Ant hr opol ogy/ Li t er ar y Theor y

"Thi s is a distinguished, original, and highly significant collection. For

some years now there have been signs of a critique of ethnographic and
anthropological texts as texts. . . . But the critique has been scattered. . . .
Writing Culture is the most important and sustained attempt to pass
beyond isolated gestures to a set of shared concerns. . . . In their explorations
of the ways in which ethnographic discourse is generated and sustained,
these essays raise important questions about other intellectual disciplines
and representational practices as well. " St ephen Gr eenbl at t
" The collection of essays is richly suggestive, regarding not only the cur-
rent condition of anthropology, but the condition of the entire span of
the ' human sciences' as well. . . . The book is certain to cause contro-
versy. . . . Humanists and social scientists alike will profit from reflection
on the efforts of the contributors to reimagine anthropology in terms,
not only of methodology, but also of politics, ethics, and historical
relevance. Every discipline in the human and social sciences could use
such a book. " Hayden Whi t e
" Writing Culture is the most thorough and penetrating interpretation to
date of ethnography as literature. . . . Social scientists of every persuasion
will want to thoroughly consider the ideas raised in Writing Culture; they
cannot afford the luxury of doing otherwise. " Jean-Paul Dumont
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS
BERKELEY 94720
Why have et hnographi c account s recently lost so
much of their authori ty? Why were they ever
bel i evabl e? Wh o has the right to chal l enge an
"obj ect i ve" cultural descri pti on? Was Margaret
Me a d si mpl y wrong about Samoa as has recentl y
been cl ai med? Or was her i mage of an exot i c l and
a partial truth reflecting the concerns of her t i me
and a compl ex encount er wi t h Samoans ? Are not
all et hnographi es rhetorical performances deter-
mi ned by the need to tell an effective story? Can
the cl ai ms of i deol ogy and desi re ever be fully
reconci l ed wi t h the needs of theory and
observat i on?
The s e are s ome of the quest i ons raised by
Writing Culture, ne w essays by a group of experi -
enced et hnographers, a literary critic, and a
historian of ant hropol ogy. All the authors arc
known for advanced anal yti c work on et hno-
graphi c wri ti ng. Thei r preoccupat i on is both
theoretical and practical: they see the wri t i ng of
cultural account s as a crucial form of knowl -
edget he troubl ed, experi ment al knowl edge of a
self in j eopardy among others.
Thes e essays place et hnography at the center of
a new i ntersecti on of social history, i nterpreti ve
ant hropol ogy, travel wri t i ng, di scourse theory, and
textual cri ti ci sm. The y anal yze classic exampl es of
cultural descri pti on, from Goet he and Catl i n to
Mal i nowski , Evans- Pri t chard, and Le Roy
Laduri e, s howi ng the persi stence of allegorical
patterns and rhetorical tropes. The y assess recent
experi ment al trends and expl ore the functi ons of
orality, ethni ci ty, and power in et hnographi c
composi t i on.
Writing Culture argues that et hnography is in the
midst of a political and epi st emol ogi cal crisis:
West ern writers no l onger portray non- West ern
peopl es wi th unchal l enged authori ty; the process
of cultural representati on is now i nescapabl y con-
ti ngent, historical, and cont est abl e. The essays in
this vol ume hel p us i magi ne a fully dialectical
et hnography acti ng powerful l y in the post modern
worl d syst em. The y chal l enge all writers in the
humani t i es and social sci ences to rethink the
poeti cs and politics of cultural i nvent i on.
Writing Culture
Writing
Culture
The Poetics and Politics
of Ethnography
EDI TED BY J AMES CLI FFORD
AND GEORGE E. MARCUS
A School of American Research
Advanced Seminar
Uni v e r s i t y o f Cal i for ni a Pres s
B E RK E L E Y LOS AN G E LE S L ON D ON
Stephen Tyler in the Field. Photography by Martha G, Tyler.
Uni versi ty of California Press
Berkel ey and Los Angel es, California
University of California Press, Ltd.
London, Engl and
1986 by
The Regent s of the University of California
Printed in the Uni t ed States of Ameri ca
4 5 6 7 8 9
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Main entry under title:
Wri ti ng Cul ture.
Semi nar hel d in Santa Fe, N. M. , April 1984.
Bi bl i ography: p.
Incl udes i ndex.
1. Et hnol ogyAut horshi pCongresses.
2. Et hnol ogyMet hodol ogyCongresses. I. Clifford, James,
1 9 4 5 - II. Marcus, George E. III. School of Ameri can
Research (Santa Fe, N.M.)
GN307. 7. W75 1986 306' . 01' 8 85- 14860
ISBN 0-520-05729-5 (alk. paper)
Contents
Preface vii
J AME S CLI FFORD
Introduction: Partial Truths 1
MARY LOU I S E P RAT T
Field work in Common Places 27
V I N CE N T CRAP ANZ ANO
Hermes' Dilemma: The Masking of
Subversion in Ethnographic Description 51
RE NAT O ROS ALDO
From the Door of His Tent:
The Fieldworker and the Inquisitor 77
J AME S CLI FFORD
On Ethnographic Allegory 98
S T E P HE N A. TYLER
Post-Modern Ethnography:
From Document of the Occult
to Occult Document 122
T ALAL AS AD
The Concept of Cultural Translation
in British Social Anthropology 141
GE ORGE E. MARCU S
Contemporary Problems of Ethnography
in the Modern World System 165
Cont ent s
MI CHAE L M. J . F I S CHE R
Ethnicity and the Post-Modern Arts
of Memory 194
P AU L RAB I N OW
Representations Are Social Facts:
Modernity and Post-Modernity in
Anthropology 234
GE ORGE E. MARCU S
Afterword: Ethnographic Writing and
Anthropological Careers 262
Bibliography 267
Notes on Contributors 295
Index
297
Preface
Th e s e essays are t he pr oduct of i nt ensi ve di scussi ons hel d at
t he School o f Ame r i ca n Resear ch in Sant a Fe, New Mexi co, dur i ng
Apr i l 1984. Fol l owi ng the school' s f or mat for " advanced semi nar s, "
conver sat i ons cont i nued over a week, and the numbe r of part i ci pant s
was strictly l i mi t ed to ten. T h e gr oup di scussed paper s ci r cul at ed i n
advance and expl or ed a wi de r ange of t opi cs r el evant to t he semi nar' s
f ocus on "t he ma ki ng of et hnogr aphi c t ext s. " Some of t he part i ci pant s
had been r ecent i nnovat or s in t he wr i t i ng of et hnogr aphy (Paul
Rabi now, Vi nc e nt Cr apanzano, Renat o Rosal do, Mi chael Fi scher );
ot her s had been syst emat i cal l y devel opi ng cri t i ques of its hi st ory,
r het or i c, and cur r ent pr ospect s (Mary Loui se Pratt, Rober t Thor nt on,
St ephen Tyl er , Tal al As ad, Ge or ge Mar cus, James Cl i f f or d). Al l we r e
i nvol ved wi t h advanced, ongoi ng wor k in t ext ual cri t i ci sm and cul -
t ural t heor y. Ei ght of t he ten part i ci pant s had backgr ounds in ant hr o-
pol ogy, one in history, one in l i t erary st udi es. Th e gr oup' s cent er o f
gr avi t y in one hel d, cul t ural ant hr opol ogy, ens ur ed a c o mmo n l an-
gua ge and r ange of r ef er ence, t hus al l owi ng t he exchanges to t ake
pl ace at an advanced l evel . But t he semi nar' s scope was i nt erdi sci pl i n-
ary. Al l t he part i ci pant s had quest i oned di sci pl i nes and genr es in t hei r
r ecent wor k, dr awi ng as needed f r om historical, literary, ant hr opol og-
ical, pol i t i cal , and phi l osophi cal sources. Mor e i nf or mat i on is con-
t ai ned in t he "Not es on Cont r i but or s " (pp. 29596 bel ow), and t he
vol ume' s c o mmo n Bi bl i ogr aphy gi ves full citations of r el evant wor ks
by each i ndi vi dual . Of t he t en essays pr esent ed at t he semi nar , ni ne
ar e i ncl uded her e. (For cont i ngent reasons, Rober t Th o r n t o n coul d
not revi se his i n t i me to meet t he deadl i ne. )
By l ooki ng critically at one of the pri nci pal t hi ngs et hnogr apher s
dothat is, wr i t et he semi nar sought bot h to r ei nt er pr et cul t ur al
ant hr opol ogy' s r ecent past and to open up its f ut ur e possibilities. Bu t
whi l e pur s ui ng t ext ual and l i t erary anal yses, the semi nar also consi d-
er ed t he l i mi t at i ons of such appr oaches. Several paper s st ressed, and
t he di scussi ons r epeat edl y r et ur ned to, l ar ger cont ext s of syst emat i c
viii Preface
powe r i nequal i t y, wor l d-syst ems const rai nt s, and i nst i t ut i onal f or ma-
t i ons t hat coul d onl y part l y be account ed f or by a focus on t ext ual pr o-
duct i on. T h e semi nar t hus pur s ued a l i mi t ed set of emphas es self-
critically i n an at t empt to come to t erms wi t h t he politics and poet i cs
of cul t ur al r epr esent at i on. For a ful l er account of t he Sant a Fe di scus-
sions (i ncl udi ng t opi cs that have not f ound t hei r way i nt o this vol ume) ,
see t he r epor t publ i shed in Current Anthropology 26 ( Apr i l 1985):
26771. Some of t he mor e bl at ant excl usi ons pr oduced by t he or ga-
ni zat i on and focus of t he semi nar are di scussed t her e, as wel l as in t he
I nt r oduct i on that i mmedi at el y fol l ows this Preface.
T h e essays in this vol ume ar e all revi sed versi ons of t he wor ki ng
paper s pr es ent ed at t he semi nar . Some are now qui t e di fferent . As
edi t or s we have not pr odde d t hem t owar d t hemat i c uni t y or t ri ed t o
cont r i ve artificial "conver sat i ons" bet ween t hem. Reader s will doubt -
less find fri ct i on as wel l as agr eement . Nor have we t ri ed to i mpos e a
uni f or mi t y o f style on the essays; on the cont rary, we have encour aged
di versi t y. T h e sequent i al or der i ng of t he vol ume' s part s does not hol d
any gr eat si gni fi cance. Th e r e is a gener al pr ogr essi on f r om st udi es
wi t h a literary bent t owar d t hose that quest i on this emphasisfor ex-
ample, Rabi now' s critical framing of the ent i re "textualist" approach.
T h e essays t end, also, to move from ret rospect i ve cri t i ques of et hno-
graphic convent i ons to di scussi ons of cur r ent possibilities f or exper i -
ment al wor k. By this l ogi c, Tyl er' s evocat i on of a "pos t - moder n et h-
nogr a phy" mi ght have been pl aced at the end. But in fact his essay
l ooks to pr e- moder n sources for the post - moder n and is gener al l y un-
classifiable. We di d not wi sh to l eave t he i mpr essi on that t he vol ume as
a whol e points in any Utopian or pr ophet i c di rect i on.
As edi t or s, we woul d part i cul arl y like to t hank the semi nar part i ci -
pant s f or t hei r cooper at i on and good humor ; t he School of Ame r i c a n
Res ear ch (not abl y its presi dent , Dougl as Schwar t z, and its di r ect or of
publ i cat i ons, Jane Kepp) for hospitality and encour agement ; t he Hu-
mani t i es Di vi si on at t he Uni versi t y of Cal i for ni a, Sant a Cr uz; and es-
peci al l y Bar bar a Podr at z, wi t h t he hel p of Mar gi Wal d, at Ri ce Uni -
versity, f or assistance in pr epar i ng t he manuscr i pt . At the Uni versi t y
of Cal i f or ni a Press, Naomi Schnei der and James Cl ar k of f er ed edi -
t ori al hel p and encour agement . We are grat eful , also, t o mor e t han a
few press and nonpr ess r eader s of t he manuscr i pt , not onl y f or t hei r
specific suggest i ons, but especi al l y f or t hei r gener al ent husi asm. Th e y
conf i r med our hope that the book woul d strike an i mpor t ant , cont r o-
versi al chor d in all t hose fields wher e et hnogr aphy and cul t ural criti-
ci sm are becomi ng i mpor t ant . Many of t hese r eader s ar e fully as qual i -
fied to cont r i but e to a vol ume on this topic as are t he t en i ndi vi dual s
wh o gat her ed at Sant a Fe. Th e quest i ons rai sed in t he pages that: fol-
Preface
ix
l ow ar e bei ng wi del y debat ed; we di d not i nvent t hem. We t rust t hat
t hose wh o have al r eady cont r i but ed to the debat e will find t hemsel ves
appr opr i at el y t hanked, or at least engaged.
Fi nal l y, as an I nvocat i on, we offer the f ol l owi ng verses compos e d
i n mock despai r by our first edi t ori al r eader , Jane Ke pp, di ct i onar y
i n hand.
The Hermeneut's Dilemma, or, A Jargon Poem
Twas prel apsari an, and the hermeneut
Sat huddl e d wi th his faithful trope,
Sunk in t haumasmus, idly st rummi ng his lute,
Lost in subversi on with nary a hope.
Th e n with heartfel t apopl anesi s he cried,
O come, i nterl ocutor, give me your ear!
In my pat hopoei a I've sl andered and lied;
Now of my gri m project this di scourse you'll hear.
I've dabbl ed i n vile phenomenol ogi cal rites,
And j oi ne d in a secret synecdoche,
Squandered my recei ved knowl edge in bi bul ous ni ghts,
And embraced epi stemol ogi ca! heresy.
O, but now my met onymy is t oo great t o bear!
Thi s ecphonesi s has become too deictic to hi de!
I've lost all t he poesi s I once hel d so dear . . .
And, with typical hypotyposi s, he di ed.
James Cl i f f or d
University of California, Santa Cruz
Ge o r g e E. Mar cus
Rice University
J AMES CLI FFORD
Introduction: Partial Truths
Interdisciplinary work, so much discussed these days, is not
about confronting already constituted disciplines (none of
which, in fact, is willing to let itself go). To do something in-
terdisciplinary it's not enough to choose a "subject" (a theme)
and gather around it two or three sciences. Interdisciplinary
consists in creating a new object that belongs to no one.
ROLAND BARTHES , "Jeunes Chercheurs"
You'll need more tables than you think.
ELENORE SMI TH BOWEN, advice for fieldworkers,
in Return to Laughter
Ou r front i spi ece shows St ephen Tyl er , one of this vol ume' s
cont r i but or s, at wor k in I ndi a in 1963. Th e et hnogr apher is abs or bed
i n wr i t i ngt aki ng di ct at i on? fleshing out an i nt er pr et at i on? r ecor d-
i ng an i mpor t ant observat i on? dashi ng off a poem? Hunc he d over i n
t he heat , he has dr aped a wet cl ot h over his glasses. Hi s expr essi on is
obs cur ed. An i nt er l ocut or l ooks over his s houl der wi t h bor e dom?
pat i ence? amus ement ? In this i mage t he et hnogr apher hover s at t he
e dge of t he f r amef acel ess, al most ext rat errest ri al , a hand t hat
wr i t es. It is not t he usual port rai t of ant hr opol ogi cal fieldwork. We ar e
mor e accus t omed to pi ct ures of Mar gar et Mead exuber ant l y pl ayi ng
wi t h chi l dr en in Manus or quest i oni ng vi l l agers in Bal i . Part i ci pant -
obser vat i on, t he classic f or mul a for et hnogr aphi c wor k, l eaves little
r oom f or t ext s. But still, s omewher e lost in his account of hel dwor k
a mo n g t he Mbut i pygmi e s r unni ng al ong j ungl e pat hs, sitting up at
ni ght si ngi ng, s l eepi ng in a cr owded l eaf hut Col i n Tur nbul l men-
t i ons t hat he l ugge d ar ound a t ypewr i t er .
I n Br oni sl aw Mal i nowski ' s Argonauts of the Western Pacific, wher e a
phot ogr a ph of t he et hnogr apher ' s t ent a mong Ki r i wi nan dwel l i ngs is
pr omi nent l y di spl ayed, t her e is no revel at i on of t he tent' s i nt eri or. But
in anot her phot o, careful l y posed, Mal i nowski r ecor ded hi msel f wri t -
2
JAMES CLIFFORD
i ng at a table. ( The tent flaps are pul l ed back; he sits in pr ohl e, and
some Tr obr i ander s stand out si de, observi ng the curi ous rite.) Thi s re-
mar kabl e pi ct ure was only publ i shed two years agoa si gn of our
ti mes, not his.
1
We begi n, not wi th parti ci pant-observati on or wi t h cul-
t ural texts (suitable for i nterpretati on), but wi th wri t i ng, the maki ng
of texts. No l onger a margi nal , or occul t ed, di mensi on, wri t i ng has
emer ged as cent ral to what ant hropol ogi st s do bot h in the hel d and
t hereaft er. Th e fact that it has not until recently been por t r ayed or
seri ously di scussed reflects the persistence of an i deol ogy cl ai mi ng
t ransparency of represent at i on and i mmedi acy of exper i ence. Wri t -
i ng r educed to met hod: keepi ng good field notes, maki ng accurat e
maps, "wri t i ng up" results.
Th e essays collected here assert that this i deol ogy has cr umbl ed.
Th e y see cul t ure as composed of seriously contested codes and repre-
sentati ons; they assume that the poetic and the political are i nsepar-
abl e, that science is in, not above, historical and linguistic processes.
Th e y assume that academi c and literary genres i nt erpenet rat e and
that the wri t i ng of cultural descri pti ons is properl y exper i ment al and
ethical. The i r focus on text maki ng and rhetori c serves to hi ghl i ght
t he const ruct ed, artificial nat ure of cultural account s. It under mi nes
overl y t ransparent modes of authority, and it draws attenti on to the
historical pr edi cament of et hnography, the fact that it is always caught
up in t he i nvent i on, not the represent at i on, of cul t ures ( Wagner
19 7 5 ) . As will soon be apparent , the range of issues rai sed is not liter-
ary in any tradi ti onal sense. Most of the essays, whi l e focusi ng on tex-
tual pract i ces, reach beyond texts to cont ext s of power, resistance, in-
stitutional constrai nt, and i nnovat i on.
Et hnogr aphy' s tradition is that of Her odot us and of Mont esqui eu' s
Persi an. It l ooks obli quely at all collective ar r angement s, distant or
nearby. It makes the familiar strange, the exotic quot i di an. Et hnog-
r aphy cultivates an engaged clarity like that ur ged by Vi r gi ni a Wool f:
"Let us never cease f r om t hi nki ngwhat is this ' civilization' in whi ch
we find oursel ves? What are these ceremoni es and why shoul d we t ake
part in t hem? What are these professions and why shoul d we make
money out of t hem? Wher e in short is it l eadi ng us, the processi on of
t he sons of educat ed men?" (19 36: 6 2 - 6 3 ) . Et hnogr aphy is actively
situated between power f ul systems of meani ng. It poses its quest i ons at
the boundar i es of civilizations, cultures, classes, races, and gender s.
Et hnogr aphy decodes and recodes, telling the gr ounds of collecti ve
or der and diversity, inclusion and excl usi on. It descri bes processes of
1. Malinowski 19 6 1: 17 . The photograph inside the tent was published in 1983 by
George Stocking in History of Anthropology 1: 10 1. This volume contains other telling
scenes of ethnographic writing.
Int roduct i on
3
i nnovat i on and structurati on, and is itself part of these processes.
Et hnogr aphy is an emer gent i nterdi sci pli nary phenomenon. Its
aut hori t y and rhet ori c have spread to many fields wher e "cul t ure" is
a newl y probl emat i c object of descri pt i on and cri ti que. Th e present
book, t hough begi nni ng wi th fieldwork and its texts, opens ont o t he
wi der practi ce of wri t i ng about, against, and among cul t ures. Thi s
bl ur r ed pur vi ew i ncl udes, to name only a few devel opi ng perspec-
tives, hi stori cal et hnogr aphy ( Emmanuel Le Roy Ladur i e, Natali e
Davi s, Car l o Gi nzbur g) , cultural poetics (St ephen Greenbl at t ), cul t ural
criticism ( Hayden Whi t e, Edwar d Said, Fredri c Jameson), the analysis
of i mpli ci t knowl edge and everyday practices (Pierre Bour di eu, Mi chel
de Cer t eau) , the cri ti que of hegemoni c structures of feel i ng ( Raymond
Wi l l i ams), t he st udy of scientific communi t i es (fol l owi ng Thoma s
Kuhn) , t he semiotics of exotic worl ds and fantastic spaces ( Tzvet an
Todor ov, Loui s Mari n), and all those studies that focus on meani ng
systems, di sput ed traditions, or cultural artifacts.
Thi s compl ex i nterdi sci pli nary area, appr oached her e from the
starti ng poi nt of a crisis in ant hropol ogy, is changi ng and di verse.
Thus I do not want to i mpose a false unity on the expl or at or y essays
that follow. Th o u g h shari ng a general sympat hy for appr oaches com-
bi ni ng poeti cs, politics, and history, they frequently di sagree. Many
of t he cont ri but i ons fuse literary t heory and et hnogr aphy. Some
pr obe t he limits of such approaches, stressing the danger s of estheti-
ci sm and the constraints of institutional power. Ot her s enthusiastically
advocat e exper i ment al forms of wri ti ng. But in thei r di fferent ways
t hey all anal yze past and present practices out of a commi t ment to fu-
t ure possibilities. The y see et hnogr aphi c wri t i ng as changi ng, i nven-
tive: "Hi st ory, " in Wi l l i am Carl os Williams' s words, "that shoul d be a
left hand to us, as of a violinist."
"Li t erary" appr oaches have recently enj oyed some popul ari t y
in t he huma n sci ences. In ant hr opol ogy influential wri ters such as
Cl i fford Geer t z, Vi ct or Tur ner , Mary Dougl as, Cl aude Lvi -St rauss,
Jean Duvi gnaud, and Edmund Leach, to ment i on only a few, have
shown an i nterest in literary t heory and practice. In their quite differ-
ent ways t hey have bl ur r ed the boundar y separat i ng art from sci ence.
Nor is t hei rs a new attraction. Malinowski' s authori al identifications
( Conr ad, Frazer) are well known. Mar gar et Mead, Edwar d Sapi r,
and Rut h Benedi ct saw t hemsel ves as bot h ant hropol ogi st s and liter-
ary artists. I n Paris surreal i sm and professi onal et hnogr aphy r egu-
larly exchanged bot h ideas and personnel . But until recently literary
i nfl uences have been hel d at a distance from the "ri gorous" core of
4
JAMES CLIFFORD
t he di sci pli ne. Sapi r and Benedi ct had, after all, to hi de thei r poet r y
f r om t he scientific gaze of Franz Boas. An d t hough et hnogr apher s
have oft en been cal l ed novelists manqu (especially t hose who wri te a
little t oo wel l ), the not i on that literary pr ocedur es per vade any wor k
of cul t ural represent at i on is a recent i dea in the discipline. To a gr ow-
i ng number , however , t he "literariness" of ant hr opol ogyand espe-
cially of et hnogr aphyappear s as much mor e t han a mat t er of good
wri t i ng or distinctive style.
2
Li t erary processesmet aphor, figuration,
narrat i veaffect the ways cultural phenomena are regi st ered, f r om
t he first j ot t ed "observat i ons, " to the compl et ed book, to the ways
t hese confi gurat i ons "make sense" in det ermi ned acts of r eadi ng.
3
It has l ong been asserted that scientific ant hr opol ogy is also an
"art," that et hnogr aphi es have literary qualities. We oft en hear that an
aut hor wri tes wi t h style, that certai n descri pti ons are vivid or convi nc-
i ng (shoul d not every accurat e descri pt i on be convi nci ng?). A wor k is
deemed evocat i ve or artfully composed in addi t i on to bei ng fact ual ;
expressi ve, rhet ori cal functi ons are concei ved as decorat i ve or mer el y
as ways to present an objective analysis or descri pt i on mor e effectively.
Th u s t he facts of t he mat t er may be kept separate, at least in pri nci pl e,
f r om t hei r means of communi cat i on. But the literary or rhet ori cal di-
mensi ons of et hnogr aphy can no l onger be so easily compar t ment al -
i zed. Th e y ar e active at every level of cultural science. I ndeed, the very
not i on of a "li terary" appr oach to a discipline, "ant hropol ogy, " is seri-
ousl y mi sl eadi ng.
T h e present essays do not represent a t endency or perspect i ve
wi t hi n a coher ent "ant hr opol ogy" (pace Wol f 1980 ). Th e "four-fi el d"
defi ni t i on of the di sci pli ne, of whi ch Boas was perhaps t he last vir-
t uoso, i ncl uded physi cal (or biological) ant hropol ogy, archaeol ogy, cul-
t ural (or social) ant hropol ogy, and linguistics. Few today can seri ously
cl ai m that these fields share a unified appr oach or object, t hough t he
dr eam persists, t hanks l argel y to institutional ar r angement s. Th e es-
says in this vol ume occupy a new space opened up by t he di si nt egra-
t i on of "Man" as telos for a whol e discipline, and t hey dr aw on recent
devel opment s i n the fields of textual criticism, cultural history, semi o-
tics, her meneut i c phi l osophy, and psychoanalysi s. Some years ago, in
2. A partial list of works exploring this expanded field of the "literary" in anthro-
pology includes (not mentioning contributors to the present volume): Boon 1972,
1977, 1982; Geertz 1973, 1983; Turner 1974, 1975; Fernandez 1974; Diamond 1974;
Duvignaud 1970 , 1973; Favret-Saada 1980; Favret-Saada and Contreras 1981; Dumont
1978; Tedlock 1983; Jamin 1979, 1980, 1985; Webster 1982; Thornton 1983, 1984.
3. See the work of Hayden White (1973, 1978) for a tropological theory of "pre-
figured" realities; also Latour and Woolgar (1979) for a view of scientific activity as
"inscription."
Int roduct i on
5
a t renchant essay, Rodney Needham surveyed the theoreti cal i ncoher-
ence, t angl ed roots, i mpossi ble bedfel l ows, and di ver gent specializa-
tions that seemed to be l eadi ng to academi c ant hropol ogy' s i ntellectual
di si nt egrat i on. He suggest ed wi th ironic equani mi t y that t he field
mi ght soon be redi st ri but ed among a variety of nei ghbor i ng disci-
pli nes. Ant hr opol ogy in its present f or m woul d under go "an irides-
cent met amor phosi s" ( 19 7 0 : 46) . Th e present essays are part of t he
met amor phosi s.
But i f t hey are post -ant hropol ogi cal , they are also post-literary.
Mi chel Foucaul t ( 19 7 3) , Mi chel de Cer t eau (1983), and Ter r y Eagl et on
(1983) have recent l y ar gued that "literature" itself is a transi ent cate-
gor y. Si nce t he sevent eent h cent ury, they suggest , West ern sci ence has
excl uded cert ai n expressi ve modes from its legi ti mate repert oi re:
rhet ori c (in t he name of "plain, " t ransparent signification), fiction (in
t he name of fact), and subjectivity (in the name of objectivity). Th e
quali ti es el i mi nat ed f r om science wer e localized in t he cat egory of "lit-
erat ure. " Li t erary texts wer e deemed to be met aphori c and al l egori -
cal, compos ed of i nvent i ons rat her t han observed facts; they al l owed a
wi de l at i t ude to the emot i ons, speculati ons, and subjective "geni us" of
t hei r aut hors. De Cer t eau notes that the fictions of literary l anguage
wer e scientifically condemned (and esthetically appreci at ed) for lack-
i ng "uni voci t y, " the pur por t edl y unambi guous account i ng of nat ural
sci ence and professi onal history. In this schema, the di scourse o f liter-
at ure and fiction is i nherent l y unstable; it "plays on the stratification
of meani ng; it narrat es one t hi ng in or der to tell somet hi ng el se; it
del i neat es itself in a l anguage from whi ch it cont i nuousl y draws
effects of meani ng that cannot be ci rcumscri bed or checked" (1983 :
128). Thi s di scourse, repeat edl y bani shed from science, but wi t h un-
even success, is i ncurabl y figurative and pol ysemous. ( Whenever its
effects begi n to be felt too openl y, a scientific t ext will appear "liter-
ary"; it will seem to be usi ng too many met aphors, to be r el yi ng on
style, evocat i on, and so on. )
4
By the ni net eent h cent ury, literature had emer ged as a bour geoi s
institution closely alli ed wi th "cul t ure" and "art." Raymond Wi l l i ams
(1966) shows how this special, refi ned sensibility funct i oned as a ki nd
o f cour t o f appeal s in response to the percei ved dislocations and vul -
gari t y of i ndust ri al , class society. Li t erat ure and art were, in effect, cir-
4. "It might be objected that figurative style is not the only style, or even the only
poetic style, and that rhetoric also takes cognizance of what is called simple style. But in
fact this is merely a less decorated style, or rather, a style decorated more simply, and it,
too, like the lyric and the epic, has its own special figures. A style in which figure is
strictly absent does not exist," writes Grard Genette (1982 :47).
6
JAMES CLIFFORD
cums cr i bed zones in whi ch nonut i l i t ari an, "hi gher " val ues wer e mai n-
t ai ned. At t he same t i me t hey wer e domai ns for the pl ayi ng out of
exper i ment al , avant - gar de t ransgressi ons. Seen in this l i ght , t he i deo-
l ogi cal f or mat i ons of art and cul t ur e have no essential or et er nal sta-
t us. Th e y ar e changi ng and cont est abl e, like t he speci al r het or i c of
"l i t erat ure. " T h e essays that fol l ow do not, in fact, appeal t o a l i t erary
pract i ce ma r ke d off in an esthetic, creat i ve, or humani zi ng domai n.
Th e y s t r uggl e, i n t hei r di ffer ent ways, agai nst the r ecei ved defi ni t i ons
o f art, l i t erat ure, sci ence, and history. An d if t hey somet i mes suggest
t hat et hnogr aphy is an "art," t hey r et ur n t he wor d to an ol der us a ge
bef or e it had be come associ at ed wi t h a hi gher or rebel l i ous sensibil-
i t yt o t he ei ght eent h- cent ur y meani ng Wi l l i ams recal l s: art as t he
skillful f ashi oni ng of useful artifacts. Th e maki ng of et hnogr aphy is
art i sanal , t i ed t o t he wor l dl y wor k o f wri t i ng.
Et hnogr aphi c wr i t i ng is det er mi ned in at least six ways: (1) con-
t ext ual l y (it dr aws f r om and creat es meani ngf ul social mi l i eux); (2)
r het or i cal l y (it uses and is used by expressi ve convent i ons); (3) institu-
t i onal l y (one wri t es wi t hi n, and agai nst , specific t radi t i ons, di sci pl i nes,
audi ences); (4) gener i cal l y (an et hnogr aphy is usual l y di st i ngui shabl e
f r om a novel or a travel account ); (5) politically (the aut hori t y to r ep-
r esent cul t ur al realities is unequal l y shar ed and at t i mes cont est ed);
(6) hi st ori cal l y (all t he above convent i ons and const rai nt s ar e chang-
i ng). Th e s e det er mi nat i ons gover n t he i nscri pt i on of coher ent et hno-
gr aphi c fictions.
To call et hnogr aphi es fictions may raise empi ri ci st hackl es. But
t he wor d as commonl y used in r ecent t ext ual t heor y has lost its con-
not at i on o f f al sehood, o f s omet hi ng mer el y oppos ed t o t rut h. It sug-
gest s t he partiality of cul t ural and historical t rut hs, t he ways t hey are
syst emat i c and excl usi ve. Et hnogr aphi c wri t i ngs can pr oper l y be
cal l ed fictions i n t he sense of "s omet hi ng ma de or f ashi oned, " t he
pr i nci pal bur de n of t he word' s Lat i n root , fingere. But it is i mpor t ant
to pr es er ve t he meani ng not mer el y of maki ng, but also of maki ng up,
o f i nvent i ng t hi ngs not act ual l y real . (Fingere, in some of its uses, i m-
pl i ed a de gr e e of fal sehood. ) Int er pr et i ve social scientists have re-
cent l y come to vi ew good et hnogr aphi es as "t rue fictions," but usual l y
at t he cost of weakeni ng the oxymor on, r educi ng it to t he banal cl ai m
t hat all t rut hs are const r uct ed. Th e essays col l ect ed her e keep t he oxy-
mo r o n shar p. For exampl e, Vi ncent Cr apanzano por t r ays et hnog-
r apher s as t ri ckst ers, pr omi si ng, like Her mes , not to lie, but never un-
der t aki ng t o tell t he whol e t rut h ei t her. The i r rhet ori c empower s and
subverts t hei r message. Ot he r essays r ei nf or ce t he poi nt by st ressi ng
t hat cul t ur al fictions are based on systematic, and cont est abl e, excl u-
si ons. Th e s e may i nvol ve si l enci ng i ncongr uent voi ces ( " Two Cr o ws
Int roduct i on
7
deni es it!") or depl oyi ng a consi st ent manner of quot i ng, " s peaki ng
for , " t ransl at i ng t he reality of ot hers. Pur por t edl y i r r el evant per sonal
or hi st ori cal ci r cumst ances will also be excl uded (one cannot tell al l ).
Mor e ove r , t he maker (but why onl y one?) of et hnogr aphi c t ext s can-
not avoi d expr es s i ve t r opes, figures, and al l egori es t hat sel ect and i m-
pos e me a ni ng as t hey translate it. In this view, mor e Ni et zs chean t han
realist or her meneut i c, all const r uct ed t rut hs ar e ma de possi bl e by
power f ul "l i es" of excl usi on and rhet ori c. Even t he best et hnogr aphi c
t ext sser i ous, t rue fictionsare systems, or economi es , of t rut h.
Power and hi st ory wor k t hr ough t hem, in ways t hei r aut hor s cannot
fully cont r ol .
Et hnogr aphi c t rut hs are t hus i nherent l y partialcommitted and
i ncompl et e. Thi s poi nt is now wi del y asser t edand resi st ed at strate-
gic poi nt s by t hose who fear t he col l apse of cl ear st andar ds of veri fi ca-
t i on. But once accept ed and bui l t i nt o et hnogr aphi c art, a r i gor ous
sense of partiality can be a sour ce of represent at i onal tact. A r ecent
wor k by Ri char d Pri ce, First-Time: The Historical Vision of an Afro-
American People (1983), offers a good exampl e of sel f-consci ous, se-
ri ous partiality. Pri ce r ecount s the specific condi t i ons of his fieldwork
a mo n g t he Sar amakas, a Mar oon society of Sur i name. We l ear n about
ext er nal and sel f-i mposed limits to t he r esear ch, about i ndi vi dual i n-
f or mant s, and about the const ruct i on of the final wri t t en artifact.
( Th e book avoi ds a smoot hed- over , monol ogi cal f or m, pr es ent i ng it-
sel f as literally pi eced- t oget her , full of holes. ) First-Time is evi dence of
t he fact that acut e political and epi st emol ogi cal sel f-consci ousness
ne e d not l ead t o et hnogr aphi c sel f-absorpt i on, or t o t he concl us i on
t hat it is i mpossi bl e to know anyt hi ng cert ai n about ot her peopl e.
Rat her , it l eads to a concr et e sense of why a Sar amaka fol kt al e, fea-
t ur ed by Pri ce, t eaches that " knowl edge is power , and that one must
never r eveal all of what one knows " ( 1 98 3: 1 4) .
A c ompl e x t echni que o f revel at i on and secrecy gover ns t he com-
muni cat i on (rei nvent i on) of "Fi r st - Ti me" knowl edge, l ore about t he
society' s cruci al st r uggl es for survi val in the ei ght eent h cent ur y. Us i ng
t echni ques o f del i ber at e frust rat i on, di gressi on, and i ncompl et eness,
ol d me n i mpar t t hei r historical knowl edge to younger ki nsmen, pref-
er abl y at cock' s crow, t he hour bef or e dawn. Th e s e st rat egi es of el -
lipsis, conceal ment , and partial di scl osure det er mi ne et hnogr aphi c
rel at i ons as much as t hey do the t ransmi ssi on of stories bet ween gen-
er at i ons. Pri ce has t o accept t he par adoxi cal fact t hat "any Sar amaka
nar r at i ve (i ncl udi ng t hose told at cock' s cr ow wi t h the ost ensi bl e i nt ent
o f communi ca t i ng knowl edge) will l eave out most of what t he t el l er
knows about t he i nci dent in quest i on. A person' s knowl edge is sup-
posed to gr ow onl y in small i ncr ement s, and in any aspect of life
8
JAMES CLIFFORD
peopl e are del i berat el y told onl y a little bit mor e than the speaker
t hi nks t hey al ready know" (10 ).
It soon becomes appar ent that t here is no "compl et e" cor pus of
Fi r st - Ti me knowl edge, that no onel east of all the visiting et hnog-
r apher can know this l ore except t hr ough an open- ended series of
cont i ngent , power - l aden encount ers. "It is accept ed that di fferent
Sar amaka historians will have di fferent versions, and it is up to t he
l i st ener to pi ece t oget her for hi msel f the versi on of an event that he,
for t he t i me bei ng, accept s" (28). Th o u g h Price, the scrupul ous field-
wor ker and hi stori an, ar med with wri ti ng, has gat her ed a t ext that
surpasses in ext ent what i ndi vi dual s know or tell, it still "represent s
onl y t he ti p of t he i ceberg that Saramakas collectively pr eser ve about
Fi r st - Ti me" (25).
Th e ethical quest i ons raised by f or mi ng a wri t t en ar chi ve of se-
cret, oral lore are consi derabl e, and Price wrestles wi th t hem openl y.
Part of his soluti on has been to under mi ne the compl et eness of his
own account (but not its seriousness) by publ i shi ng a book that is
a series of fragment s. Th e ai m is not to indicate unfort unat e gaps
r emai ni ng i n our knowl edge o f ei ght eent h-cent ury Sar amaka life,
but rat her to present an i nherent l y i mperfect mode of knowl edge,
whi ch pr oduces gaps as it fills t hem. Thoug h Price hi msel f is not free
of t he desi re to wri te a compl et e et hnogr aphy or history, to port ray a
"whol e way of li fe" (24), the message of partiality resonat es t hr ough-
out First-Time.
Et hnogr apher s ar e mor e and mor e like the Cr e hunt er who (the
story goes) came to Mont real to testify in court concer ni ng the fate of
his hunt i ng l ands i n the new James Bay hydroel ect ri c scheme. He
woul d descri be his way of life. But when admi ni st ered the oat h he
hesi t at ed: "I' m not sure I can tell the truth. . . . I can onl y tell what
I know. "
It is useful to recall that the witness was speaki ng artfully, in a
det er mi ni ng cont ext of power. Si nce Mi chel Leiris' s early essay of
19 5 0 , "L' Et hnogr aphe devant le col oni al i sme" (but why so late?), an-
t hr opol ogy has had to reckon with historical det ermi nat i on and politi-
cal conflict in its midst. A rapi d decade, from 1950 to i 9 60 , saw t he
end of empi r e become a wi del y accept ed project, i f not an accom-
pl i shed fact. Geor ges Balandi er' s "situation coloniale" was suddenl y
visible ( 19 5 5 ) . Imperi al relations, formal and i nformal , wer e no l onger
the accept ed rul e of t he gamet o be r ef or med pi ecemeal , or i roni cally
di st anced in vari ous ways. Endur i ng power inequalities had clearly
const rai ned et hnogr aphi c practice. Thi s "situation" was felt earliest in
Int roduct i on
9
France, l argel y because of the Vi et namese and Al ger i an conflicts and
t hr ough t he wri t i ngs of an et hnographi cal l y aware gr oup of bl ack
intellectuals and poet s, the ngritude movement of Ai m Csai re,
Lopold Senghor , Ren Mni l , and Lon Damas. Th e pages of Pres-
ence Africaine i n t he earl y fifties offered an unusual f or um for col l abo-
rat i on bet ween these wri ters and social scientists like Bal andi er, Lei ri s,
Mar cel Gr i aul e, Edmond Or t i gues, and Paul Rivet. In ot her count ri es
t he crise de conscience came somewhat later. One thinks of Jacques
Maquet ' s influential essay "Objecti vi ty in Ant hr opol ogy" (1964), Del l
Hymes' s Reinventing Anthropology ( 19 7 3) , the work of Stanley Di amond
( 19 7 4) , Bob Scholte ( 19 7 1, 19 7 2, 1978), Gr ar d Lecl erc ( 19 7 2) , and
part i cul arl y of Tal al Asad' s collecti on Anthropology and the Colonial En-
counter ( 19 7 3) , whi ch has sti mulated much cl ari fyi ng debat e (Firth
et al. 19 7 7 ) .
In popul ar i mager y the et hnogr apher has shifted from a sympa-
thetic, aut hori t at i ve observer (best i ncarnated, perhaps, by Mar gar et
Mead) to t he unfl at t eri ng figure port rayed by Vi ne Del ori a in Custer
Died for Your Sins (1969). I ndeed, the negat i ve portrai t has somet i mes
har dened into cari cat uret he ambi ti ous social scientist maki ng off
wi t h tribal l ore and gi vi ng not hi ng in ret urn, i mposi ng cr ude portrai ts
on subt l e peopl es, or (most recent l y) servi ng as dupe for sophi st i cat ed
i nformant s. Such portraits are about as realistic as the earl i er heroi c
versi ons of part i ci pant -observat i on. Et hnogr aphi c wor k has i ndeed
been enmes hed in a worl d of endur i ng and changi ng power i nequal i -
ties, and it cont i nues to be i mpl i cat ed. It enacts power relati ons. But
its funct i on wi thi n these relations is compl ex, often ambi val ent , po-
tentially count er - hegemoni c.
Di fferent rules of the game for et hnogr aphy are now emer gi ng in
many parts of t he worl d. An out si der st udyi ng Nat i ve Amer i can cul-
t ures may expect , per haps as a r equi r ement for cont i nui ng research,
to testify in suppor t of l and claim litigation. An d a variety of formal
restrictions are now pl aced on fi el dwork by i ndi genous gover nment s
at nat i onal and local levels. Thes e condi t i on in new ways what can, and
especi al l y cannot , be said about part i cul ar peopl es. A new figure has
ent er ed t he scene, the "i ndi genous et hnogr apher " (Fahi m, ed. 1982;
Ohnuki - Ti er ney 1984). Insi ders st udyi ng their own cul t ures offer
new angl es o f vi si on and dept hs of underst andi ng. The i r account s are
empower ed and restricted in uni que ways. The di verse post- and neo-
col oni al rul es for et hnogr aphi c practi ce do not necessarily encour age
"bet t er" cul t ural account s. Th e criteria for j udgi ng a good account
have never been settled and are changi ng. But what ' has emer ged
from all these i deol ogi cal shifts, rul e changes, and new compr omi ses
is the fact that a series of historical pressures have begun to reposi t i on
I O
JAMES CLIFFORD
ant hr opol ogy wi t h r espect to its "object s" of st udy. Ant hr opol ogy no
l onger speaks wi t h aut omat i c aut hori t y for ot her s def i ned as unabl e to
s peak f or t hemsel ves ("pri mi t i ve, " "pre-l i t erat e, " "wi t hout hi st ory").
Ot h e r gr oups can less easily be di st anced in speci al , al most al ways past
or passi ng, t i mes r epr es ent ed as i f t hey wer e not i nvol ved in t he
pr es ent wor l d syst ems t hat i mpl i cat e et hnogr apher s al ong wi t h t he
peopl es t hey st udy. " Cul t ur es " do not hol d still for t hei r port rai t s. At -
t empt s to make t hem do so al ways i nvol ve si mpl i fi cat i on and excl u-
si on, sel ect i on of a t empor al focus, the const ruct i on of a part i cul ar
sel f-ot her rel at i onshi p, and t he i mposi t i on or negot i at i on of a powe r
r el at i onshi p.
T h e cri t i que of col oni al i sm i n the post war per i odan under -
mi ni ng o f " Th e West ' s" ability to r epr esent ot her soci et i eshas been
r ei nf or ced by an i mpor t ant process of t heor i zi ng about t he limits o f
r epr es ent at i on itself. Th e r e is no way adequat el y to sur vey this mul t i -
f ar i ous cri t i que of what Vi co called t he "seri ous poe m" of cul t ural his-
t ory. Posi t i ons pr ol i fer at e: "her meneut i cs, " "st ruct ural i sm, " "hi st ory
o f ment al i t i es, " "neo- Mar xi s m, " "geneal ogy, " "post -st ruct ural i sm, "
"pos t - moder ni s m, " "pr agmat i sm"; al so a spat e o f "al t ernat e epi st emol -
ogi es "f emi ni s t , et hni c, and non- West er n. Wha t is at st ake, but not
al ways r ecogni zed, is an ongoi ng cri t i que of t he West' s most conf i dent ,
charact eri st i c di scourses. Di verse phi l osophi es may i mpl i ci t l y have this
critical st ance in common. For exampl e, Jacques Derri da' s unr avel i ng
o f l ogocent r i sm, f r om t he Gr eeks t o Fr eud, and Wal t er J. Ong' s qui t e
di f f er ent di agnosi s o f t he consequences of literacy shar e an over ar ch-
i ng rej ect i on o f t he i nst i t ut i onal i zed ways one l ar ge gr oup of huma n-
ity has f or mi l l enni a const r ued its wor l d. Ne w hi st ori cal st udi es o f he-
gemoni c pat t erns of t hought (Marxi st , Annal i st e, Foucaul t i an) have
in c o mmo n wi t h r ecent styles of t ext ual criticism (semiotic, r eader -
r es pons e, post -st ruct ural ) t he convi ct i on that what appear s as "r eal "
i n hi st ory, t he social sci ences, t he arts, even in c ommon sense, is
al ways anal yzabl e as a restrictive and expr essi ve set of soci al codes
and convent i ons. Her meneut i c phi l osophy i n its var yi ng styles, f r om
Wi l he l m Di l t hey and Paul Ri coeur t o Hei degger , r emi nds us t hat t he
si mpl est cul t ural account s are i nt ent i onal creat i ons, that i nt er pr et -
ers const ant l y const ruct t hemsel ves t hr ough t he ot her s t hey st udy.
T h e t went i et h- cent ur y sciences of "l anguage, " f r om Fer di nand de
Saussur e and Roma n Jacobson to Benj ami n Le e Whor f , Sapi r , and
Wi t t genst ei n, have ma de i nescapabl e t he syst emat i c and si t uat i onal
ver bal st ruct ures that det er mi ne all r epr esent at i ons o f reality. Fi nal l y,
t he r et ur n of rhet ori c to an i mpor t ant pl ace i n many fields o f st udy (it
had f or mi l l enni a been at the cor e of West er n educat i on) has made
possi bl e a det ai l ed anat omy of convent i onal expr essi ve modes . Al l i ed
Introduction 11
wi t h semi ot i cs and di scourse analysis, the new rhet ori c is concer ned
wi t h what Kennet h Bur ke cal l ed "strategies for t he encompas s i ng of
si t uat i ons" ( 1969: 3). It is less about how to speak wel l t han about how
t o speak at all, and to act meani ngful l y, in the wor l d of publ i c cul t ur al
symbol s.
