ASSIGNMENTS: MB 0034

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

(3 credits) : Set I . Marks 60

Each question carries 10 marks

Q. No.1 Explain the different types of research.

Types of Research

Although any typology of research is inevitably arbitrary, Research may be

classified crudely according to its major intent or the methods. According to

the intent, research may be classified as:

1. Pure Research

It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in

practice, e.g., Einstein’s theory of relativity, Newton’s contributions, Galileo’s
contribution, etc. It is also known as basic or fundamental research. It is
undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It is not necessarily
problem-oriented. It aims at extension of knowledge. It may lead to either
discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory. It lays
foundation for applied research. It offers solutions to many practical
problems. It helps to find the critical factors in a practical problem. It
develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the best
solution.

2 .Applied Research

It is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or

policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action-directed. It seeks an
immediate and practical result, e.g., marketing research carried on for
developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase experience of

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customers. Though the immediate purpose of an applied research is to find
solutions to a practical problem, it may incidentally contribute to the
development of theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovery of new
facts or testing of theory or o conceptual clarity. It can put theory to the test.
It may aid in conceptual clarification. It may integrate previously existing
theories.

3 .Exploratory Research

It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an

unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It
is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives. It
usually takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this research may be
to generate new ideas, or to increase the researcher’s familiarity with the
problem or to make a precise formulation of the problem or to gather
information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to
attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies. “At
the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the situations; at
the second, the discovery of relationships between variables.”

4 . Descriptive Study

It is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the simplest

type of research. It is more specific than an exploratory research. It aims at
identifying the various characteristics of a community or institution or
problem under study and also aims at a classification of the range of
elements comprising the subject matter of study. It contributes to the
development of a young science and useful in verifying focal concepts
through empirical observation. It can highlight important methodological
aspects of data collection and interpretation. The information obtained may
be useful for prediction about areas of social life outside the boundaries of
the research. They are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social
action program.

5 .Diagnostic Study

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It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed
towards discovering what is happening, why it is happening and what can be
done about. It aims at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible
solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering and testing
whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior
knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of
the given population, adequate methods for collecting accurate information,
precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and test of significance.

6. Evaluation Studies

It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of

social or economic programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of
developmental projects on the development of the project area. It is thus
directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and its
performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its
success. It is concerned with causal relationships and is more actively guided
by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change over time.

7. Action Research

It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an

action programme launched for solving a problem for improving an exiting
situation. It includes six major steps: diagnosis, sharing of diagnostic
information, planning, developing change programme, initiation of
organizational change, implementation of participation and communication
process, and post experimental evaluation

Q.No.2. Discuss the criteria of good research problem.

Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research:

1. Verifiable evidence: That is factual observations which other observers

can see and check.

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2. Accuracy: That is describing what really exists. It means truth or
correctness of a statement or describing things exactly as they are and
avoiding jumping to unwarranted conclusions either by exaggeration or
fantasizing.

3. Precision: That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact

number or measurement. This avoids colourful literature and vague
meanings.

4. Systematization: That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or

collecting data in a systematic and organized way so that the conclusions
drawn are reliable. Data based on casual recollections are generally
incomplete and give unreliable judgments and conclusions.

5. Objectivity: That is free being from all biases and vested interests. It
means observation is unaffected by the observer’s values, beliefs and
preferences to the extent possible and he is able to see and accept facts as
they are, not as he might wish them to be.

6. Recording: That is jotting down complete details as quickly as possible.

Since human memory is fallible, all data collected are recorded.

7. Controlling conditions: That is controlling all variables except one and

then attempting to examine what happens when that variable is varied. This
is the basic technique in all scientific experimentation – allowing one variable
to vary while holding all other variables constant.

8. Training investigators: That is imparting necessary knowledge to

investigators to make them understand what to look for, how to interpret in
and avoid inaccurate data collection.

Q.No.3. Describe the procedure used to test the hypothesis ?

