ECE 242 Laboratory Manual

D.G. Nairn page 1

Lab 1: Output Resistance and Practical Circuits
Introduction:
The concept of an output resistance is commonly used to characterize how changing the
current drawn from a source changes the sources output voltage. For linear circuits, the output
resistance is equivalent to the Thevenin or Norton resistance. For non-linear circuits, the output
resistance or R
out
is defined as
(1)
where v
O
is the total output voltage (includes large and small signal components) and i
O
is the
total output current. The negative sign in eqn. 1 arises because the output current is defined as
flowing out of the source. Small output resistances imply the sources output voltage does not
change much as the output current or load is varied. In this case the source behaves like a volt-
age source. Conversely, a large output resistance implies that the sources output current remains
almost constant for a wide range of output voltages and the source behaves like a current source.
Preparation:
1. In practical circuits, we do not have access to any internal voltage and current sources. Conse-
quently, when measuring a circuits R
out
in the lab, we cannot set all independent sources to
zero. Hence, while it may be obvious what the value of R
out
is for the source enclosed by the
dotted line in Fig. 1, we would like to calculate it by:
1) applying a test voltage V
T
,
2) determining the resulting test current I
T
,
3) and then using V
T
and I
T
to calculate R
out
.
This can be done by filling out Table 1. For the fifth and sixth columns, in each row i,
and . Then determine R
out
.

R
out
v
O
i
O
--------- =
Figure 1) Finding the output resistance.
R
S
= 50
V
S
= 1 V
I
T
V
T R
out
V
Ti
V
Ti
V
Ti 1
= I
Ti
I
Ti
I
Ti 1
=
ECE 242 Laboratory Manual
page 2 D.G. Nairn
2. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2, determine the voltage at Q
1
s base (V
B
), emitter (V
E
) and col-
lector (V
C
) and write these values directly on the circuit diagram in the appropriate loca-
tions.
1
Assume V
BE
= 0.7, when in the active region and .
3. Using your lab kit, pre-wire the circuit shown in Fig. 2, with R
L
left as an open circuit.
Table 1: Computing the Output Resistance of the Circuit in Fig. 1.
V
Test
(V)
I
Test
(A)
|V
T
/I
T
|
()
V
T
(V)
I
T
(A)
V
T
/I
T
()
V
T1
0
V
T2
0.5
V
T3
1.0
V
T4
1.5
V
T5
2.0
R
out
= ________
1. The arrow through R
L
indicates that R
L
is a variable resistance.
= R
L
=
R
3
= 7.5 k
+15V
R
2
= 68 k
R
1
= 82 k
v
O
R
out
R
L
Figure 2) A voltage source (a) and the pin diagram for the NTE2322 (b).
Q
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
7 8
9
10
11
12
13
14
i
O
a)
b)
V
E
= ____
V
B
= ____
V
C
= ____
ECE 242 Laboratory Manual
D.G. Nairn page 3
4. Prepare a spread-sheet
1
similar to that shown in Table 2. For the formula in the R
out
columns,
v
O
is the difference between the v
O
in the row above and the v
O
in the current row while,
i
O
is the difference between the i
O
in the row above and the i
O
in the current row.
1. Use your favorite spreadsheet program. You will measure and enter the voltage values while the spread-
sheet uses the formulae to calculate the values for i
O
and R
out
.
Table 2: Sample Spread-Sheet for Lab 1
Resistance
Results for the Voltage Source Results for the Current Source
v
O1
(V) i
O1
(mA) R
out1
() v
O2
(V) i
O2
(mA) R
out2
()
999,999 = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
100 k = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
70 k = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
50 k = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
35 k = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
20 k = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
14 k = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
10 k = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
7 k = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
5 k = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
3.5 k = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
2 k = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
1 k = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
700 = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
500 = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
350 = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
200 = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
140 = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
100 = v
O1
/R
L
= v
O2
/R
L
= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

