Linear Algebra

Icepyto A.
Akpq
Tqo Hiqooixq
Hovtiotqio !covvivcv
IPAMMIKH AAIEBPA
(cvciotictc_ cpccooci_)
!QA!A, 2003
i
Hpooyo
H Ioixq Ai,t|o oottiti, oi t tqv Avoitoq, to 0tiio tcv o0q-
otixcv ootocv. Lti ovo _tio oqticoti tittcvtoi oi |ooix vvoit tq
Ioixq Ai,t|o, oi ooit tivoi oooitqtt ,io ti ooto oto Mo0qoti-
xo. Hooiiqio to_otv oii too, tq Ioixq Ai,t|o. H tiitoq
o0qotixcv o|iqotcv t tq |oq0tio toio,iotcv ooq,ti, xoto xovovo, otqv
tiitoq ,oixcv ototqotcv. Atto to 0oto oottiotv to ovtixtitvo tq
Ai0qtixq Ioixq Ai,t|o, tvo xiooot tq Ai0qtixq Avoitoq, xoi
otv 0o o ooo_oiqootv toc oo ovo ttxoiioxo.
Avtixtitvo tq Ioixq Ai,t|o oottiotv oi ,oixoi _coi xoi, o
ovto, oi ,oix otixovioti ttot ,oixcv _ccv.
Otoiootix oioo ttot tcv oioocv xioocv tcv Mo0qotixcv otv to-
_otv. To tioo,c,ixo o0qoto _ciovtoi otvq0c ot oto q: tov Atiootixo
Ao,ioo xoi tq Ioixq Ai,t|o. O oio_cioo tivoi tt_vqto xoi _ti txoi-
otttixo _ooxtqo. H |ooixq oiooo ttot Ioixq Ai,t|o xoi Atio-
otixot Ao,ioot otviototoi oto oti otq Ioixq Ai,t|o otv ,ivttoi _qoq tq
vvoio tot oiot, tvcottq oxi|c q vvoio oiti tov cto,cviotixo oio otov
Atiootixo Ao,ioo.
Lt io o_cqvo o0qoto oi |ooix vvoit tq Ioixq Ai,t|o xoi
tot Atiootixot Ao,ioot, oqiooq oi ,oixoi _coi xoi oi ,oix otixo-
vioti o tvo xoi to oio o ttot, otvoovtcvtoi, oiotv t titiv cto-
_ixo oio otq Ltvotqoioxq Avoitoq, oiio toviovtoi oxoq xoi otqv Ai0-
qtixq Ioixq Ai,t|o x.i.
Mio ctq oq tcv oqticotcv ottcv ,otqxt to 1984, ,io tot ctot-
tti oitqt tot Tqoto Mo0qotixcv tot Hovtiotqiot Kqtq. 1xtott oi
oqticoti _qoiooiq0qxov, xoto xoiot, oo oiooot otvooiot oto o-
0qoto tot, xtic oto Hovtiotqio Kqtq. Ltqv ootoo oq oi oqtic-
oti ,otqxov ,io tot ctottti oitqt tot Tqoto Mo0qotixcv xoi Lto-
tiotixq tot Hovtiotqiot Ktot.
ii
Oi oqticoti oxtqov oo tq oioooxoiio tot tioo,c,ixot o0qoto Io-
ixq Ai,t|o xoi ,otqxov ,io vov ot,xtxivo oxoo, ,io vo oittxoitvotv
tot ctottti oitqt otqv xotovoqoq tcv iov |ooixcv otoi_ticv tq Io-
ixq Ai,t|o. Atv qtov iioooio o vo ocoott vo iqt ot,,oo Io-
ixq Ai,t|o xoi otv ottiio|ot oiio, ioioitto oqovtixo, 0oto Io-
ixq Ai,t|o.
Oi oqticoti tiio|ovotv tvvo xtoioio. Lto cto, oxotoxtixq t-
otc, xtoioio tioo,ott ot|oiioo, xtic ,io otvoio xoi otixovioti, xo-
0c xoi tqv vvoio tot ocoto, q ooio oiti oqovtixo oio otq otv_tio.
To otttto xoi to tito xtoioio oitcvovtoi otot ,oixot _cot xoi ti
,oix otixovioti ttot tcv, ovtiotoi_o, to |ooixo ovtixtitvo titq
tq Ioixq Ai,t|o. Lto ttoto xtoioio oivott oioot ioiotqtt ivo-
xcv, tot oqovtixottot ioc t,oitiot tq Ioixq Ai,t|o, xoi oto to
xtoioio tittot ti o_oti ttot ,oixcv otixoviotcv xoi ivoxcv. To
xto xtoioio ooo to ,oixo ototqoto, oqiooq tq titq ,oixcv ti-
ocotcv" ot ,oixot _cot ttoovq oiootooq. Lto |ooo xtoioio
tioo,ttoi vo oiio _qoio t,oitio, q oiotoo, xoi tittcvtoi oioot ioio-
tqt tq. To o,ooo xtoioio oitcvttoi ot ,oixot _cot t tocttixo
,ivotvo, xoi, tio, to voto xoi ttitttoio oti ioioti xoi to ioiooiovtooto
,oixcv otixoviotcv xoi ivoxcv.
Ltt|io 2001
I. Axi|q
Hcptcocvo
1. Hoxotoxtixo: Ltvoio, Atixovioti, Lcoto 1
1.1. Ltvoio 1
1.2. Atixovioti 4
1.3. Lcoto 6
1.4. Aoxqoti 11
2. Ioixoi Xcoi 13
2.1. H vvoio tot ,oixot _cot 13
2.2. Ioixq totqoq, |ooq, oiootooq 17
2.3. A0oioo xoi tt0t o0oioo ,oixcv _ccv 29
2.4. Aoxqoti 33
3. Ioix Atixovioti 35
3.1. H vvoio tq ,oixq otixoviotc 35
3.2. Htqvo xoi tixovo 39
3.3. Aoxqoti 42
4. Hivoxt 45
4.1. Itvixo ,io ivoxt 45
4.2. Hoti t ivoxt 52
4.3. Aoxqoti 55
5. Ioix Atixovioti xoi Hivoxt 57
5.1. O ivoxo io ,oixq otixoviotc 57
5.2. Bo0o io ,oixq otixoviotc, ioooiooi, oiio,q |ootc 59
5.3. Aoxqoti 68
6. Ioixo Ltotqoto 69
6.1. Oo,tvq ,oixo ototqoto 70
iii
iv HLP!LXOMLA
6.2. Ooooiiqiixoi to_coi xoi q oo,tvq ,oixo ototqoto 79
6.3. H 0ooo ooioiq tot Gauss 83
6.4. Aoxqoti 86
7. Oiotot 89
7.1. Oioo, toq xoi ovooqovto tq oiotoo 89
7.2. Yoio,ioo oiotocv xoi too, 102
7.3. Aoxqoti 106
8. Xcoi t Locttixo Iivotvo 109
8.1. H vvoio tot _cot t tocttixo ,ivotvo 109
8.2. O0oxovovixooiqoq 116
8.3. Aoxqoti 121
9. !oioti, !oiooiovtooto xoi Aio,cviooiqoq 125
9.1. !oioti xoi ioiooiovtooto ,oixcv otixoviotcv 125
9.2. Aio,cviooiqoq ivoxcv 132
9.3. Aoxqoti 140
Bi|iio,oio 143
Ltttqio 145
1. Hpokotopkttk: Lvoo, Anctkovoct, Leoto
Lto oxotoxtixq totc otto xtoioio 0o tioo,o,ott ot|oiioo xoi 0o
ovot0ott ot tix 0ttiicoti vvoit tcv ot,_ovcv Mo0qotixcv ot,xt-
xivo, 0o 0tq0ott oiovo otvoio xoi 0o oioott ti vvoit tq otixovi-
oq, tq oooo xoi tot ocoto. Oi ,oixoi _coi, ot oottiotv tq |ooq otq
titq tq Ioixq Ai,t|o, oiovtoi t tq |oq0tio ocotcv. To ocoto
ot oiotv oqovtixo oio oti too, tivoi oto, to oco tcv o,otixcv
oi0cv R xoi to oco tcv i,ooixcv oi0cv C t ti otvq0ti oti oo0toq
xoi oiioiooiooo.
1.1. Lvoo
Attq q tvotqto ovottoi ot io vvoio, q ooio oiti oit oqovtixo oio
oto ot,_ovo Mo0qotixo, tqv vvoio tot otvoiot. Loc 0o tioo,o,ott oic
ot|oiioo xoi 0o oioott oiovt |ooix vvoit, oi ooit o_ttiovtoi t
otvoio.
1vo oio xoi oxi|q too tioo,c,q tot oot oovozo (sei) oto Mo0qoti-
xo otv tivoi otott_c ,vcoto. 1vo oxi|q oioo, t to oqtivo otoovo,
tivoi oxoio ovo ot vo o_cqvo otooio tcv o0qotixcv ootocv. Iio
tq Ioixq Ai,t|o xoi ti too, tq oxotv, tttt_c, tixo oooti,-
oto otvoicv, t tq |oq0tio tcv ooicv ootv vo o_qotiototv vo otvoio.
To ttoovo otvoio, oqiooq to otvoio t ttoovo iq0o otoi_ticv,
ootv 0tcqtixo vo oo0otv ovo,oovto to otoi_tio tot. Lt|oiiott o-
ooti,oto _oiv t x
1
, . . . , x
n
, ,io xooiov toixo oi0o n, to otvoio t otoi-
_tio x
1
, . . . , x
n
, to ooio otv tivoi xot ovo,xqv oioottixo ttot tot. To io
oio ccpcocvo otvoio tivoi to otvoio tcv toixcv oi0cv, to ooio ot-
|oiiott t N,
N := 1, 2, . . . .
1
2 1. HPOKATAPKT!KA: LYOAA, AHL!KO!LL!L, LQMATA
Avoott oxoq to otvoio tcv toixcv oi0cv oi t to qov N
0
,
N
0
:= 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
to otvoio tcv oxtoicv oi0cv Z,
Z := 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
xoi to otvoio tcv qtcv oi0cv Q,
Q :=
p
q
: p, q oxoioi, q ,= 0.
To otvoio tcv o,otixcv oi0cv ot|oiittoi t R, to otvoio tcv i,ooixcv
oi0cv t C.
2coziooi:
1otc X vo otvoio. To x X oqoivti oti to x tivoi otoi_tio tot X. 1otc P
io ioiotqto tott x X P(x) oqoivti oti to_ti vo otoi_tio x tot otvoiot X
to ooio _ti tqv ioiotqto P. Avtiotoi_o x X P(x) oqoivti oti xo0t otoi_tio
tot otvoiot X, otvtc oio to otoi_tio tot X, _otv tqv ioiotqto P. To ot|o-
io xoi i,ovtoi oooccittc_, to ccp_icto_ ooootixtq xoi to tc0ozito_
ooootixtq.
Av xo0t otoi_tio tvo otvoiot Y tivoi xoi otoi_tio tot otvoiot X, tott to Y
i,ttoi cooovozo tot X, ot|oiioo Y X. Av to Y tivoi tootvoio tot X,
Y X, xoi, ti iov, to_ti xooio otoi_tio tot X ot otv ovqxti oto Y, tott
to Y i,ttoi voio cooovozo tot X, ot|oiioo Y X.
Aio,oq tcv ovctc ot|oicv oqicvti ovqoq, oooti,oto _oiv to 5 ,
X oqoivti oti to 5 otv tivoi otoi_tio tot X.
1otc I vo otvoio (otvoio otixtcv), xoi ,io xo0t i I vo otvoio X
i
. Tott
oiott tqv cvco tcv otvoicv X
i
, i I, c to otvoio t otoi_tio oio to otoi_tio
oicv tcv X
i
, oqiooq c tq
iI
X
i
:= x : j I x X
j
,
xoi tqv to tcv otvoicv X
i
, i I, c to otvoio t otoi_tio to xoivo otoi_tio
oicv tcv X
i
, oqiooq c tq
iI
X
i
:= x : j I x X
j
.
1.1. LYOAA 3
Ltqv titcoq ot to I tivoi ttoovo, I = 1, 2, . . . , n, _qoiooiott
tioq tot ot|oiioot
X
1
X
2
X
n
:=
n
i=1
X
i
:=
iI
X
i
,
xoi
X
1
X
2
X
n
:=
n
i=1
X
i
:=
iI
X
i
.
1otc tco oto otvoio X, Y. Hcicop tot otvoiot Y oo to otvoio X oittoi
c
X Y := x X : x , Y ,
oottititoi oqiooq oo oio to otoi_tio tot X to ooio otv tivoi otoi_tio tot Y.
To otvoio
X Y := (x, y) : x X, y Y ,
tcv cictctccvcv _cccv i,ttoi tcptcoicvo ivocvo tot X ti Y. H_ooxtqiotixq
ioiotqto tcv oiottto,vcv tt,cv tivoi oti to (x, y) xoi (x
, y
) tivoi tott xoi ovo

tott ioo, ov io_tti ot,_ovc x = x
xoi y = y
. (Axi|q oioo t tq |oq0tio

otvoicv (x, y) := x, x, y.) Avoio,o oittoi xoi to xottoiovo ,ivotvo tcv
otvoicv X
1
, X
2
, . . . , X
n
,
X
1
X
2
X
n
:= (x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
n
) : x
i
X
i
, i = 1, . . . , n,
c to otvoio tcv oiottto,vcv vtoocv. Ltqv tioixq titcoq X
1
= X
2
= =
X
n
= X, otov oqiooq oio to otvoio tivoi ioo ttot tcv, ,oott tioq X
n
ovti ,io X X X.
Lqticvott oti vo otvoio ti,ottoi iqc oo to otoi_tio to ooio
ti_ti, oiio oxoq xoi vo ovooovozo, oqiooq vo otvoio ot ti_ti vo
ovo otoi_tio, otv tottittoi t to otoi_tio to ooio ti_ti t titiv to 0 xoi
to 0 tivoi oioottixo o,oto.
Tio, to xtvo otvoio, oqiooq to otvoio ot otv _ti otoi_tio, to ot|oii-
ott t .
1.2. Anctkovoct
Mio oiiq |ooixq vvoio tcv Mo0qotixcv, q vvoio tq otixovioq, tivoi
to ovtixtitvo ottq tq tvotqto. Oo tioo,o,ott otixovioti xoi 0o oott
oiovt tioixottt titcoti otixoviotcv.
1otc X xoi Y otvoio. Mio ooio,oq f, q ooio ovtiotoi_iti ot xo0t otoi-
_tio x tot X ctpic_ cvc otoi_tio tot Y, to ooio xoi ot|oiiott t f(x), i,ttoi
ccitovio (nap) oo to X oto Y. Xoiv otvtoio ,oott
f : X Y,
x f(x).
Mio otixovioq oo to X oto Y tivoi ioiov, ,io vo oxi|oio,ott, vo tootvo-
io tot X Y, to ooio ,io xo0t x X ti_ti vo tt,o t cto otoi_tio to x,
xoi otv ti_ti tt,q t to ioio cto otoi_tio xoi oioottixo otttto otoi_tio.
To f(x) i,ttoi citovc tot x oc tq f. To X i,ttoi ccio opiooo xoi to Y
ccio ticv tq otixovioq f.
1otc f : X Y io otixovioq xoi M, N tootvoio tcv X, Y, ovtiotoi_o.
To otvoio
f(M) := y Y : x M y = f(x),
to ooio tivoi toixo tootvoio tot Y, xoititoi citovc tot M oc tq f, xoi to
otvoio
1
f (N) := x X : f(x) N,
i,ttoi cvtiotpo citovc tot N oc tq f, xoi tivoi oovc tootvoio tot X.
Iio otixovioti t ioioitto oqovtix ioiotqtt _qoiooiott tioixot
oot. 1otc f : X Y io otixovioq. H f i,ttoi cco (ccitovio ci,
surjeciion), ov q tixovo tot X oc tq f tivoi to Y, oqiooq f(X) = Y, oott ,io
xo0t y Y to_ti x X to ooio q f otixoviti oto y, oqiooq tivoi ttoio cott
y = f(x).
H f i,ttoi cvco (cvc po_ cvc, injeciion), ov oo x, x
X xoi f(x) = f(x
)
ttoi x = x
, t oiio io,io ov x xoi x
tivoi oioottixo otoi_tio tot X, tott xoi

to f(x) xoi f(x
) tivoi oioottixo otoi_tio tot Y.

H f i,ttoi ciovoocvt (cico, bijeciion), ov tivoi ot,_ovc vtoq xoi
toq, oqiooq vo o vo xoi ti.
1.2. AHL!KO!LL!L 5
Av q otixovioq f : X Y tivoi oiovooqovtq, tott ,io xo0t y Y
to otvoio
1
f (y), oqiooq q ovtiotoq tixovo tot otvoiot y, _ti oxi|c
vo otoi_tio, to ooio ot|oiiott t f
1
(y). Kot ottov tov too oittoi io
otixovioq
f
1
: Y X,
y f
1
(y),
q ooio xoititoi cvtiotpo tq f.
Hcpctpo 1.1 1otc f : X Y io otixovioq xoi y Y. To otvoio
1
f (y)
_ti vvoio ,io xo0t f xoi tivoi tootvoio tot X. To f
1
(y) oittoi ovo ov q
f tivoi oiovooqovtq, xoi tivoi otoi_tio tot X. Xoiv otvtoio ,oott
oii o
1
f (y) ovti ,io
1
f (y).
1otc f : X Y xoi g : Y Z. H otixovioq
g f : X Z,
x g(f(x)),
i,ttoi oov0co tcv f xoi g. Hootqqott oti ,io vo oittoi q otv0toq gf qtot
to toio oioot tq g vo tivoi to toio ticv tq f. Lqticvott oxoo oti toio
oioot tq g f tivoi to toio oioot tq f, tvc toio ticv tq tivoi to toio
ticv tq g.
Hcpcccictc 1.1
1. H otixovioq id
X
,
id
X
: X X,
x x,
i,ttoi tcctotit otixovioq tot X, q tcctottc oto X.
2. Tqv otixovioq f : [0, 2] R, f(x) := 1, ov x qto, xoi f(x) := 0, ov x oqto,
otv oott vo tqv oootqoott ,oixo.
3. H ooio,oq
[0, 1] [1, 1],
x
x,
otv tivoi otixovioq, ,ioti, otoovot tvo x ,= 0, to
x otv oittoi ovooqo-

vto.
Avti0tto, q ooio,oq
[0, 1] [0, 1],
x
x,
tivoi otixovioq, xoi oiioto tivoi q ovtiotoq tq otixoviotc
[0, 1] [0, 1],
x x
2
.
Otcott io otixovioq f : X Y xoi vo tootvoio M tot X. H otixo-
vioq
g : M Y,
x f(x),
i,ttoi cpiopioo_ tq f oto M xoi ot|oiittoi t f [
M
. Oi otixovioti f
xoi g oiootv ovo c o to toio oioot tcv, txti ot oiovtoi xoi oi oto
io|ovotv ti ioit ti.
1otc g : M Y, M X, xoi f : X Y oto otixovioti. Av ,io xo0t
x M io_tti f(x) = g(x), tott q f i,ttoi ccttco tq g.
1.3. Leoto
O oo occ _ti 0ttiicoq oqooio ,io tov oioo tvo ,oixot _cot.
Hiv oioott to oco, tioo,ott tqv vvoio tq occ_.
Opioo_ 1.1 Mio occ (group) tivoi vo tt,o (G, ) oottiottvo oo vo q xtvo
otvoio G xoi io oq oto G, oqiooq io otixovioq
: GG G,
(a, b) a b,
t ti tq ioiotqtt (oicoto oooo):
(O
1
) (a b) c = a (b c) ,io xo0t a, b, c G (oottoiiotixo voo).
(O
2
) Yo_ti vo otoi_tio e G (occctcpo otoi_tio tot G), ttoio cott
(O
2a
) e a = a ,io xo0t a G,
(O
2b
) ,io xo0t a G to_ti a
G (cvtiotpoo tot a), ttoio cott vo io_tti

a
a = e.
1.3. LQMATA 7
Mio oooo (G, ) i,ttoi cczicv (o tiqv tot oiooqot o|q,ot o0qo-
tixot iels Heniil ALel), ov ,io xo0t a, b G io_tti
a b = b a (ovtitto0ttixo voo).
Av ot io oooo (G, ) q oq tivoi oovq q ovtt oqooio, tott ,oott
oiototto G ovti ,io (G, ), xoi ab ovti ,io a b.
Oo oott tco tix oi ioiotqtt ooocv. Lt,xtxivo, 0o oott oti
ov to a
tivoi ovtiotoo tot a, tott xoi to a tivoi ovtiotoo tot a
, oti to ovti-
otoo tvo otoi_tiot oittoi ovooqovto, oti to_ti oxi|c vo ototto
otoi_tio, xoi oti ,io to ototto otoi_tio txto tot ea = a io_tti xoi ae = a ,io
xo0t otoi_tio a tq oooo.
Aqo 1.1 Totc G ic occ. Totc io,oocv:
1. v a
G civci cvtiotpoo otoi,cio toc a, totc io,oci tci aa
= e.
2. 1ic cvc occctcpo otoi,cio e G io,oci ae = a ic t0c a G.
3. Yp,ci ctpic_ cvc occctcpo otoi,cio e G.
4. 1ic t0c a G cp,ci ctpic_ cvc cvtiotpoo otoi,cio a
G, to ooio ocozi-
_occ c a
1
.
occi_.
1. 1otc a
vo ovtiotoo tot a
(to ooio to_ti otcvo t tqv (O

2b
)). Tott
toixo 0o io_tti a
= e, xoi tovc
aa
= e(aa
) = (a
)(aa
) = a
(a
(aa
))
= a
((a
a)a
) = a
(ea
) = a
= e,
oot q ctq xoi q ottitttoio iootqto io_totv io,c tq (O
2a
), q ottttq xoi
q ttitttoio io,c tq a
= e, q titq xoi q ttotq io,c tq (O

1
), xoi, tio, q
tq io,c tot ,t,ovoto oti a
a = e.
2. 1_ott
ae = a(a
a) = (aa
)a = ea = a,
oot q ctq iootqto io_tti io,c tot ,t,ovoto oti a
a = e, q ottttq io,c tq
(O
1
), q titq xoi q ttotq io,c tot 1. to ooio oii oootiot, xoi, tio, q
ttitttoio io,c tq (O
2a
).
3. 1otc e, e
G oto ototto otoi_tio. Tott _ott

e
= ee
= e
e = e,
oot q ctq iootqto io_tti ttioq to e tivoi ototto otoi_tio, q ottttq o-
xttti _qoiooicvto to ,t,ovo oti to e tivoi, otcvo t tqv ctq o_oq,
ovtiotoo tot e
xoi oott vo _qoiooiqoott to 1. ot oootiot oq-

,otvc, xoi q ttitttoio iootqto io_tti ttioq to e
tivoi ototto otoi_tio.

4. 1otc a
, a
G ovtiotoo tot a. Tott 0o _ott

a
= a
e = a
(aa
) = (a
a)a
= ea
= a
,
oot q ctq iootqto io_tti io,c tot 2. ot oootiot oq,otvc, q ottttq
io,c tq aa
= e, q titq io,c tq (O
1
), q ottitttoio io,c tq a
a = e, xoi,
tio, q ttitttoio io,c tq (O
2a
).
Ltq otv_tio 0o oott oti to (O
2
) otov oioo io oooo tivoi ioootvoo t
to ,t,ovo oti tiocoti io ot,xtxivq oq _otv ovto io itoq. Axoq
0o oott oti ott oi itoti tivoi ovooix.
Aqo 1.2 Totc G cvc tcvo oovozo, G ,= , tci ic p_ oto G. Totc to (G, )
civci occ, cv tci ovo cv io,oci to (O
1
) tci ic t0c a, b G oi c_iococi_
(1.1) xa = b, ay = b,
c,ocv zooci_ x, y G. Ei zcov oc cct tv cpitco oi zooci_ x, y civci ovoocvtc
opiocvc_.
occi_. Oo to0oott xot o_qv oti to (G, ) tivoi oooo xoi 0o oootiott
oti oi tiocoti (1.1) _otv io oxi|c itoq. Ho,otixo, t x := ba
1
xoi y =
a
1
b _ott
xa = (ba
1
)a = b(a
1
a) = be = b,
xoi
ay = a(a
1
b) = (aa
1
)b = eb = b,
tovc xo0t io oo ti tiocoti o _ti totio_iotov io itoq. 1otc tco
xoi x
, y
G itoti, oqiooq x
a = b, ay
= b. Oo oootiott oti x = x
xoi
y = y
. Ho,otixo _ott
x
= x
e = x
(aa
1
) = (x
a)a
1
= ba
1
= x,
1.3. LQMATA 9
xoi
y
= ey
= (a
1
a)y
= a
1
(ay
) = a
1
b = y.
Ho_cott tco oto ovtiotoo 0o to0oott oti oi tiocoti (1.1) _otv
itoti ,io xo0t a, b G xoi 0o oootiott oti to (G, ) tivoi oooo. 1otc a vo
otoi_tio tot G. Tott, otcvo t tqv to0toq o, to_ti vo otoi_tio e tot
G ttoio cott ea = a (q itoq tq tiocoq xa = a). Li iov, ,io xo0t b G
to_ti y G ttoio cott ay = b. 1toi ottoivott oti
eb = e(ay) = (ea)y = ay = b,
oott to e tivoi ototto otoi_tio, oqiooq io_tti q (O
2a
). Lioq, oot q tiocoq
xa = e _ti itoq, otc a
, to_ti to ovtiotoo otoi_tio tot a, ,io xo0t a G.

Ltvtc io_tti xoi q (O
2b
). Ltvoiixo otto o iti oti to (G, ) tivoi oooo.
Aivott tco oiovo oooti,oto ooocv. Oi oootiti tivoi oi xoi
oqvovtoi c ooxqoti.
Hcpcccictc 1.2
1. To (Z, +), oot to + ot|oiiti tqv oo0toq, tivoi o|tiiovq oooo. Oto-
tto otoi_tio tivoi to qov, ovtiotoo tot oxtoiot n tivoi o n. Lioq
to (Q, +), (R, +) tivoi o|tiiov ooot, tvc to (N, +) otv tivoi oooo, oot otv
ixovooiti tqv (O
2
).
2. 1otc Q
:= Q 0, R
:= R 0, Q
+
:= x Q : x > 0, R
+
:= x R : x > 0.
To tt,q (Q
, ), (Q
+
, ), (R
, ), xoi (R
+
, ) t tov otvq0q oiioiooiooo tivoi
o|tiiov ooot.
To tt,q (Z
, ), (N, ), t Z
:= Z 0, otv tivoi ooot.

Ho_cott tco otov oioo tot occto_. Ltov oioo tot ocoto _tioo-
oott oto oti (tvc otqv oooo oxotot io), xoi tio oicoto, to oto cto
ovoovtoi ot xo0t io oq t_cioto, tvc to tito xoi oti oto oti.
Opioo_ 1.2 1vo occ (field) tivoi io tiooo (K, +, ) oottiottvq oo vo otvoio
K xoi oto oti + xoi oto K, oqiooq oto otixovioti
+ : KK K,
(a, b) a + b,
xoi
: KK K,
(a, b) a b,
t ti tq ioiotqtt (oicoto ocoto):
(L
1
) To (K, +) tivoi o|tiiovq oooo.
(To ototto otoi_tio to ot|oiiott t 0, to ovtiotoo tvo otoi_tiot a
K c o tqv oq + t a, xoi 0o to ooxoiott otq otv_tio cvti0cto tot a.)
(L
2
) To (K
, ), t K
:= K 0, tivoi o|tiiovq oooo.

(To ototto otoi_tio to ot|oiiott t 1, to ovtiotoo tvo otoi_tiot a
K c o tqv oq t a
1
.)
(L
3
) Iio a, b, c K qtott vo io_totv
a(b + c) = (ab) + (ac)
xoi
(a + b)c = (ac) + (bc)
(titiotixoi vooi).
Lqticvott oti, oc oioiotcvti xovti ooc, ov io_tti vo oo tot ti-
tiotixot voot, tott io_tti xoi o oiio.
Iio vo oiototttoott to ot|oiioo oott,ovto ti oii otv0oti,
otcvott oti o oiioiooiooo otvoti io_totto oo tqv oo0toq. 1toi
oi titiotixoi vooi ,oovtoi otq oq
a(b + c) = ab + ac, (a + b)c = ac + bc.
Lioq ,oott a b ovti ,io a + (b), xoi
a
b
ovti ,io ab
1
.
Oo oott tco tix oi ioiotqtt ocotcv. Lt,xtxivo 0o oott oti
to ,ivotvo oto otoi_ticv tvo ocoto qotvittoi, ov xoi ovo ov totio_iotov
vo oo tot oo,ovtt tivoi qov, xoi oxoq oti a(b) = (a)b = ab.
Aqo 1.3 1ic tov ozzczcoicoo oc cvc occ K io,oocv:
1. 1ic t0c a K c,occ 0 a = a 0 = 0, czcc to ivocvo toc ccvo_ c t0c
otoi,cio civci ccv.
2. v a, b K tci ab = 0, totc citc a = 0 citc b = 0.
1.4. ALKHLL!L 11
3. 1ic a, b K io,oci a(b) = (a)b = (ab).
occi_.
1. Kot o_qv _ott
0 a = (0 + 0) a = 0 a + 0 a,
xoi t |ooq to Aqo 1.2 ottoivott oti 0 a = 0. To a 0 = 0 oootixvtttoi
ovoio,o (ttoi oc xoi oo to qoq oooti_0v, ttioq q oooo tivoi o|tiiovq.)
2. Av to0oott oti a ,= 0 xoi b ,= 0, tott otcvo t to (L
2
) ottoivott oti
0o io_tti xoi ab ,= 0, otoo.
3. 1_ott
ab + a(b) = a(b + (b)) = a(b b) = a 0 = 0,
xoi ottoivott oti a(b) = (ab). Avtiotoi_o
ab + (a)b = (a + (a))b = 0 b = 0,
tovc (a)b = (ab).
Hcpcccictc 1.3
To (Q, +, ), (R, +, ) xoi (C, +, ) t ti otvq0ti oti oo0toq xoi oiioio-
oiooo tivoi ocoto. To (Z, +, ) otv tivoi oco, oot to (Z
, ) otv tivoi oooo.

