Coastal and Ocean Engineering

XIII
Coastal and Ocean

Engineering

87 Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering

John B. Herbich

Wave Phenomena Sediment Processes Beach Prole Longshore Sediment
Transport Coastal Structures Navigational Channels Marine Foundations
Oil Spills Offshore Structures

1586_book.fm Page 1 Monday, May 10, 2004 12:54 PM
2005 by CRC Press LLC

87

Shallow Water and Deep

Water Engineering

87.1 Wave Phenomena

Airy (Low Amplitude) Cnoidal (Shallow Water, Long Waves)
Stream Function Stokian (Third Order)

87.2 Sediment Processes

87.3 Beach Prole

87.4 Longshore Sediment Transport

General Energy Flux Equation Threshold of Sand Movement
by Waves

87.5 Coastal Structures

Seawalls Breakwaters

87.6 Navigational Channels

87.7 Marine Foundations

87.8 Oil Spills

87.9 Offshore Structures

Ocean engineering is a relatively new branch of engineering. The need for this new specialty was recognized
in the 1960s. Several universities, including Texas A&M, MIT, Florida Atlantic, the U.S. Coast Guard
Academy, and the U.S. Naval Academy, have established undergraduate degree programs in ocean engineer-
ing. Several universities have also developed programs at the graduate level specializing in ocean engineering.
Ocean and coastal engineering covers many topics, generally divided between shallow water (coastal
engineering) and deep water (ocean engineering), shown in Figure 87.1 and Figure 87.2.

87.1 Wave Phenomena

Wave phenomena are of great importance in coastal and ocean engineering. Waves determine the
composition and geometry of beaches. Since waves interact with human-made shore structures or
offshore structures, safe design of these structures depends to a large extent on the selected wave
characteristics. The structural stability criteria are often stated in terms of extreme environmental
conditions (wave heights, periods, water levels, astronomical tides, storm surges, tsunamis, and winds).
Waves in the ocean constantly change and are irregular in shape, particularly when under the inuence
of wind; such waves are called

seas.

When waves are no longer under the inuence of wind and are out
of the generating area, they are referred to as

swells.

Many wave theories have been developed, including
the Airy, cnoidal, solitary, stream function, Stokian, and so forth. Figure 87.3 describes the regions of
validity for various wave theories. Cnoidal and stream function theories apply principally to shallow

John B. Herbich

Texas A & M University Consulting
& Research Services, Inc.


87

-2

The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

and transitional water, whereas Airy and Stokian theories apply to transitional and deep water (Airy
applies to low amplitude waves).

Airy (Low Amplitude)

Wavelength is given by the following equations.
Shallow water (87.1)
Transitional water (87.2)
Deep water (87.3)
where

T

=

wave period;

g

=

acceleration due to gravity;

h

=

water depth; and

C

=

wave celerity. Subscript

o

denotes deep water conditions.

Cnoidal (Shallow Water, Long Waves)

The theory originally developed by Boussinesq [1877] has been studied and presented in more usable
form by several researchers. Wavelength is given by

FIGURE 87.1

Coastal engineering (shallow water).

FIGURE 87.2

Ocean engineering (deep water).
Wave Phenomena
Characteristics Design
Values
Sediment Processes
Onshore-
Offshore
Littoral
Navigation Channels
Design Construction Maintenance Contaminated
Sediment
Removal
Dredging Dredging Dredging Dredging Dredging Dredging
Coastal Structures
Seawalls Groins Breakwater
Shore
Connected
Detached
Marine Foundation
Shallow Deep
Oil Spills
Containment Removal
Ports & Harbors
Design Construction Maintenance Contaminated
Sediment
Removal
Wave Phenomena
Characteristics Design Values
Offshore Pipelines
Stability
Offshore Structures
Floating Fixed Tension
Dynamic
Positioning
Naval
Architecture
Structural
Analysis
Pile
Driving
L T gh CT = =
L
gT h
L
=
2
2
2
p
p
tanh
L
gT
C T
o o
= =
2
2p


Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering

87

-3

(87.4)
and wave period by
(87.5)

FIGURE 87.3

Regions of validity for various wave theories (

Source:

Le Mhaut, B. 1969.

An Introduction to Hydro-
dynamics and Water Waves,

Report No. ERL 118-POL3-1&2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Environmental Science
Services Administration, Washington, DC.)
Shallow water
d
L
= 0.040
= 0.00155
d
gT
2
d
gT
2
= 0.0792
d
gT
2
d
L
= 0.500
Transitional water Deep water
Stokes 3rd order
Linear (Airy) Theory
S
t
r
e
a
m

F
u
n
c
t
i
o
n

V
0.0004 0.001 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Stream
Function
V
Croidal Theory
Stokes 2nd order
= 0.14
H
0
L
0
BREAKING
B
r
e
a
k
i
n
g

l
i
m
i
t

(
S
o
l
i
t
a
r
y

w
a
v
e

t
h
e
o
r
y
H
d
=

0
.
7
8
)
NONBREAKING
H =
H
B
4
Stokes 4th order

~
~
26
L
2
H
d
3
L
d
H
kK k =
16
3
3
( )
T
g
h
y
H
h
y
kK k
H
y k
E k
K k
t
t
t
=
+ -
16
3
1
1
2
2
( )
( )
( )


87

-4

The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition

where

y

t

=

distance from the bottom to the wave trough;

k

=

modulus of the elliptic integrals;

K

(

k

)

=

complete elliptic integral of the rst kind; and

E

(

k

)

=

complete elliptic integral of the second kind.
Cnoidal waves are periodic and of permanent form; thus

L

=

CT

.

