Orbitals-regions of space where electrons are found

S(harp) (shape-circle) (spherical)

P(rinciple) (infinite symbol shape) (dumbbell shape)
D(iffuse) (double p)
F(

1
st
level- 1 pair of electrons
2
nd
level- 4 pairs of electrons

n=(electron level)

l=orbital shape number (Azimuthal Quantum Number)
n-1
0=spherical
Azimuthal Quantum number (Orbital number)
Linked to the orbital type or shape

ml--Magnetic number (related to the l) (only relevant in a magnetic field)
[-L, 0], [0,L]
lowest number is x
(eg -1,0,1 is x, y,z)

Pauli Exclusion Principle
No two electrons in an atom can have all 4 quantum numbers the same

Spin number
+1/2, -1/2
up is positive, down is negative


Electron Configuration Chart
Parallel lines


--- --- ---
-1 0 1 (Azimuthal Orbital Type)

Aufbau (build up) (electron configuration)

Hunds Rule of Maximum Multiplicity

Carbon would be (up, down), (up down), (up, up) NOT up, down), (up down),
(up, down) UNPAIRED ELECTRONS

Hybridization
1. To maximize bond making possibilities (stabilizing because exothermic, giving
off energy)
Eg Carbon mixes 2s, and 2p to form sp
3

2. Bond increased angle to minimize repulsion

Increased bonds to decrease energy (bond making is exothermicstabilizing)
Increased angles to decrease repulsion (stabilizing)

This happens naturally

Sp2 hybridization
Sigma bonds (overlapping of hybrids) (horizontal)

Pi bonds (overlapping of the unhybridized p orbital electrons) (side on)
And therefore is weaker
When polymerizing, the pi bonds break because it is weaker
C double bonds are not as strong as 2 C-C single bonds (because of the pi-bonds)

The number of things that the central atoms join to is the number of s and p
added.

EVERY ATOM HYBRIDIZES
Hybridization goes from axis angles (90 degrees) to bond angles (VSEPR)






Entropy
How much average kinetic energy changes per heat

Gases are more disordered (if more moles are made, more disordered)

Gibbs Free-Energy (natural driving forces)

Delta H (Enthalpy change) is ve (driving force)
Delta S (Entropy change) is =ve (driving force)

Free Energy Delta G (abilitiy to do useful work)
Delta G= Delta H- T()Delta S

Delta H Delta S Delta G
-ve (driving force +ve (driving force) ALWAYS WORKS
-ve -ve sometimes
+ve +ve Sometimes
+ve -ve NEVEr

Delta G is negative when it is spontaneous
Delta G is positive when reaction is not spontaneous