T h e i mpact of t hese cri t i ques is begi nni ng to be felt i n et hnogr a-
phy' s sense of its own devel opment . Noncel ebr at or y histories ar e be-
c omi ng c ommon. T h e new histories try to avoi d char t i ng t he di scov-
er y of s ome cur r ent wi s dom (origins of t he cul t ur e concept , and so
for t h); and t hey are suspi ci ous of pr omot i ng and demot i ng i nt el l ec-
t ual pr ecur s or s in or der to confi r m a part i cul ar par adi gm. (For t he
l at t er appr oach, see Har r i s 1968 and Evans-Pr i t char d 1981) . Rat her ,
t he ne w hi st ori es t reat ant hr opol ogi cal i deas as e nme s he d i n l ocal
pract i ces and i nst i t ut i onal const rai nt s, as cont i ngent and oft en "pol i t i -
cal " sol ut i ons to cul t ural pr obl ems. Th e y const r ue sci ence as a soci al
pr ocess. Th e y stress t he historical di scont i nui t i es, as wel l as cont i nui -
ties, of past and pr esent pract i ces, as oft en as not maki ng pr es ent
knowl e dge seem t empor ar y, in mot i on. Th e aut hori t y of a scientific
di sci pl i ne, in this ki nd of historical account , will al ways be medi at ed by
t he cl ai ms of r het or i c and power . '
An o t h e r maj or i mpact of the accumul at i ng pol i t i cal / t heoret i cal
cr i t i que o f ant hr opol ogy may be briefly s ummar i zed as a rej ect i on o f
"vi sual i sm. " On g ( 1967, 1977) , a mong ot hers, has st udi ed ways i n
whi ch t he senses ar e hi erarchi cal l y or der ed in di ffer ent cul t ur es and
epochs . He ar gues that the t rut h of vi si on in West er n, literate cul t ur es
has pr edomi nat ed over t he evi dences of sound and i nt er l ocut i on, of
t ouch, smel l , and taste. (Mary Pratt has obser ved that r ef er ences t o
odor , ver y pr omi nent in travel wri t i ng, are vi rt ual l y absent f r om et h-
nogr a phi e s . )
6
Th e pr edomi nant met aphor s in ant hr opol ogi cal re-
sear ch have been part i ci pant -observat i on, dat a col l ect i on, and cul t ur al
descr i pt i on, all of whi ch pr es uppos e a st andpoi nt out s i del ooki ng
at, obj ect i fyi ng, or, s omewhat cl oser, "r eadi ng, " a gi ven reality. Ong' s
5. I exclude from this category the various histories of "anthropological" ideas,
which must always have a Whiggish cast. I include the strong historicism of George
Stocking, whi ch often has the effect of questioning disciplinary genealogies (for ex-
ample, 1968:6990). The work of Terry Clark on the institutionalization of social sci-
ence (1973) and of Foucault on the sociopolitical constitution of "discursive formations"
(1973) points in the direction I am indicating. See also: Hartog (1980), Duchet (1971),
many works by De Certeau (e.g., 1980), Boon (1982), Rupp-Eisenreich (1984), and the
yearly volume History of Anthropology, edited by Stocking, whose approach goes well be-
yond the history of ideas or theory. An allied approach can be found in recent social
studies of science research: e.g., Knorr-Cetina (1981), Latour (1984), Knorr-Cetina and
Mulkay (1983).
0. An observation by Pratt at the Santa Fe seminar. The relative inattention to
sound is beginning to be corrected in recent ethnographic writing (e.g., Feld 1982).
l'or examples of work unusually attentive to the sensorium, see Stoller (1984a, b).
12
JAMES CLIFFORD.
wor k has been mobi l i zed as a cri ti que of et hnogr aphy by Johannes
Fabi an (1983), who expl ores t he consequences of posi t i ng cul t ural
facts as t hi ngs observed, rat her than, for exampl e, heard, i nvent ed i n
di al ogue, or t ranscri bed. Fol l owi ng Frances Yates (1966), he ar gues
that t he t axonomi c i magi nat i on in the West is st rongl y visualist i n
nat ure, const i t ut i ng cul t ures as i f they wer e theaters of memor y, or
spati ali zed arrays.
I n a rel at ed pol emi c agai nst "Ori ent al i sm" Edwar d Sai d (1978)
identifies persi stent t ropes by whi ch Eur opeans and Amer i cans have
vi sual i zed East ern and Ar ab cul t ures. Th e Or i ent funct i ons as a the-
ater, a st age on whi ch a per f or mance is repeat ed, to be seen f r om a
pr i vi l eged st andpoi nt . (Bart hes [ 19 7 7 ] locates a similar "perspect i ve"
in t he emer gi ng bour geoi s esthetics of Di derot . ) For Sai d, t he Or i ent
is "t ext ual i zed"; its mul t i pl e, di ver gent stories and existential predi ca-
ment s are coherent l y woven as a body of signs susceptible of vi rt uoso
r eadi ng. Thi s Ori ent , occul t ed and fragi le, is br ought l ovi ngl y to l i ght ,
sal vaged i n t he wor k of t he out si de scholar. Th e effect of domi nat i on
in such spat i al / t emporal depl oyment s (not li mi ted, of course, to Or i -
ent al i sm pr oper ) is that they confer on the ot her a di screte identity,
whi l e also pr ovi di ng the knowi ng observer wi th a st andpoi nt f r om
whi ch t o see wi t hout bei ng seen, to read wi t hout i nt errupt i on.
Onc e cul t ures are no l onger prefi gured vi sual l yas objects, t he-
aters, t ext si t becomes possible to think of a cultural poeti cs that is
an i nt erpl ay of voi ces, of posi t i oned utterances. In a di scursi ve rat her
t han a vi sual par adi gm, the domi nant met aphors for et hnogr aphy
shift away f r om the observi ng eye and t oward expressi ve speech (and
gest ure). Th e writer' s "voi ce" pervades and situates the analysis, and
obj ect i ve, di st anci ng rhet ori c is r enounced. Renat o Rosal do has re-
cent l y ar gued, and exempl i fi ed, these points (1984, 1985). Ot her
changes of textual enact ment are ur ged by St ephen Tyl er in this vol -
ume. (See also Tedl ock 1983.) Th e evocati ve, performat i ve el ement s
of et hnogr aphy are l egi t i mat ed. An d the crucial poetic pr obl em for
a di scursi ve et hnogr aphy becomes how "to achi eve by wri t t en means
what speech creates, and to do it wi t hout si mpl y i mi t at i ng speech"
(Tyl er 19 84c: 25). Fr om anot her angl e we notice how much has been
said, in criticism and praise, of the et hnographi c gaze. But what of t he
et hnogr aphi c ear? Thi s is what Nat hani el Tar n is get t i ng at i n an i nter-
view, speaki ng of his exper i ence as a tricultural Fr ench/ Engl i shman
endl essl y becomi ng an Amer i can.
It may be t he et hnogr apher or the ant hropol ogi st again havi ng his ears wi der
o p en to what he cons i ders the exot i c as oppos ed to the famil iar, but I still f eel
I' m di s coveri ng s omet hi ng new i n t he use o f l anguage here al most every day.
Int roduct i on
13
I' m get t i ng new expres s i ons al most every day, as if the l anguage were growi ng
f r om every concei vabl e shoot . (1975 :9)
An i nterest in the di scursi ve aspects of cultural represent at i on
draws at t ent i on not to the i nt erpret at i on of cul t ural "t ext s" but to
t hei r relati ons of product i on. Di vergent styles of wri t i ng are, wi t h
var yi ng degr ees of success, gr appl i ng wi th these new orders of com-
pl exi t ydi f f er ent rules and possibilities wi thi n the hor i zon of a his-
tori cal moment . Th e mai n exper i ment al t rends have been r evi ewed in
det ai l el sewher e (Marcus and Cus hman 1982; Cl i fford 1983a). It is
enough to ment i on here the general t rend t oward a specification of dis-
courses in et hnogr aphy: who speaks? who writes? when and wher e?
wi t h or to whom? under what institutional and historical constrai nts?
Si nce Mali nowski ' s ti me, the "met hod" of part i ci pant -observat i on
has enact ed a deli cate bal ance of subjectivity and objectivity. Th e et h-
nogr apher ' s personal experi ences, especially those of part i ci pat i on
and empat hy, are r ecogni zed as central to the research process, but
t hey are firmly rest rai ned by the i mpersonal st andards of observat i on
and "obj ect i ve" distance. In classical et hnographi es the voi ce of the
aut hor was always mani fest, but the convent i ons of textual present a-
tion and r eadi ng forbade t oo close a connect i on bet ween aut hori al
style and t he reality represent ed. Th o u g h we di scern i mmedi at el y t he
distinctive accent of Mar gar et Mead, Raymond Firth, or Paul Radi n,
we still cannot refer to Samoans as "Meadi an" or call Ti kopi a a "Fi rt h-
i an" cul t ure as freely as we speak of Di ckensi an or Fl aubert i an wor l ds.
T h e subjectivity of t he aut hor is separat ed f r om t he objecti ve r ef er ent
of t he text. At best, the author' s personal voice is seen as a style in t he
weak sense: a t one, or embel l i shment of the facts. Mor eover , the ac-
tual field exper i ence of t he et hnogr apher is present ed only in very
styli zed ways (the "arri val stories" discussed bel ow by Mar y Pratt, for
exampl e) . States of seri ous confusi on, vi ol ent feeli ngs or acts, censor-
shi ps, i mpor t ant failures, changes of course, and excessi ve pl easures
are excl uded f r om t he publ i shed account .
I n t he sixties this set of exposi t ory convent i ons cracked. Et hnog-
r apher s began to wri te about their field exper i ence in ways that dis-
t ur bed t he prevai l i ng subjective/objective bal ance. The r e had been
earl i er di st urbances, but t hey were kept margi nal : Leiris' s aberrant
L'Afrique fantme (1934); Tristes Tropiques (whose st rongest i mpact out-
si de France came onl y after i 960 ); and El enore Smi t h Bowen' s i mpor -
tant Return to Laughter (1954). That Laur a Bohannan in the earl y
sixties had to di sgui se hersel f as Bowen, and her fieldwork narra-
tive as a "novel , " is sympt omat i c. But thi ngs wer e changi ng rapi dly,
14 JAMES CLIFFORD
Int roduct i on
1
5
and ot her s Geor ges Bal andi er (L'Afrique ambigu 19 5 7 ) , Davi d
Maybur y- Lewi s (The Savage and the Innocent 1965), Jean Br i ggs (Never
in Anger 1970 ), Jean-Paul Dumont (The Headman and I 1978), and Paul
Rabi now (Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco 19 7 7 ) wer e soon wri t i ng
"fact ual l y" under thei r own names. Th e publi cati on of Mali nowski ' s
Mai l u and Tr obr i and di ari es (1967) publi cly upset t he appl ecart .
Hencef or t h an implicit mar k of i nt errogat i on was pl aced besi de any
over l y confi dent and consistent et hnographi c voi ce. What desi res and
confusi ons was it smoot hi ng over? How was its "objectivity" t ext ual l y
const r uct ed?
7
A subgenr e of et hnogr aphi c wri t i ng emer ged, the self-reflexi ve
"fi el dwork account . " Vari ousl y sophisticated and nai ve, confessi onal
and analyti c, these account s pr ovi de an i mport ant f or um for the dis-
cussi on of a wi de r ange of issues, epi st emol ogi cal , existential, and po-
litical. Th e di scourse of the cultural analyst can no l onger be si mpl y
that of t he "exper i enced" observer, descri bi ng and i nt erpret i ng cus-
t om. Et hnogr aphi c exper i ence and the part i ci pant -observat i on i deal
are shown to be probl emat i c. Different textual strategies are at-
t empt ed. For exampl e, the first person si ngul ar (never banned f r om
et hnogr aphi es, whi ch wer e always personal in stylized ways) is de-
pl oyed accor di ng to new convent i ons. Wi t h the "fi el dwork account "
t he rhet ori c of exper i enced objectivity yields to that of the aut obi ogra-
phy and the i roni c self-portrait. (See Beauj our 1980 , Lej eune 1975. )
Th e et hnogr apher , a charact er in a fiction, is at cent er stage. He or
she can speak of previ ousl y "i rrelevant" topics: vi ol ence and desi re,
confusi ons, st ruggl es and economi c transactions with i nformant s.
The s e mat t ers (l ong discussed i nformal l y wi thi n the discipline) have
moved away from the margi ns of et hnogr aphy, to be seen as consti tu-
tive, i nescapabl e ( Honi gman 1976).
Some refl exi ve account s have wor ked to specify the di scourse of
i nformant s, as well as that of the et hnogr apher , by st agi ng di al ogues
or narrat i ng i nt erpersonal confrontati ons (Lacost e-Duj ardi n 19 7 7 ,
Cr apanzano 1980 , Dwyer 1982, Shostak 19 81, Merni ssi 1984). The s e
fictions of di al ogue have the effect of t ransformi ng the "cul t ural " t ext
(a ritual, an institution, a life history, or any unit of typical behavi or to
be descri bed or i nt erpret ed) into a speaki ng subject, who sees as wel l
as is seen, who evades, argues, probes back. In this view of et hnogr a-
phy t he pr oper referent of any account is not a represent ed "wor l d";
now it is specific instances of di scourse. But the pri nci pl e of di al ogi cal
t ext ual pr oduct i on goes well beyond the mor e or less artful present a-
7. I have explored the relation of personal subjectivity and authoritative cultural
accounts, seen as mutually reinforcing fictions, in an essay on Malinowski and Conrad
(Clifford 1985a).
t i on of "act ual " encount ers. It locates cultural i nt erpret at i ons in many
sorts of reci procal cont ext s, and it obl i ges wri ters t o find di verse ways
of r ender i ng negot i at ed realities as multisubjective, power - l aden, and
i ncongr uent . I n this view, "cul t ure" is always relati onal, an i nscri pt i on
of communi cat i ve processes that exist, historically, between subjects in
relati ons of power (Dwyer 19 7 7 , Tedl ock 1979).
Di al ogi cal modes are not, in pri nci ple, aut obi ographi cal ; t hey
need not lead to hyper self-consciousness or self-absorpti on. As
Bakht i n ( 19 81) has shown, di alogi cal processes prol i ferat e in any
compl exl y represent ed di scursi ve space (that of an et hnogr aphy, or,
in his case, a realist novel ). Many voices cl amor for expressi on. Poly-
vocali ty was rest rai ned and orchest rat ed in traditional et hnogr aphi es
by gi vi ng to one voi ce a pervasi ve authori al functi on and to ot hers t he
rol e of sources, "i nformant s, " to be quot ed or paraphrased. Once dia-
logismi and pol yphony are r ecogni zed as modes of textual pr oduct i on,
monophoni e aut hori t y is quest i oned, reveal ed to be characteristic of
a sci ence that has cl ai med to represent cultures. Th e t endency to spec-
ify di scourseshi st ori cal l y and i ntersubjecti velyrecasts this au-
thority, and in t he process alters the questi ons we put to cul t ural de-
scri pti ons. Two recent exampl es must suffice. Th e first i nvol ves the
voi ces and readi ngs of Nat i ve Amer i cans, the second those of women.
James Wal ker is wi del y known for his classic monogr aph The
Sun Dance and Other Ceremonies of the Oglala Division of the Teton Sioux
( 19 17 ) . It is a carefully observed and document ed wor k of i nt erpre-
tati on. But our r eadi ng of it must now be compl ement edand al-
t er edby an ext r aor di nar y gl i mpse of its "maki ngs. " Thr e e titles
have now appear ed in a four-vol ume edi ti on of document s he col-
l ect ed whi l e a physi ci an and et hnogr apher on the Pine Ri dge Si oux
Reservat i on bet ween 1896 and 19 14. Th e first (Walker, Lakota Belief
and Ritual 1982a, edi t ed by Raymond DeMal l i e and Elai ne Jahner) is a
col l age of not es, i nt ervi ews, texts, and essay fragment s wri t t en or
spoken by Wal ker and numer ous Ogl al a col l aborat ors. Thi s vol ume
lists mor e t han thirty "authorities, " and wher ever possible each contri -
but i on is mar ked wi th t he name of its enunci at or, writer, or tran-
scri ber. Thes e i ndi vi dual s are not et hnographi c "i nformant s. " Lakota
Belief is a col l aborat i ve wor k of document at i on, edi t ed in a manner
that gi ves equal rhet ori cal wei ght to di verse rendi t i ons of tradi ti on.
Wal ker' s own descri pt i ons and glosses are fragment s among fragment s.
Th e et hnogr apher wor ked closely with i nt erpret ers Char l es and
Ri chard Ni nes, and wi th Thoma s Tyon and Geor ge Swor d, bot h of
whom composed ext ended essays in Ol d Lakot a. Thes e have now
been translated and publ i shed for the first time. In a l ong section of
Lakota licliej'Tyon presents expl anat i ons he obt ai ned from a number
l 6 JAMES CLIFFORD Int roduct i on
17
soci at ed wi t h br i ngi ng el usi ve, "di sappear i ng" oral l or e i nt o l egi bl e
t ext ual f or m. It is uncl ear whet her James Wal ker (or anyone) can ap-
pear as aut hor of t hese wri t i ngs. Such lack of clarity is a si gn of t he
t i mes.
Wes t er n t ext s convent i onal l y come wi t h aut hors at t ached. Th u s it
is per haps i nevi t abl e that Lakota Belief, Lakota Society, and Lakota Myth
s houl d be publ i shed under Wal ker' s name. But as et hnogr aphy' s com-
pl ex, pl ur al poesis becomes mor e appar ent and politically c ha r ge d
convent i ons begi n, in small ways, to slip. Wal ker' s wor k may be an un-
usual case of t ext ual col l aborat i on. But it hel ps us see behi nd t he
scenes. On c e "i nf or mant s" begi n to be consi der ed as co-aut hor s, and
t he e t hnogr a phe r as scribe and archivist as wel l as i nt er pr et i ng ob-
ser ver , we can ask new, critical quest i ons of all et hnogr aphi es . How-
ever monol ogi cal , di al ogi cal , or pol yphoni c their f or m, t hey ar e hi er-
ar chi cal ar r angement s of di scourses.
A second exampl e of t he specification of di scourses concer ns gen-
der . I shall first t ouch on ways in whi ch it can i mpi nge on the r eadi ng
o f et hnogr aphi c texts and t hen expl or e how the excl usi on of femi ni st
per spect i ves f r om t he pr esent vol ume limits and focuses its di scur-
sive st andpoi nt . My first exampl e, of the many possible, is Godf r e y
Li enhar dt ' s Divinity and Experience: The Religion of the Dinka ( 1961) ,
sur el y a mo n g t he most finely ar gued et hnogr aphi es in r ecent ant hr o-
pol ogi cal l i t erat ure. Its phenomenol ogi cal rendi t i on of Di nka senses
o f t he self, of t i me, space, and "the Power s " is unpar al l el ed. Th u s it
comes as a shock to r ecogni ze that Li enhardt ' s por t r ayal concer ns, al-
mos t excl usi vel y, the exper i ence of Di nka men. Whe n s peaki ng of
"t he Di nka" he may or may not be ext endi ng the poi nt to wome n. We
of t en cannot know f r om t he publ i shed t ext . Th e exampl es he chooses
ar e, i n any case, over whel mi ngl y cent er ed on mal es. A r api d per usal
o f t he book' s i nt r oduct or y chapt er on Di nka and t hei r cattle conf i r ms
t he poi nt . Onl y once is a woman' s vi ew ment i oned, and it is i n affi rma-
t i on o f men' s rel at i on to cows, sayi ng not hi ng of how wome n exper i -
ence cattle. Thi s obser vat i on i nt r oduces an equi vocat i on in passages
s uch as " Di nka of t en i nt er pr et acci dent s or coi nci dences as acts of Di -
vi ni t y di st i ngui shi ng t rut h f r om fal sehood by signs whi ch appear to
me n" (p. 47) . T h e i nt ended sense of the wor d " men" is cert ai nl y ge-
neri c, yet s ur r ounded excl usi vel y by exampl es f r om mal e exper i ence
it sl i des t owar d a ge nde r e d meani ng. (Do signs appear to wome n? i n
si gni fi cant l y di f f er ent ways?) Ter ms such as "the Di nka, " or "Di nka, "
used t hr oughout the book, become similarly equi vocal .
T h e poi nt is not to convi ct Li enhar dt of dupl i ci t y; his book specifies
ge nde r to an unusual ext ent . What emer ges , i nst ead, are t he hi st ory
and politics that i nt er vene in our r eadi ng. Bri t i sh academi cs of a cer-
of Pi ne Ri dge shamans; and it is r eveal i ng to see quest i ons of bel i ef
(for e xa mpl e t he cruci al and el usi ve quality of "wakan") i nt er pr et ed i n
di f f er i ng, i di osyncrat i c styles. Th e resul t is a versi on of cul t ur e in pr o-
cess t hat resists any final summat i on. I n Lakota Belief the edi t ors pr o-
vi de bi ogr aphi cal details on Wal ker , wi t h hints about t he i ndi vi dual
sour ces of t he wri t i ngs i n his col l ect i on, br ought t oget her f r om t he
Col or a do Hi st ori cal Society, t he Amer i can Mus e um of Nat ur al Hi s-
tory, and t he Ame r i c a n Phi l osophi cal Soci et y.
T h e second vol ume to have appear ed is Lakota Society (1982b),
whi ch assembl es document s r oughl y rel at i ng to aspect s of social or ga-
ni zat i on, as wel l as concept s of t i me and history. Th e i ncl usi on of ex-
t ensi ve Wi nt er Count s (Lakot a annals) and per sonal recol l ect i ons o f
hi st ori cal event s confi rms r ecent t endenci es to quest i on over l y cl ear
di st i nct i ons bet ween peopl es "wi t h" and "wi t hout " hi st ory (Rosal do
1980; Pri ce 1983). Vol ume t hree is Lakota Myth (1983). An d t he last
will cont ai n t he t ransl at ed wri t i ngs of Ge or ge Swor d. Swor d was an
Ogl al a war r i or , l at er a j u d g e of the Cour t of Indi an Of f enses at Pi ne
Ri dge . Wi t h Wal ker' s encour agement , he wr ot e a det ai l ed ver nacul ar
r ecor d of cust omar y life, cover i ng myt h, ritual, war f ar e and games ,
c ompl e me nt e d by an aut obi ogr aphy.
Ta ke n t oget her , t hese wor ks offer an unusual , mul t i pl y art i cul a-
t ed r ecor d of Lakot a life at a cruci al mome nt in its hi st or ya t hr ee-
vol ume ant hol ogy of ad hoc i nt erpret at i ons and t ranscri pt i ons by
mor e t han a score of i ndi vi dual s occupyi ng a spect r um of posi t i ons
wi t h r espect to "t radi t i on, " pl us an el abor at ed vi ew of t he ens embl e by
a wel l - pl aced Ogl al a wri t er. It becomes possible to assess critically t he
synt hesi s Wal ker made of t hese di verse mat eri al s. Wh e n compl et e, t he
five vol umes (i ncl udi ng The Sun Dance) will const i t ut e an e xpa nde d
(di sper sed, not total) t ext r epr esent i ng a part i cul ar moment of et h-
nogr aphi c pr oduct i on (not "Lakot a cul t ure"). It is this e xpa nde d t ext ,
r at her t han Wal ker' s monogr a ph, that we must now l ear n to r ead.
Such an ens embl e opens up new meani ngs and desi res in an on-
g o i n g cul t ur al poesis. T h e deci si on to publ i sh t hese t ext s was pr ovoke d
by r equest s to t he Col or ado Hi st ori cal Soci et y f r om communi t y me m-
ber s at Pi ne Ri dge, wher e copi es wer e needed i n Ogl al a hi st ory
cl asses. For ot her r eader s t he "Wal ker Col l ect i on" offers di ffer ent
l essons, pr ovi di ng, a mo n g ot her t hi ngs, a mock- up f or an e t hno
poet i cs wi t h hi st ory (and i ndi vi dual s) i n it. On e has difficulty gi vi ng
t hese mat eri al s (many o f whi ch ar e ver y beaut i ful ) t he t i mel ess, i mper -
sonal i dent i t y of, say, " Si oux myt h. " Mor eover , the quest i on of who
writes (per f or ms? t ranscri bes? translates? edits?) cul t ural st at ement s is
i nescapabl e i n an e xpa nde d t ext of this sort. Her e t he e t hnogr a phe r
no l onge r hol ds unques t i oned ri ght s o f sal vage: t he aut hor i t y l ong as-
i 8
JAMES CLIFFORD
t ai n cast e and er a say " men" when t hey me a n " peopl e" mor e of t en
t han do ot her gr oups , a cul t ural and hi st ori cal cont ext t hat is now less
i nvi si bl e t han it once was. Th e partiality of gender in quest i on her e
was not at i ssue whe n t he book was publ i shed i n 1 96 1 . I f it wer e,
Li enhar dt woul d have di rect l y addr essed t he pr obl em, as mor e r ecent
et hnogr apher s now feel obl i ged to (for exampl e, Mei gs 1984 : xi x) .
On e di d not r ead " Th e Rel i gi on of t he Di nka" t hen as one now must ,
as t he r el i gi on of Di nka me n and onl y per haps Di nka wome n. Ou r
task is to t hi nk hi st ori cal l y about Li enhardt ' s text and its possible r ead-
i ngs, i ncl udi ng our own, as we read.
Syst emat i c doubt s about gender in cul t ural r epr esent at i on have
be c ome wi des pr ead onl y i n t he past decade or so, i n cert ai n mi l i eux,
unde r pr essur e of f emi ni sm. A great many port rayal s of "cul t ur al "
t rut hs now appear to reflect mal e domai ns of exper i ence. ( And t her e
ar e, o f cour se, i nver se, t hough much less c ommon cases: f or e xa mpl e ,
Mead' s wor k, whi ch oft en focused on femal e domai ns and gener al i zed
on this basis about t he cul t ure as a whol e. ) In r ecogni zi ng such bi ases,
howe ve r , it is wel l t o recal l that our own "ful l " versi ons will t hemsel ves
i nevi t abl y appear part i al ; and if many cul t ural port rayal s now s eem
mor e l i mi t ed t han t hey once di d, this is an i ndex of t he cont i ngency
a nd hi st ori cal move me nt of all r eadi ngs. No one r eads f r om a neut r al
or final posi t i on. Thi s r at her obvi ous caut i on is oft en vi ol at ed i n new
account s that pur por t to set t he r ecor d st rai ght or to fill a ga p i n " our "
knowl e dge .
Wh e n is a gap i n knowl edge per cei ved, and by whom? Whe r e do
" pr obl ems " come f r o m?
8
It is obvi ousl y mor e t han a si mpl e mat t er o f
not i ci ng an er r or , bias, or omi ssi on. I have chosen exampl es (Wal ker
and Li enhar dt ) t hat under l i ne t he role of political and historical fac-
t ors i n t he di scover y o f di scursi ve partiality. Th e epi st emol ogy this i m-
pl i es cannot be r econci l ed wi t h a not i on of cumul at i ve scientific pr og-
ress, and the partiality at stake is st r onger t han the nor mal scientific
di ct at es t hat we st udy pr obl ems pi ecemeal , that we must not over -
gener al i ze, that t he best pi ct ure is bui l t up by an accret i on of r i gor ous
evi dence. Cul t ur es are not scientific "obj ect s" (assumi ng such t hi ngs
exi st , even in t he nat ural sciences). Cul t ur e, and our vi ews of "it," ar e
pr oduc e d historically, and are actively cont est ed. Th e r e is no whol e
pi ct ur e t hat can be "filled in, " si nce t he per cept i on and filling o f a g a p
l ead t o t he awar eness of ot her gaps. If women' s exper i ence has be e n
si gni fi cant l y excl uded f r om et hnogr aphi c account s, the r ecogni t i on of
this absence, and its cor r ect i on in many r ecent st udi es, now hi ghl i ght s
8. "The stork didn't bring them!" (David Schneider, in conversation). Foucault de-
scribed his approach as a "history of problematics" (1984).
Int roduct i on 19
t he fact t hat men' s exper i ence (as gender ed subjects, not cul t ural
t ype s " Di nka " or "Tr obr i ander s") is itself l argel y unst udi ed. As ca-
noni cal t opi cs l i ke "ki nshi p" come under critical scrut i ny ( Ne e dha m
1974; Schnei der 1972, 1984), new pr obl ems concer ni ng "sexual i t y"
ar e ma de visible. An d so f or t h wi t hout end. It is evi dent t hat we know
mor e about t he Tr obr i and Isl anders t han was known in 1900. But t he
" we " r equi r es historical i dent i fi cat i on. (Talal As ad ar gues in this vol -
u me that t he fact that this knowl edge is rout i nel y i nscri bed i n cert ai n
"s t r ong" l anguages is not scientifically neut ral . ) I f "cul t ur e" is not an
obj ect to be descr i bed, nei t her is it a uni fi ed cor pus of symbol s and
meani ngs t hat can be defi ni t i vel y i nt er pr et ed. Cul t ur e is cont est ed,
t empor al , a nd emer gent . Repr esent at i on and expl anat i onbot h by
i nsi ders and out si der si s i mpl i cat ed i n this emer gence. Th e specifi-
cat i on of di scour ses I have been t raci ng is t hus mor e t han a mat t er of
ma ki ng careful l y l i mi t ed cl ai ms. It is t hor oughl y historicist and self-
r ef l exi ve.
I n this spirit, let me t urn to the pr esent vol ume. Ever yone will be
abl e t o t hi nk of i ndi vi dual s or perspect i ves that shoul d have been in-
cl uded. T h e vol ume' s focus limits it in ways its aut hor s and edi t ors can
onl y begi n to make appar ent . Reader s may not e that its ant hr opol ogi -
cal bias negl ect s phot ogr aphy, film, per f or mance t heory, doc ume n-
t ary art, t he nonfi ct i on novel , "the new j our nal i s m, " oral history, and
var i ous f or ms o f soci ol ogy. T h e book gi ves rel at i vel y little at t ent i on t o
new et hnogr aphi c possibilities emer gi ng f r om non- West er n exper i -
ence and f r om femi ni st t heor y and politics. Let me dwel l on this last
excl us i on, f or it concer ns an especi al l y st r ong i nt el l ect ual and mor al
i nf l uence i n t he uni versi t y mi l i eux f r om whi ch t hese essays have
s pr ung. Th u s its absence cries out for comment . (But by addr es s i ng
this one excl usi on I do not mean to i mpl y that it offers any pr i vi l eged
st andpoi nt f r om whi ch to per cei ve the partiality of t he book. ) Femi ni st
t heor i zi ng is obvi ousl y of gr eat pot ent i al si gni fi cance for r et hi nki ng
et hnogr aphi c wr i t i ng. It debat es t he historical, political const r uct i on
o f i dent i t i es and sel f/ ot her rel at i ons, and it pr obes t he gender ed posi -
t i ons t hat ma ke all account s of, or by, ot her peopl e i nescapabl y par-
t i al .
9
Why, t hen, ar e t her e no essays in this book wri t t en f r om pri -
mar i l y femi ni st st andpoi nt s?
9. Many of the themes I have been stressing above are supported by recent femi-
nist work. Some theorists have problematized all totalizing, Archimedian perspectives
(Jehlen 1981). Many have seriously rethought the social construction of relationship
and difference (Chodorow 1978, Rich 1976, Keller 1985). Much feminist practice
questions the strict separation of subjective and objective, emphasizing processual
modes of knowl edge, closely connecting personal, political, and representational pro-
cesses. Ot her strands deepen the critique of visually based modes of surveillance and
poilrayal, linking them lo domination and masculine desire (Mulvey 1975, Kuhn
20
JAMES CLIFFORD
T h e vol ume was pl anned as the publ i cat i on of a semi nar l i mi t ed
by its s pons or i ng body to ten part i ci pant s. It was i nst i t ut i onal l y de-
fined as an " advanced semi nar, " and its or gani zer s, Ge or ge Mar cus
and mysel f, accept ed this f or mat wi t hout seri ous quest i on. We de-
ci ded t o i nvi t e peopl e doi ng "advanced" wor k on our topic, by whi ch
we under s t ood peopl e who had al ready cont r i but ed significantly t o
t he anal ysi s of et hnogr aphi c t ext ual f or m. For t he sake of coher ence,
we l ocat ed t he semi nar wi t hi n, and at t he boundar i es of, the di sci pl i ne
o f ant hr opol ogy. We i nvi t ed part i ci pant s wel l known for t hei r r ecent
cont r i but i ons to t he openi ng up of et hnogr aphi c wr i t i ng possibilities,
or wh o m we knew to be wel l al ong on r esear ch r el evant to our f ocus.
T h e s emi nar was small and its f or mat i on ad hoc, refl ect i ng our spe-
cific per sonal and i nt el l ect ual net wor ks, our l i mi t ed knowl edge of ap-
pr opr i at e wor k in pr ogr ess. (I shall not go i nt o i ndi vi dual per sonal i -
ties, fr i endshi ps, and so fort h, t hough t hey are cl earl y rel evant . )
Pl anni ng t he semi nar , we wer e conf r ont ed by what s eemed t o
us an obvi ous i mpor t ant and r egr et t abl efact . Femi ni sm had not
cont r i but ed muc h t o t he t heoret i cal analysis o f et hnogr aphi es as
t ext s. Wh e r e wome n had made t ext ual i nnovat i ons ( Bowen 1954,
Br i ggs 1970, Favret -Saada 1980, 1981) t hey had not done so on f emi -
nist gr ounds . A few qui t e r ecent wor ks (Shost ak 1981, Ces ar a 1982,
Mer ni ssi 1984) had refl ect ed i n t hei r f or m femi ni st cl ai ms about sub-
j ect i vi t y, relationality, and f emal e exper i ence, but t hese same t ext ual
f or ms wer e shar ed by ot her, nonfemi ni st , exper i ment al wor ks. Mor e -
over , t hei r aut hor s di d not seem conver sant wi t h t he rhet ori cal and
t ext ual t heor y that we want ed to br i ng to bear on et hnogr aphy. Ou r
focus was t hus on t ext ual t heor y as well as on t ext ual f or m: a def en-
sible, pr oduct i ve focus.
Wi t hi n this focus we coul d not dr aw on any devel oped debat es
gener at ed by f emi ni sm on et hnogr aphi c t ext ual pract i ces. A few ver y
initial i ndi cat i ons (for exampl e, At ki ns on 1982; Rober t s, ed. 1981)
we r e all t hat had been publ i shed. An d t he situation has not c ha nge d
dr amat i cal l y si nce. Femi ni sm cl earl y has cont r i but ed to ant hr opol ogi -
cal t heor y. An d vari ous f emal e et hnogr apher s , like Annet t e Wei ner
( 1976) , ar e act i vel y r ewr i t i ng the mascul i ni st canon. But femi ni st et h-
1982). Narrative forms of representation are analyzed with regard to the gendered
positions they reenact (de Lauretis 1984). Some feminist writing has worked to politi-
cize and subvert all natural essences and identities, including "femininity" and "woman"
(Wittig 1975, Irigaray 1977, Russ 1975, Haraway 1985). "Anthropological" categories
such as nature and culture, public and private, sex and gender have been brought into
question (Ortner 1974, MacCormack and Strathern 1980, Rosaldo and Lamphere
1974, Rosaldo 1980, Rubin 1975).
Int roduct i on
21
nogr a phy has f ocused ei t her on set t i ng the r ecor d st rai ght about
wo me n or on revi si ng ant hr opol ogi cal cat egori es (for e xa mpl e , t he
nat ur e/ cul t ur e opposi t i on). It has not pr oduced ei t her unconve n-
t i onal f or ms of wr i t i ng or a devel oped refl ect i on on et hnogr aphi c t ex-
tuality as such.
T h e r easons for this gener al situation need car eful expl or at i on,
and this is not t he pl ace for i t .
1 0
In the case of our semi nar and vol -
ume , by st ressi ng t ext ual f or m and by pr i vi l egi ng t ext ual t heor y,
we f ocused t he topic i n ways that excl uded cert ai n f or ms o f et hno-
gr aphi c i nnovat i on. Thi s fact e me r ge d in the semi nar di scussi ons,
dur i ng whi ch it became cl ear that concr et e institutional f or ces t en-
ur e pat t erns, canons, t he i nfl uence o f di sci pl i nary aut hori t i es, gl obal
i nequal i t i es of powe r c oul d not be evaded. Fr om this per spect i ve, is-
sues of cont ent in et hnogr aphy (the excl usi on and i ncl usi on of di ffer-
ent exper i ences in the ant hr opol ogi cal archi ve, the r ewr i t i ng of est ab-
l i shed t radi t i ons) became di rect l y rel evant . An d this is wher e femi ni st
and non- Wes t er n wri t i ngs have made t hei r great est i mpact . " Cl ear l y
our s har p separ at i on of f or m f r om cont ent and our fet i shi zi ng of
f or mwa s , and is, cont est abl e. It is a bias that may wel l be i mpl i ci t in
moder ni s t "t ext ual i sm. " (Most of us at t he semi nar, excl udi ng St e phe n
Tyl e r , wer e not yet t hor oughl y "post -modern"!)
We see t hese t hi ngs bet t er, of cour se, now that t he deed is done,
t he book finished. But even earl y on, in Sant a Fe, i nt ense di scussi ons
t ur ned on t he excl usi on of several i mpor t ant perspect i ves and what to
d o about t hem. As edi t ors, we deci ded not to try and "fill out " t he vol -
u me by s eeki ng addi t i onal essays. Thi s s eemed t o be t okeni sm and t o
refl ect an aspi rat i on to false compl et eness. Ou r r esponse to t he pr ob-
l em of e xcl ude d st andpoi nt s has been to l eave t hem bl at ant . T h e
pr es ent vol ume r emai ns a l i mi t ed i nt ervent i on, wi t h no aspi rat i on t o
be compr ehens i ve or to cover the territory. It sheds a st rong, part i al
l i ght .
10. Marilyn Strathern's unpublished essay "Dislodging a World Vi ew" (1984), also
discussed by Paul Rabinow in this volume, begins the investigation. A fuller analysis is
bei ng worked out by Deborah Gordon in a dissertation for the History of Consciousness
program, University of California, Santa Cruz. 1 am indebted to conversations with her.
1 1 . It may generally be true that groups long excluded from positions of institu-
tional power, like women or people of color, have less concrete freedom to indulge in
textual experimentations. To write in an unorthodox way, Paul Rabinow suggests in this
volume, one must first have tenure. In specific contexts a preoccupation with self-
reflexivity and style may be an index of privileged estheticism. For if one does not have
to worry about the exclusion or true representation of one's experience, one is freer to
undermi ne ways of telling, to focus on form over content. But I am uneasy with a gen-
eral notion that privileged discourse indulges in esthetic or epistemological subtleties,
whereas marginal discourse "tells it like it is." The reverse is too often the case. (See
Michael Fischer's essay in this volume.)
22
JAMES CLIFFORD
A maj or cons equence o f t he historical and t heoret i cal move -
ment s t r aced in this I nt r oduct i on has been to di sl odge the gr ound
f r om whi ch per sons and gr oups securel y r epr esent ot hers. A concep-
tual shift, "t ect oni c" in its i mpl i cat i ons, has t aken pl ace. We gr ound
t hi ngs, now, on a movi ng eart h. Th e r e is no l onger any pl ace of over -
vi ew (mount ai nt op) f r om whi ch to map huma n ways o f life, no Ar c hi -
me di a n poi nt f r om whi ch to r epr esent the wor l d. Mount ai ns ar e in
const ant mot i on. So are i sl ands: for one cannot occupy, una mbi gu-
ousl y, a bounde d cul t ural wor l d f r om whi ch to j our ne y out and ana-
l yze ot her cul t ur es. Huma n ways of life i ncreasi ngl y i nfl uence, domi -
nat e, par ody, t ransl at e, and subvert one anot her . Cul t ur al analysis is
al ways enmes hed in gl obal movement s of di fference and power . How-
ever one defi nes it, and t he phr ase is her e used loosely, a "wor l d sys-
t em" now l i nks t he planet' s societies in a c ommon historical pr oces s .
1 2
A numbe r of t he essays that follow gr appl e with this pr edi cament .
Th e i r emphas es di ffer. How, Ge or ge Mar cus asks, can e t hnogr a phy
at h o me or abr oaddef i ne its object of st udy in ways that per mi t de-
t ai l ed, l ocal , cont ext ual analysis and si mul t aneousl y t he por t r ayal of
gl obal i mpl i cat i ng forces? Accept ed t ext ual st rat egi es for def i ni ng cul -
t ural domai ns , separ at i ng mi cr o and macr o l evel s, ar e no l onger ade-
quat e to t he chal l enge. He expl or es new wri t i ng possibilities t hat bl ur
t he di st i nct i on bet ween ant hr opol ogy and soci ol ogy, subver t i ng an un-
pr oduct i ve di vi si on of l abor. Tal al Asad. al so confront s t he syst emat i c
i nt er connect i on of t he planet' s societies. But he finds persi st ent , gl a-
ci al i nequal i t i es i mpos i ng al l -t oo-coherent f or ms on t he worl d' s di ver -
sity and firmly posi t i oni ng any et hnogr aphi c pract i ce. "Tr ansl at i ons"
o f cul t ur e, howe ve r subt l e or i nvent i ve in t ext ual f or m, t ake pl ace
wi t hi n rel at i ons of " weak" and "st r ong" l anguages that gover n t he i n-
t er nat i onal flow of knowl edge. Et hnogr aphy is still yer y muc h a one-
way st reet . Mi chael Fischer' s essay suggest s that not i ons o f gl obal
h e g e mo n y may miss t he refl exi ve, i nvent i ve di mensi ons of et hni ci t y
and cul t ur al cont act . ( And in a similar vei n, my own cont r i but i on
t reat s all narrat i ves of lost aut hent i ci t y and vani shi ng di versi t y as self-
conf i r mi ng al l egori es, unt i l pr oven ot herwi se. ) Fi scher l ocat es et hno-
gr aphi c wr i t i ng i n a syncret i c wor l d of et hni ci t y r at her t han a wor l d of
di scr et e cul t ur es and t radi t i ons. Post -moder ni sm, in his analysis, is
mor e t han a l i t erary, phi l osophi cal , or artistic t rend. It is a gener al
12. The term is, of course, Wallerstein's (1976). I find, however, his strong sense of
a unitary direction to the global historical process problematic, and agree with Ortner' s
reservations (1984: 142- 43).
Int roduct i on 23
condi t i on of mul t i cul t ur al life de ma ndi ng new f or ms of i nvent i veness
and subt l et y f r om a fully refl exi ve et hnogr aphy.
Et hnogr aphy in the servi ce of ant hr opol ogy once l ooked out at
cl earl y def i ned ot her s, def i ned as pri mi t i ve, or tribal, or non- West er n,
or pre-l i t erat e, or nonhi st or i cal t he list, if ext ended, soon becomes
i ncoher ent . Now et hnogr aphy encount er s ot hers in rel at i on to itself,
whi l e seei ng itself as ot her. Th u s an "et hnogr aphi c" per spect i ve is
bei ng depl oyed in di verse and novel ci rcumst ances. Renat o Ros al do
pr obes t he way its r het or i c has been appr opr i at ed by social hi st ory
and how this makes visible cert ai n di st urbi ng assumpt i ons t hat have
e mp o we r e d fieldwork. Th e et hnogr apher ' s distinctively i nt i mat e, i n-
qui si t i ve per spect i ve t urns up in history, l i t erat ure, adver t i si ng, and
ma ny ot her unl i kel y pl aces. Th e sci ence of t he exot i c is bei ng "repat ri -
at ed" (Fi scher and Mar cus 1986).
Et hnogr aphy' s t radi t i onal vocat i on of cul t ural criticism ( Mon-
t ai gne' s " On Canni bal s, " Mont esqui eu' s Persian Letters) has r e e me r ge d
wi t h new expl i ci t ness and vi gor . Ant hr opol ogi cal fieldworkers can
now r eal i gn t hei r wor k wi t h pi oneer s like Henr y Mayhew in t he ni ne-
t eent h cent ur y and, mor e recent l y, wi t h t he Chi cago school of ur ban
soci ol ogy ( Ll oyd War ner , Wi l l i am F. Whyt e, Rober t Park). Soci ol ogi cal
descr i pt i on of ever yday pract i ces has recent l y been compl i cat ed by
e t hnome t hodol ogy (Lei t er 1980): t he wor k of Har ol d Gar f i nkel ,
Ha r ve y Sacks, and Aa r on Ci cour el (also negl ect ed in t he pr esent vol -
ume) reflects a crisis in soci ol ogy similar to that in ant hr opol ogy.
Meanwhi l e a di fferent r appr ochement bet ween ant hr opol ogi cal a nd
soci ol ogi cal et hnogr aphy has been t aki ng pl ace under t he i nfl uence o f
Mar xi s t cul t ur al t heor y at t he Bi r mi ngham Cent r e f or Cont e mpor a r y
Cul t ur al St udi es (St uart Hal l , Paul Willis). In Amer i ca fieldworkers
ar e t ur ni ng t hei r at t ent i on to l aborat ory biologists and physi ci st s
( Lat our and Wool gar 1979, Tr aweek 1982), to Ame r i ca n "ki nshi p"
( Schnei der 1980), t o t he dynast i c ri ch (Mar cus 1983), to t r ucker s
( Aga r 1985), to psychi at ri c clients (Est roff 1985), to new ur ban com-
muni t i es ( Kr i eger 1983), to pr obl emat i c t radi t i onal identities (Bl u
1980). Thi s is onl y t he begi nni ng of a gr owi ng list.
Wha t is at st ake is mor e t han ant hr opol ogi cal met hods bei ng de-
pl oyed at home , or s t udyi ng new gr oups ( Nader 1969). Et hnogr a phy
is movi ng i nt o areas l ong occupi ed by soci ol ogy, t he novel , or avant -
gar de cul t ur al cri t i que (Cl i fford 1981), r edi scover i ng ot her ness and
di f f er ence wi t hi n t he cul t ures of the West . It has become cl ear t hat
ever y ver si on of an "ot her, " wher ever f ound, is al so t he const r uct i on
of a "self," and t he maki ng of et hnogr aphi c texts, as Mi chael Fi scher,
Vi ncent Cr a pa nza no, and ot her s in this vol ume show, has al ways i n-
24 JAMES CLIFFORD Int roduct i on 25
l ogi cal quest i ons are somet i mes t hought to be par al yzi ng, abst ract ,
danger ous l y sol i psi st i ci n short, a barri er to t he task o f wr i t i ng
" gr ounde d" or "uni fi ed" cul t ural and historical st udi es.