Stream Function

Stream function was developed by Dean [1977] and is of analytical form with the wavelength

L

, coef-
cients

X

(

n

), and the value of stream function on the free surface

y

h

determined numerically. The
expression for the stream function,

y

, for a wave system rendered stationary by a reference frame moving
with the speed of the wave,

C

, is
(87.6)
with the coordinate

z

referenced to the mean water level;

U

is a uniform current.
Stream function (Table 87.1) provides values of wavelength

L

=

L

/

L

o

,

h

c

=

h

c

/

H

(water surface elevation
above mean water),

h

t

=

h

t

/

H

(wave surface elevation below mean water),

u

c

(horizontal dimensionless
velocity at the crest), (maximum dimensionless vertical velocity), (

F

D

)

m

(maximum dimensionless
drag force), and (

F

I

)

m

(maximum dimensionless inertia force).

Stokian (Third Order)

Wavelength is given by
(87.7)

87.2 Sediment Processes

Along the coasts the ocean meets land. Waves, currents, tsunamis, and storms have been shaping the
beaches for many thousands of years. Beaches form the rst defense against the waves and are constantly
moving on, off, and along the shore (littoral drift). Figure 87.4 provides a denition for terms describing
a typical beach prole. The shoreline behavior is very complex and difcult to understand; it cannot be
expressed by equations because many of the processes are site specic. Researchers have, however,
developed equations that should be summarized. There are two basic sediment movements:
1. On- and offshore
2. Parallel to the shore and at an angle to the shore.

87.3 Beach Prole

Information on beach proles is essential in designing structural modications (such as seawalls, revet-
ments, and breakwaters, both connected and detached, pipeline crossings, and beach replenishment.
Bruun [1954] indicated that many beach proles (Figure 87.5) can be represented by

h

(

x

)

=

Ax

2/3

where

h

is the water depth at a distance

x

offshore, and

A

is a dimensional scale parameter.
Dean [1977] showed that

H

b

/

wT

is an important parameter distinguishing

barred

proles from
nonbarred proles (where

H

b

is breaking wave height,

w

is fall velocity of sediment in water, and

T

is
wave period). This parameter is consistent with the following beach proles in nature:
y
p p
= -
+ +
L
T
U z X n
n
L
h z
nx
L
n
NN
( )sinh ( ) cos
2 2
1
w
m
L
gT h
L
H
L
h L h L
d L
=
+ +
2
2
2
4
2
2
1
5 2 4 2 4
8 2 p
p p p p
p
tanh
cosh( / ) cosh ( /
sinh ( / )


Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering

87

-5

TABLE 87.1

Selected Summary of Tabulated Dimensionless Stream Function Quantities

Case

h

/

L

o

H

/

L

0

L

(Bottom)