1.4. Aokqoct
1.1. Hoooioiott to otvoio t otoi_tio ti itoti tq tiocoq x
2
5x + 6 = 0.
1.2. 1otc X vo otvoio. Hoooioiott to xottoiovo ,ivotvo X .
1.3. Iioti otv to_ti to otvoio oicv tcv otvoicv; [Av ot|oiioott otto to
otvoio t X, xoi t Y to tootvoio tot, to ooio oottititoi oo oio to otvoio
ot otv ti_otv tov totto tot c otoi_tio, otitt oti io_tti ot,_ovc Y Y
xoi Y , Y.]
1.4. Otcott tq ocvpto, oqiooq otixovioq t o,otix ti, f : R
R, x x
2
. Hoio tivoi to toio oioot tq, to toio ticv tq, xoi oio q tixovo
tq, oqiooq q tixovo tot R oc tq f;
1.5. 1otc Q
:= Q 0, R
:= R 0, Q
+
:= x Q : x > 0, R
+
:= x
R : x > 0. Aootitt oti to tt,q (Q
, ), (Q
+
, ), (R
, ), xoi (R
+
, ) t tov otvq0q
oiioiooiooo tivoi o|tiiov ooot, tvcto tt,q (Z
, ), (N, ), t Z
:= Z0,
otv tivoi ooot.
1.6. Aootitt oti to (Q, +, ), (R, +, ) xoi (C, +, ) t ti otvq0ti oti oo0t-
oq xoi oiioiooiooo tivoi ocoto, tvc to (Z, +, ) otv tivoi oco.
1.7. 1otc (K, +, ) vo oco. Aootitt oti to otvoio K ti_ti totio_iotov oto
otoi_tio.
2. Ipotko Xepot
Lt otto to xtoioio 0o tioo,o,ott io |ooixq vvoio tq Ioixq Ai,t-
|o, tqv vvoio tot pcitoo ,cpoc, 0o oott tix oi ioiotqtt ,oixcv
_ccv, 0o tioo,o,ott oiovt 0ttiicoti vvoit ot ,oixot _cot, ti
vvoit tq ,oixq totqoq, tq |ooq xoi tq oiootooq, xo0c xoi tqv v-
voio tot to_cot tvo ,oixot _cot xoi tot o0oiooto ,oixcv _ccv.
Oo ,vcioott tioq oiovt |ooix ioiotqtt ,oixcv _ccv xoi 0o oc-
oott tixo oooti,oto ,oixcv _ccv.
Oi ,oixoi _coi oiotv xo0oiotixo oio ,tvixotto oto Mo0qotixo, q
_qoq tot otv tioittoi xoto xovvo too ovo otq Ioixq Ai,t|o.
2.1. H vvoto tou ypotko epou
Lt ottq tqv tvotqto 0o oioott tqv vvoio tot ,oixot _cot xoi tot to-
_cot tvo ,oixot _cot, 0o oott oiovo oooti,oto ,oixcv _ccv
xoi 0o ,vcioott tix |ooix ioiotqtt ,oixcv _ccv.
Opioo_ 2.1 1otc K vo oco. 1vo Kpcito_ ,cpo_, q pcito_ ,cpo_ vc
oto K, tivoi io tiooo (X, +, ) oottiottvq oo vo otvoio X, io oq + oto
X (oo0toq)
+ : X X X,
(x, y) x + y,
xoi io oq (oiioiooiooo t otoi_tio tot K)
: KX X,
(, x) x,
t ti tq ioiotqtt (oicoto ,oixot _cot):
(IX1) To (X, +) tivoi o|tiiovq oooo.
(To ototto otoi_tio 0 i,ttoi ccvito oiovtoo.)
13
14 2. IPAMM!KO! XQPO!
(IX2) Iio x, y X xoi , K io_totv
(a) ( + ) x = ( x) + ( x)
(L) (x + y) = ( x) + ( y)
(c) () x = ( x)
(d) 1 x = x.
Ltvcvto t to ,oixo _co _qoiooititoi xoi o oo cicvcoctito_ ,cpo_
(lineai sace, vecloi sace). Liotott tqv ooo_q tot ovo,vcotq otq _qoq tot
ioiot ot|oiot, tot 0, tooo ,io to ototto otoi_tio tot ocoto K, ooo xoi ,io
to qotvixo oiovtoo tot X, xo0c xoi tot ot|oiot +,io tqv oo0toq tooo oto
K ooo xoi otov X. H ttiio _ti otiti oti ixq ovo tooxqoq oxti ,io vo
ooxitioti xo0t ot,_toq ot tvot_ovc oxoiti otto o ot|oiioo otot
q toixticvot ovo,vcott.
Av oi oti + xoi tivoi oovti q ovtt oqooio, tott ot_vo ,oott
X ovti ,io (X, +, ). Lioq ovti ,io x, t K, x X, otvq0c ,oott x.
Iio vo oott,ott ti oii otv0oti, otcvott oti o oiioiooio-
oo tvo otoi_tiot tot K t vo otoi_tio tot X otvoti io_totto oo tqv
oo0toq oto X, oqiooq cto ,ivovtoi ttoioi oiioiooioooi xoi ovtoi oi
oo0oti otoi_ticv tot ,oixot _cot, to x + y oqoivti (x) + y.
Lti too, oi ,oixoi _coi oiovtoi o_toov ovto titt ovc oto oco
tcv o,otixcv oi0cv R titt oto oco tcv i,ooixcv oi0cv C. Iio to io,o
ottov xoi ttioq to oottiooto ootv oit ttxoio vo ,tvixtt0otv, ot ott
ti oqticoti 0o oo_oiq0ott ovo t o,otixot ,oixot _cot (oqiooq
ttoiot cott K = R) titt t i,ooixot ,oixot _cot (K = C). Otov otq
otv_tio 0o iiot ,io ,oixot _cot, 0o tvvoott o,otixot ,oixot
_cot otqv titcoq ot _qoiooiott i,ooixot ,oixot _cot 0o to
toviott cott vo xo0iototoi oo.
Hcpctpo 2.1 To otoi_tio tvo ,oixot _cot i,ovtoi cicvooctc q ocic
tot ,oixot _cot. L oioot, ioiov, vo oiovtoo tivoi vo otoi_tio tvo
oiovtootixot _cot.
2.1. H LO!A TOY IPAMM!KOY XQPOY 15
Hcpcccictc 2.1
1. 1otc n vo toixo oi0o. To xioooixo oooti,o ,io vov ,oixo _co
tivoi o _co R
n
tcv oiottto,vcv vtoocv o,otixcv oi0cv, otov ooio q
oo0toq xoi o oiioiooiooo t o,otixot oi0ot oiovtoi c tq
(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) + (y
1
, . . . , y
n
) := (x
1
+ y
1
, . . . , x
n
+ y
n
)
xoi
(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) := (x
1
, . . . , x
n
).
Lqticvott oti to otoi_tio tot R
n
0o to ,oott titt c ,o titt c
otqit, ovoio,o t to ti xo0t oo oittxoitvti to ot|oiioo.
2. 1otc a xoi b oto o,otixoi oi0oi ttoioi cott a < b. Lt|oiiott t
C[a, b] to otvoio tov otvt_cv otvotqotcv, ot oiovtoi oto oiootqo [a, b] xoi
oivotv o,otix ti, C[a, b] := x : [a, b] R / x otvt_q. (To C ot
ottov to ot|oiioo o_ttoi oo tov ovtiotoi_o o,,iixo oo conlinuous ot
oqoivti otvt_q.) Mt ti oti
x, y C[a, b] (x + y)(s) := x(s) + y(s), s [a, b],
xoi
R x C[a, b] (x)(s) := x(s), s [a, b],
o C[a, b] tivoi ,oixo _co. 1toi io otvt_q otvotqoq ot vo oiootqo [a, b]
tivoi xoi oiovtoo, c otoi_tio tot ,oixot _cot C[a, b]! Aqiooq, oiovtooto
otv tivoi ovo otto ot o0oivott otq otttto|o0io txoiottoq.
Lto totvo Aqo 0o oott oti to ,ivotvo tvo o,otixot oi0ot t vo
oiovtoo qotvittoi, ov xoi ovo ov o o,otixo oi0o q to oiovtoo (q o-
otto) tivoi qov. Lioq 0o oott oti to (1)x tivoi ovti0tto tot x.
Aqo 2.1 Totc (X, +, ) cvc_ pcctito_ pcito_ ,cpo_. Totc io,oocv:
1. To ivocvo cvo_ pcctitoo cpi0oo c cvc civcoc civci to ccvito civcoc, cv
tci ovo cv citc o cpi0o_ civci ccv citc to civcoc civci to ccvito, czcc
(i)
x X 0 x = 0
R 0 = 0
tci, cvtiotpoc,
(ii) ( R, x X, x = 0) = ( = 0 q x = 0).
2. To ivocvo toc cpi0oo 1 c cvc civcoc x civci to cvti0cto toc x, czcc to x,
x X (1)x = x.
occi_.
1. (i) 1otc x X. Tott 0o _ott o tvo 0 x = (0 + 0) x = 0 x + 0 x, oqiooq
0 x = 0 x + 0 x,
xoi o ttot
0 x = 0 + 0 x.
Ao ti oto ott o_oti oxttti, otcvo t to Aqo 1.2, 0 x = 0, ttioq to
(X, +) tivoi oooo.
Axi|c ovoio,o _ott 0 = (0 + 0) = 0 + 0 xoi 0 = 0 + 0, xoi
ooq,otoott oto otooo 0 = 0.
(ii) Avtiotoo tco, to0tovto oti ,= 0 xoi x = 0, _ott x = 1 x =
(
1
)x =
1
(x) =
1
0 = 0.
2. Tco _ott
x + (1)x = 1 x + (1)x = (1 + (1))x = (1 1)x = 0 x = 0,
oott, otcvo t to Aqo 1.2, io_tti (1)x = x.
Htotvq |ooixq vvoio ot 0iott vo tioo,o,ott tivoi ottq tot co,cpoc.
Opioo_ 2.2 1otc (X, +, ) vo ,oixo _co xoi Y vo q xtvo tootvoio tot
X, Y X. To Y i,ttoi co,cpo_ tot X, ov io_totv:
(YX1) To Y tivoi xitioto c o tqv oo0toq, oqiooq ov oo0oott oto
otoi_tio tot oivott ovo otoi_tio tot,
x, y Y x + y Y.
(YX2) To Y tivoi xitioto c o tov oiioiooiooo t o,otixot oi0-
ot, oqiooq, ov oiioiooiooott vov o,otixo oi0o t vo otoi_tio tot
Y, oivott ovo otoi_tio tot Y,
R x Y x Y.
2.2. IPAMM!KH LEAPTHLH, BALH, A!ALTALH 17
dtoixo, ov o ,oixo _co _ti oio0ti ovc ot vo oco K, tott to oio
tcv o,otixcv oi0cv otov oq,ottvo oioo oiotv to otoi_tio tot K.
Aqo 2.2 Totc (X, +, ) cvc_ pcito_ ,cpo_ tci Y cvc_ co,cpo_ toc X. Totc o
(Y, +, ), c p_ci_ toc_ cpiopiooo_ tcv p_ccv otov X oc otoi,cic toc Y, civci pc-
ito_ ,cpo_.
occi_. To oico (IX2) io_tti oovc otov Y, oot io_tti otov X. O ovti-
tto0ttixo xoi o oottoiiotixo voo io_totv otov Y, oot io_totv otov X.
Aot to Y tivoi q xtvo, _ti vo otoi_tio y Y. Lovc to qotvixo oiovtoo,
0 = 0 y, ovqxti io,c tot (YX2) oto Y. 1otc tco y Y. Hoii io,c tot (YX2)
_ott y = (1)y Y. Lqticvott oti ot ottq tqv oootiq _qoiooiqoot
to Aqo 2.1.
Aivott tco oiovo oooti,oto to_ccv. Oi oootiti tivoi ttxoit
xoi ooitiovtoi. Ltviototoi otot oitqt vo oxttotv ti oiotovti o to-
_co oto otttto oooti,o, xoi vo ocootv ot,xtxivo oooti,oto ,io tqv
titq titcoq, otov o ,oixo _co tivoi t titiv o R
2
.
Hcpcccictc 2.2
1. 1otc X vo ,oixo _co xoi 0 to qotvixo oiovtoo tot X. To Y = 0
tivoi o ccvito_ to_co tot X.
2. 1otc R vo oto0to o,otixo oi0o. To otvoio (x, y) R
2
: y =
x tivoi vo to_co tot R
2
.
3. 1otc Y
1
, Y
2
oto to_coi tot X. H toq tot Y
1
Y
2
tivoi tioq to_co tot
X, tvc ovti0tto q vcoq tot Y
1
Y
2
otv tivoi ,tvixo to_co tot X.
Ltxoio oti xovti vo ocoti oooti,oto tootvoicv ,oixcv _ccv to
ooio _otv tqv ioiotqto (YX1) oiio o_i tqv (YX2), q ovtiotoo, otvtc otv
tivoi to_coi tvo _cot X, |i. Aoxqoq 2.2.
2.2. Ipotkq cptqoq, oq, totooq
Lxoo o ot ottq tqv tvotqto tivoi q tioo,c,q tot oot ciotco, tvo -
tot ,io to ,t0o tvo ,oixot _cot. Hiv ooott vo tioo,o,ott
ottq tqv vvoio, 0o iiqoott ,io ,oixq totqoq q ovtotqoio oiovtoo-
tcv, 0o ,vcioott oioot otv0qxt ,io ott, xoi 0o tioo,o,ott tqv vvoio
tq |ooq tvo ,oixot _cot.
Opioo_ 2.2 1otc X vo ,oixo _co, x
1
, . . . , x
m
X xoi
1
, . . . ,
m
R. Mio
xooq tq oq
1
x
1
+ +
m
x
m
(=
m
i=1
i
x
i
)
i,ttoi pcito_ ocvcccoo_ tcv oiovtootcv x
1
, . . . , x
m
.
Opioo_ 2.3 1otc X vo ,oixo _co xoi x
1
, . . . , x
m
X.
i. To oiovtooto x
1
, . . . , x
m
i,ovtoi pcit c_cptcvc, ov to_ti q ttti-
vo ,oixo otvotooo tot ot tivoi qov, oqiooq ov to_otv o,otixoi
oi0oi
1
, . . . ,
m
, tx tcv ooicv totio_iotov vo otv tivoi qov, ttoioi cott
vo io_tti
1
x
1
+ +
m
x
m
= 0.
ii. To oiovtooto x
1
, . . . , x
m
i,ovtoi pcit cvc_pttc, ov otv tivoi ,oixo
totqvo, oqiooq ov q iootqto
1
x
1
+ +
m
x
m
= 0 io_tti ovo ,io
1
= =
m
= 0, q
1
x
1
+ +
m
x
m
= 0 =
1
= =
m
= 0.
Aivott tco vov ttxoio tv _qoio ot _ooxtqioo ,oixq totqoq.
Hpotooq 2.1 Tc cicvooctc x
1
, . . . , x
m
civci pcit c_cptcvc, cv tci ovo cv tocz-
,iotov cvc co cct opci vc pcci c_ pcito_ ocvcccoo_ tcv cozoicv.
occi_. Yo0tott xot o_qv oti to x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ,oixo totqvo. To-
tt 0o to_ti q qotvixo otoi_tio (
1
, . . . ,
m
) R
m
ttoio cott
(2.1)
1
x
1
+ +
m
x
m
= 0.
Lovc to_ti j 1, . . . , m ttoio cott
j
,= 0. Ioott tqv (2.1) otq oq
j
x
j
=
m
i=1
i=j
i
x
i
xoi oiioiooioott ottq tq o_oq t 1/
j
,io vo ooq,q0ott otqv
x
j
=
m
i=1
i=j
j
x
i
,
otqv ooio toixo to x
j
txottoi c ,oixo otvotooo tcv toioicv oio-
vtootcv.
Avtiotoo tco, ov to0oott oti, ,io xooio j 1, . . . , m, to x
j
,ottoi
c ,oixo otvotooo tcv toioicv oiovtootcv, 0o _ott
x
j
=
m
i=1
i=j
i
x
i
,
oott t
j
:= 1 io|ovott tq o_oq
1
x
1
+ +
m
x
m
= 0,
otcvo t tqv ooio, io,c tot oti
j
,= 0, to x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ,oixo totq-
vo.
Hpooo,! Av xooio oiovtooto x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ,oixo totqvo, otto otv
oqoivti xot ovo,xqv oti xo0vo oo otto oti vo ,oti c ,oixo otv-
otooo tcv toioicv. Ltov R
2
, oooti,oto _oiv, to oiovtooto x
1
, x
2
, x
3
t
x
1
= (1, 0), x
2
= (2, 0) xoi x
3
= (0, 1) tivoi ,oixo totqvo, to x
3
oc otv
oti vo ,oti c ,oixo otvotooo tcv x
1
xoi x
2
.
Hcpcccictc 2.3
1. To oiovtooto x, y, 2x + y ooiotoqott o,otixot ,oixot _cot X tivoi
,oixo totqvo, oot
2x + y + (1)(2x + y) = 0.
2. !oioitto oio otq otv_tio 0o oiotv to oiovtooto tot R
n
, to ooio _otv
oit ti otviotcot tot iot t to qov, iqv io q ooio ioottoi t tq ovooo.
Iio j 1, . . . , n, ot|oiiott t e
j
to oiovtoo tot R
n
tot ooiot q otviotcoo
otq 0oq j tivoi ovooo xoi oit oi toioit tivoi qov, e
j
= (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , 0)
xoi q ovooo tivoi otq 0oq j.
To oiovtooto e
1
, . . . , e
n
R
n
tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto. Ho,otixo q o_oq
1
e
1
+ +
n
e
n
= 0
,ottoi ioootvoo otq oq
(
1
, . . . ,
n
) = 0 R
n
,
q ooio toixo o oivti ooc
1
= =
n
= 0.
Iio vo ,oqott ti otviotcot tvo oiovtooto e
j
xoqotto, tioo,o,ott
vo ot|oio to ooio tivoi _qoio ,tvixotto oto Mo0qotixo xoi i,ttoi oo-
ozo toc Kronecker q ccztc toc Kronecker. Iio oto tt_ovtt oxtoiot i xoi j to
ij
ioottoi t tq ovooo ov i = j xoi t qov oioottixo, oqiooq
ij
=
_
1, ov i = j,
0, ov i ,= j.
Mt ottov to ot|oiioo oott vo ,oqott to oiovtoo e
j
R
n
otq oq
e
j
= (
1j
, . . . ,
nj
).
3. Iio vov toixo oi0o n, ot|oiiott t P
n
to otvoio tcv oitcvtcv io
tto|iqtq |o0ot to oit n,
P
n
:= p : R R / p oitcvto |o0ot to oit n.
Ao to 0ttiicot 0tcqo tq Ai,t|o ,vciott oti vo oitcvto |o0ot
n _ti oxi|c n it, oi ooit tivoi ,tvixo i,ooix xoi otqv oi0qoq io|o-
vott t oqiv xoi tqv oiioiotqto tcv icv.
Oo oott tco oti to oitcvto p
i
, p
i
(t) := t
i
, i = 0, . . . , m, t m n, tivoi
,oixo ovtotqto otov P
n
. Ho,otixo, xot o_qv io,c tot oti m n _ott
p
i
P
n
, i = 0, . . . , m. Av tco to0oott oti vo ,oixo otvotooo q tcv p
i
,
q =
1
p
1
+ +
m
p
m
, tivoi qov, q = 0, tott ottoivott oti
1
= =
m
= 0.
Iio vo to oott otto, to0tott o to oov oti xooio
i
tivoi oiooo tot
qotvo, oott to q 0o _ti, otcvo t to 0ttiicot 0tcqo tq Ai,t|o, to
oit m it, otoo oot q = 0, oqiooq q(t) = 0 ,io xo0t t R, oott to q _ti
otit it.
Opioo_ 2.4 1otc X vo ,oixo _co. At oti to oiovtooto x
1
, . . . , x
m
X
cpocv to _co < x
1
, . . . , x
m
> t
< x
1
, . . . , x
m
>:= x X : x =
m
i=1
i
x
i
,
i
R,
o ooio ||oio oottiti to_co tot X.
Oo oott tco vov oxoq _qoio _ooxtqioo ,oixq ovtotqoio.
Hpotooq 2.2 Totc X cvc_ pcito_ ,cpo_ tci x
1
, . . . , x
m
cicvooctc toc X. Totc tc
ctozoc0c civci ioocovcc:
i. Tc x
1
, . . . , x
m
civci pcit cvc_pttc.
ii. K0c x < x
1
, . . . , x
m
> opci vc pcci tct cvcv tci ovo tpoo c_ pcito_
ocvcccoo_ tcv x
1
, . . . , x
m
.
occi_. Yo0tott xot o_qv oti io_tti to i. xoi 0o oootiott oti io_tti
xoi to ii. Av otv io_tti to ii., tott xooio x < x
1
, . . . , x
m
> 0o oti vo ,oti
xoto oto totio_iotov toot c ,oixo otvotooo tcv x
1
, . . . , x
m
, oott 0o
_ott
(2.2) x =
m
i=1
i
x
i
=
m
i=1
i
x
i
t (
1
, . . . ,
m
) ,= (
1
, . . . ,
m
). Ao tq (2.2) oc ttoi
m
i=1
(
i
i
)x
i
= 0,
xoi io,c tq ,oixq ovtotqoio tcv x
1
, . . . , x
m
ooq,otoott oto otooo
i
= 0, i = 0, . . . , m, oqiooq (
1
, . . . ,
m
) = (
1
, . . . ,
m
), otoo. Lovc to ii.
io_tti.
Avtiotoo tco to0tott oti io_tti to ii. xoi 0o oootiott oti io_tti xoi
to i. Kot o_qv ||oio _ott
0 x
1
+ + 0 x
m
= 0.
Av to0oott o to oov oti to x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ,oixo totqvo, oott
0o to_ti (
1
, . . . ,
m
) ,= 0 R
m
ttoio cott
1
x
1
+ +
m
x
m
= 0,
oqiooq to qotvixo oiovtoo oti vo ,oti xoto oto toot c ,oixo
otvotooo tcv x
1
, . . . , x
m
, to ooio tivoi otcvo t to ii. otoo. Ao io_tti xoi
to i.
!oioittq oqooio _otv ,oixo ovtotqto oiovtooto to ooio oo,otv
vov ,oixo _co. Ko0t ttoio otvoio oiovtootcv oottiti io o tot _c-
ot.
Opioo_ 2.5 1vo otvoio x
1
, . . . , x
m
oiovtootcv tvo ,oixot _cot X i,ttoi
o tot, ov io_totv:
(B1) X =< x
1
, . . . , x
m
>
xoi
(B2) (B2) to x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto.
Oo ocoott tco oiovo oooti,oto |ootcv ,oixcv _ccv. Oo _q-
oiooiqoott to ot|oiioo ot tioo,o,ot oto Hoooti,oto 2.3.
Hcpcccictc 2.4
1. To otvoio e
1
, . . . , e
n
oottiti |ooq tot R
n
. Ho,otixo _ott qoq oti oti to
e
1
, . . . , e
n
tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto. Lioq, xo0t a = (a
1
, . . . , a
n
) R
n
,ottoi,
oc oioiotcvti xovti ooc, otq oq
a = a
1
e
1
+ + a
n
e
n
.
Ltov R
n
to_otv oii |ooti. Attq ot ovottoi toc_ti ioioittq oqooio
xoi xoititoi tcvovit |ooq tot R
n
.
2. To otvoio p
0
, . . . , p
n
oottiti |ooq tot P
n
. Ho,otixo, tq ,oixq ovto-
tqoio tcv p
0
, . . . , p
n
tqv _ott qoq otiti, xoi ti iov xo0t oitcvto p |o0ot
to oit n, p P
n
,
p(t) =
n
i=0
a
i
t
i
,ottoi otq oq
p =
n
i=0
a
i
p
i
.
Aivott otq otv_tio oiovot _ooxtqioot ,io vo oottiti vo otvoio
|ooq tvo _cot.
Hpotooq 2.3 Totc X cvc_ ccvito_ pcito_ ,cpo_, X ,= 0, tci x
1
, . . . , x
m
cicvooctc toc X. Totc tc ctozoc0c civci ioocovcc:
i. x
1
, . . . , x
m
civci o toc X.
ii. Tc x
1
, . . . , x
m
cpocv tov X, cvc, cv ccipcoocc cvc co cct, ooc cocvocv ccv
cpocv tov X, czcc < x
1
, . . . , x
m
>= X tci ic t0c j 1, . . . , m io,oci
< x
1
, . . . , x
j1
, x
j+1
, . . . , x
m
>,= X.
iii. Tc x
1
, . . . , x
m
civci pcit cvc_pttc tci cv occpizocc oc cct cvc ooio-
cotc zzo otoi,cio toc X pototocv pcit c_cptcvc cicvooctc, czcc ic
ooiocotc cooovozo y
1
, . . . , y
n
toc X to ooio civci voio ccpoovozo toc x
1
, . . . ,
x
m
, tc y
1
, . . . , y
n
civci pcit c_cptcvc.
iv. Tc x
1
, . . . , x
m
cpocv tov X, tci t0c x X opci vc pcci tct cvcv ovo tpoo
c_ pcito_ ocvcccoo_ tcv x
1
, . . . , x
m
.
occi_. Oo oootiott oti to ii. ttoi oo to i., to iii. ttoi oo to ii., to iv.
ttoi oo to iii., xoi to i. ttoi oo to iv. Atto oootixvtti tqv ioootvoio ot
0iott, ,ioti oxoiot0cvto xtxiixq to_io oott oo ooiooqott oo otto
vo ooq,q0ott ot ooiooqott oiio.
Yo0tott xot o_qv oti io_tti to i. xoi 0o oootiott oti io_tti xoi to ii.
Yo0tott o to oov oti to ii. otv io_tti xoi oxoo o tivoi vo ooq,q0ott
ot otoo. dtoixo, ov otv io_tti to ii., 0o to_ti j 1, . . . , m ttoio cott
< x
1
, . . . , x
j1
, x
j+1
, . . . , x
m
>= X.
Tco to x
j
c otoi_tio tot X 0o ,ottoi c ,oixo otvotooo tcv x
1
, . . . ,
x
j1
, x
j+1
, . . . , x
m
, oqiooq
x
j
=
m
i=1
i=j
i
x
i
.
Atto oc oqoivti oti to oiovtooto x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ,oixo totqvo, oo
to x
1
, . . . , x
m
otv tivoi |ooq tot X, to ooio ovtixtitoi oto i. ot to0oot oti
io_tti, xoi toi ooq,q0qxot ot otoo.
Yo0tott tco oti io_tti to ii. xoi 0o oootiott oti io_tti xoi to iii. Hc-
to 0o oootiott oti to x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto. Av m = 1, otto
tivoi oov, oot, io,c tot oti X ,= 0, 0o _ott x
1
,= 0. 1otc ioiov oti
m 2. Av to x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ,oixo totqvo, 0o to_ti, otcvo t tqv
Hotooq 2.1, vo j 1, . . . , m ttoio cott to x
j
vo tivoi ,oixo otvotooo
tcv x
1
, . . . , x
j1
, x
j+1
, . . . , x
m
, oott 0o io_tt xoi
< x
1
, . . . , x
j1
, x
j+1
, . . . , x
m
>=< x
1
, . . . , x
m
>= X,
otoo.
1otc tco y
j
, x
1
, . . . , x
m
. Ltioq to x
1
, . . . , x
m
oo,otv tov X, 0o to_otv
o,otixoi oi0oi
1
, . . . ,
m
ttoioi cott
y
j
=
m
i=1
i
x
i
.
Lovc to oiovtooto x
1
, . . . , x
m
, y
j
tivoi ,oixo totqvo, oott xoi to
y
1
, . . . , y
n
tivoi ,oixo totqvo, oot x
1
, . . . , x
m
, y
j
y
1
, . . . , y
n
.
Ltq otv_tio to0tott oti io_tti to iii. xoi 0o oootiott oti io_tti xoi
to iv. 1otc Y o _co tov ooiov oo,otv to x
1
, . . . , x
m
, Y :=< x
1
, . . . , x
m
> .
Hcto 0o oootiott oti X = Y. Hoovc io_tti Y X. Iio vo ooq,q0ott
oto otooo o oxti otvtc vo oootiott oti X Y. 1otc ioiov x
X, x ,= 0. Av x x
1
, . . . , x
m
tott 0o io_tti toixo xoi x Y. Av x , x
1
, . . . , x
m
,
tott to oiovtooto x
1
, . . . , x
m
, x 0o tivoi ,oixo totqvo, 0o io_tti oqiooq
(2.3) x +
m
i=1
i
x
i
= 0, (,
1
, . . . ,
m
) ,= 0.
Av tco = 0, tott q (2.3) oivti
m
i=1
i
x
i
= 0, (
1
, . . . ,
m
) ,= 0,
oqiooq oti to x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ,oixo totqvo, otoo. Lovc ,= 0, xoi
otcvo t tq (2.3) 0o io_tti
x =
m
i=1
(
)x
i
,
oqiooq x Y. Ao X = Y.
Li iov, otcvo t tqv Hotooq 2.2, xo0t x X ,ottoi xoto vov to
oit too c ,oixo otvotooo tcv oiovtootcv x
1
, . . . , x
m
, oot otto tivoi
,oixo ovtotqto. Aiio, oot to x
1
, . . . , x
m
oo,otv tov X, xo0t x X ,o-
ttoi c ,oixo otvotooo tot. Lttoootixo, xo0t x X ,ottoi xoto
vov oxi|c too c ,oixo otvotooo tcv oiovtootcv x
1
, . . . , x
m
.
Tio, otcvo t tqv Hotooq 2.2, to i. ttoi oo to iv., xoi xot ottov tov
too oioxiqcvttoi o xtxio.
Q io oiq otvtio tot oq,otvot Otcqoto, 0o oott tco oti oo
vo otvoio oiovtootcv ot oo,otv vov _co oott vo tiiott oi-
ovo ot oottiotv |ooq tot.
Hoptoo 2.1 Totc X cvc_ ccvito_ pcito_ ,cpo_, X ,= 0, tci x
1
, . . . , x
m
X cicvooctc oc cpocv to ,cpo X. Totc cp,ci cvc cooovozo i
1
, . . . , i
n
toc
1, . . . , m tctoio cotc to oovozo x
i
1
, . . . , x
i
n
vc civci o toc X.
occi_. Av to x
1
, . . . , x
m
X tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto, tott to x
1
, . . . , x
m
oottiti |ooq tot X.

Av to x
1
, . . . , x
m
X tivoi ,oixo totqvo, tott totio_iotov vo t ot-
tcv ,ottoi c ,oixo otvotooo tcv toioicv. Xci tioioo tq ,t-
vixotqto oott vo ot_0ott oti to x
m
tivoi ,oixo otvotooo tcv x
1
, . . . ,
x
m1
, ,ioti otto titt,_ovttoi ovto t oiio,q tq oi0qoq. Tott to x
1
, . . . , x
m1
0o oo,otv toixo tov X, < x
1
, . . . , x
m1
>= X. Lovoio|ovott tco tqv ioio
oiooixooio. Atto oti vo tovoiq0ti to oit m1 o, ,ioti to0oot oti
o X tivoi q qotvixo ,oixo _co, oott ot xooio otooio 0o ooq,q0ott
ot ,oixo ovtotqto oiovtooto x
i
1
, . . . , x
i
n
to ooio tioo0tto 0o oo,otv
tov X, oott to otvoio x
i
1
, . . . , x
i
n
0o tivoi |ooq tot X.
H |ooixq vvoio ot 0iott vo tioo,o,ott otq otv_tio tivoi ottq tq ci-
otco_ tvo ,oixot _cot, q ooio oottiti vo to tot t,0ot tvo
_cot. H oiootooq tivoi to iq0o tcv otoi_ticv io |ooq tot _cot, ,io vo
oti oc vo oio0ti ti vo oootiott cto oti oit oi |ooti tvo ,o-
ixot _cot _otv to ioio iq0o otoi_ticv.
Oo o_cqoott ot tio |qoto. To cto oto 0o o ocootv oxotoxtixo
oottiooto, to ooio tv otvt_tio 0o o ooq,qootv ttxoio oto ti0tqto oo-
titoo oti o,oti oit oi |ooti tvo ,oixot _cot _otv to ioio iq0o
otoi_ticv.
Ltcvo t to cto oxotoxtixo ootitoo, txivcvto oo io |ooq xoi
ovtixo0iotcvto vo otoi_tio tq t vov ,oixo otvotooo tcv otoi_ticv tq
|ooq otov ooiov to o_ixo otoi_tio tq |ooq otvtioti otoiootixo, t v-
voio ot ,ivttoi ooq oto Aqo ot oxoiot0ti, ooq,otoott oii ot |ooq tot
_cot o. Lto otttto oxotoxtixo ootitoo 0o oott oti oott vo ovti-
xotootqoott tioootto otoi_tio io |ooq t xotoiiqio oiio otoi_tio xoi
vo ovooott |ooq. Atto to ttitttoio ootitoo oottiti to otoiootixo |q-
o otqv ooo0tio o, otoq otvtio tot tivoi tto to ,t,ovo oti oi |ooti
_otv to ioio iq0o otoi_ticv.
Aqo 2.3 Totc X cvc_ pcito_ ,cpo_ tci x
1
, . . . , x
m
ic o toc X. Totc y
X,
(2.4) y =
1
x
1
+ +
m
x
m
.
v
j
,= 0 otv cpotco (2.4), ic toio j 1, . . . , m, totc tci to oovozo oc po-
totci co t o cvtitc0iotcvtc_ to x
j
c to y, czcc to x
1
, . . . , x
j1
, y, x
j+1
, . . . , x
m
,
cotczci _cv o toc X.
occi_. Xci |io|q tq ,tvixotqto oott vo ot_0ott oti j = 1, ,ioti otto
titt,_ovttoi ovto t oiio,q tq oi0qoq. At_ooott ioiov oti
1
,= 0, xoi
0iott vo oootiott oti to otvoio y, x
2
, . . . , x
m
oottiti |ooq tot X. Kot
o_qv q (2.4) oivti tco
(2.5) x
1
=
1
1
y +
m
i=2
(
1
)x
i
.
1otc x X. Tott toixo to x ,ottoi c ,oixo otvotooo tcv x
1
, . . . ,
x
m
,
(2.6) x =
1
x
1
+ +
m
x
m
.
Xqoiooicvto tqv (2.5) otqv (2.6) io|ovott
(2.7) x =

1
1
y +
m
i=2
(
i
1
)x
i
,
xoi ottoivott oti to oiovtooto y, x
2
, . . . , x
m
oo,otv tov X, < y, x
2
, . . . ,
x
m
>= X.
Aovti tco vo oootiott tq ,oixq ovtotqoio tcv y, x
2
, . . . , x
m
. 1otc
oti
(2.8) y +
2
x
2
+ +
m
x
m
= 0.
Xqoiooicvto tqv (2.4) otqv (2.8) io|ovott
(2.9)
1
x
1
+
m
i=2
(
i
+
i
)x
i
= 0.
Ao,c tq ,oixq ovtotqoio tcv x
1
, . . . , x
m
, q (2.9) oivti
1
= 0 xoi
i
+
i
= 0, i = 2, . . . , m. Ao|ovovto t oqiv tqv to0toq o
1
,= 0, ottoivot-
t ooc oti = 0,
i
= 0, i = 2, . . . , m, oqiooq to y, x
2
, . . . , x
m
tivoi o,oti
,oixo ovtotqto.
Axoiot0ti to otttto xoi otoiootixo oxotoxtixo ootitoo.
Ocepqo 2.1 Totc x
1
, . . . , x
n
ic o cvo_ pcitoo ,cpoc X, tci y
1
, . . . , y
m

X pcit cvc_pttc cicvooctc. Totc io,oci m n, tci cp,ocv j
1
, . . . , j
m

1, . . . , n tctoic cotc cvtitc0iotcvtc_ ot o to x
j
1
c to y
1
, tci ootc tc0 c__, tci
to x
j
m
c to y
m
, pototci _cv ic o toc X. zz_ovtc_ tctzzzc tv cpi0o, cv
,pci_ctci, ctoi cotc j
1
= 1, . . . , j
m
= m, cipvocc t o y
1
, . . . , y
m
, x
m+1
, . . . , x
n
toc X.
occi_. H oootiq 0o oo0ti to,c,ixo c o m. Iio m = 1 to ootitoo
oooti_0qxt oto Aqo 2.3. Yo0tott otq otv_tio oti to ootitoo io_tti
,io m1 xoi 0o oootiott oti io_tti xoi ,io m. To oiovtooto y
1
, . . . , y
m1
tivoi
,oixo ovtotqto, otcvo t tqv to0toq, xoi t xotoiiqiq oi0qoq tcv
oiovtootcv x
1
, . . . , x
n
to otvoio y
1
, . . . , y
m1
, x
m
, . . . , x
n
oottiti |ooq tot X,
xoi toixo io_tti m1 n.
Av tco io_tt m 1 = n, tott to otvoio y
1
, . . . , y
m1
0o qtov |ooq tot X,
xoi, otcvo t tqv Hotooq 2.3 iii., to oiovtooto y
1
, . . . , y
m
0o qtov ,oixo
totqvo. Atto oc ovtixtitoi otqv to0toq o, oo tivoi otoo, oott m
1 < n, otvtc m n.
Aot tco < y
1
, . . . , y
m1
, x
m
, . . . , x
n
>= X, to_otv o,otixoi oi0oi
1
,
. . . ,
n
ttoioi cott
(2.10) y
m
=
1
y
1
+ +
m1
y
m1
+
m
x
m
+ +
n
x
n
.
Ltq (2.10) otv oti vo io_tti
m
= =
n
= 0, oot to y
1
, . . . , y
m
tivoi ,oixo
ovtotqto. Mt xotoiiqiq oi0qoq tcv x
m
, . . . , x
n
oott vo titt_ott
m
,=
0. Ltcvo t to Aqo 2.3 oott tco vo ovtixotootqoott to x
m
t to y
m
xoi to y
1
, . . . , y
m
, x
m+1
, . . . , x
n
vo oottiti |ooq tot X, ,t,ovo ot oioxiqcvti
tqv oootiq.
Lioott tco toioi vo oootiott oti oto |ooti tvo ,oixot _cot
_otv to ioio iq0o otoi_ticv.
Hoptoo 2.2 Totc x
1
, . . . , x
n
tci y
1
, . . . , y
m
coo oci_ cvo_ pcitoo ,cpoc X.
Totc io,oci m = n.
occi_. Aot to otvoio x
1
, . . . , x
n
tivoi |ooq tot X xoi to y
1
, . . . , y
m
X
tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto, otcvo t to Otcqo 2.1 0o io_tti m n. Axi|c
ovtiotoi_o 0o io_tti xoi n m, oott m = n.
Ltcvo t to Otcqo 2.1 xoi to Hoioo 2.2, tivoi oov oti, ov ot vov
,oixo _co X to_ti io |ooq x
1
, . . . , x
n
, tott oit oi |ooti tot X _otv
n otoi_tio, xoi otov X otv to_otv n + 1 ,oixo ovtotqto oiovtooto. Mt
|ooq otto to oottiooto oott tco vo tioo,o,ott tqv vvoio tq oiooto-
oq.
Opioo_ 2.6 1otc X vo ,oixo _co. Tott to dimX,
dimX :=
_
_
0, ov X = 0
n, ov to_ti io |ooq tot X t n otoi_tio,
, ov ,io xo0t m N to_otv m
,oixo ovtotqto oiovtooto tot X,
2.3. AOPO!LMA KA! LYOY AOPO!LMA IPAMM!KQ XQPQ 29
i,ttoi ciotco (dinension) tot ,oixot _cot X. Ltqv titcoq ot q oio-
otooq tvo ,oixot _cot tivoi qov q vo toixo oi0o, it oti o _co
tivoi ccpcocv_ oiootooq, oioottixo o _co i,ttoi ccipociotcto_.
Oc tioot oto Hoooti,oto 2.4, ,io n N, to otvoio e
1
, . . . , e
n
oottiti
|ooq tot R
n
. Lovc q oiootooq tot R
n
tivoi n, dimR
n
= n.
Atoq otvtio tot Otcqoto 2.1 tivoi xoi to totvo ootitoo.
Ocepqo 2.2 Totc X cvc_ pcito_ ,cpo_ ccpcocv_ ciotco_. v y
1
, . . . , y
m

X civci pcit cvc_pttc cicvooctc, totc cp,ci o toc X ooic cpic,ci tc
y
1
, . . . , y
m
.
H ttxoiq oootiq tot tovot oottiooto oqvttoi c ooxqoq, |i. tqv
Aoxqoq 2.7.
Aqo 2.4 Totc X cvc_ pcito_ ,cpo_ ciotco_ n. Totc io,oocv:
1. v y
1
, . . . , y
n
X civci pcit cvc_pttc cicvooctc, totc y
1
, . . . , y
n
civci o
toc X.
2. Totc Y cvc_ co,cpo_ toc X. Totc:
i. dimY dimX.
ii. v dimY = dimX, totc Y = X.
Hpooo,! Lt titcoq otiooioototot _cot X, to ii. oto otttto o tot
Aqoto 2.4 otv io_tti. Aqiooq to_otv ,vqoioi to_coi Y tot X ttoioi
cott dimY = dimX = .
2.3. A0potoo kot cu0 0potoo ypotkev epev
Lt ottq tqv tvotqto 0o tioo,o,ott ti vvoit tot c0poiocto_ xoi tot cc0co_
c0poiocto_, xoi 0o oott oiovt o_oti ttot tcv oiootootcv tcv ovtiotoi-
_cv ,oixcv _ccv.
Opioo_ 2.7 1otcX vo ,oixo _co, xoi Y, Z to_coi tot X. O_co Y +Z,
Y + Z := x X : x = y + z t y Y xoi z Z,
i,ttoi 0poioc tcv Y xoi Z. O Y + Z tivoi oovc to_co tot X.
Hpooo,! To o0oioo oto ,oixcv _ccv otv ti vo ot,_ttoi t tqv vcoq
Y Z. To Y Z otv tivoi ,tvixo ,oixo _co, |i. Aoxqoq 2.3.
Ooov ooo tq oiootooq tot o0oiooto ,oixcv _ccv, _ott to tq
ootitoo:
Hpotooq 2.4 TotcX cvc_ pcito_ ,cpo_ ccpcocv_ ciotco_, tci Y, Z co,cpoi
toc X. Totc io,oci
dim(Y + Z) = dimY + dimZ dim(Y Z).
occi_. 1otc oti to otvoio Y xoi Z _otv q qotvixq toq, Y Z ,= 0,
xoi otc x
1
, . . . , x
n
io |ooq tot Y Z. Ltcvo t to Otcqo 2.1 to_otv
y
1
, . . . , y
Y xoi z
1
, . . . , z
m
Z ttoio cott to otvoio x
1
, . . . , x
n
, y
1
, . . . , y
xoi
x
1
, . . . , x
n
, z
1
, . . . , z
m
vo oottiotv |ooti tcv Y xoi Z, ovtiotoi_o.
Axti tco vo oootiott oti to otvoio
x
1
, . . . , x
n
, y
1
, . . . , y
, z
1
, . . . , z
m
oottiti |ooq tot Y + Z, ,ioti tott 0o _ott oovc

dim(Y + Z) = n + + m = ( + n) + (m + n) n = dimY + dimZ dim(Y Z).
Hcto 0o oootiott oti
Y + Z < x
1
, . . . , x
n
, y
1
, . . . , y
, z
1
, . . . , z
m
> .
1otc ioiov vo x Y + Z. Tott to x 0o ,ottoi otq oq x = y + z, t y Y
xoi z Z, oott ov
y =
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
+
1
y
1
+ +
xoi
z =
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
+
1
z
1
+ +
m
z
m
,
0o _ott
x = (
1
+
1
)x
1
+ + (
n
+
n
)x
n
+
1
y
1
+ +
1
z
1
+ +
m
z
m
,
tovc x < x
1
, . . . , x
n
, y
1
, . . . , y
, z
1
, . . . , z
m
> .
2.3. AOPO!LMA KA! LYOY AOPO!LMA IPAMM!KQ XQPQ 31
Mvti tco vo oootiott oti to x
1
, . . . , x
n
, y
1
, . . . , y
, z
1
, . . . , z
m
tivoi ,oixo
ovtotqto. 1otc ioiov oti
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
+
1
y
1
+ +
1
z
1
+ +
m
z
m
= 0.
Otovto
(2.11) y :=
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
+
1
y
1
+ +
,
q oq,ottvq o_oq o oivti
(2.12) y = (
1
z
1
+ +
m
z
m
).
Oi (2.11) xoi (2.12) oivotv y Y xoi y Z, ovtiotoi_o, oott toixo y Y Z.
Ltvtc to_otv o,otixoi oi0oi
1
, . . . ,
n
ttoioi cott
(2.13) y =
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
.
Ao,c tq ,oixq ovtotqoio tcv x
1
, . . . , x
n
, y
1
, . . . , y
, to y ,ottoi, otc-
vo t tqv Hotooq 2.2., xoto ovooixo too c ,oixo otvotooo tot, xoi
tovc oi (2.11) xoi (2.13) oivotv
(2.14)
i
=
i
, i = 1, . . . , n, xoi
i
= 0, i = 1, . . . , .
Avtiotoi_o, io,c tq ,oixq ovtotqoio tcv x
1
, . . . , x
n
, z
1
, . . . , z
m
, oo ti
(2.12) xoi (2.13) io|ovott
(2.15)
1
= =
n
=
1
= =
m
= 0.
Oi (2.14) xoi (2.15) o oivotv tq ,oixq ovtotqoio tcv x
1
, . . . , x
n
, y
1
, . . . , y
,
z
1
, . . . , z
m
.
Ltqv titcoq Y Z = 0 q oootiq tivoi ovoio,q.
Opioo_ 2.8 1otc X vo ,oixo _co, xoi Y, Z to_coi tot X. Av q toq
tcv Y xoi Z tivoi qotvixq, Y Z = 0, tott to o0oioo tcv Y xoi Z i,ttoi
cc0o 0poioc xoi ot|oiittoi t Y Z.
Ltq otv_tio 0o oott vov _ooxtqioo ,io vo tivoi vo o0oioo tt0t. Lt-
,xtxivo 0o oootiott oti vo o0oioo tivoi tt0t, ov xoi ovo ov xo0t otoi-
_tio tot o0oiooto ,ottoi xoto ovooixo too c o0oioo otoi_ticv tcv
_ccv ot oo0tott.
Hpotooq 2.5 TotcX cvc_ pcito_ ,cpo_ tci Y, Z co,cpoi toc X. Totc tc ctozoc0c
civci ioocovcc:
i. X = Y Z.
ii. 1ic t0c x X cp,ci ctpic_ cvc y Y tci ctpic_ cvc z Z tctoic cotc
x = y + z.
occi_. Yo0tott xot o_qv oti io_tti to i. xoi 0o oootiott oti io_tti xoi
to ii. Yo0tott oqiooq oti Y Z = 0. 1otc ioiov x X. H toq y Y xoi
z Z ttoicv cott x = y + z ttoi oo tov oioo tot o0oiooto. Yo0tott
tco oti to_otv xoi y
Y xoi z
Z ttoio cott x = y
+ z
. Tott toixo 0o
_ott y + z = y
+ z
, tovc
(2.16) y y
= z
z.
Lto oiotto io tq (2.16) _ott oovc vo otoi_tio tot Y xoi oto otio
tq io vo otoi_tio tot Z, otvtc xoi oto oto iq tq _ott vo otoi_tio
tq toq tcv Y xoi Z, Y Z. Ltioq q tv io,c toq ti_ti ovo to qotvixo
oiovtoo, ottoivott oti y y
= z
z = 0, oott y = y
xoi z = z
, ,t,ovo
ot oootixvtti to ii.
Avtiotoo tco to0tott oti io_tti to ii. xoi 0o oootiott oti io_tti xoi
to i. Av to o0oioo otv qtov tt0t, q toq tcv Y xoi Z 0o titi_t vo q qotvixo
otoi_tio x, x Y Z. Tott oc 0 = 0 +0 xoi 0 = x x, to ooio ovtixtitoi oto ii.,
oo tivoi otoo. Lovc Y Z = 0, oott to o0oioo tivoi tt0t.
H oootiq tot tovot oottiooto ttoi ooc otvotoovto ti Ho-
tooti 2.4 xoi 2.5, xoi ,iotto ooitittoi.
Hpotooq 2.6 Totc X cvc_ pcito_ ,cpo_ ccpcocv_ cicotocc_ tci Y, Z co,c-
poi toc X. Totc tc ctozoc0c civci ioocovcc:
i. X = Y Z.
ii. X = Y + Z tci dimX = dimY + dimZ.
iii. Y Z = 0 tci dimX = dimY + dimZ.
Oo oott tco oti ov X tivoi vo ,oixo _co ttoovq oiootooq
xoi Y vo to_co tot, tott to_ti to_co Z tot X ttoio cott to X vo
2.4. ALKHLL!L 33
,ottoi c tt0t o0oioo tcv Y xoi Z. Hott c X tov R
2
xoi vov xotoiiqio Y
,io vo tiottitt oti o Z otv oittoi ovooqovto.
Hpotooq 2.7 Totc Y cvc_ co,cpo_ cvo_ pcitoo ,cpoc X ccpcocv_ ciotco_.
Totc cp,ci co,cpo_ Z toc X tctoio_ cotc X = Y Z.
occi_. 1otc x
1
, . . . , x
m
io |ooq tot Y. Ltcvo t to Otcqo 2.1, to_otv
x
m+1
, . . . , x
n
ttoio cott to otvoio x
1
, . . . , x
n
vo oottiti |ooq tot X. Lii,o-
vto Z :=< x
m+1
, . . . , x
n
> oioiotcvott ooc oti io_tti to ootitoo.
2.4. Aokqoct
2.1. 1otc X vo ,oixo _co xoi x
1
, . . . , x
m
, y
1
, . . . , y
n
X. Aootitt oti:
(o) Av vo oo to x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi qov, tott to oiovtooto x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ,o-
ixo totqvo.
(|) Av oto oo to x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ioio, tott to oiovtooto x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ,oixo
totqvo.
(,) Av to x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ,oixo totqvo, tott xoi to x
1
, . . . , x
m
, y
1
, . . . , y
n
tivoi ,oixo totqvo.
2.2. 1otc ,
1
xoi
2
tti q qotvixoi o,otixoi oi0oi,
1
,=
2
. Ltov R
2
,
0tcott to otvoio X
1
:= (x, y) : x > 0, y = x xoi X
2
:= (x, y) : x R,
y =
1
x q y =
2
x. Aootitt oti to X
1
xoi X
2
ixovooiotv to (YX1) xoi (YX2),
ovtiotoi_o, |i. tov Oioo 2.2, oiio otv tivoi to_coi tot R
2
.
2.3. 1otc X
1
xoi X
2
to_coi tvo ,oixot _cot X. Av q vcoq tot, X
1
X
2
,
tivoi to_co tot X, oootitt oti titt X
1
X
2
titt X
2
X
1
.
2.4. 1otc X vo ,oixo _co xoi x
1
, . . . , x
m
io |ooq tot. Av vo oiovtoo
y ovqxti oto _co ot oo,ttoi oo to x
1
, . . . , x
m1
, y < x
1
, . . . , x
m1
>, oo-
otitt oti o _co ot oo,otv to x
1
, . . . , x
m1
, y tivoi ,vqoio to_co tot X,
oqiooq to_co xoi ,vqoio tootvoio tot X, < x
1
, . . . , x
m1
, y >,= X.
2.5. Aootitt oti to otvoio (1, 3), (5, 7) oottiti |ooq tot R
2
, tvc to oiovtoo-
to (1, 3), (5, 7), (2, 3) tivoi ,oixo totqvo.
2.6. Aootitt oti oi otvotqoti x, y, x(s) := s, y(s) := e
s
, tivoi ,oixo ovto-
tqtt otov C[1, 2].
2.7. 1otc X vo ,oixo _co oiootooq n, dimX = n. Tott io_totv:
1. Av y
1
, . . . , y
n
X tivoi n ,oixo ovtotqto oiovtooto tot X, tott to otvoio
y
1
, . . . , y
n
tivoi |ooq tot X.
2. 1otc Y vo to_co tot X. Tott:
(o) H oiootooq tot Y otv tt|oivti tq oiootooq tot X.
(|) Av oi X xoi Y _otv tqv ioio oiootooq, dimY = dimX, tott tottiovtoi,
Y = X.
2.8. Aootitt to Otcqo 2.2.
2.9. Aootitt tqv Hotooq 2.6.
3. Ipotk Anctkovoct
1vo oo tot oqovtixottot io,ot, ,io tot ooiot oi ,oixoi _coi
tivoi _qoioi, tivoi to ,t,ovo oti ttot tot ootv vo oio0otv ,oix
otixovioti. H titq tcv ,oixcv otixoviotcv tivoi oit io ttxoiq oo
txtivq q ,oixcv otixoviotcv, xoi, otvtc, q 0tcio tot tivoi oit io
iotoio xoi oioxiqcvq. Lt otto to xtoioio 0o tioo,o,ott tqv vvoio tq
,oixq otixoviotc xoi 0o ,vcioott oiovt ioiotqtt ,oixcv oti-
xoviotcv.
3.1. H vvoto tq ypotkq onctkovoce
Lt ottq tqv tvotqto 0o ,vcioott tqv vvoio tq ,oixq otixoviotc,
0o oott oti q oiootooq tq tixovo ,oixcv otixoviotcv otv tt|oivti tq
oiootooq tot toiot oioot tcv, xo0c xoi oti io ,oixq otixovioq ttot
_ccv ttoovq oiootooq ti,ottoi iqc oo ti ti tq oto otoi-
_tio io |ootc tot toiot oioot tq.
Opioo_ 3.1 1otc X, Y oto o,otixoi ,oixoi _coi. Mio otixovioq L :
X Y i,ttoi pcit, ov ,io xo0t x, y X xoi R io_totv
_
L(x + y) = Lx + Ly
L(x) = Lx.
Oi oto otv0qxt otov Oioo 3.1 ootv vo ,ootv ioootvoo otq oq
L(x + y) = Lx + Ly.
Lqticvott tioq oti ,io ,oix otixovioti ,oott otvq0c Lx ovti ,io
L(x).
Hcpctpo 3.1 Ltov Oioo 3.1 tivoi oqovtixo vo io_totv xoi oi oto otv0qxt
ot 0oot, ,io vo tivoi io otixovioq ,oixq.
35
36 3. IPAMM!KLL AHL!KO!LL!L
dt titiv, ooc oioiotcvti xovti oti q otixovioq L : R
2
R
2
, L(x) :=
x
1
x
2
x ,io x
2
,= 0 xoi L(x) := 0 ,io x
2
= 0, x = (x
1
, x
2
), ixovooiti tq ottttq o_oq,
oqiooq L(x) = L(x) ,io R, oiio o_i tqv ctq, oot, oooti,oto _oiv,
,io x = (1, 2) xoi y = (2, 1) _ott L(x + y) = (3, 3) xoi L(x) + L(y) = (4.5, 3).
Iio vo ocoott tco vo oooti,o q ,oixq otixovioq ot ixovooiti
tqv ctq otv0qxq otov Oioo 3.1, 0tcott tqv otixovioq L : C C,
L(x) := a ib, oot a xoi b tivoi to o,otixo xoi to ovtootixo o tot x,
ovtiotoi_o. Ho,otixo, ,io x, y C, x = a + ib xoi y = c + id, _ott
L(x + y) = L(a + c + i(b + d)) = a + c i(b + d) = (a ib) + (c id) = L(x) + L(y),
tvc, ._., L(ix) = L(b + ia) = b ia xoi iL(x) = i(a ib) = b + ia, oqiooq
L(ix) ,= iL(x), ,io x ,= 0.
Lto Aqo ot oxoiot0ti oivott tix |ooix ioiotqtt ,oixcv oti-
xoviotcv, oi ooit tivoi otoq oooio tot oioot tcv xoi ,iotto q oootiq
0o oo0ti otvotixo. Toviott ioioitto tq oqovtixq ioiotqto oti q oiootooq
tq tixovo io ,oixq otixovioq otv oti vo tt|oivti tq oiootooq tot
toiot oioot tq. Ltq otv_tio oiioto 0o oott io oxi|ottq o_oq ot
otvoti ott ti oiootooti, tov it,otvo too tcv cicotoccv, vo oo to |ooi-
xotto oottiooto tq Ioixq Ai,t|o.
Aqo 3.1 Totc X, Y coo pcctitoi pcitoi ,cpoi tci L : X Y ic pcit
ccitovio. Totc io,oocv:
i. L0 = 0 tci ic t0c x, y X L(x y) = Lx Ly.
ii. Totc x
1
, . . . , x
n
X. v tc x
1
, . . . , x
n
civci pcit c_cptcvc, totc tci tc
Lx
1
, . . . , Lx
n
civci pcit c_cptcvc. v tc Lx
1
, . . . , Lx
n
civci pcit cvc_pttc,
totc tci tc x
1
, . . . , x
n
iii. v

