Slide (4.

0)
A White Paper describing our fully featured
limit equilibrium analysis program for slope
stability with integrated nite-element
groundwater analysis capabilities
Geomechanics
software solutions
used worldwide by
geotechnical
engineers
A synopsis of slope stability analysis with Slide
Rocscience is very pleased to announce the release of the latest version of Slide 4.0, which
includes a new integrated groundwater analysis module, major enhancements to support
modelling, and an improved toolkit for annotating gures generated in the software.
Introduction to Slide
Slide is a program for two-dimensional
slope stability analysis developed by
Rocscience. Slide can be used to design
and/or analyze natural slopes or man-
made (engineered) slopes such as cuts,
embankments and lls (including earth
dams and retaining structures such as
tie-back walls, and soil nail structures),
and waste dumps formed from mining or
industrial by-products.
Slide has the ability to analyze both a
single user-dened non-circular failure
surface and to search for the minimum
non-circular failure surface. Composite
surfaces containing both a circular and
non-circular component can also be
analyzed.
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3
Slide has an appealing and easy-to-
use graphical interface, and provides
a wide range of modelling and data
interpretation functionalities. It calculates
safety factors for circular and non-
circular slope failure surfaces, using a
number of widely used limit equilibrium
analysis approaches such as the Bishop,
Janbu, Spencer, Corp Engineers 1&2,
Lowe-Karaath, and GLE methods.
Slide 4.0 also contains dozens of minor
improvements that make the program
more usable. The simple-to-use model
building and editing tools in Slide
provide very convenient means for
performing the parametric studies that
underlie sound geotechnical engineering
practice. The graphical data interpreter
gives users a rich set of tools for viewing
and analyzing model results.
As a result of the improvements to Slide,
engineers now have a software package
created specically for performing the
tasks involved in analyzing and designing
slopes. This document lays out the
philosophy governing the development
of Slide, and the engineering toolkit it
offers to slope designers.
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Philosophy of Slide: the engineering of slopes
The analysis and design of slopes are
not trivial undertakings. Each of the
several steps needed to solve this class of
problems can consume signicant effort
and resources. Consequently, a toolkit
that simplies the performance of the
tasks is of great benet to engineers. This
is especially true when all those tools are
assembled into one software package,
and organized in an intuitive manner that
reects how real-world design is done.
To develop a cutting-edge program
intended for practical, day-to-day
design of slopes, Rocscience software
developers consulted practitioners in
order to fully appreciate their needs, and
combined that knowledge with the most
recent advances in slope stability analysis
and in computer technology.
Company engineers understood that it
would be possible to create an effective
software tool for practical design only
if the goals and tasks of geotechnical
engineers were properly appreciated.
The sciences do not try to explain, they hardly even try to interpret, they mainly make models.
By a model is meant a mathematical construct which, with the addition of certain verbal
interpretations, describes observed phenomena. The justication of such a mathematical
construct is solely and precisely that it is expected to work - John von Neumann
Slide was developed to give practicing
engineers the opportunity to focus on
engineering, leaving the tedious and
mundane tasks to the program. In the
design environment facilitated by Slide,
engineers can spend greater amounts
of time studying results from different
parameter combinations and creating
alternative solutions.
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Goals and Philosophy of Practical
Slope Design and Analysis
Engineers perform slope stability analysis for a variety of reasons. The aims of slope
stability analysis identied from literature [References 1 2] and from interaction with
practitioners include the following:
Assessment of the stability of slopes under specied conditions
Evaluation of the possibilities of the failure of slopes.
Determination of the inuence of proposed changes on a slope
Comparisons of the effectiveness of alternative remedial or preventive
measures
Sensitivity analyses for evaluating the inuence of variations in critical
parameters such as geometry, material properties and groundwater conditions
on the stability of slopes
Analysis of failures that have already occurred. This helps understand failure
mechanisms and obtain in-situ material properties.
Design of remedial or preventive measures for slopes, and
Assessment of the effects of exceptional loadings such as earthquakes on
slopes and embankments
Since the purpose of modelling in
geotechnical engineering is to gain
understanding and to explore potential
trade-offs and alternatives, rather than
to make absolute predictions, it was
recognized that a practical slope stability
program must combine computational
speed with model creation swiftness
and ease. Such a product would allow
engineers to perform sensitivity
analysis a most informing approach
in geotechnical modelling in which
the response of models to changes in
parameters and assumptions is studied.
