Serena Do AP EURO REVIEW April 23, 2014

THE ITALIAN RENAISSANCE, THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE (1450-1550)

The Italian Renaissance
Why Italy?
Geography is destiny: Italians were fragmented, lived on the ruins of the Romans, close to the sea, middle men
of Europe
o City States: Florence, Genoa, Milan, Rome, Papal States, Naples, Venice
Venice, Genoa, Pisa had strategic location, controlled trade w/ Middle East and Asia
Bankers made loans to popes and monarchs
Economic power w/ Rome at the center -> center of culture & luxury
o Spread ideas around the world:
Ex. Arab math & tech, Asian ideas, Greek and Roman ideas revived
Powerful middle class (merchants and bankers)
o Controlled govnt, patrons to artists
Wealthy -> time and money to spend on art, earthly pleasures
More money -> more things -> appreciation of beauty replaced pious art
Secularism embraced by the rich; lower classes copied it
The Medici Family
Giovanni de Medici (d. 1492)
o Founder of the dynasty; merchant & banker in Florence
o Adapter who ignored churchs prohibitions on lending
o Restless genius molded the modern world
Cosimo de Medici (1389-1464)
o Used family fortune to fill vacuum of power created by lack of national monarchy
o Became unofficial ruler of the republic
Lorenzo the Magnificent (1449-1492)
o Lavish patron of the arts
o Lived life rather than waiting for death (RENAISSANCE idea)
Individualism, A New Conception of Humankind
Man if the measure of all things
o Human power replaced religious awe, pleasure and accomplishment
o People abandoned the cloistered life for a life of activity
Virtu: quality of being a man
o Renaissance Man: all-around man; capable w/ words, weapons, art, conversation
The Arts
Before After
Church = patron
Cathedrals, saints
Little embellishment, not realistic
Patrons: Commercial class & govnt
Realistic, stylistic
Less symbolic, more representational
o Architecture = Greco-Roman symmetry, classical columns, arch, dome
ex. Filippo Brunelleschi, Leo Battista Alberti
o Sculpture = freestanding, not in churches, nude in Greek tradition of religion or myths
Ex. Lorenzo Ghiberti
o Paintings = still religious in theme but new innovations (oil paints, 3D, perspective)
Less symbolic, more representational, depiction of beauty of outside world
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Ex. Giotto, Massaccio, Sandra Botticelli (Birth of Venus), Raphael
The Greatest of the Great
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)
o Painter, sculptor, architect, engineer, writer, scientist
o Known for Mona Lisa, Last Supper
Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564)
o Sculptor, statues w/ real human emotion
o Known for Pieta, Moses, David, Sistine Chapel
Humanism
Literary movement different from middle ages in subject matter (politics, outside of religion) and practitioners
(laypeople)
Drew on antiquity, looked towards old manuscripts
Use of the vernacular: Dantes Divine Comedy = modern Italian
Famous writers:
o Petrarch (1304-1374): father of humanism; first modern writer, wrote sonnets in Italian and Latin,
wrote about the human condition and life
o Boccaccio (1313-1375): Florentine, famous for the Decameron, tales about human life
o Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444): Chancellor of the Republic of Florentine, write first modern history,
introduced new historical periods
o Baldassare Castiglone (1478-1529): The Book of the Courtier = manual for the manners of the modern
gentleman
Gentleman: polite company, poised & well dressed, sports, social mixer, educated
o Niccol Machiavelli (1469-1527): The Prince
Political science work, cynical and ruthless, the handbook of dictators
The end justifies the means
Ideas from warring Italian city-states, less religion, survival of separate and independent city-
states from predators in the north
o Laura Cereta (1469-1499): Humanist and feminist, taught moral philosophy at University of Padua,
published Episolae familiars (Familiar Letters)
The Northern Renaissance
Ideas spread from Italy to N. Europe: Germany, England, Switzerland, France, Belgium, Holland
Market economy, artistic renewal, social reform through Christian values
Christian Humanism: Curious for knowledge based on Hebrew and Greek texts of the Bible
Came from northern students who wen tot Italy to study
GERMANY
Heart of human progress, politically diverse
Good economy: banking, towns grew, Fuggers controlled capital
Science and Technology
Printing press invented by Johannes Gutenberg from molds from China
o Books became cheaper -> more reading -> the laity could read the Bible
o Regiomontanus (Johann Muller); Nicholas of Cusa, Martin Behaim and Johannes Schoner (maps)
o Copernicus (173-1543): heliocentric system, against official Roman Catholic view
divide between religion and science
Mysticism
