Gender Language K

MGW 2010 Gender Langugage K
Gothbret/Thomas Lab K lab

Gender Language K
Gender Language K........................................................................................................................................................1
***Links***....................................................................................................................................................................2
Link He/him/his/mankind/man....................................................................................................................................
Link!"Man#...................................................................................................................................................................$
Link!%he&......................................................................................................................................................................'
Link!(ou gu)s/man......................................................................................................................................................*
Link!)ou gu)s...............................................................................................................................................................+
Link!,ronoun- .e/........................................................................................................................................................0
Link11biolog)..................................................................................................................................................................2
Link11Maleness.............................................................................................................................................................10
Link11Man.....................................................................................................................................................................11
Link11meta3hors............................................................................................................................................................12
Link!3ronoun- man.....................................................................................................................................................1
Link!s4ear 4ords.......................................................................................................................................................1$
Link!.ir/Madam/Mistress..........................................................................................................................................1'
***5m3a6ts***..............................................................................................................................................................1*
5m3a6t11,atriar6h)........................................................................................................................................................1+
5m3a6t!silen6e 4omen................................................................................................................................................10
5m3a6t115ne7ualit).........................................................................................................................................................12
5m3a6t11s3illo8er ..........................................................................................................................................................20
***9lternati8e***.........................................................................................................................................................21
9lternati8e.....................................................................................................................................................................22
9lt :/tension.................................................................................................................................................................2
9lternati8e .ol8en6).....................................................................................................................................................2$
***92 ans4ers***........................................................................................................................................................2'
92; "Man# <ad..............................................................................................................................................................2*
92; <iolog)/.e/............................................................................................................................................................2+
92; Gender =eutralit)...................................................................................................................................................20
92; Gender =eutralit)...................................................................................................................................................22
92; >is6ourse- .tate sol8es...........................................................................................................................................0
92; Mas6uline >is6ourse .............................................................................................................................................1
92; >is6ourse................................................................................................................................................................2
92; >is6ourse................................................................................................................................................................
92; Man Link................................................................................................................................................................$
***>is6ourse***...........................................................................................................................................................'
>is6ourse.......................................................................................................................................................................*
>is6ourse .ha3es ?ealit)..............................................................................................................................................+
>is6ourse .ha3es .o6ial ,ositions................................................................................................................................0
>is6ourse .ha3es ,oli6)...............................................................................................................................................2
>is6ourse sol8es............................................................................................................................................................$0
>is6ourse sol8en6).......................................................................................................................................................$1
>is6ourse @irst...............................................................................................................................................................$2
1
***Links***
2
Link He/him/his/mankind/man
Imposing discursive norms such as mankind or he, the other team perpetuates the
world into a masculine norm where women become invisible.
Goueffic 9 AGoue@@i6- Louise. 9uthor- <9 graduate studies in Bran6e. <reaking the 3atriar6hal 6ode. ,g. 111$ ; 122*. M?.C
Brom the 5 2*0s until toda)- su6h17uestioning has in8ol8ed a shi@t @rom looking at gender bias in language as an abstra6t s)stem- to looking at bias in language use
and at 3otentiall) se/ist dis6ourses- 4hi6h ma) be ob8ious- or subtle- or e8en unarti6ulated. We 4ill deal 4ith the latter in Dha3ter - and in the rest o@ this book.
There are a number o@ areas that ha8e been highlighted regarding the @ormer- i.e. gender bias in language as an abstra6t s)stem. Ene o@ them is the 3roblemati6 use o@
3ronouns- 3arti6ularl) the Aarguabl)C generi6 use o@ FheF- FhimF- FhisF to re@er to both men and 4omen. Beminists su6h as .3ender A1220C belie8e that
language is man1 made- 4ith male @orms being seen as the norm and @emale ones seen as de8iant. .ome ha8e 6laimed that
the use o@ generics FheF/-himF/-hisF- as 4ell as FmanF/FmankindF and e/3ressions like Fthe man in the streetF- to re@er to
both men and 4omen- rein@or6es this binar) understanding o@ norm and de8ian6e- 3romotes male imager)- and
makes 4omen in8isible. These 6laims e/em3li@) the Fdominan6e a33roa6hF Asee Dha3ter 2C- in that the use o@ generi6
e/3ressions is seen to be 3re8enting 4omen @rom e/3ressing and raising 6ons6iousness about their o4n e/3erien6e-
and 3er3etuating menFs domi1 nan6e and e/3loitati8e beha8iour. 5n addition to the male being treated as the norm or unmarked term and
to 4omen being hidden behind su6h terminolog)- @eminists ha8e obGe6ted to the use o@ generi6 e/3ressions su6h as FmanF- sa)ing that the) are not
true generi6s AGraddol and .4ann- 1202C. .3ender illustrated this 4ith an e/am3le that is a66e3table in :nglish; FMan is the onl) 3rimate that 6ommits ra3eFH
and an e/am3le that is not; Fman being a mam1 mal that breast@eeds his )oungF. 9nother e/am3le 4here it be6omes ob8ious that FmanF is not a true generi6 is the
senten6e FMan has di@@i6ult) in 6hildbirthF AHekman- G 220C. 5n addition to 6riti6isms regarding the restri6tion and e/6lusion o@ 4omen- the use o@ generi6s 6an be
misleading and 6on@using. Bor a detailed dis6ussion and a number o@ e/am3les in this area- 4hi6h has been the subGe6t o@ mu6h 6ontro8ers)- see Graddol and .4ann
A1202C. Bor a thorough in8estigation into gender18ariable 3ronouns and gender marking in languages other than :nglish- see Hellinger and Hadumod A2001C. Ether
areas o@ bias in the :nglish language as an abstra6t s)stem in6lude the @ol1 lo4ing; sex specification in the language Ae.g. the no4 outdated FauthoressF- or the use
o@ FsheF to re@er to 6ountries- boats- motor 6arsCH gratuitous modifiers AMiller and .4i@t- 1201C that diminish a 3ersonFs 3restige-
dra4ing attention to their se/ Ae.g. F4oman do6torF /Flad) do6torFC 1 and 4hile histori6all) the @o6us @or those o33osing se/ism
has been on dis6rimination against 4omen rather than men- another e/am3le o@ a modi@ier 4ould be the 3hrase
Fmale nurseFH lexical gaps or under-lexicalization, @or e/am3le ha8ing man) more terms @or 3romis6uous 4omen than @or men
A.tanle)- 12++C and no @emale e7ui8alents o@ terms su6h as Fhen3e6kF- F8irilit)F- F3enetrationFH semantic derogation A.6hulI- 12+'C- 4here a term des6ribing
a 4oman initiall) has neutral 6onnotations- but graduall) a67uires negati8e 6onnotations- and be6omes abusi8e or ends u3 as a
se/ual slur Ae.g. Flad)F- FmadamF- FmistressF- F7ueen FCH relatedl)- there are man) more negati8e terms @or 4omen than @or
men- 3arti6ularl) 3ertaining to se/ual beha8iour and denoting 4omen as se/ual 3re) ADo4ie and Lees- 120+H Dameron- 1222CH
asymmetrically gendered language items, i.e. single 4ords used to des6ribe 4omen- @or 4hi6h there is no e7ui8alent @or men- and 8i6e 8ersa. Bor e/am3le- the
use o@ F@iremanF/F3oli6emanF/F6hairmanF A3rior to linguisti6 inter8ention- see ne/t se6tionCH the use o@ FMrs F to label onl) 4omen- thus
arguabl) rein@or6ing a 3atriar6hal orderH and the di@@eren6e in status bet4een le/i6al items su6h as FmasterF-
Fba6helorF- Fgo8ernorF- FgodF- F4iIardF- and their @emale e7ui8alentsH connotations of language items, su6h as FgirlF A4hi6h ma)
sometimes indi6ate immaturit)- de3enden6e- tri8ialit)- e.g. 6om3are F4eathermanF to F4eathergirlFCH Flad)F and
F4omanF- both o@ 4hi6h are o@ten used eu3hemisti6all) @or de6orum or to obs6ure Fnegati8eF asso6iations 4ith
se/ualit) and re3rodu6tionH and the nurturing 6onnotations o@ FmotheringF- 6om3ared to those o@ the term F@atheringF .
9s 4ill be6ome e8ident later- bias in the language does not ne6essaril) entail bias in language use- and as 4e 4ill also see in Dha3ter - se/ist dis6ourses ma)or ma)
not dra4 on se/ist language items. Words ha8e more than one meaning- and language usersF intentions are obs6ure and un3redi6table.

LinkMan
!an is not gender neutral"interchanging it with people perpetuates gender ine#ualit$.
Writing Center 2010 AThe Writing Denter- Jni8ersit) o@ =orth Darolina. %Gender1.ensiti8e Language.& Bebruar) 11- 2010.
htt3;//444.un6.edu/de3ts/464eb/handouts/gender.html. M?.C
:nglish s3eakers and 4riters ha8e traditionall) been taught to use mas6uline nouns and 3ronouns in situations 4here the
gender o@ their subGe6tAsC is un6lear or 8ariable- or 4hen a grou3 to 4hi6h the) are re@erring 6ontains members o@
both se/es. Bor e/am3le- the J. >e6laration o@ 5nde3enden6e states that K . . . all men are 6reated e7ual . . .K and most o@
us 4ere taught in elementar) s6hool to understand the 4ord KmenK in that 6onte/t in6ludes both male and @emale
9meri6ans. 5n re6ent de6ades- ho4e8er- as 4omen ha8e be6ome in6reasingl) in8ol8ed in the 3ubli6 s3here o@ 9meri6an li@e- 4riters ha8e re6onsidered the 4a)
the) e/3ress gender identities and relationshi3s. <e6ause most :nglish language readers no longer understand the 4ord KmanK to be
s)non)mous 4ith K3eo3le-K 4riters toda) must think more 6are@ull) about the 4a)s the) e/3ress gender in order to
6on8e) their ideas 6learl) and a66uratel) to their readers. Moreo8er- these issues are im3ortant @or 3eo3le 6on6erned
about issues o@ so6ial ine7ualit). There is a relationshi3 bet4een our language use and our so6ial realit). 5@ 4e KeraseK 4omen @rom
language- that makes it easier to maintain gender ine7ualit). 9s ,ro@essor .herr)l Kleinman A2000;*C has argued- LMMale1based
generi6s are another indi6ator!and- more im3ortantl)- a reinforcer !o@ a s)stem in 4hi6h KmanK in the abstra6t and
men in the @lesh are 3ri8ileged o8er 4omen. Words matter- and our language 6hoi6es ha8e 6onse7uen6es. 5@ 4e
belie8e that 4omen and men deser8e so6ial e7ualit)- then 4e should think seriousl) about ho4 to re@le6t that belie@
in our language use. 5@ )ouFre reading this handout- )ouFre 3robabl) alread) a4are that ta6kling gender sensiti8it) in )our 4riting is no small task- es3e6iall)
sin6e there isnFt )et Aand there ma) ne8er beC a set o@ 6on6rete guidelines on 4hi6h to base )our de6isions. Bortunatel)- there are a number o@ di@@erent strategies the
gender1sa88) 4riter 6an use to e/3ress gender relationshi3s 4ith 3re6ision. This handout 4ill 3ro8ide )ou 4ith an o8er8ie4 o@ some o@ those strategies so that )ou 6an
Kmi/ and mat6hK as ne6essar) 4hen )ou 4rite.
$
Linkhe
%e is not gender neutral "using both pronouns establishes e#ualit$.
Writing Center 2010 AThe Writing Denter- Jni8ersit) o@ =orth Darolina. %Gender1.ensiti8e Language.& Bebruar) 11- 2010.
htt3;//444.un6.edu/de3ts/464eb/handouts/gender.html. M?.C
9 3ronoun is a 4ord that substitutes @or a noun. The :nglish language 3ro8ides 3ronoun o3tions @or re@eren6es to mas6uline nouns A@or e/am3le- KheK 6an substitute
@or KTomKC- @eminine nouns AKsheK 6an re3la6e KLu6)KC- and neutral/non1human nouns AKitK stands in @or Ka treeKC- but no 6hoi6e @or se/1neutral third13erson singular
nouns AKthe 4riter-K Ka student-K or KsomeoneKC. 9lthough most o@ us learned in elementar) s6hool that mas6uline 3ronouns Ahe-
his- himC should be used as the Kde@aultK in situations 4here the re@erent Athat is- the 3erson or thing to 4hi6h )ouFre re@erringC 6ould be
either male or @emale- that usage is generall) 6onsidered una66e3table no4. .o 4hat should )ou do 4hen )ouFre @a6ed 4ith one o@ those gender1neutral or gender1
ambiguous situationsN Well- )ouF8e got a @e4 o3tions . . . 1. Jse Kthe)K This o3tion is 6urrentl) mu6h debated b) grammar e/3erts- but most agree that it 4orks 4ell
in at least se8eral kinds o@ situations. 5n order to use Kthe)K to e/3ress a66uratel) gender relationshi3s- )ouFll need to understand that Kthe)K is traditionall) used onl) to
re@er to a 3lural noun. Bor e/am3le- Sojourner Truth and Elizabeth Cady Stanton were famous "first-wae" !merican feminists" They were also both inoled in the
!bolitionist moement" 5n s3ee6h- though- 4e earl) t4ent)1@irst 6entur) 9meri6ans 6ommonl) use Kthe)K to re@er to a singular re@erent. 966ording to man) grammar
e/3erts- that usage is in6orre6t- but hereFs an e/am3le o@ ho4 it sounds in our e8er)da) s3ee6h; #f a student wants to learn more about gender ine$uality, they should
ta%e #ntro to &omen's Studies" =ote that in this e/am3le- Ka studentK is singular- but it is re3la6ed in the se6ond senten6e b) Kthe)-K a 3lural 3ronoun. 5n s3ee6h- 4e
o@ten donFt noti6e su6h substitutions o@ the 3lural @or the singular- but in 4riting- some 4ill @ind su6h substitutions a4k4ard or in6orre6t. .ome 3eo3le argue that
Kthe)K should be6ome the de@ault gender1neutral 3ronoun @or :nglish 4riting- but sin6e that usage 6an still sound a4k4ard to man)
readers- its best to use Kthe)K onl) in 3lural situations. Thus- one other o3tion the gender1sa88) 4riter ma) 6hoose to em3lo) is to make her/his senten6e 3lural. HereFs
one 4a) that 6an 4ork; ! student's beliefs about feminism may be based on what he has heard in the popular media" 6an be6ome Students' beliefs about feminism
may be based on what they hae heard in the popular media" 2. Jse she or he or she(he. 9nother- sim3ler o3tion the gender1sa88) 4riter 6an use to deal
4ith situations in 4hi6h the gender o@ the re@erent is unkno4n or 8ariable is to 4rite out both 3ronoun o3tions as Kshe or heK or Kshe/heK. Bor
e/am3le- Each student who majors in &omen's Studies major must ta%e a course in )eminist Theory" She or he may also get course credit for completing an
internship at a local organization that benefits women" E? Each student who majors in &omen's Studies major must ta%e a course in )eminist Theory" She(he may
also get course credit for completing an internship at a local organization that benefits women" . 9lternate genders and 3ronouns (ou ma) also 6hoose to alternate
gendered 3ronouns. This o3tion 4ill 4ork onl) in 6ertain situations- though!usuall) h)3otheti6al situations in 4hi6h the re@erent is e7uall) likel) to be a male or a
@emale. Bor e/am3le- both male and @emale students use the Writing DenterFs ser8i6es- so the author o@ our sta@@ manual 6hose to alternate bet4een mas6uline and
@eminine 3ronouns 4hen 4riting the @ollo4ing tutoring guidelines; ?es3ond as a reader- e/3laining 4hat and ho4 )ou 4ere/are thinking as )ou read her te/ts so that
she 6an dis6o8er 4here a reader might struggle 4ith her 4riting. 9sk him to outline the dra@t to re8eal the organiIation o@ the 3a3er. 9sk her to des6ribe her 3ur3ose
and audien6e and sho4 ho4 she has taken them into a66ount in her 4riting. :/3lain a re6urring 3attern and let him lo6ate re3eated instan6es o@ it. E@ 6ourse- this
author 6ould also ha8e in6luded both 3ronouns in ea6h senten6e b) 4riting Kher/hisK or Kher/him-K but in this 6ase- alternating KheK and KsheK 6on8e)s the same sense
o@ gender 8ariabilit) and is likel) a little easier on the reader- 4ho 4onFt ha8e to 3ause to 3ro6ess se8eral di@@erent o3tions e8er) time a gendered 3ronoun is needed in
the senten6e. This e/am3le also 3ro8ides a use@ul demonstration o@ ho4 gender1sa88) 4riters 6an take ad8antage o@ the man) di@@erent o3tions a8ailable b) 6hoosing
the one that best suits the uni7ue re7uirements o@ ea6h 3ie6e o@ 4riting the) 3rodu6e. $. :liminate the 3ronoun altogether Binall)- )ou 6an also sim3l)
eliminate the 3ronoun. Bor e/am3le- !llan *ohnson is a contemporary feminist theorist" This writer and professor gae a speech at +,C in the fall of -../"
=ote ho4 the senten6e used Kthis 4riter and 3ro@essorK rather than Khe.K 0any people accept the negatie stereotype that if a person is a feminist, she must hate men"
6ould be6ome 0any people accept the negatie stereotype that feminist beliefs are based on hatred of men" =ote ho4 the se6ond 8ersion o@ the senten6e talks about
the belie@s. <) a8oiding using the 3ronoun Kshe-K it lea8es o3en the 3ossibilit) that men ma) be @eminists.
'
LinkYou guys/man
&he phrase $ou gu$s and nouns ending in man subsume women under a masculine
discourse.