In creating Slide, developers ensured
that they adhered to the philosophy and
methodology behind good geotechnical
modelling. Sound geotechnical modelling
encourages a cautious approach in
which engineers consider wide-ranging
scenarios in ways that lead to new
knowledge or fresh understanding. A
modelling framework of this nature
can alert modellers to phenomena,
situations, or outcomes not previously
considered. As well it can help engineers
identify areas where more eld data or
information is required.
The purpose of
modelling in
geotechnical
engineering is to
gain understanding
and to explore
potential trade-offs
and alternatives.
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Modelling Features in Slide
The stability of a slope is inuenced by factors such as geological conditions (soil and rock layers,
discontinuities, groundwater conditions, etc.), material properties, and geometry. As a rule many of
these factors cannot be dened with much certainty. This uncertainty means that engineers must
analyze various possible scenarios in order to avoid surprises and unexpected behaviour.
For Slide to be a benecial program for
routine practical design, it was necessary
to equip the program with a wide range
of analysis methods and strength models,
and with tools that facilitate quick
creation of models, and easy and fast
modication of model input parameters/
assumptions.
In this section we shall be describing the
different analysis methods, shear strength
models, and some of the principal tools
available in the program.
Analysis Methods
Slide incorporates the most widely
used and accepted limit-equilibrium
approaches based on the method of
slices.
Ordinary
Bishop Simplied
Janbu Simplied
Janbu Corrected
Spencer
Corp Engineers 1 & 2
Lowe-Karaath, and
Generalized Limit
Equilibrium
Method (GLE)
The methods implemented in the program are the:
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A note on the Use of Various
Analysis Methods
Because the formulation of the stability
of a slope in limit equilibrium terms
is a statically indeterminate problem
(the number of equations is less
than the number of unknowns), all
approaches based on the method of
slices use simplifying assumptions.
These assumptions limit the range of
application of the different methods. To
make the best use of his/her time and
of Slides capabilities, it is important for
the engineer to understand the varying
strengths and limitations inherent in
different slope stability formulations.
Table 1. Limit equilibrium slope stability methods and the equilibrium equations they satisfy [1].
Method Satisfaction of Force Equilibrium Satisfaction
of Moment
Equilibrium
Horizontal Vertical
Ordinary Method No No Yes
Bishop Simplied No Yes Yes
Janbu Simplied Yes Yes No
Janbu Corrected Yes Yes No
Corps of Engineers 1 & 2 Yes Yes No
Lowe and Karaath Yes Yes No
GLE Yes Yes Yes
Spencer Yes Yes Yes
In this sub-section we provide guidelines,
obtained from literature, on the use of
the various analysis methods.
The limit equilibrium methods
implemented in Slide fall into three main
categories:
Methods that satisfy force
equilibrium equations
Methods that satisfy moment
equilibrium equations, and
Methods that satisfy
both force and moment
equilibrium equations.
Table 1 below provides a summary of
the groupings of the methods in Slide.
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The method selected for analyzing a specied slope problem must be suitable for the slope
conditions being analyzed. Table 2 below is a summary of the conditions under which the various
methods are most suitable. They were compiled from references [3 4].
Analysis Method Shape of Slip Surfaces Limitations and Applications
Ordinary Only circular slip
surfaces
Highly inaccurate for effective stress analysis of at slopes
with high pore pressures.
Perfectly accurate for = 0 analysis.
Quite accurate for total stress analysis for circular slip
surfaces.
Method does not have numerical stability problems.
Bishop Simplied Only circular slip
surfaces
Except when numerical instabilities arise, accurate for
all conditions (gives practically the same answers as the
methods that satisfy all equations of equilibrium).
Method is numerical unstable under certain conditions.
If for a specic slip circle the factor of safety obtained
from the method is smaller than the factor of safety from
the Ordinary method, then it can be concluded the Bishop
method experienced numerical difculties. In that case the
result from the Ordinary method is the more accurate.
Force Equilibrium
Methods:
Lowe and Karaath
Corps of Engineers
1 & 2
Janbu Simplied
Janbu Corrected
Any shape of slip surface Computed factor of safety values are sensitive to the
assumed inclinations of side forces.
Can experience numerical instabilities.
For slopes in cohesive soils, when side forces are
improperly chosen, these methods may yield factor of
safety values that are about a third larger than the correct
value.
Force and Moment
Equilibrium Methods:
Morgenstern and
Price
Spencer
Any shape of slip surface Can be deemed to provide the correct answers to most
practical problems.
Accurate for any conditions except when numerical
instabilities occur.
Give about the same answers. Variation in answers
is slightly increased in problems involving non-
homogeneous materials.
