Ec 2208 Manual

Expt No.
1 Fixed Bias or Base- Bias amplifier circuit using BJT

Aim:
1. To observe the Waveforms at input and output without bias.
2. To determine the bias resistance to locate Q-point at center of Load line.
3. To Measure the gain of amplifier.
. To !lot the fre"uenc# response $ %etermine the &andwidth !roduct
Apparatus required:
S.No. Name of te apparatus !ange "t#
1. &' 2(2222 or &' )* - 1
2. +esistor 1,-1.., 1
3. +egulated power suppl# /.-3.01 1
. 2unction 3enerator /.-3.0Mh4 1
). '+5 3.Mh4 1
6. 'apacitor ..17f 2
*. &red &oard - 1
8. 'onnecting wires - +e".
Teor#:
The circuit /also 9nown as Base-bias circuit0 : see 2igure ;.1 : is the most simple of all
'ommon-<mitter circuits. =t provides a straightforward introduction to the %' bias anal#sis of
transistors. The Q-point- however- is e>tremel# beta-dependent. &ecause of this- this circuit has
limited applicabilit#.
$rocedure:
1. The connections are given as per the circuit diagram.
2. The input voltage is set in the signal generator.
3. The readings are measured b# '+5 from the minimum fre"uenc# to ma>imum
fre"uenc#.
. %raw the input and output waveform as per the readings measured.
). %etermine the bias resistance using !
B
%&
cc
'(
B
6. Locate Q.!oint at centre of the load line b# using !
B.
*. Measure the gain using )ain%*+log
1+
,&
o
'&
i
-
8. !lot the graph b# using fre"uenc# 1s 3ain.
;. %etermine the &andwidth product using B.%f
/*
-f
/1
/ircuit 0iagram:
Frequenc# !esponse cur1e:
0/ load line:
0etermination of 2perating $oint ,"-: ,&
/E"
or &
/
3 (
/"
or (
/
-:
Band4idt $roduct:
The bandwidth of the circuit is found as the difference between the cutoff fre"uencies.
&# formula-
Ta5ular /olumn: (nput &oltage ,&
i
- %1&
S.No. Frequenc# in 67 2utput &oltage ,&
o
- )ain%*+log
1+
,1
o
'&
i
-
!esult:
Thus the input and output waveform- fre"uenc# response for fi>ed bias amplifier
circuit using &?T are drawn and following parameters are calculated.
/i0 &ias +esistance +
&
@ /ii0 3ain @ /iii0 &and width product @
Expt No.* /ommon Emitter Amplifier using 1oltage di1ider Bias
Aim:
To %esign and construct &?T 'ommon <mitter Amplifier using voltage divider bias /self-
bias0 with and without b#passed emitter resistor- Measure the gain- !lot the fre"uenc# response and
%etermination of 3ain &andwidth product.
Apparatus required:
1. &' )* - 1
2. +esistor 33,-1..,-2.2,-1, 1
). '+5 3.Mh4 1
6. 'apacitor 1.Bf-1.. Bf 2-1
*. &red &oard - 1
Teor#:
The voltage divider is formed using e>ternal resistors +
1
and +
2
. The voltage across
+
2
forward biases the emitter Cunction. &# proper selection of resistors +
1
and +
2
- the
operating point of the transistor can be made independent of D. =n this circuit- the voltage
divider holds the base voltage fi>ed independent of base current provided the divider
current is large compared to the base current. Eowever- even with a fi>ed base voltage-
collector current varies with temperature /for e>ample0 so an emitter resistor is added to
stabili4e the Q-point- similar to the above circuits with emitter resistor.
$rocedure:
fre"uenc#.
. %raw the input and output waveform with and without b#pass emitter resistor
of the circuit and as per the readings measured.
). Measure the gain using )ain%*+log,&
o
'&
i
-
*. %etermine the &andwidth product using B.%f
/*
-f
/1
Frequenc# !esponse cur1e
0/ load line:
Band4idt $roduct:
The bandwidth of the circuit is found as the difference between the cutoff fre"uencies.
&# formula-
/alculations:
i
- %1&
o
- )ain%*+log
1+
,1
o
'&
i
-
!esult:
Thus the input and output waveform with and without b#pass emitter resistor of the
common emitter amplifier using voltage divider bias- fre"uenc# response of the common
emitter amplifier circuit using &?T are drawn and following parameters are calculated.
