Chapter 2: Units and Measurement

Introduction
An accurate and consistent system of measurement is the foundation of a healthy
economy. In the United States, a carpenter pays for wood by the board-foot, while a
motorist buys petrol by the allon, and a !eweler sells old by the ounce. "and is sold by
the acre, fruits and #eetables are sold by the pound, and electric cable is sold by the
yard. $ithout a consistent, honest system of measurement, world trade would be thrown
into chaos. %uyers and sellers ha#e always tried to defraud each other by wronly
representin the &uantity of the product e'chaned. (rom ancient times to the present
there has been a need for measurin thins accurately.
$hen the ancient )yptians built the pyramids, they measured the stones they cut usin
body dimensions e#ery wor*er could understand. Small distances were measured in
diits +the width of a finer, and loner distances in cubits +the lenth from the tip of the
elbow to the tip of the middle finer- . cubit / 20 diits,. 1he 2omans were famous road
builders and measured distances in paces +. pace / two steps,. Archaeoloists ha#e
unco#ered ancient 2oman roads and found milestones mar*in each .333 paces +mil is
"atin for .333,. 1he 4anes were a seafarin people and particularly interested in
*nowin the depth of water in shippin channels. 1hey measured soundins in fathoms
+the distance from the tip of the middle finer on one hand to the tip of the middle finer
on the other, so na#iators could easily #isuali5e how much clearance their boats would
ha#e. In )nland distances were defined with reference to body features of the *in. A
yard was the circumference of his waist, an inch was the width of his thumb, and a foot
the lenth of his foot. )nlish farmers, howe#er, estimated lenths in somethin they
could more easily relate to: furlons, the lenth of an a#erae plowed furrow.
Many )nlish units are specific to certain professions or trades. A sea captain reports
distances in nautical miles and depths in fathoms, while a horse trainer measures heiht
in hands and distance in furlons. Unfortunately, most people ha#e no idea what nautical
miles, fathoms, hands, or furlons are because they only use the more common measures
of miles, yards, inches.
1he early )nlish settlers brouht the Customary system of measurement with them to
the American colonies. Althouh the Customary system is still widely used in America,
scientists prefer to use the metric system. Unli*e the )nlish +Customary, system, the
metric system did not e#ol#e from a #ariety of ancient measurement systems, but was a
loical, simplified system de#eloped in )urope durin the se#enteenth and eihteenth
centuries. 1he metric system is now the mandatory system of measurement in e#ery
country of the world e'cept the United States, "iberia and %urma +Myanmar,.
In .673, an international conference was called to standardi5e the metric system. 1he
international System of Units +SI, was established in which all units of measurement are
based upon se#en base units: meter +distance,, *iloram +mass,, second +time,, ampere
+electrical current,, 8el#in +temperature,, mole +&uantity,, and candela +luminous
intensity,. 1he metric system simplifies measurement by usin a sinle base unit for
each &uantity and by establishin decimal relationships amon the #arious units of that
same &uantity. (or e'ample, the meter is the base unit of lenth and other necessary units
are simple multiples or sub-multiples:
. meter / 3.33. *ilometer / .,333 millimeters /.,333,333 micrometers / .,333,333,333
nanometers
1he table . shows the SI prefi'es and symbols. 1hrouhout this boo* we use the metric
system of measurement.
Table 1: SI Prefixes and Symbols
Factor Decimal Representation Prefix Symbol
.3
.0
.,333,333,333,333,333,333 e'a )
.3
.9
.,333,333,333,333,333 peta :
.3
.2
.,333,333,333,333 tera 1
.3
6
.,333,333,333 ia ;
.3
7
.,333,333 mea M
.3
<
.,333 *ilo *
.3
2
.33 hecto h
.3
.
.3 de*a da
.3
3
.
.3
-.
3.. deci d
.3
-2
3.3. centi c
.3
-<
3.33. milli m
.3
-7
3.333 33. micro m
.3
-6
3.333 333 33. nano n
.3
-.2
3.333 333 333 33. pico p
.3
-.9
3.333 333 333 333 33. femto f
.3
-.0
3.333 333 333 333 333 33. atto a
Unit: =ou measure thins by definin a standard unit and then statin the measurement in
terms of multiples of that unit. A unit of measurement is a definite manitude of a
physical &uantity, defined and adopted by con#ention or by law, that is used as a standard
for measurement of the same physical &uantity. Any other #alue of the physical &uantity
can be e'pressed as a simple multiple of the unit of measurement.
(undamental or %ase Units and 4eri#ed Units: A fundamental unit of measurement is a
defined unit that cannot be described as a function of other units. >ot all &uantities
re&uire a unit of their own. Usin physical laws, units of &uantities can be e'pressed as
combinations of units of other &uantities. 1hus only a small set of units is re&uired. 1hese
units are ta*en as the base units. ?ther units are deri#ed units. 4eri#ed units are a matter
of con#enience, as they can be e'pressed in terms of basic units. $hich units are
considered base units is a matter of choice.
