Looking Inside the Computer System

Overview: Dissecting the Ultimate Machine

Most people believe that computers must be extremely complicated devices, because they perform such amazing tasks. To
an extent, this is true. But like any machine, a computer is a collection of parts, which are categorized according to the kinds
of work they do. Although there are many, many variations on the parts themselves, there are only a few maor categories.
The Parts of a Computer System
!omputers come in many varieties, from the tiny computers built into household appliances, to the astounding super
computers that have helped scientists map the human genome. But no matter how big it is it is used, every computer is part
of a system. A complete computer system is consists of four parts.
"ardware
#oftware
$ata
%ser
Hardware
The mechanical device, that make up the computer are called hardware. "ardware is any part of the computer you can
touch. A computers hardware consists of interconnected electronic devices that you can use to control the computer&s
operation, input, and output. The generic term device refers to any piece of hardware.
Software
#oftware is a set of instructions that makes the computer perform tasks. 'n other words, software tells the computer what to
do. The term program refers piece of software. #onic programs exists primarily for the computers use to help it perform tasks
and manage its own resources. (ther types of programs exist for the user enabling him or her to perform tasks such as
creating documents. Thousands of different software programs are available for use on personal computers.
Data
$ata consist of individual facts or pieces of information that by themselves may not make much sense to a person. A
computer)s primary ob is to process these tiny pieces of data in various ways, converting them into useful information.
Users
*eople are the computer operators, also known as users. 't can be argued that some computer systems are complete
without a person)s involvement+ however, no computer is totally autonomous. ,ven if a computer can do its ob without a
person sitting in front of it, people still design, build, program, and repair computer systems.
System Software
System software is any program that controls the computer&s hardware or that can he used to maintain the computer in
some way so
that it runs more efficiently.
There are three basic types of system software-
An operating system tells the computer how to use its own components. ,xamples of operating systems includes
.indows, the
Macintosh (perating #ystem, and /inux.
An operating system is essential for any computer, because it acts as an interpreter between the hardware, application
programs, and
the user.
.hen a program wants the hardware to do something, it communicates through the operating system. #imilarly, when you
want the hardware to do something 0such as copying or printing a file1, your re2uest is handled by the operating system.
A network operating system allows computers to communicate and share data across a network while controlling network
operations and overseeing the network)s security.
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age 5
A utility is a program that makes the computer system easier to use or performs highly specialized functions. %tilities are
used to
manage disks, troubleshoot hardware problems, and perform other tasks that the operating system itself may not be able
to do.
Appliation Software
Application software tells the computer how to accomplish specific tasks, such as word processing or drawing, for the user.
Thousands of applications are available for many purposes and for people of all ages. #ome of the maor categories of these
applications include
.ord processing software for creating text6based documents such as newsletters or brochures.
#preadsheets for creating numeric6based documents such as budgets or balance sheets.
$atabase management software for building and manipulating large sets of data, such as the names, addresses, and
phone numbers
in a telephone directory.
*resentation programs for creating and presenting electronic slide shows.
4raphics programs for designing illustrations or manipulating photographs, movies, or animation.
Multimedia authoring applications for building digital movies that incorporate sound, video, animation, and interactive
features.
,ntertainment and education software, many of which are interactive multimedia events.
.eb design tools and .eb browsers, and other 'nternet applications such as newsreaders and e6mail programs.
4ames, some of which arc for a single player and many of which can be played by several people over a network or the
'nternet.
Computer Data
7ou have already seen that, to a computer, data is any piece of information or fact that, taken by itself, may not make
sense to a person. 3or example, you might think of the letters of the alphabet as data. Taken individually, they do not
mean a lot.But when grouped into words and sentences, they make sense, that is, they become information.
#imilarly, basic geometric shapes may not have much meaning by themselves, but when they are grouped into a
blueprint or a chart, they become useful information.
.ithin the computer, data is organized into files. A file is simply a set of data that has been given a name. A file that the
user can open and use is often called a document. Although many people think of documents simply as text, a computer
document can include many kinds of data. 3or example, a computer document can be a text file 0such as a letter1, a
group of numbers 0such as a budget1, a video clip 0which includes images and sounds1, or any combination of these
items.