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Belief than an individual alone could commune with God
Miester Eckhart, Thomas Kempis (Imitation of Christ)
Gerad Groote (1340-1384): Dutch lay preacher who organized Brothers of the Common Life
o Religious organization that stressed personal virtues of Christianity
o Modern devotion: Christ-like love, tolerance, humility
Desiderius Erasmus: The Christian Gentleman
o Admired Greeks/Romans, hated Middle Ages, wrote on humanist issues in Latin
o Championed gradual reform, ridiculed hypocrisy, abhorred violence, critical of Church
o Works: The Praise of Folly, The Handbook of a Christian Knight,
o Preached peace, tolerance, loving reform while maintaining structure of Church
Artists
Albrecht Drer: mathematician, The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse
Peter Brueghel the Elder: painted lives of ordinary people; challenged the notion of the Italian Ren. that art
should be focused only on religion/aristocracy
ENGLAND
Fostered by reign of Elizabeth I
Intense nationalism b/c dynastic rivalries and religious turmoil -> vernacular
Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, William Shakespeare
Sir Thomas More published Utopia criticized institutions -> beheaded
FRANCE
Hundred Years War (1337-1453) -> monarchy strengthened -> enriched middle class, encouraged nationalism
Govnt strengthened, strong kings who reduced nobility, formed nation-state, brought middle class into govnt
as advisors: Louis XI, Charles VIII, Louis XII
Francis I established taille (direct head tax on all land & property)
Rabelais: priest, classicist, attacked failings of French society in Gargantua and Pantagruel
Montaigne: French essayist
SPAIN
Very Catholic, xenophobic, regid
1492: Jews and Moslems (educated class) were expelled
Miguel de Cervantes: Satirized societys medieval institutions in Don Juan
Literature: Lope de Vega, Diego Valzquez, El Greco, Fransisco Surez
LOW COUNTRIES
Jan van Eyck (1385-1441): Dutch painter, symbolic oil paintings
Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669): Dutch master, use of chiaroscuro (dark & light)
Hieronymus Bosch (1450-1516): Dutch painter, complex symbolism, themes of sin
Renaissance Views on Women and Minorities
Period of loss of status, punishement for rape lower, women banned from guilds
o Feminists: Laura Cereta, Isabella dEste, Catherine de Medici
Renewed faith, more religious conflicts and persecution
Racial bias of slavery
PROTESTANT REFORMATION, CATHOLIC AND COUNTER-REFORMATIONS, WARS OF RELIGION (1517-1648)
Individuality from Renaissance; led to nationalism, capitalism, democracy, science
Causes of the Reformation
1. Corruption of Roman Catholic Church
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a. Simony, nepotism, indulgences, low morality
2. Humanism
a. Quested Church traditions, against emphasis on salvation
3. Declining prestige of papacy
a. Babylonian Captivity & Great Schism (Avignon Papacy)
4. Influence of religious reforms (Huss and Wycliffe)
a. Personal communion w/ God, less concentration on sacraments
5. Resentment of secular rulers over power of popes OR landholding of church
6. Resistance to power of Charles V
a. German princes resented HREmperor (Hapsburg) -> Nationalism
7. Printing Press
Timeline of Protestant Reformation
1517
Johann Tetzel: Authorized by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences in order to raise funds for St. Peters Church in
Rome
Martin Luther: Augustian monk, condemned indulgences; 95 Theses
o Tortured by own damnation, believed in good works (sacraments, prayer, fasting)
1519-1520
Luthers appeal to Pope Leo X was ignored, so Luther formulated his own beliefs:
1. Salvation by faith alone
2. The Bible is the ultimate authority
3. The grace of God brings absolution
4. Baptism and communism are the only valid sacraments
7 Catholic sacraments: baptism, confirmation, Eucharist or communion, matrimony, penance,
extreme unction/last rites/anointing of the sick, holy orders)
Consubstantiation: Transformation of bread and wine was not symbolic
5. Clergy is not superior to laity
Marriage is allowed, monasticism should be abolished
6. Church should be subordinate to the state
Appealed to monarchs and German princes
1520
Luther burned a papal bull, excommunicated by Pope Leo X
Emperor Charles V honored political debt to Frederick the Wise, refused to outlaw w/o hearing
1521
Diet of Worms: Called to Rhineland, Luther refused to content
o Outlawed, Frederick hid him, translate Bible into the vernacular
1520s
Lutheranism spread; Charles V busy w/ Ottoman Turks and French
Northern Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Eastern Baltic embraced Lutheranism
1522
League of Lutheran knights under Franz von Sickengen converted to Lutheranism, attacked Catholic princes,
encouraged most of Northern German princes to convert
o Financial gain from taking Church lands