X tci

Y civci co,cpoi tcv X tci Y, cvtiotoi,c, totc tci oi L(

X) tci
1
L
(
Y ) civci
co,cpoi tcv Y tci X, cvtiotoi,c.
iv. dimL(X) dimX.
occi_.
i. Kot o_qv, oovc,
L0 = L(0 0) = 0 L0 = 0.
3.1. H LO!A THL IPAMM!KHL AHL!KO!LLQL 37
(Lto iq ottq tq iootqto oto ooio tovittoi oto o to 0, tqv ctq
oo tivoi o o,otixo oi0o qov xoi tq ottttq to qotvixo oiovtoo.)
Lioq, ,io x, y X _ott
L(x y) = L(x + (1)y) = Lx + (1)Ly = Lx Ly.
ii. 1otc oti
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
= 0. Tott, oovc, L(
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
) = L0 = 0, oo
1
Lx
1
+ +
n
Lx
n
= 0, tovc ov to x
1
, . . . , x
n
tivoi ,oixo totqvo, tott
xoi to Lx
1
, . . . , Lx
n
tivoi ,oixo totqvo. To toioio o tot io_tioot
tivoi io,ixo ioootvoo t to qoq oooti_0v.
iii. Hoovc 0

X, tovc 0 = L0 L(

X). 1otc tco y, y
L(

X). Tott 0o
to_otv x, x

X ttoio cott Lx = y xoi Lx
= y
. Ltvtc y + y
= Lx + Lx
=
L(x+x
) L(

X), oot oovc x+x

X. Li iov, ,io R xoi y Y _ott
y = Lx = L(x) L(

X), ttioq x

X.
To oti o
1
L
(
Y ) tivoi to_co tot X oqvttoi c ooxqoq, |i. Aoxqoq 3.1.

iv. To ootitoo tivoi otoq otvtio tcv ii. xoi iii. Ho,otixo, xot o_qv,
otcvo t to ii., o L(X) tivoi ,oixo _co. Lti titcoti X = 0 q
dimX = otv to_ti xoti o oootiq. 1otc, ioiov, y
1
, . . . , y
m
io |ooq
tot L(X). 1otc x
1
, . . . , x
m
X ttoio cott Lx
i
= y
i
, i = 1, . . . , m. Ltcvo t to
iii., to x
1
, . . . , x
m
tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto, oott
dimL(X) = m dimX.
Aivott tco tixo oooti,oto ,oixcv otixoviotcv.
Hcpcccictc 3.1
1. 1otc X vo ,oixo _co xoi vo o,otixo oi0o. Oi otixovioti
(i) 0 : X 0,
(ii)
_
id
X
: X X,
x x,
(iii)
_
X X,
x x,
tivoi ,oix.
1otc x
0
X, x
0
,= 0. H otixovioq
X X,
x x
0
,
otv tivoi ,oixq.
2. 1otc a
ij
R, i = 1, . . . , m, j = 1, . . . , n. H otixovioq L : R
n
R
m
,
Lx := L(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) := (
n
j=1
a
1j
x
j
, . . . ,
n
j=1
a
mj
x
j
),
oot x
1
, . . . , x
n
tivoi oi otviotcot tot x, x = (x
1
, . . . , x
n
), tivoi ,oixq. Ttoio
oq ,oix otixovioti 0o tittqoott ittotc oto totvo xto-
ioio.
Lto oxoiot0o ootitoo 0o oott oti ov X tivoi vo ,oixo _co tt-
oovq oiootooq, tott to_ti oxi|c io ,oixq otixovioq L : X Y,
q ooio otixoviti to otoi_tio io oo0tioq |ooq tot X ot oxo0oiovo
otoi_tio tot Y. Lioq 0o ,vcioott oiovt ioiotqtt ttoicv otixoviotcv.
Hpotooq 3.1 Totc X tci Y coo pcitoi ,cpoi, x
1
, . . . , x
n
ic o toc X tci
y
1
, . . . , y
n
Y. Totc cp,ci ctpic_ ic pcit ccitovio L : X Y tctoic
cotc Lx
i
= y
i
, i = 1, . . . , n. Eio_ citovc L(X) toc X coc t_ L cpctci co tc
cicvooctc y
1
, . . . , y
n
, L(X) =< y
1
, . . . , y
n
> . to L civci cvco (czcc cvc po_
cvc), ctpic_ totc, cv tc y
1
, . . . , y
n
occi_. Kot o_qv 0o oootiott oti to_ti to oit io ttoio otixovioq.
1otc ioiov x X. Tott to_otv o,otixoi oi0oi
1
, . . . ,
n
ttoioi cott
x =
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
. Lovc 0o _ott Lx =
1
Lx
1
+ +
n
Lx
n
q Lx =
1
y
1
+ +
n
y
n
. Ltvtc ,io xo0t x X to Lx Y tivoi ovooqovto oiovo,
oott toixo otv ootv vo to_otv oto oioottix otixovioti t ott ti
iootqtt.
Oo oootiott tco toq io ttoio otixovioq. Iio x X, x =
1
x
1
+
+
n
x
n
, oiott
Lx =
1
y
1
+ +
n
y
n
.
H otixovioq ottq tivoi oovc ,oixq xoi ixovooiti ti o_oti Lx
i
=
y
i
, i = 1, . . . , n.
3.2. HYPHAL KA! L!KOA 39
1otc tco

Y =< y
1
, . . . , y
n
> . Hoovc L(X)

Y , oot xo0t x X ,ottoi
otq oq x =
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
, oott Lx =
1
Lx
1
+ +
n
Lx
n
=
1
y
1
+ +
n
y
n
.
L oiiot, ov y

Y , tott y =
1
y
1
+ +
n
y
n
, oott y =
1
Lx
1
+ +
n
Lx
n
q
y = L(
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
), oqiooq y L(X). Ao

Y L(X), oott otvoiixo _ott
L(X) =

Y .
1otc tco x, x
X, x =
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
, x
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
. Tott, otcvo
t to oq,ottvo,
(3.1) Lx Lx
= (
1
1
)y
1
+ + (
n
n
)y
n
,
xoi ooc oioiotcvott oti ov to y
1
, . . . , y
n
tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto xoi x ,= x
,
tott xoi Lx ,= Lx
. Avtiotoo, ov to_otv x, x
X, x ,= x
, ttoio cott Lx =
Lx
, tott t |ooq tqv (3.1) oioiotcvott ooc oti to y

1
, . . . , y
n
tivoi ,oixo
totqvo.
3.2. Hupqvo kot ctkovo
Lxoo o ot ottq tqv tvotqto tivoi vo tioo,o,ott oto |ooix vvoit ,io
,oix otixovioti, tqv vvoio tot cpvc xoi tqv vvoio tq citovc_ io ,o-
ixq otixovioq. O tqvo oottititoi oo to otoi_tio tot toiot oioot,
to ooio q ,oixq otixovioq otixoviti oto qotvixo oiovtoo, xoi q tixo-
vo oottititoi oo to otoi_tio tot toiot ticv tq ,oixq otixovioq, oto
ooio otixovittoi xooio otoi_tio tot toiot oioot tq. Axoo, 0o ,vci-
oott tov tto tcv oiootootcv, vo oo to |ooixotto oottiooto tq Ioi-
xq Ai,t|o, otcvo t tov ooio to o0oioo tcv oiootootcv tot tqvo xoi
tq tixovo io ,oixq otixoviotc, ttot _ccv ttoovq oiootooq,
ioottoi t tq oiootooq tot toiot oioot tq.
Opioo_ 3.2 1otc X xoi Y oto ,oixoi _coi xoi L : X Y io ,oixq
otixovioq. To otvoio Kei L :=
1
L
(0) (= x X : Lx = 0) i,ttoi cpvc_
(kernel) tq ,oixq otixovioq L. To otvoio !mL := L(X) (= y Y : x
X Lx = y) i,ttoi citovc (inage) tq L.
Tooo o tqvo ooo xoi q tixovo io ,oixq otixovioq tivoi ,oixoi
_coi, o cto to_co tot toiot oioot tq xoi q ottttq to_co tot
toiot ticv tq. Iio tqv tixovo _ott qoq ocoti tqv oootiq oto Aqo 3.1, ,io
tov tqvo o 0tcqoott vov o,otixo oi0o xoi oto oiovtooto x
1
, x
2
tot
tqvo tq L, x
1
, x
2
Kei L. Tott 0o _ott L(x
1
+x
2
) = Lx
1
+Lx
2
= 0+0 =
0, otvtc xoi to x
1
+ x
2
tivoi otoi_tio tot Kei L, ,t,ovo ot oootixvtti to
qtottvo.
Lto oxoiot0o ootitoo 0o oott oti io ,oixq otixovioq tivoi vo o
vo, ov xoi ovo ov o tqvo tq ti_ti ovo to qotvixo oiovtoo.
Hpotooq 3.2 Totc X tci Y coo pcitoi ,cpoi tci L : X Y ic pcit
ccitovio. Totc L civci cvc po_ cvc, cv tci ovo cv Kei L = 0.
occi_. Yo0tott xot o_qv oti q L tivoi vo o vo. Av x Kei L, tott
toixo Lx = 0, xoi, ttioq ovto L0 = 0, ottoivott oti x = 0.
1otc tco, ovtiotoo, oti Kei L = 0. Av x
1
, x
2
X tivoi ttoio cott Lx
1
=
Lx
2
, tott 0o _ott L(x
1
x
2
) = 0, otvtc x
1
x
2
Kei L. Xqoiooicvto tqv
to0toq o ottoivott oti x
1
= x
2
, oqiooq oti q L tivoi vo o vo.
Hcpccic 3.2
1otc y vo oiovtoo tot R
n
. H otixovioq
L : R R
n
,
y,
tivoi oovc ,oixq. Ltqv titcoq y = 0 _ott Kei L = R xoi !mL = 0,
tvc otqv titcoq y ,= 0 _ott Kei L = 0 xoi !mL = z R
n
: z = y,
R, oc oioiotcvti xovti ooc.
Ltcvo t to ttitttoio ootitoo tot Aqoto 3.1, q oiootooq tq tixovo
io ,oixq otixovioq otv tt|oivti tq oiootooq tot toiot oioot tq,
oqiooq dimXdim!mL 0. Lto totvo Otcqo, otqv titcoq ot o _co
X tivoi ttoovq oiootooq, oivttoi oxi|q iqooio ,io ottq tq oiooo
tcv oiootootcv ot,xtxivo oootixvtttoi oti q tv io,c oiooo ioottoi t
tq oiootooq tot tqvo tq ,oixq otixovioq. Mt oiio io,io, otoovot
tot toiot oioot io ,oixq otixovioq, ottq _ti tooo io t,oiq tixovo
ooo io ixo tivoi o tqvo tq. Attq q o_oq tivoi vo xtvtixo ootitoo
tq Ioixq Ai,t|o xoi tivoi ,vcotq c too_ tcv cicotoccv. Lqticvott
oxoq oti o tqvo io ,oixq otixovioq L oottititoi oo ti itoti tq
3.2. HYPHAL KA! L!KOA 41
oo,tvot tiocoq Lx = 0, xoi q ,vcoq tq oiootooq tot ootoioti ioioitto
tvoioov.
Ocepqo 3.1 Totc X tci Y coo pcitoi ,cpoi, dimX < , tci L : X Y ic
pcit ccitovio. Totc io,oci o c__ too_ tcv cicotoccv
(3.2) dimX = dimKei L + dim!mL.
occi_. Oc ovoot qoq, otcvo t to Aqo 3.1, io_tti dim!mL
dimX. 1otc x
1
, . . . , x
io |ooq tot Kei L, xoi y

1
, . . . , y
m
io |ooq tq !mL.
Otcott tco x
+1
, . . . , x
+m
X ttoio cott Lx
+i
= y
i
, i = 1, . . . , m. Oo oo-
otiott oti to otvoio x
1
, . . . , x
+m
oottiti |ooq tot X, ,t,ovo oo to ooio
ttoi ooc o tto tcv oiootootcv.
Kot o_qv 0o oootiott oti to x
1
, . . . , x
+m
oo,otv tov X. 1otc ioiov
x X. Tott to_otv o,otixoi oi0oi
1
, . . . ,
m
ttoioi cott Lx =
1
y
1
+
+
m
y
m
q
Lx = L(
1
x
+1
+ +
m
x
+m
).
Ao ottq tq o_oq ottoivott oti to x (
1
x
+1
+ +
m
x
+m
) tivoi otoi-
_tio tot tqvo tq L, xoi otvtc to_otv o,otixoi oi0oi
1
, . . . ,
t-
toioi cott
x (
1
x
+1
+ +
m
x
+m
) =
1
x
1
+ +
,
tovc X < x
1
, . . . , x
+m
> . Aiio to x
1
, . . . , x
+m
tivoi otoi_tio tot X, oott
oo to oq,ottvo ottoivott oti X =< x
1
, . . . , x
+m
> .
Iio vo oioxiqcoott tqv oootiq, vti vo oootiott oti to x
1
, . . . , x
+m
tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto. 1otc ioiov oti
(3.3)
1
x
1
+ +
+m
x
+m
= 0.
Tott 0o _ott
+1
y
1
+ +
+m
y
m
=
=
+1
Lx
+1
+ +
+m
Lx
+m
= L(
+1
x
+1
+ +
+m
x
+m
)
= L(
1
x
1
+ +
+m
x
+m
)
= L0 = 0,
oot otqv oottitttoio iootqto _qoiooiqoot to ,t,ovo oti L(
1
x
1
+ +
) = 0. 1_ott tovc
+1
y
1
+ +
+m
y
m
= 0, oott io,c tq ,oixq
ovtotqoio tcv y
1
, . . . , y
m
ooq,otoott oto otooo
+1
= =
+m
= 0.
Tco q (3.3) io|ovti tq oq
1
x
1
+ +
= 0, xoi q ,oixq ovto-

tqoio tcv x
1
, . . . , x
o ooq,ti oto otooo oti

1
= =
= 0, ,t,ovo ot
oioxiqcvti tqv oootiq.
1otc tco oti _ott oto ,oixot _cot ttoovq oiootooq X xoi
Y. Mio otoq otvtio tot ttot tcv oiootootcv tivoi to tq: Av to_ti io
,oixq otixovioq oo tov X otov Y q ooio tivoi ti, tott dimY dimX. Av
ti iov q otixovioq tivoi vo o vo, oott otvoiixo 0o tivoi oiovooqo-
vtq, o tqvo tq 0o oottititoi ovo oo to qotvixo oiovtoo, 0o _ti oqiooq
oiootooq qov, oott dimY = dimX.
Lioq, ovtiotoo, ov dimY = dimX, tott, otcvo t tqv Hotooq 3.1,
to_ti io oiovooqovtq ,oixq otixovioq oo tov X otov Y.
Aiottcvott otq otv_tio otto to oottiooto to oq Hoiooto.
Hoptoo 3.1 Mctc_o coo pcitcv ,cpcv X tci Y ccpcocv_ ciotco_ cp,ci
totc tci ovo totc ic ciovoocvt pcit ccitovio, cv oi ,cpoi c,ocv tv icic
ciotco, dimX = dimY.
3.3. Aokqoct
3.1. 1otc X xoi Y oto ,oixoi _coi xoi L : X Y io ,oixq otixovi-
oq. Aootitt oti ov Y
tivoi vo to_co tot Y, tott o

1
L
(Y
) tivoi to_co
tot X.
3.2. 1otc X xoi Y oto ,oixoi _coi, x
1
, . . . , x
n
io |ooq tot X xoi y
1
, . . . , y
n
Y. Tott to_ti oxi|c io ,oixq otixovioq L : X Y ttoio cott
L(x
i
) = y
i
, i = 1, . . . , n. Aootitt oti q L tivoi oxi|c tott vtoq, oqiooq vo
o vo, ov to y
1
, . . . , y
n
3.3. Lttoott xoto ooov oi oxoiot0t otixovioti tivoi ,oix
(i)
_
L
1
: R
3
R
2
,
x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) (x
1
x
2
, x
2
x
1
),
3.3. ALKHLL!L 43
(ii)
_
L
2
: P
n
P
2n
,
x x x
,
(iii)
_
L
3
: P
n
P
n
,
x x
,
oot x
xoi x
tivoi q ctq xoi q ottttq oo,c,o tq otvotqoq x, ovtiotoi-

_o.
3.4. 1otc C
2
[0, 1] := x : [0, 1] R / x oto o otvt_c oo,c,ioiq oto
[0, 1]. Av a, b C[0, 1], tivoi q otixovioq
_
L : C
2
[0, 1] C[0, 1],
x x
ax
+ bx,
,oixq;
3.5. Hoooioiott io |ooq tot ,oixot _cot L(R
5
), otov q ,oixq otixo-
vioq L : R
5
R
5
oittoi c tq: L(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
, x
5
) := (2x
2
+ 4x
4
, x
3
+ x
5

x
4
, x
2
x
1
, x
4
+ 3x
5
x
2
, x
1
+ x
4
3x
2
).
4. Hvokc
Oi ivoxt oottiotv to oqovtixotto ioc t,oitio ,io tqv tiitoq o-
|iqotcv Ioixq Ai,t|o. Lt otto to xtoioio 0o oott oiovo |ooixo
o,oto ,io ivoxt, 0o oioott to |o0o ivoxcv c o ti ,o tot xoi
c o ti otqit tot, 0o iiqoott ,io xiioxctot ivoxt, 0o oott vov
too ,io vo ti,_ott ott n oiovtooto tot R
n
oottiotv |ooq tot, xoi 0o ti-
oo,o,ott oti ttot xotoiiqicv ivoxcv.
4.1. Icvtk yto nvokc
Lt ottq tqv tvotqto 0o tioo,o,ott ivoxt, 0o iiqoott ,io otoi_ticoti
ttoo_qotioot ,ocv ivoxcv, 0o oioott to |o0o tvo ivoxo c o
ti ,o tot, 0o ovot0ott ot xiioxctot ivoxt, xoi 0o oott c, t tq
|oq0tio ivoxcv, oott vo ti,ott, xoto ooov n oiovtooto tot R
n
oott-
iotv |ooq tot.
1otc m xoi n oto toixoi oi0oi. 1vo o0o,cvio qtco tq oq
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_
_
_
_
_
_
t a
ij
R, q ,tvixotto a
ij
K, oot K vo oco, i = 1, . . . , m, j = 1, . . . , n,
i,ttoi ivctc_ (nairi\). To a
ij
i,ovtoi otoi,cic tot ivoxo.
To a
i
:= (a
i1
, . . . , a
in
) R
n
, i = 1, . . . m, i,ovtoi pcc_ tot ivoxo xoi to
a
j
:=
_
_
_
_
a
1j
.
.
.
a
mj
_
_
_
_
, j = 1, . . . , n,
otzc_ tot.
45
46 4. H!AKLL
1vo ivoxo At m,o xoi n otqit 0o it oti tivoi vo mn ivoxo,
ot|oiioo A R
m,n
. Xoiv otvtoio 0o ,oott ot_vo A = (a
ij
)i=1,...,m
j=1,...,n
.
Ltqv titcoq m = n iiot ,io tctpccvitoo_ ivoxt, xoi tott to oiovtoo
(a
11
, a
22
, . . . , a
nn
) i,ttoi ciccvio_ tot ivoxo A. Av oio to q oio,cvio otoi_tio
tot A tivoi qov, a
ij
= 0, ,io i ,= j, o ivoxo i,ttoi ciccvio_.
Opioo_ 4.1 1otc vo ivoxo A R
m,n
. Oi oxoiot0t ovoxotototi ,ocv
tot A i,ovtoi otoi,ciccci_ ctco,ctiooi pccv tot A:
i. Iio vov q qotvixo o,otixo oi0o xoi xooio i 1, . . . , m, ovtixo0i-
otott tqv iotq ,oq tot A, (a
i1
, . . . , a
in
), t (a
i1
, . . . , a
in
), ot|oiixo
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
_
_
_
_

_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
.
ii. Avtixo0iotott tqv iotq ,oq tot A t to o0oioo tq iotq xoi tq
jotq ,oq tot,
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
+ a
j
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
iii. Avtixo0iotott tqv iotq ,oq tot A t to o0oioo tq iotq xoi tot
oiioiooiot tq jotq ,oq tot ti vov o,otixo oi0o ,
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
+ a
j
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
iv. Avtoiioooott tqv iotq xoi tq jotq ,oq tot A,
4.1. IL!KA I!A H!AKLL 47
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Lqticvott oti oi otoi_ticoti ttoo_qotiooi ,ocv iii. xoi iv. otov
oq,ottvo oioo oxttotv t tovtiiqvq too,q ttoo_qotiocv
tq oq i. xoi ii., oc oott ttxoio vo oioiotcoott, |i. Aoxqoq 4.1.
Opioo_ 4.2 Otcott vov ivoxo A R
m,n
. O ,oixo _co ot oo,ttoi
oo ti ,o tot, < a
1
, . . . , a
m
>, i,ttoi ,cpo_ tcv pccv tot A xoi 0o tov
ot|oiiott t IXI(A). Avtiotoi_o o IXL(A), IXL(A):=< a
1
, . . . , a
n
>, i,ttoi
,cpo_ tcv otzcv tot A. H oiootooq tot IXI(A) i,ttoi c0o_ toc A c_ po_ ti_
pcc_, BI(A), q oiootooq tot IXL(A) i,ttoi c0o_ toc A c_ po_ ti_ otzc_,
BL(A).
Ltq otv_tio 0o oott oti oi otoi_ticoti ttoo_qotiooi ,ocv otv tq-
tootv to _co ,ocv tvo ivoxo.
Aqo 4.1 Totc A tci B coo m n ivctc_. v o B pototci co tov A ct co
ccpcocvoc z0oc_ otoi,ciccci_ ctco,ctiooo_ pccv, totc oi ,cpoi pccv
tcv A tci B ocitocv, IXI(A) = IXI(B).
occi_. Ltcvo t tq oqticoq ooc tto tov Oioo 4.1, oxti vo oooti-
ott tov io_tioo ,io ttoo_qotioot ,ocv tq oq i. xoi ii. Lioq,
oovc, oxti vo oootiott to ootitoo ,io vov ttoo_qotioo, xoi to-
vtiiqvq too,q ottot o oivti tto to ,tvixotto ootitoo.
1otc xot o_qv oti o B oxttti oo tov A t vov ttoo_qotioo tq
oq i. Iio x IXI(A) to_otv o,otixoi oi0oi
1
, . . . ,
m
ttoioi cott
x =
1
a
1
+ +
m
a
m
, oott oovc
x =
1
a
1
+ +

i
(a
i
) + +
m
a
m
,
48 4. H!AKLL
tovc x IXI(B). Mt tov ioio too oootixvtttoi oti ov x IXI(B) tott
xoi x IXI(A), xoi otto oioxiqcvti tqv oootiq ,io ttoo_qotioot tq
oq i.
1otc tco oti o B oxttti oo tov A t vov ttoo_qotioo tq oq
ii. Iio x IXI(A) to_otv o,otixoi oi0oi
1
, . . . ,
m
ttoioi cott x =
1
a
1
+ +
i
a
i
+ +
j
a
j
+ +
m
a
m
, oott oovc
x =
1
a
1
+ +
i
(a
i
+ a
j
) + + (
j

i
)a
j
+ +
m
a
m
,
tovc x IXI(B). Mt tov ioio too oootixvtttoi oti ov x IXI(B) tott
xoi x IXI(A), xoi q oootiq tivoi iqq.
Opioo_ 4.3 1vo mn ivoxo A i,ttoi tzictcto_ ov
i. Oi q qotvix ,o tot toviovtoi iv oo ti qotvix ,o.
ii. To cto q qotvixo otoi_tio xo0t q qotvixq ,oq tovittoi otio-
tto tot ctot q qotvixot otoi_tiot tq oq,ottvq ,oq.
Moott oit ttxoio vo oooioioott to |o0o tvo xiioxctot ivoxo
c o ti ,o. Ho,otixo, _ott to oxoiot0o ootitoo:
Hpotooq 4.1 Totc B cvc_ tzictcto_ ivctc_ tci b
1
, . . . , b
i
oi ccvitc_ pcc_
toc. Totc to oovozo b
1
, . . . , b
i
cotczci o toc ,cpoc pccv toc B, IXI(B), tci
ocvcc_ o c0o_ pccv toc B civci i.
occi_. Hoovc, oxti vo oootiott oti to b
1
, . . . , b
i
tivoi ,oixo ovto-
tqto. 1otc ioiov o,otixoi oi0oi
1
, . . . ,
i
ttoioi cott
(4.1)
1
b
1
+ +
i
b
i
= 0.
Av b
11
= = b
1,j1
= 0 xoi b
1j
,= 0, ,io xooio j (xoi ttoio j to_ti ovto, txto
ov o B tivoi o qotvixo ivoxo, oiio ot ottq tqv titcoq otv to_ti xoti
o oootiq), tott 0o io_tti xoi b
1
= = b
j
= 0, = 2, . . . , i, oott oo tqv
(4.1) ottoivott oti
1
b
1j
= 0, oqiooq
1
= 0. Ltvt_iovto t tov ioio too
oioiotcvott oti
2
= =
i
= 0.
Opioo_ 4.4 Ato mn ivoxt A xoi B i,ovtoi pcooocovcoi, ov o vo oti
vo oxtqti oo tov oiiov t ttoovot iq0ot otoi_ticoti ttoo_qoti-
oot ,ocv.
Ltq otv_tio 0o oott oti xo0t mn ivoxo tivoi ,ooioootvoo t vov
xiioxcto ivoxo. H oiooixooio t tqv ooio 0o ooq,q0ott ot otto to ootit-
oo oottiti to cto otooio, tq it,otvq tpicvooio, ot io oit _qoiq
0ooo ,io tqv tiitoq ,oixcv ototqotcv, tq 0ooo ooioiq tot Gauss,
0ooo otqv ooio 0o tovi0ott oto xto Ktoioio.
Hpotooq 4.2 K0c m n ivctc_ civci pcoioocovco_ c cvcv tzictcto m n
ivctc.
occi_. Iio t,oitttq ooqvtio otot ot|oiioot 0tott A
(1)
:= A,
A
(1)
=
_
a
(1)
ij
_
i=1,...,m
j=1,...,n
.
Av o ivoxo A tivoi o qotvixo, oqiooq ov oio to otoi_tio tot tivoi qov, tott
otv _tiottoi vo xovott xoti. Aioottixo, q oiooixooio o_coti ot oiooo
|qoto. Lto cto |qo oooioiott xot o_qv tqv ctq q qotvixq otq-
iq tot A, otc oti ottq tivoi q otq, xoi, t xotoiiqit tvoiio, ,ocv,
vott otqv ctq ,oq, oqiooq otq 0oq (1, ), vo q qotvixo otoi_tio
tq. Yo0tovto, _ci tioioo tq ,tvixotqto, oti a
(1)
1
,= 0, oto cto |qo
ttotott, t xotoiiqiot ttoo_qotioot ,ocv, oio to otoi_tio tq
otq otqiq txto oo to cto ot qotvixo. Atto ,ivttoi c tq: Oiott
xot o_qv tot ozzczcoicotc_ m
i
, i = 2, . . . , m, c
(4.2) m
i
:=
a
(1)
i
a
(1)
1
, i = 2, . . . , m .
Kotoiv oiioiooioott tqv ctq ,oq tot ivoxo ti m
i
, ooiott to
ootitoo oo tqv iotq ,oq tot xoi ovtixo0iotott tqv iotq ,oq t
txtivq ot oxttti t ottov tov too. Atto ,ivttoi ,io i = 2, . . . , m. Mt ottqv
tq oiooixooio tto to cto |qo ooq,otoott otov ,ooioootvoo tot A
(1)
ivoxo A
(2)
t
50 4. H!AKLL
A
(2)
:=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
(1)
11
. . . a
(1)
1
a
(1)
1,+1
. . . a
(1)
1n
0 . . . 0 a
(2)
2,+1
. . . a
(2)
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 . . . 0 a
(2)
m,+1
. . . a
(2)
mn
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
tot ooiot oi ctt 1 otqit tivoi, oc xoi txtivt tot A
(1)
, qotvix xoi
a
(2)
ij
:= a
(1)
ij
m
i
a
(1)
1j
, i = 2, . . . , m, j = , . . . , n .
Kot ottov tov too ooitiott to otoi_tio a
i
, i = 2, . . . , m, tq otq otq-
iq tot ivoxo A, ,iotto xoi q 0ooo ovottoi c 0ooo ooioiq.
Ho_cott tco oto otttto |qo. Lttoott tov (m1) (n 1) toi-
voxo

A
(2)
tot A
(2)
t otoi_tio
A
(2)
ij
:= a
(2)
ij
, i = 2, . . . , m, j = 2, . . . , n .
Lto otttto |qo xovott oxi|c to ioio o,oto ot xovot oto cto |qo,
ottq tq oo oc otov ivoxo

A
(2)
. Kot ottov tov too ooq,otoott ot vov
ivoxo A
(3)
tq oq
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
. . .
0 . . .
0 0 . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 . . .
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
oot oi oto ctt ,o tot A
(3)
tivoi oi ioit t ti oto ctt ,o tot
A
(2)
, q ottttq otqv titcoq ot otv ooittitoi tvoiio,q ,ocv oto otttto
|qo.
H oiooixooio o_cti xoto tov ioiov oxi|c too. To to,c,ixo |qo _ti
c tq: Koto to |qo r, 1 r min(m, n) 1 , _ott vov ivoxo A
(r)
, ,oo-
oootvoo tot A, tq oq
A
(r)
:=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
(1)
11
a
(1)
12
. . . . a
(1)
1n
0 a
(2)
22
. . . . a
(2)
2n
. 0 .
.
. a
(r1)
r1 r1
.
. 0 a
(r)
rr
. . . a
(r)
rn
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0 a
(r)
mr
. . . a
(r)
mn
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Otcott tov toivoxo
A
(r)
=
_
a
(r)
ij
_
i=r,...,m
j=r,...,n
.
Av o ivoxo

A
(r)
tivoi qotvixo, q oiooixooio ttiticvti ot otto to oqtio. Aio-
ottixo, otc

q ctq q qotvixq otqiq tot

A
(r)
. Mt xotoiiqit tvoiio,
,ocv tot ivoxo

A
(r)
vott otq 0oq (r,

) vo q qotvixo otoi_tio. 1otc,
_ci tioioo tq ,tvixotqto, oti a
(r)
r
,= 0. Tco ,io xo0t i , r + 1 i m ,

oiioiooioott tqv rotq ,oq tot A
(r)
ti tov oiioiooiootq m
i
,
(4.3) m
i
:=
a
(r)
i
a
(r)
r
, r + 1 i m ,
ooiott to ootitoo oo tqv iotq ,oq tot, xoi ovtixo0iotott tqv iotq
,oq t tq vo ot oxttti t ottov tov too.
Kotoiq,ott toi oto vo ivoxo A
(r+1)
, ovto ,oooootvoo tot o_ixot,
oot oi ctt r ,o tot A
(r+1)
tottiovtoi t ti ovtiotoi_t tot A
(r)
, xoi ti
iov
52 4. H!AKLL
(4.4)
_
_
_
a
(r+1)
ij
= 0 , r + 1 i m, 1 j

,
a
(r+1)
ij
= a
(r)
ij
m
i
a
(r)
rj
, r + 1 i m,

+ 1 j n.
Loc ttiticvti to roto |qo. Mtto oo to oit r = min(m, n) 1 |qoto, o
,oooootvoo tot o_ixot ivoxo A
(r+1)
tivoi xiioxcto.
Xqoiooicvto to Aqo 4.1 xoi tqv Hotooq 4.2 oott vo ocoott vov
too ,io vo ti,_ott xoto ooo otoovo oiovtooto x
1
, . . . , x
n
tot R
n
oott-
iotv |ooq tot, q oxoq xoi vo oooioiott |ooq tot _cot ot oo,otv.
Hoo0tott to cto ootitoo c Hoioo, xoi ,io tov oooioioo |ootcv
ooott oti Aoxqoti, |i. Aoxqoti 4.2, 4.3, 4.4. Lioixotto, oott
vo oooioioott io |ooq tq tixovo io ,oixq otixoviotc oo tov R
n
otov R
m
, |i. Aoxqoq 4.5.
Hoptoo 4.1 Totc x
1
, . . . , x
n
cicvooctc toc R
n
. To oovozo x
1
, . . . , x
n
cotczci o
toc R
n
, cv tci ovo cv o n n ivctc_ c pcc_ tc x
1
, . . . , x
n
,
_
_
_
_
x
1
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
_
_
,
civci pcoioocovco_ c cvcv vc tpicvito ivctc
_
_
_
_
x
1
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
_
_
,
czcc tctoiov cotc x
ij
= 0 ic i > j, toc ooioc ozc tc ciccvic otoi,cic civci
ccvit.
4.2. Hpct c nvokc
Lt ottq tqv tvotqto 0o oioott oti ttot xotoiiqicv ivoxcv, xo0c
xoi tov oiioiooioo oi0ot ti ivoxo.
1otc m xoi n toixoi oi0oi. O R
m,n
tivoi o _co tcv m n ivoxcv t
otoi_tio o,otixot oi0ot. Ltov R
m,n
oiott tqv oo0toq xo0c xoi tov
4.2. HPAEL!L ML H!AKLL 53
oiioiooiooo t o,otixot oi0ot c tq
A+ B := (a
ij
+ b
ij
)i=1,...,m
j=1,...,n
, A := (a
ij
)i=1,...,m
j=1,...,n
,
oot A = (a
ij
)i=1,...,m
j=1,...,n
, B = (b
ij
)i=1,...,m
j=1,...,n
xoi R.
Mt ott ti oti o R
m,n
tivoi ,oixo _co. Lxto oo tq oiootti-
xq oo0toq tcv otoi_ticv tot, oi _coi R
m,n
xoi R
mn
tivoi ioioi, q ,oixq
otixovioq
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m2
. . . a
mn
_
_
_
_
_
_
(a
11
, . . . , a
1n
, a
21
, . . . , a
2n
, . . . , a
m1
, . . . , a
mn
)
tivoi oiovooqovtq. To qotvixo otoi_tio tot R
m,n
tivoi o m n ivoxo
t qotvixo otoi_tio, ovti0tto tot A = (a
ij
) tivoi o A = (a
ij
). To otvoio
I
ij
R
m,n
: i = 1, . . . , m, j = 1, . . . , n, oot o ivoxo I
ij
_ti oio to otoi_tio tot
qotvixo, txto oo io ovooo otq 0oq (i, j), oqiooq otqv toq tq iotq
,oq xoi tq jotq otqiq, oottiti |ooq tot R
m,n
.
O ivoxo A
T
:= (b
ij
) R
n,m
t b
ij
:= a
ji
i,ttoi cvotpoo_ tot ivoxo A =
(a
ij
) R
m,n
. Aoc oioiotcvti xovti oti ,io tot ovootoot ivoxt io_totv
(A + B)
T
= A
T
+ B
T
, (A)
T
= A
T
, (A
T
)
T
= A.
Hozzczcoicoo_ ivtcv
Itvixo ot oiovtootixot _cot otv oittoi to ,ivotvo oiovtootcv c
otoi_tio tot _cot. Oittoi oc o oiioiooiooo ttot ivoxcv oio-
vq oq.
Otcott oto ivoxt A = (a
ij
) R
m,n
xoi B = (b
ij
) R
n,
, oot o otttto
_ti to ioio iq0o ,ocv t to iq0o otqicv tot ctot. O m ivoxo C
t otoi_tio c
ij
, c
ij
= a
i1
b
1j
+a
i2
b
2j
+ +a
in
b
nj
, xoititoi ivocvo tcv ivoxcv Axoi
B xoi ot|oiittoi t AB. Liotott tqv ooo_q tot ovo,vcotq oto ,t,ovo oti
_ti oqooio q otio t tqv ooio ovoott tot ivoxt oto o_qotioo tot
,ivovot tot ,tvixo to BAoti vo qv oittoi (xoi otv oittoi ov oi ivoxt
otv tivoi ttto,cvixoi) oiio, oxoq xoi otqv titcoq ot oittoi, oti vo
54 4. H!AKLL
tivoi oioottixo tot AB. dt titiv _ott
_
1 0
0 0
_ _
0 1
0 0
_
=
_
0 1
0 0
_
, tvc
_
0 1
0 0
_ _
1 0
0 0
_
=
_
0 0
0 0
_
.
Toviott oxoq, oc oivttoi xoi oo to ttitttoio oooti,o, oti to ,ivotvo
oto q qotvixcv ivoxcv oti vo tivoi o qotvixo ivoxo.
Aqo 4.2 Totc A, A
R
m,n
, B, B
R
n,
, C, C
R
,r
tci cvc_ pcctito_
cpi0o_. Totc io,oocv:
i. Oi cicpiotitoi vooi
A(B + B
) = AB + AB
(A + A
)B = AB + A
B.
ii. A(B) = (A)B = (AB).
iii. A(BC) = (AB)C (pooctcipiotito_ voo_).
iv. (AB)
T
= B
T
A
T
.
occi_. To i. xoi ii. tivoi oovq.
iii. 1otc A = (a
ij
) xoi B = (b
ij
). Tott AB = (c
ij
), t
c
ij
:=
n
=1
a
i
b
j
,
xoi (AB)C = (d
ij
), t
d
ij
:=
=1
c
i
c
j
=
=1
_
n
=1
a
i
b
_
c
j
.
Lioq io_tti BC = (c
ij
), t
c
ij
:=
=1
b
i
c
j
,
xoi A(BC) = (d
ij
), t
d
ij
:=
n
=1
a
i
c
j
=
n
=1
a
i
_

