VITRUVIUS

[Page 3]
BOOK I
PREFACE
1. While your divine intelligence and will, Imperator Caesar, were engaged in acquiring the right
to command the world, and while your ellow citi!ens, when all their enemies had "een laid low
"y your invinci"le valour, were glorying in your triumph and victory,#while all oreign nations
were in su"$ection awaiting your "ec% and call, and the &oman people and senate, released rom
their alarm, were "eginning to "e guided "y your most no"le conceptions and policies, I hardly
dared, in view o your serious employments, to pu"lish my writings and long considered ideas on
architecture, or ear o su"$ecting mysel to your displeasure "y an unseasona"le interruption.
'. (ut when I saw that you were giving your attention not only to the welare o society in
general and to the esta"lishment o pu"lic order, "ut also to the providing o pu"lic "uildings
intended or utilitarian purposes, so that not only should the )tate have "een enriched with
provinces "y your means, "ut that the greatness o its power might li%ewise "e attended with
distinguished authority in its pu"lic "uildings, I thought that I ought to ta%e the irst opportunity
to lay "eore you my writings on this theme. *or in the irst place it was this su"$ect which made
me %nown to your ather, to whom I was devoted on account o his great qualities. +ter the
council o heaven gave him a place in the dwellings o immortal lie and transerred your ather,s
power to your hands, my devotion continuing unchanged as I remem"ered him inclined me to
support you. +nd so with -arcus +urelius, Pu"lius -inidius, and .naeus Cornelius, I was ready
to supply and repair "allistae, scorpiones, and other artillery, and I have received rewards or
good service with them. +ter your irst "estowal o these upon me, you continued to renew them
on the recommendation o your sister.[/]
3. 0wing to this avour I need have no ear o want to the end o my lie, and "eing thus laid
under o"ligation I "egan to write this wor% or you, "ecause I saw that you have "uilt and are
now "uilding e1tensively, and that in uture also you will ta%e care that our pu"lic and private
"uildings shall "e worthy to go down to posterity "y the side o your other splendid
achievements. I have drawn up deinite rules to ena"le you, "y o"serving them, to have personal
%nowledge o the quality "oth o e1isting "uildings and o those which are yet to "e constructed.
*or in the ollowing "oo%s I have disclosed all the principles o the art.[2]
CHAPTER I
THE EDUCATION OF THE ARCHITECT
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1. 3he architect should "e equipped with %nowledge o many "ranches o study and varied %inds
o learning, or it is "y his $udgement that all wor% done "y the other arts is put to test. 3his
%nowledge is the child o practice and theory. Practice is the continuous and regular e1ercise o
employment where manual wor% is done with any necessary material according to the design o
a drawing. 3heory, on the other hand, is the a"ility to demonstrate and e1plain the productions o
de1terity on the principles o proportion.
'. It ollows, thereore, that architects who have aimed at acquiring manual s%ill without
scholarship have never "een a"le to reach a position o authority to correspond to their pains,
while those who relied only upon theories and scholarship were o"viously hunting the shadow,
not the su"stance. (ut those who have a thorough %nowledge o "oth, li%e men armed at all
points, have the sooner attained their o"$ect and carried authority with them.
3. In all matters, "ut particularly in architecture, there are these two points4#the thing signiied,
and that which gives it its signiicance. 3hat which is signiied is the su"$ect o which we may "e
spea%ing5 and that which gives signiicance is a demonstration on scientiic principles. It
appears, then, that one who proesses himsel an architect should "e well versed in "oth
directions. 6e ought, thereore, to "e "oth naturally gited and amena"le to instruction. 7either
natural a"ility without instruction nor instruction without natural a"ility can ma%e the perect
artist. 8et him "e educated, s%ilul with the pencil, instructed in geometry, %now much history,
have ollowed the philosophers with attention, understand music, have some %nowledge o
medicine,[9] %now the opinions o the $urists, and "e acquainted with astronomy and the theory
o the heavens.
/. 3he reasons or all this are as ollows. +n architect ought to "e an educated man so as to leave
a more lasting remem"rance in his treatises. )econdly, he must have a %nowledge o drawing so
that he can readily ma%e s%etches to show the appearance o the wor% which he proposes.
.eometry, also, is o much assistance in architecture, and in particular it teaches us the use o the
rule and compasses, "y which especially we acquire readiness in ma%ing plans or "uildings in
their grounds, and rightly apply the square, the level, and the plummet. (y means o optics,
again, the light in "uildings can "e drawn rom i1ed quarters o the s%y. It is true that it is "y
arithmetic that the total cost o "uildings is calculated and measurements are computed, "ut
diicult questions involving symmetry are solved "y means o geometrical theories and
methods.
2. + wide %nowledge o history is requisite "ecause, among the ornamental parts o an architect,s
design or a wor%, there are many the underlying idea o whose employment he should "e a"le to
e1plain to.ree inquirers. *or instance, suppose him to set up the mar"le statues o women in
long ro"es, called Caryatides, to ta%e the place o columns, with the mutules and coronas placed
directly a"ove their heads, he will give the ollowing e1planation to his questioners. Caryae, a
state in Peloponnesus, sided with the Persian enemies against .reece5 later the .ree%s, having
gloriously won their reedom "y victory in the war, made common cause and declared war
against the people o Caryae. 3hey too% the town, %illed the men, a"andoned the )tate to
desolation, and carried o their wives into slavery, without permitting them, however, to lay
aside the long ro"es and other mar%s o their ran% as married women, so that they might "e
o"liged not only to march in the triumph "ut to appear orever ater as a type o slavery,
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"urdened with the weight o their shame and so ma%ing atonement or their )tate. 6ence, the
architects o the time designed or pu"lic "uildings statues o these women, placed so as to[:]
carry a load, in order that the sin and the punishment o the people o Caryae might "e %nown
and handed down even to posterity.

Photo. 6. (. Warren
Caryatides o the
erechtheum at athens
Caryatides rom the treasury o the
cnidians at delphi
Photo. +nderson
Caryatides now in the villa
al"ani at rome

