H ) d
(E B + E B ) d
(7.35)
(E H ) d
(E H ) d +
2
0
2
=
0
= 2
= 2
(E H ) d
= 2
S(t) dt = 2
(E B + E B ) d
where the last step follows from the real-valuedness of E and B . We insert the Fourier transforms of the eld components which dominate at large
distances, i.e., the radiation elds (7.26a) and (7.26b). The result, after integration over the area S of a large sphere which encloses the source, is
j k ik|xx | 3
dx
e
|x x |

k ndS d
0
0
1
4
U=
(7.36)
Inserting the approximations (7.27) and (7.28) into Equation (7.36) and
also introducing
U=
0
U d
(7.37)
and recalling the denition (2.18) on page 26 for the vacuum resistance R 0 we
obtain
(j k)e
dx
ik(x x0 ) 3
1
dU
d R0
d
4
(7.38)
106
FROM
which, at large distances, is a good approximation to the energy that is radiated

per unit solid angle d in a frequency band d. It is important to notice that
Formula (7.38) includes only source coordinates. This means that the amount
of energy that is being radiated is independent on the distance to the source (as
long as it is large).
Bibliography
[1] F. H OYLE , S IR AND J. V. NARLIKAR, Lectures on Cosmology and Action at a
Distance Electrodynamics, World Scientic Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd, Singapore,
New Jersey, London and Hong Kong, 1996, ISBN 9810-02-2573-3(pbk).
New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
Oxford . . . , 1975, ISBN 0-08-025072-6.
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
[6] J. A. W HEELER AND R. P. F EYNMAN, Interaction with the absorber as a mechanism for radiation, Reviews of Modern Physics, 17 (1945), pp. 157.
8
Electromagnetic
Radiation and
Radiating
Systems
In Chapter 3 we were able to derive general expressions for the scalar and vector potentials from which we then, in Chapter 7, calculated the total electric
and magnetic elds from arbitrary distributions of charge and current sources.
The only limitation in the calculation of the elds was that the advanced potentials were discarded.
Thus, one can, at least in principle, calculate the radiated elds, Poynting
ux and energy for an arbitrary current density Fourier component and then
add these Fourier components together to construct the complete electromagnetic eld at any time at any point in space. However, in practice, it is often
difcult to evaluate the source integrals unless the current has a simple distribution in space. In the general case, one has to resort to approximations. We
shall consider both these situations.
8.1 Radiation from Extended Sources

Certain radiation systems have a geometry which is one-dimensional, symmetric or in any other way simple enough that a direct calculation of the radiated
elds and energy is possible. This is for instance the case when the current
ows in one direction in space only and is limited in extent. An example of
this is a linear antenna.
107
108
E LECTROMAGNETIC R ADIATION
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
L
2
L
2
F IGURE 8.1: A linear antenna used for transmission. The current in the
feeder and the antenna wire is set up by the EMF of the generator (the
transmitter). At the ends of the wire, the current is reected back with a
180 phase shift to produce a antenna current in the form of a standing
wave.
8.1.1 Radiation from a one-dimensional current

distribution
Let us apply Equation (7.32) on page 104 to calculate the power from a linear,
transmitting antenna, fed across a small gap at its centre with a monochromatic
source. The antenna is a straight, thin conductor of length L which carries
a one-dimensional time-varying current so that it produces electromagnetic
radiation.
We assume that the conductor resistance and the energy loss due to the
electromagnetic radiation are negligible. Since we can assume that the antenna
wire is innitely thin, the current must vanish at the end points L/2 and L/2.
The charges in this thin wire are set in motion due to the EMF of the generator
(transmitter) to produce an antenna current which is the source of the EM
radiation. The current is reected at the ends of the antenna wire and undergoes
there a phase shift of radians. The combined effect of this is that the antenna
current forms a standing wave as indicated in Figure 8.1
For a Fourier component 0 the standing wave current density can be written as j(t , x ) = j0 (x ) exp{i0 t } [cf. Equations (7.7) on page 97] where
j0 (x ) = I0 (x1 )(x2 )
sin[k(L/2 x3 )]
x3
sin(kL/2)
(8.1)
where the current amplitude I0 is a constant (measured in A).
8.1
R ADIATION
FROM
109
E XTENDED S OURCES
x3
L
2
j (x )
x2
x1
L
2
F IGURE 8.2: We choose a spherical polar coordinate system (r = |x| , , )
and orientate it so that the linear antenna axis (and thus the antenna current density j ) is along the polar axis with the feed point at the origin.
In order to evaluate Formula (7.32) on page 104 with the explicit monochromatic current (8.1) inserted, we use a spherical polar coordinate system as in
Figure 8.2 to evaluate the source integral
cos[(kL/2) cos] cos(kL/2)

sin sin(kL/2)
sin[k(L/2 x3 )] cos(kx3 cos ) dx3
L/2
2
= 4I0
k2 sin2
eikx0 cos
sin2 (kL/2)
sin[k(L/2 x3 )]
I0
k sin eikx3 cos eikx0 cos dx3
sin(kL/2)
L/2
L/2
2
= I0
j0 k)eik(x x0 ) d3x
(8.2)
Inserting this expression and d = 2 sin d into Formula (7.32) on page 104
and integrating over , we nd that the total radiated power from the antenna
110
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
AND
is
kL0
12
sin d
(8.3)
2
R0 I0
lim P(L) =
One can show that
cos[(kL/2) cos] cos(kL/2)

sin sin(kL/2)
1
4
2
P(L) = R0 I0
(8.4)
where is the vacuum wavelength.

The quantity
L
197
P(L) P(L)
= 1 2 = R0
2
6
Ieff
I0
2
Rrad (L) =
(8.5)
is called the radiation resistance. For the technologically important case of a

half-wave antenna, i.e., for L = /2 or kL = , Formula (8.3) reduces to
cos2
cos
d
sin
1
4
2
P(/2) = R0 I0
(8.6)
The integral in (8.6) can always be evaluated numerically. But, it can in

fact also be evaluated analytically as follows:
1 cos2 u
cos
2
d = [cos u] =
du =
2
sin
1 1 u
1 + cos(u)
cos2 u =
2
2
1 1 + cos(u)
1
du
=
2 1 (1 + u)(1 u)
(8.7)
1 1 1 + cos(u)
1 1 1 + cos(u)
=
du +
du
4 1 (1 + u)
4 1 (1 u)
1 1 + cos(u)
1
v
=
du = 1 + u
2 1 (1 + u)
1 2 1 cos v
1
=
dv = [ + ln 2 Ci(2)]
2 0
v
2
1.22
cos2
where in the last step the Euler-Mascheroni constant = 0.5772 . . . and the
cosine integral Ci(x) were introduced. Inserting this into the expression Equation (8.6) above we obtain the value Rrad (/2) 73 .
8.1
R ADIATION
111
E XTENDED S OURCES
FROM
x3 = z = z
k
x2
x1
F IGURE 8.3: For the loop antenna the spherical coordinate system
(r, , ) describes the eld point (the radiation eld) and the cylindrical
coordinate system ( , , z ) describes the source (the antenna current).
8.1.2 Radiation from a two-dimensional current

distribution
As an example of a two-dimensional current distribution we consider a circular
loop antenna and calculate radiated elds from such an antenna. We choose
the Cartesian coordinate system x1 x2 x3 with its origin at the centre of the loop
as in the Figure 8.3
According to Equation (7.29a) on page 103 in the formula collection the
Fourier component of the radiation part of the magnetic eld generated by an
extended, monochromatic current source is
i0 eik|x|
4 |x|
Brad =
eikx j k d3x
(8.8)
In our case the antenna current oscillates in the form of a sinusoidal standing
current wave around the circular loop, i.e.
j = I0 cos ( a)(z )
(8.9)
For the spherical coordinate system of the eld point, we recall from subsection F.4.1 on page 163 that the following relations between the base vectors
112
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
hold:
r = sin cos x1 + sin sin x2 + cos x3
= cos cos x1 + cos sin x2 sin x3
= sin x1 + cos x2
and
x1 = sin cos + cos cos sin
x2 = sin sin + cos sin + cos
x3 = cos sin
r
With the use of the above transformations and trigonometric identities, we
obtain for the cylindrical coordinate system which describes the source:
= cos x1 + sin x2
= sin cos( ) + cos cos( ) + sin( )

r
= sin x1 + cos x2
= sin sin( ) cos sin( ) + cos( )

r
z = x3 = cos sin
(8.10)
(8.11)
(8.12)
This choice of coordinate systems means that k = k and x = a so that

r
k x = ka sin cos( )
(8.13)
k = k[cos( ) + cos sin( )]
(8.14)
and
With these expressions inserted and d3x = d d dz , the source integral

becomes
= I0 ak
eikx j k d3x = a
d eika sin cos( ) I0 cos k
eika sin cos( ) cos( ) cos d

2
+ I0 ak cos
(8.15)
eika sin cos( ) sin( ) cos d
Utilising the periodicity of the integrands over the integration interval [0, 2],
introducing the auxiliary integration variable = , and utilising standard
8.1
R ADIATION
FROM
113
E XTENDED S OURCES
trigonometric identities, the rst integral in the RHS of (8.15) can be rewritten
2
eika sin cos cos cos( + ) d
eika sin cos cos2 d + a vanishing integral
= cos
=
eika sin cos
1 1
+ cos 2
2 2
2
1
cos
eika sin cos d
2
0
2
1
eika sin cos cos 2 d
+ cos
2
0
= cos
(8.16)
Analogously, the second integral in the RHS of (8.15) can be rewritten

2
eika sin cos sin cos( + ) d
2
1
sin
eika sin cos d
2
0
2
1
sin
eika sin cos cos 2 d
2
0
(8.17)
As is well-known from the theory of Bessel functions,

Jn () = (1)n Jn ()
which means that

2
in
ei cos cos n d =
in
2
Jn () =
ei cos cos n d
(8.18)
eika sin cos d = 2J0 (ka sin )

(8.19)
ika sin cos
cos 2 d = 2J2 (ka sin )
Putting everything together, we nd that

eikx j k d3x = I + I

= I0 ak cos [J0 (ka sin ) J2 (ka sin )]
(8.20)
+ I0 ak cos sin [J0 (ka sin ) + J2 (ka sin )]
114
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
so that, in spherical coordinates where |x| = r,

i0 eikr
I +I
(8.21)

4r
To obtain the desired physical magnetic eld in the radiation (far) zone we
must Fourier transform back to t space and take the real part and evaluate it at
the retarded time:
i0 e(ikrt )
I +I

4r
Brad (t, x) = Re
Brad (x) =
0
sin(kr t ) I + I

4r
I0 ak0
=
sin(kr t ) cos [J0 (ka sin ) J2 (ka sin)]
4r
+ cos sin [J0 (ka sin ) + J2 (ka sin )]
(8.22)
From this expression for the radiated B eld, we can obtain the radiated E eld
with the help of Maxwells equations.
8.2 Multipole Radiation

In the general case, and when we are interested in evaluating the radiation far
from the source volume, we can introduce an approximation which leads to a
multipole expansion where individual terms can be evaluated analytically. We
shall use Hertz method to obtain this expansion.
8.2.1 The Hertz potential

Let us consider the equation of continuity, which, according to expression (1.21)
on page 9, can be written
(t, x)
+ j(t, x) = 0
t
(8.23)
In Section 6.1.1 we introduced the electric polarisation P such that P = pol ,

the polarisation charge density. If we introduce a vector eld (t, x) such that
= true
= jtrue
t
(8.24a)
(8.24b)
8.2
115
M ULTIPOLE R ADIATION
and compare with Equation (8.23) on the facing page, we see that (t, x) satises this equation of continuity. Furthermore, if we compare with the electric
polarisation [cf. Equation (6.9) on page 87], we see that the quantity is related to the true charges in the same way as P is related to polarised charge.
The quantity is referred to as the polarisation vector since, formally, it treats
also the true (free) charges as polarisation charges.
We introduce a further potential e with the following property
e =
1 e
=A
c2 t
(8.25a)
(8.25b)
where and A are the electromagnetic scalar and vector potentials, respectively. As we see, e acts as a super-potential in the sense that it is a potential from which we can obtain other potentials. It is called the Hertz vector
or polarisation potential and, as can be seen from (8.24) and (8.25), it satises
the inhomogeneous wave equation
2
e =
1 2 e

c2 t2
e =
(8.26)
This equation is of the same type as Equation (3.19) on page 41, and has
therefore the retarded solution
1
40
e (t, x) =
(tret , x ) 3
dx
|x x |
(8.27)
with Fourier components

1
40
e (x) =
(x )eik|xx | 3
dx
|x x |
(8.28)
If we introduce the help vector C such that

C=
(8.29)
we see that we can calculate the magnetic and electric elds, respectively, as
follows
B=
1 C
c2 t
(8.30a)
E=
(8.30b)
116
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
xx
x
x x0
x
x0
V
O
F IGURE 8.4: Geometry of a typical multipole radiation problem where
the eld point x is located some distance away from the nite source volume V centered around x0 . If k |x x0 | 1 k |x x0 |, then the radiation at x is well approximated by a few terms in the multipole expansion.
Clearly, the last equation is valid only outside the source volume, where
E = 0. Since we are mainly interested in the elds in the far zone, a long
distance from the source region, this is no essential limitation.
Assume that the source region is a limited volume around some central
point x0 far away from the eld (observation) point x illustrated in Figure 8.4.
Under these assumptions, we can expand the Hertz vector, expression (8.27)
on the preceding page, due to the presence of non-vanishing (tret , x ) in the
vicinity of x0 , in a formal series. For this purpose we recall from potential
theory that
= ik (2n + 1)Pn (cos ) jn (k x

n=0
eik|(xx0 )(x x0 )|
eik|xx |
|x x | |(x x0 ) (x x0 )|
(8.31)
x0 )h(1) (k |x x0 |)
n
where
eik|xx |
is a Green function
|x x |
is the angle between x x0 and x x0 (see Figure 8.4 on page 116)
Pn (cos ) is the Legendre polynomial of order n
jn (k x x0 ) is the spherical Bessel function of the rst kind of order n
h(1) (k |x x0 |) is the spherical Hankel function of the rst kind of order n

n
8.2
117
According to the addition theorem for Legendre polynomials, we can write

n
(1)m Pm (cos )Pm(cos )eim( )

n
n
Pn (cos ) =
(8.32)
m=n
where Pm is an associated Legendre polynomial and, in spherical polar coorn

dinates,
x x0 = ( x x0 , , )
(8.33a)
x x0 = (|x x0 | , , )
(8.33b)
Inserting Equation (8.31) on the preceding page, together with Equation (8.32),
into Equation (8.28) on page 115, we can in a formally exact way expand the
Fourier component of the Hertz vector as
ik n
(2n + 1)(1)mh(1) (k |x x0 |) Pm (cos ) eim
n
n
40 n=0 m=n
V
(x ) jn (k x
e =
x0 ) Pm (cos
n
)e
im
(8.34)
dx
We notice that there is no dependence on x x0 inside the integral; the integrand is only dependent on the relative source vector x x0 .
We are interested in the case where the eld point is many wavelengths
away from the well-localised sources, i.e., when the following inequalities
k x x0
k |x x0 |
(8.35)
hold. Then we may to a good approximation replace h(1) with the rst term in
n
its asymptotic expansion:
h(1) (k |x x0 |) (i)n+1
n
eik|xx0 |
k |x x0 |
(8.36)
and replace jn with the rst term in its power series expansion:
2n n!
k x x0
(2n + 1)!
jn (k x x0 )
(8.37)
Inserting these expansions into Equation (8.34), we obtain the multipole expansion of the Fourier component of the Hertz vector
e
e (n)
(8.38a)
n=0
118
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
where
V
1 eik|xx0 | 2n n!
40 |x x0 | (2n)!
e (n) = (i)n
V (x ) (k x x0 )n Pn (cos ) d3x
(8.38b)
This expression is approximately correct only if certain care is exercised; if

many e (n) terms are needed for an accurate result, the expansions of the
spherical Hankel and Bessel functions used above may not be consistent and
must be replaced by more accurate expressions. Taking the inverse Fourier
transform of e will yield the Hertz vector in time domain, which inserted
into Equation (8.29) on page 115 will yield C. The resulting expression can
then in turn be inserted into Equation (8.30) on page 115 in order to obtain the
radiation elds.
For a linear source distribution along the polar axis, = in expression (8.38b) above, and Pn (cos ) gives the angular distribution of the radiation. In the general case, however, the angular distribution must be computed
with the help of Formula (8.32) on the preceding page. Let us now study the
lowest order contributions to the expansion of Hertz vector.
8.2.2 Electric dipole radiation

