SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 1)

Acids
An acid is a chemical substance which ionises in water to produce hydrogen ions,
H
+
/hydroxonium ions, H
3
O
+
.
H
+
(aq) + H
2
O(l) > H
3
O
+
(aq)
Example: HCl(g) + H
2
O(l) > H
3
O
+
(aq) + Cl
-
(aq)
Acid Acid name Ions
HCl Hydrochloric acid H
+
, Cl
-

HNO
3
Nitric acid H
+
, NO
3
-

H
2
SO
4
Sulphuric acid H
+
, SO
4
2-

CH
3
COOH Ethanoic acid H
+
, CH
3
COO
-


Monoprotic acid = acid can produce only one hydrogen ion per molecule in water. (Example:
HCl)
Diprotic acid = acid can produce two hydrogen ions per molecule in water. (Example: H
2
SO
4
)
Triprotic acid = acid can produce three hydrogen ions per molecule in water. (Example: H
3
PO
4
)










Bases / Alkalis
A base is a chemical substance which reacts with an acid to produce a salt and water only.
Base(s) + acid(aq) > salt + water (l).
Example: NaOH(s) + HCl(aq) > NaCl(aq) + H
2
O(l)
Base Formula Solubility in water Ions in the
aqueous solution
Copper(II) oxide CuO Insoluble base -
Lead(II) oxide PbO Insoluble base -
Magnesium oxide MgO Insoluble base -
Zinc hydroxide Zn(OH)
2
Insoluble base -
Aluminium hydroxide Al(OH)
3
Insoluble base -
Sodium oxide Na
2
O Soluble base (alkali) Na
+
, O
2-

Calcium oxide CaO Soluble base (alkali) Ca
2+
, O
2-

Sodium hydroxide NaOH Soluble base (alkali) Na
+
, OH
-

Potassium hydroxide KOH Soluble base (alkali) K
+
, OH
-

Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2 Soluble base (alkali) Ba
2+
, OH
-











SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 2)
Acids and bases are very useful in our daily lives. Lets start with acids. Without acids, we wont have
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), your car wont start (sulphuric acid in car batteries) or even accelerated rotting
of your food (food preservative in the form of citric acid). Similarly, imagine a world without bases.
Without bases, stubborn stains on your clothing wont come off (sodium hypochlorite in bleach), youll
have dirty mirrors (ammonium hydroxide used in glass cleaners) and even having bowel problems as
laxatives can be made from magnesium hydroxide.
[Tips: For applications of acids and bases, try to memorise the trio combo of application-chemical name-
chemical formula. It is good to learn all three to score absolute full marks when you try to desribe the
usage of acids and bases. Of course, you must also desribe how they function and where can they be
naturally found (if relevant).]

The Uses of Acids in Our Daily Life
Benzoic acid Its salt are used to preserve food
Carbonic acid To make carbonated drinks
Ethanoic acid A main compound of vinegar
Hydrochloric acid To clean metals before electroplating / household cleaning / leather
processing / swimming pool maintenance
Nitric acid Production of fertilisers, explosives, etching and dissolution of metals
(purification and extraction of gold)
Sulphuric acid To make detergent, polymer and fertilisers.
Tartaric acid Manufacturing of soft drinks, provide tartness to food, as an emetic (a
substance to induce vomiting)


The Uses of Bases in Our Daily Life
Ammonia Production of fertilisers (ammonium and nitrate salts), used in the
manufacture of nitric acid, neutralise the acid (in the petroleum industry)
and prevent premature coagulation in natural / synthetic latex.
Aluminium hydroxide Manufacture other aluminium compound and to make gastric medicine
(antacid)
Calcium hydroxide To make cement, limewater, neutralise the acidity of soil and application of
sewage treatment.
Sodium hydroxide Used in the manufacturing of soaps, detergents, and cleaners.
Magnesium hydroxide Suspension of magnesium hydroxide in water are used as an antacid, used
as an antiperspirant armpit deodorant and as a non-hazardous alkali to
neutralise acidic wastewater.














SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 3)
If we are talking about opposites in chemistry, there can not be any more opposites than acid and
alkali. Acids are the chemical opposites of bases. This is (partly) due to their where acids donates a
hydrogen ion to another compound called base, hence they are chemically opposite. Of course there
are other differences between the chemical properties of acids and bases.
[Tips: Often, students try to memorise both sets of properties for acid and alkali. While this is the correct
thing to do, but more often than not, certain properties are direct opposites that you only need to
remember one half to recall the other. So do use this trick to memorise the differences.]
Chemical Properties

Acid Alkali
In the presence of water, an acid will ionise to
form hydrogen ion, H
+
.
In the presence of water, an alkali will ionise to
form hydroxide ion, OH
-
.
Sour in taste Bitter in taste
pH values less than 7 pH values more than 7
Indicator: Blue litmus paper (Red) Indicator: Red litmus paper (Blue)
Indicator: Universal indicator (Orange and red) Indicator: Universal indicator (Blue and purple)
Indicator: Methyl orange (Red) Indicator: Methyl orange (Yellow)
React with bases to produce saltsand water.
2HCl(aq) + CuO(s) > CuCl
2
(aq) + H
2
O(l)
React with acids to produce salts and water.
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) > NaCl(aq) + H
2
O(l)
React with metals (reactive metal, higher
position than H
+
in the electrochemical series) to
producesalts and hydrogen gas.
2HCl(aq) + Zn(s) > ZnCl
2
(aq) + H
2
(g)
React with an ammonium salt (alkali is heated) to
produce ammonia gas.
Ba(OH)
2
(aq) + 2NH
4
Cl(s) > BaCl
2
(aq) + 2H
2
O(l) +
2NH
3
(g)
React with carbonates to producesalts, carbon
dioxide gas andwater.
H
2
SO
4
(aq) + ZnCO
3
(s) > ZnSO
4
(aq) + H
2
O(l) +
CO
2
(g)
React with aqueous salt solutions to produce metal
hydroxides (as precipitate).
2NaOH(aq) + CuSO
4
(aq) > Na
2
SO
4
(aq) + Cu(OH)
2
(s)
SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 4)
Acids in simple terms can be thought to be compounds which donates hydrogen when dissolved in
water. So, what do we make of monoprotic acid and polyprotic acid? The difference is in the ability to
donate hydrogens. Monoprotic acids have only a single hydrogen to donate, while polyprotic acids have
multiple hydrogens ions to be donated.
[Tips: Rather than remembering monoprotic and polyprotic by heart, maybe it is better to understand
the name behind it. Mono means single while poly means multiple. So anything with a mono in front of it
means single, while anything with a poly as prefix means the multiple of mono.]
Important Definition for Acids
Monoprotic acid (monobasic acid) is an acid which produce one mole of H
+
ion when one mole of the
acid ionise in water.
Monoprotic acid Monoprotic acid name
HCl Hydrochloric acid
HNO
3
Nitric acid
CH
3
COOH Ethanoic acid

Polyprotic acids
Diprotic acid (dibasic acid) is an acid which produce two moles of H
+
ios from one mole of the acid in
water.
Diprotic acid Diprotic acid name
H
2
SO
4
Sulphuric acid
H
2
CO3 Carbonic acid
H
2
CrO
4
Chromic acid
H
2
C
2
O
4
Ethanedioic acid / Oxalate acid



Triprotic acid (tribasic acid) is an acid which produce three moles of H
+
ions from one mole of the acid in
water.
Triprotic acid Triprotic acid name
H
3
PO
4
Phosphoric acid
C
6
H
8
O
7
Citric acid





















SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 5)
The pH scale is just a scale using colours to represent the concentration of hydrogen ions. In SPM
Chemistry (and real-life applications), it has more far reaching consequences as it is a measure of acidity
and basicity of an aqueous solution. It is typically used as a quick indicator to see if an aqueous solution
is acidic or basic by judging the value from the pH scale. A pH above 7 is said to be basic while below 7 is
touted to be acidic. Then obviously, 7 is taken to be neutral.
[Tips: Most students think of the pH scale as being linear. While the values are linear, the value it
measures, the Hydrogen ion concentrations are measured in logarithmic scale. So if the value of an
aqueous solution is 1 higher than that of another, it has not 1 time more hydrogen ion concentration but
10 times more. So take note of that. Also, the hydrogen concentration measured here is relative to water
rather than any absolute figures, in case you are asking how do you have 1/10,000,000 Hydrogen ions.]