1524-1526
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Social reform, wanted abolition of feudalism -> German Peasants War
o Luther called them filthy swine, politically conservative
o Checked spread of Lutheranism in Southern Germany and Europe
1529
Diet of Speyer: refused to recognize rights of German princes to determine religion of subjects
1531
League of Schmalkalden: Protestant princes defend themselves against emperor
Pope did not call church council b/c feared papacys loss of power
1530s
Reformation spread beyond Germany
1531
Huldreich Zwingli: Established Protestantism in Switzerland, killed in civil war
o Peace of Cappel: Allowed in Swiss canton to determine its own religion
1534
Pope Paul III assumed office as first of reform popes
Act of Supremacy in England: Henry VIII created Anglican Church in order to be free from Rome, cut off revenues
to papacy, marry Anne Boleyn
o Appointed Thomas Cranmer as Archbishop of Canterbury
1534-1539
English Parliament abolished Roman Catholic monasteries, confiscated lands, redistributed to nobles and gentry
1536
Switzerland: John Calvin published Institutes of the Christian Religion
o Predestination: The Elect are saved
Puritan Ethnic: incentive to avoid poverty as sign of damnation -> capitalism
o Church government: democratic system where congregation elected minister
Church should be moral force in affairs of secular govnt -> theocracy
1539
England: Parliament approved Statute of Six Articles
o Seven sacraments upheld
o Catholic theology maintained against Lutheranism and Calvinism
o Authority of monarch replaced authority of Pope
Mary attempted to reinstitute Catholicism, Puritan Rev., but Anglican Church survived
1540s
Calvinism spread
1541
Calvin set up model theocracy in Geneva
o Scottish Calvinists (Presbyterians) established national church
o French Huguenots suppressed by Catholics
o English Calvinists (Puritans/Pilgrims) established colony in NE
1540s
Catholic and Counter-Reformations begin
1540
Ignatius Loyola established the Jesuits to suppress
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o Advisors to Catholic kings, suppressed heresy through Inquisition, schools in Catholic nations,
missionaries around the world
o Militant arm of the Catholic and Counter-Reformations
1542
Jesuits given control of Spanish and Italian Inquisitions
Index of Prohibited Books to keep heretical books out of the hands of the people
1545-1563
Council of Trent defined Catholic dogma
o Salvation is by good works and faith.
o Seven sacraments valid, transubstantiation was reaffirmed.
o Sources of religious authority: Bible, Church, writings of Church Father
Individuals cannot interpret Bible w/o Church
Bible = Vulgate, St. Jeromes Latin translation
o Monasticism, celibacy of the clergy, existence of purgatory were reaffirmed
Wanted to reform abuses: indulgences upheld as abuses corrected; bishops > clergy; seminaries
to train priests
1555
Peace of Augsburg: Princes could pick their own religion of the subjects
o Cuius region, eius religion

Results of the Protestant Reformation
Northern Europe (Scandinavia, England, Germany, parts of France, Switzerland, and Scotland) adopted
Protestantism.
Unity of Western Christianity was shattered.
Religious wars broke out in Europe for over a century.
Protestant spirit of individualism -> democracy, science, and capitalism
Justified nationalism by making church subordinate to state.
Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
First continent-wide war in history, mostly in Germany.
Religious wars in 16
th
century between Catholics and Protestants.
German princes wanted autonomy from HRE, France wanted to limit power of Hapsburgs; Sweden and Denmark
wanted to strengthen hold over Baltic region
Four Phases of the War
1. Bohemian Phase (1618-1625)
a. Czechs and Slovaks were Calvinist. Defenestrated Catholic king Matthias, installed Calvinist Frederick V
from the Palatinate.
b. Ferdinand II became HRE and king of Bohemia. He defeated (w/ Spanish Hapsburgs), defeated the
Bohemians at Battle of the White Mountain (1620)
i. Gave away lands of Protestant nobles, Spanish consolidated power
2. The Danish Phase (1625-1630)
a. Christian IV of Denmark (Lutheran) wanted to bolster Protestant position in Germany to annex German
lands for his son.
b. Ferdinand II countered by commissioning Albert of Wallenstein to raise Mercenary army that defeated
Danes and Germany.
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c. Edict of Restitution: Restored all Catholic States (1629)
3. The Swedish Phase (1625-1630)
a. Cardinal Richelieu concerned w/ gains made by Hapsburgs.
b. Gustavus Adolphus entered the war.
i. Won but was killed; Wallenstein assassinated. Protestants in Germany made peace
c. Peace of Prague: Revoked Edict of Restitution
d. Swedes defeated, but French wanted to check Hapsburg power.