9. 8i%ewise the 8acedaemonians under the leadership o Pausanias, son o +gesipolis, ater
conquering the Persian armies, ininite in num"er,
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caryatides
;*rom the edition o <itruvius "y *ra .iocondo, <enice, 1211=
with a small orce at the "attle o Plataea, cele"rated a glorious triumph with the spoils and
"ooty, and with the money o"tained rom the sale thereo "uilt the Persian Porch, to "e a
monument to the renown and valour o the people and a trophy o victory or posterity. +nd
there they set eigies o the prisoners arrayed in "ar"arian costume and holding up the roo, their
pride punished "y this deserved aront, that[>] enemies might trem"le or ear o the eects o
their courage, and that their own people, loo%ing upon this ensample o their valour and
encouraged "y the glory o it, might "e ready to deend their independence. )o rom that time on,
many have put up statues o Persians supporting enta"latures and their ornaments, and thus rom
that motive have greatly enriched the diversity o their wor%s. 3here are other stories o the same
%ind which architects ought to %now.
:. +s or philosophy, it ma%es an architect high?minded and not sel?assuming, "ut rather renders
him courteous, $ust, and honest without avariciousness. 3his is very important, or no wor% can
"e rightly done without honesty and incorrupti"ility. 8et him not "e grasping nor have his mind
preoccupied with the idea o receiving perquisites, "ut let him with dignity %eep up his position
"y cherishing a good reputation. 3hese are among the precepts o philosophy. *urthermore
philosophy treats o physics ;in .ree% @ABCDEDF G= where a more careul %nowledge is required
"ecause the pro"lems which come under this head are numerous and o very dierent %inds5 as,
or e1ample, in the case o the conducting o water. *or at points o inta%e and at curves, and at
places where it is raised to a level, currents o air naturally orm in one way or another5 and
no"ody who has not learned the undamental principles o physics rom philosophy will "e a"le
to provide against the damage which they do. )o the reader o Ctesi"ius or +rchimedes and the
other writers o treatises o the same class will not "e a"le to appreciate them unless he has "een
trained in these su"$ects "y the philosophers.
>. -usic, also, the architect ought to understand so that he may have %nowledge o the canonical
and mathematical theory, and "esides "e a"le to tune "allistae, catapultae, and scorpiones to the
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proper %ey. *or to the right and let in the "eams are the holes in the rames through which the
strings o twisted sinew are stretched "y means o windlasses and "ars, and these strings must
not "e clamped and made ast until they give the same correct note to the ear o the s%illed
wor%man. *or the arms thrust[H] through those stretched strings must, on "eing let go, stri%e their
"low together at the same moment5 "ut i they are not in unison, they will prevent the course o
pro$ectiles rom "eing straight.
persians
;*rom the edition o <itruvius "y *ra .iocondo, <enice, 1211=
H. In theatres, li%ewise, there are the "ron!e vessels ;in .ree% IJCG= which are placed in niches
under the seats in accordance with the musical intervals on mathematical principles. 3hese
vessels are arranged with a view to musical concords or harmony, and apportioned in the
compass o the ourth, the ith, and the octave, and so on up to the dou"le octave, in such a way
that when the voice o an actor alls in unison with any o them its power is increased, and it
reaches the ears o the audience with[1K] greater clearness and sweetness. Water organs, too, and
the other instruments which resem"le them cannot "e made "y one who is without the principles
o music.
1K. 3he architect should also have a %nowledge o the study o medicine on account o the
questions o climates ;in .ree% LE MGNG=, air, the healthiness and unhealthiness o sites, and the
use o dierent waters. *or without these considerations, the healthiness o a dwelling cannot "e
assured. +nd as or principles o law, he should %now those which are necessary in the case o
"uildings having party walls, with regard to water dripping rom the eaves, and also the laws
a"out drains, windows, and water supply. +nd other things o this sort should "e %nown to
architects, so that, "eore they "egin upon "uildings, they may "e careul not to leave disputed
points or the householders to settle ater the wor%s are inished, and so that in drawing up
contracts the interests o "oth employer and contractor may "e wisely sae?guarded. *or i a
contract is s%ilully drawn, each may o"tain a release rom the other without disadvantage. *rom
astronomy we ind the east, west, south, and north, as well as the theory o the heavens, the
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equino1, solstice, and courses o the stars. I one has no %nowledge o these matters, he will not
"e a"le to have any comprehension o the theory o sundials.
11. Consequently, since this study is so vast in e1tent, em"ellished and enriched as it is with
many dierent %inds o learning, I thin% that men have no right to proess themselves architects
hastily, without having clim"ed rom "oyhood the steps o these studies and thus, nursed "y the
%nowledge o many arts and sciences, having reached the heights o the holy ground o
architecture.
1'. (ut perhaps to the ine1perienced it will seem a marvel that human nature can comprehend
such a great num"er o studies and %eep them in the memory. )till, the o"servation that all
studies have a common "ond o union and intercourse with one another, will lead to the "elie
that this can easily "e reali!ed. *or a li"eral education orms, as it were, a single "ody made up
o[11] these mem"ers. 3hose, thereore, who rom tender years receive instruction in the various
orms o learning, recogni!e the same stamp on all the arts, and an intercourse "etween all
studies, and so they more readily comprehend them all. 3his is what led one o the ancient
architects, Pytheos, the cele"rated "uilder o the temple o -inerva at Priene, to say in his
Commentaries that an architect ought to "e a"le to accomplish much more in all the arts and
sciences than the men who, "y their own particular %inds o wor% and the practice o it, have
"rought each a single su"$ect to the highest perection. (ut this is in point o act not reali!ed.
13. *or an architect ought not to "e and cannot "e such a philologian as was +ristarchus,
although not illiterate5 nor a musician li%e +risto1enus, though not a"solutely ignorant o music5
nor a painter li%e +pelles, though not uns%ilul in drawing5 nor a sculptor such as was -yron or
Polyclitus, though not unacquainted with the plastic art5 nor again a physician li%e 6ippocrates,
though not ignorant o medicine5 nor in the other sciences need he e1cel in each, though he
should not "e uns%ilul in them. *or, in the midst o all this great variety o su"$ects, an
individual cannot attain to perection in each, "ecause it is scarcely in his power to ta%e in and
comprehend the general theories o them.
1/. )till, it is not architects alone that cannot in all matters reach perection, "ut even men who
individually practise specialties in the arts do not all attain to the highest point o merit.
3hereore, i among artists wor%ing each in a single ield not all, "ut only a ew in an entire
generation acquire ame, and that with diiculty, how can an architect, who has to "e s%ilul in
many arts, accomplish not merely the eat#in itsel a great marvel#o "eing deicient in none
o them, "ut also that o surpassing all those artists who have devoted themselves with
unremitting industry to single ieldsO
12. It appears, then, that Pytheos made a mista%e "y not o"serving that the arts are each
composed o two things, the actual wor% and the theory o it. 0ne o these, the doing o the
wor%, is[1'] proper to men trained in the individual su"$ect, while the other, the theory, is
common to all scholars4 or e1ample, to physicians and musicians the rhythmical "eat o the
pulse and its metrical movement. (ut i there is a wound to "e healed or a sic% man to "e saved
rom danger, the musician will not call, or the "usiness will "e appropriate to the physician. )o
in the case o a musical instrument, not the physician "ut the musician will "e the man to tune it
so that the ears may ind their due pleasure in its strains.
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19. +stronomers li%ewise have a common ground or discussion with musicians in the harmony
o the stars and musical concords in tetrads and triads o the ourth and the ith, and with
geometricians in the su"$ect o vision ;in .ree% E FDP QNCL P=5 and in all other sciences many
points, perhaps all, are common so ar as the discussion o them is concerned. (ut the actual
underta%ing o wor%s which are "rought to perection "y the hand and its manipulation is the
unction o those who have "een specially trained to deal with a single art. It appears, thereore,
that he has done enough and to spare who in each su"$ect possesses a airly good %nowledge o
those parts, with their principles, which are indispensa"le or architecture, so that i he is
required to pass $udgement and to e1press approval in the case o those things or arts, he may not
"e ound wanting. +s or men upon whom nature has "estowed so much ingenuity, acuteness,
and memory that they are a"le to have a thorough %nowledge o geometry, astronomy, music,
and the other arts, they go "eyond the unctions o architects and "ecome pure mathematicians.
6ence they can readily ta%e up positions against those arts "ecause many are the artistic weapons
with which they are armed. )uch men, however, are rarely ound, "ut there have "een such at
times5 or e1ample, +ristarchus o )amos, Philolaus and +rchytas o 3arentum, +pollonius o
Perga, Rratosthenes o Cyrene, and among )yracusans +rchimedes and )copinas, who through
mathematics and natural philosophy discovered, e1pounded, and let to posterity many things in
conne1ion with mechanics and with sundials.[13]
1:. )ince, thereore, the possession o such talents due to natural capacity is not vouchsaed at
random to entire nations, "ut only to a ew great men5 since, moreover, the unction o the
architect requires a training in all the departments o learning5 and inally, since reason, on
account o the wide e1tent o the su"$ect, concedes that he may possess not the highest "ut not
even necessarily a moderate %nowledge o the su"$ects o study, I request, Caesar, "oth o you
and o those who may read the said "oo%s, that i anything is set orth with too little regard or
grammatical rule, it may "e pardoned. *or it is not as a very great philosopher, nor as an eloquent
rhetorician, nor as a grammarian trained in the highest principles o his art, that I have striven to
write this wor%, "ut as an architect who has had only a dip into those studies. )till, as regards the
eicacy o the art and the theories o it, I promise and e1pect that in these volumes I shall
undou"tedly show mysel o very considera"le importance not only to "uilders "ut also to all
scholars.
CHAPTER II
THE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF ARCHITECTURE
1. +rchitecture depends on 0rder ;in .ree% N SCP=, +rrangement ;in .ree% TC UJBCP=, Rurythmy,
)ymmetry, Propriety, and Rconomy ;in .ree% D LDVDM G=.
'. 0rder gives due measure to the mem"ers o a wor% considered separately, and symmetrical
agreement to the proportions o the whole. It is an ad$ustment according to quantity ;in .ree%
QDB NWP=. (y this I mean the selection o modules rom the mem"ers o the wor% itsel and,
starting rom these individual parts o mem"ers, constructing the whole wor% to correspond.
+rrangement includes the putting o things in their proper places and the elegance o eect
which is due to ad$ustments appropriate to the character o the wor%. Its orms o e1pression
;.ree% T GC= are these4 groundplan, elevation, and perspective. [1/] + groundplan is made "y
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the proper successive use o compasses and rule, through which we get outlines or the plane
suraces o "uildings. +n elevation is a picture o the ront o a "uilding, set upright and properly
drawn in the proportions o the contemplated wor%. Perspective is the method o s%etching a
ront with the sides withdrawing into the "ac%ground, the lines all meeting in the centre o a
circle. +ll three come o rele1ion and invention. &ele1ion is careul and la"orious thought, and
watchul attention directed to the agreea"le eect o one,s plan. Invention, on the other hand, is
the solving o intricate pro"lems and the discovery o new principles "y means o "rilliancy and
versatility. 3hese are the departments "elonging under +rrangement.
3. Rurythmy is "eauty and itness in the ad$ustments o the mem"ers. 3his is ound when the
mem"ers o a wor% are o a height suited to their "readth, o a "readth suited to their length, and,
in a word, when they all correspond symmetrically.
/. )ymmetry is a proper agreement "etween the mem"ers o the wor% itsel, and relation "etween
the dierent parts and the whole general scheme, in accordance with a certain part selected as
standard. 3hus in the human "ody there is a %ind o symmetrical harmony "etween orearm, oot,
palm, inger, and other small parts5 and so it is with perect "uildings. In the case o temples,
symmetry may "e calculated rom the thic%ness o a column, rom a triglyph, or even rom a
module5 in the "allista, rom the hole or rom what the .ree%s call the QJX NXWNDP5 in a ship,
rom the space "etween the tholepins TC QWFM 5 and in other things, rom various mem"ers.
2. Propriety is that perection o style which comes when a wor% is authoritatively constructed on
approved principles. It arises rom prescription ;.ree%4 UJMGNCBM =, rom usage, or rom nature.
*rom prescription, in the case o hypaethral ediices, open to the s%y, in honour o Yupiter
8ightning, the 6eaven, the )un, or the -oon4 or these are gods whose sem"lances and
maniestations we "ehold "eore our very eyes in the s%y when it is cloudless and "right. 3he
temples o -inerva, -ars, and 6ercules, will "e Zoric, since the virile strength o these gods
ma%es daintiness entirely inappropriate to their houses. In temples to <enus, *lora, Proserpine,
)pring?Water, and the 7ymphs, the Corinthian order will "e ound to have peculiar signiicance,
"ecause these are delicate divinities and so its rather slender outlines, its lowers, leaves, and
ornamental volutes will lend propriety where it is due. 3he construction o temples o the Ionic
order to Yuno, Ziana, *ather (acchus, and the other gods o that %ind, will "e in %eeping with the
middle position which they hold5 or the "uilding o such will "e an appropriate com"ination o
the severity o the Zoric and the delicacy o the Corinthian.
9. Propriety arises rom usage when "uildings having magniicent interiors are provided with
elegant entrance?courts to correspond5 or there will "e no propriety in the spectacle o an elegant
interior approached "y a low, mean entrance. 0r, i dentils "e carved in the cornice o the Zoric
enta"lature or triglyphs represented in the Ionic enta"lature over the cushion?shaped capitals o
the columns, the eect will "e spoilt "y the transer o the peculiarities o the one order o
"uilding to the other, the usage in each class having "een i1ed long ago.
:. *inally, propriety will "e due to natural causes i, or e1ample, in the case o all sacred
precincts we select very healthy neigh"ourhoods with suita"le springs o water in the places
where the anes are to "e "uilt, particularly in the case o those to +esculapius and to 6ealth,
gods "y whose healing powers great num"ers o the sic% are apparently cured. *or when their
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diseased "odies are transerred rom an unhealthy to a healthy spot, and treated with waters rom
health?giving springs, they will the more speedily grow well. 3he result will "e that the divinity
will stand in higher esteem and ind his dignity increased, all owing to the nature o his site.
3here will also "e natural propriety in using an eastern light or "edrooms and li"raries, a
western light in winter or "aths and winter apartments, and a northern light or picture galleries
and other places in which a steady light is[19] needed5 or that quarter o the s%y grows neither
light nor dar% with the course o the sun, "ut remains steady and unshiting all day long.
>. Rconomy denotes the proper management o materials and o site, as well as a thrity
"alancing o cost and common sense in the construction o wor%s. 3his will "e o"served i, in the
irst place, the architect does not demand things which cannot "e ound or made ready without
great e1pense. *or e1ample4 it is not everywhere that there is plenty o pitsand, ru""le, ir, clear
ir, and mar"le, since they are produced in dierent places and to assem"le them is diicult and
costly. Where there is no pitsand, we must use the %inds washed up "y rivers or "y the sea5 the
lac% o ir and clear ir may "e evaded "y using cypress, poplar, elm, or pine5 and other pro"lems
we must solve in similar ways.
H. + second stage in Rconomy is reached when we have to plan the dierent %inds o dwellings
suita"le or ordinary householders, or great wealth, or or the high position o the statesman. +
house in town o"viously calls or one orm o construction5 that into which stream the products
o country estates requires another5 this will not "e the same in the case o money?lenders and
still dierent or the opulent and lu1urious5 or the powers under whose deli"erations the
commonwealth is guided dwellings are to "e provided according to their special needs4 and, in a
word, the proper orm o economy must "e o"served in "uilding houses or each and every class.
CHAPTER IV
THE SITE OF A CITY
1. *or ortiied towns the ollowing general principles are to "e o"served. *irst comes the choice
o a very healthy site. )uch a site will "e high, neither misty nor rosty, and in a climate neither
hot nor cold, "ut temperate5 urther, without marshes in the neigh"ourhood. *or when the
morning "ree!es "low toward the town at sunrise, i they "ring with them mists rom marshes
and, mingled with the mist, the poisonous "reath o the creatures o the marshes to "e wated into
the "odies o the inha"itants, they will ma%e the site unhealthy. +gain, i the town is on the coast
with a southern or western e1posure, it will not "e healthy, "ecause in summer the southern s%y
grows hot at sunrise and is iery at noon, while a western e1posure grows warm ater sunrise, is
hot at noon, and at evening all aglow.
'. 3hese variations in heat and the su"sequent cooling o are harmul to the people living on
such sites. 3he same conclusion may "e reached in the case o inanimate things. *or instance,
no"ody draws the light or covered wine rooms rom the south or west, "ut rather rom the north,
since that quarter is never su"$ect to change "ut is always constant and unshiting. )o it is with
granaries4 grain e1posed to the sun,s course soon loses its good quality, and provisions and ruit,
unless stored in a place une1posed to the sun,s course, do not %eep long.
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3. *or heat is a universal solvent, melting out o things their power o resistance, and suc%ing
away and removing their natural strength with its iery e1halations so that they grow sot, and
hence wea%, under its glow. We see this in the case o iron which, however hard it may naturally
"e, yet when heated thoroughly in a urnace ire can "e easily wor%ed into any %ind o shape, and
still, i cooled while it is sot and white hot, it hardens again with a mere dip into cold water and
ta%es on its ormer quality.
/. We may also recogni!e the truth o this rom the act that in summer the heat ma%es
every"ody wea%, not only in unhealthy "ut even in healthy places, and that in winter even the
most unhealthy districts are much healthier "ecause they are given a solidity "y the cooling o.
)imilarly, persons removed rom cold countries to hot cannot endure it "ut waste away5 whereas
those who pass rom hot places to the cold regions o the north, not only do not suer in health
rom the change o residence "ut even gain "y it.
2. It appears, then, that in ounding towns we must "eware o districts rom which hot winds can
spread a"road over the inha"itants. *or while all "odies are composed o the our elements ;in
.ree% BNDCIJ G=, that is, o heat, moisture, the earthy, and air, yet there are mi1tures according to
natural temperament which ma%e up the natures o all the dierent animals o the world, each
ater its %ind.
9. 3hereore, i one o these elements, heat, "ecomes predominant in any "ody whatsoever, it
destroys and dissolves all the others with its violence. 3his deect may "e due to violent heat
rom certain quarters o the s%y, pouring into the open pores in too great proportion to admit o a
mi1ture suited to the natural temperament o the "ody in question. +gain, i too much moisture
enters the channels o a "ody, and thus introduces disproportion, the other elements, adulterated
"y the liquid, are impaired, and the virtues o the mi1ture dissolved. 3his deect, in turn, may
arise rom the cooling properties o moist winds and "ree!es "lowing upon the "ody. In the same
way, increase or diminution o the proportion o air or o the earthy which is natural to the "ody
may enee"le the other elements5 the predominance o the earthy "eing due to overmuch ood,
that o air to a heavy atmosphere.
:. I one wishes a more accurate understanding o all this, he need only consider and o"serve the
natures o "irds, ishes, and land animals, and he will thus come to relect upon distinctions o
temperament. 0ne orm o mi1ture is proper to "irds, another to ishes, and a ar dierent orm
to land animals. Winged creatures have less o the earthy, less moisture, heat in moderation, air
in large amount. (eing made up, thereore, o the lighter elements, they can more readily soar
away into the air. *ish, with their aquatic nature, "eing moderately supplied with heat and made
up in great part o air and the earthy, with as little o moisture as possi"le, can more easily e1ist
in moisture or the very reason that they have less o it than o the other elements in their "odies5
and so, when they are drawn to land, they leave lie and water at the same moment. )imilarly, the
land animals, "eing moderately supplied with the elements o air and heat, and having less o the
earthy and a great deal o moisture, cannot long continue alive in the water, "ecause their portion
o moisture is already a"undant.
>. 3hereore, i all this is as we have e1plained, our reason showing us that the "odies o animals
are made up o the elements, and these "odies, as we "elieve, giving way and "rea%ing up as a
10
result o e1cess or deiciency in this or that element, we cannot "ut "elieve that we must ta%e
great care to select a very temperate climate or the site o our city, since healthulness is, as we
have said, the irst requisite.
H. I cannot too strongly insist upon the need o a return to the method o old times. 0ur ancestors,
when a"out to "uild a town or an army post, sacriiced some o the cattle that were wont to eed
on the site proposed and e1amined their livers. I the livers o the irst victims were dar%?
coloured or a"normal, they sacriiced others, to see whether the ault was due to disease or their
ood. 3hey never "egan to "uild deensive wor%s in a place until ater they had made many such
trials and satisied themselves that good water and ood had made the liver sound and irm. I
they continued to ind it a"normal, they argued rom this that the ood and water supply ound in
such a place would "e $ust as unhealthy or man, and so they moved away and changed to
another neigh"ourhood, healthulness "eing their chie o"$ect.
1K. 3hat pasturage and ood may indicate the healthul qualities o a site is a act which can "e
o"served and investigated in the case o certain pastures in Crete, on each side o the river
Pothereus, which separates the two Cretan states o .nosus and .ortyna. 3here are cattle at
pasture on the right and let "an%s o that river, "ut while the cattle that eed near .nosus have
the usual spleen, those on the other side near .ortyna have no percepti"le spleen. 0n
investigating the su"$ect, physicians discovered on this side a %ind o her" which the cattle chew
and thus ma%e their spleen small. 3he her" is thereore gathered and used as a medicine or the
cure o splenetic people. 3he Cretans call it BQEWVDV. *rom ood and water, then, we may learn
whether sites are naturally unhealthy or healthy.
11. I the walled town is "uilt among the marshes themselves, provided they are "y the sea, with
a northern or north?eastern e1posure, and are a"ove the level o the seashore, the site will "e
reasona"le enough. *or ditches can "e dug to let out the water to the shore, and also in times o
storms the sea swells and comes "ac%ing up into the marshes, where its "itter "lend prevents the
reproductions o the usual marsh creatures, while any that swim['1] down rom the higher levels
to the shore are %illed at once "y the saltness to which they are unused. +n instance o this may
"e ound in the .allic marshes surrounding +ltino, &avenna, +quileia, and other towns in places
o the %ind, close "y marshes. 3hey are marvellously healthy, or the reasons which I have given.
1'. (ut marshes that are stagnant and have no outlets either "y rivers or ditches, li%e the
Pomptine marshes, merely putrey as they stand, emitting heavy, unhealthy vapours. + case o a
town "uilt in such a spot was 0ld )alpia in +pulia, ounded "y Ziomede on his way "ac% rom
3roy, or, according to some writers, "y Rlpias o &hodes. [ear ater year there was sic%ness,
until inally the suering inha"itants came with a pu"lic petition to -arcus 6ostilius and got him
to agree to see% and ind them a proper place to which to remove their city. Without delay he
made the most s%ilul investigations, and at once purchased an estate near the sea in a healthy
place, and as%ed the )enate and &oman people or permission to remove the town. 6e
constructed the walls and laid out the house lots, granting one to each citi!en or a mere trile.
3his done, he cut an opening rom a la%e into the sea, and thus made o the la%e a har"our or the
town. 3he result is that now the people o )alpia live on a healthy site and at a distance o only
our miles rom the old town.
11
CHAPTER I
THE FORUM AND BASILICA
1. 3he .ree%s lay out their orums in the orm o a square surrounded "y very spacious dou"le
colonnades, adorn them with columns set rather closely together, and with enta"latures o stone
or mar"le, and construct wal%s a"ove in the upper story. (ut in the cities o Italy the same
method cannot "e ollowed, or the reason that it is a custom handed down rom our ancestors
that gladiatorial shows should "e given in the orum.

