Filipino

filpn/
noun
noun: Filipino; plural noun: Filipinos; noun: Pilipino; plural noun: Pilipinos
1. 1.
a native or national of the Philippines, or a person of Filipino descent.
2. 2.
the national language of the Philippines, a standardized form of Tagalog.
adjective
adjective: Filipino; adjective: Pilipino
1. 1.
relating to the Philippines, the Filipinos, or their language.

Danilo Mamaril - What makes a Filipino Filipino?
It is the Filipino culture that makes one a Filipino. I am a Filipino because I have
nurtured my culture and I am very proud of my ethnicity. My physical attributes and the
color of my skin will also tell that I am a Filipino. I speak fluently the Filipino language
and the concerns of my fellow Filipinos are also my concerns. Born and raised in the
Philippines, my culture is Filipino without doubt.
If one who has Filipino parents was born and raised in another country like the United
States, is he or she a Filipino? Yes, or course! You cannot easily take away the influence
of your parents culture and traditions in you because you will be reared in the Filipino
way. You might be a little different from your parents in your views and perceptions, as
you somehow will adapt into the culture and ways of life of the people around you and
the environment of the place where you live. Most likely, you have tried tuyo or
bagoong and may have enjoyed pinakbet and dinengdeng. If you have, that makes
you a Filipino! Your Filipino ethnicity can also be manifested, even with your limited
knowledge of the Filipino language, by your saying po or opo when talking to your
elders. It is a wonder that even those born with one Filipino parent in an interracial
marriage would still naturally display some Filipino traits in more ways than one. It is in
the blood!
Was there ever a time you have been pleasantly surprised why a foreigner has figured
out that you are a Filipino. Aside form your looks, your demeanor said it all. Filipinos
are naturally caring and compassionate. There are many things that are unique to
Filipinos. One is the mano po where you put the hand of an elder on your forehead as
a greeting and a sign of respect. If you are inviting a Filipino to an important occasion,
you have to do it at least three times. The Filipinos are typically shy but would fiercely
defend their honor when offended. Otherwise they are a very wonderful and happy
people who are friendly and always ready to help. But it is the Filipino heart, gentle,
loving and pardons easily that truly makes a Filipino a Filipino.
Mark Domingo - What Makes You Filipino, Filipino?
Filipinos have their own unique culture. I grew up having my mother dress me up, and
let me tell you, it wasnt the greatest. My outfits were never a very good match. It was
like Halloween everyday. Being Filipino means having everyone your parents introduce
you to people, and automatically makes them your relative but in reality theyre not.
This explains why us Filipinos have a huge family. Having a Filipino ethnicity does not
mean that your whole life will be just an embarrassment; there are other reason also,
which can make you a proud Filipino.
When walking into a Filipino house, everything is decorated. Every Filipino has the
same curtains, either the layers on layers style or just the ordinary flower designed
curtains. The mothers usually clean all day, whenever theres a little mess; to them it is a
wreck. When it hits November, the Christmas tree is already up and all the Christmas
lights are out. You know if your neighbors are Filipino, if they put up the star shape
lantern outside by their doorstep. The star shaped lantern is called parol.
Growing up everyone had nicknames, usually the name would repeat itself. For
example: Jon-Jon, Lov-Lov, and Ne-Ne. So if your parents call you by your real name,
thats when you know theyre angry with you and its time to run away and hide from
them. There was never a timeout, usually the punishment would be a slap with the belt
or broom or whatever is close to them. Your dad or uncles were in the military, and your
mom or aunties were a nurse. If someone were to call you, they would say PST! instead
of yelling out your name. If you had an order to do, they would point their lips to
the object, which would indicate what they wanted.
You know someone is Filipino if their car chirps like a bird or plays a different tune
when reversing. A rosary is usually on the cars rear view mirror because Filipinos are
religious. The car can make three or more different sound when honking. Filipinos
usually arrive to events 30 minutes late. Going to a house party it is always karaoke
time, if youre not a good singer, it doesnt matter because if your score is high everyone
will think youre beast. When its time to eat, food is always blessed first. When putting
food on your plate, your savory food is mixed with your deserts.
Even if all of these things seems very humiliating, I have grown up accustomed to all of
this and see this as being natural for me. So if you non-Filipinos think were weird, we
think the exact same about your culture! I am a hundred percent FILIPINO and I am
proud.
Mark Pico - What Makes a Filipino a Filipino?
What makes a Filipino a Filipino? Well, I think what makes a Filipino a Filipino is
definitely thru their food. The way Filipino food taste, smells, and even they way its
prepared tells a lot about a Filipino and their culture. Filipino food gives a Filipino a
sense of uniqueness thru many of their dish. One example is the Filipino food marungay
soup. I dont know what other culture uses the leaves for food and using it in soup to
make it tasty shows just what makes a Filipino a Filipino. Its prepared by
boiling chicken and water to perfection and then adding the leaves and other spices
slightly after. Another food is the Kare Kare. A mix of beef and green vegetables filled
with orange gravy. Its cooked with a unique ingredient that other cultures dont
normally use, peanut butter. The peanut butter gives it a perfect nutty taste thats unlike
any other food. Its a unique dish that makes a Filipino a Filipino. Finally a Filipino food
thats prepared differently that makes a Filipino a Filipino is the banana lumpia. Its
prepared by slicing a banana in half, followed by dipping it in sugar, and then wrapping
it in lumpia wrapper. After its deep fried, you can choose to brush it with melted brown
sugar. Its a simple dessert or appetizer dish, but at the same time its the way its
uniquely prepared in what makes a Filipino a Filipino. I believe that one thing that
makes a Filipino a Filipino is their food. It gives a Filipino an identity the way their
unique food taste, smells, and the way its prepared. rule this world that we live in. There
is no specific distinguisher of a Filipino, but they complete the circle of every nationality.
They live in unity and love wholeheartedly. There is no hate, but
Jayley Alisubat - What Makes A Filipino A Filipino?
A nations culture resides in the hearts and in the soul of its people, says Mahatma
Gandhi. The best example would be the Filipinos. Filipinos are the most unique
nationality in the world we live in. Filipinos cherish their culture deep in their hearts
and appreciate every individual of the entire Filipino clan. Filipinos unite as one big