The Writing Center 2010 A The Writing Denter- Jni8ersit) o@ =orth Darolina. %Gender1.ensiti8e Language.& Bebruar) 11- 2010.
htt3;//444.un6.edu/de3ts/464eb/handouts/gender.html. M?. C
Like gendered 3ronouns- gendered nouns 6an also 3ro8ide a stumbling blo6k @or the gender1sa88) 4riter. The best 4a) to a8oid im3li6ations these 4ords 6an 6arr) is
sim3l) to be a4are o@ ho4 4e tend to use them in s3ee6h and 4riting. <e6ause gendered nouns are so 6ommonl) used and a66e3ted b) :nglish 4riters and s3eakers-
4e o@ten donFt noti6e them or the im3li6ations the) bring 4ith them. En6e )ouF8e re6ogniIed that a gender distin6tion is being made b) su6h a 4ord- though-
6on8ersion o@ the gendered noun into a gender1sa88) one is usuall) 8er) sim3le. KManK and 4ords ending in K1manK are the most 6ommonl)
used gendered nouns- so a8oiding the 6on@usion the) bring 6an be as sim3le as 4at6hing out @or these 4ords and
re3la6ing them 4ith 4ords that 6on8e) )our meaning more e@@e6ti8el). Bor e/am3le- i@ the @ounders o@ 9meri6a had been gender1sa88)
4riters- the) might ha8e 4ritten K . . . all 3eo3le are 6reated e7ualK instead o@ K . . . all men are 6reated e7ual . . ..K 9nother 6ommon gendered
e/3ression- 3arti6ularl) in in@ormal s3ee6h and 4riting- is K)ou gu)s.K This e/3ression is used to re@er to grou3s o@ men- grou3s o@
4omen- and grou3s that in6lude both men and 4omen. 9lthough most 3eo3le mean to be in6lusi8e 4hen the) use
K)ou gu)s-K this 3hrase 4ouldnFt make sense i@ it didnFt subsume 4omen under the 6ategor) Kgu)s.K To see 4h) K)ou gu)sK
is gendered male- 6onsider that Ka gu)K AsingularC is de@initel) a man- not a 4oman- and that most men 4ould not @eel in6luded in the e/3ression
K)ou galsK or K)ou girls.K 9nother e/am3le o@ gendered language is the 4a) the 4ords KMr.-K KMiss-K and KMrs.K are used. KMr.K 6an re@er to an)
man- regardless o@ 4hether he is single or married!but 4omen are de@ined b) their relationshi3 to men Ab) 4hether
the) are married or notC. 9 4a) around this is to use KMs.K A4hi6h doesnFt indi6ate marital statusC to re@er to 4omen. .ometimes 4e modi@)
nouns that re@er to Gobs or 3ositions to denote the se/ o@ the 3erson holding that 3osition. This o@ten done i@ the se/ o@ the 3erson holding the 3osition goes against
6on8entional e/3e6tations. To get a sense o@ these e/3e6tations- think about 4hat se/ )ou 4ould instin6ti8el) assume the subGe6t o@ ea6h o@ these senten6es to be; The
doctor wal%ed into the room" The nurse wal%ed into the room" Man) 3eo3le assume that do6tors are men and that nurses are 4omen. <e6ause o@ su6h assum3tions-
someone might 4rite senten6es like KThe @emale do6tor 4alked into the roomK or KThe male nurse 4alked into the
room.K Jsing K@emaleK and KmaleK in this 4a) rein@or6es the assum3tion that most or all do6tors are male and most
or all nurses are @emale. Jnless the se/ o@ the nurse or do6tor is im3ortant to the meaning o@ the senten6e- it 6an be omitted. 9s )ou 4ork
on be6oming a gender1sa88) 4riter- )ou ma) @ind it hel3@ul to 4at6h out @or the @ollo4ing gendered nouns and re3la6e them 4ith one o@ the alternati8es listed belo4.
Dhe6k a thesaurus @or alternati8es to gendered nouns not in6luded in this list.
*
Linkyou guys
'hanging language is a pre(re#uisite to shaping gender e#ualit$"phrases like $ou gu$s
reinforce patriarchal s$stem.
Kleinman 07 A.herr)l Kleinman- ,ro@essor in >e3artment o@ .o6iolog) at the Jni8ersit) o@ =orth Darolina-
%Wh) .e/ist Language Matters.& Mar6h 12- 200+. htt3;//444.alternet.org/stor)/$00'*/. M?.C
Gendered 4ords and 3hrases like K)ou gu)sK ma) seem small 6om3ared to issues like 8iolen6e against 4omen- but
6hanging our language is an eas) 4a) to begin o8er6oming gender ine7ualit). Bor )ears 5F8e been u3 in6hes o@ s3a6e
in the ne4sletter o@ a ra3e 6risis 6enterN <e6ause male1based generi6s are another indi6ator 11 and more im3ortantl)-
a rein@or6er 11 o@ a s)stem in 4hi6h KmanK in the abstra6t and men in the @lesh are 3ri8ileged o8er 4omen. .ome sa)
that language merel) re@le6ts realit) and so 4e should ignore our 4ords and 4ork on 6hanging the une7ual gender
arrangements that are re@le6ted in our language. Well- )es- in 3art. Link!noun- 3ronoun
!asculine pronouns and nouns perpetuate male dominance in the workplace.
RSCC 10 The ?.DD- online Writing Lab. %98oiding .e/ist Language.& The Oanuar) 20- 2010.
htt3;//444.roanestate.edu/o4lP4riting6enter/o4l/.e/ism.html. M?.
When 3eo3le use se/ist language the) are a6tuall) sho4ing a bias- e8en i@ the) are una4are o@ the bias or i@ it is
unintentional. (our usage is se/ist i@ )ou re@er in general to do6tors- managers- la4)ers- 6om3an) 3residents-
engineers- and other 3ro@essionals as KheK or KhimK 4hile re@erring to nurses- se6retaries- and homemakers as KsheK
or Kher.K Eur goal as 6ommuni6ators is to identi@) 4ith our audien6e- not to inad8ertentl) insult them. Bollo4 these
guidelines to eliminate se/ist e/3ressions @rom )our 6ommuni6ations; 1. Jse neutral e/3ressions; Jse K6hair-K or
K6hair3erson-K rather than K6hairmanK Jse Kbusiness3ersonK rather than KbusinessmanK Jse Ksu3er8isorK rather than
K@oremanK Jse K3oli6e o@@i6erK rather than K3oli6emanK Jse Kletter 6arrierK rather than K3ostmanK Jse KhomemakerK
rather than Khouse4i@eK 2. Jse 3lural @orms. 5nstead o@ using KThe manager . . . he-K use KThe managers . . . the).K
. When 3ossible Aas in dire6t addressC- use K)ou.K Bor e/am3le- K(ou 6an begin to eliminate se/ual bias b)
be6oming a4are o@ the 3roblem.K <ut be 6are@ul to a8oid using K)ou.K 5@ used too o@ten- it 6an sound as i@ )ouFre
ordering )our reader around. $. >ro3 endings su6h as 1ess and 1ette used to denote @emales Ae.g.- 3oetess- authoress-
ba6helorette- maGoretteC. '. 98oid o8eruse o@ 3airings Ahim or her- she or he- his or hers- he/sheC. Too man) su6h
3airings are a4k4ard. *. 98oid se/ist salutations su6h as K>ear .irK- or KGentlemen.K 5t is al4a)s 3re@erable to use
the 3ersonFs name. 5@ )ou do not kno4 4hether a 4oman is married or not- use Ms. 5@ )ou are unable to @ind out the
gender o@ the 3erson- use the 3osition title on an attention line A9ttention; Qualit) 9ssuran6e .u3er8isorC instead o@ a
salutation.
+
LinkPronoun, Se
Gender pronouns makes se) an issue"creates a dichotom$ between man and women
*ustifies masculine dominance
+tan@ord ,n6)6lo3edia o@ -hiloso3h) ./ A.tan@ord :n6)6lo3edia o@ ,hiloso3h). %Beminist ,hiloso3h) o@
Language& htt3;//3lato.stan@ord.edu/entries/@eminism1language/. M?.C
.e/1marking :nglish- like most ! but not all ! languages- re7uires a great deal o@ 4hat Maril)n Br)e 6alls "se/ marking# ABr)e 120C. Bor
e/am3le- one 6annot use 3ronouns to re@er to a 3arti6ular indi8idual 4ithout kno4ing their se/. Br)e notes the absurdit) o@ this. 5@
5 am 4riting a book re8ie4- the use o@ 3ersonal 3ronouns to re@er to the author 6reates the need to kno4 4hether that
3ersonFs re3rodu6ti8e 6ells are the sort 4hi6h 3rodu6e o8a or the sort 4hi6h 3rodu6e s3erm. ABr)e 120; 22C .ingular 3ersonal
3ronoun usage is im3ossible 4ithout kno4ing the se/ o@ the 3erson one is dis6ussing- and in man) 6ases se/ 4ould other4ise be utterl) irrele8ant. Br)e takes
this to be an instan6e o@ a general tenden6) to make se/ rele8ant 4here it need not be- 4hi6h she takes to be a ke)
@eature o@ se/ism. 5n addition- she suggests- the 6onstant need to kno4 and indi6ate se/ hel3s to 3er3etuate the 6on8i6tion
that se/ is a tremendousl) im3ortant matter in all areas. Bor Br)e- this is a ke) @a6tor in 3er3etuating male dominan6e;
male dominan6e re7uires the belie@ that men and 4omen are im3ortantl) di@@erent @rom ea6h other- so an)thing that
6ontributes to the im3ression that se/ di@@eren6es are im3ortant is there@ore a 6ontributor to male dominan6e.
0
Link!!"io#ogy
0iological e)planations of social differences perpetuates the masculine male identit$.
Goueffic 9 AGoue@@i6- Louise. 9uthor- <9 graduate studies in Bran6e. <reaking the 3atriar6hal 6ode. ,g. 10 ; 122*. M?.C
The terms sex and gender are sometimes used inter6hangeabl) as s)non)ms. Language and gender theorists ha8e generall) made a distin6tion bet4een se/ as
3h)siologi6al- and gender as a 6ultural or so6ial 6onstru6t. 966ording to this distin61 tion- sex re@ers to biologi6al maleness and @emaleness- or
the 3h)siologi6al- @un6tional- anatomi6al di@@eren6es that distinguish men and 4omen- 4hereas gender re@ers to the
traits assigned to a se/ 1 4hat maleness and @emaleness stand @or 1 4ithin di@1 @erent so6ieties and 6ultures. Gender 6an
then be seen as a broader- a more en6om3assing and 6om3le/ term. Graddol and .4ann A1202C state- the man) di@@erent li@e e/3erien6es o@ 4omen R men 6annot be
sim3l) e/3lained b)F biologi6al di@@eren6es bet4een the se/. <iologi6al di@@eren6es 6annot a66ount @or the @a6t that a 3erson ma) be
more or less F@eminineF and more or less Fmas6ulineF. Burther- the man) 8ariations o@ maleness A @emaleness o8er time/@rom one generation to the
ne/t- a6ross 6ultures- and a6ross 6 te/ts- sho4 that the traits assigned to a se/ b) a 6ulture are so6iall) determinedH learned- and there@ore alterable AWodak- 122+H
Talbot- 1220C. Durrent theories o@ g der re6ogniIe not onl) that beha8ing as men or 4omen 4ithin a so6iet) 4ill 8ar) @ one situation to the ne/t- @rom one so6ial
grou3ing or 6ommunit) to another- a66ording to di@@erent goals- aims- and interests- but also that 3eo3le are a6ti8e age .. S. in8ol8ed in their o4n FgenderingF or Fdoing
genderF Asee Dha3ter C. The distin6tion bet4een se/ and gender is im3ortant and 3oliti6al. <iologi6al e/3lanations o@
so6iall) 6onstru6ted di@@eren6es bet4een men and 4omen are o@ten used to Gusti@) male 3ri8ileges or reassert
traditional @amil) and gender roles- @or e/am3le- 4omenFs so16alled FnaturalF role as mothers and nurturers Asee Talbot-
1220- @or other e/am3lesC. Jnsur3risingl)- @eminists ha8e strongl) 6riti6iIed biologi6al e/3lanations o@ FnaturalF di@@eren6es
bet4een the se/es @or 3er3etuating gender m)ths- stereot)3es- and imbalan6es that are ultimatel) damaging @or both
4omen and men.
2
Link!!Ma#eness
1e must remove all se)ist language from our vocabular$ to solve.
+tanford :nc$clopedia of ,hilosoph$ 10 2+tanford ,nc$clopedia of -hilosoph$. 3eminist -hilosoph$ of Language
http455plato.stanford.edu5entries5feminism(language5. !6.7
1.* ?e@orm e@@orts; su66esses and limitations ,roblems like those 4e ha8e seen so @ar are relati8el) eas) to dis6ern. Moreo8er- it ma) seem that the) 4ould be
relati8el) eas) to 6orre6t ! ne4 terms 6an be in8ented- or alternati8e 4ords 6an be used. Mu6h @eminist e@@ort has been de8oted to this endea8our- and a huge 8ariet)
o@ re@orms ha8e been 3ro3osed. A.ee- @or e/am3le- Miller and .4i@t 12+*- 1200- and the 3a3ers in 3art t4o o@ Dameron 1220a.C Ene es3e6iall) su66ess@ul re@orm
e@@ort has been the in6reasingl) a66e3ted singular use o@ the third13erson gender1neutral 3ronoun "the)#- Ain 3la6e o@ "he#C as in the senten6e belo4; .omebod) le@t
their s4eater behind. 9 ke) reason @or the su66ess o@ this re@orm is 3erha3s the histor) o@ the singular "the)#. 9s 9nn <odine has noted A1220C- the singular use o@
"the)# has a long histor). 5t did not begin to be 6riti6iIed until the 12th 6entur)- and des3ite all the e@@orts o@ 3res6ri3ti8e grammarians it has remained 8er) 3o3ular in
s3ee6h. >ue to @eminist 4ork on the e@@e6ts o@ "gender1neutral# use o@ "he#- e8en 3res6ri3ti8e grammarians are no4 be6oming more a66e3ting o@ "the)#. Ether re@orm
e@@orts ha8e met 4ith greater di@@i6ulties. .ome suggestions Asu6h as the 6reation o@ ne4 third13erson singular 3ronounsC ha8e sim3l) not 6aught on- 4hile others that
ha8e 6aught on seem to ha8e ba6k@ired. .usan :rli6h and ?uth King A1220C- @or e/am3le- dis6uss the 6ase o@ "6hair3erson#- intended to ser8e as a gender1neutral
re3la6ement @or "6hairman#. 5nstead- it is o@ten used to indi6ate 4omen 4ho @ill the 3ost o@ 6hair- 4hile men are re@erred to as "6hairman#. The) take this to sho4 that
re@orms 6annot su66eed unless attitudes 6hange as 4ell. Moreo8er- @eminist 4ork on language has also indi6ated that
there ma) be 3roblems 4hi6h are sim3l) not amenable to 3ie6emeal linguisti6 re@orms. .ome di@@i6ulties that ha8e
been raised go 4ell be)ond a hand@ul o@ 3roblemati6 terms or ga3s. >eborah Dameron o@@ers striking e/am3les o@ 4riting that takes males
as the norm 4ithout using an) 3arti6ular terms to 4hi6h one might obGe6t- su6h as the @ollo4ing- @rom The .unda) Times; The la6k o@ 8italit) is aggra8ated b) the @a6t
that there are so @e4 able1bodied )oung adults about. The) ha8e all gone o@@ to 4ork or look @or 4ork- lea8ing behind the old- the disabled- the 4omen and the
6hildren. ADameron 120'; 0'C Dlearl)- in the abo8e e/am3le- "able1bodied )oung adult# is being used in su6h a 4a) as to e/6lude
4omen. Moreo8er- e/am3les like this Aand others Dameron 3ro8idesC 3ass unnoti6ed b) ne4s3a3er editors and man) readers. There is 6learl) a
3roblem- but it is not a 3roblem that 6an be 3in3ointed b) 3i6king out some 3arti6ular term as obGe6tionable and in
need o@ re@orm. :liminating language use that takes males as the norm- then- must in8ol8e more than 6hanging a @e4
terms or usage rules.
10
Link!!Man
1henever we use the word man we come to view them as the superior se) and onl$
promotes the dichotom$ between the two se)es.
Spender 1980 A>ale .3ender- 9ustralian @eminist s6holar- tea6her- 4riter and 6onsultant %Man Made
Language& 3g.1'' C ?L
<) 3romoting the use o@ the s)mbol man at the e/3ense o@ 4oman it is 6lear that the 8isibilit) and 3rima6) o@ males
is su33orted. We learn to see the male as the 4orthier- more 6om3rehensi8e and su3erior se/ and 4e di8ide and
organiIe the 4orld along these lines. 9nd- a66ording 4 Linda Harrison and Wend) Mart)na ! 4ho 4ent slightl)
@urther in their resear6h than other in8estigators 4ho 4ere e/3loring the links bet4een male s)mbols and images !
@emales understand that the) are not re3resented in he/man usageH both Harrison and Mart)na @ound that males used
man more o@ten than @emales and Mart)na attem3ted to dis6o8er the basis @or this 6hoi6e. When Wend) Mart)na
asked 3eo3le in her sam3le 4hat the) thought o@ 4hen the) used the s)mbol man- the males stated that the) thought
o@ themsel8es. This 4as not the 6ase @or @emales. The @emales said the) did not think o@ themsel8es- the) did not use
the term in relation to themsel8es- hen6e the) used he/man less @re7uentl) than males. There is iron) in the
a6kno4ledgment o@ @emales that the) onl) used the terms he/man at all be6ause the) had been taught that it 4as
grammati6all) 6orre6t T Brom this- Mart)na 6on6ludes that FMales ma) be generating a se/ s3e6i@i6 use o@ he- one
based on male imager)- 4hile @emales are generating a trul) generi6 he- one based on grammati6al standards o@
6orre6tnessF AMart)na- 12+0C. Ho4 6on8enient i@ this is the 6aseT The @indings o@ Harrison and Mart)na also raise
another interesting 3ossibilit). When 4omen use he/man- the) do so be6ause the) 3er6ei8e it 1 erroneousl) ! as
being grammati6all) 6orre6t. <ut the) use these s)mbols mu6h less @re7uentl) than males. ,erha3s 4hen the)
6hoose not to use it- 4omen are the Fo@@endersF 4ho are using the) Uin6orre6tl)FH 3erha3s it has been 4omen 4ho
ha8e resisted in 3art the 3res6ri3ti8e grammariansF inGun6tions and ha8e ke3t the) ali8e and 4ell- 3re6isel) be6ause
the) 6an use it 4ithout 6onGuring u3 male images and so do not @eel e/6luded b) the term.