Choosing n = 0 in expression (8.38b) above, we obtain
eik|xx0 |
40 |x x0 |
e (0) =
(x ) d3x =
1 eik|xx0 |
p
40 |x x0 |
(8.39)
where p = V (x ) d3x is the Fourier component of the electric dipole moment p(t, x0 ) = V (x x0 )(t, x ) d3x [cf. Equation (6.2) on page 85 which
describes the static dipole moment]. If a spherical coordinate system is chosen
with its polar axis along p as in Figure 8.5 on the next page, the components
of e (0) are
1 eik|xx0 |
p cos
40 |x x0 |
1 eik|xx0 |
def
e e (0) =
p sin
40 |x x0 |
def
e e (0) r =
def
e e (0) = 0
(8.40a)
(8.40b)
(8.40c)
Evaluating Formula (8.29) on page 115 for the help vector C, with the
spherically polar components (8.40) of e (0) inserted, we obtain
1
40
1
eik|xx0 |
ik
p sin
|x x0 |
|x x0 |
(0)
C = C, =
(8.41)
8.2
119
k
x3
Brad
Erad
x2
x1
F IGURE 8.5: If a spherical polar coordinate system (r, , ) is chosesn
such that the electric dipole moment p (and thus its Fourier transform p )
is located at the origin and orientated along the polar axis, the calculations
are simplied.
Applying this to Equation (8.30) on page 115, we obtain directly the Fourier
components of the elds
0
1
eik|xx0 |
ik
p sin
4 |x x0 |
|x x0 |
1
ik
x x0
1
2
cos
E =
2
40
|x x0 |
|x x0 |
|x x0 |
ik|xx0 |
1
ik
e
k2 sin
p
+
|x x0 |
|x x0 |2 |x x0 |
(8.42a)
(8.42b)
B = i
Keeping only those parts of the elds which dominate at large distances
(the radiation elds) and recalling that the wave vector k = k(x x0 )/ |x x0 |
where k = /c, we can now write down the Fourier components of the radiation
parts of the magnetic and electric elds from the dipole:
0 eik|xx0 |
0 eik|xx0 |
pw k sin =
(p k)
(8.43a)
4 |x x0 |
4 |x x0 |
1 eik|xx0 |
1 eik|xx0 |
p k2 sin =
[(p k) k]
Erad =
40 |x x0 |
40 |x x0 |
(8.43b)
Brad =
120
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
AND
These elds constitute the electric dipole radiation, also known as E1 radiation.
8.2.3 Magnetic dipole radiation

The next term in the expression (8.38b) on page 118 for the expansion of the
Fourier transform of the Hertz vector is for n = 1:
eik|xx0 |
k x x0 (x ) cos d3x
40 |x x0 | V
1 eik|xx0 |
= ik
[(x x0 ) (x x0 )] (x ) d3x
40 |x x0 |2 V
e (1) = i
(8.44)
Here, the term [(x x0 ) (x x0 )] (x ) can be rewritten

[(x x0 ) (x x0 )] (x ) = (xi x0,i )(xi x0,i ) (x )
(8.45)
and introducing
i = xi x0,i
(8.46a)
i = xi x0,i
(8.46b)
the jth component of the integrand in e (1) can be broken up into
1
{[(x x0 ) (x x0 )] (x )} j = i , j i + ,i j
2
1
+ i , j i ,i j
2
(8.47)
i.e., as the sum of two parts, the rst being symmetric and the second antisymmetric in the indices i, j. We note that the antisymmetric part can be written
as
1
1
i , j i ,i j = [, j (i i ) j (i ,i )]
2
2
1
= [ ( ) ( )] j
2
1
=
(x x0 ) [ (x x0 )]
2
(8.48)
j
The utilisation of Equations (8.24) on page 114, and the fact that we are
considering a single Fourier component,
(t, x) = eit
(8.49)
8.2
121
allow us to express in j as
= i
(8.50)
Hence, we can write the antisymmetric part of the integral in Formula (8.44)
on the facing page as
1
(x x0 ) (x ) (x x0 ) d3x
2
V
1
= i (x x0 ) j (x ) (x x0 ) d3x
2
V
1
= i (x x0 ) m
(8.51)
where we introduced the Fourier transform of the magnetic dipole moment

1
2
m =
(x x0 ) j (x ) d3x
(8.52)
The nal result is that the antisymmetric, magnetic dipole, part of e (1)
can be written
e,antisym
(1)
k eik|xx0 |
(x x0 ) m
40 |x x0 |2
(8.53)
In analogy with the electric dipole case, we insert this expression into Equation (8.29) on page 115 to evaluate C, with which Equations (8.30) on page 115
then gives the B and E elds. Discarding, as before, all terms belonging to the
near elds and transition elds and keeping only the terms that dominate at
large distances, we obtain
0 eik|xx0 |
(m k) k
4 |x x0 |
k eik|xx0 |
Erad (x) =
m k
40 c |x x0 |
Brad (x) =
(8.54a)
(8.54b)
which are the elds of the magnetic dipole radiation (M1 radiation).
8.2.4 Electric quadrupole radiation

e,sym (1)
The symmetric part

of the n = 1 contribution in the Equation (8.38b)
on page 118 for the expansion of the Hertz vector can be expressed in terms
122
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
of the electric quadrupole tensor, which is dened in accordance with Equation (6.3) on page 86:
Q(t, x0 ) =
(x x0 )(x x0 )(t, x ) d3x
(8.55)
Again we use this expression in Equation (8.29) on page 115 to calculate the
elds via Equations (8.30) on page 115. Tedious, but fairly straightforward
algebra (which we will not present here), yields the resulting elds. The radiation components of the elds in the far eld zone (wave zone) are given
by
i0 eik|xx0 |
k Q k
8 |x x0 |
i eik|xx0 |
Erad (x) =
k Q k k
80 |x x0 |
Brad (x) =
(8.56a)
(8.56b)
Q
This type of radiation is called electric quadrupole radiation or E2 radiation.
8.3 Radiation from a Localised Charge in

Arbitrary Motion
The derivation of the radiation elds for the case of the source moving relative to the observer is considerably more complicated than the stationary cases
studied above. In order to handle this non-stationary situation, we use the retarded potentials (3.36) on page 44 in Chapter 3
(tret , x ) 3
1
dx
40 V |x x |
j(tret , x ) 3
0
dx
A(t, x) =
4 V |x x |
(t, x) =
(8.57a)
(8.57b)
and consider a source region with such a limited spatial extent that the charges
and currents are well localised. Specically, we consider a charge q , for instance an electron, which, classically, can be thought of as a localised, unstructured and rigid charge distribution with a small, nite radius. The part of this
charge distribution dq which we are considering is located in dV = d3x in
the sphere in Figure 8.6 on the facing page. Since we assume that the electron
(or any other other similar electric charge) is moving with a velocity v whose
direction is arbitrary and whose magnitude can be almost comparable to the
speed of light, we cannot say that the charge and current to be used in (8.57) is
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
x(t)
IN
123
A RBITRARY M OTION
8.3
dr
v(t )
xx
dS
x (t )
dV
q
F IGURE 8.6: Signals which are observed at the eld point x at time t
were generated at source points x (t ) on a sphere, centred on x and expanding, as time increases, with the velocity c outward from the centre.
The source charge element moves with an arbitrary velocity v and gives
rise to a source leakage out of the source volume dV = d3x .
) d3x and V v(tret , x ) d3x , respectively, because in the nite time

interval during which the observed signal is generated, part of the charge distribution will leak out of the volume element d3x .
V (tret , x
8.3.1 The Linard-Wiechert potentials

The charge distribution in Figure 8.6 on page 123 which contributes to the
eld at x(t) is located at x (t ) on a sphere with radius r = |x x | = c(t t ).
The radius interval of this sphere from which radiation is received at the eld
point x during the time interval (t , t + dt ) is (r , r + dr ) and the net amount
of charge in this radial interval is
dq = (tret , x ) dS dr (tret , x )
(x x ) v
dS dt
|x x |
(8.58)
where the last term represents the amount of source leakage due to the fact
that the charge distribution moves with velocity v(t ). Since dt = dr /c and
124
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
dS dr = d3x we can rewrite this expression for the net charge as

(x x ) v 3
dx
c |x x |
(x x ) v
= (tret , x ) 1
d3x
c |x x |
dq = (tret , x ) d3x (tret , x )
or
(tret , x ) d3x =
(8.59)
dq
(8.60)
1 (xx )v
c|xx |
which leads to the expression

dq
(tret , x ) 3
dx =
|x x |
|x x | (xx )v
c
(8.61)
This is the expression to be used in the Formulae (8.57) on page 122 for the
retarded potentials. The result is (recall that j = v)
1
40
A(t, x) =
0
4
(t, x) =
dq
|x x | (xx )v
c
v dq
|x x | (xx )v
c
(8.62a)
(8.62b)
For a sufciently small and well localised charge distribution we can, assuming
that the integrands do not change sign in the integration volume, use the mean
value theorem and the fact that V dq = q to evaluate these expressions to
become
1
q 1
q
=
40 |x x | (xx )v 40 s
c
v
v v
q
q
A(t, x) =
=
= (t, x)
40 c2 |x x | (xx )v 40 c2 s c2
c
(t, x) =
(8.63a)
(8.63b)
where
(x x ) v
c
xx v
= xx 1
|x x | c
v
xx
= (x x )
|x x | c
(8.64a)
(8.64b)
s = xx
(8.64c)
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
125
A RBITRARY M OTION
is the retarded relative distance. The potentials (8.63) are precisely the LinardWiechert potentials which we derived in Section 4.3.2 on page 60 by using a
covariant formalism.
It is important to realise that in the complicated derivation presented here,
the observer is in a coordinate system which has an absolute meaning and the
velocity v is that of the particle, whereas in the covariant derivation two frames
of equal standing were moving relative to each other with v. Expressed in the
four-potential, Equation (4.48) on page 59, the Linard-Wiechert potentials
become
q
40
1 v
,
s cs
A (x ) =
= (, cA)
(8.65)
The Linard-Wiechert potentials are applicable to all problems where a

spatially localised charge emits electromagnetic radiation, and we shall now
study such emission problems. The electric and magnetic elds are calculated
from the potentials in the usual way:
B(t, x) =
A(t, x)
(8.66a)
A(t, x)
E(t, x) = (t, x)
t
(8.66b)
8.3.2 Radiation from an accelerated point charge

Consider a localised charge q and assume that its trajectory is known experimentally as a function of retarded time
x = x (t )
(8.67)
(in the interest of simplifying our notation, we drop the subscript ret on t
from now on). This means that we know the trajectory of the charge q , i.e., x ,
for all times up to the time t at which a signal was emitted in order to precisely
arrive at the eld point x at time t. Because of the nite speed of propagation
of the elds, the trajectory at times later than t is not (yet) known.
The retarded velocity and acceleration at time t are given by
v(t ) =
dx
dt
a(t ) = v(t ) =
(8.68a)
dv d2 x
=
dt
dt 2
(8.68b)
As for the charge coordinate x itself, we have in general no knowledge of the

velocity and acceleration at times later than t , in particular not at the time of
126
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
?
|x x |
v
c
q
x (t )
x0 (t)
v(t )
0
xx
x x0
x(t)
F IGURE 8.7: Signals which are observed at the eld point x at time t
were generated at the source point x (t ). After time t the particle, which
moves with nonuniform velocity, has followed a yet unknown trajectory.
Extrapolating tangentially the trajectory from x (t ), based on the velocity v(t ), denes the virtual simultaneous coordinate x0 (t).
observation t. If we choose the eld point x as xed, application of (8.68) to

the relative vector x x yields
d
(x x (t )) = v(t )
dt
(8.69a)
d2
(x x (t )) = (t )
v
dt 2
(8.69b)
The retarded time t can, at least in principle, be calculated from the implicit
relation
t = t (t, x) = t
|x x (t )|
c
(8.70)
and we shall see later how this relation can be taken into account in the calculations.
According to Formulae (8.66) on the preceding page the electric and magnetic elds are determined via differentiation of the retarded potentials at the
observation time t and at the observation point x. In these formulae the unprimed , i.e., the spatial derivative differentiation operator = xi /xi means
that we differentiate with respect to the coordinates x = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) while keeping t xed, and the unprimed time derivative operator /t means that we differentiate with respect to t while keeping x xed. But the Linard-Wiechert
8.3
R ADIATION
L OCALISED C HARGE
FROM A
IN
127
A RBITRARY M OTION
potentials and A, Equations (8.63) on page 124, are expressed in the charge
velocity v(t ) given by Equation (8.68a) on page 125 and the retarded relative
distance s(t , x) given by Equation (8.64) on page 124. This means that the
expressions for the potentials and A contain terms which are expressed explicitly in t , which in turn is expressed implicitly in t via Equation (8.70) on
the facing page. Despite this complication it is possible, as we shall see below,
to determine the electric and magnetic elds and associated quantities at the
time of observation t. To this end, we need to investigate carefully the action
of differentiation on the potentials.
The differential operator method

We introduce the convention that a differential operator embraced by parentheses with an index x or t means that the operator in question is applied at
constant x and t, respectively. With this convention, we nd that
xx
|x x | t
x x (t ) =
x x (t ) =
(x x ) v
|x x |
(8.71)
Furthermore, by applying the operator (/t)x to Equation (8.70) on the preceding page we nd that
|x x (t (t, x))|
c
x
x
t
|x x |
= 1
t x c
t
(x x ) v t
= 1+
c |x x |
t x
= 1
t
t
(8.72)
x
This is an algebraic equation in (t /t)x which we can solve to obtain
t
t
|x x |
|x x |
=
s
|x x | (x x ) v/c
=
x
(8.73)
where s = s(t , x) is the retarded relative distance given by Equation (8.64)

on page 124. Making use of Equation (8.73) above, we obtain the following
useful operator identity
t
t
=
x
|x x |
s
(8.74)
x
128
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
Likewise, by applying ( )t to Equation (8.70) on page 126 we obtain

xx
|x x (t (t, x))|
=
( )t (x x )
c
c |x x |
(x x ) v
xx
+
( )t t
=
c |x x |
c |x x |
( )t t = ( )t
(8.75)
This is an algebraic equation in ( )t with the solution

( )t t =
xx
cs
(8.76)
which gives the following operator relation when ( )t is acting on an arbitrary

function of t and x:
+ ( )t =
xx
cs
( )t = ( )t t
+ ( )t
(8.77)
With the help of the rules (8.77) and (8.74) we are now able to replace t by t
in the operations which we need to perform. We nd, for instance, that
1 q
40 s
xx
v x x s
q

=
40 s2 |x x | c
cs
t x
0 q v
A
A
=
t
t x t 4 s
s
q
=
x x s x x v
v
2 s3
40 c
t
( )t =
(8.78a)

