Declining biodiversity in the coral reef communities in Kenya:

causes, impacts and possible solutions

Dennis Van Landeghem

Fangcao Chai
Idoia Bilbao
Nega Tassie
Rasanga Gunasekara
Yusuf Sarker
• Biodiversity along Kenyan coast

• Major causes of biodiversity loss in the coral reef

communities in Kenya

• Management and conservation measures

• Conclusion
Biodiversity along Kenyan coast
The coast:
-about 500 km in length
-western border of the Indian Ocean

Coral reefs area:

A fringing reef colonizes the shallow
part of the continental shelf, between
500 m to 2 km.

The total area of coral reef is

approximately 50,000 ha.
- 0.19% of world
Coastal and Marine Communities:

56 families (over 204 species) of marine plants

345 families (over 1808 species) marine animal

Species Number

Corals 183
Mangroves 9

Seagrasses 12
E- Algae 2
Marine fishes 733 (fishbase)
Reef fishes 490 fishbase)

Among these species 12 are endemic

According to IUCN data this area provides shelter to 179 threaten species
Reefs are at Risk Globally
 Kenya

Reefs along Kenyan coast are at Medium to High Threat

Natural, Climatic and Human induced causes:

declining and disappearance of many coastal and coral reef communities occurring
e.g. Holothurians
Why loss of coral reef communities is a concern?

Coral reefs are critically important for ecosystem goods and services

Economic v alue of the main e cosyste m se rv ice of coral

re e fs

12
10
According to a United Nations estimate,
value (billion US$)

8
6 S eries 1
the total economic value of
4 coral reefs range from US$ 100,000 to
2
0 600,000/sq km/per year
(UNEP-WCMC, 2006).
Touris m & S hore F is heries B iodivers ity
rec reations protec tion
se rvice s

Source: Cesar et al .2003

About 2 million people live on the Kenyan coast, mainly around Mombasa,
with a significant percentage of them using reefs for fishing and tourism.
 Major causes of biodiversity loss
in the coral reef communities in Kenya
Fisheries/Overfishing:

Coral reef fisheries:

an important source of food and income for many artisanal fishers in Kenya
(Obura 2001)

Fishing in Kenya Fish market in Kenya

Fisheries/Overfishing:
• The reef fishery in Kenya has been under high pressure for several decades
(McClanahan & Kaunda-Arara 1996 )

• Very high exploitation rates; between 60% and 80% of exploitable fish biomass
per year (Rodwell et al. 2003)
• High levels of fishing effort coupled with the use of destructive gear types,
exacerbate the effects of overfishing on Kenya’s reefs (Mangi and Roberts, 2007)
• Beach seines and spear guns have been reported to be the most destructive gear
used in Kenya's reef lagoons (McClanahan and Mangi, 2001; Mangi & Roberts 2006).

Beach seine fishing Spear gun fishing

 Destructive gears are
reducing the habitat
structure of the reefs

Comparisons of gear regimes on live coral cover and topographic complexity

Fisheries/Overfishing:
In Kenya, over harvesting of fishes that prey on invertebrates (sea-urchin
predator) is predicted to cause increases in sea urchin population.
Reduced abundance of herbivores also promotes algal growth.

High sea urchin populations are associated with the reefs with lower coral cover
(high erosion rate), low topographic complexity, and reduced calcium
carbonate deposition rates (McClanahan & Obura 1995).

sea urchin (Echinometra mathaei) Trigger fish: dominant sea urchin predator
Highest sea urchin densities
were recorded at unprotected reefs.
Consequently, bioerosion
by sea urchins was also highest
in unprotected reef
 Time series plots of Coral cover, Fish and Sea urchin biomass in protected
and unprotected reef areas of Kenya (Mangi et al, 2007)

fished reefs show less densities of fish high biomass of

a half of live coral cover in fished reefs sea urchins in
compared to unfished reefs fished reefs
Topographic complexity and Coral cover
decrease with increasing density
of sea urchin
Sedimentation:
Sedimentation and eutrophication (nutrient addition) are thought to be the major
cause of coral reef degradation worldwide (Ginsburg, 1993).