11
Link!!me$a%hors
&he language we use affects the wa$ we see the world especiall$ through metaphors. 1hen
we use e)clusive or offensive language, it marginali8es women and is focused on male
supremac$.
Gibbon .999 AMargaret- ,ro@essor at the .6hool o@ 933lied Language and 5nter6ultural .tudies- >ublin Dit)
Jni8ersit)- %Beminist ,ers3e6ti8es on Language- ,g. 2'12*- LVC
Beminists ha8e been a6utel) a4are o@ 6onnotation- arguing that man) terms denoting 4omen 6ome- o8er time- to take on negati8e
6onnotations- es3e6iall) se/ual. What is in8ol8ed in su6h 6hange is an o8erla)ering o@ hostile so6ial attitudes to4ards 4omen on to the 4ords or e/3ressions.
This Fsemanti6 derogationF o@ 4omen A.6hultI L12+'M 1220C in8ol8es the degeneration o@ 3ositi8e or neutral terms into terms o@ abuse or
ridi6ule. These d)s3hemisti6 Ao33osite o@ eu3hemisti6C terms are o@ten meta3hori6al in nature. .lang and abusi8e 4ords @or 4omen re@er to us as
animals- 8essels- meat- bod) 3arts and items o@ 6lothing Abit6h- bag- 3ie6e o@ ass- grade 9 meat- skirtC. Beminists 4ho link @eminist anal)sis
to e6o logi6al thought 3oint out 3arallels bet4een the derogation o@ 4omen and the a33ro3riation o@ nature A.hi8a 1200- Gri@@in 12+0C.
Linguisti6all) this o66urs through meta3hor- the human abilit) to see 6onne6tions- similarit) and analog) bet4een a33arentl)
unrelated 3henomena. 9s 4e ha8e seen- 4ords are used to re3resent things. 93art @rom re3resentation- language also ser8es to 6ategoriIe.
Linguisti6 relati8it) Asee Dha3ter C argues that di@@erent 6ultures di8ide u3 realit) in di@@erent 4a)s and that this is re@le6ted in language. :a6h 6hild- as she/he learns
to s3eak- a67uires the F4a) o@ seeingF o@ the 6ommunit) through language. Women ha8e been at the @ore@ront o@ resear6h on 6ategoriIa tion. 5t has
been 6laimed that 4omen ha8e been interested in t)3i6alit) and 3rotot)3e resear6h be6ause the) inhabit the margins o@ the 6ategor) FManF ADha3ter C. This resear6h
argues that one o@ our 6ogniti8e and linguisti6 habits is to 3ut things into 6ategories. Work on 6olour terms e/3loits the notion that some reds are more red than others-
@or e/am3le A<erlin and Ka) 12*2C. ,illarbo/ red Ato use an ethno6entri6 e/am3le 1 5rish 3illar bo/es being greenTC is 6onsidered b) most 3eo3le to be the basi6 red- a
more re3resentati8e red than- sa)- 6rimson or 6herr). 5t is said to be the 3rotot)3e or Fbest e/am3leF A?os6h 12++C. Tur7uoise is a 3oor e/am3le o@ blue be6ause it is on
the @uII) boundar) bet4een blue and green. Beminists ha8e used 3rotot)3i6alit) to sho4 ho4 men and menFs e/3erien6e ha8e been 6oded
linguisti6all) to be 6entral- leading to the e/6lusion- in8isibilit) or marginalit) o@ 4omen. Language re@le6ts a male1as1norm or
M9= bias. .o 3er8asi8e is this norm in language and in thought that language re@orm ma) be doomed to @ailure. 5@ 4hen 4e see neutral terms like people,
human being, adult, person, citizen, voter, resident we still 6onGure u3 a male- then atta6ks on 4ords 4ith man in them
seem 3ointless.
12
Link%ronoun, man
&he attempt use words like man or pronouns like he when not directed to the actual
male species, it con*ures up androcentrism as it e)cludes women.
Jni8ersit)- %Beminist ,ers3e6ti8es on Language- ,g. $- LVC
=umerous em3iri6al studies ha8e been undertaken- mostl) b) so6ial 3s)6hologists- to test the h)3othesis that man does not @un6 tion
generi6all) but 6auses male bias in thought. .tud) a@ter stud) has sho4n that 4hen @a6ed 4ith senten6es 6ontaining generi6
mas6uline @orms and/or generi6 he, subGe6ts 6onGure u3 3redomin1and) male images. Ene interesting e/am3le is Mart)naFs A1200C
a66ount o@ a range o@ e/3eriments designed to eli6it inter3reta tion o@ generi6 mas6uline and e3i6ene agenti8es b) mat6hing
images to 4ords- and b) senten6e 6om3letion e/er6ises to test @or 3ronoun usage asso6iated 4ith su6h 4ords. Mart)na @aults the
generi6 mas6uline on three 6ounts; its ine7uit)- its ambiguit) and its e/6lusi8eness A1200; *21+0C. 5t is this last @eature 4hi6h is o@ most 6on6ern. 5@ generi6 terms
in their use or understanding a6tu all) e/6lude 4omen- then the) are not generi6 . Mart)na noted male bias- as e/3e6ted- but interestingl)- she
also obser8ed that 4omen and men in her stud) did not use or understand generi6s in the same 4a). When he 4as 6hosen @or neutral or e3i6ene ante 1
6edents- male in@ormants did so F3robabl) be6ause 5Fm maleF 4hile 4omen did so be6ause the) argued it 4as 6orre6t or that the)
had learned to.
1
Links&ear &ords
+wear words can easil$ be considered patriarchal due to their connection to words that
tend to marginali8e women. 9lso the masculine dominance in the use of swear words
continues the oppression against the female.
Jni8ersit)- %Beminist ,ers3e6ti8es on Language- ,g. +$1+'- LVC
Thus the @ate o@ @eminist 6oinage and the semanti6 derogation o@ 4omen re@le6t the same 6ultural bias; a se/ual double standard.
Men are 8alued @or se/ual 3ro4ess and 4omen denigrated @or it. <ut to return to the idea that 8o6abular) re@le6ts a 6ultureFs needs- 4e 6an ask
4h) there are 7uite so man) nast) 4ords @or 4omen Au3 to 2-000 in :nglish aloneC. We 6an also ask 4hat 6ultural 8alues are re@le6ted in the
@a6t that our most insulting term is a slang 4ord @or @emale genitals and our most insulting e/3ression in8ites the hearer to go a4a) and 3artake in se/ual inter6ourse- a
deed man) 3eo3le seem to @ind a 3leasurable rather than dreaded 3ros3e6t. Work on taboo 4ords A9ndersson and Trudgill 1222C has tended to 6lassi@)
s4ear 4ords in three 6ategories; blas3hem) (Jesus Christ! God Almighty! Bloody Hell! animal meta3hor A!ou cow! "ig!
Bitch! Fdirt) 4ordsF (#hit! $uc%! Cunt! Bolloc%s! .u6h a 6ategoriIation- 5 belie8e- needs to be amended and Fnuan6edF @rom a
@eminist 3ers3e6ti8e. Birstl)- 4e should note that so6ietal o33robrium has 4eakened in the 6ase o@ blas3hemous 4ords. Be4 obser8e the 6ommandment; FThou
shalt not take the name o@ the Lord- th) God- in 8ain.F Jesus! Christ! &h my God! are rarel) no4ada)s reason @or 6hildren to be 6ensured b)
adults- and their milder- deri8ati8e @orms (Jeepers! Gripes! &h my goodness! are hardl) used. Thus- blas3hemous
e/3ressions are barel) e8en 6onsidered as s4ear 4ords b) man). There are no doubt a number o@ reasons- su6h as 4ides3read
se6ulariIation in Western so6iet) and the relati8iIation o@ Dhristianit) in our in6reasingl) multi6ultural so6ieties Abut see Hughes
1222 @or a 6ounter 3ositionC. 9nimal meta3hor- as a 6ategor)- is amenable to @eminist ana l)sis. Most ob8iousl)- 4e should note that the
range o@ a8ailable terms @or insulting 3eo3le is limited; 4e do not insult 3eo3le b) 6alling them 3olar bears- salmon or @ruit @lies. The animal terms 4e
use re@er 3redominantl) to domesti6ated 6reatures; 6o4- 3ig- bit6h- dog. Moreo8er- the most 3otent and 6ommonl) used are terms re@erring to
@emale animals- usuall) mammals- and are used to re@er to 4omen (cow, bitch, hei'er( :8en dog, one o@ a 3air A4ith bitch and
there@ore most likel) to re@er to men as 6ounter3art to bitch, no4 re@ers to a 4oman- es3e6iall) in 9meri6an :nglish. "ussy also
re@ers meton)mi6all) to 4oman- as 4ell as to her genitals. A.ee Whale) and 9ntonelli 120 @or a dis6ussion @rom a non1@eminist
stand3ointC. 9s @or the 6ategor) o@ Fdirt)F 4ords- 4e should di8ide this into se3arate 6lassi@i6ations. Ene sub16ategor) are the
terms related to e/6retion and e/6retor) @un6tions (piss o'', asshole, shithead et6.C 9nother is the grou3 o@ terms related to
heterose/ual inter6ourse- arguabl) the most 3rodu6ti8e- inso@ar as 'uc% and its deri8ed @orms 6an be used to e/3ress sur3rise A4ell-
@u6k meTC- e/haustion A5 4as @u6kedC- anno)an6e Athis @u6king s6re4dri8erC- amaIement- dis a33ointment- anger and man) other emotional
states A9ndersson and Trudgill 1222; *0C. 9 @urther sub1set in6ludes those 4hi6h are related to 4omen- 4omenFs bodies and s3e6i@i6all)
genitals (cunt, twat, mother'uc%er( 9lthough taboo terms related to male genitals also e/ist- the) do not 6arr) the same e/3leti8e
@or6e- nor do the) @un6tion in 3arallel. Men 6an be 6alled b) terms re@erring to @emale genitalia- as 6an 4omen- but 5 ha8e )et to
hear a 4oman 6alled a pric%( :8en in insult- 4omen 6annot- it seems- be honoured b) e3ithets re@erring to the ultimate signi@ierT
The most satis@)ing theor) to e/3lain su6h use o@ language emerges @rom an attem3t to see the 3i6ture 4hole. Ho4 do all these
6ategories and sub16ategories relate to ea6h otherN 5t 6an be argued that s4ear14ords 6an be read as a 6ode b) 4hi6h to de6i3her the 8er) basis o@
patriarchy4
1$
LinkSir/Madam/Mis$ress
9lthough words used to describe males still preserve the same integrit$ that it alwa$s has
words used to describe females have been used as terms in order to degrade a person.
+pender .9:/ A>ale .3ender- Australian @eminist s6holar- tea6her- 4riter and 6onsultant %Man Made Language&
3g. 1+C ?L
9lthough 1ord still 3reser8es its initial meaning- 1ady has undergone a 3ro6ess o@ Fdemo6rati6 le8ellingF and is no
longer reser8ed @or 4omen o@ high rank. A?obin Lako@@ A12+'C makes a 6ase @or lady ha8ing be6ome a term o@
insult but her argument a33ears to be rele8ant onl) @or 9meri6an usage.C 2aronet also @un6tions in its original
sense 4hereas its e7ui8alent- 3ame, has 6ome to be used derogati8el) Aagain- ,arti6ularl) in 9meri6an usageC. There
has been some 3eGoration o@ goernor 4 in 6o6kne) usage @or e/am3le ! but it still ser8es in original meaning
4hereas goerness has 6ome to be used almost e/6lusi8el) in the 6onte/t o@ )oung 6hildren and not in the 6onte/t that
Queen :liIabeth 5 used it to denote her o4n 3o4er and so8ereignt). Little stigma seems to ha8e be6ome atta6hed to
courtier, 4hile it F almost sur3rising to @ind that courtesan 4as on6e an e7ui8alent term- - e/tensi8e are the se/ual
6onnotations it has a67uired. Sir is still used a title ! and as a @orm o@ res3e6t ! and- unlike 0adam, does not re@er t-
someone 4ho kee3s a brothel . 0aster, too- hailost little o@ its @or 4hereas 0istress has a67uired almost e/6lusi8el)
se/ual 6onnotations and is no longer asso6iated 4ith the 3erson 4ho a66e3ted res3onsibilit) and e/er6ised 6ontrol o8er
the 8aried and essential tasks o@ a household. 5n dra4ing attention to the loss o@ 3arit) bet4een these terms- ?o- Lako@@ A12+'C has
3ointed out that there is 6onsiderable dis6re3an6) meaning bet4een an old master and an old mistress"
1'
***Impacts***
1*
'm%a($!!Pa$riar(hy
1e must reali8e that we shouldn;t rel$ on the pattern of which a word has been used so we
can then be able to identif$ and transform the$ wa$ in which we bring patriarch$ into pla$
and order.
+pender .9:/
A>ale .3ender- Australian @eminist s6holar- tea6her- 4riter and 6onsultant %Man Made Language& 3age * and +.C
?L
This is a 3er@e6tl) understandable rea6tion- @or 4hen a so6iet) has de8elo3ed a 3arti6ular 3attern @or meaning- those
4ho do not abide b) it are being unreasonable ! in its terms . <ut unless that 3attern @or meaning is in@allible Aand
there is 6onsiderable e8iden6e that it is not- gi8en that meaning 6hanges not Gust @rom one so6iet) to anotker- but
ithin e so6iet)Sa8er-..timeC hen the @la4ma) be in the 3attern itsel@- ..CSSnd not in those 4hosro....s9t 5@ 3atriar6hal order
6an be sho4n to be unreasonable- then those 4ho are attem3ting to Fdismanilb it are beha8ing in an eminentl)
reasonable @ashion. <eing branded as unreasonable- ho4e8er- is 3robabl) the least o@ our 3roblems- e8en though it
does ser8e to illustrate the 4a) in 4hi6h dissenters 6an be 6on8enientl) dis6ounted. The 6ru/ o@ our di@@i6ulties
lies in being able- to identi@) and trans@orm the rules 4hi6h go8ern our beha8iour and 4hi6h bring 3atriar6hal order
Sinto e/isten6e . (et the tools 4e ha8e @Er doing this are 3art o@ that 3atriar6hal order. While 4e can modi@)- 4e
must none the less use the onl) language- the onl) H 6lassi@i6ation s6heme 4hi6h is at our dis3osal. We must usesS kin a
4a) that is a66e3table and Smeaning@ul. <ut that 8er) language and the 6onditions @or its use in turn stru6ture a
3atriar6hal order.
1e must take steps to unravel the language of our ever$da$ life in order to begin to
deconstruct patriarch$.
Spender 1980 A>ale .3ender- Australian @eminist s6holar- tea6her- 4riter and 6onsultant %Man Made
Language& 3g. 'C ?L.
<eing branded as unreasonable- ho4e8er- is 3robabl) the least o@ our 3roblems- e8en though it does ser8e to illustrate the 4a) in 4hi6h
dissenters 6an be 6on8enientl) dis6ounted. The 6ru/ o@ our di@@i6ulties lies in being able- to identi@) and trans@orm the
rules 4hi6h go8ern our beha8iour and 4hi6h bring 3atriar6hal order into e/isten6e . (et the tools 4e ha8e @or doing
this are 3art o@ that 3atriar6hal order. While 4e can modi@)- 4e must none the less use the onl) language- the onl)
6lassi@i6ation s6heme 4hi6h is at our dis3osal. We must usesS kin a 4a) that is a66e3table and Smeaning@ul. <ut that
8er) language and the 6onditions @or its use in turn stru6ture a 3atriar6hal order. <e6ause o@ this it is im3erati8e
that 4e begin to unra8el the man) linguisti6 means b) 4hi6h 3atriar6h) has been 6reated. =ot onl) do 4e ha8e to ta6kle
and trans@orm the @undamental 6lassi@i6ation s6heme- 4e also ha8e to ta6kle its m)riad mani@estations o@ the language
@rom its stru6ture to the 6onditions o@ its use must be s6 rutiniIed i@ 4e are to dete6t both the blatant and the
subtle means b) Whi6h the edi@i6e o@ male su3rema6) has been assembled. 5@ 4e are to begin take it a3art 4e must
be able to re6ogniIe its @orm. >e6onstru6ting 3atriar6hal order is not tantamount to eliminating male 3o4er. There
is a 6urrent @eminist 6riti6ism 4hi6h Gustl) maintains that 6ons6iousness1raising does not remo8e males @rom the in@luential 3ositions
in so6iet) nor does it 3ro8ide 4omen 4ith e7uitable 4ages. <ut there is a 6onsensus 4hi6h must a66om3an)
3o4er and at the moment too man) 3eo3le are 6ontent to see male 3o4er and dominan6e as reasonable- and
natural. Too man) 3eo3le make a 6ontribution to4ards the realiIation o@ this 3o4er. <) making it in6reasingl)
di@@i6ult 4ith so mu6h o@ the kno4ledge 4e ha8e inherited- 4omen a33ear as de@i6ient ! or de8iant ! in
studies o@ language and se/. 9nd- as 4ith so man) other resear6h areas in the so6ial s6ien6es- 4hen the assum3tions on
4hi6h this kno4ledge has been 6onstru6ted are e/amined- it be6omes in6reasingl) 6lear that this @emale
de@i6ien6) o@ten has its origins in the resear6h 3remises and 3ro6edures themsel8es. <) beginning 4ith the
initial assum3tion that there is something wrong 4ith 4omenFs language- resear6h 3ro6edures ha8e @re7uentl) been
biased in @a8our o@ men. The 3resentation o@ ske4ed @indings has hel3ed to establish the de@i6ien6) o@ 4omenFs
language and in 6on8enientl) 6ir6ular logi6 has thereb) hel3ed to 6on@irm the 8alidit) o@ the initial 3remise that
4omenFs language is in@erior.
