Topic 9: Curves transition

curves
Definition
A transition curve differs from a circular curve in that its radius is always changing.
As one would expect, such curves involve more complex formulae than the curves
with a constant radius and their design is more complex.
Because circular curves are easier to design compared to transition curves and
they are easily set out on site, the question that naturally arises is to why are
transition necessary and why is it not possible to use circular curves to join all
intersecting straights?
The need for Transition Curves
Circular curves are limited in road designs due to the forces which act on a vehicle
as they travel around a bend. Transition curves are used to introduce those forces
gradually and uniformly thus ensuring the safety of passenger.
Transition curves have much more complex formulae and are more difficult to set
out on site than circular curves as a result of the varying radius.
Radial Force and Design Speed
Radial forces act on a vehicle as it travels around a curve and this is why transition
curves are necessary
A vehicle of mass m, travelling at a constant speed v, along a curve of radius r, is
subjected to a radial force P such that:
This force acting on the vehicle is trying to push the vehicle back on a straight
course. On a straight road where r = , P = 0.
Roads are designed according to a design speed which is constant for a given
stretch of roadway. Thus a vehicle must be able to comfortable and safely travel
the length of a given stretch of road at the design speed regardless of bends etc.
The mass of a vehicle is also assumed constant and consequently:
r
mv
P
2
=
r
P
1

Thus the smaller the radius of a curve the greater the radial force acting on the
vehicle.
Any vehicle leaving a straight section of road and entering a circular curve of
radius r will immediately experience the full radial for P. If the radius is too small
and the thus P too large, the vehicle will skid off the roadway or overturn.
Transition curves are curves in which the radius gradually changes from infinity to
a particular value R. The effect of this is to gradually increase the radial for P from
zero to its maximum value, thereby reducing its effect.
To introduce P uniformly along the length of the transition curve, P must also be
proportional to the length of the transition curve l.
Therefore: and
Combining the two requirements:
Thus
Where K is a constant.
Therefore for each transition in a transition curve the radius R and length LT can
be designed to equal to K over the whole length of the curve.
r
P
1
l P
r
l
1

K rl =
The use of Transition Curves
Transition curves can be used to join to straights in one of two ways:
- Composite curves
- Wholly transitional curves
Composite Curves
Here transition curves of equal length are used on either side of a central circular
arc of radius R.
Wholly Transitional Curves
A wholly transitional curve consists of two transitional curves of equal length with
no central arc. The radius of this curve is constantly changing and therefore the
force is constantly changing.
There is only one point Tc (the common tangent point) at which P is a maximum.
This means wholly transitional curves are safer than composite curves. However,
they cannot always be fitted between to straight due to minimum radius
requirements.
Superelevation
Although transition curves can reduce the effect of radial force on a vehicle this
can also be further reduced or even eliminated by raising one side of the road
relative to the other. The difference in height between the two sides of the road is
known as the superelevation (SE).
In theory, by applying enough superelevation the resultant force can be made to
act perpendicular to the surface of the road pushing the vehicle down rather than
throwing it off.
and
Therefore:
Maximum theoretical superelevation, , where v is in m/s
The maximum SE occurs where the radius r = R, along the central arc of a
composite curve or at Tc on a wholly transitional curve.
gR
v
mg
R mv
2 2
/
tan = = tan B SE =
gR
Bv
SE
2
max
=
In practice for roadways with high design speeds, wide carriageways or small radii,
SEmax could be very large and would be alarming to drivers approaching it and
dangerous with reduced speeds. Therefore the following best practice rules are
generally applied:
Superelevation shall normally balance out only 45% of the radial force P (i.e. SE =
0.45(Bv2/gR)).
In rural areas superelevation shall not exceed 7% (1 in 14.5 and wherever
possible, radii should be chosen such that superelevation is kept within the desired
value of 5% (1 in 20)
In urban areas, superelevation shall not exceed 5%
The minimum allowable SE is 2.5% (1 in 40) to allow for drainage
Expressing v in kph and R in metres and substituting gravity for 9.81m/s2 gives:
Maximum allowable
R
Bv
SE
5 . 282
2
=
Transition Curve Design Standards
The British standard for designing the radii of transitional and circular curves
depending on speed and superelevation is:
Types of Transition Curve
There are two types of curved used to form the transitional section of a composite
or wholly transitional curve. These are:
-The clothoid
-The cubic parabola
For a transition curve the equation rl = K must apply i.e. the radius must reduce in
proportion to the length. This is the property of a spiral and one curve which has
this property is the clothoid.
Another common curve derived from the clothoid is the cubic parabola which is not
a spiral i.e. rl is not always constant. However it can be used over a certain range
and is less complex than the clothoid.
The clothoid
the equation of the clothoid can be derived from the above diagram, which shows
two points close together (M and N) on a transition curve of length LT:
is the deviation angle between the tangent at M and the straight TI
is the tangential angle to M from T with reference to TI
x is the offset to M from the straight TI at a distance y from T
l is the length from point T to any point M on the curve (not shown)
l is the length along the curve from M to N
l is the angle subtended by the arc l of radius r
Derivation:
(chord length), rl = K is required and substituting 1/r = (l/K)
Integration gives + constant. But when l = 0, , so constant = 0
Therefore:
(in radians)
At the end of a transition r= R and l = LT, giving K = rl = RLT. This gives:
(in radians)
This is the basic equation of the clothoid. If its conditions are satisfied and speed is
constant radial force will be introduced uniformly.
r l =
l
K
l

