Historical Materialism K

ENDI 2010 1
Historical Materialism K Wave 1

HISTORICAL MATERIALISM K
1NC vs. critical affs....................................................................................................................................2
LINKS:
Postmodern/ post-structuralist theory..............................................................................................................6
Poststructuralist k of military........................................................................................................................7
Rejecting modernity...................................................................................................................................9
Hegemony.............................................................................................................................................11
nti-capitalism.......................................................................................................................................12
!mperialism............................................................................................................................................14
"elf-determination...................................................................................................................................15
Revolution.............................................................................................................................................16
#errorism...............................................................................................................................................17
!dentity.................................................................................................................................................18
Race.....................................................................................................................................................22
Race Histor!....................................................................................................................................25
Historical e$amples..................................................................................................................................26
Post-postivism........................................................................................................................................27
%anguage/discourse..................................................................................................................................28
China economy.......................................................................................................................................29
ALTERNATIVE SOLVENCY:
%anguage / identity.................................................................................................................................."1
&ndermines sovereingty............................................................................................................................"2
"tatism..................................................................................................................................................""
Race..................................................................................................................................................."4
#olitics................................................................................................................................................"5
Historical materialist epistemology good/alt solves.........................................................................................."6
2NC:
#' (ar$ism )ad turns.............................................................................................................................."8
#' Communism )ad................................................................................................................................"9
#' *lo)al violence decreasing )c of cap......................................................................................................40
$%& '(ma)ism *a+ , Ratio)alism 'oloca(st..................................................................................41
$%& H(ma)ism *a+ Hei+e--er.......................................................................................................4"
$%& .em criti/(e o0 'ist mat..............................................................................................................44
$%& .em e1cl(sio) o0 -e)+er li)2...................................................................................................47
$%& $lt 2ills e)viro)me)t...................................................................................................................48
ENDI 2010 2
1NC VS. CRITICAL AFFS
The afirmatives rejection o tr!th c"aims a#o!t the materia" ro"e o
actors an$ str!ct!res in histor% con&ates a"" 'no("e$)e (ith
En"i)htenment rationa"it%*this ahistorica" vie(+oint +rec"!$es the most
re"evant an$ +o"itici,in) mo$es o ana"%sis
-a"mer ./0 , 3a)a+a Researc' 3'air i) 3a)a+ia) 4a*o(r Histor! a)+ 3a)a+ia) 5t(+ies 6 %re)t
7)iversit! 89r!a) D.: ;<l+ #ositio)s=Ne> Necessities& Histor!: 3lass: a)+ Mar1ist Meta)arrative:;
i) ;I) De0e)se o0 Histor!:; E+. *! E. Meis2i)s Woo+ ? @o') .oster: A.65,72: RBC
<) o)e level t'is is )ot Aartic(larl! )e>. 9(t Aostmo+er)ists=Aoststr(c,t(ralists 'ave >raAAe+ t'eir
a)ta-o)ism to 'istor! i) a series o0 i)tellect( all! se+(ctive ta(tolo-ies >'ic' *e- t'e
0()+ame)tal /(estio)s o0 t'e 'istorical Arocess. 3e)tral to t'is o(tloo2 is a re0(sal o0 Aost,
E)li-'te)me)t s!stems o0 ratio)al t'o(-'t: >'ic' are re+(ce+ to a 0ormD)arratio)Da)+ a
s(*sta)ceDaccommo+atio) o0 *o(r-eois r(leDt'at rele-ates s(c' ;2)o>le+-e; to comAlicit!
>it' vario(s oAAressio)s.
2
It is as t'o(-' Aoststr(ct(ralism: i) a) imme)se social reconstruction o0
t'e +eeA 'istorical Aast: >o(l+ li2e to see t'e e)tire ei-'tee)t',ce)t(r! $-e o0 Revol(tio): >'ic'
>as: to *e s(re: a bourgeois AroEect: Eettiso)e+. I) some sta--eri)- leaA o0 i+ealism: it see2s to
Aole,va(lt over t'e class co)te)ts a)+ tra)s0ormatio)s o0 t'o(-'t associate+ >it' 1776:1789:1792: and
t'e I)+(strial Revol(tio): leaA0ro--i)- t'e )i)etee)t' ce)t(r!: t'e e1Aerie)ce o0 colo)ial revolt: a)+
t'e Frst >or2ersG state 81917C. Het all o0 t'ese occ(rre+ as 'istorical Arocess a)+ 'ave ric'
)arrative str(ct(res o0 mea)i)- i) t'e Aolitics a)+ c(lt(re o0 mo+er) times: 0rom 9la2e a)+ 9eet'ove)
to Mar1 a)+ M()c' to Ie*le) a)+ Ia) Bo-'. Ho>ever i)comAlete t'e E)li-'te)me)t AroEect: comAromise+
as it >as i) its ori-i)s i) t'e *o(r-eois Aroclamatio) o0 e-alitaria)ism as a AroAert!,*ase+ le-al
ri-'t rat'er t'a) a social co)+itio) o0 0(lFllme)t: it >as a revol(tio)ar! tra)sce) +e)ce o0 t'e
0e(+al or+er: >'ic' 'a+ *ee) co)F)e+ 0or ce)t(ries i) casteli2e co)ceAtio)s o0 social statio) a)+
t'e i)carcerati)- t'o(-'t o0 s(Aerstitio): +ivi)it!: a)+ a*sol(tism. It >as t'e A(rAose o0
Mar1ism: as t'e mat(ri)- >orl+vie> o0 t'e emer-i)- Aroletariat: to materialiJe a)+ ra+icaliJe
E)li-'te)me)t ratio)alit!: e1te)+i)- its Aote)tial )ot E(st to t'is or t'at Arivile-e+ sector o0 societ!: *(t to all o0
'(ma)it!. @(st as Mar! Wollsto)ecra0t too2 t'e Aossi*ilities i)'ere)t i) t'e E)li-'te)me)tGs #a)+oraGs *o1 o0 e/(alit! a)+
e1te)+e+ 'er +e0e)se o0 t'e .re)c' Revol(tio) a)+ %'omas #ai)eGs Rights of Man to a 0emi)ist artic(latio) o0 t'e ri-'ts
o0 >oma): reac'i)- >ell Aast Aatriarc'!Gs Ao>er0(l Arese)ce i) *o(r-eois t'o(-'t a)+ Aractice: so too +i+ Mar1 *(il+
o) E)li-'te)me)t i+ealism to co)str(ct its oAAositio)al c'alle)-e: 'istorical materialism.
#oststr(ct(ralism allo>s )o s(c' rea+i)- o0 +isti)ctio)s a)+ +eveloAme)ts >it'i) E)li-'te)me)t
t'o(-'t: co)+em)i)- all Aost,E) li-'te)me)t mo+es o0 +isco(rse as 'oAelessl! comAromise+ >it'
t'e Aro Eect o0 s(*or+i)atio). #artic(larl! s(sAect i) c(rre)t t'eor! is t'e E)li-'te)me)t ;meta)arra,tive:; >it' its
;e1Alicit aAAeal to some -ra)+ )arrative: s(c' as t'e +ialectics o0 5Airit: t'e 'erme)e(tics o0 mea)i)-: t'e ema)ciAatio)
o0 t'e ratio)al or >or2i)- s(*Eect: or t'e creatio) o0 >ealt'.;
"
%'is o*solete +isco(rse: a s(AAose+ Aro+(ct o0 t'e
mo+er)ist crisis o0 metaA'!sical A'ilosoA'!: merel! mas2s t'e +isi)te-ratio)s o0 s(c' )arratives: a)+ t'eir +isAersal i)to
t'e ()sta*le clo(+s o0 Aostmo+er)it!Gs lo0t! +isc(rsive)ess.
4
#ostmo+er)ists=Aoststr(ct(ralists t'(s +isavo>:
i) t'eir 0ormalist a)+ (ltimatist reEectio)s: +iver-e)ces o0 co)si+era*le: oAAositio)al imAorta)ce.
%'e! t'ro> o(t Ka)t a)+ He-el as >ell as Mar1: all o0 >'om rel! o) meta)arratives o0 o)e sort
or a)ot'er: little co)si+eratio) *ei)- -ive) to t'e 0()+a me)tal +iKere)ces seAarati)- s(c'
s!stems o0 t'o(-'t. $ll states are simAl! states: a)+ 'e)ce oAAressive: a) a)arc'ist mi-'t ar-(e
8Do>) >it' t'e 9ols'evi2sLCM all >ars are to *e co)+em)e+: asserts t'e AaciFst 8We ta2e )o si+es i)
Iiet)amLCM all meta)arratives are s(sAect a)+ comAromise+: t'ere *ei)- )o master cate-ories o0
e1Ala)ator! a(t'orit!: Aroclaims t'e Aost,str(ct(ralist 8$>a! >it' all i)terAretive AestsLC. I) t'e comme)t
t'at 0ollo>s I co)ce)trate o) t'e Mar1ist ;meta)arra,tive:; a) ()0(lFlle+ AroEect o0 ra+icaliJi)- E)li-'te)me)t ratio)alit!
t'at m(c' co)temAorar! t'eor! re0(ses i) its reA(+iatio) o0 'istorical materialism. Mar1ist meta)arrative is
reEecte+: iro)icall!: at +recise"% the histori ca" moment that it is critica""% necessar% : its
i)siste)ce o) rea+i)- 'istor! i) class terms: as a s(ccessio) o i$enti1a#"e str!ct!res an$
a)encies +ro+e""e$ #% materia" interests2 *ei)- 0()+ame)tal to t'e i)terAretatio) o0 t'e
moveme)t 0rom Aast to Arese)t: esAeciall! i) t'e co)te1t o0 co)temAo rar! li0e: >'ere '(ma)it! is
more a)+ more co))ecte+ i) t'e -lo*al +ime) sio)s o0 e1Aloitatio) a)+ oAAressio).
5
ENDI 2010 "
3NC VS4 CRITICAL A55S
The alternative is historical materialism. Historical materialist analsis is e!istemolo"icall
s#!erior to !ost$str#ct#ralism$it allo%s more e&&ective analses o& !o%er an' the mo(ili)ation o&
'isco#rses
La!ointe* +,,- +#hierry. ,-eyond an Historicism .ithout "u)ject' gency and the /lusive *enealogies of "tate
"overeignty, Paper presented at the annual meeting of the !nternational "tudies ssociation 01th nnual Convention2 3e)
412 4556 7http'//888.allacademic.com/meta/p115169:inde$.html;
#he primary o)jective of this volume is to )ring social history )ack in !R in order to challenge its ahistorical and essentialist categories as much as its core
postulates. s this chapter has sho8n2 it has also )een Poststructuralist contention to challenge !R selfimage in shedding light in its theoretical role as
a practice of forgetting. <ur contention is that despite their significant contri)utions in challenging the supremacist position of mainstream !R2 their
method of analysis have impeded their capacity to think a)out !R in terms of historical process. s ! have stressed in the first
section2 its anti-foundationalist conception of po8er2 its endeavour to analyse po8er relations on the )asis of de-centring of
the human su)ject2 and its o8n historical analysis 8hich focuses solely on moment of epistemic ruptures 8ithout
adventuring into an e$planation of its causes have left us 8ith an image of =history 8ithout su)ject>. !f the imperative of
thinking a)out social institutions?sovereignty?in dynamic terms necessitates that 8e a)andon any attempt to fi$
meanings into rigid definitions2 as suggested )y .alker2 8e have to )ring )ack agency at the heart of our theori@ing since it
is through its historically specific practices that human create and transform?al)eit seldom as they have initially planed?
their environments. s ! have sought to highlight in the second and third part of this chapter2 H( may develop )etter and richer analysis in
thinking a)out the relationship )et8een po8er relations2 institutional and sym)olic structures of enunciation in em)edding
them in a 8ider geopolitical environment. Ho8ever2 as ! have argued2 the focus on discourses and sym)olic structures 8ithout a
proper conte$tuali@ation of the relations and dynamics of po8er they are an integral part of should )e a)andoned. !ndeed2
such method of investigation tends to reify language in giving too much unity to rules/structures of enunciation2 8hich also
tends to loose sight of the different 8ays in 8hich different agents may mo)ilise discourses?make references to similar sym)ols
and used them in follo8ing the same AproperB rules of enunciation?in order to achieve Cuite distinctive sets of o)jectives and reproducing Cuite different
set of social practices.
O#r criti.#e t#rns all o& their im!acts. The alternative is a !re$re.#isite to an #n'erstan'in" o&
!o%er as contin"ent or the #se o& co#nterhe"emonies as resistance
-a"mer ./0 , 3a)a+a Researc' 3'air i) 3a)a+ia) 4a*o(r Histor! a)+ 3a)a+ia) 5t(+ies 6 %re)t
7)iversit! 89r!a) D.: ;<l+ #ositio)s=Ne> Necessities& Histor!: 3lass: a)+ Mar1ist Meta)arrative:;
i) ;I) De0e)se o0 Histor!:; E+. *! E. Meis2i)s Woo+ ? @o') .oster: A.65,72: RBC
It is >ort' reiterati)- t'e o*vio(s: si)ce t'e o*vio(s is Arecisel! >'at Aoststr(ct(ralism=Aostmo+er)ism o0te) o*0(scates:
or eve) +e)ies. Mar1 ist a)+ 'istorical materialist criticism o0 co)temAorar! t'eor! a)+ its i)sis te)ce
o) t'e Aolitics a)+ 'istoricall! ce)tral Aractices o0 class +o )ot rest o)l! o) a series o0 +e)ials.
%'e si-)iFca)ce o0 t'e 2)o>le+-e=Ao>er co( Ali)-: 0or i)sta)ce: >'ic' is associate+ >it'
.o(ca(lt: is 'ar+l! alie) to t'e Mar1ist met'o+. Mar1ism 'as al>a!s *ee) atte)tive to t'e
relatio)s'iA o0 i+eas: +omi)a)ce: a)+ social tra)s0ormatio). ReArese)tatio): ima-er!: +isco(rses:
a)+ te1ts ca) 'ar+l! *e sai+ to *e ()+erstate+ i) t'e t'eor! a)+ Aractice o0 'istorical
materialism: >'ic' 'as co)siste)tl! -raAAle+: sometimes 0or *etter: sometimes 0or >orse: >it' t'e problematized
mea)i)- o0 t'e *ase,s(Aerstr(ct(re metaA'or: most evi+e)t i) t'e ric' *o+! o0 >riti)- associate+ >it' 9ritis' Mar1ist
'istoria)s s(c' as 3'ristoA'er Hill: E+>ar+ %'omAso): Ro+)e! Hilto): a)+ I.B. Kier)a): a)+ t'e tra+itio) o0 'isto,riciJe+
literar! criticism associate+ >it' Ra!mo)+ Williams a)+ %err! Ea-leto).
6
.i)all!: to claim t'at Mar1ism is a
meta)arrative o0 e1Ala)ator! imAorta)ce: resti)- ()am*i-(o(sl! o) t'e ca(salit! o0 Aro+(ctive
0orces a)+ t'e +etermi)ative *o()+aries set *! 0()+ame)tall! eco)omic relatio)s: s(c' as class:
+oes )ot )ecessitate re0(si)- t'e si-)iFca)ce o0 ot'er Aoi)ts o0 sel0,i+e)tiFcatio): s(c' as race
a)+ -e)+er. W'at seAarates Mar1ismGs meta)arrative 0rom Aostmo+er)ist i)cre+(lit! o0 all master cate-ories is )ot:
'o>ever: t'is or t'at Aartic(lar. Rat'er: t'ere is a critical Aarti)- o0 t'e a)al!tic seas i) t'e t>o
tra+itio)sG aAAroac'es to 'istorical co)te1t as a material 0orce: >it'i) >'ic' all str(--les 0or
ema) ciAatio) a)+ all acts o0 s(*or+i)atio) ta2e Alace. #oststr(ct(ralism=Aost,mo+er)ism sees
'istor! as a) a(t'orial creatio): a co)E(ri)- (A o0 t'e Aast to serve t'e +isc(rsive co)te)t o0 t'e
Arese)t. %'(s t'e Aast ca) o)l! *e te1t(all! create+ o(t o0 t'e imAeratives o0 t'e o)-oi)- i)sta)ce. I) its i)siste)ce
t'at 'istor! *e co)te1t(aliJe+ i) t'e material >orl+ o0 Aossi*ili ties o0 t'e Aast: rat'er t'a) c(t
a+ri0t to Noat 0reel! i) t'e cross,c(rre)ts o0 atte)+i)- to its o*sc(re+ social relatio)s a)+
sit(ati)- t'ose cor)ers o0 s(AAresse+ 'istor! >it'i) t'e lar-er e)sem*le o0 Aossi*ilities t'at
ENDI 2010 4
>ere somet'i)- more t'a) t'e i+eolo-ical Fctio) o0 t'e esta*lis'e+ arc'ival recor+: atte)tive as
it -e)erall! is to t'e i)sti)ct(al Areservatio)ism o0 Ao>er. Moreover: Mar1ismGs meta)arrative tries to *e
tr(eD*elievi)- t'at s(c' a Arocess ca) *e locate+: E(st as it ca) *e o*sc(re+ or +istorte+Dto t'e actors o0 t'e Aast:
>'atever si+e o0 t'e class +ivi+e t'eir 0eet to(c' +o>) (Ao). %'(s: a maEor 'istorio-raA'ical +iKere)ce seAarates t'e
esse)tiall! Mar1ist ()+ersta)+i)- o0 class 0ormatio): str(--le: a)+ co)scio(s)ess evi+e)t i) E.#. %'omAso)Gs The Making
of the English Working Class 8196"C a)+ Baret' 5te+ma) @o)esGs Aoststr(ct(rall! i)cli)e+ rea+i)- o0 3'artism i) The
Languages of Class 8198"C. %'omAso): >'ose Aolitical Aractice a)+ t'eor! ra) 'ea+lo)- i)to 5tali)ist and mai)stream
social +emocratic co)tai)me)ts: e1Alores t'e oAa/(e )oo2s a)+ cra))ies o0 E)-lis' AoA(lar ra+icalism:
3<N%IN7E5O
ENDI 2010 5
3NC VS4 CRITICAL A55S
3<N%IN7EDO
()coveri)- a) ()+er-ro()+ i)s(rrectio)ar! tra+itio) t'at Ne> i) t'e 0ace o0 co)stit(te+ a(t'orit! i) t'e oAe)i)- +eca+es
o0 t'e )i)etee)t' ce)t(r!: as >ell as sta)+i)- i) star2 revol(tio)ar! co)trast to t'e stoli+ co)stit(tio)alism o0 later
-e)eratio)s o0 >or2i)-,class re0ormers a)+ t'eir .a*ia) 'istoria)s. %'is is a lo)- >a! 0rom 5te+ma) @o)es: >'ose
Aolitics o0 t'e 1980s 'a+ *ee) 0orme+ >it'i) t'e co)servatiJi)- a)+ 'ostile +ri0t o0 t'e 4a*o(r #art! a>a! 0rom t'e
>or2i)- class. He rea+s 3'artismGs s(ccesses a-ai)st t'e Aolitics o0 mass (A'eaval i) t'e 18"0s a)+ 1840s: seei)- i) t'e
moveme)tGs i+eas a)+ actio)s )ot t'e class mo*iliJatio)s o0 t'e time *(t t'e 'a)-over o0 a) ei-'tee)t',ce)t(r! Aolitics
t'at some'o> +ista)ce+ itsel0 0rom t'e class act(alities o0 t'e 'istorical co)te1t. %'ere is )o +o(*t t'at %'omAso)Gs
Making is +rive) *! a commitme)t to t'e revol(tio)ar! asAiratio)s o0 t'e >or2i)- class: Aast a)+ Arese)t: *(t t'at +oes
)ot ()+ermi)e 'is te1tGs a(t'orit! Arecisel! *eca(se it is: 0or all o0 its +issi+e)t commitme)ts: e)-a-e+ >it' t'e
comAle1ities o0 t'e material >orl+ o0 t'e earl! )i)etee)t' ce)t(r!. 5te+ma) @o)es: i) co)trast: searc'es 0or >a!s to
+ista)ce 'imsel0 0rom t'e sAeciFcities o0 3'artismGs times. %'e s(Areme iro)! is t'at t'e ;Arese)t; o0 5te+ma) @o)esGs
te1t is )ot'i)- more t'a) a) i+eolo-ical a+aAtatio) to %'atc'erGs 9ritai): a +isAlaceme)t o0 t'e Aast t'at Aai)ts a maEor
'istor! o0 >or2i)-,class mo*iliJatio) i)to a +erivative cor)er o0 +e)i-ratio) a)+ +e)ial. %'omAso)Gs ;Arese)t:; i) stri2i)-
co)trast: is a mome)t o0 revol(tio) t'>arte+: a ;'eroic; c'alle)-e t'at: >'atever its 0ail(res: remai)s si-)iFca)t to *ot'
t'e 'istor! o0 t'e >or2i)- class a)+ t'e class co)te)t o0 co)temAorar! le0t Aolitics.
7
It is >'e)
Aostmo+er)ist=Aoststr(ct(ralist rea+i)-s o0 'istor! are scr(ti )iJe+ to see how meta)arrative is
s(AAresse+: res(lti)- i)evita*l! i) a Aartic(lar str(ct(ri)- o0 Aast: Arese)t: a)+ 0(t(re: t'at t'e
costs a)+ co)te)t o0 a*a)+o)i)- meta)arrative are most evi+e)t. W'e) t'e .re)c' Revol( tio) is
i)terArete+: )ot as a co)test *et>ee) aristocrac! a)+ *o(r-eoisie: me+iate+ *! t'e i)volveme)t
o0 t'e sans-culottes, *(t as t'e ()0ol+i)- s!m*olic >ill o0 a AoA(latio) -alva)iJe+ as m(c' *!
ima-er! as Aolitical Ari)ciAle: t'e co)+esce)+i)- class +ismissive)ess o0 co)temAorar! 'isto,
rio-raA'ic 0as'io) is stri2i)-l! evi+e)t.
8
$) iro)ic co)se/(e)ce o0 Aostcolo,)ial +eco)str(ctive
>riti)-: >it' its ()+ersta)+a*le re0(sal o0 t'e <rie)talist meta)arrative: a)+ its ()0ort()ate te1t(aliJatio) o0
imAerialist Al()+er a)+ i)+i-e)o(s resista)ce: is t'e 0(rt'er sile)ci)- o0 t'ose mar-i )aliJe+
;ot'ers:; >'ose +iKere)ces are cele*rate+: *(t >'ose (m*ilical li)2 to class 0ormatio) o) a
-lo*al sale is t>iste+ i) t'e o*sc(re+ isolatio)s o0 c(lt(res a)+ co()tries.
9
I) t'e >or+s o0 Davi+
Harve!& #ostmo+er)ism 'as (s acceAti)- t'e reiFcatio)s a)+ Aartitio)i)-s: act(all! cele*rati)- t'e activit!
o0 mas2i)- a)+ cover,(A: all t'e 0etis'isras o0 localit!: Alace: or social -ro(Ai)-: >'ile +e)!i)-
t'e 2i)+ o0 meta,t'eor! >'ic' ca) -rasA t'e Aolitical,eco)omic Arocesses 8mo)e! No>s: i)ter)atio)al
+ivisio)s o0 la*o(r: F)a)cial mar2ets: a)+ t'e li2eC t'at are *ecom i)- ever more ()iversaliJi)- i) t'eir
+eAt': i)te)sit! a)+ reac' over +ail! li0e.
10
#ostmo+er)istic a)ta-o)ism to meta)arrative t'(s carries >it' it a
Aartic(lar Arice ta-: o)e i) >'ic' t'e si-)iFca)ce o0 class is almost ()iversall! mar2e+ +o>). %'at t'is Arocess is
em*e++e+ less i) t'eor! a)+ more i) t'e material Aolitics o0 t'e late t>e)tiet' ce)t(r!: >it' t'eir ;retreat 0rom class:;
11
a
>it'+ra>al 'aste)e+ *! )e> oKe)sives o) t'e Aart o0 caAital a)+ t'e state: a)+ co)+itio)e+ *! ;act(all! e1isti)-
socialismGs; 5tali)ist +e0ormatio)s a)+ (ltimate collaAse: is evi+e)t i) o)e 'istoria)Gs co)F+e)t stateme)t. #atric2 @o!ce
claims t'at 9ritis' 'istor!: o)ce e1Alai)e+ i) terms o0 class str(--le: m(st )o> *e re-ar+e+ +iKere)tl!& %'ere is a
Ao>er0(l se)se i) >'ic' class ma! *e sai+ to 'ave ;0alle).; I)stea+ o0 *ei)- a master cate-or! o0 'istorical e1Ala)atio): it
'as *ecome o)e term amo)- ma)!: s'ari)- ro(-' e/(alit! >it' t'ese ot'ers 8>'ic' is >'at I mea)t *! t'e ;0all; o0 classC.
%'e reaso)s 0or t'is are )ot 'ar+ to F)+. I) 9ritai): eco)omic +ecli)e a)+ restr(ct(ri)- 'ave le+ to t'e +isi)te-ratio) o0
t'e ol+ ma)(al sector o0 emAlo!me)t: a)+ o0 >'at >as: mista2e)l!: see) to *e a ;tra+itio)al; >or2i)- class. %'e rise o0
t'e ri-'t 0rom t'e 1970s: a)+ t'e +ecli)e o0 t'e le0t: to-et'er >it' t'at o0 t'e tra+e ()io)s: Aoi)te+ i) a similar +irectio)
to t'at o0 eco)omic c'a)-e: to>ar+s a loose)i)- o0 t'e 'ol+ class a)+ >or2,*ase+ cate-ories 'a+: )ot o)l! o) t'e
aca+emic mi)+: *(t also o) a >i+er A(*lic. 3'a)-es -oi)- o) i) 9ritai) >ere mirrore+ else>'ere: *(t t'e -reatest
c'a)-e o0 all >as t'e +isi)te-ratio) o0 >orl+ comm()ism: a)+ >it' it t'e retreat o0 i)tellect(al Mar1ism.
12
%o
;+eco)str(ct; s(c' a stateme)t is to e1Aose t'e tra)sAare)t cr(+e)ess o0 its co)te)t: >'ic' *ears a +isaAAoi)ti)-
li2e)ess to Time ma-aJi)e. Eve) i0 tre)+s i) t'e 1990s >ere ()am*i-(o(sl! o0 t'e sort Aoi)te+ to *! @o!ce: it is most
emA'aticall! not t'e case t'at t'e a)al!tic mea)i)-s o0 t'is Aerio+ o0 s(AAose+ c'a)-e co(l+ *e tra)s0erre+ >'olesale to
a Aast societ! /(ite ()li2e itD>'at Aossi*le releva)ce ca) t'e 0all o0 a +e-e)erate+ a)+ +e0orme+ set o0 >or2ersG states
8t'e 5oviet 7)io): #ola)+: H()-ar!: etc.C 'ave o) o(r e1Aloratio) o0 t'e ta)-i*le class comAositio) o0 earl nineteenth-
centur societ! Is it )ot rat'er ()>'olesome 0or s(AAose+ i)tellect(als to *e *arteri)- t'eir i)terAretive i)te-rit! i) t'e
crass coi) o0 Aolitical 0as'io): t'eir s(AAose+l! Aristi)e i+eas +riAAi)- >it' t'e t'oro(-'l! Aartisa) Aolitics o0 a
Aartic(lar 'istorical Aerio+P @o!ceGs >or+s: iro)icall!: co)Frm rat'er t'a) ()+ermi)e 'istorical materialism. $s @o!ce
all(+es to t'e ;0all; o0 class as a Aro+(ct o0 -lo*al restr(ct(ri)-: tra+e ()io) a)+ le0t +e0eat: t'e imAlosio) o0 t'e 5oviet
7)io) a)+ Easter) E(roAe: a)+ t'e rise o0 t'e ri-'t: >'at are >e to see *(t t'e act(al co)Frmatio) o0 ;i)tellect(al
Mar1ismP; Di+ )ot Mar1 >rite t'at: ;%'e i+eas o0 t'e r(li)- class are i) evei! eAoc' t'e r(li)- i+eas:;
a)+ s(--est t'at at mome)ts o0 ;e)t'(siastic strivi)- 0or i))ovatio);D>'ic' is certai)l! a
c'aracteristic o0 t'e Aostmo+er)Ds(c' i+eas mi-'t >ell res(lt i) a ;more +eeAl! roote+
+omi)atio) o0 t'e ol+ ro(ti)eP;
1"
Historical materialism >o(l+ s(--est t'at t'ere is a Aro0o()+ +iKere)ce
*et>ee) t'e traEector! o0 Aolitical eco)om! i) o)e eAoc': a)+ its atte)+a)t i+eolo-ies: a)+ t'e
act(al social relatio)s o0 Aro+(ctio) a)+ co)testatio) i) a)ot'er 'istorical Aerio+. @o!ce collaAses t'e
t>o. I) +oi)- so 'e +oes +isservice: a-ai): to *ot' Aast a)+ Arese)t. .or >'ile 'is simAliFe+ catalo-(e,li2e listi)- o0 t'e
ENDI 2010 6
o)>ar+ marc' o0 le0t +e0eat 'as some reso)a)ce i) terms o0 co)temAorar! Aolitical eco)omic +eveloAme)t: @o!ce
co)ve)ie)tl! ()+erstates t'e Arese)ce o0 ot'er +ime)sio)s. His acco()ti)- is o)e,si+e+ a)+ +istorti)-l! o)e,+ime)sio)al.
Hes: to *e s(re: t'e 5tali)ist eco)omies a)+ t'eir r(li)- castes 'ave: o(tsi+e o0 3(*a a)+ 8less soC 3'i)a: ta2e) a
'ea+lo)- Al()-e i)to t'e ArivatiJatio) +esAotisms o0 t'e 1990s: >'ic' Mar1ists 0rom t'e %rots2!ist tra+itio) 'ave *ee)
Are+icti)- si)ce t'e A(*licatio) o0 The Re"olution #etraed 819"7C. $-ai)st t'ose >'o sa> i) t'e *(rea(cratic -riA o0
5tali)ism a 0()+ame)tal: i0 Na>e+: *loc2a+e a-ai)st t'e restoratio) o0 mar2et relatio)s: %rots2! >rote& ;I) realit! a
*ac2sli+e to caAitalism is >'oll! Aossi*le.;
14
3lass politics >ere +ealt a severe *lo> i) t'e caAitalist co()terrevol(tio)s
a)+ 5tali)ist imAlosio)s o0 t'e Aost,1989 !ears. Nevert'eless: t'ere is )o i)+icatio) t'at t'is 'as lesse)e+ t'e imAorta)ce
o0 class as a) a-e)t o0 social tra)s0ormatio) a)+ '(ma) Aossi*ilit! 8a master cate-or! o0 meta)arrativeC. I)+ee+: it >ill
*e t'e revival o0 class mo*iliJatio)s t'at >ill retrieve 0or socialiJe+ '(ma)it! >'at >as lost over t'e co(rse o0 t'e 1990s
i) R(ssia a)+ else>'ere: or t'ere >ill *e )o -ai)s 0orce+ 0rom t'e alrea+! all,too,aAAare)t losses o0 rece)t caAitalist
restoratio)ism. $lmost a +eca+e o0 t!ra))ical Heltsi),li2e Breat R(ssia)ism a)+ t'e *ar*arism o0 small ;)atio);
c'a(vi)isms s'o(l+ 'ave ma+e it aAAare)t >'ere t'e Aolitics o0 national i+e)tit! lea+. 3lass: as *ot' a cate-or! o0
Aote)tial a)+ *ecomi)- a)+ a) a-e)c! o0 activism: 'as t'(s reasserte+ its 0()+ame)tal
imAorta)ce. More a)+ more o0 '(ma)it! )o> 0aces t'e rava-es o0 caAitalismGs 'i-'l! totaliJi)-:
esse),tialiJi)-: a)+ 'omo-e)iJi)- imA(lses: a)+ t'ese are c(rre)tl! ()leas'e+ >it' a tra-ic
ve)-ea)ce as eve) t'e o)ce +e-e)erate a)+ +e0orme+ >or2ersG states loo2 to t'e i+eolo-ical
a*stractio)s o0 t'e >orl+ mar2et 0or s(ste )a)ce rat'er t'a) rel!i)- o) Aroletaria) Ao>ers. Mass
stri2es )o> ro(ti)el! c'alle)-e caAital a)+ its states: 0rom .ra)ce to 3a)a+a: 0rom Korea to 9raJil. <)ce,5oviet >or2ers:
>'o sa> socialism so(r i) t'e stale *reat' o0 -e)eratio)s o0 5tali)ism: are voti)- 3omm()ist a-ai): >'atever t'e Aro*,
lematic co))otatio)s: i) t'e 1990s. $t t'e e)+ o0 1995: Aolls i) t'e a+va)ce+ caAitalist eco)omies o0 t'e West
3<N%IN7E5O
ENDI 2010 7
3NC V4 CRITICAL A55S
3<N%IN7EDO
almost ()iversall! locate societ!Gs maEor +isco)te)ts i) t'e material 0aili)-s o0 a social or+er t'at 'as visi*l! >i+e)e+ t'e
-aA *et>ee) ;'aves; a)+ ;'ave,)ots:; ()+ermi)i)- t'e m!t'ical mi++le class a)+ +eAressi)- t'e livi)- co)+itio)s o0
t'ose >or2i)- Aoor 0ort()ate e)o(-' to retai) some 'ol+ o) t'eir Eo*s. %'ere are )o a)s>ers seAarate 0rom t'ose o0
class str(--le: 'o>ever m(c' t'is meta)arrative o0 materiall! str(ct(re+ resista)ce i)tersects >it' sAecial oAAressio)s.
3lass 'as )ot so m(c' 0alle) as it 'as ret(r)e+. It 'a+ )ever: o0 co(rse: -o)e a)!>'ere. $denti%ed as simAl!
o)e o0 ma)! Al(ral s(*Eectivities: class 'as act(all! *ee) o*sc(re+ 0rom a)al!tic a)+ Aolitical vie> *!
Aoststr(ct(ralismGs a)al!tic e+iFce: erecte+ at E(st t'e mome)t t'at t'e le0t is i) +ire )ee+ o0 t'e
clarit! a)+ +irectio) t'at class: as a cate-or! a)+ a) a-e)c!: a str(ct(re a)+ a Aolitics: ca)
Arovi+e. %'e le-ac! o0 Mar1ism i) -e)eral: a)+ o0 'istorical materialism i) Aartic(lar: is to c'alle)-e a)+
oAAose t'is o*0(scatio): Arovi+i)- a) alter)ative to s(c' material misrea+i)-s: *(il+i)- a)
oAAositio)al >orl+vie> t'at ca) Ala! some role i) reversi)- t'e class str(--le +e0eats a)+
>ea2e)i)- o0 t'e i)ter)atio)al >or2ersG moveme)t t'at 'as ta2e) Alace as caAital a)+ t'e state
'ave *ee) i) t'e asce)+a)t over t'e co(rse o0 t'e last t'irt! !ears. %'ose t'i)2ers >'o 'ave
0aile+ to see t'e tra)sitor! )at(re o0 Aostmo+er)ism=Aoststr(ct(ralism: ma)! o0 t'em aca+emic
0air,>eat'er 0rie)+s o0 Mar1ism: a)+ 'ave i)stea+ i)veste+ so m(c' i) rece)t Aroclamatio)s o0
t'eir +isc(rsivel! co)str(cte+ i+e)tit! Aolitics: ma% (e"" #e amon) the "ast to ac'no("e$)e
the #"!nt reviva" o c"ass in the ace o contem+orar% ca+ita"ism.s tota"i,in) materia"it%.
%'e! >ill )o +o(*t F)+ some varia)t o0 ;+iKere)ce; to cli)- to: t'e *etter to avoi+ t'e )ecessit!
o0 e)-a-i)- s(*Eec tivit! a)+ its oAAressive o*EectiFcatio) ()+er caAitalism: >'ere class: i) its
si)-(lar caAacit! to assimilate ot'er cate-ories o0 *ei)- a)+ co)-eal varieties o0 Ao>er: r(les a)+ is r(le+: a
meta)arrative o0 e1Aloitatio) >it'i) >'ic' all i+e)tities (ltimatel! F)+ t'eir level o0
s(*or+i)atio)=+omi)atio). %'is is i)+ee+ a) ol+ >a! o0 loo2i)- at t'e >orl+. 9(t Aostmo+er)ism=Aost,
str(ct(ralism )ot>it'sta)+i)-: all t'at is ol+ is )ot al>a!s >it'o(t val(e. $s o)e ;<l+ Ma); o0 Mar1ism:
a li0elo)- +e0e)+er o0 ra+icaliJe+ E)li-'te)me)t val(es: o)ce Aroclaime+: i) a ma1im Aartic(larl! s(ite+ to t'e li)2e+
0ort()es o0 materialismGs Aast: Arese)t: a)+ 0(t(re& ;%'ose >'o ca))ot +e0e)+ ol+ Aositio)s >ill )ever
co)/(er )e> o)es.;
ENDI 2010 8
LINK/ 0OSTMO1ERN2 0OST$STR3CT3RALIST THEOR4
Their +ostmo$ernism is !se"ess a#sent a concrete vie( at historica"
conte6t
Co6 ./7 , emerit(s Aro0. o0 Aol. sci. 6 Hor2 7)iv. 8Ro*ert W.: ;3ritical #olitical Eco)om!:; i)
;I)ter)atio)al #olitical Eco)om!& 7)+ersta)+i)- Blo*al Disor+er:; E+. *! 9Eor) Hette: A."1,"2:
RBC
.irst o0 all: t'ere is )o t'eor! i) itsel0: )o t'eor! i)+eAe)+e)t o0 a co)crete 'istorical co)te1t.
%'eor! is t'e >a! t'e mi)+ >or2s to ()+ersta)+ t'e realit! it co)0ro)ts. It is t'e sel0,
co)scio(s)ess o0 t'at mi)+: t'e a>are)ess o0 'o> 0acts e1Aerie)ce+ are Aerceive+ a)+ or-a)iJe+
so as to *e ()+erstoo+. %'eor! t'(s 0ollo>s realit! i) t'e se)se t'at it is s'aAe+ *! t'e >orl+ o0
e1Aerie)ce. 9(t it also Arece+es t'e ma2i)- o0 realit! i) t'at it orie)ts t'e mi)+s o0 t'ose >'o *!
t'eir actio)s reAro+(ce or c'a)-e t'at realit!.