=1
b
c
j
_
.
Ltvtc (AB)C = A(BC).
4.3. ALKHLL!L 55
iv. 1otc A = (a
ij
) xoi B = (b
ij
). Tott AB = (c
ij
), t
c
ij
:=
n
=1
a
i
b
j
,
tovc xoi (AB)
T
= (c
ji
), t c
ji
= c
ij
.
Lioq io_tti B
T
= (b
ij
), t b
ij
= b
ji
xoi A
T
= (a
ij
), t a
ij
= a
ji
, oo B
T
A
T
=
(d
ij
) t
d
ij
:=
n
=1
b
i
a
j
=
n
=1
b
i
a
j
=
n
=1
a
j
b
i
= c
ji
= c
ij
,
otvtc (AB)
T
= B
T
A
T
.
4.3. Aokqoct
4.1. Aootitt oti oi otoi_ticoti ttoo_qotiooi ,ocv tq oq iii. xoi iv.
oxttotv oio tovtiiqvq too,q ttoo_qotiocv tq oq i. xoi ii.,
|i. tov Oioo 4.1.
4.2. Otcott to oiovtooto a
1
:= (0, 0, 1, 2, 0), a
2
:= (1, 3, 0, 2, 5), a
3
:= (2, 6, 1, 4, 5)
xoi a
4
:= (2, 6, 0, 4, 4). Hoooioiott tq oiootooq tot ,oixot _cot, tov ooio
oo,otv to a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
, < a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
>, xo0c xoi io |ooq tot.
4.3. 1otc a
1
:= (4, 3, 1, 2), a
2
:= (5, 7, 0, 1), a
3
:= (1, 5, 3, 5) xoi a
4
:= (0, 1, 4, 6).
Lttoott xoto ooov to oiovtooto a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
4.4. Otcott n oiovtooto a
1
, . . . , a
n
tot R
n
. Aootitt oti to otvoio a
1
, . . . , a
n
oottiti |ooq tot R

n
, ov xoi ovo ov o n n ivoxo t ,o a
1
, . . . , a
n
,
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
a
2
.
.
.
a
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
oti t otoi_ticoti ttoo_qotioot ,ocv vo ttoo_qotio0ti ot vov
ovc ti,cvixo ivoxo A, oqiooq ttoiov cott a
ij
= 0 ,io i > j, i, j = 1, . . . , n, t
oio to oio,cvio otoi_tio tot q qotvixo.
56 4. H!AKLL
4.5. Hoooioiott io |ooq tot _cot L(R
5
), oot q ,oixq otixovioq L :
R
5
R
4
oittoi c tq: Lx := (2x
2
+ 4x
4
, x
3
+ x
5
x
4
, x
2
x
1
, 3x
2
x
3
+ x
4
)
,io x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
, x
5
).
[Yocci_: Hoovc _ott Lx = x
1
(0, 0, 1, 0) + x
2
(2, 0, 1, 3) + x
3
(0, 1, 0, 1)+
x
4
(4, 1, 0, 1). Lovc, o _co L(R
5
) tivoi o < (0, 0, 1, 0), (2, 0, 1, 3), (0, 1, 0, 1),
(4, 1, 0, 1) > . Axti, otvtc, vo oooioioott io |ooq tot _cot, tov ooio
oo,otv to oiovtooto (0, 0, 1, 0), (2, 0, 1, 3), (0, 1, 0, 1), (4, 1, 0, 1).]
4.6. 1vo n n ivoxo A = (a
ij
) i,ttoi vc tpicvito_, ov to otoi_tio tot xotc
oo tq oio,cvio tivoi qotvixo, oqiooq a
ij
= 0 ,io i > j. Aootitt oti to ,ivotvo
oto ovc ti,cvixcv n n ivoxcv tivoi tioq ovc ti,cvixo ivoxo.
4.7. 1vo nn ivoxo A = (a
ij
) i,ttoi ciccvio_, ov to q oio,cvio otoi_tio tivoi
qotvixo, oqiooq a
ij
= 0 ,io i ,= j. 1otc B vo n n ivoxo. Ti ot|oivti, oio
tivoi oqiooq to ootitoo, otov oiioiooiooott tov ivoxo B oo oiotto
t vov oio,cvio ivoxo A xoi ti otov tov oiioiooiooott oo otio;
5. Ipotk Anctkovoct kot Hvokc
Lt otto to xtoioio tittot o_oti ttot ,oixcv otixoviotcv xoi i-
voxcv. !oioitto 0o oott oti xo0t ,oixq otixovioq ttot ,oixcv _ccv
ttoovq oiootooq oti vo ti,oti t vov ivoxo. Lt otto to ,t,o-
vo otiittoi, ot oqovtixo |o0o, q t,oiq oqooio tcv ivoxcv otq Ioixq
Ai,t|o.
5.1. O nvoko to ypotkq onctkovoce
Otcott oto ,oixot _cot ttoovq oiootooq xoi oto tt_otot,
oiio oto0t, |ooti tot. Oc 0o oott ot ottq tqv tvotqto, xo0t ,oixq
otixovioq ttot ottcv tcv _ccv ti,ottoi oo vov ivoxo, xoi, ovtioto-
o, ot xo0t ivoxo, xotoiiqicv oiootootcv, ovtiotoi_ti io ttoio otixovioq.
Lioq 0o oott oti o ivoxo tq otv0toq oto ,oixcv otixoviotcv tivoi to
,ivotvo tcv ovtiotoi_cv ivoxcv.
1otc X xoi Y oto ,oixoi _coi ttoovq oiootooq, dimX = n xoi
dimY = m. Otcott xoi oto |ooti B = x
1
, . . . , x
n
xoi B
= y
1
, . . . , y
m
tcv X
xoi Y, ovtiotoi_o.
1otc tco L io ,oixq otixovioq oo tov X otov Y, L : X Y. Iio
j = 1, . . . , n, _ott Lx
j
Y, otvtc
Lx
j
=
m
i=1
a
ij
y
i
t ovooqovto oiovot o,otixot oi0ot a
ij
. O ivoxo
A = (a
ij
)i=1,...,m
j=1,...,n
i,ttoi ivctc_ t_ L c_ po_ ti_ oci_ B tci B
.
Avtiotoo, txivcvto oo vov m n ivoxo A = (a
ij
)i=1,...,m
j=1,...,n
, xoi 0tovto
y
j
:=
m
i=1
a
ij
y
i
, otcvo t tqv Hotooq 3.2 to_ti oxi|c io ,oixq
57
58 5. IPAMM!KLL AHL!KO!LL!L KA! H!AKLL
otixovioq ttot X xoi Y, tqv ooio ot|oiiott t L
A
, ttoio cott L
A
x
j
=
y
j
, j = 1, . . . , n, oqiooq
L
A
x
j
=
m
i=1
a
ij
y
i
, j = 1, . . . , n.
Otov ioiov ot xo0t vov oo tot ,oixot _cot ttoovq oiootooq X
xoi Y oxo0oioott io |ooq, tott ot xo0t ,oixq otixovioq L : X Y
ovtiotoi_ti vo dimY dimX ivoxo, xoi ot xo0t dimY dimX ivoxo ovti-
otoi_ti io ,oixq otixovioq L : X Y.
Iio oioottix |ooti, otqv ioio otixovioq ovtiotoi_otv ,tvixo oiootti-
xoi ivoxt.
1otc X, Y, Z tti ,oixoi _coi, dimX = n, dimY = m, dimZ = , xoi
B
1
= x
1
, . . . , x
n
, B
2
= y
1
, . . . , y
m
xoi B
3
= z
1
, . . . , z
|ooti tcv X, Y xoi Z,

ovtiotoi_o. 1otc L : X Y xoi M : Y Z oto ,oix otixovioti,
xoi A R
m,n
o ivoxo tq L c o B
1
, B
2
xoi B R
,m
o ivoxo tq M c o
B
2
, B
3
. 1otc C o ivoxo tq M L c o B
1
xoi B
3
. Tott, t A = (a
ij
), B =
(b
ij
), C = (c
ij
), io_tti:
Lx
j
=
m
i=1
a
ij
y
i
, j = 1, . . . , n,
My
i
=
k=1
b
ki
z
k
, i = 1, . . . , m,
(M L)x
j
=
k=1
c
kj
z
k
, j = 1, . . . , n.
Lioo0tto _ott
(M L)x
j
= M(Lx
j
) = M
m
i=1
a
ij
y
i
=
m
i=1
a
ij
My
i
=
m
i=1
a
ij
_

k=1
b
ki
z
k
_
=
k=1
_
m
i=1
b
ki
a
ij
_
z
k
,
otvtc C = BA.
Hcpccic 5.1 1otc L : R
3
R
2
, L(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) := (x
1
+ x
2
x
3
, 2x
1
+ x
3
),
t x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
). O ivoxo tq ,oixq otixoviotc L c o ti xovovix
5.2. BAOMOL M!AL IPAMM!KHL AHL!KO!LLQL, !LOMOPd!LMO!, AAAAIH BALLQL 59
|ooti tcv R
3
xoi R
2
tivoi
_
1 1 1
2 0 1
_
.
1otc tco B := (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1), (1, 0, 0) xoi B
:= (1, 0), (0, 1) |ooti tcv R

3
xoi R
2
, ovtiotoi_o. Tott
L(1, 0, 1) = (2, 1) = 2(1, 0) + (0, 1)
L(1, 1, 1) = (1, 3) = (1, 0) + 3(0, 1)
L(1, 0, 0) = (1, 2) = (1, 0) + 2(0, 1)
tovc o ivoxo tq L c o B xoi B
tivoi
_
2 1 1
1 3 2
_
.
5.2. Bo0o to ypotkq onctkovoce, toooptoo, ooyq oce
Lt ottq tqv tvotqto 0o oioott to |o0o io ,oixq otixoviotc, t
toio oioot vov _co ttoovq oiootooq, xoi 0o tittqoott ioooi-
oot, oqiooq oiovooqovtt ,oix otixovioti, ttot ,oixcv _c-
cv. Axoq 0o iiqoott ,io ovtiotqiot ivoxt, xoi 0o ovot0ott otqv
oiio,q |ootc ot vov _co ttoovq oiootooq.
Opioo_ 5.1 1otc X, Y oto ,oixoi _coi. Mio ,oixq otixovioq L : X
Y i,ttoi iooopioo_, ov tivoi oiovooqovtq, oqiooq vo o vo xoi ti.
Av ttot oto ,oixcv _ccv X xoi Y to_ti vo ioooioo, tott ottoi
i,ovtoi iooopoi.
Opioo_ 5.2 1otc X, Y oto ,oixoi _coi, dimX < , xoi L : X Y
io ,oixq otixovioq. Bc0o_ tq L i,ttoi q oiootooq tq tixovo tq L,
|o0o(L) = dim!mL.
Mio ,oixq otixovioq L : X Y, dimX = dimY < , tivoi, oovc,
oxi|c tott ioooioo, ov |o0o(L) = dimY (= dimX).
1otc X vo ,oixo _co xoi x
1
, . . . , x
n
io |ooq tot X. Tott xo0t
x X oti vo ,oti ovooqovto c ,oixo otvotooo tcv x
1
, . . . , x
n
,
x =
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
, t o,otixot oi0ot
1
, . . . ,
n
. Oi oi0oi
1
, . . . ,
n
i,ovtoi ocviotcoc_ q ocvtctccvc_ tot x c o to x
1
, . . . , x
n
.
1otc A = (a
ij
)i=1,...,m
j=1,...,n
vo m n o,otixo ivoxo, xoi oi ,oixoi _coi
R
n
xoi R
m
t ti xovovix tot |ooti B = e
1
, . . . , e
n
xoi B
= e
1
, . . . , e
m
. Av to
oiovtooto tcv R
n
xoi R
m
to ,oqott c otqit, tott ,io tq ,oixq otixovioq
L
A
ot ovtiotoi_ti otov ivoxo A c o ti |ooti B xoi B
io_tti L
A
x = Ax, ,io
xo0t x R
n
, oot
Ae
j
=
_
_
_
_
a
1j
.
.
.
a
mj
_
_
_
_
= a
1j
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
0
.
.
.
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
+ + a
mj
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
.
.
.
0
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
m
i=1
a
ij
e
i
, j = 1, . . . , n.
Xoiv oiotqto ,oott A ovti ,io L
A
, oqiooq ot|oiiott t A tooo tov
mn ivoxo ooo xoi tq ,oixq otixovioq L
A
: R
n
R
m
, x Ax.
1otc X vo ,oixo _co xoi x
1
, . . . , x
n
X. Tott, otcvo t tqv
Hotooq 3.1, to_ti oxi|c io ,oixq otixovioq
R
n
X
(
1
, . . . ,
n
)
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
.
H,oixq ottq otixovioq tivoi, oc oioiotcvti xovti ttxoio, ioooioo
oxi|c tott, ov x
1
, . . . , x
n
tivoi |ooq tot X.
1otc X, Y oto ,oixoi _coi, dimX = n, dimY = m, xoi L : X Y io
,oixq otixovioq. Lxoo o toc tivoi vo ocoott io 0ooo oooioioot
io |ooq tq tixovo tq L, !mL. Kot ottov tov too oooioiott toixo
xoi tq oiootooq tq tixovo tq L, oott, t tq |oq0tio tot ttot tcv oiootootcv,
xoi tq oiootooq tot tqvo tq L. 1otc B = x
1
, . . . , x
n
xoi B
= y
1
, . . . , y
m
|ooti tcv X xoi Y, ovtiotoi_o, xoi A R

m,n
o ivoxo tq L c o B, B
. Tott
oiott ti ,oix otixovioti,
L
1
: X R
n
x
i
e
i
, i = 1, . . . , n,
A : R
n
R
m
x Ax,
L
2
: R
m
Y
e
i
y
i
, i = 1, . . . , m,
oot e
1
, . . . , e
n
xoi e
1
, . . . , e
m
oi xovovix |ooti tcv R
n
xoi R
m
, ovtiotoi_o.
Lqticvott oti oiovoti oioot tqv otixovioq L
1
ovo ,io to x
1
, . . . , x
n
, ottq
tivoi, otcvo t tqv Hotooq 3.1, xoic oiovq ot oiov tov X ovtiotoi_o
io_totv xoi ,io tqv otixovioq L
2
. Tco _ott
(L
2
A L
1
)x
j
= (L
2
A)(L
1
x
j
) = (L
2
A)e
j
= L
2
(Ae
j
)
= L
2
(a
1j
e
1
+ + a
mj
e
m
) = a
1j
L
2
e
1
+ + a
mj
L
2
e
m
= a
1j
y
1
+ + a
mj
y
m
= Lx
j
, j = 1, . . . , n,
tovc L
2
A L
1
= L.
Ltioq L
1
(X) = R
n
xoi q L
2
tivoi ioooioo, oxti vo toio,ioott io
|ooq v
1
, . . . , v
tot A(R
m
), oott to otvoio L
2
v
1
, . . . , L
2
v
0o oottiti |ooq
tot L
1
(A(R
n
)), oo tot L(X). Kot ottov tov too titt_ot vo ovo,o,ott to
o|iqo o oto oxoiot0o tioixo o|iqo: 1otc A R
m,n
, A : R
n
R
m
,
x Ax. o oooioio0ti io |ooq tot A(R
n
).
Iio tqv otixovioq A io_tti, oovc, Ae
j
= a
j
, oot a
j
tivoi q jotq otqiq
tot ivoxo A, otvtc < a
1
, . . . , a
n
> !mA. L oiiot, ov x R
n
, tott x =
1
e
1
+
+
n
e
n
, oo
Ax =
1
Ae
1
+ +
n
Ae
n
=
1
a
1
+ +
n
a
n
,
oqiooq Ax < a
1
, . . . , a
n
>, tovc !mA < a
1
, . . . , a
n
> . Ltvoiixo oqiooq
_ott !mA =< a
1
, . . . , a
n
> . Mio |ooq oc tot ,oixot _cot < a
1
, . . . , a
n
>
oott vo oooioioott ttxoio t tq 0ooo ooioiq tot Gauss, ov tqv
toooott otov ivoxo A
T
.
Ltcvo t to oq,ottvo, o |o0o tq ,oixq otixoviotc A tivoi o
|o0o otqicv tot ivoxo A, BL(A), |i. tov Oioo 4.2, tov ooio xoiott tioq
c0o toc ivctc A, |o0o(A).
Hcpccic 5.2 1otc L : R
4
R
5
, L(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) := (0, x
2
x
3
, 2x
2
+2x
3
, 2x
1
+
x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
, x
1
x
3
+ 2x
4
), t x = (x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
). O ivoxo tq ,oixq oti-
xoviotc L c o ti xovovix |ooti tcv R
4
xoi R
5
tivoi
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 2 2 0
2 1 1 1
1 0 1 2
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
xoi toixo _ott
A
T
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 0 0 2 1
0 1 2 1 0
0 1 2 1 1
0 0 0 1 2
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
O A
T
tivoi ,oooootvoo tot
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 2 1 0
0 0 0 1 2
0 0 0 0 5
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
xoi ooc ottoivott oti o |o0o tq L tivoi 3, xoi oti to otvoio
(0, 1, 2, 1, 0), (0, 0, 0, 1, 2), (0, 0, 0, 0, 5)
tivoi |ooq tot L(R
4
).
Lto ootitoo ot oxoiot0ti oti_vott oti ,io vo tivoi ioooioo io
,oixq otixovioq ttot _ccv tq ioio ttoovq oiootooq, oxti ottq
vo tivoi titt vo o vo titt ti. Ytv0tiott oti ttot ,oixcv _ccv
oioottixq oiootooq otv to_otv toixo ioooiooi. To ootitoo otto
o oivti io otvototqto ,io vo ti,_ott xoto ooov io ,oixq otixovioq
tivoi ioooioo.
Aqo 5.1 TotcX tci Y coo pcitoi ,cpoi t_ icic_ ccpcocv_ ciotco_, dimX =
dimY < . v L : X Y civci ic pcit ccitovio, totc civci ioocovcc.
i. H L civci cvco, czcc cvc po_ cvc.
ii. H L civci cco, czcc ci.
iii. H L civci ciovoocvt, czcc iooopioo_.
occi_. H oootiq tivoi otoq otvtio tot ttot tcv oiootootcv
dimX = dim!mL + dimKei L,
|i. Otcqo 3.1, xoi tq Hotooq 3.2, otcvo t tqv ooio q L tivoi vtoq
oxi|c tott, ov o tqvo tq ti_ti ovo to qotvixo oiovtoo.
Ltcvo t to oq,ottvo ootitoo, io ,oixq otixovioq L : X
Y ttot oto ,oixcv _ccv X xoi Y, t dimX = dimY = n, tivoi ioooi-
oo, ov xoi ovo ov o |o0o tot ivoxo tq L, oqiooq o |o0o otqicv ottot tot
ivoxo, tivoi tioq n.
Hcpcccictc 5.3
1. Mio ,oixq otixovioq L : R
6
R
2
otv oti vo tivoi ioooioo,
oot oi oiootooti tot toiot oioot tq xoi tot toiot ticv tq tivoi oioot-
tix.
2. Livoi q otixovioq L : R
3
R
3
, L(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) := (x
1
+x
2
, 2x
1
+4x
3
, x
1
x
2
+x
3
),
ioooioo;
H L tivoi oovc ,oixq otixovioq xoi oi oiootooti tot toiot oioot
tq xoi tot toiot ticv tq tivoi ioit. Lioo0tto, o ivoxo A tq L c o
tqv xovovixq |ooq tot R
3
tivoi
A =
_
_
_
1 1 0
2 0 4
1 1 1
_
_
_
xoi toixo _ott
A
T
=
_
_
_
1 2 1
1 0 1
0 4 1
_
_
_
.
O A
T
tivoi ,oooootvoo tcv
_
_
_
1 2 1
0 2 2
0 4 1
,
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 2 1
0 2 2
0 0 3
_
_
_
,
oo o |o0o tq L tivoi tio, otitti oqiooq t tq oiootooq tot R
3
, tovc
q L tivoi ioooioo.
Opioo_ 5.3 1vo ttto,cvixo ivoxo A R
n,n
i,ttoi cvtiotpc,io_, ov to_ti
ivoxo A
R
n,n
, ttoio cott vo io_tti A
A = AA
= I
n
.
Httxoiq oootiq tq totvq ootqqoq oqvttoi c Aoxqoq, |i. Aoxq-
oq 5.4.
Hopotqpqoq 5.1 To oovozo G1
n
(R) tcv n n cvtiotpc,icv ivtcv, G1
n
(R) :=
A R
n,n
: A cvtiotpc,io_ civci c p_ tov ozzczcoicoo ivtcv occ.
Ltxoio tco ooq,ott0o oto otooo oti o ovtiotoo tvo ovtiotqi-
ot ivoxo tivoi ovooqovto oiovo:
Hoptoo 5.1 v A R
n,n
cvc_ cvtiotpc,io_ ivctc_, totc cp,ci ctpic_ cvc_ ivc-
tc_ A
R
n,n
, tctoio_ cotc vc io,oci A
A = AA
= I
n
.
occi_. H oootiq tivoi otoq otvtio tq Hootqqoq 5.1 xoi tot Aqo-
to 1.1.
Tov, otcvo t to oq,ottvo ootitoo, ovooqovto oiovo ovti-
otoo tvo ovtiotqiot ivoxo A 0o tov ot|oiiott t A
1
.
Ltqv oxoiot0q Hotooq oivott vov _ooxtqioo ,io ovtiotqiot ivo-
xt:
Hpotooq 5.1 Tvc_ tctpccvito_ n n ivctc_ A R
n,n
civci cvtiotpc,io_, cv tci
ovo cv o c0o_ toc A c_ po_ ti_ otzc_, BL(A), civci n.
occi_. Yo0tott xot o_qv oti o ivoxo tivoi ovtiotqio, xoi otc A
1
o ovtiotoo tot. Tott oi otixovioti A : R
n
R
n
, x Ax, xoi A
1
:
R
n
R
n
, x A
1
x, tivoi ,oix, xoi oi ovtiotoi_oi ivox tot c o
tqv xovovixq |ooq tot R
n
tivoi A xoi A
1
, ovtiotoi_o. Iio tq otv0toq A
1
A
io_tti:
A
1
A : R
n
R
n
, (A
1
A)x = A
1
(Ax) = (A
1
A)x = I
n
x = x,
otvtc q A tivoi vo o vo, oott, xoto to Aqo 5.1, tivoi ioooioo, xoi
tovc _ott BL(A) = n.
Avtiotoo tco, ov BL(A) = n, tott q otixovioq A tivoi ti, oott, ovo
otcvo t to Aqo 5.1, tivoi ioooioo. Lovc to_ti q ovtiotoq
otixovioq tq A, q A
1
. O ivoxo tq otixovioq A
1
A c o tqv xovovixq
|ooq tot R
n
tivoi A
1
A, xoi ttioq q A
1
A tivoi q tottotqto otov R
n
0o _ott
A
1
A = I
n
. Axi|c ovtiotoi_o oootixvtttoi xoi oti AA
1
= I
n
.
Ltqv oxoiot0q Hotooq oivott io ixovq otv0qxq ,io vo tivoi vo ttto,c-
vixo ivoxo ovtiotqio. To ootitoo otto ootoioti tvoioov, ,ioti
ttoioi ivoxt toviovtoi ot_vo oti too,. H ttxoiq oootiq oqvttoi
c Aoxqoq, |i. Aoxqoq 6.2.
Hpotooq 5.2 Totc A cvc_ n n ivctc_, A R
n,n
. v io,oci
(5.1)
n
j=1
j=i
[a
ij
[ < [a
ii
[, i = 1, . . . , n,
totc o ivctc_ A civci cvtiotpc,io_.
Hivoxt ot ixovooiotv tqv (5.1) i,ovtoi ciccvic ccptcpoi otvcvto it
oti _otv ccotp tcpicp,it ciccvio.
1otc X xoi Y oto ,oixoi _coi tq ioio oiootooq, dimX = dimY = n,
xoi B
1
= x
1
, . . . , x
n
, B
2
= y
1
, . . . , y
n
, |ooti tcv X xoi Y, ovtiotoi_o. 1otc
tioq L : X Y io oiovooqovtq ,oixq otixovioq. Av A tivoi o
ivoxo tq L, tott, oc oioiotcvti xovti ttxoio, o ivoxo tq L
1
, c o
ti ioit |ooti, tivoi o ovtiotoo tot A, A
1
.
Hpotooq 5.3 Totc X tci Y coo pcitoi ,cpoi, dimX = dimY = n, tci B
1
=
x
1
, . . . , x
n
, B
2
= y
1
, . . . , y
n
, oci_ tcv X tci Y, cvtiotoi,c. Totc cio_ L :
X Y ic ciovoocvt pcit ccitovio. v A civci o ivctc_ t_ L, totc
o ivctc_ t_ L
1
, c_ po_ ti_ icic_ oci_, civci A
1
.
occi_. 1otc B o ivoxo tq L
1
. Tott, o ivoxo tq otixovioq L L
1
,
q ooio tivoi toixo q tottotqto otov X, tivoi AB, otvtc AB = I
n
. Axi|c
ovtiotoi_o |iti xovti oti xoi BA = I
n
, oott B = A
1
.
zzc occ_. Ltq otv_tio 0o oo_oiq0ott t tqv oiio,q |ootc. Lt,xtxi-
vo, 0o o ooo_oiqoti to tq o|iqo: 1otc X vo ,oixo _co, xoi
x
1
, . . . , x
n
xoi y
1
, . . . , y
n
|ooti tot X. Av x X, x =
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
, tott
oit tivoi oi otviotcot tot x c o tq |ooq y
1
, . . . , y
n
;
Ltqv oq to y
1
, . . . , y
n
oivovtoi c ,oixoi otvotoooi tcv x
1
, . . . , x
n
,io
ottov to io,o 0o oo_oiq0ott t to ovctc o|iqo ot ottq tqv tioixq ti-
tcoq. 1otc ioiov
y
j
=
n
i=1
a
ij
x
i
, j = 1, . . . , n.
Av
1
, . . . ,
n
tivoi oi (o,vcott o to oov) otviotcot tot x c o y
1
, . . . , y
n
,
0o _ott:
x =
n
j=1
j
y
j
=
n
j=1
j
_
n
i=1
a
ij
x
i
_
=
n
i=1
_
n
j=1
j
a
ij
_
x
i
=
n
i=1
_
n
j=1
a
ij
j
_
x
i
,
otvtc, t
A :=
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
_
_
_
_
_
_
_ott
(5.2)
_
_
_
_
1
.
.
.
n
_
_
_
_
= A
_
_
_
_
1
.
.
.
n
_
_
_
_
.
Otott tco
B =
_
_
_
_
_
_
b
11
b
12
. . . b
1n
b
21
b
22
. . . b
2n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
n1
b
n2
. . . b
nn
_
_
_
_
_
_
t o,vcotov ottq tq oo ivoxo B xoi
x
j
=
n
i=1
b
ij
y
i
, j = 1, . . . , n,
xoi, oc otqv (5.2), 0o _ott
(5.3)
_
_
_
_
1
.
.
.
n
_
_
_
_
= B
_
_
_
_
1
.
.
.
n
_
_
_
_
.
Ao ti (5.2) xoi (5.3) io|ovott ooc
(5.4)
_
_
_
_
1
.
.
.
n
_
_
_
_
= BA
_
_
_
_
1
.
.
.
n
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
1
.
.
.
n
_
_
_
_
= AB
_
_
_
_
1
.
.
.
n
_
_
_
_
.
Ao,c tot oti q (5.4) io_tti ,io tt_ovto oiovtooto (
1
, . . . ,
n
), (
1
, . . . ,
n
) R
n
,
ottoivott oti B = A
1
, xoi q (5.3) ,ottoi otq oq
(5.5)
_
_
_
_
1
.
.
.
n
_
_
_
_
= A
1
_
_
_
_
1
.
.
.
n
_
_
_
_
.
Iio vo oovtqoott oto o_ixo o o|iqo, ioiov, oxti vo oooioioott
tov ivoxo A
1
. Mt otto to 0o 0o _ott tqv ttxoiio vo oo_oiq0ott otq ot-
v_tio.
Lqticvott ovtc oti q (5.5) ,ottoi ioootvoo otq oq
(5.6) A
_
_
_
_
1
.
.
.
n
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
1
.
.
.
n
_
_
_
_
.
H o_oq ottq tivoi oit xotoiiqiottq ,io tqv oq, oc 0o oott otq ot-
v_tio, oot o toio,ioo tot (
1
, . . . ,
n
) ooitti tco ovo tqv tiitoq tvo
,oixot ototqoto, ,io tqv ooio ooott oto totvo Ktoioio, oiio
o_i tqv ovtiotoq tvo ivoxo. A,otto 0o oott oti q ovtiotoq tvo ivoxo
tivoi oit ooovqottq oiooixooio oo tqv tiitoq tvo ,oixot ototqoto.
5.3. Aokqoct
5.1. Lttoott xoto ooov q otixovioq L : R
3
R
4
, L(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) := (x
1
, x
1
+
x
2
x
3
, 3x
1
+ 5x
2
, 4x
2
2x
3
), tivoi ,oixq. Hoooioiott tov ivoxo tq L c
o ti xovovix |ooti tcv R
3
xoi R
4
, to |o0o tq xoi io |ooq tot ,oixot
_cot L(R
3
).
5.2. 1otc L q otixovioq L : R
3
R
2
, L(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) := (x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 3x
3
, x
2

2x
3
), xoi B := (1, 2, 0), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 1) R
3
. Livoi to otvoio B |ooq tot R
3
;
Hoooioiott tov ivoxo tq L c o B xoi tqv xovovixq |ooq tot R
2
.
5.3. Lttoott xoto ooov q ,oixq otixovioq L : R
4
R
4
, L(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, x
4
) :=
(x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 4x
3
, x
1
+ 3x
3
+ 2x
4
, 2x
1
x
2
x
3
+ 4x
4
, 5x
1
+ 7x
2
3x
3
+ x
4
), tivoi
ioooioo.
5.4. Aootitt oti to otvoio GL
n
(R) tcv nn ovtiotqicv ivoxcv, GL
n
(R) :=
A R
n,n
: A ovtiotqio tivoi t oq tov oiioiooiooo ivoxcv oooo.
5.5. 1otc X, Y oto ,oixoi _coi, xoi otc oti io ,oixq otixovioq L :
X Y tivoi ioooioo. Av x
1
, . . . , x
n
tivoi oiovtooto tot X, oootitt oti,
ov to Lx
1
, . . . , Lx
n
1
, . . . , x
n
tivoi ,oixo
totqvo.
5.6. Otcott tq ,oixq otixovioq L : R
3
R
3
, L(x, y, z) := (x+2y z, y +
2z, 3x + z). Lttoott xoto ooov io_totv to oxoiot0o:
i. Av x
1
, x
2
R
3
, xoi to Lx
1
, Lx
2
1
, x
2
tivoi
,oixo totqvo.
ii. Av x
1
, x
2
, x
3
R
3
, xoi to Lx
1
, Lx
2
, Lx
3
tivoi ,oixo totqvo, tott xoi to
x
1
, x
2
, x
3
tivoi ,oixo totqvo.
6. Ipotk Luotqoto
Lt otto to xtoioio tittot ,oixo ototqoto, oqiooq ,oix tioc-
oti ttot _ccv ttoovq oiootooq. Ho oo tq 0tcqtixq tot oqo-
oio, ,oixo ototqoto toviovtoi oit ot_vo oti too,, q oo,,ioq
tq itoq oitioxcv o|iqotcv ovo,ttoi, xoto xovovo, otqv tiitoq ,oi-
xcv ototqotcv.
1otc m xoi n oto toixoi oi0oi, a
ij
R, i = 1, . . . , m, j = 1, . . . , n, xoi
b
i
R, i = 1, . . . , m. 1vo ototqo tiocotcv tq oq
(6.1)
_
_
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ +a
1n
x
n
= b
1
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ +a
2n
x
n
= b
2
.
.
.
a
m1
x
1
+ a
m2
x
2
+ +a
mn
x
n
= b
m
i,ttoi pcito oootc t o,vcotot x
1
, . . . , x
n
. O ivoxo A,
A =
_
_
_
_
a
11
. . . a
1n
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
. . . a
mn
_
_
_
_
,
i,ttoi ivctc_ ocvtczcotcv q oic ivctc_ tot ,oixot ototqoto (6.1). To
oiovtoo b,
b :=
_
_
_
_
b
1
.
.
.
b
m
_
_
_
_
R
m
,
i,ttoi otc0cpo_ opo_ tot ototqoto (6.1). Mt
x :=
_
_
_
_
x
1
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
_
_
R
n
69
70 6. IPAMM!KA LYLTHMATA
to ototqo (6.1) ,ottoi otq oq
(6.1
) Ax = b.
1vo oiovtoo x R
n
i,ttoi zoo tot ototqoto (6.1), ov io_tti Ax = b.
Hiv o_cqoott otq titq ,oixcv ototqotcv, oqticvott oti to
,oixo ototqo (6.1) ,ottoi ioootvoo otq oq
x
1
_
_
_
_
a
11
.
.
.
a
m1
_
_
_
_
+ + x
n
_
_
_
_
a
1n
.
.
.
a
mn
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
b
1
.
.
.
b
m
_
_
_
_
.
Atto o ooq,ti ooc ot vo oit ttxoio tv, o_toov tottoio,io, otooo,
to ooio oc otvttiti otoiootixo otqv xotovoqoq tot tit_ovot ottot tot
Ktoioiot, oqiooq oto oti to ,oixo ototqo (6.1) _ti oxi|c tott itoq, ov
to oiovtoo b oti vo ,oti c ,oixo otvotooo tcv otqicv tot ivoxo
A tot ototqoto.
6.1. Ooycvq ypotk ouotqoto
Kot o_qv 0o oo_oiq0ott t oocv ,oixo ototqoto, oqiooq t ,o-
ixo ototqoto t oto0to oo qov,
(6.2)
a
11
x
1
+ a
12
x
2
+ +a
1n
x
n
= 0
a
21
x
1
+ a
22
x
2
+ +a
2n
x
n
= 0
.
.
.
a
m1
x
1
+ a
m2
x
2
+ +a
mn
x
n
= 0 .
Xcpo_ zooccv tot ,oixot ototqoto (6.2) i,ttoi to otvoio := x R
n
:
Ax = 0. Lt ottq tqv tvotqto 0o oott oioot ioiotqtt tot _cot itotcv oo-
,tvcv ,oixcv ototqotcv.
Ltq otv_tio 0o oott oti o _co itotcv tot oo,tvot ,oixot ototq-
oto (6.2) tivoi ,oixo _co, xoi 0o oooioioott io o_oq ttot tq
oiootooq tot xoi tot |o0ot tot ivoxo A.
Hpotooq 6.1 Totc A = (a
ij
) cvc_ m n ivctc_. O ,cpo_ zooccv toc oocvoo_
pcitoo ocotcto_ (6.2), := x R
n
: Ax = 0, civci co,cpo_ toc R
n
, tci ic
t ciotco toc io,oci dim = n |o0o(A).
6.1. OMOILH IPAMM!KA LYLTHMATA 71
occi_. O tivoi oovc o tqvo tq ,oixq otixovioq A : R
n
R
m
, x Ax. Lovc o tivoi to_co tot R
n
, xoi q qtottvq o_oq ,io tq
oiootooq tot ttoi oo tov tto tcv oiootootcv, |i. Otcqo 3.1.
Lxoo o tco tivoi vo ocoott io 0ooo oooioioot oicv tcv itotcv
tvo ,oixot ototqoto. Ltqv titcoq tvo oo,tvot ,oixot ototqo-
to, oxti vo oooioioott io |ooq u
1
, . . . , u
tot _cot itotcv tot , oot,