1 4
I n pract i ce,
however , such quest i ons do not necessari l y inhibit t hose who ent er t ai n
t hem f r om pr oduci ng t rut hful , realistic account s. Al l of the essays col -
l ect ed her e poi nt t owar d new, bet t er modes of wr i t i ng. On e need not
agr ee wi t h t hei r part i cul ar st andards to take seri ousl y t he fact t hat in
et hnogr aphy, as in l i t erary and historical st udi es, what count s as "real -
ist" is now a mat t er of bot h t heoret i cal debat e and pract i cal exper i -
ment at i on.
T h e wr i t i ng and r eadi ng of et hnogr aphy are over det er mi ned by
f or ces ul t i mat el y beyond t he cont rol of ei t her an aut hor or an in-
t er pr et i ve communi t y. The s e cont i ngenci esof l anguage, rhet ori c,
power , and hi s t or ymus t now be openl y conf r ont ed in the pr ocess of
wr i t i ng. Th e y can no l onger be evaded. But t he conf r ont at i on raises
t hor ny pr obl ems of veri fi cat i on: how are the t rut hs of cul t ural account s
eval uat ed? Wh o has t he aut hori t y to separat e sci ence from art? real i sm
f r om fant asy? knowl edge f r om i deol ogy? Of cour se such separ at i ons
will cont i nue to be mai nt ai ned, and r edr awn; but t hei r changi ng poet i c
and pol i t i cal gr ounds will be less easily i gnor ed. In cul t ural st udi es at
l east , we can no l onger know t he whol e t rut h, or even cl ai m to a ppr oa ch
it. T h e r i gor ous partiality I have been stressing her e may be a sour ce of
pessi mi sm f or some r eader s. But is t here not a l i berat i on, t oo, in r ecog-
ni zi ng that no one can wri t e about ot her s any l onger as if t hey wer e
di scr et e obj ect s or t ext s? An d may not t he vi si on o f a compl ex, pr ob-
l emat i c, part i al et hnogr aphy l ead, not to its abandonment , but to mor e
subt l e, concr et e ways of wr i t i ng and r eadi ng, to new concept i ons of
cul t ur e as i nt eract i ve and historical? Most of the essays in this vol ume,
f or all t hei r t r enchant cri t i ques, ar e opt i mi st i c about et hnogr aphi c wri t -
i ng. T h e pr obl ems t hey raise are i nci t ement s, not barri ers.
Th e s e essays will be accused of havi ng gone t oo far: poet r y will
agai n be banned f r om t he city, power f r om the halls of sci ence. An d
e xt r e me sel f-consci ousness cert ai nl y has its da nge r s of i rony, o f elit-
i sm, of sol i psi sm, of put t i ng t he whol e wor l d in quot at i on mar ks. But I
t rust t hat r eader s who si gnal t hese danger s will do so (like s ome o f t he
essays bel ow) after t hey have conf r ont ed t he changi ng history, r het o-
ric, and pol i t i cs o f est abl i shed represent at i onal f or ms. I n t he wa ke o f
semi ot i cs, post -st ruct ural i sm, her meneut i cs, and deconst r uct i on t her e
has been consi der abl e talk about a r et ur n to pl ai n s peaki ng and to re-
al i sm. But to r et ur n to real i sm one must first have left it! Mor eover , to
14. The response is frequently expressed informally. It appears in different forms
in Randall (1984), Rosen (1984), Ortner (1984:143), Pullum (1984), and Darnton
O9H5).
vol ved a pr ocess of "sel f-fashi oni ng" (Greenbl at t 1980). Cul t ur al
poesisand pol i t i csi s t he const ant reconst i t ut i on of selves and
ot her s t hr ough speci fi c excl usi ons, convent i ons, and di scursi ve pr ac-
tices. T h e essays that fol l ow pr ovi de tools for t he analysis of t hese pr o-
cesses, at home and abr oad.
Th e s e essays do not pr ophesy. Ta ke n as a whol e, t hey por t r ay his-
t ori cal const rai nt s on t he maki ng of et hnogr aphi es, as wel l as areas of
t ext ual exper i ment and emer gence. Tal al Asad' s t one is sober, pr e-
occupi ed (like Paul Rabi now) wi t h i nst i t ut i onal limits on i nt er pr e-
tive f r eedom. Ge o r g e Mar cus and Mi chael Fi scher expl or e concr et e
exampl es of al t ernat i ve wr i t i ng. St ephen Tyl er evokes what does
not (cannot ?) yet exi st , but must be i magi nedor , bet t er, s ounded.
Ma ny of t he essays (especially t hose of Renat o Rosal do, Vi ncent
Cr a pa nza no, Mar y Pratt, and Tal al As ad) are occupi ed wi t h critical
gr ound cl ear i ngdi s l odgi ng canons to make space for al t ernat i ves.
Rabi now i dent i fi es a new canon, post - moder ni sm. Ot her essays (Tyl er
on or al and per f or mat i ve modes , my own t r eat ment of al l egor y) re-
capt ur e ol d rhet ori cs and proj ect s for use now. "For use now!" Char l es
Ol son' s poet i c rul e shoul d gui de the r eadi ng of t hese essays: t hey ar e
r esponses to a cur r ent , changi ng situation, i nt ervent i ons r at her t han
posi t i ons. To pl ace this vol ume in a historical conj unct ur e, as I have
t ri ed to do her e, is to reveal t he movi ng gr ound on whi ch it st ands,
and to do so wi t hout benefit of a mast er narrat i ve of hi st ori cal devel op-
me nt t hat can offer a coher ent di rect i on, or fut ure, for et hnogr aphy.
1 3
On e l aunches a cont roversi al col l ect i on l i ke this wi t h some t repi -
dat i on, hopi ng it will be seri ousl y e nga ge dnot si mpl y rej ect ed, f or
e xa mpl e , as anot her attack on sci ence or an i nci t ement t o rel at i vi sm.
Rej ect i ons of this ki nd shoul d at least make cl ear why cl ose anal ysi s o f
one of t he pri nci pal t hi ngs et hnogr apher s dot hat is, wr i t es houl d
not be cent ral to eval uat i on of t he results of scientific r esear ch. T h e
aut hor s in this vol ume do not suggest that one cul t ural account is as
good as any ot her . I f t hey espoused so trivial and sel f-refut i ng a rel a-
t i vi sm, t hey woul d not have gone to the t roubl e of wr i t i ng det ai l ed,
commi t t ed, critical st udi es.
Ot her , mor e subt l e, obj ect i ons have recent l y been rai sed to t he lit-
erary, t heoret i cal refl exi vi t y r epr esent ed her e. Text ual , epi st emo-
13. My notion of historicism owes a great deal to the recent work of Fredric
Jameson (1980, 1981, 1984a, b). I am not, however, persuaded by the master narrative
(a global sequence of modes of production) he invokes from time to time as an alter-
native to post-modern fragmentation (the sense that history is composed of various
local narratives). The partiality I have been urgi ng in this introduction always presup-
poses a local historical predicament. Thi s historicist partiality is not the unsituated "par-
tiality and flux" with which Rabinow (see p. 3 5 2 ) taxes a somewhat rigidly defined
"post-modernism."
26
JAMES CLIFFORD
r ecogni ze t he poet i c di mensi ons of et hnogr aphy does not r equi r e t hat
one gi ve up facts and accur at e account i ng for t he s uppos ed free pl ay
o f poet r y. "Poet r y" is not l i mi t ed to romant i c or moder ni st subjectiv-
i sm: it can be hi st ori cal , preci se, obj ect i ve. An d of cour se it is j us t as
convent i onal and i nst i t ut i onal l y det er mi ned as "prose. " Et hnogr a phy
is hybr i d t ext ual activity: it t raverses genr es and di sci pl i nes. Th e es-
says in this vol ume do not cl ai m et hnogr aphy is "onl y l i t erat ure. "
Th e y d o insist it is al ways wri t i ng.
I would like to thank the members of the Santa Fe seminar for their many sugges-
tions incorporated in, or left out of, this Introduction. (I have certainly not tried to rep-
resent the "native point of view" of that small group.) In graduate seminars co-taught
with Paul Rabinow at the University of California at Berkeley and Santa Cr uz, many of
my ideas on these topics have been agreeably assaulted. My special thanks to him and to
the students in those classes. At Santa Cruz, Deborah Gordon, Donna Haraway, and
Ruth Frankenberg have helped me with this essay, and I have had important encour-
agement and stimulus from Hayden White and the members of the Research Cr oup on
Colonial Discourse. Various press readers made important suggestions, particularly
Barbara Babcock. George Marcus, who got the whole project rolling, has been an in-
estimable ally and friend.
MAR Y LOUI SE P RATT
Fieldwork in Common Places
In his i nt r oduct i on to Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922)
Br oni sl aw Mal i nowski cel ebrat es t he advent of professi onal , scientific
e t hnogr a phy: " Th e t i me whe n we coul d t ol erat e account s pr es ent i ng
us t he nat i ve as a di st ort ed, chi l di sh cari cat ure of a huma n bei ng ar e
gone , " he decl ar es. " Thi s pi ct ure is false, and like many ot her false-
hoods , it has been ki l l ed by Sci ence" (Mal i nowski 1 9 6 1 : 1 1 ) . Th e state-
me nt is sympt omat i c of a wel l -est abl i shed habit a mong et hnogr apher s
o f def i ni ng et hnogr aphi c wr i t i ng over and agai nst ol der , less speci al -
i zed genr es , such as travel books, per sonal memoi r s , j our nal i s m, and
account s by mi ssi onari es, settlers, col oni al officials, and t he l i ke. Al -
t hough it will not suppl ant t hese genr es al t oget her , professi onal et h-
nogr aphy, it is under s t ood, will us ur p their aut hori t y and cor r ect t hei r
abuses. In al most any et hnogr aphy dul l - l ooki ng figures cal l ed " mer e
t r avel er s" or "casual obser ver s" show up f r om t i me to t i me, onl y to
have t hei r superfi ci al per cept i ons ei t her cor r ect ed or cor r obor at ed by
t he seri ous scientist.
Thi s st rat egy of def i ni ng itself by cont rast to adj acent and ant e-
cedent di scour ses limits et hnogr aphy' s ability to expl ai n or e xa mi ne
i t sel f as a ki nd of wr i t i ng. To the ext ent t hat it l egi t i mat es itself by op-
posi t i on to ot her ki nds of wri t i ng, et hnogr aphy bl i nds itself to t he fact
t hat its own di scur si ve pract i ces wer e of t en i nher i t ed f r om t hese ot her
genr es and ar e still shar ed wi t h t hem t oday. At t i mes one still hear s
expr es s ed as an i deal for et hnogr aphy a neut ral , t ropel ess di scour se
t hat woul d r ender ot her realities "exact l y as t hey are, " not filtered
t hr ough our own val ues and i nt erpret i ve schema. For t he most part ,
however , t hat wi l d goos e is no l onger bei ng chased, and it is possi bl e
to s ugges t t hat et hnogr aphi c wr i t i ng is as t r ope- gover ned as any ot her
di scur si ve f or mat i on. Thi s r ecogni t i on is obvi ousl y f undament al for
t hose who ar e i nt erest ed in changi ng or enr i chi ng et hnogr aphi c wri t -
i ng or si mpl y in i ncr easi ng the discipline' s sel f - under st andi ng. I n this
essay I pr opos e to exami ne how some t ropes of et hnogr aphi c wr i t i ng
ar e depl oyed and how t hey der i ve f r om earl i er di scursi ve t radi t i ons.
In part i cul ar, 1 pr opos e to focus on the vexed but i mpor t ant rel at i on-
28 MARY LOUISE PRATT
Fieldwork in Common Places 29
s equences . " T h e ant hr opol ogi st s with whom I s poke had f ound this
evi dence i mmedi at el y convi nci ng. Th e y had agr eed wi t h De Hol mes
t hat Donner ' s whol e book must be a fabri cat i on and t hat Donne r had
pr obabl y never l i ved wi t h t he Ya noma mo.
I was sur pr i sed bot h by how qui ckl y peopl e r us hed to this e x-
t r eme concl usi on and by how schemat i c t he t erms in whi ch t he i ssue
was di scussed wer e. Donner ' s book was ei t her t rue or false, meani ng,
appar ent l y, t hat she had ei t her l i ved wi t h t he Ya noma mo or had not ,
and not hi ng mor e was at issue. I was also suspi ci ous, especi al l y at t he
eager nes s t o settle t he mat t er qui ckl y and at Donner ' s expens e, despi t e
t he fact t hat many ant hr opol ogi st s had appar ent l y r ead and appr eci -
at ed Donner ' s book, and f ound it bel i evabl e. Shabono, it l ooked to me,
was bei ng "ki l l ed by sci ence, " in Mal i nowski ' s wor ds , and wi t hout
muc h in t he way o f a trial. Th e case obvi ousl y t hr eat ened s ome del i -
cat e di sci pl i nary boundar i es . Most poi nt edl y, it br ought to t he sur f ace
t he angui s hed and messy t angl e of cont radi ct i ons and uncer t ai nt i es
s ur r oundi ng t he i nt errel at i ons of per sonal exper i ence, per sonal nar-
rat i ve, sci ent i sm, and professi onal i sm in et hnogr aphi c wr i t i ng. By way
o f expl anat i on, let me pus h t he exampl e a little furt her.
To an out si der , one of t he most i nt erest i ng puzzl es in t he sin-
gul ar l y i mpover i s hed debat e on Shabono was that t he book' s fact ual ac-
cur acy di d not seem to be at issue. DeHol mes' s met i cul ous scrut i ny
had pr oduc e d onl y a si ngl e et hnogr aphi c er r or in 300 pages (a r ef er -
ence to r unni ng bet ween rows of mani oc). Impl i ci t l y it was accept ed
t hat gi ven a cer t ai n quant i t y of secondar y mat eri al , one i n fact coul d
const r uct a convi nci ng, vi vi d, et hnogr aphi cal l y accur at e account of
life i n anot her cul t ur e without personal experience in the. field. Why, I
wonde r e d, woul d et hnogr apher s be so wi l l i ng to concede such a
t hi ng? I f it wer e so, exact l y what sort of publ i c t hreat woul d Donner ' s
(al l eged) decept i on be?
Wha t was at issue was not et hnogr aphi c accuracy, but a set of
pr obl emat i c l i nks bet ween et hnogr aphi c aut hori t y, per sonal exper i -
ence, sci ent i sm, and ori gi nal i t y of expr essi on. I f Donner really di d live
wi t h t he Ya n o ma mo , why woul d her t ext so r esembl e Valero' s? But by
t he st andar ds of et hnogr aphy, the opposi t e quest i on also arises: How
coul d her account not r esembl e Val ero' s? Th e al l egedl y pl agi ar i zed
passages De Hol me s cites are i ndeed ver y similar to Val ero' s t ext ,
t hough never exact repet i t i ons. Th e first five cases listed i ncl ude:
(a) Nabr us hi cl ub fight bet ween men, (b) women' s fishing t echni ques,
(c) girl' s comi ng- of - age conf i nement and subsequent pr esent at i on to
g r o u p as a woma n, (d) pr epar at i on of cur ar e and t est i ng on a monkey,
(e) invitation to a feast ( DeHol mes 1983: 665) . Of t hese, one descr i bes
a gener al i zed pract i ce or cust om (fishing t echni ques), the ot her f our
shi p bet ween per sonal narrat i ve and i mper sonal descr i pt i on in et hno-
gr aphi c wr i t i ng and to l ook at some of t he history of this di scursi ve
conf i gur at i on, not abl y its hi st ory i n travel wri t i ng.
A r ecent cont r over sy in the American Anthropologist under s cor es
t he difficulties et hnogr aphy has had in est abl i shi ng its rel at i ons to ad-
j acent di scourses. Th e cont r over sy s ur r ounded Fl or i nda Donner ' s
Shabono: A True Adventure in the Remote and Magical Heart of the South
American fungle (1982). Th e book is a per sonal account of t he exper i -
ence o f a gr aduat e st udent in ant hr opol ogy who, whi l e doi ng field-
wor k i n Venezuel a, is chosen by member s of a r emot e gr oup of Ya no-
ma mo t o l i ve wi t h t hem and l earn t hei r l i feways. T h e book has been a
gr eat success. On t he cover of t he paper back Car l os Cas t aneda hails it
as "at once art, magi c and s uper b social sci ence"; a Que e ns Col l e ge
ant hr opol ogi s t calls it "a r ar e and beaut i ful book . . . [that] i l l umi nat es
t he wor l d o f t he Ya noma mo Indi ans [and] conveys a sense o f t he mys -
t ery and powe r still t o be f ound in ritual"; Newsweek prai ses it f or
goi ng "way beyond ant hr opol ogi cal quest i ons and cat egor i es into t he
far r eaches of a fasci nat i ng alien cul t ure. "
Cont r over s y about Shabono br oke out when the Sept ember 1983
issue o f t he American Anthropologist publ i shed a c omme nt accus i ng
Donne r of pl agi ar i sm and fraud. "Frankl y, " says Rebecca B. De Hol me s ,
"I find it har d to bel i eve that Donne r spent any l engt h of t i me wi t h t he
Ya n o ma mo " ( DeHol mes 1983: 665) . Donner ' s et hnogr aphi c dat a, she
suggest s, wer e "r at her exper t l y bor r owed f r om ot her sour ces and as-
s embl ed i n a ki nd of mel ange of fact and fantasy for whi ch Cas t aneda
is so f amous " (ibid.). DeHol mes' s most seri ous accusat i on is t hat muc h
of Donner ' s bor r owi ng was out r i ght pl agi ari sm from anot her ext r aor -
di nar y book, a cont empor ar y captivity narrat i ve cal l ed Yanoama: The
Narrative of a. White Girl Kidnapped by Amazonian Indians, whi ch ap-
pear ed i n Italian i n 1965 and i n Engl i sh translation i n 1969. Th i s
book, whos e aut hent i ci t y no one has quest i oned, present s t he life
st ory of a Br azi l i an, Hel ena Val er o, who l i ved f r om chi l dhood t o
adul t hood wi t h a gr oup of Ya noma mo who kept her f ol l owi ng an at-
tack on her fami l y.
1
DeHol mes ' s accusat i on of pl agi ari sm is s uppor t ed by a seri es of
s ampl e passages f r om t he t wo books and a si zeabl e list o f what she calls
"par al l el account s of t he same event s, pl us similar or i dent i cal t i me
1. Thi s book, incidentally, should have generated a scandal of its own, for its
editor-transcriber, Ettore Biocca, claims it as his own and inexcusably fails to credit
Val ero adequately for her own story. Her name appears nowhere on the cover, and one
hopes that, in addition to getting editorial credit, Biocca is not also collecting the royal-
ties. At story's end, Valero is on her own in a Brazilian city, struggling to get her children
t hrough school.
30 MARY LOUISE PRATT
Fieldwork in Common Places 31
ar e r i t ual sevent s ant hr opol ogi st s have always speci al i zed i n t r eat i ng
as codi habl e, r epeat abl e for ms, r at her t han uni que event s. I f Donner ' s
account o f t hese rituals had not coi nci ded in det ai l wi t h Val ero' s, f r aud
by ant hr opol ogy' s own lights woul d have been cert ai n. But what was
be i ng a r gue d was t he exact opposi t e.
I n t he end, for DeHol mes , t he aut hori t y of t he et hnogr aphi c t ext
is di rect l y const i t ut ed by the writer' s per sonal exper i ence, in t ur n at-
t est ed by ori gi nal i t y of expr essi on: " I f Donner ' s Shabono is t o be cal l ed
' s uper b social sci ence, ' as Cas t aneda cl ai ms, it must be s hown t hat t he
et hnogr aphi c dat a on whi ch she bases her story wer e act ual l y gat h-
e r e d per sonal l y by her whi l e l i vi ng a mong t he Ya noma ma and not re-
wr i t t en f r om pr evi ousl y publ i shed wor ks. "
By cont rast , f or Debr a Pi cchi , who r evi ewed t he book i n t he s ame
j our nal , Shabono's fai l ure to be sci ence arises r at her f r om its "narci s-
sistic f ocus " on Donner ' s "per sonal gr owt h in t he hel d. " " To confi ne
ant hr opol ogy to the per sonal exper i ences of specific ant hr opol ogi st s
is t o deny its status as a social sci ence" and "r ender s the di sci pl i ne triv-
ial and i nconsequent i al " (Picchi 1983: 674) . Donne r fails to di spl ay
what f or Pi cchi is t he di st i ngui shi ng charact eri st i c of ant hr opol ogy' s
pr oj ect , namel y a "commi t ment t o t he document at i on of rel at i onshi ps
be t we e n behavi or al vari abl es on a cross-cul t ural basis." For Pi cchi , t he
i dea o f bor r owi ng and r ewr i t i ng is not a pr obl em. Si nce Donne r re-
j e ct e d f or mal field met hods, dest r oyi ng her not ebooks earl y i n t he
ga me , "one assumes, " Picchi says, "that the st andar d ant hr opol ogi cal
i nf or mat i on i ncl uded i n t he book is t he result of t he r econst r uct i on
f r om me mor y or r esear ch of t he now ext ensi ve l i t erat ure on t he
Ya n o ma mo I ndi ans" (ibid.). Pi cchi takes the book to be a bona fide
" et hnogr aphy of t he Ya noma mo Indi ans . . . based on 12 mont hs
of fieldwork" and r ecommends it to t eachers of i nt r oduct or y
ant hr opol ogy.
Wh y are Donner ' s fairly expl i ci t claims N OT to be wri t i ng a wor k of
ant hr opol ogy or social sci ence i rrel evant to this di scussi on? Th o u g h it
is not wr i t t en i n t he st andar d i di om of et hnogr aphi c descr i pt i on, what
pl aces her per sonal narrat i ve wi t hi n ant hr opol ogy' s pur vi ew? On c e
t her e, why is t her e such conf usi on about how it s houl d be eval uat ed?
For s ome r eason, it all made me t hi nk of a t eenager ha ngi ng
a r ound out si de a strip j oi nt who gets dr agged i nsi de in or de r to be
t ur ned over to the pol i ce and ki cked out agai nt hat ' l l t each hi m. So
"di sci pl i ni ng" is oft en done, i f not at strip j oi nt s, t hen cert ai nl y i n aca-
demi es . Wha t Donne r cl earl y di d was wri t e an i nfuri at i ngl y ambi gu-
ous book, whi ch may or may not be "t rue, " is and is not et hnogr aphy,
is and is not aut obi ogr aphy, does and does not cl ai m professi onal and
academi c aut hori t y, is and is not based on fieldwork, and so on. An
ungr at ef ul appr ent i ce can do no wor se t han this. For i f Fl or i nda
Do n n e r di d fabri cat e muc h of her story (as she may have), she has di s-
gr aced t he professi on by l yi ng, and l yi ng so well no one coul d tell. I f
she di d not fabri cat e her story, she scored one o f t he ant hr opol ogi cal
scoops of t he cent ury. For her exper i ence, as she r ecount s it, is i n
ma ny respect s an et hnogr apher ' s dr eam. She is invited by t he gr oup
t o st udy t hei r l i feways; i nst ead of sessions in whi ch she i nt er vi ews
t hem, it is t hey who sit down to t each her. She is spar ed t he angui s h
and gui l t of payi ng her way by di st ri but i ng West er n goods ; t he gr oup
has chos en to stay so r emot e that it is a near first encount er . To real i ze
this et hnogr apher ' s dr eam, and t hen to refuse to conver t it i nt o t he
cur r ency of t he di sci pl i ne that made it all possible, this is i ndeed a
monume nt a l bet rayal .
I have dwel t on the case of Shabono because it illustrates s ome
of t he conf usi on and ambi gui t y that per sonal narrat i ve, not havi ng
been ki l l ed by sci ence, raises in the "di scursi ve space" of et hnogr a-
phy. Per sonal narrat i ves like Donner' s are not unknown wi t hi n aca-
demi c ant hr opol ogy. I ndeed, per sonal account s of hel d exper i ences
ar e a r ecogni zabl e ant hr opol ogi cal s ubgenr e, but t hey al ways come ac-
compani edus ual l y pr ecededby a f or mal et hnogr aphy, t he book
Donne r has not (yet?) wri t t en. On e t hi nks of such pai r ed books as
Davi d Maybur y- Lewi s' s Savage and the Innocent and Akwe-Shavante Soci-
ety; Jean- Paul Dumont ' s Under the Rainbow and The Headman and I;
Na pol e on Chagnon' s Yanomamo: The Fierce People and Studying the
Yanomamo; Paul Rabi now' s Symbolic Domination and Reflections on Field-
work in Morocco. Earl i er exampl es i ncl ude t he wri t i ngs of Cl yde
Kl uc khohn a nd Roy- Fr ankl i n Bar t on; this per sonal s ubgenr e is al so
t he convent i onal t ext ual space i nt o whi ch Mal i nowski ' s di ari es wer e
publ i shed.
O f t hese pai rs of books , t he f or mal et hnogr aphy is t he one t hat
count s as pr ofessi onal capi t al and as an aut hori t at i ve r epr esent at i on;
t he per sonal narrat i ves are oft en deemed sel f-i ndul gent , trivial, or he-
ret i cal i n ot her ways. But despi t e such "di sci pl i ni ng, " t hey have kept
appear i ng, kept bei ng read, and above all kept bei ng t aught wi t hi n
t he bor der s o f t he di sci pl i ne, for what one must assume are power f ul
r easons.
Even in t he absence of a separat e aut obi ogr aphi cal vol ume, per -
sonal nar r at i ve is a convent i onal component of et hnogr aphi es . It
t ur ns u p al most i nvari abl y i n i nt r oduct i ons or first chapt er s, whe r e
ope ni ng nar r at i ves commonl y r ecount the writer' s arri val at t he hel d
site, for i nst ance, t he initial r ecept i on by the i nhabi t ant s, t he slow, ago-
ni zi ng pr ocess of l ear ni ng t he l anguage and over comi ng rej ect i on, t he
angui s h and loss at l eavi ng. Th o u g h t hey exist onl y on t he mar gi ns of
32 MARY LOUISE PRATT
Fieldwork in Common Places 33
f ace wi t h t he ot her ) to t he f or mer . Much must be left behi nd in t he
pr ocess. Johannes Fabi an charact eri zes t he t empor al aspect o f this
cont r adi ct i on whe n he speaks o f "an aporet i c split bet ween r ecogni -
ti on o f coeval ness in some et hnogr aphi c r esear ch and deni al o f co-
eval ness in most ant hr opol ogi cal t heor i zi ng and wr i t i ng" (Fabi an
1983 : 36). In ot her wor ds, t he f amous "et hnogr aphi c pr esent " l ocat es
t he ot her in a t i me or der di f f erent f r om that o f t he speaki ng subj ect ;
field r esear ch on the ot her hand locates bot h sel f and ot her in t he
same t empor al or der . Th e r e are st r ong reasons why field et hnog-
r apher s so of t en l ament t hat thei r et hnogr aphi c wri t i ngs l eave out or
hopel essl y i mpover i sh some o f t he most i mpor t ant knowl e dge t hey
have achi eved, i ncl udi ng t he sel f - knowl edge. For t he lay per son, such
as mysel f , t he mai n evi dence o f a pr obl em is t he si mpl e fact that et h-
nogr aphi c wr i t i ng t ends to be surpri si ngl y bor i ng. How, one asks con-
stantly, coul d such i nt erest i ng peopl e doi ng such i nt er est i ng t hi ngs
pr oduce such dul l books? What di d t hey have to do to t hemsel ves?
Per sonal nar r at i ve medi at es this cont r adi ct i on bet ween t he en-
ga ge me nt cal l ed f or in fieldwork and the sel f -ef f acement cal l ed f or i n
f or mal et hnogr aphi c descr i pt i on, or at least mi ti gates some o f its an-
gui sh, by i nser t i ng i nto the et hnogr aphi c t ext the aut hori t y o f t he per -
sonal exper i ence out o f whi ch the et hnogr aphy is made. It t hus r e-
cuper at es at least a f ew shr eds of what was exor ci sed i n t he conver si on
f r om t he f ace-t o-f ace field encount er to objectified sci ence. Tha t is
why such narrat i ves have not been killed by sci ence, and why t hey ar e
wor t h l ooki ng at, especi al l y to peopl e i nt erest ed in count er i ng t he t en-
dency t owar d al i enat i on and dehumani zat i on i n' much convent i onal
et hnogr aphi c descr i pt i on.
T h e pr act i ce o f combi ni ng personal narrat i ve and objecti fi ed de-
scri pt i on is har dl y t he i nvent i on of moder n et hnogr aphy, however . It
has a l ong hi st ory i n t hose ki nds of wr i t i ng f r om whi ch e t hnogr aphy
has t radi t i onal l y di st i ngui shed itself. By t he earl y si xt eent h cent ur y in
Eur ope , it was convent i onal f or travel account s to consi st o f a com-
bi nat i on o f first-person nar r at i on, r ecount i ng one' s tri p, and descr i p-
ti on o f t he flora and f auna o f r egi ons passed t hr ough and t he man-
ner s and cust oms o f t he i nhabi t ant s. The s e t wo di scourses wer e qui t e
cl ear l y di st i ngui shed i n travel books, narrat i ve pr edomi nat i ng over
descr i pt i on. Th descr i pt i ve port i ons wer e somet i mes seen as d ump-
i ng gr ounds f or t he "sur pl us dat a" that coul d not be fitted i nt o t he
nar r at i ve.
To gi ve a r epr esent at i ve exampl e, a book cal l ed The Captivity of
Hans Stade of Hesse in A.D. 15471$$$ among the Wild Tribes of Eastern
lixtzil achi eved a wi de r eader shi p in t he si xt eent h and sevent eent h
t he f or mal et hnogr aphi c descr i pt i on, these convent i onal ope ni ng nar-
rat i ves ar e not trivial. Th e y play the cruci al rol e o f anchor i ng that de-
scr i pt i on in t he i nt ense and aut hor i t y-gi vi ng per sonal exper i ence o f
f i el dwor k. Symbol i cal l y and i deol ogi cal l y ri ch, t hey of t en t ur n out to
be t he most memor abl e segment s of an et hnogr aphi c wo r k no bo d y
f or get s t he f r ust r at i on-r i dden i nt r oduct i on to Evans-Pri t chards' s The
Nuer. Al ways t hey ar e responsi bl e for setti ng up the initial posi t i on-
i ngs o f t he subjects o f t he et hnogr aphi c text: the et hnogr apher , t he
nat i ve, and t he r eader .
I fi nd it qui t e si gni fi cant that this ki nd of per sonal nar r at i ve, in
t he f or m bot h o f books and openi ng anecdot es, has in fact not been
"ki l l ed by sci ence, " that it persists as a convent i onal f or m in et hno-
gr aphi c wr i t i ng. Thi s fact is parti cul arl y not ewor t hy gi ven t he mul -
ti pl e pr essur es on et hnogr aphy that militate agai nst nar r at i ve ("mere
anecdot e") and deval ue it as a vehi cl e o f usabl e knowl e dge . Agai ns t
t hese pr essur es oper at es an ur gent sense that et hnogr aphi c descr i p-
ti on is s ome how not e nough on its own. Th e fact that per sonal nar-
rat i ve has this convent i onal pl ace in et hnogr aphi c di scour se suggest s
why Shabono, r egar dl ess of its author' s own wi shes, does fall wi t hi n an-
t hr opol ogy' s pur vi ew and must be r eckoned wi t h. Th e fact that per -
sonal nar r at i ve is mar gi nal and sti gmati zed expl ai ns why a book l i ke
Shabono has to be r ecogni zed onl y to be rej ect ed.
I t hi nk it is fairly cl ear that per sonal narrat i ve persists al ongsi de
obj ect i f yi ng descr i pt i on in et hnogr aphi c wr i t i ng because it medi at es a
cont r adi ct i on wi t hi n t he di sci pl i ne bet ween per sonal and scientific au-
thori ty, a cont r adi ct i on that has become especi al l y acut e since t he ad-
vent o f fieldwork as a met hodol ogi cal nor m. James Cl i f f or d speaks o f
it as "the discipline' s i mpossi bl e at t empt to fuse objecti ve and subjec-
tive pr act i ces" (see p. 109 bel ow). Fi el dwor k pr oduces a ki nd o f au-
t hor i t y t hat is anchor ed to a l ar ge ext ent in subjecti ve, sensuous e xpe -
r i ence. On e exper i ences the i ndi genous envi r onment and l i feways f or
onesel f , sees wi t h one' s own eyes, even pl ays some rol es, albeit con-
t ri ved ones, i n t he daily life of t he communi t y. But the pr of essi onal
t ext to resul t f r om such an encount er is supposed to conf or m to t he
nor ms o f a scientific di scourse whose aut hori t y resi des in t he absol ut e
ef f acement of t he speaki ng and exper i enci ng subject.
In t er ms o f its own met aphor s, the scientific posi ti on o f speech is
t hat o f an obser ver fixed on the e dge of a space, l ooki ng i n and/ or
d o wn upon what is ot her . Subj ect i ve exper i ence, on t he ot her hand, is
s poken f r om a movi ng posi ti on al r eady wi t hi n or down in the mi ddl e
o f t hi ngs, l ooki ng and bei ng l ooked at, t al ki ng and bei ng t al ked at. To
conver t f i el dwor k, via field not es, i nt o f or mal et hnogr aphy r equi r es a
t r emendousl y difficult shift f r om t he l atter di scursi ve posi ti on (l ace to
34 MARY LOUISE PRATT
Fi el dwork in Co mmo n Places 35
cent ur i es. St ade' s account was di vi ded i nt o t wo such part s, t he first
s ome t oo pages l ong, r ecount i ng his captivity a mong t he Tu pi Na m-
bas, and t he second some 50 pages l ong, gi vi ng a "veri t abl e and shor t
account of all t he by me exper i enced manner s and cust oms of t he
Tuppi n- I mba s , whos e pr i soner I was" (St ade 1 8 7 4 : 1 1 7 ) . I n this latter
sect i on, St ade' s descr i pt i ve agenda has much in c ommon wi t h t hat o f
mo de r n et hnogr aphy, i ncl udi ng chapt ers on "what t hei r dwel l i ngs are
l i ke, " " how t hey ma ke fire," "the pl aces wher ei n t hey sl eep, " " how
ski l ful t hey ar e in shoot i ng wi l d ani mal s and fish wi t h ar r ows, " " how
t hey cook t hei r f ood, " "what ki nd of r egi men and or der t hey have i n
gove r nme nt and l aws, " "what t hey bel i eve in," " how many wi ves each
o f t hem has, and how he manages t hem, " " how t hey ar e bet r ot hed, "
" how t hey ma ke t hei r bever ages wher ewi t h t hey dr i nk t hemsel ves
dr unk, and how t hey or der t hei r dr i nki ng, " and so fort h. Mor e ove r
St ade' s descr i pt i ons r esembl e t hose of mode r n et hnogr aphy i n t hei r
specificity, t hei r sear ch f or neut ral i t y and evenhandednes s , t hei r link-
age of social and mat eri al or der s, as in this descr i pt i on of a hous e,
whe r e spatial or gani zat i on is seen as det er mi ned by social rel at i ons:
They prefer erecting their dwellings in spots where they are not far from
wood and water, nor from game and fish. After they have destroyed all in one
district, they migrate to other places; and when they want to build their huts,
a chief among them assembles a party of men and women (some forty couples),
or as many as he can get, and these live together as friends and relations.
They build a kind of hut, which is about fourteen feet wide, and perhaps
a hundred and fifty feet long, according to their number. The tenements are
about two fathoms high, and round at the top like a vaulted cellar; they thatch
them thickly with palm leaves, so that it may not rain therein, and the hut is all
open inside. No one has his specially-prepared chamber; each couple, man
and woman, has a space of twelve feet on one side; whilst on the other, in the
same manner, lives another pair. Thus their huts are full, and each couple has
its own fire. The chief of the huts has also his lodging within the dwelling.
They all have commonly three entrances, one on each side, and one in the
middle; these are low, so that they must stoop when they go in and out. Few of
their villages have more than seven huts. (ibid. : 125)
I use t he exampl e of Hans St ade del i berat el y to under s cor e t he poi nt
t hat this di scursi ve confi gur at i on I am t al ki ng about is t he pr oduct
nei t her o f an er udi t e t radi t i on nor of t he rise o f mode r n sci ence, de-
spite its similarities wi t h cont empor ar y et hnogr aphy. Hans St ade was
a ship' s gunne r wi t h little f or mal educat i on; his book was a ver y popu-
l ar one, and it pr edat es t he rise of "nat ural hi st ory" in t he ei ght eent h
cent ur y.
I n s ome cases, i n travel wri t i ng, t he descri pt i ve di scour se is f ound
e nme s he d in t he narrat i ve, as i l l ust rat ed by this excer pt f r om Mu n g o
Park' s Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa ( 1799) :
We st opped a little at a village called Dangali; and in the eveni ng arri ved at
Dalli. We saw upon the road two large herds of camels feedi ng. Whe n t he
Moors turn their camel s to feed, they tie up one of their fore l egs, to prevent
thei r straying. . . . The peopl e were danci ng before the Dooty's house. But
when they were i nformed that a white man was come into the t own, they left
off danci ng and came to the place where I l odged, wal ki ng in regul ar order,
two and two, with the musi c before them. They play upon a sort of flute; but
i nstead of bl owi ng into a hol e in the side, they blow obliquely over the end.
(Park 1860: 46)
Th o u g h i nt er woven, part i cul ari zed narrat i ve and gener al i zed de-
scri pt i on r emai n di st i ngui shabl e her e, and shifts f r om one to t he
ot her ar e cl ear, t he most conspi cuous signs bei ng, of cour se, t he shift
f r om past t ense to pr esent tense and f r om specific per sons to t ri bal
l abel s. (As I shall be i l l ust rat i ng bel ow, this is the conf i gur at i on t hat
t urns up in t he wor k of Mal i nowski and Ra ymond Firth.)
I n its var i ous gui ses the narrat i on-descri pt i on dual i t y has re-
mai ned r emar kabl y stable in travel wri t i ng r i ght down to t he pr esent ,
as has t he convent i onal orderi ng-narrat i on first, descr i pt i on second;
or nar r at i on super or di nat e, descri pt i on subor di nat e. By t he late ni ne-
t eent h cent ur y, however , t he t wo modes oft en had about equal wei ght
i n t ravel books, and it was c ommon f or a t ri p t o resul t in t wo separ at e
vol umes , such as Mar y Ki ngsl ey' s mast er pi ece Travels in West Africa
(1897) and West African Studies (1899). Ri char d Burt on' s The Lake Re-
gions of Central Africa (1868) al t ernat es chapt er s of nar r at i on wi t h
chapt er s descr i bi ng t he " geogr aphy and et hnol ogy" of each r egi on
passed t hr ough.
Mo de r n et hnogr aphy obvi ousl y lies in di rect cont i nui t y wi t h this
t radi t i on, despi t e t he di sci pl i nary boundar y by whi ch it separat es itself
of f f r om t ravel wr i t i ng. Et hnogr aphi c wr i t i ng as a rul e subor di nat es
nar r at i ve to descr i pt i on, but per sonal narrat i ve is still convent i onal l y
f ound, ei t her i n t he separ at e per sonal vol umes or in vest i gi al f or m at
t he begi nni ng of t he book, set t i ng the st age for what fol l ows.
It is no surpri se, t hen, to find that t he openi ng narrat i ves i n et h-
nogr aphi es di spl ay cl ear cont i nui t i es wi t h travel wri t i ng. For i nst ance,
Fi r t h in We, the Tikopia (1936) i nt r oduces hi msel f via t he classic Pol y-
nesi an arri val scene. Thi s scene became a commonpl ace in t he litera-
t ur e of t he Sout h Sea expl or at i ons of Cook, Bougai nvi l l e and ot her s
i n t he 1760s and 70s. It is a memor abl e passage, to whi ch Cl i f f or d
Geer t z has also r ecent l y t ur ned his at t ent i on (Geer t z 1983c).
36
MARY LOUISE PRATT
In the cool of t he early morni ng, just bef ore sunri se, the bow o f t he
Sout her n Cross hea ded t owards the eastern hori zon, on whi ch a tiny dark
bl ue out l i ne was faintly visible. Slowly it grew i nto a r ugged mount ai n mass,
s t andi ng u p s heer f rom the ocean. . . . In an hour or so we were cl ose i ns hore,
and coul d see canoes c omi ng round f rom the s out h, out si de t he reef, o n
whi ch t he t i de was low. The outri gger-f i tted craft drew near, the men in t hem
bare to the waist, gi rdl ed with bark-cl oth, l arge fans stuck i n t he backs of t hei r
bel ts, tortoi se-shel l rings or rolls of l eaf i n the ear-l obes and nos e, bearded,
and wi th l ong hair fl owi ng l oosel y over their shoul ders. Some pl i ed the r oug h
heavy paddl es , s ome had finely plaited pandanus -l eaf mats rest i ng o n t he
thwarts bes i de t hem, s ome had l arge clubs or spears i n thei r hands . The shi p
a nc hor ed o n a short cabl e i n the open bay off the coral reef. Al mos t bef ore
t he chai n was do wn the natives began to scrambl e aboard, c omi ng over the
s i de by any mea ns that of f ered, s hout i ng fiercely to each ot her and to us i n a
t o ng ue o f whi ch not a word was unders t ood by t he Mot a-s peaki ng fol k o f t he
mi s s i on vessel . I wonder ed how such t urbul ent huma n material coul d ever be
i nduc ed to submi t to scientific study. . . .
We sl i pped overboard o n to the coral rock and began to wade as hore
ha nd i n ha nd wi t h o ur host s, l ike chi l dren at a party, exc hangi ng smi l es in l i eu
o f anyt hi ng mor e i ntel l i gi bl e or tangi bl e at the moment . We were s ur r ounded
by crowds of naked chat t eri ng youngst ers. . . . At last the l ong wade ended,
we cl i mbed u p t he steepl y s hel vi ng beach, crossed the soft, dry sand st rewn
wi t h t he brown needl es of the Casuari na t rees a home-l i ke t ouch; it was l ike
a pi ne a v enuea nd were l ed to an ol d chi ef clad with great di gni ty i n a whi te
coat and a l oi n-cl ot h, who awai ted us on his stool under a l arge shady tree.
(Firth 19 3 6 : 1- 2 )
Fi rt h r epr oduces in a remarkabl y st rai ght forward way a Utopian scene
of first cont act that acqui red mythi c status in the ei ght eent h cent ury,
and cont i nues wi th us today in the popul ar myt hol ogy of the Sout h
Sea paradi se (alias Cl ub Mdi t errane/ Fant asy Island). Far f r om bei ng
t aken for a suspi ci ous ali en, the Eur opean visitor is wel comed l i ke
a messi ah by a trusti ng popul ace ready to do his or her bi ddi ng. For
compar i son, consi der Loui s de Bougai nvi l l e' s arrival in Tahi t i in 17 6 7 :
We run wi th all sails set towards the l and, s t andi ng to wi ndward of this bay,
when we percei ved a pari agua c omi ng f rom the offing, and s t andi ng for the
l and, and maki ng us e of her sail and paddl es. She passed athwart us, and
j o i ned a number of ot hers, whi ch sailed ahead of us, f rom all parts of t he is-
l and. One of t hem went bef ore all the rest; it was manned by twel ve naked
men, who pres ent ed us with branches of bananas; and their demons t rat i ons
si gni fi ed that thi s was their ol i ve branch. We answered t hem with all the si gns
of f ri ends hi p we coul d i magi ne; and they t hen came al ong side o f our s hi p;
and o ne o f t hem, remarkabl e for his prodi gi ous growt h of hair, whi ch s t ood
l ike bristl es di vergent on his head, of f ered us , t oget her wi th hi s branch o f
peace, a little pi g, and a cl uster of bananas. . . .
Fi el dwork i n Co mmo n Places
37
The two shi ps were s oon s urrounded with more t han an hundr ed per-
i aguas of di f f erent sizes, all whi ch had out ri ggers. They were l aden with
cocoa-nut s , bananas, and ot her fruits of the country. The ex c ha ng e of t hes e
fruits, whi ch were del i ci ous to us, was made very honest l y for all sorts of tri-
fles. (Bougai nvi l l e 1967: 213)
Bougai nvi l l e has a lot mor e t roubl e than Firth in get t i ng his shi p an-
chor ed, but once he does, the same dr ama resumes:
When we were moor ed, I went on shore with several officers, to survey the
wat eri ng-pl ace. An i mmens e crowd of men and women recei ved us t here, and
coul d not be tired wi th l ooki ng at us; the bol dest came to t ouch us; t hey ev en
pus hed asi de our cl ot hes with their hands , in order to see whet her we wer e
ma de exactl y like t hem: none of t hem wore any arms, not so muc h as a stick.
They sufficiently expres s ed thei r joy at our arrival. The chi ef of thi s district
c onduc t ed and i nt roduced us i nto his hous e, in whi ch we f ound five or six
wo men, and a venerabl e ol d man. (ibid. : 220)
Th e similarities bet ween the two scenes are obvi ous. The r e are some
i nt erest i ng di fferences too. Bougai nvi lle' s versi on of the scene uses
one t rope Firth does not r epr oduce, the senti mental commonpl ace
wher eby t he natives try to undress the forei gners to det er mi ne t hei r
humani t y and, symbolically, level the di fference bet ween t hem. Fi rth
stays dressed, like the ki ng he is to meet. Bougai nvi l l e also careful l y
ment i ons t he mat eri al relati onshi p that is i mmedi at el y establi shed
bet ween Eur opeans and natives, an exchange whose spont aneous
equali ty he stresses. In Fi rth this openi ng exchange is present , but de-
mat eri al i zed, an exchange of "smiles, in lieu of anyt hi ng mor e intel-
ligible or t angi bl e at t he moment " and l eavi ng uncl ear what his mat e-
rial rel at i on to t hese peopl e is goi ng to be. At the same t i me, Fi rt h
demyst i fi es t he egali tari ani sm of the convent i onal vision wi t h his not e
of i rony about how all this human material "coul d be made to submi t
to scientific study. " I ndeed, his i rony here lightly mar ks t he royal -
arri val t r ope as a t rope, and as part of a l anguage of conquest . Th e
fact that his own proj ect is also an assertion of power is tacitly ac-
knowl edged. Firth' s openi ng present at i on of self suggests t he story of
Ti kopi a' s becomi ng "his little island," as Mal i nowski was later to call it
(Firth 19 3 7 : 1).
Mal i nowski in Argonauts i nt roduces a qui te di fferent sel f-i mage,
also f r om the annal s of travel wri t i ng. His "bri ef outli ne of an Et h-
nographer' s tri bulati ons" opens with the now famous line: "I magi ne
your sel f suddenl y set down sur r ounded by your gear, al one on a
tropi cal beach close to a native village whi l e t he l aunch or di nghy
whi ch has br ought you sails away out of si ght" (Mal i nowski 19 61 '.4).