1+
'm%a($si#en(e &omen
1omen;s agenc$ is lost when gender language is used.
+tanford :nc$clopedia of ,hilosoph$ 10 2+tanford ,nc$clopedia of -hilosoph$. 3eminist -hilosoph$ of Language
http455plato.stanford.edu5entries5feminism(language5. !6.7
Mu6h o@ @eminist 3hiloso3h) o@ language so @ar 6an be des6ribed as 6riti6al!6riti6al either o@ language itsel@ or o@ 3hiloso3h) o@ language-
and 6alling @or 6hange on the basis o@ these 6riti6isms. Those making these 6riti6isms suggest that the 6hanges are needed @or the sake o@ @eminist
goals ! either to better allo4 @or @eminist 4ork to be done or- more @re7uentl)- to bring an end to 6ertain ke) 4a)s
that 4omen are disad8antaged. 5n this entr)- 5 e/amine these 6riti6isms. 5 also e/amine 4ork b) @eminists that seems to suggest some o@ the 6riti6isms are
mis3la6ed; that- @or e/am3le- 3hiloso3h) o@ language is better able to hel3 in @eminist 3roGe6ts than 6riti6s su33ose. M) @o6us in
this entr) 4ill generall) be on the anal)ti6 tradition. There has been a great deal o@ @eminist 6on6ern o8er the su33osedl) gender1neutral use o@ terms like "he# and
"man#. 5t is 6ommonl) said that these terms ha8e both gender1s3e6i@i6 meanings- as in senten6es A1C and A2C- and gender1neutral ones- as in senten6es AC and A$C. He
drank the 4ine. 9 man 4ent into a bar. When a student 6omes into the room- he should 3i6k u3 a handout. Man is a 3rimate. Beminists- ho4e8er- ha8e 3ointed out
that e8en the su33osed gender1neutral meanings o@ these terms are not reall) gender1neutral. Oani6e Moulton A1201aC and 9dele
Mer6ier A122'C 3ro8ide e/am3les in 4hi6h there is no doubt that a gender1neutral meaning is intended- but this meaning seems una8ailable. 9s a result- the senten6es
seem ill1@ormed; Man has t4o se/esH some men are @emale. Man breast@eeds his )oung. 9sk the 6andidate about his husband or 4i@e. We are- then- making a
6lassi@i6ator) error i@ 4e 6laim that "man# and "he# are gender1neutral terms. 5n order to a8oid su6h a 6lassi@i6ator) error- 4e need to do more 6are@ul 4ork on 4hat the
meanings o@ these terms a6tuall) are. ,erha3s the meaning o@ "he# that has been 6alled "gender1neutral# is not reall) gender1neutral- but something
mu6h more 6om3le/. Mer6ier suggests- @or e/am3le- that 4e should understand the "gender1neutral# use o@ "man# as re@erring to either AaC a 3erson or 3ersons o@
unkno4n se/H or AbC males or a 6ombination o@ males and @emales. This e/3lains 4h) "men# in A'C and "man# in A*C are anomalous; these terms are being used to re@er
e/6lusi8el) to 3ersons kno4n to be @emale. The su33osed "gender1neutral# meaning o@ these terms- then- is not trul) gender neutral. <ut- on its o4n- this does not
sho4 that there is a 3roblem 4ith those uses that ha8e traditionall) been 6lassi@ied as gender1neutral- as in senten6es AC and A$C. A>is6o8ering that 4e ha8e
mis6lassi@ied an adGe6ti8e as an ad8erb 4ould not sho4 an)thing 4rong 4ith a6tual uses o@ the term in 7uestion.C Burther reasons are needed in order to obGe6t to the
use that is made o@ these terms. 1.2 5n8isibilit) o@ 4omen Beminist 6on6erns- ho4e8er- go be)ond mere 6lassi@i6ator) ones. Beminists ha8e also argued that terms
like "he# and "man# 6ontribute to making 4omen in8isible ! that is- to obs6uring 4omenFs im3ortan6e- and distra6ting attention @rom their
e/isten6e. Bighting the in8isibilit) o@ 4omen is an im3ortant @eminist 3roGe6t in man) areas-L1M and language that makes one less likel) to think o@ 4omen 6learl)
6ontributes to this in8isibilit). There is good 3s)6holinguisti6 e8iden6e that those 4ho en6ounter senten6es Alike AC and A$CC using the terms "he# and "man#
think more readil) o@ males than o@ @emales.L2M 5@ this is right- then the use o@ these 4ords 6an be seen as 6ontributing to the in8isibilit) o@ 4omen.
This gi8es @eminists a good reason to obGe6t to the "gender1neutral# use o@ these terms. 1. Maleness as norm 5@ oneFs onl) 4orr) 6on6erned the obs6uring o@ 4omenFs
3resen6e- ho4e8er- it 4ould be di@@i6ult to obGe6t to 6ertain other terms to 4hi6h @eminists do 6ommonl) obGe6t; gender1s3e6i@i6 o66u3ational terms like "manageress#
Astill 6ommon in the JK- though not in the J.C or "lad) do6tor#. These terms 6ertainl) do not 6ontribute to the in8isibilit) o@ 4omen. 5nstead- the) 6all attention to the
3resen6e o@ 4omen. Moreo8er- the) 6all attention to 4omenFs 3resen6e in 3ositions o@ authorit) ! do6tor and manager. =onetheless- most @eminists 4ho think about
language @ind these terms obGe6tionable. The 6learest reason @or obGe6ting to "manageress# and "lad) do6tor# is that the use o@
these terms seems 3remised on the idea that maleness is the norm- and that 4omen @illing these Gobs are someho4
de8iant 8ersions o@ do6tors and managers. This is also a ke) obGe6tion to the use o@ "he# and "man#. Moulton A1201aC understands these terms on the
model o@ brand names- like "Hoo8er# or ".6ot6h ta3e# that be6ome generi6 terms @or a 3rodu6t t)3e. The message o@ su6h terms- she suggests- is that the brand in
7uestion is the best- or at least the norm. 966ording to Moulton- terms like "he# and "man# 4ork in the same manner; the) are gender1s3e6i@i6 terms @or men 4hose use
has been e/tended to 6o8er both men and 4omen. This- Moulton argues- 6arries the message that maleness is the norm. 9s a result- the use o@ these terms as
i@ the) 4ere gender neutral 6onstitutes a sort o@ s)mboli6 insult to 4omen.
10
'm%a($!!'ne)ua#i$y
+e)ist language is the root cause of patriarch$"leads to male supremac$ and loss of
women;s agenc$.
+tan@ord ,n6)6lo3edia o@ -hiloso3h) ./ A.tan@ord :n6)6lo3edia o@ ,hiloso3h). %Beminist ,hiloso3h) o@
Language& htt3;//3lato.stan@ord.edu/entries/@eminism1language/. M?.C
1.me @eminists Ae.g. ,enelo3e 1220H .3ender 120'C argue that :nglish is- in some 7uite general sense- male. ADorres3onding arguments are also 3ut @or4ard
about other languages.C Ene thing that is meant b) this is that :nglish 6an be said to be male in a manner similar to that in 4hi6h 3arti6ular terms 6an be said to be
male ! b) en6oding a male 4orld8ie4- b) hel3ing to subordinate 4omen or to render them in8isible- or b) taking
males as the norm. Ene sort o@ argument @or this begins @rom the e/amination o@ large 7uantities o@ s3e6i@i6 terms- and the identi@i6ation o@ 3atterns o@ male
bias- and 3ro6eeds @rom this to the 6on6lusion that the male bias o@ :nglish is so 4ides3read that it is a mistake to lo6ate the 3roblem in a 6olle6tion o@ 4ords- rather
than in the language as a 4hole. The @irst stage o@ this sort o@ argument is- ob8iousl)- a length) and 6om3le/ one. The sorts o@ 6laims Ain addition to those 4e ha8e
alread) seenC 6ited in6lude AaC that there are more 4ords @or males than @or @emales in :nglish- and that more o@ these 4ords
are 3ositi8e A.3ender 120'; 1'- 6iting .tanle) 12++CH AbC that a %4ord @or 4omen assumeLsM negati8e 6onnotations e8en 4here it
designated the same state or 6ondition as it did @or men& A.3ender 120'; 1+C- as 4ith "s3inster# and "ba6helor#H A6C that 4ords
@or 4omen are @ar more @re7uentl) se/ualiIed than 4ords @or men- and that this holds true e8en @or neutral 4ords-
4hen the) are a33lied to 4omen. >ale .3ender- 6iting Lako@@ A12+'C- dis6usses the e/am3le o@ "3ro@essional#- 6om3aring "heFs a
3ro@essional# and "sheFs a 3ro@essional#- and noting that the latter is @ar more likel) than the @ormer to be taken to
mean that the 3erson in 7uestion is a 3rostitute. The se/ualisation o@ 4ords @or 4omen is 6onsidered es3e6iall) signi@i6ant b) the
man) @eminists 4ho take se/ual obGe6ti@i6ation to be a 6ru6ial element- i@ not the root- o@ ine7ualities bet4een 4omen and men. ABor more on su6h e/am3les- see also
<aker 1222.C This 4ides3read en6oding o@ male bias in language is- a66ording to theorists like .3ender- Gust 4hat 4e should e/3e6t. Males Athough not- as she
notes- all o@ themC ha8e had @ar more 3o4er in so6iet)- and this- she 6laims has in6luded the 3o4er to en@or6e- through
language- their 8ie4 o@ the 4orld. Moreo8er- she argues- this has ser8ed to enhan6e their 3o4er. There is se/ism in language- it does
enhan6e the 3osition o@ males- and males ha8e had 6ontrol o8er the 3rodu6tion o@ 6ultural @orms. A.3ender 120'; 1$$C This-
.3ender 6laims- 3ro8ides 6ir6umstantial e8iden6e that "males ha8e en6oded se/ism into language to 6onsolidate their 6laims o@ male
su3rema6)# A.3ender 120'; 1$$C. .3ender takes the e8iden6e @or this 6laim to be @ar more than 6ir6umstantial- ho4e8er- and to su33ort it she dis6usses the e@@orts
o@ 3res6ri3ti8e grammarians. These in6lude- @or e/am3le- the 6laim that males should be listed be@ore @emales be6ause "the male
gender 4as the 4orthier gender# A.3ender 120'; 1$+- em3hasis hersC- and the e@@orts Anoted earlierC to establish "he# as the gender1
neutral third13erson :nglish 3ronoun. 966ording to theorists like .3ender- menFs abilit) to 6ontrol language gi8es them great 3o4er indeed. We ha8e
alread) seen 4a)s in 4hi6h 4hat one might 6all the maleness o@ language 6ontributes to the in8isibilit) o@ 4omen A4ith res3e6t to 4ords
like "he# and "man#C. 5@ one takes the maleness o@ language to go be)ond a @e4 s3e6i@i6 terms- one 4ill take languageFs
3o4er to make 4omen in8isible to be e8en stronger. We ha8e also seen 4a)s that 4hat might be 6alled maleness 6an make it more di@@i6ult @or
4omen to e/3ress themsel8es. Where 4e la6k 4ords @or im3ortant @emale e/3erien6es- like se/ual harassment- 4omen 4ill
@ind it more di@@i6ult to des6ribe ke) elements o@ their e/isten6e. .imilarl)- 4here the 4ords 4e ha8e ! like "@ore3la)#
! s)stemati6all) distort 4omenFs e/3erien6es- 4omen 4ill ha8e a di@@i6ult time a66uratel) 6on8e)ing the realities
o@ their li8es. 5@ one takes su6h 3roblems to go be)ond sele6ted 3arti6ular terms- and to in@e6t language as a 4hole- it is natural to su33ose that
4omen are to a large degree silen6ed ! unable to a66uratel) arti6ulate ke) elements o@ their li8es- and unable to
6ommuni6ate im3ortant as3e6ts o@ their thoughts
12
'm%a($!!s%i##o*er
+e)ist language shapes realit$"creates a patriarchal societ$.
+tan@ord ,n6)6lo3edia o@ -hiloso3h) ./ A.tan@ord :n6)6lo3edia o@ ,hiloso3h). %Beminist ,hiloso3h) o@ Language& htt3;//3lato.stan@ord.edu/entries/@eminism1
language/. M?.C
.3ender and others also suggest that the maleness o@ language 6onstrains thought- im3osing a male 4orld8ie4 on all o@ us- and
making alternati8e 8isions o@ realit) im3ossible- or at least 8er) di@@i6ult to arti6ulate. These arguments o@ten dra4 u3on the .a3ir1
Whor@ h)3othesis A.a3ir 12$2H Whor@ 12+*C. This is generall) des6ribed as roughl) the h)3othesis that %our 4orld8ie4 is determined b) the
stru6tures o@ the 3arti6ular language that 4e ha33en to s3eak& ADameron 1220b; 1'0C. .ome suggest that male 3o4er o8er
language allo4s men to sha3e not Gust thought- but also realit). Bor e/am3le- .3ender 6laims that men %6reated language-
thought- and realit)& A120'; 1$C. This is a 8er) strong 8ersion o@ 4hat .all) Haslanger has 6alled dis6ursi8e 6onstru6ti8ism.LM .he
de@ines this 8ie4 as @ollo4s; .omething is dis6ursi8el) 6onstru6ted Gust in 6ase it is the 4a) it is- to some substantial e/tent-
be6ause o@ 4hat is attributed Aand/or sel@1attributedC to it. AHaslanger 122'; 22C Beminists like .3ender and Datherine Ma6Kinnon A1202C argue that
male 3o4er o8er language has allo4ed them to 6reate realit). This is 3artl) due to the @a6t that our 6ategoriIations o@ realit) ine8itabl) de3end
on our so6ial 3ers3e6ti8e; %there is no ungendered realit) or ungendered 3ers3e6ti8e&. AMa6Kinnon 1202; 11$. Haslanger
dis6usses this argument in detail in her 122'.C
20
***9lternative***
21
+#$erna$i*e
9n$ word that depicts women as se) ob*ects or social norms not applicable to men leads to
the e)clusion of women. 1e must challenge our discourse in this round and change the
meaning of words to solve patriarch$ and chauvinism.
Goueffic 9 AGoue@@i6- Louise. 9uthor- <9 graduate studies in Bran6e. <reaking the 3atriar6hal 6ode. ,g. 111$ ;
122*. M?.C
Dou6hed 4ithin 4ords are 3resu33ositions about gender- that is man) taken1@or1granted assum3tions about 4omen/men-
girls/bo)s- gender relations- roles and e/3e6tations. The identi@i6ation o@ se/ist 4ordings is a good start to4ards
raising a4areness about ho4 di@@eren6es in the meanings o@ 4ords Fre@le6t di@@eren6es in the traditional roles
a66orded to 4omen and men in our so6iet)F AGraddol and .4ann- 1202; 11C. =e4s3a3ers- @or e/am3le- are @ull o@ e/am3les o@
4ordings 4hi6h are used to 3ortra) 4omen in negati8e or limiting 4a)s- i.e. 4ordings 4hi6h; de3i6t 4omen as se/
obGe6ts and on the basis o@ their a33earan6e rather than their intelle6t or 6a3abilities Ae.g. Fa blondeFCH de@ine 4omen
in terms o@ home- @amil)- and domesti6 roles Ae.g. Fmother o@ threeFC- in 4a)s that are seldom used @or menH
tri8ialiIe 4omen Ae.g. using FgirlF @or a mu6h 4ider age range than Fbo)F 4ould be usedH also F4eathergirlFCH Gudge
4omen Ae.g. F5adetteK- F6areer 4omanFC. Donsider the @ollo4ing e/am3les @rom the s3orts se6tion o@ the <ritish broadsheet ne4s3a3er The Sunday
Times" The e/tra6ts are @rom t4o 3ie6es about tennis- 4hi6h are 4ritten b) the same 4riter- and a33ear on the same 3age o@ the 3a3er. :/am3les in6lude the use o@ the
4ords F3ersonsF- F3eo3leF- FMsK- Fthe)F and FthemF Ae.g. F:a6h s3eaker 4ill ha8e one hour @or their 3resentationFC- and o3ting @or F6hairF rather that F6hairmanF- F@light
attendantF rather than FairhostessF- Fdo6torF rather than F4oman do6torF- et6. A.ee also ,au4els- 1220- @or attem3ts to 6hange gender1in@le6ted languages.C .e6ond-
inter8ention has aimed to in6rease 4omenFs 8isibilit)- @or e/am3le b) a8oiding the generi6 3ronouns FheF FhisF FhimF- adding the @emale
3ronoun AFhe or sheF- Fs/heFC- o3ting @or re8ersal AFshe or heF- F4omen and menFC- or using the generi6 FsheF. 9nd- third- 6hange
has also @o6used on establishing- re6laiming or 6hanging the meaning o@ 3arti6ular 4ords- su6h as F3artnerF- F7ueerF-
F3atriar6h)F- and F6hau8inismF. These @orms o@ linguisti6 inter8ention ho4e8er- both @a6e and 3ose a number o@ 3roblems. Ene di@@i6ult) has been that
attem3ts at inter8ention are o@ten @a6ed 4ith ridi6ule Ae.g. the mo6king o@ terms su6h as Fherstor)FCH marginaliIation- as a result o@
6laims that language is a tri8ial 6on6ern A<laubergs- 1200CH or a33ro3riation and denial- @or e/am3le- 6laims that 6hange is too
di@@i6ult or im3ra6ti6al- or that it inter@eres 4ith our @reedom o@ s3ee6h.
