LTTT B1112

Trang 190
L thuyt Thng tin - Khoa Cng Ngh Thng Tin

Bi 11 C s ton hc ca m chng nhiu
11.1 Mt s khi nim c bn
11.2 Trng GF(2) v cc a thc trn trng GF(2)
11.3 Trng GF(2
m
)
Trang 191
Mt s khi nim c bn
Php ton ng
Cho G l mt tp hp, mt php ton hai ngi f c gi l
ng trn G nu f c dng
f : G G G
tc l nu a, b G th f(a, b) G.
Ch
f(a, b) c mt cch vit tng ng l afb v ngc li f(b, a)
cn c vit l bfa. Chng hn nu f l php cng th thay v
vit +(a, b) chng ta thng vit l a + b.
K t y tr v sau khi ni n mt php ton nu chng ta
khng ni g thm th c ngha l php ton ny c tnh ng.
Trang 192
Mt s khi nim c bn (tt)
Tnh kt hp
Mt php ton hai ngi f trn G c gi l c tnh kt hp nu
a, b, c G th
(afb)fc = af(bfc)
Tnh giao hon
Mt php ton hai ngi f trn G c gi l c tnh giao hon
nu a, b G th
afb = bfa
V d
Trn tp s thc khc 0, php cng v php nhn c tnh kt
hp v giao hon nhng php tr v php chia khng c tnh
kt hp v giao hon.
Trang 193
Nhm
Tnh phn phi
Php ton f
1
c gi l c tnh phn phi i vi php ton f
2
nu a, b, c G th
af
1
(bf
2
c) = (af
1
b)f
2
(af
1
c)
Chng hn trn tp s thc, php nhn c tnh phn phi i vi
php cng v a, b, c R
a(b+c) = (ab)+(ac)
Nhm
Mt tp G , vi mt php ton hai ngi f c gi l mt
nhm nu tho 3 iu kin sau:
(1) f c tnh kt hp.
Trang 194
Nhm (tt)
(2) G cha phn t e, sao cho a G th afe = efa = a. e c
gi l phn t trung ho (i vi mt s php ton e cn
c gi l phn t n v)
(3) Mi phn t u c phn t i xng, tc l a G, tn
ti phn t b G sao cho
afb = bfa = e
Chng hn, trn tp R nu f l php cng th phn t trung ho
l s 0, cn trn tp s thc khc 0 nu f l php nhn th phn
t trung ho l 1 v cn c gi l phn t n v.
Nhm giao hon
Mt nhm m php ton f c tnh giao hon th c gi l
nhm giao hon.
Trang 195
Nhm (tt)
Nhm hu hn, nhm v hn
Mt nhm c s phn t hu hn c gi l nhm hu hn,
mt nhm c s phn t v hn c gi l nhm v hn.
Nhm con
Cho G l mt nhm. Mt tp H con ca G c gi l mt
nhm con nu H ng vi php ton hai ngi ca G v tho
iu kin ca mt nhm.
Tp cc s chn 0 l mt nhm con ca tp s t nhin vi
php cng thng thng.
Trang 196
Php cng v nhn modulo
Php cng modulo v php nhn modulo
Cho mt s nguyn dng m xc nh. Xy dng mt tp s
nguyn sau G = {0, 1, , m 1}. Vi + l php cng thng
thng. nh ngha php ton mi nh sau v gi l php
cng modulo
a, b G th a b = (a + b) mod m
Tng t vi l php nhn thng thng. nh ngha php
ton mi nh sau v gi l php nhn modulo
a, b G th a b = (a b) mod m
Trang 197
V d
Tp R l mt nhm giao hon i vi php cng v l mt
nhm v hn.
Tp R {0} l mt nhm giao hon i vi php nhn v l
mt nhm v hn.
Vi m l mt s nguyn dng xc nh, tp G = {0, 1, , m
1} vi php cng modulo l mt nhm giao hon v l mt
nhm hu hn.
Hai bng sau y trnh by ln lt trng hp m = 5 v m = 6.
Trang 198
V d (tt)
Tng t tp G = {1, , m 1} vi php nhn modulo v m
nguyn t l mt nhm giao hon hu hn.
4 3 2 1 0 5 5
3 2 1 0 5 4 4 3 2 1 0 4 4
2 1 0 5 4 3 3 2 1 0 4 3 3
1 0 5 4 3 2 2 1 0 4 3 2 2
0 5 4 3 2 1 1 0 4 3 2 1 1
5 4 3 2 1 0 0 4 3 2 1 0 0
5 4 3 2 1 0 4 3 2 1 0
m = 6 m = 5
Trang 199
B
B 11.1
Nu m l mt s nguyn t th G = {0, 1, , m 1} l mt
nhm giao hon vi php nhn modulo . Ngc li nu m
khng nguyn t th G khng l mt nhm.
1 2 3 4 5 5
2 4 0 2 4 4 1 2 3 4 4
3 0 3 0 3 3 2 4 1 3 3
4 2 0 4 2 2 3 1 4 2 2
5 4 3 2 1 1 4 3 2 1 1
5 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
m = 6 m = 5
Trang 200
Trng
Trng
Mt tp G vi hai php ton ng hai ngi bt k, chng hn k
hiu l + v *, c gi l mt trng nu tho 3 iu kin sau
(1) G l nhm giao hon i vi php +. Phn t trung ho
trong php + thng c k hiu l 0.
(2) Tp cc phn t khc 0 l mt nhm i vi php *. Phn t
trung ho trong php * thng c gi l phn t n v
v k hiu l 1.
(3) Php * c tnh phn phi i vi php +.
Ch
Php + v php * trn khng nht thit l php cng v php
nhn thng thng m chng c th l bt k php no. Chng
ta k hiu nh vy d trnh by.
Trang 201
Trng (tt)
Cc phn t ca mt trng khng nht thit l cc s nguyn
hay thc m c th l bt k ci g, chng hn c th l cc s
phc, vect, ma trn hay a thc ...
T nh ngha ca trng chng ta suy ra mt trng bao gm
ti thiu hai phn t: phn t trung ho ca php + (k hiu l 0)
v phn t trung ho ca php * (k hiu l 1). Cc phn t 0 v
1 khng nht thit l s 0 v s 1 theo ngha thng thng m
c th l bt k ci g chng hn l ma trn 0 v ma trn n v,
...
Trng giao hon
Mt trng m php * c tnh giao hon th c gi l trng
giao hon.
Trang 202
Trng (tt)
Chng hn trong v d slide 198 vi m = 5 chng ta thy G l
mt trng giao hon.
Tng qut chng ta c b sau v dnh vic chng minh
cho cc bn sinh vin.
B 11.2
Cho p l mt s nguyn t bt k, G = {0, 1, ..., p 1} th G l
mt trng giao hon i vi php cng modulo v php
nhn modulo .
Sau y l mt s tnh cht ca trng
Tnh cht 1
Mi phn t a ca trng u tho a * 0 = 0.
Trang 203
Trng Galois
Tnh cht 2
Nu a, b l hai phn t khc 0 ca trng th a * b 0.
Tnh cht 3
Nu a 0 v a * b = a * c th b = c. Hay ni cch khc nu a
0 v b c th a * b a * c.
Bc ca mt trng, trng hu hn, trng v hn.
S phn t ca mt trng c gi l bc ca mt trng. Mt
trng c s phn t hu hn c gi l trng hu hn, mt
trng c s phn t v hn c gi l trng v hn.
Trng GF(q)
Mt trng c s phn t hu hn c gi l trng Galois.
Nu bc ca trng Galois l q th trng c k hiu l
GF(q).
Trang 204
Trng Galois
i vi cc trng hu hn tc l trng Galois chng ta c
nh l sau.
nh l 11.1
Mt trng hu hn th s phn t ca n phi c dng p
m
trong
p l mt s nguyn t cn m l mt s nguyn dng. Hay
ni cch khc cc trng Galois u c dng GF(p
m
) trong p
l mt s nguyn t cn m l mt s nguyn dng.
i vi cc trng GF(p) vi p nguyn t th chnh l tp
{0, 1, 2, ..., p 1} vi hai php ton cng modulo v nhn
modulo nh bit.
i vi cc trng GF(p
m
), v tnh phc tp ca chng, chng
ta s gii thiu sau. Ch lc ny cc phn t ca trng
GF(p
m
) khng n thun l cc s m s c dng kh c bit.
Trang 205
Trng Galois (tt)
K hiu cc phn t i xng
Phn t i xng ca a trong php + c k hiu l a, phn t
i xng ca a trong php * c k hiu l a
1
.
Php v php /
i vi mt trng giao hon, t hai php + v php * chng ta
nh ngha thm hai php v php / nh sau (khng nht thit
l php tr v php chia bnh thng)
a b = a + (b)
a / b = a * b
1
trong b l phn t i xng ca b qua php +, cn b
1
l
phn t i xng ca b qua php *.
Vy mt trng giao hon G c bn php ton +, , *, /. Php +
v ng trn G, php * v / ng trn G {0}.
Trang 206
Tr ring ca mt trng
Xt mt trng GF(q). Xt cc dy tng ca cc phn t n v
V trng ng vi php cng nn kt qu ca nhng tng ny
cng l cc phn t ca trng. V k c th nhn v hn gi tr
m trng ch c q phn t nn tn ti hai gi tr k
1
v k
2
khc
nhau (gi s k
1
> k
2
) sao cho
T y suy ra
1 1 1 1
1
+ + + =
=
L
k
i
(k ln, vi k = 1, 2, 3, )