toixo, q |ooq xo0oiti iqc to ,oixo _co.
Booixo oio otq oiooixooio tiitoq ,oixcv ototqotcv oiti to oxo-
iot0o ootitoo:
Aqo 6.1 Totc A cvc_ mn ivctc_ tci S cvc_ cvtiotpc,io_ mm ivctc_. Totc
tc pcit ocotctc Ax = 0 tci (SA)x = 0 c,ocv toc_ icioc_ ,cpoc_ zooccv.
occi_. 1otc x io itoq tot ,oixot ototqoto Ax = 0. Tott, (SA)x =
S(Ax) = S0 = 0, oqiooq to x tivoi itoq xoi tot ottttot ototqoto.
Avtiotoo tco, otc x io itoq tot (SA)x = 0. Tott, Ax = (S
1
S)Ax =
S
1
(SAx) = S
1
0 = 0, oqiooq to x tivoi itoq xoi tot ctot ototqoto.
Opioo_ 6.1 Ato ,oixo ototqoto Ax = b xoi Bx = c i,ovtoi ioocovcc, ov
xo0t itoq tot tvo tivoi xoi itoq tot oiiot.
Av Avo mn ivoxo xoi S vo ovtiotqio mmivoxo, tott, otcvo
t to Aqo 6.1, to ,oixo ototqoto Ax = 0 xoi SAx = 0 tivoi ioootvoo.
Otcott tco ivoxt S
i
(), Q
j
i
R
m,m
, i, j = 1, . . . , m, j ,= i, t ,= 0, tq
tq oq
(6.3) S
i
() =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 0
.
.
.
1
1
.
.
.
0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
oqiooq vov oio,cvio ivoxo t otq 0oq (i, i) xoi ovoot oio to oiio otoi_tio
tq oio,cviot, xoi
(6.4) Q
j
i
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 0
.
.
.
1 1
.
.
.
1
.
.
.
0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
oqiooq vov ivoxo t ovoot otq oio,cvio xoi otq 0oq (i, j) xoi qotvixo oio
to oiio otoi_tio tot. Aoc oioiotcvott oti oi ivoxt ottoi tivoi ovtiot-
qioi, xoi oi ovtiotooi tot tivoi
_
S
i
()
_
1
= S
i
(
1
) xoi
_
Q
j
i
_
1
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 0
.
.
.
1 1
.
.
.
1
.
.
.
0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Ooov ooo tq oooq tcv ivoxcv tq oq (6.3) xoi (6.4), ttxoio |iott
oti oiioiooiooo tvo ivoxo A oo oiotto t tov ivoxo S
i
() oqoivti
oiioiooiooo tq iotq ,oq tot A ti , tvc oiioiooiooo t tov
ivoxo Q
j
i
, ,io j ,= i, oqoivti oo0toq tq jotq ,oq tot A otqv iotq
,oq tot,
S
i
()
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
m
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
m
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
Q
j
i
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
a
m
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
.
.
.
a
i
+ a
j
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
a
m
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Kot ottov tov too txooot ioiov tot otoi_ticoti ttoo_qotioot ,o-
cv tq oq i. xoi ii. c oiioiooiooo oo oiotto t vov xotoiiqio
ivoxo. Lovtiiqvq too,q o oivti, toixo, xoi tot otoi_ticoti tto-
o_qotioot ,ocv tq oq iii. xoi iv..
Hivoxt tq oq (6.3) xoi (6.4) xo0c xoi oi ovtiotooi tot xoiotvtoi otoi-
,ciccci_.
Avoio,o t tot otoi_ticoti ttoo_qotioot ,ocv tioo,ott tco xoi
tot otoi_ticoti ttoo_qotioot otqicv.
Opioo_ 6.2 1otc vo ivoxo A R
m,n
. Oi oxoiot0t ovoxotototi otqicv tot
A i,ovtoi otoi,ciccci_ ctco,ctiooi otzcv tot A:
i. Iio vov q qotvixo o,otixo oi0o xoi xooio j 1, . . . , m, ovtixo0i-
otott tqv jotq otqiq tot A,
_
_
_
_
a
1j
.
.
.
a
mj
_
_
_
_
t
_
_
_
_
a
1j
.
.
.
a
mj
_
_
_
_
,
ot|oiixo
(. . . a
j
. . . ) (. . . a
j
. . . ) .
ii. Avtixo0iotott tqv iotq otqiq tot A t to o0oioo tq iotq xoi tq
jotq otqiq tot,
(. . . a
i
. . . a
j
. . . ) (. . . a
i
+ a
j
. . . a
j
. . . ) .
iii. Avtixo0iotott tqv iotq otqiq tot A t to o0oioo tq iotq xoi tot
oiioiooiot tq jotq otqiq tot ti vov o,otixo oi0o ,
(. . . a
i
. . . a
j
. . . ) (. . . a
i
+ a
j
. . . a
j
. . . ) .
iv. Avtoiioooott tqv iotq xoi tq jotq otqiq tot A,
(. . . a
i
. . . a
j
. . . ) (. . . a
j
. . . a
i
. . . ) .
Lqticvott oti, oc xoi otqv titcoq otoi_ticocv ttoo_qotiocv ,o-
cv, oi otoi_ticoti ttoo_qotiooi otqicv iii. xoi iv. oxttotv t tovtiiq-
vq too,q ttoo_qotiocv tq oq i. xoi ii..
Lioq, ovo oc xoi otqv titcoq otoi_ticocv ttoo_qotiocv ,o-
cv, oi otoi_ticoti ttoo_qotiooi otqicv tq oq i. xoi ii. ootv vo
txoo0otv c oiioiooiooo, ottq tq oo oo otio, t vov xotoiiqio i-
voxo tq oq (6.3) q (6.4). Ho,otixo, oiioiooiooo tvo ivoxo Aoo ot-
io t tov ivoxo S
i
() oqoivti oiioiooiooo tq iotq otqiq tot A ti ,
tvc oiioiooiooo t tov ivoxo Q
i
j
, ,io j ,= i, oqoivti oo0toq tq jotq
otqiq tot A otqv iotq otqiq tot,
(a
1
. . . a
i
. . . a
n
)S
i
() = (a
1
. . . a
i
. . . a
n
),
(a
1
. . . a
i
. . . a
j
. . . a
n
)Q
i
j
= (a
1
. . . a
i
+ a
j
. . . a
j
. . . a
n
),
oot ot ottq tqv titcoq, toixo, S
i
(), Q
i
j
R
n,n
, i, j = 1, . . . , n, j ,= i o-
otqqott oti ovotooott otov oiioiooioo oo otio t Q
i
j
xoi o_i t Q
j
i
.
Lovtiiqvq too,q o oivti, toixo, xoi tot otoi_ticoti ttoo_qoti-
oot otqicv tq oq iii. xoi iv..
Oo oott tco oti o oiioiooioo tvo ivoxo t ivoxt tq oq (6.3)
xoi (6.4), titt oo oiotto titt oo otio, oqvti to |o0o tot ivoxo c o ti
otqit ovoiioicto.
ij
) cvc_ mn ivctc_, tci S
i
(), Q
j
i
ivctc_ t_ op_ (6.3)
tci (6.4). Totc oi ivctc_ S
i
()A, AS
i
(), Q
j
i
A, AQ
j
i
c,ocv tov icio c0o c_ po_ ti_
otzc_ c tov ivctc A.
occi_. Kot o_qv, oiioiooiooo tot A oo otio t vov ivoxo S
i
() q
Q
j
i
_ti c otvtio vov otoi_ticoq ttoo_qotioo otqicv tot A. Lovc oi
oiovtootixoi _coi tot ooiot oo,otv oi otqit tcv ivoxcv AS
i
(), AQ
j
i
xoi
A otitotv, otvtc xoi oi oiootooti tot tivoi ioit.
Itvixo ,io vov ovtiotqio mm ivoxo S, _ott, t A = (a
1
. . . a
n
), SA =
(Sa
1
. . . Sa
n
), xoi, ttioq q otixovioq S : R
m
R
m
tivoi ioooioo,
io_tti
dim < a
1
. . . a
n
>= dim < Sa
1
. . . Sa
n
>,
,t,ovo ot oootixvtti xoi to toioio o tq Hotooq.
Oo oott tco oti o |o0o tvo ivoxo c o ti otqit, otvtc xoi o
|o0o tot ivoxo, xoi o |o0o tot c o ti ,o otitotv, oott otq
otv_tio 0o oott vo iiot oic ,io to |o0o tvo ivoxo.
ij
) cvc_ m n ivctc_. Totc o c0o_ toc A c_ po_ ti_
otzc_ ioootci c to c0o toc c_ po_ ti_ pcc_.
occi_. 1otc B vo xiioxcto ivoxo, ,oooootvoo tot A. Tott, o-
ovc, oi A xoi B _otv tov ioio |o0o c o ti ,o, xoi, tioo0tto,
otcvo t tqv Hotooq 6.2, _otv xoi tov ioio |o0o c o ti otqit, otc
r. Tov B oott tott, t xotoiiqiot ttoo_qotioot otqicv, oi ooioi |-
|oio oqvotv tov |o0o tot c o ti otqit ovoiioicto, vo tov ,oqott otq
oq
_
I
r
0
0 0
_
,
xoi ooc ottoivott oti xoi o |o0o tot B c o ti ,o tivoi tioq
r. Lovc, oi |o0oi tot A, tooo c o ti ,o ooo xoi c o ti otqit,
tivoi r.
1otc tco vo oo,tv ,oixo ototqo Ax = 0 t A R
m,n
. To ototqo
otto tivoi ioootvoo t vo ototqo Bx = 0 t B vov xiioxcto ivoxo,
B =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
b
1j
1
. . .
b
2j
2
. . .
b
3j
3
. . .
.
.
.
b
rj
r
. . .
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
oot oi ctt r ,o tivoi q qotvix, oi toioit qotvix, xoi to cto
j
i
1 otoi_tio tq iotq ,oq tivoi tioq qov, ,io i = 1, . . . , r. Ltcvo t
ti Hotooti 6.1 xoi 6.3, q oiootooq tot _cot itotcv tot ,oixot ototqo-
to Bx = 0, o ooio tivoi, toixo, xoi _co itotcv tot Ax = 0, tivoi n r,
(6.5) dim = n r.
Ho oiooiqoq tcv ot|oiiocv, xoi _ci tioioo tq ,tvixotqto, to0-
tott oti j
1
= 1, . . . , j
r
= r, oot otto oti vo tittt_0ti t xotoiiqiq tvoiio,q
otqicv, oqiooq t xotoiiqiq oi0qoq tcv o,vcotcv. O ivoxo B 0o tivoi tott
tq oq
B =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
b
11
. . .
b
22
. . .
b
33
. . .
.
.
.
b
rr
. . .
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Mt := n r xoi
1
, . . . ,
R, tivoi ttxoio vo oott oti to_ti oxi|c vo

x R
n
t x = (x
1
, . . . , x
r
,
1
, . . . ,
) . Ho,otixo, q tiocoq r tot ototqoto

Bx = 0 tivoi b
rr
x
r
+b
r,r+1
1
+ +b
rn
= 0, xoi, oot b
rr
,= 0, to_ti oxi|c vo
x
r
ot ixovooiti ottq tq o_oq. Ao tqv tiocoq r1 oooioittoi ovooqo-
vto to x
r1
xoi ottc xo0 tq, xoi, tio, oo tqv ctq tiocoq oooioittoi
ovooqovto to x
1
.
1_ott oqiooq io ,oixq otixovioq
G : R
R
n
(
1
, . . . ,
) (x
1
, . . . , x
r
,
1
, . . . ,
)
q ooio tivoi vo o vo xoi ,io tqv ooio io_tti G(R
) . Ltioq q oio-
otooq tot tivoi, oovc, , otcvo t tov tto tcv oiootootcv 0o io_tti
dimG(R
) = , otvtc G(R
) = .
Av ioiov e
1
, . . . , e
q xovovixq |ooq tot R
, tott G(e
1
), . . . , G(e
) tivoi io
|ooq tot .
Hcpccic 6.1 Otcott to oo,tv ,oixo ototqo
(6.6)
_
_
x
2
+ 2x
4
x
5
4x
6
= 0
x
3
x
4
x
5
+ 2x
6
+ x
7
= 0
x
2
+ 2x
4
+ x
5
2x
6
= 0
x
3
x
4
+ 2x
6
x
7
= 0
x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
+ x
7
= 0 .
O ivoxo otvttitotcv ottot tot ,oixot ototqoto tivoi
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 0 2 1 4 0
0 0 1 1 1 2 1
0 1 0 2 1 2 0
0 0 1 1 0 2 1
0 1 1 1 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
o ooio tivoi ,oooootvoo t tov xiioxcto ivoxo
B =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1 0 2 1 4 0
0 0 1 1 1 2 1
0 0 0 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Lovc, q oiootooq tot _cot itotcv tot ,oixot ototqoto Ax = 0 tivoi
= 7|o0o(A) = 7|o0o(B) = 7 4 = 3. To ototqo tivoi ioootvoo o
to ototqo Bx = 0, oqiooq o to
(6.7)
_
_
x
2
+ 2x
4
x
5
4x
6
= 0
x
3
x
4
x
5
+ 2x
6
+ x
7
= 0
x
5
+ x
6
= 0
x
6
+ 2x
7
= 0 .
Mt x
1
=
1
, x
4
=
2
xoi x
7
=
3
(vqovixo xovovo: otqv ctq, otqv ttotq
xoi otqv |ooq otqiq tot B otv toviovtoi q qotvixo otoi_tio oti ,cvit
tq xiioxo) _ott oo otto to ,oixo ototqo
(6.8)
_
_
x
6
= 2x
7
= 2
3
x
5
= x
6
= 2
3
x
3
= x
4
+ x
5
2x
6
x
7
=
2
+ 5
3
x
2
= 2x
4
+ x
5
+ 4x
6
= 2
2
6
3
.
O _co itotcv tivoi tovc q tixovo tq ,oixq otixovioq
G : R
3
R
7
(
1
,
2
,
3
) (
1
, 2
2
6
3
,
2
+ 5
3
,
2
, 2
3
, 2
3
,
3
) ,
q ooio tivoi vo o vo. Mt
G(1, 0, 0) = (1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) =: u
1
G(0, 1, 0) = (0, 2, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0) =: u
2
G(0, 0, 1) = (0, 6, 5, 0, 2, 2, 1) =: u
3
,
_ott tovc =< u
1
, u
2
, u
3
> .
To ,t,ovo otto oti xovti vo to oiottcoti t oiio io,io c tq: Ltc-
vo t tqv (6.8), t tt_oit ootot
1
,
2
xoi
3
, oi itoti tot ototqoto (6.7)
,oovtoi otq oq (
1
, 2
2
6
3
,
2
+ 5
3
,
2
, 2
3
, 2
3
,
3
). Tco
(
1
, 2
2
6
3
,
2
+ 5
3
,
2
, 2
3
, 2
3
,
3
) =
=
1
(1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) +
2
(0, 2, 1, 1, 0, 0, 0) +
3
(0, 6, 5, 0, 2, 2, 1) =
=
1
u
1
+
2
u
2
+
3
u
3
,
oqiooq =< u
1
, u
2
, u
3
> .
6.2. OMOHAPAAAHA!KO! YHOXQPO! KA! MH OMOILH IPAMM!KA LYLTHMATA 79
6.2. Oonopoqtko unoepot kot q ooycvq ypotk ouotqoto
Lt ottq tqv tvotqto 0o tittqoott ,tvixo, o_i xot ovo,xq oo,tvq, ,oi-
xo ototqoto xoi 0o ,vcioott oioot ioiotqtt tcv itotcv tot.
1otc
A R
m,n
, x =
_
_
_
_
x
1
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
_
_
, xoi b =
_
_
_
_
b
1
.
.
.
b
m
_
_
_
_
.
To ,oixo ototqo Ax = b i,ttoi oocvc_, ov b ,= 0. To otvoio itotcv
x R
n
: Ax = b otv tivoi to_co tot R
n
, ov b ,= 0.
Opioo_ 6.3 1otc X vo ,oixo _co, xoi Y vo tootvoio tot X. To Y i-
,ttoi oocpczzzito_ co,cpo_ tot X, ov to_otv vo y
1
X xoi vo to_co
Y
1
tot X, toi cott vo io_tti
Y = y
1
+ Y
1
:= y X : y = y
1
+ x, x Y
1
.
Oo oott ooc tco oti o to_co Y
1
, ot ovtiotoi_ti ot xooiov ooo-
oiiqiixo to_co oc otov ovctc oioo, oittoi ovooqovto ovti0tto
to y
1
oti vo tivoi vo ooiooqott otoi_tio tot Y.
Aqo 6.2 Totc X cvc_ pcito_ ,cpo_, Y
1
cvc_ co,cpo_ toc X tci y
1
X. 1ic tov
oocpczzzito co,cpo Y := y
1
+ Y
1
io,oocv:
i. 1ic t0c y Y, Y = y + Y
1
.
ii. v Y
1
, Y
2
co,cpoi toc X tci y
1
, y
2
X ctoi cotc Y = y
1
+ Y
1
= y
2
+ Y
2
, totc
Y
1
= Y
2
tci y
1
y
2
Y
1
.
occi_.
i. Aot y Y, to_ti x
Y
1
ttoio cott y = y
1
+ x
. 1otc tco u Y. Tott to u

0o ,ottoi otq oq u = y
1
+ x, t x Y
1
, tovc u = y + (x x
), xoi, oot
o Y
1
tivoi ,oixo _co, x x
Y
1
, oqiooq u y + Y
1
Ao Y y + Y
1
.
Avtiotoo, ov u y + Y
1
, tott to u 0o ,ottoi otq oq u = y + x, t
x Y
1
, tovc u = y
1
+ (x + x
), oqiooq u y
1
+ Y
1
= Y, otvtc y + Y
1
Y.
Lttoootixo, y + Y
1
= Y.
ii. 1otc Z := u u
: u, u
Y . Aoc oioiotcvott oti Z = Y

1
xoi Z = Y
2
.
Lovc Y
1
= Y
2
.
Lioo0tto, oo tqv iootqto y
1
+ Y
1
= y
2
+ Y
2
ottoivott ooc oti
to_ti x Y
1
ttoio cott y
2
= y
1
+ x, oott y
2
y
1
= x Y
1
.
Ltcvo t to oq,ottvo ootitoo oott tco vo ocoott tov oxo-
iot0o oioo:
Opioo_ 6.4 1otc X vo ,oixo _co, xoi Y, Y = y
1
+Y
1
, vo ooooiiqii-
xo to_co tot X. Q ciotco tot Y oittoi q oiootooq tot Y
1
, dimY := dimY
1
.
Lto totvo ootitoo oivttoi q o_oq ttot ooooiiqiixcv to_ccv
xoi tot _cot itotcv io ,oixq tiocoq Lx = y, t L io ,oixq oti-
xovioq. Lioixq titcoq tivoi toixo to ,oixo ototqoto, to ooio o oo-
o_oiotv toc.
Hpotooq 6.4 Totc X, Y coo pcitoi ,cpoi tci L : X Y ic pcit ccitovi-
o. 1ic t0c y Y, to oovozo
1
L
(y) civci citc tcvo citc cvc_ oocpczzzito_ co,cpo_
toc X. v x
1
L
(y), totc io,oci
(6.9)
1
L
(y) = x + Kei L.
occi_. Av to otvoio
1
L
(y) tivoi xtvo, oqiooq to y tivoi ttoio cott q tiocoq
Lx = y vo qv _ti itoq, tott otv to_ti tiott o oootiq. 1otc ioiov
oti
1
L
(y) ,= , xoi x
1
L
(y). Av u
1
L
(y), tott u = x + (u x) xoi L(u x) =
Lu Lx = y y = 0, oo u x Kei L, oqiooq u x + Kei L.
Avtiotoo, ov u = x+x
x+Kei L, tott Lu = Lx+Lx
= y +0 = y, otvtc
u
1
L
(y).
Hoptoo 6.1 Totc A R
m,n
tci b R
m
. Occpooc to pcito oootc Ax = b tci
to cvtiotoi,o oocvc_, Ax = 0. Totc := x R
n
: Ax = b o ,cpo_ zooccv toc
Ax = b, tci
:= x R
n
: Ax = 0 o ,cpo_ zooccv toc cvtiotoi,oc oocvoo_
ocotcto_ Ax = 0. v to oootc Ax = b c,ci zoo, czcc ,= , tci x , totc
io,oci = x +
, czcc o civci cvc_ oocpczzzito_ co,cpo_ toc R

n
. Eio_
io,oci dim = n |o0o(A).
occi_. Otcott tqv otixovioq L : R
n
R
m
, x Ax. Tott _ott
(6.10)
= Kei L =
1
L
(0) xoi =
1
L
(b)
6.2. OMOHAPAAAHA!KO! YHOXQPO! KA! MH OMOILH IPAMM!KA LYLTHMATA 81
To oottiooto tco ovtoi oo tqv Hotooq 6.4 q o_oq ,io tq oiootooq
oooti_tqxt otqv Hotooq 6.1.
1otc Ax = b vo ,oixo ototqo, A R
m,n
xoi b R
m
. O ivoxo
(A, b) =
_
_
_
_
a
11
. . . a
1n
b
1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
m1
. . . a
mn
b
m
_
_
_
_
,
i,ttoi ccc_cvo_ ivctc_ ottot tot ototqoto.
Oo oott tco oti vo ,oixo ototqo Ax = b (,io vo ot,xtxivo oiovt-
oo b) _ti itoq, ov xoi ovo ov o ivoxo tot A xoi o totqvo ivoxo tot
(A, b) _otv tov ioio |o0o. Atto oqoivti oic oti oi otqit tot A o tvo xoi
oi otqit tot A oi t to oiovtoo b o ttot oo,otv tov ioio _co, oott
toixo to b 0o tivoi ,oixo otvotooo tcv otqicv tot A, ,t,ovo ot tivoi
ioootvoo t to vo _ti to ,oixo ototqo Ax = b itoq.
Ocepqo 6.1 To pcito oootc Ax = b c,ci zoo, cv tci ovo cv |o0o(A) =
|o0o(A, b).
occi_. Ltot ivoxt A xoi A
:= (A, b) ovtiotoi_otv oi otixovioti

A : R
n
R
m
, x Ax,
xoi
A
: R
n+1
R
m
, x A
x,
ovtiotoi_o. 1otc e
1
, . . . , e
n
xoi e
1
, . . . , e
n+1
oi xovovix |ooti tcv R
n
xoi
R
n+1
. Tott io_tti Ae
1
= A
1
, . . . , Ae
n
= A
n
, xoi A
e
n+1
= b. Atto oqoivti oti b
!mA
, xoi q tctqoq tivoi xoto ooov io_tti b !mA. Kot o_qv _ott !mA
!mA
, oo |o0o(A) |o0o(A
). Ltvtc q o_oq |o0o(A) = |o0o(A
)
tivoi ioootvoq t tqv |o0o(A) |o0o(A
), oqiooq t tqv !mA
!mA.
Ltcvo t to oq,ottvo q ttitttoio o_oq tivoi ioootvoq t tqv b !mA,
oqiooq t tqv toq itoq tot ototqoto Ax = b.
!oioitto tvoiootoo tivoi q titcoq otqv ooio to ,oixo ototqo
Ax = b, A R
m,n
xoi b R
m
, _ti itoq ,io xo0t b R
m
, oqiooq q otixovioq
A : R
n
R
m
, x Ax, tivoi toq, oqiooq ti. Atto ot|oivti, toixo, otov
oi otqit tot A oo,otv oiov tov R
m
, oqiooq otov o |o0o tot A tivoi m.
Aqo 6.3 Totc A cvc_ mn ivctc_. Totc to pcito oootc Ax = b c,ci zoo ic
t0c b R
m
, cv tci ovo cv o c0o_ toc A civci m, |o0o(A) = m.
occi_. Yo0tott cto oti to ,oixo ototqo Ax = b _ti itoq ,io xo0t
b R
m
. Atto oqoivti toixo oti q ovtiotoi_q otixovioq A tivoi ti, oott
A(R
n
) = R
m
, otvtc |o0o(A) = dimA(R
n
) = dimR
m
= m.
Avtiotoo, ov o |o0o tot A tivoi m, tott dimA(R
n
) = m, oqiooq dimA(R
n
)
= dimR
m
, oott, io|ovovto t oqiv xoi to ,t,ovo oti A(R
n
) R
m
, ottoi-
vott oti A(R
n
) = R
m
, oqiooq ,io xo0t b R
m
to_ti x R
n
ttoio cott Ax = b,
oott to ,oixo ototqo Ax = b _ti itoq ,io xo0t b R
m
.
Ltxoio tco ooq,otoott ot io ixovq xoi ovo,xoio otv0qxq ,io vo _ti vo
,oixo ototqo oxi|c io itoq. Ivciott qoq oti to ototqo Ax = b _ti
itoq, ov xoi ovo ov |o0o(A) = |o0o(A, b). Iio vo tivoi q itoq ottq ovooixq
ti to ovtiotoi_o oo,tv ototqo Ax = 0 vo _ti ovo tqv tttivq itoq,
oqiooq o tqvo tq ,oixq otixovioq A : R
n
R
m
, x Ax, vo
ti_ti ovo to qotvixo oiovtoo, oott oo tov tto tcv oiootootcv oivot-
t dim !mA = n, oott |o0o(A) = n. Ltvoiixo oqiooq 0o _ott |o0o(A) =
|o0o(A, b) = n.
Aqo 6.4 Totc A cvc_ m n ivctc_ tci b R
m
. Totc to pcito oootc Ax = b
c,ci ctpic_ ic zoo, cv tci ovo cv |o0o(A) = |o0o(A, b) = n.
occi_. Ltcvo t to Otcqo 6.1, to ,oixo ototqo Ax = b _ti itoq,
ov xoi ovo ov |o0o(A) = |o0o(A, b). Lioo0tto, q o_oq |o0o(A) = n
oqoivti dimA(R
n
) = n, oott o tto tcv oiootootcv o oivti dimKei A = 0,
oqiooq Kei A = 0.
Yo0tott cto oti |o0o(A) = |o0o(A, b) = n. Tott, otcvo t to
oq,ottvo, to ototqo Ax = b _ti totio_iotov io itoq, xoi ov tivoi o
_co itotcv tot xoi x , tott io_tti = x + Kei A, otvtc = x, oqiooq
to ototqo _ti oxi|c io itoq.
Avtiotoo, ov to ,oixo ototqo Ax = b _ti oxi|c io itoq x, tott
= x, oott q o_oq = x+Kei A oivti Kei A = 0, otvtc, otcvo t tov
tto tcv oiootootcv, dimA(R
n
) = n, oo |o0o(A) = n.
6.3. H MLOOAOL AHAAO!dHL TOY GA\SS 83
!oioitto oqovtixq oti too, tivoi q titcoq ,oixcv ototqotcv
t ioio iq0o tiocotcv xoi o,vcotcv. Atoq oooio tot Aqoto 6.4 xoi tq
Hotootc 5.1 tivoi to oxoiot0o ootitoo, otcvo t to ooio vo ,oixo
ototqo Ax = b, oot A vo n n ivoxo, _ti io xoi ovo itoq oxi|c tott,
ov o A tivoi ovtiotqio ivoxo.
Hpotooq 6.5 Totc A cvc_ n n ivctc_ tci b R
n
. Totc to pcito oootc Ax = b
c,ci ctpic_ ic zoo, cv tci ovo cv o ivctc_ A civci cvtiotpc,io_.
6.3. H 0oo onootq tou Gauss
Aivott tco io oxtixq 0ooo tiitoq ,oixcv ototqotcv. Ao-
xoioot tq 0ooo ottq oxtixq, ,ioti ottq, xoi oioot ooiio, tq, oi
ooit _qoiooiotvtoi ,io io,ot ot otv tivoi otot oxoot ottcv tcv oq-
ticotcv vo tq,q0otv, _qoiooiotvtoi oit otqv oq, xtic ,io o_i oit
t,oio ,oixo ototqoto.
1otc A R
m,n
xoi b R
m
. To o|iqo ot o ooo_oiti tivoi vo oooio-
ioott ti itoti, oqiooq tov _co itotcv, tot ,oixot ototqoto Ax = b.
H 0ooo ooioiq tot Gauss oottititoi oo oto otooio, tqv tpicvooio
xoi tqv oio0ocpoo. Lto cto otooio ,oott to ototqo Ax = b ioootvoo
otq oq
(6.11) A
()
x = b
()
,
t xiioxcto ivoxo otvttitotcv A
()
=
_
a
()
ij
_
, ioioitto ioiov ttoiov cott
a
()
ij
= 0 ,io i > j, t min(m, n), xoi oto otttto otooio tiitott to ttitttoio
otto ototqo txivcvto oo tqv ttitttoio tiocoq xoi o_ccvto o to
ioc.
6.3.1. Tptyevonoqoq. Mt tot ot|oiioot ot _qoiooiqoot otqv oo-
otiq tq Hotooq 4.2, otqv ooio tiooiq0qxt to o tq ti,cvooiqoq ot
ooo tov ivoxo A xoi vti to o ot ooo to oiovtoo b, 0tott b
(1)
:= b,
xoi, xoto to |qo r, oiott to b
(r+1)
c tq, |i. tqv (4.4),
(6.12)
b
(r+1)
i
= b
(r)
i
, 1 i r,
b
(r+1)
i
= b
(r)
i
m
i
b
(r)
r
, r + 1 i m.
Kot ottov tov too, tto oo to oit min(m, n) 1 |qoto, to ototqo o
,ottoi otqv ti0tqtq oq (6.11).
6.3.2. Onto0opoqoq. Iio vo oiooiqoott tot ot|oiioot, ,oott to
ototqo (6.11) c Bx = c xoi tco o totqvo ivoxo (B, c) 0o tivoi tq o-
q
(B, c) =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
b
1j
1
. . . c
1
b
2j
2
. . . c
2
b
3j
3
. . . c
3
.
.
.
.
.
.
b
rj
r
. . . c
r
c
r+1
.
.
.
0 c
m
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
t b
1j
1
,= 0, . . . , b
rj
r
,= 0. Tco, o |o0o tot A tivoi r, xoi ttioq oi ivoxt (A, b)
xoi (B, c) _otv tov ioio |o0o, ottoivott ttxoio oti to vo _otv oi ivoxt
(A, b) xoi A tov ioio |o0o tivoi ioootvoo t to c
r+1
= = c
m
= 0.
Ltcvo t to Otcqo 6.1, o _co itotcv tot ,oixot ototqoto Ax = b
tivoi otvtc oxi|c tott q xtvo, ov c
r+1
= = c
m
= 0. Ltqv titcoq
r = m, otv toviovtoi xo0oiot to c
r+1
, . . . , c
m
, xoi, oc tioot oto Aqo 6.3,
to ototqo Ax = b _ti itoq ,io xo0t b R
m
.
Yo0tott tco oti c
r+1
= = c
m
= 0. Oc xoi otqv titcoq oo,t-
vcv ,oixcv ototqotcv, oi tto|iqt x
j
t j , j
1
, . . . , j
r
tivoi titt0tt
oottoi. Ho oiooiqoq tcv ot|oiiocv to0tott xoi ottq tq oo oti
j
1
= 1, . . . , j
r
= r. Iio vo oooioioott io tioixq itoq tot q oo,tvot ,oi-
xot ototqoto Ax = b, 0tott x
r+1
= = x
n
= 0. Ao tqv rotq tiocoq tot
Bx = c io|ovott tott b
rr
x
r
= c
r
, xoi oo toc toio,iott to x
r
. Hq,oivovto
tto o to ioc toio,iott to x
r1
, . . . , x
1
, xoi oivott otvoiixo io tioixq
itoq u = (x
1
, . . . , x
r
, 0, . . . , 0) tot Bx = c. Aot o ivoxo (B, c) oxttti oo tov
(A, b) tto oo ttoovot iq0ot otoi_ticoti ttoo_qotioot ,ocv,
to_ti vo ovtiotqio n n ivoxo S, ttoio cott (B, c) = S(A, b), oqiooq
(B, c) = (SA, Sb). Lovc _ott
Au = S
1
SAu = S
1
Bu = S
1
c = b,
6.3. H MLOOAOL AHAAO!dHL TOY GA\SS 85
oqiooq to u tivoi tioq itoq tot ,oixot ototqoto Ax = b.
Tco, t tq ,vcotq o 0ooo, toio,iott to _co itotcv
tot oo,tvot
,oixot ototqoto Ax = 0, oott o _co itotcv tot Ax = b tivoi = u+
.
Hcpccic 6.2 Otcott to q oo,tv ,oixo ototqo
(6.13)
_
_
x
1
2x
2
+ x
3
= 1
x
1
2x
2
x
4
= 2
x
3
+ x
4
= 1 .
Looovto otoi_ticoti ttoo_qotioot ,ocv otov totqvo ivoxo
ottot tot ,oixot ototqoto,
(A, b) =
_
_
_
1 2 1 0 1
1 2 0 1 2
0 0 1 1 1
_
_
_
,
io|ovott tot ivoxt
_
_
_
1 2 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
1 2 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
1 2 1 0 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
=: (B, c) .
Ltioq oi ivoxt (A, b) xoi A _otv tov ioio |o0o, 2 =: r, to ototqo Ax = b _ti
itoq. O _co itotcv _ti oiootooq oto, dim = n r = 4 2 = 2. Lioq
_ott j
1
= 1, j
2
= 3. Mt x
2
= x
4
= 0, _ott x
3
= 1 xoi x
1
= 1 x
3
= 2, oo
u = (2, 0, 1, 0) tivoi io itoq tot Ax = b.
Iio vo oooioioott to _co itotcv tot Ax = b, oooioiott cto to
_co itotcv
tot ovtiotoi_ot oo,tvot ,oixot ototqoto Ax = 0, q tot

ioootvoot o otto Bx = 0, oqiooq tot
(6.14)
x
1
2x
2
+ x
3
= 0
x
3
+ x
4
= 0 .
Mt x
2
=
1
xoi x
4
=
2
_ott x
3
=
2
xoi x
1
= 2
1
+
2
. O _co itotcv
tivoi
tovc q tixovo tq ,oixq otixovioq
G : R
2
R
4
(
1
,
2
) (2
1
+
2
,
1
,
2
,
2
) ,
q ooio tivoi vo o vo, oqiooq _ott tovc
=< G(1, 0), G(0, 1) >=< (2, 1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1, 1) > .

Ltvtc, o _co itotcv tot ,oixot ototqoto Ax = b oivttoi c tq
= u +
= (2, 0, 1, 0)+ < (2, 1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1, 1) > .

Mt oiio io,io, oi itoti tot ,oixot ototqoto (6.13) tivoi to oiovtooto
(2, 0, 1, 0) +
1
(2, 1, 0, 0) +
2
(1, 0, 1, 1) = (2 + 2
1
+
2
,
1
, 1
2
,
2
) ,
oot oi oottoi
1
xoi
2
oiot_otv oiot tot o,otixot oi0ot.
6.4. Aokqoct
6.1. Hoooioiott tot _cot itotcv tcv tq oo,tvcv ,oixcv ototqotcv
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
+ x
4
= 0
2x
1
x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
= 0
x
1
x
2
+ x
3
+ 2x
4
= 0 ,
_
_
x
1
+ 2x
2
x
3
= 0
2x
1
x
2
+ x
3
= 0
3x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
= 0 .
6.2. 1otc A = (a
ij
) R
n,n
vo oio,cvio ttto ivoxo, oqiooq ivoxo t
ototqo xtio_ixq oio,cvio, oqiooq ttoio cott
n
j=1
j=i
[a
ij
[ < [a
ii
[, i = 1, . . . , n.
Aootitt oti o A tivoi ovtiotqio, |i. Hotooq 5.2.
[Yocci_: Yo0ott oti to oo,tv ,oixo ototqo Ax = 0 _ti io q ttti-
vq itoq x, ot|oiiott t x
i
io xot ooitto tiq ,iotq otviotcoo tq, xoi
ooq,q0titt ot otoo.]
6.4. ALKHLL!L 87
6.3. 1otc
A :=
_
_
_
_
_
_
4 2 3 5 7
3 1 3 6 5
2 0 2 3 8
7 3 6 13 13
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
1_ti to ototqo Ax = b ,io xo0t b R
4
itoq;
6.4. Lttoott, _ci vo to itottt, xoto ooov to ,oixo ototqo
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
2 3 1 5
0 2 4 1
2 3 2 8
2 5 5 6
2 4 9 7
2 5 6 9
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
x
1
x
2
x
3
x
4
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
4
3
6
7
10
9
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_ti oxi|c io itoq.
6.5. o itottt, oqiooq vo oooioiottt to _co itotcv tot, to ,oixo ototq-
o
_
_
0x
1
+ x
2
+ 2x
4
x
5
4x
6
= 2
x
3
x
4
x
5
+ 2x
6
+ x
7
= 2
x
2
+ 2x
4
+ x
5
2x
6
= 2
x
3
x
4
+ 2x
6
x
7
= 1
x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
+ x
7
= 4 .
6.6. Hoooioiott ti ti tq ootot , ,io ti ooit to ototqo
5x + 2y z = 1
2x + 3y + 4z = 7
4x 5y + z = 5
_ti itoq. Iio ott ti ti tot , vo itottt to ,oixo ototqo, oqiooq vo
oooioiottt to _co itotcv tot.
6.7. 1otc A vo n n o,otixo, ovc ti,cvixo ivoxo t q qotvixo oio-
,cvio otoi_tio. Aootitt oti o A tivoi ovtiotqio, xoi oti o ovtiotoo tot
tivoi tioq ovc ti,cvixo ivoxo.
6.8. Aootitt tqv Hotooq 6.5.
6.9. Aootitt oti vo n n ivoxo A tivoi ovtiotqio, ov xoi ovo ov to
oo,tv ,oixo ototqo Ax = 0 _ti ovo tqv tttivq itoq, x = 0.
6.10. 1otc A xoi B oto n n o,otixoi ivoxt. Aootitt oti o ivoxo AB
tivoi ovtiotqio, ov xoi ovo ov xoi oi oto ivoxt Axoi B tivoi ovtiotqioi.
6.11. Mtittqott tq 0ooo ooioiq tot Gauss otqv tioixq, oiio ioioitto _q-
oiq oti too,, titcoq, oot to ,oixo ototqo _ti to ioio iq0o
tiocotcv xoi o,vcotcv xoi o ivoxo tot tivoi ovtiotqio.
6.12. Hoooioiott ti itoti tot ,oixot ototqoto
_
_
x
1
+ x
2
+ 2x
4
x
5
4x
6
= 3
x
3
x
4
x
5
+ x
6
+ x
7
= 0
x
2
2x
4
x
5
+ 2x
6
= 4
x
3
+ x
4
2x
6
x
7
= 1
x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
+ x
7
= 1 .
6.13. Hoot itoti _ti to ,oixo ototqo
_
_
15x
1
+ 5x
4
x
5
4x
6
= 0
20x
2
+ x
3
x
4
x
5
+ 2x
6
+ x
7
= 0
x
2
30x
3
+ 10x
4
+ x
5
2x
6
= 0
x
2
+ 25x
4
+ x
5
2x
6
= 0
x
3
x
4
+ 20x
5
+ 7x
6
x
7
= 0
x
3
x
4
+ 2x
5
+ 27x
6
x
7
= 0
2x
2
+ 4x
3
+ x
4
+ 19x
7
= 0 ;
6.14. Otcott vo oo,tv ,oixo ototqo t m tiocoti xoi n o,vcotot.
Yo0tott oti n > m. Aootitt oti q oiootooq tot _cot itotcv tot ototqo-
to tivoi totio_iotov n m.
7. Opouoc
Lt otto to xtoioio 0o tioo,o,ott vo oiio _qoio t,oitio tq Ioixq
Ai,t|o, tqv opi_ococ ttto,cvixot ivoxo. H oiotoo tivoi io otixovioq, q
ooio ovtiotoi_iti ot xo0t o,otixo ttto,cvixo ivoxo vov o,otixo oi0-
o. Oo tittqoott oioot ioiotqtt oiotocv, xoi 0o oott c t tq |oq0tio
tot oott vo ocoott io xoqq oootooq tq itoq tvo ,oixot ototq-
oto t ioio iq0o tiocotcv xoi o,vcotcv. !oioitto oqovtixo oio oiotv
oi oiotot ot o|iqoto ioioticv, 0o to ooio 0o o ooo_oiqoti oto vo-
to Ktoioio.
7.1. Optoo, nopq kot ovooqovto tq opouoo
Lt ottq tqv tvotqto 0o ocoott vov ,tvixo oioo tq oiotoo, 0o oott oti
xot ottov tov too q oiotoo tivoi xoio oiovq, xoi 0o ,vcioott oioot
ioiotqtt oiotocv.
Ko0t ivoxo A R
n,n
0o tov ot|oiiott xoi c
_
_
_
_
a
1
.
.
.
a
n
_
_
_
_
,
oot a
i
tivoi q iotq ,oq tot.
Opioo_ 7.1 1otc n vo toixo oi0o. Mio otixovioq del : R
n,n
R
i,ttoi opi_ococ (deleiminanl), ov io_totv:
D1 H del tivoi ,oixq c o xo0t ,oq. Avoittixotto otto oqoivti oti,
,io A R
n,n
xoi i 1, . . . , n, io_totv
89
90 7. OP!ZOYLLL
i. Av a
i
= a
i
+ a
i
, tott
del i
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
+ del
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
.
ii. Av a
i
= a
i
, tott
del
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
.
D2 Av oto ,o tot nn ivoxo A _ti oto ,o tot ioit, tott q oiotoo
tot tivoi qov, del A = 0.
D3 H oiotoo tot n n ovooioiot ivoxo ioottoi t tq ovooo, del I
n
= 1.
O oioo otv toooiiti, toixo, tqv toq tq oiotoo. Ltq otv_tio
0o oootiott toq xoi ovooixotqto, oqiooq oti to_ti oxi|c io otixo-
vioq t ti ioiotqtt D1, D2 xoi D3.
Lvttic ovoio,o ootv vo oio0otv oiotot xoi ,io ivoxt oo to K
n,n
,
oot K vo oco. Oi oiotot |ioxotv tq oqovtixottq too,q tot oto
o|iqoto ioioticv, t to ooio 0o oo_oiq0ott oto Ktoioio 9, oot xoi
0o _qoiooiqoott oiotot ,io i,ooixot ttto,cvixot ivoxt. Lioq oi
oiotot o oittxoitvotv vo oootqoott t xoqo too tq itoq ,oixcv
ototqotcv t to ioio iq0o tiocotcv xoi o,vcotcv, xoi ovtiotqio ivoxo
otvttitotcv.
Hiv o_cqoott otqv oootiq toq xoi ovooixotqto ,io oiotot,
oqticvott oiovt oi ioiotqt tot, oi ooit tivoi otoq oooio tot
oioot tcv oiotocv.
Aqo 7.1 Totc A R
n,n
,
A =
_
_
_
_
a
1
.
.
.
a
n
_
_
_
_
.
Totc io,oocv:
7.1. OP!LMOL, YHAPEH KA! MOOLHMATO THL OP!ZOYLAL 91
i. v cvtczz_occ coo pcc_ toc ivctc, totc opi_ococ czz_ci pooo,
del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
ii. v oc ic pc toc ivctc poo0coocc cvc ozzczoio ic_ zz_ pc_ toc,
opi_ococ cvci cvczzoict,
del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
+ a
j
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
iii. v o ivctc_ c,ci ic ccvit pc, totc opi_oco toc civci ccv, czcc cv
a
i
= 0 ic toio i 1, . . . , n, totc del A = 0.
iv. v ozzczcoioocc tov ivctc ci , totc opi_oco toc ozzczcoi_ctci ci
n
,
del (A) =
n
del A.
occi_.
i. 1_ott
del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
+ del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
+ del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
+ del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
+ del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
i
+ a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
+ del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
a
i
+ a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
+ a
j
.
.
.
a
i
+ a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= 0 ,
92 7. OP!ZOYLLL
oot otqv ctq iootqto _qoiooiqoot oto o tqv D2, otq ottttq xoi
otqv titq tqv D1 xoi otqv ttitttoio ovo tqv D2.
ii. 1_ott
del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
+ a
j
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
+ del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
+ del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
a
i
.
.
.
a
j
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
oot otqv ctq xoi otq ottttq iootqto _qoiooiqoot tqv D1 xoi otqv tt-
itttoio tqv D2.
iii. Iio vov q qotvixo o,otixo oi0o _ott
del
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
0
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
0
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
.
.
.
0
.
.
.
_
_
_
_
,
oot otq ottttq iootqto _qoiooiqoot tqv D1. To ootitoo tco ttoi
ooc oo ottq tq o_oq.
iv. Iio vov q qotvixo o,otixo oi0o _ott, _qoiooicvto tqv D1,
del (A) = del
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
a
2
.
.
.
a
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
a
2
.
.
.
a
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
= =
n
del
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
a
2
.
.
.
a
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
n
del A.
Opioo_ 7.2 1otc A = (a
ij
) R
n,n
vo ivoxo. O ivoxo A
ij
R
n1,n1
, o
ooio oxttti oo tov A ov oio,oqott tqv iotq ,oq tot xoi tqv jotq
otqiq tot, i,ttoi czoocv ivctc_ tot otoi_tiot a
ij
. tot otoi_tiot a
ij
. O c
ij
=
(1)
i+j
del A
ij
i,ttoi czcpito oczpcc q occpovtc_ tot a
ij
.
Ocepqo 7.1 Yp,ci ctpic_ ic ccitovio D : R
n,n
R, ooic itcvooici ti_
ocv0tc_ D1, D2 tci D3.
occi_.
cp_. Otcott vo tt_oio, oiio oto0to otq otv_tio, j 1, . . . , n, xoi
oiott ovoooixo tqv otixovioq
del : R
n,n
R
A = (a
ik
) R
n,n
i=1
a
ij
(1)
i+j
del A
ij
,
t del (a) := a, ,io 1 1 ivoxt t otoi_tio vov o,otixo oi0o a. Oo oooti-
ott tco, to,c,ixo c o n, oti q del ixovooiti ti otv0qxt D1, D2 xoi D3.
Iio n = 2,
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
,
xoi j 1, 2, _ott del A = a
11
a
22
a
12
a
21
, xoi oioiotcvott ooc oti q del
_ti ti ioiotqtt D1, D2 xoi D3.
Lto to,c,ixo |qo to0tott oti q del _ti ti ioiotqtt D1, D2 xoi D3 ,io
n 1, xoi 0o oootiott oti _ti ott ti ioiotqtt xoi ,io n. Mt
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
.
.
.
a
m
.
.
.
a
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
xoi B =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m
a
m+1
.
.
.
a
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
oto0to o,otixo oi0o, _ott
94 7. OP!ZOYLLL
(7.1)
del B =
n
i=1
b
ij
(1)
i+j
del B
ij
= b
mj
(1)
m+j
del B
mj
+
n
i=1
i=m
b
ij
(1)
i+j
del B
ij
.
Tco, b
mj
= a
mj
, del B
mj
= del A
mj
, xoi, otcvo t tqv to0toq tq to,c,q,
del B
ij
= del A
ij
, i ,= m. Lovc q (7.1) oivti
del B =
_
a
mj
(1)
m+j
del A
mj
+
n
i=1
i=m
a
ij
(1)
i+j
del A
ij
= del A.
1otc tco
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
.
.
.
a
m
.
.
.
a
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
, B =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
.
.
.
a
m1
b
m
a
m+1
.
.
.
a
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
xoi C =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
.
.
.
a
m1
a
m
+ b
m
a
m+1
.
.
.
a
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Tott io_tti
(7.2)
del C =
n
i=1
c
ij
(1)
i+j
del C
ij
= c
mj
(1)
m+j
del C
mj
+
n
i=1
i=m
c
ij
(1)
i+j
del C
ij
.
Tco, c
mj
= a
mj
+ b
mj
, del C
mj
= del A
mj
= del B
mj
, c
ij
= a
ij
, ,io i ,= m, xoi,
otcvo t tqv to0toq tq to,c,q, del C
ij
= del A
ij
+del B
ij
. Lovc q (7.2)
oivti
del C = (a
mj
+ b
mj
)(1)
m+j
del A
mj
+
n
i=1
i=m
a
ij
(1)
i+j
_
del A
ij
+ del B
ij
_
=
n
i=1
a
ij
(1)
i+j
del A
ij
+
n
i=1
b
ij
(1)
i+j
del B
ij
= del A+ del B.
Ltvtc, _i tco otiot oti q del ixovooiti tqv D1 xoi ,io n.
1otc
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
1
.
.
.
a
.
.
.
a
m
.
.
.
a
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
R
n,n
vo ivoxo t oto ioit ,o, a
= a
m
. Tott del A =
n
i=1
a
ij
(1)
i+j
del A
ij
.
Tco, ,io i ,= , m, oi ivoxt A
ij
tivoi (n1) (n1) xoi _otv oto ,o ioit,
oo, otcvo t tqv to0toq tq to,c,q, del A
ij
= 0 ,io i ,= , m. Lovc
_ott
(7.3)
del A = a
j
(1)
+j
del A
j
+ a
mj
(1)
m+j
del A
mj
= a
j
(1)
+j
_
del A
j
+ (1)
m
del A
mj
.
O ivoxo A
mj
oxttti oo tov A
j
, ov tq ,oq tot tqv ovtoiioott cto
t tqv + 1, tto t tqv + 2, xoi ottc xo0 tq, xoi, tio t tqv m 1, oo
del A
mj
= (1)
(m1)
del A
j
, xoi q (7.3) oivti del A = 0. Ltvtc q del ixovooiti
tqv D2 xoi ,io n.
Tio, ,io A = I
n
_ott, io|ovovto t oqiv to ,t,ovo oti a
ij
= 0 ,io i ,= j
xoi tv otvt_tio to oti a
ii
= 1 xoi tqv to,c,ixq to0toq,
del I
n
=
n
i=1
a
ij
(1)
i+j
del A
ij
= 1 (1)
i+i
del I
n1
= 1 ,
96 7. OP!ZOYLLL
oqiooq q del ixovooiti xoi tqv D3 xoi ,io n.
Movccitottc. 1otc oti oi otixovioti D, D
: R
n,n
R ixovooiotv xoi
ti tti otv0qxt D1, D2 xoi D3. Oo oootiott oti D = D
. Otott ioiov
:= D D
xoi oxti vo oootiott oti (A) = 0 ,io xo0t ivoxo A R