<nl$ b$ recogni8ing our se)ist and offensive language can we change our perception on the
wa$ we use words. Language determines realit$, which means the alternative is one step to
deconstructing patriarch$.
Jni8ersit)- %Beminist ,ers3e6ti8es on Language- ,g. +10- LVC
Linguisti6 relati8it) has been o@ great interest to @eminist linguists. 5@ language 6an be sho4n to in@luen6e or determine thought-
then se/ist language 4ill in@luen6e s3eakers in the dire6tion o@ se/ist thought. Dhanging se/ist language 4ill 6hange se/ist
attitudesH 6hallenging se/ist language 4ill raise a4areness about se/ist assum3 tions. >ale .3ender is a 3rominent @eminist 4riter 4ho based
her book )an*made language u3on the notion that language is not Gust a re@le6tion o@ ideas and thoughts- is not neutral- but is a tra3 4hi6h
limits our 6a3a6it) to think in non1se/ist 4a)s; [I] t has been the dominant group - in this case, males - who have created the world,
invented the categories, constructed sexism and its justification and developed a language map which is in their interest. !"#$% !&'(
.3ender argues in @a8our o@ the .a3ir1Whor@ h)3othesis- 7uite e/3li6itl)- 4riting Fit is language 4hi6h determines the limits o@ our
4orld- 4hi6h 6onstru6ts our realit)F A120'; 12C. .he de8elo3s it- not b) 6ross16ultural 6om3arison 4hi6h is the ob8ious testing ground @or the h)3othesis-
but b) a 6lose e/amination o@ le/i6al and grammati6al 6ategoriIation in :nglish. Her aim is to sho4 ho4 se/ist meanings are en6oded in the language-
leading to the marginaliIation o@ 4omenFs e/3erien6e- the in8isibilit) o@ 4omen or else their derogation. 9 number o@ other @eminists
ha8e also resear6hed this 7uestion- as ha8e mainstream linguists- @o6using- as did .a3ir and Whor@- on the le/i6on and u3on grammar. We go on to @o6us on these t4o
areas- relating le/is to 6ategoriIation and 3er6e3tion and grammati6al stru6ture to re3resentation o@ 4omen and men in language- thought and 3er6e3tion.
22
+#$ ,$ension
&he changing in spelling of woman, and other words that have male root words, can
deconstruct the male bias in our language.
Gibbon 1999 AMargaret- ,ro@essor at the .6hool o@ 933lied Language and 5nter6ultural .tudies- >ublin Dit)
Jni8ersit)- %Beminist ,ers3e6ti8es on Language- ,g. 21$0- LVC
>uring the 12+0s and earl) 1200s- @eminists began 8oluntaril) to alter language to re@le6t and to dra4 attention to the mas6ulist
in@le6tions o@ our 8o6abular). Ene suggested 6hange 4as the re1s3elling o@F4omanF and F4omenF A4om)n/4omin/4im)n/4imminC. These re1
s3ellings re@le6ted the urge not to deri8e the @emale @orm @rom the male @orm man( Ether @eminists @elt the same 4a) about the
3airs male/@emale- arguing against this FmarkingF o@ the @emin ine @orm . Markedness is a linguisti6 term re@erring to the addition o@ a mor3heme Ao@
gender- number- diminuti8e- et6.C to a 6ore term 8ie4ed as unmarked or neutral. More re6end) Goue@@i6 A122*C has argued @or a @ar more s)stemati6
re6o8er) o@ authenti6 @orms @or 4omen A@em/@ems/@emhoodC and a deletion o@ all man1deri8ed roots @rom our 8o6abular) both @or the
s3e6ies and @or 4oman1hood/@emhood. :t)mologi6all)- woman does not deri8e @rom man in the 4a) @emin ists ha8e o@ten
thought- and the 4ord man has not al4a)s re@erred to both the s3e6ies and the male o@ the s3e6ies. The generi6 mean ing o@ the 4ord
man, that is the term to des6ribe the s3e6ies Homo .a3iens- 3re6eded the se/1s3e6i@i6 meaning. 5ts origin is 6ontested but a number o@
roots in ,roto1 5ndo1:uro3ean ha8e been suggested- deri8ing man @rom the root man @or hand, relating it to manu'acture, manipulate(
.ome deri8e it @rom men @or mind, mental or @rom mon, an earl) @orm @or human being( Most 6autious et)mologists tra6e it
onl) ba6k as @ar as its old Germani6 @orms. 5n modern German there are t4o 4ords; )ensch Ahuman beingC and )ann Aman-
husbandC 4hile in :nglish 4e ha8e one- ambiguousl) re@erring to the adult male or to the s3e6ies. Ho4e8er- this 4as not al4a)s
the 6ase. 5n its earlier @orms- man re@erred to the s3e6ies and t4o se3arate markers 4N/and waep 4ere added to s3e6i@) @emale
and male. Thus wi'mann and waepmann, a33arentl) meaning weaver person and weapon*carrying person, 4ere ho4
4omen and men 4ere named in old :nglish. +,ermann+ A@or malesC is also attested- the 3re@i/ +wer+ ALatin vir remaining in the
4ord werewol' Aa man14ol@C.
<ther words can replace the use of the word man to reduce the male bias within our
language.
Gibbon .999 AMargaret- ,ro@essor at the .6hool o@ 933lied Language and 5nter6ultural .tudies- >ublin Dit) Jni8ersit)- %Beminist ,ers3e6ti8es on
Language- ,g. $01$1- LVC
To return to our @o6us on man and the relationshi3 bet4een le/is and 3er6e3tion or thought- 4e 4ill no4 e/amine man and
other so16alled generi61mas6uline 4ords in 6onte/t. :m3hasis 4ill be 3la6ed here not on di6tionar) meanings AdenotationC but on mental imager)
or the thoughts 4hi6h s3ring u3 in our minds u3on reading or hearing su6h 4ords- and 4hen 4e oursel8es s3eak or 4rite them. Gi8en the s6o3e
o@ this introdu6tor) te/t- onl) a brie@ summar) o@ resear6h 6an be gi8en. 9s a 3reliminar) e/er6ise- tr) 4riting do4n all the 4ords )ou 6an think o@ to re@er to 3eo3le
and ask )oursel@ 4hether the) 6an be used to re@er to 4omen- indi8iduall) or as a grou3H to men- indi8iduall) or as a grou3H to 6hildrenH to mi/ed grou3s o@ adultsH to
mi/ed grou3s o@ adults and 6hildren. The range o@ 4ords is a6tuall) mu6h greater than our s3e6ies 4ord )an might suggest.
Human%ind, humanity, humans, the human race, people, individuals, citizens, Homo #apiens,
guys, y +all, us and we are some o@ the terms 4e might 6ome u3 4ith. .ome o@ these )man, guys( are more likel) than others
to 6onGure u3 male imager). Man) terms 4hi6h are at root mas6uline are intended nonetheless to in6lude 4omen; the 6lerg)Fs use o@ brethren
traditionall) re@erred to the entire 6ongregation Amost o@ten @emale1dominatedCH to man a stand at a s6hool baIaar is o@ten the
3ri8ilege o@ mothersH and the 4ords 'raternize A@rom Latin- 'rater, a brotherC and patronize A@rom pater, @atherC are used o@
4omen as 4ell as men. 5n the nineteenth 6entur)- but also in 122+- 4omen graduating @rom uni8ersit) ha8e obGe6ted to being
a4arded <a6helorFs and MasterFs degrees- and- as 4e see in Dha3ter $- the 3ro@essions ha8e had to be renamed to remo8e
mas6uline bias in agenti8es.
&he use of se)ist language will continue to create se)ism in realit$ because we become more
comfortable with it in our language. 1e must break down the male bias in our language in
order to remove the masculinit$ we represent.
Jni8ersit)- %Beminist ,ers3e6ti8es on Language- ,g. '*1'+- LVC
:hrli6h and King @o6us on ne4s re3orting in the 3ress and outline strategies used b) a se/ist 3ress to limit and distort @emin ist
meaning. These strategies in8ol8e re1de@inition- e/3ansion ad absurdum o@ the 6ontent or denotation o@ the term in order to
tri8ialiIe it- suggestions that the 3henomenon named does not a6tuall) e/ist b) using 7uotation marks or other metalinguisti6
markers Asu6h as Fso16alled date1ra3eFC- and other- similar ta6ti6s. 9n analog) is dra4n 4ith ne4 terms intended to 6hallenge
ra6ist language and ethni6 slurs. The general 6on6lusion o@ this use@ul 3a3er is that de@inition is a site o@ ideologi6al struggle.
.e/ist language does not onl) re@le6t se/ist realities- it also hel3s to re3rodu6e them. Ene 8aluable re sult o@ @eminist- anti1ra6ist
and anti1homo3hobi6 linguisti6 inno8a tion is that the 3eGorati8e 4ords the) seek to re3la6e are no longer unmarked or neutral.
While 6onstant use o@ he or she and her or his mark 3eo3le o@@ as at least nominall) a4are o@- and s)m3atheti6 to- @eminist
ideals- the 6ontinued use o@ 3res6ri3ti8e he and generi6 mas6uline terms no4 marks the userFs language as unre@ormed . 5n a
6ounter1argument to .3enderFs 6all @or en6oding 4omen into language- <la6k and Do4ard A1220C make the 3oint that generi6
mas6uline language a6tuall) @ails to en6ode men- that is as men- as s3e6i@i6- histori6all) situated 3eo3le and not the norm;
2
+#$erna$i*e So#*en(y
9 radical change through the wa$ we use our language ma$ change the wa$ we view
societ$. &his change in our language is a step to e#ualit$ and human rights.
Jni8ersit)- %Beminist ,ers3e6ti8es on Language- ,g. 1'$11''- LVC
>uring the 6ourse o@ 4riting- 5 ha8e been stru6k b) the relati8e tri8ialit) o@ mu6h o@ the subGe6t matter 5 ha8e read. Work in the di@@eren6e or dual 6ultures a33roa6h in
3arti6ular seems to e8a6uate @rom its anal)ses an) re@eren6e to 3o4er or 8iolen6e in 4omenFs relationshi3s 4ith men. >ominan6e 3ers3e6ti8es 6an tend to
3or tra) us as 8i6tims in their @o6us on menFs 3o4er o8er 4omen. 5n 3ostmodernist 4riting resistan6e seems to @o6us on ludi6
gender1bending or gender1blending strategies. Bor @eminists to stud) language ma) a33ear a lu/ur) gi8en the man) li@e1
threatening 3ra6ti6es 4hi6h 4omen @a6e 4orld14ide; se/ual sla8er)- 3ro@ound @undamentalist misog)n)- batter)- ra3e- genital
mutilation and 4omanslaughter. We need to relate 3atterning in language to 3atterning in the 4ider so6iet). We need to 6hange
that so6iet) in radi6al 4a)sH re @orming language is a use@ul but 4oe@ull) inade7uate 4a) to do it. Ho4e8er- gi8en the 6entralit) o@ language
to all areas o@ human endea8our- and its tenden6) to re@le6t so6ial arrangements 7uite 3re6isel)- then a stud) o@ language 6an
6ontribute to an inter dis6i3linar) resear6h e@@ort @o6used on identi@)ing me6hanisms o@ 3o4er and 8iolen6e 1 3h)si6al and s)mboli6 1
and stru6tures o@ ine7ualit). 9 resear6h @o6us on resistan6e rather than 8i6timiIation ma) hel3 to shi@t @eminist linguisti6s a4a)
@rom its 6urrent 3reo66u 3ations and allo4 the dis6i3line to make a greater- more telling 6ontribution to 4omenFs global struggle
@or human rights.
2$
***9= answers***
2'
+-. Man /ad
&he word man is gender neutral.
language/. M?.C
Horn and Kleinedler A2000C ha8e dis3uted the details o@ this- noting that "man# did not begin its li@e as gender1
s3e6i@i6 and then get e/tended to 6o8er both 4omen and men. ?ather- "man# a6tuall) began its li@e as "mann#- a
gender1neutral term- 4hi6h onl) later a67uired a gender1s3e6i@i6 meaning. The tem3oral se7uen6e- then- 6annot
su33ort the 6laim that a gender1s3e6i@i6 term has been e/tended to 6o8er both genders. =onetheless- Horn and
Kleinedler agree that the use o@ terms like "he# and "man# as i@ the) 4ere gender1neutral 3er3etuates the
obGe6tionable idea that men are the norm @or humanit).
2*
+-. /io#ogy/Se
0iological *ustifications for male privelege entrench patriarch$.
Goueffic 9
AGoue@@i6- Louise. 9uthor- <9 graduate studies in Bran6e. <reaking the 3atriar6hal 6ode. ,g. ; 122*. M?.C
Gender 6an then be seen as a broaderH a more en6om3assing and 6om3le/ term. 9s Graddol and .4ann A1202C state- the man) di@@erent li@e e/3erien6es
o@ 4omen and men 6annot be sim3l) e/3lained b) biologi6al di@@eren6es bet4een the se/es. <iologi6al di@@eren6es
6annot a66ount @or the @a6t that a 3erson ma) be more or less F@eminineF and more or less Fmas6ulineF. Burther- the man)
8ariations o@ maleness and @emaleness o8er time/@rom one generation to the ne/t- a6ross 6ultures- and a6ross 6on1
te/ts- sho4 that the traits assigned to a se/ b) a 6ulture are so6iall) determined and learned- and there@ore alterable
AWodak- 122+H Talbot- 1220C. Durrent theories o@ gen1 der re6ogniIe not onl) that beha8ing as men or 4omen 4ithin a so6iet) 4ill 8ar) @rom one situation to the
ne/t- @rom one so6ial grou3ing or 6ommunit) to another- and a66ording to di@@erent goals- aims- and interests- but also that 3eo3le are a6ti8e agents
in8ol8ed in their o4n FgenderingF or Fdoing genderF Asee Dha3ter C. The distin6tion bet4een se/ and gender is im3ortant
and 3oliti6al. <iologi6al e/3la1 nations o@ so6iall) 6onstru6ted di@@eren6es bet4een men and 4omen are o@ten used
to Gusti@) male 3ri8ileges or reassert traditional @amil) and gender roles- @or e/am3le- 4omenFs so16alled FnaturalF
role as mothers and nurturers Asee Talbot- 1220- @or other e/am3lesC. Jnsur3risingl)- @eminists ha8e strongl) 6riti6iIed biologi6al e/3lanations o@
FnaturalF di@@eren6es bet4een the se/es @or 3er3etuating gender m)ths- stereot)3es- and imbalan6es that are ultimatel) damaging @or both 4omen and men.
2+
+-. Gender 0eu$ra#i$y
1ords need to be taken in conte)t of speaker;s situation"gender neutral terms do not
combat se)ism.
Goueffic 9 AGoue@@i6- Louise. 9uthor- <9 graduate studies in Bran6e. <reaking the 3atriar6hal 6ode. ,g. 111$ ;
122*. M?.C
The introdu6tion o@ the term FMsF- as an alternati8e to FMissF and FMrsF 1 4hi6h label onl) 4omen- and arguabl)
rein@or6e a 3atriar6hal order 4here 4omenFs marital status be6omes im3ortant 1 has not ne6essaril) been e@@e6ti8e in
6ombating se/ism. This is be6ause- @or some 3eo3le- FMsF re@ers to Folder unmarried 4omen- di8or6ees and strident @eminists 1
in other 4ords to KabnormalK and Kun@eminineK 4omenF ADameron- 1222; 122H >ion- 120+C. These rea6tions ha8e a lot to do 4ith the @a6t that-
in the 12+0s and the 1200s- linguisti6 inter8ention 4as ad8o6ated stri6tl) as a small 3art o@ the 4ider 3roGe6t o@ @eminist
inter8ention 1 and both ha8e been resisted and marginaliIed. Linguisti6 inter8ention is also 3roblemati6- 4hen 6on@ronted 4ith the non1
tenabilit) o@ language that is neutral; non1se/ist- non1ra6ist- and so on. 9s Doates 3uts it- Fthere is no neutral dis6ourse; 4hene8er 4e s3eak 4e
ha8e to 6hoose bet4een di@@erent s)stems o@ meaning- di@@erent sets o@ 8aluesF A1220; 02C. 5n addition to language itsel@ 6hanging-
our use o@ language is 6onstantl) 6hanging- in order to a66ommodate and 6on8e) a range o@ meanings- 6on6e3ts and 8alues. >i@@erent 3eo3le
ma) as6ribe di@@erent meanings to a 3arti6ular 4ord AGraddoO and .4ann- 1202C. 9s meaning is situated in 6onte/t- the 7uestion
be6omes one o@ intentionalit) and inter3retation; ho4 do s3eakers and 4riters use language Ain6luding Fse/ist languageFC @rom one time to another- @rom one 6onte/t to
the ne/tN 9nd ho4 do 3eo3le inter3ret othersF language di@@erentl) 4ithin di@@erent 6onte/ts Atimes- 3la6es- e8ents- so6ial/6ultural/8alue s)stemsCN 5t is 6lear that
a so16alled se/ist 4ord ma) be used in non1se/ist 4a)s. 5t ma) be used in an ironi6 4a)- or in a di@@erent 4a) 4ithin
a 3arti6ular 6ommunit)- as in the 6ase o@ the re6lamation o@ F7ueerF or Fd)keF as 3ositi8e terms 4ithin ga) s3ee6h
6ommunities. The o33osite 6an also ha33en. 9s .underland and Litosseliti A2002; 'C illustrate- a gender1neutral 4ord su6h as F3eo3leF 6an be
used in a se/ist- or at least non1gender1in6lusi8e- 4a).