= =
=
2
1
1
1
1 1
k
i
k
i
0 1
2 1
1
=
=
k k
i
Trang 207
Tr ring ca mt trng
Tr ring ca mt trng k hiu l s nguyn dng nh nht
sao cho
D thy i vi cc trng GF(p) = {0, 1, 2, ..., p 1} vi p l
mt s nguyn t th tr ring = p. Tng qut chng ta c nh
l sau.
nh l 11.2
Tr ring ca mt trng GF(q) l mt s nguyn t.
Chng minh
Gi s khng nguyn t = k l (k, l nguyn > 1). T qui
tc phn phi ca php nhn i vi php cng suy ra
0 1
1
=
= i
Trang 208
Tr ring ca mt trng (tt)
Suy ra
M k, l < , iu ny mu thun vi nh ngha ca .
Chu k ca mt phn t
Xt mt phn t a bt k khc 0 ca trng GF(q). Xt cc lu
tha a
k
ca a vi k = 1, 2, 3, V trng ng vi php nhn
nn cc a
k
cng l cc phn t ca trng. V k c th nhn v
hn gi tr m trng ch c q phn t nn tn ti hai gi tr k
1
v k
2
khc nhau (gi s k
1
> k
2
) sao cho
0 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
= = =

=
= = = i
l k
i
l
i
k
i
0 1
1
=
=
k
i
0 1
1
=
=
l
i
2 1
k k
a a = 1
2 1
=
k k
a
Trang 209
Chu k ca mt phn t
Chu k ca mt phn t a ca mt trng GF(q) l s nguyn
dng nh nht n sao cho a
n
= 1.
V d
Xt trng GF(7) = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} vi hai php v .
Tr ring ca trng ny l 7. Cn chu k ca cc phn t khc
0 ca trng c trnh by trong bng sau
T nh ngha trn chng ta thy dy cc lu tha ca a
a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
k
, ..., a
n
= 1, a
n+1
= a, ...
s lp li sau n phn t.
2 6 3 6 3 1 Chu k
6 5 4 3 2 1 Phn t
Trang 210
Nhm tun hon
B 11.3
Dy a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
k
, ..., a
n
= 1 to nn mt nhm con ng vi
php nhn trn trng GF(q).
Nhm tun hon
Mt nhm (khng cha phn t 0) vi php nhn * c gi l
tun hon nu tn ti mt phn t trong nhm m cc lu tha
ca n to nn mi phn t trong nhm.
T nh ngha ny suy ra mt nhm hu hn c gi l tun
hon nu tn ti mt phn t trong nhm c chu k ng bng
s phn t ca nhm.
nh l 11.3
Nu a l mt phn t khc 0 ca mt trng GF(q) th
a
q1
= 1
Trang 211
Nhm tun hon (tt)
Chng minh
Gi b
1
, b
2
, ..., b
q-1
l q 1 phn t khc nhau v khc 0 ca
trng. Theo tnh cht 3 v tnh cht 2 ca trng chng ta c
a*b
1
, a*b
2
, ..., a*b
q-1
cng l q 1 phn t khc nhau v khc 0
ca trng. V vy chng ta c
a*b
1
*a*b
2
* ... *a*b
q-1
= b
1
*b
2
* ... *b
q-1
T y suy ra a
q1
= 1. Hon tt chng minh.
nh l 11.4
Chu k ca mt phn t bt k khc 0 ca mt trng GF(q) l
c s ca q 1.
Trang 212
Phn t c s
Chng minh
Gi n l chu k ca phn t a khc 0 ca trng GF(q). Gi s
q 1 khng chia ht cho n. Do q 1 = kn + r, trong r l
s d ca php chia q 1 cho n, 0 < r < n. Chng ta c
a
q-1
= a
kn+r
= (a
n
)
k
*
a
r
Do a
q-1
= 1 v a
n
= 1 suy ra a
r
= 1. M 0 < r < n iu ny mu
thun vi nh ngha chu k ca a. Vy q 1 chia ht cho n.
Phn t c s
Mt phn t a khc 0 ca mt trng GF(q) c gi l phn
t c s nu chu k ca a bng q 1.
T nh ngha ny nu a l mt phn t c s th cc lu
tha ca a gm a
0
= 1, a
1
= a, a
2
, , a
q 2
hnh thnh nn q 1
phn t khc 0 ca trng.
Trang 213
V d
Xt trng GF(7) nh trong v d slide 209. Chu k ca cc
phn t khc 0 ca trng u l c s ca 6. c bit cc
phn t 3 v 5 c chu k bng 6 nn chng l cc phn t c s
ca trng GF(7).
Trong cc trng Galois th trng GF(2) v trng GF(2
m
) l
nhng trng c nhiu ng dng c bit trong l thuyt m,
nn chng ta s ch trnh by hai trng ny.
5
6
= 1 5
5
= 3 5
4
= 2 5
3
= 6 5
2
= 4 5
1
= 5
3
6
= 1 3
5
= 5 3
4
= 4 3
3
= 6 3
2
= 2 3
1
= 3
Trang 214
Trng GF(2)
Trng GF(2)
Trng GF(2) bao gm hai phn t {0, 1} vi hai php cng +
v nhn * nh sau
Phn t i xng ca 0 v 1 qua php cng cng chnh l 0 v
1. Phn t i xng ca 1 qua php nhn cng chnh l 1.
Trong trng GF(2) th php tr ging vi php cng, php
chia cho mt s khc 0 cng ging vi php nhn.
1 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 1 0 0
1 0 * 1 0 +
Trang 215
Cc a thc trn trng GF(2)
a thc trn trng GF(2)
Mt a thc trn trng GF(2), chng hn k hiu l f(x), l a
thc c dng
f(x) = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ + a
n
x
n
trong cc h s a
i
GF(2).
Bc ca a thc
L bc ln nht ca a thc.
V d
a thc f(x) = 1 + x + x
3
c bc 3 a thc g(x) = x + x
2
+ x
5
c
bc 5.
Trang 216
Cc a thc trn trng GF(2) (tt)
Php cng a thc v nhn a thc
Vi f(x) = a
0
+ a
1
x + a
2
x
2
+ + a
n
x
n
, g(x) = b
0
+ b
1
x + b
2
x
2
+
+ b
n
x
n
vi cc h s a