= v
O1
i
O1
= v
O2
i
O2

ECE 242 Laboratory Manual
page 4 D.G. Nairn
Laboratory:
A Voltage Source
1. Verify that your circuit analysis and the pre-wiring done in the preparation are correct by
applying 15 V and ground to your pre-wired circuit and measuring the node voltages.
1
Record
the measured voltages directly on Fig. 2, in the spaces provided.
2. Set the decade resistor box on the highest resistance setting (i.e., 999,999 ). Then, connect
the decade resistance box between v
O
and ground, as shown in Fig. 2.
3. For each resistance value indicated in Table 2, measure and record the output voltage in your
spread-sheet. Be sure to record at least four significant figures.
4. When the resistor setting is at its lowest value (i.e., 100 ), measure and record the transis-
tors base, emitter and collector voltages.
5. Using the spreadsheet, generate two plots; v
O1
versus R
L
and v
O1
versus i
O1
.
A Current Source
1. With the decade resistor box still
set to 100 change your circuit
to that shown in Fig. 3.
2. Verify that Q
1
s base and emitter
voltages are the same as your
preparation.
3. For each resistance value indi-
cated in Table 2, measure and
record the output voltage.
4. When the resistor setting is at its
highest value (~1 M), measure
and record the transistors base
(V
B
), emitter (V
E
) and collector
(V
C
) voltages on Fig. 3.
5. Using the spreadsheet, generate two plots; One, i
O2
versus R
L
and two, i
O2
versus v
O2
.
6. Measure and record the actual value of your 15V supply. Then measure the actual values of
R
1
, R
2
and R
3
and record them in the spaces provided on Fig. 2.
1. The measured voltages should be within a few hundred millivolts of the calculated values
R
3
= 7.5 k
+15V
R
2
= 68 k
R
1
= 82 k
v
O
R
out
R
L
Figure 3) A BJT based current source.
Q
1
i
O
V
E
= ____
V
B
= ____
V
C
= ____
ECE 242 Laboratory Manual
D.G. Nairn page 5
A Sensor
Solar cells are commonly made from pn junctions. When the pn junction is illuminated,
electron-hole pairs are generated in the pn junctions depletion region. Since these charged parti-
cles find themselves in an electrical field, the electrons are immediately swept to the cathode or n
side and the holes to the anode or p side. If an external current path (i.e., a load) exists, current
will flow and power will be delivered from the source (the solar cell) to the load (R
L
).
A simple circuit using a solar cell and a load resistance
(the decade resistor box) is shown in Fig. 4. By allowing light
to illuminate the solar cell, power will be supplied to the load
(R
L
). We would now like to model the solar cell with its Thev-
enin or Norton equivalent model.
1. Prepare a spread-sheet similar to the first four columns of
Table 2. Note you will have to determine an appropriate
range of resistor values to use in column 1.
2. Place the solar cell on top of your oscilloscope and be sure
to not shade it while taking measurements. Vary R
L
and
complete the second column of the spread-sheet.
3. Use the spread-sheet to compute the load current and output resistance.
4. Plot v
O
versus i
O
.
Report:
A Voltage Source
1. Using the voltages measured in part 1 of the Voltage Source section and the measured data in
part 6 of the Current Source section, along with Fig. 2, determine your transistors .
2. If you have not already done so, using the spreadsheet created in the Voltage Source section of
the Lab, generate a plot of v
O1
versus R
L
and a plot of v
O1
versus i
O1
. On the plots, identify the
region (i.e., the range of resistor and current values) in which the circuit shown in Fig. 2
behaves as a voltage source and determine its output resistance (based on measured values).
3. Draw a Thevenin equivalent model of Fig. 2, indicate the value of the independent source, the
output resistance and the range of output currents over which the the model is valid.
4. Using the value of found in part 1, analyze the circuit of Fig. 2 to determine its output resis-
tance, R
out
, and compare this value to that found in part 2. Assume R
L
is an open circuit.
5. Why, when analyzing linear circuits to determine their output resistance, do we set the cir-
cuits independent sources to zero and then apply a 1 V test voltage (or a 1 A test current)?
6. What mode of operation is the transistor in when R
L
= 100 ? How do you know this?
Figure 4) A photodiode or solar
cell connected to a
load
R
L
v
O
solar cell

ECE 242 Laboratory Manual

page 6 D.G. Nairn
A Current Source
1. If you have not already done so, using the spreadsheet created in the Current Source section of
the Lab, generate a plot of i
O2
versus R
L
and a plot of i
O2
versus v
O2
. On the plots, identify the
region (i.e., the range of resistor and voltage values) in which the circuit shown in Fig. 3
behaves as a current source and determine its output resistance (based on measured values).
2. Draw a Norton equivalent model of Fig. 3, indicate the value of the independent source, the
output resistance and the range of output voltages over which the the model is valid.
3. What mode of operation is the transistor in when the resistance is set to 999,999 ? How do
you know this?
A Sensor
1. If you have not already done so, plot v
O
versus i
O
for the solar cell. Then, using the plots,
determine if the solar cell should be modelled as a voltage (Thevenin) or current (Norton)
source.
2. Draw the appropriate Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit model (with component values)
for the solar cell and specify the range of load resistances for which the model is valid.
Lab 1 Report Requirements (ONE report per lab group):
For Lab 1, your report should include:
1. A cover sheet that clearly indicates which lab this is (i.e., Lab 1), your name and student num-
ber and your partners name and student number (an example cover sheet is on the next page).
2. The originals or copies of parts 1 and 2 of the preparation (one for each group member).
3. Clearly labeled plots of v
O1
versus R
L
and v
O1
versus i
O1
. Each plot should be on a separate
page. On each plot clearly indicate the voltage source region.
4. A page or more with your answers to questions 3, 4, 5 and 6 in the Voltage Source section.
5. Clearly labeled plots of i
O2
versus R
L
and i
O2
versus v
O2
. Each plot should be on a separate
page. On each plot clearly indicate the current source region.
6. A page or more with your answers to questions 2 and 3 in the Current Source section.
7. A clearly labeled plot of v
O
versus i
O
for the solar cell.
8. A page with your answers to question 2 in the Sensor section
9. Staple your pages together!
ECE 242 Laboratory Manual
D.G. Nairn page 7
Lab 1: Output Resistance and Practical Circuits
Name:______________ Number: _______________
Name:______________ Number: _______________