1

Application Note
Direction Finding
Part of the Interference Analysis application note series.
Introduction
Youve identified an interfering signal, now you need to track it to its source. This is done with various methods of
direction finding. The least effective way to locate an emitter is to use a non-directional antenna and just try to go
in the direction that gives you the largest signal. In the real world, multi-path propagation makes such a procedure
difficult and frustrating. You need a method that shows you the direction of arrival of the signal. Most often this is
done with a directional antennas such as Yagi beams, log-periodic antennas, and flat panel directional antennas. It
can also be done with an array of non-directional antennas that are diode switched. This procedure is commonly
called Doppler scanning and quickly yields direction of arrival information. This topic is discussed later in this note.
The basic procedure of direction finding is theoretically simple but in practice multi-path propagation often makes
the process very complex and fraught with false or confusing direction indications.
To do the job effectively you need a map and a directional antenna that works at the frequency of interest. The
exact type of map isnt very important. You could use a topographic map if you have one, but if not a standard road
map will do just fine. If you do the work without a map you can still get the job done, but not nearly as effectively
since you will need to somehow keep track of direction of arrival information as you go to other locations to take
additional directional fixes.
For the directional antenna, it is helpful to have the antennas radiation pattern. As you will see later in this note,
you can employ the side lobe notches if you know where they are in the radiation pattern.
Multiple Location DFing
By using multiple locations with directional antennas at each location, the approximate location of an interfering
signal can be ascertained, assuming the signal stays on the air long enough to turn antennas to determine the
direction of arrival. For interferers that are on the air for a short time, this method doesnt work very well with
rotating antennas. The Doppler direction finding method is very helpful for short duration signals, assuming that
you are observing the direction of arrival display when the signal is on the air.
Single Antenna DFing
The assumption here is that you are working on your own or with one other person to find the offending signal. It
is wise to make careful and deliberate measurements to accurately determine your present position and your best
estimate of the direction to the emitter. This is very difficult to do from a moving vehicle because of multipath
enforcement and cancellation. The distraction of aiming the antenna and watching signal strength can be dangerous
if you are working alone. To make measurements, stop the vehicle, determine your exact location on the map then
rotate the antenna to find direction to the largest signal. Plot that information on the map with an arrow from where
you are in the direction of arrival of the signal. Use an arrow rather than just a straight line so you will be sure of
the direction of arrival later on. This is especially important if it turns out that you are chasing a multi-path reflection.
What you may see if that is the case is that the arrows end up pointing in all sorts of wild directions rather than
toward a single point or small area.
2
To see if you are being fooled by multipath signals,
move the antenna a quarter wave (see table 1) without
rotating to see if the signal strength changes radically.
If there is no significant change in signal strength, you
probably are aimed properly. If, however, there is a
radical shift in power (either up or down) you are
experiencing multipath reinforcement or cancellation and
the direction of arrival will be skewed. Here is whats
happening. The signal arriving directly from the emitter
is coming by the shortest path. Reflected signals take a
longer path because they have bounced off of something
as shown in Figure 1. By moving _ wavelength, the
phase relationship between the direct signal and the
bounced signal will change by 1/2 wavelength, so
signals are in phase in one position so they add
together will be out-of-phase _ wavelength away so
they cancel. Pay attention to the signal level as you
are making the _ wavelength move since you may go
through a peak or null somewhere during the
movement.
DFing in Cities
In urban environments the main propagation paths that the signal follows will probably be multiple bounces off of
buildings .since a direct, line-of-site path to the signal source probably does not exist. In this situation dont bother
trying to find the exact direction to the emitter. When you reach an intersection, simply point your antenna down all
the roads and follow the strongest signal. The aiming doesnt have to be very careful, just aim down the street.
Usually the strongest signal will be pretty obvious. In figure 2 the direction of arrival would be different if the
measurement is taken on the southeast corner than it would be if taken on the southwest corner or the northwest
corner. In all these cases, however, the general direction is up the street to the north. If the measurements dont
make sense, you may happen to be at a place where two strong bounces cancel this could easily happen at the
southeast corner. Try moving a short distance and trying again. Continue following the strongest signal until it is
very strong.
As you move through a city this way, you may very well
come close to other emitters at different frequencies.
These may be strong enough to saturate the front-end
of the spectrum analyzer. Use a bandpass filter that is
tuned to the frequency range in which you are interested
to eliminate the potential of having problems with strong
out-of-band signals.