To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data researcher has
collected) whether or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis
testing the main question is: whether the null hypothesis or not to accept the

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null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to all those steps that
we undertake for making a choice between the two actions i.e., rejection and
acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in hypothesis
testing are stated below:

1 Making a Formal Statement

The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho)
and also of the alternative hypothesis (Ha). This means that hypothesis
should clearly state, considering the nature of the research problem. For
instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering Department wants to test the
load bearing capacity of an old bridge which must be more than 10 tons, in
that case he can state his hypothesis as under:

Null hypothesis HO: µ =10 tons

Alternative hypothesis Ha: µ >10 tons

Take another example. The average score in an aptitude test administered at

the national level is 80. To evaluate a state’s education system, the average
score of 100 of the state’s students selected on the random basis was 75.
The state wants to know if there is a significance difference between the local
scores and the national scores. In such a situation the hypothesis may be
state as under:

Null hypothesis HO: µ =80

Alternative hypothesis Ha: µ ≠ 80

The formulation of hypothesis is an important step which must be

accomplished with due care in accordance with the object and nature of the
problem under consideration. It also indicates whether we should use a tailed
test or a two tailed test. If Ha is of the type greater than, we use alone tailed
test, but when Ha is of the type “whether greater or smaller” then we use a
two-tailed test.

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2. Selecting a Significant Level

The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such

the same should have specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1%
level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the level of
significance are:

1 .The magnitude of the difference between sample ;

2. The size of the sample;

3. The variability of measurements within samples;

Whether the hypothesis is directional or non – directional (A directional

hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the difference between, say,
means). In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in the context of
the purpose and nature of enquiry.

3. Deciding the Distribution to Use

After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is
to determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice generally
remains between distribution and the t distribution. The rules for selecting
the correct distribution are similar to those which we have stated earlier in
the context of estimation.

4. Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate Value

Another step is to select a random sample(S) and compute an appropriate

value from the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant
distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data.

5. Calculation of the Probability

One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would
diverge as widely as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were
infact true.

6 .Comparing the Probability

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Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with

the specified value for α, the significance level. If the calculated probability is
equal to smaller than α value in case of one tailed test (and α/2 in case of
two-tailed test), then reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative
hypothesis), but if the probability is greater then accept the null hypothesis.

Selecting A Random Sample & Computing An Appropriate

In case we reject H0 we run a risk of (at most level of significance)

committing an error of type I, but if we accept H0, then we run some risk of
committing error type II.

Flow Diagram for Testing Hypothesis

State H0 as well as Ha

Specify the level of significance

Decide the correct sampling distribution

Sample a random sample and workout an appropriate value

Calculate the probability that sample result would diverge

as widely as it has form expectations, if H0 were true

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 Is this probability equal to or smaller than α value in case of

one-tailed test and α/2 in case of two-tailed test

Accept H0 = Run

Reject H0 = Run the risk of

some risk of committing type II error

Q.No.4. Write a note on experimental design

Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental

studies) are those where the researcher tests the hypothesis of causal
relationships between variables. Such studies require procedures that will not
only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will permit drawing inferences
about causality. Usually, experiments meet these requirements. Hence, when
we talk of research design in such studies, we often mean the design of
experiments.

Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment

and as such there are several experimental designs. We can classify
experimental designs into two broad categories, viz., informal experimental
designs and formal experimental designs. Informal experimental designs are
those designs that normally use a less sophisticated form of analysis based
on differences in magnitudes, where as formal experimental designs offer
relatively more control and use precise statistical procedures for analysis.

Informal experimental designs:

• Before and after without control design: In such a design, single test
group or area is selected and the dependent variable is measured before the

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introduction of the treatment. The treatment is then introduced and the
dependent variable is measured again after the treatment has been
introduced. The effect of the treatment would be equal to the level of the
phenomenon after the treatment minus the level of the phenomenon before
the treatment.