3ain @
&and width product @
Expt No.8 /ommon /ollector Amplifier using 1oltage di1ider Bias
Aim:
To %esign and construct &?T 'ommon 'ollector Amplifier using voltage divider bias /self-
bias0- Measure the gain- !lot the fre"uenc# response and %etermination of 3ain &andwidth
product.
Apparatus required:
1. &' )* - 1
2. +esistor 1..,-33,-.*, 1
). '+5 3.Mh4 1
6. 'apacitor 1.Bf 2
*. &red &oard - 1
Teor#:
The voltage divider is formed using e>ternal resistors +
1
and +
2
. The voltage across
+
2
forward biases the emitter Cunction. &# proper selection of resistors +
1
and +
2
- the
operating point of the transistor can be made independent of D. =n this circuit- the voltage
divider holds the base voltage fi>ed independent of base current provided the divider
current is large compared to the base current. Eowever- even with a fi>ed base voltage-
collector current varies with temperature /for e>ample0 so an emitter resistor is added to
stabili4e the Q-point- similar to the above circuits with emitter resistor.
$rocedure:
fre"uenc#.
). Measure the gain using )ain%*+log
1+
,&
o
'&
i
-
/*
-f
/1
0esign:
Frequenc# !esponse
cur1e
Band4idt $roduct:
The bandwidth of the circuit is found as the difference between
the cutoff fre"uencies.
&# formula-
i
- %1&
o
- )ain%*+log
1+
,1
o
'&
i
-
!esult:
Thus the input and output waveform of the common collector amplifier using
voltage divider bias- fre"uenc# response of the common collector amplifier circuit using
&?T are drawn and following parameters are calculated.
3ain @
Expt No.9 0arlington Amplifier using BJT
Aim:
To measure and compare the gain and input resistance of the %arlington
amplifier circuit using &?T- determine the gain bandwidth product and to plot the
fre"uenc# response.
Apparatus required:
1. &')* - 2
2. +esistor 1..,-33,-1, 1
). '+5 3.Mh4 1
6. 'apacitor 1.B2 2
*. &red &oard - 1
Teor#:
The %arlington amplifier is a useful circuit and has the advantage of providing a ver# high
current gain- high input impedance and higher output power. /=t is not necessar# to use matched
transistors here0 and often #ou see a smaller signal transistor driving a larger power transistor. The
current gain is appro>imatel# the product of both Q1 and Q2 forward current gains. 5ne point to
note is that as Q1 emitter is connected to Q2 base the bias voltage re"uired is 1
be1
F 1
be2
. This must
be ta9en into account when designing bias circuits for the %arlington amplifier.
$rocedure:
fre"uenc#.
). Measure the gain using )ain%*+log
1+
,&
o
'&
i
- and input resistance using
!i
1
%!
1
(( !
*
/*
-f
/1
0esign:
(nput !esistance: !
i
% !
1
(( !
*
% !
1
.!
*
' !
1
:!
*
Band4idt $roduct:
The bandwidth of the circuit is found as the difference between
the cutoff fre"uencies.
&# formula-
i
- %1&
o
- )ain%*+log
1+
,1
o
'&
i
-
!esult:
Thus the gain and input resistance of the %arlington amplifier circuit using
&?T are measured and compared its values and fre"uenc# response characteristics curve is
drawn and following parameters are calculated.
=nput +esistance !i
1
@
3ain @
Expt No.; Source follo4er 4it Bootstrapped gate resistance
Aim:
To Measure and compare the gain- input resistance and output resistance with and
Without &ootstrapping.
.
Apparatus required:
1. &' )* - 1
2. +esistor 1..,-.*,-*,-12., 1
). '+5 3.Mh4 1
6. 'apacitor 227fd-17fd-*7fd 1
*. &red &oard - 1
Teor#:
&ootstrapping involves the use of positive feedbac9 from output to input of
an amplifier- of nearl# unit# gain- in such a wa# that a particular point in the circuit is
Gpulled up as if b# its own bootstrapsG The bootstrap techni"ue is used to ma9e a low value
gate resistor +g appear to have a much higher value as seen b# the input signal.
$rocedure:
fre"uenc#.
. Measure the gain using )ain%*+log
1+
,&
o
'&
i
-3 input and output resistance using
!
g
% !
0
%
/ircuit 4itout Bootstrap /ircuit 4it Bootstrap
(nput !esistance: !
i
% !
1
(( !
*
2utput !esistance: !
o
% !