4. The French-International Phase (1635-1648)
a. France, Holland, and Savoy joined to help Sweden
b. Against Spain and Austrian Hapsburgs
c. Henri Turenne (French) defeated Spanish at Rocroi
The Peace of Westphalia, (1648)
Peace of Augsburg reinstated, Calvinism added in Germany.
Edict of Restitution revoked, Church states to Protestant holders
Switzerland and Holland made independent states.
France, Sweden, Brandenburg received territories.
German princes made rulers, limited power of HRE and Hapsburgs
Effects of the Thirty Years War
Germany shattered population down by 2/3s. Stagnated, not a sovereign united nation.
Age of religious wars ended -> Balance of power politics
Hapsburgs weakened, Austria lost influence over Germany. Europe could not be united under Hapsburgs; Spain
was second-rate power.
Catholic and Counter Reformations were slowed; Protestantism was safely established.
HRE was gone; Germany not united until 1871.
Calvinism gained acceptance throughout Protestant Europe.
Anabaptists persecuted and disappeared.
Reformation Views on Women and Minorities
Women rose in status (household work) but WITCH TRIALS
Zealotry, African slavery, genocide
Baroque Period of Art
Art to engage viewer physically and emotionally
Imperfect, grotesque, or absurd
1500s in Italy to early 1800s
Spread through LA, English colonies, N. Europe
Counter Reformation, Church used art to evoke emotion and overpower the senses
Examples: Rubens (Flemish, nudes); Jacques-Louis David (Neoclassical French painter); Gentileschi (tension,
suffering); Rembrandt (light); Caravaggio (light vs. dark); Bernini (sculptor); Bach; Monteverdi (Orfeo); Vivaldi,
Handel
o Rocco Style of Art
THE GROWTH OF EUROPEAN NATION-STATES IN THE 1500S AND 1600S
Centralization of govnts -> powerful nation-states
Exploration of the globe, religious wars, rise of new governments (absolutism)
Exploration and Colonization: 1400s to 1600s
Portuguese: supported by Prince Henry the Navigator, explored South Atlantic
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o Diaz, da Gama, Cabral explored Africa, trading ports in India
o Encouraged by (1) missionary zeal, (2) personal gain, (3) national pride
Helped by magnetic compass, astrolabe, seaworthy craft
o Christopher Columbus (1451-1506): New World
o Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521) Circumnavigated glove for Spain
o Corts (1485-1547) and Pizarro = Spanish conquistadors
Gold and silver, new trade routes (Columbian Exchange)
European manufactured goods lumber, fur, gold, sugar, potatoes, corn
Netherlands revolted (1556-1587) against Spanish Catholic King Philip II
o Low Countries were Calvinist, became divided Spanish Netherlands (Belgium) in the South & United
Provinces of the Netherlands in north (Holland)
1588: Spanish Armada
30 Years War: national struggle for dominance of Central Europe
o Austrian Hapsburgs stopped Suleiman the Magnificent and Turks from expanding
Austria got Bohemia, Hungary, Transylvania
Russia: czars used influence w/ Mongols to consolidate power over Russian people
o Ivan the Terrible: limited power of nobles, expanded, solidified role of Czar
o After he died, Time of Troubles: civil war and lack of heir
Romanov dynasty established, got control over Russian Orthodox Christian Church
o Peter the Great (1696-1725): powerful standing army, civil service, education system, westernization
Imposed economic burdens, western ideas, social restrictions on peasants for more power, St.