%'eor! is al>a!s for someo)e a)+ for some A(rAose. We )ee+ to 2)o> t'e co)te1t i) >'ic' t'eor! is
Aro+(ce+ a)+ (se+M a)+ >e )ee+ to 2)o> >'et'er t'e aim o0 t'e (ser is to mai)tai) t'e e1ist i)-
social or+er or to c'a)-e it. %'ese t>o A(rAoses lea+ to t>o 2i)+s o0 t'eor!. W'at I s'all call GAro*lem,solvi)-G
t'eor! ta2es t'e >orl+ as -ive) 8a)+ o) t'e >'ole as -oo+C a)+ Arovi+es -(i+a)ce to correct
+!s0()ctio)s or sAeciFc Aro*lems t'at arise >it'i) t'is e1isti)- or+er. %'e ot'er 2i)+ o0 t'eor!: >'ic' I
s'all call GcriticalG 8alt'o(-' I +o )ot t'ere*! aKiliate >it' a)! Aartic(lar te)+e)cies t'at 'ave 'ereto0ore a+oAte+ t'at
>or+C is co)cer)e+ >it' 'o> t'e e1isti)- or+er came i)to *ei)- a)+ >'at t'e Aossi*ilities are 0or c'a)-e i) t'at or+er.
%'e Frst is co)cer)e+ >it' sAeciFc re0orms aime+ at t'e mai)te)a)ce o0 e1isti)- str(ct(res: t'e Gseco)+ >it' e1Alori)-
t'e Aote)tial 0or str(ct(ral c'a)-e a)+ t'e co)str(ctio) o0 strate-ies 0or c'a)-e.
ENDI 2010 9
LINK/ 0OSTSTR3CT3RALIST K OF MILITAR4
0oststr#ct#ralism5s characteri)ation o& the international sstem ( ine.#alities in militar !o%er
overloo6s historical materialist con'itions #n'erlin" militarism an' %ar.
!t )ecomes clearer2 in this conte$t2 that hierarchical relations of po8er in the international system may not solely rest on =o)jective>
ineCualities in military might as has )een contended. s critical approaches generally argue2 these hierarchical relations are
themselves shaped through and conditioned )y various institutionalised structures of po8er?material and discursive?that
reproduce social relations of domination and su)ordination )et8een human su)jects across time and space. #he Cuestion of their
historical conditions of emergence and transformation appears to )e the fundamental one for any critical approach in !R that seeks to avoid 8hat Dohn (.
Ho)son calls the fallacy of tempo-centrism and chronofetishism AHo)son 4554B. Critical scholarship remains deeply divided on the 8ay in 8hich they
pro)lemati@e the relation )et8een po8er and sovereignty. Ho8 to pro)lematise the historical conditions of emergence of discourses
and practices of state sovereignty remains a Cuestion that still needs to )e de)ated. !n this regard2 it e$ists a fundamental line of
fracture dividing Poststructuralism and Historical (aterialism in their respective 8ays to theorise the articulation of po8er
relations/dynamics of po8er 8ith social discourses and social institutions across time and space. #his paper seeks to critically
e$plore the 8ay in 8hich Post-"tructuralist scholars in !R have approached the Cuestion of the historicity of state sovereignty. .hile ackno8ledging their
contri)utions in critiCuing the a-historical and essentialist foundations of mainstream !R scholarship2 it 8ill )e argued that the central 8eakness of
Poststructuralism is that )y understanding formation and transformation in state sovereignty as e$pression of shifting
discursive paradigms2 it tends to evacuate the specific2 uneven and differentiated social relations that create the historical
conditions for such discourses to emerge. !t 8ill )e argued that Poststructuralism magnifies the internal coherence of an epistemic paradigm
?discursive rules of an historical era?and do8nplays the variety of 8ays in 8hich specific discourses can )e mo)ili@ed to
produce2 reproduce and transform different sets of social relations of po8er )y human agents across space in a given
historical period. #hus2 ! argue that Poststructuralism esche8s an analysis of the historical process of formation and
transformation of forms of kno8ledge/social po8er in relations 8ith differentiated forms of institutionali@ed social
practices.
ENDI 2010 10
LINK: -OSTSTR8CT8RALIST K O5 9ILITARY
0oststr#ct#ralism5s &la%e' e!istemolo" 'enies em!irical* historical* or ca#se$an'$e&&ect
investi"ations into IR
#hirdly2 since the human su)ject is understood as a mere relay in an endless co)8e) of po8er relations2 and given that as such he/she is continuously in a
position of )eing o)ject and su)ject of po8er2 Poststructuralists have reached the verdict that the human su)ject must )e decentred
from our theori@ing A!)id'49E Camp)ell' FE -artelsonBF. Poststructuralists e$plicitly em)race 3oucaultGs stance on the imperative of forsaking a
theori@ing of Po8er )ased on an analysis of su)jectGs intentionality A!)id' 4FE -artelson 1HHF' F0-F1E Iennedy 1H6H' 460B. #he analytical
frame8ork that is put for8ard esche8s the assumption that po8er is something that dominant groups or class of human
su)jects use to su)ordinate others to their 8ill or )y constraining their range of availa)le strategies of actions A-artelson 1HHF'
0H-FJB. !t must rather proceed from the opposite assumption2 8hich asserts that Po8er imposes itself on all su)jects 8ith the
end result of continuously producing them as o)jects. #his strategic model of po8er as a co)8e) of actions upon actions
involves an e$plicit retreat from theori@ing social dynamics )ased on a pro)lemati@ing of the historically specific 8ays in
8hich agents develop strategies of po8er/action to ensure their social reproduction 8ithin an institutional conte$t not of
their o8n choosing. !n that sense2 Poststructuralism cele)rates the Cuite pro)lematic notion of history 8ithout su)jects
A-artelson 1HHF' chap.JE *iddens 1HHJ' 4J4B. %astly2 the imperative of decentring the su)ject?i.e. of developing an Khistory 8ith no su)jectG?implies
forsaking the pretension of =total history> that =ALB attempts to discover the overriding unity or central principle 8hich gives coherence to a civili@ation or
period> AIennedy1H6H' 464B. s far as language is not merely a mirror of reality for it is constitutive of our perception/e$perience of it2 evidences of the
past do not speak for themselves outside the specific discursive formation in 8hich they are an integral part of. #hus2 it has )een rightly argued that
discursive and non-discursive are not discrete =realms> or =spheres> that can )e grasped independently from another ACamp)ell 1HH1' 9B. Muoting %aclau
and (ouffe2 Camp)ell stresses that =+8;hat is denied is not thatL o)jects e$ist e$ternally to thought2 )ut the rather different assertion that they could
constitute themselves as o)jects outside of any discursive condition of emergence> ACam)ell 1HH1' 9B. /ven though scholars that have adopted such a
stance claim to reject the idea of a priority of the =discursive> over the =non-discursive> since one can not e$ist in a)straction of the other2 the
methodology developed to cope 8ith the relation )et8een Po8er and Ino8ledge often )etray an implicit emphasis on the first term of the eCuation.
!ndeed the methods of inCuiry that has )een adopted to deal 8ith this pro)lem? archaeologically and genealogically?ascri)e a pivotal role to discourse
in the theori@ing of !R9. rchaeology has )een used as a method to delineate the conditions of emergence of discourses of truth and the specific forms
through 8hich kno8ledges are constituted across time and space A3oucault 1H99' 1JE "hiner 1H14' 411B. #he inCuiry into the conditions of possi)ility of
the positivity of discourses has involved delineating their unity?their regularity?in time and space. #he concept of episteme6 encapsulates the idea of
unity of discourses in a given time/space. !t is defined as '=ALB the totality of relations 8hich can )e discovered2 for a given period2 )et8een sciences
8hen one analyses them at the level of discursive regularities> A3oucault 1H64' 1H1B. #his is 8hy archaeology focuses e$clusively on te$ts and proceeds
through e$amplificatory history. *enealogy has )een developed as a stepping stone to go )eyond the archaeological focus on the discursive?the inner
functioning2 the =system of constraints>2 of systems of representation?approached more or less independently from the =non-discursive> A"mart 1H14'
141E Palmer 1HH5' 49-46B. *enealogy seeks to delineate the relations of po8er that make possi)le the positivity of systems of representation1. !t seeks to
pro)lematise the 8ay in 8hich a specific economy of discourse is made possi)le )y a constellation of po8er relations 8hich arise randomly from
regionally dispersed sets of social institutions to eventually form a po8er mechanism Adispositif de pouvoirB A3oucault 1H6FE 1H69E "ee also -renner
1HH0B. s "hiner points out' =*enealogy is the analysis of ho8 one constellation of po8er-kno8ledge relations is displaced )y anotherE it attends to the
)reaks that punctuate history> A"hiner 1H14' J16B. !f archaeologists and genealogists aim to delineate2 in turn2 the conditions of
e$istence of the inner functioning of an economy of discourse2 and the constellation of po8er relations and institutions
upon 8hich it rests2 they nevertheless categorically deny the possi)ility of achieving causal e$planations as to ho8 and 8hy
they are formed and transformed over time A-artelson 1HHFE "eigel 1HH5' 46HB. !n other 8ords2 8hile it stresses discontinuity in time
and space2 it esche8s e$planations of the causes of change. #he historical process 8here)y human su)jects are involved in
the process of =making their o8n history in a conte$t not of their o8n choosing>2 to paraphrase (ar$2 is taken out of the
realm of possi)le theoretical investigation. !t there)y offers a mode of inCuiry that rests upon the primacy of historical
contingency. !n decentring the human su)ject from their theori@ing of Po8er/Ino8ledge?in reducing the human su)ject to
the function of a relay or a symptom of po8er relations?some critiCues have argued that Poststructuralism have not totally
managed to )rake the fetters of functionalism and to a certain form of =)ack door determinism> that have plagued for so
long social sciences in general A-renner 1HH0 E Palmer 1HH5E *iddens 1H1FE 1HHJ' 4J4E #hompson 1H61B. #his conspicuous a)sence of
human agency in Poststructuralist theori@ing of =+L; po8er and kno8ledge as constructed discursively2 flo8ing out of and
penetrating all realms> APalmer 1HH5'46B can easily )e found in the forms of theoretical interventions it has given rise to in the
field of !R. !n their t8o most significant interventions in furthering critical thinking in !R?8hich 8e 8ill )e outlined in turn in 8hat follo8s?
Poststructuralist scholars have avoided to think a)out the historically specific political economy?and comple$es of social relations in 8hich human
su)jects are enmeshed?underpinning the formation and transformations of the Po8er/Ino8ledge =ne$us>. ! 8ill address their contri)utions in turn in
order to highlight some of their strengths2 )ut more to the point 8hat ! consider to )e the fundamental 8eaknesses of their analysis' the reification of
discourseE a pro)lematic Aor conspicuous lack of aB role ascri)ed to human agency in their conte$tuali@ing of evolving meanings taken )y state sovereignty
in different political discoursesE an undifferentiated conception of social po8er and institutions across time and spaceE and the emphasis on historical
contingency in lieu of historical specificity to e$plain discontinuities in the organi@ation of political life.
ENDI 2010 11
LINK/ RE7ECTIN8 MO1ERNIT4
Rejectin) mo$ernit% an$ ca"c!"ative tho!)ht "!m+s to)ether ca+ita"isms
$istinct socia" re"ations an$ $ehistorici,es the s+eci1c con$itions
ena#"in) racism2 co"onia"ism2 an$ the :o"oca!st
9a"i' ./0 , se)ior visti)- 0ello> at t'e DeAartme)t o0 #olitical: I)ter)atio)al a)+ #olic! 5t(+ies
at t'e 7)iversit! o0 5(rre! 8Ke)a): ;%'e Mirror o0 Race& #ostmo+er)ism a)+ t'e 3ele*ratio) o0
DiKere)ce:; i) ;I) De0e)se o0 Histor!:; E+. *! E. Meis2i)s Woo+ ? @o') .oster: A.127,1"1: RBC
9! co)Nati)- t'e social relatio)s o0 caAitalism >it' t'e i)tellect(al a)+ tec')olo-ical Aro-ress o0
Qmo+er)it!:R t'e Aro+(ct o0 t'e 0ormer ca) *e lai+ at t'e +oor o0 t'e latter. %'e sAeciFc
Aro*lems create+ *! caAitalist social relatio)s *ecome +e'istoriciJe+. I) Aostr(ct(ralist
+isco(rse racial t'eor!: colo)ialism: or t'e Holoca(st are )ot i)vesti-ate+ i) t'eir sAeciFcit!: as
Aro+(cts o0 +isti)ctive te)+e)cies >it'i) caAitalist societ!: *(t are all l(mAe+ to-et'er as t'e
-e)eral co)se/(e)ce o0 Qmo+er)it!.R I) t'is >a! t'e Aositive asAects o0 Qmo+er)R societ! its
i)vocatio) o0 reaso): its tec')olo-ical a+va)ceme)ts: its i+eolo-ical commitme)t to e/(alit! a)+
()iversalism are +e)i-rate+ >'ile its )e-ative asAects t'e i)a*ilit! o0 caAitalism to overcome
social +ivisio)s: t'e AroAe)sit! to treat lar-e sectio)s o0 '(ma)it! as Qi)0eriorR or Qs(*'(ma):R
t'e co)trast *et>ee) tec')olo-ical a+va)ce a)+ moral t(rAit(+e: t'e te)+e)cies to>ar+s
*ar*arism are see) as i)evita*le or )at(ral.
ENDI 2010 12
LINK/ SOVEREI8NT4
0ost$str#ct#ralist re9ections o& states* the IR sstem* an' 'i!lomac o(sc#re the role o&
soverei"nt as a sociall an' historicall sit#ate' &orce:no e!istemolo"icall relevant analsis
can e;ist a(sent an historicall materialist a!!roach
Halli'a 5<= +3red2 professor of international relations at the %ondon "chool of /conomics2 K Necessary /ncounter'
Historical (aterialism and !nternational RelationsG in Rethinking !nternational Relations A-asingstoke' (acmillanB2 06-6J;
.hat these )road concepts of the Nmode of productionN and the Nsocial formationN did entail 8as that analysis of any area of
human acitivity had to )e seen in this socio-economic conte$t2 and not in a)straction from it. #here is therefore no state2 no
)elief2 no conflict2 no po8er in general2 or independent of this conte$t. -y e$tension2 there is no Ninternational systemN2 or any
component activity2 )e this 8ar or diplomacy2 a)stracted from the mode of production. !ndeed2 !nternational Relations is the
study of the relations not )et8een states )ut )et8een social formations. .hen this insight is applied to the issues of
international relations2 a definite shift of focus )ecomes visi)le. Th#s the state is no lon"er seen as an em(o'iment o&
national interest or 9#'icial ne#tralit* (#t rather o& the interests o& a s!eci&ic societ or social &ormation* 'e&ine' (
its socio$economic str#ct#re. Ho8 far classes control the state2 or are separated from it2 has )een one of the main issues of dispute 8ithin the field.
"overeignty eCually )ecomes not a -95- generic legal concept )ut the sovereignty of specific social forces. !ts history is that
of forms of social po8er and attendant legitimisation 8ithin a formation. Sec#rit is remove' &rom the 'istinct
theoretical s!here in %hich it has (een !lace' an' (ecomes the sec#rit o& s!eci&ic social "ro#!s an' &or s!eci&ic
socioeconomic reasons. #he history of the system is also seen in another light' the modern inter-state system emerged in a conte$t of the spread of
capitalism across the glo)e2 and the su)jugation of pre-capitalist societies. #his socio-economic system has underpinned )oth the character
of individual states and of their relations 8ith each other' no analsis o& international relations is !ossi(le 8ithout
reference to capitalism2 the social formations it generated and the 8orld system they comprise. 46 #he second central theme2
em)odied in the very term for the paradigm itself2 is that of history2 and historical determination. !n the first instance2 (ar$ argued that history influenced
present )ehaviour. !n the phrase he used on one occasion' Nthe tradition of the dead generations 8eighs like a nightmare upon the minds of the livingN. -ut
it meant something more than this' (ar$ argued that the events or character of any society could only )e seen in their historical conte$t -- one had to ask
ho8 the o)ject of study came a)out2 8hat the influences2 of past events 8ere2 and 8hat the impact of the past in shaping the current situation might )e. 41
Dust as he argued that society had to )e seen in its socio-economic conte$t2 so he )elieved that the conditions of generation and a recognition of their
contingent location2 8ere central to any analysis. #o understand contemporary capitalist society2 one had to see ho8 it originated and 8hat the pro)lems
and tendencies conditioned )y the past 8ere2 ho8 it limited 8hat people thought of as )eing their options2 and led them to )e influenced2 or 8holly
determined2 )y passions2 illusions2 identifications derived usually un8ittingly from the past.
ENDI 2010 1"
LINK/ HE8EMON4
:e)emon% creates a a"se !niversa"it% #ase$ on materia" $ominance an$
a"se"% con&ates this $ominance (ith the nat!ra" co!rse o histor% to
create a coherent vision o (or"$ or$er
;I)ter)atio)al #olitical Eco)om!& 7)+ersta)+i)- Blo*al Disor+er:; E+. *! 9Eor) Hette: A.4",44:
RBC
%'e /(estio) o0 co)s(mAtio) mo+els is closel! li)2e+ to t'e /(estio) o0 'e-emo)!. I) t'e terms I
'ave (se+: a) i)+icator o0 'e-emo)! >o(l+ *e a AreAo)+era)t o)tolo-! t'at te)+s to a*sor* or s(*or+i)ate all ot'ers.
<)e i)ters(*Eective ()+ersta)+i)- o0 t'e >orl+ e1cl(+es all ot'ers a)+ aAAears to *e ()iversal.
It is o0te) sai+ t'at alt'o(-' 7)ite+ 5tates eco)omic Ao>er i) t'e >orl+ 'as e1Aerie)ce+ a
relative +ecli)e: t'e $merica) >a! o0 li0e 'as )ever *ee) a more Ao>er0(l mo+el. $) $merica),
+erive+ G*(si)ess civi liJatio)G: to (se 5(sa) 5tra)-eGs term: c'aracteriJes t'e -lo*aliJi)- elitesM a)+
$merica) AoA c(lt(re 'as AroEecte+ a) ima-e o0 t'e -oo+ li0e t'at is a ()iversal o*Eect o0
em(latio) D a ()iversaliJe+ mo+el o0 co)s(mAtio). %'is co)stit(tes a serio(s o*stacle to t'e
ret'i)2i)- o0 social Aractices so as to *e more comAati*le >it' t'e *iosA'ere.
$ co()terc'alle)-e to t'e ()iversaliJi)- o0 $merica) AoA c(lt(re is t'e aKirmatio) o0 ot'er c(lt(ral i+e)tities. %'e
most evi+e)t: a)+ t'e most e1Alicitl! )e-ati)- o0 $merica) c(lt(re: is i) IslamM *(t ot'er c(lt(res are
also aKirmi)- alter)ative >orl+,vie>s. %'e 'e-emo)ies o0 t'e Aast a)+ Arese)t 'ave ()iversaliJe+ 0rom
o)e )atio)al c(lt(re or o)e tra+itio) o0 civiliJatio). $ Aost,'e-emo)ic >orl+ or+er >o(l+ )o
lo)-er *e t'e -lo*al reac' o0 o)e Aartic(lar 0orm o0 civiliJatio). It >o(l+ co)tai) a Al(ralit! o0
visio)s o0 >orl+ or+er.
I) or+er to avoi+ s(c' a) or+er laAsi)- i)to m(t(al i)comAre'e)sio) a)+ co)Nict: it >o(l+ *e )ecessar! to move *e!o)+
a Aositio) o0 A(re relativism i) or+er to ac'ieve a 2i)+ o0 s(Ara,i)ters(*Eectivit! t'at >o(l+ Arovi+e a *ri+-e across t'e
+isti)ct a)+ seAarate s(*Eectivities o0 t'e +iKere)t coe1isti)- civiliJatio)s.
%'ese vario(s tra+itio)s o0 civiliJatio) are )ot mo)olit'ic a)+ F1e+. %'e! +eveloA +ialecticall!
li2e a)! 'istorical str(ct(re. 3'a)-e ma! come *ot' 0rom i)ter)al co)tra+ictio)s D 0or e1amAle:
-e)+ere+ Ao>er relatio)s a)+ social i)e/(ities ca) *e so(rces o0 co)Nict a)+ m(tatio) i) all
c(lt(res. 3'a)-e ca) also come 0rom *orro>i)-s a)+ reactio)s to t'e Aractices o0 ot'er c(lt(res
i) a >orl+ t'at is *ecomi)- ever more closel! 2)it. 5elective a+aAtatio) rat'er t'a)
'omo-e)iJatio) >o(l+ c'aracteriJe c'a)-e i) Aost,'e-emo)ic Al(ralism.
ENDI 2010 14
LINK/ ANTI$CA0ITALISM
Tra$itiona" revo"!tions are $ee+"% conservatisin);a strate)% #ase$ on
conscio!sness an$ co!nter*he)emonies $erive$ rom the re"ationshi+ o
s!#jects to histor% is necessar% to com#ine +o"itica"2 economic2 an$
i$eo"o)ica" str!))"e
9cNa""% ./0 , Aro0. o0 Aol. sci. 6 Hor2 7)iv. 8Davi+: ;4a)-(a-e: Histor!: a)+ 3lass 5tr(--le:; i)
;I) De0e)se o0 Histor!& Mar1ism a)+ t'e #ostmo+er) $-e)+a:; E+. *! E. Meis2i)s Woo+ ? @o')
.oster: A."6,"8: RBC
%'e co)tra+ictor! c'aracter o0 >or2i)- class co)scio(s)ess is a 'i-'l! +!)amic A'e)ome)o). %o
*e-i) >it': t'ere is )o 'omo-e)eo(s co)scio(s )ess >it'i) t'e >or2i)- class. $mo)- a si)-le -ro(A o0
>or2ers: some >ill veer to>ar+s )ear,total acceAta)ce o0 t'e i+eas o0 *osses: s(Aervisors: 'ea+s o0
state: a)+ so o): >'ile ot'ers >ill te)+s to>ar+s a) almost t'oro(-',-o i)- oAAositio) to s(c'
F-(res. 9et>ee) t'ese t>o Aositio)s o)e >ill F)+ t'e maEorit! o0 >or2ers. 9(t t'eir co)scio(s)ess >ill )ot *e
F1e+. Breat eve)tsDmass stri2es a)+ +emo)stratio)s: ()io) +rives: a)+ so o)Dco(Ale+ >it' t'e
or-a)iJe+ AroAa-atio) o0 oAAositio)al i+eas ca) co)tri*(te to si-)iFca)t ra+icaliJatio)sM >'ile
+e0eats: set*ac2s: a)+ t'e +ecli)e o0 oAAo sitio)al +isco(rse ca) 'ave a $ee+"% conservati,in)
efect.
9(t >'atever t'e e1isti)- state o0 aKairs at a)! o)e Aoi)t i) time: Bramsci is clear t'at t'e co)tra+ictor! )at(re o0
>or2i)- class co)scio(s)ess ca))ot *e elimi)ate+. It is a) i)tri)sic 0eat(re o0 caAitalist societ!
t'at t'e r(li)- class tries to >i) i+eolo-ical co)se)t to its r(le 8a)+ t'at s(c' eKorts are (s(all!
s(ccess0(l to a si-)iFca)t e1te)tC: and t'at t'e li0e e1Aerie)ces o0 >or2ers: t'eir resista)ce to
e1Aloitatio) a)+ +omi)atio): -e)erate Aractices >'ic' +o )ot Ft >it' t'e +omi)a)t i+eas a)+
>'ic': i) 0act: e)tail a) imAlicit >orl+vie> t'at c'alle)-es t'ese i+eas. I)+ee+: o)e o0 t'e cr(cial
0()ctio)s o0 a revol(tio)ar! socialist Aart! 0or Bramsci is t'at it tr! to +ra> o(t a)+ s!stematiJe
t'e >orl+vie> >'ic' is imAlicit i) s(c' Aractices o0 resista)ce. %'is vie> e)a*les Bramsci to aAAroac' t'e
/(estio) o0 revol(tio)ar! Aolitics i) terms o0 t'e co)tra+ictio)s >'ic' Aerva+e t'e e1Aerie)ce: activit!: a)+ la)-(a-e o0
oAAresse+ mem*ers o0 societ!.
Revol(tio)ar! Aolitics *e-i)s: *e ar-(es: >it' t'e commo) se)se o0 t'e >or2i)- class. %'is commo)
se)se co)tai)s all t'ese: lar-el! imAlicit: oAAositio)al attit(+es. $)+ si)ce socialism: as Mar1 i)siste+: is t'e sel0,
ema)ciAatio) o0 t'e >or2i)- class: revol(tio)ar! i+eas ca))ot *e some 0orei-) +isco(rse i)Eecte+ i)to t'e >or2i)- class
moveme)t. <) t'e co)trar!: t'e co))ectio) *et>ee) revol(tio)ar! i+eas a)+ t'e >or2i)- class m(st *e
or-a)icM it is t'e tas2 o0 Mar1ists to s'o> t'at socialism is t'e lo-ical a)+ co)siste)t o(t-ro>t'
o0 Aractices o0 >or2i)- class resista)ce. %'e revol(tio)ar! Aart! m(st t'(s *e a livi)- Aart o0 t'e
>or2i)- class move me)tM it m(st s'are t'eir e1Aerie)ces a)+ sAea2 t'eir la)-(a-e. $t t'e same
time: it m(st also *e t'e 0orce t'at -e)eraliJes e1Aerie)ces o0 oAAositio) i)to a) i)creasi)-l!
s!stematic Aro-ram: t'e 0orce >'ic' c'alle)-es t'e tra+itio)al a)+ +omi)a)t i+eas i)'erite+ *!
>or2ers 8Aatriotism: se1ism: racism: etc.C *! s'o>i)- 'o> t'e! co)Nict >it' t'e i)terests a)+
asAiratio)s imAlicit i) resista)ce to e1Aloitatio) a)+ oAAressio). 3o)trar! to certai) i+ealist re)+eri)-s o0
Bramsci >'ic' 'ave ma+e t'e ro()+s i) rece)t !ears: 'e is i)siste)t t'at t'e *(il+i)- o0 s(c' a mass co()ter,
'e-emo)ic move me)t +oes )ot ta2e Alace o) a strictl! c(lt(ral Ala)e or as some rareFe+
i)tellect(al Arocess o0 i+eolo-ical +isse)t. 3o()ter,'e-emo)ies: 'e ar-(es: are create+ t'ro(-'
Aolitical str(--le: moveme)ts i) >'ic' eco)omic resis ta)ce a)+ i+eolo-ical com*at -o 'a)+ i)
'a)+. .or t'e oAAresse+: i) ot'er >or+s: ;critical ()+ersta)+i)- o0 sel0 ta2es Alace t'ere0ore t'ro(-' a
str(- -le o0 Aolitical 'e-emo)iesG; 8A. """C. $)+ ;Aolitical Aarties:; 'e i)sists: oAerate as t'e ; historica"
"a#orator% ; o0 co()ter,'e-emo)ic >orl+vie>sM t'e! are ;t'e cr(ci*les >'ere t'e !ni1cation o
theor% an$ +ractice2 !n$er stoo$ as a rea" historica" +rocess2 ta'es +"ace; 8A. ""5C.
ENDI 2010 15
LINK/ ANTI$CA0ITALISM
The conver"ence o& the state an' mar6et is the root ca#se o& "lo(al ca!italism
van A!el'oorn +,,= +-astiann2 prof of political science at Orije &niversiteit msterdam2 =#heori@ing the transnational' a
historical materialist approach2 Dournal of !nternational Relations and Pevelopment2 45502 62 A104Q169B2 e)scohost;
!t is from this perspective that 8e may also understand the development of transnational relations into relations of capitalist production.#he 8orld
market itself generated transnational commercial and financial net8orks ena)ling the formation of transnational social
forces.Ho8 ever2 it 8as only 8hen2 e$panding from the /nglish state-society comple$ out8ards2 capitalism transformed the
8orld market into a capitalist market )ased on the imperative of continuous e$pansion and deepening that capitalist social
relations started to develop across the )oundaries of the ne8ly esta)lished territorial units called states. !t 8as therefore only
on the )asis of this capitalist 8orld market ? and the internationali@ation drive of capital it induced ? that a process of
transnational AcapitalistB class formation could develop Aclass relations ? and hence class formation ? presupposing production relationsB.
#he coming into e$istence of a transnational )ourgeoisie 8ent )eyond earlier transnational structures of sociali@ation inasmuch as it created a transnational
space for the e$ercise and reproduction of capitalist class rule."uch a transnational space first arose in the 11th century in the form of 8hat Oan der Pijl
A1HH1' especially chapter JB has called the %ockean heartland2 formed through the e$pansion of the -ritish state-society comple$ to include parts of North
merica and other regions through settler colonies2 and in its commercial and political e$pansion confronting Asometimes resulting in 8arB so-called
Ho))esian contender states.!t is thus that through this e$pansion 8e can 8itness ? though via many crisis and fits and starts ? a
gradual 8idening of the area of state-society comple$es su)ject to the imposition of capitalist discipline and a concomitant
AdeepeningB commodification of social relations. !t 8as 8ith the industrial revolution that this e$pansionary dynamic of capitalism set in for
good.#hi s development reached a ne8 clima$ 8hen in the 1Hth century under the Pa$ -ritannica the internationali@ation of capital deepened and the
li)eral internationalist fraction of a nglo-"a$on )ourgeoisie )ecame more and more cosmopolitan in outlook.
<!estionin) economics (itho!t attention to the re"ationshi+ #et(een
str!ct!res an$ actors in the +o"itica" econom% ai"s
;I)ter)atio)al #olitical Eco)om!& 7)+ersta)+i)- Blo*al Disor+er:; E+. *! 9Eor) Hette: A."2,"6:
RBC
%'e )e1t /(estio) is& c'a)-e i) >'atP W'at is Aolitical eco)om!P I s(--est t'at Aolitical eco)om! is +iKere)t
0rom *ot' Aolitical scie)ce a)+ eco)omics as t'e! are commo)l! ()+erstoo+. We sometimes 'ear
i)ter)atio)al Aolitical eco)om! +eF)e+ as t'e Aolitics o0 i)ter)atio)al eco)omic relatio)s. %'is
s(--ests a) amal-am or rapprochement o0 t'e t>o Fel+s.
Het t'ere is a met'o+olo-ical +iKere)ce *et>ee) Aolitical scie)ce a)+ eco)omics: o) t'e o)e
'a)+: a)+ Aolitical eco)om!: as I >o(l+ li2e to +eF)e it: o) t'e ot'er. #olitical scie)ce a)+ eco)omics are
actor,orie)te+ st(+ies. %'e! ta2e oK 0rom some rat'er F1e+ ass(mAtio)s a*o(t t'e 0rame>or2 or Aarameters >it'i)
>'ic' actio)s ta2e Alace D t'e i)stit(tio)al 0rame>or2 o0 Aolitics: or t'e co)ceAt o0 t'e mar2et. Wit'i)
t'ese Aarameters: t'e! ca) o0te) -ive /(ite Arecise a)s>ers to sAeciFc /(estio)s. #olitical scie)tists ca) a)al!se Aolitical
Arocesses >it'i) e1isti)- str(ct(res a)+ Aossi*l! -ive (se0(l a+vice to Aoliticia)s a*o(t 'o> to -ai) or retai) oKice or
>'at Aolic! oAtio)s are 0easi*le i) terms o0 A(*lic s(AAort. Eco)omists (se t'e relatio)s'iAs +erive+ 0rom
t'e rat'er a*stract co)ceAt o0 a mar2et to Are+ict o(tcomes ()+er +iKere)t co)+itio)s. 9ot'
Arovi+e e1amAles o0 t'e aAAlicatio) o0 Aro*lem,solvi)- t'eor!.
#olitical eco)om!: *! co)trast: is co)cer)e+ >it' t'e 'istoricall! co)stit(te+ 0rame>or2s or
str(ct(res >it'i) >'ic' Aolitical a)+ eco)omic activit! ta2es Alace. It sta)+s *ac2 0rom t'e
aAAare)t F1it! o0 t'e Arese)t to as2 'o> t'e e1isti)- str(ct(res came i)to *ei)- a)+ 'o> t'e!
ma! *e c'a)-i)-: or 'o> t'e! ma! *e i)+(ce+ to c'a)-e. I) t'is se)se: Aolitical eco)om! is
critical t'eor!.
Historical str(ct(res
%'ere is: o0 co(rse: )o a*sol(te +isti)ctio) *et>ee) actors a)+ str(ct(res. It is )ot a /(estio) o0
sacriFci)- t'e o)e or t'e ot'er. 5tr(ct(res are 0orme+ *! collective '(ma) activit! over time. 5tr(ct(res: i) t(r): mo(l+
t'e t'o(-'ts a)+ actio)s o0 i)+ivi+(als. Historical c'a)-e is to *e t'o(-'t o0 as t'e reciArocal
relatio)s'iA o0 str(ct(res a)+ actors. %'ere is a +iKere)ce: 'o>ever: *et>ee) t'i)2i)- o0 t'is actorDstr(ct(re
relatio)s'iA as a Arocess co)F-(ri)- str(ct(ral c'a)-e: a)+ t'i)2i)- o0 actio)s as co)F)e+ >it'i) F1e+: -ive) str(ct(res
i) t'e ma))er o0 Aro*lem,solvi)- t'eor!.
ENDI 2010 16
LINK/ IM0ERIALISM
Con&inin" 'isc#ssions o& ca!italism in IR to im!erialism is mo!ic
!f realism can detach itself from its cousins -- social Par8inism2 racism and Machtpolitik -- so can an interpretive (ar$ism
)e distinguished from its instrumental companion. "uch a distinction involves a)ove all an e$amination of 8hat (ar$ and /ngels themselves
8rote2 and of the 8ork of independent (ar$ists 8ho2 throughout the %eninist and orthodo$ communist domination of the su)ject2 sought to provide an
alternative interpretation to that of the dogmatists.
1
Dust as in sociology2 history and other social sciences this independent2 )roadly N.esternN2 (ar$ist
current has )een a)le to esta)lish a recognised and analytically fruitful )ody of 8ork2 so there e$ists the potential for it to do so in the realm of !R. !t is this
claim 8hich the follo8ing chapter seeks to e$plore2 8ith regard to a potential interaction of !nternational Relations and the (ar$ist tradition. Pespite
many decades of potential interaction2 the esta)lishment of a relationship )et8een historical materialism and the discipline of international relations is still
at an initial stage. t various stages in the history of the discipline2 there have )een surveys of the implications of (ar$ism for !nternational Relations in
8hich already constituted points of contact have )een identified.
4
"ince the 1H65s a num)er of 8riters have advocated further theoretical 8ork2 )e it the
ela)oration of a general (ar$ist approach to !nternational Relations2 or the development of domains in 8hich the !nternational Relations discipline2 as
presently constituted2 can strengthen its analytic endeavours )y dra8ing on specific elements 8ithin historical materialism.
J
!n an innovative and
judicious study2 ndre8 %inklater has e$amined the implications for !R of NcriticalN (ar$ism2 8hile stressing the constraints 8hich the international system
imposes on any emancipatory project.
0
Ho8ever2 in contrast to such other areas of the social sciences as -01- sociology2 economics or history2 historical
materialism has never occupied a secure place 8ithin !nternational RelationsE there are many 8ho seek to limit its application2 )e this e$plicitly2 as 8as the
case 8ith those 8ho denied its relevance2 such as (artin .ight and Hans (orgenthau2 or implicitly2 )y relegating it to a minor place2 or )y presenting it in
a selective interpretation2 such that its pertinence is constricted.
F
#his is achieved a)ove all )y )locking out the main theoretical Cuestions of (ar$ism.
#he fact that !R is almost 8holly silent on 8hat for (ar$ism is the central category of modern social analysis2 namely
capitalism2 is itself indicative. /Cually2 as discussed in Chapter 12 the degree to 8hich the Cold .ar em)odied not just competing
strategic interests2 )ut different socio-economic ones2 has )een ignored in most !R literature. #he sources of this failure lie on )oth
sides of the relationship. !nternational Relations as a discipline has arisen primarily 8ithin -ritish and merican universities2 and as a theoretical
derivative of other disciplines in the social sciences. Neither institutional conte$t2 nor theoretical influence2 have )een ones in 8hich (ar$ism has had a
prominent or generally recognised place. <n the other hand2 historical materialism has not itself developed the theoretical focus needed
for a comprehensive and generally intelligi)le contri)ution to !nternational Relations. (uch of 8hat 8as produced in the name of
(ar$ism2 )y communist regimes or those follo8ing them2 8as vulgar polemic2 a repetition of certain standard2 formulaic2 readings of (ar$ism itself and
concentrated around a justification of political interests. #he confining of (ar$ist discussion of the international to the Cuestion of
NimperialismN2 and a one-sided and )anal interpretation of the phenomenon at that2 8as as much the responsi)ility of those espousing
(ar$ism as of those opposed to it.
9
#hose 8ho2 8ithin the independent currents of historical materialism2 have sought to ela)orate a (ar$ist
approach to !nternational Relations have la)oured under the theoretical difficulties that confront those 8ho seek to analyse politics2 and ideological factors2
8ithin the confines of specific states themselves.
