Intelligent Comfort Control

ABSTRACT


The aim of this paper is to provide the air conditioning
engineer with a clear set of guidelines for use in the design
of the air distribution system for a low pressure Variable
Air Volume system.

The following aspects are considered:


1. Different types of terminal outlets and why some work
better than others.
2. A brief comparison between pressure-dependent and
pressure-independent systems.
3. Duct design and methods of sizing.
4. The static regain principle and duct static pressure
control.
5. Commissioning procedures.



In considering these aspects, practical guidelines for good
design and installation are provided. The paper also
highlights many of the common pitfalls which may result in
a system which does not live up to expectation.

Keywords: Variable Air Volume, Air Distribution,
Static Pressure, Diffusers


1. INTRODUCTION
A properly designed, installed and commissioned Variable
Air Volume (VAV) system can be one of the most energy
efficient and comfortable systems for occupied zones.
Indoor air quality, noise and overall comfort are generally
excellent with a system which performs as it is meant to.















A Guide to the Design of an
Effective Low pressure VAV Air
Distribution System
By Noel de Villiers Pr.Eng. Bsc Eng (Mech)
VAV technology has the distinct advantage of flexibility
and adaptability that no other system can offer.
However, systems do not always work as they should and
this could be due to any number of reasons. It is important
to note however that the shortcomings of the applied VAV
technology are not intrinsic or generic, and they should
have limited impact if the design, installation and operation
of the system are properly addressed. In almost all cases,
problems and complaints result from errors or omissions in
the design, construction and operation of the system and
these can and should be corrected.

This paper addresses specifically the subject of AIR
DISTRIBUTION, although it is difficult to treat the subject
of air distribution without getting quickly involved with the
system itself. But, because time and space do not allow,
this discussion will be restricted to matters pertaining to air
distribution only.

The principles involved in the subject of air movement are
not always clearly understood by air conditioning engineers
and this paper aims to provide guidelines which will help
the engineer to avoid the common pitfalls which often
result in system which does not live up to expectation.

Thirsty years ago dual duct systems were common and
although they were not at all energy or cost efficient, they
worked well because they were generally over-engineered
and could cope with almost any condition, climate or
occupancy related.

Todays systems need to be much more effective in terms
of cost, energy consumption and indoor air quality.
Occupants of modern buildings are also more demanding
and have higher expectations of the environmental control
system.

To meet this demand, the air conditioning engineer needs to
develop a better understanding of the theory and practice of
VAV systems, and this paper seeks to provide the
information necessary to design a top class, effective air
distribution system, a vital link in the chain of requirements
for the complete system to be successful.







Intelligent Comfort Control
2. COMPARISON OF TWO MAIN TYPES
OF VAV SYSTEMS
As a means of briefly comparing the two common types of
VAV systems, only the components, advantages and
disadvantages will be considered. Although by no means
comprehensive, this comparison should highlight the salient
differences between the two systems.
2.1. Pressure Independent System
2.1.1. Essential Components
The more conventional VAV system, also known as a
single duct, pressure independent system, consists of the
following.

2.1.1.1. Cooling/Heating coils, filters etc, items common
to all types of A/C systems.
2.1.1.2. Supply air fan, often variable speed, capable of
providing duct pressures, at the fan discharge, in
the region of 2.0 to 6.0 ins. wg.
2.1.1.3. Supply air ducting, designed for medium pressure
and relatively high velocities.
2.1.1.4. Volume control terminal units which serve
occupied zones by distributing the supply air
through a group (typically 2 to 8) of fixed aperture
outlets.
2.1.1.5. A temperature controller which will control the
supply air quantity for a particular zone, in
accordance with the cooling/heating demand for
that zone.
2.1.2. Advantages of Pressure Independent Systems
2.1.2.1. The relatively high duct pressures and velocities
allow the duct size (and cost) to be reduced.
2.1.2.2. Cost saving, when a volume control terminal
(VAV box) is used with multiple outlets.
2.1.2.3. System is tolerant of inadequacies in duct design
and installation because, as the name implies, it is
not dependent on accurate control of duct pressure;
the volume control terminal units will compensate
for wide variations in duct pressures.
2.1.3. Disadvantages of Pressure Independent
Systems
2.1.3.1. High fan power required to develop high duct
pressures (Power absorbed is proportional to
pressure).
2.1.3.2. Associated with the above, are the higher noise
levels which require additional attenuation.
2.1.3.3. Lack of flexibility. It is not possible to split into
two a zone served by a single VAV box and still
maintain individual control in each sub-zone.
2.1.3.4. Because the terminal outlet has fixed opening size,
there is a risk of cold air dumping at reduced air
flows. The aspect will be examined in more detail
later.
2.1.3.5. Costs can be high in a situation which requires a
large number of small offices to be served by
individually controlled terminals.
2.2. Low Pressure Systems with Variable
Geometry Outlets
2.2.1. Essential Components