20
+-. Gender 0eu$ra#i$y
!eanings of words constantl$ change"impossible to regulate and control. &he$ need to be
taken in conte)t.
6oss =// AKelle) L. ?oss- ,h.>.- retired @rom the >e3artment o@ ,hiloso3h). %9gainst the Theor) o@ K.e/ist
Language.K Ma) 2*- 200*. htt3;//444.@riesian.6om/language.htm. M?.C
The 4ord Kse/K 11 6learl) e8o6ati8e o@ an une7ui8o6al demar6ation bet4een men and 4omen 11 has been re3la6ed
b) the 3ale and neutral Kgender-K and the 4ords KmanK and KheK 11 no4 a8oided as i@ the) 4ere 4orse than obs6enities 11
ha8e been re3la6ed b) the neuter K3ersonK and b) grammati6all) 6on@using- 6umbersome- or o@@ensi8e 8ariants o@
Khe/sheK or KsheK alone as the 3ronoun o@ general re@eren6e. .in6e it 4as ne8er e8en remotel) in doubt that 4hen used as a general re@erent-
the male 3ronoun in6luded @emales- this 6hange 4as ne8er designed to 3re8ent 6on@usion. The 6hange has- on the 6ontrar)- o@ten 6reated 6on@usion.
5ts 3ur3ose is solel) ideologi6al. 5- @or one- 4ant to be @ree to re@er to Kthe brotherhood o@ manK 4ithout being
6orre6ted b) the language 3oli6e. 5 4ant to de6ide @or m)sel@ 4hether 5 should be 6alled a 6hairman- a 6hair4oman-
or a 6hair3erson A5 am not a 6hairC. 5 4ant to see M) Bair Lad) and laugh 4hen ,ro@essor Higgins sings- KWh) 6anFt a 4oman be more like a manNK 9s a 4riter-
5 4ant to kno4 that 5 am @ree to use the 4ords and images o@ m) 6hoosing. 5t is 6ommon toda) in 3ubli6 dis6ussion- 4hether the 6onte/t is a6ademi6- 3oliti6al- or
e8en legal- to take it @or granted that using the 4ord Kman-K in isolation or as a su@@i/- to re@er to all o@ humanit)- or using the 3ronoun KheK 4here an) 3erson- male or
@emale- ma) be re@erred to- is to engage in Kse/ist language-K i.e. language that embodies- a@@irms- or rein@or6es dis6rimination against 4omen or the 3atriar6hal
subordination o@ 4omen to men. Thus the 9meri6an ,hiloso3hi6al 9sso6iation o@@ers KGuidelines @or =on1.e/ist Jse o@ Language-K 4hi6h it sa)s
is- K9 3am3hlet outlining 4a)s to modi@) language in order to eliminate gender1s3e6i@i6 re@eren6esK 11 as though that is an
un3roblemati6- rather than an Er4ellian- goal. =ot e8er)one agrees 4ith this 8ie4- and KheK and KmanK o@ten seem to 6ree3
ina33ro3riatel) into the s3ee6h o@ e8en those 4ho 6onsider themsel8es abo8e su6h transgressionsH but the ideolog) that there
is Kse/ist languageK in ordinar) 4ords and in the ordinar) use o@ :nglish gender rarel) 6omes under sustained 6riti6ism- e8en in the intelle6tual arenas 4here all things
are su33osed to be o3en to @ree in7uir). 5nstead- the in7uir) is usuall) strongl) inhibited b) 7ui6k 6harges o@ Kse/ismK and b) the other intimidating ta6ti6s o@ 3oliti6al
6orre6tness. .u6h de@ensi8eness a66om3anies the 4idel) held 6on8i6tion that the theor) o@ Kse/ist languageK and the 3rogram to institute Kgender neutralK language
are absolutel) @undamental to the so6ial and 3oliti6al 3roGe6t o@ @eminism. The theor) o@ Kse/ist language-K ho4e8er- is no 6redit to
@eminism- @or it is dee3l) @la4ed both in its understanding o@ the nature o@ language and in its understanding o@ ho4
languages 6hange o8er time. .in6e the ideolog) that there is Kse/ist languageK seeks- indeed- to 6hange linguisti6 usage as 3art o@ the attem3t to 6hange
so6iet) and @orms o@ thought- the latter is 3arti6ularl) signi@i6ant. Birst o@ all- the theor) o@ Kse/ist languageK seems to sa) that 4ords
6annot ha8e more than one meaning; i@ KmanK and KheK in some usage mean males- then the) 6annot mean both
males and @emales in other usage Ai.e. nouns and 3ronouns 6an ha8e both mas6uline and 6ommon genderC. This 8ie4 is absurd enough that there
is usuall) a more subtle take on it; that the use o@ KmanK or KheK to re@er to males and to both males and @emales means that maleness is more @undamental than
@emaleness- KsubordinatingK @emaleness to maleness- Gust as in the <ook o@ Genesis the @irst 4oman- :8e- is 6reated @rom 9damFs rib @or the 3ur3ose o@ being his
6om3anion. =o4- the im3li6ation o@ the <ibli6al stor) ma) 4ell be 3re6isel) that 9dam is more @undamental than :8e- but the <ible did not 6reate the language-
Hebre4- in 4hi6h it is 4ritten. 5@ 4e are going to talk about the linguisti6 stru6ture o@ Hebre4 as distin6t @rom the so6ial ideolog) o@ the <ible- it is one thing to argue
that the s)stem o@ grammati6al gender allo4ed the inter3retation o@ gender embodied in the stor) o@ 9dam and :8e and something 8er) mu6h di@@erent to argue that
su6h an inter3reti8e meaning ne6essaril) underlies the original grammar o@ Hebre4 11 or 9kkadian- 9rabi6- Greek- Bren6h- .3anish- :nglish- .4ahili- et6. 11 or that
su6h a s)stem o@ grammati6al gender re7uires su6h an inter3retation. What a language 4ith its gender s)stem means is 4hat 3eo3le use it
to mean. 5t is an e8il 3rin6i3le to think that 4e 6an tell other 3eo3le 4hat the) mean b) 4hat the) sa)- be6ause o@
some theor) 4e ha8e that makes it mean something in 3arti6ular to us- e8en 4hen the) ob8iousl) mean something
else. =e8ertheless- there is no4 a 6ommon 3rin6i3le- in @eminism and else4here Aes3e6iall) @lourishing in literar) 6riti6ismC- that meaning is onl) in the res3onse o@
the inter3reter- not in the mind o@ the s3eaker- e8en i@ the s3eaker is to be sued or 6harged 4ith a 6rime @or the inter3reter ha8ing the res3onse that the) do. There is
also on to3 o@ this the Mar/ist theor) o@ K@alse 6ons6iousness-K 4hi6h holds that KtrueK meaning @ollo4s @rom the underl)ing e6onomi6 stru6ture- toda) usuall) Gust
6alled the K3o4erK relationshi3s. Most 3eo3le are una4are o@ the 3o4er relationshi3s 4hi6h 3rodu6e the 6on6e3ts and
language that the) use- and so 4hat 3eo3le think the) mean b) their o4n statements and language is an illusion.
The im3li6ations o@ these 3rin6i3les are dehumaniIing and totalitarian; 4hat indi8idual 3eo3le think and 4ant is
irrele8ant and to be disregarded- e8en b) la4s and 3oliti6al authorities @or6ing them to beha8e- and s3eak- in 6ertain
4a)s. <ut the) are 3rin6i3les that make it 3ossible to dismiss the 6ommon sense 8ie4 that @e4 3eo3le s3eaking :nglish 4ho said KmanK in
statements like Kman is a rational animalK 4ere re@erring e/6lusi8el) to males- e8en though this usage 4as 6lear to
all- @rom the 6onte/t- @or 6enturies be@ore @eminism de6ided that 3eo3le didnFt Kreall)K mean that. <ut e8en i@ some
s3eakers reall) did mean that- it is a6tuall) irrele8ant to the @reedom o@ indi8iduals to mean 4hate8er the) intend to
mean through language in the 6on8entionall) a8ailable @orms that the) 6hoose.
22
+-. 1is(ourse, S$a$e so#*es
>iscourse is irrelevant"onl$ institutional change can solve patriarch$.
Goueffic 9 AGoue@@i6- Louise. 9uthor- <9 graduate studies in Bran6e. <reaking the 3atriar6hal 6ode. ,g. ; 122*.
M?.C
.audi 9rabia- 4here se/ segregation in 3ubli6 3la6es is obligator)- one @inds signs on restaurant doors marked FsinglesF Ae/6lusi8el) @or menC and F@amiliesFH )et the
@ormer term is not neutral- and the latter not onl) is not in6lusi8e o@ all 4omen- it also de@ines 4omen e/6lusi8el) in relation to their husbands- 6hildren- and
relati8es. 9lso- to 7uote an ane6dotal e/am3le- the @a6t that 5 use the gender1neutral title F>rF in @ront o@ m) name does not sto3 3eo3le
A6onta6ting me b) 3hone or emailC @rom asking to s3eak to FhimF. .imilarl)- the remo8al o@ man) ra6ist terms @rom our language does not entail the
elimination o@ ra6ist sentiment and beha8iour. 5n @a6t- e@@orts to eliminate su6h senti1 ment are not ne6essaril) @ree o@ ra6ism or se/ism themsel8es- as illustrated in the
lan1 guage used b) Mal6olm W Aseen in .3ike LeeFs 1222 @ilmC in s3ee6hes; FThe :arth belongs to us the bla6k manFH and in 4ritten @orm; FWe must 3rote6t our most
8alu1 able 3ro3ert) our 4omenF. ABor an a66ount o@ di@@erent F@ramesF or 3ers3e6ti8es 4hen talking about ra6e- see ?attansi- 122'- and @or a good e/am3le o@ re6ent
4ork on dis6ourses o@ ra6ism- see 8an >iGk- 200'.C 5n short- meaning 6annot be in@erred b) 4ords alone- but b) in@erential 4ork that
in8ol8es man) situational and 6onte/tual 3arameters. What 4e there@ore need to 6hal1 lenge is the F3arti6ular
Kdis6ursi8e 3ra6ti6esK in 4hi6h se/ist assum3tions are embod1 ied b) linguisti6 6hoi6es- rather than to kee3 on
asserting that KlanguageK is globall) and generall) se/ist in itsel@F ADameron- 1220; 10C. We 4ill be looking at dis6ursi8e 3ra6ti6es in
Dha3ter - but the ke) 3oint to make here is that 6hanging se/ist language 4ill not by itself eliminate se/ism in our so6iet) .
:@@e6ti8e 6hange has to 6ome @rom both 3ersonal and institutional le8els. 5n addition- a @o6us on language has to be 3art
o@ a @o6us on gender ine7ualit) in general- and 8ie4ed in the 6onte/t o@ 4ider so6ial and institutional 6hange. Bor
e/am3le- a 6hange in the language used in ra3e re3orting and in 6ourt e/amination o@ ra3e 8i6tims A@or anal)ses o@ su6h
language- see Lees- 122*H Wood and ?ennie- 122$H :hrli6h 200$C needs to materialiIe 4ithin the 6onte/t o@ legal and so6ial 6hanges.
.u6h 6hanges 4ould in8ol8e- most notabl)- a more real1 isti6 6o1relation bet4een 6rime and 6on8i6tionsH at the time o@ 4riting- onl) ' 3er 6ent o@ de@endants 4hose
ra3e 6ases 6ome to 6ourt are 6on8i6ted- and the 6on8i6tion rate has been @alling ra3idl) in the JK in the 3ast 20 )ears A@rom 2$ to ' 3er 6entC- a66ord1 ing to The
5bserer A1 Oul) 200'C. Dhanges 4ould also in8ol8e the 3ro8ision o@ better su33ort @or 8i6tims- and the in6lusion on the agenda o@ male ra3e. Eur lan1 guage
regarding ho4 ra3ists and their 8i6tims are 3er6ei8ed and treated 6an then re@le6t as 4ell as hel3 6onsolidate the legal- institutional and so6ial de8elo3ments in this
area. Jndoubtedl)- there ha8e been 3ro@ound 6hanges in re6ent de6ades in terms o@ raised a4areness about gender issues- as 4ell as gender and language. (et- the
6om1 3le/it) o@ our language 6hoi6es- the 3ressures o@ a 6limate o@ 3oliti6al 6orre6tness- and the su66ess o@ @eminist 6am3aigns o8er language- ma) mean that 4e are
no4 @a6ed 4ith di@@erent- more insidious- @orms o@ se/ism than in the 3ast- 4hen instan6es o@ se/ist language 4ere relati8el) easil) identi@ied. Mills A2002C 6laims
that se/ist 2 5 Gender and Language Ha8ing said all this- Lako@@Fs methods are 6onsistent 4ith her dis6i3linar) 6ommu1 nit) at the time- in terms o@ the 6entralit) o@
nati8e s3eaker intuition- and in terms o@ omissions in resear6hing FotherF grou3s AHall and <u6holtI- 122'C. >es3ite 3resenting a de@i6it 8ie4 o@ 4omenFs language-
1anguage and &oman's 6lace is an im3ortant 4ork 4ritten @rom a @eminist 3ers3e6ti8eH it e/3lains the Finade7ua6iesF o@ 4omenFs language in 3oliti6al and 6ultural
terms- rather than seeing them as FnaturalF se/ di@1 @eren6es ADameron- 1220C. 5t also marks the beginning o@ stud)ing a6tual s3ee6h beha8iour in 6onte/t- and o@
asking more 6riti6al- so6ial 7uestions about language.
0
+-. Mas(u#ine 1is(ourse
Language is not masculine"no impact.
language/. M?.C
5n general- the solution suggested is not to attem3t to 6reate a neutral language that 6an a66uratel) 6a3ture realit) in
itsel@- a goal the) 4ould take to be nonsense. 5nstead- 4e must aim to 6reate a ne4 realit) more 6ongenial to 4omen.
.ome @eminists ha8e argued that the onl) 4a) to a6hie8e this is @or 4omen to 6reate their o4n language- either b)
rede@ining terms alread) in use- or b) in8enting a ne4 language- 4ith ne4 4ords and ne4 rules. Enl) in this 4a)-
the) suggest- 4ill 4omen be able to break @ree @rom the 6onstraints o@ male language and male thought- to arti6ulate
a 6om3eting 8ision @or the 4orld- and to 4ork to4ard it A>al) and Da3uti 120+- :lgin 120'- Ma6Kinnon 1202-
,enelo3e 1220- .3ender 120'C. L)nne Tirrell o@@ers an es3e6iall) so3histi6ated and 6om3le/ dis6ussion o@ this idea
in her %>e@inition and ,o4er; To4ard 9uthorit) Without ,ri8ilege& A122C. The 6laims dis6ussed abo8e 6on6erning
the "maleness# o@ :nglish- its 6auses- and its e@@e6ts- are @ar @rom un6ontentious. Birst- the e/tent o@ male bias in
language is debatable. 9lthough it is right that there is mu6h to 4orr) @eminists about a 4ide 8ariet) o@ s3e6i@i6
terms and usages- it is @ar @rom 6lear that it is a33ro3riate to 6laim that :nglish is male1biased in some s4ee3ing
sense. 5t is also un6lear e/a6tl) 4hat the 6laim being made is. 5@ this 6laim is taken to be that e8er) term is male1
biased- then it is ob8iousl) @alse; surel) no sane 3erson 4ould allege a male bias to be 3resent in "3iano# or
"isoto3e#. 5@ the 6laim is sim3l) that there is mu6h @or @eminists to obGe6t to- then it is almost 6ertainl) right ! but it
is @ar @rom ob8ious that it is use@ul to @o6us on su6h a general 6laim rather than on s3e6i@i6 3roblems- their
6om3le/ities and their 3ossible solutions ADameron 1220bC. =e/t- the 3o4er that men ha8e undeniabl) e/er6ised in
so6iet) b) no means translates to a general 3o4er o8er language. Language is a di@@i6ult thing to 6ontrol- as those
4ho ha8e attem3ted to 6reate languages ha8e learned. The main 3o4er men ha8e had has 6on6erned di6tionaries-
usage guides- and la4s. While these are enormousl) im3ortant in sha3ing realit)- and in sha3ing our thoughts- it is
7uite a lea3 to mo8e @rom this 3o4er to the 6laim that men "6reated language- thought- and realit).# The 6laimed
e@@e6ts o@ the maleness o@ language are also 3roblemati6. We ha8e alread) seen 3roblems @or the idea that men
6ontrol language. The idea that men also 6ontrol or 6reate thought and realit) @a6es @urther 3roblems. The abilit) o@
@eminists to su66ess@ull) 3oint out 4a)s in 4hi6h elements o@ language ha8e obs6ured 4omenFs e/3erien6es 6ounts
strongl) against the 6laim that men 6ontrol thought ADameron 1220CH and- as .all) Haslanger has argued in detail
A122'C- dis6ursi8e 6onstru6ti8ism about realit) is unsustainable. =onetheless- it does seem right to noti6e that
3roblems 4ith s3e6i@i6 terms 6an render it more di@@i6ult @or 4omen to 6ommuni6ate about im3ortant elements o@
their li8es- and 3robabl) also more di@@i6ult to re@le6t u3on these elements AHornsb) 122'C. These di@@i6ulties 6ould
3erha3s be des6ribed as 3artial silen6ing- or 3artial 6onstraint o@ thought. 5@ the 6riti6isms abo8e are right- then
4omen 6ertainl) do not need to 6reate their o4n language. Man) 4el6ome this 6on6lusion- 4orried that a 4omenFs
language 4ould doom 4omenFs thoughts to marginalit) and im3ede @eminist 3rogress. Moreo8er- the idea that
4omen 6ould 6ra@t a 6ommon language that allo4ed the arti6ulation o@ all their e/3erien6es seems to ignore the @a6t
that 4omen di@@er enormousl) @rom one another ALugones and .3elman 120- .3elman 1200H see the se6tion on
@eminism and the di8ersit) o@ 4omen in the entr) on to3i6s in @eminismC. 5@ 4omen 6annot use the same language as
men- 4h) should 4e su33ose that 4omen 6an su66ess@ull) share a languageN
1
+-. 1is(ourse
Language does not shape realit$"words mean what we want them to mean.