ENDI 2010 17
LINK/ SELF$1ETERMINATION
:istorica" materia"ist ana"%sis sho(s that se"*$etermination serves as a
shie"$ or im+eria" actions2 j!sti%in) vio"ent im+eria"ist invocation
Kno6 3= , M#'il=#'D 3a)+i+ate 4o)+o) 5c'ool o0 Eco)omics 8Ro*ert @.: Q%'e De-ra+atio) o0
t'e I)ter)atio)al 4e-al <r+erP %' e Re'a*ilitatio) o0 4a> a)+ t'e #ossi*ilit! o0 #olitics: 9ill
9o>ri)-:R Historical Materialism Iol(me 18: Iss(e 1: E953<: RBC
It is )ot simAl! t'e case t'at 9o>ri)- ()+erestimates t'e +e-ree to >'ic' rival Aositio)s are -e)(i)e attemAts at
co'ere)ce a)+: as s(c': all e/(all! Sle-alT. It is also t'e case t'at t'e te)ets o0 9o>ri)-Ts o>) Aositio) revol(tio)ar!
co)servatism 'ave: at vario(s times: *ee) (se+ to le-itimate a)+ Aromote imAerial actio)s o) t'e >orl+,sta-e. $
Aartic(larl! (se0(l e1amAle i) t'is resAect is sel0,+etermi)atio). W'ilst 9o>ri)- is certai)l! ri-'t to )ote t'e
imAorta)t role sel0,+etermi)atio) Ala!e+ i) a)ticolo)ial str(--le: 'e is c(rio(sl! sile)t as to its
i)vocatio) *! vario(s imAerialist Ao>ers. %' e most o*vio(s e1amAle o0 t'is i) rece)t times >as t'e R(ssia)
i)vasio) o0 Beor-ia ()+er t'e ratio)ale 8amo)-st ot'ersC o0 +e0e)+i)- t'e ri-'t to sel0,
+etermi)atio) o0 $*2'aJiaTs et')ic R(ssia)s. %' is itsel0 is >i+el! vie>e+ as a resAo)se to KosovoTs
()ilateral +eclaratio) 8a)+ t'e atte)+a)t s(AAort o0 vario(s >orl+,Ao>ersC o0 i)+eAe)+e)ce: itsel0 E(stiF e+
i) terms o0 sel0,+etermi)atio).16 <)e ca) F )+ 0(rt'er e1amAles o0 t'is i) 9olivia: >'ere t'ose ric' re-io)s le+ *!
t'e Ri-'t t'reate)e+ to sece+e17 a)+ i) claims o0 IsraelTs +e0e)+ers t'at its actio)s ca) *e E(stiF e+ o>i)-
to t'e )ee+ 0or t'e sel0,+etermi)atio) o0 t'e @e>is' AeoAle.18 $s %o)! 3liK )ote+: Israel 0re/(e)tl!
aAAeale+ to t'e i+ea t'at it >as a Slo!al little @e>is' 7lsterT i) or+er to -ai) s(AAort.19 I)+ee+: t'e ri-'t o0
'(ma)itaria) i)terve)tio) >'ic' 9o>ri)- +ecries 'as its mo+er) -e)esis i) t'e ri-'t o0 SAro,
+emocratic i)terve)tio)T artic(late+ +(ri)- t'e 3ol+ War: >'ic' >as itsel0 roote+ i) ar-(me)ts
0rom sel0,+etermi)atio).20 Earl! o) i) t'e *oo2: 9o>ri)- attemAts to c(t t'is oK : ar-(i)- t'at& I)terve)tio) or
i)ter0ere)ce: 'o>ever t'e! are c'aracterise+: a)+ i) t'e )ame o0 >'ic'ever 'o)o(ra*le motives: 'ave )ever *ee) a)+
most certai)l! are )ot )o> Aart o0 t'e str(--le o0 i)+ivi+(als or collectivities. 8A. 6.C 9(t t'is ar-(me)t simAl! ca))ot
>or2 0or 9o>ri)-. .irstl!: *eca(se later i) t'e *oo2 'e Aositivel! )otes t'at SUtV'e 755R . . . 0o()+ itsel0 o*li-e+
to -ive ver! co)si+era*le material s(AAort to sel0,+etermi)atio) str(--lesT 8A. "8C: t'is o0 co(rse
i)cl(+e+ militar! Arovisio): >'ic' m(st *e co()te+ as a 0orm o0 Si)terve)tio) or i)ter0ere)ceT.
More telli)-l!: vario(s co()tries t'at 0orme+ Aart o0 t'e %'ir+,Worl+ moveme)t >ere e)t'(siastic a+vocates
o0 militar! i)terve)tio) i) t'e )ame o0 a)ticolo)ialism a)+ sel0,+etermi)atio). %'is ca) *e see)
Aartic(larl! clearl! i) t'e case o0 Boa: >'ic' I)+ia i)va+e+ to li*erate 0rom #ort(-alTs colo)ial
occ(Aatio). Here: I)+ia) 7N am*assa+or @'a ar-(e+ t'at $rticle 284C o0 t'e 3'arter >o(l+ )ot *e *reac'e+ *! its
i)vasio) o0 Boa: si)ce t'e >ave o0 +ecolo)isatio) 'a+ tra)s0orme+ its am*it: s(c' t'at a)ticolo)ial viole)ce co(l+ )ot *e
co()te+ as a--ressio).21 %' is ar-(me)t: *ot' i) terms o0 its co)te)t a)+ str(ct(re is startli)-l! similar to Reisma)Ts. $s
o)e ca) see: there is a $irect "inea)e #et(een the Thir$ >or"$s invocation o se"*
$etermination an$ the im+eria"ist invocation o ?h!manitarian intervention422 It seems +iKi
c(lt to ar-(e t'at t'ese i)vocatio)s ca) *e mea)i)-0(ll! +iK ere)tiate+ in law. W'ilst t'eir Aolitical co)te)t co(l+ )ot *e
more oAAose+: t'e a*stract )at(re o0 le-al claims >o(l+ comAel a Ari)ciAle+ a+'ere)t to t'e la> to s(AAort *ot' 8or at
least re0rai) 0rom criticisi)- t'e latter o) le-al -ro()+sC. It seems esAeciall! +iKi c(lt 0or 9o>ri)- to escaAe t'ese
o*Eectio)s.
ENDI 2010 18
LINK/ REVOL3TION
Their af cant access the revo"!tion @ the revo"!tion is not a sim+"e
moment in time @ their 8to+ian a"ternative ai"s to e6amine c!"t!ra" an$
+o"itica" histor% an$ th!s $oesnt achieve tr!e socia" chan)e
Aameson ./0 , 'ea+ o0 t'e 4it. Aro-ram 6 D(2e 8.re+ric: ;.ive t'eses o) act(all! e1isti)-
Mar1ism:; $Aril: 1996: 'ttA&==F)+articles.com=A=articles=miWm11"2=isW)11Wv47=aiW18205164=P
ta-Xco)te)tMcol1: RBC
9(t s(c' ar-(me)ts i) t'eir t(r) Ares(AAose t'e ta2i)- o0 a Aositio) o) >'at is s(rel! t'e ce)tral co)ceAt i) a)! Mar1ia)
;()it!,o0,t'eor!,a)+,Aractice:; )amel! Revol(tio) itsel0 %'is is t'e case *eca(se it is t'e ()te)a*ilit! o0 t'at
co)ceAt t'at is t'e Ari)ciAal e1'i*it i) t'e Aost, or a)ti,Mar1ia) arse)al. %'e +e0e)se o0 t'is co)ceAt:
'o>ever: re/(ires a )(m*er o0 Arelimi)ar! AreAaratio)s& i) Aartic(lar: >e )ee+ to a*a)+o) to ico)olo-!
ever!t'i)- t'at s(--ests t'at revol(tio) is a A()ct(al mome)t rat'er t'a) a) ela*orate a)+
comAle1 Arocess. .or e1amAle: ma)! o0 o(r most c'eris'e+ ico)ic ima-es o0 t'e vario(s 'istorical revol(tio)s: s(c'
as t'e ta2i)- o0 t'e Wi)ter #alace a)+ t'e %e))is 3o(rt <at': )ee+ to *e set asi+e.
5ocial revol(tio) is )ot a mome)t i) time: *(t it ca) *e aKirme+ i) terms o0 t'e )ecessit! o0
c'a)-e i) >'at is a s!)c'ro)ic s!stem: i) >'ic' ever!t'i)- 'ol+s to-et'er a)+ is i)terrelate+
>it' ever!t'i)- else. 5(c' a s!stem t'e) +ema)+s a 2i)+ o0 a*sol(te s!stemic c'a)-e: rat'er t'a) Aiecemeal
Gre0orm:; >'ic' t(r)s o(t to *e >'at is i) t'e AeEorative se)se ;7toAia):; t'at is: ill(sor!: )ot 0easi*le. %'at is
to sa! t'at t'e s!stem +ema)+s t'e i+eolo-ical visio) o0 a ra+ical social alter)ative to t'e
e1isti)- social or+er: somet'i)- >'ic' ca) )o lo)-er *e ta2e) 0or -ra)te+ or i)'erite+: ()+er t'e
state o0 c(rre)t +isc(rsive str(--le: *(t >'ic' +ema)+s rei)ve)tio). Reli-io(s 0()+ame)talism 8>'et'er
Islamic: 3'ristia): or Hi)+(C: t'at claims to oKer a ra+ical alter)ative to co)s(merism a)+ ;t'e $merica) >a! o0 li0e:;
o)l! comes i)to si-)iFca)t *ei)- >'e) t'e tra+itio)al 4e0t alter)atives: a)+ i) Aartic(lar t'e -reat revol(tio)ar!
tra+itio)s o0 Mar1ism a)+ comm()ism: 'ave s(++e)l! seeme+ ()availa*le.
ENDI 2010 19
LINK/ TERRORISM
Terrorism is the res!"t o historica" an$ materia" $e+rivation2 not
!n$ementa"ism @ (e have to +!t it in the conte6t o str!))"es a)ainst
>estern ca+ita"ism
9o!ssea! .B , $ssociate Aro0 o0 IR 6 Koc 7)iv i) Ista)*(l: %(r2e! 8Mic'ael: ;Mar2et
3iviliJatio) a)+ Its 3las' >it' %error:; I)ter)atio)al 5ec(rit!: 278"C: A.5,29: #roEect
M75E: RBC
%'ose o) t'e lo>est r()- o0 t'e eco)omic la++er are t'e most v(l)era*le to t'e )e-ative
co)se/(e)ces associate+ >it' -lo*aliJatio). %'ose >it' t'e most to lose: 'o>ever: are Aatro)s a)+ t'eir
lie(te)a)ts >'o 'ol+ Arivile-e+ Aositio)s i) t'e ol+ clie)talist 'ierarc'ies. %'is is >'! lea+ers o0 terrorist
or-a)iJatio)s 0re/(e)tl! come 0rom Arivile-e+ *ac2-ro()+s. %o mai)tai) t'e clie)talist str(ct(re
t'at carries >it' it 'i-'er social stat(s: t'ese lea+ers see2 to rall! t'eir clie)t *ase *! aAAeali)-
to some a)timar2et i+eolo-!. 9eca(se it is i) a UE)+ #a-e 19V clie)tGs i)terest to 'ave a Ao>er0(l Aatro): lea+ers
attract a)+ mai)tai) 0ollo>ers *! +emo)stratio)s o0 stre)-t'. I) t'is >a!: t'e mass m(r+er o0
Wester)ers serves t>o A(rAoses& It reNects t'e lea+erGs Ao>er: a)+ it taAs i)to >i+esArea+
a)timar2et 0(r!. Is"am itse" is not res+onsi#"e or the socia" a++rova" o terror . #atro)s
0eari)- t'e loss o0 t'eir Arivile-e+ stat(sDs(c' as <sama *i) 4a+e)DF)+ a) a)timar2et i+eolo-! (se0(l
to attract 0ollo>ers. %'e! ma)iA(late Islam to serve t'eir o>) e)+s: E(st li2e t'eir co()terAarts i)
E(roAe +i+ a ce)t(r! a-o *! co)torti)- 3'ristia)it! to E(sti0! terror a)+ mass m(r+er.
51
I) 0act: Islam emer-e+ i) Mecca:
t'e ce)ter o0 si1t',ce)t(r! Me+iterra)ea) a)+ 5o(t' $sia) tra+e: a)+ t'e Kora) stress t'e mar2et val(es o0 ()iversalism:
e/(it!: co)tract(al e1c'a)-e: a)+ a +e-ree o0 tolera)ce to>ar+ o(tsi+ers 8)o),M(slimsC.
52
%'e mar2et eco)om! i)
t'is re-io) +ecli)e+ *e0ore mar2et )ormsDa)+ li*eral c(lt(reDi)te)siFe+ a)+ e1Aa)+e+
t'ro(-'o(t t'e Islamic >orl+: *(t t'e li*eral ori-i)s o0 Islam +emo)strate t'at reli-io) ca) *e
i)terArete+: a)+ ma)iA(late+: to s(it a)!o)eGs A(rAoses. I) societies steeAe+ i) mar2et val(es: it is +iKic(lt
to comAre'e)+ 'o> a)!o)e ca) e)-a-e i) t'e mass m(r+er o0 o(t,-ro(As: or 'o> a)!o)e ca) s(AAort it. I)+ivi+(als
>it' mar2et val(es *elieve t'at eac' Aerso) is resAo)si*le o)l! 0or 'is or 'er actio)s. @(st as t'ose
>'o are )ot Aarties to co)tracts ca))ot *e ma+e o*li-ate+ to t'em: i)+ivi+(als ca))ot *e ass(me+ to *e resAo)si*le 0or
a)! a)+ all *e'avior o0 ot'er mem*ers o0 t'eir aAAare)t i),-ro(A. It t'ere0ore seems a*s(r+ to *lame
i)+ivi+(als 0or t'e alle-e+ *a+ *e'avior o0 ot'ers: a)+ t'is is t'e social ori-i) o0 t'e Ares(mAtio)
o0 i)+ivi+(al i))oce)ce i) mar2et societies. .rom t'e clie)talist AersAective: i) co)trast: )o o)e is i))oce)t&
I)+ivi+(als s'are resAo)si*ilit! 0or t'e actio)s o0 ot'ers >it'i) t'e i),-ro(AM i0 0ollo>ers +o )ot
s(AAort t'eir lea+ers: t'e) t'e! are *etra!i)- t'e e)tire i),-ro(A. .rom t'e clie)talist AersAective: all
i),-ro(A mem*ers are Arivile-e+ a)+ all o(t,-ro(A mem*ers are e)emies or: at *est: o(tsi+ers
()>ort'! o0 emAat'!. UE)+ #a-e 20V $ Aa(cit! o0 emAat'! is )ecessar! 0or +oi)- 'arm to: a)+ tolerati)- t'e
s(Keri)- o0: all o(t,-ro(A mem*ers. %'is is >'! i)ter)atio)al '(ma) ri-'ts are a co)cer) Aromote+ mostl! *! mar2et
+emocracies. It is also >'! >i+esArea+ social s(AAort 0or *ot' terrorism a)+ sectaria) viole)ce
0re/(e)tl! arises i) +eveloAi)- co()tries *(t )ot i) co()tries >it' +eeAl! i)te-rate+ mar2ets.
5"

3lie)talist val(es also lie at t'e core o0 t'e social aAAroval o0 s(ici+al mass m(r+er. .rom t'e mar2et
AersAective: all *e'avior s'o(l+ 'ave some imme+iate (tilit! 0or t'e Aarties to a co)tract. It is t'(s +iKic(lt to
comAre'e)+ t'e eKicac! o0 s(ici+e. 9(t i) c(lt(res >'ere t'e i)+ivi+(al is less imAorta)t t'a) t'e -ro(A
a)+ t'e a*se)ce o0 scie)ce i)creases +evotio) to i)s(lar *elie0s: s(ici+eD()+er co)+itio)s o0
e1treme socioeco)omic +isr(Atio)Dma! emer-e as a sociall! aAArove+ >a! o0 e1Aressi)-
(ltimate lo!alt! to t'e i),-ro(A. I) t'is >a!: c(lt(ral i)s(larism: c'aracteriJe+ *! t'e a*se)ce o0 a mar2et
eco)om!: is a )ecessar! co)+itio) 0or t'e social aAAroval o0 s(ici+al mass m(r+er a)+ sectaria)
viole)ce. 3(lt(ral i)s(larism com*i)e+ >it' a Aartic(lar -rieva)ceDs(c' as t'e )e-ative
co)se/(e)ces associate+ >it' -lo*aliJatio)Dca) create a +ea+l! mi1 0or $merica)s a)+ ot'er
Wester)ers. $lt'o(-' late)t a)ti,$merica)ism a)+ a)ti,Wester)ism e1ist t'ro(-'o(t m(c' o0 t'e +eveloAi)- >orl+:
t'ese are most li2el! to rise to t'e s(r0ace +(ri)- eco)omic crisesD>'e) )asce)t mi++le classes
lose t'eir stat(s a)+ t(r) a-ai)st emer-i)- li*eral val(es. %'is is >'at is 'aAAe)i)-: 0or e1amAle: i)
I)+o)esia >'ere t'e rece)t collaAse o0 t'e local c(rre)c! 'as elimi)ate+ t'e savi)-s o0 t'e mi++le class: E(st as
'!Aeri)Natio) +evastate+ t'e savi)-s o0 Berma)!Gs mi++le class seve)t!,Fve !ears a-o. Rece)t terrorist acts a-ai)st
I)+o)esia) 3'ristia)s 8as s!m*ols o0 t'e WestC a)+ Wester)ers +irectl! 8t'e Novem*er 2002 *om*i)- o0 a +isco i) 9aliC
are remi)isce)t o0 Berma)!Gs mi++le class t(r)i)- a-ai)st t'ose it i+e)tiFe+ >it' mar2et val(es: s(c' as E(roAea) @e>s
a)+ t'e West. %'e West: i) t'is se)se: mea)s mar2et civiliJatio). UE)+ #a-e 21V
ENDI 2010 20
LINK/ I1ENTIT4
Rejectin) i$entit% as a socia" constr!ction ta'es it o!t o historica" an$
socia" conte6t2 ma'in) it a++ear nat!ra" an$ j!sti%in) #io"o)ica" theories
o race
DiKere)ce:; i) ;I) De0e)se o0 Histor!:; E+. *! E. Meis2i)s Woo+ ? @o') .oster: A.112,117: RBC
;#oststr(ct(ralist t'i)2i)-:; sociolo-ists Davi+ 9aile! a)+ 5t(art Hall 'ave ar-(e+: ;oAAoses t'e )otio) t'at
a Aerso) is *or) >it' a F1e+ i+e) tit!Dt'at all *lac2 AeoAle: 0or e1amAle: 'ave a) esse)tial
()+erl!i)- *lac2 i+e)tit! >'ic' is t'e same a)+ ()c'a)-i)-. It s(--ests i)stea+ t'at i+e)ti ties are
Noati)-: t'at mea)i)- is )ot F1e+ a)+ ()iversall! tr(e at all times 0or all AeoAle: a)+ t'at t'e
s(*Eect is co)str(cte+ t'ro(-' t'e ()co)scio(s i) +esire: 0a)tas! a)+ memor!.;
1
%'e remi)+er
t'at o(r i+e)tities are )ot )at(rall! -ive) *(t sociall! co)str(cte+ is a (se0(l a)ti+ote to t'e i+ea
t'at '(ma) +iKere)ces are F1e+ a)+ eter)al. 9(t *! i)sisti)- t'at societ! is i)'ere)tl! a)+
irre+(ci*l! 'etero-e)eo(s a)+ +iverse: a)+ *! reEecti)- a)! i+ea o0 ;totalit!; t'at mi-'t allo> (s
to see t'e commo)alities or co))ectio)s amo)- 'etero-e)eo(s a)+ +iverse eleme)ts:
Aoststr(ct(ralist +isco(rse 'as !n$ermine$ its o(n ca +acit% to cha""en)e nat!ra"istic
e6+"anations o $iference4 %'e Aara+o1ical res(lt: I s'all ar-(e: is a co)ceAtio) o0 i+e)tit!
scarcel! +iKere)t 0rom t'at o0 )i)etee)t',ce)t(r! racial t'eor!. %'e Aro*lem ca) *e see) i) t'e ver!
co)ceAt o0 ;a)ti,esse)tialism; as ()+erstoo+ *! Aostmo+er)ist t'i)2ers. 5ociolo-ist $li Ratta)si 'as +escri*e+ a)ti,
esse)tialism as a ;ma)oe(vre c(tti)- t'e -ro()+ 0rom co)ceAtio)s o0 s(*Eects a)+ social 0orms as re+(ci*le to timeless:
()c'a)-i)-: +eF)i)- a)+ +etermi)i)- eleme)ts or e)sem*le o0 eleme)tsDG'(ma) )ature,& 0or e1amAle: or i) t'e case o0
t'e social: t'e lo-ic o0 t'e mar2et or mo+e o0 Aro+(ctio).; Ratta)si seems at Frst to +eF)e a)ti,esse)tialism simAl! as
oAAositio) to a) a'istorical ()+ersta)+i)- o0 social A'e)ome)a: 'ostile to t'e i+ea o0 timeless or ()c'a)-i)- social
0orms. 9(t 'e sli+es 0rom t'is reEectio) o0 a'istorical e1Ala)atio) to a reA(+iatio) o0 social ;+etermi)a)ts; alto-et'er. He
reEects a)! i+ea t'at social 0orms ca) *e e1Alai)e+ *! re0ere)ce to 0orces or Aress(res li2e t'e
;lo-ic o0 t'e mar2et; or t'e ;mo+e o0 Aro+(ctio); >'ic' Aermeate a)+ s'aAe t'e social or+er:
eve) i0 t'ese +etermi)a)ts are co) ceive+ as 'istoricall! sAeciFc. $ )o),esse)tialist ()+ersta)+i)- o0
societ! is aAAare)tl! o)e t'at +e)ies a)! ()i0!i)- Aatter)s or Arocesses amo)- t'e +iverse a)+ co)sta)tl! s'i0ti)-
0ra-me)ts t'at co)stit(te societ!. I) ot'er >or+s: Ratta)si i+e)tiFes a)ti,esse)tialism >it' a) i)siste)ce o) i)+eter,
mi)ac!. I) t'is 'e reNects m(c' Aostmo+er) t'i)2i)- >'ic' F)+s t'e mea)i)- o0 social 0orms )ot i)
relations *(t i) di'erences( 9(t t'is 2i)+ o0 i)+etermi)ac! is Arecisel! t'e 0o()+atio) o0 a'istorical e1Ala)atio)s.
Ho>: 0or i)sta)ce: ca) >e ()+ersta)+ t'e historica" nat!re o ca+ita"ism as a s+eci1c socia"
orm >it'o(t i+e)ti0!i)- t'e sAeciFc +etermi )a)ts t'at +isti)-(is' it 0rom ot'er social 0orms: i)
ot'er times a)+ AlacesP We co(l+ ar-(e a*o(t >'et'er t'e ;esse)ce; o0 caAitalism s'o(l+ *e
see) i) t'e lo-ic o0 t'e mar2et: i) t'e Aartic(lar mo+e o0 Aro+(ctio): i) some ot'er asAect: or i)
some com*i)atio) o0 t'ese. 9(t ()less >e ca) c'arac teriJe t'e 0()+ame)tal sAeciFcit!Dt'e
;esse)ce:; i0 !o( >illDo0 caAitalist societ!: its +isti)ctive ;la>s o0 motio); or s!stemic lo-ic: >e
ca))ot +isti) -(is' it 0rom ot'er t!Aes o0 societies. Ho>: t'e): s'o(l+ >e a)al!Je race i) mo+er)
caAitalist societiesP I (e treat race as j!st an Ci$entit%C $etache$ rom an% s+eci1c socia"
$eterminants2 then race #ecomes not a historica""% s+eci1c socia" re"ation #!t an
eterna" eat!re o h!man societ% D j!st as it is in reactionar% #io"o)ica" theories o0 race:
i) >'ic' racial +ivisio)s are a )at(ral a)+ Aerma)e)t )ecessit!. %'is ma! seem a) o++ co)cl(sio) to
+ra> 0rom Aostmo+er) a)ti,esse)tialism: *eca(se its roots lie Arecisel! i) a 'ostilit! to )at(ralistic e1Ala)atio)s o0 social
A'e)ome)a: Aartic(larl! Aositivism: >'ic' re+(ce social la>s to )at(ral la>s: treati)- t'e la>s t'at -over) '(ma)
relatio)s as /(a)tiFa*le a)+ Aerma)e)t: E(st li2e t'e la>s o0 )at(re. 9eca(se t'e Aositivist vie> o0 societ!
()+erAi))e+ )i)etee)t' ce)t(r! racial t'eories: oAAo)e)ts o0 racial t'eor! 'ave al>a!s *ee)
'ostile to )at(ralistic t'eories o0 societ!.
ENDI 2010 21
LINK/ I1ENTIT4
Socia" constr!ctivism rejects a"" ca!sa"it%2 !n$erminin) an% historica"
ana"%sis o i$entit%
9(t i) its 'aste to +isAatc' )at(ralistic t'eories: Aoststr(ct(ralist +is co(rse 8a)+ i)+ee+ m(c' o0 mo+er)
sociolo-!C ta2es (A arms a-ai)st )ot simAl! )at(ralistic e1Ala)atio)s o0 societ!: *(t a-ai)st any
ca!sa" e6+"ana tion : or at t'e ver! least: a)! e1Ala)atio) t'at assi-)s Ariorit! to certai) ca(ses
over ot'ers. $)! i+ea o0 +etermi)atio)Deve) i) its )o),re+(ctio)ist se)se: 'avi)- to +o >it' >'at E.#.
%'omAso) o0te) calls t'e ;lo-ic o0 Arocess; or Ra!mo)+ Williams 8i) Mar)ism and Literature U1978VC +escri*es as ;a
comAle1 a)+ i)terrelate+ Arocess o0 limits a)+ Aress(res;Dis co)si+ere+ to *e esse)tialist a)+ t'ere0ore
ille-itimate. #ostmo+er) a)ti,esse)tialists 'ol+ t'at t'eor! ca) 'ave )o reco(rse to +etermi)a)ts *e!o)+ emAiricall!
-ive) A'e)ome)a. Esse)ces a)+ 0orces: >'et'er )at(ral or metaA'!sical: sAirit(al or 'istorical: are Fctitio(s. $t *est
social ;la>s; are co)ve)ie)t Fctio)s t'at allocate a) or+er to emAirical A'e)ome)a. $t >orst t'e! are sel0,servi)-
ill(sio)s >'ic' +is-(ise some si)ister i)terest or Ao>er. .or Aoststr(ct(ralists: t'e): social A'e)ome)a
ca))ot *e e1Alai)e+ *! re0ere)ce to a)ot'er AroAert! t'at *esto>s mea)i)- o) t'em. %'is 2i)+
o0 a)ti,esse)tialism re)+ers all +etermi)ate relatio)s co)ti)-e)t: *ere0t o0 a)! i))er )ecessit!.
"
#oststr(ct(ralists +e)! t'e co)ceAt o0 a) ;esse)tial; i+e)tit! a)+ stress i)stea+ ;t'e A'e)ome)o)
o0 m(ltiAle social i+e)tities.; $s Ro*i) 3o'e) A(ts it: ;t'e mo+er) st(+! o0 i+e)tit! 'as ... +is'e+ t'e ol+
Gesse)tialismsGD 0or e1amAle t'e Mar1ist i+ea t'at all social i+e)tit! co(l+ esse)tiall! *e re+(ce+ to class i+e)tit!.;
I)stea+ it 'ol+s t'at ;t'ere are comAeti)- claims 0or aKiliatio) t'at ca))ot *e re+(ce+ to eAiA'e)ome)a; a)+ t'at
;-e)+er: a-e: +isa*ilit!: race: reli-io): et')icit!: )atio)alit!: civil stat(s: eve) m(sical st!les a)+ +ress co+es; are all ;ver!
Aote)t a1es o0 or-a)iJatio) a)+ i+e)tiFcatio).;
4
%'e reco-)itio) t'at '(ma) *ei)-s are s(*Eect to co)Nicti)- claims a)+
i+e)tities is clearl! imAorta)t. %'e Aro*lem arises: 'o>ever: >'e) all ;i+e)tities:; o0 >'atever 0orm: are
treate+ as e/(ivale)t: so t'at Aerso)al li0est!le Are0ere)ces s(c' as ;m(sical st!les; are -ive)
t'e same >ei-'t a)+ si-)iFca)ce as A'!sical attri*(tes s(c' as ;+isa*ilit!; or social Aro+(cts
s(c' as race a)+ class: >'ile: at t'e same time: eac' i+e)tit! is co)ceive+ i) isolatio) 0rom sAeciFc
social relatio)s. I) 0act: t'ere is alrea+! a Aro*lem i) co)ceivi)- race or class as a) ;i+e)tit!; i) t'e
Frst Alace. 5ocial relatio)s s(c' as racial oAAressio) *ecome )ot social relatio)s at all *(t Aerso)al
attri*(tes: or eve) li0est!le c'oices. W'e) race is e/(ate+ >it' ;m(sical st!les; or ;+ress co+es:; t'e
;social; seems to mea) )ot'i)- more t'a) a Aartic(lar +ecisio) t'at a)! i)+ivi+(al ma! ma2e:
a)+ ;societ!; is re+(ce+ to t'e a--re-ate o0 i)+ivi+(al i+e)tities. %'e co)se/(e)ce o0 t'e
Aoststr(ct(ralist )otio) o0 societ! is t'at ma)! co)temAorar! >riters treat social +isti)ctio)s as
Aerso)al or Aolitical c'oices. %'ere is a sce)e i) Woo+! $lle)Gs Flm #ananas, i) >'ic' o(r l(c2less 'ero: Ala!e+ *!
$lle): *emoa)s t'e 0act t'at 'e +roAAe+ o(t o0 colle-e. ;W'at >o(l+ !o( 'ave *ee) i0 !o( 'a+ F)is'e+ sc'oolP; someo)e
as2s 'im. ;I +o)Gt 2)o>:; si-'s $lle). ;I >as i) t'e *lac2 st(+ies Aro-ram. 9! )o> I co(l+ 'ave *ee) *lac2.; %'is seems to
*e t'e esse)ce o0 t'e co)temAorar! vie> o0 i+e)tit!. $s Ro*i) 3o'e) o*serves: Aostmo+er)ists seem to *elieve
t'at ;a) i)+ivi+(al co)str(cts a)+ Arese)ts a)! o)e o0 a )(m*er o0 Aossi*le social i+e)tities:
+eAe)+i)- o) t'e sit(atio). 4i2e a Ala!er co)ceali)- a +ec2 o0 car+s 0rom t'e ot'er co)testa)ts: t'e i)+ivi+(al
A(lls o(t a 2)aveDor a reli-io): or a) et')icit!: a li0est!leDas t'e co)te1t +eems a Aartic(lar c'oice
+esira*le or aAAroAriate.;
5
I) t'is sAirit a) i)creasi)- )(m*er o0 >riters )o> vie> racial +ivisio) as t'e res(lt o0 a
+eli*eratel! c'ose) c(lt(ral e1cl(sive)ess. Wi)sto) @ames: emAlo!i)- 9e)e+ict $)+erso)Gs )otio) o0 a) ;ima-i)e+
comm()it!:; ar-(es t'at: ;4i2e all )atio)s: )atio)alities a)+ et')ic -ro(As: $0ro,3ari**ea) AeoAle i) 9ritai) 'ave erecte+
*o()+aries i) relatio) to t'ose >it' >'om t'e! i+e)ti0!.;
6
%'e s(--estio) is t'at $0ro,3ari**ea)s 'ave c'ose) to
esta*lis' +isti)ctive c(lt(ral Aatter)s: t'at t'e! 'ave asserte+ t'eir ri-'t to *e +iKere)t: as a >a! o0 co)Frmi)- t'eir
;ima-i)e+ comm()it!:; o0 esta*lis'i)- >'at @ames calls a ;)e> se)se o0 0ello>s'iA.; I0 t'is >ere tr(e: 'o>ever: racism
>o(l+ )ot *e a Aro*lem. I0 >e co(l+ c'oose i+e)tities i) t'e >a! >e c'oose o(r clot'es ever!
mor)i)-: i0 >e co(l+ erect social *o()+aries 0rom a c(lt(ral 4e-o Aac2: t'e) racial 'ostilit!
mi-'t *e )o +iKere)t 0rom +isa-reeme)ts *et>ee) lovers o0 MoJart a)+ t'ose >'o Are0er 3'arlie
#ar2er: or*et>ee) s(AAorters o0 +iKere)t 0oot*all cl(*s. I) ot'er >or+s: racial +iKere)ces >o(l+ )ot *e social
relations >'ic' e1ist aAart 0rom t'e Are0ere)ces o0 a)! -ive) i)+ivi+(al. %'e! >o(l+ simAl!
reArese)t AreE(+ices *or) o(t o0 a Al(ralit! o0 tastes. 9(t >e 2)o> t'at i) realit! racial +ivisio)s
are social relatio)s: t'at t'e! are )ot simAl! t'e Aro+(ct o0 Aerso)al Are0ere)ces: a)+ t'at *lac2)ess
amo()ts to more t'a) a semester o) a *lac2 st(+ies Aro-ram. It is )ot $0ro,3ari**ea)s: or a)! ot'er racialiJe+ -ro(A:
>'o 'ave ;erecte+ *o()+aries; seAarati)- t'em 0rom t'e rest o0 societ!. %'ese *o()+aries are sociall!
co)str(cte+ )ot E(st i) t'e se)se t'at t'e! are c(lt(rall! sAeciFc: li2e Aerso)al tastes i) m(sic or clot'es:
ENDI 2010 22
*(t i) t'e se)se t'at societ! 'as s!stematicall! racialiJe+ certai) social -ro(As a)+ si-)iFe+
t'em as ;+iKer e)t;Das @ames 'imsel0 ac2)o>le+-es >'e) 'e )otes ;t'e Ao>er0(l ce)triAetal 0orces o0 9ritis'
racism.;
7
9lac2 !o(t' i) 9ri1to) or t'e 9ro)1 'ave )o more ;c'ose); t'eir +iKere)ce t'a) @e>s +i+ i) NaJi Berma)!.
3ertai)l! oAAresse+ comm()ities 'ave o0te) reacte+ to racial +ivisio) *! a+oAti)- Aartic(lar
c(lt(ral 0orms. I) 'is a(to*io-raA'!: Miles Davis reco()ts 'o> *lac2 EaJJ m(sicia)s i) t'e 0orties resAo)+e+ to racism
*! +eveloAi)- *e*oA as a st!le t'at >o(l+ e1cl(+e >'ite Ala!ers.
8
5imilarl! ma)! @e>s to+a! co)ti)(e to o*serve @e>is'
c(lt(ral rit(als less o(t o0 reli-io(s 0ait' t'a) i) resAo)se to a)ti,5emitism a)+ i) memor! o0 t'e victims o0 t'e Holoca(st.
9(t s(c' c(lt(ral assertio) is )ot t'e ca(se o0 racial i+e)tiFcatio): it is its Aro+(ct. %'is is o)e o0
t'e 0()+ame)tal co)tra+ictio)s at t'e 'eart o0 Aostmo+ er)ism. I)sisti)- o) t'e ;+isc(rsive; or
;social co)str(ctio); o0 all 2)o>l e+-e a)+ i+e)tit!: ()+er t'e cover o0 ;a)ti,esse)tialism; it e)+s
*! eKectivel! +e)!i)- +etermi)ate 'istorical relatio)s alto-et'er a)+ t'(s eKectivel! a*a)+o)s
its ori-i)al Ari)ciAle t'at i+e)tit! a)+ t'e '(ma) s(*Eect are sociall! co)str(cte+.
#oststr(ct(ralist +isco(rse re+(ces 8or +eco)str(ctsC societ! to t'e acci+e)tal i)teractio) o0
i)+ivi+(als a)+ re moves t'e s(*Eect 0rom t'e terrai) o0 t'e social. Determi)ate social relatio)s are
re+(ce+ to i)+ivi+(al: Aerso)al attri*(tes or at *est to co)ti)-e)t relatio)s *et>ee) i)+ivi+(als. %'ere ca) *e )o
;social co)str(ctio); >'e) t'e ;social; itsel0 'as )o e1iste)ce aAart 0rom ;+isc(rsivel!
co)str(cte+; i)+ivi+(al i+e)tities.
