q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

To the great pioneers in Marine and Offshore Construction who were

undeterred by violent storms and massive ice.

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q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Preface

This third editon has been intensively augmented and revised to include the latest
developments in this rapidly expanding field. The intensified search for oil and gas, the
catastrophic flooding of coastal regions and the demands for transportation, bridges, submerged tunnels and waterways have led to the continuing innovation of new technology
which is now available for use on more conventional projects as well as those at the frontiers.
This text is intended as a guide and reference for practicing engineers and constructors
for use in the marine environment. It is also intended as a text for graduate engineering
students interested in this highly challenging endeavour.

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Acknowledgments

I wish to acknowledge the help of many members of our company, Ben C. Gerwick, Inc.
making available information on the current construction of marine and offshore projects,
also the willing responses to my queries from other sources in the industry.
I would like to thank my administrative assistant, Michelle Yu, for her word-processing
of the manuscript.

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Author

Ben C. Gerwick, Jr. is the author of Construction of Prestressed Concrete, first, second, and
third editions, and the first and second editions of Construction of Marine and Offshore
Structures.
He was born in Berkeley, California, in 1919. He received his B.S. in civil engineering
from the University of California at Berkeley in 1940. He joined the U.S. Navy the same
year and served until 1946. He was assigned as commanding officer of the USS Scania
(AK 40) in 1945.
He has worked in marine and offshore construction, or taught about it, for most of the
time since his discharge from the navy. He worked in Marine Construction from 1946 to
1967 and from 1967 to 1971 in Offshore Construction, ending as President of Ben C.
Gerwick, Inc., and Manager of Offshore Construction for Santa Fe International. From
1971 to 1989, he served as Professor of Civil Engineering at the University of California,
Berkeley.
He is a member of the National Academy of Engineering, the National Academy of
Construction, and an honorary member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, which
awarded him their Outstanding Engineering Lifetime Achievement Award in 2002.
He has been named a fellow of the International Association of Structural and Bridge
Engineers and has served as president of the International Federation of Prestressing.
He was awarded the Berkeley Fellow Medal in 1989.

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

q 2007 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Contents

Introduction
0.1 General ..................................................................................................................................
0.2 Geography ............................................................................................................................
0.3 Ecological Environment .....................................................................................................
0.4 Legal Jurisdiction.................................................................................................................
0.5 Offshore Construction Relationships and Sequences....................................................
0.6 Typical Marine Structures and Contracts........................................................................
0.7 Interaction of Design and Construction ..........................................................................

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Chapter 1

Physical Environmental Aspects of Marine and

Offshore Construction
General ................................................................................................................................
Distances and Depths .......................................................................................................
Hydrostatic Pressure and Buoyancy ..............................................................................
Temperature .......................................................................................................................
Seawater and SeaAir Interface Chemistry ..................................................................
1.5.1 Marine Organisms ................................................................................................
Currents ..............................................................................................................................
Waves and Swells ..............................................................................................................
Winds and Storms .............................................................................................................
Tides and Storm Surges....................................................................................................
Rain, Snow, Fog, Spray, Atmospheric Icing, and Lightning ......................................
Sea Ice and Icebergs ..........................................................................................................
Seismicity, Seaquakes, and Tsunamis.............................................................................
Floods ..................................................................................................................................
Scour ....................................................................................................................................
Siltation and Bed Loads ...................................................................................................
Sabotage and Terrorism....................................................................................................
Ship Traffic ..........................................................................................................................
Fire and Smoke ..................................................................................................................
Accidental Events ..............................................................................................................
Global Warming.................................................................................................................

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Chapter 2 Geotechnical Aspects: Seafloor and Marine Soils

2.1 General ................................................................................................................................
2.2 Dense Sands .......................................................................................................................
2.3 Liquefaction of Soils..........................................................................................................
2.4 Calcareous Sands...............................................................................................................
2.5 Glacial Till and Boulders on Seafloor.............................................................................
2.6 Overconsolidated Silts .....................................................................................................
2.7 Subsea Permafrost and Clathrates..................................................................................

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1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
1.15
1.16
1.17
1.18
1.19
1.20

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2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11

Weak Arctic Silts and Clays.............................................................................................