i
v b
j
thuc trng GF(2) chng ta
nh ngha cc php cng a thc v nhn a thc nh sau
f(x) + g(x) =
f(x) * g(x) =
trong a
i
+ b
i
v a
i
* b
j
c thc hin trn trng GF(2).
=
+
n
i
i
i
b
i
a
0
) ( x
=
+
n
j i
j i
j
b
i
a
0 ,
) * ( x
Trang 217
V d
Cho f(x) = 1 + x + x
3
, g(x) = x + x
2
th
f(x) + g(x) = (1 + x + x
3
) + (x + x
2
) = 1 + x
2
+ x
3
f(x) * g(x) = (1 + x + x
3
) * (x + x
2
) = x + x
3
+ x
4
+ x
5
Nu g(x) c bc khc 0 th chng ta c th chia f(x) cho g(x) v
c th vit nh sau
f(x) = q(x) * g(x) + r(x)
trong q(x) l a thc thng cn r(x) l a thc d c bc
nh hn a thc chia g(x).
V d
f(x) = 1 + x + x
4
+ x
5
+ x
6
chia cho g(x) = 1 + x + x
3
Trang 218
1 + x + x
4
+ x
5
+ x
6
= (x
2
+ x
3
) * (1 + x + x
3
) + (1 + x + x
2
)
phn tch mt a thc ra thnh cc tha s trong i s
Euclid chng ta c
Nu f(a) = 0 th f(x) chia ht cho (x - a).
iu ny cng ng trn trng GF(2).
V d
f(x) = 1 + x + x
3
+ x
5
c f(1) = 0, nn f(x) chia ht cho (x - 1)
m trong trng GF(2), php tr cng chnh l php cng tc l
f(x) chia ht cho (x + 1).
1 + x + x
3
+ x
5
= (1 + x)(1 + x
3
+ x
4
)
Trang 219
a thc ti gin
Mt a thc trn GF(2) c gi l ti gin nu n khng phn
tch c thnh tch ca hai a thc c bc nh hn.
1 + x
2
+ x
4
+ x
5
+ x
6
1 + x + x
4
+ x
5
+ x
6
1 + x + x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
1 + x
2
+ x
3
+ x
5
+ x
6
1 + x
3
+ x
4
1 + x + x
2
+ x
5
+ x
6
1 + x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
+ x
5
1 + x + x
4
1 + x
5
+ x
6
1 + x + x
3
+ x
4
+ x
5
1 + x
2
+ x
3
1 + x + x
3
+ x
4
+ x
6
1 + x + x
2
+ x
4
+ x
5
1 + x + x
3
1 + x + x
2
+ x
4
+ x
6
1 + x + x
2
+ x
3
+ x
5
1 + x + x
2
1 + x
3
+ x
6
1 + x
3
+ x
5
1 + x
1 + x + x
6
1 + x
2
+ x
5
x
6 5 1, 2, 3, 4
Trang 220
B
Cho f(x) l mt a thc trn trng GF(2), th
Chng minh
t f(x) = a
0
+ a
1
x + + a
n
x
n
.
[f(x)]
2
= (a
0
+ a
1
x + + a
n
x
n
)
2
= a
0
2
+ a
0
*(a
1
x + + a
n
x
n
) + a
0
*(a
1
x + + a
n
x
n
) +
(a
1
x + + a
n
x
n
)
2
= a
0
2
+ (a
1
x + + a
n
x
n
)
2
= a
0
2
+ (a
1
x)
2
+ + (a
n
x
n
)
2
= f(x
2
) (v trong GF(2) a
i
2
= a
i
)
iu ny cng gip chng ta suy ra iu phi chng minh.
) x ( ) x (
2 2
n n
f f =
Trang 221
Trng GF(2
m
)
Trc ht chng ta k hiu trng GF(2
m
) nh sau
GF(2
m
) = {0, 1, a
1
, a
2
, ..., }
trong 0 v 1 GF(2). Trng GF(2) l mt trng con ca
GF(2
m
) v c gi l trng c s ca GF(2
m
).
Ch
Nu a l mt phn t GF(2
m
), f(x) l mt a thc trn trng
GF(2), th f(a) cng l mt phn t ca GF(2
m
).
C v hn a thc f(x) trn trng GF(2) m ch c hu hn
(2
m
) phn t GF(2m), nn a 0 ca GF(2
m
) tn ti hai a
thc f
1
(x) v f
2
(x) khc nhau sao cho f
1
(a) = f
2
(a). T y nu
t f(x) = f
1
(x) f
2
(x) (ch trong trng GF(2) th php
ging vi php cng +) th f(a) = 0.
2 2
m
a
Trang 222
a thc ti thiu
a thc ti thiu (minimal polinomial)
Cho a l mt phn t khc 0 ca trng GF(2
m
). a thc ti
thiu ca a l a thc f(x) khc 0 trn trng GF(2) v c bc
nh nht sao cho f(a) = 0.
Mt ln na ta phi ch rng khi chng ta vit f() = 0 hoc
f() = 1 th cc k hiu 0 v 1 khng nht thit l cc s 0 v 1,
m s c hiu tu theo ng cnh.
Chng hn nu phn t l mt ma trn th 0 chnh l ma trn
0 cn 1 chnh l ma trn n v.
Trang 223
a thc ti thiu (tt)
V d
Chng hn nu a l ma trn 4 4 bn
trong cc php cng v nhn trn ma trn vn thc hin nh
bnh thng vi ch rng cc php cng v nhn cc phn t
ca ma trn c thc hin trn trng GF(2).
Chng ta c th kim tra rng
1 + T + T
4
= 0
vi ch rng 1 l ma trn n v, cn 0 l ma trn 0.
V f(x) = 1 + x + x
4
l a thc ti thiu ca a
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
4 4
T
Trang 224
nh l
Hn na chng ta cng c
T
15
= 1
v chng ta c th kim tra rng 15 chnh l chu k ca a.
nh l 11.5
m
) c bc ca a
thc ti thiu ca a l k. Gi Z l tp tt c cc phn t c dng
b
0
+ b
1
a + + b
k-1
a
k-1
trong b
i
GF(2). Th Z l mt tp con ca GF(2
m
) v hnh
thnh nn mt trng c 2
k
phn t.
Trang 225
Chng minh
u tin chng ta chng minh cc phn t c hnh thnh t
b
0
+ b
1
a + + b
k-1
a
k-1
l khc nhau bng cch chng minh cc
phn t 1, a, a
2
, , a
k-1
l c lp tuyn tnh.
Tht vy nu
th
Vy chng ta c a thc p(x) c bc nh hn k tho p(a) = 0.
M bc ca a thc ti thiu ca a bng k. Vy p(x) = 0, suy ra
b
i
= c
i
i = 0, 1, ..., k 1.