*rograms are organized into files as well, these files contain the instructions and data that a program needs in order to
run and perform tasks.
Computer Users
*ersonal computers, which are the focus of this book, are designed to work with a human user. 'n fact, the user is a critical
part of a complete computer system, especially when a personal computer is involved.
This may seem surprising since we tend to think of computers as intelligent devices, capable of performing amazing tasks.
*eople also sometimes believe that computers can think and make decisions, ust like humans do. But this is not the case.
,ven the most powerful supercomputers re2uire human interaction6if for no other reason than to get them started and tell
them which problems to solve.
The User!s "ote
.hen working with a personal computer, the user can take on several roles, depending on what he or she wants to
accomplish-
#etting up the #ystem. "ave you ever bought a new *!8 .hen you got it home, you probably had it, unpack it, set it
up, and make sure it worked as expected. 'f you want to change something about the system 0a process called
configuration1, you will likely do it yourself, whether you want to add a new hardware device, change the way programs
look on your screen, or customize the way a program functions.
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age 9
'nstalling #oftware. Although your new computer probably came with an operating system and clime applications
installed, you need to install any other programs you want to use. This may involve loading software from a disk or
downloading it from a .ebsite. ,ither way, it is usually the user)s responsibility to install programs, unless the computer
is used at a school or business. 'n that case, a system administrator or technician may be available to do the ob.
:unning programs. .henever your computer is on, there are several programs running in the background, such as the
software that runs your mouse and printer. #uch programs do not need any user input+ in fact, you may not even be
aware of them. But for the most part, if you want to use your computer to perform a task, you need to launch and run the
software that is designed for the task. This means installing the program, learning its tools, and working with it to make
sure it gives you the results you want.
Managing 3iles. As you have already learned. A computer saves data in files. 'f you write a letter to a friend, you can
save it as a file, making it available to open and use again later. *ictures, songs, and other kinds of data are stored as
files. But it is the user)s ob to manage these film, and this means setting up a logical system for scoring their on the
computer. 't always means knowing
when to delete or move files, or copy them to a disk for safekeeping.
Maintaining the #ystem. #ystem maintenance does not necessarily mean opening the *! and fixing broken pans, as
you would repair a car&s engine. But it could; 'n that case, you might call a 2ualified technician to do the ob, or roll up
your sleeves and tackle it yourself. *! maintenance, however, generally means running utilities that keep the disks free
of clutter and ensure that the computer is making the first use of its resources.
#Userless# Computers
(f course, there are many kinds of computers that re2uire no human interaction, once they have been programmed,
installed, and started up.
3or example, if you own a car that was built within the last decade, it almost certainly has in on6board computer that controls
and monitors engine functions.
Many new home appliances, such as washers and dryers, have built6in computers that monitor water usage, drying times,
balance, and other operations. #ophisticated user less computers operate security systems, navigation systems,
communications systems, and many others.
%serless computers are typically controlled by their operating systems. 'n these devices, the operating system may be
installed on special memory chips rather than a disk.
The operating system is programmed to perform a specific set of tasks, such as monitoring a function or checking for a
failure, and little else. These systems are not set up for human interaction, except as needed for system configuration or
maintenance.
Computers in your Career
!omputers are making an impact on some unlikely occupations such as-
:estaurant and 4rocery #tore Managers. :estaurants, grocery stores, and retail outlet managers use computer systems
of all kinds
from handheld units to mainframes6to monitor inventories, track transactions, and manage product pricing.
!ourier $ispatchers. !ourier services of all types use computerized terminals to help dispatchers schedule deliveries,
locate pickup
and drop6off points, generate invoices, and track the location of packages.
!onstruction Managers. !onstruction managers and estimators use specialized software to analyze construction
documents and to
calculate the amount of materials and time re2uired to complete a ob.
Automotive Mechanics. Automotive mechanics and technicians use computer systems to measure vehicle performance,
diagnose
mechanical problems, and determine maintenance or repair strategies.