Ice Scour and Pingos.........................................................................................................
Methane Gas.......................................................................................................................
Muds and Clays.................................................................................................................
2.11.1 Underwater Slopes in Clays .............................................................................
2.11.2 Pile Driving Set-Up ........................................................................................
2.11.3 Short-Term Bearing Strength ............................................................................
2.11.4 Dredging ..............................................................................................................
2.11.5 Sampling ..............................................................................................................
2.11.6 Penetration ...........................................................................................................
2.11.7 Consolidation of Clays; Improvement in Strength .......................................
Coral and Similar Biogenic Soils; Cemented Soils, Cap Rock .................................
Unconsolidated Sands ......................................................................................................
Underwater Sand Dunes (Megadunes) .....................................................................
Bedrock Outcrops..............................................................................................................
Cobbles ................................................................................................................................
Deep Gravel Deposits .......................................................................................................
Seafloor Oozes....................................................................................................................
Seafloor Instability and Slumping; Turbidity Currents...............................................
Scour and Erosion .............................................................................................................
Concluding Remarks ........................................................................................................

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Chapter 3 Ecological and Societal Impacts of Marine Construction

3.1 General ................................................................................................................................
3.2 Oil and Petroleum Products ............................................................................................
3.3 Toxic Chemicals .................................................................................................................
3.4 Contaminated Soils ...........................................................................................................
3.5 Construction Wastes..........................................................................................................
3.6 Turbidity .............................................................................................................................
3.7 Sediment Transport, Scour, and Erosion .......................................................................
3.8 Air Pollution.......................................................................................................................
3.9 Marine Life: Mammals and Birds, Fish, and Other Biota ..........................................
3.10 Aquifers...............................................................................................................................
3.11 Noise ....................................................................................................................................
3.12 Highway, Rail, Barge, and Air Traffic ............................................................................
3.13 Protection of Existing Structures ....................................................................................
3.14 Liquefaction........................................................................................................................
3.15 Safety of the Public and Third-Party Vessels................................................................
3.16 Archaeological Concerns .................................................................................................

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Chapter 4 Materials and Fabrication for Marine Structures

4.1 General ................................................................................................................................
4.2 Steel Structures for the Marine Environment ...............................................................
4.2.1 Steel Materials .......................................................................................................
4.2.2 Fabrication and Welding .....................................................................................
4.2.3 Erection of Structural Steel .................................................................................
4.2.4 Coatings and Corrosion Protection of Steel Structures..................................
4.2.5 High Performance Steels .....................................................................................
4.3 Structural Concrete ...........................................................................................................

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2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19
2.20
2.21

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4.3.1
4.3.2

4.4

4.5
4.6
4.7

General ................................................................................................................... 91
Concrete Mixes and Properties .......................................................................... 91
4.3.2.1 High Performance Concrete Flowing Concrete ...................... 95
4.3.2.2 Structural Low-Density Concrete...................................................... 96
4.3.2.3 Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC)..................................... 97
4.3.3 Conveyance and Placement of Concrete .......................................................... 97
4.3.4 Curing..................................................................................................................... 98
4.3.5 Steel Reinforcement.............................................................................................. 98
4.3.6 Prestressing Tendons and Accessories............................................................ 102
4.3.7 Embedments........................................................................................................ 105
4.3.8 Coatings for Marine Concrete .......................................................................... 106
4.3.9 Construction Joints............................................................................................. 106
4.3.10 Forming and Support ....................................................................................... 107
4.3.11 Tolerances............................................................................................................ 108
Hybrid SteelConcrete Structures................................................................................. 108
4.4.1 Hybrid Structures ............................................................................................... 109
4.4.2 Composite Construction.................................................................................... 109
Plastics and Synthetic Materials, Composites ............................................................ 111
Titanium ............................................................................................................................ 113
Rock, Sand, and Asphaltic-Bituminous Materials ..................................................... 114

