(Gasdynamics)

1903
(Wilbur Wright (1867-1912) Orville Wright(1871-1948))

150m/

900km
250m/ -50 C
300m 0.83

1.1
1.1.1

p
(compressibility)

1 dv
v dp

(1.1)

v 1

(1.1) v

(1.1)
=

1 d
dp

(1.2)

1.1.2

Isaac Newton (1642-1727) 1687

Principia

.
,

Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827) 1

a p
!" #
p
a=
s

(1.3)

s
a
$
p %
a = = RT

(1.4)

((4.16) ). Cv Cp
R T
(1.4)
1

p v v v/v = v1

dv
p
dp

(1.1)


2 (1.2) (1.3)
a
$
1
(1.5)
a=

, 0 a

(Mach number) M u
a

M=

u
a

(1.6)

(1.5) M

1.1.3

/0 1.05 M = 032
M = 032

[1] (subsonicflow), (0 < M < 1).

M M # 1

[2] (transonic3 flow), (M 1).

a = 331.2 + 0.61t t
s transonic Theodore von
K
arm
an (1881-1963)
3 transsonic

[3] (supersonicflow), (M > 1) M >

1

[4] (hypersonicflow), (M % 1)

[2][3][4]

1.2
1.2.1

44 1947 10
14 (Mojave Desert)
XS-1 50
(Captain Charles Yeager) B29
Bell XS-1
2.7 XLR-11 12,900
M = 106 NACA(Natinal Advisory

Commitee for Aeronautics) 23

0.85

1.2.2

1 mm

G. F. B. Riemann 1858

 1.1: Bell XS-1

William

John Macquorn Rankine (1820-1872) 1870 Philosophical

Transaction of the Royal Socirty

1.2: W. J. M. Rankine P. H. Hugoniot

Pierre Henry Hugoniot (1851-1887)

1887 Journal de IEcole Polytechnique

-

Lord Rayleigh (1842-1919)

(Proceedings of the Royal Society,vol.84,1910)) 20
G. I. Taylor (1886-1975)
1 Proceedings of the Royal Society

Ernst Mach (1838-1916)

1887

1.3: Ernst Mach

Carl G. P. de Laval (1845-1915)

) 1888 ,
(convergent-divergent nozzle)

. -
1.4Aurel

Stodala (1857-1942) 1903

1.4: .
). ).
L
. 4.8 .

1.2.3

()

, 60-70km
1905
Ludwig Prandtl (1875-1953) 1.5


1.5
Theodor Meyer 1908

1910

30 2

1.5: -

1.2.4

1889 100
Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel

(1832-1923)

 1.6: Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel

1.2.5

560km

200km

British Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 1909

G. H. Bryan 1918-19

1927 Hermann

Glauert (M < 1)

( Cp Cp0 )

Cp0
Cp = %
2
1 M

(1.7)

Prandtl Glauert rule

BACA 1915

10

 NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics)

1918 Frank Caldwell
Elisha Fales 350 (
1.7

Mc ,
( Mc < M < 1

1.7:
/
, -

(1.7) ,

, , ,
,
,
, ,
,

11


John D. Anderson, JR. A History of Aerodynamics, Cambridge University Press (1997).

John D. Anderson, JR. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics, McGrawHill (1991).

DVD video 1: Air Base

Series 13, () (1998).

1-1 t C , a a = 331.2 + 0.61t

m/sec
1.4, R 287(J/KgK)

1-2 pv = RT ,

( p
= ) ( p
)T (p
)s
p
( p
)T /( )s =

= 1.4 ,
&
1
= 57 & 0.845 & 56

1-3 20 T
(pv = ) S .

12

2.1

p
T e, h
s
p V T
(Boyle Charles)

pV = () T

(2.1)

(Avogadro) (
)

(2.1)

pV = RT

(2.2)

((2.14) ) R (universal gas con-

stant) , R = 8314(J/(mol K)) (2.1) n

pV = nRT,

(2.3)

, m
1 mol m
1g1/m

13

 V v ,

pv =
R(

R
m
)

R
T = RT
m

(2.4)

(m
29) R 287(J/(kg K))

(Van der
Waals)

(p +

a
)(V b) = RT
V2

(2.5)

, a b
(2.3) , NA (Avogadro) k

38 1023 (JK) (Boltzmann)

pV

=
=

R
)T
NA
nNA kT

R
NA

=1

nNA (

(2.6)

(2.4) 1g

NA
kT
m

pv =

(2.7)

(2.4) (2.7) k

k=

Rm

NA

(2.8)

m m
= mNA

k = mR

(2.9)

2
, 1
1
V p e
T p = p(T ) e = e(T )

(homoentropic)
,
s T

14

 = (p) T = T (p)

= (p)

(2.10)

(barotropic)

2.2

0
2 3
3
1
E
E =
E W Q

E = W + Q

(2.11)

S
dS 0.

(2.12)

dQ
dS T

dS =

dQ
T

2 2.8 .
3
S T 0 0

15

(2.13)

2.3

(ideal gas)

pv = T -

1
(2.4)

pv = RT =

R
T
m

(2.14)

R R R , m

e ( 2.2(b) )

e = e(T ).

(2.15)

, e T (calorically perfect)

2.4

(specific heat)

cx = (

dq
)x
dT

(2.16)

x q
x v
x v

cv = (

dq
)v
dT

(2.17)

p x p

cp = (

dq
)p
dT

(2.18)

(2.29) (2.31) cv cp

T cv cp
e h2.5 T
.

cp
cv

(2.19)

n
= 1+

2
n

(perfect gas)

16

 n = 3 = 53 2
n = 5 =

7
5

p dv
pdv de 1
(2.11)
de = dq pdv
v T de =
e
T

(2.20)
e
v dv +

dT (dv = 0)
de = dq =

e(v T )
dT
T

cv = (

e
dq
e
)v =
=(
)v
dT
T
T

(2.21)

e v
de
e
=
(
)p +
dT
v T
T
(2.20)

dq
de
dv
= ( )p p( )p
dT
dT
dT
dv
v
( dT
)p ( T
)p

cp

v
dq
de
)p =
+ p(
)p
dT
dT
T
e
v
e
+(
+ p)(
)p
T
v
T

= (
=

(2.22)

2.5

(enthalpy)

h = e + pv

(2.23)

dh = de + pdv + vdp 1

dh = dq + vdp
2

(heat function)

17

(2.24)

h = h(T p)

dh =

h
h
dT +
dp
T
p

(dp = 0)

dq = dh =

h(T p)
dT
T

cp =

h
T

(2.25)

p = p(v T ) (dv = 0)

h
h p
dh
dq
dp
=
+
(
)v = ( )v + v( )v
dT
T
p T
dT
dT
dp
p
( dT
)v ( T
)v

cv = (

p
h
p
dq
dh
h
)v =
v(
)v =
+(
v)(
)v
dT
dT
T
T
p
T

(2.26)

.
(2.15) e = e(T ) h
(2.23)

h = e(T ) + pv
= e(T ) + RT,

(2.27)

h = h(T )
e
3 e T
=

(2.28)
de
dT

e
v
= 0

cv cp (2.21) (2.22) ,

cv =

cp = cv + p(

de
dT

(2.29)

v
)p = cv + R
T

h
h T
=

(2.30)
dh
h
dT p

= 0

(2.25) (2.26)
cp =
3 (2.27)

dh
dT

18

(2.31)

cv = cp v(

p
)v = cp R
T

(2.32)

(2.30) (2.32)

cp (T ) cv (T ) = R

(2.33)

(Carnot)
(2.19) (2.33)

cp (T ) =
.

R
,
1

cv (T ) =

R
1

(2.29) (2.31)
'
e(T ) = cv (T )dT
h(T ) =

'

cp (T )dT

(2.34)

(2.35)

(2.36)

(2.19) (2.29) (2.31)

dh
de

(2.37)

(2.29) (2.31)
cv cp e h (2.35) (2.36)

e = cv T

(2.38)

h = cp T

(2.39)

4 T 0
e 0 (2.27) h 0

10m3
20 400 K
.

1 1.01 105 N/m

=

20 1.01 105
p
3
=
= 17.60Kg/m .
RT
287 400

(polytropic gas)

19

M = 10 17.60 = 176.0Kg.
(2.34)
cp =

1.4 287
R
=
= 1004.5J/(Kg K).
1
1.4 1

M h = M cp T = 176.0 1004.5 400 = 7.07 107 J

.