38
MARY LOUISE PRATT
Thi s is unmi st akabl y the i mage of an ol d-fashi oned castaway. Tha t it
t urns up her e is especially apt, since it corresponds to Mali nowski ' s
own situation at t he ti me. An Aust ri an citizen li vi ng in Aust ral i a, he
had been sent to sit out the war in the Tr obr i and Islands rat her t han
risk repri sals or deport at i on.
Th e r e are ot her reasons why t he i mage of the castaway is an evoca-
tive and Ut opi an sel f-i mage for the et hnogr apher . For as the figures
of Hel ena Val er o, Fl ori nda Donner , and Hans St ade suggest , cast-
aways and capt i ves in many ways realize the ideal of the parti ci pant-
observer. Th e aut hori t y of the et hnogr apher over the "mere t ravel er"
rests chiefly on the i dea that the traveler j ust passes t hr ough, wher eas
t he et hnogr apher lives wi th the gr oup under study. But o f course this
is what capt i ves and castaways often do too, living in anot her cul t ure
in every capaci ty from pri nce to slave, l earni ng i ndi genous l anguages
and li feways wi t h a prohci ency any et hnogr apher woul d envy, and
oft en pr oduci ng account s that are i ndeed full, rich, and accurat e by
et hnogr aphy' s own standards. At the same time, the exper i ence of
capti vi ty resonat es a lot wi th aspects of the exper i ence of fieldwork
the sense of dependency, lack of control, the vulnerability to bei ng ei-
t her isolated compl et el y or never left al one.
Th e n agai n, the i mage of the castaway mystifies the et hnogr apher ' s
situation in ways ment i oned earlier. Cast away and et hnogr apher dif-
fer fundament al l y in thei r materi al relation to the i ndi genous gr oup.
Cast aways take up a place wi thi n the i ndi genous social and economi c
or gani zat i on; that is how they survi vei f, i ndeed, they do survi ve,
for captivity is a rat her hi gher-ri sk business t han fieldwork. Ant hr o-
pol ogi st s cust omari l y establish a relati onshi p of exchange wi t h the
gr oup based on West ern commodi t i es. That is how they survi ve and
try to make thei r relations wi th i nformant s nonexpl oi t i ve. But of
cour se this strategy is enormousl y contradi ctory, for it makes ant hro-
pol ogi st s const ant cont ri but ors to what they t hemsel ves see as t he de-
structi on of thei r object of study. Th e status of the capti ve or castaway,
by contrast, is i nnocent , and one can see why it woul d be a compel l i ng
i mage to t he cont radi ct i on-ri dden et hnogr apher ( t hough actually
goi ng native, as captives oft en di d, is t aboo for ant hropol ogi st s).
Fi rth and Mal i nowski , then, bot h i nvoke well-established i mages
f r om travel li terature in thei r openi ng view of the et hnogr apher . Th e
bodi es of thei r et hnographi es are also similar, at least in thei r depl oy-
ment of narrat i ve and descri pti ve di scourse. Bot h wri ters move freely
and fluidly bet ween the t wo, i nt roduci ng anecdot e constantly to illus-
trate or el aborat e on the et hnographi c general i zat i ons, in a way some-
what remi ni scent of the text from Mungo Park cited above (p. 35).
Fi rt h is full of compl ex passages like this one, wher e his et hnogr aphi c
Fieldwork in Common Places
39
general i zat i ons, his eyewi t ness anecdot es, and his personal i rony
i nt erweave:
Relatives by marriage do occasionally get in sly digs at each other without ab-
solutely transgressing the bounds of good manners. Pa Ranifuri told me with
great glee of how the Ariki Taumako spoke to him of his classificatory son-in-
law Pa-Panisi as "Matua i te sosipani"sosipani being the native pronunciation
of saucepan, of which sooty vessel this man was as far as I recollect the only
possessor in the island. As a dark-skinned foreigner he was slightly sneered at
(behind his back) by the Tikopia. Scolding, I was told, though not permitted
by convention directly, may take place at a distance. (Firth 1936 : 274)
What Firth and Mal i nowski (his teacher) seem to be after is a ki nd of
summa, a hi ghl y t ext ured, totalizing pi ct ure anchor ed in t hemsel ves,
wher e "sel f" is under st ood not as a monoli thi c scientist-observer, but
as a mul t i facet ed entity who participates, observes, and wri tes f r om
mul t i pl e, constantly shifting positions. Such are the reflective capaci -
ties of this versatile, larger-than-life subject that it can absorb and
t ransmi t the ri chness of a whol e cul t ure.
2
In this subject is also an-
chor ed t he heady opt i mi sm bot h Firth and Mal i nowski convey about
t he et hnogr aphi c ent erpri se. Ther e is a significant i rony in the fact
that the speaki ng subject in the wor k of these founders of "scientific
et hnogr aphy, " as Mal i nowski called it, is anyt hi ng but the self-effaced,
passive subject of scientific di scourse.
Th e richly percept i ve, but terribly unsystemati c, t ext ual bei ng
that is the et hnogr apher in Mal i nowski and Firth contrasts sharpl y
wi t h t he frustrated and depressed figure that appears in some subse-
quent classic et hnographi es, such as those of Evans-Pri t chard and
Maybur y- Lewi s. I f Firth shows up as a benevol ent ei ght eent h-cent ury
sci enti st-ki ng, Evans-Pri t chard comes on stage in the later gui se of t he
gr uf f Vi ct or i an expl or er - advent ur er who exposes hi msel f to all sorts
of danger s and di scomfort s in the name of a hi gher (national) mi s-
sion. In his f amed openi ng descri pt i on of field condi t i ons in The Nuer
(1940 ), Evans-Pri t chard j oi ns a cent ury-l ong line of Af r i can travelers
who lose t hei r suppl i es and cannot cont rol their bearers. His initial
sel f-represent at i on reads thus:
I arrived in Nuerland early in 1930. Stormy weather prevented my luggage
from joining me at Marseilles, and owing to errors, for which I was not re-
sponsible, my food stores were not forwarded from Malakal and my Zande
servants were not instructed to meet me. I proceeded to Nuerland (Leek
country) with my tent, some equipment, and a few stores bought at Malakal,
. James Clifford has made similar observations about Malinowski, and I am in-
dcbled lo his work here (see Clifford 1985a).
4 o
MARY LOUISE PRATT
and two servants, an Atwot and a Bel l anda, pi cked up hastily at the same
place.
Whe n I l anded at Yoahuang on the Bahr el Ghazal the catholic mi ssi on-
aries t here showed me much ki ndness. I waited for ni ne days on the river
bank for the carriers I had been promi sed. By the tenth day onl y four of t hem
had arri ved. . . . On the fol l owi ng morni ng I set out for the nei ghbouri ng vil-
l age of Pakur, where my carriers dropped tent and stores in the centre of a
treel ess pl ai n, near s ome homest eads, and refused to bear t hem to the shade
about hal f a mile further. Next day was devot ed to erecti ng my tent and tryi ng
to pers uade the Nue r . . . to remove my abode to the vicinity of shade and
water, whi ch they refused to do. (Evans-Pritchard 1940:5)
S u c h e p i s o d e s are a c o mmo n p l a c e o f t he Af r i c a n t ravel a n d e x p l o r a -
t i on wr i t e r s o f t he l ast c e nt ur y. He r e for i ns t anc e is t he e t e r nal l y
c r a nky Si r Ri c ha r d Bu r t o n , wh o s e e x p e d i t i o n r e c o u n t e d i n The Lake
Regions of Central Africa (1868) is g i v e n mu c h t he s a me i na us pi c i o us
b e g i n n i n g :
We were del ayed ten days off Wale Point by various preliminaries to depar-
ture. Said bin Salini, a half-caste Arab of Zanzibar, who, sorely agai nst his will,
was ordered by the pri nce to act as Ras Kafilah, or caravan-gui de, had, after
ceasel ess and fruitless prayers for delay, preceded us about a fortni ght, for the
purpos e of col l ecti ng porters. . . . He had crossed over, on the i st of June, to
the mai nl and, and had hired a gang of porters, who, however, heari ng that
their empl oyer was a Muzungu, "white man", at once di spersed, forget t i ng to
ret urn their hire. About one hundred and seventy me n were requi red; onl y
thirty-six were procurabl e. . . . It was necessary to leave behi nd, till a full gang
of porters coul d be engaged, the greater part of the ammuni t i on, the i ron
boat whi ch had proved so useful on the coasting voyage to Mombasah, and
the reserve suppl y of cl oth, wire and beads, valued at 359 dollars. The Hi ndus
promi sed faithfully to forward these articles. . . . Nearly el even mont hs, how-
ever, el apsed before they appeared. (Burton 1961: 12)
An d s o it g o e s , o v e r a n d ove r , till Burt on' s narrat i ve, l i ke Ev a ns -
Pri t chard' s i nt r o duc t i o n, r e ads l i ke o n e l o ng , fr us t r at i ng ma s t e r -
s e r v a nt f e u d . Evans - Pri t chard' s c ho i c e o f t hi s par t i c ul ar sel f-
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n is n o t ha pha z a r d. Cl i fford Geert z' s r e c e nt anal ys i s o f
a n o l d mi l i t ary me mo i r o f Evans - Pri t chard' s ( Ge e r t z 1983a) c o n n e c t s
Ev a ns - Pr i t c ha r d di rect l y wi t h t he t radi t i on o f Af r i c a n c ol oni al e x p l o -
r at i on a n d wr i t i ng.
Wi t h respect t o di s c ur s i ve c o nv e nt i o ns , Evans - Pr i t c har d mu s t al s o
be t h o u g h t o f as p r o d u c i n g a hug e l y d e g r a d e d ve r s i on o f t he Utopian
arri val s c e n e e x e mpl i f i e d i n Bo ug a i nv i l l e a nd Fi rt h. Th i s is first c o n -
t act i n a fal l e n wo r l d wh e r e Eu r o p e a n c ol oni al i s m is a g i v e n a n d nat i ve
a n d whi t e ma n a p p r o a c h e a c h o t h e r wi t h j o y l e s s s us pi c i on. Ma y bur y -
Le wi s g i v e s a s i mi l arl y d e g r a d e d ve r s i on o f t he s c e ne i n Akwe-Shavante
Fi el dwork in Co mmo n Places
41
Society. He d o e s find h e l p wi t h hi s l u g g a g e , but t he c hi e f w h o awai t s
h i m is n o t r e c o g ni z a bl y regal , t he o p e n i n g e x c h a n g e o f g o o d s no t
r e c i pr oc al :
A number of Shavante from the village had come to the airstrip when our
pl ane l anded and hel ped to carry our baggage to the post. They set it down at
the feet of an elderly man, who we di scovered was the chi ef of the village. He
clearly expect ed us to open the trunks then and there and distribute their
cont ent s. (Maybury-Lewis i 967: xxi i i )
T h e p r o b l e m h e r e , it t ur ns out , is c o nt a mi na t i o n f r o m o ut s i de . T h e
Sha v a nt e ha v e b e e n s po i l e d by Brazi l i an a r my offi cers wh o fly i n t o s e e
t h e m as a c ur i os i t y a n d br i ng "el aborat e gi ft s. " Li ke Ev a ns - Pr i t c ha r d
( hi s t e a c he r ) , Ma y bur y - Le wi s c o mp l a i n s at l e n g t h a bo ut hi s i nfor -
ma nt s ' hos t i l i t y a nd unc o o pe r a t i v e ne s s , t he i r r e fus al t o tal k t o h i m i n
pr i vat e , t he i r r e fus al t o l e ave h i m a l o ne , hi s p r o b l e ms wi t h t he l an-
g u a g e , a n d s o o n.
I n bo t h t he s e a nt i - ut o pi a n i ns t anc e s , t he o p e n i n g nar r at i ve is
g i v e n by way o f e x p l a i n i n g t he l i mi t at i ons o n t he e t hno g r a phe r ' s abi l -
i ty t o carry o u t hi s sci ent i fi c mi s s i on. Paradoxi cal l y e n o u g h , t he c o ndi -
t i ons o f fieldwork are e x p r e s s e d as an i mp e d i me n t t o t he t ask o f d o i n g
fieldwork, r a t he r t ha n as part o f wha t is t o be a c c o u n t e d for i n field-
wor k. T h e c ont r as t wi t h t he t o ne o f Fi rt h a n d Mal i nows ki is o bv i o us .
Ev a ns - Pr i t c ha r d a n d Maybur y- Le wi s are t he he i r s o f t he s ci ent i fi c,
pr o f e s s i o na l e t h n o g r a p h y Mal i nows ki i nv e nt e d. T h e s ci ent i fi c i de al
s e e ms t o pr e s s o n t h e m acut el y, c al l i ng for c odi fi e d field me t h o d o l o g y ,
pr o f e s s i o na l d e t a c h me n t , a s ys t e mat i c wr i t e - up. Wh a t e v e r a b o u t t he
o t h e r c ul t ur e i mp e d e s t he s e tasks is an e t h n o g r a p h i c obs t ac l e , as we l l
as a n e t h n o g r a p h i c fact . Bo t h wri t ers c o mp l a i n , for i ns t anc e , a b o u t
t he i mpos s i bi l i t y o f ha v i ng pri vat e c o nv e r s a t i o ns wi t h i nf o r ma nt s , as i f
pr i vat e c o nv e r s a t i o n, o n c e bapt i z e d as a field me t h o d , o u g h t t o be cul -
t ural l y pos s i bl e e v e r y wh e r e . As me t h o d o l o g y ge t s i nc r e as i ngl y c odi -
fied, t he c l as h b e t we e n "obj ect i ve a n d s ubj ect i ve pract i ces " b e c o me s
i nc r e as i ngl y ac ut e .
I n Evans - Pr i t c har d' s cas e, t he di ffi cul t i es t rans l at e i nt o a ri gi d s e pa -
r at i on b e t we e n pe r s o na l narrat i ve (hi s l o n g a n d vi vi d i nt r o duc t i o n)
a n d i mp e r s o n a l de s c r i pt i o n (the. res t o f hi s ac c ount ) . Go n e is t he c o n -
s t ant l y s hi f t i ng po s i t i o n o f s p e e c h o f Fi rt h o r Mal i nows ki , a n d g o n e is
t he s e n s e o f aut hor i t y, t he possi bi l i t y o f rel i abl e t ot al i zi ng. Ev a ns -
Pr i t c har d s t ri ves for a t ot al i zi ng pi c t ur e o f t he Nu e r , c e nt e r e d o n cat t l e,
but fe e l s h e mu s t b e e mp h a t i c , bo t h at t he b e g i n n i n g a nd t he e n d o f
hi s bo o k, a b o u t t he l i mi t at i ons o n hi s capaci t i es a n d hi s a c h i e v e me n t .
Maybur y- Le wi s ' s r e s po ns e , o n t he o t h e r h a n d , i s t o t ry t o reaffi rm t he
aut hor i t y a nd l e gi t i mac y o f pe r s o na l narrat i ve, a n d t o ma k e it e xpl i c i t
42 MARY LOUISE PRATT Fi el dwork in Co mmo n Places
43
Wal ki ng into a traditional !Kung village, a visitor woul d be struck by how frag-
ile it s eemed beneat h the expanse of sky and how unobtrusi vel y it stood ami d
the tall grass and sparse tree growth of the surroundi ng bush. . . . A visitor
who arri ved in the mi ddl e of the cold seasonJune and Jul yand j us t at
sunri se woul d see mounds of blankets and animal skins in front of the huts,
coveri ng peopl e still asl eep besi de their fires. Thos e who had al ready awak-
ened woul d be stoki ng the coals, rebui l di ng the fire, and warmi ng t hemsel ves
in t he chilly morni ng air. . . . A visitor on anot her morni ng, in the hot, dry
mont hs of October and November, woul d find peopl e movi ng about, even at
dawn, up earl y to do a few hours of gatheri ng or hunt i ng before the mi dday
heat woul d force t hem to rest in the thickest shade. (Shostak 1 9 8 1 : 78)
As i n Fi rt h, this hypot het i cal arri val is at da wnne w day, new pl ace.
An d , i n a slightly di fferent way, it present s an et hnogr aphi c ut opi a:
her e is a t radi t i onal society doi ng its t radi t i onal t hi ng, obl i vi ous to t he
al i en obs er vi ng pr esence. Unl i ke t he ot her arri val scenes cons i der ed
above, this one is hypot het i cal and nor mal i zed. It r epr esent s what
"a vi si t or (not an ant hr opol ogi st ) woul d exper i ence if. . . ." Th e status
o f this fant asy is ma de appar ent several pages l at er whe n Shost ak
r ecount s at gr eat l engt h her own arri val exper i ence, the. ni ght she
meet s Ni sa:
By t he ti me we arrived at Gausha, from Goshi, where we had our mai n camp,
it had l ong since been dark. We drove the Land Rover past one !Kung village
and st opped at a desert ed village site farther down the road. The full moon,
hi gh i n the sky, appeared small and gave off a cold light. . . . Kxoma and
Tuma, two !Kung me n traveling with us, suggest ed we make our camp at this
site where Ri chard Lee and Nancy Howel l , ot her anthropol ogi sts, had set their
camp four years earlier. Living where someone had lived before was right,
they said: it connect ed you to the past. The sl ender stick shell of Richard and
Nancy's hut was still there. It stood out in the moonl i ght, a bizarre skel eton set
apart from the surroundi ng bush . . . a traditional !Kung frame. The grass
had l ong since been taken and used in Nisa's village. As it stood, the hut
offered no protecti on from the weather, nor any privacy. (Shostak 1981 : 23)
To begi n wi t h, this is a noct ur nal arrival, relatively rare in bot h t ravel
wr i t i ng a nd et hnogr aphy. For the ant hropol ogi st s, this is the l and of
the de a dt he mo o n is small and col d, and i nexpl i cabl y t hey t ake
t hemsel ves past t he vi l l age of the l i vi ng, to a deser t ed one, and set
t hemsel ves up in t he skel et on of a hut . Shostak' s own symbol i sm con-
trasts shar pl y wi t h t he !Kung's under s t andi ng of what t hey are doi ng.
For t hem, t he l i nk wi t h t he past is a haven, a comf or t . Shost ak and
her compa ni on ar e haunt ed by the ghost s of t hei r ant hr opol ogi cal
pr edecessor s.
Th e r e is no spont aneous nat i ve wel come in Shostak' s account , but
as a s ubgenr e. He publ i shes his per sonal account first (The Savage and
the Innocent 1965), fills his et hnogr aphi c book wi t h per sonal nar r at i ve,
and suggest s that "it is t i me we abandoned t he myst i que whi ch sur-
r ounds field-work and made it convent i onal to descri be in s ome det ai l
t he ci r cumst ances of dat a-col l ect i ng" (Maybur y- Lewi s 1967 : xx) .
Each of t hese ope ni ng narrat i ve self-portraits (Mal i nowski , Fi rt h,
Evans- Pr i t char d, Maybur y- Lewi s ) comes st rai ght out of t he t r opol ogy
o f t ravel wr i t i ng. I nt r i gui ngl y, t hey oft en come out of t he specific tra-
di t i on of wr i t i ng on t he r egi on in whi ch t he et hnogr apher is wor ki ng
(Cent r al Af r i ca, t he Sout h Pacific). At the same t i me, each expr esses
i n an onl y sl i ght l y medi at ed fashi on s ome specifics o f t he par t i cul ar
si t uat i on in whi ch each et hnogr apher finds hi msel f. Th e y are em-
bl emat i c sel f-port rai t s, whi ch oper at e as a pr el ude to, and c omme n-
t ary on, what fol l ows. I n this r espect t hey ar e not trivial, f or one
o f t hei r tasks is t o posi t i on the r eader wi t h respect to the f or mal de-
scri pt i on. As oft en as not in moder n et hnogr aphi es such passages
under t ake t o pr obl emat i ze the reader' s posi t i on, as t hey do i n Evans-
Pr i t char d and Maybur y- Lewi s . Th e et hnogr apher ' s trials in wor ki ng
to know anot her peopl e now become the reader' s trials in ma ki ng
sense o f t he t ext .
I n all t he cases I have di scussed, muc h is mystified in t he et hnog-
r apher ' s sel f-port rai t . Much is i roni zed, i ndi rect l y quest i oned, but
never namednot abl y t he sheer i nexpl i cabi l i t y and unjustifiability o f
t he et hnogr apher ' s pr esence f r om t he st andpoi nt of t he ot her . Evans-
Pri t chard' s do g g e d mi sr eadi ng of a conver sat i on wi t h an i nf or mant i n
his pr ef ace coul d pr ovi de no cl earer exampl e. Equal l y myst i hed is t he
l ar ger agenda of Eur opean expansi on i n whi ch t he et hnogr apher , re-
gar dl ess of his or her own attitudes to it, is caught up, and t hat det er -
mi nes t he et hnogr apher ' s own mat eri al rel at i onshi p to t he gr oup
unde r st udy. Thi s rel at i onshi p is one of the gr eat silences i n t he mi dst
o f et hnogr aphi c descri pt i on itself. It is t he silence that shapes t he tra-
di t i onal et hnogr aphi c proj ect of t ryi ng to descri be t he cul t ur e as it was
bef or e Wes t er n i nt er vent i on.
I have been ma ki ng a l oose gener at i onal ar gument in this essay,
and pr opos e t o end up wi t h one final exampl e f r om a yet mor e r ecent
gener at i on of et hnogr apher s . Marj ori e Shostak' s Nisa: The Life and
Words of a !Kung Woman ( 1981) is wi del y r egar ded as one of t he mor e
successful r ecent exper i ment s in r ehumani zi ng et hnogr aphi c wr i t i ng.
T h e arri val t r ope is onl y one of many convent i ons of et hnogr aphi c
wr i t i ng t hat get r emol ded i n her t ext . T h e i nt r oduct i on t o Nisa con-
tains t wo versi ons of t he convent i onal arri val scene. Her e is t he first:
44
MARY LOUISE PRATT
unl i ke bot h Fi rt h and Evans-Pr i t char d, t hese ant hr opol ogi st s do not
want or need one: "It was t oo late for visiting. Th e y knew us by t hen;
we woul d still be t her e i n t he mor ni ng. " Th e y unpack by t hemsel ves
("I t hought of t he t i me Nancy had f ound a puf f adder in her sl eepi ng
bag"). Wha t is bi t i ng t he dust her e, of cour se, is even t he pr et ense or
fant asy o f a first encount er . Far f r om bei ng the first Eur ope a n on t he
scene, Shost ak is even a l ong way f r om bei ng t he first ant hr opol ogi st .
An d this poi nt gets woeful l y dr amat i zed whe n t he i ndi genous wel -
comer s , t hemsel ves unwel come, bel at edl y appear aft er t he l ugga ge
wor k is done and t he part y is r eady for bed: "Ni sa wor e an ol d bl anket
l oosel y dr a pe d over t he r emnant s of a faded, fl ower-pri nt dress, sizes
t oo bi g. Bo was wear i ng a pai r of shorts, even the pat ches of whi ch
wer e wor n t hr ough in pl aces. " Th e r e t hey are, i n Eur ope a n cl ot hes
t hey have obvi ousl y been wear i ng for a l ong t i me. An d i nst ead of
a s ong o f wel come to Shost ak and her par t ner , what Ni sa si ngs is a
prai se s ong f or t hei r pr edecessor s. "Ri char d and Nancy! I real l y l i ked
t hem! Th e y l i ked us t oot hey gave us beaut i ful present s and t ook us
e ve r ywhe r e wi t h t hem. Bo and I wor ked har d for t hem. . . . Oh how I
wi sh t hey wer e her e!"
It is an awful scene, a real r et ur n of t he r epr essed. Th e s e ot her s
ar e fal l en, cor r upt ed not onl y as non- Eur opeans , but specifically as
et hnogr aphi c i nf or mant s. Bo and Ni sa arri ve prai si ng t he gui l t y rel a-
t i onshi p of exchange based on West er n commodi t i es, t he poi nt at
whi ch t he ant hr opol ogi st preserver-of-t he-cul t ure is the i nt er vent i on-
ist cor r upt er - of - t he- cul t ur e. It is t he nai ve i nf or mant t ur ned hust l er.
I n short , this arri val scene cont empl at es, rel uct ant l y and in t he dar k
of ni ght , t he af t er mat h of t he et hnogr aphi c epi sode: the i ndi genous
peopl e who, specifically t hr ough t he et hnogr aphi c cont act , have ac-
qui r ed a vest ed i nt erest in west erni zat i on and a concr et e day-t o-day
l i nk wi t h t he l ar ger st ruct ures of expl oi t at i on. It is like a bad dr eam,
and Shost ak' s react i on, as she descri bes it, is to try to pr et end it is not
ha ppe ni ng and wai t for a mor e st andar d arri val scene in t he mor ni ng,
compl et e wi t h t he ri t ual exchange of goods : " Tha t was whe n we
woul d gi ve [t obacco] to t he rest of t he ! Kung wi t h wh o m we pl anned
t o wor k" (Shost ak 1 9 8 1 : 25).
Af t e r l ong resi st ance, Shost ak ul t i mat el y capi t ul at es to this de-
gr a de d ant hr opol ogi cal wor l d, consent s to be hust l ed/ seduced by
Ni sa, and t hen and onl y t hen finds a fieldwork rel at i onshi p t hat is i n
fact enor mous l y pr oduct i ve for et hnogr aphi c pur poses. For Ni sa is
adver t i si ng a genui ne talent for story t el l i ng and for refl ect i ng on her
own cul t ur e and exper i ence.
Ou t of that encount er , Shost ak pr oduces a t ext that, i n a way ver y
di ffer ent f r om Mal i nowski and Fi rt h, agai n seeks to r ecogni ze t he au-
Fi el dwork i n Co mmo n Places
45
t hor i t y of per sonal narrat i ve wi t hi n the et hnogr aphi c descr i pt i on.
Shost ak' s own story is concent r at ed at t he begi nni ng and end o f t he
book. In bet ween, Nisa' s narrat i ve pr edomi nat es, edi t ed i nt o a life
st ory by Shost ak, who i nt r oduces each sect i on wi t h a few pages o f et h-
nogr aphi c gener al i zi ng and comment ar y. So this book tries to medi at e
t he cont r adi ct i on bet ween obj ect i fyi ng et hnogr aphi c r epr esent at i on,
i n whi ch all nat i ves are equi val ent and equal , and t he subj ect i ve e xpe -
r i ence of fieldwork, i n whi ch all i nformant s are not equi val ent or
equal . Wha t is s ought her e as an al t ernat i ve is not, however , a total-
ity or a synt hesi s anchor ed in the mul t i facet ed subjectivity of t he
fieldworker/traveler/scientist, but s omet hi ng less uni fi ed and mor e
pol yphonous .
3
A Utopian el ement persists, however , for the pol yphony Shost ak
cr eat es is st ri ki ngl y har moni ous . On e finds little evi dence of st r uggl e
a mo n g t he var i ous voi ces, despi t e Shostak' s awareness of t he i nt ol er-
abl e cont r adi ct or i ness of her posi t i on. Cur r ent West er n concept i ons
o f f emal e sol i dari t y and i nt i macy seem to be part of what pr oduces
this cross-cul t ural har mony: she and Ni sa are bound t oget her in ways
t hat per haps t r anscend cul t ur e. It is to Shostak' s cr edi t that t he last
l i nes of t he book chal l enge that har mony. Nisa' s final wor ds in t he t ext
ar e: " My ni ece . . . my ni ece . . . you are s omeone who t rul y t hi nks
about me. " Shost ak' s are: "I will always t hi nk of her and I hope she will
t hi nk of me, as a distant sister." Each assigns the ot her a di fferent hon-
or ar y ki nshi p.
I n t he dar knes s that shr ouds Shost ak' s arri val scene, Wes t er n
r eader s will r ecogni ze t he symbol i sm of guilt. In part t her e is gui l t
l i nked to t he part i cul ari t i es of Shostak' s situation as t he last in a seri es
o f ant hr opol ogi st s wor ki ng a mong the ! Kung. An d i n part it is gui l t
t hat comes down t o her f r om much fart her in the past. For as wi t h t he
ot her exampl es I have di scussed, Shostak' s t ext , and t hose of her fel-
l ow part i ci pant s i n the Har var d Kal ahar i Project, di spl ays di rect cont i -
nui t i es wi t h a l ong t radi t i on of wri t i ng about the ! Kungt hr e e cen-
t uri es of it i n fact. It is a nonpr of essi onal "l ay" t radi t i on f r om whi ch
t he Har var d ant hr opol ogi st s energet i cal l y dissociate t hemsel ves (most
expl i ci t l y by r epl aci ng t he earl i er Eur opean name for the gr oup, t he
Bus hme n) . Wha t that t radi t i on document s is a l ong and vi ol ent his-
t ory o f per secut i on, ensl avement , and ext er mi nat i on. Th e cont empo-
rary ! Kung ar e t he survi vors of that hi st ory; t he cont empor ar y an-
t hr opol ogi st s t he hei rs to its guilt. A few details will clarify this poi nt .
3. See also James Clifford's review of Nisa in The Times Literary Supplement (Lon-
don), September 17, 1982,99495.
46
MARY LOUISE PRATT
It is at t he end of t he ei ght eent h cent ur y that the Bus hme n start
t ur ni ng up in Eur ope a n account s as objects of (a) et hnogr aphi c i nt er-
est and (b) pat hos and gui l t . Not surpri si ngl y, this was also t he poi nt at
whi ch t he Bus hme n dehni t i vel y lost t hei r st r uggl e agai nst Eur ope a n
encr oachment on t hei r l and and l i feways. For t he pr evi ous cent ur y,
t hey had exi st ed in Eur opean wri t i ngs as hor des of wi l d, bl oodt hi r st y
mar auder s fi ercel y resi st i ng t he advanci ng colonists, r ai di ng t hei r
f ar ms at ni ght , t ur ni ng l oose or st eal i ng cattle, and somet i mes mur -
de r i ng col oni st s or l aborers. Gi ven a free hand by col oni al aut hori t i es,
t he settlers e mba r ke d on a war of ext er mi nat i on. Co mma n do s de-
s cended on Bus hma n kraal s, oft en at ni ght , ki l l i ng men and ei t her
ki l l i ng or ensl avi ng wome n and chi l dr en. Gr adual l y t he settlers won
this war , so that by t he 1790s "the Bus hme n wer e still numer ous al ong
t he i nt er i or mount ai n r ange, but in ot her parts of t he col ony t her e
wer e har dl v any left" ( Theal 1 8 9 7 : 1 , 198- 201) . '
1
It is at this poi nt that the di scourse on t he Bus hme n changes. Lat e
ei ght eent h- cent ur y t ravel ers, like t he Swede Ande r s Spar r man (Voy-
age to the Cape of Good Hope 1785) and Engl i shman J ohn Ba r r ow
(Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa 1801), voci fer ousl y depl or e t he
brut al i t y of t he col oni st s and t he injustice of the ext er mi nat i on cam-
pai gn. T h e same wri t ers const ruct a new et hnogr aphi c port rai t of t he
Bus hme n. No l onger seen as militant warri ors or bl oodt hi rst y ma-
r auder s , t hey acqui r e t he charact eri st i cs that t he power f ul commonl y
hnd i n t hose t hey have subj ugat ed: meekness, i nnocence, passivity, in-
dol ence coupl ed wi t h physi cal st rengt h and st ami na, cheer f ul ness, ab-
sence of gr eed or i ndeed desi res of any ki nd, i nt ernal egal i t ari ani sm,
a penchant for l i vi ng in the present , inability to t ake initiatives on
t hei r own behal f. Th u s Spar r man descri bes t he Bus hme n as "free
f r om many want s and desi res, that t or ment the rest of manki nd, " "de-
t est i ng all manner of l abour, " yet easily i nduced i nt o sl avery by a little
meat and t obacco (Spar r man 1 9 7 5 : 1 9 8 201). Bar r ow finds t hey ar e
"mi l d and manageabl e in t he hi ghest degr ee, and by gent l e us age may
be moul de d i nt o any shape. " "In his di sposi t i on, " says Bar r ow, "[the
Bus hma n] is lively and cheer f ul ; in his per son act i ve. Hi s t al ent s are
far above medi ocr i t y. " The i r const i t ut i ons are " much st r onger and
t hei r lives of l onger dur at i on, t han t hose of t he Hot t ent ot s"; "uni ver -
sal equal i t y prevai l s in his hor de . . . t hey take no t hought for t he mor -
row. Th e y have no sort of ma na ge me nt or economy wi t h r egar d t o
pr ovi si ons" (Bar r ow 1 8 01 : 287).
Pr esent ed as objectified et hnogr aphi c descri pt i on of t he (et ernal )
4'. My remarks here on the history of Bushman-European contact are based
mainly on Theal' s History of South Africa (18921919).
Fi el dwork in Co mmo n Places
47
Bus hma n and his (natural) di sposi t i on, this is a port rai t of a con-
que r e d peopl e, si mul t aneousl y acknowl edgi ng t he i nnocence and pa-
t hos of t hei r condi t i on, eval uat i ng t hei r pot ent i al as a l abor pool , and
l egi t i mat i ng t hei r domi nat i on on t he gr ounds that t hey do not know
how to manage t hemsel ves.
Ca ug h t bet ween cel ebr at i ng and depl or i ng, hi st ori ci zi ng and nat u-
r al i zi ng t he Bus hmen' s condi t i on, Bar r ow expr esses t he gui l t and an-
gui s h of his posi t i on in a noct ur nal arri val scene that has nume r ous
poi nt s in c o mmo n wi t h Shost ak' s, despi t e bei ng wri t t en 180 year s ear-
l i er. In Bar r ow' s account , t oo, t he al l -i mport ant per sonal cont act wi t h
t he ot her is achi eved onl y t hr ough a ki nd of descent i nt o hel l . T h o u g h
his mot i ves are ent i rel y benevol ent , t he onl y way Bar r ow can make
cont act wi t h t he t er r i hed Bus hme n is by hi r i ng a gr oup of Boe r f ar m-
ers to hel p hi m ambus h a gr oup at ni ght . As wi t h Shost ak, t he resul t is
a ni ght mar e of cont r adi ct i on, one of the few epi sodes of per sonal nar-
rat i ve i n Bar r ow' s book. Bar r ow descri bes the r ai di ng part y des cend-
i ng f r om t he hillsides down ont o the sl eepi ng camp: " Our ears wer e
s t unned wi t h a hor r i d scr eam like the war - hoop of savages; t he shri ek-
i ng of wome n and t he cries of chi l dr en pr oceeded f r om ever y si de"
( Bar r ow 1 8 01 : 272) . Despi t e Bar r ow' s i nst ruct i ons, his Boe r gui des
begi n s hoot i ng down t he fl eei ng peopl e; Bar r ow' s prot est s ar e i g-
nor ed. ' " Go o d God! ' [the Boe r far mer ] excl ai med, ' Have you not
seen a s hower of ar r ows fal l i ng a mong us?' I cert ai nl y had seen nei -
t her ar r ows or peopl e, but had hear d e nough to pi erce t he har dest
hear t " (272). Lat er Bar r ow r emar ks in shame that "not hi ng coul d be
mor e unwar r ant abl e . . . t han t he attack made by our part y upon t he
kr aal " (291).
Thi s scene t hat di srupt s Bar r ow' s hi ghl y i mper sonal account is an
expl i ci t r ever sal not onl y of t he Ut opi an arri val scene a la Bougai nvi l l e,
but al so of t he t radi t i onal i mage of the Bus hma n hor de des cendi ng
on Eur ope a n r anches. Its symbol i sm and posi t i on in Bar r ow' s t ext ar e
si mi l ar to t hose i n Shost ak' s, and t he t wo share the same di scursi ve his-
tory. (Int erest i ngl y, Shost ak' s pr edecessor and col l eague Ri char d Le e
al so uses a noct ur nal arri val scene to i nt r oduce his t hi rd visit to t he
!Kung [Lee i g79: xvi i ] . )
But it is not onl y arri val scenes that cont empor ar y ant hr opol ogi st s
shar e wi t h ear l i er wri t ers on t he Bus hmen. The i r et hnogr aphi c de-
scri pt i ons l i kewi se r epr oduce t he di scursi ve l egacy, even as t hey
openl y r epudi at e it. On e is st ruck by t he ext ent to whi ch t went i et h-
cent ur y ant hr opol ogi cal and j ournal i st i c wri t ers have cont i nued t o
cel ebr at e and nat ural i ze in t he Bus hme n many of the same char act er -
istics si ngl ed out by Bar r ow, Spar r man, and the rest. Cheer f ul nes s ,
humor , egal i t ar i ani sm, nonvi ol ence, di si nt erest in mat eri al goods ,
48
MARY LOUISE PRATT
l ongevi t y, and st ami na ar e all under s cor ed wi t h admi r at i on and affec-
t i on i n bot h j our nal i st i c wri t i ngs like t hose of Laur ens van der Post
(The Lost World of the Kalahari 1958) and et hnogr aphi c wor k f r om
El i zabet h Mar shal l Thomas ' s The Harmless People (1959) to the wri t ers
o f t he Ha r va r d Kal ahar i Proj ect (1963 70). Wha t t urns up t hr ough-
out this l i t erat ure is t he same bl azi ng cont radi ct i on bet ween a t en-
dency on t he one hand to hi st ori ci ze t he !Kung as survi vor-vi ct i ms of
Eur ope a n i mper i al i sm, and a t endency on the ot her to nat ural i ze and
obj ect i fy t hem as pr i mal bei ngs virtually unt ouched by hi st ory. (In
bot h cases, t hey st and doome d to ext i nct i on. ) Det ai l ed di scussi on of
t he ext ensi ve cont empor ar y l i t erat ure on t he !Kung/Bushmen is i m-
possi bl e her e, but Shost ak' s own text can exempl i f y t he ambi val ence I
a m t al ki ng about .
By i nt r oduci ng Ni sa to us cl ad in a dress and sel l i ng her t al ent s on
t he ant hr opol ogi cal free mar ket , Shost ak r epudi at es t he i mage of t he
pur e pr i mi t i ve so oft en associ at ed wi t h t he ! Kung. Yet it is ul t i mat el y
t hat i mage of the pri mi t i ve that mot i vat es Shostak' s i nqui ry. For her , as
for t he Har var d Kal ahar i gr oup as a whol e, the !Kung are of i nt erest
as evi dence concer ni ng our huma n and pr ehuman ancest ors. Shost ak
hopes !Kung wo me n will be abl e to "clarify some of t he issues rai sed
by t he Ame r i c a n women' s movement , " especi al l y because, she says,
their cul ture, unl i ke ours, was not bei ng conti nuousl y di srupted by social and
political factions telling t hem first that women were one way, t hen anot her.
Al t hough the !Kung were experi enci ng cultural change, it was still qui te re-
cent and subtle and had thus far left their traditional value system mostly in-
tact. A study reveal i ng what !Kung women's lives were like today mi ght reflect
what their lives had been like for generati ons, possibly even for t housands of
years. (Shostak 1981: 6)
" Recent " and "subt l e" are not the adjectives that come to mi nd whe n
one ponder s t he gr i m hi st ory of the Bus hma n conquest . Thi s is a his-
t ory of whi ch Shost ak and her col l eagues seem at t i mes deepl y awar e,
at t i mes totally obl i vi ous. Repeat edl y, Ri char d Lee and ot her s war n
that t he !Kung ar e not to be t reat ed as "l i vi ng fossils" or "mi ssi ng
l i nks" (Lee i 97g : xvi i ) , that t hei r col oni al past and changi ng pr es ent
mus t be gi ven full r ecogni t i on to avoi d dehumani zat i on and di s-
t ort i on. Yet t he i nqui ry the gr oup pr oposes is expl i ci t l y an evol ut i on-
ary one (initiated by pri mat ol ogi st s) in whi ch the ! Kung are i mpor -
t ant as "evi dence whi ch will hel p in under s t andi ng huma n hi st or y"
(S. Was hbur n in Le e and Devor e 1976 : xv) as exampl es of an ecol ogi -
cal adapt at i on "t hat was until ten t housand years ago, a huma n uni -
ver sal " (Lee 1 9 7 9 : i ). Focusi ng heavi l y on physi cal and bi ol ogi cal is-
sues l i ke di et , physi ol ogy, use of t i me, set t l ement pat t erns, s paci ng of
Fieldwork in Common Places 49
bi rt hs, use o f f ood r esour ces, di sease, agi ng, and so on, this l i t er at ur e
nat ural i zes cur r ent !Kung lifeways wi t h a vengeance. T h e r es ear cher s '
si ncere desi r e to be sensitive to t he !Kung's situation i n pr esent hi st ori -
cal ci r cumst ances is si mpl y i ncompat i bl e wi t h t hei r proj ect of vi ewi ng
t he !Kung as a c ompl e x adapt at i on to t he ecol ogy of t he Kal ahar i des-
ert , and an e xa mpl e of how our ancest ors l i ved. T h e use of pr i mar i l y
quant i t at i ve met hods ( pr oduci ng tables l i ke " Aver age numbe r of chi l d-
car i ng acts by a subject per chi l d per hour of obser vat i on" [P. Dr a pe r in
Le e and De vor e 1 9 7 6 : 214]) intensifies t he reification.
An out si der , on r eadi ng t he hi st ory of Eur ope a n cont act wi t h t he
!Kung/Bushmen, i nevi t abl y quest i ons this i mage of t hem as r epr es en-
tatives of hunt i ng- gat her i ng life as it was l i ved 10,000 years ago. Is it
not wor t h even aski ng t he quest i on whet her 300 year s of war f ar e and
per s ecut i on at t he hands of whi t e settlers (to say not hi ng of t he com-
pet i t i on wi t h i ndi genous pastoralists) have had an i mpact on t he life-
ways, t he consci ousness, t he social or gani zat i on, even t he phys i ol ogy
o f t he gr oup unde r goi ng t hese t raumas? Di d t he l ong- t er m pract i ce
o f massacr i ng me n and ensl avi ng wome n have no i mpact on "what
women' s lives wer e l i ke" or how wome n saw t hemsel ves? Wha t pi ct ur e
o f t he !Kung woul d one dr aw i f instead of def i ni ng t hem as sur vi vor s
o f t he st one age and a del i cat e and compl ex adapt at i on t o t he Ka-
l ahari desert , one l ooked at t hem as survi vors of capitalist expans i on,
and a del i cat e and compl ex adapt at i on to t hree cent ur i es of vi ol ence
a nd i nt i mi dat i on? Th e r e ar e t i mes whe n such a per spect i ve does s eem
to be i mpl i ed, ever-so-i ndi rect l y, as in Shostak' s charact eri zat i on of a
!Kung vi l l age as l ooki ng "fr agi l e" and "unobt r usi ve" (see quot at i on on
p. 43 above).
To make sense of the confl i ct i ng concer ns of the Har var d gr oup,
one must l ocat e t hem on t he one hand in the cont ext of the Ame r i c a n
count er cul t ur e o f t he 1960s, many of whos e social i deal s seem t o real -
ize t hemsel ves in t he !Kung, and on t he ot her hand, i n t he cont ext of
t he expans i on of t he bi ol ogi cal , "har d sci ence" sect or of ant hr opol ogy
that has ma de Har var d the cent er for soci obi ol ogy in t he 1980s. At
the same t i me, one must also r ecogni ze t hei r cont i nui t i es wi t h t he dis-
cur si ve hi st ory c omi ng down f r om Spar r man, Bar r ow, and t he rest, a
di scur si ve hi st ory t hey somet i mes wi sh to "kill by sci ence. "
As I have been ar gui ng t hr oughout this paper , ant hr opol ogi st s
st and to gai n f r om l ooki ng at t hemsel ves as wr i t i ng i nsi de as wel l as
out si de t he di scursi ve t radi t i ons that pr ecede t hem; inside as wel l as
out si de t he hi st ori es of cont act on whi ch t hey follow. Such a per spec-
tive is par t i cul ar l y val uabl e for peopl e who woul d like to change or
enr i ch the di scur si ve r eper t oi r e of et hnogr aphi c wr i t i ngespeci al l y
that "i mpossi bl e at t empt to fuse object i ve and subject i ve pract i ces. "
5o
MARY LOUISE PRATT
Sur el y a first st ep t owar d such change is to r ecogni ze t hat one' s t r opes
ar e nei t her nat ur al nor , in many cases, nat i ve to t he di sci pl i ne. Th e n it
becomes possi bl e, if one wi shes, to l i berat e onesel f f r om t hem, not by
doi ng away wi t h t r opes (whi ch is not possible) but by appr opr i at i ng
and i nvent i ng new ones (whi ch is).
VI NCE NT CRAP ANZ ANO
Hermes' Dilemma:
The Masking of Subversion
in Ethnographic Description
" Al l t ransl at i on, " Wal t er Benj ami n ( 1969: 75) wr ot e, "is onl y a
s omewhat pr ovi si onal way of comi ng to t erms wi t h t he f or ei gnness of
l anguages . " Li ke t ransl at i on, et hnogr aphy is also a s omewhat pr ovi -
si onal way of comi ng to t erms wi t h the f or ei gnness of l a ngua ge s of
cul t ur es and soci et i es. Th e et hnogr apher does not, however , t ransl at e
t ext s t he way t he t ransl at or does. He must first pr oduce t hem. Te xt
met aphor s f or cul t ur e and society not wi t hst andi ng, the e t hnogr a phe r
has no pr i mar y and i ndependent t ext that can be r ead and t ransl at ed
by ot her s. No t ext survi ves hi m ot her t han his own. Despi t e its fre-
quent ahi st ori cal i t s s ynchr oni cpr et ens e, et hnogr aphy is hi st ori -
cally det er mi ned by the moment of the et hnogr apher ' s encount er
wi t h whome ve r he is st udyi ng.
T h e e t hnogr a phe r is a little like Her mes : a mes s enger who, gi ven
met hodol ogi es f or uncover i ng the masked, t he latent, the uncon-
sci ous, may even obt ai n his message t hr ough stealth. He present s l an-
guages , cul t ur es, and societies in all t hei r opaci t y, t hei r f or ei gnness,
t hei r meani ngl essness; t hen like the magi ci an, t he her meneut , He r me s
hi msel f, he clarifies t he opaque, r ender s t he f or ei gn fami l i ar, and
gi ves me a ni ng to t he meani ngl ess. He decodes the message. He
i nt erpret s.
T h e e t hnogr a phe r convent i onal l y acknowl edges t he pr ovi si onal
nat ur e of his i nt erpret at i ons. Yet he assumes a final i nt er pr et at i ona
defi ni t i ve r eadi ng. "I have finally cr acked t he Kar i er a sect i on syst em, "
we hear hi m say. "I finally got to t he r oot of all t hei r fuss about t he
mudyi t ree. " He resent s t he literary critic' s assert i on t hat t her e is never
a final r eadi ng. He si mpl y has not got to it yet .
The e t hnogr a phe r does not r ecogni ze t he provi si onal nat ur e o f
his pr esent at i ons. Th e y are defi ni t i ve. He does not accept as a para-
dox that his "pr ovi si onal i nt erpret at i ons" suppor t his "defi ni t i ve
52 VI NCENT CRAPANZANO
Hermes ' Di l emma 53
not shar e He r me s ' conf i dence. Wh e n Her mes t ook t he post o f mes -
s enger of t he gods , he pr omi s ed Zeus not t o lie. He di d not pr omi s e t o
tell t he whol e t rut h. Zeus under st ood. Th e et hnogr apher has not .