1-A 0.002 0.00039 0.120 0.910

-

0.090 49.68 13.31 10 2574.0 815.6 10 1.57
1-B 0.002 0.00078 0.128 0.938

-

0.062 47.32 15.57 10 2774.6 1027.0 10 1.45
1-C 0.002 0.00117 0.137 0.951

-

0.049 43.64 14.98 10 2861.0 1043.5 10 1.35
1-D 0.002 0.00156 0.146 0.959

-

0.041 40.02 13.63 10 2985.6 1001.7 10 1.29
2-A 0.005 0.00097 0.187 0.857

-

0.143 29.82 8.70 20 907.0 327.1 20 1.46
2-B 0.005 0.00195 0.199 0.904

-

0.096 29.08 9.29 10 1007.9 407.1 10 1.36
2-C 0.005 0.00293 0.211 0.927

-

0.073 26.71 9.85 10 1060.7 465.7 10 1.23
2-D 0.005 0.00388 0.223 0.944

-

0.056 23.98 9.47 10 1128.4 465.2 10 1.11
3-A 0.01 0.00195 0.260 0.799

-

0.201 19.83 6.22 30 390.3 162.1 30 1.34
3-B 0.01 0.00389 0.276 0.865

-

0.135 19.87 7.34 20 457.3 209.0 20 1.28
3-C 0.01 0.00582 0.292 0.898

-

0.102 18.47 6.98 20 494.7 225.6 10 1.16
3-D 0.01 0.00775 0.308 0.922

-

0.078 16.46 6.22 10 535.4 242.4 10 1.04
4-A 0.02 0.00390 0.359 0.722

-

0.278 12.82 4.50 30 156.3 82.2 30 1.18
4-B 0.02 0.00777 0.380 0.810

-

0.190 13.35 5.38 30 197.6 103.4 20 1.16
4-C 0.02 0.01168 0.401 0.858

-

0.142 12.58 5.29 20 222.9 116.1 20 1.06
4-D 0.02 0.01555 0.422 0.889

-0.111 11.29 4.99 20 242.4 113.5 20 0.97
5-A 0.05 0.00975 0.541 0.623 -0.377 7.20 3.44 50 44.3 37.6 50 0.93
5-B 0.05 0.01951 0.566 0.716 -0.284 7.66 3.69 50 59.1 38.5 50 0.94
5-C 0.05 0.02916 0.597 0.784 -0.216 7.41 3.63 30 72.0 47.1 30 0.88
5-D 0.05 0.03900 0.627 0.839 -0.161 6.47 3.16 30 85.5 45.1 20 0.76
6-A 0.10 0.0183 0.718 0.571 -0.429 4.88 3.16 75 17.12 22.62 75 0.73
6-B 0.10 0.0366 0.744 0.642 -0.358 5.09 3.07 50 22.37 23.67 50 0.73
6-C 0.10 0.0549 0.783 0.713 -0.287 5.00 2.98 50 28.79 23.64 30 0.70
6-D 0.10 0.0730 0.824 0.782 -0.218 4.43 2.44 50 36.48 22.43 30 0.62
7-A 0.20 0.0313 0.899 0.544 -0.456 3.63 3.05 75 6.69 13.86 75 0.46
7-B 0.20 0.0625 0.931 0.593 -0.407 3.64 2.93 75 8.60 13.61 75 0.47
7-C 0.20 0.0938 0.981 0.653 -0.347 3.54 2.49 50 11.31 13.31 50 0.47
7-D 0.20 0.1245 1.035 0.724 -0.276 3.16 2.14 50 15.16 11.68 50 0.44
8-A 0.50 0.0420 1.013 0.534 -0.466 3.11 2.99 75 2.09 6.20 75 0.090
8-B 0.50 0.0840 1.059 0.570 -0.430 3.01 2.85 75 2.71 6.21 75 0.101
8-C 0.50 0.1260 1.125 0.611 -0.389 2.86 2.62 75 3.53 5.96 75 0.116
8-D 0.50 0.1681 1.194 0.677 -0.323 2.57 1.94 50 4.96 5.36 50 0.120
9-A 1.00 0.0427 1.017 0.534 -0.466 3.09 2.99 75 1.025 3.116 75 0.004
9-B 1.00 0.0852 1.065 0.569 -0.431 2.98 2.85 75 1.329 3.126 75 0.005
9-C 1.00 0.1280 1.133 0.609 -0.391 2.83 2.62 75 1.720 3.011 75 0.008
9-D 1.00 0.1697 1.211 0.661 -0.339 2.60 1.99 75 2.303 2.836 50 0.009
10-A 2.00 0.0426 1.018 0.533 -0.467 3.09 2.99 75 0.513 1.558 75 -0.001
10-B 2.00 0.0852 1.065 0.569 -0.431 2.98 2.85 75 0.664 1.563 75 0.000
10-C 2.00 0.1275 1.134 0.608 -0.392 2.83 2.63 75 0.860 1.510 75 -0.001
10-D 2.00 0.1704 1.222 0.657 -0.343 2.62 2.04 75 1.137 1.479 50 0.0000
Notes: (1) Except where obvious or noted otherwise, dimensionless quantities are presented for mean water elevation. (2)
The maximum dimensionless drag and inertial forces apply for a piling extending through the entire water column. (3)
Subscripts m, c, and t denote maximum, crest, and trough, respectively.
Source: Dean, R. G. 1991. Beach proles. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf,
Houston. Copyright 1990 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston. Used with permission. All rights reserved.
h
c
h
t
u
c
w
m
*
q( )
*
w
m
( ) F
D m
( )
*
F
I m
q( )
*
F
I m
p
Dc
87-6 The Engineering Handbook, Second Edition
When , one can expect bar formation. (87.8a)
When , a monotonic prole can be expected. (87.8b)
Later, on the basis of large laboratory data, Kriebel et al. [1986] found the value of 2.3 rather than 0.85
in Equation (87.8a) and Equation (87.8b).
87.4 Longshore Sediment Transport
The longshore transport (Q) is the volumetric rate of sand movement parallel to the shoreline. Much
longshore transport occurs in the surf zone and is caused by the approach of waves at an angle to the
shoreline.
FIGURE 87.4 Visual denition of terms describing a typical beach prole. (Source: Department of the Army. 1987.
Shore Protection Manual, vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research
Center, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.)
Milder slope profiles
High waves
Short periods
Small sediment diameter
Steeper profiles
Low waves
Long periods
Large sediment diameter
H
wT
b
> 0 85 .
H
wT
b
< 0 85 .
Plunge point
High water level
Surf Zone
Breakers
Offshore
Nearshore zone
(defines area of nearshore currents)
Inshore or shoreface
(extends through breaker zone)
Beach or shore
Coastal area
Backshore
Foreshore
Coast
Beach scarp
Crest of berm
Ordinary low water level
Bottom
Berms
luff
or
scarpment
Shallow Water and Deep Water Engineering 87-7
Longshore transport rate (Q, given in unit volume per second) is assumed to depend upon the
longshore component of wave energy ux, P
ls
(Department of the Army, 1984):
(87.9)
where K = dimensionless empirical coefcient (based on eld measurements) = 0.39; r
s
= density of
sand; r = density of water; g = acceleration due to gravity; and a = ratio of the volume of solids to total
volume, accounting for sand porosity = 0.6.
General Energy Flux Equation
The energy ux per unit length of wave crest or, equivalently, the rate at which wave energy is transmitted
across a plane of unit width perpendicular to the direction of wave advance, is
P = ECg (87.10)
where E is wave energy density and C
g
is wave group speed. The wave energy density is calculated by
(87.11)
where r is mass density of water, g is acceleration of gravity, and H is wave height.
If the wave crests make an angle a with the shoreline, the energy ux in the direction of wave advance
per unit length of beach is
(87.12)
The longshore component of wave energy ux is
(87.13)
FIGURE 87.5 Beach prole scale factor, A, versus sediment diameter, D, in relationship h = Ax
2/3
. (Source: Dean, R.
G. 1991. Beach proles. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf, Houston.
Copyright 1990 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
Suggested Empirical
Relationship
From Hughes
Field Results
From Swarts Laboratory
Results
From Individual Field Profiles
Where a Range of Sand Sizes
Was Given
0.01
0.01
0.1 1.0
1.0
0.10
10.0 100.0
SEDIMENT SIZE, D (mm)
S
E
D
I
M
E
N
T