In Kenya, changes in land-use patterns, de-forestation and subsequent soil erosion

have significantly increased the sediment load in local rivers discharging to the sea
(Obura, 1995).

Sediment delivery by the Sabaki river to the reefs in Malindi Bay has increased.
Sedimentation rates are greater than the threshold of 10 mg /cm2/yr suggested
for normal reef development (74).

Stress to coral reef communities

is evident due to high sedimentation.
However, no evidence for decreased diversity and ecological health of sediment
Influenced reefs was found in the study.

Perhaps, because the coral community is adapted to increased sediment load

(Obura, 2001).
Ecotourism:
A leading economic activity in Kenya. Coastal tourism centered on coral reefs
is prominent along the Kenya coast; e.g. at Malindi
Excessive tourist pressure: approx. 2 million visitors annually (2007)
Unplanned developments have resulted in serious reef damage in key areas.
Boat anchoring, divers, overcrowding all can damage coral.

Demand for seafood, shells and coral souvenirs has risen sharply. Therefore,
pressure on the coastal ecosystem extends further and further

Beach area in Kenya Coral reef island, Malindi; Kenya

Mangrove destruction:

• Mangroves along the Kenya coast cover about 53,000 ha (8 spp.)

• Mangroves serve as feeding and nursery grounds for many coral reef species.
Presence of mangroves are associated with high biomass and assemblage
of species in coral reef communities (Mumby et al, 2004).
• Mangroves are under pressure in Kenya:
- aquaculture (prawn farming): Ngomeni area
- salt manufacture: Ngomeni and Karawa
- fuelwood: Gazi Bay
- agriculture
- housing etc.

The total mangrove area lost:

10, 310 ha ; 20% of the total
(Abuodha et al, 2001)

Mangrove destruction
 Diseases
• In response to biotic stresses
bacteria, fungi and viruses,
• abiotic stresses increased sea
water temperatures, ultraviolet
radiation, sedimentation and
pollutants.
 Aspergillosis
Black band disease
Macroalgae

African Dust Hypothesis

Porites Line Disease White-band Disease White Plague

stress-related response 25 genera (Timothy et al., 2004)

 Coral Bleaching
• Coral bleaching the loss of the
zooxanthellae
The coast was severely affected
• 1998 reduced coral cover in Kenya
by 50–90% (Mangi, 2007)
• 1997/1998, 50% - 90% coral
mortality, E.g. Malindi, reduced from
35–45% to 10–20% (Lambo and
Ormond, 2006).
Coastal development
• The region targeted for tourism, residential,
industrial and agricultural development
• The principal tribal groups
1. Mijikendda mixed agriculturalists
2. Pokomo, Tana delta
3. Swahili towns and ports along the coast
– North coast of Mombassa 1971 to 1993
• hotels 8 to 25
• people 1000 to 7000 on these hotels
• Pollution of reef lagoon
• Direct damage of reefs
• Pollution from liquid and solid waste
• Mining, e.g Titanium ores along the
coast
• Dredging, high silt blocks light for the
algae
 Trading
• 211 species for aquarium trade
• 490 species reef associated (Fishbase)
Exploited,
• as filler for concrete
• Gift shop souvenirs
• Science and medicine,
Kainic Acid
• bone grafts in humans
• raw coral for aquariums
• cement from the limestone
• fish tank decorations (aquariums)
 Human populations, improved storage and
transport systems, markets for fishes and other
natural resources have become global.

Map of the Indo- Pacific Oceans showing the scale of (A) the live
fish trade, (B) the aquarium tropical-fish trade with major markets
in the United States and Europe.
 Measures related to trading to protect
coral, experiences
1. Import Ban (USA bans imports from Philippines
2. Export Ban (the Philippines bans coral exports)
3. Some collection quotas (Florida)
4. Licensing (Florida, Kenya)
5. Regulatory Standards (Kenya, New Caledonia)
6. Bans on the sale of certain corals (Germany)
Management and conservation
measures
 Measures?
• What threats are we focussing on?

