- 1 -

CHEMISTRY 9701
Chapter 1 : ATOMS, MOLECULES AND STOICHIOMETRY
1.01 Atoms and Molecules
1. Atom is the smallest particle in which an element can be derived without losing its identity.
2. A molecule is a group of atoms (held by covalent bond) that exists under ordinary conditions. .g.
Cl
2
!
H
2
O
!
CH
4

1.02 "he Atomic "heory of #ohn $alton
1. All matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms. (%alse& Atoms can be subdivided into electrons!
neutrons and protons.)
2. Atoms of the same element are similar in shape and mass! but differ from atoms of other elements.
('sotopes have different masses.)
(. Atoms cannot be destroyed or created.
). Atoms combine together to form *compound atoms+ or molecules in simple ratio.
1.0 ( ,elative Masses of Atoms! Molecules and 'onic -ompounds
"he mass of an atom is compared with the mass of a standard atom of carbon . 12 isotope because carbon
is a solid at room temperature and hence! easier to store and transport.
The relative mass of a particle =
12B mass of one particle
mass of one atom of C @12
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
,elative mass has no unit since it is a ratio. 'sotopes are atoms of the same element with different masses.

The relative isotopic mass of a particle =
12B mass of an isotope
mass of one atom of C @12
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff


The relative atomic mass of a particle =
12B mass of one atom of an element
mass of one atom of C @12
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff

/aturally occurring element has a mixture of isotopes.
.g. -hlorine has 2 isotopes of
Cl
35
and
Cl
37
in the ratio of (&1.
"he 0 of isotopes is 1nown as abundance.
"he abundance of
Cl
35
2
3
4
ffff
B 100% = 75%
"he abundance of
Cl
37
2
1
4
ffff
B 100% = 25%
The relative atomic mass of an element =
P
relative isotopic mass
b c
B abundance
` a
total abundance
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Ar of Chlorine =
75B 35
` a
+ 25B 37
` a
100
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff

= 35.5
- 2 -
3uestion&
4 exists as
K
39
and
K
40
. -alculate the abundance of each isotope. (Ar of 4 2 (5.1)
6et the abundance of
K
39
be
x

6et the abundance of
K
40
be 100 @x
39.1 =
x 39
` a
+ 100 @x
` a
40
100
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff

x = 90
K
39
2 500
K
40
2 100
1.0 ) ,elative Molecular Mass (Mr) of a Molecule

The relative molecular mass, Mr =
12B mass of one molecule of a substance
mass of one atom of C @12
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Mr is the sum of the Ar of all the atoms shown in the formula.
Mr of SO
4
2 @
= 32.1 + 16
` a
4
` a

= 96.1
1.0 7 ,elative %ormula Mass (%r) of an 'onic -ompound
The relative formula mass of an ionic compound, Fr =
12B mass of a formula unit of a compound
mass of one atom of C @12
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
1.08 "he Mole
"he mole is the amount of substance which contains as many particles (atoms! ions or molecules) as in
exactly 12g of -arbon . 12.
Molar mass is the Ar of Mr in grams.
"he unit for molar mass is gmol
@1

Avogadro -onstant (6) is the no. of atoms that exist in exactly 12g of - . 12. "his no. is
6.02B10
23

NoAof mol n
` a
=
mass
Ar or Mr
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffff

NoAof particles = nB L
3uestion&
a) 9hat is the mass of one mole of aspirin
C
9
H
8
O
4
: (- 2 12! ; 2 1! < 2 18)
- 3 -
b) ;ow many mole of aspirin are there in
i. 1)8g
ii. 1.00g if this substance
c) 9hat is the mass in grams of 0.)((( moles of aspirin:
d) ;ow many aspirin molecules are there in 1.=)g of this substance:
e) 9hat is the mass in grams of
1B10
23
molecules of aspirin:
f) ;ow many carbon atoms are there in 1 mole of aspirin:
g) ;ow many oxygen molecules are in 1 mole of aspirin:
Answer&
a)
1 mole =
mass g
` a
9 12
` a
+ 8 + 4 16
` a
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
1 mole =
mass g
` a
180
ffffffffffffffffffffffffff
mass = 180g
b) (i)
NoAmole =
146g
180
fffffffffffffff
= 0.81mol
b) (ii)
NoAmole =
1.00g
180
fffffffffffffffff
= 0.006mol
c)
0.4333 mol =
mass g
` a
180
ffffffffffffffffffffffffff
mass = 77.99g
d)
NoAmole =
1.74g
180
fffffffffffffffff
B 6.02B10
23
= 0.01mol
e)
Mass = NoAmoleB Molar mass
=
1B10
23
6.02B10
23
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
B 180
= 29.9mol
f)
NoAparticles = 6.02B10
23
B 9
= 5.42B10
24
g)
NoAparticles = 6.02B10
23
B 4
= 1.204B10
24
1.0= Molecules and Moles
-oncentration of an a>ueous solution may be expressed as&
i. Mole of solute per dm? of solution (
moldm
@3
)
ii. Mass of solute per dm? of solution ( gdm
@3
)