2.6

dq = 0

(2.20) dq = 0

de = pdv
e = e(v T ) de =

e
v dv

(2.40)
+

e
T

dT (2.40)

e
e dT
de
=
+
= p
dv
v T dv
(2.21)

e
dT
+ cv
= p
v
dv

1 e
dT
= (
+ p)
dv
cv v

(2.41)

(2.24) dq = 0

dh = vdp
h = h(pT ) dh =

h
p dp

(2.42)
+

h
T dT

h
h dT
dh
=
+
=v
dp
p T dp
(2.25)

h
dT
+ cp
= v,
p
dp
20

(2.42)

1 h
dT
= (
v)
dp
cp p

(2.43)

(2.40) (2.42)

p dv
de
=
dh
v dp

(2.44)

p dh
dp
=
dv
v de

(2.45)

(2.37)

v dp
=
p dv

(2.46)

(2.15) e T ,
,

e
v

= 0 (2.41)
p
dT
=
dv
cv

pv = RT p

R
v dT
=
T dv
cv
(2.33) R

cp cv
v dT
=
T dv
cv
= + 1

(2.47)

(2.43) (2.28) h T ,
,

h
p

= 0
v
dT
=
dp
cp

pv = RT v (2.33) R

1
p dT
=
T dp

21

(2.48)

(2.47)
ln v =

'

1 dT
1 T

(2.38) (2.39) cv cp

1

v T 1

(2.49)

(2.48)

p T 1

(2.50)

5
(isentropic)
. (2.49) (2.50)

(2.51)

( 1-2 ). (2.51) (Poisson)

.
(1) 10m3 ,

20 400K 2 (2)
.
M

M = (1) V(1) = (2) V(2) .

v

=
V(2) = 2V(1) v(1)
(2)

(2)
(1)
2

= 12 .

1 101 105 N/m (1)

v(1) =

RT(1)
287 400
=
= 0.0568 m3 /kg.
p(1)
20 101 105

v(2) = 2v(1) = 0.1136 m3 /kg.

M=

V(1)
10
= 176.0Kg.
=
v(1)
0.0568

5 , .
.

22

(2.51)
p(1) v(1) = p(2) v(2) .

p(2) = p(1) (

v(1)
) = 20 (0.5)1.4 = 7.58 .
v(2)

(2.38) (2.40)

w=

'

(2)

pdv =

(1)

'

(2)

(1)

cv dT = cv (T(2) T(1) ) =

1
(p(2) v(2) p(1) v(2) )

W = M w = 176.0

1.01 10 5
(7.58 0.1136 20 0.0568) = 1.22 107 N m
1.4 1

. 1.22 107 N m .
(2) T(2) (2.49)

T(2) = T(1) (

v(1) 1
)
= 400 0.50 .4 = 303.1K
v(2)

. (2)

p(2) v(2)
v(1) RT(1)
v(1)
1
= p(1) (
) 2

= 2R
=R
1
T(2)
v(2)
p(1) T(1) (v(1) /v(2) )
v(2)
.

2.7

(entropy)

1 (v pT e )

( + dv + dv p + dpT + dT e + de )

dq

e = e(v s)
s

"

e
v

= p

"

e
s

=T

de =

"

e
v

dv +
23

"

e
s

ds

(2.52)

= pdv + T ds

(2.53)

1 (2.20)

T ds = dq

(2.54)

(A) (B) sB sA

'

sB sA =

(B)

(A)

dq
T

(2.55)

(A) (B)
6 (O) (O) (A)

sA =

'

(A)

(0)

dq
T

(2.56)

(A)

ds (2.53)

ds =

p
de
+ dv,
T
T

(2.57)

(2.23) dh = de + pdv + vdp

ds =

v
dh
dp
T
T

(2.58)

(2.31) dh = cp dT pv = RT (2.58)

ds = cp

dp
dT
R
T
p

(2.59)

s2 s1 =

'

T2

cp

T1

p2
dT
R ln
T
p1

(2.60)

s2 s1 = cp ln

T2
p2
R ln
T1
p1

(2.61)

(2.29) de = cv dT pv = RT (2.57)

ds = cv
6

dv
dT
+R
T
v

(2.62)

dq = 0 SB = SA

24

s2 s1 = cv ln

T2
v2
+ R ln
T1
v1

(2.63)

(2.61) pv = RT (2.63)

(1)10m3 20 400K
(2)10m3 800K

1 1013 105 N/m2 (1)

(1) =

p(1)
20 101 105
= 1760 kg/m3
=
RT(1)
287 400

M = 10 17.60 = 176.0 kg

p(2)
T(2)
800
=2
=
=
p(1)
T(1)
400
(2.61)

s2 s1 = cp ln 2 R ln 2 = 4973 J/(kg K)
(2.63) s2 s1 = cv ln 2 + R ln 1 = cv ln 2

cp cv = R . (2.19)(2.33)
cv =

287
R
=
= 7175 J/(kg K)
1
14 1

cp = cv + R = 7175 + 287 = 10045 J/(kg K)

25

S2 S1

M (s2 s1 )

176.0 4973

=
=

0.8752 105 J/K

2.8

ds
dq/T dq
q
(
) dq = q + () .
dq q

ds

q
T

(2.64)

q = 0

ds 0

(2.65)

(2.64) (2.65) 2

((2.12), (2.13) ) ,

(), (1963).
H. W. Liepmann & A. Roshko, Elements of Gasdynamics, John Wiley & Sons (1957).
C. J. Chapman, High Speed Flow, Cambridge Texts in Applied
Mathematics, Cambridge University Press (2000).
26

2-1 V1 V2
T M
p1 p2 t = 0

A B
SB SA

SB SA = M R ln

(p1 + p2 )2
4p1 p2

2-2 (a) pv T s
e = e(sv)

e
s ( v )

e
v ( s )

p
T
)v = (
)s
s
v

(1)

hHelmholtz
f e T sGibbs g e + pv T s

v
T
)p = (
)s
s
p

(2)

s
p
)T = (
)v
v
T
s
v
)p
( )T = (
p
T

(3)

(
(

(4)

(1)(4) Maxwell
e
(b) e = e(v T ) s = s(v T ) ( v
)T = 0
e = e(T )
Maxwell (3)

h = h(pT ) s = s(pT ) h = h(T )

27

2-3 (a) x cx

pv =

cx cp
cx cv

p v cp cv

(b) p(z) z
pg
dp
=
dz
RT

(1)

g R
T (z)
(1)
100m

2-4 p V1 T1 V2 T2 -= T1

M
V1 + V2 TB

2-5 cv R

(a) A vA TA B vB TB

" #
" #
TB
vB
sB sA = cv ln
+ R ln
TA
vA

(1)

(b) A vA pA B
vB pB vB > vA

pA
vB
=
pB
vA
(1)
sB sA A B

28

2-6
exp(

s s0
p v
) = ( )
cv
p0 v0

p v cv
cp ( cp /cv ) 0

29

3.1

3.1 S V
.

S u
n .

y
S

n
u

S
V
z

3.1: S V

3.1.1

V S
, n

30


'
'

dV = u ndS
t V
S

'
'

dV =
(u)dV
t V
V

(3.1)

(3.2)

+ (u) = 0
t

(3.3)

+u
Dt
t

(3.4)

D
+ u = 0
Dt

(3.5)

(3.3)

D/Dt = 0

u = 0

(3.6)

1 .

3.1.2

V
'
'
'
'

udV = u(u n)dS +

f dV +
ndS
t V
S
V
S

(3.7)

f S
(3.7) 3.3

ij
(ui ) +
(ui uj ) =
+ fi
t
xj
xj

(3.8)

ij
fi
1 (3.3)
(3.6)

31

3.1.3

V
'
'

1 2
1
u )dV = (e + u2 )u ndS
(e +
t V
2
2
S
'
'
'
+
u f dV +
u ndS
q ndS
V

(3.9)

e q

u n = ui ij nj

(3.9) 3.3

(e + u2 ) +
t
2
=

1
((e + u2 )u)
2
u f + (u ) q

(3.10)

3.1.4

, (3.1)
'
'
d
dV = u dS
dt V
S
(3.3)
(3.8) (3.10) .
1

(Jump Condition)
()

3.1.5

(3.3)

+ u + u = 0
t

(3.11)

(3.8) (3.8)

32

 (3.11) u

u
+ u u) = + f
t

(3.12)

(3.12) .
(3.10) (3.12) u

(3.3) e + 12 u2
(

e
+ u e) = u q
t

(3.13)

u = ij ui /xj = ij /xj (3.13)

.