family and live by this phrase you mess with one, you mess with all. The culture, food,
personalities, and lives they have are different from everyone elses. Filipinos are diverse
individuals who can stand on their own. The culture a Filipino has is one of a kind.
One example is the expression Pssss! Majority of the time Filipinos will instantly
respond by looking around to see who and where it is coming from when they hear
someone saying pssss. I find it hilarious to watch peoples responses when you try to test
the power of this word. Filipinos are known for this expression. Another distinguishing
factor that makes a Filipino a Filipino is that they are so openly to others and very
considerate. For example, if you invite a friend over to do homework, majority of the
time your parents would tell your friend Dont go home right away. Stay over for dinner
and eat. Dont be shame. I can speak for myself, because this happens all of the time.
Sometimes parents would go the extra mile to prep or buy food all because there is a
guest over at the house. One last distinguishing factor is the sincerity of respect.
Filipinos are very big on respect whether its through your parents, elders, siblings,
family members, or one with authority. If you do no show respect, you will hear it from
a Filipino. Filipino elderlies expect you to knowledge them with either ate, kuya, ading,
auntie, uncle, inang, amang, etc. They dont really care which language you use, but just
the acknowledgement is a must. Like my mom always told me, Always say auntie or
uncle after everything you say. For example, yes auntie or thank you very much inang.
It shows so much respect upon their behalf. You should never talk back as well. You will
get spankings with the backscratcher! Even though you know you are right, just keep it
to yourself and listen to whatever they have to say. Respect, respect, respect is all the
Filipinos want. more to wait to be accepted. As hardworking, loyal, considerate, and
loving Filipinos may be, theyre the very ones who have faced and are still facing till
today the hardships of life. No other nationality can top the journey of a Filipino he/she
has in their book called life.
Jefferson S. Roldan Jr. What makes a Filipino a Filipino?
What makes a Filipino a Filipino is that they are friendly, family oriented, talented,
loving, and religious. They are hardworking, hospitable, and jolly people. You know a
Filipino from their physical characteristic when they have big, small, or flat nose. They
come in different shading from medium to tan skin and black hair.
You know a Filipino just by looking at their mannerism and you would see them
pointing with their lips. They also nod their head upwards to greet someone. They put
their foot on the chair and rest their elbows on their knees while they are eating. You
know a Filipino when they say comfort room instead of bathroom. You heard them say
brown-out rather than black-out when there is no electricity. You heard them say Ay
or Uy rather than oops.
You know a Filipino when they are trying to call someone and they say Hoy!! to get
someone attention and you turn around when you hear psssst. When a Filipino ask for
a pen or ball pen they would ask do you have a pentel pen. You know a Filipino when
they have lots of shopping bags in their house because they use the shopping bags for
garbage bags. You know a Filipino when the parents call each other mahal and they
call their kids anak and also by their nickname like jun-jun,ling-ling, JR, and etc.
You know a Filipino when they bring home lunch to work every day and they call it
baon. You know a Filipino when you see in the morning they would have coffee and
dip their bread in it and you would know when youre in a Filipino house when you
smell something bad when they are cooking tuyo which is dry fish. You know a
Filipino when they have a big rice cooker and they would eat rice for breakfast. When a
Filipino purchases a soda at the store they would call or ask for soft drink rather than
soda. When youre in a Filipinos house you know they are Filipnos when they have
abundances of corned beef hash, Vienna sausage, and spam in their cupboard.
You know a Filipino when they are eating baluts which is half-hatched ducks eggs and
they think it is a delicacy. They also eat chocolate meat which is not really chocolate. You
know a Filipino when they eat every last grain of time on their plate. You know a
Filipino when they buy pounds of rice bags, gallons of soy sauce, and patis. You know a
Filipino when they major in engineering, law, medicine, and nursing. You know a
Filipino when they send off money to the relatives in the Philippines. You know a
Filipino by now from what the things they do and how they look.
Jean Dagupion - What makes a Filipino, a Filipino?
Being Filipino could mean so many different things coming from each individual that
share this common nationality. To one, it could mean the food and to another it could be
the way we dress. I think what makes a Filipino a Filipino is not just the culture but
alongside with that pride. Not too long ago, I finally accepted my culture and
nationality as being a full blooded Filipina. This was all through the Katipunan Club that
is offered here at the University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Being a full blooded Filipina is something that I take pride in. Through all our
common stereotypes that other cultures have placed on us most of the time, I overlook
them because I know our ancestors have worked hard for the future of their children,
and grandchildren. Filipinos are hard workers and usually dont give up until they get
their work done. This could be seen with the sakadas, who were the first Filipinos that
immigrated to Hawaii to work in the sugar cane plantations they are also known as the
roots of Filipino experience in Hawaii. After joining Filipino and Katipunan Club I came
to a realization that I shouldnt be ashamed of who I am. Im proud to be a Filipina
because no matter how bad things get we somehow always seem to find something
positive or something to smile about and keep ourselves going. Not to brag, but I work
hard, I give my best, I give everybody that I deal with a fair chance and I give a chance to
all that have the best in life. I believe I think this way because of my
smooth interpersonal relations. I also love the unique cultural diversity you can find
throughout our tiny archipelago. I think all of our rich backgrounds play a big part in
making us Filipino.
Through Katipunan I was able to make a lot of new friendships that will stick with me
for the rest of my undergraduate years here at UHM. I think if it werent for my Filipino
classmates and the Katipunan events we have throughout the semesters, I would still be
a very shy person. This club has really helped me get out of my shell to interact and meet
new friends. Im glad that I switched into this language program. I have grown to love
and appreciate my culture more than ever. Glad to say that I can talk a bit of Tagalog
with my family that still lives in the Philippines. I enjoy learning Tagalog with
my classmates this semester in my 201 class and by taking an Indo-Pacific Language
class is another eye opener to appreciate my nationality.