=
=
=
1
0
1
0
k
i
i
i
k
i
i
i
a c a b
0 ) ( ) (
1
0
= =

=
k
i
i
i i
a c b a p
Trang 226
Chng minh (tt)
Th hai, r rng Z l mt nhm giao hon i vi php +.
Tht vy nu
chng minh tp Z
0
= Z {0} l mt nhm i vi php nhn
* chng ta chng minh nu
Gi l a thc ti thiu ca a, trong h s
cao nht d
k
= 1.
,
1
0
Z a b
k
i
i
i

=
Z a c
k
i
i
i
1
0
Z a b c a c b
k
i
i
i i
k
i
i
i i
+ = +

=
=
1
0
1
0
) ( ) (
,
0
1
0
Z a b
k
i
i
i

=
0
1
0
Z a c
k
i
i
i
0
1
0
1
0
* Z a c a b
k
i
i
i
k
i
i
i

=
=
=
k
i
i
i
d f
0
) ( x x
Trang 227
Chng minh (tt)
T y suy ra
Do mi a
n
vi n k u c th biu din thng qua mt a
thc g(a) no c bc k 1. V vy
cng vy. Suy ra
V r rng nu
Tnh cht ny c k tha t trng GF(2
m
).
=
=
1
0
x x
k
i
i
i
k
d

=
=
1
0
1
0
*
k
i
i
i
k
i
i
i
a c a b
Z a c a b
k
i
i
i
k
i
i
i

=
=
1
0
1
0
*
, 0
1
0

=
k
i
i
i
a b

=
0
1
0
k
i
i
i
a c 0 *
1
0
1
0

=
=
k
i
i
i
k
i
i
i
a c a b
Trang 228
H qu
Cui cng tnh phn phi ca php nhn * i vi php cng +
chng ta cng k tha t trng GF(2
m
). Chng minh hon tt.
H qu 11.1
Nu a thc ti thiu ca phn t a GF(2
m
) c bc bng m th
trng Z trng vi trng GF(2
m
) v mi phn t ca trng c
th c biu din nh mt vect m thnh phn
(b
0
b
1
b
m-1
)
nh l 11.6
Gi f(x) l a thc ti thiu ca phn t a 0 ca trng
GF(2
m
) th f(x) l a thc ti gin trn trng GF(2).
Trang 229
Chng minh
Gi s f(x) = g(x) * h(x) trong g(x) v h(x) c bc ln hn 0
v nh hn bc ca f(x). Chng ta c f(a) = g(a) * h(a) = 0, suy
ra g(a) = 0 hoc h(a) = 0. iu ny mu thun vi nh ngha
v a thc ti thiu ca a.
B 11.5
Cho f(x) l a thc ti thiu ca phn t a 0 ca trng
GF(2
m
) v p(x) l a thc bt k trn trng GF(2) sao cho p(a)
= 0. Th p(x) chia ht cho f(x).
Chng minh
Chia p(x) cho f(x) chng ta c
p(x) = g(x) * f(x) + r(x)
trong bc ca r(x) nh hn bc ca f(x).
Thay x = a r(a) = 0, nn t nh ngha ca a thc ti thiu
r(x) = 0 p(x) chia ht cho f(x).
Trang 230
nh l
nh l 11.7
Cho f(x) l a thc ti thiu ca phn t a 0 ca trng
GF(2
m
) v p(x) l a thc ti gin trn trng GF(2) sao cho
p(a) = 0. Th f(x) = p(x).
Chng minh
Theo B 11.5 trn chng ta c p(x) chia ht cho f(x) tc l
chng ta c th vit
p(x) = g(x) * f(x)
Do p(x) l a thc ti gin nn f(x) = 1 hoc f(x) = p(x). Tuy
nhin f(x) khng th bng 1 nn suy ra f(x) = p(x).
H qu 11.2
2
m
1 phn t khc 0 ca trng GF(2
m
) u l nghim ca
phng trnh
0 1 x
1 2
= +
m
Trang 231
H qu
H qu 11.3
chia ht cho cc a thc ti thiu ca cc phn t
khc 0 ca trng GF(2
m
).
Chng ta s dn ra mt h qu mnh hn nh sau. Trc ht
chng ta phn tch
thnh tch ca cc a thc ti gin trn trng GF(2)
= p
1
(x) * p
2
(x) * * p
l
(x)
V c cc nghim l cc phn t ca trng GF(2
m
)
nn cc phn t ca trng GF(2
m
) s l nghim ca mt p
i
(x)
no v ngc li mt p
i
(x) bt k s c cc nghim l cc
phn t ca trng GF(2
m
).
Hn na nu p
i
(x) c bc t th s c t nghim trong trng
GF(2
m
).
1
1 2
+
m
x
1
1 2
+
m
x
1
1 2
+
m
x
1
1 2
+
m
x
Trang 232
H qu
H qu 11.4
Trong vic trin khai thnh tch cc a thc ti gin,
th mi a thc ti gin s l a thc ti thiu ca mt phn t
khc 0 no ca trng GF(2
m
).
nh l 11.8
m
) v f(x) l mt
a thc trn trng GF(2). Nu f(a) = 0 th
= 0 l = 0, 1, 2, ...
H qu 11.5
Nu f(x) l a thc ti thiu ca phn t a 0 ca trng
GF(2
m
) th f(x) cng l a thc ti thiu ca cc phn t
vi l = 0, 1, 2, ... ca trng GF(2
m
).
1
1 2
+
m
x
) (
2
l
a f
l
a
2
Trang 233
H qu (tt)
Hay ni cch khc cc phn t vi l = 0, 1, 2, ... l cc
nghim ca a thc ti thiu f(x) ca phn t a.
Hn na chng ta s chng minh rng ngoi chng ra f(x)
khng cn nghim no khc thuc trng GF(2
m
).
V vy nu c bao nhiu phn t khc nhau th f(x) c bc
by nhiu.
lm r iu ny gi k l s nguyn dng nh nht sao cho
S k chc chn tn ti v chng ta c
V s k biu din chu k ca dy
vi l = 0, 1, 2, ...
l
a
2
l
a
2
a a
k
=
2
a a a
m m
= =
2 1 2
1 hay
l
a
2
Trang 234
B
B d 11.6
m
) v k l s
nguyn dng nh nht sao cho
th k l mt c s ca m.
Chng minh
Chia m cho k, m = n k + r, trong r l s d v r < k
Tip tc theo kiu ny chng ta c . Mt khc chng
ta c
l
a
2
a a
k
=
2
a a a a a a a
k k
k
k k
= = =
=
2
2 2
2
2 2
hay
a a
nk
=
2
( )
r
r
k n r k n r k n m
a a a a a a
2
2
2 2 2 2 2
=
= = = =