 International Working Group of the United States

Coral Reef Task Force
 Monitor coral, fish and other living
resources

Assess global warming and bleaching

Strengthen existing MPAs

Reduce overfishing
Reduce dredging and other habitat
impacts

Increase coastal management

Land planning and zoning

Increase management capacity

Support project development
Support international partnerships,
institutions, conventions
Action is needed!
 Sustaining communities
• Half a billion people within
100 km of a coral reef

• Reef resources  increasing

demands and pressure How?
• Great economic, social and
cultural importance
 conservation and
sustaining Sustainable
development
Objective 1

“Support the creation and effective

management of coral reef marine
protected areas, particularly those
that contain substantial ecological
(i.e. no-take) reserves. “

How?
 Addressing objective 1

Enhance effective management and establishment of

MPA networks by promoting sustainable financing
mechanisms and enhancing sustainable fisheries through
ecological no-take areas.
Possible effect?

 According to Wilson et al. (2008) there

were as many as seven times fewer
outbreaks of coral killing crown-of-thorns
starfish in so-called "no-take" regions as
there were in those where commercial
fishing is allowed.
MPAs in Kenya
Marine National Parks

MALINDI
Marine National Parks

MOMBASA
Marine National Parks

KIUNGA
Marine National Parks
KISITE
Marine National Parks

WATAMU
 MPA goals
 Provision of ecologically sustainable use of the marine
resources for cultural and economic benefits

 the management of wildlife resources in a sustainable

manner

 Preservation and conservation of marine biodiversity

for poverty

 Promotion of applied research for educational awareness

programmes, for community participation, and for
capacity building
 MPA legal legislation

 The KWS is responsible for the management of

protected areas (PAs) including MPAs.

 KWS is governed by the Wildlife (Conservation

and Management) Act Cap 376 of the Laws of
Kenya and the 1989 Amendment.
Challenge for MPA Management
The absence of a national MPA coordinating
body
Shortage of staff
Shortage of funds
Inadequate monitoring programmes
Lack of public awareness
Objective 2

“Address the impact of global change,

coral bleaching, and coral health on
reefs and people.”

How?
Addressing objective 2

 Enhance management strategies as a mitigation strategy

for coral bleaching, such as criteria for MPA selection.

 Identify regional bleaching risks based on recent (last 20

years) trends.

 Reduce vulnerability of coastal communities to global

change – sea level rise, food insecurity, and coastal storms.
Objective 3

“Address unsustainable and

destructive fishing practices. ”

How?
Addressing objective 3

 Promote effective governance and sustainable

management practices for artesian and commercial uses
that address over-exploitation, destructive fishing practices,
harmful fishing gear and loss of critical fish nursery habitat.
 Incorporate coral reef fisheries into food security
considerations at local and global levels.
 Fishing effects control
Reduce bycatch and IUU
Long-lining is an alternative to destructive gears
Strengthen the supervision of IUU
 Fishing effects control
 Controls the number and type of fishing gear and boats can
fish
 Establishing bans prohibiting fishing of some species
 Limit on minimum sizes of fish caught
 Closed seasons and area
What’s already done in Kenya?
 Integrated Costal Management (ICM)
Improve the quality of life of human communities who depend on
coastal
resources while maintaining diversity and productivity of coastal
systems

 Integrate science and management among sectors, institutions,

disciplines, and governance levels in preparing and implementing
integrated plans for the protection and development of coastal
ecosystems and resources

 Adapt to rapid increases in human populations and competing

socio-economic activities and appreciate symbiotic relationships
among ecological process while developing ICM programs.
 ICM local legislation
 CDA—an institution mandated by an Act of
Parliament for planning and coordination of
development activities in the Kenya initiates the
ICM process in its hands.