(8.78b)

x
Utilising these relations in the calculation of the E eld from the LinardWiechert potentials, Equations (8.63) on page 124, we obtain
A
t
q
(x x ) |x x | v/c
=
2
40 s
|x x |
E(t, x) =
s
t
(x x ) |x x | v/c
cs
|x x | v
2
c
(8.79)
Starting from expression (8.64a) on page 124 for the retarded relative distance
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
129
A RBITRARY M OTION
s(t , x), we see that we can evaluate (s/t )x in the following way
(x x ) v v2 (x x ) v
+
c
c
|x x |
x x (t )
v(t )
v (x x )
t
t
1
x x (t )
t
c
(x x ) v
c
xx
s
t
(8.80)
where Equation (8.71) on page 127 and Equations (8.68) on page 125, respectively, were used. Hence, the electric eld generated by an arbitrarily moving
charged particle at x (t ) is given by the expression
1
v2
c2
Coulomb eld when v 0
|x x | v
(x x )
v
c
x
iw
Radiation eld
d
xx
+ 2
c
(8.81)
y
|x x | v
c
x
iw
(x x )
q
40 s3
E(t, x) =
The rst part of the eld, the velocity eld, tends to the ordinary Coulomb eld
when v 0 and does not contribute to the radiation. The second part of the
eld, the acceleration eld, is radiated into the far zone and is therefore also
called the radiation eld.
From Figure 8.7 on page 126 we see that the position the charged particle
would have had if at t all external forces would have been switched off so that
the trajectory from then on would have been a straight line in the direction of
the tangent at x (t ) is x0 (t), the virtual simultaneous coordinate. During the
arbitrary motion, we interpret x x0 as the coordinate of the eld point x relative to the virtual simultaneous coordinate x0 (t). Since the time it takes from a
signal to propagate (in the assumed vacuum) from x (t ) to x is |x x | /c, this
relative vector is given by
x x0 = (x x )
|x x | v
c
(8.82)
This allows us to rewrite Equation (8.81) in the following way
q
v2
(x x0 ) 1 2
3
40 s
c
+ (x x )
(x x0 ) v
2
c
E(t, x) =
(8.83)
130
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
In a similar manner we can compute the magnetic eld:
xx
cs
t
A
xx
q
xx
v
=
40 c2 s2 |x x |
c |x x |
t x
A ( ) t A = ( )t A
(8.84)
B(t, x) =
where we made use of Equation (8.63) on page 124 and Formula (8.74) on
page 127. But, according to (8.78a),
q
xx
xx
( )t =
v
c |x x |
40 c2 s2 |x x |
(8.85)
so that
( )t
A
t
E(t, x)
xx
c |x x
xx
=
c |x x
B(t, x) =
(8.86)
The radiation part of the electric eld is obtained from the acceleration
eld in Formula (8.81) on the previous page as
lim E(t, x)
|xx |
q
|x x | v
(x x ) (x x )
v
2 s3
40 c
c
q
=
(x x ) [(x x0 ) v]
40 c2 s3
=
Erad (t, x) =
(8.87)
where in the last step we again used Formula (8.82) on the preceding page. Using this formula and Formula (8.86) above, the radiation part of the magnetic
eld can be written
Brad (t, x) =
xx
Erad (t, x)
c |x x |
(8.88)
The direct method An alternative to the differential operator transformation

technique just described is to try to express all quantities in the potentials directly in t and x. An example of such a quantity is the retarded relative distance
s(t , x). According to Equation (8.64) on page 124, the square of this retarded
relative can be written
2
(x x ) v
(x x ) v
+
2 xx
c
c
s (t , x) = x x
(8.89)
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
131
A RBITRARY M OTION
If we use the following handy identity

2
(x x ) v
c
(x x ) v
c
|x x |2 v2
|x x |2 v2 2
cos2 +
sin
c2
c2
|x x |2 v2
|x x |2 v2
=
(cos2 + sin2 ) =
c2
c2
(8.90)
we nd that
(x x ) v
|x x |2 v2
2
c
c
(8.91)
(x x ) v
c
Furthermore, from Equation (8.82) on page 129, we obtain the following identity:
(x x ) v = (x x0 ) v
(8.92)
which, when inserted into Equation (8.91), yields the relation

2
(x x0 ) v
|x x |2 v2
=
c2
c
(8.93)
(x x ) v
c
Inserting the above into expression (8.89) on the preceding page for s2 , this
expression becomes
(x x0 ) v
c
(x x0 (t)) v
= (x x0 (t))2
c
(x x0 ) v
c
(8.94)
|x x0 |2
|x x | v
c
= (x x )
(x x ) v |x x |2 v2
(x x0 ) v
2 xx
+
c
c2
c
s = xx
where in the penultimate step we used Equation (8.82) on page 129.

What we have just demonstrated is that, in the case the particle velocity at
time t can be calculated or projected, the retarded distance s in the LinardWiechert potentials (8.63) can be expressed in terms of the virtual simultaneous coordinate x0 (t), viz., the point at which the particle will have arrived at
132
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
time t, i.e., when we obtain the rst knowledge of its existence at the source
point x at the retarded time t , and in the eld coordinate x(t), where we make
our observations. We have, in other words, shown that all quantities in the definition of s, and hence s itself, can, when the motion of the charge is somehow
known, be expressed in terms of the time t alone. I.e., in this special case we
are able to express the retarded relative distance as s = s(t, x) and we do not
have to involve the retarded time t or transformed differential operators in our
calculations.
Taking the square root of both sides of Equation (8.94) on the previous
page, we obtain the following alternative nal expressions for the retarded relative distance s in terms of the charges virtual simultaneous coordinate x 0 (t):
v2
1 2
c
v2 2
sin 0
c2
(8.95a)
(8.95b)
(x x0 ) v
+
c
(8.95c)
|x x0 |
= |x x0 |
(x x0 ) v
c
|x x0 |2
s(t, x) =
Using Equation (8.95c) and standard vector analytic formulae, we obtain
(x x0 ) v
c
vv
(x x0 )
c2
(8.96)
v2
c2
= 2 (x x0 ) 1
v2
c2
|x x0 |2 1
s2 =
v
v
= 2 (x x0 ) +
(x x0 )
c
c
which we shall use in the following example of a uniformly, unaccelerated
motion of the charge.
T HE
V
WG
E XAMPLE 8.1
FIELDS FROM A UNIFORMLY MOVING CHARGE
In the special case of uniform motion, the localised charge moves in a eld-free, isolated space and we know that it will not be affected by any external forces. It will
therefore move uniformly in a straight line with the constant velocity v. This gives us
the possibility to extrapolate its position at the observation time, x (t), from its posi
tion at the retarded time, x (t ). Since the particle is not accelerated, v 0, the virtual
simultaneous coordinate x0 will be identical to the actual simultaneous coordinate of
the particle at time t, i.e., x0 (t) = x (t). As depicted in Figure 8.7 on page 126, the
angle between x x0 and v is 0 while then angle between x x and v is .
We note that in the case of uniform velocity v, time and space derivatives are closely
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
133
A RBITRARY M OTION
IN
related in the following way when they operate on functions of x(t) :
v
(8.97)
t
Hence, the E and B elds can be obtained from Formulae (8.66) on page 125, with the
potentials given by Equations (8.63) on page 124 as follows:
1 v
v
A
= 2
= 2
E =
t
c t
c t
v v
vv
(8.98a)
= 1 2
= +
c c
c
vv
= 2 1
c
v
v
v
B = A = 2 = 2 = 2
c
c
c
v
v
v
v
vv
= 2

= 2 2 1
(8.98b)
c
c
c
c
c
v
= 2 E
c
Here 1 = xi xi is the unit dyad and we used the fact that v v 0. What remains is just

to express in quantities evaluated at t and x.
6e
From Equation (8.63a) on page 124 and Equation (8.96) on the preceding page we
nd that
q
q
1
=
=
s2
40
s
80 s3
(8.99)
v
v
q
(x x0 )
(x x0 ) +
=
40 s3
c
c
When this expression for is inserted into Equation (8.98a), the following result
q
vv
vv
1 s2
E(t, x) = 2 1 =
3 c2
c
80 s
v
v
q
(x x0 ) +
(x x0 )
=
3
40 s
c
c
f7
v
v v
vv v
(x x0 ) 2
(x x0 )
c c
c
c
c
h
f 7
e
" !
q
v v
v2
=
(x x0 ) +
(x x0 ) (x x0 ) 2
40 s3
c c
c
v v
(x x0 )
c c
(8.100)
q
v2
(x x0 ) 1 2
3
40 s
c
follows. Of course, the same result also follows from Equation (8.83) on page 129
with v 0 inserted.
"
From Equation (8.100) we conclude that E is directed along the vector from the simul-
134
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
taneous coordinate x0 (t) to the eld (observation) coordinate x(t). In a similar way,
the magnetic eld can be calculated and one nds that
0 q
4s3
v2
c2
"
B(t, x) =
v (x x0 ) =
1
vE
c2
(8.101)
From these explicit formulae for the E and B elds we can discern the following cases:
1. v 0 E goes over into the Coulomb eld ECoulomb
2. v 0 B goes over into the Biot-Savart eld
3. v c E becomes dependent on 0
4. v c, sin 0 0 E (1 v2 /c2 )ECoulomb
5. v c, sin 0 1 E (1 v2 /c2 )1/2 ECoulomb
E ND
E XAMPLE 8.2
T HE
OF EXAMPLE
8.1
CONVECTION POTENTIAL AND THE CONVECTION FORCE
Let us consider in more detail the treatment of the radiation from a uniformly moving
rigid charge distribution.
If we return to the original denition of the potentials and the inhomogeneous wave
equation, Formula (3.19) on page 41, for a generic potential component (t, x) and a
generic source component f (t, x),
1 2
c2 t2
"
(t, x) =
(t, x) = f (t, x)
(8.102)
we nd that under the assumption that v = v x1 , this equation can be written
"
v2
c2
2 2 2
+
+
= f (x)
x2 x2 x2
1
2
3
(8.103)
i.e., in a time-independent form. Transforming
1 =
2 = x 2
3 = x 3
x1
(8.104a)
1 v2 /c2
(8.104b)
(8.104c)
and introducing the vectorial nabla operator in space,
def
(/1 , /2 , /3 ),
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
135
A RBITRARY M OTION
the time-independent equation (8.103) reduces to an ordinary Poisson equation

= f(
2
()
1 v2 /c2 1 , 2 , 3 ) f ()
(8.105)
in this space. This equation has the well-known Coulomb potential solution
f ( ) 3
d
((
1
4
(8.106)
((
() =
After inverse transformation back to the original coordinates, this becomes

(x) =
1
4
f (x ) 3
dx
s
(8.107)
where, in the denominator,

2
1
2
[(x2 x2 ) + (x3 x3 ) ]
(8.108)
"
v2
s = (x1 x1 ) + 1 2
c
Applying this to the explicit scalar and vector potential components, realising that for
a rigid charge distribution moving with velocity v the current is given by j = v, we
obtain
1
(x ) 3
dx
40 V s
1
v
v(x ) 3
d x = 2 (t, x)
A(t, x) =
40 c2 V s
c
(t, x) =
(8.109a)
(8.109b)
For a localised charge where d3x = q , these expressions reduce to
q
40 s
qv
A(t, x) =
40 c2 s
(t, x) =
(8.110a)
(8.110b)
which we recognise as the Linard-Wiechert potentials; cf. Equations (8.63) on

page 124. We notice, however, that the derivation here, based on a mathematical
technique which in fact is a Lorentz transformation, is of more general validity than
the one leading to Equations (8.63) on page 124.
Let us now consider the action of the elds produced from a moving, rigid charge
distribution represented by q moving with velocity v, on a charged particle q, also
moving with velocity v. This force is given by the Lorentz force
F = q(E + v B)
(8.111)
With the help of Equation (8.101) on the facing page and Equations (8.109) above,
and the fact that t = v [cf.. Formula (8.97) on page 133], we can rewrite expres-
136
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
AND
sion (8.111) on the previous page as

v
v
v
v

c
c
c
c
6e
f7
=q
v
E
c2
f7
F = q E+v
(8.112)
Applying the bac-cab rule, Formula (F.54) on page 164, on the last term yields
v
v
v
v v2
c
c
c
c c2
(8.113)
which means that we can write

F = q
(8.114)
where
v2
c2
"
= 1
(8.115)
The scalar function is called the convection potential or the Heaviside potential.
When the rigid charge distribution is well localised so that we can use the potentials
(8.110) the convection potential becomes
v2
c2
q
40 s
"
= 1
(8.116)
The convection potential from a point charge is constant on attened ellipsoids of

revolution, dened through Equation (8.108) on the previous page as
1 v2 /c2
x1 x 1
+ (x2 x2 )2 + (x3 x3 )2
(8.117)
= 2 (x1 x1 )2 + (x2 x2 )2 + (x3 x3 )2 = Const

These Heaviside ellipsoids are equipotential surfaces, and since the force is proportional to the gradient of , which means that it is perpendicular to the ellipsoid surface, the force between two charges is in general not directed along the line which
connects the charges. A consequence of this is that a system consisting of two comoving charges connected with a rigid bar, will experience a torque. This is the idea
behind the Trouton-Noble experiment, aimed at measuring the absolute speed of the
earth or the galaxy. The negative outcome of this experiment is explained by the special theory of relativity which postulates that mechanical laws follow the same rules
as electromagnetic laws, so that a compensating torque appears due to mechanical
stresses within the charge-bar system.
E ND
OF EXAMPLE
8.2
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
137
A RBITRARY M OTION
IN
Radiation for small velocities

If the charge moves at such low speeds that v/c
simplies to
(x x ) v
xx ,
c
s = xx
1, Formula (8.64) on page 124
(8.118)
and Formula (8.82) on page 129

x x0 = (x x )
|x x | v
xx ,
c
(8.119)
so that the radiation eld Equation (8.87) on page 130 can be approximated by
Erad (t, x) =
q
40
c2 |x x |3
(x x ) [(x x ) v],
(8.120)
from which we obtain, with the use of Formula (8.86) on page 130, the magnetic eld
Brad (t, x) =
q
[ (x x )],
v
4c3 |x x |2
(8.121)
It is interesting to note the close correspondence which exists between the

nonrelativistic elds (8.120) and (8.121) and the electric dipole eld Equations (8.43) on page 119 if we introduce
p = q x (t )
(8.122)
and at the same time make the transitions

q v = p 2 p
x x = x x0
(8.123a)
(8.123b)
The power ux in the far zone is described by the Poynting vector as a

function of Erad and Brad . We use the close correspondence with the dipole
case to nd that it becomes
S=
v
0 q 2 ( )2
xx
sin2
2 c |x x |2
|x x |
16
(8.124)
q 2 v2
0 q 2 ( )2
v
=
6c
60 c3
(8.125)
where is the angle between v and x x0 . The total radiated power (integrated
over a closed spherical surface) becomes
P=
138
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
which is the Larmor formula for radiated power from an accelerated charge.
Note that here we are treating a charge with v c but otherwise totally unspecied motion while we compare with formulae derived for a stationary oscillating dipole. The electric and magnetic elds, Equation (8.120) on the
previous page and Equation (8.121) on the preceding page, respectively, and
the expressions for the Poynting ux and power derived from them, are here
instantaneous values, dependent on the instantaneous position of the charge
at x (t ). The angular distribution is that which is frozen to the point from
which the energy is radiated.
8.3.3 Bremsstrahlung
An important special case of radiation is when the velocity v and the acceler
ation v are collinear (parallel or anti-parallel) so that v v = 0. This condition

(for an arbitrary magnitude of v) inserted into expression (8.87) on page 130
for the radiation eld, yields
Erad (t, x) =
(x x ) [(x x ) v],
40 c2 s3
v v
(8.126)
from which we obtain, with the use of Formula (8.86) on page 130, the magnetic eld
Brad (t, x) =
q |x x |
[ (x x )],
v
40 c3 s3
v v
(8.127)
The difference between this case and the previous case of v c is that the
approximate expression (8.118) on the previous page for s is no longer valid;
we must instead use the correct expression (8.64) on page 124. The angular
distribution of the power ux (Poynting vector) therefore becomes
sin2
0 q 2 v 2
162 c |x x |2 1 v cos
c
S=
xx
|x x |
(8.128)
It is interesting to note that the magnitudes of the electric and magnetic elds
are the same whether v and v are parallel or anti-parallel.