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age <
$raphial user interfae
'n computing, a graphial user interfae 0$UI, sometimes pronounced gooey1 is a type of user
interface that allows users tointeract with electronic devices with images rather than text commands.
GUIs can be used in computers, hand6held devices such as M*= players, portable media players or gaming
devices, household appliances and office e2uipment.
A GUI represents the information and actions available to a user through graphical icons and visual
indicators such as secondary notation, as opposed to text6based interfaces, typed command labels or text
navigation.
The actions are usually performed through direct manipulation of the graphical elements.
The term GUI is historically restricted to the scope of two6dimensional display screens with display
resolutions able to describe generic information, in the tradition of the computer science research at
the *A:! 0*alo Alto :esearch !enter1.
History
Preursors
A precursor to 4%'s was invented by researchers at the #tanford :esearch 'nstitute, led by $ouglas
,ngelbart.
They developed the use of text6based hyperlinks manipulated with a mouse for the (n6/ine #ystem.
The concept of hyperlinks was further refined and extended to graphics by researchers at >erox *A:!, who
went beyond text6based hyperlinks and used a 4%' as the primary interface for the >erox Alto computer.
Most modern general6purpose 4%'s are derived from this system. As a result, some people call this class of
interface a *A:! %ser 'nterface 0*%'1.
'van #utherland developed a pointer6based system called the #ketchpad in ?@5=. 't used a light6pen to
guide the creation and manipulation of obects in engineering drawings.
PA"C user interfae
The *A:! user interface consisted of graphical elements such as windows, menus, radio buttons, check
boxes and icons.
The *A:! user interface employs a pointing device in addition to a keyboard.
These aspects can be emphasized by using the alternative acronym .'M*, which stands
for windows, icons, menus and pointing device.
%&olution
The >erox #tar .orkstation introduced the first commercial 4%' operating system.
3ollowing *A:! the first 4%'6centric computer operating model was the >erox <A?A #tar 'nformation
#ystem in ?@<?, followed by the Apple /isa 0which presented the concept of menu bar as well as window
controls1 in ?@<=, the Apple Macintosh ?B<C in ?@<D, and the Atari #T and !ommodore Amiga in ?@<E.
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age @
Apple , 'BM and Microsoft used many of >erox)s ideas to develop products, and 'BM)s !ommon %ser
Access specifications formed the basis of the user interface found in Microsoft .indows, 'BM
(#FB *resentation Manager, and the %nix Motif toolkit and window manager.
These ideas evolved to create the interface found in current versions of Microsoft .indows, as well as in
Mac (# > and various desktop environments for %nix6like operating systems, such as /inux.
Post'(I)P interfaes
#maller mobile devices such as *$As and smartphones typically use the .'M* elements with different unifying
metaphors, due to constraints in space and available input devices. Applications for which .'M* is not well
suited may use newer interaction techni2ues, collectively named as post6.'M* user interfaces.
#ome touch6screen6based operating systems such as Apple)s i(# and Android (# currently use post6
.'M* styles of interaction. The i*hone)s use of more than one finger in contact with the screen allows actions
such as pinching and rotating, which are not supported by a single pointer and mouse.
A class of 4%'s sometimes referred to as post6.'M* include =$ compositing window manager such
as !ompiz, $esktop .indow Manager, and /4=$. #ome post6.'M* interfaces may be better suited for
applications which model immersive =$ environments, such as 4oogle ,arth.
*ote+ .'M* stands for 0Gwindow, icon, menu, pointing deviceG1
User interfae and interation design
$esigning the visual composition and temporal behavior of 4%' is an important part of software
application programming. 'ts goal is to enhance the efficiency and ease of use for the underlying logical design
of a stored program, a design discipline known as usability. Techni2ues of user6centered design are used to
ensure that the visual language introduced in the design is well tailored to the tasks it must perform.
Typically, the user interacts with information by manipulating visual widgets that allow for interactions
appropriate to the kind of data they hold. The widgets of a well6designed interface are selected to support the
actions necessary to achieve the goals of the user.