5n @a6t- the 3resen6e o@ gender in language bears no relation 4hatsoe8er to the nature o@ the 6orres3onding so6ieties.
The best histori6all) 6ons3i6uous e/am3le is ,ersian. Eld ,ersian- like Greek- Latin- and .anskrit- had the original
5ndo1:uro3ean genders o@ mas6uline- @eminine- and neuter. <) Middle ,ersian all gender had disa33eared. This 4as
not the result o@ ,ersian @eminist 6riti6ism- nor 4as it the result o@ the e8olution o@ an e7ual o33ortunit) so6iet) @or
4omen. 5t Gust ha33ened 11 as most kinds o@ linguisti6 6hange do. Modern ,ersian is a language 6om3letel) 4ithout
gender. There are not e8en di@@erent 4ords @or KheK and Kshe-K Gust the unise/ un. AThere are not e8en di@@erent titles
@or married and unmarried 4omen; ,ersian khXnum 6an be translated as KMs.KC =e8ertheless- a@ter some 3rogress
under Western in@luen6e- the ?e8olutionar) 5ran o@ the 9)atollah Khomeini retreated @rom the modern 4orld into a
8igorous reYstablishment o@ mediae8alism- 3utting e8er)one- es3e6iall) 4omen- ba6k into their traditional 3la6es. .o
the ad8i6e 6ould be; 5@ someone 4ants Knon1se/ist language-K mo8e to 5ran. <ut that 3robabl) 4ould not be 7uite
4hat the) ha8e in mind. Wh) didnFt the Kgender @reeK ,ersian language 6reate a @eminist uto3iaN This goes to sho4
us that gender in language is 6om3letel) irrele8ant to the se/ual o3enness o@ so6iet). 9nd one o@ the greatest ironies
@or us is that a @eminist attem3t to 3rodu6e a gender @ree Knon1se/ist languageK in :nglish 6ould onl) be
6ontem3lated in the @irst 3la6e be6ause grammati6al gender has alread) all but disa33eared @rom :nglish. Beminist
6om3laints must @o6us on the meaning o@ 4ords like Kman-K e8en though 4ords 6an mean an)thing b) 6on8ention-
be6ause the 3ronouns Khe-K KsheK- and KitK are all that remain grammati6all) o@ the three 5ndo1:uro3ean genders.
Getting gender to disa33ear in German or Bren6h or .3anish Aet6.C- on the other hand- 4ould be a ho3eless 3roGe6t
4ithout 6om3letel) altering the stru6ture o@ the languages LnoteM. E66asionall) @eminists sa) that the) are 3ersonall)
o@@ended b) 3eo3le re@erring to shi3s or air6ra@t as KsheKH and manuals o@ Knon1se/istK language usuall) re7uire that
inanimate obGe6ts be KitK 4ithout e/6e3tion.
2
+-. 1is(ourse
>iscourse is irrelevant"gender in language has no effect on social relations.
9ll the grie@ gi8es ideologues something else 4ith 4hi6h to bro4beat 3eo3le and a 6om3letel) 3hon) issue through
4hi6h to 6laim 3oliti6al authorit) o8er ho4 3eo3le s3eak- in all inno6en6e and good 4ill- in natural languages. 5t 6an
e8en translate into the introdu6tion o@ 8irtual 3oliti6al 6ommissars- o@ten 4ith 3uniti8e 3o4ers- into s6hools-
4ork3la6es- 6hur6hes- et6. to monitor in6orre6t s3ee6h. 9nd that is the kind o@ 3o4er that ideologues like. <ut the
6on6e3tual error underl)ing this kind o@ thing didnFt originate 4ith @eminismH it is the heritage o@ on6e 3o3ular but
no4 dis6reditable theories about the nature o@ language 11 that ho4 4e talk determines ho4 4e think Ato 3ara3hrase
something the semanti6ist ..5. Ha)aka4a a6tuall) said 11 a kind o@ linguisti6 beha8iorismC and that the stru6ture o@
language 6reates the stru6ture o@ the 4orld A3romoted b) the 3hiloso3her Wittgenstein and his re6ent @ollo4ersC. 5@
4e talk 4ith grammati6al gender- so this goes- then this determines not onl) that 4e think in e/a6tl) the same 4a)
but that the grammati6al stru6ture is 3roGe6ted into the 4orld. 5n @a6t- as the 6ountere/am3les indi6ate- su6h
linguisti6 stru6tures as gender determine little about thought and nothing about the 4orld. Grammar is usuall) Gust
grammar- nothing else. 5t is used to e/3ress meaning 11 it does not determine meaning. <ut the most signi@i6ant
assum3tion and the greatest h)bris in the theor) o@ Kse/ist languageK is Gust that language and linguisti6 6hange are
6ontrollable- and so 6an be 6ontrolled b) us- i@ 4e 4ish to. <ut language is not an)thing that 6an be 3lanned or
6ontrolled. Languages gro4 and 6hange s3ontaneousl). The kind o@ theor) that 3ro3erl) 6an des6ribe the
de8elo3ment o@ language is one that 6redits e8ents 4ith the 6a3a6it) @or de8elo3ing s3ontaneous natural order.
Theorists o@ su6h order range @rom the great naturalist Dharles >ar4in- to the great e6onomist B.9. Ha)ek- and to
the great 3hiloso3her Karl ,o33er. Those 4ho traditionall) ha8e 4anted to 6ontrol linguisti6 usage @or one reason or
another- and 4ho belie8e that it 6an be 6ontrolled- are al4a)s ultimatel) @rustrated.

+-. Man Link
!an and mankind do not marginali8e women"the$ include them.
Gibbon 1999 AMargaret- ,ro@essor at the .6hool o@ 933lied Language and 5nter6ultural .tudies- >ublin Dit) Jni8ersit)- %Beminist ,ers3e6ti8es on
Language- ,g. 2$- LVC
Within linguisti6s- 4ords and meaning are dis6ussed di@@erentl) a66ording to the sub1bran6h o@ the dis6i3line in8ol8ed. :t)molog) looks
at the histor) o@ 4ords and at 4ord 6hange. Le/i6ogra3h) 1the 6om3iling o@ di6tionaries and glossaries 1 is mainl) interested in 6ataloguing and de@ining the 4ords in
a language at a gi8en moment. ,honolog) @o6uses on the sounds and 3ronun6iation o@ 4ords- and semanti6s on 4ord meaning. 5n order to ha8e an) degree o@
shared understanding 4hen 4e 6ommuni6ate- 4e ha8e to agree on 4hat a 4ord means. This agree ment is ne8er total - as 4e sa4 in
relation to the 4ord abortion( When a 4ordFs meaning is in dis3ute- 4e o@ten tend to suggest looking it u3 in a di6tionar). Beminists
angered b) 4omenFs e/6lusion @rom so16alled generi6 mas6uline terms like )an, )an%ind, ha8e been ad8ised to look them
u3 in a di6tionar). 5@ 4e do- 4e @ind that su6h 4ords Freall) doF in6lude 4omen. Word meaning- like the meaning o@ a senten6e or
te/t- 6annot be @ound in di6tionaries. Language 6hanges 6onstantl) and di6tionaries take a long time to be 4ritten; 4hen 3ublished- the) are
in8ariabl) out o@ date. 9lthough 6om3uter te6hnolog) has no4 made it 3ossible to 6om3ile di6tionaries using real e/am3les @rom s3ee6h and 3rint- su6h 6or3us
di6tionaries are still the e/6e3tion. Most di6tionaries gi8e de@initions and e/am3les in8ented b) 6om3ilers Anati8e s3eaker intuitionC or use 6onte/tual @ragments @rom
re8ered authors A4ho ma) 4ell be long de6easedC. Words 6hange meaning o8er time @or man) reasons. 5@ enough 3eo3le begin to use a 4ord
to mean some thing other than its 6urrent di6tionar) meaning- then that 4ord FmeansF 4hat those users intend. F,re8ari6ateF and
Faggra8ateF are t4o 4ords undergoing 6hange.
$
***>iscourse***
'
1is(ourse
&he words with which we speak have the power to create real damage. 1e must monitor
our language to stop oppression.
Shepherd, 2010 ALaura- Le6turer in 5nternational ?elations and 5nternational La4- %Women- armed
6on@li6t and language Gender- 8iolen6e and dis6ourse&- Mar6h 2010- htt3;//Gournals.6ambridge.org- ?LC
5n our 3ersonal li8es- 4e kno4 that language matters- that 4ords are 6onstituti8e o@ realit). There are 4ords that
ha8e been e/6ised @rom our 8o6abularies- deemed too damaging to use. There are @orbidden 4ords that 6hildren
4his3er 4ith guilt) glee. There are 4ords 4e use dail) that 4ould be meaningless to our grand3arents. Moreo8er-
the 6aden6e and 6ontent o@ our 6ommuni6ations 8ar) b) 6onte/tH 4ords that are suitable @or the boardroom ma) not
be a33ro3riate @or the bedroom or the bar. 5n our 3ersonal li8es- 4e admit that 4ords ha8e 3o4er- and in Bormal
3oliti6s 4e do the same. 5t is not su6h a stret6h to admit the same in our ,ro@essional li8es. 5 am not 6laiming that all
anal)sis must be dis6ourse1theoreti6al must take language seriousl) to be 3oli6)1rele8ant- @or that 4ould 6learl)
be nonsense. 5 am- ho4e8er- 6laiming that 3ost1stru6tural theories o@ language ha8e mu6h to o@@er 3oli6) makers and
3ra6titioners- and arguing that in order to understand ho4 best to im3lement 3oli6) 4e @irst need to understand
"ho4# a 3oli6) means- not Gust 4hat it means. That is- 4e must understand a 3oli6) be@ore 4e 6an implement it.
&his article argues that we need to engage criticall$ with how that understanding is mediated through and
@a6ilitated b) our ideas about the 4orld 4e li8e in. 5@ 4e are to a8oid un6ons6iousl) re3rodu6ing the di@@erent @orms
o@ o33ression and e/6lusion that di@@erent @orms o@ 3oli6) seek to o8er6ome- 4e need to take seriousl) Oa67ues
>errida#s suggestion that "il n#) a 3as de hors1te/te#.'
*
1is(ourse Sha%es 2ea#i$y
1ords get their meaning through the wa$ in which the$ are used in our societ$.
+hepherd, =/./ 2 Laura- Le6turer in 5nternational ?elations and 5nternational La4- %Women- armed 6on@li6t and language Gender- 8iolen6e and
dis6ourse&- Mar6h 2010- htt3;//Gournals.6ambridge.org- ?LC
This theoreti6al agenda starts @rom the 3remise that no "thing# has a material realit) 3rior to language. There is no uni8ersal and un3roblemati6
initional le/i6on to 4hi6h 4e as s6holars or 3ra6titioners 6an re@er. 9ll 6on6e3ts 6ome to ha8e meaning through the 6onte/t o@ their
arti6ulation. This ma) seem 6ounter1intuiti8e. .urel) a 4oman is a 4oman is a 4oman- regardless o@ her "6onte/t#N This is not in @a6t the 6ase- @or as 4e 6an learn
through engagement 4ith 3oststru6tural gender theor)-11 4e 6an ne8er "@i/# the identit) o@ "4oman# inde3endent o@ 6onte/t. 5t ma) be
strategi6all) use@ul to s3eak o@ 4omen- or dire6tl) ne6essar) to s3eak 4ith 4omen. 5n some 6ases it might e8en be 3oliti6all) Gusti@iable to s3eak @or 4omen- but 4e
6an ne8er assume that 4e kno4 4ho 4e are in6luding and e/6luding in the 6ategor) o@ "4omen#. Burther- 4e 6annot
assume that those to 4hom 4e s3eak ha8e the same understanding o@ 4omen as 4e do- that their boundaries o@
in6lusion and e/6lusion ma3 on to our o4n. Binall)- e8en i@ 4e 4ere to agree 4ith all 6on6erned that 4e kno4 4hat the 6ategor) o@
"4omen# is that it in6ludes- @or e/am3le- 3ost1o3erati8e male1to1@emale transse/uals and sel@1identi@ied but6hes
and bois12 but e/6ludes- @or e/am3le- drag 7ueens- @emale1to1male transse/uals and sel@1identi@ied sissies1 4e
6ould not- as the e/am3les gi8en demonstrate- sa) 4ith an) 6ertaint) that 4e kno4 4hat "4oman# means.
+
1is(ourse Sha%es So(ia# Posi$ions
&he wa$ in which we speak and the words we use create and structure the wa$ in which we
live and onl$ goes so far as to oppress women b$ putting them into subordination positions.
Spender 1980 A>ale .3ender- Australian @eminist s6holar- tea6her- 4riter and 6onsultant %Man Made
Language& 3g. 12C ?L
Words hel3 to stru6ture the 4orld 4e li8e in- and the 4ords 4e ha8e h e l3 to stru6ture a se/ist 4orld in
1
4hi6h
4omen are
11

assigned a subordinate 3osition ADha3ter Bi8eC. 9s .6hulI has stated; 4ords 4 hi6h are highl) 6harged 4ith
emotion- taboo- or distaste- Aas so man) 4ords @or 4omen areC not onl) re@le6t the 6ulture 4hi6h uses them. The)
tea6h and 3er3etuate the a@titudes Whi6h 6reated themF A12+'a; +C. Eb8iousl) the meaning o@ these 4ords
must be 6hanged. We 6annot trust to lu6k that 4omen 4ill be able to @ormulate 3ositi8e de@initions o@ themsel8es Aan
obGe6ti8e in the 4omenFs mo8ementC 4hile the) are 6on@ined to the 3resent semanti6 sour6es. <ut Gust as 3re8iousl) initiall)
1
3ositi8e
usages enGo)ed onl) a short li@e1s3an and be6ame de8alue be6ause the obGe6t to 4hi6h the) re@erred 4as de8alued- so
4ill 3resent 3ositi8e 6oinages be 3eGorated Athe 4omenFs libberNC unless 4omen
1
Tie 8alued. .o6iet) must 6hange i@
3ositi8e meanings 4hi6h are being 6aned are to be sustained. The 3ro6ess is a diale6ti6al one. 9s more meanings are
6hanged so 4ill so6iet) 6hange and the se/ist semanti6 rule be 4eakenedH as so6iet) and the areThinri6iule 6hanges so 4ill more meanings
6hange 1e8en 4ithout deliberate inter8ention. To 6on6entrate on either 4ord meanings or so6ial organiIations 1 to the
e/6lusion o@ the
!
D1eZ r is to in8ite @ailure. .adl)- resear6hers into se/ism in language ha8e not al4a)s 6ome to a33re6iate the
dimensions o@ this issue and too @re7
1
ue
1
ntl)-4@iere it is @elt F3ro3erF to make suggestions @or 3ossible strategies- the
3ro3oPals are in terms o@ Whither there should/should not be inter8ention in the language or 4hether the @o6us
should/shouldS not be
.
on 6hanging so6iet). :ttorihas been e/3ended on the @utile debate on 4hi6h 6omes @irst- the
6hi6ken or the egg.The absen6e o@ an anal)sis o@ the 3atriar6hal order is glaringl) ob8ious in this resear6h area.
Language is a 6ultural arti@a6t 4hi6h has been in8ented b) human beingsH be6ause males ha8e 3rimaril) been

res3onsible @or the 3rodu6tion o@ Dultural @orms and images then language 4ould be no e/6e3tion. <ut this line o@
in7uir) 1 this thesis o@ :nglish as a manFs language 1 has not been 3ursued. Be4 resear6hers ha8e asked 4ho
0
1is(ourse Sha%es Po#i(y
>iscursive practices and polic$ documents are ke$, whenever we understand the logic
behind how gendered logics we can start to produce the e#ualit$ and order through social
life.
+hepherd, =/./ 2 Laura- Le6turer in 5nternational ?elations and 5nternational La4- %Women- armed 6on@li6t and
language Gender- 8iolen6e and dis6ourse&- Mar6h 2010- htt3;//Gournals.6ambridge.org- ?LC
,oli6) do6uments are- among other things- dis6ursi8e 3ra6ti6es- and 6an be read in this 4a)- 4ith a 8ie4 to asking 4hat is in some 4a)s the most
dire6tl) 3oliti6al and 3oli6)1rele8ant 7uestion; ho4 is it that the realit) 4e take @or granted- 4hi6h in6ludes dis3arities o@ 3o4er and multi3le @orms o@ Asometimes
8iolentC o33ression- 6ome to be a66e3ted as su6hN This s3e6ial issue o@ the ?e8ie4 dra4s attention to man) 4a)s in 4hi6h gendered logi6s 3rodu6e
AinCe7ualit) and order so6ial li@eH through the anal)sis o@ 3oli6) go8erning 4omen and 4ar- the 3resent essa) seeks
to 6ontribute a dis6ourse1theoreti6al 3ers3e6ti8e in kee3ing 4ith this theme. Dru6iall)- the distin6ti8el) 3oststru6tural @orm o@ 3oli6)
anal)sis 5 outline here highlights the ambiguities and tensions inherent in an) 3oli6) do6ument and o@@ers usable strategies @or negotiating these- mediating the
im3lementation o@ 3oli6) in a 3rodu6ti8e and 3otentiall) trans@ormati8e 4a). The essa) is di8ided into three substanti8e se6tions. 5n the @irst se6tion- 5 ma3 out a
3oststru6tural a33roa6h to dis6ourse that- 5 argue- @a6ilitates 3arti6ular kinds o@ anal)sis o@ 3oli6) do6uments and other rele8ant 3oliti6al materials. The se6ond se6tion
then 3ro8ides an illustrati8e a66ount o@ the theor) 3resented- through the anal)sis o@ Dha3ter '.10 o@ the Jnited =ations 5ntegrated >isarmament- >emobiliIation and
?eintegration .tandards-0 4hi6h is entitled "Women- gender and >>?#. 5n the @inal se6tion 5 o@@er some 6on6luding remarks and suggest some 3otentiall) @ruit@ul
a8enues @or @uture resear6h.