S
C
A
L
E

P
A
R
A
M
E
T
E
R
,

A
(
m
1
/
3
)
Q
K
g
P
s
ls
=
- ( ) r r a
E
gH
=
r
2
8
P
gH
C
g
cos cos a
r
a =
2
8
P P
gH
C
l g
= = cos sin cos sin a a
r
a a
2
8
or
(87.14)
Threshold of Sand Movement by Waves
The threshold of sand movement by wave action has been investigated by a number of researchers [e.g.,
Tsuchiya, 1991]. Figure 87.6 shows the modied Shields diagram, where t
*c
= 1/ey
i
(D
v*
), and y
i
(D
v*
) is
a function of sediment-uid number only, plotted as a function of D
v*
.
The empirical formula shown by dashed lines is as follows:
(87.15)
87.5 Coastal Structures
Wave forces act on coastal and offshore structures; the forces may be classied as due to non-breaking,
breaking, and broken waves. Fixed coastal structures include:
1. Wall-type structures such as seawalls, bulkheads, revetments, and certain types of breakwaters
2. Pile-supported structures such as piers and offshore platforms
3. Rubble structures such as breakwaters, groins, and revetments
Seawalls
Forces due to nonbreaking waves may be calculated using Sainou or

MicheRundgren formulas.
Employing the MicheRundgren formula, the pressure distribution is
FIGURE 87.6 Threshold of sand movement by waves with Shields, Sleath, and Tsuchiya empirical curves, as well
as the theoretical curve. (Source: Tsuchiya, Y. 1991. Threshold of sand movement. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean
Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf, Houston. Copyright 1990 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston.
Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
2 1
2
2
4
4
4
8
8
6
6
10 2 4 8 6 10
2
10
1
10
2
2 4 8 6 10
3
2 4 8 6 10
4
2 4
Bagnold
Goddet
Manohar
Rance & Warren
Theoretical curves
Theoretical curve
Turbulent
Laminar
Shields
Empirical formula
2
0
0
100
50
200
100
d0
/D
=
5
0
D
*
c
P
g
H C
l g
=
r
a
16
2
2
sin
t
* *
*
/
*
*
/
*
*
.
.
.
.
c v
v v
v v
v
D
D D
D D
D
=
=

-
0 20 1
0 20 1 20
0 010 20 125
0 050 125
23
13
for
for
= for
= for
(87.16)
where c = wave reection coefcient; g = unit weight of water; H
i
= incident wave height; h = water
depth; and L = wavelength.
Figure 87.7 shows the pressure distribution at a vertical wall at the crest and trough of a clapotis.
Forces due to breaking waves may be estimated by Minikin and Goda methods. The Minikin method
described by the Department of the Army [1984] estimates the maximum pressure (assumed to act on
the SWL) to be:
(87.17)
where p
m
is the maximum dynamic pressure, H
b
is the breaker height, d
s
is the depth at the toe of the
wall, D is the depth one wavelength in front of the wall, and L
D
is the wavelength in water depth D. The
distribution of dynamic pressure is shown in Figure 87.8. The pressure decreases parabolically from p
m
at the WL to zero at a distance of H
b
/2 above and below the SWL. The force represented by the area
under the dynamic pressure distribution is
(87.18)
Godas method [1985] assumes a trapezoidal pressure distribution (Figure 87.9). The pressure extends
to a point measured from SWL at a distance given by h
*
:
h
*
= 0.75(1 + cos b)H
max
(87.19)
in which b denotes the angle between the direction of wave approach and a line normal to the breakwater.
The wave pressure at the wall is given by
FIGURE 87.7 Pressure distributions for nonbreaking waves. (Source: Department of the Army. 1987. Shore Protection
Manual, vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.)
d
F
c
h
p
1
Crest of Clapotis at Wall
h
0
Actual Pressure
Distribution
Hydrostatic Pressure
Distribution
F
1
h
p
1
Trough of Clapotis of Wall
Actual Pressure
Distribution
Hydrostatic Pressure
Distribution
A A
SWL SWL
p
H
h L
i
1
1
2 2
=
+
c g
p cosh( / )
p
H
L
d
D
D d
m
b
D
s
s
= + 101g ( )
R
p H
m
m b
=
3
(87.20)
(87.21)
(87.22)
in which
(87.23)
(87.24)
FIGURE 87.8 Minikin wave pressure diagram. (Source: Department of the Army. 1987. Shore Protection Manual,
vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.)
FIGURE 87.9 Distribution of wave pressure on an upright section of a vertical breakwater. (Source: Goda, Y. 1990.
Random wave interaction with structures. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 1, ed. J. B. Herbich.
Gulf, Houston. Copyright 1990 by Gulf Publishing Company, Houston. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
SWL
d
s
p
m
H
b
Dynamic Component
Hydrostatic Component
Combined Total
(d
s
+
H
b
2
)
p
1
p
u
p
2
p
3
h
c
*
h
d
h
Buoyancy
p H
1 1 2
2
1
2
1 = + + ( cos )( cos )
max
b a a b g
p
p
h L
2
1
2
=
cosh( / ) p
p p
3 3 1
= a
a
p
p
1
2
0 6 0 5
4
4
= +
. .
/
sinh( / )
h L
h L
a
2
2
3
2
=
-
min ,
max
max
h d
h
H
d
d
H
b
b
(87.25)
Breakwaters
Rubble-mound breakwaters are the oldest form of breakwaters, dating back to Roman times. The rubble
mound is protected by larger rocks or articial concrete units. This protective layer is usually referred to
as armor or cover layer.
(87.26)
where W = weight in newtons or pounds of an individual armor unit in the primary cover layer; g
r
=
unit weight (saturated surface dry) of armor unit in N/m
3
or lb/ft
3
; S
r
= specic gravity of armor unit,
relative to the water at the structure (S
r
= w
r
/w
w
); g
w
= unit weight of water: freshwater = 9800 N/m
3
(62.4
lb/ft
3
); seawater = 10,047 N/m
3
(64.0 lb/ft
3
); q = angle of structure slope measured from horizontal in
degrees; and K
D
= stability coefcient that varies primarily with the shape of the armor units, roughness
of the armor unit surface, sharpness of edges, and degree of interlocking obtained in placement.
Figure 87.10 presents the recommended three-layer section of a rubble-mound breakwater. Note that
underlayer units are given in terms of W, the weight of armor units.
Automated coastal engineering system (ACES) describes the computer programs available for the
design of breakwaters using Hudson and related equations.
Van der Meer [1987] developed stability formulas for plunging (breaking) waves and for surging
(nonbreaking) waves. For plunging waves,
(87.27)
For surging waves,
(87.28)
where
H
s
= signicant wave height at the toe of the structure
FIGURE 87.10 Rubble-mound section for wave exposure on both sides with moderate overtopping conditions.
(Source: Department of the Army. 1987. Shore Protection Manual, vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps of
Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.)
Crest Width
Breakwater Crest
Max. Design SWL
SWL (Minimum)
W
W/10
W/10
W/200 to W/4000
1.3 H
SWL (Minimum)
3r
2r
Recommended Three-layer Section
a
p
3
1 1
1
2
= -
h
h h L cosh( / )
W
H
K S
r
D r
=
-
g
q
3
3
1 ( ) cot
H D P S N
s n z
/ * . ( / )
. .
D
50
0 18 0 2
6 2 x =
H D P S N
s n z
p
/ . ( / ) cot
. .
D
50
0 13 0 2
1 0 =
-
ax
x
z
= surf similarity parameter,
T
z
= zero up-crossing wave period
a = slope angle
D = relative mass density of the stone, D = r
a
/(r - 1)
r
a
= mass density of the stone
r = mass density of water
D
n50
= nominal diameter of the stone, D
n50
= (W
50
/r
a
)
1/3
W
50
= 50% value (median) of the mass distribution curve
P = permeability coefcient of the structure
S = damage level,
A = erosion area in a cross-section
N = number of waves (storm duration)
Inuence of breakwater slope angle is depicted in Figure 87.11.
87.6 Navigational Channels
The development of very large commercial craft (VLCC) and ultralarge commercial craft (ULCC) forced
many government planners and port managers to evaluate existing channels. Navigational channels allow
large vessels to reach harbors. Of paramount design consideration is the safety of vessels in a channel,
particularly when passing [Herbich, 1992].
Vessel behavior in channels is a function of bottom suction, bank suction, interference of passing ships,
waves, winds, and currents. Most major maritime countries have criteria regarding the depth and width
of channels. The international commission ICORELS (sponsored by the Permanent International Asso-
ciation of Navigation Congresses PIANC) recommends that general criteria for gross underkeel
clearances can be given for drawing up preliminary plans:
FIGURE 87.11 Inuence of slope angle. (Source: Van der Meer, J. W. 1990. Rubble mounds Recent modications.
In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 1, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf, Houston, TX. Copyright 1990 by
Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 7
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
cot = 6
cot = 4
cot = 3
cot = 2
cot = 1.5
PLUNGING WAVES SURGING WAVES
W
a
v
e