We must be careful when we compute the energy (S integrated over time).
The Poynting vector is related to the time t when it is measured and to a xed
surface in space. The radiated power into a solid angle element d, measured
relative to the particles retarded position, is given by the formula
dU rad ()
0 q 2 v 2
sin2
d = S (x x ) x x d =
dt
162 c 1 v cos
c
d (8.129)
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
139
A RBITRARY M OTION
v = 0.5c
v = 0.25c
v=0
v
F IGURE 8.8: Polar diagram of the energy loss angular distribution factor
sin2 /(1 v cos /c)5 during bremsstrahlung for particle speeds v = 0, v =
0.25c, and v = 0.5c.
On the other hand, the radiation loss due to radiation from the charge at retarded time t :
t
t
dU rad
dU rad
d =
dt
dt
(8.130)
Using Formula (8.74) on page 127, we obtain

dU rad
dU rad s
d =
d = S (x x )s d
dt
dt |x x |
(8.131)
Inserting Equation (8.128) on the facing page for S into (8.131), we obtain
the explicit expression for the energy loss due to radiation evaluated at the
retarded time
sin2
0 q 2 v 2
dU rad ()
d =
dt
162 c 1 v cos
c
(8.132)
The angular factors of this expression, for three different particle speeds, are
plotted in Figure 8.8.
Comparing expression (8.129) on the facing page with expression (8.132)
above, we see that they differ by a factor 1 v cos /c which comes from the
extra factor s/ |x x | introduced in (8.131). Let us explain this in geometrical
terms.
During the interval (t , t + dt ) and within the solid angle element d the
particle radiates an energy [dU rad ()/dt ] dt d. As shown in 8.9 this energy
140
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
dS
dr
d
q
x2 vdt x1
x x2 + c dt
((
((
F IGURE 8.9: Location of radiation between two spheres as the charge

moves with velocity v from x1 to x2 during the time interval (t , t + dt ).
The observation point (eld point) is at the xed location x.
is at time t located between two spheres, one outer with its origin in x1 (t ) and
one inner with its origin in x1 (t + dt ) = x1 (t ) + v dt and radius c[t (t + dt )] =
c(t t dt ).
From Figure 8.9 we see that the volume element subtending the solid angle
element
dS
x x2
d =
(8.133)
is
d3x = dS dr = x x2
d dr
(8.134)
Here, dr denotes the differential distance between the two spheres and can be
evaluated in the following way
dt =
(8.135)
cs
dt
x x2
x
iw
v cos
x x2
v
x x2
x x2
v dt x x2
x x2
dr = x x2 + c dt
8.3
R ADIATION
L OCALISED C HARGE
FROM A
IN
141
A RBITRARY M OTION
where Formula (8.64) on page 124 was used in the last step. Hence, the volume
element under consideration is
s
d3x = dS dr =
dS c dt
(8.136)
x x2
We see that the energy which is radiated per unit solid angle during the time
interval (t , t + dt ) is located in a volume element whose size is dependent.
This explains the difference between expression (8.129) on page 138 and expression (8.132) on page 139.
Let the radiated energy, integrated over , be denoted U rad . After tedious,
but relatively straightforward integration of Formula (8.132) on page 139, one
obtains
1
(8.137)
1 v2
c
dU rad 0 q 2 v2
=
dt
6c
If we know v(t ), we can integrate this expression over t and obtain the total
energy radiated during the acceleration or deceleration of the particle. This
way we obtain a classical picture of bremsstrahlung (braking radiation). Often, an atomistic treatment is required for an acceptable result.
B REMSSTRAHLUNG FOR LOW SPEEDS AND SHORT ACCELERATION TIMES
E XAMPLE 8.3
Calculate the bremsstrahlung when a charged particle, moving at a non-relativistic

speed, is accelerated or decelerated during an innitely short time interval.
We approximate the velocity change at time t = t0 by a delta function:
v(t ) = v (t t0 )
(8.138)
which means that

v =
v dt
Also, we assume v/c
1 so that, according to Formula (8.64) on page 124,

(8.140)
((
s xx
(8.139)
((
and, according to Formula (8.82) on page 129,

x x0 x x
(8.141)
From the general expression (8.86) on page 130 we conclude that E B and that
it sufces to consider E Erad . According to the bremsstrahlung expression for
Erad , Equation (8.126) on page 138,
((
((
E=
q sin
v (t t0 )
40 c2 |x x |
(8.142)
142
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
In this simple case B Brad is given by
((
E
c
((
B=
(8.143)
Fourier transforming expression (8.142) on the preceding page for E is trivial, yielding
E =
q sin
v eit0
2
0 c |x x |
(8.144)
82
We note that the magnitude of this Fourier component is independent of . This is a

consequence of the innitely short impulsive step (t t0 ) in the time domain which
produces an innite spectrum in the frequency domain.
The total radiation energy is given by the expression
= 0 c
1
0
EB dt d2x =
1
0 c
B
0
"
dU rad
dt =
dt
U rad =
dS dt
E 2 dt d2x
(8.145)
E 2 dt d2x
According to Parsevals identity [cf. Equation (7.35) on page 105] the following equality holds:
E 2 dt = 4
0
|E |2 d
(8.146)
which means that the radiated energy in the frequency interval (, + d) is
|E |2 d2x d
(8.147)
"
rad
U d = 40 c
For our innite spectrum, Equation (8.144), we obtain

q 2 (v)2
rad
U d =
163 0 c3
q
163 0 c3
q2
30 c
(v)2
d
0
v
c
sin2 sin d d
(8.148)
0
2
"
sin2 2
d x d
|x x |2
d
2
rad
We see that the energy spectrum U is independent of frequency . This means that
if we integrate it over all frequencies [0, ], a divergent integral would result.
In reality, all spectra have nite widths, with an upper cutoff limit set by the quantum
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
143
A RBITRARY M OTION
condition
1
(8.149)
h = m(v)2
2
which expresses that the highest possible frequency in the spectrum is that for which
all kinetic energy difference has gone into one single eld quantum (photon) with
energy h. If we adopt the picture that the total energy is quantised in terms of N
photons radiated during the process, we nd that

rad
U d
= dN
h
or, for an electron where q = |e|, where e is the elementary charge,

2
"
v
c
d
1 2
137 3
2
e2
40 hc 3
v
c
"
dN =
(8.150)
(8.151)
where we used the value of the ne structure constant e2 /(40 hc) 1/137.
Even if the number of photons becomes innite when 0, these photons have
negligible energies so that the total radiated energy is still nite.
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
8.3
8.3.4 Cyclotron and synchrotron radiation

Formula (8.86) and Formula (8.87) on page 130 for the magnetic eld and the
radiation part of the electric eld are general, valid for any kind of motion of
the localised charge. A very important special case is circular motion, i.e., the
case v v.
With the charged particle orbiting in the x1 x2 plane as in Figure 8.10 on
the following page, an orbit radius a, and an angular frequency 0 , we obtain
(t ) = 0 t
(8.152a)
x (t ) = a[ x1 cos (t ) + x2 sin (t )]
v(t ) = x (t ) = a0 [ x1 sin (t ) + x2 cos (t )]
(8.152b)
v = |v| = a0
v(t ) = x (t ) = a2 [ x1 cos (t ) + x2 sin (t )]
0
v = | | =
v
a2
0
(8.152c)
(8.152d)
(8.152e)
(8.152f)
Because of the rotational symmetry we can, without loss of generality, rotate

our coordinate system around the x3 axis so the relative vector x x from the
source point to an arbitrary eld point always lies in the x2 x3 plane, i.e.,
x x = x x ( x2 sin + x3 cos )
(8.153)
144
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
x2
(t, x)
xx
x
v
q
(t , x )
v
(t )
x1
x3
F IGURE 8.10: Coordinate system for the radiation from a charged particle at x (t ) in circular motion with velocity v(t ) along the tangent and
constant acceleration v(t ) toward the origin. The x1 x2 axes are chosen so
that the relative eld point vector x x makes an angle with the x3 axis
which is normal to the plane of the orbital motion. The radius of the orbit
is a.
where is the angle between x x and the normal to the plane of the particle
orbit (see Figure 8.10). From the above expressions we obtain
(x x ) v = x x v sin cos
(x x ) v = x x v sin sin = x x v cos
(8.154a)
(8.154b)
where in the last step we simply used the denition of a scalar product and the
fact that the angle between v and x x is .

The power ux is given by the Poynting vector, which, with the help of
Formula (8.86) on page 130, can be written
S=
1
1
xx
(E B) =
|E|2
0
c0
|x x |
(8.155)
Inserting this into Equation (8.131) on page 139, we obtain

dU rad (, ) |x x | s 2
=
|E|
dt
c0
(8.156)
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
145
A RBITRARY M OTION
IN
where the retarded distance s is given by expression (8.64) on page 124. With
the radiation part of the electric eld, expression (8.87) on page 130, inserted,
and using (8.154a) and (8.154b) on the preceding page, one nds, after some
algebra, that
2
2
2
v
v
dU rad (, ) 0 q 2 v2 1 c sin cos 1 c2 sin sin
=
(8.157)
5
dt
162 c
1 v sin cos
The angles and vary in time during the rotation, so that refers to a moving
coordinate system. But we can parametrise the solid angle d in the angle
and the (xed) angle so that d = sin d d. Integration of Equation (8.157)
over this d gives, after some cumbersome algebra, the angular integrated
expression
1
(8.158)
1 v2
c
dU rad 0 q 2 v2
=
dt
6c
In Equation (8.157) above, two limits are particularly interesting:

1. v/c
1 which corresponds to cyclotron radiation.
2. v/c
1 which corresponds to synchrotron radiation.
Cyclotron radiation
For a non-relativistic speed v
c, Equation (8.157) reduces to
dU rad (, ) 0 q 2 v2
(1 sin2 sin2 )
=
2c
dt
16
(8.159)
But, according to Equation (8.154b) on the preceding page

sin2 sin2 = cos2
(8.160)
where is dened in Figure 8.10 on the facing page. This means that we can
write
0 q 2 v 2
dU rad () 0 q 2 v2
=
(1 cos2 ) =
sin2
dt
162 c
162 c
(8.161)
Consequently, a xed observer near the orbit plane will observe cyclotron
radiation twice per revolution in the form of two equally broad pulses of radiation with alternating polarisation.
146
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
x2
(t, x)
xx
v
q
(t , x )
v
(t )
0
x1
x3
F IGURE 8.11: When the observation point is in the plane of the particle
orbit, i.e., = /2 the lobe width is given by .
Synchrotron radiation
When the particle is relativistic, v c, the denominator in Equation (8.157)
on the previous page becomes very small if sin cos 1, which denes the
forward direction of the particle motion ( /2, 0). Equation (8.157) on
the preceding page then becomes
dU rad (/2, 0) 0 q 2 v2
1
=
2c
dt
16
1 v
c
(8.162)
which means that an observer near the orbit plane sees a very strong pulse
followed, half an orbit period later, by a much weaker pulse.
The two cases represented by Equation (8.161) on the previous page and
Equation (8.162) are very important results since they can be used to determine the characteristics of the particle motion both in particle accelerators and
in astrophysical objects where a direct measurement of particle velocities are
impossible.
In the orbit plane ( = /2), Equation (8.157) on the previous page gives
2
2
v
v
dU rad (/2, ) 0 q 2 v2 1 c cos 1 c2 sin

=
5
dt
162 c
1 v cos
(8.163)
8.3
R ADIATION
L OCALISED C HARGE
FROM A
IN
147
A RBITRARY M OTION
which vanishes for angles 0 such that

v
c
cos 0 =
sin 0 =
(8.164a)
v2
c2
(8.164b)
Hence, the angle 0 is a measure of the synchrotron radiation lobe width ;

see Figure 8.11 on the facing page. For ultra-relativistic particles, dened by
1
1,
1 v2
c
v2
c2
1,
(8.165)
one can approximate

0 sin 0 =
v2 1
=
c2
(8.166)
Hence, synchrotron radiation from ultra-relativistic charges is characterized by a radiation lobe width which is approximately

(8.167)
This angular interval is swept by the charge during the time interval
t =
(8.168)
during which the particle moves a length interval

l = vt = v
(8.169)
in the direction toward the observer who therefore measures a pulse width of
length
l
vt
v
v
v 1
= t
= 1
t = 1
1
c
c
c
c 0
c 0
v
v
2
1 c 1+ c 1
v
1
1 1
=
1 2
= 3
v
0
c 20 2 0
1+
c
1/2
2
y iw v
x
y iw v
x
t = t
148
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
(8.170)
As a general rule, the spectral width of a pulse of length t is 1/t.
In the ultra-relativistic synchrotron case one can therefore expect frequency
components up to
1
= 23 0
(8.171)
t
A spectral analysis of the radiation pulse will exhibit Fourier components n 0
from n = 1 up to n 23 .
When N electrons are contributing to the radiation, we can discern between
three situations:
max
1. All electrons are very close to each other so that the individual phase
differences are negligible. The power will be multiplied by N 2 relative
to a single electron and we talk about coherent radiation.
2. The electrons are perfectly evenly distributed in the orbit. This is the
case, for instance, for electrons in a circular current in a conductor. In
this case the radiation elds cancel completely and no far elds are generated.
3. The electrons are unevenly distributed in the orbit. This happens for an
open ring current which is subject to uctuations of order N as for all

open systems. As a result we get incoherent radiation. Examples of this
can be found both in earthly laboratories and under cosmic conditions.
Radiation in the general case

We recall that the general expression for the radiation E eld from a moving
charge concentration is given by expression (8.87) on page 130. This expression in Equation (8.156) on page 144 yields the general formula
|x x | v
c

(x x )
dU rad () 0 q 2 |x x |
(x x )
=
dt
162 cs5
(8.172)
Integration over the solid angle gives the totally radiated power as
2
dU rad 0 q 2 v2 1 v2 sin
c
=
3
dt
6c
v2
1 c2
(8.173)
where is the angle between v and v.
In the limit v v, sin = 0, which corresponds to bremsstrahlung. For v v,

sin = 1, which corresponds to cyclotron radiation or synchrotron radiation.
8.3
R ADIATION
L OCALISED C HARGE
FROM A
IN
149
A RBITRARY M OTION
vt
q
v = vx
|x x0 |
B
E z
F IGURE 8.12: The perpendicular eld of a charge q moving with velocity v = v x is E z.
Virtual photons
According to Formula (8.100) on page 133 and Figure 8.12,
1
v2
c2
(x x0 ) x3
q
40 s3
E = Ez =
(8.174)
Utilising expression (8.95a) on page 132 and simple geometrical relations, we

can rewrite this as
b
q
40 2 (vt)2 + b2 /2
E =
(8.175)
3/2
This represents a contracted eld, approaching the eld of a plane wave. The
passage of this eld pulse corresponds to a frequency distribution of the eld
energy. Fourier transforming, we obtain
q
42
0 bv
E (t) eit dt =
b
K1
v
1
2
b
v

E, =
(8.176)
Here, K1 is the Kelvin function (Bessel function of the second kind with imaginary argument) which behaves in such a way for small and large arguments
that
E,
q
42
E, 0,
0 bv
b
v
(8.177a)
(8.177b)
150
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
showing that the pulse length is of the order b/(v).