The alternative to the above, also known as a pressure
dependent system, consists of the following.

2.2.1.1. Cooling/Heating coils, filters etc, as above.
2.2.1.2. Supply air fan, also generally variable speed,
capable of supplying duct pressures, at the fan
discharge, in the region of 1.0 ins. wg. An
explanation of this will be given later.
2.2.1.3. Supply air ducting, designed for low pressures and
velocities (below 2000 fpm).
2.2.1.4. A means of duct static pressure control.
2.2.1.5. Variable volume outlets, which vary the supply air
volume at the point of discharge into the occupied
space.
2.2.1.6. A temperature controller which will control the
supply air volume of a particular outlet (or group
of outlets) in accordance with the cooling/heating
demands for that space.
2.2.2. Advantages of Pressure Dependent Systems
2.2.2.1. Lower fan power requirements for the lower duct
pressures.
2.2.2.2. Lower fan sound power levels, associates with the
above.
2.2.2.3. Flexibility. Each outlet can be individually
controlled; A group of outlets operated by a single
temperature controller may easily be split, merely
by the addition of another controller (in the case of
electronically controlled units).
2.2.2.4. Because the duct static pressure is controlled and
kept constant, it is possible to mix constant volume
and variable volume diffusers on the same supply
duct system.
2.2.2.5. No risk of cold air dumping because of the
variable geometry nature of the outlet. This
feature will be more closely examined later.
2.2.2.6. Can be more cost effective in applications which
require each outlet to be individually controlled.






Intelligent Comfort Control
2.2.3. Disadvantage of Pressure Dependent
Systems

2.2.3.1. Duct sizes need to be larger to compensate for
lower air velocities.
2.2.3.2. For optimum performance, it is important to pay
close attention to the design and installation of the
supply air duct system. A poorly designed duct
system will compromise the equal pressure
requirement for the outlets.
2.2.3.3. System can be more expensive in situations where
a large number of outlets serve a common space or
zone, such as an open plan office.

It may be stated at this point that because the system is
based upon the principal of constant duct static pressure, it
is not necessary to monitor the air velocity at any point in
the system. Supply air volume will always be proportional
to damper opening.

3. COMPARISON OF TERMINAL
OUTLETS

The function of an air diffuser is to supply cold or warm air
to an occupied space evenly, without causing excessive air
movement at any particular point in the room while at the
same time providing near-uniform temperatures throughout
the occupied zone. To do this, it must introduce air above
the occupied zone at a velocity high enough to mix well
with room air, such that it slows down to a harmless speed
before reaching the occupied zone.

It takes energy to produce this mixing and this energy can
only come from the velocity of the primary air stream itself.
This mixing, otherwise known as entrainment or induction,
is a function of discharge velocity and length of perimeter
from which the air is discharged. So for example, a round
nozzle will generate little induction when compared with a
long slot type diffuser, for a given opening size and air flow
rate. Therefore, to optimize the induction, the discharge
velocity and exit perimeter length need to be maximized.

3.1. Fixed Aperture Outlets

Figure 1. Fixed Aperture Outlet.

In case of the conventional VAV box system, the air flow
rate is controlled some distance upstream of the point of air
discharge and the high escape velocities from the damper
device cannot be used directly to generate room air
entrainment or induction. This is because the associated
outlets have a fixed aperture and the discharge velocity is
proportional to volume.