Once you have gone past the emitter so that the
direction of the strongest signal changes significantly,
try triangulating the signal since you may have a direct
path to the emitter and give you good results. If you are
still receiving the signal via indirect paths it will quickly
become apparent because triangulation will yield
different answers depending on your exact position
and which bounce signal is strongest. If you have been
driving up to this point, now may be the time to proceed
on foot so you will have more freedom to stop and
investigate potential sources. By this time you will very
likely be receiving a signal directly from the emitter so
more traditional DFing approaches will work.
Transmit
Antenna
Direct
Signal
Reflected
Signal
Figure 1. Simplified Multi-path propagation
Figure 2. Multipath urban propagation.
3
Freq. MHz
1/4 wave
Freq. MHz
1/4 wave
Freq. MHz
1/4 wave
meters inches meters inches meters inches
1 75.0 2953 250 0.300 11.8 1100 0.068 2.69
5 15.0 591 300 0.250 9.8 1200 0.063 2.46
10 7.50 295 350 0.214 8.4 1300 0.058 2.27
15 5.00 197 400 0.188 7.4 1400 0.054 2.11
20 3.75 148 450 0.167 6.6 1500 0.050 1.97
25 3.00 118 500 0.150 5.9 1600 0.047 1.85
30 2.50 98 550 0.136 5.4 1700 0.044 1.74
40 1.88 74 600 0.125 4.9 1800 0.042 1.64
50 1.50 59 650 0.115 4.5 1900 0.040 1.56
60 1.25 49 700 0.107 4.2 2000 0.038 1.48
70 1.07 42 750 0.100 3.9 2200 0.034 1.34
80 0.94 37 800 0.094 3.7 2400 0.031 1.23
100 0.75 30 850 0.088 3.5 2600 0.029 1.13
150 0.50 20 900 0.083 3.3 2800 0.027 1.06
200 0.38 15 1000 0.075 3.0 3000 0.025 0.98
Table 1. Quarter wavelengths for selected frequencies.
Fixed DFing Networks
When you have a need to protect a limited geographic area and be able to rapidly locate signal sources, an array
of antennas surrounding the area is the way to go. The antennas can be either directional antennas that are rotated
to determine where the signal is coming from or an array of omni-directional antennas coupled with a Doppler
direction finding systems. Doppler systems will be discussed in the next section.
A variation of this approach is to have an array of fixed receiving locations within the area to be covered and get a
general fix on the location of a signal by seeing with of the receiving locations can detect the signals and how
strong. In the case of a cellular network there may be enough receivers that a fairly tight fix of the location could
be determined just from analyzing signal strength
information from many receivers. By having all the
receiver locations plotted on a map in advance, it is
feasible to plot signal strength on the map from each
location that hears the signal and have a good idea of
where to go to start DFing.
In the ideal configuration of a fixed DFing network, you
would have receivers situated around the area to be
covered and perhaps some within the coverage area
so that at least two receivers would be able to receive
a signal from the target area at right angles to each
other. The worst case would be for the two receivers
to receive the signal with opposite bearings that is
one receivers antenna is pointing directly at the other
receivers antenna. The signal could be anywhere along
the line between the two stations and no triangulation
is possible, as would be the case for antennas 2 and 6
trying to DF a signal that is originating at the X in
figure 3. Antennas 1 and 3 on the other hand would
give directional lines that would cross somewhere near
the X. Other antenna combinations in the example
would also yield good cross bearings. The more
antennas receiving the signal the better for DFing.
Figure 3. Fixed DFing Network of directional antennas.
4
Doppler DFing
This method isnt really Doppler but is simulated
Doppler created by rapidly switching a circular array of
antennas one at a time into a receiver. The theoretical
underpinning for this type of antenna array is a rapidly
rotating antenna that actually creates Doppler frequency
shift on arriving signals the frequency rises when the
antenna is moving toward the signal source and drops
when the antenna is moving away from the signal source.
This method uses an array of omni-directional antennas
mounted _ wavelength apart. The minimum number of
antennas is 3. There is no reason for having more than
8 antennas an array of four antennas does the job
just fine. The electrical complexity aside, the more
antennas there are in the array, the faster the switching
speed needs to be to maintain a reasonably fast
simulated rotation speed. Since the feedlines from the
antennas to the switching circuit must all be the same
length to maintain correct phasing of the array, care is
required when building the antenna and feedline system.
The antenna feedlines are routed through a diode
switching array. The diodes are turned on and off one
at a time in rotation at a relatively high rate such as
1 kHz. At any one moment only one of the antennas
is connected to the receiver. FM modulation at a rate
(1 kHz in this case) determined by the diode switching rate is imposed on the signal being received. The phase of
the FM modulation is used to determine the angle of arrival of the signal relative to the antenna array. A processor
controls both the diode switching and receives detected audio from an FM receiver. That is enough information for
the processor to determine arrival angle. Regardless of the modulation format of the received signal, this method
requires the use of an FM receiver to be able to detect the phase/frequency changes of the signal.