Due to the equipartition of the eld energy into the electric and magnetic
elds, the total eld energy can be written
bmax
bmin
2
E d3x = 0
U = 0
2
E vdt 2b db
(8.178)
where the volume integration is over the plane perpendicular to v. With the
use of Parsevals identity for Fourier transforms, Formula (7.35) on page 105,
we can rewrite this as
v/
bmin
db
d
b
q2
2
2 0 v
bmin
bmax
U d = 40 v
E,
U=
d 2b db
(8.179)
from which we conclude that

q2
v
ln
2 v
2 0
bmin
(8.180)
where an explicit value of bmin can be calculated in quantum theory only.

As in the case of bremsstrahlung, it is intriguing to quantise the energy into
photons [cf. Equation (8.150) on page 143]. Then we nd that
2
c
ln
bmin
N d
(8.181)
where = e2 /(40 hc) 1/137 is the ne structure constant.
Let us consider the interaction of two electrons, 1 and 2. The result of this
interaction is that they change their linear momenta from p1 to p1 and p2 to
p2 , respectively. Heisenbergs uncertainty principle gives bmin h/ p1 p1
so that the number of photons exchanged in the process is of the order
c
2
ln
p1 p1
N d
(8.182)
Since this change in momentum corresponds to a change in energy h = E 1
2 , we see that
E1 and E1 = m0 c
E1 cp1 cp1
m0 c2 E 1 E 1
2
ln
N d
(8.183)
a formula which gives a reasonable account of electron- and photon-induced

processes.
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
151
A RBITRARY M OTION
8.3.5 Radiation from charges moving in matter

When electromagnetic radiation is propagating through matter, new phenomena may appear which are (at least classically) not present in vacuum. As mentioned earlier, one can under certain simplifying assumptions include, to some
extent, the inuence from matter on the electromagnetic elds by introducing
new, derived eld quantities D and H according to
D = (t, x)E = 0 E
(8.184)
B = (t, x)H = m 0 H
(8.185)
Expressed in terms of these derived eld quantities, the Maxwell equations,

often called macroscopic Maxwell equations, take the form
D = (t, x)
E+ B = 0
t
B = 0
H D = j(t, x)
t
(8.186a)
(8.186b)
(8.186c)
(8.186d)
Assuming for simplicity that the electric permittivity and the magnetic
permeability , and hence the relative permittivity and the relative permeability m all have xed values, independent on time and space, for each type
of material we consider, we can derive the general telegraphers equation [cf.
Equation (2.33) on page 29]
E
2 E
2 E

2 = 0
2
t
t
(8.187)
describing (1D) wave propagation in a material medium.

In Chapter 2 we concluded that the existence of a nite conductivity, manifesting itself in a collisional interaction between the charge carriers, causes
the waves to decay exponentially with time and space. Let us therefore assume
that in our medium = 0 so that the wave equation simplies to
2 E
2 E
2 = 0
2
t
(8.188)
If we introduce the phase velocity in the medium as

1
c
1
=
v = =
0 m 0
m
(8.189)
152
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
where, according to Equation (1.9) on page 5, c = 1/ 0 0 is the speed of light,

i.e., the phase speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum, then the general
solution to each component of Equation (8.188) on the preceding page
Ei = f ( v t) + g( + v t),
i = 1, 2, 3
(8.190)
The ratio of the phase speed in vacuum and in the medium

c
def
= m = c n
v
(8.191)
is called the refractive index of the medium. In general n is a function of both

time and space as are the quantities , , , and m themselves. If, in addition,
the medium is anisotropic or birefringent, all these quantities are rank-two
tensor elds. Under our simplifying assumptions, in each medium we consider
n = Const for each frequency component of the elds.
Associated with the phase speed of a medium for a wave of a given frequency we have a wave vector, dened as
def
k k k = k =
v
v
v v
(8.192)
As in the vacuum case discussed in Chapter 2, assuming that E is time-harmonic,

i.e., can be represented by a Fourier component proportional to exp{it}, the
solution of Equation (8.188) can be written
E = E0 ei(kxt)
(8.193)
where now k is the wave vector in the medium given by Equation (8.192)
above. With these denitions, the vacuum formula for the associated magnetic
eld, Equation (2.40) on page 30,
1
1

kE = kE
B = k E =
v
(8.194)
is valid also in a material medium (assuming, as mentioned, that n has a xed

constant scalar value). A consequence of a = 1 is that the electric eld will,
in general, have a longitudinal component.
It is important to notice that depending on the electric and magnetic properties of a medium, and, hence, on the value of the refractive index n, the phase
speed in the medium can be smaller or larger than the speed of light:
c
=
n k
(8.195)
v =
8.3
R ADIATION
FROM A
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
153
A RBITRARY M OTION
where, in the last step, we used Equation (8.192) on the preceding page.
If the medium has a refractive index which, as is usually the case, dependent on frequency , we say that the medium is dispersive. Because in this
case also k() and (k), so that the group velocity
vg =
(8.196)
has a unique value for each frequency component, and is different from v .
Except in regions of anomalous dispersion, v is always smaller than c. In
a gas of free charges, such as a plasma, the refractive index is given by the
expression
2
p
2
(8.197)
N q2
0 m
(8.198)
n2 () = 1
where
2 =
p
is the plasma frequency. Here m and N denote the mass and number density,
respectively, of charged particle species . In an inhomogeneous plasma, N =
N (x) so that the refractive index and also the phase and group velocities are
space dependent. As can be easily seen, for each given frequency, the phase
and group velocities in a plasma are different from each other. If the frequency
is such that it coincides with p at some point in the medium, then at that
point v while vg 0 and the wave Fourier component at is reected
there.
Vavilov-Cerenkov radiation
As we saw in Subsection 8.1, a charge in uniform, rectilinear motion in vacuum does not give rise to any radiation; see in particular Equation (8.98a) on
page 133. Let us now consider a charge in uniform, rectilinear motion in a
medium with electric properties which are different from those of a (classical)
vacuum. Specically, consider a medium where
= Const > 0
(8.199a)
= 0
(8.199b)
This implies that in this medium the phase speed is

v =
c
1
=
<c
n
0
(8.200)
154
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
Hence, in this particular medium, the speed of propagation of (the phase planes
of) electromagnetic waves is less than the speed of light in vacuum, which we
know is an absolute limit for the motion of anything, including particles. A
medium of this kind has the interesting property that particles, entering into
the medium at high speeds |v|, which, of course, are below the phase speed
in vacuum, can experience that the particle speeds are higher than the phase
speed in the medium. This is the basis for the Vavilov-Cerenkov radiation that
we shall now study.
If we recall the general derivation, in the vacuum case, of the retarded (and
advanced) potentials in Chapter 3 and the Linard-Wiechert potentials, Equations (8.63) on page 124, we realise that we obtain the latter in the medium
by a simple formal replacement c c/n in the expression (8.64) on page 124
for s. Hence, the Linard-Wiechert potentials in a medium characterized by a
refractive index n, are
q
1 q
1
=
40 |x x | n (xx )v
40 s
c
1
qv
1 qv
=
2
(xx )v
40 c |x x | n
40 c2 s
c
(8.201b)
A(t, x) =
(8.201a)
(t, x) =
where now
(x x ) v
c
s = xx n
(8.202)
The need for the absolute value of the expression for s is obvious in the case
when v/c 1/n because then the second term can be larger than the rst term;
if v/c 1/n we recover the well-known vacuum case but with modied phase
speed. We also note that the retarded and advanced times in the medium are
[cf. Equation (3.34) on page 43]
k |x x |
|x x | n
= t
c
k |x x |
|x x | n
tadv = tadv (t, x x ) = t +
= t+
tret = tret (t, x x ) = t
(8.203a)
(8.203b)
so that the usual time interval t t between the time measured at the point of
observation and the retarded time in a medium becomes
tt =
|x x | n
c
(8.204)
8.3
R ADIATION
L OCALISED C HARGE
IN
155
A RBITRARY M OTION
FROM A
x(t)
x (t )
F IGURE 8.13: Instantaneous picture of the expanding eld spheres from

a point charge moving with constant speed v/c > 1/n in a medium where
n > 1. This generates a Vavilov-Cerenkov shock wave in the form of a

cone.
For v/c 1/n, the retarded distance s, and therefore the denominators in
Equations (8.201) on the facing page vanish when
nv
v
= xx
cos c = x x
c
c
n(x x )
(8.205)
or, equivalently, when

cos c =
c
nv
(8.206)
In the direction dened by this angle c , the potentials become singular. During the time interval t t given by expression (8.204) on the preceding page,
the eld exists within a sphere of radius |x x | around the particle while the
particle moves a distance
l = v(t t )
(8.207)
along the direction of v.

In the direction c where the potentials are singular, all eld spheres are
tangent to a straight cone with its apex at the instantaneous position of the
particle and with the apex half angle c dened according to
sin c = cos c =
c
nv
(8.208)
156
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
This cone of potential singularities and eld sphere circumferences propagates
with speed c/n in the form of a shock front, called Vavilov-Cerenkov radiation.1
The Vavilov-Cerenkov cone is similar in nature to the Mach cone in acoustics.

In order to make some quantitative estimates of this radiation, we note that
we can describe the motion of each charged particle q as a current density:
j = q v (x vt ) = q v (x vt )(y )(z ) x1
(8.209)
which has the trivial Fourier transform

q ix /v
j =
e
(y )(z ) x1
(8.210)
2
This Fourier component can be used in the formulae derived for a linear current
in Subsection 8.1.1 if only we make the replacements
0 = n 2 0
(8.211a)
n
k
(8.211b)
c
In this manner, using j from Equation (8.210), the resulting Fourier trans
forms of the Vavilov-Cerenkov magnetic and electric radiation elds can be
calculated from the expressions (7.11) and (7.22) on page 100, respectively.
The total energy content is then obtained from Equation (7.35) on page 105
(integrated over a closed sphere at large distances). For a Fourier component
one obtains [cf. Equation (7.38) on page 105]
d

x
kx cos
exp i
v
dx
(8.212)
q 2 n2
=
163 0 c3
(j k)eikx d3x
1
40 nc
rad
U d
sin d
1 The rst systematic exploration of this radiation was made by P. A. Cerenkov in 1934,
who was then a post-graduate student in S. I. Vavilovs research group at the Lebedev Institute
in Moscow. Vavilov wrote a manuscript with the experimental ndings, put Cerenkov as the
author, and submitted it to Nature. In the manuscript, Vavilov explained the results in terms of
radioactive particles creating Compton electrons which gave rise to the radiation (which was
the correct interpretation), but the paper was rejected. The paper was then sent to Physical
Review and was, after some controversy with the American editors who claimed the results to
be wrong, eventually published in 1937. In the same year, I. E. Tamm and I. M. Frank published
the theory for the effect (the singing electron). In fact, predictions of a similar effect had been
made as early as 1888 by Heaviside, and by Sommerfeld in his 1904 paper Radiating body
moving with velocity of light. On May 8, 1937, Sommerfeld sent a letter to Tamm via Austria,
saying that he was surprised that his old 1904 ideas were now becoming interesting. Tamm,
Frank and Cerenkov received the Nobel Prize in 1958 for the discovery and the interpretation
of the Cerenkov effect [V. L. Ginzburg, private communication].

The rst observation of this type of radiation was reported by Marie Curie in 1910, but she
never pursued the exploration of it [7].
8.3
R ADIATION
L OCALISED C HARGE
FROM A
IN
157
A RBITRARY M OTION
where is the angle between the direction of motion, x1 , and the direction to
the observer, k. The integral in (8.212) is singular of a Dirac delta type. If

we limit the spatial extent of the motion of the particle to the closed interval
[X, X] on the x axis we can evaluate the integral to obtain
X
v
2
q 2 n2 sin2 sin2 1 nv cos

c
nv
43 0 c3
1 c cos
v
Q
R
rad
U d =
(8.213)
Q
which has a maximum in the direction c as expected. The magnitude of this

maximum grows and its width narrows as X . The integration of (8.213)
over therefore picks up the main contributions from c . Consequently,
we can set sin2 sin2 c and the result of the integration is
sin2
1 + nv
c
1 + nv
c
X
v
2
1
1
rad
U () d
(8.214)
V G
F
oU
F
iU
q 2 n2 sin2 c
22 0 c3
rad
U () sin d = cos = = 2
rad
U = 2
The integrand in (8.214) is strongly peaked near = c/(nv), or, equivalently,

near cos c = c/(nv). This means that the integrand function is practically zero
outside the integration interval [1, 1]. Hence, one can extend the integration interval to (, ) without introducing too much an error. Via yet
another variable substitution we can therefore approximate
cX
n
sin2 x
dx
2
x
(8.215)
c2
cX
1 2 2
n
n v
V G
F
oU
c2
n2 v2
d 1
F
iU
1 + nv
c
X
v
2
1 + nv
c
sin c
sin2
leading to the nal approximate result for the total energy loss in the frequency
interval (, + d)
1
c2
n2 v2
q 2X
rad
U d =
20 c2
(8.216)
As mentioned earlier, the refractive index is usually frequency dependent.

Realising this, we nd that the radiation energy per frequency unit and per unit
length is
1
c2
n2 ()v2
rad
U d
q 2
=
2X
40 c2
(8.217)
158
AND
R ADIATING S YSTEMS
This result was derived under the assumption that v/c > 1/n(), i.e., under the
condition that the expression inside the parentheses in the right hand side is
positive. For all media it is true that n() 1 when , so there exist al
ways a highest frequency for which we can obtain Vavilov-Cerenkov radiation
from a fast charge in a medium. Our derivation above for a xed value of n is
valid for each individual Fourier component.
Bibliography
New York, NY, 1982, ISBN 0-486-64290-9.
[2] M. B ORN AND E. W OLF, Principles of Optics. Electromagnetic Theory of Propagation, Interference and Diffraction of Light, sixth ed., Pergamon Press, Oxford,. . . , 1980, ISBN 0-08-026481-6.
[3] V. L. G INZBURG, Applications of Electrodynamics in Theoretical Physics
and Astrophysics, Revised third ed., Gordon and Breach Science Publishers,
New York, London, Paris, Montreux, Tokyo and Melbourne, 1989, ISBN 288124-719-9.
New York, NY . . . , 1999, ISBN 0-471-30932-X.
[5] J. B. M ARION AND M. A. H EALD, Classical Electromagnetic Radiation, second ed., Academic Press, Inc. (London) Ltd., Orlando, . . . , 1980, ISBN 0-12472257-1.
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
[7] J. S CHWINGER , L. L. D E R AAD , J R ., K. A. M ILTON , AND W. T SAI, Classical
Electrodynamics, Perseus Books, Reading, MA, 1998, ISBN 0-7382-0056-5.
[9] J. VANDERLINDE, Classical Electromagnetic Theory, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, Chichester, Brisbane, Toronto, and Singapore, 1993, ISBN 0-47157269-1.
F
Formulae
F.1 The Electromagnetic Field

F.1.1 Maxwells equations
D =
(F.1)
B = 0
(F.2)
E =
(F.3)
B
t
H = j+ D
t
(F.4)
Constitutive relations
D = E
B
H=
(F.5)
j = E
(F.7)
P = 0 E
(F.8)
(F.6)
F.1.2 Fields and potentials

Vector and scalar potentials
B=
E =
(F.9)
A
t
(F.10)
159
160
F ORMULAE
Lorentz gauge condition in vacuum

A+
1
=0
c2 t
(F.11)
F.1.3 Force and energy

Poyntings vector
S = EH
(F.12)
Maxwells stress tensor

1
T i j = Ei D j + Hi B j i j (Ek Dk + Hk Bk )
2
(F.13)
F.2 Electromagnetic Radiation

F.2.1 Relationship between the eld vectors in a plane
wave
B=
kE
c
(F.14)
F.2.2 The far elds from an extended source distribution

i0 eik|x|
d3 x eikx j k
4 |x| V
i eik|x|
Erad (x) =
d3 x eikx j k
x
40 c |x|
V
Brad (x) =
(F.15)
(F.16)
F.2.3 The far elds from an electric dipole