Table 2. Analysis methods, situations in which they are most applicable, and limitations.
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Location of Critical Surfaces
One of the most important facets of
slope stability analysis is nding the slip
surface, which has the lowest factor
of safety. The developers of Slide
implemented proven search techniques
for locating both circular and non-
circular slip surfaces. They help engineers
to ensure they have indeed determined
critical surfaces. The techniques in Slide
are as follow:
Circular surface grid search
Single circular surface dened
by a centre and radius or by three
points on the surface
Slope Search method (allows
users to dene slope parts
through which circular slip
surfaces must pass)
Auto-rene search (an iterative
technique for locating the
minimum slip circle that uses the
results of a previous iteration to
narrow the search area in the
next step)
Non-circular block search using
random surface generation, and
Non-circular path search using
random surface generation.
Non-circular block search technique
Circular surface grid search technique
Strength Models
The shear strengths of the materials that
form a slope have signicant impact on
stability and are required for all limit
equilibrium methods. The following
strength models are found in Slide:
Mohr-Coulomb
Hoek-Brown
Generalized Hoek-Brown
Anisotropic strength
Non-Linear shear-normal
functions
Undrained ( = 0)
Zero strength
Innite strength
Vertical Stress Ratio
Barton-Bandis
Power Curve, and
Hyperbolic.
In the majority of practical slope
problems, the greatest uncertainty is
associated with the evaluation of shear
strength parameters. As a result engineers
often have to assess the inuence of
various assumed strength models and
parameters on stability. To facilitate this
process signicant effort was expended
creating simple, quick-to-use means for
entering strength parameters into Slide.
This goal was realized through the use of
intuitively organized dialogs.
Slide can
accommodate slope
models consisting
of multiple materials
as well as tension
cracks. It can also
read data les from
other slope stability
analysis packages
such as Slope/W
and XSTABL.
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Model Creation Tools in Slide
The model creation unit (Modeller)
in Slide has undergone numerous
improvements to make it easier to create
and modify models. Unlike most slope
stability programs, Slide does not impose
severe restrictions on the types of
geometries that can be modelled, nor on
the manner in which boundaries have to
be dened. It can readily accommodate
complex slope and material boundary
geometries. This exibility and generality,
attained through the use of soil cell
technology, allows Slide to be used to
model a very wide range of geometric
congurations. Soil cell technology is
an adaptation and improvement of
techniques that have been very successful
in nite element programs.
The geometry of models is entered into
Slide using CAD-based graphical data
technology. Such an approach allows
for the interactive building and editing
of models. Slide can also import model
geometries from Autocad DXF les.
Additional tools in Slide that facilitate
smooth model creation and modication
include undo/redo functions.
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Feature for Parametric
Analysis and Interpretation
of Multiple Files
In parametric and sensitivity analysis,
model geometry and parameters are
varied and results of alternative scenarios
compared or analyzed. To facilitate the
comparison of multiple les, Slide is
equipped with the two features listed
below:
Quick-Zoom menu option that
scales all windows to the same
coordinate system (the feature is
also very useful for producing
consistent screen captures).
Data-Tips, which bring up relevant
model information as the mouse
is moved over different entities
in a model. For example, when
the mouse is moved over a material,
its properties such as cohesion and
friction angle pop-up.
Other improvements made to the
Modellers interface:
Display of coordinates for entities
in a model (this feature is invaluable
for checking whether a model has
been correctly described, and
comparing that model with another)
Interactive pie chart that makes
entering anisotropic strength
functions intuitive
Availability of pop-up menus on
the different entities of a model
(right-clicking on a grid, for
example, brings up a dialog that
allows you to change grid spacing,
or move the grid)
Context-sensitive help for all dialogs
in the Modeller
Denition of specied circular
slip surfaces using three points
along the surface, making it easier
to place such circles in a model.
Slide is equipped with
a Quick Zoom menu
option and Data-Tips
to facilitate the
comparison of
multiple les
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Loading
The loads acting on a slope play a
signicant role in stability. The location,
magnitude and direction of loads can
either increase or reduce stability. Slide
allows users to model line loads, and
uniform and triangular distributed
loads. Through the use of the seismic
acceleration coefcient, Slide can also
accommodate the modelling of the
impact of earthquakes on slopes. Users
can analyze both horizontal and vertical
loads imposed by earthquakes.
Support
A variety of support measures are
employed by geotechnical engineers
to stabilize slopes. The distribution of
loads along reinforcement elements
differs from one support type to the
other. To enable engineers to design
support systems by modelling them
and comparing their effectiveness, the
following commonly used reinforcement
types are incorporated into Slide:
Grouted Tiebacks
End-Anchored Support
Soil Nails
GeoTextiles
Micro-Piles, and
User-Dened Support
(for complete exibility).