Chapter 5 Marine and Offshore Construction Equipment

5.1 General ..............................................................................................................................
5.2 Basic Motions in a Seaway.............................................................................................
5.3 Buoyancy, Draft, and Freeboard ...................................................................................
5.4 Stability..............................................................................................................................
5.5 Damage Control...............................................................................................................
5.6 Barges ................................................................................................................................
5.7 Crane Barges ....................................................................................................................
5.8 Offshore Derrick Barges (Fully Revolving) .................................................................
5.9 Semisubmersible Barges.................................................................................................
5.10 Jack-Up Construction Barges.........................................................................................
5.11 Launch Barges ..................................................................................................................
5.12 Catamaran Barges ...........................................................................................................
5.13 Dredges .............................................................................................................................
5.14 Pipe-Laying Barges .........................................................................................................
5.15 Supply Boats.....................................................................................................................
5.16 Anchor-Handling Boats..................................................................................................
5.17 Towboats ...........................................................................................................................
5.18 Drilling Vessels ................................................................................................................
5.19 Crew Boats........................................................................................................................
5.20 Floating Concrete Plant ..................................................................................................
5.21 Tower Cranes ...................................................................................................................
5.22 Specialized Equipment ...................................................................................................

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Chapter 6 Marine Operations

6.1 Towing............................................................................................................................... 161
6.2 Moorings and Anchors................................................................................................... 169
6.2.1 Mooring Lines ..................................................................................................... 169

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6.2.2 Anchors ................................................................................................................

6.2.2.1 Drag Anchors .....................................................................................
6.2.2.2 Pile Anchors........................................................................................
6.2.2.3 Propellant Anchors............................................................................
6.2.2.4 Suction Anchors .................................................................................
6.2.2.5 Driven-Plate Anchors........................................................................
6.2.3 Mooring Systems ................................................................................................
Handling Heavy Loads at Sea.......................................................................................
6.3.1 General .................................................................................................................
Personnel Transfer at Sea ...............................................................................................
Underwater Intervention, Diving, Underwater Work Systems,
Remote-Operated Vehicles (ROVs), and Manipulators ............................................
6.5.1 Diving ...................................................................................................................
6.5.2 Remote-Operated Vehicles (ROVs)..................................................................
6.5.3 Manipulators .......................................................................................................
Underwater Concreting and Grouting ........................................................................
6.6.1 General .................................................................................................................
6.6.2 Underwater Concrete Mixes.............................................................................
6.6.3 Placement of Tremie Concrete..........................................................................
6.6.4 Special Admixtures for Concreting Underwater ..........................................
6.6.5 Grout-Intruded Aggregate ................................................................................
6.6.6 Pumped Concrete and Mortar .........................................................................
6.6.7 Underbase Grout ................................................................................................
6.6.8 Grout for Transfer of Forces from Piles to Sleeves and
Jacket Legs ...........................................................................................................
6.6.9 Low-Strength Underwater Concrete ...............................................................
6.6.10 Summary............................................................................................................
Offshore Surveying, Navigation, and Seafloor Surveys............................................
Temporary Buoyancy Augmentation...........................................................................

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Chapter 7 Seafloor Modifications and Improvements

7.1 General ..............................................................................................................................
7.2 Controls for Grade and Position...................................................................................
7.2.1 Determination of Existing Conditions.............................................................
7.3 Seafloor Dredging, Obstruction Removal, and Leveling..........................................
7.4 Dredging and Removal of Hard Material and Rock ................................................
7.5 Placement of Underwater Fills......................................................................................
7.6 Consolidation and Strengthening of Weak Soils........................................................
7.7 Prevention of Liquefaction.............................................................................................
7.8 Scour Protection...............................................................................................................
7.9 Concluding Remarks ......................................................................................................

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Chapter 8 Installation of Piles in Marine and Offshore Structure

8.1 General ..............................................................................................................................
8.2 Fabrication of Tubular Steel Piles .................................................................................
8.3 Transportation of Piling..................................................................................................
8.4 Installing Piles..................................................................................................................
8.5 Methods of Increasing Penetration...............................................................................
8.6 Insert Piles ........................................................................................................................

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6.3
6.4
6.5

6.6

6.7
6.8

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8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
8.16
8.17
8.18
8.19
8.20
8.21

Anchoring into Rock or Hardpan.................................................................................