 The Environmental Management and Co-

ordination Act (EMCA) recognizes the coastal zone
for planning and development purposes.
 Existing regulations in
Kenya
 At the moment, there are no local regulations for controlling the
number of glass-bottom boats and/or tourists using the reef.

 Two mooring buoy systems have been installed by the Kenya

Wildlife Service (KWS) to reduce damage to corals from anchors.

 Marine Park management plans are continually updated by KWS,

but do not yet adequately address intensified use of the Park and
Reserve and the associated impacts.

 Increased development on land which impacts the Park is beyond

the jurisdiction of KWS. The Service has limited authority for
managing uses in the Marine Reserve.

 The Fisheries Department has a Fisheries Act which forbids

collection of coral heads, both live and dead.
• Started in 1986

• Study the impact of fishing, snail collection, and river

sediments on Kenya’s coral reefs.

• Technical and financial support for research activities on

the marine reserves and fisheries.
Research

• Response of coral reef ecosystems to human and

natural stresses?
• Publications!
- coral bleaching, mortality and restoration programs
- stakeholder attitude towards management strategies
- the role of MPAs in enhancing local fisheries
- gear fish species selectivity and capture size nutrient studies

• Annual monitoring of the four MPA’s and some

unprotected reefs.
• Maintain relationships with local and foreign universities.
• Strengthen human and institutional capacity to develop
and implement sustainable management plans

• Enforce relevant laws and regulations

• Develop environmentally sound collection practices and

alternatives

• Implement other measures to protect and conserve coral

reef ecosystems
 The Coral Reef Targeted
Research (CRTR)

• Fill gaps in global understanding

• Inform policies and management interventions

• Major focus: capacity building, robust research

and tool development
East Africa Centre of Excellence

Research priorities:

• Investigation of coral settlement, recruitment, restoration and

associated environmental factors

• Mapping and characterization of coral reefs and associated

threats

• Information dissemination on coral reefs and indigenous

knowledge
Coastal Oceans Research and Development in the
Indian Ocean

• supports biophysical monitoring and research

• participatory monitoring of artisanal fisheries (biological,
resource and socio-economic)
• education and awareness raising
• policy development
Primary goal:

“Conserve biodiversity in the context of improved

livelihoods and sustainable development, of
people directly dependent on coastal and marine
resources.”
CORDIO East Africa

• Focus on coral reef health and recovery

• Addressing artisanal fishermen on coral reefs

• Focus: Diani-Chale region

• Additional work: Kiunga Marine National Reserve (with

WWF and KWS)
Monitoring fisheries

• Help fisherfolk

 Sustainable exploitation of resources

Education
• Improving livelihoods of people dependant on marine
and coastal resources

• Projects

- Teacher Training in Environmental Education (EE)

- Schools to the sea
- Gender based adult education
SOCOM
• Regional initiative
• Improving coastal management
• Local-level monitoring systems
• Community members
CORDIO GIS/ICT

• Mapping and mapping tools for coastal and marine

resource management questions

• Vision : fast growing network with interaction

Participants at GIS training

United Nations Environment
Program
• Support of reports on the state of
environment

• Raising awareness of the

younger public
 The East African
Wildlife Society

Persuade tourists not to

buy corals and shells
 NEPAD - The New Partnership for
Africa's Development

Socio-economic
development
framework for Africa
The African Ministerial Conference
on the Environment (AMCEN)

• Permanent Environment
forum about Africa.

• Exchange of information
and data infrastructure at
national and subregional
levels
PCRF planetary coral reef
foundation

To preserve and protect the earth’s

coral reefs through pioneering
programs in science, technology
and education
 Conclusion

• What lessons did we learn?

• What can we do?

– Research
– Assess and monitor reef health
– Understand social and economic factors
– Improve education, communication and coordination
– Reduce threats to coral Reefs
– Gather funds
wishing healthy coral reef communities for Kenya in near future

Thank You All