From Gsell
orum at timgad
+, *orum. (, (asilica. C, Curia. C,, 0icial (uilding. Z, )mall 3emple. R, 8atrina. *, +trium.
'. 3hereore let the intercolumniations round the show place "e pretty wide5 round a"out in the
colonnades put the "an%ers, oices5 and have "alconies on the upper loor properly arranged so
as to "e convenient, and to "ring in some pu"lic revenue.
3he si!e o a orum should "e proportionate to the num"er o inha"itants, so that it may not "e
too small a space to "e useul, nor loo% li%e a desert waste or lac% o population. 3o determine
its "readth, divide its length into three parts and assign two o them to the "readth. Its shape will
then "e o"long, and its ground plan conveniently suited to the conditions o shows.
12
3. 3he columns o the upper tier should "e one ourth smaller than those o the lower, "ecause,
or the purpose o "earing the load, what is "elow ought to "e stronger than what is a"ove, and
also, "ecause we ought to imitate nature as seen in the case o things growing5 or e1ample, in
round smooth?stemmed trees, li%e the ir, cypress, and pine, every one o which is rather thic%
$ust a"ove the roots and then, as it goes on increasing in height, tapers o naturally and
symmetrically in growing up to the top. 6ence, i nature requires this in things growing, it is the
right arrangement that what is a"ove should "e less in height and thic%ness than what is "elow.
/. (asilicas should "e constructed on a site ad$oining the orum and in the warmest possi"le
quarter, so that in winter "usiness men may gather in them without "eing trou"led "y the
weather. In "readth they should "e not less than one third nor more than one hal o their length,
unless the site is naturally such as to prevent this and to o"lige an alteration in these proportions.
I the length o the site is greater than necessary, Chalcidian porches may "e constructed at the
ends, as in the Yulia +quiliana.
2. It is thought that the columns o "asilicas ought to "e as high as the side?aisles are "road5 an
aisle should "e limited to one third o the "readth which the open space in the middle is to have.
8et the columns o the upper tier "e smaller than those o the lower, as written a"ove. 3he
screen, to "e placed "etween the upper and the lower tiers o columns, ought to "e, it is thought,
one ourth lower than the columns o the upper tier, so that people wal%ing in the upper story o
the "asilica may not "e seen "y the "usiness men. 3he architraves, rie!es, and cornices should
"e [13/]ad$usted to the proportions o the columns, as we have stated in the third "oo%.

From Mau
orum at pompeii
+, *orum. (, (asilica. C, 3emple o +pollo. Z,
Z,, -ar%et (uildings. R, 8atrina. *, City
3reasury. ., -emorial +rch. 6, 3emple o
Yupiter. I, +rch o 3i"erius. \, -acellum
;provision mar%et=. 8, )anctuary o the City
8ares. -, 3emple o <espasian. 7, (uilding o
Rumachia. 0, Comitium. P, 0ice o the
Zuumvirs. ], 3he City Council. &, 0ice o the
+ediles.

From Durm
plan o the "asilica at pompeii
13
9. (ut "asilicas o the greatest dignity and "eauty may also "e
constructed in the style o that one which I erected, and the "uilding
o which I superintended at *ano. Its proportions and symmetrical
relations were esta"lished as ollows. In the middle, the main roo
"etween the columns is 1'K eet long and si1ty eet wide. Its aisle
round the space "eneath the main roo and "etween the walls and
the columns is twenty eet "road. 3he columns, o un"ro%en height,
measuring with their capitals ity eet, and "eing each ive eet
thic%, have "ehind them pilasters, twenty eet high, two and one hal
eet "road, and one and one hal eet thic%, which support the "eams
on which is carried the upper looring o the aisles. +"ove them are
other pilasters, eighteen eet high, two eet "road, and a oot thic%,
which carry the "eams supporting the principal ratering and the
roo o the aisles, which is "rought down lower than the main roo.
:. 3he spaces remaining "etween the "eams supported "y the
pilasters and the columns, are let or windows "etween the
intercolumniations. 3he columns are4 on the "readth o the main
roo at each end, our, including the corner columns at right and let5
on the long side which is ne1t to the orum, eight, including the
same corner columns5 on the other side, si1, including the corner
columns. 3his is "ecause the[139] two middle columns on that side
are omitted, in order not to o"struct the view o the pronaos o the
temple o +ugustus ;which is "uilt at the middle o the side wall o the "asilica, acing the
middle o the orum and the temple o Yupiter= and also the tri"unal which is in the ormer
temple, shaped as a hemicycle whose curvature is less than a semicircle.


<itruvius, "asilica at *ano
14
vitruvius, "asilica at ano
>. 3he open side o this hemicycle is orty?si1 eet along the ront, and its curvature inwards is
iteen eet, so that those who are standing "eore the magistrates may not "e in the way o the
"usiness men in the "asilica. &ound a"out, a"ove the columns, are placed the architraves,
consisting o three two?oot tim"ers astened together. 3hese return rom the columns which
stand third on the inner side to the antae which pro$ect rom the pronaos, and which touch the
edges o the hemicycle at right and let.
H. +"ove the architraves and regularly dispersed on supports directly over the capitals, piers are
placed, three eet high and our eet "road each way. +"ove them is placed the pro$ecting cornice
round a"out, made o two two?oot tim"ers. 3he tie?"eams and struts, "eing placed a"ove them,
and directly over the shats o the columns and the antae and walls o the pronaos, hold up one
ga"le roo along the entire "asilica, and another rom the middle o it, over the pronaos o the
temple.
1K. 3hus the ga"le tops run in two directions, li%e the letter 3, and give a "eautiul eect to the
outside and inside o the main roo. *urther, "y the omission o an ornamental enta"lature and o
a line o screens and a second tier o columns, trou"lesome la"our is saved and the total cost
greatly diminished. 0n the other hand, the carrying o the columns themselves in un"ro%en
height directly up to the "eams that support the main roo, seems to add an air o sumptuousness
and dignity to the wor%.[13:]
15
CHAPTER II
THE TREASURY, PRISON, AND SENATE HOUSE
1. 3he treasury, prison, and senate house ought to ad$oin the orum, "ut in such a way that their
dimensions may "e proportionate to those o the orum. Particularly, the senate house should "e
constructed with special regard to the importance o the town or city. I the "uilding is square, let
its height "e i1ed at one and one hal times its "readth5 "ut i it is to "e o"long, add together its
length and "readth and, having got the total, let hal o it "e devoted to the height up to the
coered ceiling.
'. *urther, the inside walls should "e girdled, at a point halway up their height, with coronae
made o woodwor% or o stucco. Without these, the voice o men engaged in discussion there
will "e carried up to the height a"ove, and so "e unintelligi"le to their listeners. (ut when the
walls are girdled with coronae, the voice rom "elow, "eing detained "eore rising and "ecoming
lost in the air, will "e intelligi"le to the ear.
CHAPTER III
THE THEATRE: ITS SITE, FOUNDATIONS AND ACOUSTICS
1. +ter the orum has "een arranged, ne1t, or the purpose o seeing plays or estivals o the
immortal gods, a site as healthy as possi"le should "e selected or the theatre, in accordance with
what has "een written in the irst "oo%, on the principles o healthulness in the sites o cities. *or
when plays are given, the spectators, with their wives and children, sit through them spell?"ound,
and their "odies, motionless rom en$oyment, have the pores open, into which "lowing winds
ind their way. I these winds come rom marshy districts or rom other unwholesome quarters,
they will introduce no1ious e1halations into the system. 6ence, such aults will "e avoided i the
site o the theatre is somewhat careully selected.[13>]
'. We must also "eware that it has not a southern e1posure. When the sun shines ull upon the
rounded part o it, the air, "eing shut up in the curved enclosure and una"le to circulate, stays
there and "ecomes heated5 and getting glowing hot it "urns up, dries out, and impairs the luids
o the human "ody. *or these reasons, sites which are unwholesome in such respects are to "e
avoided, and healthy sites selected.
3. 3he oundation walls will "e an easier matter i they are on a hillside5 "ut i they have to "e
laid on a plain or in a marshy place, solidity must "e assured and su"structures "uilt in
accordance with what has "een written in the third "oo%, on the oundations o temples. +"ove
the oundation walls, the ascending rows o seats, rom the su"structures up, should "e "uilt o
stone and mar"le materials.
/. 3he curved cross?aisles should "e constructed in proportionate relation, it is thought, to the
height o the theatre, "ut not higher than the ootway o the passage is "road. I they are lotier,
16
they will throw "ac% the voice and drive it away rom the upper portion, thus preventing the
case?endings o words rom reaching with distinct meaning the ears o those who are in the
uppermost seats a"ove the cross?aisles. In short, it should "e so contrived that a line drawn rom
the lowest to the highest seat will touch the top edges and angles o all the seats. 3hus the voice
will meet with no o"struction.
2. 3he dierent entrances ought to "e numerous and spacious, the upper not connected with the
lower, "ut "uilt in a continuous straight line rom all parts o the house, without turnings, so that
the people may not "e crowded together when let out rom shows, "ut may have separate e1its
rom all parts without o"structions.
Particular pains must also "e ta%en that the site "e not a ^dea^ one, "ut one through which the
voice can range with the greatest clearness. 3his can "e "rought a"out i a site is selected where
there is no o"struction due to echo.
9. <oice is a lowing "reath o air, percepti"le to the hearing "y contact. It moves in an endless
num"er o circular rounds,[13H] li%e the innumera"ly increasing circular waves which appear
when a stone is thrown into smooth water, and which %eep on spreading indeinitely rom the
centre unless interrupted "y narrow limits, or "y some o"struction which prevents such waves
rom reaching their end in due ormation. When they are interrupted "y o"structions, the irst
waves, lowing "ac%, "rea% up the ormation o those which ollow.
:. In the same manner the voice e1ecutes its movements in concentric circles5 "ut while in the
case o water the circles move hori!ontally on a plane surace, the voice not only proceeds
hori!ontally, "ut also ascends vertically "y regular stages. 3hereore, as in the case o the waves
ormed in the water, so it is in the case o the voice4 the irst wave, when there is no o"struction
to interrupt it, does not "rea% up the second or the ollowing waves, "ut they all reach the ears o
the lowest and highest spectators without an echo.
>. 6ence the ancient architects, ollowing in the ootsteps o nature, perected the ascending rows
o seats in theatres rom their investigations o the ascending voice, and, "y means o the
canonical theory o the mathematicians and that o the musicians, endeavoured to ma%e every
voice uttered on the stage come with greater clearness and sweetness to the ears o the audience.
*or $ust as musical instruments are "rought to perection o clearness in the sound o their strings
"y means o "ron!e plates or horn IJCG, so the ancients devised methods o increasing the
power o the voice in theatres through the application o harmonics.
CHAPTER IV
17
HARMONICS
1. 6armonics is an o"scure and diicult "ranch o musical science, especially or those who do
not %now .ree%. I we desire to treat o it, we must use .ree% words, "ecause some o them have
no 8atin equivalents. 6ence, I will e1plain it as clearly as[1/K] I can rom the writings o
+risto1enus, append his scheme, and deine the "oundaries o the notes, so that with somewhat
careul attention any"ody may "e a"le to understand it pretty easily.
'. 3he voice, in its changes o position when shiting pitch, "ecomes sometimes high, sometimes
low, and its movements are o two %inds, in one o which its progress is continuous, in the other
"y intervals. 3he continuous voice does not "ecome stationary at the ^"oundaries^ or at any
deinite place, and so the e1tremities o its progress are not apparent, "ut the act that there are
dierences o pitch is apparent, as in our ordinary speech in sol, lux, flos, vox5 or in these cases
we cannot tell at what pitch the voice "egins, nor at what pitch it leaves o, "ut the act that it
"ecomes low rom high and high rom low is apparent to the ear. In its progress "y intervals the
opposite is the case. *or here, when the pitch shits, the voice, "y change o position, stations
itsel on one pitch, then on another, and, as it requently repeats this alternating process, it
appears to the senses to "ecome stationary, as happens in singing when we produce a variation o
the mode "y changing the pitch o the voice. +nd so, since it moves "y intervals, the points at
which it "egins and where it leaves o are o"viously apparent in the "oundaries o the notes, "ut
the intermediate points escape notice and are o"scure, owing to the intervals.
3. 3here are three classes o modes4 irst, that which the .ree%s term the enharmonic5 second, the
chromatic5 third, the diatonic. 3he enharmonic mode is an artistic conception, and thereore
e1ecution in it has a specially severe dignity and distinction. 3he chromatic, with its delicate
su"tlety and with the ^crowding^ o its notes, gives a sweeter %ind o pleasure. In the diatonic,
the distance "etween the intervals is easier to understand, "ecause it is natural. 3hese three
classes dier in their arrangement o the tetrachord. In the enharmonic, the tetrachord consists o
two tones and two ^dieses.^ + diesis is a quarter tone5 hence in a semitone there are included two
dieses. In the chromatic there are two semitones arranged in succession, and the[1/1] third
interval is a tone and a hal. In the diatonic, there are two consecutive tones, and the third
interval o a semitone completes the tetrachord. 6ence, in the three classes, the tetrachords are
equally composed o two tones and a semitone, "ut when they are regarded separately according
to the terms o each class, they dier in the arrangement o their intervals.
/. 7ow then, these intervals o tones and semitones o the tetrachord are a division introduced "y
nature in the case o the voice, and she has deined their limits "y measures according to the
magnitude o the intervals, and determined their characteristics in certain dierent ways. 3hese
natural laws are ollowed "y the s%illed wor%men who ashion musical instruments, in "ringing
them to the perection o their proper concords.