. (3.13)
(3.39)
.

3.2

(Constitutive relations)

(3.11)

(3.12) (3.13)
(3.12)
2 u u

, q, f

3.2.1

1
1
1
pm = ii = (11 + 22 + 33 ) = tr
3
3
3

(3.14)

tr
3
. (3.14)
2

3
= Aij tr

.
12 (Aii Ajj Aij Aij )
det = |Aij | .

33


.
pe
pm
pm pe ui /xj

pm = pe u

(3.15)

. 0

3.2.2

ij + pm ij ui /xj

ij = pm ij + (

ui
uj
2
+
) ( u)ij
xj
xi
3

(3.16)

ij i = j
1, i -= j 0.
| u|

ui
xj , (i, j

= 1, 2, 3) (3.15)

(3.16) ( 23 )( u)ij

3.2.3

T q

q = kT

(3.17)

3.2.4

(3.15), (3.16), (3.17)

.
.
(pe , , , k, T ) .
(3.11), (3.12), (3.13) u
, pm , , q, f pm (3.15) (3.16)
q (3.17) f

34

3.3

k
, (3.12) (3.13)
.

3.3.1

v
(3.11)

v
+ u v v u = 0
t

(3.18)

(3.34)

3.3.2

:- (Navier-Stokes)

(3.16) 2 ui /xj + uj /xi

ij . e

eij =

1 ui
uj
(
+
)
2 xj
xi

(3.19)

eij = eji eii (= tr e) u

eij tr e
(deviatric part)

1
eij = eij ( u)ij
3

(3.20)

. eii = 0 .
ij ij tr

ij (3.14) pm = 13 ii
ij

ij = ij + pm ij

(3.21)

ii = 0 .

(3.16) (3.20) (3.21)

ij = 2
eij

(3.22)

ij = pm ij + 2
eij

(3.23)

(3.21)

4 1973.

35

 (3.15)

ij = pe ij + 2
eij + ( u)ij

(3.24)

= pe + (2
e) + ( u)

(3.25)

(3.25) (3.12)

u
+ u u) = pe + (2
e) + ( u) + f
t

(3.26)

. (3.15)
(3.26) - (Navier-Stokes)

(3.26) (3.20)
(

u
2
+ u u) = pe + (2e + ( )( u)ij ) + f
t
3

(3.27)

. (3.26)

=u

(3.28)

1
( u2 ) = u u + u ( u)
2

(3.29)

1
2
u
1
1
u = pe ( u2 ) + (2e + ( )( u)ij ) + f
t

3
(3.30)
(3.27) (3.30) ( 23 )( u)i,j
.

3.3.3

(3.18) (3.26)
ui
ij x
i j
j

ij

ui
uj
= ji
xj
xi

ij ij = ji
ij

ui
uj
= ij
xj
xi
36

ij

ui
uj
ui
+ ij
= 2ij
xj
xi
xj

(3.19) 2ij eij

ij

ui
= ij eij
xj

(3.31)

(3.31) (3.20) (3.21)

ij

ui
= pm u +
ij eij
xj

ii =
eii =0ij ij =3 (3.15) (3.22)

ij

ui
= pe u + 2
eij eij + ( u)2
xj

(3.32)

(3.13) (3.32) (3.17)

e
+ u e) = pe u + 2
e2 + ( u)2 + (kT )
t

(3.33)

Dv
(3.18) u = v 1 Dv
Dt = Dt (3.33)

Dv
De
+ pe
) = 2
e2 + ( u)2 + (kT )
Dt
Dt

(3.34)

s T ds = de+pe dv
2.53

Ds
= 2
e2 + ( u)2 + (kT )
Dt

(3.35)

(3.35) T

Ds

T 2
kT
2 2
+ ( u)2 + k(
e
=
) +(
)
Dt
T
T
T
T

(3.36)

(
) (k)
5

5 (3.36)

Ds
dV =
Dt

2 2
+ ( )2 + k
T
T

T
T

dV > 0

. (3.36)
. .

37

T =0

3.4

Euler

(3.15) pm = pe
p (3.11), (3.26), (3.35)

+ u + u = 0
t
(

u
+ u u) + p = f
t
s
+ u s = 0
t

(3.37)

(3.38)

(3.39)

(Euler)
(3.39)
.
(isentropic)
(homoentropic) .
2

(3.38) u u p .

l0 u0 l0 u0 )
0 v0
p

u20
p

l0
0 l 0

(3.40)

p
p 0 u20 p
( )s

4 (4.9)

p
a20

(3.41)

(a0 ) p

u2
20 = M02
0
a0

(3.42)

1
v
v0 + v = 0 +
v
v0 0 , (3.42) v0 M0 2
M02 # 1

38

M02 1

(3.37) (3.38)

+ 0 u 0
t
0

(3.43)

u
+ p 0
t

(3.44)

2
2 p
t2
,

p=
xi
2

"

p
xi

=
xi

"

p
xi

= a20

xi

"
#
2
2
a0
a20 2
xi
xi

2
a20 2
t2

(3.45)

2p
a20 2 p
t2

(3.46)

, p
a0

G.K.Batchelor, An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press(1967).

, () 14, (1973).
39

 C.J.Chapman,High Speed Flow,Cambride Texts in Applied Mathematics,Cambridge University Press(2000).

3-1 ij , (3.24),
ij = (pe + ekk )ij + 2
eij ,

2
()2 .

3-2
u = H T s
f

f =
H head
1
H = h + |u|2 +
2

H
(x) = const

u = T

ds

s = const

2 ( u(xy) v(xy) 0 ) (00

)
(00
) =

0 u

T ds
(u )
|u|2 d

= (
y

0)

T ds
0 d

40

3-3 (a) . f =
.
(b) (head)H H = h + 12 u2 + .
H . h u
.
3-4 (a) , ,

(b) 0 a0
x t = 0 x = l x = +l
1 (|1 0 | # 1) t > 0 x = 12 l

x = 32 l t = 0

41

1
(3.37), (3.38)

+ (u) = 0
t
(

u
+ u u) = p
t

(4.1)

(4.2)

(3.39)
2

u v
w

+u
+v
+w
+ (
+
+
)=0
t
x
y
z
x y
z

(4.3)

Du
u
u
u
u
1 p
=
+u
+v
+w
=
Dt
t
x
y
z
x

(4.4)

v
v
v
v
1 p
Dv
=
+u
+v
+w
=
Dt
t
x
y
z
y

(4.5)

Dw
w
w
w
w
1 p
=
+u
+v
+w
=
Dt
t
x
y
z
z

(4.6)

4.1

42

4.1.1

u=0

p = p0

= 0

u1 , p1 , 1 (|u1 | # 1, p1 /p0 #

1, 1 /0 # 1)
u = u1

p = p0 + p1

= 0 + 1

(2.51)

(p0 + p1 )(0 + 1 ) = p0
0

(1 +

p1
1
p1
1
)(1 + ) & (1 + )(1
+ ) = 1
p0
0
p0
0

p1 /p0 1 /0

p1
1
=
p0
0

$
p0
a0
0

(4.7)

(4.8)

! (4.7)

p1 = a20 1

(4.9)

(4.1) (4.2)

(0 + 1 ) + ((0 + 1 )u1 ) = 0
t
(0 + 1 )(

u1
+ u1 u1 ) = (p0 + p1 )
t

1
+ 0 u1 = 0
t
0

u1
= p1
t
43

(4.10)

(4.11)

(4.10) t

2 1
u1
)=0
+ 0 (
t2
t
(4.11)
0 (

u1
) + 2 p1 = 0
t

u1

2 1
= 2 p1
t2
(4.9) p1
2 1
= a20 2 1
(4.12)
t2
(4.12) 1
2 1
2 1
= a20
2
t
x2
()
1 = f (x a0 t) + g(x + a0 t)

(4.13)

(4.14)

1 t = 0 f (x) + g(x)

(non-dispersive) a0 a0
(4.8) a0
%
(p/)|p=p0 ,=0

(2.51)

!
p
a = ( )s

(2.4)
p
a2 =
= RT

(4.15)

(4.16)

, T

4.1.2

u
a
(M = 1)
M

M >1
<1

: (supersonic)
: (subsonic)

44

(4.17)

4.2

4.2.1

(/t 0) 1 . (4.3) (4.6) ,

y z v, w , x u,
, p x . ,

du
d
+
=0
dx
dx

(4.18)

1 dp
du
=
dx
dx

(4.19)

. , d/dx -= 0, (4.18) ,

u = . (4.18)
d
(u) = 0
dx

, x

q = u

(4.20)

2 . u = q/ (4.19) ,

q d q
q
q d
1 q d
1 dp
( ) = ( 2 )
= ( )2
=
dx
dx
dx
dx
, (14 )

= (p)
,

dp
dx

dp d
d dx

(4.21)

q
dp
( )2 =

d
. u2 , (4.15) a2 ,

u=a

(4.22)

. u x , a
.
2 , (u) (u = )
, .