=
K
l
2
2
=
T
RL
l
2
2
=
The Cubic Parabola
The cubic parabola is not a true spiral and cannot always be used. It approximates
very close to a spiral, however, and can be used within a certain range of
deviations angle.
In practice it is much easier set out a cubic parabola than a clothoid and hence it is
more commonly used where appropriate.
The offset x is given by:
and
Substituting y = l in the expression for x gives
Since
It follows that:

=
K
l
x
6
3
l y =

=
K
y
x
6
3
T
RL rl K = =

=
T
RL
y
x
6
3
The length of a Transition Curve Required to Minimise Passenger Discomfort
Transition curve lengths must be designed so that they minimise passenger
discomfort and maximise safety. Consider the curve below:
At any point the radial force
but since force = mass x acceleration the radial acceleration at any point is:
i.e. the faster the change in radius the faster change in c and therefore
the faster radial force is introduced resulting in passenger discomfort and
safety risks.
Design standards recommend a maximum value of c of 0.3m2/s, above which
passenger discomfort takes place.
The transition curve length LT can be determined from c as follows:
(where v is in m/s)
r
mv
P
2
=
r
v
c
2
=
cR
v
L
T
3
=
The Shift of a Cubic Parabola
In order that the tangent lengths can be calculated a parameter known as the shift
must also be calculated.
VG
R
L
S
T
= =
24
2
FG
S
VF = =
2
Tangent Lengths and Total curve Lengths
In order for a composite cure to move vehicles through the deflection angle each
transition curve must them through a further deflection max.
The tangent lengths are obtained as follows:
IT = IV + VT = IW + WU = IU
And
The Total curve length Ltotal is given by:
2 2
tan ) (
T
L
S R IT +

+ =

CA t total
L L L + = 2
) 2 (
0
max
=
=
R L
L
CA
CA
Setting out composite and wholly transitional curves
The centre line provides an important reference on site from which other features
can be established and it can be set out either by traditional or coordinate
methods.
Setting out using the tangential angles method
Setting out for tangential curves is similar to the method used for circular curves.
This is the most accurate of the traditional methods and it can be used for any
transition curve. It is undertaken using a theodolite and a tape and, as with the
circular curves method it is necessary to first set out the intersection point I.
The method by which this is done is identical to that used for circular curves. Once
the intersection point has been fixed, tangent points T and U
The entry and exit transition curves
I1 is chosen as a chord length such that it is R/20, where R is the minimum radius
of curvature
1 is calculated from l1 using 1 = (l
2
1
/6 RL
T
)(180/)
A theodolite is set at T, aligned to I with a reading of 000000 and 1 is turned off
A chord length of l1 is measured from T and lined in at point A using the theodolite.
A peg is driven into the ground at this point and a nail in this is used to locate A.
The entry and exit transition curves
l2 is the distance around the curve from T to B.