Petersburg, built palaces
Brandenburg got independence -> Frederick William (1713-1740)
o Weakened Junkers, more absolutist rule
The Development of Absolutism in France
Francis I: Valois rival of Charles V, battled Hapsburgs but lost
o Instituted taille (direct tax on land and property)
o Concordat of Bolognas: Pope had right to collect annates; he could nominate officials (nationalized the
church)
Henry II: actively persecuted Huguenots until edict of toleration issued by Catherine de Medici
Massacre of St. Bartholomews Dar: renewed civil war
o Catholic mobs killed Huguenot leaders
Henry of Navarre (IV) converted to Catholicism
o Edict of Nantes: religious toleration for Huguenots
o Duke of Sully: Reformed tax collection system to more equality
Louis XIII: mismanagement and corruption
o Appointed Cardinal Richelieu as PM
Decentralized govnt by encouraging commerce and industry that increased tax base; bigger
military; intendant system; strengthened absolutism
Louis XIV: regent was Italian Cardinal Mazarin
o Capable administrator, defended Louis against Wars of the Fronde
Support of bourgeoisie, peasants, able to subdue Spain
o Louis became the state (LEtat, cest moi)
Bishop Jacques Bossuet: divine theory of rule
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First estate = clergy; Second estate = nobility; Third Estate = the rest
France was the strongest nation on the continent
Jean Baptiste Colbert: The Father of French Mercantilism
o Abolished internal tariffs, free trade zone; subsidized manufacturing; built up military; self-sufficiency;
large navy
Army w/ artillery, private contractors
Louis spent much of his reign at war
o War of the Devolution (1667-1668): France tried to seize Belgium
o Invasion of the Dutch Rhineland (1672-1678): Revenge for Dutch role, wanted Frances natural
boundary (Rhine River). Failure
o Seizure of Luxembourg and attempt to annex Alsace-Lorraine (1681-1697): Beaten by League of
Augsburg: Holland, Spain, HRE, England
o War of the Spanish Succession (1702-1714): Louis threatened to upset Balance of Power by grabbing
Spanish throne. Grand Alliance fought
o Treaty of Utrecht (1713-1714): France and Spain could never be ruled by same monarch
Victors got Spanish possessions
French golden age: universal tongue
o Writers = Corneille, Racine, Molire, de Svign, de Saint Simon, La Fontaine, De La Rochefoucauld
Wars hurt the economy; bourgeoisie and peasantry had enormous tax burden
o Outlawed Jansenism (Catholic Catholicism), revoked Edict of Nantes
Weakened power of nobles; systemized tax collection; royal edicts enforced; bourgeoisie given role in
administration
o Economy successful but seeds for revolution planted
The Development of Constitutionalism in England
Henry VIIs (1485-1509) family won War of Roses
o Money from prosperous middle class: trade, internal commerce through monopolies, charters, licenses
o Court of the Star Chamber: Subdued rebellious nobles, central justice
o Beholden to Parliament; hence, consulted for important issues
Henry VIII needed male heir -> English Reformation
Edward VI (1547-1553): (Duke of Somerset)
o Imposed Calvinism
o Anglican Book of Common Prayer reinstated
Mary Tudor (1553-1558):
o Catholic, married Philip II of Spain -> Rebellion
o Bloody Mary: Murdered Protestants
Elizabeth I:
o Defeated Spain (predominant power), religious and political change
o Balanced power btw govnt and Parliament
o Rich arable land; energetic populace
o Social system: gentry (lesser nobles who entered commerce)
The Elizabethan Age
Religion
Elizabeth reinstated Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity
The Thirty Nine Articles (1563) = Protestant doctrine
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o Not good enough for Puritans who wanted to purge liturgy and hierarchy
Diplomacy
Allied w/ Dutch for fear that Spain would invade
o Privateers to loot Spanish ships from Colonies
o Philip II and Mary Stuart tried to usurp the throne
o Spanish Armada (1588)
Culture
Gold Age of English literature: Shakespeare, Spenser, Donne, Marlowe, Francis Bacon
The Stuart Kings and Parliament (1603-1688)
James I: king of Scotland and son of Mary Queen of Scots
o Divine Right of Kings, did not get along w/ Parliament
o Hampton Court, 1604: Conference did not reconcile Puritans w/ Church of England
o Gunpowder Plot, 1605: Guy Fawkes wanted to blow up Parliament
Addled Parliament: 1614
o Argued about taxes -> James dissolved it and did not consult
o 1621: Great Protestation, wanted free speech and authority
James dissolved it and arrested members
Charles I (1625-1649)
o In wars and w/o taxes from parliament
o Petition of Right, 1628: Parliament would levy taxes; martial law cannot be declared in peacetime;
soldiers cannot be quartered in private homes; imprisonment requires a specific charge
o Bishops War of 1639-1640: Tried to force Anglican worship on Scots