Stephany Makizuru - What makes a Filipino a Filipino
Everyone nowadays always wonder what makes a Filipino a Filipino. Truthfully, there is
no precise answer to that inquiry. Filipinoness is a culture, it is a certain type of living
for a particular ethnic group; this is the way I look at it. Being Filipino isnt different
compared to other cultures. We are very family oriented as of most cultures. We are
hard working. Also, we are very loving and hospitable. But there are some unique
characteristics that I believe that makes a Filipino standout and by doing some of these
actions, it makes people believe or always say those words You can tell your Filipino.
One aspect of being a Filipino or as I said what makes people say You can tell your
Filipino is when most times if a Filipino person would hear someone go psstttt of
course they would always look. Back in the olden days and also nowadays, making that
noise indicates or stands for the meaning of come here, or Im trying to get your
attention. Usually when a Filipino would hear this noise he or she of course always looks
around thinking that someone is calling them.
Another aspect of a trade as I may say of someone being Filipino is when it comes to
parties. Most of the time the hostess grandparents usually pushes the guest to go and
eat even though the guest comes up with an excuse not to go. Filipinos tend to be very
pushy but in a good way. They like to include everyone in everything and they specially
love to see their guest happy and enjoying themselves. No matter to what extent, the
host would have to make sure their guest enjoy their stay.
There really isnt an explain of what makes a Filipino a Filipino but in every culture,
every person is different in his or her own way. Regardless of your nationality, an
individual may incline to follow the status quo but that doesnt necessarily means that
he/she will follow it all the time; what is important is the sense of being part of a group.
Filipinos are fun and outgoing; more importantly, they are very caring people. They sure
know how to party.
Andrea Salvatore - What makes a Filipino a Filipino?
PSST! Hey, you looked! Can tell you a Filipino! JOKE Lang! What does make a Filipino
a Filipino? As a first hand witness to the Filipino culture, I can say that we are one of the
hardest working groups of people. Just from one side point of view, I feel that Filipinos
always have the hardest labored jobs for example janitors, housekeepers, landscapers,
farmers and more. For some reason, we as Filipinos like to go above and beyond the
limits just to impress everyone around us, including our parents. We always want to feel
wanted and accepted no matter what it takes. Based on the concept of hiya, we
all know as Filipinos to not shame a persons being or pagkatao because it will most
definitely put them down. Since we believe in superstitions and things like karma, we
know not to tease anyone or hurt them just to stay safe from anything happening to
ourselves. Filipinos are really sensitive, and just by calling them stupid or ugly they
really get affected by words simple as that. Filipinos are really good at hiding their true
feelings about things just so they do not hurt anyone in the process of expressing
their feelings, and also they would not want anyone to take pity on them as a way to be
accepted. Although we still like the attention, we try not to drop down to the point where
the only reason others accept us is because they pity us.
Filipinos are one of the best ethnic groups of people that everyone likes to be around.
We as Filipinos believe in making the most out of everything that is why we always have
fun no matter what. Even if we are down, sad or hurt, we still put up a front and show
others that we are still happy even if we are going through something bad. Thats one
way we hide our feelings. We may be known as little brown people according to
William Howard Taft, but we are one! We stand United! True to our sun and stars! We
got Filipino Pride! You hurt one, you hurt all, but we wont back down! We will stand
strong together and overcome any obstacles in our paths!
Camille Cristobal - What makes a Filipino Filipino?
What makes a Filipino different from other ethnicities? Filipinos today are known for
being hardworking and kind hearted. Filipino psycho social behavior is what
distinguishes them from other ethnicities. The psycho- social behaviors that is
commonly seen in Filipinos is hiya, getting along with others or pakikisama and their
belief in luck and fate. These Filipino behaviors are commonly seen in
Filipinos and help distinguish them from other ethnicities because other ethnicities do
not believe in the same concepts as Filipinos. Filipinos behave a certain way because
their behaviors bring about a certain response from others that society has deemed as
normal in Filipino culture. Filipinos act a certain way because they want to keep a
smooth interpersonal relationship with other people.
The concept of hiya or embarrassment is avoided by Filipinos because they do not
want to embarrass others and they do not want to be embarrassed as well. If hiya is
done to another person it brings down their dignity and the smooth interpersonal
relationship will no longer be present. An example of hiya is if a girl is asked to dance, if
she refuses to dance with a boy because she doesnt like him she must think of an excuse
that will not cause the boy hiya. She can say Im tired, the girl must sit the
dance out. Another way hiya can be done is if the person asks for a favor and the favor is
not received, this is called napahiya. The person that is embarrassed might think that
the other person wants to end their relationship and he will no longer ask for favors.
Making sure hiya is not achieved is important in order to keep Filipino relationships
strong.
Pakikisama is an important psycho-social behavior in Filipino culture. Pakikisama
means trying to get along with others. Pakikisama is an important Filipino value
because it is a part of pakikikapwa tao which means relating to other people. Pakikisama
is needed in order to keep the relationship among other individuals and to not be an
outcast. If a person is an outcast they will no longer be a part of society. An example of
Pakikisama is going to a party when a person is invited or doing things for friends as a
favor.
Pakikisma is the building block to higher levels of relationship. The concept of success
and failure to Filipinos is different compared to the western concept. In Filipino culture
success and failure are caused by their belief that certain things happen because man
has no control over them. Success and failure is measured through fate. If success
happens suwerte or luck is given credit for the success. If failure occurs Filipinos
blame it on malas or bad luck. Compared to western ideology that success and failure
is caused by hard work and that things happened because they have carefully planned
out everything that needs to be done in order to obtain success.
Filipinos can be distinguished from other cultures because of their psyco-social
behavior. Filipinos believe that hiya should not be done on other people in order to keep
their relationship together. Pakikisama is also practiced in Filipino culture in order to