18

2. In each class there are eighteen notes, termed in .ree% @U EEDC, o which eight in all the three
classes are constant and i1ed, while the other ten, not "eing tuned to the same pitch, are
varia"le. 3he i1ed notes are those which, "eing placed "etween the movea"le, ma%e up the unity
o the tetrachord, and remain unaltered in their "oundaries according to the dierent classes.
3heir names are proslam"anomenos, hypate hypaton, hypate meson, mese, nete synhemmenon,
paramese, nete die!eugmenon, nete hyper"olaeon. 3he movea"le notes are those which, "eing
arranged in the tetrachord "etween the immovea"le, change rom place to place according to the
dierent classes. 3hey are called[1/'] parhypate hypaton, lichanos hypaton, parhypate meson,
lichanos meson, trite synhemmenon, paranete synhemmenon, trite die!eugmenon, paranete
die!eugmenon, trite hyper"olaeon, paranete hyper"olaeon.
9. 3hese notes, rom "eing movea"le, ta%e on dierent qualities5 or they may stand at dierent
intervals and increasing distances. 3hus, parhypate, which in the enharmonic is at the interval o
hal a semitone rom hypate, has a semitone interval when transerred to the chromatic. What is
called lichanos in the enharmonic is at the interval o a semitone rom hypate5 "ut when shited
to the chromatic, it goes two semitones away5 and in the diatonic it is at an interval o three
semitones rom hypate. 6ence the ten notes produce three dierent %inds o modes on account o
their changes o position in the classes.
:. 3here are ive tetrachords4 irst, the lowest, termed in .ree% QGNDV5 second, the middle,
called M BDV5 third, the con$unct, termed BAVWMM VDV5 ourth, the dis$unct, named TCJSJVFM VDV5
the ith, which is the highest, is termed in .ree% QJX_ EGCDV. 3he concords, termed in .ree%
BAM@`V GC, o which human modulation will naturally admit, are si1 in num"er4 the ourth, the
ith, the octave, the octave and ourth, the octave and ith, and the dou"le octave.
>. 3heir names are thereore due to numerical value5 or when the voice "ecomes stationary on
some one note, and then, shiting its pitch, changes its position and passes to the limit o the
19
ourth note rom that one, we use the term ^ourth^5 when it passes to the ith, the term is
^ith.^[:]
H. *or there can "e no consonances either in the case o the notes o stringed instruments or o
the singing voice, "etween two intervals or "etween three or si1 or seven5 "ut, as written a"ove,
it is only the harmonies o the ourth, the ith, and so on up to the dou"le octave, that have
"oundaries naturally corresponding to those o the voice4 and these concords are produced "y the
union o the notes.[1/3]
CHAPTER V
SOUNDING VESSELS IN THE THEATRE
1. In accordance with the oregoing investigations on mathematical principles, let "ron!e vessels
"e made, proportionate to the si!e o the theatre, and let them "e so ashioned that, when
touched, they may produce with one another the notes o the ourth, the ith, and so on up to the
dou"le octave. 3hen, having constructed niches in "etween the seats o the theatre, let the vessels
"e arranged in them, in accordance with musical laws, in such a way that they nowhere touch the
wall, "ut have a clear space all round them and room over their tops. 3hey should "e set upside
down, and "e supported on the side acing the stage "y wedges not less than hal a oot high.
0pposite each niche, apertures should "e let in the surace o the seat ne1t "elow, two eet long
and hal a oot deep.
'. 3he arrangement o these vessels, with reerence to the situations in which they should "e
placed, may "e descri"ed as ollows. I the theatre "e o no great si!e, mar% out a hori!ontal
range halway up, and in it construct thirteen arched niches with twelve equal spaces "etween
them, so that o the a"ove mentioned ^echea^ those which give the note nete hyper"olaeon may
"e placed irst on each side, in the niches which are at the e1treme ends5 ne1t to the ends and a
ourth "elow in pitch, the note nete die!eugmenon5 third, paramese, a ourth "elow5 ourth, nete
synhemmenon5 ith, mese, a ourth "elow5 si1th, hypate meson, a ourth "elow5 and in the
middle and another ourth "elow, one vessel giving the note hypate hypaton.
3. 0n this principle o arrangement, the voice, uttered rom the stage as rom a centre, and
spreading and stri%ing against the cavities o the dierent vessels, as it comes in contact with
them, will "e increased in clearness o sound, and will wa%e an harmonious note in unison with
itsel.
(ut i the theatre "e rather large, let its height "e divided[1//] into our parts, so that three
hori!ontal ranges o niches may "e mar%ed out and constructed4 one or the enharmonic, another
or the chromatic, and the third or the diatonic system. (eginning with the "ottom range, let the
arrangement "e as descri"ed a"ove in the case o a smaller theatre, "ut on the enharmonic
system.

20

/. In the middle range, place irst at the e1treme ends the vessels which give the note o the
chromatic hyper"olaeon5 ne1t to them, those which give the chromatic die!eugmenon, a ourth
"elow5 third, the chromatic synhemmenon5 ourth, the chromatic meson, a ourth "elow5 ith,
the chromatic hypaton, a ourth "elow5 si1th, the paramese, or this is "oth the concord o the
ith to the chromatic hyper"olaeon, and the concord[>] o the chromatic synhemmenon.
2. 7o vessel is to "e placed in the middle, or the reason that there is no other note in the
chromatic system that orms a natural concord o sound.
In the highest division and range o niches, place at the e1treme ends vessels ashioned so as to
give the note o the diatonic hyper"olaeon5 ne1t, the diatonic die!eugmenon, a ourth "elow5
third, the diatonic synhemmenon5 ourth, the diatonic meson, a ourth "elow5 ith, the diatonic
hypaton, a ourth "elow5 si1th, the[1/2] proslam"anomenos, a ourth "elow5 in the middle, the
note mese, or this is "oth the octave to proslam"anomenos, and the concord o the ith to the
diatonic hypaton.
9. Whoever wishes to carry out these principles with ease, has only to consult the scheme at the
end o this "oo%, drawn up in accordance with the laws o music. It was let "y +risto1enus, who
with great a"ility and la"our classiied and arranged in it the dierent modes. In accordance with
it, and "y giving heed to these theories, one can easily "ring a theatre to perection, rom the
point o view o the nature o the voice, so as to give pleasure to the audience.
:. )ome"ody will perhaps say that many theatres are "uilt every year in &ome, and that in them
no attention at all is paid to these principles5 "ut he will "e in error, rom the act that all our
pu"lic theatres made o wood contain a great deal o "oarding, which must "e resonant. 3his may
"e o"served rom the "ehaviour o those who sing to the lyre, who, when they wish to sing in a
higher %ey, turn towards the olding doors on the stage, and thus "y their aid are reinorced with
21
a sound in harmony with the voice. (ut when theatres are "uilt o solid materials li%e masonry,
stone, or mar"le, which cannot "e resonant, then the principles o the ^echea^ must "e applied.
>. I, however, it is as%ed in what theatre these vessels have "een employed, we cannot point to
any in &ome itsel, "ut only to those in the districts o Italy and in a good many .ree% states. We
have also the evidence o 8ucius -ummius, who, ater destroying the theatre in Corinth, "rought
its "ron!e vessels to &ome, and made a dedicatory oering at the temple o 8una with the money
o"tained rom the sale o them. (esides, many s%ilul architects, in constructing theatres in small
towns, have, or lac% o means, ta%en large $ars made o clay, "ut similarly resonant, and have
produced very advantageous results "y arranging them on the principles descri"ed.[1/9]
CHAPTER VI
PLAN OF THE THEATRE
1. 3he plan o the theatre itsel is to "e constructed as ollows. 6aving i1ed upon the principal
centre, draw a line o circumerence equivalent to what is to "e the perimeter at the "ottom, and
in it inscri"e our equilateral triangles, at equal distances apart and touching the "oundary line o
the circle, as the astrologers do in a igure o the twelve signs o the !odiac, when they are
ma%ing computations rom the musical harmony o the stars. 3a%ing that one o these triangles
whose side is nearest to the scaena, let the ront o the scaena "e determined "y the line where
that side cuts o a segment o the circle ;+?(=, and draw, through the centre, a parallel line ;C?
Z= set o rom that position, to separate the platorm o the stage rom the space o the orchestra.
'. 3he platorm has to "e made deeper than that o the .ree%s, "ecause all our artists perorm on
the stage, while the orchestra contains the places reserved or the seats o senators. 3he height o
this platorm must "e not more than ive eet, in order that those who sit in the orchestra may "e
a"le to see the perormances o all the actors. 3he sections ;cunei= or spectators in the theatre
should "e so divided, that the angles o the triangles which run a"out the circumerence o the
circle may give the direction or the lights o steps "etween the sections, as ar as up to the irst
curved cross?aisle. +"ove this, the upper sections are to "e laid out, midway "etween ;the lower
sections=, with alternating passage?ways.
3. 3he angles at the "ottom, which give the directions or the lights o steps, will "e seven in
num"er ;C, R, *, ., 6, I, Z=5 the other ive angles will determine the arrangement o the scene4
thus, the angle in the middle ought to have the ^royal door^ ;\= opposite to it5 the angles to the
right and let ;8, -= will designate the position o the doors or guest cham"ers5 and the
two[1/:] outermost angles ;+, (= will point to the passages in the wings. 3he steps or the
spectators, places, where the seats are arranged, should "e not less than a oot and a palm in
height, nor more than a oot and si1 ingers5 their depth should "e i1ed at not more than two and
a hal eet, nor less than two eet.
22
plan
section
the roman theatre according to vitruvius
[1/>]/. 3he roo o the colonnade to "e "uilt at the top o the rows o seats, should lie level with
the top o the ^scaena,^ or the reason that the voice will then rise with equal power until it
reaches the highest rows o seats and the roo. I the roo is not so high, in proportion as it is
lower, it will chec% the voice at the point which the sound irst reaches.
2. 3a%e one si1th o the diameter o the orchestra "etween the lowest steps, and let the lower
seats at the ends on "oth sides "e cut away to a height o that dimension so as to leave entrances
23
;0, P=. +t the point where this cutting away occurs, i1 the soits o the passages. 3hus their
vaulting will "e suiciently high.
[1/H]9. 3he length o the ^scaena^ ought to "e dou"le the diameter o the orchestra. 3he height
o the podium, starting rom the level o the stage, is, including the corona and cymatium, one
twelth o the diameter o the orchestra. +"ove the podium, the columns, including their capitals
and "ases, should have a height o one quarter o the same diameter, and the architraves and
ornaments o the columns should "e one ith o their height. 3he parapet a"ove, including its
cyma and corona, is one hal the height o the parapet "elow. 8et the columns a"ove this parapet
"e one ourth less in height than the columns "elow, and the architraves and ornaments o these
columns one ith o their height. I the ^scaena^ is to have three stories, let the uppermost
parapet "e hal the height o the intermediate one, the columns at the top one ourth less high
than the intermediate, and the architraves and coronae o these columns one ith o their height
as "eore.