I n this paper I shall pr esent a r eadi ng of t hr ee et hnogr aphi c
t ext s, onl y one o f whi ch was wri t t en by an ant hr opol ogi st , to l ook at
s ome o f t he ways t he et hnogr apher tries to make his mes s age convi nc-
i ng. Th e y ar e Ge o r g e Catlin' s (1841 ; 1867) account of t he Ma nda n In-
di ans' O- Kee- Pa cer emony, J ohann Wol f gang von Goet he' s ( 1976a;
1982) descr i pt i on o f t he Roma n carni val in his Italienische Reise o f
1789, and Cl i f f or d Geert z' s (1973) st udy of the Bal i nese cockf i ght .
T h e event s descr i bed in the t hr ee texts are expl osi ve, t easi ng i f not t he
per f or mer s ' t hen t he aut hor s' assumpt i ons of meani ng and or der .
T h e aut hor s are chal l enged, and all make use of many di ffer ent r he-
t ori cal st rat egi es for convi nci ng the r eader , and pr es umabl y t hem-
sel ves, o f t he accur acy of t hei r descri pt i ons (see Mar cus 1980).
For emos t a mo n g t hese st rat egi es is t he const i t ut i on of t he et h-
nogr apher ' s aut hori t y: his pr esence at t he event s descr i bed, his per -
cept ual ability, his "di si nt erest ed" perspect i ve, his objectivity, and his
si nceri t y (see Cl i f f or d 1983a). In all t hr ee cases, t he et hnogr apher ' s
pl ace i n his t ext is pur el y rhet ori cal . It is deictically, or bet t er per haps ,
pseudo-dei ct i cal l y, const r uct ed. It is i mpossi bl e to fix his vant age poi nt .
Hi s is a r ovi ng per spect i ve, necessi t at ed by his "totalistic" pr esent at i on
of t he event s he is descr i bi ng. Hi s pr esence does not al t er t he way
t hi ngs ha ppe n or, f or that mat t er, the way t hey are obs er ved or i nt er-
pr et ed. He assumes an invisibility that, unl i ke Her mes , a god, he can-
not, of cour se, have. Hi s "disinterest, " his objectivity, his neut ral i t y ar e
in fact under cut by his sel f-i nt erest hi s need to const i t ut e his aut hor -
ity, t o est abl i sh a bond wi t h his r eader s, or, mor e accurat el y, his i nt er-
l ocut ors, and t o creat e an appr opr i at e di st ance bet ween hi msel f and
the " f or ei gn" event s he wi t nesses.
As i de f r om t he devi ces the et hnogr apher uses to const i t ut e his au-
thority, he uses ot her s to establish the validity of his et hnogr aphi c pr e-
sent at i ons di rect l y. I si ngl e out t hr ee of these, whi ch are used to vari -
ous ext ent s and wi t h vari abl e success by Cat l i n, Goet he, and Geer t z.
In Cat l i n it is a hypot yposi s that pr edomi nat es . In Goet he it is an ex-
t ernal (nonmet aphor i cal ) t heat ri cal narrativity. Geer t z depends pri -
mari l y on i nt er pr et i ve virtuosity. In all t hr ee cases, as we shall see, t he
very figures t he aut hor s use to convi nce t hei r r eader s and t hem-
s el ves of t hei r descri pt i ons in fact r ender t hem suspect , and in all
t li i ce cases this fai l ure to convi nce is cover ed by an i nst i t ut i onal l y l e-
gi t i mat ed concer n for "meani ng. " Cat l i n and Goet he gi ve t he cer e-
moni es I hey descr i be an al l egori cal (moral ) si gni fi cance. Geer t z cl ai ms
pr esent at i ons. " (It is per haps for this r eason that he insists on a final
r eadi ng. ) Embe dde d in i nt erpret at i on, his present at i ons limit re-
i nt er pr et at i on. Et hnogr aphy closes i n on itself. It is even possi bl e t hat
t he mor e gener al t heori es t he et hnol ogi st gener at es f r om et hnogr a-
phy ar e onl y refract i ons, di st ort ed repet i t i ons in anot her regi st er, o f
t he pr ovi si onal i nt erpret at i ons that s uppor t the pr esent at i on of dat a.
T h e possibility must be ent er t ai ned. Her mes was t he t ut el ary god o f
s peech and wr i t i ng, and s peech and wr i t i ng, we know, are t hemsel ves
i nt er pr et at i ons.
Her mes , et ymol ogi cal l y "he of t he stone heap, " was associ at ed
wi t h boundar y st ones (Nilsson 1949; Br own 1969). Th e her m, a head
and a phal l us on a pillar, later r epl aced t he stone heap. T h e et h-
nogr a phe r , i f I may cont i nue my concei t , also mar ks a boundar y: his
et hnogr aphy decl ar es the limits of his and his r eader s' cul t ur e. It al so
attests to hi s and his cul t ure' si nt erpret i ve power . He r me s was a
phal l i c god and a god of fertility. Int er pr et at i on has been under s t ood
as a phal l i c, a phal l i c-aggressi ve, a cr uel and vi ol ent , a dest ruct i ve act,
and as a fert i l e, a fert i l i zi ng, a fruitful, and a creat i ve one. We say a
t ext , a cul t ur e even, is pr egnant wi t h meani ng. Do the et hnogr apher ' s
pr esent at i ons become pr egnant wi t h meani ng because of his i nt er-
pr et i ve, his phal l i c fertilizations? (I have insisted her e on usi ng t he
mascul i ne pr onoun to refer to the et hnogr apher , despi t e his or her
s exual i dent i t y, f or I am wr i t i ng of a stance and not of t he per son. )
T h e et hnogr apher is caught in a second par adox. He has to ma ke
sense of t he f or ei gn. Li ke Benj ami n' s t ransl at or, he ai ms at a sol ut i on
t o t he pr obl em of f or ei gnness, and like t he t ransl at or (a poi nt mi ssed
by Benj ami n) he must also communi cat e the ver y f or ei gnness t hat his
i nt er pr et at i ons (t he translator' s translations) deny, at least i n t hei r
cl ai m to uni versal i t y. He must r ender t he for ei gn fami l i ar and pr e-
ser ve its ver y f or ei gnness at one and the same t i me. T h e t ransl at or
accompl i shes this t hr ough style, t he et hnogr apher t hr ough t he coup-
l i ng of a pr esent at i on that asserts the f or ei gn and an i nt er pr et at i on
t hat makes it all fami l i ar.
He r me s was a trickster: a god of cunni ng and tricks. Th e et h-
nogr a phe r is no trickster. He, so he says, has no cunni ng and no
t ri cks. But he shares a pr obl em wi t h Her mes . He must make his message
convincing. It treats of t he f or ei gn, the st range, the unfami l i ar , t he ex-
otic, t he unknownt hat , i n short , whi ch chal l enges bel i ef. T h e et h-
nogr a phe r must make use of all t he persuasi ve devi ces at his di sposal
t o convi nce his r eader s of the t rut h of his message, but , as t hough t hese
r het or i cal st rat egi es wer e cunni ng t ri cks, he gi ves t hem scant r ecog-
ni t i on. Hi s t ext s assume a t rut h that speaks for i t sel fa whol e t r ut h
t hat needs no rhet ori cal suppor t . His wor ds are t ransparent . He does
54 VI NCENT CRAPANZANO
Hermes' Dilemma 55
a phenomenol ogi cal - her meneut i cal per spect i ve on meani ng t hat is, at
l east rhet ori cal l y, insufficient. Hi s essay becomes exempl ar y, and t he
cockf i ght i t sel f t akes on not onl y met aphor i cal but met hodol ogi cal si g-
ni fi cance. T h e O- Kee- Pa, t he carni val , and t he cockfi ght all become
figures of di s or de r of arbi t rary vi ol ence, unrul i ness, and meani ng-
l essnessi n a t r anscendi ng story in whi ch preci sel y this di sor der , this
vi ol ence, unr ul i ness, and meani ngl essness are over come. T h e cer e-
moni es ar e s hown t o have, i f not or de r and meani ng, t hen at least sig-
ni fi cance. But , i roni cal l y, as figures t hat mask an initial r het or i cal sub-
ver s i ona fai l ure to convi ncet he descri pt i ons ar e agai n subver t ed.
T h e O- Kee- Pa, t he Roma n carni val , and the Bal i nese cockf i ght
be come t he " O- Kee- Pa, " the " Roman carni val , " and t he "Bal i nese
cockf i ght . "
" Wi t h this ver y honour abl e degr ee whi ch had j us t been conf er r ed
upon me, I was st andi ng in front of t he medi ci ne- l odge earl y in t he
mor ni ng, wi t h my compani ons by my side, endeavour i ng t o get a
peep, i f possi bl e, i nt o its sacred i nt eri or; when the master of ceremonies,
gua r di ng and conduct i ng its secrets, as I bef or e descr i bed, came out
of t he door and t aki ng me wi t h a firm professional affect i on by t he ar m,
l ed me i nt o this sanctum sanctorum, whi ch was strictly gua r de d f r om,
even a p e e p or a gaze f r om t he vul gar , by a vest i bul e of ei ght or t en
feet in l engt h, gua r de d wi t h a doubl e screen or door , and t wo or t hr ee
dar k and f r owni ng cent i nel s wi t h spears or war clubs in t hei r hands . I
ga ve t he wi nk t o my compani ons as I was passi ng in, and t he pot ency
of my medicine was such as to gai n t hem qui et admi ssi on, and all of us
we r e comf or t abl y pl aced on el evat ed seats, whi ch our conduct or soon
pr epar ed f or us. "
Wi t h t hese wor ds , Ge or ge Cat l i n ( 1 8 41 : 1 6 1 6 2) , t he r omant i c-
real i st pai nt er o f t he Ame r i c a n Indi ans, descri bes his ent r ance i nt o a
medi ci ne l odge i n whi ch he was to witness what is surel y one of t he
most s angui nar y rites in t he annal s of et hnogr aphy, t he Ma nda n O-
Ke e - Pa " a n or deal of pri vat i on and t ort ure" in whi ch y o u n g Man-
dan men, "emaci at ed wi t h fast i ng, and t hi rst i ng, and waki ng, f or
near l y f our days and ni ght s, " wer e h un g by r awhi de passed t hr ough
t he s kewer ed flesh of t hei r shoul der s and breasts f r om t he l odge' s r oof
unt i l t hey wer e "lifeless. " Th e O- Kee- Pa was cel ebr at ed annual l y, ac-
cor di ng to Cat l i n, to commemor at e t he subsi di ng of a gr eat fl ood t hat
t he Ma nda n bel i eved once cover ed t he wor l d, to ensur e t he c omi ng of
t he buf f al o, and to initiate the young men of t he tribe i nt o ma n h o o d
t hr ough an or deal "whi ch, whi l e it is supposed to har den t hei r muscl es
and pr e pa r e t hem for ext r eme endur ance, enabl es the chi efs who
are spect at ors to t he scene to deci de upon t hei r compar at i ve bodi l y
s t r engt h a nd ability to endur e t he ext r eme pri vat i ons and suffer i ngs
t hat of t en fall to t he lots of I ndi an war r i or s" ( 1 8 4 1 : 1 5 7 ) .
It was t he s umme r of 1832s i x years bef or e t he Ma nda n wer e
deci mat ed by an epi demi c of smal l pox. Cat l i n had spent sever al weeks
wi t h t hem. He f ound t hat "t hey are a peopl e of deci dedl y a di f f er ent
or i gi n f r om t hat of any ot her tribe in t hese r egi ons, " and l at er he ar-
gue d t hat t hey wer e descendent s of Wel sh sailors who unde r t he di rec-
t i on of Pr i nce Madoc had set sail in t he f our t eent h cent ur y (actually i n
t he t wel ft h cent ur y) and wer e t hought to have settled s ome whe r e i n
Nor t h Ame r i c a (Cat l i n 1867; Ewer s 1967). T h e day bef or e his admi s-
sion to t he medi ci ne l odge, Cat l i n pai nt ed the mast er of cer emoni es ,
and so pl eased was this great magi ci an wi t h his por t r ai t "he coul d
see its eyes move" t hat he and the ot her "doct or s" unani mous l y el e-
vat ed Cat l i n to a "respect abl e r ank in the craft " of magi c and myst e-
ries and gave hi m t he name "Whi t e Medi ci ne Pai nt er. " It was this
honor that al l owed hi m to ent er t he l odge, and it was his r eput ed
medi ci ne t hat enabl ed his compani onsJ. Ki pp, an agent of t he
Ame r i c a n Fur Tr a de who had l ong been fami l i ar with t he Ma nda n
and s poke t hei r l anguage; L. Cr awf or d, Ki pp' s cl erk; and Ab r a h a m
Boga r d, whos e i dent i t y I have not been abl e to det er mi net o accom-
pany hi m. Th e y wer e appar ent l y t he first whi t e me n to wi t ness t he O-
Kee- Pa, and Cat l i n was t he first to descri be it: on Januar y 10, 1833
( t hough wr i t t en on Augus t 12, 1832), in the New-York Commercial Ad-
vertiser; t hen in 1841 in his Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the North
American Indians; and, finally, in 1867 in a little book (with a Folium
Reservatum for schol ars) ent i rel y devot ed to t he cer emony.
Cat l i n asserts mel odr amat i cal l y t hat he s hudder s and even shr i nks
from t he task of r eci t i ng what he has seen. "I ent er ed t he medicine-
house o f t hese scenes, " he writes
as I would have entered a church, and expected to see something extraordi-
nary and strange, but yet in the form of worship or devotion; but, alas! little
did I expect to see the interior of their holy temple turned into a slaughter-
house, and its floor strewed with the blood of its fanatic devotees. Little did I
lliink that I was entering a house of God, where His blinded worshippers
were to pollute its sacred interior with their blood, and propitiatory suffering
and torturessurpassing, if possible, the cruelty of the rack or the inquisi-
tion; but such the scene has been, and as such I will endeavour to describe it.
( 1 8 4 1 : 1 5 6 )
I )espite all o f Catlin' s s hudder i ng and shr i nki ng, he and his compan-
ions ma na ge d to wat ch the spect acl e f r om the seats t hey wer e as-
si gned. " We wer e t hen in full vi ew of ever yt hi ng that t r anspi r ed in t he
l odge, havi ng bef or e us the scene exact l y, whi ch is r epr es ent ed i n t he
56 VINCENT CRAPANZANO
Hermes' Dilemma 57
(1846) cal l ed t he m t erri f yi ng, myst er i ousof his I ndi an pai nt i ngs. '
Th e y r i ng t r ue nei t her to his pr es umed exper i ence o f t he event nor to
t hat o f t he Mandan part i ci pant s. Th e t wo exper i ences ar e stylistically
bl ur r edsacr i f i ced ul t i mat el y t o t he exper i ence Cat l i n wi shes to en-
ge nde r i n his r eader s. Thi s pat hopoet i c sacrifice of t he part i ci pant ' s
subjecti vi ty to t hat o f his r eader s occur s even whe n Cat l i n cl ai ms to
t ake t he parti ci pant' s poi nt o f vi ew. He descri bes, for e xampl e , one o f
t he hangi ng vi cti ms o f t ort ure, a condensat i on appar ent l y o f sever al .
Surrounded by imps and demons as they appear, a dozen or more, who seem
to be concerting and devising means for his exquisite agony, gather around
him, when one of the number advances toward him in a sneering manner,
and commences turning him around with a pole which he brings in his hand
for the purpose. Thi s is done in a gentle manner at first; but gradually in-
creased, when the brave fellow, whose proud spirit can control its anger no
longer, burst out in the most lamentable and heart rendering cries that the
human voice is capable of producing, crying forth a prayer to the Great Spirit
to support and protect him in this dreadful trial; and continually repeat-
ing his confidence in his protection. In this condition he is continued to be
turned, faster and fasterand there is no hope of escape from it, nor chance
for the slightest relief, until by fainting, his voice falters, and his struggling
ceases, and he hangs, apparently, a still and lifeless corpse! ( 1841: 171)
He r e Cat l i n moves f r om his (objectifying) met aphor i cal per spect i ve to
that o f t he t or t ur ed; despi t e this move, his i nt ent i on is not phe nome -
nol ogi cal , but r het or i cal : He does not descri be ei t her t he Indi an' s or
his o wn exper i ence o f t he t or t ur e. Th e "i mps and demons as t hey ap-
pear " (to who m? to Cat l i n? to t he Mandan?) is stylistically equi val ent
to "t her e is no hope o f escape f r om it." The y are di r ect ed to t he r eader ,
and it is t he reader' s react i on that will guar ant ee Catlin' s per cept i ons.
I n t hese passages and t hr oughout his Manners, Customs, and Condi-
lions of the North American Indians, Catlin' s pri nci pal stylistic figure is hy-
pot yposi s. Hi s ai m is to i mpr ess his exper i ence of what he has seen so
st r ongl y, so vi vi dl y, on his r eader s that they cannot doubt its veraci t y.
It is t he vi sual t hat gi ves authori ty. Th e realistic tradi ti on, Al e xa nd e r
Gel l ey ( 1979: 420) obser ves, "sought to r eenf or ce t he descr i pt i on o f
t hi ngs and pl aces by maki ng t he object o f the descr i pt i on coi nci de
1. In his commentaries on the Salon of 1846, Baudelaire (1846:634), who ad-
mired Catlin's work, wrote: "Le rouge, la couleur de la vie, abondait tellement dans ce
.sombre muse, que c'tait une ivresse; quant aux paysages,montagnes boises, savanes
immenses, rivires dsertes,ils taient monotonement, ternellement verts; le rouge,
celle coul eur si obscure, si paisse, plus difficile pntrer que les yeux d' un serpent
Ir vert, celle couleur calme et gaie et souriante de la nature, j e les retrouve chantant
leur antithse mlodique." Ther e is of course something of this melodic antithesis in
( '.al tin's prose.
first o f t he f our pi ct ur es [that Cat l i n pai nt ed of the cer emony and t hat
i l l ust rat ed his second and t hi rd account s]. To this seat we r et ur ned
ever y mor ni ng unti l sun- down f or f our days, the whol e t i me whi ch
t hese st r ange scenes occupi ed" ( 1 8 4 1 : 162). Th e y wer e not even per -
mi t t ed to move f r om t hei r assi gned pl aces. Onc e whe n Cat l i n got up
to t ake a cl oser l ook at what he calls t he cent ral myst er y of t he r i t e
"the sanctissimus sanctorum, f r om whi ch seemed to emanat e all t he
sanctity o f t hei r pr oceedi ngs"he was sent back to his seat.
I started several times from my seat to approach it, but all eyes were instantly
upon me, and every mouth in the assembly sent forth a hushsh! which
brought me back to my seat again; and I at length quieted my stifled curiosity
as well as I could, upon learning the fact, that so sacred was that object, and
so important its secrets or mysteries, that not / alone, but even the young
men, who were passing the ordeal, and all the village, save the conductor of
the mysteries, were stopped from approaching it, or knowing what it was.
( 1841: 162)
Li ke an artist st andi ng bef or e his easel , Catlin' s vant age poi nt is fixed.
So at least he asserts. And yet, he is in fact no objectivist, no Robbe-
Gr i l l et , descr i bi ng t he cer emony l abori ousl y, me t onymous st ep by
me t onymous st ep, f r om the fixed posi ti on of his consci ousness. Hi s
vi si on is l ar ger , const r uct ed, exagger at ed, unevenmet aphor i cal . Hi s
e ye const ant l y bet rays itself. He descri bes the arri val o f t he evi l one,
O- kee- hee- de.
But alas! in the last of these dances, on the fourth day, in the midst of all their
mirth and joy, and about noon, and in the height of all these exultations, an
instant scream burst forth from the tops of the lodges!men, women, dogs
and all, seemed actually to howl and shudder with alarm, as they fixed their
glaring eyeballs upon the prairie bluff, about a mile in the west, down the side
of which a man was seen descending at full speed toward the village. Thi s
strange character darted about in a zig-zag course in all directions on the prai-
rie, like a boy in pursuit of a butterfly, until he approached the piquets of the
village, when it was discovered that his body was entirely naked, and painted
as black as a negro, with pounded charcoal and bear's grease. . . . (1841: 166)
Cat l i n r ambl es, repeat s, gener al i zes, simplifies, exagger at es, and e m-
bel l i shes. He ref ers i ndi scri mi nat el y to what he has seen bef or e or
l ear ned af t er war d. Ami ds t a pur por t edl y realistic descr i pt i on, mas ked
her e as el sewher e in Manners, Customs, and Conditions by me as ur e me nt
("about a mi l e i n the west, " "a vest i bul e of ei ght or t en feet"), are met a-
phor i cal t ur ns of phr ase, similes in t he above exampl e ("like a boy in
pur sui t o f a butterfly, " "pai nt ed as bl ack as a negr o") that seem as
i nappr opr i at e to t he event he descri bes as t he col or s Baudel ai r e
58 VINCENT CRAPANZANO
Her mes ' Di l emma 5 9
3. There is a revealing parallel between Catlin's disjunctive style and his j umpy
spculations about the meaning of the ceremony.
wi t h t he obj ect of a specul ar act, i mage, or process. " Catlin' s asserti on
of a fi xed vant age poi nt, of an assi gned seat t here are similar asser-
tions el sewher e in Manners, Customs, and Conditionsmust be under -
st ood rhetori cally. It attests deictically to his presence. It gi ves hi m the
aut hori t y o f t he pai nt er before his easel. It enabl es hi m to l ead his
r eader s i nto the vi sual i zed scene and to convi nce t hem (and hi msel f)
of its t rut h.
2
Catlin' s vision is not, however , secure. Unl i ke today' s social scien-
tists whose t heori es (regardless of thei r merit) serve t hei r et hno-
gr aphi c credibility, Catlin' s credibility has ultimately to rest on the
power of his descri pt i ons. Just as his pai nt i ng is not parti cularly be-
l i evabl e, nor is his prose. It under mi nes itself. His i ntenti on is realistic,
but hi s style is romant i c. Thr oug h met aphor , oft en ext r avagant met a-
phor , ecphonesi s, the promi scuous use of the vocati ve, hyper bol e, pa-
t hopoei a, apopl anesi s, i nt errupt i on, suspense, subj ect i vi smt o name
onl y a few of his stylistic st rat egi esCat l i n tries to gi ve to his descri p-
tions a compel l i ng veracity, but it is precisely these strategi es that sub-
vert his i nt ent i on. Real i sm demands stylistic sobriety. For Cat l i n such
sobri ety pr ecl udes the hypot yposi s upon whi ch his credibility rests.
I n Manners, Customs, and Conditions he begi ns the letter in whi ch
he descri bes t he O- Kee- Pa cer emony with these wor ds:
Oh! "horrible visuet mirabile dictul" Thank God, it is over, that I have s een it,
and a m abl e to tell it to t he worl d. ( 1 8 4 1 : 1 5 5 )
But why see it? Why tell it to the worl d? Catlin has no f r amewor k for
his exper i enceno justification for his report age. Hi s i nt ent i on is
document ar y, but does this i ntenti on justify wi tnessi ng and descri bi ng
a "shocki ng and di sgust i ng cust om" that "sickens the heart and even
t he st omach of a traveller in the count ry" (182 83) and yet that fills
such a t ravel er with pity?
Cat l i n rati onali zes his descri pt i on in a confused manner . ( He was
never a systematic thi nker. ) He writes that the cer emony "will be new
to t he civilized wor l d, and t herefore wort h knowi ng" ( 15 7 ) . He sug-
gests that parts of the cer emony are grot esque and amusi ng and
ot hers, havi ng to do wi t h the del uge, are "harml ess and full of inter-
est" ( 17 7 ) . He has no theoretical justification. Nat i ve exegesi s is not
satisfactory. Th e cer emony cannot be historically situated. He ar gues
that even i f he had time to elaborate a disquisition on the cer emony,
2. Gelley (1979:420 ) argues that ways of seeing in the realist novel can be under-
stood "as a type of deictic at a phenomenological level, a sign important not so much on
account of its content but because it is capable of identifying the instance of observation
and tracing its modifications."
he woul d probabl y fail because si mple peopl e like the Mandan "have
no hi st ory to save facts and systems from falling into the most absurd
and di sj oi nt ed fable and i gnorant fiction" ( 17 7 ) .
Cat l i n shares her e the distinctly ni net eent h-cent ury convi ct i on
that expl anat i on is embedded in ori gi n. In Manners, Customs, and Con-
ditions he relates Mandan beliefs and tales to biblical stories of t he
fl ood, Eve' s t ransgressi on, and the birth and deat h of Chri st . (Such an
equat i on put s a stop fundamentali sti cai ly to the quest for bot h ori gi ns
and meani ng. ) Not i ng the Mandans' distinctive ("white") appear ance,
not i ng t oo that thei r cul t ure her o is whi te, Catli n assumes Chri st i an
cont act , and, as we have seen, twenty-six years later, he ar gued that
the Mandan wer e descended from the Wel sh. But to acknowl edge
Chri st i an i nfl uence or, for that matter, Wel sh descent hardl y expl ai ns
the O- Kee- Pa t ort ures. Cat l i n shifts abrupt l yhi s i nformal letter style
permi t s t hi s
3
and he discusses the Mandans' potenti al for salvati on.
"I deem it not folly nor idle to say that these peopl e can be saved," he
concl udes his letter,
nor offi ci ous to s ugges t to s ome of the very many excel l ent and pi ous men,
who are al most t hrowi ng away the best energi es of thei r lives al ong t he
debas ed f ronti er, that if they woul d i nt roduce the pl oughs hare and thei r
prayers amongs t t hese peopl e, who are so far separated f rom the taints and
cont ami nat i ng vices of the fronti er, they woul d s oon see thei r mos t ardent de-
sires accompl i s hed and be able to sol ve to the worl d the perpl exi ng eni gma,
by pr es ent i ng a nat i on of savages, civilized and Chri sti ani zed (and cons e-
quent l y saved), i n the heart of the Ameri can wi l derness. ( 184 1: 184 )
Catlin' s ul t i mat e justi fi cati onajusti fi cati on that runs t hr ough Amer i -
can ant hr opol ogyi s pragmat i c; appl i ed, as we say; evangel i cal in t he
case in poi nt . Th e pragmat i c, the appl i ed, and the evangel i cal must
also be under st ood rhetorically.
Despi t e his figurative l anguage, his speculati ons about meani ng,
and his concer n for t he Indi ans' salvation, Catli n was in fact haunt ed
by this pr obl em of credibility. "I t ook my sket ch-book wi t h me, "
he wri t es t owar d the begi nni ng of his descri pt i on of the O- Kee- Pa
cer emony,
and have ma de many and faithful drawi ngs of what we saw, and full not es of
everyt hi ng as transl ated to me by the i nterpreter; and si nce the cl ose of that
horri d and f ri ghtf ul scene, whi ch was a week ago or more, I have been cl osel y
ens c onc ed in an eart hcovered wi gwam, wi th a fine sky-l ight over my head,
with my pal l ette and brushes, endeavouri ng faithfully to put the whol e o f
6 o
VINCENT CRAPANZANO
what we saw u p o n canvas, whi ch my compani ons all agree to be critically cor-
rect, and o f t he fidelity o f whi ch they have attached thei r certificates to t he
backs of t he pai nt i ngs. (1841: 155)
As i f prophet i cal l y, Cat l i n also had Ki pp, Cr awf or d, and Bogar d at-
t ach a certificate of authenticity to his account of t he cer emony in
Manners, Customs, and Conditions; for his report was to be quest i oned
by no less a figure in Amer i can et hnol ogy than Henr y Rowe School -
craft. In the t hi rd vol ume of his Historical and Statistical Information Re-
specting the Histmy, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the
United, States, School craft (185 15 7 ) i ncl uded a t wo-page article on the
Mandan by Davi d D. Mi t chel l , t hen superi nt endent of Indi an affairs
in St. Loui s, who had been in the Indi an trade in Mandan terri tory in
upper Mi ssouri in the 1830 s. Mitchell' s article concl uded: "I nf or ma-
t i on about thei r [the Mandans' ] pecul i ar customs can be f ound in t he
Jour nal of Lewi s and Cl ar k. Th e scenes descri bed by Cat l i n, exi st ed
al most ent i rel y in the fertile i magi nat i on of that gent l eman" (254).
Wh e n he was in Sout h Amer i ca, Cat l i n l earned of Schoolcraft' s and
Mitchell' s repudi at i on of his wor k in a letter from Al exander von
Humbol dt , who ur ged hi m to write to Pri nce Maxi mi l i an of Neuwi ed,
who had also spent a wi nt er among the Mandan. Bef or e Cat l i n was
able to obt ai n a letter of vi ndi cati on from the pr i ncehe event ual l y
di d in 1866bot h School craft and Mi tchell di ed. Al t hough Catlin' s
descri pt i on is now mor e or less accept ed as an accurat e port rayal
o f t he O- Kee- Pa cer emony (Bowers 1950 ; see also Mat t hews 1873),
Cat l i n hi msel f was pl agued by the doubt cast on the accuracy of his
account s for t he rest of his life.
On Febr uar y 20 , 17 87 , As h Wednesday, Goet he wrot e:
At last the f ool i s hnes s is over. The i nnumerabl e l ights last ni ght were anot her
ma d spectacl e. One has onl y to see the Roman carnival to l ose all des i re ever
to see it agai n. It is not wort h wri ti ng about. If need be, it mi ght make an
a mus i ng conversat i on pi ece.
( Nun ist der Narrhei t ei n Ende. Di e unzhl i gen Li chter ges t ern abend waren
noc h ei n tol l er Spektakel . Das Karneval in Rom mus s man ges ehen haben, u m
d en Wuns c h vl l i g l os zuwerden, es j e wi eder zu s ehen. Zu schrei ben ist davon
gar ni chts, bei ei ner mndl i chen Darst el l ung mcht e es al l enfal l s unt er-
hal t end sein.)"
1
Ironi cally, a year later Goet he saw the carnival agai n, and in 17 89 ,
upon his r et ur n to Wei mar , he publ i shed an account of it wi th col or ed
4. 19763:228. All translations are my own. The Auden and Mayer translation
(Goethe 1982) is often very inaccurate.
Her mes ' Di l emma 61
engr avi ngs. He later i ncorporat ed this little book, Das Rmische Kar-
neval, i nt o hi s Italienische Reise, whi ch is essentially an ar r angement of
letters and di ary ent ri es the poet edi t ed twenty-five years after his Ital-
i an t ri p.
5
Goet he onl y loosely follows t he chronol ogi cal or der of t he Roman
carni val , whi ch begi ns, gradual l y, wi t h t he openi ng of t he t heat ers
in Rome after t he New Year and cul mi nat es on As h Wednesday. He
stresses t he fact that the carni val fits in naturally wi t h the Roman life-
style. It is really not that di fferent from Sunday and hol i day merri -
ment in Rome.
6
Even the cost umes and masks are fami li ar sights,
Goet he ar gues, ci ti ng t he hooded monks who accompany funeral s
t hr oughout t he year. He carefully locates the carni val , at least t he
parts he t hi nks wor t hy of descri bi ng, on the Cor so. (Li ke Cat l i n, he is
careful to gi ve preci se measur ement s of the location of t he cer emony. )
Th e Cor s o becomes the carnival' s theater. Th e stage is t he street
itself. Th e audi ence stand or are seated al ong its sides, on t he side-
wal k, on bal coni es, or in front of wi ndows. Goet he descri bes t he cos-
t umes, masks, carri ages, horses (for the race wi t h whi ch the carni val
ends each eveni ng) , as t hough he wer e descri bi ng cost umes and pr ops
for a theatri cal product i on. Th e charact ersguards, Pul ci nel l e, quac-
cheri ("Quakers") in ol d-fashi oned, richly embr oi der ed clothes, sbirri,
Neapol i t an boat men, peasants, women from Frascati, Ger man baker
apprent i ces, who have a reput at i on for dr unkennessar e like charac-
ters f r om t he commedia dell'arte. ( The quacchero, Goet he hi msel f re-
mar ks, is li ke t he buffo caricato of t he comi c oper a; he plays ei t her a
vul gar f op or the silly, i nfat uat ed, and bet rayed ol d fool.) Th e charac-
ters have no dept h. The y are embl emat i c, as are thei r skits. Th e over -
all movement t he act i onof the carni val leads each day to a mad,
ri derless horse race, and the carni val itself ends dramat i cal l y on t he
eveni ng bef or e As h Wednesday. Ever yone carries a l i ght ed candl e.
Ever yone tries to blow out ot her people' s candl es, shout i ng, Sia am-
mazzato chi non porta moccola ("Death to anyone who is not car r yi ng a
candl e"). Ever yone tries to prot ect his or her own candl e.
No o n e can mov e muc h f rom the spot where he is st andi ng or sitting; the heat
of so many hu ma n bei ngs and so many lights, t he s moke f rom so many can-
dl es , bl own out agai n and agai n, t he noi se of so many peopl e, who onl y yel l all
I I H * l ouder, t he less they can move a l i mb, make the sanest head swi m. It s eems
5. See Michel (1976) for publication details.
(i. It. "tits in naturally with the Roman life style." (Das Karneval ist, wie wir bald
I iriiiei ken knnen, eigentlich nur eine Fortsetzung oder vielmehr der Gipfel j ener
H< whnlii hen sonn- und festtgigen Freuden; es ist nichts Neues, nichts Fremdes,
im Ins Kinxigcs, sondern es schliefst sich nur an die rmische Lebensweise ganz natrlich
, n \ I 1976a : 6.1 y I).
62
VINCENT CRAPANZANO
i mpos s i bl e that no acci dent will occur, that the carriage horses will not go
wi l d, that many will not be brui s ed, crus hed, or otherwi se i njured.
( Ni ema nd ver mag sich mehr von dem Platze, wo er steht oder sitzt, zu rhren;
di e Wrme so vi el er Mens chen, so vieler Lichter, der Da mpf so vi el er i mmer
wi eder aus gebl as enen Kerzen, das Geschrei so viel er Mens chen, di e nur
u m des t o hef t i ger brl l en, j e weni ger sie ei n Gl ied rhren knnen, mac hen
zul etzt sel bst den ges undes t en Si nn schwi ndel n; es schei nt unmgl i ch,
dass ni cht manches Ungl ck ges chehen, dass di e Kut s chpf erde ni cht wild,
ni cht ma nc he gequet s cht , gedrckt oder sonst beschdi gt wer den sol l ten.)
(19763:675)
Th e cr owd finally di sperses, the common peopl e to relish thei r
last meat di sh bef or e Lent , the fashi onable to the last per f or mance o f
t he t heat er. Th e "madness" ends on As h Wednesday. " How happy I
shall be when the fools are silenced next Tuesday, " Goet he writes in a
letter on February 1, 17 7 8. "It is terribly annoyi ng to wat ch ot hers go
mad when one has not caught the i nfecti on onesel f" ("Wie froh will
i ch sein, wenn di e Nar r en knft i gen Di enst ag abend zur Ruhe ge-
bracht wer den. Es ist ei ne entsetzliche Sekkat ur, ander e toll zu sehen,
wenn man nicht selbst angest eckt ist" [ 1976a : 681] ). As we shall see,
As h Wednesday gave Goet he occasi on to cont empl at e the meani ng of
this folly, this Sat urnal i an merri ment , with its role reversals, its vul gar
gest ures, its transvestitism, its libertinism, and what of f ended hi m
most , its di sorder.
I n cont rast to Catlin' s account of the O- Kee- Pa ceremony, wi t h
its subjecti vi sm, its met aphors and hyperbol es, and i ndeed in con-
trast to Goet he' s own Sturm und Drang writings, with thei r exuber ant
subjectivism and insistent concer n with Innerlichkeit, i nnerness, the
Italian Journey, i ncl udi ng The Roman Carnival, treats the ext ernal , das
ussere, wi t h an emot i onal cal m that must surely have been di sap-
poi nt i ng to the readers of Werther. ( Ther e are in fact few "ext rava-
gant " met aphor s in Goet he' s text, and the few t here are do not subvert
his "real i sm" as Catlin' s do. ) On November 10 , 1786, Goet he wr ot e
f r om Rome:
I live here now with a clarity and cal m that 1 have not felt for a l ong ti me. My
habi t o f l ooki ng at and readi ng all thi ngs as they are, my consci ent i ous [effort]
to keep my eyes open, my compl et e renunci at i on of all pret ens i on agai n stand
me in g o o d stead and make me privately very happy. Each day a new remark-
abl e object; daily, vast si ngul ar new pi ct ures a whol e that, however l ong o ne
t hi nks and dreams , is never accessible t hrough the i magi nat i on.
(Ich l ebe nun hi er mit Kl arheit und Ruhe, von der ich l ange kei n Gef hl
hat t e. Mei ne bung , alle Di nge, wi e sie si nd, zu s ehen und abzul esen, mei ne
Tr eue, das Aug e licht sei n zu l assen, mei ne vl l ige Ent as s erung von aller Pr-
t ent i on ko mmen mi r ei nmal wi eder recht zustatten und mac hen mi ch im stil-
Her mes ' Di l emma
63
l en hchs t gl ckl i ch. Al l e Tage ei n neuer merkwrdi ger Gegens t and, tgl i ch
f ri sche, grosse, sel t same Bi l der und ei n Ganzes, das man sich l ange denkt und
t rumt , ni e mi t der Ei nbi l dungskraf t errei cht.) (1976a: 17879)
The r e is somet hi ng salubri ous in Goet he' s "new" appr oach to real-
ity. It shoul d be r emember ed that his Italian trip had a t herapeut i c
i nt ent i on, to reani mat e hi m, and that he often spoke of it as a rebi rt h
(Fairley 19 47 ). "In this pl ace, " he writes on the same day, "whoever
l ooks seriously about hi m and has eyes to see must become st rong; he
is bound to acqui re an i dea of st rengt h that was never so alive for hi m"
("Wer sich mit Ernst hi er umsi eht und Auge n hat zu sehen, muss solid
wer den, er muss ei nen Begr i f f von Solidit t fassen, der i hm nie so le-
bendi g war d" [ 19 7 6 a: 17g] ). He insists on seei ng agai n and agai n to
avoi d t he mi xt ur e of truth and lies that makes up first i mpressi ons
( Goet he 19 7 6b : 86; Stai ger 1956 : 14). Under the t ut el age of Angel i ka
Kauf f mann he draws to deepen his percept i on of the objects ar ound
hi m. As Emi l St ai ger ( 19 5 6 : 1516) shows, it is the idea ("Begri ffe, "
"anschauender Begri ff, " "l ebendi ges Begr i f f " in Goet he' s wri t i ng)
that uni t es t he changi ng and the unchangi ng, the mul t i pl e per cep-
tions of an object. Goet he' s objectivity remai ns always the objectivity of
a subject. Hi s "obj ect i ve" is not the opposi t e of the "subjective. " Ac -
cor di ng to St ai ger ( 19 5 6 : 18) , the contrast is bet ween i nner compr e-
hensi on of t he t hi ng ("ein ' i nnerl i ches' Erfassen der Di nge") and its
obj ect i ve (sachlich) compr ehensi on. Distance, underst ood bot h literally
and fi gurati vely, is necessary for this "objectivity," but as St ai ger ( 19 5 6 :
18) not es, Goet he is less concer ned with a specific perspect i ve t han
wi t h showi ng an et ernal t rut h.
7
Al t hough Goet he, like Cat l i n, occasionally situates hi msel f as i f
bef or e an easel in his descri pti ons in the Italian Journey (e.g., 1982 :
30), he does not assume a fixed perspect i ve in The Roman Carnival.
I ndeed, in t he very first par agr aph of his wor k he writes convent i on-
ally of t he impossibility of descri bi ng the carnival and t hereby turns
the carni val itself i nto a figure of madness and di sorder.
In under t aki ng to wri te a descri pt i on of the Roman Carnival, we mus t fear
the object i on that such a festivity cannot really be descri bed. A huge, lively
7. Auch wer nur die Dinge will und sonst nichts, erfasst sie in einer bestimmten
Hinsicht, von einem bestimmten Gesichtspunkt aus. Dessen wird Goethe sich nicht
licwusst. Er ist berzeugt, die ewig gltige Wahrheit entdeckt und begriffen zu haben,
und traut sich zu, siejedem, der Augen hat and sehen will, zeigen zu knnen. Da es sich
um objektive Erkenntnisse handelt, gelingt das auch. Was Goethe darlegt, ist tatschlich
den wechselvollen Launen, der Stimmung, der Willkr der einzelnen Menschen ent-
rckt und insofern zeitlos und berall gltig. Es fragt sich aber, ob jedermann sich fr
diese Wahrheit interessiert, ob nicht mancher es vorzieht, die Dinge von einem andern
( iesichlspunkt aus, in anderer Hinsicht wahrzunehmen. Darber haben wir nicht zu
i e i I ne n und ist ein Streit berhaupl nicht mglich (Staiger 1956: 17 - 18) .
6 4
VINCENT CRAPANZANO
mass of s ens uous bei ngs moves i mmedi at el y bef ore one's eyes and will be s een
and gras ped by everyone i n his own way. The objecti on is still mor e seri ous
when we admi t that the Roman carnival gi ves nei t her a whol e nor pl eas i ng
i mpres s i on nei t her particul arl y del i ghts t he eyes nor gratifies the mi nd o f t he
f orei gn spect at or who sees it f or t he first ti me and wants onl y to watch, i ndeed
can onl y wat ch. Ther e is no overvi ew of the l ong and narrow street i n whi ch
i nnumer abl e peopl e mov e about; one hardl y di sti ngui shes i n the mi dst of t he
t umul t anyt hi ng t he eye can grasp. The mov ement is monot onous , the noi se
is deaf eni ng, the end of each day unsatisfactory. Thes e doubt s al one are s oon
rai sed when we ex a mi ne the mat t er more closely; and above all the ques t i on
will be whet her or not any descri pt i on is warranted.
( Indem wi r ei ne Bes chrei bung des Rmi s chen Karneval s unt er nehmen, ms -
s en wi r den Ei nwurf bef rcht en, dass ei ne sol che Feierlichkeit ei gent l i ch ni cht
bes chri eben wer den knne. Ei ne so grosse l ebendi ge Masse si nnl i cher Geg en-
s t nde sol l te sich unmi t t el bar vor dem Auge bewegen und von ei nem j ed en
nach s ei ner Art anges chaut und gefasst werden. Noch bedenkl i cher wi rd
di es e Ei nwendung , wenn wir selbst ges t ehen ms s en, dass das Rmi s che Kar-
neval ei nem f r emden Zuschauer, der es zum erst enmal si eht und nur s ehen
will und kann, weder ei nen ganzen noch ei n erf reul i chen Ei ndruck gebe,
weder das Aug e s onderl i ch ergt ze, noch das Gemt bef ri edi ge. Di e l ange
und s chmal e Strasse, i n wel cher sich unzhl i ge Mens chen hi n und wi der wl-
zen, ist ni cht zu bers ehen; kaum unt ers chei det man etwas in dem Bezi rk des
Get mmel s , den das Auge f assen kann. Di e Beweg ung ist ei nf rmi g, der
Lrm bet ubend, das Ende der Tage unbef ri edi gend. Al l ei n di ese Bedenk-
l i chkei t en si nd bal d gehoben, wenn wir uns nher erkl ren; und vorzgl i ch
wi rd di e Frage sei n, ob uns di e Bes chrei bung selbst rechtferti gt.) (1976a : 639)
Th e absence of a single perspect i ve over the carnival is associated wi t h
t umul t (Getmmel), deaf eni ng sound (der Lrm betubend), masses of
sensuous bei ngs, undi fferent i at ed movement , ulti mately wi t h an un-
pl easant and unsatisfactory exper i enceat least for the forei gn ob-
server. ( Thr oughout the Italian Journey, Goet he refers to the for-
ei gner , the forei gn observer, as t hough t here wer e a single "f or ei gn"
vant age poi nt on Italy and its carni val . )
8
It will be Goet he' s task to
br i ng or der to this di sorder t hr ough his descri pt i ona descri pt i on,
he says, that will convey the enj oyment and t umul t (Freude und Taumel)
of t he occasi on to t he reader' s i magi nat i on.
Goet he hi msel f does not take a specific spatial vant age poi nt al -
ways a possibility even when t here is no overvi ew, no bersicht, no ca-
t hedr al t ower, whi ch pl ayed such an i mport ant role in his st udent days
8. If there is no difference between actors and spectators in the carnivala point
made by Bakhtin ( 1970)then any vantage point on the carnival would have to be "for-
eign"outside the carnival itself. I doubt, however, that there is no differentiation be-
tween actors and spectatorsGoethe's "theatrical" description suggests there isand I
would argue that the absence of differentiation is, in fact, ideologicalan expression of
a defining alterity.
Her mes ' Di l emma 65
in St r asbour g (Lewes 19 49 167 ) . He moves i ndi fferently up and down
t he Cor so. He moves as i ndi fferently t hr ough ti me. Wi t h t he excep-
t i on of t he l i ght i ng of candl es on the eveni ng before As h Wednesday,
t he onl y nonrepet i t i ve event in Goet he' s carni val, he does not speci fy
t he t i me of t he event s he descri bes. He writes in the "present " t ense
a tenseless tense, i f you will, whi ch serves at once to gi ve a feel i ng of
ti meless flow and to permi t general i zat i ons. Li ke Cat l i n, Goet he con-
flates-and general i zescharact ers and events, and onl y rarely, to
add life and authenti ci ty to his descri pti ons, does he specify his rela-
t i onshi p to part i cul ar event s and charact ers.
We r emember a mo ng ot hers one y oung man who pl ayed perfectl y t he part of
a passi onat e, quarrel s ome, and in no way to be cal med woman. He argued t he
l engt h of t he Cors o, grabbi ng everyone whi l e his compani ons appeared to be
t aki ng great pai ns to cal m hi m down.
(Wir er i nner n uns unt er andern ei nes j u n g en Mens chen, der di e Rol l e ei ner
l ei dens chaf t l i chen, zanks cht i gen und auf kei ne Weise zu ber uhi g enden Frau
vortreffl i ch spi el te und so den ganzen Corso hi nab zankte, j ed em et was
anhngt e, i ndes sei ne Begl ei t er sich alle Mhe zu geben s chi enen, i hn zu be-
snf t i gen.) (19763:647)
Or , descr i bi ng a battle of confetti , he writes:
We ours el ves saw o ne such battle at cl ose quarters. When the combat ant s ran
out o f ammuni t i on, they t hrew the little gi l ded baskets at one another' s heads .