2
is calculated from l
2
using
2 =
degrees

2
is set on the horizontal circle of the theodolite
A chord length is measured from A and lined in at point B using the
theodolite. A peg with a nail is used to locate B
This procedure is repeated for all subsequent setting out points up to the common
tangent point T at the end of the entry transition curve.
2
2
( / 6 )(180 / )
T
l RL
2 1
( ) l l
Setting out the pegs on the exit of a transition curve
The exit transition curve is set out from U to T2 with the theodolite set at U and
aligned to I such that the horizontal circle is reading 000000. The tangential
angles are the subtracted from 360to give the required directions.
As for the entry transition curve, sub-chords are usually required at the beginning
and end of the exit transition curve to ensure that pegs are placed at exact
multiples of through chainage.
If a wholly transitional curve is being set out, the common tangent point between
the two transition curves is set out again, having already been fixed at the end of
the entry transition curve. The difference between the two gives a measure of the
accuracy of the setting out.
Setting out the central circular arc
This only applies to composite curves since wholly transitional curves have no
central circular arc. The central circular arc is normally set out from T1 to T2 and it
is first necessary to establish the line of the common tangent at T1.
The next fig shows the entry transition curve and part of the central circular arc in
which the final tangential angle for T toT1 will be
max max
/ 3 =
Move the theodolite to T1, align back to T with the horizontal circle reading
The common tangent along T1N now corresponds to 0000000
on the theodolite.
Rotate the telescope in azimuth until a reading of 000000 is obtained and set out
pegs on the circular arc from T1 to T2 using the tangential angles circular curves.
Again, initial and final sub-chords are normally required to ensure that pegs are
located on the centre line at exact multiples of through chainage.
Finally, point T2, the second common tangent point is established. Since T2 is also
fixed when setting out the exit transition curve from U, the difference between its
two positions gives a measure of the accuracy of setting out.
In practice, the tangential angle and chord data are tabulated ready for use on site.
max
180 (2 / 3)
Setting out using offsets from the tangent lengths
This method is similar to that described for circular curves and again requires that
the tangent points have been set out. Two tapes are required and the method is
best used for setting out short transition curves, since accurate taping becomes
more difficult as the curve gets longer.
In the case of a wholly transitional curve, the entry transition curve is set out from
the tangent point on the entry straight and the exit transition curve is set out from
the tangent point on the exit straight.
The next figure shows part of a cubic parabola transition curve. To set out any
point Z on the curve, the method involves choosing y and calculating x using
. For a complete curve, x and y values should be tabulated for
use on site.
In the case of a composite curve, the entry and exit transitions are set out in the
same way as those for a wholly transitional curve and the central circular arc is
then set out by offsets from the long chord.
3
/ 6
T
x y RL =
Setting out using coordinate methods
The two traditional methods of establishing the centre lines of composite and
wholly transitional curves have been described. Although these methods are still
used, they have been virtually superseded for all major curves by coordinate
methods that use control networks.
In such methods, which are equally applicable to transition curves and circular
curves, the coordinates of points at regular intervals along the centre line are
calculated with reference to a site control network. The points are then pegged out
on site either using a total station set at points in the ground control network
surrounding the scheme as shown in the next Figure.
These can also be set out by using a GPS receiver. In both cases the
coordinates of points to be fixed on the centre line and the coordinates of the
control network being used must be based on the same site coordinate
system.
Nowadays, the coordinate calculations involved are usually done within
computer software highway design packages and results of such
computations are normally presented in the form of computer printouts ready
for immediate setting out use on site. The following table details a computer
printout of the information required on the previous curve.
.
The curve is to be set out by bearing and distance from control points 7, 8 and 9
with a total station, each centre line point being established from one control
point and checked from another. The calculations required to produce this table
are as follows.
The coordinates of the control points are found from the control survey data.
The horizontal alignment is designed and the coordinates of the intersection and
tangent points are calculated.
Assuming that the centre line is to be pegged at exact multiples of through
chainage, chord lengths and tangential angles are calculated for the entry and
exit transition curves and the central circular arc.
The coordinates of the points to be established on the centre line are calculated
using the chord lengths, tangential angles and the coordinates of the intersection
and tangent points.
Control points which are visible from and which will give a good intersection to
the proposed centre line are found and the bearings/distances are calculated
from the control points to the centre line points.
Coordinate methods compared with traditional methods
When compared with the traditional methods of setting out from the tangent
points, coordinate methods have a number of important advantages. However,
they are not always appropriate and some of the relative merits of the two
categories of technique are listed below.
-Coordinate methods can be carried out by anyone who is capable of using a
station or a GPS receiver. Since the data is in the form of either bearings