Testing High Capacity Piles...........................................................................................
Steel H Piles......................................................................................................................
Enhancing Stiffness and Capacity of Piles ..................................................................
Prestressed Concrete Cylinder Piles.............................................................................
Handling and Positioning of Piles for Offshore Terminals ......................................
Drilled and Grouted Piles ..............................................................................................
Cast-in-Drilled-Hole Piles, Drilled Shafts ...................................................................
Other Installation Experience ........................................................................................
Installation in Difficult Soils ..........................................................................................
Other Methods of Improving the Capacity of Driven Piles.....................................
Slurry Walls, Secant Walls, and Tangent Walls ..........................................................
Steel Sheet Piles ...............................................................................................................
Vibratory Pile Hammers.................................................................................................
Micropiles .........................................................................................................................

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Chapter 9 Harbor, River, and Estuary Structures

9.1 General ..............................................................................................................................
9.2 Harbor Structures ............................................................................................................
9.2.1 Types.....................................................................................................................
9.2.2 Pile-Supported Structures .................................................................................
9.2.2.1 Steel Piles .............................................................................................
9.2.2.2 Concrete Piles ......................................................................................
9.2.2.3 Installation ...........................................................................................
9.2.2.4 Batter (Raker) Piles .............................................................................
9.2.2.5 Pile Location ........................................................................................
9.2.2.6 Jetting....................................................................................................
9.2.2.7 Driving Through Obstructions or Very Hard Material ................
9.2.2.8 Staying of Piles....................................................................................
9.2.2.9 Head Connections ..............................................................................
9.2.2.10 Concrete Deck .....................................................................................
9.2.2.11 Fender System .....................................................................................
9.2.3 Bulkheads, Quay Walls......................................................................................
9.2.3.1 Description...........................................................................................
9.2.3.2 Sheet Pile Bulkheads ..........................................................................
9.2.3.3 Caisson Quay Walls............................................................................
9.3 River Structures ...............................................................................................................
9.3.1 Description ..........................................................................................................
9.3.2 Sheet Pile Cellular Structures ...........................................................................
9.3.3 Lift-In Precast Concrete ShellsIn-the-Wet Construction ..................
9.3.4 Float-In Concrete Structures .............................................................................
9.3.4.1 General .................................................................................................
9.3.4.2 Prefabrication ......................................................................................
9.3.4.3 Launching ............................................................................................
9.3.4.4 Installation ...........................................................................................
9.3.4.5 Leveling Pads ......................................................................................
9.3.4.6 Underfill ...............................................................................................
9.4 Foundations for Overwater Bridge Piers ....................................................................
9.4.1 General .................................................................................................................
9.4.2 Open Caissons ....................................................................................................

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9.4.3
9.4.4
9.4.5
9.4.6

Pneumatic Caissons ...........................................................................................

Gravity-Base Caissons (Box Caissons) ............................................................
Pile-Supported Box Caissons............................................................................
Large-Diameter Tubular Piles ..........................................................................
9.4.6.1 Steel Tubular Piles ..............................................................................
9.4.6.2 Prestressed Concrete Tubular Piles..................................................
9.4.7 Connection of Piles to Footing Block (Pile Cap) ...........................................
9.4.8 CIDH Drilled Shafts (Piles)...............................................................................
9.4.9 Cofferdams...........................................................................................................
9.4.9.1 Steel Sheet Pile Cofferdams...............................................................
9.4.9.2 Liquefaction During Cofferdam Construction...............................
9.4.9.3 Cofferdams on Slope ..........................................................................
9.4.9.4 Deep Cofferdams ................................................................................
9.4.9.5 Portable Cofferdams...........................................................................
9.4.10 Protective Structures for Bridge Piers............................................................
9.4.11 Belled Piers ........................................................................................................
9.5 Submerged Prefabricated Tunnels (Tubes)..................................................................
9.5.1 Description ..........................................................................................................
9.5.2 Prefabrication of SteelConcrete Composite Tunnel Segments ..................
9.5.3 Prefabrication of All-Concrete Tube Segments..............................................
9.5.4 Preparation of Trench ........................................................................................
9.5.5 Installing the Segments .....................................................................................
9.5.6 Underfill and Backfill.........................................................................................
9.5.7 Portal Connections .............................................................................................
9.5.8 Pile-Supported Tunnels .....................................................................................
9.5.9 Submerged Floating Tunnels ............................................................................
9.6 Storm Surge Barriers .......................................................................................................
9.6.1 Description ..........................................................................................................
9.6.2 Venice Storm Surge Barrier...............................................................................
9.6.3 Oosterschelde Storm Surge Barrier .................................................................
9.7 Flow-Control Structures .................................................................................................
9.7.1 Description ..........................................................................................................
9.7.2 Temperature Control Devices...........................................................................