E
Ta5ular /olumn:
.itout Bootstrap
S.No. (nput &oltage ,&i- 2utput 1oltage,&o- )ain%*+log
1+
,1
o
'&
i
-
.it Bootstrap
S.No. (nput &oltage ,&i- 2utput 1oltage,&o- )ain%*+log
1+
,1
o
'&
i
-
!esult:
Thus the gain- input and output resistance of the source follower with bootstrapped
gate resistance circuit using 2<T are measured and compared its values.
Expt No.< 0ifferential amplifier using BJT
Aim:
To Measure the 'M++ of differential amplifier using &?T
Apparatus required:
1. Transistor &' )* - 2
2. +esistor 3.3,-1, and .*, 2-2-1
. 1oltmeter /.-3.01 1
). &red &oard - 1
Teor#:
)ain ,dB- % *+log ,1
o
'&
i
-
/=!! % *+log ,A
d
'A
c
-
Where A
d
:

0ifferential )ain
A
c
: /ommon =ode )ain
The function of a differential amplifier is to amplif# the difference between two input
signals. The output signal is proportional to the difference between the two input signals i.e.- 1
5
@
A
d
/v
1
-v
2
0.
=f v
1
@v
2-
the output voltage is 4ero. A non-4ero output voltage is obtained if 1
1
$ 1
2
are not e"ual.
The difference mode input voltage is defined as 1
d
H/@1
1
-1
2
0I and the common mode input voltage
is defined as 1
cm
@/11F120J2.
%ifferential mode 3ain A
d
% &
o
'&
s
'ommon mode 3ain A
c
% &
o
'&
s
Where &s @ differential input 1oltage
/=!!: /'ommon Mode +eCection +atio0K
'M++ is used to define the ratio of the A
d
and A
c
$rocedure:
0ifferential =ode
1. The connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The %' input voltage is set in base of the both transistor.
3. The corresponding output voltage is determined at collector of the transistor.
. the value of readings are tabulated
/ommon =ode:
1. The 'onnections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. The single suppl# voltage is applied to the both the transistor base.
3. Then the same procedure is followed in the differential mode.
0ifferential =ode:.
Ta5ular /olumn: ,0ifferential =ode-
S.N2. (nput &
d
>,%&
1
-&
*
-? &
o
)ain%&
o
'&
d
&oltage
&
1
&
*
/ommon =ode:
Ta5ular column : ,/ommon =ode-
S.N2.
(nput
&oltage,&c-
&
o
)ain%&
o
'&
c
/alculation:
!esult:
Thus the differential amplifier was constructed and differential mode gain-
'ommon mode gain and 'M++ also calculated.
%ifferential mode 3ain A
d
%
'ommon mode 3ain A
c
%
/=!! %
Expt No.@ /lass A $o4er Amplifier
Aim:
To observe the output waveform- Measure the ma>imum power output-
determine the efficienc# and 'ompare with calculated values of class A
power amplifier.
Apparatus required:
1. LL1..+ - 1
2. +esistor 1..,-.*,-*,-12., 1
). '+5 3.Mh4 1
6. 'apacitor 227fd-17fd-*7fd 1
*. &red &oard - 1
Teor#:
'ommon emitter voltage amplifiers are the most commonl# used t#pe of
amplifier as the# have a large voltage gain. The# are designed to produce a large output
voltage swing from a relativel# small input signal voltage of onl# a few millivoltMs and
are used mainl# as GLmall Lignal AmplifiersG as we saw in the previous tutorials.
Eowever- sometimes an amplifier is re"uired to drive large resistive loads such as a
loudspea9er and for these t#pes of applications where high switching currents are needed
$o4er Amplifiers are re"uired. The main function of the !ower amplifier- which are
also 9nown as a GLarge Lignal AmplifierG is to deliver power- which is the product of
voltage and current to the load. &asicall# a power amplifier is also a voltage amplifier the
difference being that the load resistance connected to the output is relativel# low- for
e>ample a loudspea9er of or 8Ns resulting in high currents flowing through the
'ollector of the transistor. &ecause of these high load currents the output transistor/s0
used for power amplifier output stages need to have higher voltage and power ratings
than the general ones used for small signal stages.
$rocedureK
3. The output readings are measured b# '+5.
). The ma>imum power output measured b# using !
in/dc0
@1
''
.=
'Q
@21
'<Q
.=
'Q
6. The efficienc# of this amplifier is determined b# using O
o.
*. 'ompare with calculated and noted values.
/ircuit diagram:
(nput and output 4a1eform of /lass A amplifier
Efficienc# /alculation:
!esult:
Thus the efficienc#- ma>imum output power of the class A amplifier circuits is
determined and measured. The output waveform- calculated values of the circuit is
observed and compared.