0 eik|x|
p k
4 |x|
1 eik|x|
(p k) k
Erad (x) =
40 |x|
Brad (x) =
(F.17)
(F.18)
F.3
161
S PECIAL R ELATIVITY
F.2.4 The far elds from a magnetic dipole

0 eik|x|
(m k) k
4 |x|
k eik|x|
Erad (x) =
m k
40 c |x|
Brad (x) =
(F.19)
(F.20)
F.2.5 The far elds from an electric quadrupole

i0 eik|x|
k Q k
8 |x|
i eik|x|
Erad (x) =
k Q k k
80 |x|
(F.21)
(F.22)
Brad (x) =
Q
F.2.6 The elds from a point charge in arbitrary motion
v
c
x x0 = (x x ) |x x |
t
t
=
x
s = x x (x x )
+ (x x )
(x x0 ) v
c2
q
v2
(x x0 ) 1 2
40 s3
c
E(t, x)
B(t, x) = (x x )
c|x x |
E(t, x) =
(F.23)
(F.24)
(F.25)
v
c
(F.26)
|x x |
s
(F.27)
F.2.7 The elds from a point charge in uniform motion
(x x0 ) v
c
(F.28)
(F.29)
|x x0 |2
s=
q
v2
(x x0 ) 1 2
40 s3
c
v E(t, x)
B(t, x) =
c2
E(t, x) =
(F.30)
162
F ORMULAE
F.3 Special Relativity

F.3.1 Metric tensor
hh
ig
(F.31)
deef
g =
1 0
0
0
0 1 0
0
0 0 1 0
0 0
0 1
F.3.2 Covariant and contravariant four-vectors

v = g v
(F.32)
F.3.3 Lorentz transformation of a four-vector

x = x
(F.33)
hh
ig
p
0 0

0 0
=
0
0
1 0
0
0
0 1
1
=
1 2
v
=
c
(F.34)
(F.35)
(F.36)
deef
F.3.4 Invariant line element

ds = c
dt
= c d
(F.37)
F.3.5 Four-velocity
u =
dx
= (c, v)
d
(F.38)
F.3.6 Four-momentum
E
,p
c
p = m0 cu =
(F.39)
F.4
163
V ECTOR R ELATIONS
F.3.7 Four-current density

j = 0 u
(F.40)
F.3.8 Four-potential
,A
c
(F.41)
A =
F.3.9 Field tensor
hh
ig
p
deef
F = A A =
0
E x /c Ey /c Ez /c
E x /c
0
Bz
By
Ey /c
Bz
0
B x
Ez /c
By
Bx
0
(F.42)
F.4 Vector Relations

Let x be the radius vector (coordinate vector) from the origin to the point
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) (x, y, z) and let |x| denote the magnitude (length) of x. Let further (x), (x), . . . be arbitrary scalar elds and a(x), b(x), c(x), d(x), . . . arbitrary vector elds.
The differential vector operator is in Cartesian coordinates given by
3
xi
i=1
def
def
xi

xi
xi
(F.43)
where xi , i = 1, 2, 3 is the ith unit vector and x1 x, x2 y, and x3 z. In
component (tensor) notation can be written

,
,
x1 x2 x3
= i =

, ,
x y z
(F.44)
F.4.1 Spherical polar coordinates

Base vectors
r = sin cos x1 + sin sin x2 + cos x3
= cos cos x1 + cos sin x2 sin x3
= sin x1 + cos x2
(F.45a)
(F.45b)
(F.45c)
164
F ORMULAE
x1 = sin cos + cos cos sin
x2 = sin sin + cos sin + cos
(F.46a)
(F.46b)
x3 = cos sin
(F.46c)
Directed line element
dx x = dl = dr r + r d + r sin d
(F.47)
Solid angle element

d = sin d d
(F.48)
Directed area element

d2x n = dS = dS r = r2 d r
(F.49)
Volume element
d3x = dV = drdS = r2 dr d
(F.50)
F.4.2 Vector formulae

General vector algebraic identities
a b = b a = i j ai b j = ab cos
(F.51)
a (b c) = (a b) c
(F.53)
a b = b a =
i jk a j bk xi
(F.52)
a (b c) = b(a c) c(a b)
(F.54)
(a b) (c d) = a [b (c d)] = (a c)(b d) (a d)(b c)
(F.56)
a (b c) + b (c a) + c (a b) = 0
(F.55)
(a b) (c d) = (a b d)c (a b c)d
(F.57)
F.4
165
V ECTOR R ELATIONS
General vector analytic identities

() = +
(F.58)
(a) = a + a
(F.59)
(a b) = b ( a) a ( b)
(F.61)
(a) = a a
(F.60)
(a b) = a( b) b( a) + (b )a (a )b
(a b) = a ( b) + b ( a) + (b )a + (a )b
2
(F.62)
(F.63)
(F.64)
=0
(F.65)
( a) = 0
(F.66)
( a) = ( a)
(F.67)
Special identities
In the following k is an arbitrary constant vector while x, as before, is the
radius vector.
x = 3
(F.68)
x = 0
x
|x| =
|x|
1
x
= 3
|x|
|x|
x
1
= 2
= 4(x)
3
|x|
|x|
kx
k
1
= k
= 3
|x|
|x|
|x|
x
kx
=
if |x| = 0
k
|x|3
|x|3
k
1
2
=k 2
= 4k(x)
|x|
|x|
(k a) = k( a) + k ( a) (k a)
(F.69)
(F.70)
(F.71)
(F.72)
(F.73)
(F.74)
(F.75)
(F.76)

Integral relations
Let V(S ) be the volume bounded by the closed surface S (V). Denote the 3dimensional volume element by d3x( dV) and the surface element, directed
166
F ORMULAE
along the outward pointing surface normal unit vector n, by dS( d2x n). Then
dS a
dS
(F.77)
(F.78)
( a) d3x =
( ) d3x =
V
V
( a) d3x =
dS a
(F.79)
If S (C) is an open surface bounded by the contour C(S ), whose line element is dl, then
dl =
S
a dl =
dS
dS ( a)
(F.80)
(F.81)
Bibliography
[1] G. B. A RFKEN AND H. J. W EBER, Mathematical Methods for Physicists, fourth,
international ed., Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, CA . . . , 1995, ISBN 0-12059816-7.
[2] P. M. M ORSE AND H. F ESHBACH, Methods of Theoretical Physics, Part I.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1953, ISBN 07-043316-8.
ISBN 0-201-05702-6.
M
Mathematical
Methods
M.1 Scalars, Vectors and Tensors
Every physical observable can be described by a geometric object. We will
describe the observables in classical electrodynamics mathematically in terms
of scalars, pseudoscalars, vectors, pseudovectors, tensors or pseudotensors and
will not exploit differential forms to any signicant degree.
A scalar describes a scalar quantity which may or may not be constant in
time and/or space. A vector describes some kind of physical motion due to
vection and a tensor describes the motion or deformation due to some form of
tension. However, generalisations to more abstract notions of these quantities
are commonplace. The difference between a scalar, vector and tensor and a
pseudoscalar, pseudovector and a pseudotensor is that the latter behave differently under such coordinate transformations which cannot be reduced to pure
rotations.
Throughout we adopt the convention that Latin indices i, j, k, l, . . . run over
the range 1, 2, 3 to denote vector or tensor components in the real Euclidean
three-dimensional (3D) conguration space 3 , and Greek indices , , , , . . . ,
which are used in four-dimensional (4D) space, run over the range 0, 1, 2, 3.
M.1.1 Vectors
Radius vector
Any vector can be represented mathematically in several different ways. One
suitable representation is in terms of an ordered N-tuple, or row vector, of the
coordinates xN where N is the dimensionality of the space under consideration. The most basic vector is the radius vector which is the vector from the
origin to the point of interest. Its N-tuple representation simply enumerates the
coordinates which describe this point. In this sense, the radius vector from the
origin to a point is synonymous with the coordinates of the point itself.
167
168
M ATHEMATICAL M ETHODS
In the 3D space 3 , we have N = 3 and the radius vector can be represented

by the triplet (x1 , x2 , x3 ) of coordinates xi , i = 1, 2, 3. The coordinates xi are
scalar quantities which describe the position along the unit base vectors x i
which span 3 . Therefore a representation of the radius vector in 3 is
x = x i xi x i xi
def
(M.1)
i=1
where we have introduced Einsteins summation convention (E) which states

that a repeated index in a term implies summation over the range of the index in
question. Whenever possible and convenient we shall in the following always
assume E and suppress explicit summation in our formulae. Typographically,
we represent a 3D vector by a boldface letter or symbol in a Roman font.
Alternatively, we may describe the radius vector in component notation as
follows:
def
xi (x1 , x2 , x3 ) (x, y, z)
(M.2)
This component notation is particularly useful in 4D space where we can

represent the radius vector either in its contravariant component form
def
x (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 )
(M.3)
or its covariant component form

def
x (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 )
(M.4)
The relation between the covariant and contravariant forms is determined by

the metric tensor (also known as the fundamental tensor) whose actual form is
dictated by the physics. The dual representation of vectors in contravariant and
covariant forms is most convenient when we work in a non-Euclidean vector
space with an indenite metric. An example is Lorentz space 4 which is a
4D Riemannian space. 4 is often utilised to formulate the special theory of
relativity.
We note that for a change of coordinates x x = x (x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ), due
to a transformation from a system to another system , the differential radius
vector dx transforms as
x
dx
x
dx =
(M.5)
which follows trivially from the rules of differentiation of x considered as

functions of four variables x .
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
169
T ENSORS
M.1.2 Fields
A eld is a physical entity which depends on one or more continuous parameters. Such a parameter can be viewed as a continuous index which enumerates the coordinates of the eld. In particular, in a eld which depends on
the usual radius vector x of 3 , each point in this space can be considered as
one degree of freedom so that a eld is a representation of a physical entity
which has an innite number of degrees of freedom.
Scalar elds
3
by
def
(x) = (x1 , x2 , x3 ) (xi )
(M.6)
This eld describes how the scalar quantity varies continuously in 3D

space.
In 4D, a four-scalar eld is denoted
def
(x0 , x1 , x2 , x3 ) (x )
We denote an arbitrary scalar eld in
(M.7)
which indicates that the four-scalar depends on all four coordinates spanning
this space. Since a four-scalar has the same value at a given point regardless
of coordinate system, it is also called an invariant.
Analogous to the transformation rule, Equation (M.5) on the facing page,
for the differential dx , the transformation rule for the differential operator
/x under a transformation x x becomes
x
=
x x x
(M.8)
which, again, follows trivially from the rules of differentiation.
Vector elds
We can represent an arbitrary vector eld a(x) in
as follows:
a(x) = xi ai (x)
(M.9)
In component notation this same vector can be represented as

ai (x) = (a1 (x), a2 (x), a3 (x)) = ai (x j )
(M.10)
170
In 4D, an arbitrary four-vector eld in contravariant component form can

be represented as
a (x ) = (a0 (x ), a1 (x ), a2 (x ), a3 (x ))
(M.11)
or, in covariant component form, as

a (x ) = (a0 (x ), a1 (x ), a2 (x ), a3 (x ))
(M.12)
where x is the radius four-vector. Again, the relation between a and a is

determined by the metric of the physical 4D system under consideration.
Whether an arbitrary N-tuple fulls the requirement of being an (N-dimensional) contravariant vector or not, depends on its transformation properties
during a change of coordinates. For instance, in 4D an assemblage y =
(y0 , y1 , y2 , y3 ) constitutes a contravariant four-vector (or the contravariant components of a four-vector) if and only if, during a transformation from a system
with coordinates x to a system with coordinates x , it transforms to the
new system according to the rule
y=
x
y
x
(M.13)
i.e., in the same way as the differential coordinate element dx transforms

according to Equation (M.5) on page 168.
The analogous requirement for a covariant four-vector is that it transforms,
during the change from to , according to the rule
y =
x
y
x
(M.14)
i.e., in the same way as the differential operator /x transforms according to

Equation (M.8) on the preceding page.
Tensor elds
We denote an arbitrary tensor eld in 3 by A(x). This tensor eld can be
represented in a number of ways, for instance in the following matrix form:
def
Ai j (xk )
A11 (x) A12 (x) A13 (x)

A21 (x) A22 (x) A23 (x)
A31 (x) A32 (x) A33 (x)
fd
A(x) =
(M.15)
where, in the last member, we have again used the more compact component
notation. Strictly speaking, the tensor eld described here is a tensor of rank
two.
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
A particularly simple rank-two tensor in

bol i j , with the following properties:
is the 3D Kronecker delta sym-
0 if i = j
1 if i = j
i j =
171
T ENSORS
M.1
(M.16)
The 3D Kronecker delta has the following matrix representation
g
p
fd
(i j ) =
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
(M.17)
Another common and useful tensor is the fully antisymmetric tensor of

rank 3, also known as the Levi-Civita tensor
`a
i jk
1
0
1
if i, j, k is an even permutation of 1,2,3

if at least two of i, j, k are equal
if i, j, k is an odd permutation of 1,2,3
(M.18)
ac
with the following further property

i jk ilm
= jl km jm kl
(M.19)
In fact, tensors may have any rank n. In this picture a scalar is considered
to be a tensor of rank n = 0 and a vector a tensor of rank n = 1. Consequently,
the notation where a vector (tensor) is represented in its component form is
called the tensor notation. A tensor of rank n = 2 may be represented by a twodimensional array or matrix whereas higher rank tensors are best represented
in their component forms (tensor notation).
T ENSORS IN 3D SPACE
E XAMPLE M.1
Consider a tetrahedron-like volume element V of a solid, uid, or gaseous body, whose

atomistic structure is irrelevant for the present analysis; gure M.1 on the next page
indicates how this volume may look like. Let dS = d2x n be the directed surface ele
ment of this volume element and let the vector T n d2x be the force that matter, lying
on the side of d2x toward which the unit normal vector n points, acts on matter which
lies on the opposite side of d2x. This force concept is meaningful only if the forces
are short-range enough that they can be assumed to act only in the surface proper.
According to Newtons third law, this surface force fulls
T n = T n
(M.20)
Using (M.20) and Newtons second law, we nd that the matter of mass m, which at a
172
x3
d2x
x2
V
x1
F IGURE M.1: Terahedron-like volume element V containing matter.
given instant is located in V obeys the equation of motion
T n d2x cos 1 T x1 d2x cos 2 T x2 d2x cos 3 T x3 d2x + Fext = ma
(M.21)
where Fext is the external force and a is the acceleration of the volume element. In
other words
m
Fext
T n = n 1 T x1 + n 2 T x 2 + n 3 T x 3 + 2 a
(M.22)
dx
m
"
Since both a and Fext /m remain nite whereas m/d2x 0 as V 0, one nds that in
this limit
3
T n = ni T xi n i T x i
(M.23)
i=1
From the above derivation it is clear that Equation (M.23) is valid not only in equilibrium but also when the matter in V is in motion.
Introducing the notation
T i j = T xi
(M.24)
for the jth component of the vector T xi , we can write Equation (M.23) above in com
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
173
T ENSORS
ponent form as follows

3
T nj = (T n) j = ni T i j ni T i j
(M.25)
i=1
Using Equation (M.25), we nd that the component of the vector T n in the direction
of an arbitrary unit vector m is
j=1
ni T i j
j=1
i=1
= T nj m j =
T nm = T n m
(M.26)
m j ni T i j m j = n T m
Hence, the jth component of the vector T xi , here denoted T i j , can be interpreted as the
i jth component of a tensor T. Note that T nm is independent of the particular coordinate
system used in the derivation.