International System of Units
1he International System of Units +SI, defines se#en fundamental units of measurement.
SI base units
1he International System of Units +SI, defined se#en basic units of measure from which
all other SI units are deri#ed. 1hese SI base units or commonly called metric units are:
Measure Unit Symbol Area of Science
1ime Second s All
"enth or distance Meter or Metre m All
Mass 8iloram * :hysics
)lectric Current Ampere A :hysics
1emperature 8el#in 8 :hysics
"uminous Intensity Candela cd ?ptics
Amount of Substance Mole mol Chemistry
:lane anle: 2adian describes the plane anle subtended by a circular arc as the lenth of
the arc di#ided by the radius of the arc. ?ne radian is the anle subtended at the center of
a circle by an arc that is e&ual in lenth to the radius of the circle. More enerally, the
manitude in radians of such a subtended anle is e&ual to the ratio of the arc lenth to
the radius of the circle- that is, @ / s Ar, where @ is the subtended anle in radians, s is arc
lenth, and r is radius. Con#ersely, the lenth of the enclosed arc is e&ual to the radius
multiplied by the manitude of the anle in radians- that is, s / r@. As the ratio of two
lenths, the radian is a Bpure numberB that needs no unit symbol, and in mathematical
writin the symbol BradB is almost always omitted. In the absence of any symbol radians
are assumed, and when derees are meant the symbol C is used. A complete re#olution is
2D radians +shown here with a circle of radius one and thus circumference 2D,.
It follows that the manitude in radians of one complete re#olution +<73 derees, is the
lenth of the entire circumference di#ided by the radius, or 2Dr Ar, or 2D. 1hus 2D radians
is e&ual to <73 derees, meanin that one radian is e&ual to .03AD derees.
Solid Anle: In eometry, a solid anle +symbol: E, is the two-dimensional anle in
three-dimensional space that an ob!ect subtends at a point. It is a measure of how lare
the ob!ect appears to an obser#er loo*in from that point. In the SI System of Units, a
solid anle is a dimensionless unit of measurement called a steradian +symbol: sr,.
Problem areas
1here are some #ariations or problem areas in these fundamental units:
"enth: Althouh multiples or fractions of a meter are useful in
most sciences, the unit is impractical in Astronomy. Instead, the
fundamental unit of lenth in Astronomy is the liht-year, which
is the distance that liht tra#els in *ilometers in one year.
Mass: It would seem more intuiti#e to define the fundamental of
mass as a ram. Fowe#er, the SI decision was to say that .333
rams or a *iloram was fundamental.
)lectric current: Since electric current is man-made and depends
on a number of factors, the ampere does not seem appropriate as a
fundamental unit. 1he ampere is defined as:
B1he constant current which, if maintained in two straiht
parallel conductors of infinite lenth, of neliible circular cross-
section, and placed . meter apart in a #acuum, would produce
between these conductors a force e&ual to 2 G .3HI >ewton per
meter of lenth.B
Measurement of Length
Measurement of "are 4istances: :aralla' Method
In order to calculate how far away a star is, astronomers use a method called paralla'.
%ecause of the )arthJs re#olution about the sun, near stars seem to shift their position
aainst the farther stars. 1his is called paralla' shift. %y obser#in the distance of the
shift and *nowin the diameter of the )arthJs orbit, astronomers are able to calculate the
paralla' anle across the s*y. 1he smaller the paralla' shift, the farther away from earth
the star is. 1his method is only accurate for stars within a few hundred liht-years of
)arth. $hen the stars are #ery far away, the paralla' shift is too small to measure.

Measurement of Kery Small 4istances
See power point
2ane of "enths
Measurement of Mass
Unified Atomic Mass Unit
1he standard L throuhout chemistry, physics, bioloy, etc L is the unified atomic mass
unit +symbol u,. It is defined as .A.2 +one-twelfth, of the mass of an isolated carbon-.2
atom. 1he symbol amu, which stands for atomic mass unit is defined in terms of o'yen
As itMs a unit of mass, the atomic mass unit +u, has a #alue, in *ilorams / ..773 9<0
I02+0<, ' .3-2I *. 1he *iloram is defined in terms of a bar of platinum-iridium alloy,
sittin in a #ault in :aris. It is important to reconi5e that the unified atomic mass unit is
not an SI unit, but one that is accepted for use with the SI. 1he *iloram and unified
atomic mass unit are related #ia a primary SI unit, the mole, which is defined as the
amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are
atoms in 3.3.2 *iloram of carbon .2. 1he number of atoms there are in a mole of an
element is i#en by A#oadroMs number.
1he 4alton +symbol 4, or 4a, is the same as the unified atomic mass unit. In
microbioloy and biochemistry, many molecules ha#e hundreds, or thousands, of
constituent atoms, so itMs con#enient to state their masses in terms of Nthousands of
unified atomic mass unitsM, so the con#ention is to use *4a +*ilodaltons,.