Signal Strength Mapping
A completely different approach to interference location is signal strength mapping. It only works for signals that
are on the air for an extended period of time. Basically you have one or several people drive around the area of
interest as thoroughly as possible while capturing signal strength and GPS location information. Then you post
process the information, placing measurements on a map and connecting measurements of equal signal strength
forming isobars such as those on a weather map showing equal barometric pressure. Unless the situation is very
unusual, the isobars will form jagged circles around the signal source. This approach is commonly used in spectrum
clearing situations where the new licensee of a chunk of spectrum needs to negotiate the removal of all previous
licensees of the spectrum plus find and remove any non-licensed users of the spectrum.
Figure 4. A Doppler DF antenna array.
Photograph courtesy of Doppler Systems, Inc.
5
Using Side Lobe Notches
The front lobe of most antennas is fairly broad, making
it difficult to accurately determine the maximum signal
strength. Notice the side lobes notches in the antenna
pattern at plus and minus about 60 degrees. The deepest
parts of the notches are very narrow, making them useful
for direction finding. Here is a way to use them. Find what
you think is the largest received signal, then rotate the
antenna 60 degrees in either direction to find the deep
notch. Knowing the radiation pattern of your particular
antenna is important to being able to use this technique
since different antennas have their deep notches in
different places. Some antennas have multiple notches.
The manufacturers of most directional antennas usually
can supply radiation patterns of the antennas they make.
One final set of tools for getting to the source of
interference are spectrogram, signal strength and
Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI). Both signal
strength and RSSI measurements are made in zero span.
They show basically the same information, but in two
very different ways. You may end up using all three of
these tools while you are tracking down a signal source.
Spectrogram
Measurements using spectrogram can give you valuable insights regarding the on-off pattern of an interfering
signal. Notice that the signal at the center frequency is frequently off the air. Knowing the on-off pattern of the signal
allows you to be aware that you need to be patient when the signal disappears. Spectrogram measurements are
generally used relatively early in the signal identification process since they are ideally suited to give you insights
that are hard to get when looking at a series of spectrum analysis sweeps. Once you have those insights.
0
30
60
90
120
150
180
210
240
270
300
330
-3
-10
-20
Figure 5. Antenna pattern of a 9-element Yagi.
Figure 6. Spectrogram showing an intermittent signal.
6
Signal Strength
Once you now the pattern of your target signal, signal strength and RSSI are good tools to employ. When you use
which one depends on the circumstances of the search. The signal strength measurement displays an analog
meter to show the measured power of the signal. One handy choice in the measurement is an audio beep whose
frequency changes with signal strength. If you are working alone this allows you to hear the signal strength without
taking your eyes off the road. You can plug-in a cellular headset to hear the beeps in noisy environments while
avoiding strange looks from passers-by when you are DFing on foot. This measurement gives you power of the
signal at that particular moment.
Figure 7. Signal Strength measurement.
7
RSSI shows the signal strength over time. The nice feature of this measurement is that you can easily see the
change in signal strength when using a directional antenna. The default time interval between measurements is 70
milliseconds, giving you a very rapid indication of signal strength changes as you rotate the antenna. Dont use
this measurement if you are driving alone since your eyes will be off the road too much.
Ingenuity is the name of the game when it comes to direction finding. You need to gather information quickly and
realize as soon as possible when you are dealing with a multipath situation so you dont waste a lot of time
chasing ghosts. The tools built into Anritsu handheld spectrum analyzers are ideally suited to help you be
successful in interference mitigation and elimination
Figure 8. RSSI measurement.
Anritsu Corporation
5-1-1 Onna, Atsugi-shi, Kanagawa, 243-8555 Japan
Phone: +81-46-223-1111
Fax: +81-46-296-1264
U.S.A.
Anritsu Company
1155 East Collins Boulevard, Suite 100,
Richardson, Texas 75081 U.S.A.
Toll Free: 1-800-ANRITSU (267-4878)
Phone: +1-972-644-1777
Fax: +1-972-671-1877
Canada
Anritsu Electronics Ltd.
700 Silver Seven Road, Suite 120, Kanata,
Ontario K2V 1C3, Canada
Phone: +1-613-591-2003
Fax: +1-613-591-1006
Brazil
Anritsu Electrnica Ltda.