45

4.2.2

,
x ,
.
, 4.1
(x, y, z) F (x)

4.1:
(x ) y, z

v, w x u .
y, z ,
1 .
,
, , . , ,
( (throat) )
U , , R .
( x )+
x L = R /+

1
1

=
=+
,
x
L X
R X

1
=
,
y
R Y

1
=
z
R Z

, y, z R

, R x L

. , (X, Y, Z)

, Z
.
1 , ,

X , Y

u = U (u(0) (X) + +u(1) (X, Y, Z) + +2 u(2) (X, Y, Z) + )

v = U (+v(1) (X, Y, Z) + +2 v(2) (X, Y, Z) + )
w = U (+w(1) (X, Y, Z) + +2 w(2) (X, Y, Z) + )
46

 = ((0) (X) + +(1) (X, Y, Z) + +2 (2) (X, Y, Z) + )

p = U2 (p(0) (X) + +p(1) (X, Y, zZ) + +2 p(2) (X, Y, Z) + )
(4.3)(4.6) + 1 +

u(0)

(0)
v(1)
w(1)
u(0)
+ (0) (
+
+
)=0
X
X
Y
Z
u(0)

u(0)
1 p(0)
=
X
(0) X
0=

1 p(1)
(0) Y

0=

1 p(1)
(0) Z

u v w

+ (
+
+
)=0
x
x y
z

(4.23)

1 p
u
=
x
x

(4.24)

1
(4.18), (4.19) (4.24)
(4.23) (4.18)

v
y

w
z

4.2.3

1 (4.23), (4.24) F (x)

.
x u(x) (x) F (x)
. 4.21)

(4.23) x x + /x /V =

F /x u x
' ' '

u dV = u F /x
x
x
&V
47

. 2 /V
x + /x F (x + /x), u(x + /x)
F (x) +

'''

&V

F
x /x,

u(x) +

u v w
+
+
) dV
(
x y
z

u
x /x

''

u n dS &

= {(u +
=

(' '

F (x+&x)

u n dS +

F
u
/x)(F +
/x) uF }
x
x

(uF )/x
x

. /V u n
.

F + (uF ) = 0
x
x

(uF ) = 0
x

(4.25)

(4.25),(4.24) y z
x

d
(uF ) = 0
dx

du 1 dp
+
=0
dx dx

. (4.21) x

uF = Q
u2
+
2

'

dp
=B
(p)

(4.26)
(4.27)

F (x) Q

B . (4.27) (Bernoulli)
3

4.2.4

(4.27)
udu +
3

dp
=0

1 2
u + p =
2

48

''

F (x)

u n dS

 (4.21) (4.15)

dp
1 dp
1
=
d = a2 d

u
d
= 2 du

a
4

(4.28)

(4.26)

d du dF
+
+
=0

u
F

u
du dF
+
=0
du +
2
a
u
F

1 dF
u
1 du
=
)
a2
u dx
F dx

1 u 2
1 dF
du
(( ) 1)
=
u a
dx
F dx
u
dF
du
=
dx
(M 2 1)F dx

(4.29)

1) M = 0 :
M = 0 (4.29)
1 dF
1 du
=
u dx
F dx
. () ()

ln u = ln F +

uF =

2) 0 < M < 1 :
u F
4M 2

= d
/ du
| d
| # | du
| M 2 # 1 | d
|=0

M = 0

49

d >0
dx

d <0
dx

u<a
M<1

du
=0
dx

M<1

4.2: 0 < M < 1

dF >
dx < 0

du <
dx > 0

. 1) () ()
( dF
dx = 0)
4.2 .

3) M > 1 :
M 2 1

dF >
dx < 0

du >
dx < 0

. 1), 2)
.
.
. (4.28)

(4.29)

= M 2 du
u

M 2 1 1 d
1 dF
=

F dx
M 2 dx

4.3 .

50

d <0
dx

d >0
dx

M>1
du <0
dx

u>a
M>1
du
=0
dx

M>1
du
>0
dx

4.3: M > 1

4) M = 1 :
(4.29)

du
dx

dF
=0
dx
. u = a
.
M = 1
4.2 4.3 ( dF
dx = 0)

( du
dx = 0)

(M = 1)
4.4
Laval

51

u
a

x
d >0
dx

d <0
dx

u=a
M=1

M<1

M>1

4.4: M = 1

4.3

2 .

4.3.1

(2.51) p p = A A (4.27)
'
'
dp
u2
p
u2
+
=
+ ( )1/ dp
2
(p)
2
A
1
u2
p 1
+ 1
=
( ) +1 A
2
+ 1 A
=
=

1
A
u2
+
( )
2
1
A 1
u2
+

=B
2
1

p
u2
+
=B
2
1

(4.30)

a2
u2
+
=B
2
1

(4.31)

(4.16)

52

 (2.4) , (2.19) (2.33)

p 1
cv
1
= cv T = cp T = cp T
1
cp

(4.30)

u2
+ cp T = B
2

(4.32)

h T (2.39) (4.32)

1 2
u +h=B
2

(4.33)

1
. u = 0
T = T0 . T0
. (4.32)

u2
+ cp T = cp T 0
2

(4.34)

T0
T

= 1+

u2
2cp T

= 1+

u2 1

2
a2

1 2
T0
=1+
M
T
2

(4.35)

, (2.33) (2.19) (4.16) a2 = cp ( 1)T

, cp T

(4.35) a2 T
1 2 1
a0
= (1 +
M )2
a
2

(4.36)

(2.49) T 1/(1)
1
1 2 1
0
= (1 +
M )

(4.37)

(2.50) p T /(1)

1 2 1
p0
= (1 +
M )
p
2

53

(4.38)

 0 , T0
.
1 2

1+
p2
=(
p1
1+

1
2

2 M1 1
)
1
2
M
2
2

(4.39)

1+
2
=(
1
1+

1
2
1
2 M1 1
)
1
2
M
2
2

(4.40)

1
2
2 M1
)
1
2
2 M2

(4.41)

1
2
2 M1 12
)
1
2
2 M2

(4.42)

1+
T2
=(
T1
1+
1+
a2
=(
a1
1+

2 , ,
2 .
,
,

4.3.2

2
, (4.39) (4.42) , 2
, F (x) , x1
M1 x2 M2
. , (4.26) 1 M1 a1 F1 = 2 M2 a2 F2
F2 /F1

F2
1 M 1 a1
=
F1
2 M 2 a2
. (4.40) (4.42)

F2
F1

1
2
1
M1
2 M2 1
)

1
M2
1 + 2 M12
1
2
+1
M1 1 + 2 M2 2(1)
(
)
2
M2 1 + 1
M
1
2

= (
=

1+

54

1+
1+

1
2
2 M2 12
)
1
2
2 M1

(4.44)

,
.

. , .

M = 1 x2 2 , (4.44)
+1
(
) 2(1)
1
F
1 1 + 2 M2
=
+1
F
M
2

1
F
=
F
M

"

+# +1
*
2
1 2 2(1)
M
1+
+1
2

(4.45)

- (Area-Mach number relation

x M F (x ) x

F (x) F (x)/F (x )

M
1

F/F *

4.5: F/F M

(4.45) 4.5 F/F > 1

M M > 1 M < 1 M

u = a (4.31)

a2
u2
a2
1+1 2
u2
+
= +
=
a
2
1
2
1
21

(u0 = 0, a = a0 (4.46)

(4.46)
a20
1

a2 T
T
a
2
=
( )2 =
a0
+1
T0

55

1 +1 2
2 1 a

(4.47)

 = 7/5 (4.47) T /T0 = 0.833

2 /(1)
, p T /(1) p /p0 = ( +1
)
= 0.528, , T 1/(1)

2 1/(1)
= ( +1
)
= 0.634 p /p0 == 0.528
.