Range of Masses
Measurement of 1ime
Fumans ha#e been measurin time for a relati#ely short period in our lon history. 1he
desire to synchroni5e our acti#ities came about 9,333 or 7,333 years ao as our nomadic
ancestors bean to settle and build ci#ili5ations Osource: %ealeP. %efore that, we di#ided
time only into dayliht and niht, with briht days for huntin and wor*in and dar*
nihts for sleepin. %ut as people bean to feel the need to coordinate their actions, to be
prompt for public atherins and such, they needed a unified system of *eepin time.
%ut e#en the best mechanical pendulums and &uart5 crystal-based cloc*s de#elop
discrepancies. (ar better for time*eepin is the natural and e'act B#ibrationB in an
eneri5ed atom.
$hen e'posed to certain fre&uencies of radiation, such as radio wa#es, the subatomic
particles called electrons that orbit an atomJs nucleus will B!umpB bac* and forth between
enery states. Cloc*s based on this !umpin within atoms can therefore pro#ide an
e'tremely precise way to count seconds.
It is no surprise then that the international standard for the lenth of one second is based
on atoms. Since .67I, the official definition of a second is 6,.62,7<.,II3 cycles of the
radiation that ets an atom of the element called cesium to #ibrate between two enery
states.
Inside a cesium atomic cloc*, cesium atoms are funneled down a tube where they pass
throuh radio wa#es . If this fre&uency is !ust riht 6,.62,7<.,II3 cycles per second then
the cesium atoms BresonateB and chane their enery state.
A detector at the end of the tube *eeps trac* of the number of cesium atoms reachin it
that ha#e chaned their enery states. 1he more finely tuned the radio wa#e fre&uency is
to 6,.62,7<.,II3 cycles per second, the more cesium atoms reach the detector.
1he detector feeds information bac* into the radio wa#e enerator. It synchroni5es the
fre&uency of the radio wa#es with the pea* number of cesium atoms stri*in it. ?ther
electronics in the atomic cloc* count this fre&uency. As with a sinle swin of the
pendulum, a second is tic*ed off when the fre&uency count is met.
1he first &uality atomic cloc*s made in the .693s were based on cesium, and such cloc*s
honed to reater precisions o#er the decades remain the basis used to *eep official time
throuhout the world.
In the United States, the top cloc*s are maintained by the >ational Institutes of Standards
and 1echnoloy +>IS1, in %oulder, Colo., and the United States >a#al ?bser#atory
+US>?, in $ashinton, 4.C.
1he >IS1-(. cesium atomic cloc* can produce a fre&uency so precise that its time error
per day is about 3.3< nanoseconds, which means that the cloc* would lose one second in
.33 million years.
Super-accurate time*eepin is interal to many elements of modern life, such as hih-
speed electronic communications, electrical rids and the ;lobal :ositionin System
+;:S, and of course *nowin when your fa#orite tele#ision show comes on.
1he second +symbol: s, is the base unit of time in the International System of Units +SI,
O.P and is also a unit of time in other systems of measurement +abbre#iated s or secO2P,- it
is the second di#ision of the hour by si'ty, the first di#ision by 73 bein the minute.O<P
%etween A4 .333 +when al-%iruni used seconds, and .673 the second was defined as
.A07,Q33 of a mean solar day +that definition still applies in some astronomical and leal
conte'ts,.OQPO9P %etween .673 and .67I, it was defined in terms of the period of the
)arthJs orbit around the Sun in .633,O7P but it is now defined more precisely in atomic
terms. Seconds may be measured usin mechanical, electric or atomic cloc*s.
Astronomical obser#ations of the .6th and 23th centuries re#ealed that the mean solar
day is slowly but measurably lenthenin and the lenth of a tropical year is not entirely
predictable either- thus the sunLearth motion is no loner considered a suitable basis for
definition. $ith the ad#ent of atomic cloc*s, it became feasible to define the second
based on fundamental properties of nature. Since .67I, the second has been defined to
be:
the duration of 6.627<.II3 periods of the radiation correspondin to the transition
between the two hyperfine le#els of the round state of the caesium .<< atom.O.P
In .66I, the CI:M affirmed that the precedin definition Brefers to a caesium atom at rest
at a temperature of 3 8.BO.P
SI prefi'es are fre&uently combined with the word second to denote subdi#isions of the
second, e.., the millisecond +one thousandth of a second,, the microsecond +one
millionth of a second,, and the nanosecond +one billionth of a second,. 1houh SI
prefi'es may also be used to form multiples of the second such as *ilosecond +one
thousand seconds,, such units are rarely used in practice. 1he more common larer non-
SI units of time are not formed by powers of ten- instead, the second is multiplied by 73
to form a minute, which is multiplied by 73 to form an hour, which is multiplied by 2Q to
form a day.