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Chapter 10 Coastal Structures

10.1 General ............................................................................................................................
10.2 Ocean Outfalls and Intakes..........................................................................................
10.3 Breakwaters ....................................................................................................................
10.3.1 General..............................................................................................................
10.3.2 Rubble-Mound Breakwaters .........................................................................
10.3.3 Caisson-Type Breakwaters and Caisson-Retained Islands ......................
10.3.4 Sheet Pile Cellular Breakwaters....................................................................
10.4 Offshore Terminals ........................................................................................................

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Chapter 11 Offshore Platforms: Steel Jackets and Pin Piles

11.1 General ............................................................................................................................
11.2 Fabrication of Steel Jackets...........................................................................................
11.3 Load-Out, Tie-Down, and Transport ..........................................................................
11.4 Removal of Jacket from Transport Barge; Lifting; Launching ...............................

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11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9

Upending of Jacket ........................................................................................................

Installation on the Seafloor ..........................................................................................
Pile and Conductor Installation ..................................................................................
Deck Installation ............................................................................................................
Examples .........................................................................................................................
11.9.1 Example 1Hondo ........................................................................................
11.9.2 Example 2Cognac........................................................................................
11.9.3 Example 3Cerveza ......................................................................................

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Chapter 12 Concrete Offshore Platforms: Gravity-Base Structures

12.1 General ............................................................................................................................
12.2 Stages of Construction ..................................................................................................
12.2.1 Stage 1Construction Basin ........................................................................
12.2.2 Stage 2Construction of Base Raft ............................................................
12.2.3 Stage 3Float-Out .........................................................................................
12.2.4 Stage 4Mooring at Deep-Water Construction Site ...............................
12.2.5 Stage 5Construction at Deep-Water Site ................................................
12.2.6 Stage 6Shaft Construction .........................................................................
12.2.7 Stage 7Towing to Deep-Water Mating Site ............................................
12.2.8 Stage 8Construction of Deck Structure ...................................................
12.2.9 Stage 9Deck Transport ...............................................................................
12.2.10 Stage 10Submergence of Substructure for Deck Mating .....................
12.2.11 Stage 11Deck Mating .................................................................................
12.2.12 Stage 12Hookup .........................................................................................
12.2.13 Stage 13Towing to Installation Site .........................................................
12.2.14 Stage 14Installation at Site .......................................................................
12.2.15 Stage 15Installation of Conductors ..........................................................
12.3 Alternative Concepts for Construction......................................................................
12.4 Sub-Base Construction..................................................................................................
12.5 Platform Relocation.......................................................................................................
12.6 Hybrid Concrete-Steel Platforms ................................................................................

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Chapter 13 Permanently Floating Structures

13.1 General ............................................................................................................................
13.2 Fabrication of Concrete Floating Structures..............................................................
13.3 Concrete Properties of Special Importance to Floating Structures .......................
13.4 Construction and Launching ......................................................................................
13.5 Floating Concrete Bridges............................................................................................
13.6 Floating Tunnels ............................................................................................................
13.7 Semi-Submersibles ........................................................................................................
13.8 Barges ..............................................................................................................................
13.9 Floating Airfields...........................................................................................................
13.10 Structures for Permanently Floating Service ............................................................
13.11 Marinas............................................................................................................................
13.12 Piers for Berthing Large Ships ....................................................................................
13.13 Floating Breakwaters ....................................................................................................
13.14 Mating Afloat .................................................................................................................