n,n
. Av
e
1
, . . . , e
n
q xovovixq |ooq tot R
n
, tott q iotq ,oq a
i
tot ivoxo A,ottoi
otq oq
a = (a
i1
, . . . , a
in
) =
n
j=1
a
ij
e
j
.
H tivoi ,oixq c o ti ,o tot A, c oiooo tcv D xoi D
,io ti
ooit to0oot oti _otv ottq tqv ioiotqto. Lovc _ott
(7.4)
(A) =
_
_
_
_
n
j
1
=1
a
1j
1
e
j
1
.
.
.
n
j
n
=1
a
nj
n
e
j
n
_
_
_
_
=
n
j
1
=1
a
1j
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
e
j
1
n
j
2
=1
a
2j
2
e
j
2
.
.
.
n
j
n
=1
a
1j
n
e
j
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
= =
=
n
j
1
,j
2
,...,j
n
=1
a
1j
1
a
2j
2
a
nj
n
_
_
_
_
e
j
1
.
.
.
e
j
n
_
_
_
_
.
Tco, ov oto oo tot otixtt j
1
, . . . , j
n
tivoi iooi, tott oovc
(7.5i)
_
_
_
_
e
j
1
.
.
.
e
j
n
_
_
_
_
= 0 ,
oot oi D, D
_otv ottq tqv ioiotqto.

Av oi otixtt j
1
, . . . , j
n
tivoi ovo oto oioottixoi ttot tot, tott, txivcvto
oo tov ivoxo
_
_
_
_
e
j
1
.
.
.
e
j
n
_
_
_
_
,
oott t m, m n, tvoiio, ,ocv vo ooq,q0ott otov ovooioio ivoxo
I
n
,
I
n
=
_
_
_
_
e
1
.
.
.
e
n
_
_
_
_
,
oott, oot ot xo0t tvoiio,q ,ocv oiiootv to ooqo tcv D xoi D
, otvt-
c xoi tq , 0o _ott
(7.5ii)
_
_
_
_
e
j
1
.
.
.
e
j
n
_
_
_
_
= (1)
m
(I
n
) = (1)
m
_
D(I
n
) D
(I
n
)
_
= (1)
m
_
1 1
_
= 0 .
Ao|ovovto tco t oqiv tqv (7.5), q (7.4) oivti ooc (A) = 0, ,io xo0t A
R
n,n
, otvtc D = D
.
Lttoootixo, ioiov, otcvo t to oq,ottvo, q oiotoo tvo n n
ivoxo A oittoi, to,c,ixo c o n, c tq: Iio n = 1 xoi A = (a) 0tott
del A := a, xoi ,io n > 1, t vo tt_oio j 1, . . . , n, 0tott
(7.6) del A :=
n
i=1
a
ij
(1)
i+j
del A
ij
,
oot A
ij
tivoi o tiooocv ivoxo tot otoi_tiot a
ij
, oqiooq o (n1)(n1) ivoxo
ot oxttti oo tov A, ov oio,oqott tqv iotq ,oq tot xoi tqv jotq
otqiq tot. H o_oq (7.6) i,ttoi ovott,o tq oiotoo c o tq otqiq j.
To ,t,ovo oti to to,otvo tivoi ovtotqto tot j, tivoi otoq oooio tot
Otcqoto 6.1.
Aivott tco vo |oq0qtixo ootitoo, oti xo0t ovtiotqio ivoxo o-
ti vo ovoit0ti ot ,ivotvo otoi_ticocv ivoxcv, to ooio 0o _qoiooiqoott
otqv oootiq tq totvq Hotooq.
Aqo 7.2 Totc A R
n,n
cvc_ cvtiotpc,io_ ivctc_. Totc cp,ci cvc_ coito_
cpi0o_ r tci otoi,ciccci_ ivctc_ E
1
, . . . , E
r
tctoioi cotc
(7.7) A = E
1
E
r
.
occi_. Ivciott qoq oti tov ivoxo A oti xovti, t xotoiiqiot tto-
o_qotioot ,ocv, oqiooq t oiioiooiooo oo oiotto t ivoxt tq
98 7. OP!ZOYLLL
oq S
i
(), Q
j
i
, vo tov ttotqti ot ovc ti,cvixo ivoxo t q qotvixo oio-
,cvio otoi_tio, oott
E
1
E
s
A = B =
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
. . .
2
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Tco,
S
1
(
1
1
) S
n
(
1
n
)B =

B =
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 . . .
1 . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Mt xotoiiqiot ttoo_qotioot ,ocv, oiioiooioovto t titiv tqv
ttitttoio ,oq t xotoiiqiot oi0ot xoi ooicvto oo xo0t io oo ti
oq,ottvt ,o toi cott vo qotviototv oio to otoi_tio tq ttitttoio
otqiq txto oo to ttitttoio xoi o_ccvto ovtiotoi_o o to ioc, oot-
t vo ttt_ott to tq
E
1

E
q

B = I
n
.
Ltvotoovto to oq,ottvo xotoiq,ott oto ootitoo
E
1

E
q
S
1
(
1
1
) S
n
(
1
n
)E
1
E
s
A = I
n
.
To ootitoo tco oxttti ooc oiioiooioovto oo to oiotto cto
t (

E
1
)
1
, tv otvt_tio t (

E
2
)
1
, xoi ottc xo0 tq, xoi tio t (E
s
)
1
, xoi io-
|ovovto t oqiv to ,t,ovo oti oioi oi ivoxt t tot ooiot oiioiooiooot
tivoi otoi_ticoti.
Oiovt oiit _qoit ioiotqtt oiotocv oivovtoi otqv oxoiot0q Ho-
tooq.
Hpotooq 7.1 Totc A R
n,n
. Totc io,oocv:
i. v o A civci vc tpicvito_ ivctc_, czcc a
ij
= 0 ic i > j, ootc pctci ot
op
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
. . .
2
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
totc opi_oco toc civci to ivocvo tcv ciccvicv otoi,cicv toc A, czcc del A =
1

n
.
ii. v a
1
, . . . , a
n
civci oi pcc_ toc A, totc opi_ococ toc A civci ccv, cv tci ovo cv
tc cicvooctc a
1
, . . . , a
n
civci pcit c_cptcvc.
iii. Tvc_ tctpccvito_ ivctc_ civci cvtiotpc,io_, cv tci ovo cv opi_oco toc ccv
civci ccv.
iv. H opi_ococ toc ivocvoc coo n n ivtcv ioootci c to ivocvo tcv opi_ococv
tcv coo ivtcv. Eicitotcpc, cv A civci cvc_ cvtiotpc,io_ ivctc_, totc opi_ococ
toc cvtiotpooc toc, del A
1
, ioootci c tov cvtiotpoo t_ opi_ococ_ toc A, del A
1
=
1/del A.
v. H opi_ococ toc cvotpooc cvo_ ivctc ioootci c tv opi_ococ toc ivctc, del A
T
=
del A.
occi_.
i. H oootiq ,ivttoi to,c,ixo c o n. Iio n = 2 q o_oq tivoi oovq
xoi, ov ot_0ott oti io_tti ,io n 1 xoi ovottott tqv n n oiotoo c o
tqv ctq otqiq, oott ovo o cto oo tivoi q qotvixo xoi _ott io
(n 1) (n 1) oiotoo tq ioio oq, oioiotcvott ooc oti q o_oq
io_tti xoi ,io n.
ii. Mt xotoiiqiot ttoo_qotioot ,ocv tcv ocv iii. xoi iv., |i. tqv
Hotooq 4.2, oo tov ivoxo A oxttti vo ovc ti,cvixo ivoxo B,
B =
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
. . .
2
. . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Av ,ivotv mttoo_qotiooi tq oq iv., tott _ott del A = (1)
m
del B, to-
vc, otcvo t to i., del A = (1)
m
1

n
. Yo0tovto tco oti q del A tivoi
100 7. OP!ZOYLLL
oioottixq tot qotvo, ,t,ovo ot oqoivti oti oio to
i
tivoi q qotvixo,
oqi. o |o0o tot B, otvtc xoi tot A, c o ti ,o tivoi n, ottoivot-
t oti to oiovtooto a
1
, . . . , a
n
tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto. Ao,ixo ioootvoo t
otto tivoi to ,t,ovo oti q oiotoo tot A qotvittoi, ov xoi ovo ov to a
1
, . . . , a
n
tivoi ,oixo totqvo.
iii. Ltcvo t tqv Hotooq 5.1, vo ttto,cvixo nn ivoxo Ativoi ovtiot-
qio, ov xoi ovo ov o |o0o tot A c o ti otqit tivoi n. Ltcvo t to ii.,
oc, q oiotoo tot A tivoi oioottixq tot qotvo, ov xoi ovo ov o |o0o
tot c o ti ,o tivoi n. Ltioq oi |o0oi tot A c o ti ,o xoi c
o ti otqit tottiovtoi, ottoivott oti q oiotoo tot A otv tivoi qov,
ov xoi ovo ov o A tivoi ovtiotqio.
iv. Aootixvtott xot o_qv ottq tqv ioiotqto otqv titcoq ot o A tivoi
otoi_ticoq ivoxo. Kotoiv _qoiooiott otto to ootitoo ,io vo ooq,q-
0ott oto ootitoo otq ,tvixq titcoq.
1otc ioiov E S
i
(), Q
j
i
, (Q
j
i
)
1
, |i. ti (6.3) xoi (6.4) ,io to ot|oiioo.
Ltcvo t to i. io_tti tott del S
i
() = xoi del Q
j
i
= 1. Lioo0tto
del
_
S
i
()B
_
= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
b
1
.
.
.
b
i1
b
i
b
i+1
.
.
.
b
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
b
1
.
.
.
b
i1
b
i
b
i+1
.
.
.
b
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= del B,
xoi, otcvo t ti D1 xoi D2,
del
_
Q
j
i
B
_
= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
b
1
.
.
.
b
i1
b
i
+ b
j
b
i+1
.
.
.
b
j
.
.
.
b
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
b
1
.
.
.
b
i1
b
i
b
i+1
.
.
.
b
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
= del B
oxi|c ovtiotoi_o oootixvtttoi oti

del
_
(Q
j
i
)
1
B
_
= del B.
To oxotoxtixo o ootitoo tivoi ioiov oti
(7.8) del
_
EB
_
= del Edel B,
otov o E tivoi otoi_ticoq ivoxo. Av tco o ivoxo A tivoi ovtiotqio,
oott, otcvo t to Aqo 7.2, ,ottoi c ,ivotvo otoi_ticocv ivoxcv otq
oq (7.7), _qoiooicvto to oxotoxtixo o ootitoo _ott
del (AB) = del (E
1
E
r
B)
= del E
1
del (E
2
E
r
B)
= del E
1
del E
2
del E
r
del B
= del (E
1
E
r
)del B = del Adel B.
Tio, ov o A otv tivoi ovtiotqio, tott, otcvo t tqv iii., del Adel B = 0.
Lioq, dimA(R
n
) < n, otvtc, |o0o (AB) = dimAB(R
n
) dimA(R
n
) < n,
oott del (AB) = 0.
v. 1otc xot o_qv oti o A tivoi ovtiotqio, oott ,ottoi c ,ivotvo otoi-
_ticocv ivoxcv, A = E
1
E
r
. Ltioq oovc io_tti del E
T
i
= del E
i
, _qoio-
oicvto to iv. _ott
del A = del E
1
del E
r
= del E
T
1
del E
T
r
= del (E
T
r
E
T
1
) = del (E
1
E
r
)
T
= del A
T
.
102 7. OP!ZOYLLL
Av o A otv tivoi ovtiotqio, tott o |o0o tot A c o ti ,o, otvtc
xoi o |o0o tot A
T
c o ti otqit, tivoi ixotto tot n, otvtc xoi o A
T
otv tivoi ovtiotqio, oott del A = del A
T
= 0.
Xqoiooicvto to ,t,ovo oti q oiotoo tot ovootoot tvo ivoxo ioot-
toi t tqv oiotoo tot ivoxo, tivoi ttxoio vo oioiotcoott oti q oiotoo tivoi
,oixq xoi c o ti otqit tvo ivoxo, |i. tqv Aoxqoq 7.5. Attq q ioiotqto
0o _qoiooiq0ti otqv totvq tvotqto.
7.2. Ynooytoo optouoev kot copoy
Lt ottq tqv tvotqto 0o ,vcioott toot toio,ioot oiotocv, xo0c
xoi tot ovtiotoot tvo ivoxo, xoi 0o ocoott xoq oootooti tooo tot
ovtiotoot tvo ivoxo ooo xoi tq itoq tvo ,oixot ototqoto, t ioio
iq0o tiocotcv xoi o,vcotcv, t tq |oq0tio oiotocv.
1otc
A =
_
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
_
.
Tott xot tt0tiov oo tov oioo tq oiotoo io|ovott del A = a
11
a
22
a
21
a
12
.
Iio
A =
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
31
a
32
a
33
_
_
_
,
_qoiooicvto tov oioo tq oiotoo, _ott
del A = a
11
del
_
a
22
a
23
a
32
a
33
_
a
21
del
_
a
12
a
13
a
32
a
33
_
+ a
31
del
_
a
12
a
13
a
22
a
23
_
,
oqiooq
(7.9) del A = a
11
a
22
a
33
a
11
a
23
a
32
a
11
a
21
a
33
+ a
13
a
21
a
33
+ a
31
a
12
a
23
a
31
a
22
a
13
.
7.2. YHOAOI!LMOL OP!ZOYLQ KA! LdAPMOILL 103
To ootitoo (7.9) oxttti xoi t tov it,otvo tcvovc toc Sarrus, oqiooq c
tq: Lovoio|ovott ti oto ctt otqit tot ivoxo tto tqv titq otqiq,
+ + +
a
11
a
12
a
13
a
11
a
12
a
21
a
22
a
23
a
21
a
22
a
31
a
32
a
33
a
31
a
32

xoi o_qotiott to ,ivotvo tcv ticv oio,cvicv oo ovc oiotto o to
xotc otio, t 0ttixo ooqo, xoi tcv ticv oio,cvicv oo xotc oiotto o
to ovc otio, t ovqtixo ooqo, oc oivttoi ovctc, xoi oivott to
o0oioo tcv i ocv ot oxttotv. H oqooio tot xovovo tot Saiius tioi-
ttoi oo to ,t,ovo oti otv to_ti ,tvixttoq tq ,io t,oittto n, n > 3.
Iio ,tvixo n, vo too toio,ioot io oiotoo oivttoi xot tt0tiov oo
tov oioo tq. O too otto tivoi ooovqo, ooitti oii oti. 1vo
oiio, ttxoiotto xoi oixovoixotto too, tivoi vo ttotqott tov i-
voxo A, t xotoiiqiot ttoo_qotioot ,ocv tq oq iii. xoi iv., ot
vov ,oooootvoo tot ovc ti,cvixo ivoxo B, vo _qoiooiqoott tq o_-
oq del A = (1)
m
del B, otov ,ivovtoi m ttoo_qotiooi tq oq iv., xoi vo
toio,ioott tqv oiotoo tot B c ,ivotvo tcv oio,cvicv otoi_ticv tot. Ltqv
otoio, oqiooq, tiooiott to o tq ti,cvooiqoq otq 0ooo ooioiq
tot Gauss ot ovottoi otov ivoxo A xoi toio,iott tqv oiotoo tot ovc
ti,cvixot ivoxo ot oxttti.
7.2.1. Ynooytoo tou ovttotpoou cvo nvoko. 1otc A vo n n ovtiot-
qio ivoxo. Av e
1
, . . . , e
n
tivoi q xovovixq |ooq tot R
n
, _qoiooiott ovc
otixtt ,ioti 0tcott to oiovtooto c otqit, xoi
u
j
=
_
_
_
_
u
1j
.
.
.
u
nj
_
_
_
_
, j = 1, . . . , n,
oi itoti tcv ,oixcv ototqotcv
(7.10) Au
j
= e
j
, j = 1, . . . , n,
104 7. OP!ZOYLLL
tott _ott
(7.11) A(u
1
, . . . , u
n
) = (Au
1
, . . . , Au
n
) = (e
1
, . . . , e
n
) = I
n
,
otvtc o ivoxo (u
1
, . . . , u
n
) tivoi o ovtiotoo tot A. To ototqoto (7.10) o-
otv vo it0otv, t titiv, t tq 0ooo ooioiq tot Gauss. dtoixo q 0ooo
toottoi totto_ovo ,io oio to ototqoto, oot otto _otv tov ioio ivoxo
otvttitotcv. Atto tivoi o,otixo vo too ot _qoiooititoi xoi otqv
oq, ti tio_iott o ot _tiottoi ovtc o ovtiotoo tvo ivoxo.
1vo oiio too ovtiotoq ivoxo, t tq |oq0tio oiotocv, o ooio o
oivti tov ovtiotoo ivoxo ot xoqq oq, xotoiiqio ovo ,io 0tcqtixot
oxoot oot to tt|oiixo tqqio xooto tot xo0ioto tq _qoq tot oo,ottti-
xq ,io tqv oq, tivoi o tq: 1otc A = (a
ij
) R
n,n
vo ivoxo xoi C = (c
ij
)
R
n,n
, oot c
ij
to oi,t|ixo otiqco tot otoi_tiot a
ji
, c
ij
= (1)
i+j
del A
ji
. Oo
oootiott oti
CA = AC = (del A)I
n
,
oott, toixo, 0o _ott
(7.12) A
1
=
1
del A
C.
Otott D := CA, D = (d
ij
). Tott
d
ij
=
n
=1
c
i
a
j
=
n
=1
a
j
(1)
i+
del A
i
=
n
=1
a
j
del (a
1
, . . . , a
i1
, e
, a
i+1
, . . . , a
n
).
H ttitttoio iootqto oxttti ttxoio, ov ovottti xovti tqv ttitttoio oiot-
oo c o tqv iotq tq otqiq. Lovc, io,ctq ,oixotqto tq oiotoo
c o ti otqit, _ott
d
ij
= del (a
1
, . . . , a
i1
,
n
=1
a
j
e
, a
i+1
, . . . , a
n
)
= del (a
1
, . . . , a
i1
, a
j
, a
i+1
, . . . , a
n
) =
ij
del A,
oqiooq CA = (del A)I
n
, xoi oo toc oxttti ooc to qtottvo.
7.2. YHOAOI!LMOL OP!ZOYLQ KA! LdAPMOILL 105
Opioo_ 7.3 1otc A = (a
ij
) R
n,n
. O ivoxo C = (c
ij
) R
n,n
, oot c
ij
tivoi to
oi,t|ixo otiqco tot a
ji
, i,ttoi poocptcvo_ tot A, xoi ot|oiittoi t
adj A.
Ltcvo t tov ooovc oioo, q (7.12) ,ottoi tco otq oq
(7.13) A
1
=
1
del A
adj A.
7.2.2. Enuoq ypotko ouotqoto c tq 0oo tou Cramer. 1otc A vo
n n ovtiotqio ivoxo. Iio tq itoq x tvo ,oixot ototqoto Ax = b,
,io tqv ooio, toixo, io_tti x = A
1
b, 0o _ott, otcvo t tqv (7.13),
_
_
_
_
x
1
.
.
.
x
n
_
_
_
_
=
1
del A
adj A
_
_
_
_
b
1
.
.
.
b
n
_
_
_
_
,
oqiooq
x
i
=
1
del A
n
j=1
(1)
i+j
del (A
ji
)b
j
, i = 1, . . . , n,
xoi t A
i
:= (a
1
, . . . , a
i1
, b, a
i+1
, . . . , a
n
) ottq q o_oq ,ottoi otq oq
(7.14) x
i
=
del A
i
del A
, i = 1, . . . , n.
O ioioitto xoqo otto too oootooq tq itoq tvo ,oixot ototq-
oto i,ttoi c0oco_ toc Craner. H 0ooo ottq tivoi oit _qoiq ,io 0tc-
qtixot oxoot, otv ti oc vo _qoiooititoi ot otqv oq io,c tot
tt|oiixo t,oiot xootot tiooiqoq tq, to ooio otiittoi oti oii o-
ti ot ooitotvtoi.
Ltioq q oq,ottvq ootqqoq o o_ttixo t to t,oio xooto tiooiq-
oq tq t0ooot tot Ciamei oti vo 0tcq0ti tt|oiixq, ovoott to tq:
Lt oii too, _tiottoi vo tiitoott ,oixo ototqoto t _iiioot
o,vcotot. A to0oott oti _ott vo itoott vo ixo ,oixo ototqo, t
ovo tixooi o,vcotot. Mt tq 0ooo ooioiq tot Gauss oti otto vo ,ivti t
vov toio,iotq ot _iiiooto tot ottttoitot. Oc, q tiooiqoq tq t0ooot
tot Ciamei, oxoq xoi t tot to_tttot oqtivot toio,iot, ov toio,i-
oott ti oiotot otqv (7.14) t to ovott,oto oc oiotqxov oto Otcqo
7.1, 0o ooitotot oiiot oicvt ,io vo ttoio ,oixo ototqo!
106 7. OP!ZOYLLL
7.3. Aokqoct
7.1. Iio o,otixot oi0ot t xoi s, oootitt oti
del
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 t s 1
1 t t t
t 1 ts s
t t ts 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
= (t 1)(t s)(1 ts) .
Oo ootoott, _ci vo xovttt tot toio,ioot, vo ovtqttt oti to to,o-
tvo ti_ti xo0vov oo tot oto ctot oo,ovtt ot oivovtoi ovctc;
7.2. Otcott o,otixot oi0ot t
1
, . . . , t
n
. Aootitt oti
del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 . . . 1
t
1
t
2
. . . t
n
t
2
1
t
2
2
. . . t
2
n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
t
n1
1
t
n1
2
. . . t
n1
n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
1i<jn
(t
j
t
i
) .
Oiotot ottq tq oq xoiotvtoi opi_ococ_ toc 1andernonde.
[Yocci_: Otov oto oo to t
1
, . . . , t
n
tivoi ioo, q oiotoo _ti oto ioit otqit,
otvtc qotvittoi. 1otc ioiov oti to t
1
, . . . , t
n
tivoi ovo oto oioottixo t-
tot tot. Otott otqv ovctc oiotoo t
n
= t xoi oiott to oitcvto p c
tq
() p(t) := del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 . . . 1
t
1
t
2
. . . t
t
2
1
t
2
2
. . . t
2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
t
n1
1
t
n1
2
. . . t
n1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Hoovc, to p tivoi oitcvto |o0ot to oit n1 xoi to t
1
, . . . , t
n1
tivoi it
tot p. Ltvtc, to p ,ottoi otq oq p(t) = c
n
(t t
1
)(t t
2
) (t t
n1
) xoi o
7.3. ALKHLL!L 107
t,ioto|o0io otvttitotq tot c
n
oivttoi oo tq o_oq
() c
n
:= del
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 . . . 1
t
1
t
2
. . . t
n1
t
2
1
t
2
2
. . . t
2
n1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
t
n2
1
t
n2
2
. . . t
n2
n1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Tco to ootitoo tivoi tttivo ,io n = 2, xoi, to0tovto oti oiq0ttti ,io
n 1, oo ti () xoi () ottoivott ooc oti oiq0ttti xoi ,io n.]
Loo,q: Yoio,iott ti oiotot tcv ivoxcv
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 1 1
2 3 1 4 5
4 9 1 16 25
8 27 1 64 125
16 81 1 256 625
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 1 1
x y z
x
2
y
2
z
2
2
x
3
y
3
z
3
3
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
7.3. 1otc a
1
, . . . a
n
q qotvixoi o,otixoi oi0oi, ovo oto oioooi ttot
tot. Aootitt oti q ovq itoq tot ,oixot ototqoto
_
_
a
1
x
1
+ a
2
x
2
+ + a
n
x
n
= 0
a
2
1
x
1
+ a
2
2
x
2
+ + a
2
n
x
n
= 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n
1
x
1
+ a
n
2
x
2
+ + a
n
n
x
n
= 0
tivoi q tttivq.
7.4. Xqoiooiqott tqv Hotooq 7.1, ,io vo oiooiqottt tqv oootiq tq
Aoxqoq 6.10.
7.5. Xqoiooiqott to ,t,ovo oti q oiotoo tot ovootoot tvo ivoxo ioot-
toi t tqv oiotoo tot ivoxo, ,io vo oootittt ioiotqtt tq oiotoo ,io ti
otqit ovoio,t t txtivt ,io ti ,o. Lioixotto oootitt to tq:
i. H oiotoo tivoi ,oixq c o xo0t otqiq.
ii. Av vo n n ivoxo _ti oto otqit iot, tott q oiotoo tot tivoi qov.
108 7. OP!ZOYLLL
iii. Av ovtoiioott oto otqit tvo ivoxo, tott q oiotoo tot oiioti o-
oqo.
iv. Av ot io otqiq tvo ivoxo oo0oott vo oiioiooio io oiiq
otqiq, tott q oiotoo vti ovoiioictq.
v. Av vo n n ivoxo _ti io qotvixq otqiq, tott q oiotoo tot tivoi
qov.
vi. Av a
1
, . . . , a
n
tivoi oi otqit tvo nn ivoxo A, tott q oiotoo tot A tivoi
qov, ov xoi ovov ov to oiovtooto a
1
, . . . , a
n
tivoi ,oixo totqvo.
7.6. Acott io itoq tq Aoxqoq 6.7 t tq |oq0tio oiotocv xoi tq t0ooot tot
Ciamei.
[Yocci_: Hootqqott oti o ivoxo A
i
:= (a
1
, . . . , a
i1
, e
j
, a
i+1
, . . . , a
n
) tivoi, ,io
i > j, ovc ti,cvixo xoi to otoi_tio tot otq 0oq (i, i) tivoi qov, otvtc xoi q
oiotoo tot tivoi ioq t qov.]
7.7. Hoooioiott ti itoti tot ,oixot ototqoto
_
_
x
1
+ x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
+ x
5
= 0
x
1
+ 2x
2
+ 4x
3
+ 8x
4
+ 16x
5
= 0
x
1
+ 3x
2
+ 9x
3
+ 27x
4
+ 81x
5
= 0
x
1
+ 4x
2
+ 16x
3
+ 64x
4
+ 256x
5
= 0
x
1
+ 5x
2
+ 25x
3
+ 125x
4
+ 625x
5
= 0
7.8. 1otc x, y, z, u, v xoi w o,otixoi oi0oi. Hoooioiott tqv oiotoo tot
ivoxo
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 1 z 1 u
2
v 1
x y z
2
1 u
4
v
3
w
2
x
2
y
2
z
3
1 u
6
v
5
w
4
x
3
y
3
z
4
1 u
8
v
7
w
6
x
4
y
4
z
5
1 u
10
v
9
w
8
x
5
y
5
z
6
1 u
12
v
11
w
10
x
6
y
6
z
7
1 u
14
v
13
w
12
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
8. Xepot c Eoetcptko Itvocvo
To tioootto oo to _i tco oottiooto oiottc0qxov ,io o,oti-
xot ,oixot _cot, ootv oc ttxoio vo ,tvixtt0otv ,io _cot ovc
ot vo tt_ov oco K. To oottiooto ottot tot xtoioiot io_totv, ovo ov to
oco tivoi titt to oco tcv o,otixcv oi0cv R titt to oco tcv i,ooixcv
oi0cv C. Oo ot|oiiott ioiov toc to oco t K xoi 0o tvvoott ovto titt
oti K = R titt oti K = C.
Lt otto to xtoioio 0o tioo,o,ott oioot _qoit vvoit, tvttic oio-
ottix oo ott ot _qoiooiqoot _i tco. Kot o_qv 0o tioo,o,ot-
t tqv vvoio tq voo, io ,tvixttoq tq ooittq tiq o,otixcv oi0cv
ot ,oixot _cot, q ooio ovtiotoi_iti ot xo0t oiovtoo vov q ovqtixo
oi0o xoi o titti toi vo ttot to ,t0o tvo oiovtooto. Yo-
_otv oiioi tooi vo oioti xovti vot ioioitto tt_qott tivoi oi vot
ot oo,ovtoi oo vo tocttixo ,ivotvo, ,iotto xoi ot oio otto to xtoioio
0o oo_oiq0ott t ttoiot _cot. Oo tittqoott oioot ioiotqtt ottcv
tcv _ccv xoi 0o oott oti oiovo o|iqoto |itiotq oo,,ioq ootv
ot ttoiot _cot vo it0otv oit ttxoio, tvc otto otv tivoi ,tvixo ocoto otov
q voo otv oo,ttoi oo tocttixo ,ivotvo.
8.1. H vvoto tou epou c coetcptko ytvocvo
Mio otvototqto ,io vo ttot qxq oiovtootcv o vov ,oixo _co o
oivttoi t tqv tioo,c,q tq vvoio tq voo. H voo oottiti ,tvixttoq tq
ooittq tiq ,io o,otixot oi0ot. Lt ottq tqv tvotqto 0o tioo,o,ott
tqv vvoio tot tocttixot ,ivovot xoi 0o oott oiovt ioiotqtt vocv ot
oo,ovtoi oo tocttixo ,ivotvo.
Opioo_ 8.1 1otc X vo K,oixo _co t K = R q K = C. Mio otixovi-
oq
109
110 8. XQPO! ML LLQTLP!KO I!OMLO
| | : X R
x |x| ,
i,ttoi vopc (ot0, norn), ov io_totv:
(1) x X |x| = 0 x = 0
(2) K x X |x| = [[ |x|
(3) x, y X |x + y| |x| +|y| (ti,cvixq oviootqto).
Av ot vov K,oixo _co oio0ti io voo, tott otto i,ttoi ,cpo_ c
vopc q otc0to_ ,cpo_.
2cico. Ltq o_oq (2) _qoiooiott, ,io K, tqv ooitto tiq tot ,
vvoio ot oittoi ovo ,io o,otixot q ,io i,ooixot oi0ot.
Hcpctpoci_ 8.1
(i) Ao to oicoto tq voo ttoi oti ,io x X io_tti |x| 0 . Ho,otixo
_ott
0 = |x x| = |x + (x)| |x| +| x| = |x| +|x| = 2 |x| ,
oot q oviootqto io_tti io,c tq (3) xoi q ottitttoio iootqto io,c tq (2).
(ii) !o_tti q it,otvq tpicvit cvioottc po_ tc ttc, oqiooq
x, y X |x y|
|x| |y|
.
Ho,otixo _ott
|x| = |(x y) + y| |x y| +|y| , oqiooq |x| |y| |x y|
xoi ovtiotoi_o |y| |x| |y x| , oo ti ooit ttoi ooc to qtottvo.
Hcpcccictc 8.1
1.
_
R, | |
_
t |x| := [x[ x R.
_
C, | |
_
t |z| := [z[ z C .
2.
_
R
n
, | |
1
_
t |x|
1
:=
n
i=1
[x
i
[ , x = (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) (
1
voo).
Ho,otixo io_totv:
8.1. H LO!A TOY XQPOY ML LLQTLP!KO I!OMLO 111
H (1) ,ioti |x|
1
= 0

n
i=1
[x
i
[ = 0 x
i
= 0, i = 1, . . . , n x = 0 .
H (2) ,ioti ,io R, x R
n
_ott
|x|
1
=
n
i=1
[x
i
[ =
n
i=1
[[ [x
i
[ = [[
n
i=1
[x
i
[ = [[ |x|
1
.
H (3) ,ioti ,io x, y R
n
|x + y|
1
=
n
i=1
[x
i
+ y
i
[
n
i=1
_
[x
i
[ +[y
i
[
_
=
n
i=1
[x
i
[ +
n
i=1
[y
i
[ = |x|
1
+|y|
1
.
3.
_
R
n
, | |
_
t |x|
:= max
1in
[x
i
[ (
voo).
H oootiq oti q | |
tivoi voo otov R

n
tivoi oit oiq.
4.
_
C[a, b], ||
_
t |f|
:= max
axb
[f(x)[ (voo t,iotot), oot < a < b < .
Ho,otixo io_totv:
H (1) ,ioti ,io f C[a, b]
|f|
= 0 max
axb
[f(x)[ = 0 f = 0 .
H (2) ,ioti ,io R xoi f C[a, b] _ott
|f|
= max
axb
[f(x)[ = [[ max
axb
[f(x)[ = [[ |f|
.
H (3) ,ioti ,io f, g C[a, b]
|f + g|
= max
axb
[f(x) + g(x)[ max
axb
_
[f(x)[ +[g(x)[
max
axb
[f(x)[ + max
axb
[g(x)[ = |f|
+|g|
.
Oi io ttxoit otq _qoq tot vot tivoi oot oo,ovtoi oo tocttixo
,ivotvo.
Opioo_ 8.2 1otc X vo K,oixo _co. Mio otixovioq ( , ) : X X
R i,ttoi coctcpito ivocvo otov X, ov tivoi ,oixq c o tqv ctq tto-
|iqtq tq, otttixq, otqv o,otixq titcoq, xoi ttoio cott oi oi0oi
(x, y) xoi (y, x) vo tivoi ott,ti, otq i,ooixq titcoq, xoi 0ttixo oiovq,
oqiooq ov io_totv
(LI1) (x + y, z) = (x, z) + (y, z) x, y, z X
(LI2) (x, y) = (x, y) x, y X K
(LI3) (x, y) = (y, x) x, y X
(LI4) (x, x) > 0 x X 0 .
1vo ,oixo _co otov ooio _ti oio0ti vo tocttixo ,ivotvo i,ttoi
,cpo_ c coctcpito ivocvo. .
Ltqv titcoq ot o _co tivoi o,otixo, _qoiooititoi otvcvto xoi
o oo Ectzciccio_ ,cpo_, ovti tot o,otixo ,oixo _co t tocttixo
,ivotvo.
Av ,io x, y X io_tti (x, y) = 0 , tott it oti to x, y tivoi op0ocvic, xoi
,oott ot|oiixo xy .
Hcpcccictc 8.2
1. Lt|oiiott t x = (x
1
, . . . , x
n
), y = (y
1
, . . . , y
n
) otoi_tio tot K
n
.
i. Iio K = R, oittoi oio (x, y) := x
1
y
1
+ +x
n
y
n
vo tocttixo ,ivotvo otov R
n
,
to it,otvo Ectzciccio q tcvovito tocttixo ,ivotvo tot R
n
. tocttixo ,ivotvo
tot R
n
.
ii. Iio K = C, oittoi oio (x, y) := x
1
y
1
+ + x
n
y
n
vo tocttixo ,ivotvo otov
C
n
.
2. 1otc < a < b < , xoi X := x : [a, b] K / x otvt_q.
i. Iio K = R, oittoi oio (x, y) :=
_
b
a
x(s)y(s)ds vo tocttixo ,ivotvo otov X,
oqiooq otov C[a, b].
ii. Iio K = C, oittoi oio (x, y) :=
_
b
a
x(s)y(s)ds vo tocttixo ,ivotvo otov X.
Lt vov _co t tocttixo ,ivotvo, (X, (, )), oittoi t
| | : X R
x
_
(x, x) ,
io voo. Iio tqv oootiq _tioooott tq it,otvq oviootqto tcv Caucly
Sclwaiz. Hoviootqto tcv CauclySclwaiz ovottoi ot_vo xoi c oviootqto tot
Sclwaiz, xtic otq Itovixq |i|iio,oio, q c oviootqto tot Caucly, xtic
otq Ioiiixq |i|iio,oio, q oxoo xoi c oviootqto tot Bunjalowsli, xtic otq
Pcoixq |i|iio,oio.
Aqo 8.1 (Aviootqto tcv CauclySclwaiz.) 2c cvcv ,cpo c coctcpito ivocvo,
_
X, (, )
_
, io,oci cvioottc tcv CauchySchwar:
(8.1) x, y X [(x, y)[
_
(x, x)
_
(y, y) .
occi_. Ltqv titcoq y = 0, q (8.1) io_tti oovc. 1otc ioiov y ,= 0. Iio
K io_tti, toixo, (x y, x y) 0, xoi ttioq
(x y, x y) = (x, x y) (y, x y)
= (x, x)