4.3.3

M ( )

u/a
a M

.
5 5 ). M
(4.46) u2
1 + 1 a2
1 a2 /u2
+
=
2
1
2 1 u2

1+1 1
1 1/M 2
+
=
2
2
1
21M

+1
(=6; = 7 )
5
-1

2
(=5)
-1

M
4.6: M

2
M

+1
1 + 2/M 2

2(+1)

+1
1

1 ( 1)M 2 + 2
56

(4.48)

M2 =

2
( 1) +

(4.49)

+1
2
M

4.6

M < 1
>
=1

<1
M
>1
&

(4.50)

=1
+1
1

.
M M

() p0 = 10atm T0 = 300K
F

6F x1 x2

= 1.4

F=6F*

F=6F*
p0=10atm

F*

T0=300K

x1

x2

(4.45) F/F = 6 M
().
+1
1 2 - 2(1)
F
1 , 2
(1 +
M )
=
F
M +1
2

57

3.368

1
0.097
1

F/F *

x1 :
M1 = 0.097 (4.35)
To
T1

=1+

1
2
2 M1

= 1.002 T1 = 299.4K

(4.38)
-
,
po
1
2 1
=
1
+
M
= 1.006 p1 = 9.94 atm
1
p1
2

a1 =

RT1 = 346.8 m/s

u1 = M1 a1 = 33.6 m/s
R = 287 J/(kgK)

x2 ;
M2 = 3.368 pp02 = 63.13 TT02 = 3.269
p2 = 0.1584 atm, T2 = 91.77 K, a2 = 192.0 m/s, u2 = 646.7 m/s

58

4.4

. .

4.4.1

(choked flow)

M
p

p0

u 0 =0

4.7:
(u0 = 0) p0
pA pE
pA pA p0
pA /p0

4.8, MT 1
pA /p0 , 4.2.4
, M = 1 ,
M = 1

MT 1 . M = 1
choked flow

pA /p0 1
1
, 4.8(

E uE FE T uT FT
. MT = 1&
(4.36) (4.37)
2
2 1
aT , T aT =
0 ,
+1 a0 , T = ( +1 )

T uT FT a0 0
MT = 1 pT

2
(4.38) M = 1 pT = ( +1
) 1 p0 = 0.528p0

59

 E uE FE

T uT FT

pA /p0

pA /p0

MT
1

4.8:
.
M < 1 M > 1
.
. -
(Laval) ( 4.9 )

4.4.2

pA p0

4.10ad x
M = 1

4.3 (4.38)

[1]

pA p0 ,

( 4.10a).

60

 4.9: Laval
JAXA

4.10a

[2] pA [1]
1 ( 4.10b).

4.10b

[3] pA M = 1
4.10c). pA pII ( 4.11()

2
ppT0 = ( +1
) 1 = 0.528 .

61

 4.10c

[4] pA M = 1

T uT FT pA p0
M = 1
pA pVI
( 4.11 )
( 4.10d )
pVI M = 1

pA
2 ,

4.10d

62

4.4.3

pA p0

4.11:

I)

pII < pA < p0

pE = pA

II)

pA = pII
pE = pII = pA M = 1
(4.45) .

III)

pIV < pA < pII

pE = pA pA pII
((4.45) )
,
, .
pA
pIV

63

IV)

pA = pIV
pE = pIV = pA

V)

pV I < pA < pIV

pE = pV I < pA 4.12a,b
7 1 -
7 2 pA pV I

VI)

pA = pV I
pE = pV I = pA

4.12a

4.12b

64

VII)

pA < pV I
pE = pV I > pA -
4.12c .

4.12c

H.W.Liepmann & A.Roshko,Elements of Gasdynamics,John Wiley& Sons(1957)

C.J.Chapman,High Speed Flow,Cambride Texts in Applied Mathematics,Cambridge University Press(2000)

4-1 (3.3) (3.10) (2.23)

(4.32)
1 2
u + cp T = cp T 0
2
f q = 0
(3.16) = 0
4-2 M
F
FM
= .
1 +1
(1 + 12 ( 1)M 2 ) 2 1
65


dF
dM

= 0 M F Fm F/Fm

= 7/5 M
4-3 p0 0
pE FE
Q

4-4 (a)
u2
a2
+
=
1
2

uF =
-
+1
2
1 2 2(1)
F
1
(
(1 +
M ))
=
F
M +1
2

a u F
M

(b) L
x F = (1 + (x/L)2 )F
2 x
=

7
5

4-5 0 p0 a0

(a)
(i) u a a/a0 u/a0

(ii)

(b)
(i) u p
1 2
2u

p0
p0
ln p =
ln p0
0
0

66

(1)

u=

p0
2 ln
0

"

p0
p

(ii)
p0 p
#1
p0
(1)
1 2
2u

p
p0
=
0
0

4-6 u(x, t)

(a)
(b) a
a2 =

(c) u(x, t)

d
=
du
a

(d) (c)
u 2
1
= 0 (1 ( 1) ) 1
2
a0
0 a0 u = 0

4-7 -

(a)

(b)

67

4.4

(jump condition)

5.1

^
n
V

- ,u -

+ ,u +

5.1: () ()

u
(3.1)
1
(3.3) 3.1.4
. .
(jump condition)

68

5.1.1

A n
( 5.1 ). A V
n + u+ ,
u . V

n V . +

V
(3.1)
'
'

dV =
u ndS
t V
S

'

dV
t V

= ( + )n V A
= []n V A

[] = + Q
Q+ Q [ Q ]
'
u ndS = {+ (u+ n) (u n)}A
S

[u vecn]A

[]n V = [u n]

[(u V ) n] = 0

(3.7)
'
'
'
'

udV =
u(u n)dS +
f dV +
ndS
t V
S
V
S

t
'

'

udV

u(u n)dS

= ( u + u+ )n V A
= [u](n V )A,

{+ u+ (u+ n) u (u n)}A

[u(u n)]A,
69

(5.1)

'

ij nj dS = [ij ]nj A

. f

f dV

D V = AD D

[u](n V ) + [u(u n)] = [ n]

[u(u V ) n] = [ n]

(5.2)

(3.9)
'
'
'

1
1
(e + u2 )dV =
(e + u2 )u ndS +
u f dV
t V
2
2
S
V

'

u ndS

'

q ndS

1
1
[e + u2 ]n V + [(e + u2 )u n] = [u n] [q n]
2
2

1
[(e + u2 )(u V ) n] = [(u q) n]
2

(5.3)

u n = ui ij nj .

5.1.2

, ij (3.16) p

ij = pij
q = 0.
V = 0 (5.1), (5.2), (5.3)

[u n] = 0

(5.4)

[pn + u(u n)] = 0

(5.5)

70

1
[(p + e + u2 )(u n)] = 0
2

(5.6)

[s] 0

(5.7)

x x < 0 1
x = 0 x > 0 2
u = u n, n u v, w .

v ).
(5.4)
[u] = 0

1 u 1 = 2 u 2

u1 -= 0 u2 -= 0

(5.5)

[p + u2 ] = 0 , [uv] = 0 , [uw] = 0
3 2 3

1 u1 v1 = 2 u2 v2 , 1 u1 w1 = 2 u2 w2
1 u1 = 2 u2 v1 = v2 , w1 = w2 [v] = [w] = 0

(5.6)
[u2 u] = 2 (u22 + v22 + w22 )u2 1 (u21 + v12 + w12 )u1
1 u1 = 2 u2 , v12 = v22 , w12 = w22

[u2 u] = [(u2 )u]

(2.23) h = e + p/
(5.6) [(h + 12 u2 )u] = 0 [u] = 0

[h + 12 u2 ] = 0 1

1h

[u] = 0

(5.8)

[p + u2 ] = 0

(5.9)

+ 12 u2 (4.33)

71

u1

u2

5.2:

1
[h + u2 ] = 0
2

(5.10)

[v] = 0 , [w] = 0

(5.11)

[ ] .
(5.7)

[s] 0

(5.12)

5 (jump condition) (shock)

(shock wave)

5.2

.
5.2
(5.11)
.