+
Trang 235
B (tt)
Do nh ngha ca k r = 0. Hon tt chng minh.
Phn t lin hp
m
) v k l s
th cc phn t vi l = 0, 1, 2, ..., k - 1 c gi l cc phn
t lin hp ca a v k c gi l s phn t lin hp ca a.
T nh ngha chng ta thy tp cc phn t lin hp ca a l
tp cc phn t khc nhau c sinh ra bi
vi l = 0, 1, 2, ...
B d 11.7
Nu a
1
v a
2
l cc phn t lin hp bt k ca a th a
1
l phn
t lin hp ca a
2
v ngc li a
2
l phn t lin hp ca a
1
.
l
a
2
a a
k
=
2
l
a
2
Trang 236
B (tt)
Tht vy gi s (vi k l s phn t lin hp ca a)
Th
v
Hon tt chng minh.
Ch b ny ni ln rng cc phn t lin hp ca a l lin
hp vi nhau.
k l l a a a a
l l
< < = =
2 1
2
2
2
1
2
1
0 , ,
2
2
2
1 2
2
1
2
1 2
2
1
2
1 2
2
1
) ( a a a a a
l l l l l l l l l
= = = =

1
1
2
1
2 2
1
2
2 1
2
2
2
2 1
2
2
2
2 1
2
2
) (
) (
a a a a
a a a
l l k l k
l l k l l l k l l l k
= = = =
= =
+
+
+ +
Trang 237
B (tt)
V cc phn t vi l = 0, 1, 2, ..., k - 1 l cc nghim ca a
thc ti thiu f(x) ca a, nn ta s chng minh f(x) c dng
chng minh iu ny chng ta s chng minh
l mt a thc ti gin v do p(a) = 0 nn theo nh l 11.7
chng ta suy ra f(x) = p(x).
l
a
2
+ = + + + =
1
0
2
1
2 2
) ( ) ( * * ) ( * ) ( ) (
k
i
i k
a a a a f x x x x x K
=
+ =
1
0
2
) ( ) (
k
i
i
a p x x
Trang 238
B (tt)
B d 11.7
m
) v k l s
th
l mt a thc ti gin trn trng GF(2).
Chng minh
a a
k
=
2
=
+ =
1
0
2
) ( ) (
k
i
i
a p x x
[ ]

=
=
+ =
+ =
1
0
2 2
2
1
0
2 2
) ( ) ( ) (
k
i
i
k
i
i
a a p x x x
Trang 239
Chng minh (tt)
1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x ) ( x ) ( x ) x (
+
+ = + + + = +
i i i i i
a a a a a
[ ]
) (
) ( ) )( (
) )( (
) ( ) ( ) (
1
0
2
1
1
2
1
1
2 2
1
2
1
0
1
2 2
2
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
x
x x x
x x
x x x
p
a a a
a a
a a p
k
i
i
k
i
i
k
i
k i
k
i
i
k
i
i
=
+ = + + =
+ + =
+ = + =

=
=
=
+
Trang 240
Chng minh (tt)
Mt khc p(x) l mt a thc ca x v c th biu din
p(x) = b
0
+ b
1
x + + b
k
x
k
trong cc b
i
vi i = 0, 1, 2, , k l cc a thc trn trng
GF(2) ca a. V vy cc b
i
l cc phn t ca trng GF(2
m
).
Do [p(x)]
2
= p(x
2
) suy ra
b
i
= b
i
2
i = 0, 1, 2, , k
iu ny ch ng nu cc b
i
bng phn t 0 hoc phn t 1 tc
l cc b
i
GF(2) hay p(x) l mt a thc trn trng GF(2).
[ ]

=
= =
+
=
= + + =
+ + =
k
i
i
i
j i
k
i
k
j
j i
j i
k
i
i
i
k
k
b b b b
b b b p
0
2 2
0 0 0
2 2
2
1 0
2
) 1 1 (
) ( ) (
x x x
x x x K
Trang 241
Chng minh (tt)
Nu p(x) khng ti gin tc p(x) c th phn tch thnh
p(x) = q(x) * h(x)
trong bc ca q(x) v h(x) nh hn bc ca p(x) l k. Nhng
do p(a) = 0 q(a) = 0 hoc h(a) = 0.
Gi s q(a) = 0, theo nh l 12.8 q(x) c cc nghim l
vi l = 0, 1, 2, ..., k 1, q(x) c bc ti thiu l k, mu thun.
T y suy ra iu phi chng minh.
nh l 11.9
m
) v k l s
th a thc ti thiu ca a l v c bc = k.
l
a
2
a a
k
=
2
=
+ =
1
0
2
) ( ) (
k
i
i
a f x x
Trang 242
H qu
H qu 11.6
Bc ca mt a thc ti thiu ca mt phn t a khc 0 ca
trng GF(2
m
) l mt c s ca m.
nh l 11.10
m
) c chu k bng
n th cc phn t lin hp ca a cng c chu k bng n.
Chng minh
Gi k l s thnh phn lin hp ca a. i = 0, 1, ..., k
Chng ta chng minh rng khng s nguyn dng l < n
l
a
2
1 ) (
2 2 2
= = =