ENDI 2010 2"
LINK/ I1ENTIT4
Anti*essentia"ist critiD!es o i$entit% co""a+se #ac' into themse"ves an$
"in' to a"" o the $isa$s to +ositivist e+istemo"o)%
%'e Aara+o1 o0 Aoststr(ct(ralist a)ti,esse)tialism: t'e): is t'is& it is a) o(tloo2 t'at arises 0rom a +esire to
oAAose )at(ralistic e1Ala)atio)s a)+ to A(t social 0acts i) a social co)te1t. 9(t *! cele*rati)-
i)+etermi)ac! a)+ *! oAAosi)- t'e i+ea o0 totalit!: all i) t'e )ame o0 a)ti,esse)tialism: it 'as
()+ermi)e+ its o>) a*ilit! to e1Alai) social 0acts 'istoricall!. .acts >re)c'e+ 0rom t'eir livi)- co)te1t are
aAAre'e)+e+ o)l! i) t'eir isolatio). The iron% is that this metho$o"o)% resem#"es nothin) so
m!ch as the ra$ica" em+iricism o the +ositivists2 the ver% theor% o 'no("e$)e that
anti*essen tia"ism so!)ht to overt!rn4 %'is is )ot t'e Alace to resolve all t'e +iKic(lt eAistemolo-ical
/(estio)s i)volve+ i) t'e +e*ate *et>ee) Aostmo+er)ism a)+ its critics. 5ome o0 t'ese /(estio)s are +ealt >it'
else>'ere i) t'is *oo2. 9(t >e are e)title+ to as2 >'et'er Aostmo+er)ists ca) s(stai) a) a)ti,racist AroEect o) t'e *asis
o0 t'eir o>): s(AAose+l! a)ti,racist: ass(mAtio)s. 3a) t'eir eAistemolo-ical ass(mAtio)s s(AAort t'eir o>) Aro0esse+
oAAositio) to racial oAAressio)P Ho>: 0or e1amAle: >o(l+ t'e! +isti)-(is' *et>ee) a racist 'istor! a)+ a )o),racist o)eP
<) Aostmo+er)ist Aremises: eac' >o(l+ *e vali+ i) its o>) co)te1t. %'e caAacit! o0 Aostmo+er)ists to
c'alle)-e racist +isco(rse is ()+ermi)e+ *! t'eir o>) *elie0 i) t'e relativit! o0 mea)i)-. I0 >e
>a)t to ar-(e t'at a racist a)+ a )o),racist i)terAretatio) o0 'istor! are )ot e/(all! vali+: >e are
re/(ire+ to c'oose *et>ee) t'em: to +eci+e >'ic' is tr(e a)+ >'ic' is )ot: a)+ t'at mea)s >e
are o*li-e+ to acceAt t'at t'ere is some sta)+ar+ a-ai)st >'ic' >e ca) E(+-e t'em. W'at
Aostmo+er)ists +ismiss as ;totaliJi)-; t'eories +o )ot re/(ire (s to e)comAass ever! Aossi*le ;0act:; as some
Aostmo+er)ists mai)tai): *(t t'e! +o -ive (s some *asis 0or c'oosi)-. $)ti,esse)tialism is s(AAose+ to *e t'e
ver! 0o()+atio) o0 Aostmo+er)ist a)ti,racism: *(t a)ti,esse)tialism as Aostmo+er)ists +eF)e it
e)+s *! +isa*li)- a)! a)ti,racist AroEect. $)tiracism: 0or e1amAle: s(rel! re/(ires some commitme)t to
e/(alit!. It is certai)l! tr(e t'at ;e/(alit!; is a 'istoricall! sAeciFc i+ea: >'ic' 'as 'a+ +iKere)t mea)i)-s i) +iKere)t
social co)te1ts. 9(t t'e 'istoricit! o0 t'is i+ea +oes )ot c'a)-e t'e 0act t'at a commitme)t to
e/(alit!: a)+ esAeciall! racial e/(alit!: Ares(mes t'e e1ist e)ce o0 a ;'(ma) esse)ce.; Wit'o(t s(c' a
commo) esse)ce: e/(alit! amo)- +iKere)t ;i+e)tities; or social -ro(As >o(l+ *e a mea)i)-less co)ceAt. I0 '(ma)it! +i+
)ot co)stit(te a si)-le cate-or!: i0 i) .o(ca(ltGs >or+s ;Not'i)- i) ma)D)ot eve) 'is *o+!Dis s(Kicie)tl! sta*le to act as
t'is *asis 0or sel0,reco-)itio) or 0or ()+ersta)+i)- ot'er me):;
11
t'e) e/(alit! *et>ee) +iKere)t '(ma) i)+ivi+(als a)+
-ro(As >o(l+ *e as mea)i)-less as e/(ati)- aAAles a)+ ora)-es or: to (se 4evi,5tra(ssGs a)alo-! i) 'is criti/(e o0
5artre: s(c' ;+iKere)t +omai)s; as ;)at(ral a)+ irratio)al )(m*ers.;
12
%'e Aostmo+er)ist mi-'t reAl! t'at t'e Ari)ciAle
o0 ;+iKere)ce; imAlies a tr(l! ra+ical e-alitaria)ism: *eca(se it reco-)iJes )o sta)+ar+ *! >'ic' o)e i)+ivi+(al or -ro(A
ca) *e E(+-e+ as *etter t'a) a)ot'er. 9(t t'e Aoi)t is t'at t'is Ari)ciAle o0 +iKere)ce ca))ot Arovi+e a)! sta)+ar+s >'ic'
o*li-e (s to resAect t'e ;+iKere)ce; o0 ot'ers. $t *est: it i)vites o(r indifference to t'e 0ate o0 t'e <t'er. $t >orst: it
lice)ses (s to 'ate a)+ a*(se t'ose >'o are +iKere)t. W'!: a0ter all: s'o(l+ >e )or a*(se a)+ 'ate t'emP <) >'at *asis
ca) t'e! +ema)+ o(r resAect or >e +ema)+ t'eirsP It is ver! +iKic(lt to s(AAort resAect 0or +iKere)ce
>it'o(t aAAeali)- to some ;total iJi)-:; ()iversalistic Ari)ciAles o0 e/(alit! or social E(stice. We
ca) ac2)o> le+-e t'at t'e co)ceAt o0 ;ri-'ts; is 'istoricall! sAeciFc a)+ sociall! co)str(cte+M *(t
a)! ar-(me)t i) 0avor o0 e/(al ri-'ts: i) >'atever 0orm: i)varia*l! *ri)-s (s *ac2 to >'at
Aostmo+er)ists >o(l+ call a) ;esse)tialist; e1Ala)atio). <)ce s(c' e1Ala)atio)s: >'et'er )at(ral or social:
are e1cl(+e+: t'e ver! i+ea o0 e/(alit! also *ecomes s(*or+i)ate to t'e ;co)ti) -e)c! o0 Arevaili)-
i+e)tities.; I0 t'e aAAeara)ce o0 +iKere)ce is ta2e) at 0ace val(e: i) t'e a*se)ce o0 a)! commo) ;esse)ce; *e!o)+ or
*e)eat' t'at aAAeara)ce: t'e) t'e appearance o0 +iKere)ce m(st *e ta2e) as evi+e)ce t'at t'ere are i)+ee+ ma)!
+iKere)t cate-ories o0 '(ma)it! a)+ t'at t'e! 'ave )ot'i)- 0()+ame)tall! i) commo). %'is is Arecisel! t'e met'o+
emAlo!e+ *! Aositivist racial t'eor!: >'ic' +e+(ce+ 0rom t'e aAAeara)ce o0 +iKere)ce 8s2i) color: 'ea+ 0orm: a)+ so o)C
t'e +ivisio) o0 '(ma)it! i)to +iKere)t cate-ories or ;races.; <0 co(rse: co)temAorar! t'eorists o0 +iKere)ce
+e)! t'at s(AerF cial *iolo-ical +iKere)ces +eF)e cate-orical +isti)ctio)s: Are0erri)- i)stea+ to
emA'asiJe 'istorical or c(lt(ral 0actors. 9(t c(lt(ral 0ormalism is i) s(*sta)ce )o +iKere)t 0rom
racial 0ormalism. 9ot' move 0rom t'e aAAre'e)sio) o0 0ormal +iKere)ce to Aosit t'e e1iste)ce o0 +iKere)t o)tolo-ical
cate-ories. %'is is >'! t'e a)ti,esse)tialist te)+e)cies o0 Aoststr(ct(ralist t'o(-'t i)evita*l! A(ts
i) /(estio) e/(alit! itsel0.
ENDI 2010 24
LINK/ I1ENTIT4
I$entit% +o"itics are commo$it% etishism;o!r a"ternative is the on"% (a%
to $ea" critica""% (ith ca+ita"ism an$ other re"ations o +o(er
>oo$ .E , Aro0. o0 Aol. sci. 6 Hor2 7)iv. 8Elle) Mei2si)s: ;Democrac! $-ai)st 3aAitalismM
Re)e>i)- Historical Materialism:; A.256,26": RBC
I) t'ese resAects: t'e )e> Al(ralism 'as m(c' i) commo) >it' a)ot'er ol+ Al(ralism: t'e o)e t'at
(se+ to Arevail i) co)ve)tio)al Aolitical scie)ce , Al(ralism )ot simAl! as a) et'ical Ari)ciAle o0
toleratio) *(t as a t'eor! a*o(t t'e +istri*(tio) o0 social Ao>er. %'e co)ceAt o0 Gi+e)tit!G 'as
reAlace+ Gi)terest -ro(AsG: a)+ t'ese t>o Al(ralisms ma! +iKer i) t'at t'e ol+ ac2)o>le+-es a) i)cl(sive Aolitical
totalit! , li2e t'e GAolitical s!stemG: t'e )atio): or t'e *o+! o0 citiJe)s , >'ile t'e )e> i)sists o) t'e irre+(ci*ilit! o0
0ra-me)tatio) a)+ G+iKere)ceG. 9(t *ot' +e)! t'e imAorta)ce o0 class i) caAitalist +emocracies: or at least s(*mer-e it i)
a m(ltiAlicit! o0 Gi)terestsG or Gi+e)titiesG. 9ot' 'ave t'e eKect o0 +e)!i)- t'e s!stemic ()it! o0 caAitalism: or its ver!
e1iste)ce as a social s!stem. 9ot' i)sist o) t'e 'etero-e)eit! o0 caAitalist societ!: >'ile losi)- si-'t o0 its i)creasi)-l!
-lo*al Ao>er o0 'omo-e)iJatio). %'e )e> Al(ralism claims a ()i/(e se)sitivit! to t'e comAle1ities o0
Ao>er a)+ +iverse oAAressio)sM *(t li2e t'e ol+ variet!: it 'as t'e eKect o0 ma2i)- i)visi*le t'e
Ao>er relatio)s t'at co)stit(te caAitalism: the $omi nant str!ct!re o coercion >'ic' reac'es i)to
ever! cor)er o0 o(r lives: A(*lic a)+ Arivate. I) t'eir 0ail(re to ac2)o>le+-e t'at vario(s i+e)tities or i)terest -ro(As are
+iKere)tl! sit(ate+ i) relatio) to t'at +omi)a)t str(ct(re: *ot' Al(ralisms reco-)iJe )ot so m(c' di'erence as simAle
pluralit( %'is latest +e)ial o0 caAitalismGs s!stemic a)+ totaliJi)- lo-ic is: Aara+o1icall!: a
reNectio) o0 t'e ver! t'i)- it see2s to +e)!. %'e c(rre)t Areocc(Aatio) >it' GAost,mo+er)G
+iversit! a)+ 0ra-me)t atio) ()+o(*te+l! e1Aresses a realit! i) co)temAorar! caAitalism: *(t it is
a realit! see) t'ro(-' t'e +istorti)- le)s o0 i+eolo-!. It reArese)ts t'e (ltimate Gcommo+it!
0etis'ismG: t'e tri(mA' o0Gco)s(mer societ!G: i) >'ic' t'e +iversit! o0Gli0e st!lesG: meas(re+ i) t'e s'eer
/(a)tit! o0 commo+ities a)+ varie+ Aatter)s o0 co)s(mAtio): +is-(ises t'e ()+erl!i)- s!stemic ()it!: t'e
imAeratives >'ic' create t'at +iversit! itsel0 >'ile at t'e same time imAosi)- a +eeAer a)+ more -lo*al 'omo-e)eit!.
W'at is alarmi)- a*o(t t'ese t'eoretical +eveloAme)ts is )ot t'at t'e! violate some +octri)aire Mar1ist AreE(+ice
co)cer)i)- t'e Arivile-e+ stat(s o0 class. %'e Aro*lem is t'at theories (hich $o not $iferentiate ; an$:
!es: .+rivi"e)e.: i0 t'at mea)s ascri*i)- ca(sal or e1Ala)ator! Ariorities * amon) vario!s socia"
instit!tions an$ .i$entities. cannot $ea" critica""% (ith ca+ita"ism at a""4 3aAitalism: as a
sAeciFc social 0orm: simAl! +isaAAears 0rom vie>: *(rie+ ()+er a >elter o0 0ra-me)ts a)+
G+iKere)ceG.
ENDI 2010 25
LINK/ RACE
Treatin) race as a socia" constr!ction i)nores (h% racism ha++ens in the
1rst +"ace @ narratives o s+eci1cit% "i'e the af cro($ o!t historica"
materia"ist ana"%sis o racia" e6c"!sion
Yo!n) ?3 , Aro0essor o0 E)-lis' 6 7)iversit! o0 $la*ama 8Ro*ert: Q%'e 4i)-(istic %(r):
Materialism a)+ Race& %o>ar+ a) $est'etics o0 3risis:R 3allaloo: 2481C: Wi)ter 2001: AA. ""4,
"45: #roEect M75E: RBC
$t t'e mome)t it is -e)erall! acceAte+ t'at race is a social co)str(ctio). It is also -e)erall!
acceAte+ t'at race 'as *ee) co)str(cte+ alo)- a) oAAressive a1is. %'e co)se)s(s is +ist(r*e+
>'e) o)e attemAts to acco()t 0or >'! oAAressio) e1ists i) t'e Frst Alace. %'e co)testatio)s are
eve) s'arAer >'e) o)e oKers a) acco()t o0 race o(tsi+e o0 t'e Arevaili)- lo-ic o0
s(AAleme)tarit!. Wit' t'e Aostmo+er) +is*elie0 i) meta)arrative 84!otar+C a)+ t'e s(*se/(e)t s2eAticism to>ar+
co)ceAts: race is see) as a troAe: a)+ it is )o> ver! +iKic(lt to oKer co)ceAt(al acco()ts o0 race. He)ce Q)arratives o0
sAeciFcit!R circ(late a)+ t'e e1Aerie)ce o0 race esta*lis'es t'e limit o0 i)telli-i*ilit!. Wit'i) t'is
co)te1t I s'all attemAt to reclaim a co)ceAt,*ase+ materialist ()+ersta)+i)- o0 race. I >ill ar-(e
t'at race si-)iFes alterit! *eca(se o0 t'e +ivisio) o0 la*or. I) ot'er >or+s race +iKere)ce oAerates i)
t'e i)terest o0 mai)tai)i)- a)+ E(sti0!i)- s(rAl(s e1tractio).1
M! ar-(me)t Arocee+s i) t'ree Aarts. .irst I e)-a-e t'e li)-(istic t(r) i) social t'eor! a)+ 0ore-ro()+ t'e imAlicatio)s
0or t'eoriJi)- race. I criti/(e some e1emAlar! i)sta)ces o0 Aoststr(ct(ralist acco()ts o0 race: a)+ I esAeciall! e)-a-e t'e
>or2 o0 He)r! 4o(is Bates: @r.: a) i)N(e)tial e1Ao)e)t o0 co)ti)e)tal t'eor! >it'i) $0rica),$merica) literar! a)+ c(lt(ral
+isco(rses. I ar-(e t'at t'e li)-(istic t(r) e)a*les Q)arratives o0 sAeciFcit!R a)+ t'ese )arratives
+isAlace relatio)al i)/(iries. 3o)se/(e)tl!: t'e sAeciFcit! o0 race is +isco))ecte+ 0rom ()+erl!i)-
ca(sal mec'a)isms.
Ne1t: I criticall! e1ami)e 3or)el West. West is t'o(-'t to oKer a) a+va)ce over t'e i+ealism i) li)-(istic t'eor!.
Ho>ever: I >ill s'o> t'at 'is Q-e)ealo-ical materialismR +oes )ot move (s a>a! 0rom t'e i+ealism o0 Bates *(t (ltimatel!
e)+s (A Aoi)ti)- (s *ac2 to Q)arratives o0 sAeciFcit!.R <)ce a-ai) t'e Qe1Aerie)tialR is Arivile-e+ a)+ t'e 'istorical
+etermi)ate co)+itio)s o0 Aossi*ilit! 0or s(c' a) e1Aerie)ce is o*sc(re+. 9! *loc2i)- a) ()+ersta)+i)- o0 t'e 'istoricit!
o0 e1Aerie)ce: Bates a)+ West limit i)telli-i*ilit! to t'e local: a)+ I >ill s'o> 'o> t'is lea+s to ver! co)servative
()+ersta)+i)-s o0 race.
.i)all! I +ra> (Ao) Ric'ar+ Wri-'tTs #lack #o: >'ic' oKers a) eKective co()ter to Q)arratives o0 sAeciFcit!.R Wri-'t
also oAerates at t'e local level: *(t 'e sit(ates it >it'i) t'e -lo*al. Wri-'t artic(lates >'at I call a)
Qaest'etics o0 crisisR *eca(se 'e +emo)strates t'at +ail! li0e is t'e site o0 co)tra+ictio)s 0or a raciall! str(ct(re+ a)+
e1Aloitative social or+er. I0 race is +eAlo!e+ to mai)tai) a)+ E(sti0! a) as!mmetrical +ivisio) o0 la*or
t'e) its ver! +eAlo!me)t i) +ail! li0e e1Aoses t'e 0a(lt li)e o0 +omi)a)t i+eolo-ies. %'e claims o0 t'e
4i*eral +emocratic state are co)tra+icte+ *! t'e +ail! li0e o0 $0rica),$merica)s. Wri-'tTs Qaest'etic o0 crisisR )ot
o)l! *ri)-s i)to s'arA 0oc(s t'e co)tra+ictio)s ()+er caAitalism *(t also locates >it'i) +ail! li0e
a (toAia) imA(lse.
M! rea+i)- oAerates 0rom t'e mo+alit! o0 criti/(e *eca(se criti/(e moves 0rom t'e imma)e)t lo-ic a)+
sit(ates race a)+ its lo-ic i) 'istor!: i) t'e -lo*al 0rames o0 i)telli-i*ilit! t'at 'elA to reAro+(ce
t'e eco)omic: Aolitical a)+ i+eolo-ical reAro+(ctio) o0 a Aartic(lar social 0ormatio). 3riti/(e is t'at
2)o>le+-e Aractice t'at 'istoricall! sit(ates t'e co)+itio)s o0 Aossi*ilit! o0 >'at emAiricall! e1ists
()+er caAitalist la*or relatio)s a)+ Aoi)ts to >'at is s(AAresse+ *! t'e emAiricall! e1isti)-D>'at co(l+ *e
i)stea+ o0 >'at act(all! is. .or e1amAle: a rece)t 7)ite+ Natio)s reAort co)cl(+es t'at t'e >ealt' o0 t'e seve)
ric'est me) co(l+ comAletel! elimi)ate >orl+ Aovert!. %'e satis0actio) o0 '(ma) )ee+ o) a
-lo*al scale is 'istoricall! a)+ o*Eectivel! Aossi*le: *(t t'is is >'at is s(AAresse+ ()+er t'e
re-ime o0 caAitalism. It is *eca(se o0 s(c' Aossi*ilities t'at criti/(e is so (r-e)t *eca(se criti/(e i)+icates t'at >'at
QisR is )ot )ecessaril! t'e real=tr(e *(t rat'er t'e e1isti)- act(alit! >'ic' is oAe) to alteratio). %'e role o0 criti/(e
i) materialist Aostmo+er) +isco(rse o) race is t'e Aro+(ctio) o0 'istorical 2)o>le+-es t'at mar2
t'e 'istoricit! o0 e1isti)- social arra)-eme)ts a)+ t'e Aossi*ilit! o0 a +iKere)t social
or-a)iJatio)Do)e t'at is 0ree 0rom e1Aloitatio).
3riti/(e: t'e): is a mo+alit! t'at re)+ers visi*le t'e ()sai+ i) or+er to 0ore-ro()+ t'e oAeratio)s
o0 Ao>er a)+ t'e ()+erl!i)- socio,eco)omic str(ct(re >'ic' co))ect t'e seemi)-l! +isAarate
eve)ts a)+ reArese)tatio)s o0 +ail! li0e. I) s(m: materialist criti/(e +isr(Ats t'at >'ic' reArese)ts
itsel0 as Q)at(ral:R as i)evita*le: as t'e >a! t'i)-s are: a)+ e1Aoses t'e >a! Q>'at isR is 'istoricall!
a)+ sociall! Aro+(ce+ o(t o0 social co)tra+ictio)s a)+ 'e)ce s(AAortive o0 i)e/(alit!. 3riti/(e
ENDI 2010 26
Aresses t'e social co)tra+ictio)s i)to 8aest'etics o0C crisis a)+ co)se/(e)tl! criti/(e e)a*les (s
to )ot o)l! e1Alai) 'o> race oAerates so >e ca) c'a)-e it *(t also to collectivel! *(il+ t'e
ema)ciAator! s(*Eectivities )ecessar! to carr! o(t revol(tio)ar! str(--le.
ENDI 2010 27
LINK/ RACE
9ateria" orces o +ro$!ction sha+e the (a% (e thin' a#o!t race @ histor%
has ma$e o++ression via race on"% e6ist thro!)h ca+ita"ism
I) 1985 +(ri)- t'e 'i-'Aoi)t o0 Aoststr(ct(ralist t'eor!: BatesT e+ite+ vol(me QRace, Writing, and *i'erenceR is
reArese)tative o0 a +eco)str(ctive A'ase: as t'e vol(me aims Qto +eco)str(ct: i0 !o( >ill: t'e i+eas o0 +iKere)ce i)scri*e+
i) t'e troAe o0 race . . .R 86C. Ho>ever *! 1990: t'e Aostmo+er)ist +etermi)ism is too restrictive o0 a-e)c! a)+ i) Q3ritical
Remar2sR Bates )o> criti/(es t'eor! *eca(se Qit is )ot m(c' -oo+ at e1Alori)- t'e relatio)s *et>ee) social i+e)tit! a)+
Aolitical a-e)c!R 8"2"C. 5i-)iFca)tl!: Bates asserts t'at Q5tarti)- >it' t'e reco-)itio) t'at t'e SreNe1ive actorT is )ot
simAl! a -ive): a s(*Eectivit! e1isti)- Arior to a)+ i)+eAe)+e)t 0rom la)-(a-e: >e too /(ic2l! +eci+e+ t'at its 0actitio(s
ma+e it a) eKect o0 li)-(istic +etermi)atio). 9(t t'at +i+ )ot 0ollo>R 8"24C. %'(s t'e Qs(*Eect is )ot o)l! a) eKect o0
la)-(a-e *(t a AarticiAa)t i) a) artic(late+ realm o0 social Aractices t'at: 0ar 0rom co)strai)i)- its a-e)c!: are its ver!
co)+itio)s o0 Aossi*ilit!R 8"24C. %'e t'eoretical s(t(re is ma+e a)+ e1Aerie)ce is rec(Aerate+ a)+ *! 1994 >e 'ave
BatesT memoir: Colored +eopleD>'ic': i)ci+e)tall! Qis )ot a stor! o0 a race *(t a stor! o0 a villa-e: a 0amil!: a)+ its
0rie)+sR 81viC. BatesT traEector! Aro+(ces a Q)arrative o0 sAeciFcit!R as t'e e1Aerie)tial is rec(Aerate+. BatesT
+isco(rse *loc2s a) ()+ersta)+i)- o0 t'e +etermi)ate relatio) *et>ee) race a)+ social a)+
eco)omic str(ct(res. 7)+er t'e Aoststr(ct(ralist eras(re o0 race: it is )ot s(rArisi)- t'at t'e
+isc(rsive rea+i)-s o0 race >o(l+ /(ic2l! e1'a(st Aolitical=t'eoretical via*ilit! *eca(se: as
3alli)icos Aoi)ts o(t: QRacism remai)s o)e o0 t'e mai) 0eat(res o0 t'e a+va)ce+ caAitalist societiesR
8QRace a)+ 3lassRC. 3alli)icos co)ti)(es& QIt UracismV is i)stit(tio)aliJe+ i) t'e s!stematic +iscrimi)atio)
>'ic' *lac2 AeoAle e1Aerie)ce i) Eo*s: 'o(si)-: t'e e+(catio) s!stem: a)+ t'e 'arassme)t t'e!
s(Ker at t'e 'a)+s o0 Aolice a)+ immi-ratio) a(t'oritiesR 8"C. %'e Aostmo+er)ist eras(re o0 race i)
li-'t o0 co)ti)(e+ racial oAAressio)=e1Aloitatio) *ri)-s to t'e 0ore t'e co)ti)(e+ (r-e)c! 0or
artic(lati)- Aro+(ctive acco()ts o0 race. Eve) o) its o>) li*eral terms t'e erasi)- o0 race >as Q(),et'icalR i)
li-'t o0 t'e Qe1Aerie)cesR o0 raciall! mar2e+ s(*Eects. E1Aerie)ce: t'o(-': is )ot sel0,i)telli-i*le a)+ s'o(l+ )ot *e
Aosite+ as t'e limit te1t o0 t'e real: as is o0te) +o)e. E1Aerie)ce is a 'i-'l! me+iate+ 0rame o0 ()+ersta)+i)-. W'ile it is
tr(e t'at a Aerso) o0 color: a >oma): or -a! Aerso) e1Aerie)ces oAAressio): t'is e1Aerie)ce is )ot sel0,
e1Ala)ator!Dit 'as to *e sit(ate+ i) relatio) to ot'er social Aractices. E1Aerie)ce: i) s'ort: o)l! seems
localM it is li2e all c(lt(ral a)+ Aolitical Aractices: i)terrelate+ to ot'er Aractices a)+ e1Aerie)ces: a)+ as s(c' its
e1Ala)atio) comes 0rom its Qo(tsi+e.R %'eor! is a) ()+ersta)+i)- o0 t'is e1Aerie)ce a)+ a) e1Ala)atio) o0 e1Aerie)ce.
Theor% sho(s that the F$iferenceG Ho e6+erienceI is itse" )"o#a"2 historica"2 an$ a"(a%s
$etermine$ #% the materia" orces o +ro$!ction. %'e mar2i)- o0 e1Aerie)ce co(l+ 'ave *ee) t'e
t'eoretical occasio) to 8reCsit(ate race i) t'e lar-er 'istorical series o0 t'e reAro+(ctio) a)+ mai)te)a)ce o0
s(*Eectivities i) i+eolo-!D t'e AroEect: 0or e1amAle: o0 materialist c(lt(ral st(+ies. %'e
'e-emo)ic +isco(rses o0 race: t'o(-': are movi)- a>a! 0rom co)ceAt,*ase+ i)/(iries a)+ rei0!i)-
race=e1Aerie)ce a)+ setti)- t'e c(lt(ral as t'e limits o0 i)telli-i*ilit!. 5ee 0or e1amAle a rece)t sAecial
iss(e o0 ,ocial Te)t i) >'ic' >riters s(c' as Ho>ar+ Wi)a)t: Bra)t .arre+: a)+ 4e>is Bor+o) ar-(e t'e case 0or
Qa-e)c!:R Qsel0,i)ve)tio):R a)+ Qet'ics:R resAectivel!. %'e limits o0 s(c' a vie> are evi+e)t i) Wi)a)t. $0ter Aositi)- t'at
QRace remai)s a m!sterio(s A'e)ome)o)R 86C: it is )ot s(rArisi)- t'at 'e ca))ot F)+ a)s>ers to Q>'! societ! ca) remai)
so i)te)sel! racialise+R 88C. He is le0t >it' a Alea to Q+eveloA a racial t'eor! t'at ca) F)+ a >a! . . . to reco-)iJe t'e
Aote)tials o0 '(ma) a-e)c!R 810C. Wi)a)tTs te1t is s!mAtomatic o0 t'e i+ealism Aerva+i)- +isco(rses o0 race: *(t as I
'ave *ee) ar-(i)- race is )ot a Qm!ster!R )or a matter o0 Q*a+R attit(+es *(t a 8str(ct(ralC
+esi-)atio) a)+ 8i+eolo-icalC le-itimatio) o0 a s(*or+i)ate+ str(ct(ral Aositio) >it'i) t'e
relatio)s o0 Aro+(ctio). %'(s t'e tra)s0ormatio) o0 racism is Aart o0 t'e lar-er str(--le to
tra)s0orm t'e eco)omic e)a*li)- co)+itio)s o0 Aossi*ilit!Dt'e re-ime o0 >a-e,la*or: >'ic'
+eAlo!s race to mai)tai) a)+ i)crease )ecessar! AroFt mar-i)s. %'e s!stemic locatio) o0 race:
t'o(-': is s(AAresse+ as a co)se/(e)ce o0 t'e Aostmo+er)ist c(lt(ralist *ias: a)+ t'(s t'ere is a
Aolitical +isAlaceme)t >'ere*!: as 5teve Iie(1 Aoi)ts o(t: Qt'e 0oc(s i) Aostmo+er) t'eor! 'as *ee) o)
oAAressio): Ua)+V )ot e1Aloitatio)R 829C. %'(s 0or e1amAle: i) QW'at is t'is S9lac2T i) 9lac2 #oA(lar 3(lt(re:R
5t(art Hall is i)tereste+ i) t'ose c(lt(ral strate-ies Qt'at ca) ma2e a +iKere)ce a)+ s'i0t t'e +isAositio)s o0 Ao>erR 824C.
Ho>ever: t'ere are limits to s!m*olic reco)F-(ratio)s. Eve) Bates reco-)iJes t'at Q9lac2 AeoAle 'ave )ot *ee)
li*erate+ 0rom racism *! o(r >riti)-sR8Race 12C a)+ also Bates reveals t'e limits o0 et'ics& QWe acceAte+ a 0alse
Aremise *! ass(mi)- t'at racism >o(l+ *e +estro!e+ o)ce >'ite racists *ecame co)vi)ce+ t'at >e >ere '(ma): tooR
8Race 12C. 9(t eve) so Bates still asserts t'at Qit is a mista2e to 'ol+ t'at to era+icate racism: >e m(st elimi)ate its most
0()+ame)tal co)+itio)s o0 Aossi*ilit!R 8Q3ritical Remar2sR "27C. <0 co(rse t'e most 0()+ame)tal co)+itio)s o0
Aossi*ilit! o0 racism: as I 'ave *ee) Aoi)ti)- o(t: is caAitalismDt'e re-ime o0 +iKere)tial
e1tractio) o0 s(rAl(s val(e 0rom raciall! mar2e+ s(*Eects. %'e re0ormism o0 t'ese +isco(rses is
ENDI 2010 28
ver! clear a)+ it lea+s to a) a*sol(tel! +e*ilitati)- Aolitical Aractice. I0 >e reco-)iJe t'e limits o0
>riti)- a)+ ot'er +isc(rsive Aractices a)+ et'ical +isco(rses a)+ !et m(st reEect artic(lati)- a -lo*al tra)s0ormative
AroEect: t'e) >'at are >e le0t >it'P W'at is to *e +o)eP I) t'e i)tro+(ctio) to a rece)tl! e+ite+ vol(me Bates a)+ $AAia'
seem to s(--est t'at a >a! o(t o0 t'e aAoria is to merel! e1te)+ t'e m(ltiAlicatio) o0 i+e)tities to Q'elA +isr(At t'e
clic'Yri++e) +isco(rse o0 i+e)tit! *! e1Alori)- t'e 0ormatio) o0 i+e)tities . . .R 8$dentities 1C. .or Bates 8raceC i+e)tit! is a
troAe a)+ t'eoriJe+ as a te1t(al matter& Q*lac2)ess is Aro+(ce+ i) t'e te1t o)l! t'ro(-' a comAle1 Arocess o0
si-)iFcatio):R t'(s Q%'ere ca) *e )o tra)sce)+e)t *lac2)ess . . .R 8,ignifing Monke 2"7C. $s a te1t: t'e): *lac2)ess
al>a!s alrea+! rei)scri*es t'e ot'er as it is t'e site o0 i)terte1t(alit!. I0 t'e si-)i0!i)- mo)2e! is a metaA'or 0or
reAetitio) >it' a si-)al +iKere)ce a)+ i)terte1t(alit!: Q*lac2)ess *ecomes merel! a 0ormal Aositio) >it'i) t'e si-)i0!i)-
s!stems. %'e 8li*eralC Aolitics o0 s(c' r'etorical +isco(rse *ecomes clear >'e) Bates sa!s& Q4est t'is t'eor! o0 criticism:
'o>ever: *e t'o(-'t o0 as o)l! *lac2: let me a+mit t'at t'e imAlicit Aremise o0 t'is st(+! is t'at all te1ts 5i-)i0! (Ao)
ot'er te1ts: i) motivate+ a)+ ()motivate+ >a!sR 8,ignifing Monke 11ivC. #(t +iKere)tl!: i0 *lac2)ess is +iKere)ce a)+
all te1ts are sit(ate+ >it'i) )et>or2s o0 +iKere)ce: t'e) all te1ts are i) a se)se Q*lac2:R a)+ *lac2 mea)s )ot'i)- more
t'a) '!*ri+it!. Here: t'e): is t'e co)tra+ictio)& Bates is see2i)- to co)str(ct a) a(to)omo(s a)+ imma)e)t t'eor! o0
rea+i)- 80rom >it'i) $0rica),$merica) literar! tra+itio)C *(t i) rel!i)- (Ao) Aoststr(ct(ralist Ari)ciAles 'e is 0orce+ to
re-ister t'at ever! te1t is i)scri*e+ >it' its ot'erD t'(s Q*lac2)essR )o> mea)s )ot'i)- more t'a) a si-) o0
i)terte1t(alit!. %'e 'istoricall! sAeciFc co)te)t o0 Q*lac2)essR >it'i) oAAressive a)+ e1Aloitative
7.5. social relatio)s is 80ormall!C emAtie+ o(t. $)+ to reAeat t'e Aolitics o0 s(c' a 0ormalist )otio)
erases t'e 'istoricit! o0 racial viole)ce=oAAressio) a)+ e1Aloitatio). $s Ho(sto) 9a2er correctl! Aoi)ts
o(t: BatesT vie> o0 la)-(a-e=c(lt(re=literat(re s(--ests t'at QSliterar!T mea)i)-s are co)ceive+ i) a )o)social:
)o)i)stit(tio)al ma))er *! t'e Aoi)t o0 co)scio(s)ess o0 a la)-(a-e
3<N%IN7E5O
ENDI 2010 29
LINK: RACE
3<N%IN7EDO
a)+ mai)tai)e+ a)+ tra)smitte+: >it'o(t a) a-e)t: >it'i) a close+ circle o0 Si)terte1t(alit!TR 8101C. %'e mea)i)- o0
9lac2)ess is 'istorical a)+ material a)+ i0 t'ere is te1t(al '!*ri+it! it Natte)s o(t i) t'e social >'ic' str(ct(res racial
'ierarc'!. Wit'i) t'e racial 'e-emo)! o0 7.5. societ!: t'ere are )o Q>'iteR Ro+)e! Ki)-s. W'ile 9a2er (se0(ll! criti/(es
t'e 0ormalism o0 Bates: 9a2er )o)et'eless a*sor*s cr(cial Aostmo+er)ist Ari)ciAles a)+ as a co)se/(e)ce e)-a-es t'e
Qeco)omics o0 slaver!R Qsemioticall!R a)+ t'(s 'is +isco(rse is 0o()+e+ o) a co)tra+ictio). 5emiotic t'eor! is committe+
to t'e )otio) o0 t'e +isc(rsive co)stit(tio) o0 t'e realM t'is is most clearl! e1Aresse+ i) .o(ca(lt >'o ar-(e+ t'at
Q+isco(rses . . . as Aractices . . . s!stematicall! 0orm t'e o*Eects o0 >'ic' t'e! sAea2R 8-rchaeolog 49C. Ho>ever: at t'e
same time: 9a2er Aosits a Qtra)sce)+e)tal si-)iFe+RDt'e Qeco)omics o0 slaver!RD>'ic' s(--ests a commitme)t to
materialism a)+ t'(s a) o(tsi+e to t'e +isc(rsiveM a)+ !et t'is commitme)t to materialism 8a realit!
i)+eAe)+e)t o0 '(ma) co)scio(s)essC is (ltimatel! ca)cele+ *! 'is Aromotio) o0 semiotic t'eor!:
>'ic' +e)ies )otio)s o0 'istorical o*Eectivit!. I) 0act: 0or 9a2er: Q%'ere is )o s(c' t'i)- as a) So*EectiveT
'istor!R 8121C a)+ co)se/(e)tl! 'e m(st reEect >'at 'is Qeco)omics o0 slaver!R e1Alicitl! calls 0or&
materialism. %'e co)cer) >it' t'e mec'a)ics o0 si-)iFcatio) oAerates to occl(+e t'e Aolitical eco)om! o0
si-)iFcatio): a)+ ema)ciAatio) is re+(ce+ to +eco)str(cti)- a)+ re0as'io)i)- oAAressive si-)s alo)- a less oAAressive
a1is. I) see2i)- to avoi+ a Qv(l-ar Mar1ism:R 9a2er sit(ates race as a Aolitical cate-or!. %'e Aolitics o0 sit(ati)- race as a
Aolitical co)ceAt *ecomes clearer >'e) >e 0ore-ro()+ t'e Aolitical co)se/(e)ces o0 s(c' a move. Rea+i)- race as a
Aolitical cate-or! lea+s alo)- t'e traEector! o0 Aolitical=le-al re0orm 8o0 t'e stat(s /(oC to e1Aa)+
access o0 t'e 8mi++le,classC Qot'erR to t'e s(rAl(s. <)e m(st *ear i) mi)+ t'at t'is li*eral re0ormism is
al>a!s alrea+! co)stit(te+ (Ao) t'e 8eco)omicC str(ct(re o0 >a-e,la*orDa 0ormatio) i) >'ic' s(rAl(s
val(e is e1torte+ 0rom t'e +irect Aro+(cers. %'e iss(e is )ot so m(c' to allo> a 0e> more to 'ave access to t'e s(rAl(s
via le-islatio) 0or mi++le class *lac2s *(t to alter t'e eco)omic arra)-eme)t o0 societ! so t'at t'e 0e> are
)ot -ive) ()limite+ access to t'e s(rAl(s at t'e e1Ae)se o0 +e)!i)- t'e )ee+s o0 t'e ma)!. I0 t'e
relatio) *et>ee) si-)iFer=si-)iFe+ is ar*itrar!: as Bates a)+ social co)str(ctio)ists Aoi)t o(t: t'e) o)e 'as to e1te)+ t'e
a)al!sis a)+ e1Alai) )ot Q'o>R it >or2s *(t >'! Q*lac2)essR is assi-)e+ s(c' a )e-ative=oAAressive si-)iFe+. I0 it is )ot
)at(ral: t'e) >'! s(c' a +e'(ma)iJe+ co)str(ctio)P I0 it is i) t'e te1t: t'e) >'!P <r is t'e te1t )at(rall! a)+
sAo)ta)eo(sl! artic(lati)- *lac2)ess as a )e-ative si-)iFe+P <0 co(rse Aostmo+er)ists ca))ot e)+orse a)!