(Wir ha ben sel bst ei nen sol chen Streit i n der Nhe ges ehn, wo zul etzt di e
St rei t enden aus Mangel an Muni t i on, sich di e vergol det en Krbchen an di e
Kpf e warf en.) (1976a: 660)
Mor e oft en, however , Goet he does not indicate his rel at i onshi p to
the event t hr ough the first person pr onoun ("stands out in my mem-
ory"; "we oursel ves saw") but by means of vari ous spatial and t empor al
deictic l ocut i ons that gi ve the event and charact ers an illusory speci -
ficity. In a secti on in whi ch he descri bes the masks and fancy dresses of
t he carni val general l y, he writes, for exampl e:
Here a Pul ci nel l a comes r unni ng al ong with a l arge horn dangl i ng f rom col -
or ed stri ngs a r ound his waist. . . . And here comes anot her of his ki nd, . . .
more modes t and mor e satisfied.
(Hier ko mmt ei n Pul ci nel l gel auf en, d em ei n grosses Ho r n an bunt en Schn-
ren u m di e Hf t en gaukel t. . . . Hier kommt ei n anderer s ei nes gl ei chen . . .
bes chei dner und zuf ri edner.) (1976a: 647; emphas i s added)
Despi t e t he "here' s, " we have no coordi nat es ot her t han our gener al
knowl edge that we are "wi th Goet he" somewher e al ong t he Cor s o
dur i ng the carni val . Goet he in fact begi ns this part of his descri pt i on
66 VINCENT CRAPANZANO
wi t h t he r i ngi ng of the noonday bells on the Capi t ol , whi ch announces
t he per i od of license, but we do not know which day of the carni val it
is. In ot her sections he uses t emporal dei xi s. He begi ns a descri pt i on
of eveni ng, bef or e the races: "Now as eveni ng appr oaches" ("Nun
geht es nach dem Abe nd zu" [ 1976a: 664]). Agai n we have no i dea
whi ch eveni ng. An d at still ot her times, in the midst of a general i zed,
spatially and t emporal l y decont ext ual i zed descri pt i on of an event , he
will suddenl y make use of a "meanwhi l e, " an inzwischen, that has no
coordi nat es. As I have said, the functi on of these deictics is purel y
rhet ori cal , to add life to his descri pti ons and make t hem mor e con-
vi nci ng. The y attest to Goet he' s presence, and they appeal to t he
r eader to "join" hi m. The r e is an appel l at i ve di mensi on to Goet he' s
deictics, per haps to all deictics. He draws his readers into a seemi ngl y
real moment of observat i on that is in fact only an artifice of his text.
He offers t hem the security of his presence as they witness the tan-
tali zi ng di sorder of the event s that take place in the Cor so.
Goet he becomes the reader' s medi at or a sort of t our gui de to
t he carni val . He stands outsi de it, t hough, particularly out si de the tu-
mul t uous cr owdt he common peopl emi l l i ng up and down the
Cor s o. He is aloof, a forei gner, at times condescendi ng. He sees little
j oy in the carni val and, like Hawt hor ne and Henr y James after hi m,
he does not share in any of its merri ment . He preserves his di stance,
an or der - best owi ng theatrical distance, and only occasionally does he
i denti fy with the spect at orsnot wi th the huge lively mass of sen-
suous bei ngs, but wi th an elite who watch the crowd from their benches
and chai rs. He descri bes the homey feeli ng pr oduced by the rugs
hangi ng from balconi es and wi ndows, by the embr oi der ed tapestries
dr aped over the stands, and by the chai rs br ought out from inside the
houses and palaces al ong the Cor so. When you leave the house, you
do not bel i eve you are outsi de, among strangers, but in a r oom full of
acquai nt ances ("Indem man aus dem Hause tritt, gl aubt man nicht i m
Frei en und unt er Fr emden, sondern in ei nem Saale unt er Bekannt en
zu sei n" [ 19 7 63: 646] ) . He does not abandon his class. He does not
phenomenol ogi cal l y or rhetorically assume the subjectivity of t he par-
ticipants. I ndeed, in his first ment i on of the carnival the year bef or e,
he was mor e sensitive to the participants' exper i ence.
What o ne finds unpl easant about it is the absence of i nner gai ety in t he
peopl e, who lack the money to gratify the few desi res they may still have. . . .
On t he last days the noi se was i ncredi bl e, but t here was no heartfel t joy.
(Was man dabei una ng enehm empf i ndet , dass di e i nnere Frhl ichkeit den
Mens c hen fehl t und es i hnen an Gel de mangel t , das bi sschen Lust, was sie
noc h haben m g en, auszul assen. . . . An den l etzten Tagen war ei n ungl aub-
l i cher Lrm, aber kei ne Herzens f reude.) ( 19 7 63: 22829 )
Her mes ' Di l emma
67
I n t he Roman Carnival, Goet he is i nterested in display, t he ext ernal ,
das ussere, in what he can seeand not in the Innerlichkeit of t he
part i ci pant s.
And yet it is preci sely wi th t he "i nner meani ng" of the carni val that
Goet he concl udes his essay. It passes like a dr eam or a fairytale, he
says, l eavi ng per haps fewer traces on the soul of the parti ci pant (Teil-
nehmer) t han on Goet he' s readers. He has br ought to their i magi nat i on
and under st andi ng a coher ent whol e ("vor der en Ei nbi l dungskraft
und Verst and wi r das Ganze in sei nem Zus ammenhange gebr acht
haben"). Is Goet he suggest i ng that for an exper i ence to be mor e t han
ephemer al it must be descr i bedgi ven coher ence and or der ? He
goes on to observe that "the course of these follies" draws our atten-
tion to the most i mport ant stages of human life
when a vul gar Pul ci nel l a i ndecentl y remi nds us of the pl easures of l ove to
whi ch we owe our exi st ence, when a Baubo prof anes the mysteri es of birth in
publ i c pl aces, when so many l i ght ed candl es at ni ght remi nd us of the ulti-
mat e ceremony.
( wenn uns . . . der rohe Pulcinell ungebhrl i ch an die Freuden der Li ebe eri n-
nert, denen wir uns er Dasei n zu danken haben, wenn ei ne Baubo auf f f ent -
l i chem Platze di e Cehei mni s s e der Gebreri n entwei ht, wenn so viel e nchtl i ch
a ng ezndet e Kerzen uns an di e letzte Feierlichkeit eri nnern.) ( 19 7 6 3 : 6 7 6 )
He sees the Cor s o itself as the road of earthly life wher e one is bot h
spect at or and act or and wher e one has little r oom to move freely be-
cause of ext ernal forces. Th e horses raci ng past are like fleeting de-
lights "that l eave onl y a trace on our soul. " Car r i ed away by the force
of his i magery, Goet he remarks
that f r eedom and equal ity can onl y be enjoyed in the i ntoxi cati on of madnes s
and that the greatest desi re rises to its hi ghest pitch when it approaches cl ose
to da ng er and rel i shes in vol upt uous , sweet -anxi ous sensati ons.
(dass Freiheit und Gl ei chhei t nur in dem Taumel des Wahnsi nns genos s en
wer den k nnen, und dass di e grsste Lust nur dann am hchs t en reizt, wenn
sie sich ganz nahe an di e Gef ahr drngt und l stern ngstl i ch-ssse Empf i n-
d u n g en in i hrer Nhe geni esset.) ( 19 7 6 3 : 6 7 7 )
Remi ni scent of his unrest rai ned Sturm und Drang peri od, these last
observat i ons seem r emoved from any specific referent in the carni val .
Th e carni val is an excuse for Goet he' s medi t at i on. His concern is with
ils meani ng not for the participants, but for hi msel f and his readers.
I gnor i ng t he historical and the collective, the link, as Bakht i n (1965)
stresses, bet ween popul ar destiny, penet rat ed by the comi c pri nci pl e,
and t he eart h, Goet he reduces the carnival to a convent i onal al l egory
of i ndi vi dual destiny. Its meani ng lies in a t ranscendent st oryt he
ki nd Catli n sought for the O- Kee- Pa cer emony but coul d never really
68 VINCENT CRAPANZANO
find. Th r o u g h Goet he' s al l egory, the i ndi vi dual is, so to speak, resur-
r ect ed f r om t he mi l l i ng, seet hi ng, t umul t uoust he uni ndi vi duat ed
cr owd.
9
Goet he, a ki nd of trickster, a magi ci an of wor ds, a Her mes
r epor t i ng t he carni val to t hose up nort h, across the bor der , restores
or der at this reflective level to an event that, despi te t he exposi t ory,
t he t heat ri cal i zed or der he has al ready gi ven it in his descri pt i on, must
rhet ori cal l y remai n a symbol of madness and di sorder. Li ke Cat l i n,
Goet he seeks mor al significance (albeit trivial) in cer emonyi n t he
carni val .
And so without even thinking about it, we have also concluded with an Ash
Wednesday meditation, which we trust has not saddened our readers. Rather,
since life as a whole remains like the Roman Carnival, without an overview,
unsavory, and precarious, we wish that through this carefree crowd of mask-
ers everyone will be reminded with us of the importance of every one of the
momentary and often seemingly trivial pleasures of life.
(Und so htten wir, ohne selbst daran zu denken, auch unser Karneval mit
einer Aschermittwochsbetrachtung geschlossen, wodurch wir keinen unsrer
Leser traurig zu machen frchten. Vielmehr wnschen wir, dass j eder mit
uns, da das Leben im ganzen wie das Rmische Karneval unbersehlich,
ungeniessbar, ja bedenklich bleibt, durch diese unbekmmerte Mask-
engesellschaft an die Wichtigkeit jedes augenblicklichen, oft gering schei-
nenden Lebensgenusses erinnert werden mge.) ( 19 7 6 3 : 6 7 7 )
A convent i onal As h Wednesday medi t at i on, perhaps, Goet he' s concl u-
si on mar ks a ret urn to cont empl at i on, i ntrospecti on, and concer n for
t he meani ng of what we do.
1 0
His "ret urn" parallels a ret urn in t he
cer emony he descri bes. Dur i ng the carni val t here is no reflecti on, j ust
play, masquer adi ng, and, as we say nowadays, act i ng out . Wi t h As h
Wednesday begi ns a peri od of peni t ence, and, we must pr esume, a re-
t ur n to i nt rospect i on, or der , and individuality.
Th e title of Cl i fford Geert z' s essay "Deep Play: Not es on a Bal i nese
Cockf i ght , " wri tten about t he time the film Deep Throat was all t he
9. It is interesting to note that Henry James (1873: 139 et seq.) also includes an
Ash Wednesday meditation, "a Lenten peroration," in his description of the carnival in
1873. It is inspired by the view of a young priest praying by himself in a little church on
the Palatine hill and continues as James, alone, keeps carnival "by strolling perversely
along the silent circumference of Rome."
10. By his addressing the reader, the reader's function becomes, as Michael Andr
Bernstein (1983) remarks, "akin to the function of the next day in a ' real' Saturnalia,
the instant when everyone resumes his conventional roles, with the important distinc-
tion, however, that the reader's position represents a continuously present source of au-
thority which even the most anarchic moments of the festival day do not succeed in
suspending." Though I acknowledge the authoritative role of the reader in Goethe' s
Rmische Karneval, Goethe' s own authoritative position, far stronger than Catlin's, seems
to be quite independent of his reader's.
Her mes ' Di l emma
69
r age, announces a series of erotic punspuns, Geer t z mai nt ai ns, t he
Bal i nese t hemsel ves woul d under st andused t hr oughout his essay.
Puns are frequent in et hnogr aphy. The y posi ti on t he et hnogr apher
bet ween his wor l d of pri mary ori entati on, his reader' s worl d, and t he
wor l d of t hose ot hers, t he peopl e he has studi ed, whom at some l evel ,
I bel i eve, he is also addressi ng ( Cr apanzano 19 7 7 a) . Thr oug h t he pun
he appeal s collusively to the member s of one or t he ot her wor l d, usu-
ally t he wor l d of his readershi p, t hereby creat i ng a hi erarchi cal rela-
t i onshi p bet ween t hem. He himself, the punster, medi at es bet ween
t hese wor l ds.
Geert z' s essay is di vi ded into seven sections, and the titles of these
sect i ons"The Rai d, " " Of Cocks and Men, " " The Fi ght , " " Odds and
Even Money, " "Pl ayi ng wi th Fi re, " "Feathers, Bl ood, Cr owds , and
Money, " and "Sayi ng Somet hi ng of Somet hi ng"ar e all suggest i ve
of a distinctly ur ban envi r onment , of a sex-and-vi ol ence whoduni t ,
somet hi ng out of Mi ckey Spi llane, perhaps, whi ch, unl i ke Geert z' s
eroti c puns, t he vi llagers coul d not possibly have under st ood, at least
in 19 5 8. Th e titles do little to charact eri ze the ethos of a Bal i nese vil-
l age or cockfi ght , but, like puns, t hey create a collusive rel at i onshi p
bet ween t he et hnogr apher and, in this case, his readers. The y also at-
test to the et hnogr apher ' s stylistic virtuosity. He and his readers come
out on t op of the hi erarchy of underst andi ng.
Geert z' s essay begi ns wi th a humor ous tale of ent r yby now, in its
own ri ght , a genr e or subgenr e of et hnogr aphy. Th e hero, the ant hro-
pol ogi st , is cast stereotypically as a naif, an awkwar d si mpl et on, not at
all sure of his identity, oft en sufferi ng from some sort of exot i c mal -
ady, who is caught in a bet wi xt and bet ween worl d. We coul d see hi m
at Goet he' s Roman Carni val . He is no l onger in his own wor l d, and
he has not yet mast ered his new wor l dt he wor l d he will consti tute
t hr ough his et hnogr aphy.
Early i n Apri l o f 1958, my wi fe and I arri ved, malarial and di ffi dent, i n a Bali-
nes e vi l l age we i nt ended, as ant hropol ogi st s, to study. A small pl ace, about five
hundr ed peopl e, and relatively remot e, it was its own worl d. We were i nt rud-
ers, prof es s i onal ones , and the vil l agers deal t with us as Bal i nese s eem always
to deal wi th peopl e not part of thei r life who yet press t hems el ves up o n t hem:
as t houg h we wer e not t here. For t hem, and to a degree for oursel ves, we were
nonper s ons , spect ers, invisibl e men. (1973: 412)
Her e in t he first par agr aph of "Deep Play," Geer t z establishes an op-
posi ti on bet ween hi msel f and his wife and the Bal i nese who live in
thei r own r emot e little worl d. Geer t z and his wi fe are "ant hr opol o-
gists," "professi onal s, " and "i ntruders. " Th e tale of ent ry is, as I have
not ed, cal l ed " The Rai d, " referri ng manifestly to a poli ce raid of a vil-
70 VI NCENT CRAPANZANO
Hermes ' Di l emma
71
cocks " ( 417) ; "t he Bal i nese never do anyt hi ng in a si mpl e way whe n
t hey can cont r i ve to do it in a compl i cat ed way" (425); "t he Bal i nese
ar e shy t o t he poi nt of obsessi veness of ope n conflict" (446). T h e "Bal i -
nes e" s ur el y not t he Bal i nes ebecomes a foil for Geert z' s descr i b-
i ng, i nt er pr et i ng, and t heor i zi ngf or his sel f-present i ng.
Geer t z l i kens his nonper s onhood to bei ng "a cl oud or a gust of
wi nd" : " My wi fe and I wer e still ver y much in t he gust of wi nd st age, a
most frust rat i ng, and even, as you begi n to doubt whet her you are
real l y real aft er all, unner vi ng one when . . ." (413). An d he goes on
to descr i be t he pol i ce rai d t hr ough whi ch he achi eved his "per son-
hood. " Thi s passage is significant not so much because of what Geer t z
has to say about hi msel f and his wi fe as because of a pr onoun swi t ch
f r om "I / we, " or mor e accurat el y f r om "I + noun" ("my wi fe and I")
to " you. " Thi s switch ant i ci pat es his di sappear ance in t he sect i ons
to come. Th e " you" serves as mor e, I suggest , t han an appeal to t he
r eader to empat hi ze wi t h hi m. It decent er s the nar r at or in t he space
o f i nt ersubj ect i ve under s t andi ng. He engages in di al ogue wi t h his
r eader in a way, at least in his present at i on, that he does not e nga ge
wi t h t he Bal i nese. They r emai n car dboar d figures.
Despi t e popul ar gr ammat i cal under s t andi ng that a pr onoun is
si mpl y a noun subst i t ut e, t her e is, as Emi l e Benveni st e (1966) and
ot her s have obs er ved, a f undament al di fference bet ween first and sec-
ond per s on per sonal pr onouns ("I" and " you" and t hei r pl ural s) and
t hi r d per s on pr onouns ("he," "she, " "it," "t hey"). Th e first and second
ar e pr oper l y i ndexi cal : t hey "rel at e" to the cont ext of ut t er ance. T h e
t hi r d per s on pr onouns r ef er back anaphori cal l y to an ant ecedent , a
noun, of t en e nough a pr oper noun, in the text. Th e y are l i berat ed, so
to speak, f r om t he cont ext of ut t erance, but they are e mbe dde d in t he
t ext ual cont ext . Th e y are i nt rat ext ual and der i ve t hei r meani ng f r om
t hei r t ext ual l y descr i bed ant ecedent s. Thus , in Geert z' s essay, and in
most et hnogr aphy, t he "I / you" of t he et hnogr apher and the " I / you" of
t he et hnogr apher ' s i nt erl ocut ors i n t he field are conver t ed asymmet r i -
cal l y i nt o an anaphor i cal l y free " I " and an anaphor i ca cumul at i ve
"t hey. " I ndeed, in most et hnogr aphi c texts, i ncl udi ng Geert z' s, t he
" I " i t sel f di s appear s except i n convent i onal tales of ent ry or i n t ext -
eval uat i on shifters and becomes si mpl y a stylistically bor ne "i nvi si bl e"
voi ce.
1 1
Sympt omat i cal l y, " we" sel dom occurs in et hnogr aphy.
" Th e Rai d" r epr esent s a del i cat e, unst abl e moment . Geer t z, t he
1 1 . I am simplifying here. The ethnographer' s "I" must be carefully examined in
ils specific occurrences, for it can serve multiple functions, even simultaneously. It may,
l or exampl e, be descriptive, referring to a grammatically distorted interlocution ("I
said' V' hi' said" or "I observed") or it may in fact refer to the context of writing. Ther e is
also, as I have argued elsewhere (1981b), an anaphoric potential to first and second per-
son indexicals, particularly in "authored" texts.
l age cockf i ght . It may also reflect Geert z' s at t i t ude t owar d his and his
wi fe' s pr es ence, t hei r mi ssi on, in t he vi l l age. He claims dr amat i cal l y
t hat he and his wi fe wer e "nonper sons, spect ers, invisible men" f or t he
vi l l ager s and "to a degr ee for our sel ves"t hat is, unt i l like the ot her
vi l l ager s at t endi ng t he cockfi ght , t hey fled the pol i ce. Th e n t hey wer e
r ecogni zed. Geer t z offers no evi dence for this cont ent i on, and i n t he
ver y next par agr aph he cont radi ct s himself.
But except for our l andl ord and the village chief, whose cousin and brother-
in-law he was, everyone i gnored us only as the Bal i nese can do. As we wan-
dered around, uncertai n, wistful, eager to please, peopl e seemed to look right
t hrough us with a gaze focused several yards behi nd us on some more actual
st one or tree. Al most nobody greeted us; but nobody scowled or said anyt hi ng
unpl easant to us ei ther which woul d have been almost as satisfactory. . . . The
i ndi fference, of course, was studi ed; the villagers were watchi ng every move
we made, and they had an enormous amount of quite accurate i nformat i on
about who we were and what we were goi ng to be doi ng. But they acted as if
we si mpl y di d not exist, whi ch, in fact, as this behavior was desi gned to i nform
us, we di d not, or anyway not yet. (412 13)
Th e r e is o f cour se a di ffer ence bet ween bei ng a nonper s on, a spect er,
an i nvi si bl e ma na col l ect i on of nonequi val ent statuses in any cas e
and be i ng t reat ed wi t h "st udi ed i ndi fference. " Th e Geer t zes may have
been t r eat ed as t hough t hey wer e not t here, but t hey wer e surel y
t her e. Ho w else coul d t hey be i nf or med of their "nonexi st ence"?
I call at t ent i on her e to what mi ght si mpl y be di smi ssed as a not
al t oget her successful st oryt el l i ng ruse, wer e it not i ndi cat i ve of a mor e
ser i ous pr obl em that flaws Geert z' s essay. Her e, at a descr i pt i ve l evel ,
he bl ur s his own subj ect i vi t yhi s exper i ence of hi msel f in t hose earl y
Bal i nese days wi t h the subjectivity and the i nt ent i onal i t y of t he vil-
l ager s. (Hi s wife' s exper i ence present s still anot her pr obl em as wel l as
s omet hi ng of a concept ual embar r assment : she is di smi ssed f r om this
tale of me n and cocks a dismissal al ready her al ded in t he first para-
gr a ph by t he use of "men" in t he phr ase "invisible men. ") Lat er , at t he
l evel of i nt erpret at i on, we di scover t he same confusi on (see Cr a pa n-
zano 1981a; Li eber s on 1984). We must ask whet her this i nt er pr et i ve
conf us i on is facilitated by Geert z' s part i cul ar descri pt i ve tack.
Th r o u g h puns, titles, subtitles, and si mpl e decl arat i ons, t he "an-
t hr opol ogi st " and his "Bal i nese" are separ at ed f r om one anot her . I n
t he ope ni ng sect i on of " Deep Pl ay" Geer t z and his wi fe ar e cast, how-
ever convent i onal l y, as i ndi vi dual s. Th e Bal i nese are not . Th e y ar e
gener al i zed. Tur ns o f phr ase l i ke "as Bal i nese al ways do, " r emi ni scent
i f not of superfi ci al t ravel account s, t hen of nat i onal char act er st udi es,
r un t hr ough " Deep Play": "in a way onl y a Bal i nese can do" (412);
"t he de e p psychol ogi cal i dent i fi cat i on of Bal i nese men wi t h t hei r
72
VI NCENT CRAPANZANO
aut hor / nar r at or , is an "I . " Th e Bal i nese ar e referent i al l y descr i bed: a
"t hey. " Just as t he Bal i nese r ecogni ze Geer t z aft er his fl i ght f r om t he
pol i ce, he, at least as an I, flees from t he t ext in a sect i on r eveal i ngl y
ent i t l ed " Of Cocks and Men. " Does t he l i nger i ng " I " of " Th e Rai d"
compens at e f or Geert z' s nonper s onhood in t hose first days of field-
wor k he is descr i bi ng?
Th r o u g h o u t t he r emai nder of " Deep Pl ay" t her e is a cont i nual
bl ur r i ng of Geert z' s under s t andi ng and t he under s t andi ng of t he Bal i -
nese as he descr i bes t hem. Wi t hout any evi dence he at t ri but es to t he
Bal i nese all sorts o f exper i ences , meani ngs, i nt ent i ons, mot i vat i ons,
di sposi t i ons, and under s t andi ngs . He wri t es, for exampl e:
In the cockfight man and beast, good and evil, ego and id, the creative power
of aroused masculinity and the destructive power of loosened animality fuse
in a bloody drama of hatred, cruelty, violence, and death. It is little wonder
that when, as is the invariable rule, the owner of the winning cock takes the
carcass of the loseroften torn limb from limb by its enraged ownerhome
to eat, he does so with a mixture of social embarrassment, moral satisfaction,
aesthetic disgust, and cannibal joy. (43021)
We mus t not be car r i ed away by Geert z' s Gr a nd Gui gnol sensibility. We
mus t ask: on what gr ounds does he at t ri but e "social embar r assment , "
" mor al sat i sfact i on, " "aesthetic di sgust " (what ever that means), and
"canni bal j o y " t o t he Bal i nese? to all Bal i nese men? to any Bal i nese
ma n i n part i cul ar? Cl ear l y Geert z' s ai m, like Catlin' s, is to r ender t he
mo me n t vi vi d, but unl i ke Cat l i n, who makes no pr et ense o f uncover -
i ng t he subj ect i ve meani ngt he e xpe r i e nc e of the O- Kee- Pa cer e-
mony f or t he Mandan, Geer t z does make such a cl ai m of t he Bal i nese.
To wa r d t he end o f his essay, as t hough pul l i ng a rabbi t out o f a
hat , Ge e r t z suddenl y decl ar es t he cockfi ght to be an art f or m, whi ch
he under s t ands i n a ver y West er n way: " As any art f or mf or t hat ,
finally, is what we are deal i ng wi t ht he cockf i ght r ender s or di nar y,
ever yday exper i ence compr ehens i bl e by pr esent i ng it in t er ms of acts
and obj ect s whi ch have had t hei r pract i cal consequences r e move d a nd
be e n r e duce d (or, i f you pr ef er , raised) to t he l evel of sheer appear -
ance, wher e t hei r meani ng can be mor e power f ul l y art i cul at ed and
mor e exact l y per cei ved" (443). We must ask: for whom does t he cock-
fight art i cul at e ever yday exper i encet he exper i ence of status hi er ar -
c h y a n d r ender it mor e percept i bl e? Af t er l i keni ng t he cockf i ght t o
King Lear and Crime and Punishment, Geer t z goes on to assert that it
catches up these themesdeath, masculinity, rage, pride, loss, beneficence,
changeand ordering them into an encompassing structure, presents them
in such a way as to throw into relief a particular view of their essential nature.
It puts a construction on them, makes them, to those historically positioned to
Hermes ' Di l emma
73
appreciate the construction, meaningfulvisible, tangible, graspable"real"
in an ideational sense. An image, fiction, a model, a metaphor, the cockfight is
a means of expression; its function is neither to assuage social passions nor
to heighten them (though, in its playing-with-fire way it does a bit of both),
but, in a medium of feathers, blood, crowds, and money, to display them.
( 4 4 3 - 4 4 )
We must ask: who is historically posi t i oned to appr eci at e t he const r uc-
t i on? Ge e r t z compl et el y i gnor es t he fact t hat King Lear and Crime and
Punishment ar e cul t ural l y and linguistically mar ked as a t r agedy and a
novel ; as r epr esent at i ons of a part i cul ar or der ; as fictions to be r ead in
a speci al wa yi nde e d, t o be r ead. He offers no pr oof anywher e t hat
t he cockf i ght is so mar ked f or his Bal i nese. Pi l i ng i mage on i ma g e
" i mage, " "fi ct i on, " and " met aphor " may assuage Geert z' s own t heo-
ret i cal anxi et y, but it har dl y gets ri d of the pr obl em. (I mage, fiction,
model , and met aphor are of cour se no mor e equi val ent t han non-
per s on, spect er, and invisible man. ) Cockf i ght s ar e surel y cockfi ght s
f or t he Bal i nes eand not i mages, fictions, model s, and met aphor s .
Th e y ar e not mar ked as such, t hough t hey may be r ead as such by a
f or ei gner f or wh o m "i mages, fictions, model s, and met aphor s " have
i nt er pr et i ve val ue.
1 2
It is per haps no acci dent that in a f ol l owi ng para-
gr a ph Geer t z descri bes t he cockfi ght as "di squi et ful ": " Th e r eason it is
di squi et ful is that, j oi ni ng pr i de to sel fhood, sel f hood to cocks, and
cocks t o dest r uct i on, it br i ngs to i magi nat i ve real i zat i on a di mens i on
of Bal i nese exper i ence nor mal l y wel l -obscur ed f r om vi ew" (444)- We
mus t ask yet agai n: for wh o m is t he cockfi ght di squi et ful ?
I n t he final pages of " Deep Pl ay" Geer t z l i kens the cockf i ght to a
t ext . He al so refers to it as "a Bal i nese r eadi ng of Bal i nese exper i -
ence, " "a st ory t hey tell t he nat i ves about t hemsel ves, " a "met acom-
ment ar y. " "It is a means of sayi ng s omet hi ng about somet hi ng. " It re-
qui r es t he ant hr opol ogi s t to "penet r at e" it, j ust as a critic "penet r at es"
a t ext . For Ge e r t z t he i nt er pr et ed t ext , t he cockfi ght , is a dr ama of sta-
tus hi er ar chy, and in blatantly i nt ent i onal l anguage he suggest s t hat is
why Bal i nes e go to cockfi ght s: "Bal i nese go to cockfi ght s to find out
what a man, usual l y compos ed, aloof, al most obsessively sel f-absorbed,
a ki nd of mor al aut ocosm, feels like when at t acked, t or ment ed, chal -
l enged, i nsul t ed, and dr i ven in result to the ext r emes of fury, he has
totally t r i umphed or been br ought l ow" (450).
El s ewher e, he asserts Bal i nese subjectivity at cockfi ght s.
Enacted and re-enacted, so far without end the cockfight enables the Bali-
nese, as, read and reread, Macbeth enables us, to see a dimension of his own
ii>. (Ine would ultimately have to consider the ontological status of Balinese
c(| iiivalcnis (il' there are any) of these Western categories.
74 VI NCENT CRAPANZANO
Hermes ' Di l emma
75
I n t radi t i onal et hnogr aphy t he et hnogr apher ' s encount er wi t h t he
peopl e he has st udi ed is rarel y descr i bed. Of t en, as in t he case o f
Geer t z' s " De e p Play, " har dl y a t radi t i onal et hnogr aphy, even t he ac-
tivity t hat is descr i bed and i nt er pr et eda cockfi ght , a carni val , a test
of pr owes s , or, f or that mat t er, the weavi ng of a basket or t he pr epar a-
t i on of a meal i s not pr esent ed in its part i cul ari t y as a si ngl e, and i n
s ome ways uni que, per f or mance. We are usual l y gi ven a gener al pi c-
t ur e. Pr es umabl y many observat i ons, t aken f r om many vant age poi nt s,
ar e confl at ed i nt o a si ngl e, const r uct ed per f or mance, whi ch becomes
a sort of i deal , a Pl at oni c per f or mance. Cat l i n and Goet he descr i be a
si ngl e per f or mance, but , despi t e deictic and ot her par t i cul ar i zi ng
l ocut i ons, t hey do it in a gener al i zi ng way. Geer t z, who appar ent l y at-
t ended many cockfi ght s, never descri bes a specific cockfi ght . He con-
structs t he Bal i nese cockfi ght and i nt erpret s his const r uct i on: "t he
Bal i nese cockf i ght . " Hi s convent i onal tale of ent r y ser ves a dei ct i c
f unct i on not t hat di fferent f r om Catlin' s assi gned pl ace or Goet he' s
"here' s" and "now' s. " It gi ves t he illusion of specificity whe n t her e is no
specific t empor al or spatial vant age poi nt . It attests to t he et hnog-
r apher ' s havi ng been t her e and gi ves hi m what ever aut hori t y ari ses
f r om t hat pr esence.
I n " De e p Pl ay" t he pr obl em of the et hnogr apher ' s aut hori t at i ve
const r uct i ons is f ur t her compl i cat ed by the aut hor' s phenomenol ogi -
cal and her meneut i cal pr et ent i ons. Nei t her Cat l i n nor Goet he make
any sust ai ned effort to descri be the exper i ence for the part i ci pant s o f
t he cer emoni es t hey obser ved. Cat l i n assumes t he per spect i ve of t he
Ma nda n onl y rhet ori cal l y. For hi m, t he O- Kee- Pa was a "s hocker "
("Thi s part of t he cer emony [the t ort ure], as I have j ust wi t nessed it, is
t rul y s hocki ng t o behol d, and will st agger t he bel i ef of t he wor l d wh e n
t hey r ead of it" [ 1 8 5 7 : 1 5 7 ] ) ; and he st r uggl ed unsuccessful l y to gi ve it
meani ng. He coul d find no fami l i ar story in whi ch to fit it in mor e
t han a f r agment ed way. Th e Roma n carni val became for Goe t he an
al l egor y o f i ndi vi dual destiny. It was of cour se not that unfami l i ar . He
was abl e t o or gani ze it al ong fami l i ar theatricalcommedia dell'arte
lines and t o synchr oni ze his descri pt i ve r hyt hm wi t h the carni val ' s
r hyt hm. We may find Goet he' s al l egor y arch, mor i bund even, but it is
s ubs umi ng. For Geer t z, t he cockfi ght itself becomes a gr and me t a phor
l or Bal i nese social or gani zat i on, and, as such, closes in on itself. De -
spite Geer t z' s ost ensi bl e concer n for t he under s t andi ng of t he native' s
poi nt of vi ew, his essay is less a di squi si t i on on Bal i nese cockf i ght i ng,
subj ect i vel y or obj ect i vel y under st ood, t han on i nt er pr et i ngr ead-
i ngcul t ur al dat a. Hi s analysis is exempl ar y, and this exempl ar y
qual i t y, Geer t z' s i nt er pr et i ve virtuosity, hel ps r ender it et hnogr aphi -
subjectivity. As he watches fight after fight, with the active watchi ng of an
owner and a bettor (for cockfi ghti ng has no more interest as a pure spectator
sport t han does croquet or dog-raci ng), he grows familiar with it and what it
has to say to hi m much as the attentive listener to a string quartet or the ab-
sorbed vi ewer of still life grows slowly more familiar with them in a way whi ch
ope ns his objectivity to himself. (45051)
Wh o t ol d Geer t z? Ho w can a whol e peopl e share a si ngl e subject i vi t y?
Ar e t her e not di f f er ences bet ween t ext s, comment ar i es, met acom-
ment ar i es , dr amas , sport s, st ri ng quart et s, and still lifes? Has Pr o-
fessor Geer t z abandoned all of the analytic distinctions that have char -
act er i zed t he success (and the failure) of his civilization? Li ke Catlin' s
col or f ul , concr et e met aphor s , Geert z' s col orl ess, abstract met aphor s
s ubver t bot h his descr i pt i on and his i nt erpret at i on. I ndeed, t hey sub-
ver t his aut hori t y. Hi s message is si mpl y not convi nci ng.
Despi t e his phenomenol ogi cal - her meneut i cal pr et ensi ons, t her e
is in fact in " De e p Pl ay" no under s t andi ng of t he nat i ve f r om t he na-
tive' s poi nt o f vi ew. Th e r e is onl y t he const r uct ed under s t andi ng o f t he
cons t r uct ed native' s const r uct ed poi nt of view. Geer t z offers no speci -
fiable evi dence for his at t ri but i ons of i nt ent i on, his assert i ons of sub-
j ect i vi t y, his decl ar at i ons of exper i ence. Hi s const ruct i ons of const r uc-
tions of const r uct i ons appear to be little mor e t han proj ect i ons, or at
l east bl ur r i ngs, of his poi nt of view, his subjectivity, wi t h t hat o f t he
nat i ve, or, mor e accurat el y, of t he const r uct ed nat i ve.
Fi nal l y, as if t o gi ve his, or any ant hropol ogi st ' s, const r uct i ons a
cer t ai n, i f you will, subst ant i al i zed aut hori t y, Geer t z refers i n " De e p
Pl ay" to cul t ur e "as an ensembl e of texts, t hemsel ves ensembl es,
whi ch t he ant hr opol ogi st strains to r ead over t he shoul der of t hose
t o wh o m t hey pr oper l y bel ong" (45253)-
1 3
Th e i mage is st ri ki ng:
s har i ng and not shar i ng a t ext . It represent s a sort of asymmet r i cal
we- r el at i onshi p wi t h t he ant hr opol ogi st behi nd and above t he nat i ve,
hi dden but at t he t op of the hi er ar chy of under s t andi ng. It reflects,
I bel i eve, t he i ndexi cal dr ama o f " Th e Rai d" in whi ch t he part i es t o
t he et hnogr aphi c encount er are br ought t oget her in the nar r at i on as
t hey ar e separ at ed t hr ough style. Th e r e is never an I-you rel at i on-
shi p, a di al ogue, t wo peopl e next to each ot her r eadi ng t he same t ext
a nd di scussi ng it face-t o-face, but onl y an I-t hey rel at i onshi p. An d ,
as we have seen, even the I di s appear s r epl aced by an invisible
voi ce o f aut hori t y who decl ares what t he you- t r ansf or med- t o- a- t hey
exper i ence.
13. See my discussion (Crapanzano i g8i c) of text and text metaphors. I argue
that despite a certain literary critical penchant to view texts abstractly, their rhetorical
force rests on the concreteness, the tangible existence, of the text.
76 VINCENT CRAPANZANO
cal l y convi nci ng. Its ul t i mat e si gni fi cance is not mor al but me t hodo-
l ogi cal . Cat l i n makes a pl ea f or t he sal vati on o f t he Mandan; Goe t he
f or t he full appr eci at i on of f l eet i ng moment s o f j oy; Geer t z f or her -
meneut i cs. In all t hr ee i nstances t he event s descr i bed are subver t ed by
t he t r anscendi ng stories in whi ch t hey ar e cast. Th e y ar e sacri fi ced to
t hei r r het or i cal f unct i on i n a l i terary di scour se that is far r e move d
f r om t he i ndi genous di scour se of thei r occur r ence. Th e sacri hce, t he
subver si on o f t he event descr i bed, is i n t he final analysis masked nei -
t her by r het or i c, hypot yposi s, theatricality, and i nt er pr et i ve vi rtuosi ty
nor by t hei r met aphor i zat i onsal vat i on, life, soci et ybut by t he au-
t hor i t y o f t he aut hor , who, at least in much et hnogr aphy, stands above
and behi nd t hose whose exper i ence he pur por t s to descr i be. Al l
t oo of t en, t he et hnogr apher f orget s that t he nati ve, l i ke Eduar d i n
Goet he' s Elective Affinities, cannot abi de someone r e adi ng- ove r hi s
shoul der . I f he does not cl ose his book, he will cast his shadow over it.
O f cour se, t he et hnogr apher will also cast his shadow over it. It is per -
haps f or this r eason, i f I may concl ude wi t h t he concei t o f my own tal e
o f ent r y i nt o this paper , that Zeus under st ood whe n He r me s pr om-
i sed to tell no lies but di d not pr omi se to tell t he whol e t rut h.
REN A TO ROS A LDO
From the Door of His Tent:
The Fieldworker
and the Inquisitor
Thi s paper at t empt s to devel op an anat omy o f et hnogr aphi c
r het or i c by expl or i ng modes o f aut hori t y and r epr esent at i on i n t wo
deser vedl y classic books: E. E. Evans-Pri t chard' s The Nuer and Em-
manue l Le Roy Ladur i e' s Montaillou. Th e f or mer , publ i shed i n 1940,
has l ong been r ecogni zed, al ong wi t h t wo ot her books and var i ous ar-
ticles on t he same peopl e, as an exempl ar y et hnogr aphi c wor k. T h e
l atter, publ i shed i n 1975 by a not ed Fr ench social hi st ori an, has re-
cei ved wi de accl ai m f or its i nnovat i ve use of an i nqui si ti on r egi st er to
const r uct an "et hnogr aphi c" anal ysi s of a f our t eent h- cent ur y Fr ench
vi l l age. Le Roy Ladur i e' s i nt er vent i on, a mong ot her exper i ment al
wor ks o f hi st ory and ant hr opol ogy, has been hai l ed as ope ni ng t he
possibility o f a mor e et hnogr aphi c hi story and a mor e hi stori cal
et hnogr aphy.
1
Yet i n cer t ai n respect s Le Roy Ladur i e' s exper i ment r edepl oys an
arti fact al r eady ol d-f ashi oned in its homel andas so of t en happens
wi t h bor r owi ngs bot h i nt ercul t ural and i nt erdi sci pl i nary. A n ant hr o-
pol ogi cal wor k t hat ai med at such a total et hnogr aphi c anal ysi s as is
f ound i n Montaillou coul d be cal l ed classic in style, but mor e out -
mo d e d t han i nnovat i ve. Fr om this per spect i ve Le Roy Ladur i e' s wor k
has a di sti ncti ve val ue. It pr ovi des a mi r r or f or critical ref l ect i on on
modes o f aut hor i t y and descri pt i ve rhet ori cs in et hnogr aphy, par t i cu-
larly i n t he i nfl uenti al wr i t i ng of Evans-Pr i t char d. Th e latter' s wor k
shoul d be under st ood i n this cont ext as a r epr esent at i ve e xampl e o f
the di sci pl i ne' s r het or i cal convent i ons. A cl ose r eadi ng o f t hese t wo
books, r at her t han a mor e superfi ci al revi ew o f a wi der r ange o f cases,
1. Thi s doubl i ng of history and anthropology has a genealogy that extends back
in Herodotus and Thucydi des. Evans-Pritchard himself wrote on history and anthro-
pology, and Le Roy Ladurie has taught a course at the Collge de France called Eth-
nographic History. Thi s reemergi ng field of inquiry has recently been reviewed in es-
says by Bernard Cohn (1980, 1981) and Natalie Davis (1981).
7 8 RENATO ROSALDO
enabl es t he de ve l opme nt o f a gener al ar gument that can be appr ai sed
by st udyi ng ext ended narrat i ve passages in ci rcumst ant i al detai l .
Wha t t he ar gume nt loses in scope, it gai ns in intensity.
By l ooki ng at The Nuer f r om t he distinctive angl e of vi si on of f er ed
by Montaillou, we di scover that the figure o f t he et hnogr aphi c field-
wor ke r i n t r oubl i ng ways resembl es t he f our t eent h-cent ur y i nqui si t or
who cr eat ed t he document used by Le Roy Ladur i e. Th e historian' s
wor k appr opr i at es ways o f establ i shi ng aut hori t y and const r uct i ng ob-
j ect i ve descr i pt i ons al r eady devel oped in t he et hnogr aphi c l i t erat ure.
I nde e d, t he hi st ori an at ti mes nearl y cari cat ures his et hnogr aphi c
model s. Yet in t he manner of an i l l umi nat i ng objecti fi cati on, pr eci sel y
this el ement o f exagger at i on at once makes st r ange and reveal s an ar-
ray of di scur si ve practi ces that in thei r ant hr opol ogi cal home l and
have been t aken f or gr ant ed. The y have appear ed, not pecul i ar , but
nor mat i ve f or wr i t i ng in t he di sci pl i ne. In maki ng a det our t hr ough
Le Roy Ladur i e' s wor k, I hope to devel op a critical per spect i ve on et h-
nogr aphy, bot h as fieldwork and as descri pt i ve rhet ori c.
My r eadi ng of Evans-Pri t chard' s et hnogr aphi c wr i t i ng is gui de d
bot h by Sant ayana' s di ct um that t hose who f or get thei r past are con-
d e mne d to r epeat it and by the not i on that critical r eappr ai sal s, t he
act i ve r eappr opr i at i on of past wor ks, shoul d play a significant r ol e i n
s hapi ng f ut ur e anal yses. Such historical cri ti ques, as tales bot h i n-
spi rat i onal and caut i onary, can di rect f ut ure changes in et hnogr aphi c
di scour se.
The Use and Abuse of Ethnographic Authority
Emmanue l Le Roy Ladur i e' s wor k bor r ows et hnogr aphy' s di s-
ci pl i nar y aut hor i t y to t r ansf or m f our t eent h-cent ur y peasant s' "di r ect
t est i mony" (as r ecor ded in t he i nqui si ti on regi st er of Jacques Four -
ni er) i nt o a document ar y account of vi l l age life in sout her n Fr ance at
t he t i me.
2
Th e book is di vi ded into t wo parts, an ecol ogy and an ar che-
ol ogy. T h e f or mer del i neat es st ruct ures that r emai n unchange d over
t he l ong t i mespan (longue dure) and the latter di scusses cul t ur al f or ms
(mentalits) that of t en show compar abl e l ongevi t y.
Th e ecol ogy begi ns wi t h the physi cal envi r onment and st r uct ur es
o f domi nat i on (chapt er 1), moves on to the househol d as t he f ounda-
t i on of vi l l age life (chapt ers 2 and 3), and concl udes wi t h an e xt e nde d
por t r ai t o f t r anshumant past oral i sm (chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7). Le Roy
Ladur i e opposes village life in househol ds, exempl i fi ed by the Cl er gues,
2. The problem of ethnographic authority has been delineated in a fine essay by
James Clifford (1983a).
From the Do o r of His Tent
79
to s he phe r d life i n t he hills, epi t omi zed in the per son o f Pi er r e Maur y.
( The l atter, in an anomal ous manner di scussed bel ow, recei ves bot h
mor e ext ensi ve and mor e i deal i zed t r eat ment t han t he f or mer . ) Th e
mor e l oosel y or gani zed ar cheol ogy begi ns wi th body l anguage and
ends wi t h myt h. In bet ween Le Roy Ladur i e di scusses, of t en i n titillat-
i ng t ones, sex, l i bi do, t he life cycl e (mar r i age, chi l dhood, deat h), t i me
and space, magi c, r el i gi on, moral i ty, and t he ot her wor l d. Th r o u g h -
out , t he nar r at or punct uat es his t ext wi th italicized citations, t he pur -
por t edl y f r ee di r ect speech o f t he peasants, verbal l y pr esent ed as i f
one we r e e ave s dr oppi ng in t he vi l l age itself.
Le Roy Ladur i e begi ns by descr i bi ng his document ar y sour ce i n
t hese t er ms:
Tho u g h there are extensive historical studies concerning peasant c o mmu -
nities there is very little material available that can be c onsider ed the direct
testimony of the peasants themsel ves. It is for this reason that the Inquisition
Register o f Jacques Fournier, Bishop of Pamiers in Arige in the Comt d e
Foix (now souther n France) from 1318 to 1325, is of such exceptional inter-
est, (vii)
Thi s be gi nni ng makes it cl ear that t he r eader will l ear n, in a r emar k-
abl y evocat i ve way, about the t ext ur e of f our t eent h- cent ur y peasant
l i fe. Th e ri ch, vi vi d descri pt i ons, qui te unl i ke those in ot her hi st ori cal
wor ks concer ned wi t h medi eval vi l l agers, do i ndeed make compel l i ng
"et hnogr aphi c" r eadi ng. Th e peasants have been t ext ual i zed i n ways
t hat char act er i ze t he speaker s as arti cul ate and i nsi ght f ul about t he
condi t i ons o f t hei r own exi st ence. Yet t he historian' s t r ope o f maki ng
late medi eval peasant voi ces di rectl y audi bl e to r eader s in t he pr esent
ar ouses mor e skept i ci sm t han appr eci at i on among et hnogr apher s ac-
cus t omed to ponde r i ng difficulties in the transl ati on of cul t ur es.
Fr om t he out set t he historian' s i nnocent t one gi ves r eason to pause.
Ho w can his dat a ("the di r ect t est i mony of the peasants t hemsel ves")
have r e mai ne d unt ai nt ed by t he cont ext of domi nat i on ("the Inqui si -
ti on Regi st er ")? Af t er all, t he i nqui si tor ext r act ed t he t est i moni es as
conf essi ons; he di d not over hear t hem as conver sat i ons in ever yday
life. What coul d mot i vat e the hi stori an to separat e t he dat a f r om t he
i nst r ument t hr ough whi ch t hey wer e col l ect ed?
Le Roy Ladur i e goes on to buttress the aut hori t y of his docume nt
t hr ough t he st rat egy of novelistic real i sm car r i ed to ext r emes.