h
e
i
g
h
t

H
s

(
m
)
z
= cot / H
s
/L
z
D
n50
= 1 m
= 1.6 S = 5 P = 0.5 N = 3000
x
a
p
z
s z
H gT
tan
/ 2
2
S A D
n
= /
50
2
Open sea area. When exposed to strong and long stern or quarter swells where speed may be high,
the gross underkeel clearance should be about 20% of the maximum draft of the large ships to
be received.
Waiting area. When exposed to strong or long swells, the gross underkeel clearance should be
about 15% of the draft.
Channel. For sections exposed to long swells, the gross underkeel clearance should be about 15%
of the draft.
The Engineering Manual [U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, 1983] provides guidance for the layout and
design of deep-draft navigation channels. Table 87.2 provides the general criteria for channel widths.
87.7 Marine Foundations
Design of marine foundations is an integral part of any design of marine structures. The design criteria
require a thorough understanding of marine geology; geotechnical properties of sediments at a given
location; and wind, wave, currents, tides, and surges during maximum storm conditions. In the arctic
areas information on fast ice and pack ice is required for the design of offshore structures (on articial
islands) and offshore pipelines.
A number of soil engineering parameters are required, as shown in Table 87.3. Many of the properties
may be obtained employing standard geotechnical methods. Geotechnical surveys and mapping of seabed
characteristics have reached a high degree of sophistication. High-resolution geophysical surveys deter-
mine water depth, seaoor imagery, and vertical proles. Bottom-mapping systems include multibeam
bathymetry, sea beam, side-scan sonars, and subbottom prolers (including shallow, medium, and deep
penetration types).
The geotechnical investigation is designed to include sediment stratigraphy; sediment types; and
sediment properties, including density, strength, and deformational characteristics. Deployment systems
employed for sampling in situ include self-contained units, drilling rigs, and submersibles. (Figure 87.12
shows the deployment systems.)
There are many in situ testing devices; these include the vane shear test, cone penetrometer test, pressure
meter, shear vane velocity tools, temperature probes, natural gamma logger, and so forth [Young, 1991].
87.8 Oil Spills
The best method of controlling oil pollution is to prevent oil spills in the rst place. This may include
such techniques as rapid removal of oil from stricken tankers, continuous monitoring of oil wells, killing
wild wells at sea, and containing oil spills under the water surface. Spilled oil, being lighter than water,
oats on the water surface and spreads laterally. As oil is spilled, several regimes are generally assumed:
TABLE 87.2 General Criteria for Channel Widths
Location
Minimum Channel Width in Percent of Beam
Vessel Controllability
Channels with
Yawing Forces Very Good Good Poor
Maneuvering lane, straight channel 160 180 200 Judgment
a
Bend, 26 turn 325 370 415 Judgment
a
Bend, 40 turn 385 440 490 Judgment
a
Ship clearance 80 80 80 100 but not less
than 100 ft
Bank clearance 60 60 plus 60 plus 150
a
Judgment will have to be based on local conditions at each project.
Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1983. Engineering Manual: Hydraulic Design of Deep
Draft Navigation Projects, EM 1110-2-1613. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC.
8
7
-
1
4
T
h
e