(x, y) (y, x) +
(y, y)
= (x, x)

(x, y) (x, y) +
(y, y) ,
0o _ott (x, x)

(x, y) (x, y) +
(y, y) 0. Lioixotto, ,io :=

(x,y)
(y,y)
, 0o
_ott
(x, x)
(x, y)
(y, y)
(x, y)
(x, y)
(y, y)
(x, y) +
(x, y) (x, y)
(y, y)
0 ,
oo (x, x)
(x,y) (x,y)
(y,y)
0 , oqiooq (x, y)(x, y) (x, x)(y, y), oott
[(x, y)[
2
(x, x) (y, y),
xoi toi ooq,otoott ooc otqv (8.1), io|ovovto t oqiv to ,t,ovo oti q
to,c,q ttto,cvixq io tivoi ,vqoio ototoo otvotqoq, oot q oo,c,o
tq tivoi 0ttixq.
2cico. Ltqv titcoq Ltxitiotiot _cot, oqiooq o,otixot ,oixot
_cot t tocttixo ,ivotvo, q oviootqto tcv CauclySclwaiz oootixvtttoi
oiototto c tq: Iio R q o_oq (x y, x y) 0 ,ottoi otq
oq
(x, x) 2(x, y) + (y, y)
2
0 .
Iio vo oiq0ttti q ttitttoio oviootqto ,io xo0t o,otixo oi0o ti q
oioxivotoo tot ticvtot vo tivoi q 0ttixq, oqiooq
=
_
(x, y)
2
(x, x)(y, y)
0,
xoi oo toc ttoi ooc q qtottvq oviootqto.
Oi otvq0iovt oviootqtt ,io o0oiooto
i=1
x
i
y
i
_
n
i=1
[x
i
[
2
_
1/2
_
n
i=1
[y
i
[
2
_
1/2
,
,io i,ooixot oi0ot x
i
, y
i
, i = 1, . . . , n, xo0c xoi ,io oioxiqcoto
_
b
a
x(s)y(s) ds
_
_
b
a
[x(s)[
2
ds
_
1/2
_
_
b
a
[y(s)[
2
ds
_
1/2
,
,io otvt_ti otvotqoti oiovt oto oiootqo [a, b], oottiotv tioix ti-
tcoti tq oviootqto tcv CauclySclwaiz, xoi ot,xtxivo ,io tot _cot
(C
n
, (, )) t (x, y) :=
n
i=1
x
i
y
i
,io x = (x
1
, . . . , x
n
), y = (y
1
, . . . , y
n
) C
n
, xoi
(C[a, b], (, )) t (x, y) :=
_
b
a
x(s)y(s) ds .
Hpotooq 8.1 Totc
_
X, (, )
_
cvc_ ,cpo_ c coctcpito ivocvo. Totc c
|x| :=
_
(x, x) , x X ,
opi_ctci ic vopc otov X, ooic zcc oti cpctci co to coctcpito ivocvo (, ) .
occi_. Oi (1) xoi (2) tivoi tttivt. Iio vo oootiott tqv ti,cvixq
oviootqto, ootqott xot o_qv oti ,io x, y X _ott
|x + y|
2
= (x + y, x + y) = |x|
2
+ (x, y) + (y, x) +|y|
2
= |x|
2
+ 2Re (x, y) +|y|
2
,
xoi t tq |oq0tio tq oviootqto tcv CauclySclwaiz io|ovott
|x + y|
2
|x|
2
+ 2|x| |y| +|y|
2
=
_
|x| +|y|
_
2
,
oo tqv ooio ttoi ooc q ti,cvixq oviootqto.
Otov ovotooott ot io voo o vov _co t tocttixo ,ivotvo _ci vo
tqv oooioiott, tvvoott ovto tq voo ot oo,ttoi oo to tocttixo
,ivotvo. Lioq, otov iiot ,io |itiott oot,,ioti ot _cot t tocttixo
,ivotvo, tvvoott ovto |itiott oot,,ioti c o ottq tq voo.
Aqo 8.2 2c cvcv ,cpo c coctcpito ivocvo
_
X, (, )
_
io,oci zcocv ioottc toc
cpczzzopoc
(8.2) x, y X |x + y|
2
+|x y|
2
= 2 |x|
2
+ 2|y|
2
.
Eio_, io,oci to Hc0copcio 0ccpc
(8.3) x, y X (x, y) = 0 = |x + y|
2
= |x|
2
+|y|
2
,
tci cvitotcpc ic x
1
, . . . , x
n
X
(8.4) (x
i
, x
j
) = 0 , i ,= j = |x
1
+ + x
n
|
2
= |x
1
|
2
+ +|x
n
|
2
.
occi_. Hoo0tovto xoto iq ti o_oti
(i) |x + y|
2
= (x + y, x + y) = |x|
2
+ (x, y) + (y, x) +|y|
2
(ii) |x y|
2
= (x y, x y) = |x|
2
(x, y) (y, x) +|y|
2
io|ovott ooc tqv (8.2).
Iio (x, y) = 0, q (i) tivoi q (8.3).
Aootixvtott tco to,c,ixo tqv (8.4). Iio n = 2 io_tti, otcvo t tqv
(8.3). 1otc oti io_tti ,io n = m 1. Tott oovc (x
1
+ + x
m1
, x
m
) = 0 ,
oott
|x
1
+ + x
m1
+ x
m
|
2
= |x
1
+ + x
m1
|
2
+|x
m
|
2
= |x
1
|
2
+ +|x
m
|
2
,
oot q ctq iootqto io_tti otcvo t tqv (8.3) xoi q ottttq otcvo t tqv
to,c,ixq to0toq.
Lt xo0t ooiiqio,oo to o0oioo tcv ttto,cvcv oicv tcv ittcv tot
ioottoi t to o0oioo tcv ttto,cvcv tcv oio,cvicv tot ot otto to ,t,ovo
otiittoi q ovoooio iootqto tot ooiiqio,oot ,io tq o_oq (8.2).
2cico. Ko0t voo ot oo,ttoi oo vo tocttixo ,ivotvo ixovooiti,
oc tioot, tqv iootqto tot ooiiqio,oot. Avtiotoo, oti vo oti_0ti,
oti xo0t voo, q ooio ixovooiti tqv iootqto tot ooiiqio,oot, oo,ttoi
oo vo tocttixo ,ivotvo, ot,xtxivo oo to tocttixo ,ivotvo ot oit-
toi oo tov tto
(8.5) x, y X (x, y) :=
1
4
_
|x + y|
2
|x y|
2
,
otqv titcoq o,otixot _cot, xoi oo tov tto
(8.6) x, y X (x, y) :=
1
4
_
|x + y|
2
|x y|
2
+ i|x + iy|
2
i|x iy|
2
,
otqv titcoq i,ooixot _cot.
Mt tq |oq0tio tot Ltxitiotiot tocttixot ,ivovot otov R
n
, oott tco
vo oioott 0ctit opiocvoc_ ttto,cvixot ivoxt.
Opioo_ 8.3 1vo n n o,otixo ivoxo A i,ttoi 0ctit opiocvo_, ov ,io
xo0t q qotvixo oiovtoo x tot R
n
to tocttixo ,ivotvo (Ax, x) tivoi 0ttixo
oi0o, (Ax, x) > 0 x R
n
0.
Hoit ttxoio oioiotcvti xovti oti vo 0ttixo oiovo ivoxo tivoi ovti-
otqio, |i. Aoxqoq 8.2
Ltq otv_tio tioo,ott tqv vvoio tq ttixq, xoi tto oiott io ttixq
t tq |oq0tio io voo.
Opioo_ 8.4 1otc X vo otvoio. Mio ctpit oto X tivoi io otixovioq
d : X X R
(x, y) d(x, y) ,
ov io_totv:
(M1) x, y X d(x, y) = d(y, x) otttio
(M2) x, y, z X d(x, z) d(x, y) + d(y, z) ti,cvixq oviootqto
(M3) x, y X d(x, y) = 0 x = y.
Hoit ttxoio oioiotcvti xovti, oti ot vov _co t voo, ioioitto, otvt-
c, ot vov _co t tocttixo ,ivotvo, otov ooio q voo oo,ttoi oo to
tocttixo ,ivotvo, oio d(x, y) := |x y| oittoi io ttixq.
8.2. Op0okovovtkonoqoq
H tvotqto ottq ovottoi oto o0oovooioio ototqoto xoi oioot to-
o, tot. Kot o_qv 0o oioott to o0oovooioio ototqoto, xoi tv otvt_tio
0o ,vcioott tix ioiotqt tot, xo0c xoi vov too xotooxttq xotoi-
iqicv o0oovooioicv ototqotcv, txivcvto oo ,oixo ovtotqto oiovt-
ooto. Lioq 0o ovot0ott tv otvtoio ot |itiott oot,,ioti oo _cot
8.2. OPOOKAO!KOHO!HLH 117
ttoovq oiootooq, ot _cot t tocttixo ,ivotvo, xoi 0o oott to oio
o0oovooioicv ototqotcv ot ottq tqv titcoq.
Opioo_ 8.5 1otc
_
X, (, )
_
vo _co t tocttixo ,ivotvo. 1vo otvoio S =
x
1
, . . . , x
n
X i,ttoi op0ocvio (o0o,cvio ototqo), ov to otoi_tio tot tivoi
o0o,cvio ttot tot, oqiooq ov ,io i ,= j io_tti (x
i
, x
j
) = 0 . Av ti iov
xo0t oiovtoo tot S tivoi ovccicio, oqiooq |x
i
| = 1 , ,io xo0t i, oott otvoiixo
_ott (x
i
, x
j
) =
ij
, tott to S i,ttoi op0otcvovito (o0oxovovixo ototqo) q
op0oovccicio. Av vo o0oxovovixo otvoio S tivoi |ooq tot X, tott to S i,ttoi
op0otcvovit q op0oovccicic o tot X.
Aqo 8.3. Totc
_
X, (, )
_
cvc_ ,cpo_ c coctcpito ivocvo tci S = e
1
, . . . , e
n
cvc
op0oovccicio oovozo otoi,cicv toc X. Totc tc e
1
, . . . , e
n
occi_. 1otc
1
, . . . ,
n
K xoi
1
e
1
+ +
n
e
n
= 0 . Tott ,io j 1, . . . , n
_ott
0 = (0, e
j
) = (
1
e
1
+ +
n
e
n
, e
j
)
=
n
i=1
i
(e
i
, e
j
) =
n
i=1
i

ji
=
j
.
Ocepqo 8.1 (M0ooo o0oxovovixooiqoq tcv GiamSclmidl.) Totc
_
X, (, )
_
cvc_ ,cpo_ c coctcpito ivocvo. v x
1
, . . . , x
n
X civci pcit cvc_pttc cic-
vooctc, totc cp,ci cvc op0oovccicio oootc e
1
, . . . , e
n
, tctoio cotc t0c e
i
vc
civci pcito_ ocvcccoo_ tcv x
1
, . . . , x
i
, tci tc cicvooctc e
1
, . . . , e
n
tci x
1
, . . . , x
n
vc cpocv tov icio ,cpo.
occi_. Ltioq to x
1
, . . . , x
n
tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto, io_tti x
i
,= 0 , i =
1, . . . , n. Oiott tco to oiovtooto e
1
, . . . , e
n
c tq:
e
1
:= x
1
e
2
:= x
2
(x
2
, e
1
)
(e
1
, e
1
)
e
1
.
.
.
e
n
:= x
n
(x
n
, e
n1
)
(e
n1
, e
n1
)
e
n1

(x
n
, e
1
)
(e
1
, e
1
)
e
1
.
Ltioq to oiovtooto x
1
, . . . , x
i
, i n, otvtc xoi to oiovtooto e
1
, e
2
, . . . , e
i1
,
x
i
, tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto, io_tti oovc e
i
,= 0 . Lovc to e
i+1
oittoi
xoic, oqiooq to e
1
, . . . , e
n
tivoi xoic oiovo. Lxtticvto oti, oioiotc-
vott ttxoio to,c,ixo oti, ,io i 1, . . . , n, (e
i
, e
j
) = 0 , j = 1, . . . , i 1 , o
oot ttoi ooc oti to ototqo e
1
, . . . , e
n
tivoi o0o,cvio. Otott tco
e
i
:=
e
i
|e
i
|
, i = 1, . . . , n,
xoi oivott vo o0oovooioio ototqo, to ooio ixovooiti tot io_tioot
tot 0tcqoto.
2cico.
1. H oootiq tot oq,otvot 0tcqoto tivoi xotooxttootixq otv oooti-
_0qxt oic q toq tcv e
1
, . . . , e
n
, oiio oo0qxt xoi io 0ooo oooioioot
tot.
2. To e
1
, . . . , e
n
totcvtoi oovc xoi oo tq otio tq o0oxovovixooiqoq
tcv x
1
, . . . , x
n
.
Atoq otvtio tot oq,otvot Otcqoto tivoi oti xo0t _co Y tto-
ovq oiootooq t tocttixo ,ivotvo _ti io o0oovooioio |ooq oiottc-
vott otto to ootitoo to oq Hoiooto.
Hoptoo 8.1 2c t0c ,cpo X, X ,= 0 , ccpcocv_ ciotco_ c coctcpito ivocvo
cp,ci ic op0otcvovit o.
Ltov R
n
t to Ltxitiotio tocttixo ,ivotvo, q xovovixq tot |ooq oottiti o0o-
ovooioio ototqo to ooio oo,ti tov R
n
, tivoi oqiooq io o0oovooioio |ooq
tot R
n
.
8.2.1. Eopoyq: Bttotq npooyytoq. Lt_vo 0iott vo oot,,ioott xo-
oio otoi_tio tvo otoovot otvoiot t tov xoittto, xoto xooio vvoio,
otvoto too. Tott iiot ,io cztiotc_ poocioci_. H oiotottq titcoq
ttoicv o|iqotcv, ot tivoi xoi q titcoq t tqv ooio 0o oo_oiq0ott
tv otvtoio toc, ootoiottoi otov o _co otov ooio t,oooott tivoi ,o-
ixo _co t tocttixo ,ivotvo xoi oot,,iott oo xooiov to_co tot
ttoovq oiootooq.
8.2. OPOOKAO!KOHO!HLH 119
Opioo_ 8.6 1otc
_
X, | |
_
vo ,oixo _co t voo, Y vo q xtvo toot-
voio tot X, xoi x X . 1vo otoi_tio y Y (ov to_ti), ,io to ooio io_tti
z Y |x y| |x z| ,
i,ttoi cztiot poocio tot x oo to Y.
Lt_vo oti too, oot,,iott to x t otoi_tio to_ccv tot X ttoo-
vq oiootooq. To |ooixo o|iqo oti |itiott oot,,ioti tivoi vo oooti-
ott tqv toq io |itiotq oo,,ioq, vo tttooott ov tivoi ovooixq
xoi, tio, vo ovottott xoi t0ooot toio,ioot tq. To o|iqo o ot-
tqv tq ,tvixotqto tivoi oxtto otoxoio, totio_iotov ooov ooo tov toio,ioo
tq |itiotq oo,,ioq. Yo_ti vo xiooo tcv Looovcv Mo0qoti-
xcv, q it,otvq Otcio Hoot,,iotcv, ot oo_oititoi t ttoio 0oto. Ltqv
titcoq, oc, tcv _ccv t tocttixo ,ivotvo, t tqv ooio xoi 0 oo_oiq-
0ott, 0o oootiott ttxoio toq xoi ovooixotqto, xoi 0o oott vov too
,io tov toio,ioo tq |itiotq oo,,ioq.
1otc ioiov (X, (, )) vo _co t tocttixo ,ivotvo, xoi Y vo to_co
tot X ttoovq oiootooq. Av x X xoi e
1
, . . . , e
n
io o0oovooioio |ooq
tot to_cot Y , tott oiott to otoi_tio y tot Y c tq
(8.7) y = (x, e
1
) e
1
+ + (x, e
n
) e
n
.
Tco ,io j 1, . . . , n _ott
(x y, e
j
) = (x, e
j
) (y, e
j
) = (x, e
j
) (x, e
1
)(e
1
, e
j
) (x, e
n
)(e
1
, e
n
),
oott, io|ovovto toqiv to ,t,ovo oti to e
1
, . . . , e
n
oottiotv o0oovo-
oioio ototqo,
(8.8) (x y, e
j
) = 0, j = 1, . . . , n,
oqiooq to x y tivoi o0o,cvio t xo0vo tcv e
1
, . . . , e
n
. Aoc tco ott-
oivott oti to x y tivoi o0o,cvio t xo0t ,oixo otvotooo tcv e
1
, . . . , e
n
,
oqiooq t xo0t otoi_tio tot Y,
(8.8
) (x y, z) = 0, z Y.
Iio ottov to io,o, to y i,ttoi op0ocvic q op0 pooz q oic pooz tot x
otov _co Y.
Oo oootiott tco oti otto to y tivoi o,otixo ic |itiotq oo,,ioq
tot x oo tov Y xoi tv otvt_tio oti tivoi |itiotq oo,,ioq tot x oo tov
Y. 1otc ioiov z Y. Tott, toixo, y z Y, tovc, otcvo t tqv (8.8
),
(x y, y z) = 0. Ltvtc, otcvo t to Ht0o,otio 0tcqo, _ott
(8.9) |x z|
2
= |(x y) + (y z)|
2
= |x y|
2
+|y z|
2
|x y|
2
,
oqiooq to y tivoi ovtc io |itiotq oo,,ioq tot x oo tov Y. Lioo0tto, ,io
z ,= y, q (8.9) oivti |xz| > |xy|, oo to_ti oxi|c io |itiotq oo,,ioq
tot x oo tov Y.
Lqticvott oxoq oti, ov to otvoio e
1
, . . . , e
n
tivoi io |ooq tot Y t o-
0o,cvio ttot tot otoi_tio e
1
, . . . , e
n
, to ooio otv tivoi ovo,xootixo ovooioio,
tott q |itiotq oo,,ioq y Y tvo otoi_tiot x oivttoi oo tov tto
(8.7
) y =
(x, e
1
)
(e
1
, e
1
)
e
1
+ +
(x, e
n
)
(e
n
, e
n
)
e
n
.
Hoootooti tot tioot (8.7) q (8.7
) i,ovtoi cvctoctc 1ourier q op0ocvic cvc-

toctc. H io ,vcotq titcoq tivoi oi ocipc_ 1ourier tiooixcv otvotqotcv,
t tqv ooio 0o oo_oiq0ott otvotixo oto totvo oooti,o.
A ovoott tioo0tto oti tq |itiotq oo,,ioq tvo otoi_tiot x oo to
_co ot oo,otv ,oixo ovtotqto oiovtooto x
1
, . . . , x
n
oott vo tqv
oooioioott xoi o tt0tio itvovto to it,otvo oootc tcv tcvovitcv c_i-
ococcv, |i. Aoxqoti 8.3 xoi 8.4, ooxotovto toi tov oooioioo io
o0oovooioio |ooq tot _cot ot oo,otv to x
1
, . . . , x
n
. To tiqo tco 0o
tivoi oti q oootooq tq |itiotq oo,,ioq otv 0o tivoi iov tooo xoqq
ooo q oootooq (8.7).
1vo o_oiio o_ttixo t tov oioo tcv oiovtootcv e
i
otq 0ooo o0oxovovixo-
oiqoq tcv GiamSclmidl: Ao|ovovto t oqiv tqv (8.7
), |iott oti to e
i
oiotqxt c q oiooo tot x
i
tiov tq |itiotq oo,,ioq tot x
i
oo tov _co
e
1
, . . . , e
i1
. 1toi q o0o,cviotqto tot e
i
o to e
1
, . . . , e
i1
ttoi ooc oo
tqv (8.8
).
8.3. ALKHLL!L 121
Hopctyo 8.1 1otc X := C
2
:= x : [0, 2] R /x(0) = x(2), x otvt_q
o _co tcv otvt_cv, tiooixcv otvotqotcv t tiooo 2, t to tocttixo
,ivotvo (x, y) :=
_
2
0
x(s)y(s) ds . O _co
T
n
:= x C
2
: x(s) =
0
+
n
i=1
_
i
cos(is) +
i
sin(is)
_
,
oqiooq to otvoio tcv tpicvoctpitcv ozccvocv |o0ot to oit n, tivoi, o-
ovc, to_co tot X.
To o|iqo o tco tivoi, otoovot x X, vo oooioioott tq |itiotq
oo,,ioq tot y oo tov T
n
. Oi otvotqoti
e
0
(s) :=
1
2
, e
2i1
(s) :=
1
sin(is), e
2i
:=
1
cos(is), i = 1, . . . , n,
o_qotiotv io o0oovooioio |ooq tot T
n
. To ,t,ovo oti to ototqo tivoi o-
0oovooioio oootixvtttoi oit ttxoio toio,iovto to ovtiotoi_o oioxiqc-
oto, xoi tto, otcvo t to Aqo 8.3, _ott xoi tq ,oixq ovtotqoio
xoi tqv ioiotqto tq |ootc. Lovc, otcvo t to oq,ottvo ,tvixotto
ootitoo, |i. tqv (8.7), q itoq tot o|iqoto o tivoi y = S
n
x,
S
n
x :=
1
2
_
2
0
x(s) ds +
1
2n
i=1
_
_
2
0
x(s)e
i
(s) ds
_
e
i
,
to tixo o0oioo tq it,otvq ocip_ 1ourier tq otvotqoq x. Oi oti !ouii-
ei ootoiootv oit t,oio tvoioov, tooo oo xo0oo o0qotixq ooqtc
ooo xoi io,c tot oit oqovtixot oiot ot ott oiotv oto Looovo Mo-
0qotixo xoi ot oiit tiotqt. Yo_ti oit iotoio 0tcio ,io oti !ouii-
ei, xoi vo oioxiqo xiooo tq Avoitoq, q povit vzco, tivoi oitc-
vo otq titq tq ottioo tcv tixcv o0oiootcv ttoicv oticv.
8.3. Aokqoct
8.1. 1otc
_
X, (, )
_
vo Ltxitiotio _co, x X, Y vo to_co tot X xoi
e
1
, . . . , e
n
io o0oovooioio |ooq tot Y . Aootitt oti q otvotqoq : R
n
R,
(
1
, . . . ,
n
) :=
_
_
x (
1
e
1
+ +
n
e
n
)
_
_
2
,
_ti vo ovo tio_ioto otov R
n
, xoi oiioto ,io
i
= (x, e
i
) , i = 1, . . . , n .
Atto oottiti io oiiq oootiq ,io toq xoi ovooixotqto tq |itiotq o-
o,,ioq, xo0c xoi ,io tq o_oq (8.7).
[Yocci_. Aootitt oti
_
_
x (
1
e
1
+ +
n
e
n
)
_
_
2
= (x, x) +
n
i=1
_
2
i
2(x, e
i
)
i
_
.]
8.2. 1otc A vo 0ttixo oiovo n n o,otixo ivoxo. Aootitt oti o A
tivoi ovtiotqio.
8.3. 1otc
_
X, (, )
_
vo Ltxitiotio _co, xoi x
1
, . . . , x
n
X ,oixo ovt-
otqto oiovtooto. Aootitt oti o ivoxo tot Giam G(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) = (g
ij
) , t
g
ij
:= (x
i
, x
j
), tivoi 0ttixo oiovo.
8.4. 1otc
_
X, (, )
_
vo Ltxitiotio _co, x X, xoi x
1
, . . . , x
n
X ,oixo
ovtotqto oiovtooto. Av : R
n
R,
(
1
, . . . ,
n
) :=
_
_
x (
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
)
_
_
2
,
oootitt oti to ototqo
() (
1
, . . . ,
n
) = 0
,ottoi otq oq
_
_
(x
1
, x
1
)
1
+ (x
1
, x
2
)
2
+ +(x
1
, x
n
)
n
= (x, x
1
)
(x
2
, x
1
)
1
+ (x
2
, x
2
)
2
+ +(x
2
, x
n
)
n
= (x, x
2
)
.
.
.
(x
n
, x
1
)
1
+ (x
n
, x
2
)
2
+ +(x
n
, x
n
)
n
= (x, x
n
)
.
To ototqo otto i,ttoi oootc tcv tcvovitcv c_iococcv, , xoi xoi q itoq tot
o oivti tq |itiotq oo,,ioq tot x oo tov x
1
, . . . , x
n
.
Hoio oq io|ovti to ototqo tcv xovovixcv tiocotcv otov to otvoio x
1
, . . . ,
x
n
tivoi o0o,cvio, xoi oio otov tivoi o0oovooioio;
[Yocci_. Iio y, z X xoi R, _ott
|y z|
2
= (y z, y z) = (z, z)
2
2 (y, z) + (y, y) .]
8.3. ALKHLL!L 123
8.5. 1otc q otvotqoq tq Aoxqoq 8.4. Aootitt oti
_

2
i

j
_
i,j=1,...,n
= 2 G(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) .
Ltvotoott tco ti oto oq,ottvt ooxqoti ,io vo oootittt oti ov
1
, . . . ,
n
tivoi q itoq tot ototqoto
() (
1
, . . . ,
n
) = 0 ,
tott y =
1
x
1
+ +
n
x
n
tivoi q |itiotq oo,,ioq tot x oo tov Y :=
x
1
, . . . , x
n
.
8.6. 1otc (X, (, )) vo _co t tocttixo ,ivotvo, Y vo to_co tot X t-
toovq oiotootc, xoi L : X Y q otixovioq tq o0o,cvio o|oiq,
oqiooq, ,io x X, Lx Y tivoi q |itiotq oo,,ioq tot x oo tov _co Y.
Aootitt oti q otixovioq L tivoi ,oixq.
8.7. 1otc (X, (, )) vo _co t tocttixo ,ivotvo, Y vo to_co tot X
ttoovq oiotootc, x X xoi y Y q |itiotq oo,,ioq tot x oo tov
_co Y. Xqoiooiqott tqv (8.8
) ,io vo oootittt oti

|y| |x|.
Axi|otto, oootitt oti
|x|
2
= |x y|
2
+|y|
2
.
8.8. Mt tot ot|oiioot tq Aoxqoq 8.7, ov e
1
, . . . , e
n
tivoi io o0oovo-
oioio |ooq tot Y, oootitt oti
|y|
2
= [(x, e
1
)[
2
+ +[(x, e
n
)[
2
.
8.9. (Aviootqto tot Bessel.) 1otc (X, (, )) vo _co t tocttixo ,ivotvo,
e
1
, . . . , e
n
vo o0oovooioio ototqo otov X, xoi x X. Ltvotoott ti Aoxqoti
8.7 xoi 8.8, ,io vo oootittt oti
[(x, e
1
)[
2
+ +[(x, e
n
)[
2
|x|
2
.
9. Itott, Itotovooto kot Atoyevtonoqoq
Lt otto to xtoioio tittot oto |ooix vvoit ,io ,oix otixovioti,
ott tcv ioioticv xoi tcv ioiooiovtootcv. Lioq 0o o ooo_oiqoti to 0o
tq oio,cviooiqoq ivoxcv, to ooio, oc 0o oott, otvottoi ottvo t ti
oovot0tiot vvoit.
9.1. Itott kot ttotovooto ypotkev onctkovocev
Lt ottq tqv tvotqto 0o tioo,o,ott ti vvoit tcv ioioticv xoi ioiooiovtoo-
tcv ,oixcv otixoviotcv ot vov ,oixo _co, xo0c xoi ttto,cvixcv i-
voxcv. Lioq 0o oioott to _ooxtqiotixo oitcvto tvo ivoxo, tqv ooio-
tqto ivoxcv, xoi tq ,tcttixq xoi oi,t|ixq oiioiotqto io ioiotiq tvo
ivoxo.
Opioo_ 9.1 1otc X vo ,oixo _co, xoi L : X X io ,oixq
otixovioq. At oti q L oqvti vov to_co X
1
tot X cvczzoicto, ov o X
1
otixovittoi oc tq L otov totto tot, oqiooq ov o L(X
1
) ti_ttoi otov X
1
,
L(X
1
) X
1
.
Hcpcccictc 9.1
1. 1otc X vo ,oixo _co. Ko0t ,oixq otixovioq L : X X
oqvti tot to_cot 0 xoi X ovoiioictot.
2. 1otc vo o,otixo oi0o, xoi L : R
3
R
3
, L(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
) :=
(x
1
, 2x
1
+ x
2
, x
3
). H L oqvti, oc oioiotcvti xovti ooc, tov to_co
X
1
:= x R
3
: x = (x
1
, x
2
, 0) ovoiioicto.
3. 1otc vo o,otixo oi0o, xoi L : R
2
R
2
, L(x
1
, x
2
) := (x
1
, x
2
).
Iio tt_ovto o,otixo oi0o k, q L oqvti tov to_co X
1
:= x = (x
1
, x
2
)
R
2
: x
2
= kx
1
ovoiioicto.
125
126 9. !A!OT!MLL, !A!OA!AYLMATA KA! A!AIQ!OHO!HLH
1otc tco X vo ,oixo _co, x
1
vo q qotvixo oiovtoo tot, xoi
X
1
o _co ot oo,ttoi oo to x
1
, X
1
:=< x
1
> . Mio ,oixq otixovioq
L : X X oqvti tov X
1
oxi|c tott ovoiioicto, ov to_ti o,oti-
xo oi0o ttoio cott vo io_tti Lx
1
= x
1
, oott, oc oioiotcvti xovti
ooc, 0o io_tti xoi Lx = x ,io xo0t x X
1
. Atto to ,t,ovo o ooq,ti otqv
tioo,c,q oto oit |ooixcv tvvoicv, oi ooit _otv ioioittq oqooio oti to-
o, tcv Mo0qotixcv oti dtoix Liotqt, ottcv tcv ioioticv xoi ioiooio-
vtootcv.
Ltq otv_tio oi ,oixoi o _coi 0o tivoi titt o,otixoi titt i,ooixoi,
K = R q K = C.
Opioo_ 9.2 1otc X vo ,oixo _co ovc oto K, xoi L : X X io
,oixq otixovioq. 1vo K i,ttoi icioti (eigenvalue) tq L, ov to_ti
q qotvixo otoi_tio x tot X, x X 0, ttoio cott vo io_tti Lx = x. 1vo
x X 0, ,io to ooio io_tti Lx = x, i,ttoi iciocivcoc (eigenvecior) tq L c
o tqv ioiotiq .
Av x
1
tivoi ioiooiovtoo io ,oixq otixovioq L, tott, oovc, q L
oqvti tov _co < x
1
> ovoiioicto.
Lto ootitoo ot oxoiot0ti, 0o oott oti ioiooiovtooto, ot ovtiotoi_otv
ot ovo oto oioottix ioioti, tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto.
Aqo 9.1 TotcX cvc_ pcito_ ,cpo_, tci x
1
, . . . , x
m
iciocicvooctc ic_ pcit_
ccitovio_ L : X X c_ po_ cv coo cicopctitc_ iciotic_
1
, . . . ,
m
. Totc tc
x
1
, . . . , x
m
occi_. H oootiq 0o oo0ti to,c,ixo c o m. Iio m = 1 o io_tioo oiq-
0ttti, oovc, oot to x
1
, c q qotvixo oiovtoo, tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto.
Yo0tott tco oti o io_tioo io_tti ,io m1 xoi 0o otiott oti io_tti xoi
,io m. 1otc oti
1
x
1
+ +
m
x
m
= 0. Tott 0o _ott o tvo
0 =
m
0 =
m
1
x
1
+ +
m
m
x
m
xoi o ttot
0 = L(0) =
1
Lx
1
+ +
m
Lx
m
=
1
1
x
1
+ +
m
m
x
m
.
9.1. !A!OT!MLL KA! !A!OA!AYLMATA IPAMM!KQ AHL!KO!LLQ 127
Lovc
(9.1) 0 =
1
(
m
1
)x
1
+ +
m1
(
m
m1
)x
m1
.
Ao ottq tq o_oq ttoi ooc, io,c tq ,oixq ovtotqoio tcv x
1
, . . . ,
x
m1
xoi tot ,t,ovoto oti to
m
tivoi oioottixo tcv
1
, . . . ,
m1
, oti
1
= =
m1
= 0. Lovc, q o_oq
1
x
1
+ +
m
x
m
= 0 ,ottoi otq oq
m
x
m
= 0
xoi o oivti
m
= 0. Ltvtc, to x
1
, . . . , x
m
Oo oott tco tix oi ioiotqtt ioiooiovtootcv.
Aqo 9.2 Totc X cvc_ pcito_ ,cpo_ vc oc cvc occ K, L : X X ic
pcit ccitovio, tci, ic K, !AX(L, ) := x X : Lx = x. Totc io,oocv:
i. 1ic t0c K, to !AX(L, ) civci co,cpo_ toc X.
ii. Tvc K civci icioti t_ L ctpic_ totc, cv to !AX(L, ) ccv cpic,ci ovo to
ccvito civcoc, !AX(L, ) ,= 0.
iii. !AX(L, ) 0 civci to oovozo tcv iciocicvcotcv t_ L c_ po_ .
iv. To !AX(L, ) civci o cpvc_ t_ ccitovio_ Lid
X
, !AX(L, ) = Kei (Lid
X
).
v. 1ic coo cicopctit
1
,
2
, to tcv !AX(L,
1
) tci !AX(L,
2
) cpic,ci ovo to
ccvito civcoc, !AX(L,
1
) !AX(L,
2
) = 0.
occi_. To i., ii., iii., xoi iv. tivoi oovq. To v. ttoi otoiootixo oo to Aqo
9.1. Iio vo to oootiott, to0tott oti x !AX(L,
1
) !AX(L,
2
). Tott 0o
_ott Lx =
1
x xoi Lx =
2
x, otvtc
1
x =
2
x, oott (
1

2
)x = 0, xoi
tovc, io,c tot oti
1
2
,= 0, x = 0.
Oiott tco ioioti xoi ioiooiovtooto ttto,cvixcv ivoxcv, xoi otq ot-
v_tio 0o oott oti oi ioioti io otixovioq otitotv t ti ioioti tot
ovtiotoi_ot ivoxo c o ooiooqott |ooq, to0tovto toixo oti o ,oi-
xo _co tivoi ttoovq oiootooq.
Opioo_ 9.3 1otc A vo ttto,cvixo, n n, ivoxo t otoi_tio oo vo oco
K, A K
n,n
. 1vo K i,ttoi icioti tot A, ov to_ti q qotvixo oiovtoo x
tot K
n
, x K
n
0, ttoio cott vo io_tti Ax = x. 1vo oiovtoo x K
n
0,
,io to ooio io_tti Ax = x, i,ttoi iciocivcoc tot A c o tqv ioiotiq .
2cico. 1vo o,otixo, n n ivoxo A, A R
n,n
, oti toixo vo 0tc-
q0ti xoi c otoi_tio tot C
n,n
, otvtc tivoi otvotov vo to_otv xoi i,ooix
ioioti xoi i,ooixo ioiooiovtooto tvo o,otixot ivoxo.
Ltq otv_tio oivott vo oi,t|ixo xitqio ,io ti ioioti tvo ivoxo.
Ltcvo t otto oi ioioti tvo nn ivoxo tivoi it tvo oitcvtot |o0ot
n.
Hpotooq 9.1 Totc A cvc_ iccito_, n n, ivctc_. Tvc_ iccito_ cpi0o_ civci
ctpic_ totc icioti toc A, cv del (AI
n
) = 0.
occi_. To tivoi ioiotiq tot A, ov xoi ovo ov to ,oixo ototqo Ax = x,
q ioootvoo to (AI
n
)x = 0, _ti q qotvixq itoq. Atto oc, xoto to ,vcoto,
ot|oivti oxi|c tott, ov o ivoxo A I
n
otv tivoi ovtiotqio, oqiooq ov
q oiotoo tot qotvittoi, del (A I
n
) = 0.
Opioo_ 9.4 1otc Avo nn i,ooixo ivoxo, A C
n,n
. To oitcvto p, p() :=
del (A I
n
), i,ttoi ,cpcttpiotito ozccvco tot A.
Ltxoio oti vo oioiotcoti xovti to,c,ixo, oti o |o0o tot oitcvtot
p, p() := del (AI
n
), tivoi n. Lovc, otcvo t to 0ttiicot 0tcqo tq
Ai,t|o, xo0t n n i,ooixo ivoxo _ti, ttcvto xoi tqv oiioiotqto
tot, n ioioti.
1otc X vo ,oixo _co ttoovq oiootooq, dimX = n, xoi L :
X X io ,oixq otixovioq. Av B
1
= x
1
, . . . , x
n
xoi B
2
= y
1
, . . . , y
n
tivoi oto |ooti tot X xoi A, B oi ivoxt tq L c o B

1
xoi B
2
, ovtiotoi_o,
0tccvto xo0t oo tqv ioio |ooq oto toio oioot xoi oto toio ticv tq,
to o|iqo ot 0o o ooo_oiqoti otq otv_tio tivoi vo oooioioott io
o_oq ttot tcv ivoxcv A xoi B.
Kot o_qv to_ti oxi|c io ,oixq otixovioq L
1
: X X ,io tqv
ooio io_tti L
1
x
j
= y
j
, j = 1, . . . , n. Iio tqv ovtiotoq L
1
1
tq L
1
io_tti L
1
1
y
j
=
x
j
, j = 1, . . . , n. Av S tivoi o ivoxo tq L
1
c o ti |ooti B
1
xoi B
2
, oto toio
oioot xoi oto toio ticv tq, ovtiotoi_o, tott o S tivoi ovtiotqio xoi o
S
1
tivoi o ivoxo tq L
1
1
c o ti |ooti B
2
xoi B
1
oto toio oioot xoi
oto toio ticv tq, ovtiotoi_o, |i. tqv Hotooq 5.3. Lovc, t S = (s
ij
) xoi
S
1
= (s
ij
) _ott
(9.2) y
j
=
n
i=1
s
ij
x
i
xoi x
j
=
n
i=1
s
ij
y
i
, j = 1, . . . , n.
Lioq t tot ivoxt A xoi B _ott
(9.3) Lx
j
=
n
i=1
a
ij
x
i
xoi Ly
j
=
n
i=1
b
ij
y
i
, j = 1, . . . , n.
Hoooioiott tco tov ivoxo tq L c o ti |ooti B
2
xoi B
1
, oto toio
oioot xoi oto toio ticv tq, ovtiotoi_o, t oto toot, ,io vo ooq,q0ott
otqv ti0tqtq o_oq ttot tcv ivoxcv A xoi B. 1_ott, otcvo t ti (9.2)
xoi (9.3),
Ly
j
=
n
i=1
b
ij
y
i
=
n
i=1
b
ij
_
n
=1
s
i
x
_
=
n
=1
_
n
i=1
s
i
b
ij
_
x
,
Ly
j
=
n
=1
s
j
Lx
=
n
=1
s
j
_
n
i=1
a
i
x
i
_
=
n
i=1
_
n
=1
a
i
s
j
_
x
i
,
j = 1, . . . , n, tovc vo ivoxo tivoi o SB xoi vo o AS, oott 0o _ott
SB = AS, oqiooq A = SBS
1
. 1toi ooq,q0qxot otq o_oq ot ovoqtotoot.
Lt ii,o 0o ooott vo oiottcoott tq o_oq ttot A xoi B oioottixo,
tto oo vov xotoiiqio oioo.
Oi ioioti io ,oixq otixovioq otv totcvtoi, ||oio, oo io ot-
,xtxivq |ooq. Oo otiott tco oti xoi oi ivoxt A xoi B, ot ovtiotoi_otv
otqv ioio ,oixq otixovioq, _otv ti ioit ioioti.
Opioo_ 9.5 Ato ivoxt A, B K
n,n
i,ovtoi ooioi, ov to_ti ovtiotqio
ivoxo S K
n,n
ttoio cott A = SBS
1
.
Ltcvo t to oq,ottvo, oi ivoxt A xoi B ot ovtiotoi_otv ot io ,o-
ixq otixovioq c o oto |ooti, tqv ioio xo0t oo oto toio oioot tq xoi
oto toio ticv tq, tivoi ooioi.
Oo oott tco oti ooioi ivoxt _otv ti ioit ioioti.
Hpotooq 9.2 Totc A, B K
n,n
coo ooioi ivctc_. Totc oi A tci B c,ocv ti_ icic_
iciotic_.
occi_. 1otc S K
n,n
ovtiotqio ivoxo ttoio cott A = SBS
1
. 1otc
tco ioiotiq tot A. Tott to_ti q qotvixo oiovtoo tot K
n
, otc x
, ttoio
cott Ax
= x
. Lovc, 0o _ott, (SBS