3
He
names names, pr ovi des titles, cites specific pl aces, and ref ers to exact
dat es. He even goes on to gi ve an i mpressi ve sket ch o f Jacques Four -
3. For a characterization of realism, see Culler 1975: 13t 60. For an insightful re-
view of Montaillou that, among other things, highlights its conventions of realism, see
CliHord 1979.
8o
RENATO ROSALDO
nier' s car eer , f r om humbl e bi rt h t hr ough posi t i ons as bi shop and car-
di nal t o hi s el ect i on in 1334 as Benedi ct XI I , pope at Avi gnon. Four -
ni er , i n Le Roy Ladur i e' s account , appear s ambi t i ous, i ndust r i ous, and
t al ent ed. T h e r eader is s uppos ed to bel i eve that the i nqui si t or pr o-
duc e d a det ai l ed rel i abl e document for t he historian' s confi dent , at
t i mes uncri t i cal , use over six cent uri es later.
Cons i der , for exampl e, the f ol l owi ng passage in whi ch Le Roy
La dur i e por t r ays Four ni er as a tireless i nqui si t ori al seeker o f in-
f or mat i on:
A few details will suggest how our dossier was built up. The inquisition court
at Pami ers worked for 370 days bet ween 1318 and 1325. Thes e 370 days i n-
cl uded 578 i nterrogati ons. Of these, 418 were exami nati ons of the accused
and 160 exami nat i ons of witnesses. In all these hundreds of sessions dealt
wi th ni net y- ei ght cases. The court set a record for hard work in 1320, with
106 days; it worked ni nety-three days in 1321, fifty-five in 1323, forty-three in
1322, forty-two in 1324, and twenty-two in 1325. (xiv)
T h e i mpos i ng number s , heaped one upon the ot her in a ma nne r fa-
mi l i ar to sport s fans, at t empt to per s uade r eader s that t hey const i t ut e
an aut hori t at i ve exact meas ur e o f the inquisition' s degr ee of t hor ough-
ness. T h e quant i fi ed s ummar y concl udes wi t h a year - by- year count of
t he i nqui si t i on court ' s wor ki ng days or der ed by r ank f r om t he r ecor d
hi gh of 106 on down. Le Roy Ladur i e' s pi l i ng up of statistics r het or i -
cal l y makes it appear that Fourni er' s i nvest i gat i on was exhaust i ve and
defi ni t i ve. T h e i nqui si t or, accor di ng to t he hi st ori an, was mor e an i n-
s t r ument f or gat her i ng i nf or mat i on t han a man bent on ma ki ng t he
gui l t y confess t hei r heresi es.
Le Roy Ladur i e ends his i nt r oduct i on, however , by frankl y affi rm-
i ng t he f undament al i nequal i t y of t he i nt er changes bet ween t he in-
qui si t or Four ni er and his subjects, as fol l ows: " Th e accused' s appear -
ance bef or e t he Bi shop' s t ri bunal began wi t h an oat h s wor n on t he
Gos pel s . It cont i nued i n t he f or m of an unequal di al ogue" (xv). He no
s ooner admi t s to t he "unequal di al ogue" t han he deni es it, as i f by say-
i ng "sor r y" he coul d go on to ot her t hi ngs. He si mpl y closes this open-
i ng to t he i nt erpl ay of power and knowl edge by stressing, mor e
emphat i cal l y t han bef or e, t he scr upul ous will to t r ut h that dr ove Four -
ni er i n his i nt er r ogat i ons, as fol l ows:
I n all t he ot her cases whi ch provi de the material of this book, the Bi shop con-
fined hi msel f to tracking down real devi ants (often mi nor from our poi nt of
view). Th e confessi ons are rounded out by the accuseds' descri pti ons of their
own daily lives. The y usually corroborated each other, but when they contra-
di cted, Fourni er tried to reduce the discrepancies, aski ng the vari ous pris-
oners for more details. What drove hi m on was the desi re (hateful t hough it
was in this form) to know the truth, (xv)
From the Door of Hi s Tent 81
T h e document , t aken at face val ue, pur por t edl y pr ovi des rel i abl e de-
pi ct i ons of ever yday life a mong f our t eent h- cent ur y peasant s. I n this
cont ext Le Roy Ladur i e uses a hal f-seri ous, hal f-i roni c phr ase and
makes t he i nqui si t or i nt o a fellow schol ar by descr i bi ng hi m as s ome-
one who is as "pedant i c as a school man" (xv).
4
Depl oyi ng a tactic ma de
fami l i ar by Mi chel Foucaul t , t he narrat or i nvokes t he will to t r ut h in
or de r to suppr ess t he document ' s equal l y pr esent will to power . Hi s
char act er i zat i on of Fourni er' s met i cul ous schol arl y cl ose at t ent i on to
dai l y life serves t he i deol ogi cal pur pos e of ent i t l i ng hi m to r e move t he
cont ext of i nt er r ogat i on f r om t he "document ar y" findings t her eby
ext r act ed.
Le Roy Ladur i e has neat l y l i berat ed t he document f r om t he his-
t ori cal cont ext that pr oduced it. His i nt r oduct i on t hus makes t he i n-
qui si t or' s i nvest i gat i on aut hori t at i ve and r emoves t he document f r om
t he politics of domi nat i on. T h e i nqui si t i on register' s t rut h t hus be-
comes mor e a mat t er of obj ect i ve r epor t i ng t han a series of st at ement s
ma de by cert ai n peopl e (peasant villagers) to a part i cul ar per s on
(Four ni er ) in a specific si t uat i on (the inquisition). Th e historian' s docu-
ment has r het or i cal l y been t reat ed as i f it wer e t he cr eat i on of a di s-
i nt er est ed sci ence. Not unl i ke his document ar y r ecor d, t he hi st ori an
hi ms el f has achi eved t he det ached observer' s i nnocence. Needl ess t o
say, t he i nt roduct i on' s cent ral figure, t he i nqui si t or Jacques Four ni er ,
does not agai n make a significant appear ance in the rest of t he book.
The Use and Abuse of Descriptive Rhetoric
I n t he body of his book Le Roy Ladur i e cl oaks hi msel f wi t h
t he bor r owe d aut hori t y of et hnogr aphi c sci ence. I ndeed (as will be
seen bel ow) he even fol l ows t he et hnogr apher ' s tactic of conf i ni ng t o
an i nt r oduct i on di scussi on of t he politics of domi nat i on t hat s haped
t he i nvest i gat or' s knowl edge about the peopl e under st udy. Th u s t he
historian' s mai n t ext never r et ur ns to t he openi ng di scussi on about
how his docume nt was pr oduced. In cr eat i ng his aut hori t y, Le Roy
Ladur i e cover s over t he i nt r oduct or y revel at i on of Montaillou's, or i gi ns
in a doc ume nt of rel i gi ous repressi on. Th e f ol l owi ng, for exampl e,
st ands as an ext r eme i nst ance of r epr esent i ng the i nqui si t ori al r ecor d
as i f it we r e a neut r al et hnogr aphi c r epor t :
4. Le Roy Ladurie' s view of inquisition truth probably emerges from the views of
legal historians who see the inquisition as a step forward in the development of rational
inquiry. For an incisive critique of the historians' views, see Asad 1983b. My views on
I his subject, like those of Asad, have been shaped by the work of Michel Foucault (1977,
I..,78a).'
82
RENATO ROSALDO
In very rare cases the record does speak of y oung women who marri ed ac-
c or di ng to the di ctates of thei r heart. The Register, however, speaks of qui te a
number of y o ung men who di d so. But in the institution of marri age as it t hen
was, t he wo ma n was regarded as an object an object l oved or an object
beat en, as t he case mi ght be. The hi stori an finds hi msel f f aced with an area of
cul tural si l ence on this subject. (189)
Th e hi stori an, it seems, has been t rapped by the et hnogr aphi c myt h
of his own appropri at i on. Nei t her the inquisitor Fourni er nor, for that
mat t er, an actual et hnogr apher coul d possibly be such an i deal i zed,
neut ral , omni sci ent i nst rument for collecti ng i nformat i on. What the
i nqui si ti on r ecor d reveal s is that peasant women in Mont ai l l ou di d
not tell t hei r i nt errogat ors much about thei r passions in court shi p.
Whet her t he issue was skirted because of the women' s rel uct ance to
talk about possibly heretical love magi c, out of mut ual ret i cence be-
t ween wome n and their mal e inquisitors, or owi ng to the historian' s
i mput ed "cultural silence, " simply cannot be deci ded on t he basis of
avai l abl e evi dence. Nonet hel ess, Le Roy Ladur i e si mpl y decl ares that
t he t hi ngs women fail to tell their inquisitor represent areas of cul-
t ural silence.
Th e hi stori an adopt s et hnographi c authori ty to enabl e hi m to ap-
pr ehend, in unmedi at ed fashion, late medi eval peasant forms of life.
Hi s sense of ent i t l ement allows t he di rect appr ehensi on of historically
di stant institutions and cultural meani ngs. Rat her t han wor r yi ng over
pr obl ems of translation, Le Roy Ladur i e depl oys the false et hno-
gr aphi c aut hori t y of pol yphony, his voi ce and peasant voi ces equal l y
hear d, by ci t i ng in italics passages that represent di rect quot at i ons
t ransmi t t ed di rect l y from the past (t hough the peasant swho wer e, it
must be kept in mi nd, confessi ng before an inquisition cour t usual l y
spoke Occi t an, whi ch scribes t hen translated into Lat i n, whi ch the his-
t ori an has translated into moder n French). Th e rel at i onshi p bet ween
t he hi stori an and his subjects can only strike the et hnogr aphi c r eader
as pecul i arl y insensitive to power relations and cul t ural di fferences.
Impl i ci t in t he Annales par adi gm is a noti on, anal ogous to the eth-
nogr apher ' s t erm social structure, as will be seen below, that enabl es t he
hi st ori an to assert that his subjects resembl e hi m because o f demon-
strable structural continuities that endur e over a l ong t i mespan (longue
dure). In the fol l owi ng descri pt i on of Mont ai l l ou, for exampl e, one
can see how Le Roy Ladur i e evokes in his readers a sense of cont i nui t y
bet ween the medi eval and the moder n village on that site:
The vil l age of Montai l l ou, l ooki ng out over the pl ateau, was built i n ti ers. . . .
In mor e recent ti mes the village has moved away f rom t he s hadow of t he cha-
t eau and is now situated l ower down the sl ope. In the f ourt eent h cent ury, as
today, t he curvi ng village street l ed down to the parish church, built bel ow the
From t he Door of Hi s Tent 83
5. The problem of conflating household and family has been lucidly discussed in
Yanagisako 1979.
vi l l age itself. . . . In t he ti me of Jacques Fourni er, as today, Mont ai l l ou was t oo
hi gh and t oo col d for vi ne-growi ng. (34)
In a passage that themati zes conti nui ty mor e than change, Le Roy
Ladur i e spatializes the t hen and the now. He sees cont i nui t y in a curv-
i ng street and, mor e peculiarly, in the altitude and the cl i mat e. Coul d
t he village' s el evat i on and weat her have changed much since t he earl y
f our t eent h cent ury?
Yet this very sense of l ong-t erm conti nui ty t empt s t he hi st ori an
i nto commi t t i ng his discipline' s cardi nal sin: anachroni sm. Le Roy
Ladur i e, for exampl e, finds the fol l owi ng social structural f oundat i on
for his analysis:
Thi s basic cell was none ot her t han t he peasant family, embodi ed in the per-
ma nenc e of a hous e and in the daily life of a gr oup co-resi dent under t he
s ame roof. In local l anguage this entity was called an ostai; and in the Latin of
the Inqui si t i on files it was cal l ed a hospicium or, more of t en, a domus. It s houl d
be no t ed that the words, ostai, domus and hospicium all and i nextri cabl y mea n
bot h fami l y and hous e. (24)
Doubt l ess t he materi al substantiality of t he house encour ages t he his-
t ori an to make it the basic bui l di ng block of the vi llage. He feels free
to col l apse the househol d and the family, as if both wer e a single en-
tity, si mpl y because native t erms refer to bot h.
3
In a parti cularly strik-
i ng i nst ance he even recoils when one of his texts shows, as he puts it,
a man "usi ng the t er m domus in a deri ved and somewhat di st ort ed
sense, that of rel at i onshi ps (parentela)" (25). How can the moder n nar-
rat or pr esume, wi t hout pr ovi di ng evi dence from fourt eent h-cent ury
sources, to di st i ngui sh correct f r om di storted usages? In at t empt i ng t o
fol l ow the lead of et hnogr aphi c di scourse by get t i ng into the nati ves'
heads and al l owi ng t hem to speak, the historian nonet hel ess cannot
cont ai n a school mast erl y i mpul se to correct their speech. He t hereby
vi olates the et hnographer' s deep sense (consider, for exampl e, Evans-
Pri tchard' s subtle expl i cat i ons of the Nuer wor d cieng) that i ndi genous
usage is always correct in its own setting.
In a similar vei n the peasants at times seem pecul i arl y moder n,
even ur ban, part i cul arl y in thei r sexuality (as Natalie Davi s [ 19 7 9 ] has
poi nt ed out ). Th e fol l owi ng passage is represent at i ve of the narrator' s
moder ni zat i on of medi eval homosexual acts: "To save beddi ng, Mas-
ter Pons slept wi t h t wo of his pupi ls. No one now made any at t empt on
young Verni olles' s vi rtue. But the har m was done. A latent t endency
was awakened, and Ar naud de Verni ol l es was doomed to become a
homosexual " (145). Th e medi eval peasant voices represent ed in t he
8 4
RENATO ROSALDO
i t al i ci zed t ext s speak not of homos exual char act er , however , but o f
acts r e ga r de d as "si nni ng. " Th u s whe n Ar na ud de Ver ni ol l es tells t he
i nqui si t or about his f or mer pract i ces he descri bes t el l i ng one of his
par t ner s "i n perfect l y good faith, t hat t he sin of s odomy and t hose o f
f or ni cat i on a nd del i ber at e mast urbat i on wer e, i n poi nt of gravi t y, j us t
t he s ame" (146). T h e nar r at or nonet hel ess has sei zed upon one act
t aken f r om a bundl e o f si nssodomy, forni cat i on, and del i ber at e
mas t ur bat i onand confl at ed it wi t h mode r n psychoanal yt i c not i ons
o f l at ent t endenci es and psychosexual char act er f or mat i on. Th i s is
pr eci sel y t he poi nt at whi ch et hnogr aphi c di scour se, in cont rast wi t h
t he historian' s, i nvokes di fference, as it descri bes (cul t ural l y con-
st ruct ed) sexual i t y and per sonal identity.
T h e hi st ori an f ur t her rei nforces his sense, based on t he cont i nu-
ity o f t he l ong t i mespan, that he and his subjects i nhabi t si mi l ar psy-
chol ogi cal wor l ds by i nvoki ng t he tacit not i on that Mont ai l l ou is an an-
cest ral nat i onal communi t y. Appar ent l y, by vi r t ue of t hei r nat i onal i t y,
Fr ench r eader s cul t ural l y share e nough wi t h f our t eent h- cent ur y peas-
ant s t o gr as p di rect l y what t hey mean by what t hey say. Cons i der , f or
e xa mpl e , t he f ol l owi ng passages spr ead over but five pages o f t ext :
We have no statistics on the subject, but it may be that the peopl e of Mon-
taillou wept slightly more easily than we do, both in happi ness and m
sorrow. (139)
Th e j oys of revenge were accompani ed by the lifting of both arms up to
heaven, a gesture of thanksgi vi ng with di fferent connotati ons from t hose it
has today. (139)
Th e Montai l l ou document s show in passi ng that certain gestures of pol i teness
still used today are very ancient and to a certain ext ent of peasant ori gi n.
Peopl e like the inhabitants of Montaillou used to raise their hoods and stand
up, even more automatically than peopl e do today. (140)
In order to mock some apocalyptic prophecy heard on the bri dge at Tarascon,
Arnaud de Savi gnan, a st onemason and bol d thinker, gave a flick of the wrist
such as we still make today. (144)
Le Roy Ladur i e' s r eader s ar e t hus encour aged to know t he peasant s of
Mont ai l l ou wi t h t he pr i vi l eged i nt i macy by whi ch t hey know t hei r own
ancest or s. I n this cont ext , by vi rt ue of put at i vel y shar ed bl ood and
cul t ur al i nher i t ance, nat i onal ancest ry symbol i cal l y neut ral i zes t he
di st ance separ at i ng "us" f r om "t hem. "
T h e s ymbol of nat i onal ancestry, however , i mpl i es di f f er ence as
wel l as sameness. I n t he t ext , descendent s r eckon the nat i onal an-
cest ral communi t y as a doubl e r ef er ence poi nt . It st ands al ong a con-
t i nuous st rai ght l i ne of sameness and a pr ogr essi ve upwar dl y sl opi ng
cur ve of di ffer ence. Th e st rai ght line entitles r eader s, as member s of
t he same l ar ger communi t y, to know t he peasant s directly. T h e cur ved
From the Door of His Tent
85
l i ne enabl es r eader s, as peopl e who have devel oped f ur t her al ong t he
same t raject ory, to know bet t er t han the peasant s.
I n a si mi l ar vei n, the hi st ori an dwel l s mor e on what t he vi l l ager s
of Mont ai l l ou l ack (usually rel at i ve to l owl and vi l l ages or cent er s o f
f eudal hi er ar chy) t han on what t hey possess. Thi s pecul i ar descr i pt i ve
r het or i c, depi ct i ng t hr ough empt y negat i ves r at her t han posi t i ve fea-
t ures, appear s fr equent l y in et hnogr aphi c di scourse, as will be seen i n
t he wor k of Evans- Pr i t char d. Th e f ol l owi ng passages i ndi cat e how Le
Roy Ladur i e char act er i zes his subjects, not by def i ni ng t hei r f or m of
life, but by hi ghl i ght i ng absences, t he t echnol ogy and f or ms of soci al
stratification t hey have failed to devel op:
Despi t e the presence of the shoemaker, Montaillou was underdevel oped as
far as the crafts were concerned, compared with the l owl and villages. (6)
It shoul d be remembered that there was no absolute distinction bet ween ar-
tisan and peasant or artisan and ordi nary citizen, or even bet ween artisan and
nobl e. In this part of the world, everybody worked with his hands, and oft en
very skilfully too. (6)
It woul d be wrong to try to expl ai n this comparati ve absence of class struggl e
by weakness pure and si mpl e on the part of the nobility. (18)
In these ci rcumstances, history was absent or almost absent from Montai l l ou
cul ture. (281)
T h e rel at i ve absences of t echnol ogy and di fferent i at ed social f or ms
ma ke t hese wor l ds and t he peopl e who i nhabi t t hem appear less de-
vel oped, less fully f or med, less wel l defi ned t han t hei r l owl and nei gh-
bor s, not to ment i on mode r n Fr enchmen.
Wh e n Le Roy Ladur i e deft l y charact eri zes t he compl e x doubl e-
deal i ng and shi ft i ng alliances that enl i ven local politics in Mont ai l l ou
unde r t he i nqui si t i on, it appear s that the absence of social di st i nct i ons
l eaves onl y t he vendet t a as a means of settling di fferences. T h e hi st o-
rian' s const r uct ed wor l d r esembl es a mi ni at ur e vi l l age oper a wi t h all its
absurdi t i es. It br eaks down i n part s, and it i nvokes i ndi vi dual i t y mor e
t han pat t er ns and laws. I n this cont ext the descri pt i ons of medi eval
peasant char act er appear consi st ent wi t h the account s of t echnol ogy,
class, pol i t i cs, and hi st ory in the vi l l age. Wi t h a st r ong di sposi t i on t o
bel i eve t hat huma n nat ur e, i ncl udi ng its capaci t i es for good and evi l
and degr ees o f i mpul si veness and mat uri t y, shows little var i at i on
t hr ough hi st ory and across cul t ur es, t he et hnogr apher cannot hel p
but be skept i cal whe n Le Roy Ladur i e asserts that t he peasant s (not
unl i ke t he nobi l i t y in Hui zi nga' s wani ng Mi ddl e Ages ) wer e mor e vi o-
lent and i mpul si ve t han mode r n Fr enchmen.
T h e historian' s cl ai m that t he peasant s t ook savage del i ght i n what
he calls t he "j oys of r evenge" seems si mpl y unconvi nci ng. I n at t empt -
i ng to marshal evi dence s uppor t i ng his gener al i zat i on about peasant
86 RENATO ROSALDO
char act er , t he nar r at or cites ver bat i m t he t est i mony of Gui l l aume
Maur s as he conf esses to the i nqui si tor about how he tol d a woman
t hat t he pri est Pi er r e Cl e r gue had been arrest ed f or her esy ( 139) . T h e
wo ma n, accor di ng to Maurs' s testi mony, hear d his story and "lifted up
her hands to heaven, sayi ng ' De o gr at i as' " (13940). Much earl i er in
his book, however , t he nar r at or pr ovi ded t he cont ext f or under st and-
i ng why Gui l l aume Maur s and his fri ends coul d so exuber ant l y cel e-
br at e t he priest' s arrest. Gui l l aume Maur s, his father, and his br ot her
we r e ar r est ed in 1308, owi ng to t he priest' s denunci at i ons; l ater Maurs' s
mot her ' s t ongue was cut out, because the pri est ur ged his br ot her t he
bayle (bailiff) to do so (50). Even this f r agment , f rom a l onger story o f
t he gr i evances he suf f er ed, suffices to i ndi cate that good r easons,
r at her t han i mpul si ve "joys of r evenge, " mi ght have l ed Gui l l aume
Maur s to act as he di d.
Le Roy Ladur i e, however , const ruct s anot her , mor e Ut opi an
domai n be yond the conf i nes of sordi d, decei t ful vi l l age life under t he
i nqui si t i on (descri bed in a manner that evokes Fr ench resi stance, col -
l abor at i on, and doubl e- deal i ng under t he Vi chy r egi me) . Th o u g h in
gener al he under mi nes typifications, f or this pur pose t he hi st ori an
creat es a social t ype: Pi erre Maur y the f r eedom- l ovi ng i ndependent
s hepher d. Th e shepher d figure gr ows so el evat ed, part i cul arl y in con-
trast to t he peasant s, that the narrat or conf i dent l y asserts that, "For
Pi er r e Maur y, pover t y was not onl y a f r equent fact and a cheer f ul l y
accept ed compani on, but also an i deal and a system o f val ues" (120).
Le Roy Ladur i e so identifies with his pastoral f i gure that he does
not hesi t at e to exagger at e his own not i on of the l ong t i mespan by
pl aci ng s hepher d l i feways on a cont i nuum that der i ves f r om t he Ne o-
lithic, finds its f undament al f or ms l ong bef or e the medi eval per i od,
and i n its househol d or gani zat i on reaches into t he ni net eent h cent ur y,
as in t he f ol l owi ng:
Though there is no need to talk of modernity (we must not forget that this
pastoral world derived from the early Neolithic age, and its basic principles
were laid down well before the fourteenth century). . . . ( 124)
So far we have been dealing with long-term tendencies, transhistorical trends,
duri ng which, from the fourteenth to the nineteenth century, the cabane
[shepherd's hut] remained unmoved, a living institution. ( 110)
In so vi vi dl y evoki ng shepher d l i feways, t he hi stori an fol l ows the prac-
tices of et hnogr aphi c di scourse by verbal l y e ndowi ng his subjects wi t h
a pri st i ne, rel ati vel y unchangi ng f or m of life.
Th e char act er i zat i on of pr oud, f r eedom- l ovi ng shepher ds, as op-
posed to r apaci ous, oppr essed peasants, appear s in t he f ol l owi ng
passages:
From the Door of His Tent 87
The shepher d from Arige or Cer dagne in the fourteenth century was as
free as the mountain air he breathed, at least as far as feudal ism was c on-
c er ned. (114)
Her e we are chiefly c onc er ned with the itinerant shepherds who mo v ed about
the country. They for med a rural nomad semi-prol etariat, without hearth or
ho me but with their own traditions, their own pride and their o wn special
c onc eptions of mountain liberty and fate. (69)
As far as o ne coul d be in the fourteenth century, Pierre Maury was a d emo -
crat thr ough and through. . . . This egal itarian ideal is a hundr ed mil es away
fr om the rapacity of peopl e like Pierre Cl ergue or Arnaud Sicre, men who
wanted to pr omote or to recover their domus at any price. Pierre Maury
l aughed at such greed: he had no house, he l ived anywhere, detac hed fr om
the g o o ds of this worl d. . . . We can guess o ne of the reasons for the shep-
herds' attitude to poverty, acquired through experience and accepted quite
simpl y. Thi s reason lay in the fact that they were nomads. . . . Basically the
shepher ds carried their fortunes on their own hacks. (121)
T h e shepher ds' democr at i c, f r eedom- l ovi ng char act er thus der i ves
f r om, as it is det er mi ned by, thei r nomadi c mode of subsi st ence. T h e
hi st ori an in this manner endows his subjects wi th a char act er to be
r ever ed. Th e shepher ds resi de wi t hi n a pur el y mascul i ne past oral
wor l d, whe r e t hey are pr oud, free, unencumber ed by wor l dl y goods ,
and wi t hout at t achment s to wome n or househol ds. Th o u g h l i nked to
t he mar ket as a "rural nomad semi -prol et ari at , " these men pur por -
t edl y move at l i berty beyond t he r each o f f eudal oppr essi on. Th e his-
t or i an encapsul at es his Utopian vision by sayi ng, wi t hout qual i fi cat i on:
"Pi er r e Maur y was a happy shepher d" (135).
Le Roy Ladur i e so i deal i zes his portrait of the poor but "happy
s he phe r d" t hat an expl anat i on seems in or der . Yet I shall def er expl a-
nat i on because compar i son wi t h t he wor k of Evans-Pr i t char d can best
cl ari fy this and ot her issues that have sur f aced in t he historian' s t ext .
T h e compar i son moves in bot h di rect i ons by showi ng how t he in-
qui si tori al r ecor d can become et hnogr aphi c, and t he r ever se. Th e de-
f ami l i ar i zat i on i nvol ved in maki ng evi dent the di scomf or t i ng r esem-
bl ances bet ween Evans-Pr i t char d and the i nqui si tor has the critical
pur pos e of quest i oni ng nor ms that of t en gui de the const r uct i on o f au-
t hori t at i ve descr i pt i ons in et hnogr aphy.
Ethnographic Authority Reviewed
Evans-Pri t chard' s book The Nuer r oughl y falls into t wo part s,
t he first deal i ng wi t h ecol ogy and t he second wi t h social st r uct ur e.
The di scussi on o f ecol ogy begi ns wi th a vi vi d, det ai l ed descr i pt i on o f
88 RENATO ROSALDO
cat t l e and t hei r rel at i ons to t he huma n popul at i on that adjusts t o
bovi ne l i feways in its t r anshumant past oral economy. Th e next chap-
ter, a st udy i n huma n geogr aphy, anal yzes the habi t at and its seasonal
vari at i ons. A t hi rd t ransi t i onal chapt er depi ct s not i ons of t i me and
space as t he i nt erpl ay of ecol ogy and socially or gani zed activities. T h e
last t hr ee chapt er s in t he book consi der in t ur n the political, t he lin-
eage, and t he age-set syst ems. Th r o ug h o ut t he latter di scussi on t he
domi nant i mage of social st ruct ure is that of segment ar y opposi t i on
whe r e t wo gr oups can be oppos ed in cert ai n cont ext s and st and
uni t ed at a hi gher l evel in t hei r opposi t i on to yet ot her gr oups . Thi s
not i on o f st ruct ural relativity gui des a subtle di scussi on of Nue r politi-
cal or der . Th r o u g h this l uci d, yet suppl e, analysis t he r eader gai ns a
vi vi d sense of Nue r l i feways.
Bot h The Nuer and Montaillou begi n wi t h i nt r oduct i ons that r eveal
t hei r i nvest i gat ors' cl ose links to cont ext s of domi nat i on, and si mul t a-
neousl y at t empt t o deny t he connect i ons bet ween power and knowl -
e dge . Th e i r ul t i mat el y unconvi nci ng openi ng proj ect is t o br acket t he
pur i t y of t hei r dat a ("My st udy of the Nue r " and "t he di rect t est i mony
o f t he peasant s t hemsel ves") f r om t he cont ami nat i ng cont ext s t hr ough
whi ch t hey wer e ext r act ed.
I n expl or i ng t he power / knowl edge i nt erpl ay it is useful to distin-
gui sh t ri part i t e aut hor funct i ons separ at i ng (a) t he i ndi vi dual who
wr ot e t he wor k, (b) t he t ext ual i zed per sona of t he narrat or, and (c) t he
t ext ual i zed per s ona of t he field i nvest i gat or. In The Nuer t he "nar-
r at or " por t r ayed doi ng t he analysis is distinct f r om the "f i el dwor ker "
depi ct ed doi ng part i ci pant -observat i on. In Montaillou t he "hi st ori an"
Le Roy Ladur i e is mor e literally distinct f r om t he "i nqui si t or" Jacques
Four ni er , j us t visible doi ng his i nvest i gat i on. In what fol l ows I com-
par e Evans- Pr i t char d, in his t wo t ext ual i zed per sonae, at t i mes wi t h
Le Roy Ladur i e (the narrat or) and at times wi t h Four ni er (the i nves-
t i gat or) wi t h a vi ew to anat omi zi ng aspects of di scourse in t he classic
Nu e r et hnogr aphy.
I n The Nuer t he nar r at or i mmedi at el y announces t he connect i on
bet ween t he fieldworker's r esear ch and the col oni al r egi me by sayi ng,
i n t he book' s initial sent ence: " My st udy of the Nue r was under t aken
at t he r equest of, and was mai nl y financed by, t he Gove r nme nt o f t he
Angl o- Egypt i a n Sudan, whi ch also cont r i but ed gener ousl y t owar d t he
publ i cat i on of its resul t s" (vii). Evans-Pr i t char d di sarms his r eader s
wi t h his st udi ed casual ness. Wh y di d t he gover nment of t he An g l o -
Egypt i an Sudan r equest his r epor t ? How muc h di d it pay f or t he re-
sear ch and t he publ i cat i on of its results? The s e quest i ons ar e offset by
t he conf i dence t he narrat or' s cal m lucidity inspires i n his r eader .
Evans-Pri t chard' s aut hori t y initially is const r uct ed in his fieldwork
From t he Door of Hi s Tent 89
nar r at i ve, a st ory o f how t he fieldworker suf f er ed as he cr ossed cul -
t ural boundar i es . I n cont rast wi t h t he historian' s port rai t of Four ni er ,
Evans- Pr i t char d comment s on his memor abl e i nt r oduct or y fieldwork
account by maki ng the f ol l owi ng modes t cl ai m f or his knowl e dge o f
t he Nue r : " My total r esi dence a mong the Nue r was t hus about a year .
I do not consi der a year adequat e t i me i n whi ch to make a soci ol ogi cal
st udy of a peopl e, especi al l y of a difficult peopl e in adver se ci r cum-
st ances, but seri ous sickness on bot h the 1935 and 1936 expedi t i ons
cl osed i nvest i gat i ons pr emat ur el y" (14). Rat her t han par ade his suc-
cesses, Evans- Pr i t char d punct uat es his fieldwork narrat i ve by flatly
des cr i bi ng r epeat edl y r ui ned bucol i c i nt erl udes. St udi ed modest y,
execut ed wi t h t ongue- i n- cheek under st at ement , t hus sets the t one of
t he narrat or' s tale. His post ure r esembl es what Paul Fussel l , i n The
Great War and Modern Memory, has cal l ed Bri t i sh phl egm: " Th e t ri ck
her e is to affect t o be ent i rel y unfl appabl e; one speaks as i f t he war
wer e ent i r el y nor mal and mat t er-of-fact " ( 1 9 7 5 : 1 8 1 ) .
T h e fieldworker initially r eaches Nuer l and in 1930 and on arri val
loses first his l uggage, t hen his servant s. I n t i me he r eaches Muot dit,
whe r e he finds hi msel f happi l y maki ng fri ends and r egai ni ng his con-
fidence. He descri bes this i nt erl ude' s i nt er r upt i on in t hese t er ms:
A government force surrounded our camp one morni ng at sunri se, searched
for two prophet s who had been leaders in a recent revolt, took hostages, and
t hreat ened to take many more if the prophets were not handed over. I felt
that I was in an equi vocal posi ti on, since such incidents mi ght recur, and
shortly afterwards ret urned to my home i n Zandel and, havi ng accompl i shed
onl y t hree and a hal f mont hs' work among the Nuer. ( 1 1 )
I n 1931 Evans- Pr i t char d tries agai n and finds peopl e even mor e hos-
tile t han bef or e. He nonet hel ess agai n enjoys a per i od of accept ance:
"I at last began to feel mysel f a me mbe r of t he communi t y and t o be
accept ed as s uch" (13). Onc e agai n his past oral i nt er l ude ends abr upt l y
whe n he falls t o an attack of mal ari a. His 1935 and 1936 expedi t i ons
each last about seven weeks , and bot h dr aw to a halt because of seri ous
illness.
Evans- Pr i t char d t he narrat or depi ct s hi msel f t he fieldworker as a
ma n e ndowe d wi t h cal m pr esence of mi nd under t he most ar duous
condi t i ons. He speaks wi t hout pr es umpt i on and pokes fun at t he
fieldworker. T h e r eader trusts hi m as a man who never says mor e
(and usual l y says less) t han he knows : one who del i vers mor e t han he
pr omi ses. Mor e ove r , t he r eader t ends to accept Evans-Pri t chard' s
st ory o f adversi t i es mor e endur ed t han over come, a versi on of the he-
roic cast in a l ow mi met i c mode r at her t han in t he gr ander epi c mo de
o f gr eat deeds . ' I' he nar r at or suggest s to his r eader that he, t he field-
90 RENATO ROSALDO
wor ker , l i ved t hr ough physi cal and psychol ogi cal condi t i ons most
peopl e coul d not have sur vi ved. Evans-Pr i t char d poi nt edl y begi ns hi s
fieldwork nar r at i ve i n this manner :
I, unlike most readers, know the Nuer, and must j udge my work more se-
verely than they, and I can say that if this book reveals many insufficiencies I
am amazed that it has ever appeared at all. A man must j udge his labours by
the obstacles he has overcome and the hardships he has endured, and by
these standards I am not ashamed of the results. (9)
Evans-Pr i t char d' s mode ver ges on the comi c, for the r eader knows
that, despi t e all hi s trials and t ri bul at i ons, t he fieldworker l i ved t o tell,
and even wri t e up, the' tale. Put bl unt l y, Evans-Pr i t char d was t her e
and his r eader was not ; he al one can descri be Nue r l i feways. I r oni c
a nd under st at ed, Evans-Pr i t char d has pr esent ed his fieldworker's cr e-
dent i al s i n a manner as aut hori t at i ve as Le Roy Ladur i e' s was f or
Four ni er .
T h e nar r at or f ur t her but t resses his aut hori t y by cl ai mi ng that t he
fieldworker and his huma n subjects enj oyed a cert ai n i nt i macy, per -
haps compar abl e to the historian' s sense of ent i t l ement gai ned t hr ough
t he s ymbol of nat i onal ancest ry. Evans-Pri t chard bases his cl ai m of i n-
t i macy on t he way t he Nue r f or ced an egal i t ari an rel at i onshi p on hi m
(especi al l y as cont r ast ed wi t h his earl i er field exper i ence a mo n g t he
Aza nde ) , descr i bed as fol l ows:
Because I had to live in such close contact with the Nuer I knew them more
intimately than the Azande, about whom I am able to write a much more de-
tailed account. Azande would not allow me to live as one of themselves; Nuer
would not allow me to live otherwise. Among Azande I was compelled to live
outside the community; among Nuer 1 was compelled to be a member of it.
Azande treated me as a superior; Nuer as an equal. (15)
On c e agai n, t he r eader can just i fi abl y mai nt ai n a cer t ai n skept i ci sm,
r at her t han t aki ng Evans-Pri t chard' s modest y as t he pl ai n literal
t r ut h.
6
Al t h o ug h t he nar r at or may genui nel y have felt he coul d wr i t e
a mor e det ai l ed account about t he Aza nde t han t he Nue r , he di d, i n
t he end, wri t e not onl y The Nuer but also Nuer Kinship and Marriage
and Nuer Religion.
T h e narrat or' s assert i ons about t he fieldworker's rel at i ons of inti-
macy and equal i t y st and in uneasy t ensi on wi t h t he ways i n whi ch t he
Nu e r of t en t reat ed hi m as a st r anger and an enemy. I n the t ext t he
Nu e r appear char act er i zed, vari ousl y, as unusual l y host i l e, r ef usi ng t o
6. In the appendi x to an abridged edition of Witchcraft, Oracles, and Magic among
the Azande, Evans-Pritchard (1976: 240- 54) characterizes his Zande fieldwork much
more in terms of participant-observation. Probably he overstated the case to highlight
the contrast with his Nuer research.
From the Door of His Tent 9
1
ans wer gr eet i ngs and even t ur ni ng away when addr essed, e xpe r t at
sabot agi ng an i nqui ry, st ul t i fyi ng all effort s to elicit t he si mpl est facts,
bl ocki ng quest i ons about t hei r cust oms, and unwi l l i ng to di scuss se-
r i ous mat t ers or even to recei ve t he fieldworker in t hei r wi nds cr eens
( 11 12). Th a t t he fieldworker shoul d have been t r eat ed wi t h suspi -
ci ous r eser ve har dl y seems per pl exi ng to a present -day r eader . Af t er
all t he Nue r , i n good meas ur e correct l y, i dent i fi ed hi m wi t h t he col o-
ni al r egi me, whi ch at t he t i me was conduct i ng a campai gn o f mi l i t ary
r epr essi on agai nst t hem.
Evans-Pri t chard' s si mul t aneous account of, and l ack of account -
ability t o, t he political cont ext of his fieldwork appear s part i cul arl y
di s concer t i ng i n t he one i nst ance wher e he and a Nue r man na me d
Cuo i ent er a t ext ual i zed di al ogue. T h e fieldworker at t empt s a Bri t i sh
i nt r oduct i on by aski ng Cuoi his name and the name of his l i neage.
Cuo i in r es pons e uses a series of maneuver s to resist gi vi ng bot h names
and i n t he pr ocess asks: " Why do you want to know t he name o f my
l i neage?" and " What will you do wi t h it i f I tell you? Wi l l you t ake it to
your count r y?" T h e nar r at or i nt erpret s t he conver sat i on i n t he fol -
l owi ng t er ms: "I defy t he most pat i ent et hnol ogi st to make headway
agai nst this ki nd of opposi t i on. On e is j ust dr i ven crazy by it. I ndeed,
aft er a few weeks of associ at i ng solely wi t h Nue r one di spl ays, i f t he
p un be al l owed, t he most evi dent s ympt oms o f ' Nuer os i s ' " (13)- T h e
nar r at or depi ct s Cuol ' s "opposi t i on" compl exl y. It is at once bul l -
headed, admi r abl e, and per ver se. Hi s opposi t i on is enj oyed as an
assert i on of Nu e r val ues of f r eedom and aut onomy, and it appear s
per ver s e because it subvert s "i nnocent " et hnogr aphi c i nqui ry. Fur -
t her mor e, it is meas ur ed agai nst a nor m (whi ch pr obabl y is al i en to
t he Nuer ) of cour t eous conduct that r equi r es st rangers, on first meet -
i ng, t o i nt r oduce t hemsel ves by gi vi ng t hei r names. T h e nar r at or finds
t hat the faul t i n this unha ppy encount er lies wi t h Nue r char act er ,
r at her t han wi t h historically specific ci r cumst ances.
7
Yet t he r eader
s houl d cons i der that, j us t t wo pages bef or e, Evans-Pr i t char d has
des cr i bed how a gover nment force r ai ded a Nue r camp, "t ook hos-
t ages, and t hr eat ened to t ake many mor e" ( 11) . Cuoi had, not a char -
act er di sor der , but good reasons for resi st i ng i nqui ry and aski ng who
want ed to know his name and t he name of his l i neage.
T h e narrat or' s compl ai nt s about how t he hel dwor ker was t r eat ed
have to do wi t h f undament al difficulties the Nue r f or m of life pos ed
f or anyone bent on gat her i ng et hnogr aphi c i nf or mat i on, as descr i bed
in t he f ol l owi ng:
7. Thi s discursive tactic of eternalizing and universalizing (as "timeless" and "ho-
mogeneous" Nuer culture) much more specifically motivated human conduct has, of
course, been studied in ils political context by Edward Said (1978).
92 RENATO ROSALDO
As s oon as I began to discuss a cust om with one man anot her woul d i nterrupt
the conversati on in pursuance of some affair of his own or by an exchange of
pl easantri es and j okes. The me n came at mi l ki ng-ti me and some of t hem re-
mai ned till mi d-day. The n the girls, who had j ust finished dairy-work, arrived
and insisted on attenti on. . . . The s e endl ess visits entai l ed constant badi nage
and i nterrupti on and, al t hough they offered opportuni ty for i mprovi ng my
knowl edge of t he Nuer l anguage, i mposed a severe strain. (14)
I n depi ct i ng t he pl ay of power rel at i ons bet ween i nvest i gat or and
i nf or mant s , t he fieldworker combi nes a per cept i on that t he Nu e r
s ubver t ed his efforts to i nt ervi ew t hem wi t h a st rangel y et hnocent r i c
ye a r ni ng t o have had pri vat e conver sat i ons wi t h t hem. Al t hough t he
f i el dwor ker ' s har dshi ps appear convi nci ng, his compl ai nt s (whi ch in
r et r ospect seem a euphemi st i c f or es hadowi ng of Mal i nowski ' s al r eady
wr i t t en, but not yet publ i shed, di ary) also serve to l end his account an
ai r o f f or t hr i ght real i sm. Th e narrat or has assumed the per s ona of an
hones t man.
I n t he end, far f r om under mi ni ng his account , t he narrat or' s
of t en cont r adi ct or y confessi ons enhance his credi bi l i t y by cr eat i ng a
sense of his reliability as a fieldworker. Cons i der , for exampl e, t he fol -
l owi ng passage: " As I coul d not use t he easi er and shor t er met hod o f
wor ki ng t hough r egul ar i nfor mant s I had to fall back on di r ect obser-
vat i on of, and part i ci pat i on i n, t he ever yday life of t he peopl e. Fr om
t he door of my t ent I coul d see what was happeni ng i n c a mp or vi l l age
a nd ever y mome nt was spent in Nue r company" ( 15) . T h e Nue r , i n
ot her wor ds , f or ced hi m to become a part i ci pant -observer. Th e field-
wor ker , t ur ni ng adversi t y to his advant age, coul d al ways, by l ooki ng
f r om t he door of his tent, sur vey t he Nue r as t hey went about t hei r
dai l y l i ves.
8
I n ret rospect , t he fieldworker's mode of survei l l ance uncomf or t -
ably r esembl es Mi chel Foucault' s Panopt i con, t he site f r om whi ch t he
(di sci pl i ni ng) di sci pl i nes enj oy gazi ng upon (and subj ect i ng) t hei r sub-
j ect s . Yet Evans- Pr i t char d, as sui t ed his historical ci r cumst ances, sepa-
r at ed powe r and survei l l ance f r om t he gat her i ng o f et hnogr aphi c i n-
f or mat i on. Th e gr eat est i mperi al advant age gr ant ed t he fieldworker,
of cour se, was a cert ai n guar ant ee of his physi cal safety as he went
about t he busi ness of col l ect i ng dat a. Hi s "i nfor mat i on" was gat her ed,
as he put it, in "part i cl es" f r om "each Nue r I met bei ng used as a
8. Stocking (1983) has discussed the tent as a topos of anthropology. For Mali-
nowski, however, the tent was an ambivalent site from which the ethnographer looked
in two directions: outward, gazing on the village, and inward, escaping to read novels
and simply to be alone. Stocking characterizes Malinowski's turning inward in these
terms: "Pulling its flaps behind him, he could to some extent shut out the native world
and retire to his novels when the strain of the very intensive study of a very limited area
became too great" (1983 :g7).
From the Door of Hi s Tent 93
s our ce of knowl edge, " r at her t han havi ng been col l ect ed (as it was
a mo n g the Aza nde ) "in chunks suppl i ed by sel ect ed and t r ai ned i n-
f or mant s " ( 15) . Beneat h t he sel f-i rony, Evans- Pr i t char d bol dl y as-
serts that his met hodol ogy is mor e power f ul t han wor ki ng wi t h pai d
i nf or mant s .
By this poi nt , as t he i nt r oduct i on dr aws to a cl ose, t he nar r at or
Evans- Pr i t char d says t he f ol l owi ng:
I do not make far-reachi ng claims. I believe that I have underst ood the chi ef
val ues o f t he Nue r and am able to present a true outl i ne o f their social struc-
ture, but I regard, and have desi gned, this vol ume as a contri buti on to the
et hnol ogy of a particular area rather than as a detai l ed sociological study, and
I shall be cont ent if it is accepted as such. (15)
I n his i nt r oduct or y per s ona t he nar r at or asks his r eader s to set asi de
t he cont ext of col oni al domi nat i on and view his st udy as a "t rue out -
l i ne, " an i ncompl et e, yet obj ect i ve, scientific account .
T h e i nt r oduct or y sect i on of The Nuer parallels that of Montaillou
i n doi ng t he r het or i cal wor k of separ at i ng the cont ext of col oni al
domi nat i on f r om t he pr oduct i on of et hnogr aphi c knowl edge. In-
deed, j us t as Four ni er di sappear s f r om the t ext after t he i nt r oduct i on,
t he fieldworker who engages his i nfor mant s in di al ogue plays no r ol e
i n t he analysis of Nue r modes of l i vel i hood and political i nst i t ut i ons.
I f Le Roy Ladur i e conver t s i nt er r ogat i on into over hear i ng and cata-
l ogui ng, Evans- Pr i t char d t ransforms lively di al ogue i nt o l i st eni ng and
envi si oni ng. T h e tale of t he fieldworker as l one her oi c vi ct i m est ab-
l i shes his i nnocence f r om col oni al domi nat i on and val i dat es his cr e-
dent i al s as a di si nt erest ed scientist. Ot her t han his i nt erest in di scov-
er i ng t he t rut h, Evans- Pr i t char d appear s in t he per sona of a ma n
wi t hout an axe to gr i nd: t he det ached i roni c obser ver .