i
n n
i
n
i
a a a
1
2
=
l
i
a
Trang 243
Chng minh
Tht vy gi s tn ti, suy ra
Chia 2i l cho n
2
i
l = h n + r
trong 0 r < n,
T nh ngha khi nim chu k, r = 0.
T nh l 11.4 n l mt c s ca 2m 1, n l. Kt hp
vi 2
i
l = h n n l mt c s ca l, n l v l.
nh l 11.11
m 1 u tn ti mt a thc ti gin bc m trn trng
GF(2).
1
2
=
l
i
a
r r h n r n h l
i
a a a a a = = = =
+
) ( 1
2
Trang 244
nh l
nh l 11.12
Vi mt a thc ti gin p(x) bt k c bc m,
p(x) = b
0
+ b
1
x + + b
m
x
m
trong b
m
= 1, chng ta lun xy dng c mt trng
GF(2
m
) trong p(x) l a thc ti thiu ca mt phn t ca
trng.
1 2 3 2 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
m m
m m
b b b b b b
T
L
L
M M L M M M M
L
L
L
xy dng trng
GF(2m) chng ta cho
phn t a l mt ma
trn mm nh bn
Trang 245
nh l (tt)
Trn ma trn nh ngha php cng v nhn ma trn nh bnh
thng, vi ch rng vic cng hoc nhn hai phn t trong 2
ca hai ma trn c thc hin nh trn trng GF(2).
Chng ta cng nhn rng ma trn ny c a thc ti thiu l
p(x). T y chng ta c th dn ra c cc phn t cn li
ca trng GF(2
m
) nh nh l 11.5.
Ch , phn t 0 chnh l ma trn 0 v phn t 1 chnh l ma
trn n v.
nh l 11.13
m 2, cc a thc ti gin bc m trn trng GF(2) u l
c s ca
Chng ta c th quay tr v bng lit k cc a thc ti gin
kim tra rng cc a thc ti gin bc 3 l c s ca x
7
1,
cc a thc ti gin bc 4 l c s ca x
15
1,
1
1 2
+
m
x
Trang 246
nh l (tt)
a thc cn bn
Mt a thc cn bn l mt a thc ti gin, ng thi khng
tn ti s nguyn dng n < 2
m
1 sao cho x
n
+ 1 chia ht cho
n.
V d, khng tn ti s nguyn dng n < 15 sao cho x
n
+ 1
chia ht cho 1 + x + x
4
nn 1 + x + x
4
l a thc cn bn.
Cn a thc 1 + x + x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
l ti gin nhng khng cn
bn v x
5
+ 1 chia ht cho n.
1 + x
3
+ x
5
1 + x
2
+ x
3
1 + x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
+ x
8
1 + x
2
+ x
5
1 + x + x
3
1 + x
3
+ x
7
1 + x
3
+ x
4
1 + x + x
2
1 + x + x
6
1 + x + x
4
1 + x
6, 7, 8 4, 5 1, 2, 3
Trang 247
nh l (tt)
nh l 11.14
m
) c a thc ti
thiu l f(x). Nu f(x) l mt a thc cn bn trn trng GF(2)
v c bc bng m th a c chu k l 2
m
1 v a l mt phn t
c s ca GF(2
m
).
Chng minh
Gi n l chu k ca a. t p(x) = x
n
+ 1, th p(a) = 0.
B 11.5 p(x) chia ht cho f(x). Kt hp iu ny vi nh
ngha ca khi nim a thc cn bn, n = 2
m
1.
nh l ny gi cho chng ta cch xy dng trng GF(2
m
)
da trn mt phn t c s c a thc ti thiu l mt a thc
cn bn bc m.
l
a
2
Trang 248
Tm tt
Tm tt
a l mt phn t ca trng GF(2
m
) th
Chu k ca mt phn t l mt c s ca 2
m
1.
Cc a thc ti thiu ca trng GF(2
m
) l cc a thc ti gin
v l c s ca
Hn na bc ca chng l c ca m.
S phn t lin hp khc nhau ca a, k c a, l c s ca m.
Cc phn t lin hp ca nhau c cng a thc ti thiu, hn
na chng l cc nghim ca a thc ti thiu ny v bc ca
a thc ti thiu ny bng s cc phn t lin hp khc nhau.
Cc phn t lin hp th c cng chu k.
Cc a thc ti gin bc k l c ca
1
1 2
=
m
a
1
1 2
+
m
x
1
1 2
+
k
x
Trang 249
Tm tt (tt)
Mt phn t a c a thc ti thiu bc m th cc t hp tuyn
tnh (vi b
i
GF(2))
b
0
1 + b
1
a + + b
k - 1
a
k - 1
s sinh ra ton b cc phn t ca trng GF(2
m
)
Mt phn t a c a thc ti thiu bc m v cng l a thc
cn bn th cc ly tha ca n s sinh ra ton b cc phn t
ca trng GF(2
m
).
Trang 250
V d
Xy dng trng GF(2
m
) vi m = 4.
Chng ta k hiu 0 l ma trn 0, k hiu 1 l ma trn n v (c
kch thc l 44). Ly phn t a l ma trn sau
Chng ta c a thc ti thiu ca a l f(x) = 1 + x + x
4
y l mt a thc cn bn bc 4. V vy theo nh l 11.14,
15 phn t ca GF(2
4
) khng tnh phn t 0 s c dng a
i
, i = 0,
1, , 14 vi ch a
0
= 1.
Cn theo nh l 12.12 chng s c dng b
0
+ b
1
a + b
2
a
2
+ b
3
a
3

trong cc b
i
= 0 hoc 1.
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
4 4
T
Trang 251
V d (tt)
Vy c hai cch xy dng trng GF(2
4
) nh trn.
Cc bng sau y biu din cc phn t khc 0 v khc 1 ca
trng GF(2
4
) theo cc dng: ly tha ca a (a
i
), a thc ca a,
vect, dng ma trn.
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0110 1100 0001 0010 0100
a + a
2
1 + a a
3
a
2
a
a
5
a
4
a
3
a
2
a
Trang 252
V d (tt)
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1110 0101 1010 1101 0011
1 + a + a
2
a + a
3
1 + a
2
1 + a + a
3
a
2
+ a
3
a
10
a
9
a
8
a
7
a
6
Trang 253
V d (tt)
Chu k, a thc ti thiu ca cc phn t lin hp
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1001 1011 1111 0111
1 + a
3
1 + a
2
+ a
3
1 + a + a
2
+ a
3
a + a
2
+ a
3
a
14
a
13
a
12
a
11
1 + x
3
+ x
4
1 + x + x
2
1 + x + x
2
+ x
3
+ x
4
1 + x + x
4
1 + x x
15 3 5 15
a
7
, a
14
, a
13
, a
11
a
5
, a
10
a
3
, a
6
, a
12
, a
9
a, a
2
, a
4
, a
8
1 0
Trang 254
Bi 12 M khi tuyn tnh
12.1 Gii thiu
12.2 Cc khi nim v nguyn l hot ng
12.3 Vn pht hin sai v sa sai
12.4 Mt s gii hn
Trang 255
Gii thiu
M khi tuyn tnh c xy dng da trn cc kt qu ca i
s tuyn tnh l mt lp m c dng rt ph bin trong vic
chng nhiu.
nh ngha
Mt m khi c chiu di n gm 2
k
t m c gi l m tuyn
tnh C(n, k) nu v ch nu 2
k
t m hnh thnh mt khng gian
vect con k chiu ca khng gian vect n chiu gm tt c cc
vect n thnh phn trn trng GF(2).
M tuyn tnh C(n, k) c mc ch m ho nhng khi tin (hay
thng bo) k bit thnh nhng t m n bit. Hay ni cch khc
trong n bit ca t m c cha k bit thng tin.
Qui c vit du + thay cho du v du + s c hiu theo
ng cnh.
Trang 256
Cch biu din m Ma trn sinh
M tuyn tnh C(n, k) l mt khng gian con k chiu ca khng
gian vect n thnh phn, k t m c lp tuyn tnh, chng
hn (g
0
, g
1
, ..., g
k1
) sao cho mi t m trong C l mt t hp
tuyn tnh ca k t m ny (vi a
i
{0, 1} i = 0, 1, ..., k1)
w = a
0
g
0
+ a
1
g
1
+ ... + a
k1
g
k1
k t m ny to thnh mt ma trn cp k n nh sau
Vi g
i
= (g
i0
, g
i1
, , g
i(n1)
), vi i = 0, 1, , k1.
) 1 )( 1 ( 1 ) 1 ( 0 ) 1 (
) 1 ( 1 11 10
) 1 ( 0 01 00
1
1
0
n k k k
n
n
k
n k
g g g
g g g
g g g
g
g
g
G
L
M M M
L
L
M
Trang 257
Cch m ha
Nu u = (a
0
, a
1
, , a
k1
) l thng tin cn c m ho th t m
w tng ng vi u c ta bng cch ly u nhn vi G
w = u G = (a
0
, a
1
, , a
k1
)
hay
w = a
0
g
0
+ a
1
g
1
+ + a
k1
g
k1
V cc t m tng ng vi cc thng bo c sinh ra bi G
theo cch trn nn G c gi l ma trn sinh ca b m.
Trang 258
V d
Cho ma trn sinh ca mt m tuyn tnh C(7, 4) sau
Nu u = (1101) l thng tin cn m ho th t m tng ng l
w = 1.g
0
+ 1.g
1
+ 0.g
2
+ 1.g
3
= (1100101)
Bt k k t m c lp tuyn tnh no cng c th c dng
lm ma trn sinh cho b m.
Mt b m tuyn tnh (hay cn gi l khng gian m) c th c
nhiu ma trn sinh khc nhau cng biu din.
Mi ma trn sinh tng ng vi mt cch m ha khc nhau.
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
3
2
1
0
7 4
g
g
g
g
G
Trang 259
Cch gii m
Ly ma trn sinh nh trong v d trn.
u = (a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, a
3
) l thng bo, w = (b
0
, b
1
, b
2
, b
3
, b
4
, b
5
, b
6
) l
t m tng ng.
Chng ta c h phng trnh sau lin h gia u v w.
w = u G b
0
= a
0
+ a
1
+ a
3
(1)
b
1
= a
0
+ a
2
(2)
b
2
= a
1
+ a
3
(3)
b
3
= a
0
+ a
1
(4)
b
4
= a
1
(5)
b
5
= a
2
(6)
b
6
= a
2
+ a
3
(7)
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
3
2
1
0
7 4
g
g
g
g
G
Trang 260
Cch gii m (tt)
Chn bn phng trnh n gin nht gii cc a
i
theo cc b
j
.
Chng hn cc phng trnh (4), (5), (6), (7) chng ta gii c
a
0
= b
3
+ b
4
a
1
= b
4
a
2
= b
5
a
3
= b
5
+ b
6
H phng trnh trn c gi l h phng trnh gii m.
C th c nhiu h phng trnh gii m khc nhau nhng s
cho kt qu nh nhau.
w = 1001011 u = ?
w = 0101110 u = ?
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
3
2
1
0
7 4
g
g
g
g
G
Trang 261
M tuyn tnh h thng
Mt m tuyn tnh C(n, k) c gi l m tuyn tnh h thng
nu mi t m c mt trong hai dng sau
Dng 1: T m bao gm phn thng tin k bit i trc v phn
cn li (gm n k bit) i sau (phn ny cn c gi l phn d
tha hay phn kim tra).
Dng 2: Ngc ca dng 1, t m bao gm phn kim tra i
trc v phn thng tin i sau.
n k bit kim tra k bit thng tin
k bit thng tin n k bit kim tra
Trang 262
Ma trn sinh h thng
V d
M ha
u = 1101 w = u G
ht
= 1101000
Gii m
w = 0110100 u = 0110
= =