5.2.1

(5.8) u m
m = 1 u 1 = 2 u 2

(5.13)

(5.9) v m m2

[p] + m2 [v] = 0

72

(5.14)

 (5.10)

1
[h] + m2 [v 2 ] = 0
2

(5.15)

(5.14)

m2 =

p2 p1
[p]
=
[v]
v2 v1

(5.16)

[h]

=
=

1 p2 p1
(v22 v12 )
2 v2 v1
1
(v2 + v1 )(p2 p1 )
2

(5.17)

v =

v1 + v2
2

(5.18)

(5.17)

[h] = v[p]

(5.19)

5.2.2

-Rankine-Hugoniot

2 p v =

(5.17)

h(p2 , v2 ) h(p1 , v1 ) =

1
(v1 + v2 )(p2 p1 )
2

(5.20)

. -Rankine-Hugoniot
p1 v1
p2 v2

(5.20) v p -RankineHugoniot) ( 5-3)- 2 (p1 , v1 )

(p2 , v2 )

p2 p1
v2 v1

(5.16) m2

m p1 v1

v p (p1 , v1 ) m2 -

p2 , v2

73

p2

p1

v2

v1

5.3: -Rankine-Hugoniot)

5.2.3

(5.20) (p1 , v1 ) (p2 , v2 )

. h h = e + pv (5.20)

e2 e1

=
=
=

1
p1 v1 p2 v2 + (v1 + v2 )(p2 p1 )
2
1
(p1 + p2 )(v1 v2 )
2
p(v1 v2 )

(5.21)

p = 12 (p1 + p2 )
pv = RT , R = cp cv (2.38)

e = cv T =

cv pv
cv pv
pv
=
=
R
cp cv
1

. (5.21)

p2
( + 1)v1 ( 1)v2
=
p1
( + 1)v2 ( 1)v1

(5.22)

-.

5.2.4

a2 = (

p
p dv
p
u2 p
)s = ( )s
= v 2 ( )s = 2 ( )s

v d
v
m v

74

(5.23)

p2

s2 = const

s1 = const

p1

v2

v1

5.4: -s1 = const s2 =

const

M = u/a (5.16)

1
1 p
p
[p]
= 2 ( )s = ( )s /( )
2
M
m v
v
[v]

(5.24)

( p
v )s v p
[p]

[v] (p1 , v1 ) (p2 , v2 )

(p1 , v1 ) (5.24) M1
(p2 , v2 ) (5.24) M2
5-4 -
( p
v )s

1
<1
M12

[p]
[v]

1/M22 > 1

M1 > 1

M2 < 1

(5.25)

5.3

5-4 - 2 (p1 , v1 )
(p2 , v2 )
2
.

75

 1 - (5.20)

h2 h =

1
(v + v2 )(p2 p)
2

(5.26)

2 p s p s

p p2 p

s s2 s

(5.27)

p # 1 , s # 1
(2.24) (2.54)

dh = T ds + vdp

(5.28)

hp

h
2h
v
= v , hpp
vp ,
=
p
p2
p

hs

h
2h
T
= T , hss
Ts ,
=
s
s2
s

. h2 v2 p s h p

h2

=
=

h
1 2h
1 2h
h
2h
s +
p +
sp +
(s)2 +
(p)2 +
2
s
p
2 s
sp
2 p2
1
1
h + T s + vp + Ts (s)2 + Tp sp + vp (p)2 +
2
2

h+

1
1
v2 = v + vs s + vp p + vpp (p)2 + vps ps + vss (s)2 +
2
2
2 (5.26)

1
1
1
T s + vp + Ts (s)2 + Tp sp + vp (p)2 + vpp (p)3 +
2
2
6
=

1
1
1
{(2v) + vs s + vp p + vpp (p)2 + vps ps + vss (s)2 + }p
2
2
2

T s %

1
Ts (s)2 , Tp sp ,
2

vs s % vps sp ,
76

1
vss (s)2 ,
2

1
1
1
T s + vpp (p)3 vs sp + vpp (p)3
6
2
4
T s % 12 vs sp

1 1
T s & ( )vpp (p)3
4 6

s &

1
vpp (p)3
12T

(5.29)

p 3

5.4
5.4.1

(5.8), (5.9), (5.10) [ ] u, p + u2 ,

h + 12 u2 M = u/a (4.17) , pv = RT = (cp cv )T = ( 1)cv T

(2.14) (2.33) , a2 = RT (4.16) , h = cp T = cv T (2.39)

,

u = M a
p + u2 = RT + M 2 a2 = a2 / + M 2 a2
1
1
h + u2 = a2 /( 1) + M 2 a2
2
2
(5.8), (5.9), (5.10)

[M a] = 0

(5.30)

[(1 + M 2 )a2 ] = 0

(5.31)

1
[(1 + ( 1)M 2 )a2 ] = 0
2

(5.32)

77

5.4.2

(5.31) 2 (5.30) 2 (5.32) a

[

(1 + M 2 )2
]=0
M 2 (1 + 12 ( 1)M 2 )

(5.33)

(1 + M12 )2
(1 + M22 )2
= 2
1
2
+ 2 ( 1)M1 )
M2 (1 + 12 ( 1)M22 )

(5.34)

M12 (1

(5.34) (M22 M12 )(1 + 12 ( 1)(M12 + M22) M12 M22 ) = 0

( 5-5) (5.34) M2 = M1

1
1 + ( 1)(M12 + M22 ) M12 M22 = 0
2

(5.35)

(5.35) M12 M22 M12 M22

M12 M22 M12 = M22

5.5 (5.35)

M22 =

1 + 12 ( 1)M12
M12 12 ( 1)

(5.36)

M22 =

1
+
2

1
{1

1
2
4 ( 1) }
M12 1
2

5-5 M12 M22

.

M 22

1
-1
2

-1
2

2
-1

2
-1

5.5: M12 M22

78

M1

 5-5

M1 > 1 M2 < 1,

M1 < 1 M2 > 1

(5.37)

5.4.3

1 2 (5.31) (5.32) a2
[

(1 + M 2 )
]=0
1 + 12 ( 1)M 2

(1 + M22 )2
(1 + M12 )1
=
1
2
1 + 2 ( 1)M1
1 + 12 ( 1)M22

(5.38)

p1 p2 p = a2 / (5.31)
(1 + M12 )p1 = (1 + M22 )p2

(5.39)

u1 u2 a = u/M (5.32)
1

(1 + 12 ( 1)M12 ) 2 u1
(1 + 12 ( 1)M22 ) 2 u2
=
M1
M2

(5.40)

T1 T2 a2 = RT (5.32)
1
1
(1 + ( 1)M12 )T1 = (1 + ( 1)M22 )T2
2
2

(5.41)

(2.61)

s2 s1

T2
p2
R ln
T1
p1
p 2 1
R
p2
ln(
) R ln
1
p 1 2
p1
p2
2

R
1)R ln
ln
(

1
p1
1 1
p2
2
R
R
ln
ln( )

1 p1
1
1
p2 2
R
ln{( )( ) }
1
p 1 1

= cp ln
=
=
=
=

79

(5.42)

(5.38) (5.42) (5.36) M2 M1

1
( + 1)M12
2
= 2 1
1
1 + 2 ( 1)M12

(5.43)

M12 12 ( 1)
p2
=
1
p1
2 ( + 1)

(5.44)

1 + 1 ( 1)M12
u2
= 1 2
2
u1
2 ( + 1)M1

(5.45)

(1 + 12 ( 1)M12 )(M12 12 ( 1))

T2
=
1
2
2
T1
4 ( + 1) M1

(5.46)

(1 + 12 ( 1)M12 ) 2 (M12 12 ( 1)) 2

a2
=
1
a1
2 ( + 1)M1
s2 s1 =

M12 12 ( 1) 1 + 12 ( 1)M12
R
ln{
) }
( 1
1
2
1
2 ( + 1)
2 ( + 1)M1

(5.47)

(5.48)

M1
p2 /p1
(5.44) M1

p2
p1

p2
p1

(5.43) (5.48) -

(Liepmann & Roshko(1957)) (5.20)

- h =

RT
1

p
1

p2

p1
1 1
1
( ) = ( + )(p2 p1 )
1 2
1
2 1
2

(5.49)

2
( 1)p1 + ( + 1)p2
=
1
( + 1)p1 + ( 1)p2

(5.50)

(5.22) v = 1/
.