Charles had to call Parliament for taxes to pay indemnities
Long Parliament (1640-1660)
o Demanded Charles to impeach top advisors, allow Parliament to meet ever
o Charles had to call Parliament and could not dissolve
o Charles tried to arrest top members -> English Civil War (1642-1649)
The Course of the War
Roundheads: middle class, merchants, major cities, some nobility that supported Parliament
Royalists/Cavaliers: Anglican clergy, nobility, peasants that backed the king
1643
Roundheads allied w/ Presbyterian Scotland; Charles w/ Irish Catholics
1644
Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658): Puritan leader of Parliament
o Led New Model Army against Cavaliers at Marston Moor and won
1645
Charles surrendered to the Scots
1647
Cromwell controlled Parliament with his Independents, favored religious toleration
Charles promised to impose Presbyterianism on English, got the support of Scots
1648
Cromwell defeated Scots at Battle of Preston, purged Presbyterians from Parliament
Rump Parliament voted to behead Charles for treason
1649
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England became a Republic, the Commonwealth under Cromwell and army
Suppressed Irish supporters of the crown
1653-1660
Cromwell = Lord Protector by poppet Parliament,
Son Richard was disposed -> Charles II (1661-1685)
The Stuart Restoration (1660-1688)
Cavalier Parliament (1660-1679): Development of Tory and Whig Parties
o Tories: noble, gentry, Anglicans (conservatives who supported monarchy)
o Whigs: Middle class, Puritans, wanted Parliament and religious toleration
Whig Parliament (1679): Did not like Charles IIs absolutist and pro-Catholic tendencies -> Habeas Corpus Act
o Judges could demand prisoners to be in court; just cause for imprisonment; speedy trials; no double
jeopardy
The Glorious Revolution
James II (1658-1688): Unpopular, Roman Catholic
1688: Nobles invited William of Orange and Mary to take English throne
o James fled, new monarchs came into power along w/ Declaration of Rights
o English Constitution: Bill of Rights, Habeas Corpus Act, Petition of Right
THE 18
TH
CENTURY: THE EXPANSION OF EUROPE AND THE ENLIGHTENMENT
Agricultural revolution, new enclosure system, new foods, Atlantic economy
Impact of science, new ideas, skepticism, rationalism -> Revolution
The Expansion of Europe
Open field system: Divided land into narrow strips to each individual
New enclosure movement: Open fields w/ crop rotation
o Small farmers displaced to towns but food production rose dramatically
New foods from the New World (potato)
o Better sanitation, quarantine methods, elimination of black rats
Mercantilism: system for favorable balance of trade w/ other nations and colonies
o Imbalance of exports over imports; gold and silver to offset difference
o Competition for colonies -> Seven Years War (1756-1763) of England vs. France
France lost its NA colonies; British colonies became more independent
o Discredited by Adam Smith who argued for free competition, limited government regulation, individual
self-interest through supply & demand market system
The Enlightenments Roots in the Development of Science
The Philosophers of Modern Science
Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Inductive or experimental method
o Observation of natural phenomena, accumulated data; experiments; drawing conclusions; formulating
principles
Ren Descartes (1596-1650): French philosopher, Discourse on Method (1637)
o I think, therefore I am (cogito ergo sum)
o God exists, b/c perfect being would have existence
o Cartesian Dualism: Divided all existence into spiritual and material
Spiritual through deductive reasoning; material through experimentation
o Goal: Reconcile religion with science but undermined b/c skeptics

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The Revolutionary Thinkers of Science
Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)
o Polish astronomer who came up with heliocentric solar system
o Concerning the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, proven by Kepler (elliptic orbits) and Galileo
(validated theory)
Contradicted Churchs ideas about God, excommunicated Galileo and Copernicus
Isaac Newton (1642-1727): Natural laws of science
Deism: God is a cosmic clockmaker
Rationalism: Laws of nature that fathomable by humans, humanity can be perfect
Science revolution redefined astronomy and physics, developed calculus, medicine (surgery, anatomy, drug
therapy, microorganisms)
The Enlightenment
French philosophes argued that society could be organized according to natural laws
o Ideas about how people should live and govern
John Lockes political ideas (Two Treatises on Civil Government)
o Consent of governed, social contract, right of revolution
The Philosophes
Voltaire (1694-1778): writer, satirist, poet, deist
o Social criticism, against injustice and bigotry