A Model6view6controller allows for a flexible structure in which the interface is independent from and indirectly
linked to application functionality, so the 4%' can be easily customized. This allows the user to select or design
a different skin at will, and eases the designer)s work to change the interface as the user needs evolve.
Hevertheless, good user interface design relates to the user, not the system architecture.
The visible graphical interface features of an application are sometimes referred to as GchromeG. /arger widgets,
such as windows, usually provide a frame or container for the main presentation content such as a web page,
email message or drawing. #maller ones usually act as a user6input tool.
A 4%' may be designed for the rigorous re2uirements of a vertical market. This is known as an Gapplication
specific graphical user interface.G Among early application specific 4%'s was 4ene Mosher)s ?@<5 *oint of #ale
touchscreen 4%'. (ther examples of an application specific 4%'s are-
#elf6service checkout s used in a retail store
Automated teller machines 0ATM1
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age ?A
Airline self6ticketing and check6in
'nformation kiosks in a public space, like a train station or a museum
Monitors or control screens in an embedded industrial application which employ a real time operating
system 0:T(#1.
$raphial User Interfae Timeline
1973
April ,-./0 the first operational Alto omputer is
ompleted at 1ero2 PA"C3
The Alto is the first system to pull together all of the
elements of the modern 4raphical %ser 'nterface.
3eatures-
=6button mouse.
Bit6mapped display.
The use of graphical windows.
,thernet network.
The Alto was the first system to pull together all of the elements of the modern 4raphical %ser 'nterface. The
Alto was designed and built by >erox for research and, although >erox donated a number of them to various
organizations, they were never sold.
'nitially the >erox Alto software was not GdesktopG oriented and was more comparable to a system with various
pieces of mouse enabled graphical $(# software than, say, Macintosh or .indows.
1980

1981
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age ??
Three "i&ers Computer Corporation introdues the the Per4
graphial workstation3
The #ingle %ser #ystem *rogramme grew out of the 'nteractive
!omputing 3acility. 'n ?@9E, the :osenbrock :eport had
recommended that engineers should use multi user interactive
systems for engineering research but that, in the future, single
user systems 0later called workstations and now *ersonal
!omputers1 would appear on the market that would allow much
more to be done on a personal, single6user system connected to
a /ocal Area Hetwork with #ervers for specialist facilities.
5une ,-6, + 1ero2 introdues the Star0 the ommerial
suessor
to the Alto3
Hotable features-
$ouble6clickable icons
overlapping windows
dialog boxes and a
?ABDI95< monochrome display.
'nitially the term G#tarG referred to the desktop and application
software. "owever the system as a whole became commonly
known as GThe >erox #tar.G The software was later renamed
to
GJiew*ointG, and later renamed again to G4lobalJiew.G
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age ?B
1983
5anuary ,-6/ + Apple introdues the Lisa3
Hotable features-
*ull down menus and menu bars.
The Apple /isa (ffice #ystem was released in ?@<=
by Apple
!omputers with their /isa microcomputer. The /isa
hardware, operating system, and its set of office
applications were designed by Apple to work together
to
create a powerful document processing workstation.
Microsoft)s G.indowsG would not see the light of day
for
several more years.
7isi Corp releases 7isi 8n0 the first integrated
graphial
software en&ironment for I9) PCs3

Jisi!orp Jisi (n was the first full featured desktop
4%' for
the 'BM *!.
/egend has it Bill 4ates saw a demo of this running
at
the ?@<B comdex running on an 'BM *!.
"e freaked out because
Microsoft didn)t have anything like this yet, ran back
to
Microsoft "ead2uarters, and had them start work on
what
became .indows.
)irosoft announes their new #(indows# program
for the I9) PC :ut does not release it until ,-6;3
Hotable features-
's supposed to have overlapping F resizable windows.