Using the energy formula for a moving body :

Kinetic energy E = MV
2
Where M =
Mass , V = Velocity

In the case of the fixed aperture outlet, M and V change at
the same rate as flow and therefore it can be seen that
energy changes with the cube of the volume flow rate. The
relationship between energy and volume flow rate through
the normal range of volume control is shown in Table 1.

Obviously at a flow rate of 33% there is very little energy
left to generate the induction of secondary room air into the
supply air stream. The drastically reduced energy often
leads to the dumping of cold air onto occupants below.

3.2. Variable Geometry Outlets

In the case of variable geometry diffusers, the flow rate is
controlled by changing the outlet area at the point of
discharge. This has distinct advantages. The first is the
regain of static pressure at the outlet under reduced air
volume conditions and this may be explained using the
square law principle.

P
2
/P
1
= (V
2
/V
1
)
2


Figure 2 shows a typical supply air duct, flexible duct
connection and a variable geometry diffuser with motorized
damper actuator.

The static pressure in duct A remains constant at all times
by virtue of the static pressure control system, which is
examined in greater detail later. The volume control
damper in the diffuser varies the discharge aperture in
accordance with the demand of the room thermostat.

SUPPLY
AIR DUCT
VOLUME
CONTROL UNIT
FIXED
APERTURE
AIR OUTLET
FLEXIBLE
DUCT
As the flow rate diminishes; the static pressure loss due to
friction in the flexible duct reduces in proportion to the
square of the flow rate. So at the minimum air condition
there is in fact more static pressure available at the
discharge to increase the jet velocity, which in turn
enhances the room air induction rate. This increase in
available static pressure is depicted in Figure 3.






SUPPLY
AIR DUCT
VARIABLE
GEOMETRY
DIFFUSER
INDUCED
ROOM AIR

Intelligent Comfort Control



Figure 2. Variable Geometry Outlet.



AT MAXIMUM AIRFLOW

Static pressure at A = 0.24 ins. wg
Velocity at B = V
1
= 1050 fpm
Pressure loss due to friction = P
1
= 0.064 ins.
wg (friction in flexible duct)
Static pressure at B = 60 - 16 = 0.176 ins.
wg (available to force air through aperture)



AT 33% AIRFLOW

Static pressure at A = 0.24 ins. wg
Velocity at B = V2 = 350 fpm
Static pressure loss P2 at 33% airflow
Using square law:

P2 = P1 x (V
2
/V
1
)
2
= 0.064 x (350/1050)
2
=
0.0071 ins. wg (friction in flexible duct)

Static pressure B = 0.24 0.0071 = 0.233 ins. wg
(available to force air through aperture)



Figure 3. Static Pressure at Outlet versus Volume Flow
Rate

If the energy equation is applied to variable geometry
diffusers, it will be seen that as flow is reduced, only the
mass of moving air is reduced. Discharge velocity is
maintained and in fact is slightly increased because of the
regain of static pressure as shown above.

This results in the following comparative energy
relationship.




Table 1. Comparative Energy for Variable Geometry
Outlets

COMPARATIVE ENERGY
FLOW RATE FIXED
APERTURE
VARIABLE
GEOMETRY
100% 100% 100%
75% 42% 76%
50% 12,5% 54%
33% 3,6% 40%

Comparing these results leaves little doubt the greater
effectiveness of the variable geometry type of diffuser for
air distribution.

4. DUCT DESIGN

When designing a low pressure VAV system which uses
variable geometry diffusers, correct duct design is of the
utmost importance for a successful installation. While
good duct design is a relatively simple task, it is probably
the least understood aspect of a VAV installation. As
stated previously, the conventional high pressure system is
very tolerant of duct design deficiencies because there is
usually substantially more pressure available throughout the
system than what is actually required. It is precisely this
type of over-design philosophy which creates problems if
applied to low pressure systems, resulting in noise or
excessive air at terminals under minimum air conditions.
Pa
60
40
20
100 80 60 40 20 %
STATIC
PRESSURE
AT DISCHARGE
DIFFUSER OPENING

Duct sizing is usually accomplished by one of the following
methods.