• After only with control design: In this design, two groups or areas (test
and control area) are selected and the treatment is introduced into the test
area only. The dependent variable is then measured in both the areas at the
same time. Treatment impact is assessed by subtracting the value of the
dependent variable in the control area from its value in the test area.

• Before and after with control design: In this design two areas are
selected and the dependent variable is measured in both the areas for an
identical time-period before the treatment. The treatment is then introduced
into the test area only, and the dependent variable is measured in both for an
identical time-period after the introduction of the treatment. The treatment
effect is determined by subtracting the change in the dependent variable in
the control area from the change in the dependent variable in test area.

Formal Experimental Designs

1. Completely randomized design (CR design): It involves only two

principle viz., the principle of replication and randomization. It is generally
used when experimental areas happen to be homogenous. Technically, when
all the variations due to uncontrolled extraneous factors are included under
the heading of chance variation, we refer to the design of experiment as C R
Design.

2. Randomized block design (RB design): It is an improvement over the

C Research design. In the RB design the principle of local control can be
applied along with the other two principles.

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3. Latin square design (LS design): It is used in agricultural research. The
treatments in a LS design are so allocated among the plots that no treatment
occurs more than once in any row or column.

4. Factorial design: It is used in experiments where the effects of varying

more than one factor are to be determined. They are especially important in
several economic and social phenomena where usually a large number of
factors affect a particular problem

Q.No. 5. Elaborate the ways of making a case study effective.

Case study is a method of exploring and analyzing the life of a social unit or
entity, be it a person, a family, an institution or a community. Case study
would depend upon wit, commonsense and imagination of the person doing
the case study. The investigator makes up his procedure as he goes along.
Efforts should be made to ascertain the reliability of life history data through
examining the internal consistency of the material.. A judicious combination
of techniques of data collection is a prerequisite for securing data that are
culturally meaningful and scientifically significant. Case study of particular
value when a complex set of variables may be at work in generating
observed results and intensive study is needed to unravel the complexities.
The case documents hardly fulfil the criteria of reliability, adequacy and
representativeness, but to exclude them form any scientific study of human
life will be blunder in as much as these documents are necessary and
significant both for theory building and practice. In-depth analysis of selected
cases is of particular value to business research when a complex set of
variables may be at work in generating observed results and intensive study
is needed to unravel the complexities.

Let us discuss the criteria for evaluating the adequacy of the case
history or life history which is of central importance for case study.

John Dollard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as
follows:

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i) The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series. That is, the
case drawn out from its total context for the purposes of study must be
considered a member of the particular cultural group or community. The
scrutiny of the life histories of persons must be done with a view to identify
the community values, standards and their shared way of life.

ii) The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is, the action of
the individual cases must be viewed as a series of reactions to social stimuli
or situation. In other words, the social meaning of behaviour must be taken
into consideration.

iii) The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture must be
recognized. That is, in case of an individual being the member of a family, the
role of family in shaping his behaviour must never be overlooked.

iv) The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social

behaviour must be clearly shown. That is case histories that portray in detail
how basically a biological organism, the man, gradually blossoms forth into a
social person, are especially fruitful.

v) The continuous related character of experience for childhood through

adulthood must be stressed. In other words, the life history must be a
configuration depicting the inter-relationships between thee person’s various
experiences.

vi) Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a factor.

One of the important criteria for the life history is that a person’s life must be
shown as unfolding itself in the context of and partly owing to specific social
situations.

vii) The life history material itself must be organised according to some
conceptual framework, this

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Q.No.6. What is non probability sampling? Explain its types with
examples.

Non-probability or Non Random Sampling

Non-probability sampling or non-random sampling is not based on the theory

of probability. This sampling does not provide a chance of selection to each
population element.

Advantages: The only merits of this type of sampling are simplicity,

convenience and low cost.

Disadvantages: The demerits are it does not ensure a selection chance to

each population unit. The selection probability sample may not be a
representative one. The selection probability is unknown. It suffers from
sampling bias which will distort results.