NoAof mole =
MB Vol cm
3
b c
1000
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
M = moldm
@3

3uestion&
;ow many moles of water in 1 dm?:
Answer&

1dm
3
= 1000cm
3
= 1000g Mr ofH
2
O = 1 2
` a
+ 16
e!s"#$of %a#er =
1g
1cm
3
ffffffffffffff
= 18gmol
@1
= 1gcm
@3

NoAmole =
mass g
` a
Mr
ffffffffffffffffffffffffff
=
1000g
18gmol
@1
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
= 55.56mol

- 4 -
9hen a given solution is diluted! the no. of moles of solute remains unchanged after dilution.
M
1
V
1
= M
1
V
2
&'ere M
1
= (!"#"al molar"#$
M
2
= )"!al molar"#$af#er add"#"o!of %a#er
V
1
= (!"#"al *ol+me of %a#er
V
2
= )"!al *ol+me of %a#er

1.0@ Moles of Aases
1 mole of gas at s.t.p. occupies 22.)dm?
1 mole of gas at r.t.p. occupies 2)dm?
B.".C. 2 Btandard temperature and pressure

0 C a!d 1a#m,ress+re
273- a!d 1a#m,ress+re
f g

,.".C. 2 ,oom temperature and pressure

25 C a!d 1a#m,ress+re
295- a!d 1a#m,ress+re
f g
1.05 $etermination of Ar or Mr
- 5 -
'n a mass spectrometer! bombarding the vaporiDed with high energy electrons from the hot wire produces
positive ions&
Cositive ions are needed so that it can be deflected by the magnetic field
"he ions are accelerated by an electric field into the magnetic field! which causes the ions to be
deflected from their straight line
"he ions are accelerated to avoid doubly charged ions ( .
2 +
) being formed
"he extent of deflection depends on the mass to charge ratio (mEe) of an ion
A lighter ion is deflected more than heavier one with the same charge
A doubly charged ion is deflected more than singly charged ion of the same mass
'n a mass spectrometer! the field strength is steadily changed so that particles of increasing mass arrive one
after the other at the detector.
A vacuum is maintained inside the mass spectrometer since any air molecules present may hinder the
movement of ions.
A chart record will print a mass spectrum.

;ow many lines in a spectrum represent how many isotopes. Most ions will have charge F1. ;ence mEe
ratio 2 mass of ion
"he mass spectrum of an element provides the following information&
1. /o. of isotopes present . from the no. of pea1s or lines
2. ,elative isotopic mass and hence the identity of the isotope from the mEe
Cl
+
35
Cl
+
37
- 6 -
(. ,elative abundance of each isotope . from the height of each pea1 and hence!
). "he relative atomic mass of an element
3uestion&
"he mass spectrum of Mg as shown

a) 9hat are the isotopes of Mg:
b) 9hat are the species responsible for the pea1s:
c) -alculate the Ar of Mg
Answer&
a) Mg
24
/ Mg
25
/ Mg
26

b)
Mg
+
24
/ Mg
+
25
/ Mg
+
26
c)
0ela#"*e a1+!da!ce =
24 8
` a
+ 25 1
` a
+ 26 1
` a
10
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
= 24.3

3uestion&
"he Ar of ,b is @7.8. ,b exists as
01
85
and
01
87
. $raw a predicted mass spectrum of ,b.
Answer& ,elative Abundance

=



(
@7 @=
Mg
+
24
Mg
+
25
Mg
+
26
2r = 85.6
85.6 =
85 3
` a
+ 87 100 @3
` a
100
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
8560 = 853 + 8700 @873
3 = 70
01
85
= 70%
01
87
= 30%
01
+
85
01
+
87
- 7 -
1.10 Mass Bpectrum of Molecules

;-l
A mass spectrum of a compound provides the following information&
1) "he identity of fragment ions . from the mEe ratio of the ion
2) "he identity of the molecular ion and hence the Mr of the compound . from the highest mEe value
() ,elative abundance of fragment ions or molecular ions of each pea1

,elative abundance
mEe
1 (7 (8 (= (@
.g.& A molecule of chlorine gas is subGected to a mass spectrometer
"he mass spectrum obtained is
,elative abundance
mEe
(7 (= =0 =2 =)