1. EQUAL FRICTION
2. STATIC REGAIN

The equal friction method is the more common one and, as
the name implies, it results in a system in which the duct
static pressure reduces at a constant rate down the length of
the duct. So for example if a duct is 100 ft long and is
designed for a friction rate of 0.12 ins wg/100ft, the static
pressure at the end of the duct will be 0.12 ins. wg lower
than at the beginning. This is for a simple straight duct and
with a few bends and fittings the static pressure loss could
easily double to 0.24 ins. wg. This method is fine for
constant volume systems where manual duct dampers may
be used to throttle the airflow and obtain a balanced system.





Intelligent Comfort Control
What the throttling damper is fact does is to destroy static
pressure, which results in lower airflow rates. It is
important to understand that a volume control damper is
primarily a static pressure reducing device the air flow
cannot be reduced unless the static pressure loss is
increased. Volume flow rate through a diffuser is therefore
directly related to static pressure in the duct. To get more
air out of a diffuser, reduce the static pressure loss by
opening the throttling damper.

The equal friction method of duct sizing will work
satisfactorily for low pressure systems with variable
geometry diffusers only if the duct runs are short or if the
duct velocities are kept low (below 5m/s). If the duct run is
short, the static pressure loss from beginning to end of the
duct will not amount to much and if the velocities are kept
low, the friction rate per 100 ft of duct is very low (
0.04ins. wg/100 ft), resulting in small static pressure losses.

For more complex systems, it is essential to use the static
regain method of duct sizing. It is important to do the duct
design correctly from the outset because there is no cure for
a duct which turns out to have been undersized.

The low pressure system using variable geometry diffusers
relies on having the same constant static pressure at the
take-off to each outlet and this is achieved by using the
static regain method of duct sizing. This paper does not
seek to explain how static regain duct sizing is done; for
this purpose there are various software programs available
from vendors.

One objection to the use of this method to size ducting is
that it results in larger and more expensive ducting. While
this is true, the extent of the increase is often overestimated.
The weight of sheet metal required for a system designed
by static regain is approximately 13% more than the system
designed by equal friction. However, the increase in first
cost is offset by reduced balancing time and operating cost.

To put the size issue into perspective, the following
illustrates the relationship between air volume and duct
size. Volume is proportional to the square of the duct
dimension i.e. to increase the volume of air carried in a duct
by 50%, a typical duct size would have to increase from
20x16 to 24x20. It is the area that increases by 50%, not
the duct dimensions. Similarly, significant reductions in air
velocity require only modest increases in duct size.

The basic principle of the static regain method is to size a
duct run so that the increase in static pressure at each take-
off just offsets the loss due to friction in the succeeding
section of duct. Static regain occurs when air slows down.
A brief explanation of this is as follows :

In a perfect system where friction is ignored, the Total
pressure of the air remains constant as it travels through a
diverging section of duct from A to B.
Figure 4. Air Traveling through a diverging duct.
A
B

Now P total = P static + P velocity. As the velocity, and
therefore velocity pressure, reduces from point A to point
B, the static pressure must increase simultaneously to keep
the total pressure constant. In real system there is friction
and this reduces the static regain by a factor, preventing a
full recovery of pressure.

In practice this means that the air velocity is systematically
reduced from the first take-off or branch duct all the way to
the last take-off. Generally a size reduction of less than 2
ins. is regarded as being uneconomical and not essential.
Towards the end of the duct run the duct size could become
quite small and in this case a 1 ins. reduction may be
significant enough to justify its inclusion. The use of any
duct smaller than 6x8 is not recommended.

Under certain conditions, the static regain method produces
some unexpected results although there is a perfectly
logical explanation for these. For example, if the take-offs
are far apart, the frictional pressure loss is relatively large
and a duct size reduction may not be required the reduced
flow rate after a take-off in the same size duct results in
sufficient slowing down of the air to produce the required
static regain. In more extreme cases it may actually be
necessary to increase the duct size after take-off, so that the
air velocity is reduced sufficiently to provide the necessary
regain.