1e must not continue to live b$ the normative language that our societ$ has created, b$
doing so we marginali8e the se)ualities of others as well as the economic5development and
state(building polic$.
+hepherd, =/./ 2 Laura- Le6turer in 5nternational ?elations and 5nternational La4- %Women- armed 6on@li6t and language Gender- 8iolen6e and
dis6ourse&- Mar6h 2010- htt3;//Gournals.6ambridge.org- ?LC
We must take seriousl) the 7uestion o@ in6lusion and e/6lusion alluded to abo8e. 5n her 4ork on gender theor) and de8elo3ment- .usie Ooll) reminds us that
"norms are all13er8asi8e- and not onl) determine the se/ual as3e6t o@ our li8es- but also sha3e our a66ess to
e6onomi6 resour6es- and our abilit) to 3arti6i3ate in so6ial and 3oliti6al a6ti8ities#.1+ The marginaliIation o@ 7ueer
se/ualities in se6urit)- e6onomi6/de8elo3ment and state1building 3oli6)- 4hether b) omission or b) design- both a@@e6ts and
demonstrates 4hose 3arti6i3ation is 6onsidered legitimate- 4hose interests are re3resented and- ultimatel)- 4hose modes o@ being in the 4orld are deemed to be o@
8alue. ?elationshi3s that ha8e 6on8entionall) been 6onsidered "3ri8ate# are in6reasingl) being 3ubli6l) addressed. :8en i@ relationshi3s bet4een indi8iduals are
assumed to be heterose/ual and are most @re7uentl) heterose/ual in "@a6t# Ai.e. in the s3e6i@i6 6ase in 4hi6h the rele8ant 3oli6) is ena6tedC- the belie@s about marriage-
monogam) and 3o4er that are intrinsi6 to the model o@ heterose/ualit) 3ro3agated b) in@luential institutions ma) still ha8e negati8e 6onse7uen6es.10 5@ intimate
relationshi3s are not 6on6e3tuall) bounded 4ithin a heteronormati8e model- 3ra6titioners need to ensure that due 6onsideration is gi8en to ho4 se/ual beha8iours are
thought o@ in the s3e6i@i6 so6ial and 3oliti6al 6onte/t. Jltimatel)- the a33roa6h 5 es3ouse seeks to 6hallenge the mostl) silent norms that
3er8ade 3oli6)1making. This 6hallenge is 3osed in an e@@ort to ensure that the t)3es o@ so6ial and 3oliti6al s3a6es that are
3rodu6ed through de8elo3ment 3ra6ti6es and built through state1building 3ro6esses are in6lusi8e rather than
e/6lusi8e- and that no mode o@ being in the 4orld is marginaliIed or de8alued be6ause o@ 3arti6ularl) 3o4er@ul
notions o@ "6ommon sense#.
2
1is(ourse so#*es
<ur realit$ is shaped from within the conte)t of language, understanding of gender is ke$
to seeing the world out of the patriarchal s$stem. >iscourse solves power relations and
agenc$.
Goueffic 9 AGoue@@i6- Louise. 9uthor- <9 graduate studies in Bran6e. <reaking the 3atriar6hal 6ode. ,g. ;
122*. M?.C
&here is no neutral discourse4 whenever we speak we have to choose between different s$stems of meaning,
different sets of values. 2'oates, .99:4 ?/=7 &his chapter introduces some ke$ assumptions about language and about gender. It describes earl$
2feminist and non(feminist7 approaches to gender and language, and moves on to discuss se)ist language. &his includes e)amples of se)ist usage, le)ical
gaps and as$mmetries, connotative differences, and the use of generic e)pressions. It also e)amines different wa$s of describing and classif$ing women,
which can result in their invisibilit$ and stereot$ping. &his is followed b$ looking at language change and linguistic intervention 2e.g. using se)(neutral
vocabular$, reclaiming words, cre( ating new terms and guidelines for non(se)ist language use7. &he chapter concludes with a summar$ of concerns for
feminist linguistics. In the Introduction, a shift in assumptions about language is mentioned, which is also relevant for
our understanding of gender and language4 the shift from the view that we use language in certain wa$s
because of who we are, to the view that who we are is partl$ because of the wa$ we use language. &his perspective
assumes that language does not simpl$ reflect social realit$, but is also constitutive of such realit$, in other words,
it sha3es ho4 4e see oursel8es and the 4orld . 5@ language use is 6onstituti8e rather than
inde/i6al- then it has the 3otential to hel3 establish and maintain so6ial and 3o4er relations-
8alues and identities , as well as to challenge routine practice and con( tribute towards social change .
>iscourse shapes societ$;s view on gender"ke$ to break down patriarch$.
Goueffic 9 AGoue@@i6- Louise. 9uthor- <9 graduate studies in Bran6e. <reaking the 3atriar6hal 6ode. ,g. 10;
122*. M?.C
5n 4hat 4a)s 6an language sha3e ho4 4e see oursel8es and the 4orldN To address this 7uestion- one 6an 6onsider- @or e/am3le- 4h) one 3ersonFs FterroristF
is another 3ersonFs F@reedom @ighterFH the 6onte/ts in 4hi6h one 4ould use the terms FliberalF- F6ollateral damageF or Fa/is o@ e8ilFH 4hat 3eo3le mean b)
F4oman o@ 6olourF- Fhooded )outhsF- Fmale nurseF- or Fs3insterFH and ho4 mu6h in@ormation is 6on8e)ed Aor notC b) the term Fdomesti6 8iolen6eF. 5n addition- 8iolent-
sho6king- or high im3a6t e8ents- @or e/am3le- 4ar- 3ro8ide 8i8id and highl) 6harged 6onte/ts 4here language is
3aramount. >uring the .e6ond World War- the Oa3anese 4ere 6onstru6ted as the dehumaniIed enem)- des6ribed as
Fs3e6imensF to be FbaggedF. 5n ?4anda- during the 122$ geno6ide- the Tutsis 4ere des6ribed as F6o6kroa6hesF- the
target o@ Fbush16learingF b) the Hutus- 4ho 4ere ordered to Fremo8e tall 4eedsF AadultsC and FshootsF A6hildrenC. The
killing o@ 3eo3le in 4ars has t)3i6all) been re1 6on6e3tualiIed as Fa6tionF- Fse8ere measuresF- Fe8a6uatingF- or Frendering harmlessF. 5n man)
6ases- F4arF has be6ome F6on@li6tF- Fkilling @ieldsF ha8e be6ome F@ree @ire IonesF- and Fkilling 6i8iliansF has be6ome
F6ollateral damageF A<ourke- 1222-2001C. These re16on6e3tualiIations hel3 6onstitute 3arti6ular 8ersions o@ e8ents- su6h as a bombing- and
3arti6ular so6ial and 3o4er relations- su6h as those bet4een FusF and the FotherF A4hoe8er the doerAsC and the re6ei8erAsC o@ an a6tion
ma) beC. .imilarl)- in terms o@ gender- the use o@ 3hrasing su6h as Fmale nurseF or F@emale do6torF or Flad) do6torF
e@@e6ti8el) 6onstitutes 3arti6ular 8ersions o@ the so6ial 4orld- 4here it is ne6essar) or im3ortant @or s3eakers to
inde/ gender in that 4a). The 8ie4 o@ language not as a @i/ed or 6losed s)stem- but as d)nami6- 6om3le/ and
subGe6t to 6hange- assumes that e8er) time 4e use language- 4e make meaning@ul sele6tions @rom the linguisti6
resour6es a8ailable to us A9ntaki- 122$C. This is hardl) a straight@or4ard 3ro6ess- not least be6ause these sele6tions are embedded in a lo6al/immediate- as
4ell as broader/institutional and so6io16ultural 6onte/t A9ntaki- 1200- 122$H Bair6lough- 1222C. Donsider- @or e/am3le- a 3ubli6 debate on the
to3i6 o@ abortion. The language that ma) be used to 4rite or talk about this to3i6 must be 8ie4ed in the 6onte/t o@
the 3arti6ular so6ial o66asion Ae.g. at s6hool- in 3arliament- in the mediaCH o@ the medium Ae.g. s3oken- 4rittenCH o@ 4ho argues Ae.g. a do6tor- a leg1
islator- a 6am3aignerCH @or 4hat 3ur3oseAsC Ae.g. to 6on8in6e- to 6hange a situationC and @rom 4hat 3ers3e6ti8e. The range o@ 3ers3e6ti8es on abortion
ma) 8ar) a66ording to the 3arti6i3antsF age- se/- edu6ation- ra6e- 6lass- or religion- but also their e/3e6tations-
e/3erien6es- kno4ledge- e/3ertise- and in8ol8ement. >i@@erent 3ers3e6ti8es 4ill also re@le6t and 3romote di@@erent
assum3tions Aor dis6ourses- as 4e 4ill see in Dha3ter C around gender- @or e/am3le- about 4omenFs 3osition in a so6iet)- their rel1
ati8e 3o4er in terms o@ de6ision1making- the role o@ 3arenting- a so6iet)Fs 8ie4s about se/- and so on. 5t then
be6omes ob8ious that in order to understand the role that language 3la)s in establishing and maintaining an) so6ial
relations- in6luding gender relations- 4e ha8e to look outside o@ language itsel@- at the 4ider so6ial 3ro6esses in
4hi6h language 3la)s a 3art AGraddol and .4ann- 1202C.
$0
1is(ourse so#*en(y
>iscourse shapes gender relations and power structures"se)ist language otheri8es women.
Goueffic 9 AGoue@@i6- Louise. 9uthor- <9 graduate studies in Bran6e. <reaking the 3atriar6hal 6ode. ,g. 10 ;
122*. M?.C
To address this 7uestion- one 6an 6onsider- @or e/am3le- 4h) one 3erson#s "terrorist# is another 3erson#s "@reedom @ighter#H the 6onte/ts in
4hi6h one 4ould use the terms "liberal#- "6ollateral damage# or "a/is o@ e8il#H 4hat 3eo3le mean b) "4oman b) 6olourF- Fhooded )outhsF- Fmale nurseF- or Fs3insterFH and
ho4 mu6h in@ormation is 6on8e)ed Aor notC b) the term Fdomesti6 8iolen6eF. 5n addition- 8iolent- sho6king- or high im3a6t e8ents- @or e/am3le- 4ar- 3ro8ide
8i8id and highl) 6harged 6onte/ts 4here language is 3aramount. >uring the .e6ond World War- the Oa3anese 4ere
6onstru6ted as the dehumaniIed enem)- des6ribed as Fs3e6imensF to be FbaggedF. 5n ?4anda- during the 122$
geno6ide- the Tutsis 4ere des6ribed as F6o6kroa6hesF- the target o@ Fbush16learingF b) the Hutus- 4ho 4ere ordered to Fremo8e tall 4eedsF
AadultsC and FshootsF A6hildrenC. The killing o@ 3eo3le in 4ars has t)3i6all) been re1 6on6e3tualiIed as Fa6tionF- Fse8ere
measuresF- Fe8a6uatingF- or Frendering harmlessF. 5n man) 6ases- F4arF has be6ome F6on@li6tF- Fkilling @ieldsF ha8e be6ome
F@ree @ire IonesF- and Fkilling 6i8iliansF has be6ome F6ollateral damageF A<ourke- 1222-2001C. These re16on6e3tualiIations hel3
6onstitute 3arti6ular 8ersions o@ e8ents- su6h as a bombing- and 3arti6ular so6ial and 3o4er relations- su6h as those
bet4een FusF and the FotherF A4hoe8er the doerAsC and the re6ei8erAsC o@ an a6tion ma) beC. .imilarl)- in terms o@ gender- the use o@
3hrasing su6h as Fmale nurseF or F@emale do6torF or Flad) do6torF e@@e6ti8el) 6onstitutes 3arti6ular 8ersions o@ the
so6ial 4orld- 4here it is ne6essar) or im3ortant @or s3eakers to inde/ gender in that 4a). The 8ie4 o@ language not as
a @i/ed or 6losed s)stem- but as d)nami6- 6om3le/ and subGe6t to 6hange- assumes that e8er) time 4e use language- 4e
make meaning@ul sele6tions @rom the linguisti6 resour6es a8ailable to us A9ntaki- 122$C. This is hardl) a straight@or4ard 3ro6ess- not
least be6ause these sele6tions are embedded in a lo6al/immediate- as 4ell as broader/institutional and so6io16ultural 6onte/t A9ntaki- 1200-122$H Bair6lough- 1222C.
Donsider- @or e/am3le- a 3ubli6 debate on the to3i6 o@ abortion. The language that ma) be used to 4rite or talk about this to3i6
must be 8ie4ed in the 6onte/t o@ the 3arti6ular so6ial o66asion Ae.g. at s6hool- in 3arliament- in the mediaCH o@ the medium Ae.g. s3oken-
4rittenCH o@ 4ho argues Ae.g. a do6tor- a leg1 islator- a 6am3aignerCH @or 4hat 3ur3oseAsC Ae.g. to 6on8in6e- to 6hange a situationC and @rom 4hat 3ers3e6ti8e. The
range o@ 3ers3e6ti8es on abortion ma) 8ar) a66ording to the 3arti6i3antsF age- se/- edu6ation- ra6e- 6lass- or religion- but also their e/3e6ta1 tions- e/3erien6es-
kno4ledge- e/3ertise- and in8ol8ement. >i@@erent 3ers3e6ti8es 4ill also re@le6t and 3romote di@@erent assum3tions Aor
dis6ourses- as 4e 4ill see in Dha3ter C around gender- @or e/am3le- about 4omenFs 3osition in a so6iet)- their relati8e 3o4er in
terms o@ de6ision1making- the role o@ 3arenting- a so6iet)Fs 8ie4s about se/- and so on. 5t then be6omes ob8ious that in order to
understand the role that language 3la)s in establishing and maintaining an) so6ial relations- in6luding gender relations- 4e
ha8e to look outside o@ language itsel@- at the 4ider so6ial 3ro6esses in 4hi6h language 3la)s a 3art AGraddol and .4ann-
1202C.
$1
1is(ourse 3irs$
3ighting patriarch$ starts with discourse and language.
+tanford :nc$clopedia of ,hilosoph$ 10 2+tanford ,nc$clopedia of -hilosoph$. 3eminist
-hilosoph$ of Language http455plato.stanford.edu5entries5feminism(language5. !6.7
:n6oding o@ male 4orld8ie4 The idea that some terms en6ode a male 4orld8ie4 is initiall) a 3uIIling one. Ene thing that is meant b) it is- roughl)- that the
meanings o@ 6ertain terms seem to di8ide the 4orld u3 in a 4a) that is more natural @or men than @or 4omen. Good
e/am3les o@ this 6ome @rom the terms "@ore3la)# and "se/#. ".e/# is generall) taken to re@er to an a6t that is de@ined in terms o@ male orgasm- 4hile the se/ual
a6ti8ities during 4hi6h man) 4omen ha8e their orgasms are relegated to se6ondar) status- re@erred to b) terms like "@ore3la)#. These terms- then- 6an be seen as
based in a male 3ers3e6ti8e on se/. A5t is 4orth noting that the "male 3ers3e6ti8e# 6laim need not rest on the Aim3lausibleC idea that this 3ers3e6ti8e is
shared b) all men. ?ather- it 6an rest on 6laims about 4hat is t)3i6al @or men- or on the 6laim that the onl) 3ers3e6ti8e @rom 4hi6h 6ertain
understandings make sense is a male one.C 9s a result- these terms ma) ser8e as a barrier to a66urate 6ommuni6ation or e8en thought about 4omenFs
e/3erien6es o@ se/. ADameron 120'- Moulton 1201b- .3ender 120'C. Datharine Ma6Kinnon and .all) Haslanger also dis6uss legal de@initions o@
"ra3e# as Aamong other thingsC in8ol8ing more than "the normal le8el o@ @or6e#- an understanding that seems 6ommitted to
the idea that some le8el o@ @or6e is a66e3table in se/ual relations AHaslanger 122'; 102H Ma6Kinnon 1202; 1+C. Languages ma)
also la6k 4ords @or things that matter a great deal to 4omen. This sort o@ ga3 is another 4a) that a language 6an be seen as en6oding a male
4orld8ie4. The term "se/ual harassment#- @or e/am3le- is a re6ent @eminist inno8ation. WomenFs dis6ussion o@ their e/3erien6es led them to
see a 6ertain 6ommon element to man) o@ their 3roblems- and as a result the) in8ented the term "se/ual harassment#. En6e the 3roblem 4as named- it
be6ame mu6h easier to @ight se/ual harassment- both legall) and b) edu6ating 3eo3le about it ABarle) 12+0H .3ender 120'C.
Miranda Bri6ker A200+C 6alls ga3s su6h as that be@ore the in8ention o@ the term "se/ual harassment# a @orm o@ hermeneuti6al inGusti6e. ?oughl) s3eaking- this is
4hat o66urs 4hen %some signi@i6ant area o@ oneFs so6ial e/3erien6e LisM obs6ured @rom 6olle6ti8e understanding o4ing to& A1''C a ga3 in 6ommunal
linguisti6/6on6e3tual resour6es that is more damaging those @rom a so6iall) disad8antaged grou3 Ato 4hi6h one belongsC. 5n her :3istemi6 5nGusti6e- Bri6ker
6onne6ts this u3 4ith issues in both ethi6s and e3istemolog)- es3e6iall) e3istemolog) o@ testimon).
$2

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