1984
5anaury ,-6<+ Apple introdues the )aintosh3
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age ?=
Septem:er + Digital "esearh announes its
$%)
ion=desktop user interfae for
6>6?' and
D8S':ased omputers3

4,M was a very popular 4%' for $(# until
Microsoft
.indows killed it. There were a number of third
party
applications designed to run under 4,M, and the
4,M
desktop was also later used in JiewMA>, the file
manager
for $:6$(#.
5une+ #window system 1# announed at )IT3
Jersions ?65 were monochrome only, and ran on $,!
J#?AA)s displays connected to JA>en and JA>stations
? and B.
Jersions <6?A dealt with color, for the JA>station ''F4*>.
>?A
is the first version that saw widespread availability and
use on
many vendor)s systems.
Jersion ?? was redesign for higher performance, more
window management styles, extensibility and better
graphics
capability
1985

*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age ?D

5uly+ Commodore introdues the Amiga ,>>>
with the
Amiga (ork:enh 7ersion ,3>3
.hen the Amiga was first introduced in ?@<E it was
far
ahead of it)s time with features such as multiple
resolution
high6color graphics, stereo sound, and pre6emptive
multitasking that made it a great machine for
multimedia
applications and gaming.
August+ )irosoft finally releases the first
&ersion of
(indows3

3eatures-
.indows can not be overlapped, but are instead
GtiledG.
.indows are not allowed to cover an area at the
bottom
of the screen that is reserved for GiconizedG
programs.
1986
,-6?+ Apple threatens to sue Digital "esearh
:eause
the $%) desktop looked too muh like
Apple!s
)aintosh3
$igital :esearch cripples the desktop application so
Apple
will not sue.
The new 4,M desktop now has ust two unmovable,
non6
resizable windows for file browsing.
1987
)arh ,-6. ' Apple introdues the Apple
)aintosh II0
the first olor )aintosh3
3eatures- 5DAID<AIBE5 color with BD bit color card
available.
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age ?E
)irosoft releases the seond &ersion of
(indows0
&ersion @3>/3
Aeatures+
3inally has resizable F overlapping windows and
new
windowing controls.
1988
Septem:er ,-66+ Apple releases $S=8S0 a ,?':it
operating system with a
)aintosh'like
$UI for the Apple II$S3
1990
)ay ,-->+ (indows /3> released :y )irosoft
Aeatures+ Program )anager shell3
1992
Spring of ,--@+ I9) releases 8S=@ 7ersion @3>0 a true
/@':it 8S3
3eatures a new G.orkplace #hellG, an obect oriented
user interface that is heavily integrated with the rest of
the (#.
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age ?5
)arh+ )irosoft introdues (indows /3,3
The user interface is basically the same as .indows =.A
but now includes their GmultimediaG enhancements.
1993
)ay ,--/ )irosoft releases the first &ersion of
(indows *T0 their /@':it 8S3
They give it the version number G=.?G and use the same
user interface they do for regular .indows =.?. Made
available for 'ntel, *ower *!, Alpha, and M'*# systems.
1995
,--;+ )irosoft introdues (indows -; on August
@<th3
1996
I9) "eleases 8S=@ (arp < with a signifiant faelift
for the (orkplae Shell3
1997
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age ?9
5uly ,--.+ )a 8S 6 is finally released3
#elling ?.BE million copies in less than B weeks, it
becomes the best6selling software in that period.
1998
5une @;0 ,--6+ )irosoft releases (indows -63
3eatures- 'nternet ,xplorer .eb browser application
takes over the role of the .indows shell, advertising right
on the desktop, entire help system replaced by 'nternet
,xplorer.
5uly ,@0 ,--6+ BD% ,3> released
3eatures- A very .indows @x like environment for /inux.
2000
5anuary ;0 @>>>+ Apple announes A4ua0 the new
look for their upoming )a8S 1 lient3
2001
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age ?<
8to:er @;0 @>>,+ )irosoft releases (indows 1P
CABA (indows *T ;3,D
3eatures-
Tons of eye candy.
G*roduct ActivationG tethers >* to the existence of the
Microsoft corporation.
The dog from Microsoft Bob.