)otio)s o0 a )at(rall! artic(late+ )e-ative si-)iFe+ *(t >it'o(t t'eoriJi)- t'e socialit! o0 s(c' a)
artic(latio):D>'ic' t'e! are Arecl(+e+ 0rom +oi)- *eca(se o0 a) i)E()ctio) a-ai)st QtotaliJi)-R
)arrativesDmetaA'!sics sliAs *ac2 i)to t'e ver! +isco(rses o0 co)str(ctio)ism. 3or)el WestTs i)terve)tio) is t'o(-'t
to Arovi+e a >a! o(t o0 t'ese aAorias. %'ere0ore: I >a)t to criticall! e)-a-e o)e o0 'is rece)t >or2s: .eeping /aith. 4i2e
most soA'isticate+ *o(r-eois t'eorists to+a!: West 'as move+ *e!o)+ merel! ass(mi)-: as tra+itio)alists +o: t'at
c'a)-i)- *iase+ mi)+s >ill era+icate racism. More imAorta)tl!: 'e 'as also move+ *e!o)+ l(+ic Aostmo+er)ismTs
Derri+ea) ar-(me)ts 8ma+e 0amiliar i): sa!: He)r! 4o(is BatesT >or2C t'at racism ca) *e +ealt >it' as a Qte1t.R %'(s
QU(V)li2e Derri+a a)+ +e Ma): -e)ealo-ical materialism +oes )ot rest co)te)t >it' a 'oriJo) o0 la)-(a-eR 8265C.
ENDI 2010 "0
LINK: RACE @ :ISTORY
Their a!!roach is "enealo"ical at (est:it 'oesn5t ta6e into acco#nt historical #n'erstan'in"s o&
the material (o'ies involve' in histor an' o(sc#res a !olitici)e' #n'erstan'in" o& race
West a+oAts i)stea+ a varia)t o0 l(+ic Aostmo+er) t'eor!& NietJsc'e,i)sAire+ .o(ca(l+ia) t'eories o0 materialism: )ot as
a mo+e o0 Aro+(ctio): *(t as Qt'e sAeciFcit! o0 +iKere)ce.R West ar-(es: 0or i)sta)ce: t'at t'e ver! Ari)ciAles a)c'ori)-
Mar1ism re/(ire t'e s(Aercessio) o0 Mar1ism& Qt'e Ari)ciAle o0 'istorical sAeciFcit! a)+ t'e materialit! o0 str(ct(re+
social AracticesDt'e ver! 0o()+i)- Ari)ciAles o0 Mar1Ts o>) +isco(rseD)o> re/(ires (s to *e -e)ealo-ical materialistsR
8266C. %'(s West reAlaces Mar1ist )otio)s o0 'istor!: >'ic' 0ore-ro()+ t'e class str(--le e)s(i)-
0rom e1Aloitative social arra)-eme)ts: Q>it' NietJsc'ea) )otio)s o0 -e)ealo-!: Ua)+V !et
Areserves t'e materialit! o0 m(lti0acete+ str(ct(re+ social AracticesR 8265C. The materia"2 then2
is not !n$erstoo$ in re"ation to the +ro$!ction an$ e6traction o s!r+"!s va"!e thro!)h
the "a#orin) #o$% o the (or'er2 #!t rather is "ocate$ in ahistorica" notions o the #o$%
8266C. I) WestTs co)E()ctio) o0 Mar1ism a)+ .o(ca(lt: t'e sAeciFc socioeco)omic co)te1t is eli+e+: a)+ 'e eKectivel!
reco)stit(tes Mar1ism >it'o(t 'istoricall! +etermi)ate relatio)s a)+ co)se/(e)tl! o*sc(res t'e la>s o0 motio) o0 caAital.
WestTs rea+i)- o0 t'e material is a) i+eolo-ical *loc2i)- o0 'istorical materialism. He ar-(es t'at
-e)ealo-ical materialism Qs'o(l+ *e more materialist t'a) t'at o0 t'e Mar1ist tra+itio): to t'e
e1te)t t'at t'e Arivile-e+ material mo+e o0 Aro+(ctio) is )ot )ecessaril! locate+ i) t'e eco)omic
sA'ereR 8266C. .or West: t'e): Q+ecisive material mo+es o0 Aro+(ctio) at a -ive) mome)t ma! *e
locate+ i) t'e c(lt(ral: Aolitical: or eve) As!c'ic sA'ereR 8266C. %'is vie> is: o0 co(rse: Arecisel!
>'at t'e +omi)a)t c(lt(ral aAAarat(ses Aromote as t'e! s(AAress 'o> $0rica),$merica)
oAAressio) a)+ e1Aloitatio) is locate+ >it'i) t'e material +omai): t'e eKect o0 t'e relatio)s o0
Aro+(ctio). %o Aosit t'e As!c'ic +omai): eve) Aote)tiall! as a +ecisive Qmo+e o0 Aro+(ctio):R
erases 'o> t'is +omai) is 'istoricall! co)stit(te+ a)+ artic(late+ >it'i) t'e Arevaili)- str(ct(res
o0 +omi)atio). %'e c(lt(ral: Aolitical: a)+ As!c'ic sA'eres are )ot a(to)omo(s +omai)s o0 t'e
social: *(t oAerate i+eolo-icall! as Q+omai)s o0 s(AAortR 0or Arevaili)- eco)omic str(ct(res.
Domi)a)t eco)omic Aractices co(l+ )ot *e reAro+(ce+ >it'o(t t'e Aro+(ctio) o0 s(*Eectivities:
+iKere)tiall! a)+ ()eve)l!: >it'i) t'ese +omai)s. %'(s: to 8reCsit(ate social Aractices Q>it'i) t'e
c(lt(ral tra+itio)s o0 civiliJatio)sR 8267C +isAlaces t'e salie)t /(estio) o0 >'! racist Aractices are
Aart o0 c(lt(ral tra+itio)s i) t'e Frst Alace. $0ter s(AAressi)- t'is i)/(ir!: West t'e) +ra>s (Ao) e1iste)tialism
a)+ i) so +oi)- sit(ates 'imsel0 as a) i+eolo-ical a-e)t 0or t'e stat(s /(o >'e) 'e ar-(es t'at: i) a 0re/(e)tl! /(ote+
0orm(latio)& Qt'e maEor e)em! o0 *lac2 s(rvival i) $merica 'as *ee) a)+ is )eit'er oAAressio) )or e1Aloitatio) *(t rat'er
t'e )i'ilistic t'reatD t'at is t'e loss o0 'oAe a)+ a*se)ce o0 mea)i)-R 8see 'is Race MattersC. W'! is t'ere Qloss o0
'oAeRP 5(c' a co)+itio) is )eit'er a Q)at(ral state o0 aKairsR )or a Qstate o0 mi)+:R *(t Aro+(ce+ a)+ reAro+(ce+ *!
e1Aloitative social arra)-eme)ts. Racism is )ot reall! a*o(t t'e Q>ro)-R i+eas i) AeoAleTs 'ea+s. Nor is it a cate-or! t'at
s'o(l+ *e erase+ *eca(se it is >it'o(t scie)tiFc cre+i*ilit! 8$AAia'C or +eco)str(cte+ a)+ reveale+ as ar*itrar! 8BatesC.
%'e Qe1Aerie)ceR o0 AeoAle o0 color clearl! i)+icates t'at race 'as )ot *ecome o*solete: a)+:
eve) i0 ar*itrar!: >e still 'ave to acco()t 0or t'e 'istorical a+e/(atio) *et>ee) si-)iFer a)+
si-)iFe+. $s I 'ave s(--este+: a more Aro+(ctive vie> o0 race locates it as a) eco)omic cate-or! t'at
sim(lta)eo(sl! +esi-)ates a)+ le-itimates a s(*or+i)ate+ Aositio)alit! >it'i) t'e relatio)s o0
Aro+(ctio): t'ere*! mai)tai)i)- as!mmetrical access to reso(rces. 9! calli)- 0or sAeciFcit! *(t
erasi)- -lo*al eco)omic str(ct(res t'at i)0orm t'e local: West AarticiAates i) )arro>i)- t'e
limits o0 i)telli-i*ilit!: t'(s Arovi+i)- a cover 0or t'e mac'i)er! o0 e1Aloitatio) to co)ti)(e
>it'o(t i)terro-atio).
ENDI 2010 "1
LINK/ HISTORICAL E>AM0LES
Their historical analsis o& he"emon an' 'emocrac re'#ces events to a(straction an' 'oesn5t
ta6e a materialist a!!roach
#he place of history in the study of international relations is2 as already recognised2 an uneasy one. #his is )oth for theoretical
reasons2 in that !nternational Relations seeks to identify a distinct conceptual terrain for study2 and for practical and professional reasons2 in that it 8ishes
to distinguish and justify itself )y contrast 8ith 8hat is regarded as the ideologised approach of diplomatic history2 too often a fetishism of archives and
dates. #he Cuestion of historical origin receives less attention. .here history is present2 it is usually either as illustration2 or2
rather too often2 as a means of intimidating the reader 8ith a )arrage of e$amples2 evident as much in Dames Per Perian A <n
PiplomacyB as in (artin .ight. #he result2 ho8ever2 is that many of the Cuestions considered 8ithin !nternational Relations are
to a perilous degree a)stracted from their historical conte$t. #his applies2 first2 to the lack of historical culture of most of those 8riting a)out
and studying the su)ject2 so that the proportion and range of reference to history is often a)sent. -ehaviouralism2 of course2 made a rejection of history one
of its central tenets. !t applies eCually to the a)stracting of specific concepts from the historical situation under 8hich they
arose. #he claim2 freCuently made and repeated in the literature2 that the contemporary -ritish and merican states are
e$amples of a peaceful2 non-revolutionary2 path of development is one striking e$ample of this. #he Ne$pansionN of .estern
society or of international society 8as achieved through the su)jugation2 -94- plunder2 and in some cases massacre2 of
colonial societies. more recent case is the prevailing discussion of the concept of NinterdependenceN and the related issue of Nungoverna)ilityN' this
almost elides the importance of the particular event that2 at the political level2 )rought this Cuestion to the fore2 namely the Oietnam .ar2 and its impact on
the &" political and social systems. 4H
ENDI 2010 "2
LINK/ 0OST$0OSTIVISM
8sin) the contin)enc% o tr!th to ar)!e that a"" tr!th is !ncertain
!n$ermines historica" an$ socia" ana"%ses o socia" +henomena
%'e Aostmo+er)ist cele*ratio) o0 i)+etermi)ac! is rei)0orce+ *! 'ostilit! to ()iversaliJi)-
t'eor!: or i+eas o0 totalit!. I)+ee+ t'e stress o) i)+eter mi)ac! arises 0rom t'e *elie0 t'at >e ca))ot
comAre'e)+ social realit! i) a)! 'olistic se)se. I) Aoststr(ct(ralist t'eor! all attemAts at -rasAi)-
social realit! as a totalit! are reEecte+. $ll s(c' attemAts are ;totalitaria):; et')o ce)tric: a)+
racist: *eca(se t'e! imAose a si)-le visio) o0 t'e >orl+ (Ao) >'at is i) 0act a Al(ralit!. Here:
Aostmo+er)ists 0all i)to a)ot'er co)0(sio). %'eir reEectio) o0 ()i versalism a)+ ;totaliJi)-; t'eories +ra>s
o) some >ell,esta*lis'e+ eAistemolo-ical Ari)ciAles: >'ic' t'e! ta2e to e1tremeDa)+ illo-icalD
co)cl( sio)s. %'ere 'as lo)- *ee) a >i+el! acceAte+ eAistemolo-ical co)ve)tio): eve) a tr(ism:
t'at ;0acts; +o )ot Arese)t t'emselves to (s ()me+iate+: ()aKecte+ *! o(r social e1Aerie)ce a)+ >it'o(t
selectio) or i)terAretatio). %'is is: o0 co(rse: eve) more t'e case >'e) >e are +eali)- >it' ver! comAle1 social ;0acts;
a)+ >'e) Ao>er0(l i+eolo-ical 0actors i)terve)e. .or e1amAle: *! co)ve)tio)al meas(res o0 i)telli-e)ce: $0rica),
$merica)s as a -ro(A 'ave a lo>er I.Z. t'a) >'ite $merica)s. %'at is a 0act. 9(t >'at t'at 0act mea)s is )ot aAAare)t
0rom t'e 0act itsel0. .or some a(t'ors: li2e Ric'ar+ Herr)stei) a)+ 3'arles M(rra! i) t'eir i)0amo(s The #ell Cur"e, t'e
+iKere)ce i) I.Z. is a) i)+icatio) t'at *lac2 a)+ >'ite $merica)s are )at(rall! +iKere)t i) t'eir i)tellect(al a*ilities. .or
ot'ers it mea)s t'at I.Z. tests are a Aoor meas(re o0 i)tellect(al a*ilit!. .or !et ot'ers: t'e +iKere)ce *et>ee) t'e I.Z.
scores o0 *lac2 a)+ >'ite $merica)s is a Aro+(ct o0 t'eir +iKere)tial treatme)t *! societ!. %'is o*vio(s
eAistemolo-ical Aoi)t +oes )ot )ecessaril! mea) t'at t'ere is )o *asis 0or E(+-i)- o)e
i)terAretatio) as *etter t'a) a)ot'er. Ma)!D Aro*a*l! mostD'istoria)s a)+ social scie)tists 'ave
lo)- ac2)o>le+-e+ t'at t'eir 2)o>le+-e is me+iate+ i) vario(s >a!sM *(t t'e! 'ave )ot )eces ,
saril! 0elt o*li-e+ to co)cl(+e t'at t'ere are no stan$ar$s o historica" tr!th: or Ala(si*ilit!:
a-ai)st >'ic' to meas(re o)e acco()t o0 'istor! or social e1Aerie)ce i) comAariso) to ot'ers. 5(c' AeoAle 'ave
commo)l! reco-)iJe+ t'at t'ere ca) *e +iKere)t acco()ts: see) 0rom t'e AersAective o0 +iKere)t Alaces: times: or social
-ro(As: a)+ t'at t'ese acco()ts ca) eve) all *e vali+ i) relatio) to t'e Aartic(lar e1Aerie)ce a)+ )ee+s o0 t'ose t'at
AroAo()+ t'emM *(t t'e! 'ave )ot )ecessaril! 0elt o*li-e+ to co)cl(+e t'at t'ere ca) )ever *e a commo) sta)+ar+ to
a+E(+icate amo)- t'ese +iKere)t acco()ts: )o *asis 0or comAari)- t'em: or eve) a commo) va)ta-e Aoi)t 0rom >'ic' to
comm()icate *et>ee) t'em or accommo+ate t'em to eac' ot'er. $s E.H. 3arr ()+erstoo+& It +oes )ot 0ollo>
t'at: *eca(se a mo()tai) aAAears to ta2e o) +iKere)t s'aAes 0rom +iKere)t a)-les o0 visio): it
'as o*Eectivel! eit'er )o s'aAe or a) i)F)it! o0 s'aAes. It +oes )ot 0ollo> t'at: *eca(se
i)terAretatio) Ala!s a )ecessar! Aart i) esta*lis'i)- t'e 0acts o0 'istor!: a)+ *eca(se )o e1isti)-
i)terAretatio) is >'oll! o*Eective: o)e i)terAretatio) is as -oo+ as a)ot'er: a)+ t'e 0acts o0
'istor! are )ot ame)a*le to o*Eective i)ter Aretatio).
9
9(t Aostmo+er)ists 'ave i)+ee+ j!m+e$ to
s!ch e6treme an$ a#s!r$ conc"!sions. %'e! 'ave seiJe+ (Ao) t'e m(ltiAlicities o0 mea)i)- i) or+er to
reEect )ot o)l! commo) sta)+ar+s o0 E(+-me)t *(t t'e Aossi*ilit! o0 a)! comme)s(ra*ilit! *et>ee) +iKere)t >orl+s o0
mea)i)-. #ostmo+er)ism claims to sit(ate ;0acts; i) t'eir sAeciFc social a)+ 'istorical co)te1t: *(t t'at is Arecisel! >'at
it 0ails to +o. %'e ver! )at(re o0 +eco)str(ctio)ist met'o+olo-! imAoses a) eter)al 0rame>or2 o) its
o*Eect o0 i)vesti-atio). %'e starti)- Aoi)t o0 Aoststr(ct(ralism is t'e searc' 0or +iKere)ce. $s
Derri+a 'as A(t it: it is 0(tile to as2 >'o or >'at +iKers: si)ce +iKere)ce is Arior to a)! s(*Eect.
10
9(t t'is is to sm(--le
t'e co)cl(sio) o0 t'e i)vesti-atio) i)to t'e met'o+. I0 !o( set o(t to F)+ +iKere)ce i) a)!t'i)- a)+
ever!t'i)-: t'e) t'at is e1actl! >'at !o( >ill F)+. I0 !o( *e-i) >it' t'e Aremise t'at t'ere is )ot'i)- *(t
+iKere)ce: t'e) it -oes >it'o(t sa!i)- t'at !o( >ill )ever F)+ commo)alities or relatio)s *et>ee) t'i)-s t'at are
irre+(ci*l! +iKere)t: let alo)e totalities i) >'ic' t'ese +iKere)t t'i)-s are li)2e+ to-et'er. DiKere)ce *ecomes t'e
a*sol(te i) 'istor!. It +"a%s the Cessentia"istC ro"e in +oststr!ct!ra"ist $isco!rse that
Nat!re +"a%e$ in nineteenth*cent!r% +ositivism4
ENDI 2010 ""
LINK/ LAN83A8E21ISCO3RSE
CritiD!in) the socia" constr!ction o "in)!istic meanin) an$ oc!sin) on
sin)"e (or$s or s%stems o#sc!res the ro"e o i$eo"o)% an$ histor% in
)ivin) "an)!a)e meanin)
9cNa""% ./0 , Aro0. o0 Aol. sci. 6 Hor2 7)iv. 8Davi+: ;4a)-(a-e: Histor!: a)+ 3lass 5tr(--le:; i)
;I) De0e)se o0 Histor!& Mar1ism a)+ t'e #ostmo+er) $-e)+a:; E+. *! E. Meis2i)s Woo+ ? @o')
.oster: A."8,40: RBC
W'at co)cl(sio)s ca) >e +ra> 0rom t'is *rie0 e1c(rs(s t'ro(-' some Mar1ist co)si+eratio)s o) la)-(a-eP .irst: >e 'ave
see) t'at Mar1ism i)sists (Ao) t'e ()it! o0 li0e,e1Aerie)ce. 4a)-(a-e: li2e co)scio(s)ess: is )ot a
seAarate a)+ +etac'e+ realm o0 '(ma) e1iste)ceM rat'er: it is a) e1Aressive +ime)sio) o0 t'at
e1iste)ce. $s s(c': it is Aermeate+ *! t'e co)Nicts: te)sio)s: a)+ co)tra+ictio)s o0 real li0e. %'e )e>
i+ealism sees )o)e o0 t'is. 9! treati)- la)-(a-e ;as a s!stem o0 a*stract -rammatical cate-ories:; i)
9al+itmGs >or+s: rat'er t'a) ()+ersta)+i)- it as ;i+eolo-i call! sat(rate+:; as ;co)tra+ictio),ri++e):
te)sio),Flle+:; i+ealism imAov eris'es o(r ()+ersta)+i)- o0 t'e relatio)s *et>ee) la)-(a-e: li0e:
'istor!: a)+ societ!. %'e )e> i+ealism ma! claim to ()+ersta)+ i+eolo-!: co)Nict: co)tra+ictio):
a)+ resista)ce: *(t it 'as i) a se)se -o)e o)e steA 0(rt'er t'a) t'e ol+ i+ealism: )ot E(st
a*stracti)- la)-(a-e *(t i) eKect tra)s0orm i)- societ! itsel0 i)to a li)-(istic s!stem.
%'e >or+: ar-(es 9a2'ti): ;e)ters a +ialo-icall! a-itate+ a)+ te)sio),Flle+ e)viro)me)t o0 alie)
>or+s: val(e E(+-me)ts a)+ acce)ts: >eaves i) a)+ o(t o0 comAle1 i)terrelatio)s'iAs: mer-es
>it' some: recoils 0rom ot'ers....; Wor+s a)+ (ttera)ces are )ever )e(tralM t'e! are al>a!s sit(ate+: Aositio)e+
i) a co)te1t c'ar-e+ >it' te)sio)s: str(--les: co)Nicts. $s ;a) a*stract -rammatical s!stem; la)-(a-e
ma!*e co)si+ere+ ()itar!: a close+ o*Eect o0 st(+!. 9(t t'is is to treat it ;i) isolatio) 0rom t'e
()i)terr(Ate+ Arocess o0 'istorical *ecomi)- t'at is c'aracteristic o0 all livi)- la)-(a-e.;
4a)-(a-e is t'(s social and 'istorical. Mea)i)-s e1ist 0or me o)l! i) m! relatio)s >it' ot'ersM a)+ t'ese
ot'ers e1ist i) co)crete: str(ct(re+ social relatio)s'iAs. $)+ t'ese social relatio)s t'emselves are
+!)amicM t'e! i)volve str(--les over +omi)atio) a)+ resista)ce: s'i0ti)- *ala)ces o0 0orce a)+
Ao>er. Mea)i)-s are t'(s 'istorical as >ellM t'e! are immerse+ i) a Arocess o0 ;'istorical
*ecomi)-; i) >'ic' relatio)s'iAs are )ot F1e+: a)+ i) >'ic' Aast a)+ Arese)t i)ter>eave i) o(r
orie)tatio) to>ar+s t'e 0(t(re.
4a)-(a-e +oes )ot Arese)t me >it' a si)-le str(ct(re o0 -rammatical relatio)s a)+ mea)i)-s. <)
t'e co)trar!: m! i)volveme)t i) la)-(a-e e)tails m! immersio) i) a social a)+ 'istorical Fel+ o0
t'emes: acce)ts a)+ mea)i)-s >'ic' are al>a!s co)teste+ a)+ )ever close+. %'e >or+s I c'oose: t'e
(ttera)ces I co)ve!: i)volve a Aositio)i)- >it'i) t'at Fel+. %'ere are al>a!s alter)ative >a!s o0 e1Aressi)- a)+
artic(lati)- m! e1Aerie)ces: m! Aositio)s: m! asAiratio)s. %'is is >'at it mea)s >'e) 9a2'ti) >rites t'at ;co)scio(s)ess
F)+s itsel0 i)evita*l! 0aci)- t'e )ecessit! o0 ha"ing to choose a language(0
ENDI 2010 "4
LINK/ CHINA ECONOM4
Criticisms o Chinese mar'et "i#era"i,ation ass!me that >estern
ca+ita"ism is the nat!ra" historica" trajector% or mar'et economies @o!r
historica" ana"%sis revea"s that mar'eti,ation is not s%non%mo!s (ith
ca+ita"ism
Chase*J!nn 3= #ro0essor o0 5ociolo-! a)+ Director o0 t'e 7)iversit! Ho)ors #ro-ram: t'e
I)stit(te 0or Researc' o) Worl+,5!stems a)+ 3o,+irector o0 t'e #ro-ram o) Blo*al 5t(+ies at t'e
7)iversit! o0 3ali0or)ia,Riversi+e: 9.$. i) #s!c'olo-! 0rom 73,9er2ele!: #'D i) 5ociolo-! 0rom
5ta)0or+ 7)iversit! 83'ristoA'er: Q$+am 5mit' i) 9eiEi)-& $ Worl+,5!stems #ersAective:R
Historical Materialism: 1881C: Wi)ter: E953<: RBC
$rri-'i co)te)+e+ t'at t>o +isti)ct Aat's o0 eco)omic a)+ Aolitical +eveloAme)t: >'ic' 'e calls
ScaAitalismT a)+ Smar2et societ!T: 'ave allo>e+ some mo+er) )atio)al eco)omies to escaAe t'e
Malt'(sia) traA o0 AoA(latio),Aress(re a)+ eco)omic sta-)atio). 3aAitalism is t'e Aat' t'at t'e
West 0ollo>e+ a)+ mar2et,societ! is t'e Aat' t'at 'as *ee) 0ollo>e+ *! 3'i)a. He also co)te)+e+ t'at
t'e 3'i)ese Revol(tio) 'elAe+ to create t'e co)+itio)s ()+er >'ic' t'is 2i)+ o0 mar2et,societ!
a)+ Aater)alistic state co(l+ re,emer-e i) t'e +eca+es si)ce MaoTs +emise. $rri-'i sa> t'e rece)t
rise o0 3'i)a as a Aro-ressive +eveloAme)t t'at mi-'t 'elA to 0acilitate t'e emer-e)ce o0 a more
la*o(r,0rie)+l! a)+ less e)viro)me)tall!,+estr(ctive >orl+,societ!. %' ere is a lot at sta2e 'ere. $rri-'i
>as a++ressi)- t'e '(-e social,scie)tiFc a)+ Aolitical iss(es t'at are *ro(-'t (A *! t'e East=West,
comAariso) a)+ *! t'e co)ti)(i)- +ecli)e o0 75 'e-emo)! a)+ t'e rise o0 t'e #eoAleTs ReA(*lic
o0 3'i)a. He Aro+(ce+ a comAelli)- >orl+,s!stemic a)al!sis t'at sAeciF es *ot' t'e similarities a)+ t'e imAorta)t
str(ct(ral +iK ere)ces *et>ee) t'e 9ritis' 'e-emo)ic traEector! o0 t'e )i)etee)t' ce)t(r! a)+ 75 'e-emo)! o0 t'e
t>e)tiet' ce)t(r!. %' e a)al!sis i) -dam ,mith in #ei1ing o0 Arocesses o0 F)a)cialisatio): )eoli*eralism a)+
)eoco)servative SimAerial over,reac'T as eK orts to Arolo)- 75 'e-emo)!: *(il+ o) $rri-'iTs o>) earlier >or2 a)+ o)
st(+ies *! Ro*ert 9re))er a)+ Davi+ Harve!.2 -dam ,mith in #ei1ing is +e+icate+ to $)+re B()+er .ra)2 a)+ .ra)2Ts
i)N (e)ce is o*vio(s t'ro(-'o(t. $rri-'iTs 0oc(s o) 3'i)a: a)+ 'is re,rea+i)- o0 $+am 5mit': Karl Mar1 a)+ @oseA'
5c'(mAeter: >ere i)sAire+ *! .ra)2Ts last *oo2: Re-2rient: i) >'ic' .ra)2 trie+ to overcome E(roce)trism *! re,
e1ami)i)- >orl+,'istor! 0rom 1400 to 1800." $rri-'iTs last *oo2 )ot o)l! reco)si+ers t'e classics *(t also ma+e -reat
(se o0 a lar-e corA(s o0 rece)t sc'olars'iA t'at 'as *ee) Aro+(ce+ *! a -ro(A o0 eco)omic 'istoria)s >'o >ere also
i)sAire+ *! .ra)2 8Kaor( 5(-i'ara: %a2es'i Hamas'ita: 9i) Wo)- a)+ Ke))et' #omera)JC.4 %'ese close st(+ies o0
3'i)ese eco)omic 'istor! s'o> t'at there has #een a $istinctive an$ $%namic East*Asian
+ath o $eve"o+ment. %' is revie> >ill o(tli)e t'e similarities a)+ +iK ere)ces *et>ee) $rri-'iTs a)+ .ra)2Ts
a)al!ses o0 t'e East=West,comAariso) i) >orl+,'istorical AersAective. $rri-'i s'o>s t'at t'e (se o0 Th e Wealth of
3ations as a totem o0 )eoli*eral )ostr(ms a*o(t t'e ma-ic o0 mar2ets: t'e >o)+ers o0 caAitalist -lo*alisatio): a)+ t'e
evils o0 state,re-(latio): is *ase+ o) i-)ori)- m(c' o0 >'at 5mit' act(all! sai+. $rri-'iTs co)trasts o0 5mit' >it' Mar1
a)+ 5c'(mAeter Aro+(ce some ver! (se0(l i+eas 0or comAariso)s *et>ee) t'e East a)+ t'e West. 5mit'Ts +isti)ctio)
*et>ee) S)at(ralT a)+ S())at(ralT Aat's o0 eco)omic +eveloAme)t is (se+ *! $rri-'i to *olster
t'e )otio) t'at 3'i)a 0ollo>e+ t'e i)ter)all!,orie)te+ S)at(ralT Aat' o0 mar2et,societ!: 0oc(si)-
o) la*o(ri)te)sive 0orms o0 +eveloAme)t a)+ o) imArovi)- t'e +omestic eco)om!: >'ereas t'e
caAitalist s(ccess,stories o0 t'e West 'ave 0oc(se+ o) caAitali)te)sive +eveloAme)t t'at
emA'asise+ 0orei-) tra+e: +re> ra> materials 0rom +ista)t colo)ies a)+ ma+e AroF ts *ase+ o)
Arovi+i)- SF )a)cial servicesT to t'e lar-er >orl+,eco)om!.5 5mit' also 0oc(se+ mai)l! o) t'e co)+itio)s
t'at allo>e+ 0or )atio)al +eveloAme)t: >'ereas Mar1: li2e %' omas .rie+ma) a)+ ma)! o0 t'e ot'er *reat'less
Aortra!ers o0 t'e >o)+ers o0 -lo*alisatio): ass(me+ a si)-le i)te-rate+ >orl+,mar2et 0or caAital a)+
la*o(r a)+ a SN at >orl+T i) >'ic' -lo*al i)e/(alities >o(l+ soo) *e re+(ce+ *! t'e raAi+ a)+
eve) +iK (sio) o0 caAitalist +eveloAme)t. $rri-'i F )+s 5mit' -ivi)- a+vice to le-islators a*o(t t'e +a)-ers
o0 allo>i)- *i- caAital to +ictate state,Aolicies t'at are )ot i) t'e i)terest o0 t'e )atio) as a
>'ole. 5mit' also 0oc(ses o) t'e +emo-raA'ic a)+ -eo-raA'ical 0eat(res o0 eac' )atio)al societ! 8t'e co)tai)er t'at is
t'e stateterritor!C as co)stit(ti)- imAorta)t co)strai)ts a)+ oAAort()ities 0or t'e Aossi*ilities 0or
)atio)al +eveloAme)t. W'ereas Mar1 a)al!se+ caAitalism i) or+er to Arovi+e a t'eor! t'at >o(l+ *e (se0(l to t'e
>or2ers o0 t'e >orl+: 5mit' i)te)+e+ to Arovi+e a t'eor! t'at >o(l+ *e (se0(l to A(*lic,mi)+e+ lea+ers o0 )atio),states
a*o(t t'e *est >a!s to +eveloA t'e >ealt' o0 t'eir )atio)s. $rri-'i +oes 0ar *etter t'a) .ra)2 i) seei)- t'at t'ere >as a
s(*sta)tiall! i)+eAe)+e)t East,$sia) i)ter)atio)al s!stem Arior to t'e )i)etee)t' ce)t(r!. .ra)2 claime+ t'at t'ere 'a+
*ee) a si)-le >orl+,s!stem si)ce t'e 9ro)Je $-e.6 5(rel! t'ere >ere some imAorta)t lo)-,+ista)ce eK ects o0 Aresti-e
-oo+s,tra+e a)+ t'e +iK (sio) o0 tec')olo-ies *ac2 a)+ 0ort' across t'e sil2roa+s i) earlier ce)t(ries: *(t Easter) a)+
Wester) -eoAolitics a)+ statecra0t +i+ )ot *ecome i)te-rate+ i)to a si)-le Aolitical,militar!
i)teractio),)et>or2 ()til t'e E(roAea) states s(rro()+e+ a)+ trie+ to Ae)etrate 3'i)a i) t'e
ENDI 2010 "5
)i)etee)t' ce)t(r!. 9e0ore t'at: t'ere >as a s(*sta)tiall! seAarate East,$sia) i)ter)atio)al
s!stem. $0ter +escri*i)- t'e F rst <Ai(m War i) 1841: $rri-'i sa!s& S$0ter a +isastro(s >ar >it' 9ritai) 8)o>
Eoi)e+ *! .ra)ceC: 3'i)a virt(all! cease+ to *e t'e ce)tre o0 a relativel! sel0,co)tai)e+ East $sia)
i)terstate s!stemT.7 %' e East,$sia) i)ter)atio)al tra+e,tri*(te s!stem 'as *ee) >ell +escri*e+ i) t'e st(+ies *!
%a2es'i Hamas'ita.8 3'i)a: 0ar lar-er a)+ more Ao>er0(l t'a) a)! ot'er state i) t'e East,$sia)
s!stem: 'a+ calle+ t'e s'ots *(t +i+ )ot e)-a-e i) t'e 2i)+ o0 e1Aa)sio)ist a)+ imAerialistic
*e'avio(r t'at >as so aAAare)t i) t'e relatio)s'iA *et>ee) t'e E(roAea) Ao>ers a)+ t'eir
colo)ies. $rri-'i c'aracterises t'is as a AaciF c s!stem relative to t'e i)ter)atio)al s!stem o0 states i) E(roAe: >'ere
i)terstate >ar0are >as )earl! co)ti)(o(s a)+ '(-e >orl+,>ars amo)- t'e S-reat Ao>ersT *ro2e
o(t >'e)ever 'e-emo)! 0aile+. $rri-'i co)te)+e+ t'at t'e relativel! less co)te)tio(s East,$sia)
s!stem >as a co)se/(e)ce o0 t'e more i)>ar+ orie)te+ a)+ less e1Aa)sive mo+e o0 +eveloAme)t
i) 3'i)a: *(t 'e also a+mitte+ t'at t'e 3'i)ese state >as so lar-e relative to t'e ot'er states i) t'e s!stem t'at
c'alle)-es to 3'i)ese 'e-emo)! >ere )ot li2el! to occ(r a)+ >ere ()s(ccess0(l >'e) t'e! +i+ aAAear. @aAa)Ts occasio)al
eK orts to *ecome t'e East,$sia) 'e-emo) 0aile+ ()til a0ter t'e E(roAea)s 'a+ *ro(-'t t'e Zi)- D!)ast! to its 2)ees. %'
e
3<N%IN7EDO
ENDI 2010 "6
LINK: C:INA ECONO9Y
3<N%IN7EDO
)e> East,$sia) >orl+,'istoria)s ar-(e t'at t'ere >as a +!)amic East$sia) mo+el o0 +eveloAme)t t'at
>as +isti)ct 0rom t'at o0 t'e West a)+ +iK ere)t 0rom t'e (s(al E(roce)tric Ares(mAtio)s a*o(t
a static $siatic mo+e o0 Aro+(ctio). %' e! s'o> co)vi)ci)-l! t'at commo+it!,Aro+(ctio): mar2ets a)+
mo)e! >ere 'i-'l! a+va)ce+ i) 3'i)a a)+ t'at some re-io)s >it'i) 3'i)a 5o(t' 3'i)a a)+ t'e
Ha)-tJe river,valle! >ere esAeciall! +!)amic i) terms o0 eco)omic +eveloAme)t i) t'e ei-'tee)t'
a)+ )i)etee)t' ce)t(ries. $rri-'i s(AAorte+ t'e i+ea t'at t'ere >as a) Si)+(strio(s revol(tio)T i) 3'i)a
i) t'e ei-'tee)t' ce)t(r!: i) >'ic' i)te)sive la*o(r >as (se+ to Aro+(ce commo+ities i)stea+ o0
reAlaci)- la*o(r >it' mac'i)es. %' is 2i)+ o0 mar2et,societ! >as c'aracterise+ *! Mar2 Elvi) as a
S'i-' level e/(ili*ri(m traAT i) >'ic' caAital 'a+ little i)ce)tive to i)vest i) la*o(r,savi)-
tec')olo-! *eca(se la*o(r >as so c'eaA.9 $rri-'i a)+ t'e )e> eco)omic 'istoria)s o0 East $sia emA'asise t'e
(Asi+e o0 t'is 0or emAlo!me)t. 9(t t'is +oes )ot e1Alai) >'! t'e West >as a*le to ecliAse 3'i)a i) terms o0
>ealt': tec')olo-! a)+ militar! Ao>er i) t'e )i)etee)t' a)+ t>e)tiet' ce)t(ries. .ra)2 'a+
co)te)+e+ t'at 3'i)a >as t'e most +eveloAe+ ce)tre o0 t'e E(rasia) >orl+,s!stem ()til 1800: a)+ t'at E(roAe 'a+
a*r(Atl! seiJe+ t'e (AAer 'a)+ i) t'e )i)etee)t' ce)t(r!. .ra)2 also ar-(e+ t'at t'e E(roAea) a+va)ta-e >as
()s(*sta)tial a)+ >o(l+ *e a *rie0 i)terl(+e t'at >o(l+ soo) *e e)+e+ *! a )e> rise o0 3'i)a. 9(t .ra)2 +i+ )ot +o >'at
$rri-'i 'as +o)e: >'ic' is to s'o> >'at it >as a*o(t t'e co)stellatio) o0 3'i)ese i)stit(tio)s t'at >as +iK ere)t 0rom:
a)+ s(Aerior to: t'e i)stit(tio)al str(ct(res o0 E(roAe. .ra)2 co)te)+e+ t'at t'e e1isti)- evol(tio)ar! acco()ts o0 t'e
rise o0 caAitalism >ere E(roce)tric )o)se)se. I)stea+: 'e sa> a co)ti)(o(s lo-ic o0 acc(m(latio) t'at >as
*ase+ *ot' o) state,Ao>er a)+ t'e a*ilit! to ma2e >ealt' *! mea)s o0 tra+e a)+ Aro+(ctio).
$ccor+i)- to t'is vie>: states a)+ >ealt'! Ylites 'ave oscillate+ *ac2 a)+ 0ort' si)ce t'e 9ro)Je $-e
*et>ee) a -reater emA'asis o) state,co)trolle+ eco)omies i) some Aerio+s a)+ a -reater
emA'asis o) mar2ets a)+ tra+e)et>or2s i) ot'ers. %' is lo-ic o0 acc(m(latio) +i+ )ot reall! evolve. .ra)2
()+erstoo+ it as a -reat >'eel t'at -oes ro()+ a)+ ro()+. $)+: a0ter t'e 1970s: .ra)2 +i+ )ot see a)! Aossi*ilit! o0 a less
e1Aloitative 0(t(re mo+e o0 Aro+(ctio). $ccor+i)- to .ra)2: 3'i)a 'a+ *ee) t'e ce)tre 0or mille))ia a)+ t'e E(roAea)
i)terl(+e >as *r(tis' *(t >o(l+ *e merci0(ll! s'ort. He 'a+ -ive) (A o) 'is earlier co)victio) t'at a socialist revol(tio)
mi-'t Aro+(ce a )e> 2i)+ o0 0(t(re societ!. $rri-'iTs a)al!sis Aarts comAa)! 0rom t'at o0 .ra)2 i) a )(m*er o0 >a!s.