Expt No.A /lass B /omplementar# s#mmetr# po4er amplifier
Aim:
To observe the output waveform with crossover %istortion- Modif# the circuit
to avoid crossover distortion- Measure the ma>imum power output- %etermine the
efficienc# and 'ompare with calculated values.
Apparatus required:
1. &' )* $ &'))* - 1
2. +esistor 1..,-.*,-1., 2-1-2
3. %iode /=(..10 2
. +egulated power suppl# /.-3.01 1
). 2unction 3enerator /.-3.0Mh4 1
6. '+5 3.Mh4 1
*. 'apacitor 1.7fd-.*7fd 2-1
8. &red &oard - 1
;. 'onnecting wires - +e".
Teor#:
5ne of the main disadvantages of the 'lass & amplifier circuit above is that
it uses balanced centre-tapped transformers in its design- ma9ing it e>pensive to construct.
Eowever- there is another t#pe of 'lass & push-pull amplifier called a /omplementar#-
S#mmetr# /lass B Amplifier that does not use transformers in its design thereforeP it is
transformer less using instead complementar# pairs of transistors. As transformers are not
needed this ma9es the amplifier circuit much smaller for the same amount of output- also
there are no stra# magnetic effects or transformer distortion to effect the "ualit# of the
output signal. While 'lass & amplifiers have a much high gain than the 'lass A t#pes- one
of the main disadvantages of class & t#pe push-pull amplifiers is that the# suffer from an
effect 9nown commonl# as /rosso1er 0istortion. This occurs during the transition when the
transistors are switching over from one to the other as each transistor does not stop or start
conducting e>actl# at the 4ero crossover point even if the# are speciall# matched pairs. This
is because the output transistors re"uire a base-emitter voltage greater than ..*v for the
bipolar transistor to start conducting which results in both transistors being G522G at the
same time. 5ne wa# to eliminate this crossover distortion effect would be to bias both the
transistors at a point slightl# above their cut-off point. This then would give us what is
commonl# called an /lass AB Amplifier circuit.
$rocedureK
3. The output readings are measured b# '+5.
. %raw the input and output with cross over distortion waveform as per the
readings measured.
). Modif# the amplifier circuit to avoid the cross over distortion.
6. %raw the output waveform as per the readings measured.
*. The ma>imum power output measured b# using !
o/ac0@
1
2
!
J2+
L
or 1
2
pp
J8+
L
8. The efficienc# of this amplifier is determined b# using O
o/ma>0
@*8.)Q
;. 'ompare with calculated and noted values.
/ircuit diagram:

=odified circuit diagram
Efficienc# /alculation:

!esult:
Thus the efficienc#- ma>imum output power of the class & complementar# s#mmetr#
power amplifier circuits is determined and measured. The output waveform with and without cross
over distortion of the amplifier circuit is observed. 'alculated values of the circuit are compared
Expt No.B $o4er Suppl# circuit - 6alf 4a1e rectifier 4it simple capacitor filter.
Aim:
To Measure the %' voltage under load and ripple factor- 'omparison with
calculated values and !lot the Load regulation characteristics using Rener diode.
Apparatus required:
1. %iode /=(..10 - 1
2. +esistor 1,-3.3,- .*,-*, 1
3. Ltep down Transformer 6-.-6 or 12-.-12 1
. 'apacitor *.7fd-1...7fd 1
). Rener diode ;1 1
6. &red &oard 1
*. 'onnecting wires - +e".
8.
Teor#:
The Ealf wave rectifier is a circuit- which converts an ac voltage to dc
voltage. =n the Ealf wave rectifier circuit shown above the transformer serves two
purposes.
1. =t can be used to obtain the desired level of dc voltage /using step up or step
down transformers0.
2. =t provides isolation from the power line.
The primar# of the transformer is connected to ac suppl#. This induces an ac voltage
across the secondar# of the transformer. %uring the positive half c#cle of the input
voltage the polarit# of the voltage across the secondar# forward biases the diode. As a
result a current =
L
flows through the load resistor- +
L
. The forward biased diode offers a
ver# low resistance and hence the voltage drop across it is ver# small. Thus the voltage
appearing across the load is practicall# the same as the input voltage at ever# instant.