o Escrasez linfame (Crush the infamous)
o Imprisoned in bastille, visited England, visited Frederick the Great
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778): Founder of Romantic movement
o Rule of Reason, noble savage (civilization corrupted mankind), state of nature was better
o Needed to strip away chains of society -> Revolution
o The Social Contract: Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains
General will could control a nation; Children need caring
Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755): Spirit of the laws
o Checks and balances in the government
Denis Diderot (1713-1784)
o Published writings of philosophes in Encyclopedia
Francois Quesnay (1694-1774)
o Physiocrats: laissez-faire
Adam Smith (1727-1790): Wealth of Nations
Enlightened Despotism
Enlightened Despot: Aimed for advancement of society by fostering education, aiding economy, social justice
17
th
Century: Russia and Prussia rose as powerful states, chalanging Poland, Austria, and Ottoman empire
Prussia
Prussia was an army before it was a nation, ruled by Hohenzollerns
(1) Frederick William (1640-1688); (2) Frederick I (1988-1713); (3) Frederic k William I (1713-1740)
o Centralized govnt, encouraged industry to support growing army
(4) Frederick II or Frederick the Great (1740-1786)
o First servant of the state; military genius
o Improved education, codified laws, fostered industry, immigrant, religious toleration
o After his death, ruled by Junkers
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Russia
Duchy of Muscovy, under Ivan the Great, overcame subjugation by Central Asian Tartars
o 1453: Fall of Constantinople, Russia became state w/ Byzantine Culture and Orthodox Church
Basil (Vasily) III (1505-1533) and Ivan the Terrible (1533-1584):
o Expanded, consolidated new empire
o BUT gave power to landowners (Boyars) who formed the Duma, peasants became serfs
Peter the Great (1689-1725): Romanov
o Vast territories to Baltic Sea in North, Black Sea in South, Far East
o Westernization of Russia, but not Enlightened Despot
Western artisans, new capital on Gulf of Finland (St. Petersburg), reorganized army, encouraged
commerce and industry
Catherine the Great (1762-1796): German who came to power after murder of Tsar Peter III
o Patron of French philosophes, Enlightened Despot
o Pugachev Rebellion: Cossacks rebelled, Catherine became worried and ended her Enlightened reforms
o Annexed both Polish and Ottoman land
Austria
Maria Theresa (1740-1780) & son Joseph II (1780-1790)
o Hapsburgs weakened; Maria Theresa determined to strengthen realm by centralizing govnt, promoting
commerce, limiting power of nobles
o Joseph guaranteed freedom of the press and religion; reformed judicial system; German was the official
language; abolishing serfdom
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, NAPOLEON, AND THE CONGRESS OF VIENNA
1789: Pop. of 25 million, productive economy, immersive culture
Govnt = corrupt, inefficient, in debt, had class struggle
Revolution = Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
The French Revolution
The Old Regime
First Estate: clergy (10% of pop.; 20% of land)
Second Estate: Nobles, (2-4% of pop.; 20% of land)
Third Estate: Everyone else
o Taille: land tax; tithe: church tax; income tax, poll tax, salt, letter de cachet
Many problems from Wars (Louis, American Rev.)
o Tried to tax clergy + nobility but resistance from Parliament of Paris, Estates-General
The First or Moderate Stage of the Revolution (1789-1792)
(1) National Assembly
o June 20, 1789: Tennis Court Oath
o June 14, 1789: Storming of the Bastille
o Abolished feudalism, Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
(2) Constituent Assembly
o Oct. 1789: Womens March
o Seized church lands, Civil Constitution of the Clergy
(3) Legislative Assembly
o June 21, 1792: Flight to Varennes
o August 1791: Declaration of Pillnitz of Austria
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The Second or Radical Stage of the Revolution, (1792-1795)
o April 20, 1792: Wars of Revolution against Austria
o Brunswick Manifesto: threaten people of Paris if harm comes to the king
Jacobins roused the Parisians
o The Tuileries were stormed, king taken as prisoner
o September 21, 1792: France proclaimed a Republic
o 1793: First Coalition formed Austria, England, Netherlands, Prussia, Spain
o Jacobins: Paris; Girondists: rural workers
(4) Committee of Public Safety -> Reign of Terror
o 20,000 people died
o Republic of Virtue to de-Christianize France
o Danton and Robespierre executed
The Final or Reactionary of the Revolution, (1795-1799)
The Themidorian Reaction returned moderates to power
(5) The Directory, Napoleon came to power
Napoleon
(6) Consulate
o Consulate of 1801: Pope renounced all claims over property; allowed to have bishops & old popes from
before the Rev.