Line loads, uniform and triangular distribution
loads can be easily implemented in Slide
Slide 4.0 introduces major enhancements in
support modelling by introducing
several new support types
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Data Interpretation and Report Tools in Slide
The numerical results from slope stability analyses guide engineers in comparing possible
scenarios and adopting design approaches. Tools, therefore, that help with the visualization and
interpretation of results are of great importance to slope designers.
Maximize the insight that can be
gained from results
Uncover underlying trends in
slope behaviour
Extract model parameters that
have the most impact on stability
Detect any anomalous situations
or behaviour
Test underlying assumptions on
parameters such as shear strength
models and groundwater
conditions.
These goals were achieved mainly
through the use of cutting-edge graphics
technology. The graphics techniques
in Slide empower users with signicant
ability to gain fresh and sometimes
unexpected insight into slope behaviour.
Slide interpreter
generates minimum
factor of safety
contours and colour
codes critical slip
surfaces by their
ranges of safety
In designing the Data Interpreter in Slide,
developers aimed at incorporating
approaches that help:
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Slide Features that Facilitate
Report Generation
At the end of a modelling or design
exercise, engineers have to produce
reports on their ndings. To facilitate
the report generation, Slide can output
professional quality gures of a model,
and results summaries. It also supplies
users with tools for dimensioning models,
and a toolkit for adding annotations
such as text, arrows, lines, and boxes to
drawings of models.
Images from Slide can be copied to the
Windows clipboard for pasting into
reports. As well images can be saved to
le formats that can be easily imported
into Autocad. The program has a
single-click option for converting colour
images into grayscale captures. Slide also
has simple-to-use functions for exporting
data and plots directly to Microsoft
Excel or other spreadsheet or word
processing programs.
Slide supplies
users with tools
for dimensioning
models and a
toolkit for adding
annotations
The data interpretation features in Slide
include contouring and plotting facilities,
and ability to view multiple plots on
a screen. The Interpreter generates
minimum factor of safety contours, and
colour codes critical slip surfaces by their
ranges of factor of safety values. It also
has tools for plotting essential model
results such as the normal and shear stress
distributions, strength distributions and
pore pressures along slip surfaces.
The colour coding of critical slip surfaces
helps engineers to not only calculate the
minimum critical surface, but also identify
all surfaces with critical factor of safety
values less than a specied threshold.
Such knowledge is required, for example,
for the determination of lengths of
anchors and other stabilization methods.
Slide supplies an innovative tool for
displaying all such critical slip surfaces.
The Interpreter
tools were grouped
and organized
in ways that
complement the
natural pattern-
recognition
capabilities of
users.
Groundwater Calculations for Slope Stability Analysis
Groundwater conditions in a slope have a signicant inuence on stability. Groundwater affects
stability through effects such as generation of positive and negative pore pressures that alter
stress conditions, and changes to the bulk density of slope materials.
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Typically, traditional slope stability
programs incorporate groundwater
into analysis through consideration of
a hydrostatic line. Although simple to
implement, the hydrostatic line approach
is conservative in some cases, especially in
cases when unsaturated zones can arise.
In layered soil problems, the approach
overestimates pore water pressures in
some zones, affecting the calculation of
shear strength at the bases of slices.
The latest version of Slide, version 4.0,
incorporates an integrated steady-state
groundwater analysis module. The
module uses the nite element method
to calculate groundwater ows, pressures
and gradients.
Pore water pressure
calculated from the
new module can
be automatically
incorporated in
slope stability
analysis by Slide.
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Also the module relies on the same
nite element and automatic mesh
generation technology implemented in
Phase 2 (a geotechnical nite element
stress analysis program developed by
Rocscience).
The groundwater module in Slide
offers users several types of boundary
conditions. This allows users to test
different hypotheses on groundwater
conditions in a slope. This ability
to test different alternatives makes it
possible for engineers to bracket the
extents of the inuence groundwater has
on slope behaviour.
Users can seamlessly incorporate
computed pore pressures into slope
stability analysis in Slide, since the
groundwater module is completely
embedded in the Modeller. As an added
bonus, the module can be used for
general groundwater analysis.
Boundary conditions can be easily set by
picking either segments or nodes
Future Advancements
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These include probabilistic analysis,
nite element analysis, and additional
commonly used support models. Plans
are also in place for including the Sarma
and Generalized Wedge slope stability
analysis methods into Slide.