The reasons for usage of this sampling are when there is no other feasible
alternative due to non-availability of a list of population, when the study does
not aim at generalizing the findings to the population, when the costs
required for probability sampling may be too large, when probability sampling
required more time, but the time constraints and the time limit for
completing the study do not permit it.

It may be classified into:

1. Convenience or Accidental Sampling

It means selecting sample units in a just ‘hit and miss’ fashion E.g.,
interviewing people whom we happen to meet. This sampling also means
selecting whatever sampling units are conveniently available, e.g., a teacher
may select students in his class. This method is also known as accidental
sampling because the respondents whom the researcher meets accidentally
are included in the sample.

Suitability: Though this type of sampling has no status, it may be used for
simple purposes such as testing ideas or gaining ideas or rough impression
about a subject of interest.

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Advantage: It is the cheapest and simplest, it does not require a list of
population and it does not require any statistical expertise. Disadvantage:
The disadvantage is that it is highly biased because of researcher’s
subjectivity, it is the least reliable sampling method and the findings cannot
be generalized.

2. Purposive (or judgment) sampling

This method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to

some pre-determined criteria. This is also known as judgment sampling. This
involves selection of cases which we judge as the most appropriate ones for
the given study. It is based on the judgment of the researcher or some
expert. It does not aim at securing a cross section of a population. The
chance that a particular case be selected for the sample depends on the
subjective judgment of the researcher.

Suitability: This is used when what is important is the typicality and specific
relevance of the sampling units to the study and not their overall
representativeness to the population.

Advantage: It is less costly and more convenient and guarantees inclusion

of relevant elements in the sample.

Disadvantage: It is less efficient for generalizing, does not ensure the

representativeness, requires more prior extensive information and does not
lend itself for using inferential statistics.

3. Quota sampling

This is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of

accessible sampling units by traits such as sex, age, social class, etc. it is a
method of stratified sampling in which the selection within strata is non-
random. It is this Non-random element that constitutes its greatest weakness.

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Suitability: It is used in studies like marketing surveys, opinion polls, and
readership surveys which do not aim at precision, but to get quickly some
crude results.

Advantage: It is less costly, takes less time, non need for a list of
population, and field work can easily be organized.

Disadvantage: It is impossible to estimate sampling error, strict control if

field work is difficult, and subject to a higher degree of classification.

4. Snow-ball sampling

This is the colourful name for a technique of Building up a list or a sample of

a special population by using an initial set of its members as informants.

This sampling technique may also be used in socio-metric studies. Suitability:

It is very useful in studying social groups, informal groups in a formal
organization, and diffusion of information among professional of various
kinds.

Advantage: It is useful for smaller populations for which no frames are

readily available.

Disadvantage: The disadvantage is that it does not allow the use of

probability statistical methods. It is difficult to apply when the population is
large. It does not ensure the inclusion of all the elements in the list.

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 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Subject code: MB0034

(3 credits) - Set II

Marks - 60

Note: Each Question carries 10 marks

Q1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of secondary data?

Ans: Meaning and Importance of Data

The search for answers to research questions is called collection of data. Data are facts,
and other relevant materials, past and present, serving as bases for study and analyses.
The data needed for a social science research may be broadly classified into (a) Data
pertaining to human beings, (b) Data relating to organization and (c) Data pertaining to
territorial areas.

Secondary Sources of Data

These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another
purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and already compiled
statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their
studies e.g., census reports , annual reports and financial statements of companies,
Statistical statement, Reports of Government Departments, Annual reports of currency
and finance published by the Reserve Bank of India, Statistical statements relating to Co-

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operatives and Regional Banks, published by the NABARD, Reports of the National
sample survey Organization, Reports of trade associations, publications of international
organizations such as UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial
journals newspapers etc

Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also
unpublished records. The latter category includes various records and registers
maintained by the firms and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records,
personnel records, register of members, minutes of meetings, inventory records etc.

Features of Secondary Sources

Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of all sorts of materials, they have
certain common characteristics.