E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
i
n
g

H
a
n
d
b
o
o
k
,

S
e
c
o
n
d

E
d
i
t
i
o
n
TABLE 87.3 Soil Engineering Parameters Normally Required for Categories of Geotechnical Engineering Applications
Application
Soil
Classication
Grain
Size
Atterberg
Limits
Strength Properties Common Properties
Subbottom Depth
of Survey
Clay Sand Clay Sand
S
u
, S
t
f f or S
u
C
v
, k C
c
C
c
Shallow foundation Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 1.5 to 2 foundation width
Deadweight anchors Yes No No Yes Yes Yes No No No No 1.5 to 2 anchor width
Deep pile foundations Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes No 1 to 1.5 pile group width, below
individual pile tips
Pile anchors Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No To depth of pile anchor
Direct-embedment anchors Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No To expected penetration of anchor,
maximum 33 to 50 ft clay; 13 to 33 ft sand
Drag anchors Yes Yes No Yes No No No No No No 33 to 50 ft clay; 10 to ft sand for large
anchors
Penetration Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes No No No 33 to 50 ft clay; 13 to 33 ft sand
Breakout Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No 1 object width plus embedment depth
Scour Yes Yes No Yes No No No No No No 3.3 to ft; related to object size and
water motion
Slope stability Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No No No 33 to 100 ft; more on rare occasions
Note: Su = udrained shear strength; S
t
= sensitivity; = drained cohesion intercept; f = drained friction angle; f = undrained friction angle for sands rapidly sheared; C
v
=
coefcient of consolidation; k = permeability; C
c
= compression index.
Source: Marine Board, National Research Council. 1989. Our Seabed Frontier Challenges and Choices, National Academy Press, Washington, DC.
c, f
16
1
2
16
1
2
c
1
5
8
6
_
b
o
o
k
.
f
m

P
a
g
e

1
4

M
o
n
d
a
y
,

M
a
y

1
0
,

2
0
0
4

1
2
:
5
4

P
M

2
0
0
5

b
y

C
R
C

P
r
e
s
s

L
L
C
gravity-inertial, gravity-viscous, and surface tension. In the early stage, generally less than 1 h, the gravity-
inertial regime, or inertial spread, dominates and is described by
(87.29)
where R = radius of the oil slick; k
4
= nondimensional coefcient experimentally determined to be 1.14;
D = the ratio of the absolute difference between the densities of sea water and the oil to that of seawater;
g = force of gravity; L = original volume of oil spilled; and t = time.
When the oil lm thickness becomes equal to the viscous layer in the water, a transition occurs from
the gravity-inertial regime to the gravity-viscous regime. This viscous spreading is described by
(87.30)
where k
5
is the nondimensional coefcient determined to be about 1.45, v is the kinematic viscosity of
water, D is the ratio of the difference between density of seawater and oil, L is the original volume of
spilled oil, and t is the time.
FIGURE 87.12 Deployment systems used for sampling, in situ, and experimental testings. (Source: Marine Board,
National Research Council. 1989. Our Seabed Frontier Challenges and Choices, National Academy Press, Washing-
ton, DC.)
SUBMERSIBLE
Single
Umbilical
Small Vessel
Thrusting
Platform
In Situ Tool/Sampler
Sensor
Testrod
Fixed Carrier
Tool
Stabilizing
Mass
Drill String
Umbilical
Drill Ship
DRILLING RIG
SELF-CONTAINED UNIT
In Situ
Tool/Sampler
R k gLt =
4
2 1 4
( )
/
D
Radius of oil slock = =
5
R k
gL t
v
D
2 3 2
1 2
16
/
/
/