create a bond with others. Lastly the concept of success and failure is a belief that makes
Filipinos different from Western culture. The psyco-social behavior that Filipinos have
help to keep the smooth interpersonal relationship among other individuals strong. The
psycho social behavior helps to bond other Filipinos together and is what makes a
Filipino a Filipino.
Janila Abalos - What makes a Filipino Filipino?
The A Filipino is a proud person, one who has had many injustices done to him/her but
still will welcome that same person who did them wrong into their homes and treat
them as family. Filipinos are strong willed and determined, and are known for being
very hard workers. When a Filipino puts their mind to something consider it
accomplished. Filipinos never forget where they came from, and never forget family, you
can go anywhere in the world and see a Filipino working hard, and putting aside
their hard earned money and savings so they can send it to family members in the
Philippines so they can have a better life.
A Filipino will adapt to any living circumstance and survive, knowing it was possibly for
the better. I think Filipinos are one of the only people in the world that will get involved
in a job or situation if the think it will improve the lifestyle and living conditions of their
families and themselves. We are the only people driven by hope and of course faith.
Filipinos are very forgiving, but at the same time do not forget the things we have been
through. Resilience is one of the best words to describe us as a people.
Filipino people will invite a complete stranger in their home and feed them, even though
there barely is enough food to go around. A Filipino will smile and brighten up your day,
and from their smile you will never know they are struggling. Tradition is important to
Filipino people. Filipinos always respect and care for their elders, and will not let anyone
disrespect them either. Filipinos are very caring.
Filipinos can not let anyone go hungry if they can help it. No matter what time you go
over a Filipino persons house they will make sure you are fed and taken care of. Also
Filipinos are very concerned about how others perceive them,and what people say about
them. Where ever you go, you will see a Filipino with a decal or flag on their vehicles
letting everyone know they are PINOY. Filipino people love and cherish the land and
ocean. To this day we are great fishermen and farmers.
We are of the land. What makes a Filipino, a Filipino, is our Pride in ourselves, our
country, our families, our traditions and our hearts.
Fabian Fabro - What makes a Filipino from a Military Family?
A Filipino from a military family is different from a usual Filipino. The main difference
is how the he or she is raised by the parents. A traditional Filipino would be surrounded
by the culture and traditions because that is the atmosphere he or she is around. Also,
he or she will only be associating and communicating with other Filipinos. A local or a
Filipino-American is a different story. That Filipino-American would still have the
cultural setting, but only in the household. When it comes to being out of the house, he
or she would be communicating with other ethnic variety of groups. However,
these Filipinos are not intact with their own culture but is rather opened up to other
cultures, thus, forgetting their own.
Being a Filipino in a military has a few similarities to the Filipino-American points, but
there are slight differences still. The parents will teach the children Filipino values but it
would get mixed with the American values, especially since military Filipino families will
mainly reside in military bases. Military Filipino families will have friends with other
military Filipino families and would claim each other as calibash cousins, or just very
close friends. Calibash cousins are what give the families a group to be a part of, so that
even though the Filipinos are around other ethnic groups, the Filipinos will always
be connected to each other.
I have made friends with military Filipinos in the beginning, but when I started making
friends with local Filipinos, I started to see differences. For instance, military Filipinos
would hardly know much of the Filipino culture, language, or tradition. They would not
even care to be a part of it or take interest on it. Their interests would fall more on to
American culture. The way they act is just like the American perspective also, more
persistent and active. Usually the Filipino acts more passive and understanding, but the
military Filipino has adapted more to the American thought of being more aggressive
and taking charge. They are more interested in learning other cultures but not being
associated with Filipino culture because they feel ashamed about it based stereotypes.
For my experience, it is different than the usual military Filipino. Although I also grew
up the same way as a military Filipino did, with having some of the culture and tradition
shared at home. I was not taught the language because my parents did not want me to
have the accent and were more concerned with me learning English. As I got into a
middle and high school, I was more interested in learning other cultures and wanted to
stay away from Filipino culture. I think the reason why I did not want to be associated
with Filipino culture was because I wanted to be different from the other Filipinos, I felt
that every Filipino was the same, by style and hobby. It was not until I reached my
college years. I felt that I wanted to start learning about my roots, about who I am, and
how us as Filipinos are viewed as. For me, I feel that it is a process of acceptance and
embracing the Filipino culture.
Alvin Namnama - What makes a Filipino Filipino?
Filipinos are known for their religiousness, love for their tradition, and being
altruistic. Filipinos tends to be very religious. During pre-colonial time, Filipinos
already have their own religious beliefs. Filipinos are known to be animistic. They
worshipped the spirits of trees, water, and other inanimate objects. The spirits are called
anitos. Filipinos ask the anitos for guidance, protection, and help for their everyday
lives. When the Spaniards came, Filipinos converted to Catholicism.
Filipinos are also well known for their customs. For examples, Sinulog festival, Ati-
atihan festival, Bulaklak festivals are examples of celebrations that are held every year in
the Philippines. Each province has their own fiesta that relates to their livelihood. For
example, in Baguio, they celebrate Panagbenga festival for a month for a tribute to the
1990 Luzon earthquake. These festivals show that Filipinos are very joyful.
We Filipinos who live in the states are very altruistic. For example, I always see
Filipinos at the airport with their balikbayan boxes. Those boxes contain pasalubong.
These pasalubong are signs of unselfishness. No matter how hard the life is here in the
States, Filipinos will always find a way to buy things they can give to their
relatives. Every nationality has their distinct differences. Filipinos religiousness, the love
for their traditions, and being altruistic makes them unique from other nationalities.
These examples make a Filipino Filipino.