First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of
constructing tools and administering them.
Second, they consist of data which a researcher has no original control over collection
and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources are shaped by
others. Clearly, this is a feature which can limit the research value of secondary sources.
Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher
using them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.

Advantages of Secondary Data :

• Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Once their
source of documents and reports are located, collection of data is just matter of
desk work. Even the tediousness of copying the data from the source can now be
avoided, thanks to Xeroxing facilities.

• Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without
much cost. Thus, the use of secondary data extends the researcher’s space and
time reach.

• The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific
generalizations can be made.

• Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study.

• The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases on
primary data. It readily meets the need for additional empirical support. The
researcher need not wait the time when additional primary data can be collected.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data

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 • The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our specific
needs. The definitions adopted by those who collected those data may be
different; units of measure may not match; and time periods may also be
different.

• The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their accuracy
we need to know how the data were collected.

• The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear
in print, because of time lag in producing them. For example, population census
data are published tow or three years later after compilation, and no new figures
will be available for another ten years.

• Finally, information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all
social scientists. Even if the location of the source is known, the accessibility
depends primarily on proximity. For example, most of the unpublished official
records and compilations are located in the capital city, and they are not within
the easy reach of researchers based in far off places.

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Q2. Explain the prerequisites and advantages of observation.

Ans: Meaning of Observation Observation means viewing or seeing.

Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon
in its proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular
study. Observation is classical method of scientific study.

Prerequisites of Effective Observation

• Observations must be done under conditions which will permit accurate results.
The observer must be in vantage point to see clearly the objects to be observed.
The distance and the light must be satisfactory. The mechanical devices used
must be in good working conditions and operated by skilled persons.
• Observation must cover a sufficient number of representative samples of the
cases.
• Recording should be accurate and complete.
• The accuracy and completeness of recorded results must be checked. A certain
number of cases can be observed again by another observer/another set of
mechanical devices, as the case may be. If it is feasible, two separate observers
and sets of instruments may be used in all or some of the original observations.
The results could then be compared to determine their accuracy and
completeness.

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Observation has certain advantages:
• The main virtue of observation is its directness: it makes it possible to study
behaviour as it occurs. The researcher need not ask people about their
behaviour and interactions; he can simply watch what they do and say.

• Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena as they

occur in their natural settings. Other methods introduce elements or artificiality
into the researched situation for instance, in interview; the respondent may not
behave in a natural way. There is no such artificiality in observational studies,
especially when the observed persons are not aware of their being observed.

• Observations is more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to articulate
meaningfully, e.g. studies of children, tribal, animals, birds etc.

• Observations improve the opportunities for analyzing the contextual back ground
of behaviour. Further more verbal resorts can be validated and compared with
behaviour through observation. The validity of what men of position and authority
say can be verified by observing what they actually do.

• Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs. For

example only observation can provide an insight into all the aspects of the
process of negotiation between union and management representatives.

• Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing effect on
their conduct than questioning.

• It is easier to conduct disguised observation studies than disguised questioning.

• Mechanical devices may be used for recording data in order to secure more
accurate data and also of making continuous observations over longer periods.

Q3. Discuss the stages involved in data collection.

Ans: The process of data collection may involve any number of the following
stages according to the method used.

(1) Data creation , e.g, on clerically prepared source documents

(2) Transmission of data

(3) Data preparation i.e. transcription and verification

(4) Possible conversion from one medium(e.g. diskette) to another e.g., magnetic tape

(5) Input of data to the computer for validation

(6) Sorting

(7)Control- all stages must be controlled

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Method of data collection has certain characteristics.

 It is both a physical and a mental activity: The observing eye catches many
things that are present. But attention is focused on data that are pertinent to the
given study.

 Observation is selective: A researcher does not observe anything and

everything, but selects the range of things to be observed on the basis of the
nature, scope and objectives of his study. For example, suppose a researcher
desires to study the causes of city road accidents and also formulated a tentative
hypothesis that accidents are caused by violation of traffic rules and over
speeding. When he observed the movements of vehicles on the road, many
things are before his eyes; the type, make, size and colour of the vehicles, the
persons sitting in them, their hair style, etc. All such things which are not relevant
to his study are ignored and only over speeding and traffic violations are keenly
observed by him.