$rri-'i a-ree+ >it' .ra)2 t'at 3'i)a >as more +eveloAe+ i) terms o0 tec')olo-! a)+ i)stit(tio)s t'a) E(roAe >as ()til
t'e e)+ o0 t'e ei-'tee)t' ce)t(r!: *(t 'e +i+ )ot see t'e E(roAea) rise as s(++e) a)+ comAletel! co)E()ct(ral. $rri-'iTs
a)al!sis o0 t'e +eveloAme)t o0 caAitalism i) E(roAe >as evol(tio)ar! a)+ *e-a) i) t'e F 0tee)t'
ce)t(r! >'e) Be)oa: #ort(-al a)+ 5Aai) com*i)e+ F )a)ce,caAital >it' a) e1Aa)sive
i)terco)ti)e)tal colo)ial e1Aa)sio).10 $)+: >'ile 'is +isti)ctio) *et>ee) caAitalism a)+ mar2et,
societ! 'ol+s t'e Aromise o0 0(t(re Aro-ress: it seems to *e rat'er less o0 a /(alitative tra)s0ormatio) to a
m(c' more e-alitaria) 2i)+ o0 social s!stem t'a) t'ose t'at 'ave *ee) +eAicte+ as Aossi*le *! ot'er a)al!sts o0
caAitalism. $rri-'i also s(AAorte+ t'e i+ea t'at o)e o0 t'e mai) e1Ala)atio)s o0 t'e +iK ere)ce *et>ee) 3'i)a a)+ t'e
West 'as to +o >it' t'e )at(re o0 classAo>er over t'e state. %' e i+ea o0 a caAitalist state: i) >'ic' merc'a)ts:
i)+(strialists a)+ *a)2ers e1ert -reat Ao>er over state,Aolic!: >as t'ro>) o(t *! .ra)2 as so m(c' E(roce)tric *a--a-e.
I) Th e Long Twentieth Centur: $rri-'i 'a+ c'aracterise+ t'e 3'i)ese +!)asties as tri*(tar! emAires t'at >ere
*ecomi)- i)creasi)-l! commercialise+. I) -dam ,mith in #ei1ing: 'e Arese)te+ t'e Zi)- D!)ast! as a relativel!
*e)evole)t >el0are,state t'at >as tr!i)- to Arotect Aeasa)ts 0rom e1Aloitatio) *! local la)+o>)ers a)+ *! merc'a)ts. $
2e! +iK ere)ce *et>ee) t'e 3'i)ese +!)asties a)+ t'e rY-imes o0 E(roAe 'a+ to +o >it' t'e -reater i)N (e)ce i) E(roAe
t'at caAitalists 'a+ over state,Aolic! i) t'e lea+i)- 'e-emo)ic core,states. $rri-'i >rote& S%' (s 5mit'Ts
Q())at(ralR Aat' +iK ers 0rom t'e Q)at(ralR: )ot *eca(se it 'as a lar-er )(m*er o0 caAitalists *(t
*eca(se caAitalists 'ave -reater Ao>er to imAose t'eir class i)terest at t'e e1Ae)se o0 t'e
)atio)al i)terestT.11 $)+ 'e >e)t o) to sa! t'at: >'ile t'is >as )ot tr(e 0or all t'e E(roAea) states: it >as t'e
sit(atio) i) t'ose states t'at >ere most ce)tral i) t'e E(roAea) s!stem t'e 'e-emo)s.
I) Iol(me 1 o0 Th e Modern World-,stem: Imma)(el Wallerstei) )ote+ a 2e! +iK ere)ce *et>ee) 3'i)a a)+ E(roAe i)
t'e Slo)- si1tee)t' ce)t(r!T t'at 'a+ '(-e co)se/(e)ces.12 He Aoi)te+ o(t t'at 3'i)a 'a+ a ce)tral -over)me)t
a S>orl+ emAireT t'at co(l+ 0orm(late a)+ e)0orce a si)-le Aolic! over a ver! lar-e area:
>'ereas E(roAe >as a S>orl+,eco)om!T t'at >as Aoliticall! or-a)ise+ as a set o0 comAeti)- core,
states. I) t'e same !ears t'at t'e #ort(-(ese Ki)- He)r! t'e Navi-ator >as 'ea+i)- a*roa+: >it' Be)oese s(AAort: to
circ(m)avi-ate $0rica 0or t'e A(rAoses o0 o(tN a)2i)- t'e Ie)etia) mo)oAol! o) East,I)+ia) sAices: t'e Mi)- D!)ast!
>as a*a)+o)i)- t'e %reas(re .leet e1Aloratio)s to $0rica i) or+er to co)ce)trate o) +e0e)+i)- t'e 'eartla)+ o0 t'e
mi++le 2i)-+om 0rom steAAe,i)va+ers. 3e)tral,$sia) steAAe,)oma+s 'a+ also reAeate+l! assa(lte+ E(roAe: *(t t'ere >as
)o EmAeror o0 E(roAe to tell t'e #ort(-(ese to +esist *eca(se reso(rces )ee+e+ '(s*a)+i)- to +e0e)+ a-ai)st t'e
3e)tral $sia)s. E(roAe 'a+ a m(ltice)tric i)terstate,s!stem i) >'ic' F )a)ce,caAital >as *e-i))i)-
to Ala! a) imAorta)t role i) +irecti)- state,Aolic!:1" >'ile 3'i)a >as t(r)i)- i)>ar+ to mai)tai)
its ce)tralise+ tri*(tar! emAire. It >as t'e >ea2)ess a)+ small scale o0 tri*(tar! states i) t'e West a0ter t'e 0all
o0 Rome t'at allo>e+ caAitalism to *ecome t'e Are+omi)a)t 0orm o0 acc(m(latio). I) 3'i)aTs case: a stro)-
ENDI 2010 "7
tri*(tar! state: r() *! ma)+ari)s a)+ occasio)all! *! semiAeriA'eral co)/(erors: reAeate+l!
s(ccee+e+ i) co)F scati)- t'e >ealt' o0 t'ose merc'a)ts or re-io)al tra+i)- +!)asts >'o Aose+
a Aolitical t'reat to t'e co)trol o0 t'e state.14 $rri-'i co)F rme+ t'at -ro>i)- E(roAea) Ao>er over 3'i)a
>as )ot Arimaril! +(e to t'e c'eaA Arices o0 E(roAea) commo+ities t'at co(l+ 2)oc2 +o>) all 3'i)ese >alls. Most
E(roAea) -oo+s co(l+ )ot comAete 0or t'e 'ome a)+ r(ral mar2ets >it'i) 3'i)a eve) a0ter t'e
E(roAea) states 'a+ 0orce+ t'e Zi)- rY-ime to let t'em i). Rat'er: t'e maEor a+va)ta-e t'at t'e E(roAea)s e)Eo!e+ >as
i) militar! tec')olo-!. %' o(-' $rri-'i co)te)+e+ t'at t'e imAorta)t +iK ere)ces *et>ee) E(roAe a)+ 3'i)a >ere +(e to
t'e >a!s i) >'ic' Aolitical a)+ eco)omic i)stit(tio)s >ere com*i)e+: 'is a)al!sis is )ot i)co)siste)t >it' t'e co)cl(sio)
t'at t'e 2e! /(estio) is: SW'o co)trols t'e statePT I) E(roAe: caAitalists came to co)trol: F rst: cit!,
states: a)+ t'e): t'e most s(ccess0(l )atio),states. I) 3'i)a: t'at )ever 'aAAe)e+: t'o(-' it ma! *e
'aAAe)i)- )o> 0or t'e F rst time.
ENDI 2010 "8
ALT SOLVES ? LAN83A8E 2 I1ENTIT4
:istorica" materia"ism is an in$is+ensa#"e too" or the critica"
interro)ation o "an)!a)e an$ i$entit%;the afirmative ris's #ein)
a#sor#e$ into the $ominant c!"t!ra" rame
5oster ./0 , Aro0. o0 sociolo-! 6 7)iv. <re-o) 8@o'): ;I) De0e)se o0 Histor!:; i) ;I) De0e)se o0
Histor!:; E+. *! E. Meis2i)s Woo+ ? @o') .oster: A.185,19": RBC
%'e >ea2)esses o0 Aostmo+er)ismD0rom a) ema)ciAator! AersAectiveD t'(s 0ar overs'a+o> its
stre)-t's. Missi)- 0rom .o(ca(ltGs a)al!sis: li2e t'at o0 Aostmo+er)ism -e)erall!: is a)!
co)ceAtio) o0 a co()ter,or+er to t'e +isciAli)ar! or+ers +escri*e+. I) t'e more e1treme case o0 ;te1t(al
Aostmo+er)ists;Dt'ose Aostmo+er)ist t'i)2ers li2e Derri+a: as +isti)ct 0rom .o(ca(lt: >'o +e)! a)! realit! o(tsi+e t'e
te1tDt'e Aolitical a)+ 'istorical >ea2)esses 0rom a le0t AersAective are eve) more -lari)-. K%
!n$erminin) the ver% conce+t o histor%Di) a)! mea)i)-0(l se)se *e!o)+ mere stor!,telli)-
Ds(c' t'eorists 'ave ro**e+ critical a)al!sis o0 >'at 'as al>a!s *ee) its most in$is+ensa#"e
too"4
18
%'e +e)ial >it'i) Aostmo+er)ist t'eor! o0 t'e vali+it! o0 'istorical cri ti/(e covers (A >'at is
reall! at iss(e& t'e +e)ial o0 t'e 'istorical criti/(e o0 caAitalism: lea+i)- to a co)ver-e)ce
*et>ee) le0t t'o(-'t i)0ecte+ *! NietJsc'e a)+ t'e +omi)a)t li*eral ;e)+ o0 'istor!; co)ceAtio).
%'e +a)-er o0 s(c' a'istorical or a)ti,'istorical vie>s: as E.#. %'omAso) o*serve+: is t'at o)e loses si-'t )ot
o0 ;reaso) i) 'istor!; i) some a*stract se)se: *(t rat'er o0 ;t'e reaso)s o0 Ao>er a)+ t'e reaso)s
o0 mo)e!.;
19
Historical materialism at its *est Arovi+es a >a! o(t o0 t'is +ilemma. %'is is )ot to i-)ore
t'e 0act t'at Mar1ismD>'ic' 'as sometimes -ive) rise to its o>) cr(+e i)terAretatio)s a)+ 'istorical travesties: as i)
t'e case o0 5tali)ismD'as 0re/(e)tl! *ee) i+e)tiFe+ >it' t'e 2i)+ o0 ;totaliJatio)s; a)+ ;esse)tialisms; t'at
Aostmo+er)ist t'eorists 'ave si)-le+ o(t. $s %'omAso) Aoi)te+ o(t i) a 1977 essa! o) 3'ristoA'er 3a(+>ell: Mar1ism
'as sometimes relie+ o) ; Gesse)tialistG tric2s o0 mi)+:; t'e ;te)+e)c! to i)tellect(aliJe t'e social Arocess;D;t'e raAi+
+eli)eatio) o0 t'e +eeA Arocess o0 a >'ole eAoc'.; %'ese are t'i)-s t'at t'e 'istoria) 8a)+ social scie)tists i) -e)eralC
s'o(l+ -(ar+ a-ai)st. 9(t to a*a)+o) t'eor! a)+ 'istorical e1Ala)atio) e)tirel! i) or+er to avoi+
;esse)tialism; a)+ ;0o() +atio)alism; is a *it li2e t'ro>i)- o(t t'e *a*! i) or+er to 2eeA t'e
*at'>ater clea). Mar1 'imsel0 Arovi+e+ a)ot'er mo+el: activel! oAAosi)- t'eor! 8eve) ;Mar1ist; t'eor!C t'at
A(rAorte+ to *e ;s(Ara'istorical.; I) 'is Theses on /euerbach, 'e Arese)te+ >'at still ra)2s as t'e most t'oro(-', -oi)-
criti/(e o0 >'at 'e calle+ t'e ;esse)tialist; co)ceAtio) o0 '(ma) *ei)-s a)+ )at(re. I)+ee+: 'istorical materialism
'as lo)- e)-a-e+ i) its o>) sel0,criti/(e: Arecisel! i) or+er to e1Ael t'e 2i)+s o0 ;esse)tialisms:;
;Aositivisms:; a)+ ;str(ct(ralisms; t'at 'ave i)tr(+e+ o) t'e A'ilosoA'! o0 Ara1is itsel0D,a sel0,
criti/(e t'at 'as Aro+(ce+ t'e i)si-'ts o0 t'eorists li2e Bramsci: 5artre: %'omAso): a)+ Ra!mo)+ Williams.
20
%'ese
t'i)2ers +ista)ce+ t'emselves 0rom t'e Aositivistic ;oKicial Mar1ism; t'at -re> o(t o0 t'e 5eco)+ I)ter)atio)al a)+ later
t(r)e+ i)to a caricat(re o0 itsel0 i) t'e 0orm o0 5tali)ism. Het t'e! 'el+ Frm to t'e criti/(e o0 caAitalism a)+ t'eir
commitme)t to t'e str(--les o0 t'e oAAresse+. Moreover: t'ese Aartic(lar e1amAles tell (s t'at i0 >'at 'as
sometimes *ee) calle+ ;t'e Aostmo+er) a-e)+a;Dco)sisti)- o0 iss(es li2e i$entit%2 c!"t!re2
an$ "an)!a)e Dis to *e a++resse+ at all: t'is ca) o)l! *e accomAlis'e+ >it'i) a 'istorical
co)te1t. $)+ 'ere o)e mi-'t oAe)l! >o)+er >it' .o(ca(lt ;>'at +iKere)ce t'ere co(l+ (ltimatel! *e *et>ee) *ei)- a
'istoria) a)+ *ei)- a Mar1ist.; W'e) Alace+ >it'i) a more 'olistic 'istorical materialist co)te1tD ani *
mate$ #% the conce+t o +ra6is Dt'e Aro*lems raise+ *! Aostmo+er)ism loo2 e)tirel!
+iKere)t. $s Davi+ McNall! sa!s: ;4a)-(a-e is )ot a Ariso),'o(se: *(t a site o0 str(--le.; W'at t'e co)tri*(tio)s i)
t'is vol(me 'ave i) commo) is t'e i)siste)ce t'at iss(es li2e la)-(a-e: c(lt(re: )atio)alit!: race: -e)+er: t'e
e)viro)me)t: revol(tio): a)+ 'istor! itsel0 are o)l! eKectivel! a)al!Je+ >it'i) a co)te1t t'at is sim(lta)eo(sl! 'istorical
i) c'aracter: materialist 8i) t'e se)se o0 0oc(si)- o) co)crete AracticesC: a)+ revol(tio)ar!. 5(c' a)al!ses +o )ot
a*a)+o) t'e 'oAe o0 tra)sce)+i)- caAitalism: )or o0 t'e )otio) o0 '(ma) Aro-ress as a Aossi*le o(tcome o0 'istorical
str(--les. It is sai+ t'at Nic'olas I: 3Jar o0 R(ssia: iss(e+ a) or+er *a))i)- t'e >or+ ;Aro-ress.; %o+a! >e )o lo)-er
*elieve: i) a )i)etee)t' ce)t(r! se)se: i) a(tomatic '(ma) Aro-ress: em*o+!i)- some +eF)ite co)te)tDt'e i+ea t'at t'e
3Jar 0o()+ so t'reate)i)-. 9(t t'is +oes )ot mea): as t'e A'ilosoA'er Mic'ael <a2es'ott co)te)+e+ >it' resAect to
Aolitical activit! i) t'e 1950s: t'at >e ;sail a *o()+less a)+ *ottomless sea; t'at 'as ;)eit'er starti)-,Aoi)t )or
aAAoi)te+ +irectio); a)+ t'at o(r o)l! tas2 is ;to 2eeA aNoat o) a) eve) 2eel.; Histor!Das ce)t(ries o0 str(--le a)+
i)+ee+ Aro-ress s(--estDis more mea)i)-0(l t'a) t'at. %o a*a)+o) alto-et'er t'e co)ceAt o0 Aro-ress: i)
t'e more -e)eral se)se o0 t'e Aossi*ilit! o0 Aro-res sive '(ma) ema)ciAatio): >o(l+ o)l! *e to
s(*mit to t'e >is'es o0 t'e Ao>ers t'at *e. 5(c' Aolitical +ise)-a-eme)t *! i)tellect(als o) t'e le0t i) t'e
Arese)t eAoc' co(l+ o)l! mea) o)e t'i)-& t'e total o*eisa)ce to caAital.
21
%'e iro)! o0 Aost,mo+er)ism is t'at >'ile
A(rAorti)- to 'ave tra)sce)+e+ modernit, it a*a)+o)s 0rom t'e start all 'oAe o0 tra)sce)+i)- caAitalism itsel0 a)+
e)teri)- a post-capitalist era. #ostmo+er)ist t'eor! is t'ere0ore easil! a*sor*e+ >it'i) t'e +omi)a)t
c(lt(ral 0rame a)+ 'as eve) -ive) rise rece)tl! to te1ts s(c' as +ostmodern Marketing, >'ic' attemAts to (tiliJe t'e
i)si-'ts o0 t'i)2ers li2e .o(ca(lt: Derri+a: 4!otar+: a)+ 9a(+illar+ to mar2et -oo+s >it'i) a caAitalist eco)om!. #er'aAs
ENDI 2010 "9
t'is >ill *e t'e F)al +esti)! o0 Aostmo+er)ist t'eor!Dits a*sorAtio) *! t'e vast mar2eti)- aAAarat(s o0 t'e caAitalist
eco)om!: a++i)- iro)! a)+ color to a commercial or+er t'at m(st co)sta)tl! F)+ )e> >a!s to i)si)(ate itsel0 i)to t'e
ever!+a! lives o0 t'e AoA(latio). Mea)>'ile: 'istorical materialism >ill remai) t'e )ecessar! i)tellect(al
-ro()+ 0or all t'ose >'o see2: )ot to revel i) t'e ;car)ival; o0 caAitalist Aro+(ctive a)+ mar2et
relatio)s: *(t to tra)sce)+ t'em.
22
ENDI 2010 40
ALT SOLVES ? 3N1ERMINES SOVEREIN8T4
Anal)in" soverei"n !o%er historicall #nveils e!istemolo"ical !atterns that !re$ce'e em!irical
claims
#he configurations of relations of po8er institutionalised )y historically specific forms of sovereignty provide2 it is our
contention2 significant clues to understand and e$plain 8hy agents develop strategies of po8er and specific forms of
rationality rather than others. 3urthermore2 it provides us 8ith valua)le analytical tools to pro)lematise the reasons 8hy a
social formation follo8s a specific institutional trajectory rather than others and 8hy2 in such a conte$t2 certain patterns of
rationality2 thoughts and discourses develop rather than others?i.e. the positivity of discourses. #herefore2 it also allo8s for a
historicisation of patterns of human rationality/su)jectivity. s ! 8ill try to point out in last section of this chapter is that all four of these
factors identified a)ove 8ere of significant importance in determining the different institutional trajectories follo8ed )y 3rance and the HR/ in the conte$t
of RO!-RO!!th century.
Historical materialism e;!oses the contin"enc o& nation$states that are other%ise nat#rali)e' in
IR theor
nyone familiar 8ith the 8orkings of the international system 8ill2 in one sense2 )e a8are of this -- the ideological
suppression of the origins of the system2 a propensity to deny the violence involved in its creation2 and the force 8ithin
international affairs2 not least through nationalism2 of irrational factors. #hus 8hat (ar$ said of the role of history in general
could )e said of any particular country' its domestic and foreign policies2 the instincts -91- of its leaders and the responses
of its pu)lic2 the institutions through 8hich policy 8as conducted2 the grievances and fears that drive its population -- all
reflected the past to a degree larger than 8as often admitted. (ore importantly2 as 8ith socio-economic2 so 8ith historical determination2
(ar$ also sa8 these conditioning factors as undermining the appearance 8hich all social events had of )eing in some 8ay
NnaturalN or NeternalN' one of the major functions of political socialisation in any society is to ma6e %hat e;ists in that
societ a!!ear as inevita(le* an' #nchan"ea(le. #he same is true of the international domain itself2 and the attendant
forms -nation2 state2 sovereignty2 etc. -- associated 8ith it. %ocation of these features of a society in the historical conte$t of
their origin serves to contradict this appearance of )eing nat#ral an' eternal 2 as 8ell as to suggest that alternatives are also
the more possi)le.
ENDI 2010 41
ALT ?SOLVES STATISM
Historical materialism avoi's state$centricit an' !ro(lemati)es the relationshi! o& the state to
ca!italism
van A!el'oorn +,,= +-astiann2 prof of political science at Orije &niversiteit msterdam2 =#heori@ing the transnational' a
historical materialist approach2 Dournal of !nternational Relations and Pevelopment2 45502 62 A104Q169B2 e)scohost;
!n contrast to neo-realism Aand to a large e$tent neo-li)eralism as 8ellB2 in 8hich state po8er is narro8ly conceived as the
accumulated material capa)ilities of the Kstate-as-actorG2 historical materialism seeks to e$amine the social origins of that
po8er. Hence Co$Gs A1H19' 45F2 emphasis addedB suggestion to Kconsider the state-society comple$ as the )asic entity of international relations.G
/mphasi@ing the capitalist nature of society2 a historical materialist theory of 8orld politics 8ould2 as (ark Rupert A1HHJ' 10B
phrased it2 take Kas its point of departure the proposition that international politics as 8e kno8 it is historically em)edded in2
and internally related to2 capitalist social relations.G .hat our transnationalist perspective 8ould add to this is the claim that these social
relations have from the start )een at least partly of a transnational nature2 and that through different phases in the history of modern
capitalism Athough not in a straight up8ard lineB these social relations have increasingly )ecome more transnationali@ed.
ENDI 2010 42
ALT @ RACE
The a"ternative is to reject +ostmo$ernist $isco!rse o race an$ e6+"ore
the efects $ai"% +ro$!ctive an$ materia" orces have on race re"ations4
On"% thro!)h e6aminin) ca+ita"ism can (e !n$erstan$ (h% the af
im+acts ha++en in the 1rst +"ace4
Materialism a)+ Race&
%o>ar+ a) $est'etics o0 3risis:R 3allaloo: 2481C: Wi)ter 2001: AA. ""4,"45: #roEect M75E: RBC
#ostmo+er)ists re()+ersta)+ t'e s(*Eect: )ot as t'e ratio)al ca(se o0 social mea)i)-: *(t rat'er
t'e eKect o0 t'e artic(latio) o0 vario(s +isc(rsive Aractices. Rola)+ 9art'es ma2es t'is Aoi)t clear i) ,45
>'e) 'e sa!s: Q I is )ot a) i))oce)t s(*Eect: a)terior to t'e te1t: o)e >'ic' >ill s(*se/(e)tl! +eal >it' t'e te1t as it
>o(l+ a) o*Eect to +isma)tle or a site to occ(A!. %'is SIT >'ic' aAAroac'es t'e te1t is alrea+! itsel0 a Al(ralit! o0 ot'er
te1t: o0 co+es >'ic' are i)F)ite or: more Arecisel!: lostR 810C. Mic'el .o(ca(lt also Aoi)ts (A t'e co)str(cte+)ess o0 t'e
s(*Eect >'e) 'e ar-(es t'at& Q%'e i)+ivi+(al is )ot a Are-ive) e)tit! >'ic' is seiJe+ o) *! t'e e1ercise
o0 Ao>er. %'e i)+ivi+(al: >it' 'is i+e)tit!: is t'e Aro+(ct o0 a relatio) o0 Ao>er e1ercise+ over
*o+ies: m(ltiAlicities: moveme)ts: +esires: 0orcesR 87",74C. #er'aAs t'e classic Aoststr(ct(ralist vie> o0 t'e
s(*Eect: t'o(-': is 0o()+ i) @ac/(es Derri+a. .or Derri+a: Q%'e s(*Eect 8i) its i+e)tit! >it' itsel0: or eve)t(all! i) its
co)scio(s)ess o0 its i+e)tit! >it' itsel0: its sel0co)scio(s)essC is i)scri*e+ i) la)-(a-e: is a S0()ctio)T o0 la)-(a-e:
*ecomes a sAea2i)- s(*Eect o)l! *! ma2i)- its sAeec' co)0orm . . . to t'e s!stem o0 t'e r(les o0 la)-(a-e as s!stem o0
+iKere)ces: or at ver! least *! co)0ormi)- to t'e -e)eral la>s o0 +iKere)ceR 815C.
%'e vie> o0 t'e s(*Eect as a la)-(a-e co)str(ct 'as 0rame+ Aostmo+er) +isco(rses o0 race. .or e1amAle: He)r! Bates
ar-(es t'at QRace 'as *ecome a troAe o0 (ltimate: irre+(ci*le +iKere)ce *et>ee) c(lt(re . . . Ua)+
t'(sV Race is t'e (ltimate troAe o0 +iKere)ce *eca(se it is so ver! ar*itrar! i) its aAAlicatio)R 8Race 5C. I) t'e ,ignifing
Monke Bates +eveloAs 'is AroEect o0 i)vesti-ati)- r'etorical str(ct(res a)+ Arivile-es t'e mec'a)ics o0 t'e mea)i)-,
ma2i)- Arocess a)+ 0ore-ro()+s t'e Qmaterialit!R a)+ Q>ill0(l Ala!R o0 t'e si-)iFer 859C. %'(s 0or Bates Q*lac2)ess is
Aro+(ce+ i) t'e te1t t'ro(-' a comAle1 Arocess o0 si-)iFcatio)R a)+ t'ere0ore Q%'ere ca) *e )o tra)sce)+e)t
*lac2)ess: 0or it ca) )ot a)+ +oes )ot e1ist *e!o)+ ma)i0estatio)s i) sAeciFc F-(resR 82"7C.
%'eoriJi)- race as te1t 'as le+ to Aroclamatio)s: s(c' as t'e o)e *! $)t'o)! $AAia': t'at race is a Fctio)& Q%'e tr(t' is
t'at t'ere are )o racesR 8$AAia' "5C. %'e Aolitics o0 s(c' a +isco(rse is Aer'aAs clearest i) Ko*e)a MercerTs essa!
QS1968T& #erio+iJi)- #olitics a)+ I+e)tit!:R >'ere 'e: too: reco-)iJes t'e mea)i)-less)ess o0 race a)+ mar2s 'o> Qt'e
UraceV si-)iFer itsel0 *ecame t'e site 0or t'e ma2i)- a)+ rema2i)- o0 mea)i)-sR 84"0C. %'(s Aolitics *ecomes a matter o0
semiotic 0ree+om a)+ +emocrac! is see) as a Qstr(--le over relatio)s o0 reArese)tatio)R 8Mercer 429C a)+ )ot t'e
relatio)s o0 Aro+(ctio). I) s'ort: >'at is oKere+ as ema)ciAatio) is )ot e/(al access to eco)omic reso(rces *(t t'e
Aleas(re o0 +isr(Ati)- +omi)a)t a)+ oAAressive mea)i)-s. W'ile s(c' +isc(rsive i)terve)tio) is imAorta)t: esAeciall! 0or
a) 'istoricall! mar-i)aliJe+ -ro(A: it is (r-e)t to reco-)iJe t'at social c'a)-e >ill come a*o(t )ot *! ema)ciAati)- si-)s
0rom totalities *(t *! +isAlaci)- t'e relatio)s o0 Aro+(ctio): 0or alt'o(-' t'e relatio)s o0 Aro+(ctio) +o )ot eva+e: t'e!
)evert'eless al>a!s e1cee+ t'e 0ate o0 si-)s.
Not o)l! +o s(c' Aostmo+er) +isco(rses rei0! c(lt(re: i) >'at Ke)a) Mali2 calls Qc(lt(ral 0ormalism:R *(t i) t'eir a)ti,
totalit! move a)+ Arivile-i)- o0 t'e lo-ic o0 i)+etermi)ac! Aostmo+er)ists s(AAress )otio)s o0 ca(salit!. #ostmo+er)
+isco(rses o0 race merel! assert t'e co)str(cte+)ess o0 t'e 8raceC si-) a)+ *rac2et t'e Aolitical
eco)om! o0 race: a)+ co)se/(e)tl! t'e te1t is set as t'e limit o0 i)telli-i*ilit!. I) ar-(i)- 0or t'e Qco)str(cte+,
)essR o0 race *(t locati)- it te1t(all! t'ere is a t'eoretical Aro*lem i) acco()ti)- 0or t'e te1t(al
i)scriAtio) o0 race or its e1tra,te1t(al eKects i) +ail! li0e ()+er caAitalism 8a)+ >e m(st acco()t 0or
e1trate1t(al eKects *eca(se 0or AeoAle o0 color it is a matter o0 li0e a)+ +eat'C.
#ostmo+er)ists are ()a*le to e1Alai) >'! race 'as ac/(ire+ its oAAressive social mea)i)- i) t'e
Frst Alace a)+ across vario(s localitiesDt'at is race is a tra)slocal artic(latio). Rea+i)- race as
esse)tiall! co)str(cte+ *(t )ot acco()ti)- 0or its Aro+(ctio): race is m!stiFe+ a)+ metaA'!sics is rei)tro+(ce+M i) 0act:
i) a rece)t s!mAosi(m o) race a)+ racism Ho>ar+ Wi)a)t asserts t'at QRace remai)s a m!sterio(s A'e)ome)o)R87C.
Race is )ot a m!ster! as it oAerates to+a! as a material Aractice i) mar2i)- raciall! co+e+
s(*Eects 0or +iKere)tial levels o0 s(rAl(s e1tractio) a)+ viole)ce a)+ it 'as a) 'istorical
emer-e)ce. $s $le1 3alli)icos i)+icates: QRacism as >e 2)o> it to+a! +eveloAe+ +(ri)- a 2e! A'ase i)
t'e +eveloAme)t o0 caAitalism as t'e +omi)a)t mo+e o0 Aro+(ctio) o) a -lo*al scaleDt'e
esta*lis'me)t +(ri)- t'e 17t' a)+ 18t' ce)t(ries o0 colo)ial Ala)tatio)s i) t'e Ne> Worl+ (si)-
slave la*o(r imAorte+ 0rom $0rica to Aro+(ce co)s(mer -oo+s s(c' as to*acco a)+ s(-ar a)+
i)+(strial o(tA(ts s(c' as cotto) 0or t'e >orl+ mar2etR 811C. $s Eric Williams s(cci)ctl! A(t it: Q5laver!
>as )ot *or) o0 racism& rat'er: racism >as t'e co)se/(e)ce o0 slaver!R 87C.
W'ile most Aostmo+er) +isco(rses 'ave move+ a>a! 0rom o)tolo-icall! *ase+ i)/(iries: a rece)t essa! *! 4i)+a $lcoK
attemAts to 8reCco)F-(re race as a) Qo)tolo-icalR cate-or!. Her i)terve)tio) oAe)s t'e Aossi*ilit! 0or 0ore-ro()+i)- t'e
)e1(s *et>ee) race a)+ materialism. %'is Aossi*ilit! is /(ic2l! close+ +o>) as 'er +isco(rse moves a>a! 0rom
ENDI 2010 4"
materialism a)+ t'(s 0or $lcoK QRace is a Aartic(lar: 'istoricall! a)+ c(lt(rall! locate+ 0orm o0 '(ma) cate-oriJatio) . . .R
87C. %'e /(estio) a-ai) is >'!P W'! is race a 0orm o0 '(ma) cate-oriJatio)P $)+ is race i+e)tit! reall!
a matter o0 la)-(a-e -amesP $)+ are t'ese -ames esse)tiall! sel0,ori-i)ati)- a)+ a(to)omo(sP
<0 co(rse )ot. %'ese Q-amesR are al>a!s alrea+! sit(ate+ >it'i) a)+ t'e eKect o0 t'e Arevaili)- eco)omic =
Aolitical =c(lt(ral =i+eolo-ical co)+itio)s. $s Mali2 Aoi)ts o(t QRacial +iKere)tiatio) emer-es o(t o0 real social
a)+ eco)omic mec'a)ismsR 810C: a)+ t'e! are )ot o)tolo-icall! Are,-ive).
I) ot'er >or+s: t'is '(ma) cate-oriJatio) is a) 'istorical artic(latio) o0 racialiJe+ +ivisio) o0 la*or
str(ct(ri)- as!mmetrical access to s(rAl(s. $lcoK re+(ces t'o(-'t a*o(t t'e real to t'e real itsel0 a)+ t'is
artic(lates a) emAiricist i+ealism. %'ere0ore >'at is reall! at sta2e 'ere is )ot so m(c' t'e /(estio) o0 o)tolo-! a)+ t'e
relate+ /(estio) o0 o*Eectivit!D>'ic' A(ts o)e o) t'e roa+ to materialismDas m(c' as it is t'e artic(latio) o0 >'at Ro!
9'as2ar 'as calle+ t'e QeAistemic 0allac!R a)+ co)se/(e)tl! t'e rec(Aeratio) o0 e1Aerie)ce. <)e m(st remem*er $lcoKTs
ori-i)al co)cer) >as )ot o)l! to Qvali+ate '!*ri+ i+e)tit! or '!*ri+ Aositio)alit! a-ai)st A(rist: esse)tialist acco()tsR *(t
also to Qta2e i)to acco()t t'e 0(ll 0orce o0 race as a live+ e1Aerie)ceR 89C. <0 co(rse: as I also Aoi)te+ o(t earlier: it is
Aoliticall! (r-e)t to mar2 s(c' e1Aerie)ces *(t a) o)tolo-ical rei)scriAtio) o0 race reiFes race
a)+ as s(c' +isa*les a tra)s0ormative AroEectDa AroEect aime+ at )e-ati)- t'e +eAlo!me)t o0
race as a str(ct(re 0or e1Aloitatio). 7)+er >a!: t'e): is t'e allia)ce o0 Aostmo+er) +isco(rses:
>'ic' +e,esse)tialiJes i+e)tit!: >it' t'is '(ma)ist i+e)tit!. %'ese t>o aAAare)tl! a)ta-o)istic
+isco(rses are act(all! coll(+i)- i) s(AAressi)- t'e Aolitical eco)om! o0 race. %'e traEector!D0rom
t'e Aostmo+er)ist co)str(cte+ i+e)tit! to t'e '(ma)ist s(*EectDma! *e clearl! maAAe+ o(t i) a series o0 >or2s *! Bates.
ENDI 2010 44
ALT SOLVES: -OLITICS

An acco#nt o& ho% social &orms emer"e historicall reveals the !rocess thro#"h %hich state
actors "ain le"itimac ? the a&&irmative re'#ces !olitics to technics
E'6ins 1<<< +Denny2 "enior %ecturer in !nternational Politics at the &niversity of .ales )eryst8yth2 Postructuralism and
International Relations: Bringing the Political Back In2 p. J-0;
!n any formation of a ne8 state2 there are clearly events that 8ould )e descri)ed as part of ,politics, in the narro8 sense of
the 8ord that are nevertheless significant. @#t these mane#vers ta6in" !lace in A!oliticsA 'o not !rovi'e an acco#nt in
themselves o& ho% one social &orm rather than another emer"es &rom a !erio' o& contestation an' str#""le. #o achieve
an understanding of the latter2 8e need a ,political, analysis that e$amines mutations of the social or sym)olic order and ho8 a
ne8 model of society is created. !n the case of the move to totalitarianism in the &""R2 for e$ample2 %efort argues that key to the 8hole process is
that at the level of fantasy ,8hat is )eing created is the model of a society 8hich seems to institute itself 8ithout divisions2
8hich seems to have mastery of its o8n organi@ation2 a society in 8hich each part seems to )e related to every other and
im)ued )y one and the same project of )uilding socialism.,1J !n other 8ords2 8hat is significant in the e$itmination of
totalitarianism is ho8 a ne8 sym)olic ideal of society2 8ith forms of legitimation2 8as instituted2 and ho8 this model 8orks
as fantasy. n analysis of ,the political, in the )roader sense 8ould involve an account of ho8 such models of the social are
articulated and ho8 they 8ork. Si@ek summari@es the distinction made )y %efort and %aclau as one )et8een ,Politics, as a separate social
comple$2 a positively determined su)-system of social relations in interaction 8ith other su)-systems Aeconomy2 forms of culture ... B and the ,Political, +le
politiCuel as the moment of openness2 of undecida)ility2 8hen the very structuring principle of society2 the fundamental form of social pact2 is called into
Cuestion-in short2 the moment of glo)al crisis overcome )y the act of founding a ,ne8 harmony.,10 <nce it is decided A)y 8ars2 revolutions2 and the
likeB that legitimate authority resides2 for e$ample2 8ith a particular state form2 8hat follo8s is the )ureaucratic techniCue of
governance ela)orated through recogni@ed e$pertise and endorsed in the continuance of the state form through the regular2
ritual replacement of the placeholders of authority2 8hether )y elections in a democracy or through the rules of succession in a monarchy or
dictatorship. s (a$ .e)er has argued2 )ureaucracy succeeds )ecause of its technical efficiency2 and once in place it is difficult to
remove.1F !t replaces the need for political decisions' ctions can )e determined on purely technical grounds.