Praca Amadeu Amaral, 27-1 Andar
01327-010 - Paraiso, So Paulo, Brazil
Phone: +55-11-3283-2511
Fax: +55-11-3886940
Mexico
Anritsu Company, S.A. de C.V.
Av. Ejrcito Nacional No. 579 Piso 9, Col. Granada
11520 Mxico, D.F., Mxico
Phone: +52-55-1101-2370
Fax: +52-55-5254-3147
U.K.
Anritsu EMEA Ltd.
200 Capability Green, Luton, Bedfordshire LU1 3LU, U.K.
Phone: +44-1582-433200
Fax: +44-1582-731303
France
Anritsu S.A.
16/18 Avenue du Qubec-SILIC 720
91961 COURTABOEUF CEDEX, France
Phone: +33-1-60-92-15-50
Fax: +33-1-64-46-10-65
Germany
Anritsu GmbH
Nemetschek Haus, Konrad-Zuse-Platz 1
81829 Mnchen, Germany
Phone: +49 (0) 89 442308-0
Fax: +49 (0) 89 442308-55
Italy
Anritsu S.p.A.
Via Elio Vittorini, 129, 00144 Roma, Italy
Phone: +39-06-509-9711
Fax: +39-06-502-2425
Sweden
Anritsu AB
Borgafjordsgatan 13, 164 40 Kista, Sweden
Phone: +46-8-534-707-00
Fax: +46-8-534-707-30
Finland
Anritsu AB
Teknobulevardi 3-5, FI-01530 Vantaa, Finland
Phone: +358-20-741-8100
Fax: +358-20-741-8111
Denmark
Anritsu A/S
Kirkebjerg All 90 DK-2605 Brndby, Denmark
Phone: +45-72112200
Fax: +45-72112210
Spain
Anritsu EMEA Ltd.
Oficina de Representacin en Espaa
Edificio Veganova
Avda de la Vega, n
o
1 (edf 8, pl1, of 8)
28108 ALCOBENDAS - Madrid, Spain
Phone: +34-914905761
Fax: +34-914905762
Russia
Anritsu EMEA Ltd.
Representation Office in Russia
Tverskaya str. 16/2, bld. 1, 7th floor.
Russia, 125009, Moscow
Phone: +7-495-363-1694
Fax: +7-495-935-8962
United Arab Emirates
Anritsu EMEA Ltd.
Dubai Liaison Office
P O Box 500413 - Dubai Internet City
Al Thuraya Building, Tower 1, Suite 701, 7th Floor
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Phone: +971-4-3670352
Fax: +971-4-3688460
Singapore
Anritsu Pte. Ltd.
60 Alexandra Terrace, #02-08, The Comtech (Lobby A)
Singapore 118502
Phone: +65-6282-2400
Fax: +65-6282-2533
India
Anritsu Pte. Ltd.
India Branch Office
3rd Floor, Shri Lakshminarayan Niwas,
#2726, 80 ft Road, HAL 3rd Stage, Bangalore - 560 075, India
Phone: +91-80-4058-1300
Fax: +91-80-4058-1301
P. R. China (Hong Kong)
Anritsu Company Ltd.
Units 4 & 5, 28th Floor, Greenfield Tower, Concordia Plaza,
No. 1 Science Museum Road, Tsim Sha Tsui East,
Kowloon, Hong Kong, P.R. China
Phone: +852-2301-4980
Fax: +852-2301-3545
P. R. China (Beijing)
Anritsu Company Ltd.
Beijing Representative Office
Room 1515, Beijing Fortune Building,
No. 5 , Dong-San-Huan Bei Road,
Chao-Yang District, Beijing 100004, P.R. China
Phone: +86-10-6590-9230
Fax: +86-10-6590-9235
Korea
Anritsu Corporation, Ltd.
8F Hyunjuk Bldg. 832-41, Yeoksam-Dong,
Kangnam-ku, Seoul, 135-080, Korea
Phone: +82-2-553-6603
Fax: +82-2-553-6604
Australia
Anritsu Pty Ltd.
Unit 21/270 Ferntree Gully Road, Notting Hill
Victoria, 3168, Australia
Phone: +61-3-9558-8177
Fax: +61-3-9558-8255
Taiwan
Anritsu Company Inc.
7F, No. 316, Sec. 1, Neihu Rd., Taipei 114, Taiwan
Phone: +886-2-8751-1816
Fax: +886-2-8751-1817
Application Note No. 11410-00530, Rev. A Printed in United States 2009-09
2009 Anritsu Company. All Rights Reserved.
Anritsu All trademarks are registered trademarks of
their respective companies. Data subject to change
without notice. For the most recent specifications visit:
www.us.anritsu.com