1he second is also the base unit of time in the centimetre-ram-second, metre-*iloram-
second, metre-tonne-second, and foot-pound-second systems of units.
Unit of time +second, Abbre#iations: C;:M, CI:M, %I:M
1he unit of time, the second, was defined oriinally as the fraction .A07 Q33 of the
mean solar day. 1he e'act definition of Bmean solar dayB was left to astronomical
theories. Fowe#er, measurement showed that irreularities in the rotation of the )arth
could not be ta*en into account by the theory and ha#e the effect that this definition does
not allow the re&uired accuracy to be achie#ed. In order to define the unit of time more
precisely, the ..th C;:M +.673, adopted a definition i#en by the International
Astronomical Union which was based on the tropical year. )'perimental wor* had,
howe#er, already shown that an atomic standard of time-inter#al, based on a transition
between two enery le#els of an atom or a molecule, could be reali5ed and reproduced
much more precisely. Considerin that a #ery precise definition of the unit of time is
indispensable for the International System, the .<th C;:M +.67I, decided to replace the
definition of the second by the followin +affirmed by the CI:M in .66I that this
definition refers to a cesium atom in its round state at a temperature of 3 8,:
1he second is the duration of 6 .62 7<. II3 periods of the radiation correspondin to
the transition between the two hyperfine le#els of the round state of the cesium .<<
atom.
1ime is one of the se#en fundamental physical &uantities in the International System of
Units. 1ime is used to define other &uantities L such as #elocity L so definin time in
terms of such &uantities would result in circularity of definition.O2QP An operational
definition of time, wherein one says that obser#in a certain number of repetitions of one
or another standard cyclical e#ent +such as the passae of a free-swinin pendulum,
constitutes one standard unit such as the second, is hihly useful in the conduct of both
ad#anced e'periments and e#eryday affairs of life. 1he operational definition lea#es aside
the &uestion whether there is somethin called time, apart from the countin acti#ity !ust
mentioned, that flows and that can be measured. In#estiations of a sinle continuum
called spacetime brin &uestions about space into &uestions about time, &uestions that
ha#e their roots in the wor*s of early students of natural philosophy.
Accuracy, :recision of Instruments and )rrors in Measurement
)rror: 1he actual difference between a measurement #alue and the *nown standard #alue.
)rror in the measurement of a physical &uantity is its de#iation from actual #alue. If an
e'perimenter *new the error, he or she would correct it and it would no loner be an
error. In other words, the real errors in e'perimental data are those factors that are always
#aue to some e'tent and carry some amount of uncertainty. A reasonable definition of
e'perimental uncertainty may be ta*en as the possible #alue the error may ha#e. 1he
uncertainty may #ary a reat deal dependin upon the circumstances of the e'periment.
:erhaps it is better to spea* of e'perimental uncertainty instead of e'perimental error
because the manitude of an error is uncertain.
Accuracy: 1he accuracy of a measurement system is the deree of closeness of
measurements of a &uantity to that &uantityJs actual #alue..
:recision: 1he precision of a measurement system, related to reproducibility and
repeatability, is the deree to which repeated measurements under unchaned conditions
show the same results
Systematic rrors
At this point, we may mention some of the types of errors that cause uncertainty is an
e'perimental in measurement. (irst, there can always be those ross blunders in
apparatus or instrument construction which may in#alidate the data. Second, there may be
certain fi'ed errors which will cause repeated readins to be in error by rouhly some
amount but for some un*nown reasons. 1hese are sometimes called systematic errors.
1hird, there are the random errors, which may be caused by personal fluctuation, random
electronic fluctuation in apparatus or instruments, #arious influences of friction, etc.
1hese are inherent errors of apparatus or method. 1hese errors always i#e a constant
de#iation. ?n the basis of the sources of errors, systematic errors may be di#ided into
followin sub-cateories:
Instrumental rrors
>one of the apparatus can be constructed to satisfy all specifications completely. 1his is
the reason of i#in uarantee within a limit. 1herefore, a manufacturers always mention
the minimum possible errors in the construction of the instruments.
Im!erfections in x!erimental Techni"ue or Procedure
(ollowin are some of the reasons of errors in results of the indicatin instruments :
+a, Construction of the Scale : 1here is a possibility of error due to the di#ision of the
scale not bein uniform and clear.
+b, (itness and Straihtness of the :ointer : If the pointer is not fine and straiht, then it
always i#es the error in the readin.
+c, :aralla' : $ithout a mirror under the pointer there may be paralla' error in readin.
+d, )fficiency or S*illness of the ?bser#er : )rror in the readin is larely dependent
upon the s*illness of the obser#er by which readin is noted accurately.