5. FAN SELECTION

One of the main advantages of the low pressure air
distribution system is the reduced fan power requirement.
To make the most of this feature, it is important to have a
clear understanding of how to calculate the total system
pressure against which the fan must operate. Space does
not allow a detailed analysis of every component but the
following guidelines will provide the engineer with the
basic information needed to successfully predict the fan
requirements.





Intelligent Comfort Control

5.1. Simple Systems

A simple system is shown in Figure 5. Return air ducting
may or may not be required, often depending on the size of
the system and whether it is possible for the return air to
reach the air handling unit directly through corridors etc.
There will be some pressure loss associated with the return
air, even if it is only for a louver.
Figure 5. A Simple Air Distribution System.

The fan will need to overcome the resistance offered by the
following elements:

a) Return air ducting/louver etc.
b) Pressure losses inside the AHU, e.g. air filter,
cooling/heating coil, entry & exit losses.
c) Static pressure loss due to friction in the first section of
duct from A to B.
d) The static pressure in the remainder of the duct system.
This is the pressure at which the diffusers are selected
and is generally in the range 0.12 0.32 ins. wg.

The pressure losses inside the AHU may be obtained from
the vendor.
The pressure loss from A to B is obtained by calculation
and depends on air velocity and equivalent duct length,
which takes into account number of bends etc.

From point B onwards, the fan sees only the static
pressure required to overcome the friction through the
flexible duct and the air outlet terminal, which is typically
around 0.24 ins. wg.

This can be summarized as follows, for a typical simple
system :




Ins. wg (Static)
a) Return air components 0.40
b) Air handling equipment 1.60
c) Duct friction (A-B) 0.16
d) System pressure 0.24
----
2.40 ins. wg
----
A
B
C
D

The fan selection is generally done on the basis of total
pressure (Static plus velocity pressure). Based on the air
volume and the size of the fan discharge, the velocity
pressure at the fan discharge may be calculated as follows :

P velocity = (0.0033r V)
2

where r = air density in lbs/ft
3
V = velocity in fpm

Fan total pressure is then simply the sum of static and
velocity pressure.

Note that the size of the header duct (A to B) is the same
for both equal friction and static regain method of duct
sizing. Based on the information given in Table 3, select a
starting velocity appropriate to the particular system and
calculate the pressure loss in this first section of duct. Ideal
starting velocities are in the range 1400 1800 fpm.

TABLE 2. Recommended maximum duct velocities for
low pressure systems

3,0
5,0
6,0
4,0
7,5
9,0
12,5
5,0
7,5
10,0
6,5
10,0
10,0
15,0
4,0
6,5
7,5
5,5
7,5
7,5
9,0
3,0
6,0
8,0
5,0
8,0
8,0
11,
3,0
5,0
6,0
4,0
6,0
6,0
7,5
APPLICATION
RESIDENCES
APARTMENTS
HOTEL BEDROOMS
HOSPITAL BEDROOMS
PRIVATE OFFICES
DIRECTORS ROOMS
LIBRARIES
THEATERS
AUDITORIUMS
GENERAL OFFICES
HIGH CLOSE RESTAURANTS
HIGH CLOSE STORES
BANKS
AVERAGE STORES
CAFETERIAS
INDUSTRIAL
TABLE 3 - RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM DUCT VELOCITIES FOR LOW VELOCITY SYSTEMS M / S
CONTROLLING FACTOR
NOISE GENERATION
CONTROLLING FACTOR - DUCT FRICTION
MAIN DUCTS BRANCH DUCTS
MAIN DUCTS SUPPLY RETURN SUPPLY RETURN






Intelligent Comfort Control
5.2. Large Systems
In a larger system where, for example, a single AHU serves
a number of floors of a building, a slightly different
approach is usually taken. This is to divide the air
distribution system into the most conveniently selected low
pressure supply duct zones, fed from medium pressure
main ducts or risers, by means of branch duct dampers
which control the static pressure in the branch ducts.

Figure 6. Larger, more complex air distribution system.