The Filipino people (Filipino: Mamamayang Pilipino) or Filipinos (feminine: Filipinas) are a
Southeast Asian ethnic group native to the islands of the Philippines. According to the 2010 Census,
there were 92,337,852 in the Philippines
[32]
and about 10 million living outside the Philippines.
[33]

There are around 180 languages spoken in the Philippines, most of them belonging to
the Austronesian language family, with Tagalog and Cebuano having the greatest number of native
speakers.
[34]
The official languages of the Philippines are Filipino and English and most Filipinos
are bilingual or trilingual.
[35][36]

The Philippines was a Spanish colony for over 300 years, leaving what can now be called Filipino
culture and people semi-Hispanicized. Under Spanish rule, most of the Filipino populace embraced
Roman Catholicism, yet revolted many times to its hierarchy. Due to a colonial program, many
inhabitants adopted Spanish surnames from the Catlogo alfabtico de apellidos published in 1849
by the Spanish colonial government.
[37]
As neither past governments nor the modern National
Statistics Office account for the racial background of an individual, the exact percentage of Filipinos
with Spanish ancestry is unknown.

Pre-Colonial[edit]
In 2010, a metatarsal from "Callao Man" discovered in 2007 was dated through uranium-series
dating as being 67,000 years old.
[39]

Prior to that, the earliest human remains found in the Philippines were thought to be the fossilized
fragments of a skull and jawbone, discovered in the 1960s by Dr. Robert B. Fox,
an anthropologist from the National Museum.
[40]
Anthropologists who examined these remains
agreed that they belonged to modern human beings. These include the Homo sapiens, as
distinguished from the mid-Pleistocene Homo erectusspecies.
The "Tabon Man" fossils are considered to have come from a third group of inhabitants, who worked
the cave between 22,000 and 20,000 BCE. An earlier cave level lies so far below the level
containing cooking fire assemblages that it must represent Upper Pleistocene dates like 45 or 50
thousand years ago.
[41]
Researchers say this indicates that the human remains were pre-Mongoloid,
from about 40,000 years ago.Mongoloid is the term which anthropologists applied to the ethnic
group which migrated to Southeast Asia during the Holocene period and evolved into
the Austronesian people (associated with the Haplogroup O1 (Y-DNA) genetic marker), a group
of Malayo-Polynesian-speaking people including those from Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia,
Malagasy, the non-Han Chinese Taiwanese Aboriginals.
[42]

Fluctuations in ancient shorelines between 150,000 BP and 17,000 BP connected to the Malay
Archipelago region with Maritime Southeast Asia and the Philippines. This may have enabled
ancient migrations into the Philippines from Maritime Southeast Asia approximately 50,000 BP to
13,000 BP.
[43]

The Negritos are likely descendants of the indigenous populations of the Sunda landmass and New
Guinea, predating the Mongoloid peoples who later entered Southeast Asia.
[44]
Multiple studies also
show that Negritos from Southeast Asia to New Guinea share a closer cranial affinity with Australo-
Melanesians.
[44][45]
They were the ancestors of such tribes of the Philippines as the Aeta, Agta, Ayta,
Ati, Dumagat and other tribes of the Philippines, today making up 0.03% of the total Philippine
population.
[46]

The majority of present day Filipinos are a product of the long process of evolution and movement of
people.
[47]
After the mass migrations through land bridges, migrations continue by boat during the
maritime era of South East Asia. The ancient races became homogenized into the Malayo-
Polynesians which colonized the majority of the Philippine, Malaysian and Indonesian
Archipelagos.
[48]

Since at least the 3rd century, various ethnic groups established several communities. These were
formed by the assimilation of various native Philippine kingdoms.
[46]
South Asian and East
Asian people together with the people of the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula,
traded with Filipinos and introduced and passed Hinduism and Buddhism to the native tribes of the
Philippines. Most of these people stayed in the Philippines where they were slowly absorbed into the
local society.
Many of the barangay (tribal municipalities) were, to a varying extent, under the de
jure jurisprudence of one of several neighboring empires, among them the Malay Sri
Vijaya, Javanese Majapahit, Brunei, Melaka, Indian Chola, Champa, and Khmer empires,
although de facto had established their own independent system of rule. Trading links
with Sumatra, Borneo, Java, Malay Peninsula, Indochina, China, India, Arabia, Japan and
the Ryukyu Kingdom flourished during this era. A thalassocracy had thus emerged based on
international trade.
Even scattered barangays, through the development of inter-island and international trade, became
more culturally homogeneous by the 4th century. Hindu-Buddhist culture and religion flourished
among the noblemen in this era.
In the period between the 7th to the beginning of the 15th centuries, numerous prosperous centers
of trade had emerged, including the Kingdom of Namayan which flourished alongside Manila
Bay,
[49][49][50]
Cebu, Iloilo,
[51]
Butuan, the Kingdom of Sanfotsi situated in Pangasinan, the Kingdom of
Luzon now known as Pampanga which specialized in trade with China, Japan and the Kingdom of
Ryukyu in Okinawa, and most of what is now known as South East Asia.
From the 9th century onwards, a large number of Arab traders from the Middle East settled in the
Malay Archipelago and intermarried with the local Malay, Malaysian, Indonesian, and Luzon and
Visayas indigenous populations.
[52]

In the years leading up to 1000 C.E., there were already several maritime societies existing in the
islands but there was no unifying political state encompassing the entire Philippine archipelago.
Instead, the region was dotted by numerous semi-autonomous barangays (settlements ranging is
size from villages to city-states) under the sovereignty of competing thalassocracies ruled
by datus, rajahs or sultans
[53]
or by upland agricultural societies ruled by "petty plutocrats". States
such as the Kingdom of Maynila and Namayan, the Dynasty of Tondo, the Confederation of
Madyaas, the Rajahnates of Butuan and Cebu and the sultanates of Maguindanao and Sulu existed
alongside the highland societies of the Ifugao and Mangyan.
[54][55][56][57]
Some of these regions were
part of the Malayan empires of Srivijaya, Majapahit andBrunei.
[58][59][60]

By the 13th century, Arab and Indian Missionaries/Traders from Malaysia and Indonesia brought
Islam to the Philippines, where it both replaced and was practiced together with indigenous religions.
Before that, most indigenous tribes of the Philippines practiced a mixture of Animism, Hinduism and
Buddhism. Native villages, called barangays were populated by locals called Timawa (Middle Class/
freemen) and Alipin (servants & slaves). They were ruled by Rajahs, Datus and Sultans, a class
called Maginoo (royals) and defended by the Maharlika (Lesser nobles, royal warriors and
aristocrats).
[46]
These Royals and Nobles are descended from native Filipinos with varying degrees
of Indo-aryan, East Asian and Dravidian ancestry which is evident in today's DNA analysis among
South East Asian Royals. This tradition continued among the Spanish and Portuguese traders who
also intermarried with the local populations.
[61]

Colonial influence[edit]


A figure of a Filipino Family that belong to Principalia


A mestiza de sangleywoman in a photograph by Francisco Van Camp, c. 1875.
The arrival of Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan in 1521 began a period of European
colonization. During the period of Spanish colonialism beginning in the 16th century, the Philippines
was part of the Viceroyalty of New Spain, which was governed and controlled from Mexico City.
Early Spanish settlers were mostly explorers, soldiers, government officials and
religious missionaries born in Spain and Mexico. Most Spaniards who settled were
of Andalusian ancestry but there were also Catalonian, Moorish and Basque settlers.
The Peninsulares(governors born in Spain), mostly of Castilian ancestry, settled in the islands to
govern their territory. Most settlers married the daughters of rajahs, datus and sultans to reinforce
the colonization of the islands. The Ginoo and Maharlika castes (royals and nobles) in the
Philippines prior to the arrival of the Spanish formed the privileged Principala (nobility) during the
Spanish period. In the 16th and 17th centuries, thousands of Japanese traders also migrated to the
Philippines and assimilated into the local population.
[62]