Personal rrors
It is due to the indefiniteness in final ad!ustment of measurin apparatus. (or e'ample,
Ma'well %ride method of measurin inductances, it is difficult to find the differences in
sound of head phones for small chane in resistance at the time of final ad!ustment. 1he
error #aries from person to person.
Random rrors
After corrections ha#e been applied for all the parameters whose influences are *nown,
there is left a residue of de#iation. 1hese are random error and their manitudes are not
constant. :ersons performin the e'periment ha#e no control o#er the oriin of these
errors. 1hese errors are due to so many reasons such as noise and fatiue in the wor*in
persons. 1hese errors may be either positi#e or neati#e. 1o these errors the law of
probability may be applied. ;enerally, these errors may be minimi5ed by ta*in a#erae
of a lare number of readins.
"east Count )rror
1he B"east CountB of any measurin e&uipment is the smallest &uantity that can be
measured accurately usin that instrument.1hus "east Count indicates the deree of
accuracy of measurement that can be achie#ed by the measurin instrument.
All measurin instruments used in physics ha#e a least count. A meter rulerJs least count
is 3.. centimeter- an electronic scale has a least count of 3.33., althouh this may #ary-
a #ernier caliper has a least count of 3.32 millimeters, althouh this too may #ary- and
micrometer screwaueJs least count is 3.3. millimeter and of course a con#entional ruler
has .3.m.
1he "east Count is the discrimination of a #ernier instrument. All measurin instruments
used in the sub!ect of physics can be used to measure #arious types of ob!ects, but all do
so without considerin the detail of accuracy.
>o measurin instrument used in physics is accurate and always has an error when
readins are ta*en. )#en the latest technoloy used in measurin ob!ects also ha#e an
error where readin are concerned. Karious names can be i#en to this error. 1he "east
Count, uncertainty or ma'imum possible error are the terms normally used in a physics
course, althouh this may #ary with different syllabuses.
1he error made in an instrument can be compared with another by calculatin the
percentae uncertainty of each of the readins obtained. 1he one with the least
uncertainty is always ta*en to measure ob!ects, as all measurements are re&uired with
accuracy in mind. 1he percentae uncertainty is calculated with the followin formula:
+Ma'imum :ossible errorAMeasurement of the ?b!ect in &uestion, R.33
1he smaller the measurement, the larer the percentae uncertainty. 1he least count of an
instrument is indirectly proportional to the accuracy of the instrument.
Absolute rror# Relati$e rror and Percentage rror
Absolute )rror: Absolute error is defined as the manitude of difference between the
actual and the indi#idual #alues of any &uantity in &uestion. Say we measure any i#en
&uantity for n number of times and a
.
, a
2
, a
<
S..a
n
are the indi#idual #alues then:
Arithmetic mean a
m
/ Oa
.
Ta
2
Ta
<
T .....a
n
PAn
a
m
/

=
=
n i
i
i
n
a
.
4efinition of absolute error: 1he manitude of the difference between the indi#idual
measurements and the true #alue of the &uantity is called the absolute error of the
measurement. %y definition:
Ua
.
/ a
m
L a
.
Ua
2
/ a
m
L a
2
S
a
m
L a
n
Mean Absolute )rror / Ua
mean
/

=
=

n i
i
i
n a
.
A

>ote: $hile calculatin absolute mean #alue, we do not consider the T- sin in its #alue.
Relati$e rror or %ractional rror: 1his is defined as the ration of mean absolute error
to the mean #alue of the measured &uantity:
Va /mean absolute #alueAmean #alue / Ua
mean
Aa
m
Percentage rror: It is the relati#e error measured in percentae.
:ercentae )rror /mean absolute #alueAmean #alue ' .33/ Ua
mean
Aa
m
'.33
Significant %igures
1he number of sinificant fiures in a result is simply the number of fiures that are
*nown with some deree of reliability. 1he number .<.2 is said to ha#e < sinificant
fiures. 1he number .<.23 is said to ha#e Q sinificant fiures.
Rules for deciding the number of significant figures in a measured "uantity:
+., All non5ero diits are sinificant:
..2<Q has Q sinificant fiures,
..2 has 2 sinificant fiures.
+2, Weroes between non5ero diits are sinificant:
.332 * has Q sinificant fiures,
<.3I m" has < sinificant fiures.
+<, "eadin 5eros to the left of the first non5ero diits are not sinificant- such 5eroes
merely indicate the position of the decimal point:
3.33. oC has only . sinificant fiure,
3.3.2 has 2 sinificant fiures.
+Q, 1railin 5eroes that are also to the riht of a decimal point in a number are sinificant:
3.32<3 m" has < sinificant fiures,
3.23 has 2 sinificant fiures.
+9, $hen a number ends in 5eroes that are not to the riht of a decimal point, the 5eroes
are not necessarily sinificant:
.63 miles may be 2 or < sinificant fiures,
93,733 calories may be <, Q, or 9 sinificant fiures.