5.5

Prandtl

h a2 = RT h =

a2
1

, (5.10)

u = a

1
1
1 2
a21
a22
a
2
1 +1 2
+ u21 =
+ u22 =
+ a
= (
)
a
1 2
1 2
1 2
2 1
80

(5.51)

(5.9) (5.8) [p/(u)+u] = 0

= RT = a2 /

1 a2
+ u] = 0
u

(5.52)

1 a21
1 a22
+ u1 =
+ u2
u1
u2

(5.53)

(5.51) a
a21 a22

1
1 1
1
1 1
{ ( + 1)
{ ( + 1)
a2 ( 1)u21 } + u1 =
a2 ( 1)u22 } + u2
u1 2
2
u2 2
2

u1 u2 = a
2

(5.54)

( 5-8) Prandtl

u1 , u2
a
(4.3.3 )M
1 = u1 /
M
a

2 = u2 /
M
a

(5.54)

1 M
2 = 1
M

(5.55)

1 > 1 M
2 < 1, M
1 < 1 M
2 > 1,
(5.55) M
(4.50) M1 > 1 M2 < 1, M1 < 1 M2 > 1
(5.37. (5.25)
M1 > 1, M2 < 1
[s]

(5.12) 5.3(b)

5.6
5.6.1

, ,

p2 p1
p1

(5.56)

(5.44)

M12 12 ( 1) 12 ( + 1)
p2
M 2
2
(M12 1)
1=
= 1 1
=
1
p1

+
1
(
+
1)
(
+
1)
2
2
(5.57)
81

M12 = 1 +

+1

(5.58)

(5.43) (5.48) , , M12 (5.57)

1+
2
=
1
1+

+1
2
1
2

(5.59)

p2
=1+
p1
1+
u2
=
u1
1+

(5.60)

1
2
+1
2

(5.61)

(1 + )(1 + 1
T2
2 )
=
T1
1 + +1

2
1

(5.62)
1

2
(1 + ) 2 (1 + 1
a2
2 )
=
1
+1
a1
(1 + 2 ) 2

s2 s1 =

1+
R
ln{(1 + )[
1
1+

(5.63)

1
2
+1 ] }
2

(5.64)

(5.36)

M22 =

1+

1
2

(5.65)

1+

5.6.2

# 1 , (5.59)(5.65)

&1+ ,
1

p2
= 1 + ,
p1

T2
1
),
&1+(
T1

s2 s1 & R

u2

&1 ,
u1

a2
1
),
&1+(
a1
2

+1 3
,
12 2

82

M22 & 1

+1

5.6.3

% 1 , (5.59)(5.65)

4
+1
2
1
(1
),
&
1
1
( + 1)( 1)

# 1

p2
= +1
p1

u2
4
1
1
(1 +
),
&
u1
+1
( + 1)( 1)
T2
1
,
&
T1
+1

s2 s1 &

R
ln ,
1

a2
1 1 1
)2 2 ,
&(
a1
+1
M22

+11
1
(1 +
)
2
1

( = 7/5)

2
1

35 1
+ )
6
1
1
6 35 + O( 2 )

6(1

83

 1.
p0 F

F 2F
ppe0 pe 3F

*
*

(4.45) M1 = 2.2 (5.36) M2 2 =

1+ 12 (1)M1 2
M1 2 12 (1)

M2 = 0.5471 F '

(4.45)

M
2.2

F/F*

+1
- 12 1
1
Fe
Fe F2
1 , 2
2
(1
+
M
=
=
)
e
F2 F '
Me + 1
2
F '

(, F -= F '
)

Fe
3
= = 1.5
F2
2

(4.45)

+1
- 12 1
1
F2
1 , 2
(1 +
M2 2 )
= 1.27
' =
M2 + 1
2
F

Fe
= 1.5 1.27 = 1.905
F '

Me = 0.32

84

0.32
1.905

F/F*

(4.38)

- 1
1
1
p1 ,
= 1+
=
M1 2
= 0.0935
p0
2
10.69

(5.44)

M1 2 12 ( 1)
p2
=
= 5.480
1
p1
2 ( + 1)
(4.39)

pe , 1 +
=
p2
1+

1
2-
1
2 M2
1
2
M
e
2

= 1.135

pe
p1 p2 pe
=
= 0.582
p0
p0 p1 p2

p#0
p0

M1 = 2.2M2 = 0.547 (4.38) (5.39)

p'0
p0

p'0 p1 p2
p0 p2 p1

p1
p0
p2
p#0

p2
p1

,1 +

1+

1
2-
1
2 M2
1
2
M
1
2

1 + M1 2
= 0.628
1 + M2 2

2.
M e = 3 .
M e = 3 (4.45) (4.38) ,

p0 ,
1 2 - 1
F
Me
= 4.23
= 1+
= 36.7
F
pe
2

85

(a)

Me=3
p0
pe=pa=1atm
F*
F

pe = 1

p0 = 36.7atm

(b)

p0

Me

M2

pe

pa=1atm

F*

(5.36)
M22 =

1
2
2 Me
Me2 1
2

1+

Me = 3

M2 = 0.4752
(4.38), (5.44)

p0
pa

=
=

p0 pe ,
1 2 - 1 12 ( + 1)
Me
= 1+
pe pa
2
Me2 1
2
1
= 3.55
36.7
10.33

p0 = 3.55
(a)

86

1
10

(c) (b)
(b) (5.36)
M2 = 0.4752
(4.38)

pa
p' ,
1 2 - 1
M2
= 0 = 1+
= 1.17
p2
p2
2

p'0

p0

Me

M2

pe

p2

pa

p 0'

p2 = 0.857

1
p0
p0 pe p2
1

= 3.04
=
= 36.7
pa
pe p2 pa
10.33 1.17

(diffuser)

H. W. Liepmann & A. Roshko, Elements of Gasdynamics, John Wiley & Sons (1957).

C. J. Chapman, High Speed Flow, Cambridge Texts in Applied

Mathematics, Cambridge University Press (2000).

J. D. Anderson, Jr., Modern Compressible Flow, McGraw-Hill Publishing Company (1990).

87

5-1 h, p, v , , , , 1,2
, ,

h2 h1 =

1
(v1 + v2 )(p2 p1 )
2

. , ,

p2
( + 1)v1 ( 1)v2
=
p1
( + 1)v2 ( 1)v1
. , .

5-2 , a
,
{1 +

1
+1
( 1)} 2 a
2

. , p2 /p1 .
, , .

5-3 > 1
(a) M1 M2
(1 + M12 )2
(1 + M22 )2
= 2
1
2
+ 2 ( 1)M1 )
M2 (1 + 12 ( 1)M22 )

M12 (1

M1 -= M2

1 + 12 ( 1)(M12 + M22 ) M12 M22 = 0

(1)

(b) (1)
(i) M1 > 1 M2 < 1

(ii) M1 < 1 M2 > 1

1
+

R
2

>0
ln (1 + )
s2 s1

+1
1

1+

88

(i)
R

p2 p1
2
(M 2 1)
=
p1
+1 1

5-4 (a)
(b)
1
( + 1)M12
2
= 2 1
1
1 + 2 ( 1)M12

. , , M1
.

(c) , a U
. M = U/a
M2 1
2

a
+1
M
.

5-5
(a) M1 M2
<
=2
=2
<
1 + M12
1 + M22
<
=
<
=
=
2
2
M12 1 + 1
M22 1 + 1
2 M1
2 M2

(b) M1
(c) a
U
V
V

(d) (c)

89

5-6
(a)
[u] = 0
[p + u2 ] = 0
1
[h + u2 ] = 0
2

[M a] = 0
[(1 + M 2 )a2 ] = 0
1
[(1 + ( 1)M 2 )a2 ] = 0
2
, u, p, h, M, a

(b) -
1
( + 1)M12
2
= 2 1
1
1 + 2 ( 1)M12

M12 12 ( 1)
p2
=
1
p1
2 ( + 1)
1 2

(c) = (p2 p1 )/p1

M1 = 1 +

+1
+ O( 2 )
4

(d) a U
(a/)

90

5-7 -
1
( + 1)M12
2
= 2 1
1
1 + 2 ( 1)M12

M12 12 ( 1)
p2
=
1
p1
2 ( + 1)
M1 1 , p1 2 , p2

5-8 (a) a

u1 u2 = a
2
u1 u2

(b) p1 p2 1 2

u1 u2 =

91

p2 p1
2 1

6.1

).
1

Euler

u
1 p
u
+u
=
t
x
x

(6.1)

+u
+
=0
t
x
x

(6.2)

(2.51)

p = const

(6.3)

a=
(4.16)

6.2

%
p/

(6.4)

(6.1) (6.2) u a
(6.3) (6.4) p (6.3)