As a part of the Seven Years' War, the British forces occupied Manila between 1762 and 1764.
However, the only part of the Philippines which the British held was the Spanish colonial capital of
Manila and the principal naval port Cavite, both of which are located on Manila Bay. The war was
ended by the Treaty of Paris (1763). At the end of the war the treaty signatories were not aware that
Manila had been taken by the British and was being administered as a British colony. Consequently,
no specific provision was made for the Philippines. Instead they fell under the general provision that
all other lands not otherwise provided for be returned to the Spanish
Empire.
[63]
Many Indian Sepoy troops and their British captains mutinied and were left in Manila and
some parts of the Ilocos and Cagayan. The ones in Manila settled at Cainta, Rizal and the ones at
the north settled at Isabela. Most were assimilated into the local population.
The arrival of the Spaniards to the Philippines attracted new waves of immigrants from China, and
maritime trade flourished during the Spanish period. The Spanish recruited thousands of Chinese
migrant workers called sangleys to build the colonial infrastructure in the islands. Most Chinese
immigrants converted to Christianity, intermarried with the locals, and adopted Hispanized names
and customs and became fully assimilated. The children of unions between Filipinos and Chinese
that became fully assimilated were designated in official records as mestizos de sangley but viewed
themselves as Filipinos. The Chinese mestizos were largely confined to the Binondo area until the
19th century. However, they eventually spread all over the islands, and became traders,
moneylenders and landowners.
A total of 110 Manila-Acapulco galleons set sail between 1565 to 1815, during the Philippines trade
with Mexico. Until 1593, three or more ships would set sail annually from each port bringing with
them the riches of the archipelago to Spain. European criollos, mestizos and Portuguese, French
and Mexican descent from the Americas, mostly from Latin America came in contact with the
Filipinos. Japanese, Indian and Cambodian Christians who fled from religious persecutions and
killing fields also settled in the Philippines during the 17th until the 19th centuries.
With the inauguration of the Suez Canal in 1867, Spain opened the Philippines for international
trade. European investors such as British, Dutch, German, Portuguese, Russian, Italian and French
were among those who settled in the islands as business increased. More Spaniards arrived during
the next century. Many of these European migrants intermarried with local mestizos and some
assimilated with the indigenous population. Their enterprises became the precursors of the current
Chinese and Asian-dominated major corporations and conglomerates of the country.


Marcelo Azcrraga Palmero, the only Spanish prime minister of Filipino descent.


Devotees flock to the Basilica Minore del Santo Nio during the novena masses
After the defeat of Spain during the SpanishAmerican War in 1898, Filipino general, Emilio
Aguinaldo declaredindependence on 12 June while General Wesley Merritt became the first
Americangovernor of the Philippines. On 10 December 1898, the Treaty of Paris formally ended the
war, with Spain ceding the Philippines and other colonies to the United States in exchange for
$20 million.
[64][65]
After the PhilippineAmerican War, the United States civil governance was
established in 1901, with William Howard Taft as the first American Governor-General.
[66]
A number
of Americans settled in the islands and thousands of interracial marriages between Americans and
Filipinos have taken place since then. Due to the strategic location of the Philippines, as many as 21
bases and 100,000 military personnel were stationed there since the United States first colonized
the islands in 1898. These bases were decommissioned in 1992 after the end of the Cold War, but
left behind thousands of Amerasian children.
[67]
The country gained independence from the United
States in 1946. The Pearl S. Buck International Foundation estimates there are 52,000 Amerasians
scattered throughout the Philippines. In addition, numerous Filipino men enlisted in the US Navy and
made careers in it, often settling with their families in the United States. Some of their second or third
generation-families returned to the country


Devotees inside the Bascilica del Santo Nio in Cebu City.
Following its independence, the Philippines has seen both small and large-scale immigration into the
country, mostly involving Americans, British, Europeans, and some Chinese and Japanese peoples.
After World War II, South Asians continued to migrate into the islands. Most of which assimilated
and avoided the local social stigma instilled by the early Spaniards against them by keeping a low
profile and/or by trying to pass as Spanish mestizos. This was also true for the Chinese and Arab
immigrants, majority of whom are also post WWII arrivals. More recent migrations into the country
by Koreans, Persians, Brazilians, and other Southeast Asians have contributed to the enrichment of
the country's ethnic landscape, language and culture. Centuries of migration,diaspora, assimilation,
and cultural diversity made most Filipinos accepting of interracial
marriage and multiculturalism. Philippine nationality law is currently based upon the principles of
one's place of birth or origin, and therefore descent from a parent who is a citizen of the Republic of
the Philippines is the primary method of acquiring national citizenship. Birth in the Philippines to
foreign parents does not in itself confer Philippine citizenship, although RA9139, the Administrative
Naturalization Law of 2000, does provide a path for administrative naturalization of certain aliens
born in the Philippines.
Filipinos of mixed ethnic origins are still referred to today as mestizos. However in common
parlance, mestizos are only used to refer to Filipinos mixed with Spanish or any other European
ancestry. Filipinos mixed with any foreign ethnicities are named depending on their
predominant physical aspect.
Colonial caste system[edit]
The history of racial mixture in the Philippines occurred on a smaller scale than other Spanish
territories during the Spanish colonial period from the 16th to the 19th century. A caste system, like
that used in the Americas(Spanish America), existed in the Philippines, with some major differences.
The indigenous peoples of the Philippines were referred to as Indios and Negritos. This caste
system was comparable to the Indian caste system.
Term Definition
Negrito indigenous person of pure Negrito ancestry
Indio indigenous person of pure Austronesian ancestry
Moros indigenous person of Islam in faith living in the Archipelago of the Philippines
Sangley/Chino person of pure Chinese ancestry
Mestizo de
Sangley/Chino
person of mixed Chinese and Austronesian ancestry
Mestizo de Espaol person of mixed Spanish and Austronesian ancestry
Tornatrs person of mixed Spanish, Austronesian and Chinese ancestry
Filipino/Insulares person of pure Spanish descent born in the Philippines
Americanos
person of Criollo (either pure Spanish blood, or mostly), Castizo (1/4 Native
American, 3/4 Spanish) or Mestizo (1/2 Spanish, 1/2 Native American) descent
born in Spanish America ("from the Americas")
Peninsulares person of pure Spanish descent born in Spain ("from the Iberian peninsula")
People classified as 'blancos' (whites) were the Filipinos (a person born in the Philippines of pure
Spanish descent), peninsulares (a person born in Spain of pure Spanish descent), Espaol mestizos
(a person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian and Spanish ancestry), and tornatrs (a
person born in the Philippines of mixed Austronesian, Chinese and Spanish ancestry). Manila was
racially segregated, with blancos living in the walled city of Intramuros, un-Christianized sangleys in
Paran, Christianized sangleys and mestizos de sangley in Binondo, and the rest of the 7,000
islands for the indios, with the exception of Cebu and several other Spanish posts. Only mestizos de
sangley were allowed to enter Intramuros to work for whites (including mestizos de espanol) as
servants and various occupations needed for the colony. Indio was a general term applied to native
Austronesians, but as a legal classification, it was only applied to those who embraced Roman
Catholicism and Austronesians who lived in proximity to the Spanish colonies.
People who lived outside of Manila, Cebu, and the major Spanish posts were classified as such:
'Naturales' were Catholic Austronesians of the lowland and coastal towns. The un-Catholic Negritos
and Austronesians who lived in the towns were classified as 'salvajes' (savages) or 'infieles' (the
unfaithful). 'Remontados' (Spanish for 'situated in the mountains') and 'tulisanes' (bandits) were
indigenous Austronesians and Negritos who refused to live in towns and took to the hills, all of whom
were considered to live outside the social order as Catholicism was a driving force in Spanish
colonials everyday life, as well as determining social class in the colony.
People of pure Spanish descent living in the Philippines who were born in Spanish America were
classfied as 'americanos'. Mestizos and africanos born in Spanish America living in the Philippines
kept their legal classification as such, and usually came as indentured servants to the 'americanos'.
The Philippine-born children of 'americanos' were classified as 'Filipinos'. The Philippine-born
children of mestizos and africanos from Spanish America were classified based on patrilineal
descent.
The term negrito was coined by the Spaniards based on their appearance. The word 'negrito' would
be misinterpreted and used by future European scholars as an ethnoracial term in and of itself. Both
Christianized Negritos who lived in the colony and un-Christianized Negritos who lived in tribes
outside of the colony were classified as 'negritos'. Christianized Negritos who lived in Manila were
not allowed to enter Intramuros and lived in areas designated for Indios.