We shall now show how one can use the momentum law (force equation) to derive
the equation of motion for an arbitrary element of mass in the body. To this end we
consider a part V of the body. If the external force density (force per unit volume) is
denoted by f and the velocity for a mass element dm is denoted by v, we obtain
d
dt
f d3x +
v dm =
V
T n d2x
(M.27)
The jth component of this equation can be written
d
v j dm =
dt
f j d3x +
T nj d2x =
f j d3x +
ni T i j d2x
(M.28)
where, in the last step, Equation (M.25) above was used. Setting dm = d 3x and using
the divergence theorem on the last term, we can rewrite the result as
d
v j d3x =
dt
f j d3x +
T i j 3
dx
xi
(M.29)
Since this formula is valid for any arbitrary volume, we must require that
T i j
d
vj fj
=0
dt
xi
(M.30)
or, equivalently
T i j
v j
+ v v j f j
=0
t
xi
(M.31)
Note that v j /t is the rate of change with time of the velocity component v j at a xed
point x = (x1 , x1 , x3 ).
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.1
174
In 4D, we have three forms of four-tensor elds of rank n. We speak of

a contravariant four-tensor eld, denoted A1 2 ...n (x ),
a covariant four-tensor eld, denoted A1 2 ...n (x ),
...
a mixed four-tensor eld, denoted A1 2...nk (x ).

k+1
The 4D metric tensor (fundamental tensor) mentioned above is a particularly important four-tensor of rank 2. In covariant component form we shall
denote it g . This metric tensor determines the relation between an arbitrary
contravariant four-vector a and its covariant counterpart a according to the
following rule:
def
a (x ) g a (x )
(M.32)
This rule is often called lowering of index. The raising of index analogue of
the index lowering rule is:
def
a (x ) g a (x )
(M.33)
More generally, the following lowering and raising rules hold for arbitrary
rank n mixed tensor elds:
...k1 k
gk k A1 2k+2 ...n (x ) = A1 2 ...k1 (x )
k k+1 ...n
k+1
(M.34)
2 ...k1
...k1
gk k A1k+1 ...n (x ) = A1 2k+2 ...nk (x )
k+1
k
(M.35)
Successive lowering and raising of more than one index is achieved by a repeated application of this rule. For example, a dual application of the lowering
operation on a rank 2 tensor in contravariant form yields
A = g g A
(M.36)
i.e., the same rank 2 tensor in covariant form. This operation is also known as
a tensor contraction.
C ONTRAVARIANT AND COVARIANT VECTORS IN
The 4D Lorentz space
E XAMPLE M.2
FLAT
L ORENTZ SPACE
has a simple metric which can be described either by the
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
175
T ENSORS
metric tensor
1
if = = 0
1 if = = i = j = 1, 2, 3
0
if =
s
qr
g =
(M.37)
rt
or, in matrix notation,

0
0
0
0
1 0
0 1
(M.38)
@@ 8B
(g ) =
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
2445
i.e., a matrix with a main diagonal that has the sign sequence, or signature, {+, , , }
or
s
qr
g =
1 if = = 0
1
if = = i = j = 1, 2, 3
0
if =
(M.39)
rt
which, in matrix notation, can be represented as

0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
(M.40)
@@
AB8
2445
(g ) =
1 0
0 1
0 0
0 0
i.e., a matrix with signature {, +, +, +}.
Consider an arbitrary contravariant four-vector a in this space. In component form it

can be written:
def
a (a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a0 , a)
(M.41)
According to the index lowering rule, Equation (M.32) on the facing page, we obtain
the covariant version of this vector as
def
a (a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ) = g a
(M.42)
In the {+, , , } metric we obtain

=0:
=1:
=2:
=3:
a 0 = 1 a 0 + 0 a 1 + 0 a 2 + 0 a 3 = a0
0
(M.43)
1
(M.44)
a2 = 0 a0 + 0 a1 1 a2 + 0 a3 = a2
(M.45)
a1 = 0 a 1 a + 0 a + 0 a = a
0
a3 = 0 a + 0 a + 0 a + 1 a = a
(M.46)
or
a = (a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a0 , a)
(M.47)
Analogously, using the {+, , , } metric we obtain
176
a = (a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a0 , a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a0 , a)
(M.48)
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.2
M.1.3 Vector algebra

Scalar product
The scalar product (dot product, inner product) of two arbitrary 3D vectors a
and b in ordinary 3 space is the scalar number
a b = x i ai x j b j = x i x j ai b j = i j ai b j = ai bi
(M.49)
where we used the fact that the scalar product xi x j is a representation of

the Kronecker delta i j dened in Equation (M.16) on page 171. In Russian
literature, the scalar product is often denoted (ab).
In 4D space we dene the scalar product of two arbitrary four-vectors a
and b in the following way
a b = g a b = a b = g a b
(M.50)
where we made use of the index lowering and raising rules (M.32) and (M.33).
The result is a four-scalar, i.e., an invariant which is independent of in which
inertial system it is measured.
The quadratic differential form
ds2 = g dx dx = dx dx
(M.51)
i.e., the scalar product of the differential radius four-vector with itself, is an
invariant called the metric. It is also the square of the line element ds which is
the distance between neighbouring points with coordinates x and x + dx .
I NNER PRODUCTS IN COMPLEX VECTOR SPACE
A 3D complex vector A is a vector in 3 (or, if we like, in

two real vectors aR and aI in 3 in the following way
'
def
'
&
def
A aR + iaI = aR aR + iaI aI A A
&
E XAMPLE M.3
6 ),
expressed in terms of
(M.52)
The inner product of A with itself may be dened as

def
A=
a2 a2 + 2iaR aI
R
I
'
from which we nd that
'
def
A2 A A = a2 a2 + 2iaR aI A2
R
I
(M.53)
(M.54)
Using this in Equation (M.52), we see that we can interpret this so that the complex
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
177
T ENSORS
unit vector is
a2 a2 2iaR aI
R
I
a2 + a 2
R
I
a2 a2 + 2iaR aI
R
I
aI
aR + i
aR
aI
aR + i
aI
a2 a2 2iaR aI
R
I
a2 + a 2
R
I
aI
'
a2 a2 + 2iaR aI
R
I
aR
A
A= =
A
(M.55)
On the other hand, the denition of the scalar product in terms of the inner product of
complex vector with its own complex conjugate yields
def
|A|2 A A = a2 + a2 = |A|2
R
I
(M.56)
with the help of which we can dene the unit vector as
a2 + a 2
R
I
a2 + a 2
R
I
a2 + a 2
R
I
aR + i
aI
aI
(M.57)
a2 + a 2
R
I
aR
a2 + a 2
R
I
aI
aR + i
a2 + a 2
R
I
aI
'
aR
A =
A=
|A|
E ND OF
S CALAR PRODUCT, NORM AND
METRIC IN
EXAMPLE
M.3
L ORENTZ SPACE
E XAMPLE M.4
In 4 the metric tensor attains a simple form [see Equation (4.10) on page 51 for an
example] and, hence, the scalar product in Equation (M.50) on the facing page can be
evaluated almost trivially and becomes
a b = (a0 , a) (b0 , b) = a0 b0 a b
The important scalar product of the
(M.58)
radius four-vector with itself becomes
x x = (x0 , x) (x , x) = (ct, x) (ct, x)
(M.59)
= (ct)2 (x1 )2 (x2 )2 (x3 )2 = s2

4.
The
which is the indenite, real norm of

form
metric is the quadratic differential
ds2 = dx dx = c2 (dt)2 (dx1 )2 (dx2 )2 (dx3 )2
(M.60)
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.4
178
E XAMPLE M.5
M ETRIC IN
GENERAL RELATIVITY
In the general theory of relativity, several important problems are treated in a 4D

spherical polar coordinate system. Then the radius four-vector can be given as
x = (ct, r, , ) and the metric tensor is
0
e
0
0
0
0
r2
0
0
0
0
r2 sin2
(M.61)
@@ B8
2445
(g ) =
e
0
0
0
where = (ct, r, , ) and = (ct, r, , ). In such a space, the metric takes the form
ds2 = c2 e (dt)2 e (dr)2 r2 (d)2 r2 sin2 (d)2
(M.62)
In general relativity the metric tensor is not given a priori but is determined by the
Einstein equations.
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.5
Dyadic product
The dyadic product eld A(x) a(x)b(x) with two juxtaposed vector elds
a(x) and b(x) is the outer product of a and b. Operating on this dyad from the
right and from the left with an inner product of an vector c one obtains
def
def
def
def
A c ab c a(b c)
(M.63a)
c A c ab (c a)b
(M.63b)
i.e., new vectors, proportional to a and b, respectively. In mathematics, a

dyadic product is often called tensor product and is frequently denoted a b.
In matrix notation the outer product of a and b is written
fd p
fd R
x3
x2
x1
x2
x3
ab = x1
a1 b1 a1 b2 a1 b3
a1 b2 a2 b2 a2 b3
a1 b3 a3 b2 a3 b3
(M.64)
which means that we can represent the tensor A(x) in matrix form as
a1 b1 a1 b2 a1 b3
a1 b2 a2 b2 a2 b3
a1 b3 a3 b2 a3 b3
fd
Ai j (xk ) =
(M.65)
which we identify with expression (M.15) on page 170, viz. a tensor in matrix
notation.
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
179
T ENSORS
Vector product
The vector product or cross product of two arbitrary 3D vectors a and b in
ordinary 3 space is the vector
c = ab =
i jk a j bk xi
(M.66)
Here i jk is the Levi-Civita tensor dened in Equation (M.18) on page 171.

Sometimes the vector product of a and b is denoted a b or, particularly in the
Russian literature, [ab].
A spatial reversal of the coordinate system (x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (x1 , x2 , x3 )
changes sign of the components of the vectors a and b so that in the new
coordinate system a = a and b = b, which is to say that the direction of an
ordinary vector is not dependent on the choice of directions of the coordinate
axes. On the other hand, as is seen from Equation (M.66) above, the cross
product vector c does not change sign. Therefore a (or b) is an example of a
true vector, or polar vector, whereas c is an example of an axial vector, or
pseudovector.
A prototype for a pseudovector is the angular momentum vector L = r p
and hence the attribute axial. Pseudovectors transform as ordinary vectors
under translations and proper rotations, but reverse their sign relative to ordinary vectors for any coordinate change involving reection. Tensors (of any
rank) which transform analogously to pseudovectors are called pseudotensors.
Scalars are tensors of rank zero, and zero-rank pseudotensors are therefore
also called pseudoscalars, an example being the pseudoscalar xi ( x j xk ).

This triple product is a representation of the i jk component of the Levi-Civita

tensor i jk which is a rank three pseudotensor.
M.1.4 Vector analysis

The del operator
In 3 the del operator is a differential vector operator, denoted in Gibbs
notation by and dened as
def
xi
def

xi
(M.67)
where xi is the ith unit vector in a Cartesian coordinate system. Since the
operator in itself has vectorial properties, we denote it with a boldface nabla.

In component notation we can write

,
,
x1 x2 x3
i =
(M.68)
180
In 4D, the contravariant component representation of the four-del operator

is dened by
(M.69)

,
,
,
x0 x1 x2 x3
whereas the covariant four-del operator is

,
,
,
x0 x1 x2 x3
(M.70)
We can use this four-del operator to express the transformation properties

(M.13) and (M.14) on page 170 as
y = x y
(M.71)
y = x y
(M.72)
and
respectively.
L ORENTZ SPACE
the contravariant form of the four-del operator can be represented as

1
, =
c t
1
,
c t
In
FOUR - DEL OPERATOR IN
"
1
, =
c t
"
1
,
c t
(M.74)
"
and the covariant form as
(M.73)
"
T HE
E XAMPLE M.6
Taking the scalar product of these two, one obtains

2
(M.75)
which is the dAlembert operator, sometimes denoted

an opposite sign convention.
1 2
c2 t2
, and sometimes dened with
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.6
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
181
T ENSORS
With the help of the del operator we can dene the gradient, divergence
and curl of a tensor (in the generalised sense).
The gradient
3
scalar eld (x), denoted
(x), is an
The gradient of an
a(x):
(x) = (x) = xi i (x) = a(x)
vector eld
(M.76)
From this we see that the boldface notation for the nabla and del operators is
very handy as it elucidates the 3D vectorial property of the gradient.
In 4D, the four-gradient is a covariant vector, formed as a derivative of a
four-scalar eld (x ), with the following component form:
(x ) =
(x )
x
(M.77)
G RADIENTS OF SCALAR FUNCTIONS OF
RELATIVE DISTANCES IN
3D
E XAMPLE M.7
Very often electrodynamic quantities are dependent on the relative distance in 3 between two vectors x and x , i.e., on |x x |. In analogy with Equation (M.67) on
page 179, we can dene the primed del operator in the following way:
&
= xi
=
xi
(M.78)
Using this, the unprimed version, Equation (M.67) on page 179, and elementary
rules of differentiation, we obtain the following two very useful results:
xx
=
|x x |3
"
1
|x x |
|x x |
(M.79)
1
|x x |
(M.80)
"
#
and
|x x |
xx
|x x |
=
= xi
xi
|x x |
xi
|x x | = xi
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.7
182
The divergence
3
We dene the 3D divergence of a vector eld in
a(x) = x j a j (x) = i j i a j (x) = i ai (x) =
as
ai (x)
= (x)
xi
(M.81)
which, as indicated by the notation (x), is a scalar eld in 3 . We may think

of the divergence as a scalar product between a vectorial operator and a vector.
As is the case for any scalar product, the result of a divergence operation is a
scalar. Again we see that the boldface notation for the 3D del operator is very
convenient.
The four-divergence of a four-vector a is the following four-scalar:
a (x ) = a (x ) =
(M.82)
D IVERGENCE IN 3D
vector eld a(x ), the following relation holds:
"
a(x )
|x x |
a(x )
+ a(x )
|x x |
1
|x x |
(M.83)
"
For an arbitrary
&
E XAMPLE M.8
a (x )
x
which demonstrates how the primed divergence, dened in terms of the primed
del operator in Equation (M.78) on the previous page, works.
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.8
The Laplacian
The 3D Laplace operator or Laplacian can be described as the divergence of
the gradient operator:
2
==
2
2
xi x j

= i j i j = 2 = 2 2
i
xi
x j
xi i=1 xi
(M.84)
The symbol 2 is sometimes read del squared. If, for a scalar eld (x),
2 < 0 at some point in 3D space, it is a sign of concentration of at that
point.
M.1
S CALARS , V ECTORS
AND
183
T ENSORS
T HE L APLACIAN AND THE D IRAC DELTA
"
1
x |
|x
is
1
x |
|x
"
&
A very useful formula in 3D
E XAMPLE M.9
= 4(x x )
(M.85)
where (x x ) is the 3D Dirac delta function.

E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.9
The curl
a(x) =
i jk xi j ak (x) = i jk xi
ak (x)
= b(x)
x j
In 3 the curl of a vector eld a(x), denoted a(x), is another

b(x) which can be dened in the following way:
vector eld
(M.86)
where use was made of the Levi-Civita tensor, introduced in Equation (M.18)
on page 171.
The covariant 4D generalisation of the curl of a four-vector eld a (x ) is
the antisymmetric four-tensor eld
G (x ) = a (x ) a (x ) = G (x )
(M.87)
A vector with vanishing curl is said to be irrotational.

T HE CURL OF
E XAMPLE M.10
A GRADIENT
Using the denition of the 3 curl, Equation (M.86) above, and the gradient, Equation (M.76) on page 181, we see that
&
[ (x)] =
i jk xi j k (x)
(M.88)
which, due to the assumed well-behavedness of (x), vanishes:
2
2
x2 x3 x3 x2
(x) x1
2
2
x3 x1 x1 x3
+
+

(x) xi
x j xk
2
2
x1 x2 x2 x1
(x) x2
"
i jk
"
"
i jk xi j k (x)
(M.89)
(x) x3
184
We thus nd that
[ (x)] 0
(M.90)
for any arbitrary, well-behaved
scalar eld (x).
&
In 4D we note that for any well-behaved four-scalar eld (x )

( )(x ) 0
(M.91)
Hence, a gradient is always irrotational.