2007
5anuary />0 @>>.3 After a long wait0 )irosoft finally
releases (indows 7ista C(indows *T ?3>D3
3eatures-
=$ hardware6rendered user interface like Mac(# >.
Bundles ', 9,. unremovable as always.
'ncreased $igital :estrictions Management that tries to
prevent playback or duplication of unlicensed audio and
video material.
(hy U:untuE
The one 2uestion most asked is, K.hy %buntu8L
Its development is open
The whole philosophy behind the 4H% proect of which /inux is a part 0and %buntu is a flavor of /inux1 is that
Ksoftware should be free.L Although that often means the software is free of charge 0not always, as you can see
in the successful marketing of :ed "at products and Hovell&s #%#, products, both based on /inux1, it means
more importantly that all development is visible and shared.
Downloads and upgrades are free
#o whether you are a personal user running %buntu at home or one of hundreds of people in a company
running %buntu, you pay nothing for the software. *eople around the world, of every economic class, so long as
they have access to a computer, can use everything offered as part of %buntu. And not only is the original
download free but so is every upgrade that follows.
Its quick to install
'f you haven&t installed %buntu before but have installed an operating system such as .indows >*, Jista, or 9,
you&ll be amazed at how 2uick and easy %buntu is to install.
Upgrading is easy
.henever a new version is released, %buntu will tell you and offer to upgrade automatically, at no cost, as
long as you have an 'nternet connection.
upport is readily availa!le
3or home and private users, a wealth of support is available at the %buntu website and in forums across the
'nternet. 'f you have a problem, you can usually get an answer within hours 0if not minutes1. This is because
%buntu is written by volunteers all around the globe who maintain contact with each other via these forums, and
they are always happy to help out if they can.
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age ?@
"nterprise support is priced modestly
Although free support is available, businesses will probably find it much more convenient to take out a multi6
installation license for a /ong Term #upport version of %buntu 0such as ?A.AD1. This brings a whole new level of
assistance to the enterprise user, while still keeping the overall running costs of %buntu far cheaper than
proprietary operating systems such as .indows.
#ou can modify it
'f you have programmers who are familiar with /inux in your organization, they can obtain the %buntu source
code totally free of charge and can then modify it in any way necessary, as long as they release the new code
under the same terms. This can drastically speed up a company&s development cycle by relying on software
that&s already been written. This is, in fact, how new features often get added to /inux, and how parts of the
operating system are improved.
Its porta!le
7ou can run %buntu from a !$6:(M or %#B thumb drive without installing it.
It comes with office applications
%buntu comes with (pen(ffice.org preinstalled so that you can get up and running straight away, writing
documents, spreadsheets, and presentations, and your files will be compatible with Microsoft (ffice.
The Parts That )ake Up U:untu
%buntu, named after a #outh African word meaning Khumanity toward others,L is a free operating system 0(#1
with a strong focus on usability and ease of installation. 't is sponsored by the %C company !anonical /td.,
owned by Mark #huttleworth.
De:ian
'nitially developed in ?@@=, $ebianMa contraction of the first name of the developer, 'an Murdock, along with
that of $ebra /ynn, a former girlfriendMis not backed by any company, yet it still manages to provide the basis
of over a dozen other /inux distributions, and is available as both a desktop and a server operating system.
$*U
Both $ebian and %buntu, and most of their constituent parts, are released under the 4H% 4eneral *ublic
/icense 04*/1 and the /esser 4eneral *ublic /icense 0/4*/1.
The term 4H% is a recursive acronym 0a kind of oke that is popular among software hackers1+ it stands for
4H%&s Hot %nix. The 4H% proect was started in ?@<D at M'T by :ichard #tallman, who had the goal of making
a totally free operating system.
The Linu2 Bernel
The /inux kernel is the core operating system used by all distributions of /inux, and is generally pronounced lin6
ucks. 't was created in ?@@? by /inus Torvalds, a 3innish software engineer, who also had a vision of creating a
free operating system.