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 1
L
M M M
L
L
4 43 4 42 1
L
M M M
L
L
) (
) 1 )( 1 ( 1 ) 1 ( 0 ) 1 (
) 1 ( 1 11 10
) 1 ( 0 01 00
) (
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
|
k n k
k n k k k
k n
k n
k k
k n k kk n k
P P P
P P P
P P P
P I G
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
) 7 4 ( ht
G
Trang 263
V d
Dng cc php bin i s cp bin i cc ma trn sinh sau
thnh ma trn sinh h thng.
Khng phi mi ma trn sinh u c th bin i thnh ma trn
sinh h thng.
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
7 4
G
0
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
7 4
G
Trang 264
V d (tt)
Hy thc hin php m ha v gii m trn ma trn sinh sau.
M ha u = (1101) w = (1110010)
Gii m w = (1011000) u = (0110)
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
7 4
G
b
7
b
6
b
5
b
4
b
3
b
2
b
1
th w = a
4
a
3
a
2
a
1
u =
Trang 265
Pht hin sai v sa sai
Nguyn l pht hin sai: Kim tra xem t hp nhn c phi l
t m hay khng, nu khng th t hp nhn l sai.
Nguyn l sa sai: Kim tra xem t hp nhn c khong cch
Hamming gn vi t m no nht, th chnh l t m ng
c pht i.
Nguyn l ny c gi l nguyn l khong cch Hamming
ti thiu.
Khng gian b trc giao
Cho S l mt khng gian con k chiu ca khng gian V n chiu.
Gi S
d
l tp tt c cc vect v trong V sao cho u S, u v =
0 (php nhn v hng ca hai vect). S
d
c chng minh l
mt khng gian con ca V v c s chiu l n k. S
d
c gi l
khng gian b trc giao ca S v ngc li.
Trang 266
Cch pht hin sai
H qu
Mi ma trn G bt k kch thc k n vi k hng c lp tuyn
tnh lun tn ti ma trn H kch thc (n k) n vi (n k)
hng c lp tuyn tnh sao cho G H
T
= 0, trong H
T
l ma
trn chuyn v ca ma trn H.
Ni cch khc cc vect hng ca H u trc giao vi cc vect
hng ca G.
Cch pht hin sai
Nu v l mt t m c sinh ra t ma trn sinh G c ma trn
trc giao tng ng l H th
v H
T
= 0
Ngc li nu
v H
T
= 0
th v l mt t m.
Trang 267
Ma trn kim tra
Ma trn kim tra
Ma trn kim tra ca mt b m c ma trn sinh G
kn
l ma trn
H c kch thc (n k) n sao cho
G H
T
= 0
Syndrome vect sa sai (corrector)
v H
T
c gi l syndrome hay vect sa sai ca v v c k
hiu l s(v). v l t m khi v ch khi s(v) = 0.
V d
Tm ma trn kim tra ng vi ma trn sinh sau.
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
7 4
G
Trang 268
Ma trn kim tra (tt)
H c kch thc 3 7.
Gi h = (a
0
, a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
, a
5
, a
6
) l mt hng bt k ca H. h
trc giao vi mi hng ca G nn chng ta c h bn phng
trnh sau
a
0
+ a
1
+ a
3
= 0
a
0
+ a
2
+ a
3
+ a
4
= 0
a
1
+ a
5
+ a
6
= 0
a
0
+ a
2
+ a
6
= 0
Vn l tm c 3 vect h c lp tuyn tnh l nghim ca
h phng trnh trn.
Ch , h phng trnh trn c th cho php chng ta gii bn
bin theo ba bin cn li. Chng hn chng ta gii a
3
, a
4
, a
5
, a
6
theo a
0
, a
1
, a
2
nh sau.
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
7 4
G
Trang 269
Ma trn kim tra (tt)
a
3
= a
0
+ a
1
a
4
= a
1
+ a
2
a
5
= a
0
+ a
1
+ a
2
a
6
= a
0
+ a
2
Cho (a
0
, a
1
, a
2
) ln lt cc gi tr (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)
(c lp tuyn tnh vi nhau), ta xc nh c (a
3
, a
4
, a
5
, a
6
)
ln lt nh sau (1, 0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1, 1).
Vy H l
Ch
C th tn ti nhiu ma trn kim tra khc nhau ca cng mt
b m v chng u c kh nng kim tra nh nhau.
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
7 3
H
Trang 270
Ma trn kim tra (tt)
B 12.1
Nu ma trn sinh h thng ca mt m tuyn tnh h thng c
dng G
kn
= [I
kk
| P
k(nk)
]
th H
(nk)n
= [P
k(nk)
T
| I
(nk)(nk)
]
l mt ma trn kim tra ca m.
Tng t nu ma trn sinh c dng
G
kn
= [P
k(nk)
| I
kk
]
th ma trn kim tra c dng
H
(nk)n
= [I
(nk)(nk)
| P
k(nk)
T
]
trong I
(nk)(nk)
l ma trn n v kch thc (nk)(nk), cn
P
k(nk)
T
l ma trn chuyn v ca ma trn P
k(nk)
.
Trang 271
Chng minh
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 1
L
M M M
L
L
4 43 4 42 1
L
M M M
L
L
) (
) 1 )( 1 ( 1 ) 1 ( 0 ) 1 (
) 1 ( 1 11 10
) 1 ( 0 01 00
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
k n k
k n k k k
k n
k n
k k
n k
P P P
P P P
P P P
G