E ND OF
E XAMPLE M.11
T HE
EXAMPLE
&
so that the four-curl of a four-gradient vanishes just as does a curl of a gradient in
3.
M.10
DIVERGENCE OF A CURL
With the use of the denitions of the divergence (M.81) and the curl, Equation (M.86)
on the previous page, we nd that
[ a(x)] = i [ a(x)]i =
i jk i j ak (x)
(M.92)
Using the denition for the Levi-Civita symbol, dened by Equation (M.18) on
page 171, we nd that, due to the assumed well-behavedness of a(x),
a1 (x)
2
2
x3 x1 x1 x3
ak
x j
2
2
x2 x3 x3 x2
+
+
i jk
2
2
x1 x2 x2 x1
(M.93)
a2 (x)
"
xi
"
i jk j ak (x)
"
a3 (x)
i.e., that
[ a(x)] 0
(M.94)
&
for any arbitrary, well-behaved
vector eld a(x).
In 4D, the four-divergence of the four-curl is not zero, for
G = a (x )
a (x ) = 0
(M.95)
E ND OF
EXAMPLE
M.11
M.2
185
A NALYTICAL M ECHANICS
Numerous vector algebra and vector analysis formulae are given in Chapter F. Those which are not found there can often be easily derived by using the
component forms of the vectors and tensors, together with the Kronecker and
Levi-Civita tensors and their generalisations to higher ranks. A short but very
useful reference in this respect is the article by A. Evett [3].
M.2 Analytical Mechanics

M.2.1 Lagranges equations
As is well known from elementary analytical mechanics, the Lagrange function or Lagrangian L is given by
dqi
,t = T V
dt
L(qi , qi , t) = L qi ,
(M.96)
where qi is the generalised coordinate, T the kinetic energy and V the potential energy of a mechanical system, The Lagrangian satises the Lagrange
equations
L
qi
L
=0
qi
(M.97)
To the generalised coordinate qi one denes a canonically conjugate momentum pi according to

pi =
L
qi
(M.98)
and note from Equation (M.97) above that

L
= pi
qi
(M.99)
M.2.2 Hamiltons equations

From L, the Hamiltonian (Hamilton function) H can be dened via the Legendre transformation
H(pi , qi , t) = pi qi L(qi , qi , t)
(M.100)
After differentiating the left and right hand sides of this denition and setting
them equal we obtain
H
H
H
L
L
L
dpi +
dqi +
dt = qi dpi + pi dqi
dqi
dqi dt (M.101)
pi
qi
t
qi
qi
186
According to the denition of pi , Equation (M.98) on the preceding page, the

second and fourth terms on the right hand side cancel. Furthermore, noting
that according to Equation (M.99) on the previous page the third term on the
right hand side of Equation (M.101) on the preceding page is equal to pi dqi
and identifying terms, we obtain the Hamilton equations:

H
dqi
= qi =
pi
dt
H
dpi
= pi =
qi
dt
(M.102a)
(M.102b)
Bibliography
[1] G. B. A RFKEN AND H. J. W EBER, Mathematical Methods for Physicists, fourth,
international ed., Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, CA . . . , 1995, ISBN 0-12059816-7.
[2] R. A. D EAN, Elements of Abstract Algebra, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
New York, NY . . . , 1967, ISBN 0-471-20452-8.
[3] A. A. E VETT, Permutation symbol approach to elementary vector analysis,
American Journal of Physics, 34 (1965), pp. 503507.
[4] P. M. M ORSE AND H. F ESHBACH, Methods of Theoretical Physics, Part I.
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, NY . . . , 1953, ISBN 07-043316-8.
[5] B. S PAIN, Tensor Calculus, third ed., Oliver and Boyd, Ltd., Edinburgh and London, 1965, ISBN 05-001331-9.
[6] W. E. T HIRRING, Classical Mathematical Physics, Springer-Verlag, New York,
Vienna, 1997, ISBN 0-387-94843-0.
Index
acceleration eld, 129
advanced time, 43
Ampres law, 5
Ampre-turn density, 89
anisotropic, 152
anomalous dispersion, 153
antisymmetric tensor, 63
associated Legendre polynomial, 117
associative, 55
axial gauge, 40
axial vector, 63, 179
contravariant vector, 50
convection potential, 136
convective derivative, 11
cosine integral, 110
Coulomb gauge, 40
Coulombs law, 2
covariant, 48
covariant component form, 168
covariant eld tensor, 64
covariant four-tensor eld, 174
covariant four-vector, 170
covariant four-vector eld, 54
covariant vector, 50
cross product, 179
curl, 183
cutoff, 142
cyclotron radiation, 145, 148
Bessel functions, 113

Biot-Savarts law, 6
birefringent, 152
braking radiation, 141
bremsstrahlung, 141, 148
canonically conjugate four-momentum,
71
canonically conjugate momentum, 70,
185
canonically conjugate momentum density, 78
characteristic impedance, 26
classical electrodynamics, 8
closed algebraic structure, 55
coherent radiation, 148
collisional interaction, 151
complex eld six-vector, 20
complex notation, 32
complex vector, 176
component notation, 168
concentration, 182
conservative eld, 11
conservative forces, 75
constitutive relations, 14
contravariant component form, 50, 168
contravariant eld tensor, 63
contravariant four-tensor eld, 174
contravariant four-vector, 170
contravariant four-vector eld, 54
dAlembert operator, 39, 59, 180

del operator, 179
del squared, 182
differential distance, 52
differential vector operator, 179
Dirac delta, 183
Diracs symmetrised Maxwell equations,
16
dispersive, 153
displacement current, 9
divergence, 182
dot product, 176
dual vector, 50
duality transformation, 16
dummy index, 50
dyadic product, 178
dyons, 20
E1 radiation, 120
E2 radiation, 122
Einstein equations, 178
Einsteins summation convention, 168
electric charge conservation law, 9
electric charge density, 4
187
188
electric conductivity, 10
eld Lagrange density, 79
electric current density, 6
eld point, 3
electric dipole moment, 118
eld quantum, 143
electric dipole moment vector, 85
ne structure constant, 143, 150
electric dipole radiation, 120
four-current, 59
electric displacement, 14
four-del operator, 180
electric displacement vector, 87
four-dimensional Hamilton equations,
electric eld, 2
71
electric eld energy, 91
four-dimensional vector space, 50
electric monopole moment, 85
four-divergence, 182
electric permittivity, 151
four-gradient, 181
electric polarisation, 86
four-Hamiltonian, 71
electric quadrupole moment tensor, 86
four-Lagrangian, 68
electric quadrupole radiation, 122
four-momentum, 57
electric quadrupole tensor, 122
four-potential, 59
electric susceptibility, 87
four-scalar, 169
electric volume force, 92
four-tensor elds, 174
electrodynamic potentials, 36
four-vector, 54, 170
electromagnetic eld tensor, 63
four-velocity, 57
electromagnetic scalar potential, 37
Fourier component, 25
electromagnetic vector potential, 36
Fourier transform, 41
electromagnetodynamic equations, 16
functional derivative, 77
electromagnetodynamics, 16
fundamental tensor, 50, 168, 174
electromotive force (EMF), 10
Galileos law, 47
electrostatic scalar potential, 35
gauge xing, 40
electrostatics, 1
gauge function, 39
energy theorem in Maxwells theory,
gauge invariant, 39
91
gauge transformation, 39
equation of continuity, 9, 59
equation of continuity for magnetic monopoles, Gausss law, 4
general inhomogeneous wave equations,
16
37
equations of classical electrostatics, 8
generalised coordinate, 70, 185
equations of classical magnetostatics,
generalised four-coordinate, 71
8
Gibbs notation, 179
Euclidean space, 56
gradient, 181
Euclidean vector space, 51
Green function, 42, 116
Euler-Lagrange equation, 77
group theory, 55
Euler-Lagrange equations, 78
group velocity, 153
Euler-Mascheroni constant, 110
event, 55
Hamilton density, 78
Hamilton density equations, 78
far eld, 98
far zone, 101
Hamilton equations, 70, 186
Faradays law, 11
Hamilton function, 185
eld, 169
Hamilton gauge, 40
189
Hamiltonian, 185
Heaviside potential, 136
Helmholtz theorem, 38
help vector, 115
Hertz method, 114
Hertz vector, 115
Hodge star operator, 16
homogeneous wave equation, 24
Huygens principle, 41
identity element, 55
in a medium, 154
incoherent radiation, 148
indenite norm, 51
index contraction, 50
index lowering, 50
induction eld, 98
inertial reference frame, 47
inertial system, 47
inhomogeneous Helmholtz equation, 41
inhomogeneous time-independent wave
equation, 41
inhomogeneous wave equation, 41
inner product, 176
instantaneous, 138
interaction Lagrange density, 79
intermediate eld, 101
invariant, 169
invariant line element, 53
inverse element, 55
irrotational, 4, 183
Kelvin function, 149
kinetic energy, 75, 185
kinetic momentum, 74
Kronecker delta, 171
Lagrange density, 76
Lagrange equations, 185
Lagrange function, 75, 185
Lagrangian, 75, 185
Laplace operator, 182
Laplacian, 182
Larmor formula for radiated power, 138
law of inertia, 47
Legendre polynomial, 116

Legendre transformation, 185
Levi-Civita tensor, 171
Linard-Wiechert potentials, 62, 125,
135
light cone, 53
light-like interval, 53
line element, 176
linear mass density, 76
linearly polarised wave, 30
longitudinal component, 28
Lorentz boost parameter, 57
Lorentz force, 13, 91, 135
Lorentz gauge, 40
Lorentz gauge condition, 38, 60
Lorentz inhomogeneous wave equations,
39
Lorentz potential equations, 39
Lorentz space, 51, 168
Lorentz transformation, 49, 135
lowering of index, 174
M1 radiation, 121
Mach cone, 156
macroscopic Maxwell equations, 151
magnetic charge density, 15
magnetic current density, 15
magnetic dipole moment, 88, 121
magnetic dipole radiation, 121
magnetic eld, 6
magnetic eld energy, 91
magnetic eld intensity, 89
magnetic ux, 11
magnetic ux density, 6
magnetic induction, 6
magnetic monopoles, 15
magnetic permeability, 151
magnetic susceptibility, 89
magnetisation, 88
magnetisation currents, 88
magnetising eld, 14, 89
magnetostatic vector potential, 36
magnetostatics, 5
massive photons, 83
mathematical group, 55
190
matrix form, 170

Maxwell stress tensor, 92
Maxwells macroscopic equations, 15,
90
Maxwells microscopic equations, 14
Maxwell-Lorentz equations, 14
mechanical Lagrange density, 79
metric, 168, 176
metric tensor, 50, 168, 174
Minkowski equation, 70
Minkowski space, 56
mixed four-tensor eld, 174
mixing angle, 16
momentum theorem in Maxwells theory, 93
monochromatic, 95
multipole expansion, 114, 117
near zone, 101
Newtons rst law, 47
Newton-Lorentz force equation, 70
non-Euclidean space, 51
non-linear effects, 10
norm, 50, 177
null vector, 53
observation point, 3
Ohms law, 10
one-dimensional wave equation, 29
outer product, 178
Parsevals identity, 105, 142, 150
phase velocity, 151
photon, 143
physical measurable, 32
plane polarised wave, 30
plasma, 153
plasma frequency, 153
Poisson equation, 135
Poissons equation, 35
polar vector, 63, 179
polarisation charges, 87
polarisation currents, 88
polarisation potential, 115
polarisation vector, 115
positive denite, 56
positive denite norm, 51
potential energy, 75, 185
potential theory, 116
power ux, 91
Poynting vector, 91
Poyntings theorem, 91
Proca Lagrangian, 82
propagator, 42
proper time, 53
pseudo-Riemannian space, 56
pseudoscalar, 167
pseudoscalars, 179
pseudotensor, 167
pseudotensors, 179
pseudovector, 63, 167, 179
quadratic differential form, 52, 176
quantum mechanical nonlinearity, 4
radiation eld, 98, 101, 129
radiation elds, 101
radiation gauge, 40
radiation resistance, 110
radius four-vector, 50
radius vector, 167
raising of index, 174
rank, 170
rapidity, 57
refractive index, 152
relative electric permittivity, 92
relative magnetic permeability, 92
relative permeability, 151
relative permittivity, 151
Relativity principle, 48
relaxation time, 25
rest mass density, 79
retarded Coulomb eld, 101
retarded potentials, 44
retarded relative distance, 125
retarded time, 43
Riemannian metric, 52
Riemannian space, 50, 168
row vector, 167
scalar, 167, 182
191
scalar eld, 54, 169

scalar product, 176
shock front, 156
signature, 51, 175
simultaneous coordinate, 132
skew-symmetric, 63
skin depth, 32
source point, 3
space components, 52
space-like interval, 53
space-time, 51
special theory of relativity, 47
spherical Bessel function of the rst
kind, 116
spherical Hankel function of the rst
kind, 116
spherical waves, 104
standing wave, 108
super-potential, 115
synchrotron radiation, 145, 148
synchrotron radiation lobe width, 147
vacuum polarisation effects, 4

vacuum wave number, 26
Vavilov-Cerenkov radiation, 154, 156

vector, 167
vector product, 179
velocity eld, 129
virtual simultaneous coordinate, 126,
129
wave equations, 23
wave vector, 29, 152
world line, 55
Youngs modulus, 76
Yukawa meson eld, 82
telegraphers equation, 29, 151

temporal dispersive media, 10
temporal gauge, 40
tensor, 167
tensor contraction, 174
tensor eld, 170
tensor notation, 171
tensor product, 178
three-dimensional functional derivative,
78
time component, 52
time-harmonic wave, 25
time-independent diffusion equation, 26
time-independent telegraphers equation,
30
time-independent wave equation, 26
time-like interval, 53
total charge, 85
transverse components, 29
transverse gauge, 40
vacuum permeability, 5
vacuum permittivity, 2

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Bo Thid

E LECTROMAGNETIC F IELD T HEORY

Copyright 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001 by

Example 1.1 Faradays law as a consequence of conservation of magnetic charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

Example 2.1 Wave equations in electromagnetodynamics

2.3 Observables and Averages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Electromagnetic Fields and Particles

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Covariant Field Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

7 Electromagnetic Fields from Arbitrary Source Distributions

8 Electromagnetic Radiation and Radiating Systems

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Example 8.2 The convection potential and the convection force134

Cyclotron and synchrotron radiation . . .

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Example M.2 Contravariant and covariant vectors in at

M.1.3 Vector algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

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The gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

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Relative motion of two inertial systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

Linear one-dimensional mass chain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Radiation in the far zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

M.1 Tetrahedron-like volume element of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . 172

To the memory of professor

If you understand, things are such as they are

move. By making an electronic version of the book freely down-loadable on

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famous physicist and philosopher Pierre Duhem (18611916) once wrote:

1.1.1 Coulombs law

1.1.2 The electrostatic eld

where F is the electrostatic force, as dened in Equation (1.1), from a net

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Draft version released 2nd December 2001 at 19:44.

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i.e., that Estat is an irrotational eld.

fact, vacuum exhibits a quantum mechanical nonlinearity due to vacuum polarisation

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1.2.1 Ampres law

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This clearly exhibits the expected symmetry in terms of loops C and C .

1.2.2 The magnetostatic eld

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In order to assess the properties of Bstat , we determine its divergence and

since, according to Formula (F.66) on page 165, ( a) vanishes for any

Draft version released 2nd December 2001 at 19:44.

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j(x )(x x ) d3x = 0 j(x)

and the equations of classical magnetostatics

1.3.1 Equation of continuity for electric charge

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Draft version released 2nd December 2001 at 19:44.

j(t, x) = qe v f (t, x, v) d3v where f (t, x, v) is the (normalised) distribution

function for particle species with electric charge qe .