The pH scale and the Measurement of pH Value of a Solution

pH scale is a set of numbers used to represent the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
pH is a measurement of the concentration of hydrogen ions (H
+
) in the solution.
pH value greater than 7: alkaline solution
pH value of exactly 7: neutral solution
pH value less than 7: acidic solution
In an acidic solution = higher in the concentration of the H
+
ions, the lower the pH value.
In an alkaline solution = lower in the concentration of the H
+
ions, the higher the pH value.
pH solution can be measured by using universal indicator, pH paper and pH meter.
pH value Colour of Universal Indicator
0, 1, 2 Red
3 Orange red
4 Orange
5 Orange yellow
6 Yellow
7 Green
8 Greenish-blue
9 Blue
10 Blue
11 Bluish-purple
12, 13, 14 Purple


SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 6)
Strength of acids and bases. Most of the cartoons that we watched when we were young depict acids as
very very corrosive. It will probably seemed to the young viewers that all acids are very very corrosive.
However, this is not the case for both acids and bases. This is due to the different levels of ionisation and
dissociation of acids and bases in producing H
+
and OH
-
ions in solutions. So why does it matter if the
acids and bases are strong or weak? Of course it matters as their strengths will lead to a myriad of
different usage in practical life.
An indication of strength of acids is seen through the conductivity of electricity. An acid which conducts
electricity well represents a strong acid. Same goes for bases. On the other hand, an acid which conducts
electricity weakly is a weak acid, with once again the same being for bases.
[Tips: Students who can understand why a strong acid/base is a good electricity conductor has already
understand the underlying concept of acids and bases. For those who don't, you have not yet understand
the concept of ions in acids (which is linked to how ions can be charge carriers). In simple terms, when
acids are strong, they will ionise or dissociate more completely, leading to more ions in solution, which
allows ions which work as charge carrier to conduct more electricity.]
Strong Acids
Strength of an acid the degree of ionisation or dissociation of the acid in water.
Strong acid an acid which ionises / dissociates completely in water to form high
concentration of hydrogen ions (H
+
).
Example of strong acid: Mineral acid hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO
3
) and sulphuric
acid (H
2
SO
4
).
Example of the strong acid reaction in water: HCl(aq) > H
+
(aq) + Cl
-
(aq) (The concentration of
hydrogen ions is equal to the concentration of hydrochloric acid)
Weak Acids
Weak acid an acid which ionises / dissociates partially in water to form low
concentrationof hydrogen ions (H
+
).
Example of weak acid: ethanoic acid (CH
3
COOH) and methanoic acid (HCOOH)
Example of the weak acid reaction in water: CH
3
COOH <-> CH
3
COO
-
(aq) + H
+
(aq) {The
concentration of hydrogen ions is low and the ions (CH
3
COO
-
and H
+
) reacts to reform the
ethanoic acid molecule = reversible reaction}


Strong Alkalis
Strength of an alkali the degree of ionisation or dissociation of the alkali in water.
Strong alkali an alkali which ionises / dissociates completely in water to form high
concentration of hydroxide ions (OH

).
Example of strong alkali: Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution, potassium hydroxide (KOH)
solution and barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)
2
) solution.
Example of the strong alkali reaction in water: NaOH(aq) > Na
+
(aq) + OH
-
(aq)
Weak Alkalis
Weak alkali an alkali which ionises / dissociates partially in water to form low
concentration of hydroxide ions (OH

).
Example of weak alkali: ammonia (NH
3
) solution.
Example of the weak alkali reaction in water: NH
3
(g) + H
2
O(l) <-> NH
4
+
(aq) + OH
-
(aq)















SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 7)
One of the most common misconception for SPM Form 4 Chemistry students is theperception that
strength of acids/bases is actually the same as concentration of acids/bases. This cannot be more
wrong a perception. The strength of acids and bases is linked to the ionisation and dissociation in
solutions. While concentration is defined by parameters such as molarity or amount present.
Although this subtopic do not appear per se in examination as frequently as it should but it is important
to understand later concepts especially for experiments. So try your best to understand this post.
[Tips: The easiest way to distinguish between the strength and concentration of acid/base is to use a set
of strong and weak acids examples, then imagine both of them in diluted and concentrated form,
allowing 4 different samples.
Some Berry Readers also asked what defines a concentrated acid/base? By concensus, usually
concentrated acids/bases have high molarities exceeding 6 mol/L. Likewise, a diluted acid/base has
molarities below 6 mol/L.]

Concentration of Acids and Alkalis
Quantity of solute can be measured in grams or moles: g dm
-3
or mol dm
-3
.
Concentration (g dm
-3
) = mass of solute (g) / volume of solution (dm
3
)
Concentration (mol dm
-3
) = number of moles of solute (mol) / volume of solution (dm
3
)
Relationship between Number of Moles with Molarity and Volume of a Solution
Molarity (mol dm
-3
) = number of moles of solution (mol) / volume of solution (dm
3
)
M = molarity of solution (mol dm
-3
), V = Volume of solution (dm
3
), n = Number of moles of solute
(mol)
M = n/V
Preparation of Standard Solutions
Standard solution = a solution in which its concentration is accurately known.
Standard solution is prepared by using volumetric flask with a fixed volume (100 cm
3
, 200 cm
3
,
250 cm
3
, 500 cm
3
and 1000 cm
3
)