Water carriers in Iloilo, 1899.
A person of mixed Negrito and Austronesian ancestry were classified based on patrilineal descent;
the father's ancestry determined a child's legal classification. If the father was 'negrito' and the
mother was 'India' (Austronesian), the child was classified as 'negrito'. If the father was 'indio' and
the mother was 'negrita', the child was classified as 'indio'. Persons of Negrito descent were viewed
as being outside of the social order as they usually lived in tribes outside of the colony and resisted
conversion to Christianity.
This legal system of racial classification based on patrilineal descent had no parallel anywhere in the
Spanish-ruled colonies in the Americas. In general, a son born of a sangley male and an indio or
mestizo de sangley female was classified as mestizo de sangley; all subsequent male descendants
were mestizos de sangley regardless of whether they married an India or a mestiza de sangley. A
daughter born in such a manner, however, acquired the legal classification of her husband, i.e., she
became an India if she married an indio but remained a mestiza de sangley if she married a mestizo
de sangley or a sangley. In this way, a chino mestizo male descendant of a paternal sangley
ancestor never lost his legal status as a mestizo de sangley no matter how little percentage of
Chinese blood he had in his veins or how many generations had passed since his first Chinese
ancestor; he was thus a mestizo de sangley in perpetuity.
However, a 'mestiza de sangley' who married a blanco ('Filipino', 'mestizo de espanol', 'peninsular',
or 'americano') kept her status as 'mestiza de sangley'. But her children were classified as tornatrs.
An 'India' who married a blanco also kept her status as India, but her children were classified as
mestizo de espanol.
A mestiza de espanol who married another blanco would keep her status as mestiza, but became an
India if she married an indio (which would force her to pay the indio tax rate). But her status will
never change from mestiza de espanol if she married a mestizo de espanol, Filipino, or peninsular.
On the contrast, a mestizo (de sangley or espanol) man's status stayed the same regardless of who
he married. If a mestizo (de sangley or espanol) married a filipina (woman of pure Spanish descent),
she would lose her status as a 'filipina' and would acquire the legal status of her husband and
become a mestiza de espanol or sangley. If a 'filipina' married an 'indio', her legal status would
change to 'India', despite being of pure Spanish descent.
The social stratification system based on class that continues to this day in the Philippines has its
beginnings in the Spanish colonial area with this caste system.
The system was used for tax purposes. Indios paid a base tax, mestizos de sangley paid twice the
base tax, sangleys paid four times the base tax, and the blancos or whites (Filipinos, peninsulares,
mestizos de espanol, and tornatrs) paid no tax. Negritos who lived within the colony paid the same
tax rate as the indios.
The Spanish caste system based on race was abolished after the Philippines' independence
from Spain in 1898, and the word 'Filipino' expanded to include the entire population of the
Philippines regardless of racial ancestry.
Genetic studies[edit]


Migration of the Austronesian peoples and their languages based on archeological studies.
See also: Models of migration to the Philippines, Demographics of the Philippines and Ethnic groups
in the Philippines
A study by Leeds University and published in Molecular Biology and Evolution, showed
that mitochondrial DNA lineages have been evolving within Island Southeast Asia (ISEA) since
modern humans arrived approximately 50,000 years ago.
[68]
There is no genetic evidence for large-
scale population replacement, displacement, or absorption to suggest replacement of preexisting
hunting and gathering populations by farming-voyaging immigrants from Taiwan.
[69]
Population
dispersals occurred at the same time as sea levels rose, which resulted in migrations from the
Philippine Islands to as far north as Taiwan within the last 10,000 years.
[68]

Filipinos are an Austronesian people, a linguistic and genetic group that includes other ethnicities
from maritime Southeast Asia, Madagascar, and the Pacific islands.
[70]
The most frequently
occurring Y-DNA haplogroup among modern Filipinos is Haplogroup O3-M122, which is found with
high frequency in populations from East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Polynesia. In particular, the type
of O3-M122 that is found frequently in Filipinos, O-P201(xM7, M134), is also found frequently in
other Austronesian populations, especially the Batak Toba from Sumatra and the
Polynesians.
[71]
Haplogroup O1a-M119 (labeled as "Haplogroup H" in this study) is also commonly
found among Filipinos and is shared with other Austronesian-speaking populations, especially those
in Taiwan, western Indonesia, and Madagascar.
[72][73]
After the 16th century, the colonial period saw
the influx of limited genetic influence from Europeans and other populations from the Americas,
Oceania, and Asia.
Filipinos also exhibit Sundadonty.
[74]
The latter is regarded as having a more generalised
morphology and having a longer ancestry than its offspring, Sinodonty. Dental morphology provides
clues to prehistoric migration patterns, with Sinodont dental patterns occurring in East Asia, Central
Asia, North Asia, and the Americas. Sundadont patterns occur in mainland and maritime Southeast
Asia as well as Oceania.
[75]
The ancestors of Filipinos are also related to the Austronesian ancestors
of modern Oceanic populations, including the Mori people of New Zealand. The current
predominant theory of Austronesian migrations holds that Austronesians are believed to have
reached Oceania through successive southward and eastward migrations ultimately from Taiwan.
[76]