Molecule
Cl
35
@ Cl
35
Cl
35
@ Cl
37
Cl
37
@ Cl
37
Molecular species

Cl
2
+
35

Cl
+
35
@ Cl
+
37
Cl
2
+
37
mEe =0 =2 =)
,elative height

3
4
ffff
B
3
4
ffff
=
9
16
fffffff

3
4
ffff
B
1
4
ffff
f g
B 2
=
6
16
fffffff
1
4
ffff
B
1
4
ffff
=
1
16
fffffff
,atio 5 8 1
H
+
Cl
+
35
H Cl
+
35
Cl
+
37
H Cl
+
37
Cl
+
35
Cl
+
37
Cl
2
+
35
Cl
2
+
37
Cl
35
@ Cl
+
37
- 8 -
3uestion&
$raw a mass spectrum when a
4r
2
molecule is subGected to a mass spectrometer. -alculate the relative
abundance of the molecular species.
Answer&
Molecule
4r
2
79
4r
79
4r
81
4r
2
81
Molecular Bpecies
4r
2
+
79
4r
79
4r
+
81
4r
2
+
81
mEe 17@ 180 182
,elative Abundance 1
2
fff
B
1
2
fff
=
1
4
ffff 1
2
fff
B
1
2
fff
f g
B 2 =
1
2
fff
1
2
fff
B
1
2
fff
=
1
4
ffff
,atio 1 2 1
,elative Abundance
2
1
mEe
17@ 180 182
$raw a mass spectrum when a 4rCl molecule is subGected to a mass spectrometer. -alculate the relative
abundance of the molecular species.
Answer&
Molecule
4r
79
Cl
35
4r
79
Cl
37
4r
81
Cl
35
4r
81
Cl
37
Molecular
Bpecies
4r
79
Cl
+
35
4r
79
Cl
+
37
4r
81
Cl
+
35
4r
81
Cl
+
37
mEe 11) 118 118 11@
4r
2
+
79
4r
79
4r
+
81
4r
2
+
81
- 9 -
,elative
Abundance
3
4
ffff
B
1
2
fff
f g
B 2 =
6
8
fff
1
2
fff
B
1
4
ffff
f g
B 2 =
2
8
fff
1
2
fff
B
3
4
ffff
f g
B 2 =
6
8
fff
1
2
fff
B
1
4
ffff
f g
B 2 =
2
8
fff
,atio ( 1 ( 1
,elative Abundance
)
(
1
mEe
11) 118 11@
1.11 mpirical and Molecular %ormula
mpirical shows the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of the different element in the compound
Molecular formula shows the actual number of atoms of each element present in one molecule of
compound
! em,"r"cal form+la
b c
= molec+lar form+la
! em,"r"cal form+la
b c
= Mr
1.12 -alculations of Mr from 'deal Aas >uation
'deal gas e>uation given by&
5V = !06
5 = 5ress+re 5a
` a
V = Vol+me m
3
b c
! = !oAof mole =
mass
Mr
fffffffffffffff
0 = gas co!s#a!# = 8.31 78
@1
mol
@1
6 = 6em,era#+re -
` a
4r
79
Cl
+
35
4r
81
Cl
+
37
4r
79
Cl
+
37
, 4r
81
Cl
+
35
5V=
mass
Mr
fffffffffffffff
06
Mr =
mass 06
5V
ffffffffffffffffffffffffff
= de!s"#$
06
5
ffffffffff
de!s"#$ = gm
@3
*ol+mecm
3
Q m
3
B10
@3
b c
dm
3
Q m
3
B10
@3
b c
C Q - + 273
` a
- 10 -
3uestion&
0.)g of a gas has a volume of 22=cm? at 27 C and a pressure of 1001Ca. -alculate the Mr of the gas.
Answer&


3uestion&
A gas has a density of gEdm? at 373 C and at a pressure of 2001Ca. -alculate the Mr of the gas.

3uestion&
-alculate the volume occupied when 1g of ice is heated to (2(4 at 1 atm pressure.