ENDI 2010 45
HIST MAT E0ISTEMOLO84 8OO12ALT SOLVES
O#r alternative e!istemolo" ma6es the socionomic a meanin"&#l !art o& international relations
an' e;!oses the !ro(lematic ass#m!tions o& their (ehavioral an' cate"orical mo'els
#his prominence of classes as analytic tools has t8o immediate conseCuences for !nternational Relations. 3irst2 it invests the
major conflicts of international politics 8ith a distinct socioeconomic character. #hough it may )e untrue to say2 paraphrasing (ar$2
that all the history of !nternational Relations has )een one of class struggle2 it has certainly )een a major and at times decisive component. #he competitive
spread of the /uropean empires2 the out)reaks of the t8o 8orld 8ars2 the gold standard crisis of 1HJ12 the <P/C price rises of 1H61-6J2 the
disputes over trade and interest rates 8ithin the tlantic lliance in the early 1H15s2 &"-Dapanese trade conflict in the 1HH5s -- all no8
appear as2 in )road -9J- terms2 part of conflict )et8een capitalist ruling classes2 )et8een old esta)lished capitalist po8ers
and their ne8 rivals2 the latter produced )y the development of capitalist social relations 8ithin their o8n countries. (any of
the disputes that have marked t8entieth century history )ecame inter-imperialist and intercapitalist disputes2 )eyond their specific national2 geographic and
historical characteristics' as already noted2 this issue of conflict )et8een great po8ers2 not the dynamics of NNorth-"outhN relations 8as the main Cuestion
addressed )y %enin and others2 in the de)ate on imperialism )efore the 3irst .orld .ar. "econdly2 in this light2 the de)ates that have
flourished 8ithin !nternational Relations for so long appear to )e founded on some Cuestiona)le premises. "ince the state is
not an independent entity2 )ut is rather located in a particular socio-economic and class conte$t2 the de)ate on 8hether the
state is losing po8er to non-state actors changes character. 3or the Cuestion no8 )ecomes not 8hether the state has recently2 i.e. since 1H0F
or 1H652 lost preeminence to non-state actors )ut ho8 far the Nnon-stateN actors 8ho have al8ays affected the po8er and character of the state act through
the state or through other channels. #hese non-state actors2 i.e. classes2 have al8ays )een there2 )ut have e$ercised their po8er in a
variety of 8ays. #he Cuestion of ho8 far the )oundary )et8een domestic and international politics has )roken do8n also
acCuires a different significanceE in capitalism classes have al8ays operated internationally2 from the )ankers and trading
companies of the si$teenth century on8ards2 and have in turn )een affected domestically )y changes in the international
economic and political situation. J1 #he primacy of classes therefore serves in a dual sense to place in Cuestion the concept
of the Nnation-stateN' it sho8s2 first2 that the state itself is2 to a considera)le e$tent2 a function of 8ider social forces2 and
secondly that the impermea)ility of domestic politics is an appearance 8hich conceals a permanent2 underlying2
internationalisation of political and economic factors. !n (ar$Ns o8n 8ritings2 there is an interesting tension on this issue' his political
instincts led him to emphasise the international character of the proletariat2 the 8orking class2 and their aspiration and a)ility to organise on an
international )asis against their class enemiesE yet his theory contained 8ithin it another suggestion2 namely that it 8as not the 8orking class2 )ut the
)ourgeoisie2 8ho -90- 8ere the most international2 since their education and culture on the one hand2 and their very economic interests on the other2 8ere
such as to lead them to act more and more internationally. #he su)seCuent history of capitalism has2 as much as anything2 )een one in 8hich the
internationalisation of the ruling class has proceeded as fast as2 or even faster than2 that of the 8orking class -- hence2 as Deff 3rieden2 "tephen *ill2 Iees
van der Pijl and others have sho8n2 the /C A/uropean CommunityB2 the #rilateral Commission2 the *roup of 6 and many others are e$amples of
transnational Tlite coordination2 for the )etter management of the economy2 )oth national and international.
ENDI 2010 46
:IST 9AT E-ISTE9OLOLY LOOJ
Historical materialism rethin6s sec#rit as an historical an' sociolo"ical !ro(lem an' 'e(#n6s
the s#!!ose' ne#tralit o& realist theories o& IR
!f this tenet of historical materialism is e$tended to the international2 then it suggests that the central concern of
!nternational Relations )ecomes not security2 and the actions of the nation-state directed to defending and enhancing it2 )ut
rather conflict2 and the 8ays in 8hich this is generated2 conducted2 and resolved. &nderlying the myriad events of
international affairs lies social conflict2 8ithin and across frontiers2 the pursuit of 8ealth and economic po8er as the source
of these manifold events. JJ #aking the historical determination of specific states into account2 it )ecomes necessary to enCuire 8hence these came2
or2 more precisely2 out of 8hat historical conflicts they emerged. #he most apparently pacific of states may have issued from e$tremely
)loody pasts -- the superficially tranCuil Netherlands has a history replete 8ith revolution2 invasion and sanguinary internal
strife. #he currently smooth 8orkings of democracy in *ermany or Dapan )etray the fact that this political system 8as
imposed )ut t8o generations ago through foreign military intervention. #he sudden arrival of close to one hundred ne8
states on the 8orld scene in the period since 1H0F is often adduced merely as a numerical addition2 a complicating or
diluting e$pansion2 of an other8ise continuous states system' the fact that this process 8as a result of intense conflicts2
)et8een colonies and colonial po8er and2 as a major precondion2 derived from the 8eakening of the colonial empires in the
"econd .orld .ar2 receives less than its appropriate share of attention. (ar$ 8as a8are of this in his 8ritings on the mid-nineteenth
century' 8riting on the challenge to the five-nation )alance of po8er2 the pentarchy2 he 8arned of the presence of a si$th great po8er2 revolution. #hus2
the dominant pro)lem of t8entiethcentury international politics is seen )y conventional international relations theory as
)eing that of security' )ut for much of that period it can eCually )e seen as having )een that of containing inter-capitalist
conflict on the one hand2 and social revolution on the other. !n other 8ords2 the management of social conflict is the issue that has most
concerned politicians and academic analysts of foreign policy alike. J0 s rno (ayer has sho8n2 an apparently neutral international event
like the Oersailles Peace Conference of -99- 1H1H 8as preoccupied 8ith the issue of counter revolution and containing disorder.
(ar$ 8as mistaken to invest revolution 8ith the mystical and deterministic overtones that came to )e associated 8ith it2 and eCually 8rong to )elieve that
some radically different and emancipated society 8ould emerge from such upheavals' )ut he 8as right to see social conflict2 over o8nership2 po8er2
resources2 as a central feature of politics2 and to ask ho8 such conflict underlay the apparently autonomous 8orld of political strife and international
conflict. #his he 8as a)le to do2 in part2 )y introducing the materialist and historical conte$ts. .hen it is said that the pursuit of international politics is
one of NorderN one has to ask NorderN for 8hom2 and in 8hose interestsU "imilarly2 8hen it is said2 as )y Hedley -ull2 that international society is NanarchicalN2
this )oth recognises and avoids the Cuestion' it recognises it in so far as it ackno8ledges that there is conflict and that it is endemic to the international
system2 )ut it avoids it2 in so far as it denies that there is an underlying source of this conflict2 )eyond the states system2 and locates the coherence of the
system only at the level of the mechanisms2 or so-called NinstitutionsN2 evolved to manage this conflict. -ut the assertion of anarchy conceals the
fact that this superficially incoherent conflict is itself the product of factors that are defina)le and intelligi)le2 even if they
cannot )e controlled as the principal actors 8ould like. (oreover2 for (ar$ism2 it is a)ove all not the anarchy of the states
system )ut that of the market and of capitalism itself that is determinant. JF
ENDI 2010 47
AT/ MAR>ISM @A1 T3RNS
Their Mar;ism (a' t#rns are #nres!onsive. O#r alternative is historical materialist analsis not
revol#tion* an' Mar;ism itsel& is in a constant state o& &l#; so their t#rns are re'#ctive an'
i"nore Mar;ist contri(#tions to IR theor
!t is not possi)le to claim that the intellectual instruments for such an encounter are simply at hand2 8aiting to )e utilised. (ar$ism2 as a theoretical
approach2 remains in evolution' 8hile there is much that it has encompassed in the one hundred and fifty years of its
e$istence2 there is also much that remains unanalysed2 as there is that is contradictory2 outdated2 confused 8ithin its corpus.
!n this it is no different from other approaches2 )e these li)eralism or conventional economics. #he 8ork of analysing international relations is
to a considera)le e$tent in the future2 its components not present in the 8orks of historical materialists 8ho have 8ritten to date. Vet that such
an endeavour is possi)le and can yield a ne82 comprehensive2 paradigm can )e asserted2 for t8o general reasons. 3irst2 as is
evident from its impact in other social sciences2 historical materialism is a comprehensive general theory of political2 social and
economic action2 one that claims to )e a)le to encompass all major fields of social action 8ithin its scope. !t is indeed the
most s#staine' attem!t to !rovi'e a com!rehensive theor o& societ ela)orated in the past century. !ts impact has already
)een evident in some areas of social science' in economics2 history2 sociology2 to name the three most evident. #he fact that it has not yet )een accorded a
compara)le place in !nternational Relations2 and has not yet responded proportionately to the -FF- challenges of the discipline2 is a result of the specific
o)stacles2 theoretical and historical2 already outlined. (any conceptual aspects of historical materialism contain potential for
!nternational Relations2 and can )e applied to the international as other theories have )een. s 8e have seen in Chapter 12 !nternational Relations has
derived an immense amount2 indeed the majority2 of its theoretical tools from other disciplines in the fe8 decades of its e$istence' from the Chicago school
theory of po8er2 through )ehaviouralism2 rational action theory2 the first influences of la8 and philosophy2 and conflict theories2 functionalism and no8
NcriticalN theory2 the influence upon it of other )ranches of the social science are evident. #he scope for such a theoretical enrichment from historical
materialism2 even 8here as 8ith history or sociology this enrichment is )ased on 8ork not directly related to !nternational Relations2 is considera)le.
"econdly2 8ithin its corpus even as presently constituted2 historical materialism has produced a )ody of literature pertaining
to the conventional agenda of !nternational Relations2 and 8ay )eyond the specific interpretation of NstructuralismN that 8as
recognised in the late 1H65s' on 8ar2 violence2 the state2 international conflict2 transnational economic issues2 the
development of the international system itself. #he attempt )y (ar$ists in the period 1H55-45 to theorise the international system around the
concept of NimperialismN2 )y 8hich they meant inter-state strategic rivalry2 is one of the most am)itious and creative ever made. "ince the 1H65s
another considera)le )ody of literature on international issues has )een produced under the influence of (ar$ism' apart
from copious studies of imperialism2 there have )een the 8orld system theories of .allerstein2 the de)ates on Cold .ar2 and
analyses of inter-capitalist relations. .allersteinNs 8ork posits a very different history of the international system to that of orthodo$ !R' 8hile
covering roughly the same historical period2 from 1F55 to the present. #he .allersteinian approach emphasises the role of economic relations in
constituting the system2 as distinct from the political and diplomatic analysis of realismE it stresses the creation of hierarchy 8here the other focuses on the
formation of an international NsocietyN2 eCual at least in juridical claims2 and it seeks to link the process of international conflict to internal social and
political change2 in -F9- contrast to realismNs denial of the relevance of the internal.
11
t the same time2 .allersteinNs 8ork has2 from 8ithin historial
materialism2 generated su)stantial criticism' as a theory that lays too much stress on circulation rather than on production2 as a some8hat naive espousal of
Nanti-systemicN forces even 8hen these are themselves oppressive2 as resting on too one-sided and NdependencyN-theory-oriented e$planation of imperialism.
ENDI 2010 48
AT/ COMM3NISM @A1
Historical materialism is 'istinct an' ins#late' &rom the histor o& !oor comm#nist
a!!ro!riations o& its theor o& histor
#o argue for the recognition of the relevance of historical materialism in the aftermath of the Cold .ar and the collapse of the communist system may2 at
first sight2 appear perverse2 if not forlorn. Vet such an endeavour is possi)le not only in spite of2 )ut in certain respects )ecause of2 that turn of events. t
the most straightfor8ard level2 the pertinence of historical materialism as an e$planatory system has never )een dependent upon
the success of dictatorial movements that claimed to speak in its name2 any more than has capitalism relied on the success
of the authoritarian2 racist and )elligerent regimes that it produced. #he evolution2 separate from and in conflict 8ith
official communism2 of independent (ar$ism over most of the t8entieth century is evidence enough of that. -ut )eyond this
consideration lies the possi)ility that historical materialism may prove to )e just as relevant as it ever 8as as an e$planatory
system2 and one that2 in origin and development2 takes as its starting point and focus of analysis precisely that phenomenon
that no8 more than ever dominates the 8orld2 namely capitalism. (ar$ism 8as 8rong to assert the imminence of a
revolutionary alternative to capitalist society2 and it consistently underrated the potential for change2 and improvement
8ithin capitalism. s 8e shall see in Chapter 152 the claim that capitalism inevita)ly leads to 8ar may turn out to )e itself
historical2 a reflection on states that 8ere not yet fully democratic. -ut its t8in claims2 that the mode of production provides
the conte$t for the analysis of political phenomena2 national and international2 and that the capitalist system is riven 8ith
conflicts2 dangers and failures2 grounded in these socio-economic factors2 8ould seem to )e as valid today as they ever
8ere.
ENDI 2010 49
AT/ 8LO@AL VIOLENCE 1ECREASIN8 @C OF CA0
The "lo(al is the %ron" scale at %hich to meas#re ine.#alit* violence* an' the val#e to li&e. Their
research metho'olo"ies are (ase' on &ailin" theories o& international !olitical econom
Bal6er +,,+ +R-D2 professor of political science at the &niversity of Oictoria2 =!nternational/!neCuality2> !nternational
"tudies Revie82 Ool. 02 No. 42 !nternational Relations and the Ne8 !neCuality A"ummer2 4554B2 pp. 6-402 jstor;
(oreover2 until relatively recently at least2 most analyses of capitalism as a glo)ali@ing dynamic 8ith a capacity to dis- solve and
recast all e$isting discriminations and jurisdictions offered some account of its articulation 8ithin the political categories
and institutions of the modem state. #his articulation has )een most freCuently cast in functional terms2 capital )eing understood as having
political needs that could )e performed )y modern states that 8ere2 conseCuently2 only relatively autonomous2 and 8ith only a limited capacity to 8restle
capitalism into some sort of accommodation 8ith other values. .hile one of the strengths of this form of analysis 8as to sho8 that there
is a relation )et8een the ineCualities produced )y capitalism as a glo)ali@ing dynamic and ineCuality 8ithin any specific
jurisdiction2 it remained the case that analysis tended to affirm the political distinction )et8een the domestic and the
international. (ore recently2 of course2 international political economy has )egun to give 8ay to various kinds of glo)al political
economy. #he distinction may not say very much a)out the changing character of capitalism as a form of economic life2
(#t it certainl !oses massive !ro(lems &or those see6in" to #n'erstan' the !olitical im!lications o& contem!orar
shi&ts in the relation (et%een ca!italism an' the mo'ern state. #he official statistics still measure patterns of capital
accumulation and distri)ution in statist categories. States no 'o#(t have an interest in 6ee!in" it this %a. It is &ar &rom
clear* ho%ever* that "lo(al ine.#alities are (est meas#re' on an international scale. #8o )asic modes of inclusion/e$clusion2
then2 and t8o )asic tensions )et8een a formal claim to eCuality and a Cuasi-legitimate ackno8ledgment of a vertical hierarchy.
ENDI 2010 50
AT: :89ANIS9 KAJ * RATIONALIS9 :OLOCA8ST
Ke"ie in h!manism is 'e% to a"" emanci+ator% str!))"es* the (ho"esa"e
rejection o h!manism an$ ar)!ments a#o!t rationa"ism ca!sin) the
:o"oca!st treat +eo+"e as ahistorica" s!#jects an$ $enies h!manit% to
non*>estern Others
W'et'er li*eral or Mar1ist: ()+erl!i)- all '(ma)istic stra)+s is a *elie0 i) '(ma) ema)ciAatio)
Dt'e i+ea t'at '(ma)2i)+ ca) ratio)all! tra)s0orm societ! t'ro(-' t'e a-e)c! o0 its o>) eKorts.
I)+ee+: )o ema)ciAator! A'ilosoA'! is Aossi*le >it'o(t a '(ma)ist AersAective: 0or a)!
a)ti'(ma),istic o(tloo2 is 0orce+ to loo2 o(tsi+e o0 '(ma)it! 0or t'e a-e)c! o0 salva tio)Di0 eart'l!
salvatio) is Aossi*le at all. $)ti'(ma)istic stra)+s +eveloAe+ 0rom t'e E)li-'te)me)t o): lar-el! i) oAAositio) to t'e i+ea
o0 ratio)al '(ma) ema)ciAatio). @(st as t'ere 'ave *ee) a )(m*er o0 +iKere)t stra)+s o0 '(ma)ism: so
t'ere 'ave *ee) a )(m*er o0 +iKere)t stra)+s o0 a)ti'(ma)ism: ra)-i)- 0rom t'e co)servatism o0 9(r2e:
t'e 3at'olic reactio) o0 +e Maistre: to t'e )i'ilism o0 NietJsc'e a)+ t'e NaJism o0 Hei+e--er. $ll reEecte+ E)li-'te)me)t
ratio)alism a)+ t'e i+ea o0 social Aro-ress *eca(se t'e! +esAaire+ o0 t'e caAacit! o0 '(ma)2i)+ 0or s(c' ratio)al
Aro-ress: a +esAair t'at >as i) -e)eral a) e1Aressio) o0 eit'er 0ear o0 or co)temAt 0or t'e masses: >'o >ere see) as
irratio)al: atavistic: a)+ a t'reat to civiliJe+ societ!. $)ti'(ma)ism reEecte+ i+eas o0 e/(alit! a)+ '(ma)
()it!: cele*rati)- i)stea+ +iKere)ce a)+ +iver-e)ce a)+ e1alti)- t'e Aartic(lar a)+ t'e
;a(t'e)tic; over t'e ()iversal. $)ti'(ma)ism +eveloAe+ t'ere0ore as a ce)tral comAo)e)t o0 elite t'eories. I) t'e
Aost>ar era: 'o>ever: a)ti'(ma)ism came to reArese)t a ver! +iKere)t tra+itio)Dt'e li*eral: i)+ee+ ra+ical:
a)ticolo)ialist a)+ a)tiracist o(tloo2. I) t'e 'a)+s o0 s(c' critics o0 Wester) societ! as .ra)tJ .a)o): Mic'el .o(ca(lt:
@ac/(es Derri+a: a)+ 4o(is $lt'(sser: amo)- ot'ers: a)ti'(ma)ism *ecame a ce)tral t'rea+ o0 str(ct(ralist
a)+ Aoststr(ct(ral ist t'eories: a)+ a 2e! >eaAo) i) t'e i)terro-atio) o0 racist a)+ imAerialist +isco(rses. Eve)
@ea),#a(l 5artre: i) 'is 0amo(s Are0ace to .a)o)Gs The Wretched of the Earth, >rote t'at ;H(ma)ism is )ot'i)- *(t a)
i+eolo-! o0 lies: a Aer0ect E(stiFcatio) 0or Ailla-eM its 'o)e!e+ >or+s: its aKectatio)s o0 se)si*ilit! >ere o)l! ali*is 0or o(r
a--ressio).; Else>'ere 'e claime+ t'at .;H(ma)ism is t'e co()terAart o0 racism& it is a Aractice o0 e1cl(sio).;
17
Ho> +i+
a A'ilosoA'ical o(tloo2 >'ic' ori-i)ate+ >it'i) co)servative a)ti,ema)ciAator! Aolitics: a)+ >'ic' >as a 2e! comAo)e)t
o0 racial t'eor!: *ecome a ce)tral moti0 o0 ra+ical a)tiracist: a)ti,imAerialist +octri)esP $)+ 'o> +i+ A'ilosoA'ers s(c' as
NietJsc'e a)+ Hei+e--er: >'ose >or2 'a+ Arevio(sl! *ee) see) as Aavi)- t'e >a! 0or t>e)tiet' ce)t(r! racist a)+
0ascist i+eolo-ies: *ecome ico)s o0 a)tiracist +isco(rseP %'ere >ere t>o mai) stra)+s to Aost>ar ra+ical a)ti'(ma)ism.
<)e +eveloAe+ o(t o0 a)ticolo)ial str(--les: t'e ot'er t'ro(-' Wester) 8a)+ i) Aartic(lar .re)c'C aca+emic A'ilosoA'!
a)+ >as s(*se/(e)tl! ela*orate+ *! t'e ;)e> social moveme)ts; s(c' as 0emi)ism a)+ e)viro)me)talism. I) The
Wretched of the Earth, .a)o) -ave voice to t'e ra-e o0 colo)ial AeoAles a-ai)st t'eir i)'(ma) treatme)t at t'e 'a)+s o0
t'e imAerialist Ao>ers. %'e '(ma)ist i+ea o0 ;Ma):; >rote .a)o): >'ic' la! at t'e 'eart o0 t'e Wester) Aost,
E)li-'te)me)t tra+itio): >as ac'ieve+ t'ro(-' +e'(ma)iJi)- t'e )o),Wester) <t'er. E(roAea)s o)l! *ecame '(ma):
.a)o) s(--este+: *! +e)!i)- '(ma)it! to t'eir colo)ial <t'er. %o mai)tai) a *elie0 i) '(ma)ism >'ile treati)- )o),
E(roAea) AeoAles as a)imals: E(roAea)s +eclare+ t'at )o),E(roAea)s >ere i) 0act s(*'(ma). Herei) la! t'e so(rce o0
racial t'eor! i) '(ma)ism. $t t'e same time: ar-(e+ .a)o): '(ma)ists salve+ t'eir co)scie)ces *! i)viti)- t'e s(*'(ma)
colo)ial <t'er to *ecome '(ma) *! imitati)- ;E(roAea) Ma).; %'e cate-or! ;'(ma); is emAt! o0 mea)i)-: t'e critics
asserte+: *eca(se it is a'istorical. %'e i)vocatio) o0 a commo) '(ma) )at(re 'i+es t'e 0act t'at '(ma) )at(re is sociall!
a)+ 'istoricall! co)str(cte+. $ccor+i)- to t'e a)t'roAolo-ist @ames 3liKor+: ;UIVt is a -e)eral 0eat(re o0 '(ma)ist com,
mo) +e)omi)ators t'at t'e! are mea)i)-less: si)ce t'e! *!Aass local c(lt(ral co+es t'at ma2e Aerso)al e1Aerie)ce
artic(late.; W'e) '(ma)ists assert t'e ()iversalit! o0 '(ma) )at(re: >'at t'e! are reall! tal2i)- a*o(t are t'e Aartic(lar
'(ma) val(es e1Aresse+ i) E(roAea) societ!. %'ir+ >orl+ critics: 'o>everDa)+ some E(roAea) critics li2e 5artre tooD
+i+ )ot reEect '(ma)ism i) its e)tiret!. .a)o): 0or i)sta)ce: reco-)iJe+ t'at t'e co)tra+ictio) la! )ot i) '(ma)ism itsel0
*(t i) t'e +isE()ct(re *et>ee) t'e i+eolo-! o0 '(ma)ism a)+ t'e Aractice o0 colo)ialism& $ll t'e eleme)ts o0 a sol(tio) to
t'e -reat Aro*lems o0 '(ma)it! 'ave: at +iKere)t times: e1iste+ i) E(roAea) t'o(-'t. 9(t E(roAea)s 'ave )ot carrie+ o(t
i) Aractice t'e missio) >'ic' 0ell to t'em: >'ic' co)siste+ o0 *ri)-i)- t'eir >'ole >ei-'t to *ear viole)tl! (Ao) t'ese
eleme)ts: o0 mo+i0!i)- t'eir arra)-eme)t a)+ t'eir )at(re: o0 c'a)-i)- t'em a)+: F)all!: o0 *ri)-i)- t'e Aro*lem o0
ma)2i)+ to a) i)F)itel! 'i-'er Ala)e.
19
.a)o) calle+ t'ere0ore 0or a )e> '(ma)ism striAAe+ o0 its racist: E(roce)tric
asAects& 4et (s +eci+e )ot to imitate E(roAeM let (s com*i)e o(r m(scles a)+ o(r *rai)s i) a )e> +irectio). 4et (s tr! to
create t'e >'ole ma): >'om E(roAe 'as *ee) i)caAa*le o0 *ri)-i)- to tri(mA'a)t *irt'.
20
.or .a)o): t'e): t'e '(ma)ist
i+ea o0 ;t'e >'ole ma); >as 2e! to ema)ciAatio). DesAite t'e criti/(e o0 Wester) '(ma)ism as a camo(Na-e 0or t'e
+e'(ma)iJatio) o0 )o),Wester) AeoAles: '(ma)ism remai)e+ a ce)tral comAo)e)t o0 t'e i+eolo-! o0 t'ir+ >orl+
li*eratio) str(--les o0 t'e Aost>ar era: virt(all! all o0 >'ic' +re> o) t'e ema)ciAator! lo-ic o0 ()iversalism. I)+ee+:
Wester) ra+icals >ere o0te) s'oc2e+ *! t'e e1te)t to >'ic' a)ticolo)ial str(--les a+oAte+ >'at t'e ra+icals co)ceive+ o0
as tai)te+ i+eas. $s 3la(+e 4evi,5tra(ss )ote+ r(e0(ll!: t'e +octri)e o0 c(lt(ral relativism ;>as c'alle)-e+ *! t'e ver!
AeoAle 0or >'ose moral *e)eFt t'e a)t'roAolo-ists 'a+ esta*lis'e+ it i) t'e Frst Alace.; %'e >illi)-)ess o0 t'ir+ >orl+
ra+icals to mai)tai) at least a resi+(al s(AAort 0or a '(ma)istic o(tloo2 stemme+ 0rom t'eir co)ti)(e+ e)-a-eme)t i) t'e
AroEect o0 li*eratio). #ost>ar ra+icals i) t'e West: 'o>ever: i)creasi)-l! reEecte+ '(ma)ism: )ot simAl! i) its -(ise as a
ENDI 2010 51
cover 0or racism a)+ colo)ialism *(t i) its e)tiret!. .or Aost>ar E(roAea) i)tellect(als t'e most Aressi)- Aro*lem >as
)ot t'at o0 esta*lis'i)- t'e i+eolo-ical 0o()+atio)s o0 li*eratio) str(--les *(t rat'er o0 comi)- to terms >it' t'e +emise
o0 s(c' str(--les i) Wester) +emocracies. Wester) i)tellect(als 'a+: o) t'e o)e 'a)+: to e1cavate t'e social a)+
i)tellect(al roots o0 t'e NaJi e1Aerie)ce: a) e1Aerie)ce t'at more t'a) a)! ot'er >ei-'e+ (Ao) t'e E(roAea) i)tellect(al
co)scio(s)ess i) t'e imme+iate Aost>ar Aerio+M a)+ o) t'e ot'er: to e1Alai) >'! t'e Aossi*ilities o0 revol(tio)ar!
c'a)-e: >'ic' 'a+ seeme+ so Aromisi)- i) t'e earl! Aart o0 t'e ce)t(r!: aAAeare+ to 'ave *ee) e1ti)-(is'e+. .or ma)!
t'e e1Ala)atio) seeme+ to lie i) some +eeA,seate+ malaise i) E(roAea) c(lt(re. #ost>ar ra+icals as2e+
t'emselves >'! it >as t'at Berma)!: a )atio) >it' +eeA A'ilosoA'ical roots i) t'e E)li-'te)me)t
AroEect a)+ a stro)- a)+ vi*ra)t >or2i)- class moveme)t: s'o(l+ s(cc(m* so s>i0tl! a)+ so com Aletel! to
NaJism. %'e a)s>er seeme+ to *e t'at it >as t'e lo-ic o0 E)li-'t e)me)t ratio)alism itsel0 a)+
t'e )at(re o0 +emocratic Aolitics t'at 'a+ -ive) rise to s(c' *ar*arism. $s %'eo+or $+or)o a)+ Ma1
Hor2'eimer A(t it i) t'eir semi)al >or2: The *ialectic of Enlightenment, ;E)li-'te)me)t is totalitaria).;
22
$+or)o a)+
Hor2'eimer +eveloA t'e t>o moti0sDa criti/(e o0 E)li-'te)me)t ratio)alit! a)+ social Aro-ress: o) t'e o)e 'a)+: a)+ o0
mass societ!: o) t'e ot'erD>'ic' *ecame ce)tral t'emes o0 t'e .ra)20(rt sc'ool a)+ >'ic' >ere to *ecome imme)sel!
i)N(e)tial i) s'aAi)- Aost>ar +isco(rse. %'e i+ea t'at t'e Holoca(stDa)+ i)+ee+ all Wester) *ar*arismD'a+ its roots i)
E)li-'te)me)t ratio)alism a)+ '(ma)ism *ecame a ce)tral te)et o0 Aost>ar ra+icalism. %'e E)li-'te)me)t
am*itio) o0 masteri)- )at(re: o0 setti)- '(ma)it! a*ove )at(re: i)evita*l! 'a+ +estr(ctive
co)se/(e)ces 0or '(ma)it! itsel0. $ '(ma)it! >'ic' co(l+ e)slave )at(re >as /(ite caAa*le o0
e)slavi)- 0ello> '(ma) *ei)-s. $s Davi+ Bol+*er- 'as A(t it: ;5(*E(-atio) ... +eF)es t'e or+er o0 t'e
E)li-'te)me)t& s(*E(-atio) o0 )at(re *! '(ma) i)tellect: colo)ial co)trol t'ro(-'
3<N%IN7E5O
ENDI 2010 52
AT: :89ANIS9 KAJ @ RATIONALIS9 :OLOCA8ST
3<N%IN7EDO
A'!sical a)+ c(lt(ral +omi)atio): a)+ eco)omic s(Aeriorit! t'ro(-' master! o0 t'e la>s o0 t'e mar2et.;
2"
Master! o0
)at(re a)+ t'e ratio)al or-a)iJatio) o0 societ!: >'ic' i) t'e )i)etee)t' ce)t(r! >as see) as t'e *asis o0 '(ma)
ema)ciAatio): )o> came to *e re-ar+e+ as t'e so(rce o0 '(ma) e)slaveme)t. %'e i+ea t'at tec')olo-ical a)+ social
Aro-ress co(l+ *e t'e ca(se o0 *ar*arism 'as le+ ma)! critics to F)+ evi+e)ce )ot simAl! o0 '(ma)ism *(t t'e >'ole
AroEect o0 ;mo+er)it!; *e'i)+ t'e Holoca(st. [!-m()t 9a(,ma) 'as s(--este+ t'at t'e .i)al 5ol(tio) >as t'e ;Aro+(ct;
)ot t'e ;0ail(re; o0 mo+er)it! a)+ t'at ;it >as t'e ratio)al >orl+ o0 mo+er) civilisatio) t'at ma+e t'e Holoca(st
t'i)2a*le;& %'e tr(t' is t'at ever! i)-re+ie)t o0 t'e Holoca(stDall t'ose ma)! t'i)-s t'at re)+ere+ it Aossi*leD>as
)ormal ... i) t'e se)se o0 *ei)- 0(ll! i) 2eeAi)- >it' ever!t'i)- >e 2)o> a*o(t o(r civilisatio): its -(i+i)- sAirit: its
Ariorities: its imma)e)t visio) o0 t'e >orl+Da)+ o0 t'e AroAer >a!s to A(rs(e '(ma) 'aAAi)ess to-et'er >it' a Aer0ect
societ!.
24
9a(ma)Gs ar-(me)t t'at t'e Holoca(st *ecame t'i)2a*le o)l! i) t'e co)+itio)s o0 mo+er)it! ma! 0all s'ort o0
act(all! *lami)- t'at 'orror o) E)li-'te)me)t Ari)ciAles o0 ratio)alit!M *(t 'is 'i)t t'at ;civilisatio); itsel0 ma! 'ave
*ee) resAo)si*le 0or t'e *ar*arism o0 t'e ;.i)al 5ol(tio); is ma+e e1Alicit *! Ric'ar+ R(*i)stei) >'o 8i) a A'rase
aAArovi)-l! /(ote+ *! 9a(ma)C ar-(es t'at t'e Holoca(st ;*ears >it)ess to t'e a+va)ce o0 civilisatio);& %'e >orl+ o0
+eat' camAs a)+ t'e societ! it e)-e)+ers reveals t'e Aro-ressivel! i)te)si0!i)- )i-'t si+e o0 @(+eo,3'ristia) civiliJatio).
3iviliJatio) mea)s slaver!: >ars: e1Aloitatio): a)+ +eat' camAs. It also mea)s me+ical '!-ie)e: elevate+ reli-io(s i+eas:
*ea(ti0(l art: a)+ e1/(isite m(sic. It is a) error to ima-i)e t'at civiliJatio) a)+ sava-e cr(elties are a)tit'esis... 9ot'
creatio) a)+ +estr(ctio) are i)seAara*le Aarts o0 >'at >e call civiliJatio).
25
%'is comes ver! close to sa!i)- )ot
E(st t'at mo+er)it! ma2es +eat' camAs Aossi*le *(t t'at it ma2es t'em )ecessar! a)+ i)evita*le.
%'is AroAositio) is +eeAl! /(estio)a*le i) ma)! >a!s: *(t 0or o(r A(rAoses: t'e Frst /(estio) t'at comes to
mi)+ is t'is& >'at +oes it mea) to s(--est t'at *ar*arism is a Aro+(ct o0 civiliJatio)P %o s(--est t'at ;t'e a+va)ce
o0 civiliJatio); i)evita*l! lea+s to ;slaver!: >ars: e1Aloitatio): a)+ +eat' camAs; ca) o)l! mea)
t'at *ar*arism is a) i)era+ica*le Aart o0 '(ma) )at(re. Het is t'is )ot to Aosit a co)ceAt o0 a
'(ma) )at(re t'at is as a'istorical as t'at s(AAose+l! 'el+ *! '(ma)istsP 3o)+em)i)-
civiliJatio) as 0orever im*ricate+ >it' i)'(ma)it! is certai)l! a) ar-(me)t t'at sits ()easil! >it'
a criti/(e o0 '(ma)ism >'ic' claims t'at a) a'istoric )otio) o0 ;Ma); 'as *ee) (se+ to +e)!
'(ma)it! to t'e WestGs <t'ers. %o ar-(e t'at '(ma)ism a)+ ratio)alism 8or ;mo+er)it!;C are t'e
ca(ses o0 t'e Holoca(st is to t(r) lo-ic o) its 'ea+. The $isco!rse o race (as a +ro$!ct not
o En"i)htenment !niversa"ism an$ h!manism #!t o its $e) ra$ation. 5cie)tiFc racism
>as )ot t'e aAAlicatio) o0 scie)ce a)+ reaso) to t'e /(estio) o0 '(ma) +iKere)ce *(t t'e (se o0
t'e +isco(rse o0 scie)ce to -ive le-itimac! to irratio)al: ()scie)tiFc ar-(me)ts. %'e ;.i)al
5ol(tio); >as imAlicit i) t'e racial Aolicies A(rs(e+ *! t'e NaJis. %o e)-a-e i) mass
e1termi)atio) it >as )ecessar! to *elieve t'at t'e o*Eects o0 t'at Aolic! >ere less t'a) '(ma).
9(t to sa! t'at it >as a ratio)all! co)ceive+ Ala) is to elevate t'e AreE(+ices o0 t'e %'ir+ Reic' to
t'e stat(s o0 scie)tiFc 2)o>l e+-eDi) ot'er >or+s to acceAt as tr(e t'e ver! claims o0 racial
+isco(rse.
ENDI 2010 5"
AT: :89ANIS9 KAJ @ :EIJELLER
:ei$e))ers rejection o h!manism is j!st an e6c!se or his Na,ism;
their ar)!ment historica""% j!sti1es a vio"ent +ast
DiKere)ce:; i) ;I) De0e)se o0 Histor!:; E+. *! E. Meis2i)s Woo+ ? @o') .oster: A.127,1"1: RBC
%'e iro)! i) t'is is t'at t'e criti/(e o0 totalitaria)ism is i) s(*sta)ce a re>or2i)- o0 t'e )i)etee)t' ce)t(r! criti/(e o0
E)li-'te)me)t ratio)alism a)+ o0 mass societ! A(rs(e+ *! A'ilosoA'ers s(c' as NietJsc'e a)+ Hei+e--er: >'ose >or2
No>e+ 0rom t'e 'ostilit! o0 t'e i)telli-e)tsia to e/(alit! a)+ mass +emocrac!. $re)+tGs t'eor! o0 totalitaria)ism carries
over t'e mai) t'emes o0 Hei+e--erGs t'o(-'t i) its a)ti,mass c'aracter: its i)ciAie)t a)ti,ratio)alism: a)+ i) Aartic(lar its
'ostilit! to t'e E)li-'te)me)t as t'e em*o+ime)t o0 *ot'. %'e i+ea o0 t'e a(t'oritaria) Aerso)alit!: a)+ o0
t'e masses as t'e ;re0(se o0 all classes:; 'as close Aarallels >it' t'e t'emes o0 cro>+ As!c'olo-!:
s(c' as t'ose e1Ao()+e+ *! B(stav 4e9o).
29
9ot' are a cr! a-ai)st >'at Hei+e--er calle+ t'e ;a)o)!mit! o0 t'e %'e!& a)
e)+less etcetera o0 i)+iKere)ce a)+ al>a!s,t'e,same)ess ... t'e +omi)atio) o0 t'e i)+iKere)t mass ... t'at +estro!s all
ra)2 a)+ ever! >orl+,creati)- imA(lse o0 t'e sAirit.;
"0
%'e a)ti'(ma)ist *elie0 t'at t'e tec')ical 0orms o0
mo+er)it! arisi)- 0rom '(ma) master! o0 )at(re ()+erla! t'e imAleme)tatio) o0 t'e Holoca(st
are also ta2e) 0rom Hei+e--er. $-ric(lt(re is )o> a mec'a)ise+ 0oo+ i)+(str!M i) esse)ce it is )o
+iKere)t 0rom t'e Aro+(ctio) o0 corAses i) -as c'am*ers a)+ +eat' camAs: t'e em*ar-oes a)+
0oo+ re+(ctio)s to starvi)- co()tries: t'e ma2i)- o0 '!+ro-e) *om*s.
"1
3omAare Hei+e--erGs
a)al!sis: a*ove: o0 t'e *ar*arism o0 t'e t>e)tiet' ce)t(r! >it' a sociolo-ical i)terAretatio) o0 t'e same:
0rom E+m()+ 5till,ma) a)+ William #0aK& %'ere is more t'a) a >'oll! 0ort(ito(s co))ectio) *et>ee) t'e
aAAlie+ tec')olo-! o0 t'e mass Aro+(ctio) li)e: a)+ its visio) o0 ()iversal material a*()+a)ce:
a)+ t'e aAAlie+ tec')olo-! o0 t'e co)ce)tratio) camA: >it' its visio) o0 a Aro0(sio) o0 +eat'.