Probabilistic Analysis
Probabilistic analysis is receiving
increasing acceptance in several areas
of geotechnical engineering. In slope
stability analysis it has been recognized
that the factor of safety is not necessarily
a good indicator of the probability that
a slope would fail. A slope can have
a factor of safety higher than that of
another but still have higher threat of
failure. This is due to the fact that factor
of safety analysis utilizes average values
of parameters and thus can mask the
wider variation (uncertainty) in the values
of the different parameters affecting
stability. With probabilistic analysis
engineers will be able to assess the risks
of failure associated with different slope
and design options.
In addition to Monte Carlo simulation
methods, Rocscience intends to
implement state-of-the-art reliability
methods in upcoming Slide versions.
Finite Element Analysis
With the use of soil cell technology, and
the implementation of an integrated
nite element groundwater analysis
module, the current version of Slide
has the necessary building blocks used
in nite element analysis. This method
of analysis enjoys certain advantages
over limit equilibrium methods. These
include the ability to model stresses
and deformations, ability to consider
the history of formation of a slope
(for both natural slopes and engineered
slopes such as embankments), and no
prior assumptions on shape or location
of failure surfaces. The prediction of
stress and deformation conditions in a
slope is very useful for determining the
conditions under which laboratory tests
for slope materials should be made. The
magnitude of deformations is also a
better predictor of stability and behaviour
than factor of safety values.
Rocscience strongly
believes that it is
important to extend
the Slide capabilities
to include stress and
deformation analysis.
In response to requests from users and to advancements in slope stability technology, a number of
techniques have been designated for implementation in future versions of Slide.
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Due to these advantages and the
existence in Slide of the building blocks
of the nite element method, Rocscience
strongly believes that it is important
to extend the program to stress and
deformation analysis. Finite element
analysis of slopes can be performed in
Phase
2
, the nite element geotechnical
modelling package developed by the
company. However, as the application
of the method to slope stability analysis
becomes more common, it will be a
natural step to include the method in
Slide.
Additional Support Models
To expand Slides range of design appli-
cations, subsequent versions will include
more support models. It is the goal of
the programs developers to equip engi-
neers with more design tools, in addition
to the existing analysis methods.
Sarma and Generalized Wedge
Analysis Methods
The classical slope stability methods,
described earlier in the document, are
mostly useful for the analysis and design
of soil slopes. In rock slopes, however,
failure surfaces commonly pass through
pre-existing discontinuities such as joints
and faults, or through weak material
seams. There are plans therefore to add
to Slides repertoire of methods, analysis
approaches that accommodate the failure
modes encountered in rock slopes.
Two methods that have been identied
for implementation are the Sarma and
Generalized Wedge analysis techniques.
The Sarma method is well suited for the
analysis of complex non-circular slope
stability problems requiring non-vertical
slices. It allows the strength properties
of slice boundaries to differ from those
of the slice material. As a result of this
feature discontinuities and failure planes
can be explicitly modelled by the method.
The Generalized Wedge method has
attributes similar to those of the Sarma
method. It differs however in the way
it calculates factor of safety values.
The Generalized Wedge method uses
an iterative approach to compute the
factor of safety from force equilibrium
considerations of wedges. It also ensures
that moment equilibrium is maintained.
Concluding Remarks
The program was designed to free slope
designers from mundane tasks to enable
them to focus their creative energies on
the actual engineering aspects of the
design process. It allows users to achieve
a most fundamental goal of geotechnical
engineering design multiple analyses
of problems that yield insight and fresh
understanding. Slide will continue to
evolve along these lines.
Slide will also seek to bring recent
advancements in slope stability analysis
from the realms of academic research to
the forefront of practical and everyday
analysis and design. This assures users
access to state-of-the-art knowledge that
enhances their productivity and the safety
and economy of their designs.
In creating Slide, developers have been guided by the needs of the practising engineer and the
tasks they typically perform when designing or analyzing slopes.
References
1. Abramson, L.W., L.S. Thomas, S. Sharma and G.M. Boyce. Slope Stability and Stabilization
Methods. 2001. John Wiley & Sons. New York.
2. Chowdury, R.N. Slope Analysis. 1978. Elsevier, New York.
3 Duncan, J.M., 1996, State of the art: limit equilibrium and nite element analysis of slopes,
Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, pp 577-596.
4. Duncan, J.M. and S.G. Wright. 1980. The accuracy of equilibrium methods of slope stability
analysis, Engineering Geology, vol. 16, pp 5-17.
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