24
From Durm
the theatre at aspendus

:. It is not possi"le, however, that in all theatres these rules o symmetry should answer all
conditions and purposes, "ut the[12K] architect ought to consider to what e1tent he must ollow
the principle o symmetry, and to what e1tent it may "e modiied to suit the nature o the site or
the si!e o the wor%. 3here are, o course, some things which, or utility,s sa%e, must "e made o
the same si!e in a small theatre, and a large one4 such as the steps, curved cross?aisles, their
parapets, the passages, stairways, stages, tri"unals, and any other things which occur that ma%e it
necessary to give up symmetry so as not to interere with utility. +gain, i in the course o the
wor% any o the material all short, such as mar"le, tim"er, or anything else that is provided, it
will not "e amiss to ma%e a slight reduction or addition, provided that it is done without going
too ar, "ut with intelligence. 3his will "e possi"le, i the architect is a man o practical
e1perience and, "esides, not destitute o cleverness and s%ill.
>. 3he ^scaena^ itsel displays the ollowing scheme. In the centre are dou"le doors decorated
li%e those o a royal palace. +t the right and let are the doors o the guest cham"ers. (eyond are
spaces provided or decoration#places that the .ree%s call QJXC LNDC, "ecause in these places
are triangular pieces o machinery ;a, a= which revolve, each having three decorated aces.
When the play is to "e changed, or when gods enter to the accompaniment o sudden claps o
25
thunder, these may "e revolved and present a ace dierently decorated. (eyond these places are
the pro$ecting wings which aord entrances to the stage, one rom the orum, the other rom
a"road.
H. 3here are three %inds o scenes, one called the tragic, second, the comic, third, the satyric.
3heir decorations are dierent and unli%e each other in scheme. 3ragic scenes are delineated
with columns, pediments, statues, and other o"$ects suited to %ings5 comic scenes e1hi"it private
dwellings, with "alconies and views representing rows o windows, ater the manner o ordinary
dwellings5 satyric scenes are decorated with trees, caverns, mountains, and other rustic o"$ects
delineated in landscape style.[121]
CHAPTER VII
GREEK THEATRES
1. In the theatres o the .ree%s, these same rules o construction are not to "e ollowed in all
respects. *irst, in the circle at the "ottom where the &oman has our triangles, the .ree% has
three squares with their angles touching the line o circumerence. 3he square whose side is
nearest to the ^scaena,^ and cuts o a segment o the circle, determines "y this line the limits o
the ^proscaenium^ ;+, (=. Parallel to this line and tangent to the outer circumerence o the
segment, a line is drawn which i1es the ront o the ^scaena^ ;C?Z=. 3hrough the centre o the
orchestra and parallel to the direction o the ^proscaenium,^ a line is laid o, and centres are
mar%ed where it cuts the circumerence to the right and let ;R, *= at the ends o the hal?circle.
3hen, with the compasses i1ed at the right, an arc is descri"ed rom the hori!ontal distance at
the let to the let hand side o the ^proscaenium^ ;*, .=5 again with the centre at the let end, an
arc is descri"ed rom the hori!ontal distance at the right to the right hand side o the
^proscaenium^ ;R, 6=.
[12']
'. +s a result o this plan with three centres, the .ree%s have a roomier orchestra, and a ^scaena^
set urther "ac%, as well as a stage o less depth. 3hey call this the EDFJ DV, or the reason that
there the tragic and comic actors perorm on the stage, while other artists give their perormances
in the entire orchestra5 hence, rom this act they are given in .ree% the distinct names ^)cenic^
and ^3hymelic.^ 3he height o this ^logeum^ ought to "e not less than ten eet nor more than
twelve. 8et the ascending lights o steps "etween the wedges o seats, as ar up as the irst
curved cross?aisle, "e laid out on lines directly opposite to the angles o the squares. +"ove the
cross?aisle, let other lights "e laid out in the middle "etween the irst5 and at the top, as oten as
there is a new cross?aisle, the num"er o lights o steps is always increased to the same e1tent.
[123]
26
CHAPTER VIII
ACOUSTICS OF THE SITE OF A THEATRE
1. +ll this having "een settled with the greatest pains and s%ill, we must see to it, with still
greater care, that a site has "een selected where the voice has a gentle all, and is not driven "ac%
with a recoil so as to convey an indistinct meaning to the ear. 3here are some places which rom
their very nature interere with the course o the voice, as or instance the dissonant, which are
termed in .ree% LGNWIDAVNJ 5 the circumsonant, which with them are named QJXCWIDAVNJP5
again the resonant, which are termed VNWIDAVNJP5 and the consonant, which they call
BAVWIDAVNJP. 3he dissonant are those places in which the irst sound uttered that is carried up
high, stri%es against solid "odies a"ove, and, "eing driven "ac%, chec%s as it sin%s to the "ottom
the rise o the succeeding sound.
'. 3he circumsonant are those in which the voice spreads all round, and then is orced into the
middle, where it dissolves, the case?endings are not heard, and it dies away there in sounds o
indistinct meaning. 3he resonant are those in which it comes into contact with some solid
27
su"stance and recoils, thus producing an echo, and ma%ing the terminations o cases sound
dou"le. 3he consonant are those in which it is supported rom "elow, increases as it goes up, and
reaches the ears in words which are distinct and clear in tone. 6ence, i there has "een careul
attention in the selection o the site, the eect o the voice will, through this precaution, "e
perectly suited to the purposes o a theatre.
3he drawings o the plans may "e distinguished rom each other "y this dierence, that theatres
designed rom squares are meant to "e used "y .ree%s, while &oman theatres are designed rom
equilateral triangles. Whoever is willing to ollow these directions will "e a"le to construct
perectly correct theatres.[12/]
CHAPTER IX
COLONNADES AND WALKS
1. Colonnades must "e constructed "ehind the scaena, so that when sudden showers interrupt
plays, the people may have somewhere to retire rom the theatre, and so that there may "e room
or the preparation o all the outit o the stage. )uch places, or instance, are the colonnades o
Pompey, and also, in +thens, the colonnades o Rumenes and the ane o *ather (acchus5 also,
as you leave the theatre, the music hall which 3hemistocles surrounded with stone columns, and
rooed with the yards and masts o ships captured rom the Persians. It was "urned during the
war with -ithridates, and aterwards restored "y \ing +rio"ar!anes. +t )myrna there is the
)tratoniceum, at 3ralles, a colonnade on each side o the scaena a"ove the race course, and in
other cities which have had careul architects there are colonnades and wal%s a"out the theatres.
'. 3he approved way o "uilding them requires that they should "e dou"le, and have Zoric
columns on the outside, with the architraves and their ornaments inished according to the law o
modular proportion. 3he approved depth or them requires that the depth, rom the lower part o
the outermost columns to the columns in the middle, and rom the middle columns to the wall
enclosing the wal% under the colonnade, should "e equal to the height o the outer columns. 8et
the middle columns "e one ith higher than the outer columns, and designed in the Ionic or
Corinthian style.
3. 3he columns will not "e su"$ect to the same rules o symmetry and proportion which I
prescri"ed in the case o sanctuaries5 or the dignity which ought to "e their quality in temples o
the gods is one thing, "ut their elegance in colonnades and other pu"lic wor%s is quite another.
6ence, i the columns are to "e o the Zoric order, let their height, including the capital, "e
measured o into iteen parts. 0 these parts, let one "e i1ed[122] upon to orm the module,
and in accordance with this module the whole wor% is to "e developed. 8et the thic%ness o the
columns at the "ottom "e two modules5 an intercolumniation, ive and a hal modules5 the height
o a column, e1cluding the capital, ourteen modules5 the capital, one module in height and two
and one si1th modules in "readth. 8et the modular proportions o the rest o the wor% "e carried
out as written in the ourth "oo% in the case o temples.
28
/. (ut i the columns are to "e Ionic, let the shat, e1cluding "ase and capital, "e divided into
eight and one hal parts, and let one o these "e assigned to the thic%ness o a column. 8et the
"ase, including the plinth, "e i1ed at hal the thic%ness, and let the proportions o the capital "e
as shown in the third "oo%. I the column is to "e Corinthian, let its shat and "ase "e
proportioned as in the Ionic, "ut its capital, as has "een written in the ourth "oo%. In the
stylo"ates, let the increase made there "y means o the ^scamilli impares^ "e ta%en rom the
description written a"ove in the third "oo%. 8et the architraves, coronae, and all the rest "e
developed, in proportion to the columns, rom what has "een written in the oregoing "oo%s.
2. 3he space in the middle, "etween the colonnades and open to the s%y, ought to "e em"ellished
with green things5 or wal%ing in the open air is very healthy, particularly or the eyes, since the
reined and rareied air that comes rom green things, inding its way in "ecause o the physical
e1ercise, gives a clean?cut image, and, "y clearing away the gross humours rom the eyes, leaves
the sight %een and the image distinct. (esides, as the "ody gets warm with e1ercise in wal%ing,
this air, "y suc%ing out the humours rom the rame, diminishes their supera"undance, and
disperses and thus reduces that superluity which is more than the "ody can "ear.
9. 3hat this is so may "e seen rom the act that misty vapours never arise rom springs o water
which are under cover, nor even rom watery marshes which are underground5 "ut in uncovered
places which are open to the s%y, when the rising[129] sun "egins to act upon the world with its
heat, it "rings out the vapour rom damp and watery spots, and rolls it in masses upwards.
3hereore, i it appears that in places open to the s%y the more no1ious humours are suc%ed out
o the "ody "y the air, as they o"viously are rom the earth in the orm o mists, I thin% there is
no dou"t that cities should "e provided with the roomiest and most ornamented wal%s, laid out
under the ree and open s%y.
:. 3hat they may "e always dry and not muddy, the ollowing is to "e done. 8et them "e dug
down and cleared out to the lowest possi"le depth. +t the right and let construct covered drains,
and in their walls, which are directed towards the wal%s, lay earthen pipes with their lower ends
inclined into the drains. 6aving inished these, ill up the place with charcoal, and then strew
sand over the wal%s and level them o. 6ence, on account o the porous nature o the charcoal
and the insertion o the pipes into the drains, quantities o water will "e conducted away, and the
wal%s will thus "e rendered perectly dry and without moisture.
>. *urthermore, our ancestors in esta"lishing these wor%s provided cities with storehouses or an
indispensa"le material. 3he act is that in sieges everything else is easier to procure than is wood.
)alt can easily "e "rought in "eorehand5 corn can "e got together quic%ly "y the )tate or "y
individuals, and i it gives out, the deence may "e maintained on ca""age, meat, or "eans5 water
can "e had "y digging wells, or when there are sudden alls o rain, "y collecting it rom the tiles.
(ut a stoc% o wood, which is a"solutely necessary or coo%ing ood, is a diicult and
trou"lesome thing to provide5 or it is slow to gather and a good deal is consumed.
H. 0n such occasions, thereore, these wal%s are thrown open, and a deinite allowance granted to
each inha"itant according to tri"es. 3hus these uncovered wal%s insure two e1cellent things4 irst,
health in time o peace5 secondly, saety in time o war. 6ence, wal%s that are developed on these
29
principles, and "uilt[12:] not only "ehind the ^scaena^ o theatres, "ut also at the temples o all
the gods, will "e capa"le o "eing o great use to cities.