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Chapter 14

Other Applications of Marine and Offshore

Construction Technology
General ............................................................................................................................
Single-Point Moorings ..................................................................................................
Articulated Columns.....................................................................................................
Seafloor Templates ........................................................................................................
Underwater Oil Storage Vessels..................................................................................
Cable Arrays, Moored Buoys, and Seafloor Deployment ......................................
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion ...........................................................................
Offshore Export and Import Terminals for Cryogenic GasLNG and LPG......
14.8.1 General..............................................................................................................
Offshore Wind-Power Foundations............................................................................
Wave-Power Structures ................................................................................................
Tidal Power Stations .....................................................................................................
Barrier Walls ...................................................................................................................
Breakwaters ....................................................................................................................

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Chapter 15 Installation of Submarine Pipelines

15.1 General ............................................................................................................................
15.2 Conventional S-Lay Barge............................................................................................
15.3 Bottom-Pull Method......................................................................................................
15.4 Reel Barge .......................................................................................................................
15.5 Surface Float ...................................................................................................................
15.6 Controlled Underwater Flotation (Controlled Subsurface Float)..........................
15.7 Controlled Above-Bottom Pull....................................................................................
15.8 J-Tube Method from Platform .....................................................................................
15.9 J-Lay from Barge............................................................................................................
15.10 S-Curve with Collapsible Floats .................................................................................
15.11 Bundled Pipes ................................................................................................................
15.12 Directional Drilling (Horizontal Drilling) .................................................................
15.13 Laying Under Ice...........................................................................................................
15.14 Protection of Pipelines: Burial and Covering with Rock ........................................
15.15 Support of Pipelines......................................................................................................
15.16 Cryogenic Pipelines for LNG and LPG .....................................................................

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Chapter 16 Plastic and Composite Pipelines and Cables

16.1 Submarine Pipelines of Composite Materials and Plastics ....................................
16.1.1 High Density Polyethylene Pipelines ..........................................................
16.1.2 Fiber-Reinforced Glass Pipes ........................................................................
16.1.3 Composite Flexible Pipelines and Risers ....................................................
16.2 Cable Laying ..................................................................................................................

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14.1
14.2
14.3
14.4
14.5
14.6
14.7
14.8
14.9
14.10
14.11
14.12
14.13

Chapter 17 Topside Installation

17.1 General ............................................................................................................................ 633
17.2 Module Erection ............................................................................................................ 633

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17.3
17.4
17.5

Hookup ...........................................................................................................................
Giant Modules and Transfer of Complete Deck ......................................................
Float-Over Deck Structures..........................................................................................
17.5.1 Delivery and Installation ...............................................................................
17.5.2 Hi-Deck Method..............................................................................................
17.5.3 French "Smart" System...................................................................................
17.5.4 The Wandoo Platform ....................................................................................
17.5.5 Other Methods ................................................................................................

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Chapter 18 Repairs to Marine Structures

18.1 General ............................................................................................................................
18.2 Principles Governing Repairs......................................................................................
18.3 Repairs to Steel Structures ...........................................................................................
18.4 Repairs to Corroded Steel Members ..........................................................................
18.5 Repairs to Concrete Structures....................................................................................
18.6 Repairs to Foundations.................................................................................................
18.7 Fire Damage ...................................................................................................................
18.8 Pipeline Repairs .............................................................................................................

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Chapter 19 Strengthening Existing Structures

19.1 General ............................................................................................................................
19.2 Strengthening of Offshore Platforms, Terminals, Members
and Assemblies ..............................................................................................................
19.3 Increasing Capacity of Existing Piles for Axial Loads ............................................
19.4 Increasing Lateral Capacity of Piles and Structures
in SoilStructure Interaction ........................................................................................
19.5 Penetrations Through Concrete Walls .......................................................................
19.6 Seismic Retrofit ..............................................................................................................

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Chapter 20 Removal and Salvage

20.1 Removal of Offshore Platforms ...................................................................................
20.2 Removal of Piled Structures (Terminals, Trestles,
Shallow-Water Platforms) ............................................................................................
20.3 Removal of Pile-Supported Steel Platforms..............................................................
20.4 Removal of Concrete Gravity: Base Offshore Platforms .........................................
20.5 New Developments in Salvage Techniques ..............................................................
20.6 Removal of Harbor Structures ....................................................................................
20.7 Removal of Coastal Structures ....................................................................................