 Observation is purposive and not casual: It is made for the specific purpose of
noting things relevant to the study. It captures the natural social context in which
persons behaviour occur. It grasps the significant events and occurrences that
affect social relations of the participants.

 Observation should be exact and be based on standardized tools of

research and such as observation schedule, social metric scale etc., and
precision instruments, if any.

Process of Observations
The use of observation method requires proper planning.
 First, the researcher should carefully examine the relevance of observation
method to the data needs of the selected study.

 Second, he must identify the specific investigative questions which call for use of
observation method. These determine the data to be collected.

 Third, he must decide the observation content, viz., specific conditions, events
and activities that have to be observed for the required data. The observation
content should include the relevant variables.

 Fourth, for each variable chosen, the operational definition should be specified.

 Fifth, the observation setting, the subjects to be observed, the timing and mode
of observation, recording, procedure, recording instruments to be used, and other
details of the task should be determined.

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  Last, observers should be selected and trained. The persons to be selected must
have sufficient concentration powers, strong memory power and unobtrusive
nature. Selected persons should be imparted both theoretical and practical
training.

Types of Observations
Observations may be classified in different ways.
With reference to investigator’s role, it may be classified into
(a) participant observation and (b) non-participant observation.
In terms of mode of observation, it may be classified into (c) direct observation. With
reference to the rigor of the system adopted. Observation is classified into (e)
controlled observation, and (f) uncontrolled

Q4. Briefly explain the types of interviews.

Ans: 1 Meaning of Interview: Interviewing is one of the prominent

methods of data collection. It may be defined as a two way systematic
conversation between an investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining
information relevant to a specific study. It involves not only conversation, but
also learning from the respondent’s gesture, facial expressions and pauses,
and his environment. Interviewing requires face to face contact or contact
over telephone and calls for interviewing skills. It is done by using a structured
schedule or an unstructured guide.

Interviewing may be used either as a main method or as a supplementary one in studies

of persons. Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information from
illiterate or less educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data
from factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate information relating to a
person’s opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs past experience and future intentions. When
qualitative information is required or probing is necessary to draw out fully, and then
interviewing is required. Where the area covered for the survey is a compact, or when a
sufficient number of qualified interviewers are available, personal interview is feasible.

Types of Interviews

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The interview may be classified into: (a) structured or directive interview, (b)
unstructured or non-directive interview, (c) focused interview, (d) clinical interview and
(e) depth interview.

1. Structured Directive Interview

This is an interview made with a detailed standardized schedule. The same questions
are put to all the respondents and in the same order. Each question is asked in the same
way in each interview, promoting measurement reliability. This type of interview is used
for large-scale formalized surveys.

2. Unstructured or Non-Directive Interview

This is the least structured one. The interviewer encourages the respondent to talk freely
about a give topic with a minimum of prompting or guidance. In this type of interview, a
detailed pre-planned schedule is not used. Only a broad interview guide is used. The
interviewer avoids channelling the interview directions. Instead he develops a very
permissive atmosphere. Questions are not standardized and ordered in a particular way.
This interviewing is more useful in case studies rather than in surveys. It is particularly
useful in exploratory research where the lines of investigations are not clearly defined. It
is also useful for gathering information on sensitive topics such as divorce, social
discrimination, class conflict, generation gap, drug-addiction etc. It provides opportunity
to explore the various aspects of the problem in an unrestricted manner.

3. Focused Interview
This is a semi-structured interview where the investigator attempts to focus the
discussion on the actual effects of a given experience to which the respondents have
been exposed. It takes place with the respondents known to have involved in a particular
experience, e.g, seeing a particular film, viewing a particular program on TV., involved in
a train/bus accident, etc. The situation is analysed prior to the interview. An interview
guide specifying topics relating to the research hypothesis used. The interview is
focused on the subjective experiences of the respondent, i.e., his attitudes and
emotional responses regarding the situation under study. The focused interview permits
the interviewer to obtain details of personal reactions, specific emotions and the like.