3he 3epidarium o the )ta"ian (aths at Pompeii
30
apodyterium or women in the sta"ian "aths at pompeii
+s it appears that we have given an adequate account o them, ne1t will ollow descriptions o
the arrangements o "aths.
CHAPTER X
BATHS
1. In the irst place, the warmest possi"le situation must "e selected5 that is, one which aces
away rom the north and northeast. 3he rooms or the hot and tepid "aths should "e lighted rom
the southwest, or, i the nature o the situation prevents this, at all events rom the south, "ecause
the set time or "athing is principally rom midday to evening. We must also see to it that the hot
"ath rooms in the women,s and men,s departments ad$oin each other, and are situated in the same
quarter5 or thus it will "e possi"le that the same urnace should serve "oth o them and their
ittings. 3hree "ron!e cauldrons are to "e set over the urnace, one or hot, another or tepid, and
the third or cold water, placed in such positions that the amount o water which lows out o the
hot water cauldron may "e replaced rom that or tepid water, and in the same way the cauldron
or tepid water may "e supplied rom that or cold. 3he arrangement must allow the semi?
cylinders or the "ath "asins to "e heated rom the same urnace.
31
'. 3he hanging loors o the hot "ath rooms are to "e constructed as ollows. *irst the surace o
the ground should "e laid with tiles a oot and a hal square, sloping towards the urnace in such
a way that, i a "all is thrown in, it cannot stop inside "ut must return o itsel to the urnace
room5 thus the heat o the ire will more readily spread under the hanging looring. bpon them,
pillars made o eight?inch "ric%s are "uilt, and set at such a distance apart that two?oot tiles may
"e used to cover them. 3hese pillars should "e two eet in height, laid with clay mi1ed with hair,
and covered on top with the two?oot tiles which support the loor.[12>]
3he )ta"ian (aths at Pompeii
), ). )hops. (. Private (aths. +?3. -en,s (ath. +,?3,. Women,s (aths. R, R,. Rntrances. +, +,.
+podyteria. *. *rigidarium. 3, 3,. 3epidarium. C, C. Caldarium. \, \, \. \ettles in urnace
room. P. Piscina.
3. 3he vaulted ceilings will "e more servicea"le i "uilt o masonry5 "ut i they are o ramewor%,
they should have tile wor% on the under side, to "e constructed as ollows. 8et iron "ars or arcs
"e made, and hang them to the ramewor% "y means o iron hoo%s set as close together as
32
possi"le5 and let these "ars or arcs "e placed at such distances apart that each pair o them may
support and carry an unlanged tile. 3hus the entire vaulting will "e[12H] completely supported
on iron. 3hese vaults should have the $oints on their upper side dau"ed with clay mi1ed with
hair, and their under side, acing the loor, should irst "e plastered with pounded tile mi1ed with
lime, and then covered with polished stucco in relie or smooth. <aults in hot "ath rooms will "e
more servicea"le i they are dou"led5 or then the moisture rom the heat will not "e a"le to spoil
the tim"er in the ramewor%, "ut will merely circulate "etween the two vaults.
/. 3he si!e o the "aths must depend upon the num"er o the population. 3he rooms should "e
thus proportioned4 let their "readth "e one third o their length, e1cluding the niches or the
wash"owl and the "ath "asin. 3he wash"owl ought without ail to "e placed under a window, so
that the shadows o those who stand round it may not o"struct the light. 7iches or wash"owls
must "e made so roomy that when the irst comers have ta%en their places, the others who are
waiting round may have proper standing room. 3he "ath "asin should "e not less than si1 eet
"road rom the wall to the edge, the lower step and the ^cushion^ ta%ing up two eet o this space.
2. 3he 8aconicum and other sweating "aths must ad$oin the tepid room, and their height to the
"ottom o the curved dome should "e equal to their width. 8et an aperture "e let in the middle o
the dome with a "ron!e disc hanging rom it "y chains. (y raising and lowering it, the
temperature o the sweating "ath can "e regulated. 3he cham"er itsel ought, as it seems, to "e
circular, so that the orce o the ire and heat may spread evenly rom the centre all round the
circumerence.
CHAPTER XI
THE PALAESTRA
1. 7e1t, although the "uilding o palaestrae is not usual in Italy, I thin% it "est to set orth the
traditional way, and to show how they are constructed among the .ree%s. 3he square or[19K]
o"long peristyle in a palaestra should "e so ormed that the circuit o it ma%es a wal% o two
stadia, a distance which the .ree%s call the T GVEDP. 8et three o its colonnades "e single, "ut let
the ourth, which is on the south side, "e dou"le, so that when there is "ad weather accompanied
"y wind, the drops o rain may not "e a"le to reach the interior.
'. In the three colonnades construct roomy recesses ;+= with seats in them, where philosophers,
rhetoricians, and others who delight in learning may sit and converse. In the dou"le colonnade let
the rooms "e arranged thus4 the young men,s hall ;(= in the middle5 this is a very spacious recess
;e1edra= with seats in it, and it should "e one third longer than it is "road. +t the right, the "ag
room ;C=5 then ne1t, the dust room ;Z=5 "eyond the dust room, at the corner o the colonnade, the
cold washing room ;R=, which the .ree%s call EDANX V. +t the let o the young men,s hall is the
anointing room ;*=5 then, ne1t to the anointing room, the cold "ath room ;.=, and "eyond that a
passage into the urnace room ;6= at the corner o the colonnade. 7e1t, "ut inside and on a line
with the cold "ath room, put the vaulted sweating "ath ;I=, its length twice its "readth, and having
at the ends on one side a 8aconicum ;\=, proportioned in the same manner as a"ove descri"ed,
33
and opposite the 8aconicum the warm washing room ;8=. Inside a palaestra, the peristyle ought
to "e laid out as descri"ed a"ove.
3. (ut on the outside, let three colonnades "e arranged, one as you leave the peristyle and two at
the right and let, with running?trac%s in them. 3hat one o them which aces the north should "e
a dou"le colonnade o very ample "readth, while the other should "e single, and so constructed
that on the sides ne1t the walls and the side along the columns it may have edges, serving as
paths, o not less than ten eet, with the space "etween them sun%en, so that steps are necessary
in going down rom the edges a oot and a hal to the plane, which plane should "e not less than
twelve eet wide. 3hus people wal%ing round on the edges will not "e interered with "y the
anointed who are e1ercising.[191]


/. 3his %ind o colonnade is called among the .ree%s SABN P, "ecause athletes during the winter
season e1ercise in covered running trac%s. 7e1t to this ^1ystus^ and to the dou"le colonnade
should "e laid out the uncovered wal%s which the .ree%s term QGXGTXDM TJP and our people
34
^1ysta,^ into which, in air weather during the winter, the athletes come out rom the ^1ystus^ or
e1ercise. 3he ^1ysta^ ought to "e so constructed that there may "e plantations "etween the two
colonnades, or groves[19'] o plane trees, with wal%s laid out in them among the trees and
resting places there, made o ^opus signinum.^ (ehind the ^1ystus^ a stadium, so designed that
great num"ers o people may have plenty o room to loo% on at the contests "etween the athletes.
I have now descri"ed all that seemed necessary or the proper arrangement o things within the
city walls.
CHAPTER I
ON CLIMATE AS DETERMINING THE STYLE OF THE HOUSE
1. I our designs or private houses are to "e correct, we must at the outset ta%e note o the
countries and climates in which they are "uilt. 0ne style o house seems appropriate to "uild in
Rgypt, another in )pain, a dierent %ind in Pontus, one still dierent in &ome, and so on with
lands and countries o other characteristics. 3his is "ecause one part o the earth is directly under
the sun,s course, another is ar away rom it, while another lies midway "etween these two.
6ence, as the position o the heaven with regard to a given tract on the earth leads naturally to
dierent characteristics, owing to the inclination o the circle o the !odiac and the course o the
sun, it is o"vious that designs or houses ought similarly to conorm to the nature o the country
and to diversities o climate.
'. In the north, houses should "e entirely rooed over and sheltered as much as possi"le, not in
the open, though having a warm e1posure. (ut on the other hand, where the orce o the sun is
great in the southern countries that suer rom heat, houses must "e "uilt more in the open and
with a northern or north?eastern e1posure. 3hus we may amend "y art what nature, i let to
hersel, would mar. In other situations, also, we must ma%e modiications to correspond to the
position o the heaven and its eects on climate.
3. 3hese eects are noticea"le and discerni"le not only in things in nature, "ut they also are
o"serva"le in the lim"s and "odies o entire races. In places on which the sun throws out its heat
in moderation, it %eeps human "odies in their proper condition, and where its path is very close
at hand, it parches them up, and "urns out and ta%es away the proportion o moisture which they
ought to possess. (ut, on the other hand, in the cold[1:1] regions that are ar away rom the
south, the moisture is not drawn out "y hot weather, "ut the atmosphere is ull o dampness
which diuses moisture into the system, and ma%es the rame larger and the pitch o the voice
deeper. 3his is also the reason why the races that are "red in the north are o vast height, and
have air comple1ions, straight red hair, grey eyes, and a great deal o "lood, owing to the
a"undance o moisture and the coolness o the atmosphere.
/. 0n the contrary, those that are nearest to the southern hal o the a1is, and that lie directly
under the sun,s course, are o lower stature, with a swarthy comple1ion, hair curling, "lac% eyes,
35
strong legs, and "ut little "lood on account o the orce o the sun. 6ence, too, this poverty o
"lood ma%es them over?timid to stand up against the sword, "ut great heat and evers they can
endure without timidity, "ecause their rames are "red up in the raging heat. 6ence, men that are
"orn in the north are rendered over?timid and wea% "y ever, "ut their wealth o "lood ena"les
them to stand up against the sword without timidity.
2.
3he pitch o the voice is li%ewise dierent and varying in quality with dierent nations, or the
ollowing reasons. 3he terminating points east and west on the level o the earth, where the upper
and lower parts o the heaven are divided, seem to lie in a naturally "alanced circle which
mathematicians call the 6ori!on. \eeping this idea deinitely in mind, i we imagine a line
drawn rom the northern side o the circumerence ;7= to the side which lies a"ove the southern
hal o the a1is ;)=, and rom here another line o"liquely up to the pivot at the summit, "eyond
the stars composing the .reat (ear ;the pole star P=, we shall dou"tless see that we have in the
heaven a triangular igure li%e that o the musical instrument which the .ree%s call the
^sam"uca.^[1:']
9. +nd so, under the space which is nearest to the pivot at the "ottom, o the southern portions
o the line o the a1is, are ound nations that on account o the slight altitude o the heaven a"ove
them, have shrill and very high?pitched voices, li%e the string nearest to the angle in the musical
instrument. 7e1t in order come other nations as ar as the middle o .reece, with lower
elevations o the voice5 and rom this middle point they go on in regular order up to the e1treme
north, where, under high altitudes, the vocal utterance o the inha"itants is, under natural laws,
produced in heavier tones. 3hus it is o"vious that the system o the universe as a whole is, on
account o the inclination o the heaven, composed in a most perect harmony through the
temporary power o the sun.
:. 3he nations, thereore, that lie midway "etween the pivots at the southern and the northern
e1tremities o the a1is, converse in a voice o middle pitch, li%e the notes in the middle o a
musical scale5 "ut, as we proceed towards the north, the distances to the heaven "ecome greater,
and so the nations there, whose vocal utterance is reduced "y the moisture to the ^hypatcs^ and to
^proslam"anomenon,^ are naturally o"liged to spea% in heavier tones. In the same way, as we
proceed rom the middle point to the south, the voices o the nations there correspond in e1treme
height o pitch and in shrillness to the ^paranetcs^ and ^netcs.^
>. 3hat it is a act that things are made heavier rom "eing in places naturally moist, and higher
pitched rom places that are hot, may "e proved rom the ollowing e1periment. 3a%e two cups
36
which have "een "a%ed in the same oven or an equal time, which are o equal weight, and which
give the same note when struc%. Zip one o them into water and, ater ta%ing it out o water,
stri%e them "oth. 3his done, there will "e a great dierence in their notes, and the cups can no
longer "e equal in weight. 3hus it is with men4 though "orn in the same general orm and under
the same all?em"racing heaven, yet in some o them, on account o the heat in their country, the
voice stri%es[1:3] the air on a high note, while in others, on account o a"undance o moisture,
the quality o tones produced is very heavy.
H. *urther, it is owing to the rarity o the atmosphere that southern nations, with their %een
intelligence due to the heat, are very ree and swit in the devising o schemes, while northern
nations, "eing enveloped in a dense atmosphere, and chilled "y moisture rom the o"structing air,
have "ut a sluggish intelligence. 3hat this is so, we may see rom the case o sna%es. 3heir
movements are most active in hot weather, when they have got rid o the chill due to moisture,
whereas at the winter solstice, and in winter weather, they are chilled "y the change o
temperature, and rendered torpid and motionless. It is thereore no wonder that man,s intelligence
is made %eener "y warm air and duller "y cold.
1K. (ut although southern nations have the %eenest wits, and are ininitely clever in orming
schemes, yet the moment it comes to displaying valour, they succum" "ecause all manliness o
spirit is suc%ed out o them "y the sun. 0n the other hand, men "orn in cold countries are indeed
readier to meet the shoc% o arms with great courage and without timidity, "ut their wits are so
slow that they will rush to the charge inconsiderately and ine1pertly, thus deeating their own
devices. )uch "eing nature,s arrangement o the universe, and all these nations "eing allotted
temperaments which are lac%ing in due moderation, the truly perect territory, situated under the
middle o the heaven, and having on each side the entire e1tent o the world and its countries, is
that which is occupied "y the &oman people.
11. In act, the races o Italy are the most perectly constituted in "oth respects#in "odily orm
and in mental activity to correspond to their valour. R1actly as the planet Yupiter is itsel
temperate, its course lying midway "etween -ars, which is very hot, and )aturn, which is very
cold, so Italy, lying "etween the north and the south, is a com"ination o what is ound on each
side, and her predminence is well regulated and indisputa"le. +nd so "y her wisdom she "rea%s
the courageous onsets o the[1:/] "ar"arians, and "y her strength o hand thwarts the devices o
the southerners. 6ence, it was the divine intelligence that set the city o the &oman people in a
peerless and temperate country, in order that it might acquire the right to command the whole
world.
1'. 7ow i it is a act that countries dier rom one another, and are o various classes according
to climate, so that the very nations "orn therein naturally dier in mental and physical
conormation and qualities, we cannot hesitate to ma%e our houses suita"le in plan to the
peculiarities o nations and races, since we have the e1pert guidance o nature hersel ready to
our hand.
I have now set orth the peculiar characteristics o localities, so ar as I could note them, in the
most summary way, and have stated how we ought to ma%e our houses conorm to the physical
qualities o nations, with due regard to the course o the sun and to climate. 7e1t I shall treat the
37
symmetrical proportions o the dierent styles o houses, "oth as wholes and in their separate
parts.
CHAPTER II
SYMMETRY, AND MODIFICATIONS IN IT TO SUIT THE SITE
1. 3here is nothing to which an architect should devote more thought than to the e1act
proportions o his "uilding with reerence to a certain part selected as the standard. +ter the
standard o symmetry has "een determined, and the proportionate dimensions ad$usted "y
calculations, it is ne1t the part o wisdom to consider the nature o the site, or questions o use or
"eauty, and modiy the plan "y diminutions or additions in such a manner that these diminutions
or additions in the symmetrical relations may "e seen to "e made on correct principles, and
without detracting at all rom the eect.
'. 3he loo% o a "uilding when seen close at hand is one thing, on a height it is another, not the
same in an enclosed place, still[1:2] dierent in the open, and in all these cases it ta%es much
$udgment to decide what is to "e done. 3he act is that the eye does not always give a true
impression, "ut very oten leads the mind to orm a alse $udgment. In painted scenery, or
e1ample, columns may appear to $ut out, mutules to pro$ect, and statues to "e standing in the
oreground, although the picture is o course perectly lat. )imilarly with ships, the oars when
under the water are straight, though to the eye they appear to "e "ro%en. 3o the point where they
touch the surace o the sea they loo% straight, as indeed they are, "ut when dipped under the
water they emit rom their "odies undulating images which come swimming up through the
naturally transparent medium to the surace o the water, and, "eing there thrown into
commotion, ma%e the oars loo% "ro%en.
3. 7ow whether this appearance is due to the impact o the images, or to the eusion o the rays
rom the eye, as the physicists hold, in either case it is o"vious that the vision may lead us to
alse impressions.
/. )ince, thereore, the reality may have a alse appearance, and since things are sometimes
represented "y the eyes as other than they are, I thin% it certain that diminutions or additions
should "e made to suit the nature or needs o the site, "ut in such ashion that the "uildings lose
nothing there"y. 3hese results, however, are also attaina"le "y lashes o genius, and not only "y
mere science.
2. 6ence, the irst thing to settle is the standard o symmetry, rom which we need not hesitate to
vary. 3hen, lay out the ground lines o the length and "readth o the wor% proposed, and when
once we have determined its si!e, let the construction ollow this with due regard to "eauty o
proportion, so that the "eholder may eel no dou"t o the eurythmy o its eect. I must now tell
how this may "e "rought a"out, and irst I will spea% o the proper construction o a cavaedium.
[1:9]
38
CHAPTER III
PROPORTIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL ROOMS
1. 3here are ive dierent styles o cavaedium, termed according to their construction as ollows4
3uscan, Corinthian, tetrastyle, displuviate, and testudinate.
In the 3uscan, the girders that cross the "readth o the atrium have cross"eams on them, and
valleys sloping in and running rom the angles o the walls to the angles ormed "y the "eams,
and the rainwater alls down along the raters to the roo?opening ;compluvium= in the middle.
In the Corinthian, the girders and roo?opening are constructed on these same principles, "ut the
girders run in rom the side walls, and are supported all round on columns.
In the tetrastyle, the girders are supported at the angles "y columns, an arrangement which
relieves and strengthens the girders5 or thus they have themselves no great span to support, and
they are not loaded down "y the cross"eams.