The last phase, the surface tension regime, occurs when the oil lm thickness drops below a critical
level, which is a function of the net surface tension, the mass densities of the oil and the water, and the
force of gravity. The surface tension spread is described by
(87.31)
where k
6
= 2.30, experimentally determined; s = surface tension; and r = density of water.
For large spills, on the order of 10,000 tons, inertial and viscous spreading will dominate for about
the rst week, with the surface tension spread controlling thereafter.
Although the exact mechanisms that cause the termination of spreading are unknown, the terminal
areas of several oil slicks have been observed and used to determine an analytical relationship for the
maximum area of a given oil spill based on the properties of the oil. This is described by
(87.32)
where K
a
= undetermined constant or order unit; V = volume of oil that can be dissolved in this layer;
D = diffusivity; and s = solubility of the signicant oil fractions in the water.
In addition, the area covered by the oil slick is not allowed to exceed A
T
; therefore, spreading is
terminated at the time
(87.33)
Oil may be set up by wind and current against a barrier; any containment device must take the setup
estimates into account. There are a number of containment devices (barriers) that prevent oil from
spreading. Most mechanical-type oil containment barriers fail in wave heights greater than 2 ft, when
the wave steepness ratio is greater than 0.08, and in currents normal to the barrier greater than about
0.7 knots.
Oil may also be removed from the water surface by skimming devices. Most mechanical skimming
devices have only been able to work in waves less than 2 to 3 ft in height, in moderate currents.
87.9 Offshore Structures
Many types of offshore structures have been developed since 1947, when the rst steel structure was
installed in 18 feet of water. Since that time over 4100 template-platforms have been constructed on the
U.S. continental shelf in water depths less than 600 feet (Figure 87.13).
Deep-water marine structures include gravity platforms, xed platforms, guyed tower, tension-leg
platform, and a buoyant compliant tower (Figure 87.14).
Wave forces on certain types of offshore platforms are computed by the Morrison equation, which is
written as the sum of two individual forces, inertia and drag. The equation may be written as
(87.34)
The force, f, as a function of time, t, is written as a function of the horizontal water particle velocity,
u(t), and the horizontal water particle acceleration, , at the axis of the cylinder, and is dependent on
R k
t
v
=
6
2 3
2
1 4
s
r
/
A K
V
vD s
T a
=
s
r
2 6
2 3 6
18 /
t
V
s
v
D
K
k
a
=
r
s p
12 14
6
2
23
/ /
/
f t C D u t C Du t u t
M D
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) = + r
p
r
4
1
2
2
( ) u t
FIGURE 87.13 Template-type pile foundation structure. (Source: Young, A. G. 1991. Marine foundation studies.
In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf, Houston. Copyright 1990 by Gulf
Publishing Company, Houston. Used with permission. All rights reserved.)
FIGURE 87.14 Range of water depths for various types of deep-water marine structures. (Source: Marine Board,
National Research Council. 1989. Our Seabed Frontier Challenges and Choices, National Academy Press, Washing-
ton, DC.)
1:7 Batter
8 Main Piles
1.2 m diameter
Welded at top
91.5 m penet.
4 Skirt Piles
grouted in
sleeves
12Well Structure
Template Weight 19.5 mn
El. 85 m
Pile Loads
Ult. Axial Capacity
18 mn
Design Lat. Load
1 mn
El. +5 m
0 0
100
200
300
400
500
600
2000
1500
1000
500
FLOATING
PLATFORM
TETHERS
SEABED
ANCHOR
PILES
GUY-LINES
WATER
DEPTH
FEET METERS
GRAVITY
PLATFORM
0700 FEET
(0200 METERS)
FIXED
PLATFORM
01000 FEET
(0300 METERS)
GUYED
TOWER
7002000 FEET
(200600 METERS)
TENSION-LEG
PLATFORM
10003000 FEET
(300900 METERS)
BUOYANT
COMPLIANT TOWER
10002500 FEET
(300750 METERS)
the water density, r. The quantities C
M
and C
D
are dened as the inertia (or mass) coefcient and the
drag coefcient, respectively.
The design and dynamic analysis of offshore platforms, which include jacket structures, topside
structures, pile foundations, and dynamic analysis, may be found in Hsu [1991]; discussion of wave
forces is given in Chakrabarti [1991].
Dening Terms
Armor unit A relatively large quarry stone or concrete shape that is selected to t specied geometric
characteristics and density. It is usually of nearly uniform size and usually large enough to
require individual placement. In normal cases it is used as primary wave protection and is
placed in thicknesses of at least two units.
Articial nourishment The process of replenishing a beach with material (usually sand) obtained
from another location.
Attenuation (1) A lessening of the amplitude of a wave with distance from the origin. (2) The decrease
of water-particle motion with increasing depth. Particle motion resulting from surface oscilla-
tory waves attenuates rapidly with depth and practically disappears at a depth equal to a surface
wavelength.
Bar A submerged or emerged embankment of sand, gravel, or other unconsolidated material built on
the sea oor in shallow water by waves and currents.
Diffraction The phenomenon by which energy is transmitted laterally along a wave crest. When a
part of a train of waves is interrupted by a barrier, such as a breakwater, the effect of diffraction
is manifested by propagation of waves into the sheltered region within the barriers geometric
shadow.
Dunes (1) Ridges or mounds of loose, wind-blown material, usually sand. (2) Bed forms smaller than
bars but larger than ripples that are out of phase with any water-surface gravity waves associated
with them.
Ebb current The tidal current away from shore or down a tidal stream, usually associated with the
decrease in height of the tide.
Fetch The area in which seas are generated by a wind having a fairly constant direction and speed.
Sometimes used synonymously with fetch length or generating area.
Flood current The tidal current toward shore or up a tidal stream, usually associated with an increase
in the height of the tide.
Groin A shore protection structure built (usually perpendicular to the shoreline) to trap littoral drift
or retard erosion of the shore.
Harbor oscillation (harbor surging) The nontidal vertical water movement in a harbor or bay. The
vertical motions are usually low, but when oscillations are excited by a tsunami or storm surge,
they may be quite large. Variable winds, air oscillations, or surf beat also may cause oscillations.
See seiche.
Hurricane An intense tropical cyclone in which winds tend to spiral inward toward a core of low
pressure, with maximum surface wind velocities that equal or exceed 33.5 meters per second
(75 mph or 65 knots) for several minutes or longer at some points. Tropical storm is the term
applied if maximum winds are less than 33.5 meters per second.
Mean high water (MHW) The average height of the high waters over a 19-year period. For shorter
periods of observations, corrections are applied to eliminate known variations and reduce the
results to the equivalent of a mean 19-year value.
Probable maximum water level A hypothetical water level (exclusive of wave run-up from normal
wind-generated waves) that might result from the most severe combination of hydrometeoro-
logical, geoseismic, and other geophysical factors and that is considered reasonably possible in
the region involved, with each of these factors considered as affecting the locality in a maximum
manner. This level represents the physical response of a body of water to maximum applied
phenomena such as hurricanes, moving squall lines, other cyclonic meteorological events,