Tu2
7ou may often see a penguin character called Tux used as the /inux. 't was created by /arry ,wing using
4'M* 0the 4H% 'mage Manipulation *rogram1 as an entry to a /inux competition. #urprisingly, it didn&t win, but
it has since become the official mascot.
Linu2 Distri:utions
/inux comes in a variety of different versions called distributions, or distros for short. 4enerally each distribution
consists of the /inux kernel along with libraries and utilities from the 4H% proect, as well as a variety of
applications such as word processors, spreadsheets, media players, and so on.
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age BA
The Desktop+ Aessing Appliations and Aeatures
Logging In
7ou may wonder why there&s a whole section on logging in. .ell, it&s because you can do more than ust log in
at this screen, as you can see from 3igure D6?. '&ve set up my system so the login screen already shows the
user :obin and is waiting for a password to be entered. But at the bottom of the screen are a number of options
you can use to modify your login session. #o, is before getting on with the logging in itself.
Language
By clicking the /anguage drop6down menu at the bottom left of the screen 0displaying the country %nited #tates
in the screen grab,1 you can change the language you will be using, which is useful if you need to work in more
than one language. 3or example, !anadians might need to use both ,nglish and 3rench, or Belgians might
need to switch between 3lemish and 3rench, and so on.
*ercival A 3ernandez
!omputer 4raphics *age B?
Bey:oard
'f you change the language, you can also change your keyboard layout to match it by clicking the Ceyboard
drop6down menu and choosing the layout you need, as shown by 3igure D6D. 'f, when using %buntu, you press a
key and an unexpected character appears on the screen, you can probably fix the problem right there- you ust
have to figure out which keyboard matches your language and make the change. (nce youhave chosen the
right one, click (C to continue.
Sessions
This option lets you choose the type of desktop to open 0see 3igure D6E1. By default, it will be the 4H(M, There
is also the 3ailsafe 4H(M, option that you can choose if you have display problems when using the regular
4H(M, desktop. The other option available here is xterm, which opens up a Terminal instead of the %buntu
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desktop. This is useful for situations when the desktop seems to crash or won&t even open, perhaps because of
changing a graphic driver.
Aessi:ility
'f you need it, the Accessibility menu 0or as %buntu calls it, %niversal Access *references1 can be called up by
clicking the icon of a person with his arms and legs extended.
You can then enable any or all of the following options:
N %se onscreen keyboard
N %se screen reader
N %se screen magnifier
N ,nhance contrast in colors
N Make text larger and easier to read
N %se sticky keys
N %se bounce keys
N %se slow keys
Desktop Layout
(ne of the best things about %buntu is the care and attention that&s gone into developing its desktop layout.
Based on the 4H(M, desktop environment 0unless you are using Cubuntu or >ubuntu1, it provides a slick and
intuitive interface to your computer 0as do both >fce and C$,1.
The screen grab in 3igure D65 shows a typical %buntu desktop soon after installation.
Take a look at the various parts by taking a clockwise tour, starting at the top left where there are the three main
menus. 'f you are used to using .indows, you can think of these menus as being three Start menus instead of
one+ rather than having to drill down through a single tree of menu items, %buntu divides the options into things
dealing with applications, places, and the system itself.
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The Appliations )enu
The Applications menu 0see 3igure D691 contains the main programs and accessories you use. This includes
things such as !alculator, !$F$J$ !reator, and Terminal under the Accessories subheading+ over a dozen
games under 4ames+ the 4'M* image editor and 36#pot *hoto Manager under 4raphics+ the 3irefox web
browser and ,mpathy instant messenger 0'M1 program under 'nternet+ $ictionary and the (pen(ffice.org
applications under (ffice+ and #ound :ecorder, Brasero $isc Burner, and Movie *layer under #ound O Jideo.
As you use %buntu and start to install more applications, they will usually appear in this menu under new
subheadings such as ,ducation, #ystem Tools, %niversal Access, and so on. #o, if you can&t find a program, the
Applications menu is the first place to look.
The Plaes )enu
The *laces menu 0see 3igure D6<1 is where you can browse and search all the folders on your computer, as well
as any external drives or %#B memory sticks. 't is also the place for connecting to other computers on the
network.