5V= !06
5V=
mass
Mr
fffffffffffffff
0
` a
6
` a
1010005a
` a
B V
` a
=
1
189
fffffffffff
f g
8.31B 323-
V = 1.48B10
@3
dm
@3

1.1( -alculations using -ombustion $ata
"he molecular formula of hydrocarbon can be determined by combustion in excess oxygen to form
CO
2

and
H
2
O
.
C
3
H
$
g
` a
+ 3 +
$
4
ffff
d e
O
2
Q 3CO
2
g
` a
+
$
2
ffff
H
2
O l
` a
Hnder room temperature or s.t.p. the water produced is a li>uid. ;ence water is negligible compared with
the volumes of
C
3
H
$
/ O
2
and
CO
2
gases.
>ual volumes gases! under the same conditions of temperature and pressure! contain e>ual numbers of
molecules or moles. (AvogadroIs 6aw)
3uestion&
Mr =
mass 06
5V
ffffffffffffffffffffffffff
=
0.4B 8.31B 300
100B10
3
B 227B10
@6
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
=
997.2
22.7
fffffffffffffffff
= 43.9
Mass = 0.4g
Vol+me = 227B10
@6
m
3
6em,era#+re = 27 + 273
= 300-
5ress+re = 100B10
3
5a
Mass = 1.7g
Vol+me = 1dm
3
= 1B10
@3
m
3
6em,era#+re = 27 + 373
= 400-
5ress+re = 200B10
3
5a
Mr = de!s"#$
06
5
ffffffffff
Mr =
MassB 0B 6
Vol+meB 5ress+re
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Mr =
1.7B 8.31B 400
1B10
@3
B 200B10
3
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
- 11 -
10cm? of a gaseous hydrocarbon re>uired 20cm? of oxygen gas for complete combustion. 10cm? of
CO
2

was produced in the combustion. All gases were measured under the same condition. -alculate the relative
molecular formula and hence the relative molecular mass.
Answer&
C
3
H
$
g
` a
+ 3 +
$
4
ffff
d e
O
2
Q 3CO
2
g
` a
+
$
2
ffff
H
2
O l
` a

10cm? 20cm? 10cm?
,atio&
1 2 1
O
2
gas can be absorbed completely by soda lime or 4<; when the gaseous products of combustion are
passed by over soda lime or 4<;! there is a decrease in volume of gas 2 volume of
CO
2

3uestion&
20cm? of a gaseous hydrocarbon was mixed with 170cm? of oxygen. "he mixture was spar1ed so that the
hydrocarbon was completely burnt.
"he gaseous products had a total volume of 1(0cm?! when this product was passed over soda lime! the
volume of the product decreased to 50cm?.
$educe the molecular formula of the hydrocarbon.
C
3
H
$
g
` a
+ 3 +
$
4
ffff
d e
O
2
Q 3CO
2
g
` a
+
$
2
ffff
H
2
O l
` a
20cm? 170cm?
1(0cm? J )0cm? 2 50cm?
20cm? 80cm? )0cm?
,atio 1 ( 2
3uestion&
27cm? of
C
2
H
6
was mixed with (7cm? of oxygen gas. "he mixture was electrically spar1ed so that ethane
gas burnt in oxygen. -alculate&J
a) "he volume of gases left after combustion at r.t.p.
b) 9hat is the total change in volume after the reaction.
. = 1 .+
9
4
fffff
= 2
9
4
fffff
= 2 @1
9= 4
Molec+lar form+la =CH
4
Mr = 12 + 4 16
` a
. = 2 .+
9
4
fffff
= 3
9
4
fffff
= 3 @2
9 = 4
- 12 -
1.1) Cercentage -omposition
.g. -alculate the percentage composition by mass of benDene
C
6
H
6
.

5erce!#age Com,os"#"o! %
` a
of Car1o! C
` a
=
12 6
` a
12 6
` a
+ 6
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
B 100%
= 92.3%

5erce!#age Com,os"#"o! %
` a
ofH$droge! H
` a
=
1 6
` a
12 6
` a
+ 6
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
B 100%
= 7.7%
1.17 Kield
"he mass of product formed in a chemical reaction is called the yield.
Theoretical yield:
Kield of a product calculated from the chemical e>uation.
Actual yield:
"he yield actually obtained in an experiment or in an industrial process. 't will be much less due to
incomplete reaction or product loss during the reaction.
Percentage yield:
's a measure of the efficiency of the reaction.
ercentage !ield =
Actual !ield
Theoretical !ield
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
B 100%
3uestion&
'n an experiment! 2(.0g of bromobenDene was obtained from 20g sample of benDene. -alculate the
percentage yield.
C
6
H
6
+ 4r Q C
6
H
5
4r + H4r
LenDene LromobenDene
20g Actual yield 2 2(g
- 13 -

NoAof moleC
6
H
6
=
20
78
ffffffff
6'ereo#"cal $"eld ofC
6
H
5
4r =
20
78
ffffffff
Mass ofC
6
H
5
4r =
20
78
ffffffff
B 72 + 5 + 79.9
` a
= 40g
5erce!#age $"eld =
23g
40g
ffffffffffff
B 100%
= 58%