1he potential ambiuity in the last rule can be a#oided by the use of standard e'ponential,
or Bscientific,B notation. (or e'ample, dependin on whether the number of sinificant
fiures is <, Q, or 9, we would write 93,733 calories as:
9.37 G .3Q calories +< sinificant fiures,
9.373 G .3Q calories +Q sinificant fiures,, or
9.3733 G .3Q calories +9 sinificant fiures,.
%y writin a number in scientific notation, the number of sinificant fiures is clearly
indicated by the number of numerical fiures in the JdiitJ term as shown by these
e'amples. 1his approach is a reasonable con#ention to follow.
$hat is an Be'act numberBX
Some numbers are e'act because they are *nown with complete certainty.
Most e'act numbers are inteers: e'actly .2 inches are in a foot, there miht be e'actly
2< students in a class. )'act numbers are often found as con#ersion factors or as counts
of ob!ects.
)'act numbers can be considered to ha#e an infinite number of sinificant fiures. 1hus,
the number of apparent sinificant fiures in any e'act number can be inored as a
limitin factor in determinin the number of sinificant fiures in the result of a
calculation.
2ules for mathematical operations
In carryin out calculations, the eneral rule is that the accuracy of a calculated result is
limited by the least accurate measurement in#ol#ed in the calculation.
+., In addition and subtraction, the result is rounded off to the last common diit
occurrin furthest to the riht in all components. Another way to state this rule is as
follows: in addition and subtraction, the result is rounded off so that it has the same
number of diits as the measurement ha#in the fewest decimal places +countin from
left to riht,. (or e'ample,
.33 +assume < sinificant fiures, T 2<.7Q< +9 sinificant fiures, / .2<.7Q<,
which should be rounded to .2Q +< sinificant fiures,. >ote, howe#er, that it is possible
two numbers ha#e no common diits +sinificant fiures in the same diit column,.
+2, In multiplication and di#ision, the result should be rounded off so as to ha#e the same
number of sinificant fiures as in the component with the least number of sinificant
fiures. (or e'ample,
<.3 +2 sinificant fiures , G .2.73 +Q sinificant fiures, / <I.0333
which should be rounded to <0 +2 sinificant fiures,.
Rules for rounding off numbers
+., If the diit to be dropped is reater than 9, the last retained diit is increased by one.
(or e'ample,
.2.7 is rounded to .<.
+2, If the diit to be dropped is less than 9, the last remainin diit is left as it is. (or
e'ample,
.2.Q is rounded to .2.
+<, If the diit to be dropped is 9, and if any diit followin it is not 5ero, the last
remainin diit is increased by one. (or e'ample,
.2.9. is rounded to .<.
+Q, If the diit to be dropped is 9 and is followed only by 5eroes, the last remainin diit
is increased by one if it is odd, but left as it is if e#en. (or e'ample,
...9 is rounded to .2,
.2.9 is rounded to .2.
1his rule means that if the diit to be dropped is 9 followed only by 5eroes, the result is
always rounded to the e#en diit. 1he rationale for this rule is to a#oid bias in roundin:
half of the time we round up, half the time we round down.
Sam!le !roblems on significant figures
Instructions: print a copy of this pae and wor* the problems. $hen you are ready to
chec* your answers, o to the ne't pae.
.. <I.I7 T <.63I T 227.Q / X
2. <.6..9 - <2.7.Q / X
<. .3Q.7<3 T 2I.30<72 T 3.7. / X
Q. .29 - 3.2< T Q..36 / X
9. 2.32 G 2.9 / X
7. 733.3 A 9.2<32 / X
I. 3.33<2 G 2I< / X
0. +9.9,< / X
6. 3.997 G +Q3 - <2.9, / X
.3. Q9 G <.33 / X
... $hat is the a#erae of 3..I3I, 3..I.<, 3..I23, 3..I3Q, and 3..I.9X
.2. $hat is the standard de#iation of the numbers in &uestion ..X
.<. <.33 ' .39 - ..9 ' .32 / X +;i#e the e'act numerical result, and then e'press
that result to the correct number of sinificant fiures,.
Answer *ey to sample problems on sinificant fiures
.. <I.I7 T <.63I T 227.Q / 270..
2. <.6..9 - <2.7.Q / 207.9Q
<. .3Q.7<3 T 2I.30<72 T 3.7. / .<2.<2
Q. .29 - 3.2< T Q..36 / .26 +assumin that .29 has < sinificant fiures,.
9. 2.32 G 2.9 / 9.3
7. 733.3 A 9.2<32 / ..Q.I
I. 3.33<2 G 2I< / 3.0I
0. +9.9,< / ..I ' .32
6. 3.997 G +Q3 - <2.9, / Q
.3. Q9 G <.33 / ..Q ' .32
1his answer assumes that Q9 has two sinificant fiures- howe#er, that is not
unambiuous, because there is no decimal point, and because it is not e'pressed in
scientific notation. If Q9 is an e'act number +e.., a count,, then the result should be ..<9
' .32.