%uring the negative half c#cle of the input voltage the polarit# of the secondar# voltage
gets reversed. As a result- the diode is reverse biased. !racticall# no current flows
through the circuit and almost no voltage is developed across the resistor. All input
voltage appears across the diode itself. Eence we conclude that when the input voltage is
going through its positive half c#cle- output voltage is almost the same as the input
voltage and during the negative half c#cle no voltage is available across the load. This
<>plains the unidirectional pulsating dc waveform obtained as output. The
process of removing one half the input signals to establish a dc level is aptl#
called half wave rectification.
$rocedure:
1. The circuit connections are made as per the given diagram.
2. The amplitude and time of transformer output is noted.
3. Then the rectified output with and without filter is noted.
. 2ind the ripples and %' voltage of output of the rectifier.
). 'hange the filter i.e.- capacitor /*.7fd and1...7fd 0 and measure the output
waveform of rectifier.
6. The graph is drawn and to find the ripple factor value of these capacitors using +
2
.
/ircuit 0iagram:
=odel )rap:
Ta5ular /olumn:
S.No. Filter &
dc
&
m
!ipple factor
!ipple Factor
+ipple factor is defined as the ratio of rms value of ac component to the dc component in
the output.
+ipple factor
V
av
the average or the dc content of the voltage across the load is given b#
+ML voltage at the load resistance can be calculated as
+ipple 2actorK
Coad !egulation:
1. 2or finding load regulation- ma9e connections as shown in figure below.
2. ,eep input voltage constant sa# 1.1- var# load resistance value.
3. (ote down no load voltage S1(LT for ma>imum load resistance value and full load
voltage S12LT for minimum load resistance value.
. 'alculate load regulation using- Q load regulation @ /1(L-12L0J 12L >1..
/ircuit 0iagram:
=odel )rap:
Ta5ular /olumn:
S.No.
Source
&oltage -&
s
,&-
Dener
&oltge -&
7
,1-
Coad
/urrent ,(
C
- mA
!esult:
Thus the %' voltage under load and ripple factor of the half wave rectifier is
measured and calculated values are compared. The Load regulation characteristics using
Rener diode is plotted.
Expt No.1+ $o4er Suppl# circuit - Full 4a1e rectifier 4it simple capacitor filter.
Aim:
To Measure the %' voltage under load and ripple factor- 'omparison with
calculated values and !lot the Load regulation characteristics using Rener diode.
Apparatus required:
1. %iode /=(..10 - 2
2. +esistor 1,-3.3,- .*,-*, 1
3. Ltep down Transformer 6-.-6 or 12-.-12 1
. 'apacitor *.7fd-1...7fd 1
). Rener diode ;1 1
6. &red &oard 1
*. 'onnecting wires - +e".
8.
Teor#:
A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the input waveform to one of
constant polarit# /positive or negative0 at its output. 2ull-wave rectification converts both
polarities of the input waveform to %' /direct current0- and is more efficient. 2or single-
phase A'- if the transformer is center-tapped- then two diodes bac9-to-bac9 /i.e. anodes-to-
anode or cathode-to-cathode0 can form a full-wave rectifier. Twice as man# windings are
re"uired on the transformer secondar# to obtain the same output voltage.
$rocedure:
1. The circuit connections are made as per the given diagram.
2. The amplitude and time of transformer output is noted.
3. Then the rectified output with and without filter is noted.
. 2ind the ripples and %' voltage of output of the rectifier.
). 'hange the filter i.e.- capacitor /*.7fd and1...7fd 0 and measure the output
waveform of rectifier.
6. The graph is drawn and to find the ripple factor value of these capacitors using +
2.
!ipple factor:
The ripple factor for a 2ull Wave +ectifier is given b#
the average voltage or the dc voltage available across the load resistance is
+ML value of the voltage at the load resistance is
/ircuit diagram:
=odel )rap:
Coad !egulation:
1. 2or finding load regulation- ma9e connections as shown in figure below.
2. ,eep input voltage constant sa# 1.1- var# load resistance value.
3. (ote down no load voltage S1(LT for ma>imum load resistance value and full load
voltage S12LT for minimum load resistance value.
. 'alculate load regulation using- Q load regulation @ /1(L-12L0J 12L >1..
/ircuit 0iagram:
=odel )rap:
Ta5ular /olumn:
S.No.
Source
&oltage -&
s
,&-
Dener
&oltge -&
7
,1-
Coad
/urrent ,(
C
- mA
!esult:
Thus the %' voltage under load and ripple factor of the 2ull wave rectifier is
measured and calculated values are compared. The Load regulation characteristics using
Rener diode is plotted.

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Expt No.

1 Fixed Bias or Base- Bias amplifier circuit using BJT

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