distances or coordinates, no knowledge of curve design is necessary. This is not
the case with traditional methods.
-The increased use of highway design computer software packages in which the
setting out data is presented ready for use in coordinate form has produced a
corresponding increase in the adoption of such methods.
-The widespread use of computers has also greatly speeded up the calculation
procedures associated with coordinate methods, which were always perceived
to be more difficult to perform by hand when compared with those associated
with the traditional methods.
-Coordinate methods enable key sections of the centre line to be set out in
isolation, such as a bridge centre line, in order that work can progress in more
than one area of the site.
-Obstacles on the proposed centre line, which may be the subject of disputes,
can easily be by-passed using coordinate methods to allow work to proceed
while arbitration takes place. Once the obstacle is removed, it is an easy process
so establish the missing section of the centre line. This is not usually possible
with traditional methods.
-Coordinate methods have the disadvantage that there is very little check on the
final setting out. Large errors will be noticed when the centre line does not take
the designed shape, but small errors could pass unnoticed. In the tangential
angles method, checks are provided by locating common tangent points from
two different positions.
-Although the widespread use of total stations and the increasing use of GPS
receivers on sites encourages the use of coordinate techniques, such equipment
may not always be available and it may be simpler to use traditional methods
that work along the centre line. This will particularly be the case where minor
cur1e are being set out, such as those used for roads on housing estates, kerbs
at roof intersections, short curves and boundaries.
Plotting the centre lines of composite and wholly transitional curves
Despite the widespread use of computer plotting facilities, there are still
occasions during the initial horizontal alignment design when it is necessary
to undertake a hand drawing of the proposed centre line. For composite and
wholly transitional curves the following procedure is recommended. It
assumes that there is an existing plan of the area available.
1. Draw the intersecting straights in their correct relative positions on a sheet of
tracing paper.
2 Calculate the length of each tangent using
3 Plot the tangent points by measuring this distance along each straight on
either side of the intersection point at the same scale as the existing plan.
4 To plot the entry and exit transition curves, use the offsets from the tangent
lengths. Use to prepare a table of offset values x for suitable y
values and ensure that the y values chosen will provide a good definition of
the centre line.
( ) tan( / 2) / 2
T
IT IU R S L = = + +
3
/ 6
T
x y RL =
5 At the scale of the existing plan, plot the x and values on the tracing paper from
the tangent lengths to establish points on the entry and exit transition curves as
shown in the next Figure.
6 To plot the central circular arc (where appropriate), carefully join the plotted ends
of the entry and exit transition curves. This is the long chord of the central circular
arc.
7 Measure the offsets from the long chord method, prepare table of offset X values
for appropriate Y values. Again, ensure that the Y values chosen will provide a good
definition of the centre line.
8 At the scale of the existing plan, plot the X and Y values from the long chord w
establish points on the centre line of the centre circular arc.
9 Carefully join all the points plotted to define the complete centre line. A set &
French curves is useful for this purpose, although with care a flexicurve can be
used.
10 Superimpose the tracing paper on the existing plan and decide whether or not
the design is acceptable. If it is not, change the design and repeat the plotting
procedure.
Examples
On a proposed road having a design speed of 100 kph and a carriageway width of
7.30 m, a composite curve consisting of two transition curves and a central circular
arc of radius 750 m is to join two intersecting straights having a deflection angle of
093428. The rate of change of radial acceleration for the road is to be 0.3 m s-3.
The superelevation should be introduced at a rate of no more than 1%.
-Calculate the amount of superelevation that must be built into the central circular
arc.
-Check that the transition curves are long enough for the superelevation to be
introduced.
Calculate the amount of superelevation that should be constructed along the entry
transition curve at 20 m intervals from the entry tangent point.
1. The amount of superelevation that must be built into the central circular arc
The radius of 750m is greater than the desirable min value of 720m for a 100kph
SE of 4.71% is less than the value of 5%. Hence the 0.344m SE should be built
into the central circular arc.
2
2
2 2
maximum allowable SE =
282.8
7.30*100
282.2*750
0.344
then to express this as a %
100
s%= 4.71%
2.828 2.828*750
Bv
R
m
v
R




=


=
= =
Checking that the transition curves are long enough
The length of each transition curve required for comfort and safety is obtained
equation
The superelevation value of 0.344 m must be introduced and removed over a of
95.26 m, which represents a gradient of
Since this is less that the maximum allowable rate of introduction of 1%, the
transitions are long enough.
3 3
3 3
100
95.26
3.6 3.6 *0.3*750
T
v
L m
cR

= = =


0.344
0.36%
95.26
=
The amount of SE that should be constructed along the entry transition curve at
20m intervals from the entry tangent point.
2
2
95.26*750 71, 445
At 20m along the curve from entry tangent point
71, 445
3572.25
20 20
(7.30*100 )
SE at 20m along the curve = 0.07
(282.8*3572.25)
100
% at 20m along the curve =
2.828*3572.
T
rl K RL
K
K
r m
m
s
= =
= =
= = =
=
0.99%
25
=
Because this is less than the min allowable value of 2.5% for drainage, a value of
2.5% must be used therefore
SE built at 20m along the curve = 2.5% of B = 0.025 * 7.30 = 0.18m