... $hat is the a#erae of 3..I3I, 3..I.<, 3..I23, 3..I3Q, and 3..I.9X
1he a#erae of these numbers is calculated to be 3..I..0, which rounds to 3..I.2 .
.2. $hat is the standard de#iation of the numbers in &uestion ..X
1he result that you et in calculatin the standard de#iation of these numbers depends on
the number of diits retained in the intermediate diits of the calculation. (or e'ample, if
you used 3..I.2 instead of the more accurate 3..I..0 as the mean in the standard
de#iation calculation, that would be wron +donJt round intermediate results or you will
introduce propaated error into your calculations,.
1he Mathwor*s MA1"A% std function i#es 7.<I6799.7<36Q7<6e-33Q
Microsoft )'cel i#es 3.3337<I6799.7<36Q7Q333333333333
A Fewlett-:ac*ard 93; calculator i#es 7.<I6799.7<36e-3Q
1hese results should be rounded to 3.3337<03, which is 7.<03 ' .3-Q +e'pressed in
scientific notation,.
.<. <.33 ' .39 - ..9 ' .32 / X +;i#e the e'act numerical result, and then e'press that
result to the correct number of sinificant fiures,.
4oin the math riht is the first step. 1hen, clic* here to send your answer and to recei#e
an answer *ey and e'planation by email.
&imensions
1hey are the powers +or e'ponents, to which the units of base &uantities are raised for
representin a deri#ed unit of that &uantity.
)'amples: 4imensional formula of #olume OM3"<13P
4imensional formula of #elocity OM3"1H.P
4imensional formula of acceleration OM3"1H2P
&imensions of Physical 'uantities
:hysical dimension is a eneric description of the *ind of &uantity bein measured.
:hysical dimension is an inherent and un#aryin property for a i#en &uantity. A i#en
&uantity can only e#er ha#e one specific physical dimension. 1he con#erse, howe#er, is
not true: different physical &uantities can ha#e the same physical dimension.
xam!les:
Y 1he heiht of a buildin, the diameter of a proton, the distance from the )arth to the
Moon, and the thic*ness of a piece of paper all in#ol#e a measurement of a lenth, ", of
some *ind. 1hey are all measured in different ways, and miht ha#e their #alues assined
usin different units, but they all share the common feature of bein a *ind of lenth.
Y 1ime inter#als, timestamps, or any other measurement characteri5in duration, all share
the common feature of ha#in a physical dimension of time, 1. =ou will ne#er be able to
assin a #alue to a time coordinate usin units of lenthZlenth and time are
fundamentally distinct and ine&ui#alent physical dimensions.
$hen we tal* about a &uantityMs physical dimension, usin symbols such as " for lenth,
or 1 for time, we are not usin those symbols to represent an actual #ariableZwe will not
assin any particular #alues or use any specific units for those symbols. Instead, when we
write, [this &uantity has physical dimension "\, the symbol " really !ust means [S
ha#in a lenth unit\. 1o ma*e this distinction e'plicit, we will henceforth set aside
symbols in s&uare brac*ets whene#er ma*in a statement about physical dimensions. So:
all distances, lenths, heihts, and widths ha#e dimension of lenth, O"P, all timestamps
and time inter#als ha#e dimension of time, O1P, and so forth. 1he physical dimension of a
&uantity is determined by how we measure that &uantityZand to do that, we need to
define an appropriate unit for the measurement. $e can ma*e different choices for the
units we use +e.. the SI system #ersus the %ritish )nineerin system, %),, but whate#er
those alternati#e unit choices are, they must all ha#e the same physical dimension. (or
e'ample: meters, inches, furlons, and nautical miles are all #ery different units, but the
all share the common feature of bein lenths, O"P.
http:AAcbse-notes.blospot.inA23.2A39Acbse-class-'i-physics-ch2-dimension.html
4imensional (ormulae and 4imensional )&uations
4imensional (ormula :4imensional formula of a deri#ed physical &uantity is the
[e'pression showin powers to which different fundamental units are raised\.
)' : 4imensional formula of (orce ( OM]."].1]^-2_P
4imensional e&uation:$hen the dimensional formula of a physical &uantity is e'pressed
in the form of an e&uation by writin the physical &uantity on the left hand side and the
dimensional formula on the riht hand side,then the resultant e&uation is called
4imensional e&uation.
)': 4imensional e&uation of )nery is ) / OM]."]21]^-2_P .
`uestion : Fow can you deri#e 4imensional formula of a deri#ed physical &uantity.
Ans : $e can deri#e dimensional formula of any deri#ed physical &uantity in two ways
i,Usin the formula of the physical &uantity : )': let us deri#e dimensional formula of
(orce .