39
From Mau
the house o the surgeon, Pompeii
Illustrating 3he 3uscan +trium
1. *auces H, 1K. Zining rooms
', 3. )hops 13. \itchen, a, hearth
/. )torage 1/. &ear Rntrance
2. +trium 19. Portico
9.
Cham"ers
1>. )tairs to rooms over the rear o
the house
:.
3a"linum
'K. .arden
>. +lae
From Mau
house o Rpidius &uus at Pompeii illustrating
corinthian atrium
'. In the displuviate, there are "eams which slope outwards, supporting the roo and throwing the
rainwater o. 3his style is suita"le chiely in winter residences, or its roo?opening, "eing high
up, is not an o"struction to the light o the dining rooms. It is, however, very trou"lesome to %eep
in repair, "ecause the pipes, which are intended to hold the water that comes dripping down the
walls all round, cannot ta%e it quic%ly enough as it runs down rom the channels, "ut get too ull
and run over, thus spoiling the woodwor% and the walls o houses o this style.

40
From Mau
house o the silver wedding at pompeii
Illustrating 3he 3etrastyle +trium
a. auces p. andron
d. tetrastyle atrium r. peristyle
n. dining room w. summer dining room
o. ta"linum
3he testudinate is employed where the span is not great, and where large rooms are provided in
upper stories.
3. In width and length, atriums are designed according to three classes. 3he irst is laid out "y
dividing the length into ive parts and giving three parts to the width5 the second, "y dividing it
into three parts and assigning two parts to the width5 the third, "y using the width to descri"e a
square igure with equal sides, drawing a diagonal line in this square, and giving the atrium the
length o this diagonal line.
/. 3heir height up to the girders should "e one ourth less than their width, the rest "eing the
proportion assigned to the ceiling and the roo a"ove the girders.
3he alae, to the right and let, should have a width equal to one third o the length o the atrium,
when that is rom thirty to orty eet long. *rom orty to ity eet, divide the length "y[1:>] three
and one hal, and give the alae the result. When it is rom ity to si1ty eet in length, devote one
ourth o the length to the alae. *rom si1ty to eighty eet, divide the length "y our and one hal
41
and let the result "e the width o the alae. *rom eighty eet to one hundred eet, the length
divided into ive parts will produce the right width or the alae. 3heir lintel "eams should "e
placed high enough to ma%e the height o the alae equal to their width.
2. 3he ta"linum should "e given two thirds o the width o the atrium when the latter is twenty
eet wide. I it is rom thirty to orty eet, let hal the width o the atrium "e devoted to the
ta"linum. When it is rom orty to si1ty eet, divide the width into ive parts and let two o these
"e set apart or the ta"linum. In the case o smaller atriums, the symmetrical proportions cannot
"e the same as in larger.
From Mau
Plan o a typical roman house *or i, in the case o the smaller, we
employ the proportion that "elong to the larger, "oth ta"lina and alae must
"e unservicea"le, while i, in the case o the larger, we employ the
proportions o the smaller, the rooms mentioned will "e huge
monstrosities. 6ence, I have thought it "est to descri"e e1actly their
respective proportionate si!es, with a view "oth to convenience and to
"eauty.
9. 3he height o the ta"linum at the lintel should "e one eighth more than its width. Its ceiling
should e1ceed this height "y one third o the width. 3he auces in the case o smaller atriums
should "e two thirds, and in the case o larger one hal the width o the ta"linum. 8et the "usts o
ancestors with their ornaments "e set up at a height corresponding to the width o the alae. 3he
proportionate width and height o doors may "e settled, i they are Zoric, in the Zoric manner,
and i Ionic, in the Ionic manner, according to the rules o symmetry which have "een given
a"out portals in the ourth "oo%. In the roo?opening let[1:H] an aperture "e let with a "readth o
not less than one ourth nor more than one third the width o the atrium, and with a length
proportionate to that o the atrium.