Languages[edit]
Main articles: Languages of the Philippines and Philippine languages
Austronesian languages have been spoken in the Philippines for thousands of years. According to a
recent study by Mark Donohue of the Australian National University and Tim Denham of Monash
University, there is no linguistic evidence for an orderly north-to-south dispersal of the Austronesian
languages from Taiwan through the Philippines and into Island Southeast Asia (ISEA).
[69]
Many
adopted words from Sanskrit were incorporated during the Indian cultural influence starting from the
5th century BC, in common with its Southeast Asian neighbours. Starting in the second half of the
16th century, Spanish was the official language of the country for the more than three centuries that
the islands were governed through Mexico City on behalf of the Spanish Empire. In the 19th and
early 20th centuries, Spanish was the preferred language among Ilustrados and educated Filipinos
in general. Significant disagreement exists, however, on the extent Spanish use beyond that. It has
been argued that the Philippines were less hispanized than Canaries andAmerica, with Spanish only
being adopted by the ruling class involved in civil and judicial administration and culture. Spanish
was the language of only approximately ten percent of the Philippine population when Spanish rule
ended in 1898.
[77]
As a lingua franca or creole language of Filipinos, major languages of the country
like Chavacano, Cebuano, Tagalog, Kapampangan, Pangasinan, Bicolano, Hiligaynon,
and Ilocano assimilated many different words and expressions from Castilian Spanish.
In sharp contrast, another view is that the ratio of the population which spoke Spanish as
their mother tongue in the last decade of Spanish rule was 10% or 14%.
[78]
An additional 60% is said
to have spoken Spanish as a second language until World War II, but this is also disputed as to
whether this percentage spoke "kitchen Spanish," which was used as marketplace lingua compared
to those who were actual fluent Spanish speakers.
[79]

In 1863 a Spanish decree introduced universal education, creating free public schooling in Spanish,
yet it was never implemented, even before the advent of American annexation.
[80]
It was also the
language of the Philippine Revolution, and the 1899 Malolos Constitution proclaimed it as the
"official language" of the First Philippine Republic, albeit a temporary official language. Spanish
continued to be the predominant lingua franca used in the islands by the elite class before and
during the American colonial regime. Following the American occupation of the Philippines and the
imposition of English, the overall use of Spanish declined gradually, especially after the 1940s.
According to Ethnologue, there are about 180 languages spoken in the
Philippines.
[81]
The Constitution of the Philippines designates Filipino (which is based
on Tagalog
[82][83]
) as the national language and designates both Filipino and English as official
languages.Regional languages are designated as auxiliary official languages. The constitution also
provides that Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis.
[84]

Other Philippine languages in the country with at least 320,000 native speakers
include Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Waray-Waray, Kapampangan, Chavacano (Spanish
creole), Northern Bicol, Pangasinan, Southern Bicol, Maranao, Maguindanao, Kinaray-
a,Tausug, Surigaonon, Masbatenyo, Aklanon, and Ibanag. The 28-letter modern Filipino alphabet,
adopted in 1987, is the official writing system.
[85]

Religion[edit]
Main article: Religion in the Philippines
Most Filipinos today are Christians, with around eighty percent of the population professing Roman
Catholicism. The latter was introduced by the Spanish beginning in 1521, and during their 333-
year colonization of the islands, they managed to convert a vast majority of Filipinos, resulting in the
Philippines becoming the largest Catholic country in Asia. There are also large groups
of Protestant denominations, which either grew or were founded following the disestablishment of
the Catholic Church during the American Colonial period. The Iglesia Filipina Independiente (also
known as the Aglipayan Church) was an earlier development, and is a national church directly
resulting from the 1898 Philippine Revolution. Other Christian groups such as the Jesus Miracle
Crusade, Mormonism,Orthodoxy, and the Jehovah's Witnesses have a visible presence in the
country. Other native inhabitants follow Islam, forming a large minority. Islam in the Philippines is
mostly concentrated in southwestern Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago that still belong to the
Philippines, although it is very close to the neighboring countries of Malaysia and Brunei which are
Muslim nations. The Muslims call themselves Moros, a Spanish word that refers to the Moors (albeit
the two groups have little cultural connection other than Islam).
Historically, the Malay race held animistic beliefs that were influenced by Hinduism and Buddhism,
which were brought by traders from neighbouring Asian states. Indigenous groups like the Aeta are
Animists, while Igorot and Lumad tribes still observe traditional religious practises, often alongside
Christianity or Islam. There is a small minority that practise Chinese religion (mostly Chinese-
Filipinos), while smaller groups of other religions, such as Bah', Hinduism, and Judaism, exist
amongst primarily expatriate communities.
[86]

Diaspora[edit]
Main article: Overseas Filipino
Filipinos form a minority ethnic group in the Americas, Europe, Oceania,
[87][88]
the Middle East, and
other countries in the world.
There are an estimated four million Americans of Filipino ancestry in the United States, and more
than 300,000 American citizens in the Philippines.
[89]
According to the U.S. Census Bureau,
immigrants from the Philippines made up the second largest group after Mexico that sought family
reunification.
[90]

Filipinos make up about half of the entire population of the Northern Marianas Islands, an American
territory in the North Pacific Ocean, and a large proportion of the populations of Guam, Palau,
the British Indian Ocean Territory, and Sabah.
[88]


Value Orientation-

the principles of right and wrong that are accepted by an individual or a social group; "the Puritan
ethic"; "a person with old-fashioned values"
ethic, moral principle, value-system
principle -
a rule or standard especially of good behavior; "a man of principle"; "he will not violate his principles"
Chartism -
the principles of a body of 19th century English reformers who advocated better social and economic con
ditions for working people