(orce (ma - substitute the dimensional formula of mass m OMP - acceleration
O"1]^-2_P
we et ( OMPO" 1]^-2_P- ( OM]."].1]^-2_P .
ii, Usin the units of the deri#ed physical &uantity. )': let us deri#e the dimensional
formula of momentum.
Unit of Momentum + p , O*-m sec]^-._P -
* is unit of mass OMP - is unit of lenth O"P - sec is the unit of time O1P
Substitute these dimensional formulas in abo#e e&uation we et p OM]."].1]^-._P.
Y `uantities ha#in no units, can not possess dimensions: 1rionometric ratios,
loarithmic functions, e'ponential functions, coefficient of friction, strain, poissonMs
ratio, specific ra#ity, refracti#e inde', 2elati#e permitti#ity, 2elati#e permeability. All
these &uantities nihter possess units nor dimensional formulas.
Y `uantities ha#in units, but no dimensions : :lane anle,anular displacement, solid
anle.1hese physical &uantities possess units but they does not possess dimensional
formulas.
Y `uantities ha#in both units a dimensions : 1he followin &uantities are e'amples of
such &uantities.
Area, Kolume,4ensity, Speed, Kelocity, Acceleration, (orce, )nery etc.
&imensional Analysis and its A!!lications
4imensional Analysis
?nly &uantities with li*e dimensions may be added+T,, subtracted+-, or compared +/,b,c,.
1his rule pro#ides a powerful tool for chec*in whether or not e&uations are
dimensionally consistent. It is also possible to use dimensional analysis to suest
plausible e&uations when we *now which &uantities are in#ol#ed.
)'ample of chec*in for dimensional consistency
Consider one of the e&uations of constant acceleration,
s / ut T .A2 at2. +.,
1he e&uation contains three terms: s, ut and .A2at2. All three terms must ha#e the same
dimensions.
s: displacement / a unit of lenth, "
ut: #elocity ' time / "1-. ' 1 / "
.A2at2 / acceleration ' time / "1-2 ' 12 / "
All three terms ha#e units of lenth and hence this e&uation is dimensionally #alid. ?f
course this does not tell us if the e&uation is physically correct, nor does it tell us whether
the constant .A2 is correct or not.
(hec)ing the &imensional (onsistency of "uations
%ased on the principle of homoeneity of dimensions
Accordin to this principle, only that formula is correct in which the dimensions of the
#arious terms on one side of the relation are e&ual to the respecti#e dimensions of these
terms on the other side of the relation.
)'ample:
Chec* the correctness of the relation, where l is lenth and t is time period of a simple
pendulum- is acceleration due to ra#ity.
Solution:
4imension of ".F.S / t / O1P
4imension of 2.F.S /
+2D is a constant,
4imensionally, ".F.S / 2.F.S- therefore, the i#en relation is correct.
As stated abo#e, in physics we deri#e the physical &uantities of interest from the set of
fundamental &uantities of lenth, mass, and time. $hen a &uantity is bro*en down to its
ma*eup in terms of the fundamental &uantities we call this brea*down its dimension. 1he
dimension, therefore, represents the fundamental type of the &uantity. $hen indicatin
the dimension of a &uantity only, we use capital letters and enclose them in brac*ets.
1hus, the dimension of lenth is represented by O"P, mass by OMP, and time O1P.
$e use a lot of e&uations in physics- these e&uations must be dimensionally consistent. It
is e'tremely useful to perform a dimensional analysis on any e&uation about which you
are unsure. If the dimensional consistency is not there, it cannot be a correct e&uation.
1he rules are simple:
1wo &uantities can only be added or subtracted if they are of the same dimension.
1wo &uantities can only be e&ual if they are of the same dimension.
>otice that only the dimension needs to be the same, not the units. It is perfectly #alid to
write .2 inches / . foot because both of them are lenths, O"P / O"P, e#en thouh their
units are different. Fowe#er, it is not #alid to write ' inches / t seconds because they
ha#e different dimensions, O"P O1P.
&educing Relationshi!s among Physical 'uantities
%ased on the principle of homoeneity of dimensions
Y )'ample:
1he centripetal force, ( actin on a particle mo#in uniformly in a circle may depend
upon the mass +m,, #elocity +#, and radius +r, of the circle. 4eri#e the formula for ( usin
the method of dimensions.
Solution:
"et ( / *ma#brc S +i,
$here, * is the dimensionless constant of proportionality, and a, b, c are the powers of m,
#, r respecti#ely.
?n writin the dimensions of #arious &uantities in +i,, we et
OM.".1H2P / Ma O"1H.Pb "c
/ Ma"b1Hb"c
M.".1H2 / Ma"b T c1Hb
?n applyin the principle of homoeneity of dimensions, we et
a / .,
b/ 2,
b T c / . S+ii,
(rom +ii,, c / . H b / . H 2 / H.
?n puttin these #alues in +i,, we et
( / *m.#2rH.
?2

1his is the re&uired relation for centripetal force.