42
Photo. Sommer
the peristyle o the house o the vettii at pompeii

From Durm
Plan o the house o the vettii, pompeii
Intercolumniations o peristyles should "e not
less than three nor more than our times the
thic%ness o the columns. I the columns o the
peristyle are to "e made in the Zoric style, ta%e
the modules which I have given in the ourth
"oo%, on the Zoric order, and arrange the
columns with reerence to these modules and to
the scheme o the triglyphs.
:. Peristyles, lying athwart, should "e one third longer than they are deep, and their columns as
high as the colonnades are wide.
>. Zining rooms ought to "e twice as long as they are wide. 3he height o all o"long rooms
should "e calculated "y adding together their measured length and width, ta%ing one hal o this
total, and using the result or the height. (ut in the case o e1edrae or square oeci, let the height
"e "rought up to one and one hal times the width. Picture galleries, li%e e1edrae, should "e
constructed o generous dimensions. Corinthian and tetrastyle oeci, as well as those termed
43
Rgyptian, should have the same symmetrical proportions in width and length as the dining rooms
descri"ed a"ove, "ut, since they have columns in them, their dimensions should "e ampler.
H. 3he ollowing will "e the distinction "etween Corinthian and Rgyptian oeci4 the Corinthian
have single tiers o columns, set either on a podium or on the ground, with architraves over them
and coronae either o woodwor% or o stucco, and carved vaulted ceilings a"ove the coronae. In
the Rgyptian there are architraves over the columns, and $oists laid thereon rom the architraves
to the surrounding walls, with a loor in the upper[1>K] story to allow o wal%ing round under the
open s%y. 3hen, a"ove the architrave and perpendicularly over the lower tier o columns,
columns one ourth smaller should "e imposed. +"ove their architraves and ornaments are
decorated ceilings, and the upper columns have windows set in "etween them. 3hus the Rgyptian
are not li%e Corinthian dining rooms, "ut o"viously resem"le "asilicas.
1K. 3here are also, though not customary in Italy, the oeci which the .ree%s call Cy!icene. 3hese
are "uilt with a northern e1posure and generally command a view o gardens, and have olding
doors in the middle. 3hey are also so long and so wide that two sets o dining couches, acing
each other, with room to pass round them, can "e placed therein. 0n the right and let they have
windows which open li%e olding doors, so that views o the garden may "e had rom the dining
couches through the opened windows. 3he height o such rooms is one and one hal times their
width.
11. +ll the a"ove?mentioned symmetrical relations should "e o"served, in these %inds o
"uildings, that can "e o"served without em"arrassment caused "y the situation. 3he windows
will "e an easy matter to arrange i they are not dar%ened "y high walls5 "ut in cases o conined
space, or when there are other unavoida"le o"structions, it will "e permissi"le to ma%e
diminutions or additions in the symmetrical relations,#with ingenuity and acuteness, however,
so that the result may "e not unli%e the "eauty which is due to true symmetry.
CHAPTER IV
THE PROPER EXPOSURES OF THE DIFFERENT ROOMS
1. We shall ne1t e1plain how the special purposes o dierent rooms require dierent e1posures,
suited to convenience and to the quarters o the s%y. Winter dining rooms and "athrooms should
have a southwestern e1posure, or the reason that they[1>1] need the evening light, and also
"ecause the setting sun, acing them in all its splendour "ut with a"ated heat, lends a gentler
warmth to that quarter in the evening. (edrooms and li"raries ought to have an eastern e1posure,
"ecause their purposes require the morning light, and also "ecause "oo%s in such li"raries will
not decay. In li"raries with southern e1posures the "oo%s are ruined "y worms and dampness,
"ecause damp winds come up, which "reed and nourish the worms, and destroy the "oo%s with
mould, "y spreading their damp "reath over them.
'. Zining rooms or )pring and +utumn to the east5 or when the windows ace that quarter, the
sun, as he goes on his career rom over against them to the west, leaves such rooms at the proper
temperature at the time when it is customary to use them. )ummer dining rooms to the north,
44
"ecause that quarter is not, li%e the others, "urning with heat during the solstice, or the reason
that it is une1posed to the sun,s course, and hence it always %eeps cool, and ma%es the use o the
rooms "oth healthy and agreea"le. )imilarly with picture galleries, em"roiderers, wor% rooms,
and painters, studios, in order that the i1ed light may permit the colours used in their wor% to
last with qualities unchanged.
CHAPTER V
HOW THE ROOMS SHOULD BE SUITED TO THE STATION OF THE
OWNER
1. +ter settling the positions o the rooms with regard to the quarters o the s%y, we must ne1t
consider the principles on which should "e constructed those apartments in private houses which
are meant or the householders themselves, and those which are to "e shared in common with
outsiders. 3he private rooms are those into which no"ody has the right to enter without an
invitation, such as "edrooms, dining rooms, "athrooms, and all others used or the li%e purposes.
3he common are those which any o the people have a perect right to enter, even without an
invitation4[1>'] that is, entrance courts, cavaedia, peristyles, and all intended or the li%e
purpose. 6ence, men o everyday ortune do not need entrance courts, ta"lina, or atriums "uilt in
grand style, "ecause such men are more apt to discharge their social o"ligations "y going round
to others than to have others come to them.
'. 3hose who do "usiness in country produce must have stalls and shops in their entrance courts,
with crypts, granaries, store?rooms, and so orth in their houses, constructed more or the purpose
o %eeping the produce in good condition than or ornamental "eauty.
*or capitalists and armers o the revenue, somewhat comorta"le and showy apartments must "e
constructed, secure against ro""ery5 or advocates and pu"lic spea%ers, handsomer and more
roomy, to accommodate meetings5 or men o ran% who, rom holding oices and magistracies,
have social o"ligations to their ellow?citi!ens, loty entrance courts in regal style, and most
spacious atriums and peristyles, with plantations and wal%s o some e1tent in them, appropriate
to their dignity. 3hey need also li"raries, picture galleries, and "asilicas, inished in a style
similar to that o great pu"lic "uildings, since pu"lic councils as well as private law suits and
hearings "eore ar"itrators are very oten held in the houses o such men.
3. I, thereore, houses are planned on these principles to suit dierent classes o persons, as
prescri"ed in my irst "oo%, under the su"$ect o Propriety, there will "e no room or criticism5
or they will "e arranged with convenience and perection to suit every purpose. 3he rules on
these points will hold not only or houses in town, "ut also or those in the country, e1cept that in
town atriums are usually ne1t to the ront door, while in country seats peristyles come irst, and
then atriums surrounded "y paved colonnades opening upon palaestrae and wal%s.
45
I have now set orth the rules or houses in town so ar as I could descri"e them in a summary
way. 7e1t I shall state how armhouses may "e arranged with a view to convenience in use, and
shall give the rules or their construction.[1>3]
CHAPTER VI
THE FARMHOUSE
1. In the irst place, inspect the country rom the point o view o health, in accordance with
what is written in my irst "oo%, on the "uilding o cities, and let your armhouses "e
situated accordingly.
3he villa rustica at "oscoreale near Pompeii
A. Court. B. \itchen. C-F. (aths. H. )ta"le.
J. 3oolroom. ! "! #! #. (edrooms.
$. Zining &oom. M. +nteroom. %. (a%ery.
P. &oom with two winepresses. &. Corridor.
B. Court or ermentation o wine. S. (arn.
'. 3hreshing?loor. (. &oom with oil press.
3heir dimensions should depend upon the si!e o the
arm and the amount o produce. 3heir courtyards and
the dimensions thereo should "e determined "y the
num"er o cattle and the num"er o yo%es o o1en that
will need to "e %ept therein. 8et the %itchen "e placed
on the warmest side o the courtyard, with the stalls or
the o1en ad$oining, and their cri"s acing the %itchen
ire and the eastern quarter o the s%y, or the reason
that o1en acing the light and the ire do not get rough?
coated. Rven peasants wholly without %nowledge o the
quarters o the s%y "elieve that o1en ought to ace only
in the direction o the sunrise.
'. 3heir stalls ought to "e not less than ten nor more than iteen eet wide, and long enough to
allow not less than seven eet or each yo%e. (athrooms, also, should ad$oin the %itchen5 or in
this situation it will not ta%e long to get ready a "ath in the country.
8et the pressing room, also,[1>/] "e ne1t to the %itchen5 or in this situation it will "e easy to
deal with the ruit o the olive. +d$oining it should "e the wine room with its windows lighted
rom the north. In a room with windows on any other quarter so that the sun can heat it, the heat
will get into the wine and ma%e it wea%.
46
3. 3he oil room must "e situated so as to get its light rom the south and rom warm quarters5 or
oil ought not to "e chilled, "ut should "e %ept thin "y gentle heat. In dimensions, oil rooms
should "e "uilt to accommodate the crop and the proper num"er o $ars, each o which, holding
a"out one hundred and twenty gallons, must ta%e up a space our eet in diameter. 3he pressing
room itsel, i the pressure is e1erted "y means o levers and a "eam, and not wor%ed "y turning
screws, should "e not less than orty eet long, which will give the lever man a convenient
amount o space. It should "e not less than si1teen eet wide, which will give the men who are at
wor% plenty o ree space to do the turning conveniently. I two presses are required in the place,
allow twenty?our eet or the width.
/. *olds or sheep and goats must "e made large enough to allow each animal a space o not less
than our and a hal, nor more than si1 eet. &ooms or grain should "e set in an elevated position
and with a northern or north?eastern e1posure. 3hus the grain will not "e a"le to heat quic%ly,
"ut, "eing cooled "y the wind, %eeps a long time. 0ther e1posures produce the corn weevil and
the other little creatures that are wont to spoil the grain. 3o the sta"le should "e assigned the very
warmest place in the armhouse, provided that it is not e1posed to the %itchen ire5 or when
draught animals are sta"led very near a ire, their coats get rough.
2. *urthermore, there are advantages in "uilding cri"s apart rom the %itchen and in the open,
acing the east5 or when the o1en are ta%en over to them on early winter mornings in clear
weather, their coats get slee%er as they ta%e their odder in the sunlight. (arns or grain, hay, and
spelt, as well as "a%eries, should "e "uilt apart rom the armhouse, so that armhouses[1>2] may
"e "etter protected against danger rom ire. I something more reined is required in armhouses,
they may "e constructed on the principles o symmetry which have "een given a"ove in the case
o town houses, provided that there is nothing in such "uildings to interere with their useulness
on a arm.
9. We must ta%e care that all "uildings are well lighted, "ut this is o"viously an easier matter
with those which are on country estates, "ecause there can "e no neigh"our,s wall to interere,
whereas in town high party walls or limited space o"struct the light and ma%e them dar%. 6ence
we must apply the ollowing test in this matter. 0n the side rom which the light should "e
o"tained let a line "e stretched rom the top o the wall that seems to o"struct the light to the
point at which it ought to "e introduced, and i a considera"le space o open s%y can "e seen
when one loo%s up a"ove that line, there will "e no o"struction to the light in that situation.
:. (ut i there are tim"ers in the way, or lintels, or upper stories, then, ma%e the opening higher
up and introduce the light in this way. +nd as a general rule, we must arrange so as to leave
places or windows on all sides on which a clear view o the s%y can "e had, or this will ma%e
our "uildings light. 7ot only in dining rooms and other rooms or general use are windows very
necessary, "ut also in passages, level or inclined, and on stairs5 or people carrying "urdens too
oten meet and run against each other in such places.
I have now set orth the plans used or "uildings in our native country so that they may "e clear
to "uilders. 7e1t, I shall descri"e summarily how houses are planned in the .ree% ashion, so
that these also may "e understood.
47
CHAPTER VII
THE GREEK HOUSE
1. 3he .ree%s, having no use or atriums, do not "uild them, "ut ma%e passage?ways or people
entering rom the ront door,[1>9] not very wide, with sta"les on one side and door%eepers,
rooms on the other, and shut o "y doors at the inner end.
plan o vitruvius, gree% house according to "ec%er 3his place "etween the two doors is termed in
.ree% UAX`XJCDV. *rom it one enters the peristyle. 3his
peristyle has colonnades on three sides, and on the side acing
the south it has two antae, a considera"le distance apart,
carrying an architrave, with a recess or a distance one third
less than the space "etween the antae. 3his space is called "y
some writers ^prostas,^ "y others ^pastas.^
'. 6erea"outs, towards the inner side, are the large rooms in
which mistresses o houses sit with their wool?spinners. 3o the
right and let o the prostas there are cham"ers, one o which is
called the ^thalamos,^ the other the ^amphithalamos.^ +ll
round the colonnades are dining rooms or everyday use,
cham"ers, and rooms or the slaves. 3his part o the house is
termed ^gynaeconitis.^
3. In conne1ion with these there are ampler sets o apartments
with more sumptuous peristyles, surrounded "y our
colonnades o equal height, or else the one which aces the
south has higher columns than the others. + peristyle that has
one such higher colonnade is called a &hodian peristyle. )uch
apartments have ine entrance courts with imposing ront doors
o their own5 the colonnades o the peristyles are decorated
with polished stucco in relie and plain, and with coered
ceilings o woodwor%5 o the colonnades that ace the north they have Cy!icene dining rooms
and picture galleries5 to the east, li"raries5 e1edrae to the[1>:] west5 and to the south, large
square rooms o such generous dimensions that our sets o dining couches can easily "e
arranged in them, with plenty o room or serving and or the amusements.
/. -en,s dinner parties are held in these large rooms5 or it was not the practice, according to
.ree% custom, or the mistress o the house to "e present. 0n the contrary, such peristyles are
called the men,s apartments, since in them the men can stay without interruption rom the
women. *urthermore, small sets o apartments are "uilt to the right and let, with ront doors o
their own and suita"le dining rooms and cham"ers, so that guests rom a"road need not "e shown
into the peristyles, "ut rather into such guests, apartments.
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*or when the .ree%s "ecame more lu1urious, and their
circumstances more opulent, they "egan to provide dining
rooms, cham"ers, and store?rooms o provisions or their
guests rom a"road, and on the irst day they would invite
them to dinner, sending them on the ne1t chic%ens, eggs,
vegeta"les, ruits, and other country produce. 3his is why
artists called pictures representing the things which were sent
to guests ^1enia.^ 3hus, too, the heads o amilies, while
"eing entertained a"road, had the eeling that they were not
away rom home, since they en$oyed privacy and reedom in
such guests, apartments.
From Bull. de. Corr. Hell. )*+,
.ree% house at Zelos
2. (etween the two peristyles and the guests, apartments are the passage?ways called ^mesauloe,^
"ecause they are situated midway "etween two courts5 "ut our people called them ^andrones.^
3his, however, is a very strange act, or the term does not it either the .ree% or the 8atin use o
it. 3he .ree%s call the large[1>>] rooms in which men,s dinner parties are usually held
VTX`VJ , "ecause women do not go there. 3here are other similar instances as in the case o
^1ystus,^ ^prothyrum,^ ^telamones,^ and some others o the sort. +s a .ree% term, SVBN P means
a colonnade o large dimensions in which athletes e1ercise in the winter time. (ut our people
apply the term ^1ysta^ to uncovered wal%s, which the .ree%s call QGXGTXDM TJP. +gain,
QX UAXG means in .ree% the entrance courts "eore the ront doors5 we, however, use the term
^prothyra^ in the sense o the .ree% TC UAXG.
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From M-tt. d. Deuts.h. Ar.h. /nst.
gree% house discovered at pergamum in 1HK3
13. Prothyron. :. 3a"linum.
9. +gain, igures in the orm o men supporting mutules or coronae, we term ^telamones^#the
reasons why or whereore they are so called are not ound in any story#"ut the .ree%s name
them NEGVJP. *or +tlas is descri"ed in story as holding up the irmament "ecause, through his
vigorous intelligence and ingenuity, he was the irst to cause men to "e taught a"out the courses
o the sun and moon, and the laws governing the revolutions o all the constellations.
Consequently, in recognition o[1>H] this "eneaction, painters and sculptors represent him as
holding up the irmament, and the +tlantides, his daughters, whom we call ^<ergiliae^ and the
.ree%s eEJC TJP, are consecrated in the irmament among the constellations.
:. +ll this, however, I have not set orth or the purpose o changing the usual terminology or
language, "ut I have thought that it should "e e1plained so that it may "e %nown to scholars.
I have now e1plained the usual ways o planning houses "oth in the Italian ashion and according
to the practices o the .ree%s, and have descri"ed, with regard to their symmetry, the proportions
o the dierent classes. 6aving, thereore, already written o their "eauty and propriety, I shall
ne1t e1plain, with reerence to dura"ility, how they may "e "uilt to last to a great age without
deects.
50