This layout reduces the size of the riser duct where space
may be limited. The riser duct should also be sized using
the static regain method, especially in high-rise buildings
where the length of the duct is significant. For such riser
ducts noise is often less of a determining factor and initial
velocities of up to 2000 fpm may be used quite safely. If
the static pressure in the low pressure branch duct is in the
region of 0.16 0.28 ins. wg, then the static pressure just
upstream of the pressure controlling branch duct damper
need be no more than 0.40 to 0.80 Pa above this. This
would normally eliminate the need for sound attenuators
after the Pressure Control Damper. Both riser duct and
branch duct static pressure are controlled from static
pressure sensors which are placed at a point about one half
to two thirds of the distance from the duct damper or supply
air fan to the end of the duct section.

6. BYPASS DAMPERS
Bypass dampers may also be used effectively for the
control of duct static pressure, especially in smaller systems
where fan power is not significant. In this case, fan power
saving is not possible as the volume of air through the fan is
not reduced as the diffusers close down.


6.1 Sizing of Bypass Damper

It must be borne in mind that if the outlet diffusers are able
to turn down to 33% of maximum, then the bypass damper
must be sized to handle 67% of the total supply air quantity.
It is recommended that the bypass damper be sized on an
average face velocity of 800 1000 fpm. At higher face
velocities the pressure drop across the fully open damper
will increase and insufficient air will pass through the
damper, causing the static pressure inside the duct to rise
above the set level. If the size of the bypass damper is
restricted/limited by available space, it may be necessary to
include a face damper to operate in conjunction with the
bypass damper. This is shown in Figure 7.
S
S
S
R
STATIC
PRESURE
SENSOR
DAMPER
BRANCH DUCT

FACE DAMPER
(OPTIONAL)
BYPASS
DAMPER
AHU


Figure 7. Face & Bypass Dampers.

6.2. Type of Pressure Control Damper

The modulating damper used for pressure control should be
of the type which uses airfoil shaped vanes. This type has a
near-linear air transfer characteristic, unlike opposed blade
or parallel blade type dampers, which have non-linear
characteristics. The airfoil blade type provides much more
stable control, especially at minimum air volumes.

7. BALANCING THE AIR DISTRIBUTION
SYSTEM

A well designed duct system which has been sized using
the static regain method is essentially self balancing. No
attempt must be made to balance the airflow by means of
manually operated dampers inserted into the duct. There is
a very good reason for this.

Manual dampers add series resistance to the flow and this
resistance changes as the square of the flow. Therefore at




Intelligent Comfort Control
full flow the manual damper will offer a high resistance
(say 0.18 ins. wg for example) but at 33% flow the
resistance will drop to (1/3 x 1/3) or 1/9
th
of 0.18 ins. wg
i.e. 0.02 ins. wg. This means that at full flow the damper
will reduce the static pressure to the diffuser by 0.18 ins.
wg but at minimum flow the static pressure at the diffuser
will rise by 0.16 ins. wg and probably result in
unacceptably high noise levels.

If is far better to put the extra effort into proper duct design
and effect cost savings in terms of both hardware and labor,
not to mention the benefit of a system which operates
quietly and efficiently.

Note that flexible ducts which are excessive in length or
excessively looped have the same effect as a manual
damper.




8. COMMISSIONING
The discussion here is restricted to the commissioning of
the static pressure control system and the variable geometry
diffusers. It also assumes that the system has been checked
for obvious faults such as ruptured or disconnected flexible
ducting etc. Avoid commissioning a system when warm air
is being supplied by the air handling unit, especially when
the balancing hood method is used to measure air volumes.
The stack effect created by the warm air in the hood will
artificially reduce the volume through that diffuser.

8.1. Simple System

A simple system would consist of a single AHU with
variable speed fan serving a single run of duct with a
number of variable geometry diffusers.
Figure 8. Commissioning a Simple System.