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Chapter 21 Constructibility
21.1 General ............................................................................................................................
21.2 Construction Stages for Offshore Structures.............................................................
21.3 Principles of Constructibility.......................................................................................
21.4 Facilities and Methods for Fabrication ......................................................................
21.5 Launching .......................................................................................................................
21.5.1 Launch Barges .................................................................................................
21.5.2 Lifting for Transport.......................................................................................

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21.5.3 Construction in a Graving Dock or Drydock.............................................

21.5.4 Construction in a Basin..................................................................................
21.5.5 Launching from a Ways or a Launch Barge...............................................
21.5.6 Sand Jacking ....................................................................................................
21.5.7 Rolling-In..........................................................................................................
21.5.8 Jacking Down ..................................................................................................
21.5.9 Barge Launching by Ballasting.....................................................................
Assembly and Jointing Afloat .....................................................................................
Material Selection and Procedures .............................................................................
Construction Procedures ..............................................................................................
Access ..............................................................................................................................
Tolerances .......................................................................................................................
Survey Control ...............................................................................................................
Quality Control and Assurance ..................................................................................
Safety ...............................................................................................................................
Control of Construction: Feedback and Modification.............................................
Contingency Planning ..................................................................................................
Manuals...........................................................................................................................
On-Site Instruction Sheets............................................................................................
Risk and Reliability Evaluation...................................................................................

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Chapter 22 Construction in the Deep Sea

22.1 General ............................................................................................................................
22.2 Considerations and Phenomena for Deep-Sea Operations ....................................
22.3 Techniques for Deep-Sea Construction......................................................................
22.4 Properties of Materials for the Deep Sea...................................................................
22.5 Platforms in the Deep Sea: Compliant Structures ...................................................
22.5.1 Description .......................................................................................................
22.5.2 Guyed Towers .................................................................................................
22.5.3 Compliant (Flexible) Tower...........................................................................
22.5.4 Articulated Towers .........................................................................................
22.6 Tension-Leg Platforms (TLPs) ....................................................................................
22.7 SPARS ..............................................................................................................................
22.8 Ship-Shaped FPSOs.......................................................................................................
22.9 Deep-Water Moorings...................................................................................................
22.10 Construction Operations on the Deep Seafloor........................................................
22.11 Deep-Water Pipe Laying ..............................................................................................
22.12 Seafloor Well Completions ..........................................................................................
22.13 Deep-Water Bridge Piers ..............................................................................................

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Chapter 23 Arctic Marine Structures

23.1 General ............................................................................................................................
23.2 Sea Ice and Icebergs ......................................................................................................
23.3 Atmospheric Conditions ..............................................................................................
23.4 Arctic Seafloor and Geotechnics .................................................................................
23.5 Oceanographic ...............................................................................................................
23.6 Ecological Considerations ............................................................................................
23.7 Logistics and Operations..............................................................................................
23.8 Earthwork in the Arctic Offshore ...............................................................................

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21.7
21.8
21.9
21.10
21.11
21.12
21.13
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23.9 Ice Structures..................................................................................................................

23.10 Steel and Concrete Structures for the Arctic.............................................................
23.10.1 Steel Tower Platforms ..................................................................................
23.10.2 Caisson-Retained Islands.............................................................................
23.10.3 Shallow-Water Gravity-Base Caissons ......................................................
23.10.4 Jack-Up Structures ........................................................................................
23.10.5 Bottom-Founded Deep-Water Structures..................................................
23.10.6 Floating Structures........................................................................................
23.10.7 Well Protectors and Seafloor Templates....................................................
23.11 Deployment of Structures in the Arctic .....................................................................
23.12 Installation at Site ..........................................................................................................
23.13 Ice Condition Surveys and Ice Management............................................................
23.14 Durability........................................................................................................................
23.15 Constructibility ..............................................................................................................
23.16 Pipeline Installation ......................................................................................................
23.17 Current Arctic Developments .....................................................................................
References

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