The Home Aolder group
The first group of entries in this menu relate to your local computer, as follows-
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Home $older
,ach user on the computer has a different home folder, so this is
your main folder on the computer. 'n my case the path to the folder
is FhomeFrobin. 3or a user named hannah, it would be
FhomeFhannah. All the folders referred to in this group are
subfolders of this main one. #o, in my case, my $esktop is at
FhomeFrobinF$esktop. Hote the capital letter $. /inux is case6
sensitive, so you must use the capital letter when referring to this
folder.
Desktop
This folder contains all your desktop items, excluding mounted
drives.
Documents
This is the place where you&ll find your documents as stored by
default by applications such as (pen(ffice.org.
Music
Music applications will usually use this folder for storing music
you download, record, or edit.
%ictures
7our photos and other images as handled by programs such as the
4'M* will be stored here.
&ideos
Jideos will generally reside in this folder.
Downloads
By default, downloaded files are saved in this folder.
The Storage De&ies group
The second group of entries relates to your computer&s hard disk drives and any attached %#B memory sticks or
external hard drives. 'n 3igure D6<, you can see the first item is called !omputer.
.hen you click it, a new window similar to the one shown in 3igure D6@ will appear showing all the storage
devices and networks attached to your computer or connected to the network.
.hen you click one 0either in the 3ile Browser or the *laces menu1 you may be prompted for your password+ if
so, enter it. A window such as the one in 3igure D6?A will then open, and as long as the folders and files have
the re2uired permissions, you can copy files between the %buntu and .indows partitions.
*ote+ .henever you click a storage device, %buntu will mount it as an icon on the desktop so that you can
2uickly reference it from there in the future, until you unmount it or log off.
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The *etwork group
'n 3igure D6<, you can see that a mounted network folder called transfer on i2EAA in the Hetwork group of
the *laces menu. This name means the folder called transfer on the computer called i2EAA. To access other
computers and folders on the network, you click the Hetwork entry to bring up a 3ile Browser window such as
the one in 3igure D6??, where two computers on the local network have been found 0AMA$,%# and
MATT",.1, and a .indows network has also been detected.
!licking AMA$,%# takes me to the shared folders on another /inux computer on my desk, whereas clicking
.indows Hetwork first brings up the workgroups %buntu has detected within the .indows network. 'n my
case, as shown in 3igure D6?B, three workgroups have been found- "(M,, M#"(M,, and .(:C4:(%*.
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!licking any of these will bring up another window showing all the computers within that network. #o, for
example, clicking M#"(M, brings up five computers in the $ workgroup, as shown in 3igure D6?=. 3rom
here on in, you can choose a computer and then select available folders on that machine, although you will have
to enter the right passwords for computers that re2uire them.
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(nce you have connected to another computer and opened up a folder, it will then become accessible directly
from the *laces menu, and will also be mounted on the desktop as an icon.
(f course, if your computer isn&t part of a network or you have a different set of workgroups, what you see when
you use the Hetworks group of the *laces menu may be 2uite different. 'n any case, you should be able to
access whatever .indows and Mac systems that your site can access.
The Searh for AilesF and "eent Douments groups
The final group in the *laces menu is for searching for files or selecting recently accessed documents. 3igure D6
?D shows both the #earch for 3iles window and the :ecent $ocuments submenu of the *laces menu.
.hen searching for files you can tell %buntu where to look by clicking the K/ook in folderL drop6down list and
selecting the folders andFor computers or external drives to search.
The System )enu
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The #ystem menu 0see 3igure D6?E1 has two groups of items

Administration
The #ystem P Administration menu 0see 3igure D6?91 is where you make more funda6
mental changes to your computer, such as installing hardware device drivers, setting
up TJ tuners or webcams, and installing new packages.
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Preferenes
The #ystem P *references menu
0see 3igure D6?51 is the place to go
when you need to change various
settings in your %buntu configuration,
ranging from the keyboard and
display to power management,
sound, and the applications to run
automatically when the computer
boots up.