4 .Clinical Interview

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This is similar to the focused interview but with a subtle difference. While the focused
interview is concerned with the effects of specific experience, clinical interview is
concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of the
individual’s life experiences.

The ‘personal history’ interview used in social case work, prison administration,
psychiatric clinics and in individual life history research is the most common type of
clinical interview. The specific aspects of the individual’s life history to be covered by the
interview are determined with reference to the purpose of the study and the respondent
is encouraged to talk freely about them.

5. Depth Interview
This is an intensive and searching interview aiming at studying the respondent’s opinion,
emotions or convictions on the basis of an interview guide. This requires much more
training on inter-personal skills than structured interview. This deliberately aims to elicit
unconscious as well as extremely personal feelings and emotions.

This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to encourage free expression of

affectively charged information. It requires probing. The interviewer should totally avoid
advising or showing disagreement. Of course, he should use encouraging expressions
like “uh-huh” or “I see” to motivate the respondent to continue narration. Some times the
interviewer has to face the problem of affections, i.e. the respondent may hide
expressing affective feelings. The interviewer should handle such situation with great
care.

Q5. Describe the principles involved in the table construction.

Ans: Principles of Table Construction

There are certain generally accepted principles of rules relating to construction of tables.
They are:

1. Every table should have a title. The tile should represent a succinct description of
the contents of the table. It should be clear and concise. It should be placed
above the body of the table.

2. A number facilitating easy reference should identify every table. The number can
be centred above the title. The table numbers should run in consecutive serial
order. Alternatively tables in chapter 1 be numbered as 1.1, 1.2, 1….., in chapter
2 as 2.1, 2.2, 2.3…. and so on.

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 3. The captions (or column headings) should be clear and brief.

4. The units of measurement under each heading must always be indicated.

5. 5.Any explanatory footnotes concerning the table itself are placed directly
beneath the table and in order to obviate any possible confusion with the textual
footnotes such reference symbols as the asterisk (*) DAGGER (+) and the like
may be used.

6. If the data in a series of tables have been obtained from different sources, it is
ordinarily advisable to indicate the specific sources in a place just below the
table.

7. Usually lines separate columns from one another. Lines are always drawn at the
top and bottom of the table and below the captions.

8. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.

9. All column figures should be properly aligned. Decimal points and “plus” or
“minus” signs should be in perfect alignment.

10. Columns and rows that are to be compared with one another should be brought
closed together.

11. Totals of rows should be placed at the extreme right column and totals of
columns at the bottom.

12. In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories,

Q6. Write a note on contents of research report. ?

Meaning of Research Report

Research report is a means for communicating research experience to others. A

research report is a formal statement of the research process and it results. It narrates
the problem studied, methods used for studying it and the findings and conclusions of
the study.
Contents of the Research Report
The outline of a research report is given below:
I. Prefatory Items

1) Title page 2) Declaration 3) Certificates 4) Preface/ acknowledgements 5) Table of

contents 6) List of tables 7) List of graphs/ figures/ charts 8)Abstract or synopsis

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II. Body of the Report

1) Introduction 2) Theoretical background of the topic 3) Statement of the problem 4)

Review of literature 5) The scope of the study 6) The objectives of the study 7)
Hypothesis to be tested 8) Definition of the concepts 9) Models if any 10) Design of
the study 11) Methodology 12) Method of data collection 13) Sources of data 14)
Sampling plan 15) data collection instruments 16) Field work

 Data processing and analysis plan

 Overview of the report
 Limitation of the study
 Results: findings and discussions
 Summary, conclusions and recommendations

III. Reference Material

1) Bibliography 2) Appendix 3) Copies of data collection instruments 4) Technical

details on sampling plan 5) Complex tables 6) Glossary of new terms used.

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