Preparation of a Solution by Dilution Method
Dilution = a process of diluting a concentrated solution by adding a solvent (water) to obtain
a more diluted solution.
The concentration of the solution decreases after dilution.
The number of moles of solute in the solution remains unchanged after dilution.
(M
a
V
a
) / 1000 = (M
b
V
b
) / 1000
M
a
= Initial molarity of solution, M
b
= Final molarity of solution, V
a
= Initial volume of solution
and V
b
= Final volume of solution
Relationship between pH Values and Molarities of Acids or Alkalis
pH values depends on degree of dissociation and molarity / concentration of hydrogen ions, H
+
/
hydroxide ions, OH
-
in the solution.
The higher the molarity of a strong acid, the lower is its pH value.
The higher the molarity of a strong alkali, the higher is its pH value.
The molarity of an acid can be changed when (i) water is added, (ii) an acid of different
concentration is added and (iii) an alkali is added.











SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 8 )
Neutralisation is the name given for a chemical reaction involving an acid and base where they interact
and ends with the formation of salt. In it, the base cancels out the acid in the reaction. Understanding
the definition of this is important to identify the neutralisation process which occurs regularly but goes
unnoticed by most Berry Readers. So the basic premise is Acid + Alkali > Salt + Water. It is that simple.
[Tips: The basic understanding of the neutralisation chemical reaction would involve H+ + OH- in its net
ionic equation. So while the "word" formula for neutralisation is Acid + Alkali --> Salt + Water, it is also
useful to understand the generic chemical term of YOH + HX XY + H2O, where X is a monovalent anion
and Y is a monovalent cation. The resulting salt is represented by XY and H2O is obviously water.]
Neutralisation
Neutralisation = a reaction between an acid and a base/alkali to produce salt and water only.
Acid + alkali > salt + water
Ionic equation of neutralisation: H
+
(aq) + OH
-
(aq) > H
2
O(l)
Application of Neutralisation Reactions in Daily Life
Digestive juices in stomach Break up food (only in acidic condition) and maintained at pH of between 1 and
2,
Insect stings Bees and ants inject an acidic liquid into the skin but wasps inject an alkaline
liquid.
Toothpaste An alkaline compound (magnesium hydroxide) in toothpastes neutralises the
organic acids produced by the food.
pH of the swimming pool Calcium hypochlorite, Ca(OCl)
2
is added to the water.
Latex industries Ammonia is used to neutralise the organic acidproduces by bacteria to prevent
coagulation.
Neutralisation Manufacture fertilisers, soaps and detergents
Effluent from factories It can be treated with lime.
Sulphuric acid Manufacture of dyes, explosives, steel, fertilisers, paints and plastics.
Soil treatment Plants grow best when the pH of the soil is about 7. The soil is too acidic, quick
lime (calcium oxide) or slaked lime (calcium hydroxide) is added to the soil to
neutralise the excess acid.

SPM Chemistry Form 4 Notes Acids and Bases (Part 9 Final)
Acid-base titration is a method used to determine the concentration (quantitative analysis) of an acid or
base. Despite the complicated sounding name (at least for most Form 4 students in Malaysia), it is just a
simple neutralisation process based on the principle where the moles of acids will eventually be equal
with the moles of bases at equivalence point. It can also be used to figure out the purity level of
chemicals. It is near certain to appear in exams from SPM all the way up to university level. So you might
want to take note and be fully serious about this topic.
[Tips: Some Berry Readers are content to just learn it theoretically from books. Although you won't fully
understand the importance of this experiment which is the precursors for all future quantitative analysis
experiments you'll do in the future, you'll appreciate having done it properly in the lab during school
days. So do not play around in the lab when your teacher conducts this lab. You'll learn more through the
experiment and keep it in your head than any book could help you.]
Acid-base Titration
Titration a quantitative analysis method to determine the volume of an acid that is required
to neutralise a fixed volume of an alkali / a quantitative analysis method to determine the
volume of an alkali that is required to neutralise a fixed volume of an acid.
End point of a titration a point which neutralisation occurs when the acid has completely
neutralised the alkali / the alkali has completely neutralised the acid.
Reactants: Acid and alkali
Products: Salt and water
End point can be determined by (i) the use of acid-base indicators during titration, (ii) measuring
the pH values of the solution during titration and (iii) measuring the electrical conductivity of
solution during titration.
Indicator Alkali Neutral Acid
Litmus Blue Orange Red
Methyl orange Yellow Orange Red
Phenolphthalein Pink Colourless Colourless