The first step would be to drive all the diffusers to the fully
open position. If the system has been designed for a
specific volume diversification factor, open only enough of
the VAV diffusers to allow the maximum simultaneous air
volume for which the system has been designed, to flow
through the duct. Now select the diffuser requiring the
highest pressure to satisfy its design volume (in this system
probably I or J furthest from the AHU) and measure the
supply air volume from this diffuser using a correctly sized
balancing hood. Adjust the static pressure in the duct until
the desired air volume from this diffuser has been achieved.
Once this diffuser is satisfied, it is safe to assume that all
diffusers further upstream will deliver no less than the
design air quantity and a few random spot checks should
confirm this. In operation the system becomes self-
balancing as each diffuser adjusts to the required room
load.

8.2. Larger, More Complex Systems

Larger systems would generally consist of an AHU which
supplies air to a high pressure header duct and this duct in
turn serves a number of branch ducts. Each branch duct
would have an independent pressure control damper to
control the static pressure in that duct, throughout the range
of airflow volume.

Figure 9. Commissioning a Larger, more Complex
System.
EAST ZONE
INTERNAL ZONE
WEST ZONE
BRANCH DUCT
STATIC PRESSURE
SENSOR
PRESSURE
CONTROL
DAMPER
MAIN DUCT
STATIC PRESSURE
CONTROL
AIR HANDLING
UNIT
AHU
A
C
E
B D
F H
G
I
J

The aim is to set the system up in such a way that the
supply air fan static pressure is just sufficient to supply the
design air quantity to the diffuser furthest from the AHU,
under the most demanding condition, i.e. when all diffusers
served by the AHU are fully open. If a diversification
factor has been used, it must be applied as before.

The first task is to select the index branch duct. This is
usually the branch duct which is furthest from the AHU, or
the one which is most likely to be starved if the fan does
not supply sufficient air. The damper serving this duct
must be driven to the fully open position. Next, fully open
all the diffusers on this branch duct (Presumably all these
diffusers will be serving a common zone and there will be




Intelligent Comfort Control
no diversity factor), and select the diffuser requiring the
highest pressure to satisfy its design volume. Now adjust
the static pressure in the header/main duct to the point
where the selected diffuser meets the design airflow
requirement. Finally, without changing anything in the
branch duct, adjust the branch duct static pressure controller
so that the pressure in that branch will be controlled at the
level which exists when these measurements are made.

With the header/main duct static pressure now set, each of
the branch duct static pressure controllers may be adjusted
according to the procedure for a simple system.

At this stage the system is fully commissioned, but it may
be tested by monitoring duct pressures while changing the
airflow around the system. In a satisfactory system one
would expect duct pressures to vary by less than 10% as air
flows vary from 100% down to 33%.

9. COST COMPARISONS

There is no simple cost comparison which can be made
between a conventional VAV box system and a low
pressure system using variable geometry diffusers. This is
because the cost depends on whether the system is designed
to serve relatively large zones where a large number of
outlets may be operated by single temperature controller, or
whether the building has many small offices which each
require an individually controlled outlet.

The first type of application favors the VAV box system, as
a large number of low cost, fixed aperture outlets may be
connected to a single volume control VAV box. However,
where all or most of the outlets are required to have their
own temperature controller for individual comfort, the
variable geometry diffuser system becomes more
competitive.


As can be expected, there is a point between these two
extremes. At which the costs break even and the choice
would depend on other factors such as flexibility and
running costs.

Appendix 1 shows the results of a study undertaken
recently by a contracting company in Philadelphia USA. It
was found that the break-even point occurred when the
system required an average of about 4 outlets per VAV
box. Above this the VAV box system is likely to be more
cost effective while at 3 outlets or less (on average) the low
pressure system with variable geometry outlets is more
economical. It must be stressed that this may be used only
as a guide although similar investigations in Malaysia,
Israel and Australia have confirmed this.

The study also revealed, predictably, that the annual
operating costs were some 37% lower for the low pressure
system than for the VAV box system.
10. CONCLUSION

Although there is much more that may be said about air
distribution, from the information presented in this paper
the air conditioning engineer should have a clear
understanding of the basic principles involved in the
process of air distribution. It should also be clear that a low
pressure, pressure dependent system using variable
geometry diffusers offers one of the most effective ways to
provide excellent room conditions for human conform.
This system also meets the challenge of providing state-of-
the-art technology at affordable cost, without
compromising individual comfort or indoor air quality.