92

+ p()1
=0
x
x

p
p
=
x
x
(6.4)

= a2
x
x

(6.5)

(6.4) 2 x

2a

1 p
1
p a2
a
=
+ p( 2 )
=

x
x
x
x
x

(6.5)

1 p
a
= ( 1)
x
x

(6.6)

a2
a
= ( 1)
x
x

(6.7)

2a

2a

(6.4) 2 t

2a

a2
a
= ( 1)
t
t

(6.8)

. (6.1) (6.6)

u
2a a
u
+u
=
t
x
1 x

u
2a a
u
+u
+
=0
t
x 1 x

(6.9)

(6.2) /t , /x (6.8), (6.7)

2u a
u
2
a
+
+
=0
( 1)a t
( 1)a x
x

a
a
u
2
(
+u )+a
=0
1 t
x
x
93

(6.10)

(6.9) (6.10) u a 1
.
2 1 2
(6.9) (6.10)

1 [

2
1 2a

+ (u + a) ]u + 2 [ + (u + a) ]
= 0.
t
1 x
t
2 x 1

2a
1

(6.11)

2 [ ]

/x , u+ 12 a u+ 21 a 2 /1 = 1 /2

2 = 1

(6.12)

(6.11) (6.12) 2 ,

2a

+ (u + a) ](u +
)=0
t
x
1

(6.13)

2a
+ (u a) ](u
)=0
t
x
1

(6.14)

x t s(x, t) = 0 f f =

f
x f
+ f
t t = ( t + t x )t x t
x- t- (x, t) x, t 0
f
x x

s s
s = ( x
, t ) f
t +

x f
t x

= 0 f
2a
1

(f = 0) f f = u
s = s (t, x)

x
= ua
t

(6.15)

2a
2a
(6.13) (6.14) u + 1
u 1
s+

s . x t
(6.15)

dx
) = ua
dt

(6.16)

94

 1
( < x < ) ( 6-1)

x < 0 t = 0 x = 0
x up
a0 .

u=0
a=a0

up
0

6-1

x t 2 . x u = 0 , a =
a0 x 2 (6.16) ,
( dx
dt ) = a0 ( 6-2).

s+
s-

u=0 a=a0
6-2

,
s+ u +
s u

2a
1

2a0
1

2a0
= 1

u a
2a
1

u = 0 , a = a0

dt
( dx
) = a0 , 2

2 ( 6.2)

u = 0 , a = a0 , ( dx
dt ) = a0
x/t = a0 s up
x t x/t = up 2

( 6-3).

t = t x/t = a0 t x

95

x
t =-a0

x
t =up

u=0
a=a0
x

6-3

x
x/t = a0 u = 0 a = a0

x/t = a0 s+ u +

2a
1

2a0
1

x/t = up u = up
up +

2ap
1

2a0
1

ap = a0

1
2 up (=

) ( 6-4)

x
t =-a0

sx
t =up

s+

x
6-4
x/t = up s u

2a

p
= up 1
=
1
2a0
2
2a
up 1 (a0 2 up ) = 2up 1 , s+ u+ 1 = up +

2a
1

2ap
2
1 = 1 a0 2 s+ s u = up , a = a0
1
2 up u a
1
2 ( dx
dt ) = up (a0 2 up )

2 ( 6-5)

x
u = up , a = a0 1
2 up t = up
1
+1
x
( dx
dt ) = up ap , t = up (a0 2 up ) = 2 up a0
2a
, x/t = a0 u + 1
=

2a0
1

2a
s u 1
= k =

u, a s ( 6-6), s

u a k s

96

s-

x
t =-a0

s+

x
t =up

6-5

x
t

= a0 ( dx
dt ) = a0

= +1
2 up a0 ( 6-7)
(k = k1 k = k2 (-= k1 ) .

( dx
dt )

2a
1

k1 k2 , u a

. x = 0 (t = 0)
.)
x
t =-a0

t
s-

s+

6-6

x
t =-a0

x
t =

+1
2

up-a0

x
t =up

6-7
, t = t (> 0) u(x, t ) , a(x, t )

x < a0 t

u = 0 , a = a0
97

a0 t < x < ( +1
2 up a0 )t x/t = u a

s+ u +
u=

2a
1

2a0
1

2 x
2a0
1 x
, a = a0
( + a0 )
+
+ 1 t
+1
+ 1 t

( +1
2 up a0 )t < x < up t

u = u p , a = a0

1
up
2

(6.3), (6.4) p , a

1
2

, =
2
0 ( aa0 ) 1 a

( 6.8).

u
up
x
-a0t *

+1
2

up-a0) t

upt*

a
a0
a=a0 - 1
2 up

0
x

6-8
6.1: t = t u, a,
2a0
dx
a = a0 1
+1 a0 = +1 ( dt )+ =
( dx
dt ) = u a s t

t u =

u+a =

4a0
+1

2a0
+1 ,

98

 2
( < x < ) . x = 0
x < 0 (u = 0 , a = a0 ) x > 0

t = 0 x < 0
x ( 6-9)

u=0
a=a0

6-9
1 x 2 x
2a
(dx/dt) = a0 . s+ u+ 1
=

2a0
1 ,

=
u = 0 , a = a0
2 2
s u

2a
1

2a0
1

(dx/dt) = a0 u = 0 , a = a0 x t
(dx/dt) = a0 x = a0 t
( 6-10).

s-

s+
x

u=0 a=a0
6-10

x = a0 t s+ x = a0 t .

x = a0 t u = 0 , a = a0 x = a0 t

s+ u +
( 6-11)x = a0 t u

2a0
2a
1 = 1
2a0
2a
+ 1 = 1

x = a0 t s u

k(= const) u

2a
1

2a0
u = 12 ( 1
+ k)

2a
1

2a0
2a
= k u + 1
= 1

1 2a0
, a = a0 4 ( 1 + k) = a20 1
4 k

99

x
t =-a0

t
s-

s+

x
6-11

(dx/dt) = u a

k 1 s
( 6-12).

x
t =-a0

s-

x
6-12
(dx/dt) x/t = u a ,

x = a0 t u +

2a
1

2a0
1

a=

x
1 2a0
(
)
+1 1
t

u=a+

2
x
x
=
(a0 + )
t
+1
t

x/t = 2a0 /( 1)
2

a = 0 = 0 ( aa0 ) 1 = 0
( 6-13).

t = t u, a, , p 6-14

a0 x ,

( = 75 ) a0 5

100

x
t =-a0

x
t =

2
-1

a0

x
6-13

2
-1

-a0t *

u
a0t

2
-1

x
a0t *

a
a0
x

x
p
p0
x
6-14
6.2: t = t u, a, , p

101


D. J. Acheson, Elementary Fluid Dynamics, Oxford Applied Mathematics and Computing Science Series, Oxford University Press (1990).

C. J. Chapman, High Speed Flow, Cambridge Texts in Applied

Mathematics, Cambridge University Press (2000).

6-1
v
u
3
=0
t
x
v
u

=0
t
x
t = 0

u = x x2 , v = 0

x = 0

u = v
u=v

x = 1

(a) (t, x) = (0, 12 )

(b) (a) x = 0 x = 1 t > 0

u v
(c) (b)
u v
6-2
u v

=0
t
x
u v

=0
x
t
t = 0 u = 4 x2 , v = 0
x =

x=

t
2

= 12
+ 2 uv = 12

2t

102

v
u

t = 1 x =

1
2

n
6

, n = 0, 1, 2, 6 u, v

6-3 1
[

2a

+ (u + a) ](u +
)=0
t
x
1

2a
+ (u a) ](u
)=0
t
x
1

u a

(a) ( < x < ) u

u

2a
1

2a0
2a
=
1
1

1
u
u
+ [ ( + 1)u + a0 ]
=0
t
2
x

(1)

u = F (),

1
= x [ ( + 1)u + a0 ]t
2

(1)

(b)
u(x, 0) =

1
U [1 tanh(x/L)]
2

U L u(x, 0) u(x, t)
t = 4L/( +1)U

6-4 ( < x < ) x > 0

t = 0 x = 0
x
a0 t = 2a0 /( + 1)

x = 2a20 /( + 1)
6-5 ( < x < ) x < 0
x = 0 t = 0
x
t = 2a0 /( 1)

a0

6-6 ( < x < ) x < 0

x = 0 t = 0
103

x U
U U > 2a0 /( 1)
a0

104