o Code Napoleon, 1804: Uniform legal system
Merit system, lowered taxes, redistributed church lands, (independent peasantry)
Napoleons Conquests & Defeats
Nationalism led to his downfall
Italy: Cisalphine (Northern Italian Republic)
o 1809: Reformed Italy, kept them separated
Germany: Deorganized, 300 states -> 20
o Confederation of the Rhine (Nationalism)
o Continental System: starve out England
Russia, France, Prussia, Denmark, Portugal, Spain
Spain: fought Guerilla war after nominating brother; Spain helped by English Duke of Wellington
Russia: Invaded in June of 1812
o Scorched earth tactics, France took Moscow but lost everything
The Collapse of the Napoleonic Empire:
Defeated in October 1813 at Battle of Leipzig
Rejected Frankfort Proposals -> Bourbons back to the throne & Napoleon sent to Elba
The Congress of Vienna (September, 1814 June 1815
Rule of legitimacy: return of rightful rulers
Metternich, Castlereagh, Czar Alexander, Prince Hardenberg, Minister Talleyrand
The Settlement
o New countries: Netherlands, Prussia on Rhine, Austria in Italy
o Germany broken up again
The Hundred Days: Napoleon escaped, defeated at Waterloo by Duke of Wellington + Gebhard von Blcher
o Sent to St. Helena, exiled
Concert of Europe/Quadruple Alliance: England, Prussia, Russia, Austria to prevent Revolution
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MERCANTILISM AND THE RISE OF CAPITALISM; THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Industrial Rev: growth of commerce, capitalism, new tech, politics in Britain
New ideologies: Marxism, Socialism
Mercantilism and the Rise of Capitalism
The Commercial Revolution
Inflation -> stimulated production
Middle class became wealthy, peasants could sell cash crops, nobility diminished
The Rise of Capitalism
Bourgeoisie had more money, invested in chartered co., joint-stock companies, limited liability to shareholders
Prosperity, advanced tech, the nation-state
Mercantilism
The Theory
o Bullionism: Amount of precious materials
o Favorable balance of trade: exports > imports
o Colonies to supply the mother country
o Focus on essential industries for self-sufficiences
The Industrial Revolution
New forms of energy: coal, fossil fuels
Machines: spinning jenny, water frame, power looms
Agricultural Revolution in England
Enclosure Acts: Fenced off common lands
o Large landowners had more money -> investments
o Surplus production, more population
o Factory workers (industrial proletariat)
Technological Advancements
The Scarcity of Energy: Newcomens steam engine
Textiles: fly shuttle (John Kay), Spinning Jenney (Hargreaves), water frame (Arkwright), steam engine
(Arkwright), cotton gin (Eli Whitney)
Coal: steam pump (Newcomen), condensing chamber steam engine (Walt); heavy industry
Transportation: steamship (Fulton), railroad steam engine (Stephenson)
o New sources of raw materials
o Rural workers could move to cities, lower costs of goods
Oil: internal combustion engimes
Results of the Industrial Revolution
Increased production & availability of manufactured goods
Cheaper high-quality goods
Bad working conditions -> Sadler Commission
Effects on Class and Gender:
o Two new classes: industrialists/capitalists & factory workers
o Did not improve until mid-19
th
century
o Child labor laws, Benthams utilitarianism, feminism
Theories of Economics
Adam Smiths supply & demand, laissez-faire economics,
Malthuss natural laws, population increases exponentially
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Ricardos Iron Law of Wages
Utopian Socialists wanted to help the poor (Robert Owen, Comte de Saint-Simon [socialists])
Marxs Theories: Communist Manifesto + Das Kapital
o Hegelian dialect: Thesis (prevailing ideal), antithesis (opposing ideal), synthesis (new ideal that becomes
the thesis)
o Dialectical materialism: materialistic view of society as it progressed to Communism
o Class struggle
o Inevitable revolution; surplus-value theory; dictatorship of the proletariat
o Communist Utopia
The Technological Revolution
Mass production, big businesses, population shift from countryside to cities
THE GROWTH AND SUPPRESSION OF DEMOCRACY FROM THE AGE OF METTERNICH TO THE FIRST WORLD WAR (1815-
1914)
Age of Metternich: Napoleon 1815 -> Revs. of 1848
o Continental balance of power + Old Order (against liberals)
England + France became constitutional monarchies
Germany, Austria, Russia suppressed democracy
The Growth of Democracy
England
Corn Laws of 1815: Raised prices, could not import foreign grain
o Anti-corn Law League formed, forced PM to repeal it
Tories instituted reforms to placate the people
o Great Reform Bill, 1832: Abolished rotten boroughs, expanded electorate, empowered middle class
Chartist Movement (radical working class) wanted ums, secret ballot, no property qualifications for office, free
public education
The Brits trusted their govnt
1866: Whigs (liberals) tried to expand voters under William Gladstone
o Second Reform Bill, 1867: doubled size of voters
o Gladstone legalized ums, secret ballot, public education
o Third Reform bill: universal male suffrage
Social Welfare State
France
Ruled by Louis XVIII w/ constitution but power in the hand of the upper middle class
Marquis de Lafayette, Louis Philippe = constitution of 1814
o Corruption -> Louis XVIII left
o Chamber of Deputies proclaimed a republic, new govnt (conservative Const. Assembly)
People rioted -> Legislative Assembly w/ Pres elected by ums
LNB came to power: law and order; eradicated socialism; radicalism; won election
o Emperor Napoleon III