"2
I
F)+ it o+io(s t'at sc'olars ca) i) all serio(s)ess e/(ate mass e1termi )atio) >it' t'e Aro+(ctio)
o0 McDo)al+Gs 'am*(r-ers or o0 .or+ Escorts: or ma2e a comAariso) *et>ee) tec')olo-! aime+
at imArovi)- t'e material a*()+a)ce o0 societ! a)+ Aolitical +ecisio)s ta2e) to a))i'ilate >'ole
AeoAles a)+ +estro! e)tire societies. 9(t >'at is i)teresti)- is t'at t'e seco)+ /(ote: 0rom E+m()+
5tillma) a)+ William #0aK: comes 0rom a li*eral i)terAretatio) o0 t'e Holoca(st: >'ile t'e Frst /(ote:
0rom Hei+e--er 'imsel0: comes 0rom a) aAolo-ia 0or 'is NaJi Aast. Hei+e--er 'a+ *ee) a) active
mem*er o0 t'e NaJi #art! ()til 194". $0ter t'e >ar 'e attemAte+ to re'a*ilitate 'is reA(tatio):
a)+ i) t'e +oc(me)t Rectoral -ddresses6/acts and Thoughts 'e mars'ale+ t'e ar-(me)ts >'ic' 'e 'oAe+ >o(l+
+ista)ce 'im 0rom t'e %'ir+ Reic'. %'e 2e! Aiece o0 evi+e)ce 0or t'e +e0e)se >as t'e assertio) t'at
NaJism >as simAl! a)ot'er ma)i0estatio) o0 t'e sAirit o0 mo+er)it!. $ccor+i)- to Hei+e--er t'ere
e1iste+ a ;()iversal >ill to Ao>er >it'i) 'istor!: )o> ()+erstoo+ to em*race t'e Ala)et:; a)+ t'at ;ever!t'i)- sta)+s i)
t'is 'istorical realit!: )o matter >'et'er it is calle+ comm()ism: 0ascism or >orl+ +emocrac!.; It is a telli)- meas(re o0
t'e +e-ree o0 co)0(sio) i) Aost>ar t'eor! >'e) li*eral a)+ NaJi e1Ala)atio)s o0 t'e Holoca(st ca) *arel! *e Arie+ aAart.
Hei+e--erGs i+eas: >'ic' ori-i)all! so(-'t to artic(late )atio)al socialism: >e)t o): t'ro(-' t'e totalitaria) t'esis: to
s'aAe t'e i)terAretatio) a)+ criti/(e o0 0ascism a0ter its +e0eat. %'e a)ti'(ma)ism o0 Hei+e--er a)+ 'is
0ello> t'i)2ers *ecame a ce)tral t'eme o0 Aoststr(ct(ralist a)+ Aostmo+ er)ist +isco(rse: o0
colo)ial +isco(rse a)al!sis: a)+ o0 t'e t'eories o0 +iKere)ce a)+ c(lt(ral Al(ralism. %'ere is
more t'a) a to(c' o0 iro)! i) co)si+eri)- 'o>: t'ro(-' t'e re'a*ilitatio) o0 a)ti'(ma)ist
t'i)2ers s(c' as Hei+e--er a)+ NietJsc'e: t'e reEectio) o0 *ar*arism s'o(l+ Areserve t'e ver!
AreE(+ices t'at -ave rise to it.
ENDI 2010 54
AT: 5E9 CRITI<8E O5 :IST 9AT
:istorica" materia"ist ana"%sis is a +recon$ition to meanin)!" eminist
critiD!e;their ar)!ments are mire$ in +rivi"e)e an$ maintainince o the
stat!s D!o
Sta#i"e ./0 , associate Aro0. i) t'e DeAt. o0 Mass 3omm 6 7)iv. o0 Wisco)si) 83arol $.:
;#ostmo+er)ism: .emi)ism: a)+ Mar1& Notes 0rom t'e $*!ss:; i) ;I) De0e)se o0 Histor!:; E+. *!
E. Meis2i)s Woo+ ? @o') .oster: A.144,: RBC
%'e +e0e)se o0 ;ri-'ts:; a*stracte+ 0rom 'istorical: Aolitical: a)+ eco )omic co)te1ts: 'as
>ea2e)e+ 0emi)ist Aolitics a)+ co)tri*(te+ to a -e)eral se)se t'at 0emi)ism serves o)l! )arro>
a)+ Arivile-e+ i)terests. Historical materialism oKers t'e Aossi*ilit! o0 coalitio)s *ase+ o) a
*roa+er ()+ersta)+i)- o0 t'e e1Aloitative )at(re o0 caAitalist relatio)s o0 Aro+(c tio): e)listi)-
>ome) a)+ me) i) str(--les a-ai)st 0amil! viole)ce: 0(rt'er c(ts to alrea+! severel! +imi)is'e+
social Aro-rams: a)+: moreover: a-ai)st t'e s!stem t'at *e)eFts 0rom t'ese ills. .(rt'ermore: it
AroAoses t'at >ome)Gs li*eratio)Di0 it is to i)cl(+e all >ome)Dis i)comAati*le >it' caAitalism.
Historical materialism 'as t'e a+va)ta-e o0 oKeri)- t'e 2i)+ o0 sel0,re,Ne1ivit!Dso lac2i)- i)
Aostmo+er)ism a)+ co)temAorar! 0emi)ismDt'at IGve trie+ to ()+erscore i) t'is essa!. It at o)ce 0orces (s
to ()+ersta)+ o(r t'eories: o(r Aractices: a)+ o(r Aositio)s i) relatio) to t'e +omi)a)t str(ct(re
o0 Ao>er: a)+ Arovi+es a m(c' more eKective *asis 0or a) ()+er sta)+i)- o0 t'e Aositio)s o0 *ot'
>ome) a)+ me) >it'i) m(lti)atio)al caAitalism a)+ o0 co)temAorar! s'i0ts i) t'ese Aositio)s.
3o)si+er: 0or e1amAle: t'e +e*ate a*o(t ;0amil! val(es.; %'e co)ve)tio)al 0emi)ist ar-(me)t is t'at t'e Ne> Ri-'tGs call
0or a ret(r) to 0amil! val(es is simAl! a *ac2las'. <) t'e o)e 'a)+: t'is *ac2las' is sai+ to reArese)t a) attemAt to
rei)state a tra+itio)al versio) o0 t'e )(clear 0amil! i) or+er to 0orce >ome) o(t o0 t'e la*or 0orce a)+ *ac2 i)to t'e
'ome. <) t'e ot'er 'a)+: it is see) as a meas(re o0 t'e eKective)ess o0 t'e 0emi)ist moveme)t: i)so0ar as >ome) )o>
'ave t'e ;c'oice; o0 >or2i)-. W'at +isaAAears 0rom vie> i) t'ese a)al!ses is t'e 0act t'at eco)omic co)+itio)s 'ave
0orce+ (Ao) mi++le class >ome) t'e +(*io(s a+va)ta-e o0 >or2i)- o)e or more 0(ll,time Eo*s i) a++itio) to +omestic
la*or: a)+ t'at t'is social c'a)-e *e)eFts caAitalism: a)+ )ot i)+ivi+(al me). #oor a)+ >or2i)- class >ome)
8ma)! o0 t'em >ome) o0 colorC 'ave lo)- >or2e+ o(tsi+e t'e 'ome: alt'o(-' 0e> o0 t'em >o(l+
call t'eir alie)ate+ a)+ o0te) +esAerate la*or a matter o0 ;c'oice.; W'at is *ei)- reArese)te+ as
a -ai) 0or >ome) simAl! mea)s t'at mi++le class >ome) are )o> *ei)- comAelle+ *! t'e
)ecessities o0 caAital ism to ma2e t'e ;c'oice; t'at 'as tra+itio)all! *ee) availa*le to Aoor a)+
>or2i)- class >ome). %o ar-(e t'at t'e +e*ates a*o(t 0amil! val(es are i)te)+e+ to 0orce >ome) *ac2 i)to t'e
+omestic sA'ere overloo2s t'e 0act t'at t'ere ca) *e )o ret(r) to t'e tra+itio)al )(clear 0amil! *eca(se it is )o lo)-er
eco)omicall! 0easi*le. %o ar-(e t'at t'ese +e*ates a*o(t 0amil! val(es >ere Arovo2e+ *! 0emi)ist s(ccesses is to acceAt
t'e i+eolo-ical m!stiFcatio) t'at treats t'e eco)omic ma)+ates o0 caAitalism as i0 t'e! >ere 0ree li0e,st!le ;c'oices.; I
>o(l+ li2e to *elieve t'at 0emi)ists are: i) 0act: committe+ to revol(tio)ar! social c'a)-e: *(t t'ereGs a)ot'er: less
Aleasa)t Aossi*ilit! to co)temAlateDo)e t'at Aoi)ts to t'e +a)-ers o0 i-)ori)- class Aositio). It co(l+ *e t'at ma)!
>'o call t'emselves 0emi)ists are i)tereste+ o)l! i) mai)tai)i)- t'eir o>) class Arivile-e or i)
-ai)i)- cele*rit! stat(s. .rom t'at Aoi)t o0 vie>: Mar1ism is a serio(s t'reat )ot o)l! *eca(se it
reArese)ts a c'alle)-e to t'e t'eoretical 0o()+atio)s o0 a Aostmo+er) 0emi)ism: *(t also *eca(se
it reveals t'e 'istorical: material: a)+ class 0o()+atio)s o0 certai) 0orms o0 2)o>le+-e. It is 0airl!
clear 'o> >ome) s(c' as Katie RoiA'e: Naomi Wol0: a)+ 3amille #a-lia (se 0emi)ism as a mar2eti)- strate-! to Aromote
t'eir *oo2s: ima-es: a)+ careers: i)stea+ o0 Aromoti)- e/(alit! a)+ social E(stice. 9(t as "on) as so man%
eminists re!se to ac'no("e$)e their o(n +rivi"e)e an$ the (a%s in (hich (e a""
C#ene1tC rom the e6+"oitation o "ess*+rivi "e)e$ (omen an$ men2 eminism in )enera"
(i"" #e in $an)er o #ecomin) a +roessiona" strate)% rather than a +o"itica" +roject.
ENDI 2010 55
AT: 5E9 CRITI<8E O5 :IST 9AT
5eminist ana"%sis is incoherent an$ !nmeanin)!" (itho!t historica"
materia"ism;o!r a"ternative is the on"% (a% to avoi$ the race to the
#ottom o com+etin) c"aims to o++ression;their (or"$vie( +er+et!ates
ca+ita"ism
E. Meis2i)s Woo+ ? @o') .oster: A.144,: RBC
I) t'e e)+: t'e me+ia sAectacle tells (s )ot'i)- at all a*o(t >'at AeoAle >a)t or 'o> t'e!
i+e)ti0!. .e>: i) 0act: ca) aKor+ to *l(r t'e +ivisio) *et>ee) realit! a)+ Fctio) +(ri)- a time i)
>'ic' realit! *ears so little resem*la)ce to its me+ia reArese)tatio)s. %'ose >'o co)ti)(e to
*elieve i) t'e Aossi*ilit! o0 revol(tio)ar! social c'a)-e ca))ot a*a)+o) a *elie0 i) t'e Ao>er o0
critical co)scio(s)ess a)+ t'e tools t'at e)a*le AeoAle 8Aartic(larl! t'ose 0aci)- a) ()sta*le
eco)omic 0(t(reC to ma2e se)se o0 t'eir sit(atio) a)+ lear) 'o> *est to F-'t a-ai)st it: a)+ )ot
simAl! ma2e t'eir Aeace >it' it. I eminist ana"%ses are to maintain an% c"aim to ana"%tic
an$ +o"itica" coherence Hnot to mention eficac%C: t'e) >e )ee+ to ()+ersta)+ *etter 'o>
t'e AroEects some o0 (s AromoteDAostmo+er)ist: 0emi)ist: or some com*i)atio) t'ereo0D ma%
act!a""% ee$ into an$ reinorce ca+ita"ism. 9! reA(+iati)- t'e ver! cate-ories o0 a)al!sis
t'at mi-'t e)a*le ()+er sta)+i)-: t'ese AroEects o*sc(re o(r o>) Aositio)s >it'i) relatio)s o0
s!stemic e1Aloitatio) a)+ AreemAt a)! AroEect o0 social tra)s0ormatio).
I)stea+ o0 seei)- t'e 0ra-me)tatio) o0 i+e)tities as a ca(se 0or cele*ratio): >e s'o(l+ tr! to
()+ersta)+ 'o> i+e)tit! 'as *ee) tra)s0orme+ i)to a commo+it! 0or t'ose >it' t'e caAital to
co)s(me it: a)+ 'o> t'e caAitalist s!stem 'as >or2e+ 8a)+ >ill co)ti)(e to >or2C a-ai)st t'e
or-a)iJatio) o0 socialist Aolitics. I) Alace o0 a) i+e)tit! Aolitics t'at serves o)l! to Ait -ro(As
a-ai)st o)e a)ot'er i) a )ever,e)+i)- lita)! o0 comAeti)- claims to oAAres sio): >e )ee+ a more
co-e)t ()+ersta)+i)- o0 t'e s!stemic )at(re o0 oAAressio). We )ee+ to co)si+er t'e e1te)t to
>'ic' t'e Aolitics o0 i+e)tit! reArese)ts )ot a c'alle)-e to: *(t a Aro+(ct o0: t'e s!stem: a
ma)i0estatio) o0 mar2et se-me)tatio) a)+ t'e commo+iFcatio) o0 i+e)tit! Aro+(ce+ *! t'e
-lo*aliJatio) o0 caAital as a >orl+ s!stem. 5or (hat a++ear to #e o++ositiona" strate)ies
ma% ver% (e"" t!rn o!t to #e the s%m+toms o o++ression.
ENDI 2010 56
AT: 5E9 CRITI<8E O5 :ISTORICAL 9ATERIALIS9
:istorica" materia"ist ana"%sis is 'e% to !n$erstan$in) intersectin)
s%stems o o++ression*c"ass ana"%sis ma'es this +ossi#"e
E. Meis2i)s Woo+ ? @o') .oster: A.141,144: RBC
Bive) t'is more +irect e1Aerie)ce o0 eco)omic realities: aca+emics to+a!: a)+ 0emi)ists i) Aartic(lar: s'o(l+ F)+ a
critical a)al!sis o0 caAitalism esAeciall! comAelli)-: si)ce t'e co)tra+ictio)s co)0ro)ti)- t'em
are *e comi)- ever more evi+e)t. 9(t i) t'e aca+em!: it 'as *ecome a 2i)+ o0 i)tellect(al
commo) se)se to +ismiss Mar1ism a)+ its met'o+s in toto as ;totaliJi)-; 8*eca(se it see2s to e1Alai) societ!
t'ro(-' a) a)al!sis o0 its mo+e o0 Aro+(ctio)DcaAitalismC: ;re+(ctive; 8*eca(se eco)omic str(ct(res are sai+ to s'aAe
le-al: Aolitical: a)+ c(lt(ral str(ct(resC: or ;()iver saliJi)-; 8*eca(se class is sai+ to s'aAe co)scio(s)essC. $ mai)
0emi)ist criti/(e 'as *ee) t'at >ome) a)+ 0emale la*or >ere e1cl(+e+ 0rom a)al!sis. %'ese
2)ee,Eer2 resAo)ses 'ave *ecome so Aervasive t'at it is )o lo)-er )ecessar! to e1Alai) >'at
;totaliJi)-:; ;re+(ctive:; or ;()iversaliJi)-; mea)Di) 0act: t'e! are E(st ()+erstoo+. .or a
!o()-er -e)eratio) o0 sc'ol ars: >'ose 0ormative Aolitical e1Aerie)ces 'ave *ee) i) vario(s
0emi)ist moveme)ts: t'e reEectio) o0 Mar1ist,orie)te+ Aolitical activism is *ase+ o) a set o0
m%ths a*o(t t'e masc(li)ist vir(le)ce i)'ere)t i) Mar1ism. Ho> E(stiFe+ is t'is reEectio) o0 Mar1ismP
4etGs loo2 at t'e t'ree mai) c'ar-es levele+ a-ai)st it *! ma)! 0emi)ists& t'at it is ;re+(ctive:; t'at it is too
;()iversalistic:; a)+ t'at it 0ails to co)si+er 0emale la*or. <) t'e Frst Aoi)t: t'e -e)eral claim is t'at 'istorical
materialism re+(ces str(ct(res o0 oAAressio) to class e1Aloitatio): t'ere*! i-)ori)- or
mi)imiJi)- se1ism: racism: a)+ 'omoA'o*ia. W'ile it is certai)l! tr(e t'at 'istorical material ism
Alaces relatio)s o0 Aro+(ctio) at t'e 0o()+atio) o0 societ!: t'ere is )ot'i)- simAle or re+(ctive
a*o(t 'o> t'ese relatio)s str(ct(re oAAres sio)s. Rat'er: historica" materia"ist ana"%ses2
instea$ o e6aminin) on"% one orm o o++ression;"i'e se6ism2 racism2 or homo+ho#ia
;(o!"$ e6+"ore the (a% the% a"" !nction (ithin the overarchin) s%stem o c"ass
$omination in $eterminin) (omen.s an$ men.s "ie choices4 5>eats'oA >or2ers i) Ne>
Hor2 3it!: 0or e1amAle: e1Aerie)ce se1ism a)+ racism i) /(a)titativel! a)+ /(alitativel! +iKere)t
>a!s t'a) +o mi++le class >ome). %'e racism +irecte+ at Aoor $0rica),$merica) !o(t's occ(rs i) a +iKere)t
co)te1t t'a) t'at +irecte+ at $0rica),$merica) >ome) i) t'e aca+em!. %'is is )ot to claim t'at t'e latter 0orms o0
oAAressio) +o )ot e1ist or are i)co)se/(e)tial: *(t *! sit(ati)- *ot' 0orms >it'i) t'e material co)te1t a)+
'istorical 0rame>or2 i) >'ic' t'e! occ(r: >e ca) 'i-'li-'t t'e varia*le +iscrimi)ator!
mec'a)isms t'at are ce)tral to caAitalism as a s!stem.
Rejectin) o!r s!++ose$ !niversa"ism "eaves no too"s or 1)htin) o++ression an$ ma'es
an% chan)e +iecemea"
%'e c'ar-e o0 ;()iversalism; is closel! relate+ to t'at o0 re+(ctivism. %'is o*Eectio) starts >it' t'e criti/(e o0
mo+er)it! 8i)cl(+i)- Mar1ismC o) t'e -ro()+s t'at its co)ceAtio)s o0 tr(t': reaso): a)+ E(stice 8i)
0act: its co)ceAtio) o0 ;'(ma)it!; itsel0C are too ()iversalistic: too i)se)sitive to t'e ma)! +iKere)ces
amo)- '(ma) *ei)-s. %'is criti/(e 'as *ee) val(a*le i) c'alle)-i)- caAitalismGs oAAressive (ses o0 co)ceAts li2e
;E(stice; a)+ ;reaso):; or t'e +estr(ctive aAAlicatio)s o0 scie)ce a)+ tec')olo-! i) t'e )ame o0 ratio)alit! a)+ Aro-ress.
9(t at t'e same time: it Aoses some serio(s Aro*lems 0or 0emi)ists. .irst: i0 t'ere ca) *e )o sta)+ar+s o0 tr(t':
E(stice: or reaso): >e ca))ot aAAeal to t'em as criteria o0 E(+-me)t or actio). I) 0act: Aostmo+er)ists:
i)cl(+i)- Aostmo+er) 0emi)ists: 'ave o0te) *ee) criticiJe+ o) t'e -ro()+s t'at: >it'o(t t'e 2i)+ o0 sta)+ar+s
t'e! are so s>i0t to reEect: t'e! t'emselves ca) 'ave )o *asis 0or s(AAorti)- or E(sti0!i)-
resista)ce to oAAressio). 5eco)+: t'e Aossi*ilit! o0 oAAositio) to oAAressio) is also ()+ermi)e+ *!
t'e Ares(mAtio) t'at t'e commo) i)terests amo)- '(ma) *ei)-s are so )arro> a)+ Neeti)- t'at
a)! Aolitics *e!o)+ t'e most Aartic(laristic a)+ )arro> 0orms o0 resista)ce are imAossi*le.
$ccor+i)-l!: AeoAle ca) str(--le a-ai)st ;Ao>er; 8+eF)e+ Arovisio)all! a)+ co)ti)-e)tl!C o)l! t'ro(-'
si)-le,iss(e Aolitics: a)+ t'e *est t'at ca) *e 'oAe+ 0or is Aiecemeal re0orm. 5i)ce Ao>er ca) )o
lo)-er *e locate+ or i+e)tiFe+: si)ce ;real; ()i0!i)- i)terests are a colo)iJi)- Fctio): a Aart o0 a ()i0orml! oAAressive
ENDI 2010 57
E)li-'te)me)t >orl+vie> 8to >'ic' Mar1ism also *elo)-sC: t'e) a) or-a)iJe+ oAAositio) is )eit'er 0easi*le )or +esira*le.
#olitics: let alo)e revol(tio): is re+(ce+ to a t(r0 >ar amo)- ;+isco(rses.;

ENDI 2010 58
AT: 5E9 @ EMCL8SION O5 LENJER LINK
The e6c"!sion o )en$er as a cate)or% o ana"%sis $oesnt ta'e into
acco!nt economic chan)es that ma'e historica" materia"ism a #etter (a%
o !n$erstan$in) )en$er ineD!a"it%
%'e t'ir+ c'ar-e a-ai)st 'istorical materialismDt'at it 'as e1cl(+e+ 0emale la*or 0rom its a)al!sisD'as al>a!s *ee)
+e*ata*le.
"
W'ile it ma! *e tr(e t'at >ome)Gs ()Aai+ +omestic la*or >as)Gt s!stematicall! i)te ,
-rate+ i)to classical Mar1ist a)al!ses o0 t'e mo+e o0 Aro+(ctio) 8alt'o(-' *ot' Mar1 a)+ E)-els +isc(ss
t'e se1(al +ivisio) o0 la*orC: 0rom t'e 1970s o) t'ere 'ave *ee) Mar1ist revisio)s o0 t'is co)ceAt:
Aartic(larl! >it'i) a)t'roAolo-! a)+ eco)omics. I) a++itio): >'ile a)ti,esse)tialist 0emi)ists 'ave
*ee) s>i0t to aAAroAriate a)+ revise Aoststr(ct(ralist t'eories 8t'at eit'er )e-lect -e)+er or +eal >it' it
i) Aro0o()+l! se1ist >a!sC i) or+er to 0(rt'er a)al!ses o0 -e)+er: o)l! Mar1ism seems to *e si)-le+
o(t 0or reEectio) o) t'e -ro()+s o0 t'is alle-e+ omissio). $t a)! rate: t'e +eveloAme)t o0
co)temAorar! caAitalism 'as to some e1te)t ma+e t'is /(estio) moot. Wit' t'e i)crease+
*l(rri)- *et>ee) t'e A(*lic a)+ Arivate sA'eres: t'e 'ei-'te)e+ commo+iFcatio) o0 Arevio(sl!
()Aai+ 0emale la*or 8care o0 t'e el+erl!: c'il+ care: coo2i)-: clea)i)-: etc.C: a)+ t'e >'olesale e)tr! o0
mi++le class >ome) i)to t'e la*or 0orce: >ome)Gs co)+itio)s are more o*vio(sl! +etermi)e+ *!
relatio)s o0 Aro+(ctio) i) a ver! Mar1ist se)se. Non*9ar6ist eminism2 (ith its "ac' o
attention to re"ations o +ro$!ction2 is #e)innin) to "oo' ar more ina$eD!ate than even
the most )en$er*#"in$ 9ar6ism in e6+"ainin) the con$itions o (omen.
ENDI 2010 59
AT: ALT KILLS ENVIRON9ENT
Their evi$ence ass!mes 9ar6ism4 >ere not the revo"!tion @ j!st an
e+istemo"o)ica" critiD!e o the afirmative
An$2 9ar6ism ca""s or avoi$in) eco"o)ica" $evastation
5oster ./0 , Aro0. o0 sociolo-! 6 7)iv. <re-o) 8@o'): ;Mar1 a)+ t'e E)viro)me)t:; i) ;I) De0e)se
o0 Histor!:; E+. *! E. Meis2i)s Woo+ ? @o') .oster: A.144,160: RBC
W'at >as clear 0rom Mar1Gs a)al!sis >as t'at '(ma)it! a)+ )at(re >ere i)terrelate+: >it' t'e
'istoricall! sAeciFc 0orm o0 Aro+(ctio) relatio)s co)stit(ti)- t'e core o0 t'at i)terrelatio)s'iA i)
a)! -ive) Aerio+. $s 'e >rote i) t'e Economic and +hilosophic Manuscripts of7899, Ma) li"es 0rom )at(re: i.e.:
)at(re is 'is bod, a)+ 'e m(st mai)tai) a co)ti)(i)- +ialo-(e >it' it i0 'e is )ot to +ie. %o sa! t'at ma)Gs A'!sical a)+
me)tal li0e is li)2e+ to )at(re simAl! mea)s t'at )at(re is li)2e+ to itsel0: 0or ma) is a Aart o0 )at(re.
9
.ar 0rom *ei)-
mere >ors'iAers o0 Aro+(ctivism: Mar1 a)+ E)-els >ere t>o o0 its 0oremost critics. $s t'e !o()-
E)-els >rote i) 1844: ;%o ma2e t'e eart' a) o*Eect o0 '(c2steri)-Dt'e eart' >'ic' is o(r o)e a)+ all: t'e Frst co)+itio)
o0 o(r e1iste)ceD>as t'e last steA to>ar+ ma2i)- o)esel0 a) o*Eect o0 '(c2steri)-.; 7)+er caAitalism all )at(ral a)+
'(ma) relatio)s'iAs: Mar1 ar-(e+: 'ave *ee) +issolve+ i)to mo)e! relatio)s'iAs. Rat'er t'a) a societ! r(le+ *! ;callo(s
Gcas',Aa!me)tG; a)+ *! t'e )ecessit! 0or co)ti)(al i)creases i) Aro+(ctivit!: 'e loo2e+ 0or>ar+ to a social or+er t'at
>o(l+ Aromote t'e ma)!,si+e+ +eveloAme)t o0 '(ma) caAacities a)+ t'e ratio)al '(ma) relatio) to t'e )at(re o0 >'ic'
>e are a Aart. %'e 0(rt'er -ro>t' o0 '(ma) 0ree+om: 'e >rote i) t'e F)al Aart o0 t'e t'ir+ vol(me o0 Capital, co)sists i)
;socialiJe+ ma): t'e associate+ Aro+(cers: ratio)all! re-(lati)- t'eir material i)terc'a)-e >it' )at(re a)+ *ri)-i)- it
()+er commo) co)trol: i)stea+ o0 allo>i)- it to r(le t'em as a *li)+ 0orce.; %'e '(ma) comm()it!: Mar1
*elieve+: ca) )o more 0ree itsel0 0rom t'e )ee+ to co)trol its i)teractio) >it' )at(re t'a) it ca)
0ree itsel0 0rom t'e )ee+ to ta2e i)to co)si+eratio) t'e )at(ral co)+itio)s o0 '(ma) e1iste)ce. Het
ratio)al co)trol o0 t'e relatio) *et>ee) )at(re a)+ '(ma)it! is i)'er e)tl! oAAose+ to t'e
mec'a)istic +omi)atio) o0 )at(re i) t'e i)terest o0 t'e ever i)creasi)- e1Aa)sio) o0 Aro+(ctio)
0or its o>) sa2e. I) a societ! o0 0reel! associate+ Aro+(cers: Mar1 ar-(e+: t'e -oal o0 social li0e
>o(l+ )ot *e >or2 a)+ Aro+(ctio): i) t'e )arro> 0orms i) >'ic' t'e! 'ave *ee) ()+erstoo+ i) Aossessive,
i)+ivi+(alist societ!: *(t t'e all,aro()+ +eveloA me)t o0 '(ma) creative Aote)tial as a) e)+ i) itsel0: 0or
>'ic' ;t'e s'or erri)- o0 t'e >or2i)-,+a! is a *asic Arere/(isite.; %'is >o(l+ set t'e sta-e 0or t'e ac'ieveme)t o0 a
realm o0 0ree+om i) >'ic' '(ma) *ei)-s >o(l+ *e ()ite+ >it' eac' ot'er a)+ >it' )at(re.
10
%'e realiJatio) o0
t'ese co)+itio)s: Mar1 reco-)iJe+: )ecessitate+ a ra+i cal tra)s0ormatio) i) t'e '(ma) relatio)
to )at(re. Wit' t'e elimi)atio) o0 Arivate o>)ers'iA o0 la)+ a)+ t'e +eveloAme)t o0 a societ! o0
0reel! asso ciate+ Aro+(cers: -lo*al s(stai)a*ilit! i) t'e relatio)s'iA to )at(re >o(l+ *ecome
0easi*le 0or t'e Frst time. #oi)ti)- to t'e imAerative o0 Arotecti)- t'e -lo*e 0or 0(t(re -e)eratio)s Mar1 state+&
.rom t'e sta)+Aoi)t o0 a 'i-'er eco)omic 0orm o0 societ!: Arivate o>)ers'iA o0 t'e -lo*e *! si)-le i)+ivi+(als >ill aAAear
/(ite as a*s(r+ as Arivate o>)ers'iA o0 o)e ma) *! a)ot'er. Eve) a >'ole societ!: a )atio): or eve) all sim(lta)eo(sl!
e1isti)- societies to-et'er: are )ot t'e o>)ers o0 t'e -lo*e. %'e! are o)l! its Aossessors: its (s(0r(ct(aries: a)+ li2e boni
patres familias U-oo+ 0at'ers o0 0amiliesV: t'e! m(st 'a)+ it +o>) to s(ccee+i)- -e)eratio)s i) a) imArove+ co)+itio).
11
It
>as t'e AroAer A(rAose o0 a-ric(lt(re: Mar1 ar-(e+: ;to mi)ister to t'e e)tire ra)-e o0 Aerma)e)t )ecessities o0 li0e
re/(ire+ *! t'e c'ai) o0 s(ccessive -e)eratio)s;Di) co)tra+ictio) to ;t'e >'ole sAirit o0 caAitalist Aro+(ctio): >'ic' is
+irecte+ to>ar+ t'e imme+iate -ai) o0 mo)e!.; %'ere >as t'(s a +irect co)Nict *et>ee) caAitalismGs s'ort,si-'te+
e1AroAriatio) o0 t'e eart'Gs reso(rces a)+ t'e lo)-er term c'aracter o0 tr(l! s(stai)a*le Aro+(ctio). Eco)omic a+va)ce
i) a societ! o0 0reel! associate+ Aro+(cers: Mar1 i)siste+ a-ai) a)+ a-ai): >o(l+ 'ave to occ(r >it'o(t EeoAar+iJi)- t'e
)at(ral a)+ -lo*al co)+itio)s (Ao) >'ic' t'e >el0are o0 0(t(re -e)eratio)s >o(l+ +eAe)+. %'is is Arecisel! t'e +eF)itio)
)o> -ive) to t'e co)ceAt o0 s(stai)a*le +eveloAme)t: most 0amo(sl! i) t'e 9r()+tla)+ 3ommissio) reAort: 2ur Common
/uture, >'ic' +eF)e+ it as ;+eveloAme)t t'at meets t'e )ee+s o0 t'e Arese)t >it'o(t comAromisi)- t'e a*ilit! o0 0(t(re
-e)eratio)s to meet t'eir o>) )ee+s.;
12
$lt'o(-' Mar1 +i+ )ot co)ce)trate o) t'e ecolo-ical criti/(e o0
caAitalism i) 'is >riti)-sD)o +o(*t *eca(se 'e t'o(-'t t'at caAitalism >o(l+ *e reAlace+ *! a societ! o0 0reel!
associate+ Aro+(cers lo)- *e0ore s(c' Aro*lems co(l+ *ecome tr(l! criticalD'is all(sio)s to s(stai)a*ilit!
i)+icate t'at 'e >as ac(tel! a>are o0 t'e ecolo-ical +eAre+atio)s o0 t'e s!stem. 3e)tral to 'is
co)cer)s i) t'is resAect >as t'e eKect o0 caAitalist i)+(strialiJatio) o) t'e +e-ra+atio) o0 t'e soil. %'e *est 2)o>)
Aassa-e i) t'is re-ar+: 0rom Capital, vol. I: is to *e 0o()+ i) t'e sectio) o) ;4ar-e,5cale I)+(str! a)+ $-ric(lt(re:; >'ic'
co)stit(tes t'e F)al: c(lmi)ati)- Aart o0 Mar1Gs 2e! c'aAter o) ;Mac'i)er! a)+ 4ar-e,5cale I)+(str!; 8o) t'e eKects o0
t'e I)+(strial Revol(tio)C. %'ere Mar1 ar-(es& $ll Aro-ress i) caAitalist a-ric(lt(re is a Aro-ress i) t'e art: )ot o)l! o0
ro**i)- t'e >or2er: *(t o0 ro**i)- t'e soilM all Aro-ress i) i)creasi)- t'e 0ertilit! o0 t'e soil 0or a -ive) time is Aro-ress
to>ar+s r(i)i)- t'e lo)-,lasti)- so(rces o0 t'at 0ertilit!. %'e more a co()tr! Arocee+s 0rom lar-e,scale i)+(str! as t'e
*ac2-ro()+ o0 its +eveloAme)t: as i) t'e case o0 t'e 7)ite+ 5tates: t'e more raAi+ is t'is Arocess o0 +estr(ctio). 3aAi,
talist Aro+(ctio): t'ere0ore: o)l! +eveloAs t'e tec')i/(es a)+ t'e +e-ree o0 com*i)atio) o0 t'e social Arocess o0
Aro+(ctio) *! sim(lta)eo(sl! ()+ermi)i)- t'e ori-i)al so(rces o0 all >ealt'Dt'e soil a)+ t'e >or2er.
1"
%'ese >ere )ot
cas(al or isolate+ comme)ts *(t reNecte+ care0(l st(+! o0 t'e >or2 o0 t'e Berma) a-raria) c'emist @(st(s vo) 4ie*i-:
ENDI 2010 60
o0te) 2)o>) as t'e 0o()+er o0 soil c'emistr!. 7)til t'e earl! 1860s: Mar1 t'o(-'t t'at t'e Aro-ress o0 caAitalist
a-ric(lt(re mi-'t *e so raAi+ t'at it >o(l+ o(tAace i)+(str!. 9! t'e time 'e >rote Capital, 'o>ever: 'is st(+ies o0 t'e
>or2 o0 4ie*i- a)+ ot'er a-ro)omists 'a+ co)vi)ce+ 'im ot'er>ise. ;4ar-e la)+e+ AroAert!:; 'e e1Alai)e+ i) t'e
co)cl(sio) to 'is most imAorta)t c'aAter o) caAitalist a-ric(lt(re 8;%'e Be)esis o0 3aAitalist Bro()+ Re)t;C: re+(ces t'e
a-ric(lt(ral AoA(latio) to a co)sta)tl! 0alli)- mi)im(m: a)+ co)0ro)ts it >it' a co)sta)tl! -ro>i)- i)+(strial AoA(latio)
cro>+e+ to-et'er i) lar-e cities. It t'ere*! creates co)+itio)s >'ic' ca(se a) irreAara*le *rea2 i) t'e co'ere)ce o0
social i)terc'a)-e Arescri*e+ *! t'e )at(ral la>s o0 li0e. $s a res(lt: t'e vitalit! o0 t'e soil is s/(a)+ere+: a)+ t'is
Aro+i-alit! is carrie+ *! commerce 0ar *e!o)+ t'e *or+ers o0 a Aartic(lar state 84ie*i-C. 4ar-e,scale i)+(str! a)+ lar-e,
scale a-ric(lt(re ()+er caAitalism t'(s 'a+ t'e same res(lts& *ot' co)tri*(te+ to t'e r(i)i)- o0 t'e a-ric(lt(ral >or2er
a)+ t'e e1'a(stio) o0 ;t'e )at(ral Ao>er o0 t'e soil.; %'e ;moral o0 'istor!:; Mar1 o*serve+: is t'at t'e caAitalist s!stem
>or2s a-ai)st a ratio)al a-ric(lt(re: or t'at a ratio)al a-ric(lt(re is i)comAati*le >it' t'e caAitalist s!stem 8alt'o(-' t'e
latter Aromotes tec')ical imAroveme)ts i) a-ric(lt(reC a)+ )ee+s eit'er t'e 'a)+ o0 t'e small 0armer livi)- *! 'is o>)
la*or or t'e co)trol o0 t'e associate+ Aro+(cers. .or Mar1 ;t'e ratio)al c(ltivatio) o0 t'e soil as eter)al
comm()al AroAert!; >as ;a) i)alie)a*le co)+itio) o0 t'e e1iste)ce a)+ reAro +(ctio) o0 a c'ai)
o0 s(ccessive -e)eratio)s o0 t'e '(ma) race.;
14
Mar1 a)+ E)-els +i+ )ot co)F)e t'eir +isc(ssio)s o0
ecolo-ical limits to t'e iss(e o0 t'e soil: *(t also e1Alore+ )(mero(s ot'er iss(es o0 s(stai)a*il,it!: i) relatio) to 0orests:
rivers a)+ streams: t'e +isAosal o0 >aste: air /(alit!: e)viro)me)tal to1i)s: etc. ;%'e +eveloAme)t o0 c(lt(re a)+ i)+(str!
i) -e)eral:; Mar1 >rote: ;'as ever evi)ce+ itsel0 i) s(c' e)er-etic +estr(ctio) o0 0orests t'at ever!t'i)- +o)e *! it
co)versel! 0or t'eir Areservatio) a)+ restoratio) aAAears i)F)itesimal.; Wit' re-ar+ to i)+(strial >aste: 'e ar-(e+ 0or
;eco)om! t'ro(-' t'e Areve)tio) o0 >aste: t'at is to sa!: t'e re+(ctio) o0 e1cretio)s o0 Aro+(ctio) to a mi)im(m: a)+ t'e
imme+iate (tiliJatio) o0 all ra> a)+ a(1iliar! materials re/(ire+ i) Aro+(ctio).;
15

Historical Materialism K

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ENDI 2010 1

Historical Materialism K Wave 1

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