1
)x
= x
, oott S
1
(SBS
1
)x
=
S
1
x
, oqiooq B(S
1
x
) = (S
1
x
). Aot o S
1
tivoi ovtiotqio xoi to x
q
qotvixo, xoi to S
1
x
tivoi q qotvixo oiovtoo tot K

n
, xoi oo tqv ttitttoio
o_oq ottoivott oti to tivoi ioiotiq tot B. Mt tov ioio oxi|c too
oti_vott oti xoi xo0t ioiotiq tot B tivoi xoi ioiotiq tot A.
Av tivoi io ioiotiq tot ivoxo A, tott to ioiooiovtooto tot A c o
tqv ioiotiq tivoi oi q tttivt itoti tot oo,tvot ,oixot ototqoto
(AI
n
)x = 0.
Iio
A =
_
_
_
_
a
11
. . . a
1n
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
. . . a
nn
_
_
_
_
,
_ott
AI
n
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
a
11
a
12
. . . a
1n
a
21
a
22
. . . a
1n
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
a
n1
a
n2
. . . a
nn
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Hcpccic 9.2 Oo oooioioott ti ioioti xoi to ioiooiovtooto tot ivoxo
A,
A =
_
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 1
_
_
_
.
1_ott, ovottooovto c o tqv ttitttoio otqiq,
del (AI
3
) = del
_
_
_
1 1 1
1 1 0
1 0 1
_
_
_
= del
_
1 1
1 0
_
(1 + )del
_
1 1
1 1
_
,
tovc
del (AI
3
) = (1 + ) (1 + )(
2
1 + 1) = (1 + )(
2
+ 1).
Ltvtc oi ioioti tot ivoxo tivoi
1
= 1,
2
= i,
3
= i. Iio vo oooio-
ioott to ovtiotoi_o ioiooiovtooto, oxti vo itoott to oo,tvq ,oixo ot-
otqoto (A
j
I
3
)x = 0, j = 1, 2, 3.
2cico. Av oto oq,ottvo oooti,o, o ivoxo A 0tcq0ti c otixovioq
tot R
3
otov totto tot, tott q ovq iootiq tivoi to
1
.
Opioo_ 9.6 1otc
k
ioiotiq tot ivoxo A C
n,n
, xoi p, p() := del (AI
n
), to _o-
oxtqiotixo oitcvto tot A. zcpit ozzczottc tq ioiotiq
k
i,ttoi o
toixo oi0o
k
, ,io tov ooio io_tti p() = (
k
)
k
q(), t q vo oitcvto
|o0ot n
k
to ooio otv qotvittoi oto
k
, oqiooq q oiioiotqto tot
k
c
io tot _ooxtqiotixot oitcvtot tot ivoxo A. H ccctpit ozzczottc
k
,
k
:= dim!AX(A,
k
) = dimx C
n
: Ax =
k
x, tivoi to iq0o tcv ,oixo
ovtotqtcv ioiooiovtootcv tot A c o
k
.
Ltq otv_tio 0o oott oti q ,tcttixq oiioiotqto otv tt|oivti tqv oi,t-
|ixq oiioiotqto.
Hpotooq 9.3 Totc
icioti cvo_ ivctc A C

n,n
c czcpit ozzczottc (
)
tci ccctpit ozzczottc (
). Totc io,oci 1 (
) (
) n.
occi_. H ctq xoi q ttitttoio oviootqto tivoi oovti. Axti otvtc vo
otiott oti (
) (
). Otott := (
) xoi := (
). 1otc x
1
, . . . , x
C
n
,oixo ovtotqto ioiooiovtooto tot A c o
, oqiooq Ax
i
=
x
i
, i =
1, . . . , . Tott, xoto to ,vcoto, to_otv x
+1
, . . . , x
n
C
n
ttoio cott x
1
, . . . , x
n
vo tivoi |ooq tot C

n
. 1otc S o ivoxo ot _ti otqit to oiovtooto x
1
, . . . , x
n
,
S := (x
1
, . . . , x
n
). Tott io_tti del S ,= 0, |i. Hotooq 7.1, otvtc o S tivoi ovti-
otqio. Tco _ott Se
i
= x
i
, i = 1, . . . , , oo xoi e
i
= S
1
x
i
, i = 1, . . . , ,
tovc
S
1
ASe
i
= S
1
Ax
i
= S
1
(
x
i
) =
S
1
x
i
=
e
i
.
Ltvtc, o ivoxo S
1
AS tivoi tq oq
S
1
AS =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0
. . .
. . .
0 . . .
. . .
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
_

B
0 C
_
.
Iio to _ooxtqiotixo oitcvto tot A io_tti, tovc,
p() = del (AI
n
) = del S
1
del (A I
n
)del S
= del (S
1
AS I
n
) = (
del (C I
n
),
oot otq ottttq iootqto _qoiooiqoot to ,t,ovo oti del S
1
= 1/del S, ot-
vtc .
Hcpccic 9.3 H ovq ioiotiq tot ivoxo A,
A =
_
_
_
_
_
_
2 1 0 0
0 2 2 0
0 0 2 3
0 0 0 2
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
tivoi to 2, t oi,t|ixq oiioiotqto tooto, (2) = 4. To ototqo (A2I
4
)x =
0 _ti _co itotcv < (, 0, 0, 0) >, t o,otixov oi0o. Ltvtc q ,tctti-
xq oiioiotqto tq ioiotiq tivoi vo, (2) = 1.
9.2. Atoyevtonoqoq ntvkev
Lt ottq tqv tvotqto 0o oo_oiq0ott t tq oio,cviooiqoq ivoxcv, 0o ,vc-
ioott oioot otv0qxt ,io vo tivoi vo ivoxo oio,cviooiqoio xoi 0o
ovot0ott oto it,otvo tio_ioto oitcvto tvo ttto,cvixot ivoxo.
1vo ivoxo D = (d
ij
) C
n,n
i,ttoi ciccvio_, ov io_tti d
ij
= 0 ,io i ,= j,
oqiooq ov _ti q qotvixo otoi_tio ovo otq oio,cvio tot. Av
1
, . . . ,
n
tivoi to
oio,cvio otoi_tio tot D, tott ot_vo ,oott D = diag (
1
, . . . ,
n
).
9.2. A!AIQ!OHO!HLH H!AKQ 133
Opioo_ 9.7 1vo ivoxo A K
n,n
i,ttoi ciccviooioio_, ov to_ti ovti-
otqio ivoxo S K
n,n
ttoio cott o ivoxo S
1
AS vo tivoi oio,cvio,
S
1
AS = D t D oio,cvio ivoxo.
1vo xitqio, ,io to ott vo ivoxo tivoi oio,cviooiqoio, oivttoi oto
oxoiot0o 0tcqo.
Ocepqo 9.1 Tvc_ ivctc_ A K
n,n
civci ctpic_ totc ciccviooioio_, cv cp,ci
cvc oovozo iciocicvcotcv toc A, tc ooic cotczoov o toc K
n
.
occi_. 1otc xot o_qv oti o A K
n,n
tivoi oio,cviooiqoio. Tott to_ti
ivoxo S K
n,n
, S = (s
1
, . . . , s
n
), ttoio cott
S
1
AS = diag (
1
, . . . ,
n
).
Lovc 0o _ott AS = S diag (
1
, . . . ,
n
) = (
1
s
1
, . . . ,
n
s
n
), oott As
i
=
i
s
i
, i =
1, . . . , n, oqiooq to
1
, . . . ,
n
tivoi ioioti tot A, t ovtiotoi_o ioiooiovtooto
s
1
, . . . , s
n
. Tco to s
1
, . . . , s
n
tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto, |i. ti Hotooti 5.1 xoi
6.3, tovc oottiotv |ooq tot K
n
.
Avtiotoo tco, ov x
1
, . . . , x
n
ioiooiovtooto tot A, c o
1
, . . . ,
n
, ot
oottiotv |ooq tot K
n
, tott o ivoxo S := (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) tivoi ovtiotqio xoi
io_tti AS = (Ax
1
, . . . , Ax
n
) = (
1
x
1
, . . . ,
n
x
n
) = S diag (
1
, . . . ,
n
), oo S
1
AS =
diag (
1
, . . . ,
n
), oqiooq o A tivoi oio,cviooiqoio.
Atoq oooio tot Otcqoto 9.1 xoi tot Aqoto 9.1 tivoi to ,t,ovo oti
vo nn ivoxo t ovo oto oioottix ioioti
1
, . . . ,
n
tivoi oio,cviooiq-
oio.
Hpotooq 9.4 Totc A K
n,n
cvc_ ivctc_ c cv coo cicopctitc_ iciotic_
1
, . . . ,
n
.
Totc o A civci ciccviooioio_.
occi_. 1otc x
1
, . . . , x
n
ioiooiovtooto tot A c o ti ioioti
1
, . . . ,
n
,
ovtiotoi_o. Ltcvo t to Aqo 9.1 to x
1
, . . . , x
n
tivoi ,oixo ovtotqto,
oott to ootitoo ttoi oo to Otcqo 9.1.
1otc A vo n n o,otixo ivoxo. Otcott otov R
n
, t tqv xovovixq
tot |ooq, tqv otixovioq L
A
: R
n
R
n
, x Ax. O ivoxo, ot ovtiotoi_ti
ot ottq tqv otixovioq, tivoi, toixo, o A. To tctqo tivoi tco, xoto ooov
oti q otixovioq vo oooto0ti t vov ivoxo oiotottq oq, ov tii-
ott oiiq, xotoiiqiq |ooq tot R
n
. Yo0tott oti o Ativoi oio,cviooiqoio,
S
1
AS = D = diag (d
1
, . . . , d
n
) = (d
ij
). Otcott tq |ooq Se
1
, . . . , Se
n
tot R
n
,
oot toixo Se
i
= s
i
tivoi q iotq otqiq tot S. Oo otiott ooc tco oti o
ivoxo, ot ovtiotoi_ti otqv L
A
c o ottq tq |ooq, otv tivoi oiio oo tov
oio,cvio ivoxo D, ,t,ovo oto ooio otiittoi, xoto t,oio o, q oqooio
tcv oio,cviooiqoicv ivoxcv. Ho,otixo _ott
L
A
s
j
= As
j
= ASe
j
= SS
1
ASe
j
= SDe
j
= S(d
j
e
j
) = d
j
Se
j
= d
j
s
j
(=
n
i=1
d
ij
s
j
), j = 1, . . . , n,
o_oq q ooio, xoto to ,vcoto, o ooq,ti oto ti0tqto ootitoo.
Opioo_ 9.8 1vo ivoxo A C
n,n
i,ttoi
i. cpticvo_, ov A
= A, oot A
:=

A
T
,
ii. occtpito_, ov tivoi o,otixo xoi otitti t tov ovootoo tot, A R
n,n
xoi A
T
= A,
iii. op0ocvio_, ov tivoi o,otixo xoi o ovootoo tot tivoi ovtiotoo tot,
A R
n,n
xoi A
T
A = I
n
.
2cico. Ko0t otttixo ivoxo tivoi, oovc, xoi tqtiovo. Iio vov
o0o,cvio ivoxo A, A = (a
1
, . . . , a
n
) io_tti (a
i
, a
j
) =
ij
, i, j = 1, . . . , n, ioioitto
oi otqit tot tivoi o0o,cvit ttot tcv, ,t,ovo oto ooio ottoi oi ivoxt
otiiotv tqv ovoooio tot.
Hpotooq 9.5 v A C
n,n
civci cvc_ cpticvo_ ivctc_, totc oi iciotic_ toc civci pc-
ctitoi cpi0oi.
occi_. 1otc io ioiotiq tot A xoi x C
n
vo ioiooiovtoo tot A c o ,
oqiooq x ,= 0 xoi Ax = x. Tott 0o io_tti xoi Ax = x, oo

A x =

x. Lovc
(

A x)
T
= (
x)
T
, oott x
T

A
T
=

x
T
. Ltvtc _ott x
T

A
T
x =

x
T
x q x
T
Ax =

x
T
x
q x
T
(x) =

x
T
x, oo (

) x
T
x = 0. Tco, x
T
x ,= 0, oot x ,= 0, oott

= 0,
oqiooq o tivoi o,otixo oi0o.
Ltq otv_tio, oto Otcqo 9.2, 0o otiott oti oi otttixoi ivoxt tivoi
oio,cviooiqoioi. Moiioto 0o oott oti, ov A R
n,n
tivoi vo otttixo
ivoxo, tott to_ti o0o,cvio ivoxo S, oqiooq ttoio cott S
T
= S
1
, ,io
tov ooio io_tti S
1
AS = diag (
1
, . . . ,
n
). Hiv ooott vo ooq,q0ott ot
otto to |ooixo ootitoo, 0o ocoott oiovo oxotoxtixo oottiooto
,io otttixot ivoxt.
Opioo_ 9.9 Ato ivoxt A, B R
n,n
i,ovtoi op0ocvic ooioi, ov to_ti o0o-
,cvio ivoxo S R
n,n
ttoio cott B = S
T
AS. 1vo ivoxo A R
n,n
i,ttoi
op0ocvic ciccviooioio_, ov tivoi o0o,cvio ooio t vov oio,cvio ivoxo.
2cico. Aot, ,io xo0t o0o,cvio ivoxo S, o ovootoo tot tivoi xoi ovti-
otoo tot, oto o0o,cvio ooioi ivoxt, tivoi ooioi.
Ltcvo t to oxoiot0o, cto oxotoxtixo, ootitoo, ioiooiovtooto
otttixcv ivoxcv, ot ovtiotoi_otv ot oioottix ioioti, tivoi o0o,c-
vio ttot tot.
Aqo 9.3 Totc A R
n,n
cvc_ occtpito_ ivctc_, , coo iciotic_ toc tci x, y
cvtiotoi,c iciocicvooctc. v ,= , totc tc x, y civci op0ocvic.
occi_. Aot o A tivoi otttixo, _ott A
T
= A. Tco Ax = x, oo
(Ax)
T
= (x)
T
, oott x
T
A = x
T
, tovc x
T
Ay = (x
T
)y = (x
T
y) = (x, y).
Lioo0tto, x
T
Ay = x
T
(y) = (x
T
y) = (x, y). Ao ti oto ott o_oti ott-
oivott oti ( )(x, y) = 0, oott (x, y) = 0, oot ,= .
Ltcvo t to otttto oxotoxtixo ootitoo, otttixoi ivoxt t ovo
oto oioottix ioioti tivoi o0o,cvio oio,cviooiqoioi.
Hpotooq 9.6 Totc A R
n,n
cvc_ occtpito_ ivctc_, c cv coo cicopctitc_ ctc_o
toc_ iciotic_
1
, . . . ,
n
. Totc o A civci op0ocvic ciccviooioio_.
occi_. 1otc x
1
, . . . , x
n
ioiooiovtooto tot A c o ti ioioti
1
, . . . ,
n
,
ovtiotoi_o. Xci |io|q tq ,tvixotqto oott vo ot_0ott oti to x
1
, . . . , x
n
tivoi ovooioio, oqiooq |x
i
| = 1, i = 1, . . . , n. Lioo0tto, otcvo t to oq-
,ottvo Aqo, to x
1
, . . . , x
n
tivoi ovo oto o0o,cvio ttot tot, otvtc io_tti
(x
i
, x
j
) =
ij
, i, j = 1, . . . , n. Tco, o ivoxo S, S := (x
1
, . . . , x
n
), tivoi o0o,c-
vio xoi io_tti S
T
AS = S
T
(Ax
1
, . . . , Ax
n
) = S
T
(
1
x
1
, . . . ,
n
x
n
) = S
T
Sdiag (
1
, . . . ,
n
) = diag (
1
, . . . ,
n
).
Mtto oo to oq,ottvo oto oxotoxtixo oottiooto tioott tco ot
0oq vo ocoott xoi to |ooixo ootitoo. Lqticvott oti io_tti xoi to ovti-
otoo ottot tot oottiooto, q oootiq tot ooiot tivoi oiioto oit ttxo-
iottq, |i. tqv Aoxqoq 9.15.
Ocepqo 9.2 K0c n n occtpito_ ivctc_ civci op0ocvic ciccviooioio_.
occi_. H oootiq 0o oo0ti to,c,ixo c o n. Iio n = 1 to ootitoo
tivoi oov. Lto to,c,ixo |qo, to0tott oti o io_tioo o io_tti ,io
(n 1) (n 1) ivoxt xoi 0o otiott oti io_tti xoi ,io n n ivoxt.
1otc A R
n,n
vo otttixo ivoxo,
1
io ioiotiq tot xoi x
1
vo ovti-
otoi_o ovooioio ioiooiovtoo. Tott to_otv x
2
, . . . , x
n
R
n
ttoio cott to
otvoio x
1
, . . . , x
n
vo oottiti o0oovooioio |ooq tot R
n
. O ivoxo S, S :=
(x
1
, . . . , x
n
), tivoi o0o,cvio xoi io_tti
S
T
AS = S
T
(
1
x
1
, Ax
2
, . . . , Ax
n
) =
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
(x
1
, x
1
) . . .
1
(x
2
, x
1
)
.
.
. B
1
(x
n
, x
1
)
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
. . .
0
.
.
. B
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
oot B vo (n 1) (n 1) o,otixo ivoxo, B R
n1,n1
. Aot o ivoxo
A tivoi otttixo, 0o _ott (S
T
AS)
T
= S
T
A
T
(S
T
)
T
= S
T
AS, oqiooq o S
T
AS
tivoi otttixo, oott, otcvo t to oq,ottvo, 0o _ti tq oq
S
T
AS =
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
0 . . . 0
0
.
.
. B
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
xoi o B tivoi tioq otttixo. Tco, otcvo t tqv to0toq tq to,c,q,
to_ti vo o0o,cvio ivoxo T R
n1,n1
ttoio cott T
T
BT = diag (
2
, . . . ,
n
). Otott tco
T
1
:=
_
_
_
_
_
_
1 0 . . . 0
0
.
.
. T
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
xoi _ott
(ST
1
)
T
A(ST
1
) = T
T
1
(S
T
AS)T
1
= T
T
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
1
0 . . . 0
0
.
.
. B
0
_
_
_
_
_
_
T
1
= diag (
1
, . . . ,
n
).
Tco, o ivoxo ST
1
tivoi o0o,cvio, xoi toi ottoivott oti o io_tioo
o io_tti xoi ,io n n otttixot ivoxt.
9.2.1. To ctoto nouevuo cvo nvoko. 1otc A K
n,n
vo ivoxo. Lti-
oq q oiootooq tot ,oixot _cot K
n,n
tivoi n
2
xoi oi otvoti A
i
, i = 0, . . . , n
2
,
tivoi otoi_tio tot K
n,n
, to I
n
, A, . . . , A
n
2
tivoi ,oixo totqvo. Lovc
to_otv
0
, . . . ,
n
2, o_i oio qov, ttoio cott
0
I
n
+
1
A + +
n
2A
n
2
= 0,
0 K
n,n
, oqiooq to_ti q qotvixo oitcvto |o0ot to oit n
2
, tot ooiot o
ivoxo A tivoi io. To 0o ot 0o o ooo_oiqoti otq otv_tio tivoi xoto
ooov to_ti q qotvixo oitcvto P, |o0ot ixottot tot n
2
, ttoio cott o
A vo tivoi io tot, P(A) = 0. To |ooixo ootitoo toc tivoi to Otcqo tcv
CaleyHamillon, otcvo t to ooio to _ooxtqiotixo oitcvto tvo ivoxo,
|o0ot n, _ti ottq tqv ioiotqto.
Opioo_ 9.10 1otc A vo n n ivoxo, A K
n,n
. To oitcvto p tot tio_i-
otot otvotot |o0ot t t,ioto|o0io otvttitotq, oqiooq otvttitotq tq t,o-
itttq otvoq tot, tq ovooo, ,io to ooio io_tti p(A) = 0, i,ttoi cz,ioto
ozccvco tot A.
To tio_ioto oitcvto tvo ivoxo tivoi oovc ovooqovto oiovo.
Ho,otixo, ov tq_ov oto oioottixo tio_ioto oitcvto p xoi q tvo ivoxo
A, tott q oiooo tot 0o qtov ixottot |o0ot xoi 0o ixovooiotot tq o_oq
(p q)(A) = 0, oqiooq to p xoi q otv 0o qtov tio_ioto oitcvto, otoo.
Aqo 9.4 Totc A K
n,n
, p to cz,ioto ozccvco toc, tci P cvc ozccvco ic to
ooio io,oci P(A) = 0. Totc to p cicipci to P.
occi_. Ao tov oioo tot p ttoi oti o |o0o tot tivoi to oit ooo xoi
o |o0o tot P. Lovc io_tti P = pq + r, t oitcvto q xoi r ttoio cott
o |o0o tot r vo tivoi ixotto tot |o0ot tot p. Oiott vo otiott oti to
r tivoi to qotvixo oitcvto. Av to0oott, o oti,qv, oti otto otv tivoi
oiq0, 0o ti_ot o tvo r(A) = P(A) p(A)q(A) = 0 xoi o ttot o |o0o
tot r 0o qtov ixotto tot |o0ot tot p, otoo.
Ltq otv_tio 0o oott oti ooioi ivoxt _otv to ioio tio_ioto oitcvto.
Aqo 9.5 Ooioi ivctc_ c,ocv to icio cz,ioto ozccvco.
occi_. 1otc A, B K
n,n
ooioi ivoxt, oqiooq B = S
1
AS t S K
n,n
. Av i
tivoi vo toixo oi0o q to qov, tott B
i
= (S
1
AS)
i
= S
1
AS S
1
AS =
S
1
A
i
S, xoi, oxi|c ovtiotoi_o, A
i
= SB
i
S
1
. Lovc, ov ,io xooio oitcvt-
o p io_tti p(A) = 0, 0o _ott tioq p(B) = S
1
p(A)S = S
1
0S = 0. Avtiotoo,
ov ,io xooio oitcvto q io_tti q(B) = 0, 0o _ott tioq q(A) = Sq(B)S
1
=
S0S
1
= 0. Ao to ovctc ttoi ttxoio, ov io|ott t oqiv o xoi to ,t,ovo
oti to tio_ioto oitcvto tvo ivoxo oittoi ovooqovto, oti oi ivoxt Axoi
B _otv to ioio tio_ioto oitcvto.
Ltcvo t to oxoiot0o |ooixo ootitoo, tcv CaleyHamillon, vo ivo-
xo tivoi io, t vvoio ot ,ivttoi ooq oto Otcqo, tot _ooxtqiotixot
tq oitcvtot. Lvc ioiov _i tco ot oti o |o0o tot tio_iotot oitc-
vtot tvo n n ivoxo tivoi to oit n
2
, tco 0o oott oti otto o |o0o tivoi
to oit n.
Ocepqo 9.3 (tcv CaleyHamillon) v p civci to ,cpcttpiotito ozccvco cvo_ i-
vctc A K
n,n
, totc io,oci p(A) = 0.
occi_. 1otc p(t) = (1)
n
(t
n
+
n1
t
n1
+ +
0
), t
i
K, i = 0, . . . , n 1.
Ltioq, otcvo t tqv (7.11), io_tti (A I
n
) adj (A I
n
) = del (A I
n
)I
n
,
_ott, io|ovovto t oqiv xoi tov oioo tot _ooxtqiotixot oitcvtot,
(9.4) (A I
n
) adj (AI
n
) = p()I
n
.
Tco o adj (A I
n
) _ti otoi_tio oitcvto c o |o0ot to oit n 1,
oti otvtc vo ,oti otq oq
(9.5) adj (A I
n
) = B
0
+ B
1
+ + B
n1
n1
.
Ao ti (9.4) xoi (9.5) io|ovott
(9.6) (AI
n
)(B
0
+ B
1
+ + B
n1
n1
) = (1)
n
(
n
+
n1
n1
+ +
0
)I
n
.
Lt,xioq otvttitotcv oto oto iq tq (9.6), oqiooq ot,xioq tcv otvttitotcv
ioicv otvotcv tot , o oivti
AB
0
= (1)
n
0
I
n
B
0
+ AB
1
= (1)
n
1
I
n
.
.
.
B
n2
+ AB
n1
= (1)
n
n1
I
n
B
n1
= (1)
n
I
n
.
Hoiioiooioovto ott ti o_oti t I
n
, A, . . . , A
n
, ovtiotoi_o, xoi oo0to-
vto xoto iq io|ovott
0 = (1)
n
(
0
I
n
+ +
n1
A
n1
+ A
n
),
oqiooq p(A) = 0.
Ltvotoovto to Aqo 9.4 t to Otcqo 9.3 ooq,otoott ooc oto oxo-
iot0o ootitoo.
Hoptoo 9.1 To cz,ioto ozccvco cvo_ ivctc cicipci to ,cpcttpiotito toc ozcc-
vco.
9.3. Aokqoct
9.1. Hoooioiott ti ioioti xoi to ovtiotoi_o ioiooiovtooto tq otixovioq
L : R
3
R
3
, L(x) := Ax, oot
A :=
_
_
_
1 0 1
1 2 1
1 1 1
_
_
_
.
9.2. 1otc X vo ,oixo _co, L : X X vo ioooioo, io
ioiotiq tq L, xoi x vo ioiooiovtoo tq L c o tqv ioiotiq . Aootitt
oti to tivoi oiooo tot qotvo. Hoooioiott io ioiotiq tq L
1
xoi vo
ioiooiovtoo tq c o ottq tqv ioiotiq.
9.3. 1otc L : X X io ,oixq otixovioq, xoi x vo ioiooiovtoo tq L c
o tqv ioiotiq . Hoooioiott io ioiotiq xoi vo ovtiotoi_o ioiooiovtoo
tq ,oixq otixovioq L
2
:= L L.
9.4. 1otc L, M : X X ,oix otixovioti. Av q M tivoi vtoq, oqiooq
vo o vo, xoi x vo ioiooiovtoo tq LM c o tqv ioiotiq , oooioiott
io ioiotiq xoi vo ovtiotoi_o ioiooiovtoo tq otixovioq M L.
9.5. Aootitt oti vo ivoxo A R
n,n
tivoi oxi|c tott ovtiotqio, ov to
qov otv tivoi ioiotiq tot.
9.6. 1otc A R
n,n
vo ovc ti,cvixo ivoxo A R
n,n
. Hoooioiott ti
ioioti tot.
9.7. Hoooioiott ti ioioti xoi to ioiooiovtooto tot ivoxo
A :=
_
_
_
3 2 4
2 0 2
4 2 3
_
_
_
.
9.3. ALKHLL!L 141
9.8. Hoooioiott tqv oi,t|ixq xoi tq ,tcttixq oiioiotqto tcv o,o-
tixcv ioioticv tot ivoxo
A :=
_
_
_
7 1 2
1 7 2
2 2 10
_
_
_
.
9.9. 1otc
A :=
_
_
_
_
_
_
3 6 6 2
2 5 6 2
2 4 5 2
4 6 6 3
_
_
_
_
_
_
.
Hoooioiott, ov to_ti, vov oio,cvio ivoxo ooio tot A.
9.10. 1otc n N xoi A R
2n+1,2n+1
. Aootitt oti o ivoxo A _ti totio_iotov
io o,otixq ioiotiq.
9.11. 1otc
A :=
1
15
_
_
_
10 5 10
5 14 2
10 2 11
_
_
_
.
Hoooioiott vov oio,cvio ivoxo ooio tot A.
9.12. Lttoott xoto ooov oi ivoxt
A :=
_
_
_
1 0 4
0 5 4
4 4 3
_
_
_
, B :=
_
_
_
1 1 1
0 3 2
0 1 0
_
_
_
, xoi C :=
_
_
_
_
_
_
3 4 0 5
1 1 0 1
2 3 1 4
0 0 0 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
tivoi oio,cviooiqoioi.
9.13. (Aviootqto tot Geisclgoiin.) 1otc A = (a
ij
) vo n n ivoxo xoi io
ioiotiq tot. Aootitt oti, ,io xooio i 1, . . . , n, io_tti
[a
ii
[
n
j=1
j=i
[a
ij
[,
oqiooq xo0t ioiotiq |ioxttoi ot xooiov xtxio oto i,ooixo titoo, t x-
vto a
ii
xoi oxtivo
n
j=1
j=i
[a
ij
[. Oi xtxioi ottoi i,ovtoi totzoi toc Gerschgorin. Mt
ottov tov too otv oooioiott toixo ti ioioti tvo ivoxo, oiio _ott
otq oio0toq o io 0ooo tvtoioot tcv.
[Yocci_: 1otc x vo ovtiotoi_o ioiooiovtoo. Av x
i
tivoi io xot ooitto tiq
,iotq otviotcoo tot x, tott 0o _ott
(a
ii
)x
i
=
n
j=1
j=i
a
ij
x
j
.]
9.14. Ltvotoott ti Aoxqoti 9.5 xoi 9.13, ,io vo oootittt oti vo ivoxo,
t ototqo xtio_ixq oio,cvio, tivoi ovtiotqio, vo oootittt oqiooq tqv
Aoxqoq 6.2.
9.15. 1otc A R
n,n
vo o0o,cvio oio,cviooiqoio ivoxo. Aootitt oti o
A tivoi otttixo.
Bttoypoo
[1] I. A. Axi|q, B. A. Aot,oiq: Eiocc otv pi0tit vzco, o
xoooq, Hovtiotqiox
Lxoooti Kqtq, Hoxitio, 2002.
[2] L. A. Avotoooxq: 1pcit Hzcpc. Lxoooti Ltttio, A0qvo, 1991.
[3] H. Anlon: Eleneniary 1inear lgebra. 4
ll
ed., Wiley, ew Yoil, 1984.
[4] G. !isclei: 1ineare lgebra, ioioio vieweg, Rowolll, ReinLel, 1975.
[5] W. GieuL: 1inear lgebra. 3
id
ed., SiingeiVeilag, ew Yoil, 1967.
[6] G. Hadley: 1inear lgebra. 3
id
iinling, AddisonWesley, Reading, 1973.
[7] W. el: 1ehrbuch der 1inearen lgebra, Biill ausei Veilag, Basel, 1966.
[8] G. Sliang: 1inear lgebra and iis pplicaiions. 3
id
ed., Haicouil Biace 1ovanovicl PuLlisleis, 1988.
(Liiqvixq ttoooq t titio 1pcit Hzcpc tci Ecpoc_. ,
xoooq, Hovtiotqiox
Lxoooti Kqtq, Hoxitio, 1999.)
143
Eupctqpto
o|tiiovq oooo, 7
o0oioo ,oixcv _ccv, 29
tt0t, 31
oi,t|ixq oiioiotqto ioiotiq, 131, 141
oi,t|ixo otiqco, 93
oiio,q |ootc, 66
oitoq, 4
ovott,o !ouiiei, 120
ovootoo ivoxo, 53
oviootqto
tot Bessel, 123
tot Geisclgoiin, 141
tcv CauclySclwaiz, 112114
ovtiotoq tixovo, 4
ovtiotqio ivoxo, 64, 142
ovtiotoo ivoxo, 103
ovc ti,cvixo ivoxo, 52, 99, 140
otixovioq, 4
oiovooqovtq, 4
vo o vo, 4
ti, 4
tottotixq, 5
ototqo xtio_ixq oio,cvio, 65, 142
|itiotq oo,,ioq, 118, 119
|o0o ,oixq otixovioq, 59
|o0o ivoxo, 62, 8082
c o ti ,o, 47, 75
c o ti otqit, 47, 75
|o0o ivoxo c o ti ,o, 47
|o0o ivoxo c o ti otqit, 47
|ooq
o0oxovovixq, 117
o0oovooioio, 117
|ooq ,oixot _cot, 22
xovovixq, 22
,tcttixq oiioiotqto ioiotiq, 131, 141
,o ivoxo, 45
,oixo ovtotqto oiovtooto, 18
,oixo totqvo oiovtooto, 18
,oixq otixovioq, 35
,oixo ototqo, 69
q oo,tv, 79
oo,tv, 70
,oixo otvotooo, 18
,oixo _co, 13
otiooioototo, 29
ttoovq oiootooq, 29
,oooootvooi ivoxt, 48
oito tot Kioneclei, 20
oio,cviooiqoq ivoxcv, 132
oio,cviooiqoio ivoxo, 133, 134, 141
oio,cvio ttto ivoxo, 65
oio,cvio ivoxo, 46, 141
oio,cvio ttto,cvixot ivoxo, 46
oiovtoo, 14
oiovtootixo _co, 14
oiootooq ,oixot _cot, 29
ttoovq, 29
oiottto,vo tt,o, 3
145
146 LYPLTHP!O
tixovo, 4
tixovo ,oixq otixovioq, 39
tiooocv ivoxo, 93
tio_ioto oitcvto ivoxo, 137139
vtoq, 4
totqvo ivoxo ,oixot ototqoto,
81
tqtiovo ivoxo, 134
tocttixo ,ivotvo, 111
Ltxitiotio, 112
xovovixo, 112
tt0t o0oioo ,oixcv _ccv, 31
Ltxitiotio tocttixo ,ivotvo, 112
Ltxitiotio _co, 112
toq, 4
0ttixo oiovo ivoxo, 116, 122
0tcqo
Ht0o,otio, 115
tcv CaleyHamillon, 138
ioiooiovtoo
,oixq otixoviotc, 125, 126, 140
ivoxo, 127, 140, 142
ioiotiq
,oixq otixoviotc, 125, 126, 140
ivoxo, 127, 134, 140142
ioootvoo ,oixo ototqoto, 71
ioooioo, 59
iooooi ,oixoi _coi, 59
iootqto tot ooiiqio,oot, 114, 115
xovovixq |ooq, 22
xovovixo tocttixo ,ivotvo, 112
xovovo tot Saiius, 103
xottoiovo ,ivotvo, 3
xiioxcto ivoxo, 48
itoq ,oixot ototqoto, 70
0ooo
ooioiq tot Gauss, 83, 88, 103, 104
o0oxovovixooiqoq tcv GiamSclmidl, 117
tot Ciamei, 105, 108
ttixq, 116
q oo,tv ,oixo ototqo, 79
voo, 110
t,iotot, 111
oooo, 6
o|tiiovq, 7
oo,tv ,oixo ototqo, 70
ooioi ivoxt, 129
ooooiiqiixoi to_coi, 79
oio0oooqoq, 83, 84
o0q o|oiq, 120
o0o,cvio oio,cviooiqoio ivoxo, 135, 136,
142
o0o,cvio oiovtooto, 112
o0o,cvio o|oiq, 120
o0o,cvio ooioi ivoxt, 135
o0o,cvio ovott,o, 120
o0o,cvio ototqo, 117
o0o,cvio ivoxo, 134
o0oxovovixq |ooq, 117
o0oxovovixooiqoq, 116
o0oxovovixo ototqo, 117
o0oovooioio |ooq, 117
o0oovooioio ototqo, 117
oiotoo, 89, 91, 93, 96, 98, 99, 102, 107, 108
tot Vandeimonde, 106
toio oioot, 4
toio ticv, 4
ivoxo, 45
ovc ti,cvixo, 52, 99, 140
ovtiotqio, 142
,oixq otixoviotc, 57
LYPLTHP!O 147
oio,cviooiqoio, 133, 134, 141
oio,cvio, 141
tqtiovo, 134
0ttixo oiovo, 116, 122
xiioxcto, 48
o0o,cvio oio,cviooiqoio, 135, 136, 142
o0o,cvio, 134
otoi_ticoq, 73
otttixo, 134136
otvttitotcv, 69
tot Giam, 122
oiioiooiooo ivoxcv, 53
oiioiooioot, 49
oiioiotqto ioiotiq
oi,t|ixq, 131, 141
,tcttixq, 131, 141
ooootixtt, 2
oti t ivoxt, 52
o|oiq, 120
oootqvo ivoxo, 105
oo0toq ivoxcv, 52
Ht0o,otio 0tcqo, 115
tqvo ,oixq otixovioq, 39
oti !ouiiei, 120
oto0q, 110
otqit ivoxo, 45
oto0to oo, 69
oto0qto _co, 110
otoi_tio ivoxo, 45
otoi_ticoti ttoo_qotiooi ,ocv, 46
otoi_ticoti ttoo_qotiooi otqicv, 73
otoi_ticoq ivoxo, 73
otttixo ivoxo, 134136
otoo,ovto, 93
ot|oio tot Kioneclei, 20
otv0toq, 5
otvoio, 1
ototqo
o0o,cvio, 117
o0oxovovixo, 117
o0oovooioio, 117
ototqo xovovixcv tiocotcv, 122
oco, 9
ttto,cvixo ivoxo, 46
ti,cvixq oviootqto, 110, 116
ti,cvooiqoq, 83
ti,cvooiqoq ivoxo, 49
tto tcv oiootootcv, 41
to_co, 16
_ooxtqiotixo oitcvto ivoxo, 128, 138,
139
_co
Ltxitiotio, 112
itotcv ,oixot ototqoto, 70
t tocttixo ,ivotvo, 109, 112
t voo, 110
tcv ,ocv ivoxo, 47
tcv otqicv ivoxo, 47

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Icepyto A.

) tivoi tott xoi ovo

. (Axi|q oioo t tq |oq0tio

X xoi f(x) = f(x

, t oiio io,io ov x xoi x

tivoi oioottixo otoi_tio tot X, tott xoi

) tivoi oioottixo otoi_tio tot Y.

x otv oittoi ovooqo-

G (cvtiotpoo tot a), ttoio cott vo io_tti

tivoi ovtiotoo tot a, tott xoi to a tivoi ovtiotoo tot a

G civci cvtiotpoo otoi,cio toc a, totc io,oci tci aa

(to ooio to_ti otcvo t tqv (O

= e, q titq xoi q ttotq io,c tq (O

G oto ototto otoi_tio. Tott _ott

xoi oott vo _qoiooiqoott to 1. ot oootiot oq-

tivoi ototto otoi_tio.

G ovtiotoo tot a. Tott 0o _ott

, to_ti to ovtiotoo otoi_tio tot a, ,io xo0t a G.

:= Z 0, otv tivoi ooot.

:= K 0, tivoi o|tiiovq oooo.

, ) otv tivoi oooo.

oottiti |ooq tot X.

oottiti |ooq tot Y + Z, ,ioti tott 0o _ott oovc

Y ) tivoi to_co tot X oqvttoi c ooxqoq, |i. Aoxqoq 3.1.

, tott t |ooq tqv (3.1) oioiotcvott ooc oti to y

io |ooq tot Kei L, xoi y

= 0, xoi q ,oixq ovto-

o ooq,ti oto otooo oti

tivoi vo to_co tot Y, tott o

tivoi q ctq xoi q ottttq oo,c,o tq otvotqoq x, ovtiotoi-

,= 0. Tco ,io xo0t i , r + 1 i m ,

oottiti |ooq tot R

|ooti tcv X, Y xoi Z,

:= (1, 0), (0, 1) |ooti tcv R

|ooti tcv X xoi Y, ovtiotoi_o, xoi A R

tot _cot itotcv tot , oot,

R, tivoi ttxoio vo oott oti to_ti oxi|c vo

) . Ho,otixo, q tiocoq r tot ototqoto

q xovovixq |ooq tot R

. 1otc tco u Y. Tott to u

Y . Aoc oioiotcvott oti Z = Y

x+Kei L, tott Lu = Lx+Lx

, czcc o civci cvc_ oocpczzzito_ co,cpo_ toc R

:= (A, b) ovtiotoi_otv oi otixovioti

). Ltvtc q o_oq |o0o(A) = |o0o(A

), oqiooq t tqv !mA

tot ovtiotoi_ot oo,tvot ,oixot ototqoto Ax = 0, q tot

=< G(1, 0), G(0, 1) >=< (2, 1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1, 1) > .

= (2, 0, 1, 0)+ < (2, 1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1, 1) > .

xoi oxti vo oootiott oti (A) = 0 ,io xo0t ivoxo A R

_otv ottq tqv ioiotqto.

oxi|c ovtiotoi_o oootixvtttoi oti

tivoi voo otov R

(y, y) 0. Lioixotto, ,io :=

) i,ovtoi cvctoctc 1ourier q op0ocvic cvc-

) ,io vo oootittt oti

tivoi oto |ooti tot X xoi A, B oi ivoxt tq L c o B

. Lovc, 0o _ott, (SBS

tivoi q qotvixo oiovtoo tot K

icioti cvo_ ivctc A C

vo tivoi |ooq tot C

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