4 43 4 42 1
L
M M M
L
L
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 1
L
M M M
L
L
) ( ) (
) (
) 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 ( 1 ) 1 ( 0
1 ) 1 ( 11 01
0 ) 1 ( 10 00
) (
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
k n k n
k k n
k n k k n k n
k
k
n k n
P P P
P P P
P P P
H
Trang 272
Chng minh (tt)
Ta chng minh
G H
T
= 0
Chng minh iu ny vic chng minh
g
i
h
j
= 0 i = 0, , k1, j = 0, , nk1
trong
g
i
= (g
i0
, , g
i(n1)
) l hng i ca G cn
h
j
= (h
j0
, , h
j(n1)
) l hng j ca ma trn H.
Tht vy
0
) (
1 1
0
1
0
= + = + =
+ = =
+

=
=

ij ij j k i ji
k n
k s
js is
k
s
js is
n
s
js is j i
P P g h
h g h g h g h g
Trang 273
V d
Tm ma trn H cho cc ma trn sinh sau
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
) 7 4 ( ht
G
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
7 4
G
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
7 4
G
Trang 274
Kh nng chng nhiu tng ng
Hai m tuyn tnh C(n, k) c gi l c kh nng chng nhiu
tng ng nu chng c cng khong cch Hamming.
B 12.2
Nu hon v hai ct ca mt ma trn sinh s to ra mt b m
mi c kh nng chng nhiu tng ng vi b m c. Ni
cch khc vic hon v hai ct ca ma trn sinh khng lm thay
i kh nng chng nhiu.
B 12.3
Khong cch Hamming ca mt m tuyn tnh bng trng s
nh nht khc 0 ca b m.
Trang 275
B
B 12.4
Gi H l ma trn kim tra ca mt m tuyn tnh, nu mt t
m c trng s d th tn ti d ct ca H c tng bng 0.
H qu
Nu trong ma trn kim tra H ca mt m tuyn tnh s ct ph
thuc tuyn tnh nh nht l d th khong cch Hamming ca b
m bng d.
V d 12.5
d = 3 (3, 4, 6)
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
7 3
H
Trang 276
Cch sa sai
Vect li
L vect biu din cc v tr li gia t m truyn v t hp
nhn, mi v tr li c biu din bng bit 1, cn li l 0.
Nu t m truyn l w, vect li l e v vect nhn l v th
v = w + e
e = v + w
w = e + v
V d
w = 1011011, e = 0010100 v = w + e = 1001111.
w = 0110010, v = 0010011 e = w + v = 0100001.
v = 1011001, e = 0010010 w = v + e = 1001011.
Trang 277
Tp gii m - coset
Cho S l mt khng gian con cc t m ca khng gian V, coset
ca mt phn t z V i vi S c k hiu l z + S v c
nh ngha nh sau
z + S = {z + w: w S}
B 12.5
Tp coset z + S c cc tnh cht sau.
(1) z z + S.
(2) Nu z S th z + S = S.
(3) Nu v z + S th v + S = z + S.
(4) Nu v z + S th v + S v z + S ri nhau.
Trang 278
S gii m
Vi mi vect nhn v chng ta s c mt tp coset tng ng l
v + S.
Trong tp ny chn phn t c trng s nh nht, chng hn l
z. Phn t ny thng c gi l coset leader.
Thng bo t m c truyn chnh l w = v + z.
B 12.6
Cc phn t ca mt tp coset c cng mt syndrome nh nhau.
Cc tp coset khc nhau c cc syndrome khc nhau.
e = (a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
n
), cc ct ca H ln lt bng h
1
, h
2
, ..., h
n
th

=
= = =
0 1
) (
i
a
i i
n
i
i i
T
h a h a H e e s
Trang 279
S gii m (tt)
Ngha l s(e) bng tng nhng ct nhng v tr tng ng vi
nhng v tr bng 1 ca e.
Nu v tr li sai l 3 th syndrome ca vect nhn s l ct s 3
ca H.
Tm v tr li sai ca cc vect nhn sau y
v = 0010011 s(v) = ? e = ? w = ?
v = 0101101 s(v) = ? e = ? w = ?
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
7 4
G
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
7 3
H
Trang 280
M tuyn tnh Hamming
M tuyn tnh Hamming l m c ma trn H c tnh cht gi tr
ca ct h
i
bng i (i = 1, 2, ...)
B 12.7
Cc m tuyn tnh Hamming u c khong cch Hamming d =
3. V vy c th pht hin sai 2 bit v sa sai 1 bit.
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
7 3
H
Trang 281
Ma trn sinh ca m tuyn tnh Hamming
Xt m tuyn tnh Hamming C(7, 4) c cc bit thng tin nm
cc v tr 3, 5, 6, 7. Hy xc nh ma trn sinh G ca b m.
Gi w = (a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
, a
5
, a
6
, a
7
) l mt t m. Chng ta c h
phng trnh sau c dn ra t cng thc w H
T
= 0.
a
4
+ a
5
+ a
6
+ a
7
= 0
a
2
+ a
3
+ a
6
+ a
7
= 0
a
1
+ a
3
+ a
5
+ a
7
= 0
T y suy ra cng thc tnh cc bit kim tra a
1
, a
2
, a
4
theo cc
bit thng bo a
3
, a
5
, a
6
, a
7
nh sau
a
1
= a
3
+ a
5
+ a
7
a
2
= a
3
+ a
6
+ a
7
a
4
= a
5
+ a
6
+ a
7
Trang 282
Ma trn sinh ca m tuyn tnh Hamming
V d
Xt m tuyn tnh Hamming C(7, 4) c cc bit thng tin nm
cc v tr 1, 2, 3, 4. Hy xc nh ma trn sinh G ca b m.
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
0
1
1
7 4
G
0 1 0 1 1 0 1 th w = 0 1 0 1 u =
a
7
a
6
a
5
a
4
a
3
a
2
a
1
b
4
b
3
b
2
b
1

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L thuyt Thng tin - Khoa Cng Ngh Thng Tin

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