tsunamis, and astronomical tide, combined with maximum probable ambient hydrological
conditions such as wave setup, rainfall, runoff, and river ow. It is a water level with virtually
no risk of being exceeded.
Refraction (1) The process by which the direction of a wave moving in shallow water at an angle to
the contours is changed. The part of the wave advancing in shallower water moves more slowly
than that part still advancing in deeper water, causing the wave crest to bend toward alignment
with the underwater contours. (2) The bending of wave crests by currents.
Scour Removal of underwater material by waves and currents, especially at the base or toe of a shore
structure.
Seawall A structure separating land and water areas, primarily designed to prevent erosion and other
damage due to wave action.
Seiche (1) A standing wave oscillation of an enclosed water body that continues, pendulum fashion,
after the cessation of the originating force, which may have been either seismic or atmospheric.
(2) An oscillation of a uid body in response to a disturbing force having the same frequency
as the natural frequency of the uid system. Tides are now considered to be seiches induced
primarily by the periodic forces caused by the sun and moon.
Signicant wave A statistical term relating to the one-third highest waves of a given wave group and
dened by the average of their heights and periods. The composition of the higher waves
depends upon the extent to which the lower wave are considered.
Wave spectrum In ocean wave studies, a graph, table, or mathematical equation showing the distri-
bution of wave energy as a function of wave frequency. The spectrum may be based on obser-
vations or theoretical considerations. Several forms of graphical display are widely used.
References
Boussinesq, J. 1877. Essai sur la theorie des eaux courantes, Mem. divers Savants a LAcademie des Science,
No. 32:56.
Bruun, P. 1954. Coast Erosion and the Development of Beach Proles, Tech. Memo. No. 44, 1954. Beach
Erosion Board, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Chakrabarti, S. K. 1991. Wave forces on offshore structures. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineer-
ing, Volume 2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Dean, R. G. 1977. Equilibrium Beach Proles: U.S. Atlantic and Gulf Coasts, Ocean Engineering T.R. No.
12. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE.
Dean, R. G. 1990. Stream function wave theory and applications. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean
Engineering, Volume 1, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Dean, R. G. 1991. Beach proles. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume 2, ed. J. B.
Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Department of the Army. 1987. Shore Protection Manual, vols. I and II. Department of the Army, Corps
of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Department of the Army. 1992. Automated Coastal Engineering System, Department of the Army, Corps
of Engineers, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Goda, Y. 1985. Random Seas and Design of Maritime Structures, Tokyo University Press, Tokyo,
Goda, Y. 1990. Random wave interaction with structures. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering,
Volume 1, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Herbich, J. B. (Ed.) 1990 (vol. 1), 1991 (vol. 2), 1992 (vol. 3). Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering,
Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
Hsu, T. H. 1991. Design and dynamic analysis of offshore platforms. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean
Kriebel, D. L., Dally, W. R., and Dean, R. G. 1986. Undistorted Froude Number for Surf Zone Sediment
Transport, Proc. 20th Coastal Engineering Conference, ASCE. pp. 12961310.
Le Mhaut, B. 1969. An Introduction to Hydrodynamics and Water Waves, Report No. ERL 118-POL3-
1&2. U.S. Department of Commerce, Environmental Science Services Administration, Washington,
DC.
Tsuchiya, Y. 1991. Threshold of sand movement. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume
2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. 1983. Engineering Manual: Hydraulic Design of Deep Draft Navigation
Projects, EM 1110-2-1613. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC.
Van der Meer, J. W. 1987. Stability of breakwater armor layers Design formula. J. Coastal Engin.
11(3):219239.
Van der Meer, J. W. 1990. Rubble mounds Recent modications. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean
Young, A. G. 1991. Marine foundation studies. In Handbook of Coastal and Ocean Engineering, Volume
2, ed. J. B. Herbich. Gulf Publishing Co., Houston, TX.
Further Information
ASCE Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean Engineering: Published bimonthly by the American
Society of Civil Engineers. Reports advances in coastal and ocean engineering.
ASCE specialty conference proceedings: Published by the American Society of Civil Engineers. Report
advances in coastal and ocean engineering.
PIANC Bulletin: Published quarterly by the Permanent International Association of Navigation Con-
gresses, Brussels, Belgium. Reports case studies.
Coastal Engineering Research Center (Technical reports, contract reports, miscellaneous papers): Pub-
lished by the Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Sea Technology: Published monthly by Compass Publications, Inc., Arlington, VA.
IEEE proceedings of ocean conferences: Published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
Report advances in ocean engineering.
Offshore Technology Conference Preprints: Published by the Offshore Technology Conference, Dallas,
TX. Report annually on topics in ocean engineering.
Marine Board, National Research Council reports: Published by the National Academy Press, Washington,
DC.
American Gas Association project reports: Published by the American Gas Association, Arlington, VA.
American Petroleum Institute standards: Published by the American Petroleum Institute, Dallas.
Marine Technology Society conference proceedings: Published by the Marine Technology Society, Hous-
ton.
World Dredging, Mining & Construction: Published monthly by Wodcon Association, Irvine, CA.
Terra et Aqua: Published by the International Association of Dredging Companies, The Hague, the
Netherlands.
Center for Dredging Studies abstracts: Published by the Center for Dredging Studies, Texas A&M Univer-
sity, College Station, TX.
Komar, P. D. 1983. Handbook of Coastal Processes and Erosion, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL. A series of
papers on coastal processes, beach erosion, and replenishment.
Bruun, P. 198990. Port Engineering, vols. 1 and 2, 4th ed. Gulf, Houston. A comprehensive treatment
on port and harbor design.
International Dredging Review: Bimonthly, Fort Collins, CO.
Technical Standards for Port and Harbour Facilities in Japan, 1980: Published by the Overseas Coastal Area
Development Institute of Japan, 3-2-4 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
Herbich, J. B., Schiller, R. E., Jr., Watanabe, R. K., and Dunlap, W. A. 1987. Seaoor Scour. Marcel Dekker,
New York. Design guidelines for ocean-founded structures.
Grace, R. A. 1978. Marine Outfalls Systems, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. A comprehensive treat-
ment of marine outfalls.
Herbich, J. B. 1981. Offshore Pipelines Design Elements, Marcel Dekker, New York. Information relating
to design of offshore pipelines.
Herbich, J. B. 1992. Handbook of Dredging Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York. A comprehensive treatise
on the subject of dredging engineering.

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