By paying close attention to the potential pitfalls
highlighted in this paper, the engineer can be confident of
being able to design and install an effective air distribution
system.

11. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank the Directors of Brian Rickard
(Pty) Ltd for permission to publish this paper as well as for
making available the time and information resources
without which this paper would not have been possible.

12. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Chen, S.Y.S. and Demster, S.J.: Variable Air Volume
Systems for Environmental Quality.
McGraw Hill Book Company (1996)


2. ASHRAE : ASHRAE Handbook 1997
Fundamentals, American Society of Heating,
Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc.,
Chapter 31 & 32 (1997)

3. Carrier Air Conditioning Company : Handbook of Air
Conditioning Design, Part 2. McGraw Hill Book
Company (1965)












Intelligent Comfort Control
APPENDIX 1.

The comparisons are made for a two story building served by a single 20 000 cfm air handling unit. We
have assumed there will be a total of 25 VAV boxes/master VAV diffusers (17 VAV boxes with hot water
heating coils for the external zones and 8 without heaters for the internal zones) and a total of 100 supply air
diffusers.

1. Fan Powered VAV Boxes:

1.1 External zones - 17 x VAV Boxes cooling/heating $ 13,617
1.2 Internal zones - 8 x VAV Boxes cooling only $ 4,848
1.3 VAV box installation $ 1,530
1.4 Supply air diffusers and balancing dampers $ 4,500
1.5 System Balancing $ 2,250
1.6 Air Handling Unit $ 30,000
1.7 Analog controls Included
1.8 Hot water coil valves $ 1,530
1.9 Hot water piping supply and installation $ 8,000
1.10 Electrical wiring to VAV boxes and controls $ 5,125

Total cost: $ 71,400

Annual operating costs assuming 75% AHU motor efficiency
and 50% fan powered VAV box motor efficiency $ 12,320

2. Standard VAV Boxes:

2.1 External zones - 17 x VAV Boxes cooling/heat $ 7,939
2.2 Internal zones - 8 x VAV Boxes cooling only $ 2,176
2.3 VAV box installation $ 1,530
2.4 Supply air diffusers and balancing dampers $ 4,500
2.5 System Balancing $ 2,250
2.6 Air Handling Unit $ 30,000
2.7 Analog controls Included
2.8 Hot water coil valves $ 1,530
2.9 Hot water piping supply and installation $ 8,000
2.10 Electrical wiring to VAV boxes and controls $ 3,125

Total cost: $ 61,050

Annual operating costs assuming 75% AHU motor efficiency $ 7,603









Intelligent Comfort Control





3. Thermally Powered Variable Geometry VAV Diffusers:

3.1 External zones-68 x VSD 7-4 S24 heat/cool diffusers $ 11,812
3.2 Internal zones-32 x VSD 7-4 S24 cool only diffusers $ 4,202
3.3 Two Pressure control dampers and controls $ 1,306
3.4 Four hot water duct heating coils $ 1,000
3.5 Four hot water heating coil valves $ 800
3.6 Hot water piping supply and installation $ 4,000
3.7 VAV diffuser balancing $ 500
3.8 Air Handling Unit $ 30,000
3.9 Damper electrical wiring $ 350

Total cost: $ 53,970

Annual operating costs assuming 75% AHU motor efficiency $ 4,752



4. Electronically Controlled Variable Geometry VAV Diffusers:

4.1 Ext. zones-17 x VSD 7-1 S24 heat/cool master diffusers $ 4,939
4.2 Int. zones-8 x VSD 7-1 S24 cool only master diffusers $ 2,200
4.3 75 x VSD 7-1 S24 slave diffusers $ 12,000
4.4 Two Pressure control dampers and controls $ 1,306
4.4 Four hot water duct heating coils $ 1,000
4.5 Four hot water heating coil valves $ 800
4.6 Hot water piping supply and installation $ 4,000
4.7 VAV diffuser balancing $ 500
4.8 Air Handling Unit $ 30,000
4.9 Damper electrical wiring $ 3,125

Total cost: $ 59,870

Annual operating costs assuming 75% AHU motor efficiency $ 4,752