The Rhetoric of Objectivity Reviewed
Evans-Pri t chard' s object of scientific knowl edge is social st ruc-
t ur e r at her t han hi st ori cal cont i ngenci es and political act i on. Hi s l uci d
mode s of di scour se (whi ch Cl i ffor d Geer t z [1983a] has cal l ed Af r i can
t r anspar enci es) r ender the social or der si ngul arl y visible. Thi s ex-
posi t or y el egance der i ves f r om t he wel l -defi ned proj ect of devel opi ng
a " body of scientific t heor y" about "pri mi t i ve peopl es " (261). Evans -
Pr i t char d defi nes this project' s mast er concept , social st ruct ure, as
f ol l ows:
By social structure we mean relations bet ween groups whi ch have a hi gh de-
gree of consi stency and constancy. The groups remai n the same i rrespecti ve
94 RENATO ROSALDO
of thei r specific cont ent of individuals at any particular moment , so that gen-
erati on after generat i on of peopl e pass t hrough t hem. Men are born i nto
t hem, or ent er t hem later in life and move out of t hem at death; the structure
endures . (262)
By this defi ni t i on, social st ruct ure r esembl es a hous e wi t h ma ny r ooms
t hat peopl e pass t hr ough over the cour se of t hei r l i fet i mes: t he peopl e
c ome and go, but t he hous e r emai ns t he same. Bot h Evans- Pr i t char d
a nd Le Roy Ladur i e equat e t he st ruct ures that last t he l ongest wi t h
t hose t hat mat t er t he most . Yet t he l ong t i mespan di rect l y links t he his-
t or i an and his subjects, wher eas social st ruct ure creat es di f f er ences
t hat separ at e t he et hnogr apher f r om t he Nuer .
Not i ons of Nue r char act er oft en emer ge t hr ough the anal ysi s of
soci al st r uct ur e. Th u s t he peopl e appear por t r ayed as "pr i mi t i ve" i n
t hei r social conf or mi t y and their lack of i ndi vi dual i t y. T h e nar r at or ,
f ol l owi ng a di sci pl i nary nor m, verbal l y represent s t he peopl e wi t h t he
g r o u p noun (the Nuer ) or t he mascul i ne pr onoun (he) r at her t han
wi t h mor e i ndi vi duat i ng per sonal names. On e frequent l y, f or ex-
ampl e, encount er s st at ement s in t he di st anced nor mal i zi ng mode of
di scour se, such as t he f ol l owi ng: " Whe n a man feels that he has suf-
f er ed an i nj ury t her e is no aut hori t y to whom he can make a com-
pl ai nt and f r om wh o m he can obt ai n redress, so he at once chal l enges
t he ma n who has wr onge d hi m to a duel and the chal l enge must be
accept ed" ( 151) - Evans- Pr i t char d fails to discuss, f or exampl e, what
ha ppe ns whe n, or how it happens that, a man does not t ake up t he
chal l enge. Sur el y a Nue r man has a cert ai n l eeway in deci di ng whet her
or not he has been wr onge d. Onl y s omeone pat hol ogi cal l y oversoci al -
i zed coul d fol l ow such pr ogr a mme d nor mat i ve commands wi t hout
except i on or cont ext ual qualification.
Wh e n Evans- Pr i t char d charact eri zes Nue r society, he of t en re-
sembl es Le Roy Ladur i e in speaki ng of absences r at her t han pr es-
ences. Cons i der , for exampl e, t he f ol l owi ng passages:
Th e Nue r cannot be said to be stratified into classes. (7)
Indeed, the Nue r have no government , and their state mi ght be descri bed as
an ordered anarchy. Likewise they lack law, if we underst and by the term
j udgme nt s del i vered by an i ndependent and impartial authority whi ch has,
also, power to enforce its decisions. (6)
Th e lack of government al organs among the Nuer, the absence of legal in-
stitutions, of devel oped l eadershi p, and, generally, of organi zed political life is
remarkabl e. (181)
T h e Nue r , in ot her wor ds , lack t he obvi ous (to a West er n eye) institu-
t i ons of pol i t i cal or der . Th e y have no social classes, no state, no law, no
l eader shi p.
From the Door of His Tent
95
Evans- Pr i t char d goes on to descri be t he Nue r as cl ose t o nat ur e
becaus e of t hei r si mpl e mat eri al cul t ure, as seen in t he f ol l owi ng:
It will be seen that the Nuer political system is consistent wi th their oecol -
ogy- (4)
A peopl e whose material cul ture is as si mpl e as that of the Nuer are hi ghl y
de pe nde nt on their envi ronment . (16)
Evans- Pr i t char d over ext ends his assertions and verbal l y l ocat es t he
Nu e r i n a myt hi c (past?) age of i mpl ement s made nei t her of i r on nor
of st one, but o f flora and fauna: " Taken wi t h t he earl i er list of uses o f
cat t l e we can say t hat t he Nue r do not live i n an i r on age or even a
st one age, but in an age, what ever it may be cal l ed, in whi ch pl ant s and
beast s furni sh t echnol ogi cal necessities" (87). Th e Nue r r emai n put a-
tively mor e enmes hed i n t hei r pri mi t i ve preSt one Ag e ni che t han we
i n our s . Despi t e t he f or mal el egance of t hei r social st ruct ure, t hey al so
appear cl oser to nat ur e t han we are.
I n a ma nne r compar abl e to Le Roy Ladur i e' s assert i ons about t he
s he phe r d Pi er r e Maur y, the nar r at or claims that Nue r char act er is
consi st ent wi t h t hei r envi r onment , t hei r mode of subsi st ence, and
t hei r pol i t i cal syst em, as in the f ol l owi ng passages:
Such a life nurtures the qualities of the s hepherdcourage, love of fighting,
and cont empt of hunger and hardshi prat her than shapes the i ndustri ous
character of the peasant. (26)
Some out st andi ng traits in Nuer character may be said to be consi stent wi th
their l ow t echnol ogy and scanty food-suppl y. . . . The qualities whi ch have
been ment i oned, courage, generosity, pati ence, pri de, loyalty, stubborness,
and i ndependence, are the virtues the Nuer themsel ves extol, and t hese val-
ues can be s hown to be very appropri ate to their si mpl e mode of life and to
the si mpl e set of social relations it engenders. (90)
The ordered anarchy in whi ch they live accords well with their character, for
it is i mpossi bl e to live among Nuer and concei ve of rulers rul i ng over t hem.
The Nue r is a product of hard and egalitarian upbri ngi ng, is deepl y de mo-
cratic, and is easily roused to vi ol ence. His turbul ent spirit finds any restraint
i rksome and no man recogni zes a superi or. (181)
Nu e r char act er cor r es ponds all t oo el egant l y wi t h t hei r past oral way
of l i f e.
9
Th e i r past oral char act er is also def i ned by cont rast wi t h t hei r
put at i ve opposi t es: sedent ar y peasant s. Peasants, it shoul d be not ed,
do not ot her wi se appear i n Evans-Pri t chard' s t ext . Yet t hei r pr es ence
in this cont ext , as foils for char act er i zi ng "the qualities of t he s hep-
her d, " cur i ousl y echoes one of t hei r rhet ori cal uses in Montaillou.
9. Elsewhere I have called generalizing through series of such questionable corre-
spondences the rhetoric of control (Rosaldo 1978). It surprised me to find the device,
common among colonial officials, used by Evans-Pritchard.
Q6 RENATOROSALDO
Pastoral Modes of Domination
Cur i ous l y e nough, the et hnogr apher and t he hi st ori an c ome
t oget her i n assert i ng that t r anshumant past oral i sm engender s de mo-
crat i c val ues, r ugge d i ndi vi dual i sm, fierce pr i de, and a war r i or spirit.
Not unl i ke cowboys and ot her self-sufficient mal e her oes, t he Nu e r
a ppe a r t o e mbody i deal i zed characteristics of a cert ai n mascul i ne
i magi nat i on. Al t hough militarily "paci fi ed" by col oni al t r oops, t he
Nu e r r emai n, as initially suggest ed by t hei r resi st ance to et hnogr aphi c
i nqui ry, i ndomi t abl e i n char act er . Symbol i cal l y, t hey r epr esent an i deal
o f huma n liberty, even i n t he mi dst of col oni al domi nat i on.
Th e di st i nct i ve subjectivity at t ri but ed to pastoralists per haps re-
sembl es that of fieldworkers who travel, yet stay in one pl ace. Speak-
i ng f r om a posi t i on of cul t ural l y r oot ed mobility, et hnogr apher s of t en
i nvoke "my peopl e" or "my vi l l age, " meani ng, of cour se, t he peopl e
a mo n g whom, or t he pl ace wher e, t hey di d t hei r field r esear ch. I n as-
ser t i ng t hei r aut hori t y to r epr esent t he lives of t hei r subjects, et h-
nogr apher s t ake gr eat pai ns to di st i ngui sh t hemsel ves, on t he one
hand, f r om tourists and, on t he ot her, f r om st at i onary mi ssi onari es
and col oni al officials. Et hnogr apher s ' car eer i t i nerari es can half-
seri ousl y, hal f-pl ayful l y be l i kened to the pat t er ned movement s o f
t r ans humant pastoralists, r at her t han of nomads (tourists) or peasant s
(mi ssi onari es and col oni al officials). It seems fitting that a di scour se
t hat deni es t he domi nat i on that makes its knowl edge possi bl e i deal -
i zes, as al t er egos , s hepher ds r at her t han peasant s. Pastoralists, l i ke i n-
di vi dual tourists (not t o be conf used wi t h t he tourist i ndust r y), exer -
cise domi nat i on less readi l y t han peasant s, mi ssi onari es, or col oni al
officials.
Yet a quest i on r emai ns. Why use t he literary past oral to r epr es ent ,
pr es umabl y i n a document ar y rat her t han fictional mode, t he lives of
act ual s hepher ds ? Th e past oral mode, after all, der i ves f r om t he
cour t , and its s hepher ds usual l y t urn out to have been royal t y dr es s ed
i n rustic gar b. As a l i t erary mode, it stands far r e move d f r om ei t her
late medi eval Fr ench shepher ds or cont empor ar y Ni l ot i c cattle her d-
ers. Inst ead it embodi es a distinctive sense of cour t esy t hat Ke nne t h
Bu r k e has apt l y char act er i zed as "the r het or i c of cour t shi p bet ween
cont r ast ed social classes" ( 1 96 9: 1 23) . In earl i er l i t erary epochs this
cour t s hi p occur r ed bet ween nobl es and commoner s , l ords and vassals,
a nd mast er s and servant s. Th e di spl aced mode r n past oral anal o-
gousl y emer ges in i nt eract i ons bet ween t own and count r y, mi ddl e
class and wor ki ng class, and col oni zer and col oni zed.
1 0
10. Northorp Frye has asserted that the displaced modern pastoral "preserves the
theme of escape from society to the extent of idealizing a simplified life in llie country
From the Door of His Tent 97
T h e past oral makes possible a pecul i ar civility in rel at i onshi ps t hat
cr oss soci al boundar i es . It per mi t s a pol i t e t ender ness t hat mor e di r ect
ways o f acknowl edgi ng i nequal i t y coul d inhibit. Its cour t esy becomes
r espect , even admi r at i on. Evans-Pr i t char d and Le Roy Ladur i e cl earl y
es t eemed "t hei r shepher ds. " Yet t he past oral al so l i cences pat r on-
i zi ng at t i t udes of condescensi on, such as r ever ence for a si mpl i ci t y
" we " have lost (compar e Cl i fford' s paper in this vol ume). For Evans-
Pr i t char d and Le Roy Ladur i e t he past oral mode becomes sel f-ser vi ng
because t he s hepher d symbol i zes that poi nt beyond domi nat i on whe r e
neut r al et hnogr aphi c t rut h can collect itself.
T h e use o f t he past oral at once just i fi es and bet rays t he i nt r oduc-
t or y effort s to suppr ess t he i nt erpl ay of power and knowl edge. Th u s
t he nar r at or s can enj oy rel at i ons suffused wi t h a t ender cour t esy t hat
appear s to t r anscend i nequal i t y and domi nat i on. Yet t he past oral mo de
obl i quel y reveal s i nequal i t i es in the rel at i ons that pr oduced et hno-
gr aphi c knowl edge. Repr essed in i nt r oduct or y narrat i ves, cont ext s of
domi nat i on r et ur n i n court l y di sgui se. Th e qual i t y of huma n rel at i ons
e mbodi e d i n t he figures of the i nqui si t or and t he fieldworker still
haunt t he aut hor s. Th r o u g h a literary met amor phosi s, t he figures o f
domi nat i on r eappear , nei t her as i nqui si t or nor as fieldworker, but
now as "nat i ves" in s hepher ds ' cl ot hi ng.
or on the frontier" ( 1971: 43) . Thi s version of the pastoral often informs ethnographic
writing. In readi ng The Nuer and Montaillou I have been concerned with the content of
idealization, and its purposes.
Thi s paper has benefited from comments by Talal Asad, Amy Burce, James Clif-
ford, Vincent Crapanzano, Michael Fischer, George Marcus, Kirin Narayan, Mary
Pratt, Paul Rabinow, Robert Thornt on, Stephen Tyler, and Sylvia Yanagisako.
J AMES CLI FFORD
On Ethnographic Allegory
1 . a story in which people, things and happenings have
another meaning, as in a fable or parable: allegories are used
for teaching or explaining.
2. the presentation of ideas by means of such stories. ..."
I n a r ecent essay on narrat i ve Vi ct or Tur ne r ar gues t hat soci al
per f or mances enact power f ul st ori esmyt hi c and commons ens i cal
t hat pr ovi de t he social process "wi t h a rhet ori c, a mode of empl ot -
ment , and a me a ni ng" ( 1980: 153) . In what fol l ows I t reat et hnogr a-
phy i t sel f as a per f or mance empl ot t ed by power f ul stories. Embodi e d
i n wr i t t en r epor t s, t hese stories si mul t aneousl y descri be real cul t ur al
event s and make addi t i onal , mor al , i deol ogi cal , and even cos mol ogi cal
st at ement s. Et hnogr aphi c wr i t i ng is al l egori cal at t he l evel bot h o f its
cont ent (what it says about cul t ures and t hei r histories) and of its f or m
(what is i mpl i ed by its mode of t ext ual i zat i on).
An appar ent l y si mpl e exampl e will i nt r oduce my appr oach. Mar -
j or i e Shost ak begi ns her book Nisa: The Life and Words of a !Kung
Woman wi t h a story of chi l dbi rt h t he ! Kung wayout s i de t he vi l l age,
al one. He r e ar e s ome excer pt s:
I lay there and felt the pains as they came, over and over agai n. Th e n I felt
s omet hi ng wet, the begi nni ng of the childbirth. I t hought , "Eh hey, maybe it is
1. Webster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary, 2 n d ed. In literary studies definitions
of allegory have ranged from Angus Fletcher's (1964:2) loose characterization ("In the
simplest terms, allegory says one thing and means another") to Todorov' s reassertion
(1973:63) of a stricter sense: "First of all, allegory implies the existence of at least two
meanings for the same words; according to some critics, the first meaning must disap-
pear, while others require that the two be present together. Secondly, this double mean-
ing is indicated in the work in an explicit fashion: it does not proceed from the reader' s
interpretation (whether arbitrary or not)." Accordi ng to Quintilian, any continuous or
ext ended metaphor develops into allegory; and as Northrop Frye ( 1971: 9t ) observes,
"Within the boundaries of literature we find a kind of sliding scale, ranging from the
most explicitly allegorical, consistent with being literature at all, at one extreme, to the
most elusive, anti-explicit and anti-allegorical at the other." The various "second mean-
ings" of ethnographic allegory I shall be tracing here are all textually explicit. But eth-
nographies slide along Frye's scale, exhibiting strong allegorical features, usually with-
out marking themselves as allegories.
On Et hnographi c Al l egory 99
the child. " I got up, took a blanket and covered Tashay with it; he was still
sl eepi ng. The n I took anot her blanket and my smaller dui ker skin coveri ng
and I left. Was I not the onl y one? The onl y other woman was Tashay's grand-
mot her, and she was asl eep in her hut. So, j ust as I was, I left. I wal ked a short
di stance from the village and sat down besi de a tree. . . . After she was born, I
sat there; I didn't know what to do. I had no sense. She lay there, movi ng her
arms about, tryi ng to suck her fingers. She started to cry. I j ust sat there, l ook-
i ng at her. I t hought , "Is this my child? Who gave birth to this child?" Th e n
I t hought , "A bi g thi ng like that? How coul d it possibly have come out from
my genitals?" I sat there and l ooked at her, l ooked and l ooked and l ooked.
( 1 9 8 1 : 1 - 3)
T h e st ory has gr eat i mmedi acy. Nisa' s voi ce is unmi st akabl e, t he
exper i ence sharpl y evoked: "She lay t here, movi ng her ar ms about ,
t r yi ng to suck her fingers." But as r eader s we do mor e t han regi st er a
uni que event . T h e story' s unf ol di ng r equi r es us, first, to i magi ne a dif-
f er ent cultural nor m ( ! Kung bi rt h, al one in t he bush) and t hen t o rec-
ogni ze a c o mmo n human exper i ence (the qui et her oi sm of chi l dbi r t h,
f eel i ngs of pos t par t um wonde r and doubt ). Th e story of an occur -
r ence s omewher e in t he Kal ahar i Deser t cannot r emai n j us t that. It
i mpl i es bot h l ocal cul t ural meani ngs and a gener al story of bi rt h.
A di f f er ence is posi t ed and t r anscended. Mor eover , Nisa' s story tells
us (how coul d it not?) s omet hi ng basic about woman' s exper i ence.
Shost ak' s life of a !Kung i ndi vi dual inevitably becomes an al l egor y of
(femal e) humani t y.
I ar gue bel ow that t hese ki nds of t r anscendent meani ngs ar e not
abst ract i ons or i nt erpret at i ons " added" to t he ori gi nal "si mpl e" ac-
count . Rat her , t hey are the condi t i ons of its meani ngf ul ness. Et hno-
gr aphi c t ext s are i nescapabl y al l egori cal , and a seri ous accept ance o f
this fact changes t he ways t hey can be wri t t en and r ead. Us i ng Shost ak' s
e xpe r i me nt as a case st udy I exami ne a r ecent t endency to di st i ngui sh
al l egor i cal l evel s as specific "voi ces" wi t hi n t he t ext . I ar gue, finally,
t hat t he ver y activity of et hnogr aphi c writingseen as i nscri pt i on or
t ext ual i zat i onenact s a r edempt i ve West er n al l egory. Thi s per vasi ve
st r uct ur e needs to be per cei ved and wei ghed agai nst ot her possi bl e
empl ot ment s f or t he per f or mance of et hnogr aphy.
AAA
Literary description always opens onto another scene set, so to speak,
"behind" the this-worldly things it purports to depict.
MICHEL BEAUJOUR, "Some Paradoxes of Description"
Al l e gor y (Gr. alios, "ot her, " and agoreuein, "to speak") usual l y
denot es a pract i ce in whi ch a narrat i ve fiction cont i nuousl y refers to
anot her pat t ern of i deas or event s. It is a r epr esent at i on that "inter-
pr et s" itself. I am usi ng the t er m al l egory in t he e xpa nde d sense re-
l OO JAMES CLIFFORD
c l a i med f o r it by r ec en t cri t i cal di s c us s i o ns , no t a bl y t ho s e o f An g u s
Fl et c her (1964) a n d Paul De Ma n (19 7 9 ). An y s t or y ha s a p r o p en s i t y
t o g en er a t e a n o t her s t or y i n t he mi n d o f its r ea d er ( or hea r er ) , t o r e-
p ea t a n d d i s p l a c e s o me p r i o r s t ory. To f o c u s o n et hn o g r a p hi c a l l eg o r y
i n p r ef er en c e, say, t o et hn o g r a p hi c " i d eo l o g y " a l t ho u g h t he pol i t i c a l
d i me n s i o n s a r e a l wa y s p r es en t ( Ja me s o n 19 81) d r a ws a t t en t i o n t o
a s p ec t s o f c u l t u r a l d es c r i p t i o n t ha t ha v e unt i l r ec en t l y be e n mi n i -
mi z ed . A r ec o g n i t i o n o f a l l eg o r y emp ha s i z es t he f act t ha t real i s t i c p o r -
t rai t s , t o t he ex t en t t ha t t hey a r e " c o nv i nc i ng " o r "ri ch, " a r e e x t e n d e d
me t a p ho r s , p a t t er n s o f a s s o c i a t i o ns t ha t p o i n t t o c o her en t ( t heo r et i -
cal , es t het i c , mo r a l ) a d d i t i o n a l mea n i n g s . Al l eg o r y ( mo r e s t r o n g l y
t ha n "i nt er pr et a t i o n") cal l s t o mi n d t he p o et i c , t r a di t i o na l , c o s mo l o g i -
cal n a t u r e o f s u c h wr i t i ng p r o c es s es .
Al l eg o r y d r a ws s pec i al a t t en t i o n t o t he narrative c ha r a c t er o f c ul -
t ur a l r ep r es en t a t i o n s , t o t he s t or i es bui l t i n t o t he r ep r es en t a t i o n a l
p r o c es s i t sel f . It a l s o br ea ks d o w n t he s ea ml es s qual i t y o f c ul t ur a l d e -
s c r i p t i o n by a d d i n g a t emp o r a l a s p ec t t o t he p r o c es s o f r ea d i n g . On e
l ev el o f m e a n i n g i n a t ex t wi l l a l wa y s g en er a t e o t her l ev el s . Thu s t he
r het o r i c o f p r es en c e t ha t ha s p r ev a i l ed i n m u c h p o s t - r o ma n t i c l i t er a -
t u r e ( a n d i n m u c h "s y mbol i c a n t hr o p o l o g y " ) is i n t er r u p t ed . De Man' s
c r i t i q ue o f t he v a l o r i z a t i o n o f s y mbo l s o v er a l l eg o r y i n r o ma n t i c es -
t het i c s a l s o q u es t i o n s t he p r o j ec t o f r ea l i s m ( De Ma n 1969). T h e c l a i m
t ha t n o n a l l eg o r i c a l d es c r i p t i o n wa s p o s s i bl ea p o s i t i o n u n d e r l y i n g
bo t h pos i t i v i s t l i t er a l i s m a n d real i s t s y n ec d o c he ( t he o r g a n i c , f u n c -
t i o na l , o r "t ypi cal " r el a t i o n s hi p o f pa r t s t o w ho l e s ) w a s c l o s el y a l l i ed
t o t he r o ma n t i c s ea r c h f o r u n me d i a t e d me a n i n g i n t he ev en t . Pos i t i v-
i s m, r ea l i s m, a n d r o ma n t i c i s mn i n et een t h- c en t u r y i n g r ed i en t s o f
t wen t i et h- c en t u r y a n t hr o p o l o g y a l l r ej ec t ed t he "f al s e" art i f i ce o f
r het o r i c a l o n g wi t h al l egor y' s s u p p o s e d a bs t r a c t nes s . Al l eg o r y v i o l a t ed
t he c a n o n s bo t h o f emp i r i c a l s c i enc e a n d o f art i s t i c s p o n t a n ei t y ( On g
19 7 1: 6 9 ) . It wa s t o o d ed u c t i v e, t o o m u c h a n o p e n i mp o s i t i o n o f
m e a n i n g o n s en s i bl e ev i d en c e. Th e r ec en t "revi val " o f r het o r i c by
a d i v er s e g r o u p o f l i t er a r y a n d c ul t ur a l t heo r i s t s ( Ro l a n d Ba r t hes ,
K e n n e t h Bu r k e , Ger a r d Gen et t e, Mi c hel d e Cer t ea u , H a y d e n Whi t e,
Pa ul De Ma n , a n d Mi c hel Bea u j o u r a m o n g o t her s ) ha s t hr o w n s er i o u s
d o u bt o n t he po s i t i v i s t - r o ma nt i c - r ea l i s t c o n s en s u s . I n e t hn o g r a p hy
t he c u r r en t t u r n t o r het o r i c c o i n c i d es wi t h a p er i o d o f pol i t i c al a n d
ep i s t emo l o g i c a l r v a l u a t i o n i n whi c h t he c o n s t r u c t ed , i mp o s e d n a -
t u r e o f r ep r es en t a t i o n a l a ut ho r i t y ha s be c o me u n u s u a l l y vi s i bl e a n d
c o n t es t ed . Al l eg o r y p r o mp t s us t o say o f a n y c ul t ur a l d es c r i p t i o n n o t
"t hi s r ep r es en t s , o r s y mbo l i z es , t hat " bu t r a t her , "t hi s is a ( mo r a l l y
c ha r g ed ) story a bo u t t ha t . "
2
2. An "allegorical anthropology" is suggested fairly explicitly in recent works by
Boon (1977, 1982), Crapanzano (1980), Taussig (1984), and Tyler (1984a).
On Ethnographic Allegory
101
Th e s pec i f i c a c c o u n t s c o n t a i n ed i n et hn o g r a p hi es c a n n ev er be
l i mi t ed t o a p r o j ec t o f s ci ent i f i c d es c r i p t i o n s o l o n g as t he g u i d i n g t as k
o f t he w o r k is t o ma k e t he ( o f t en s t r a ng e) beha v i o r o f a d i f f er en t wa y
o f l i f e hu m a n l y c o mp r ehen s i bl e. To s ay t ha t ex o t i c beha v i o r a n d s y m-
bo l s ma k e s en s e ei t her i n " hu ma n " o r "cul t ural " t er ms is t o s u p p l y t he
s a me s o r t s o f a l l eg o r i c a l a d d e d me a n i n g s t ha t a p p ea r i n o l d er n a r r a -
t i v es t ha t s a w a c t i o ns as "s pi ri t ual l y" s i gni f i c ant . Cul t ur a l i s t a n d hu -
ma n i s t a l l eg o r i es s t a n d be hi n d t he c o n t r o l l ed fictions o f d i f f er en c e
a n d s i mi l i t u d e t ha t w e cal l et hn o g r a p hi c a c c o u n t s . Wha t is ma i n t a i n ed
i n t hes e t ex t s is a d o u bl e a t t en t i o n t o t he d es c r i p t i v e s u r f a c e a n d t o
m o r e a bs t r a c t , c o mp a r a t i v e, a n d ex p l a n a t o r y l ev el s o f me a n i n g . Thi s
t wo f o l d s t r u c t u r e is s et o u t by Co l er i d g e i n a cl as s i c d ef i n i t i o n .
We may then safely define allegorical writing as the employment of one set of
agents and images with actions and accompaniments correspondent, so as to
convey, while in disguise, either moral qualities or conceptions of the mind
that are not in themselves objects of the senses, or other images, agents, for-
tunes, and circumstances so that the difference is everywhere presented to the
eye or imagination, while the likeness is suggested to the mind; and this con-
nectedly, so that the parts combine to form a consistent whole. (1936 :30)
Wha t o n e sees i n a c o her en t et hn o g r a p hi c a c c o u n t , t he i m a g e d c o n -
s t r uc t o f t he o t her , is c o n n ec t ed i n a c o n t i n u o u s d o u bl e s t r u c t u r e wi t h
w ha t o n e understands. At t i mes , t he s t r uc t ur e is t o o bl a t a nt : " Du r i n g
t he c er a mi c ma n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c es s , w o m e n c o n v er s e g ent l y , q ui et l y ,
a l wa y s w i t ho u t c onf l i c t , a bo u t ec o s y s t em d y n a mi c s . . ." ( Whi t t en
19 7 8: 847 ) . Us u a l l y it is l es s o bv i o u s a n d t hu s mo r e real i s t i c. Ad a p t i n g
Co l er i d g e' s f o r mu l a , wha t a p p ea r s des c r i p t i v el y t o t he s en s es ( a n d pr i -
ma r i l y , as he s u g g es t s , t o t he o bs er v i n g ey e) s eems t o be "ot her , " whi l e
wha t is s u g g e s t e d by t he c o her en t s er i es o f p er c ep t i o n s i s a n u n d e r -
l y i n g s i mi l i t u d e. St r a n g e beha v i o r is p o r t r a y ed as mea n i n g f u l wi t hi n a
c o m m o n n et wo r k o f s y mbo l s a c o m m o n g r o u n d o f u n d er s t a n d a bl e
ac t i vi t y v a l i d f o r bo t h o bs er v er a n d o bs er v ed , a n d by i mp l i c a t i o n f o r
al l h u m a n g r o u p s . Thu s et hn o g r a p hy ' s na r r a t i v e o f s peci f i c d i f f er en c es
p r e s u p p o s e s , a n d a l wa y s r ef er s t o, a n abs t r ac t p l a n e o f s i mi l ar i t y.
It i s w o r t h n o t i n g , t ho u g h I c a n n o t p u r s u e t he t he me her e, t ha t
be f o r e t he e m e r g e n c e o f s ec ul a r a n t hr o p o l o g y as a s c i en c e o f human
a n d cultural p he n o m e n a , et hn o g r a p hi c a c c o u n t s w er e c o n n e c t e d t o
d i f f er en t a l l eg o r i c a l r ef er en t s . Fa t her Laf i t au' s f a mo u s c o mp a r i s o n
( 17 24) o f Na t i v e Ame r i c a n c u s t o ms wi t h t ho s e o f t he a n c i en t H e br e w s
a n d Eg y p t i a n s ex emp l i f i es a n ea r l i er t en d en c y t o m a p d es c r i p t i o n s o f
t he o t he r o n t o c o n c ep t i o n s o f t he "premiers temps." Mo r e o r l es s ex p l i c i t
bi bl i c al o r cl as s i cal a l l eg o r i es a bo u n d i n t he ea r l y d es c r i p t i o n s o f t he
Ne w Wo r l d . For as Jo ha n n e s Fa bi a n (1983) a r g u es , t her e ha s been a
per v a s i v i : Icndri K y l o p r el i g u r e o t her s in a t emp o r a l l y di s t i nc t , bui l o-
102
JAMES CLIFFORD
cat abl e, space (earlier) wi t hi n an assumed pr ogr ess of West er n hi story.
Cul t ur al ant hr opol ogy in t he t went i et h cent ur y has t ended to r epl ace
( t hough never compl et el y) these hi stori cal al l egori es wi t h humani st al-
l egor i es. It has eschewed a search f or ori gi ns in f avor o f seeki ng hu-
man si mi l ari ti es and cul t ural di f f erences. But t he r epr esent at i onal
pr ocess i tsel f has not essentially changed. Most descri pt i ons o f ot her s
cont i nue to assume and r ef er to el ement al or t r anscendent l evel s o f
t rut h.
Thi s concl usi on emer ges cl earl y f r om t he r ecent Me ad- Fr e e man
cont r over sy.
3
Two compet i ng port rayal s of Samoan life are cast as sci-
entific pr oj ect s; but bot h conf i gur e t he ot her as a mor al l y char ge d al-
t er e go. Me a d cl ai med to be conduct i ng a cont r ol l ed "exper i ment " i n
t he field, "t est i ng" t he uni versal i t y of stressful adol escence by exami n-
i ng a count er i nst ance empi ri cal l y. But despi t e Boasi an r het or i c about
t he "l abor at or y" of fieldwork, Mead' s exper i ment pr oduced a message
o f br oad et hi cal and political si gni fi cance. Li ke Rut h Benedi ct i n Pat-
terns of Culture (1934), she hel d a l i beral , pl ural i st vi si on, r e s pondi ng
to t he di l emmas of a "compl ex" Ame r i can society. Th e et hnogr aphi c
stories Me a d and Benedi ct told wer e mani festl y l i nked to t he si tuati on
o f a cul t ur e st r uggl i ng wi t h di verse val ues, wi t h an appar ent br eak-
d o wn o f est abl i shed tradi ti ons, wi th Utopian visions of human mal l e-
ability and f ears of di saggr egat i on. The i r et hnogr aphi es we r e "fabl es
o f i denti ty, " to adapt Nor t hr op Frye' s title (1963). The i r openl y alle-
gor i cal pur pos e was not a ki nd of mor al or exposi t or y f r ame f or e m-
pi ri cal descr i pt i ons, somet hi ng added on in pref aces and concl usi ons.
Th e ent i r e pr oj ect of i nvent i ng and r epr esent i ng "cul t ur es" was, f or
Me a d and Benedi ct , a pedagogi cal , ethi cal under t aki ng.
Mead' s "exper i ment " in cont r ol l ed cul t ural vari at i on now l ooks
less l i ke sci ence t han al l egor ya t oo sharpl y f ocused story o f Samoa
suggest i ng a possi bl e Amer i ca. Der ek Freeman' s cri t i que i gnor es any
pr oper l y l i t erary di mensi ons in et hnogr aphi c wor k, however , and in-
st ead appl i es its own br and of scientism, i nspi r ed by r ecent devel op-
ment s i n soci obi ol ogy. As Fr eeman sees it, Mead was si mpl y wr o ng
about Samoans. Th e y ar e not t he casual , permi ssi ve peopl e she ma de
f amous, but ar e beset by all the usual human tensi ons. Th e y ar e vi o-
l ent. Th e y get ul cers. Th e mai n body o f his cri ti que is a massi ng o f
count er exampl es dr awn f r om t he historical r ecor d and f r om his own
fieldwork. In 170 pages o f empi r i cal overki l l , he successful l y shows
what was al r eady expl i ci t f or an al ert r eader of Coming of Age in Samoa:
t hat Me a d const r uct ed a f or eshor t ened pi ct ure, desi gned to pr opose
3. Mead (1923), Freeman (1983). I have drawn on my review of Freeman in the
Times Literary Supplement, May 13, 1983, 475- 76, which explores the literary dimen-
sions of the controversy. For another treatment in this vein, see Porter 1984.
On Ethnogr aphic Al l egory
mor al , pract i cal l essons for Ame r i can society. But as Fr eeman heaps
up i nst ances o f Samoan anxi et y and vi ol ence, the al l egori cal f r ame f or
his own unde r t aki ng begi ns to emer ge. Cl ear l y somet hi ng mor e is get -
t i ng expr essed t han si mpl y t he "dar ker si de, " as Fr eeman put s it,
o f Samoan life. In a r eveal i ng hnal page he admi t s as much, count er -
i ng Mead' s "Apol l oni an" sense o f cul t ural bal ance wi th bi ol ogy' s "Di o-
nysi an" huma n nat ur e (essential, emot i onal , etc. ). But what is the sci-
entific status o f a "ref ut at i on" that can be subsumed so neat l y by a
West er n myt hi c opposi t i on? On e is left wi t h a stark cont rast : Mead' s
at t ract i ve, sexual l y l i berat ed, cal m Pacific wor l d, and now Fr eeman' s
Samoa o f seet hi ng tensi ons, strict cont rol s, and vi ol ent out burst s. In-
de e d Me a d and Fr eeman f or m a ki nd of di pt ych, whose oppos i ng pan-
els si gni f y a r ecur r ent West er n ambi val ence about the "pr i mi t i ve. " On e
is r e mi nde d o f Mel vi l l e' s Typee, a sensuous paradi se wove n t hr ough
wi t h dr ead, t he t hr eat o f vi ol ence.
AAA
Le transfert de l'Empire de la Chine l'Empire de soi-mme est constant.
VICTOR SEGALEN
A scientific et hnogr aphy nor mal l y establishes a pr i vi l eged al-
l egor i cal r egi st er it i denti fi es as "t heory, " "i nt erpret at i on, " or "expl a-
nat i on. " But once all meani ngf ul levels in a text, i ncl udi ng t heor i es
and i nt er pr et at i ons, ar e r ecogni zed as al l egori cal , it becomes difficult
to vi ew one o f t hem as pr i vi l eged, account i ng f or t he rest. Onc e this
anchor is di sl odged, t he st agi ng and val ui ng of mul t i pl e al l egor i cal
regi st ers, or "voi ces, " becomes an i mpor t ant ar ea of concer n f or eth-
nogr aphi c wr i t er s. Recent l y this has somet i mes meant gi vi ng i ndi ge-
nous di scour se a semi - i ndependent status in the t ext ual whol e, in-
t er r upt i ng t he pr i vi l eged monot one of "scientific" r epr esent at i on.
4
Muc h et hnogr aphy, t aki ng its di stance f r om total i zi ng ant hr opol ogy,
seeks to e voke mul t i pl e (but not limitless) al l egori es.
Mar j or i e Shostak' s Nisa exempl i f i es, and wrestl es wi t h, t he pr ob-
l em o f pr esent i ng and medi at i ng mul t i pl e st or i es.
5
1 shall dwel l on it at
some l engt h. Shost ak expl i ci tl y stages t hree al l egori cal regi st ers: (1)
t he r epr esent at i on of a coher ent cul t ural subject as sour ce o f scientific
knowl e dge (Ni sa is a " ! Kung woman") ; (2) the const r uct i on o f a gen-
de r e d subject (Shost ak asks: what is it to be a woman?) ; (3) t he story o f
a mo d e o f et hnogr aphi c pr oduct i on and rel at i onshi p (an i nt i mat e di a-
4. On the origins of this "monotone," see De Certeau 1983: 128.
5. The rest of this section is an expanded version of my review of Nisa in the Times
Literary Supplement, September 17, 1982, 994- 95.
104 JAMES CLIFFORD
On Et hnographi c Al l egory
t ypi cal at t i t udes, activities, and exper i ences . But Shost ak was dissatis-
fied by t he l ack of dept h in her i nt ervi ews, and this l ed her t o seek out
an i nf or mant abl e to pr ovi de a det ai l ed per sonal narrat i ve. Ni sa was
qui t e unus ual in her ability to recal l and expl ai n her life; mor e ove r
t her e de ve l ope d a st r ong r esonance bet ween her stories and Shost ak' s
per s onal concer ns . Thi s posed a pr obl em for t he expect at i ons o f a
gener al i zi ng social sci ence.
At t he end of her first soj our n in t he field, Shost ak was t r oubl ed
by a suspi ci on that her i nt erl ocut or mi ght be t oo i di osyncrat i c. Ni s a
had known sever e pai n; her life as she recal l ed it was oft en vi ol ent .
Mos t pr evi ous account s of t he !Kung, like El i zabet h Mar shal l Thomas ' s
The Harmless People (1959), had shown t hem to be peace- l ovi ng. "Di d I
real l y want to be t he one to bal ance the pi ct ur e?" (350). On a r et ur n
t ri p t o t he Kal ahar i , Shost ak f ound r eassur ance. Th o u g h Ni s a still
exer t ed a speci al fasci nat i on, she now appear ed less unusual . An d t he
e t hnogr a phe r became " mor e sure t han ever that our wor k t oget her
coul d and s houl d move f or war d. Th e i nt ervi ews I was conduct i ng
wi t h ot her wo me n wer e pr ovi ng to me that Ni sa was f undament al l y
si mi l ar to t hose ar ound her. She was unusual l y art i cul at e, and she had
suffer ed gr eat er t han aver age loss, but in most ot her i mpor t ant re-
spect s she was a t ypi cal ! Kung woma n" (358).
Rol and Bar t hes ( 1981) has wri t t en poi gnant l y of an i mpossi bl e
sci ence of t he i ndi vi dual . An insistent t ug t owar d t he gener al is felt
t hr oughout Nisa, and it is not wi t hout pai n that we find Ni sa gener -
al i zed, t i ed t o "an i nt erpret at i on of !Kung l i fe" (350). Th e book' s sci-
entific di scour se, tirelessly cont ext ual , t ypi fyi ng, is br ai ded t hr ough
t he ot her t wo voi ces, i nt r oduci ng each of t he fifteen t hemat i c sect i ons
of t he life wi t h a few pages of backgr ound. ("Once a mar r i age has sur-
vi ved a few year s beyond t he young wife' s first menst r uat i on, t he rel a-
t i onshi p bet ween t he spouses becomes mor e equal " [169]. An d so
fort h. ) I ndeed, one somet i mes feels that the scientific di scour se func-
t i ons i n t he t ext as a ki nd of br ake on the book' s ot her voi ces, whos e
meani ngs ar e excessi vel y per sonal and i nt ersubj ect i ve. Th e r e is a real
di scr epancy. For at t he same t i me that Nisa' s story cont ri but es to bet t er
gener al i zat i ons about t he !Kung, its ver y specificity, a nd t he par t i cul ar
ci r cumst ances o f its maki ng, creat e meani ngs that are resistant to t he
de ma nds of a t ypi f yi ng sci ence.
T h e book' s second and t hi rd regi st ers are sharpl y distinct f r om
t he first. Th e i r st ruct ure is di al ogi cal , and at times each seems to exi st
pr i mar i l y in r esponse to t he ot her. Nisa' s life has its own t ext ual aut on-
omy, as a di st i nct nar r at i ve spoken in charact eri st i c, bel i evabl e t ones.
But it is mani fest l y t he pr oduct of a col l aborat i on. Thi s is par t i cul ar l y
t rue of its over al l shape, a full l i fespanfi ft een chapt er s i ncl udi ng
l ogue) . Ni sa is t he ps e udonym of a fifty-year-old woma n who has l i ved
mos t of her life i n semi - nomadi c condi t i ons. Mar j or i e Shost ak bel ongs
t o a Har var d- bas ed r esear ch gr oup that has st udi ed t he !Kung San
hunt er - gat her er s si nce t he 1950s. Th e compl e x t rut hs t hat e me r ge
f r om this "life and wor ds " are not l i mi t ed to an i ndi vi dual or to her
s ur r oundi ng cul t ur al wor l d.
T h e book' s t hr ee regi st ers ar e in cruci al respect s di scr epant . First,
t he aut obi ogr aphy, cr oss- checked agai nst ot her !Kung women' s lives, is
i nser t ed wi t hi n an ongoi ng cul t ural i nt erpret at i on (to whi ch it adds
"dept h"). Second, this shaped exper i ence soon becomes a st ory of
" women' s " exi st ence, a story that r hymes closely wi t h many of t he ex-
per i ences and issues hi ghl i ght ed in r ecent femi ni st t hought . Thi r d,
Nisa nar r at es an i nt ercul t ural encount er in whi ch t wo i ndi vi dual s col -
l abor at e t o pr oduce a specific domai n of t rut h. Th e et hnogr aphi c en-
count er i t sel f becomes , her e, t he subject of t he book, a fabl e of com-
muni cat i on, r appor t , and, finally, a ki nd of fictional, but pot ent ,
ki nshi p. Nisa is t hus mani fest l y an al l egor y of scientific compr e -
hensi on, oper at i ng at t he levels bot h of cul t ural descr i pt i on and o f a
s ear ch f or h u ma n or i gi ns. ( Al ong wi t h ot her st udent s o f gat her er -
hunt er s , t he Har var d pr oj ect Shost ak i ncl udedt end to see in this
l ongest st age of huma n cul t ural devel opment a basel i ne f or huma n
nat ur e. ) Nisa is a Wes t er n femi ni st al l egory, part of t he r ei nvent i on o f
t he gener al cat egor y " woman" in t he 1970s and 80s. Nisa is an al l egor y
of et hnogr aphy, of cont act and compr ehens i on.
A br ai ded narrat i ve, the book moves constantly, at t i mes awk-
war dl y, bet ween its t hr ee meani ngf ul regi st ers. Nisa is l i ke ma ny
wor ks t hat por t r ay c ommon huma n exper i ences, conflicts, j oys , wor k,
a nd so on. But t he t ext Shost ak has made is or i gi nal i n t he way it re-
fuses to bl end its t hr ee regi st ers i nt o a seaml ess, "ful l " r epr esent a-
t i on. Th e y r emai n separ at e, in dr amat i c t ensi on. Thi s pol yvocal i t y is
appr opr i at e to t he book' s pr edi cament , that of many sel f-consci ous
et hnogr aphi c wri t ers who find it difficult to speak of wel l - def i ned
"ot her s" f r om a stable, di st anced posi t i on. Di fference i nvades t he t ext ;
it can no l onger be r epr esent ed; it must be enact ed.
Nisa's first regi st er, that of cul t ural sci ence, hol ds its subject in fi rm
r el at i on to a social wor l d. It expl ai ns Nisa' s personal i t y i n t er ms of
!Kung ways, and it uses her exper i ence to nuance and cor r ect gener -
al i zat i ons about her gr oup. I f Nisa reveal s i nt ersubj ect i ve mechani s ms
in unus ual dept h, its pol yvocal const ruct i on shows, t oo, t hat t he t ran-
sition t o scientific knowl edge is not smoot h. Th e per sonal does not
yi el d t o t he gener al wi t hout loss. Shost ak' s r esear ch was based on sys-
t emat i c i nt er vi ews wi t h mor e t han a score of !Kung wome n. Fr om
t hese conver sat i ons she amassed a body of dat a l arge e nough to reveal
i o6
JAMES CLIFFORD
"Earl i est Memor i es , " "Fami l y Li f e, " "Di scover i ng Sex, " "Tr i al Mar -
r i ages, " " Mar r i age, " " Mot her hood and Loss, " " Wome n and Men, "
" Ta ki ng Lover s , " " A Heal i ng Ri t ual , " " Gr owi ng Ol der . " Al t hough at
t he start o f t he i nt er vi ews Ni sa had ma ppe d out her life, sket chi ng t he
mai n ar eas t o be cover ed, t he t hemat i c rost er appear s to be Shost ak' s.
I ndeed, by cast i ng Nisa' s di scourse in the shape of a "l i fe, " Shost ak ad-
dresses t wo r at her di fferent audi ences. On one si de, this i nt ensel y
per sonal col l ect i on of memor i es is made suitable for scientific typifica-
t i on as a "l i fe-hi st ory" or "l i fe-cycl e. " On t he ot her , Nisa' s l i fe br i ngs
i nt o pl ay a pot ent and pervasi ve mechani sm for t he pr oduct i on of
meani ng in t he Wes t t he exempl ar y, coher ent sel f (or rat her, t he sel f
pul l i ng i t sel f t oget her in aut obi ogr aphy). Th e r e is not hi ng uni ver sal
or nat ur al about t he fictional processes o f bi ogr aphy and aut obi ogr a-
phy ( Gus dor f 1956; Ol ney 1972; Lej eune 1975)- Li vi ng does not
easily or gani ze itself i nt o a cont i nuous narrat i ve. Wh e n Ni sa says, as
she of t en does, "We l i ved in that pl ace, eat i ng t hi ngs. Th e n we left and
went s ome whe r e el se, " or simply, "we l i ved and l i ved" (69), t he h um of
unma r ke d, i mper s onal exi st ence can be hear d. Fr om this bl ur r ed
ba ckgr ound, a narrat i ve shape emer ges in the occasi on of s peaki ng,
si mul t aneousl y t o ones el f and anot her . Ni sa tells her life, a pr ocess
t ext ual l y dr amat i zed in Shostak' s book.
As al t er ego, pr ovoker , and edi t or of t he di scourse, Shost ak makes
a numbe r of si gni fi cant i nt ervent i ons. A good deal of cut t i ng and re-
ar r angi ng t r ansf or ms over l appi ng stories i nt o "a l i fe" t hat does not
r epeat i t sel f undul y and that devel ops by r ecogni zabl e steps and pas-
sages. Nisa' s distinct voi ce emer ges . But Shost ak has syst emat i cal l y re-
move d her own i nt ervent i ons (t hough they can oft en be sensed i n
Nisa' s r esponse). She has also t aken out a vari et y of narrat i ve mar ker s :
her fri end' s habi t ual comment at the end of a story, "t he wi nd has
t aken t hat away, " or at t he start, "I will br eak open t he story and tell
you what ' s t her e"; or i n t he mi ddl e, " What a m I t r yi ng t o do? He r e I
a m sitting, t al ki ng about one story, and anot her r uns r i ght i nt o my
head and i nt o my t hought s!" (40). Shost ak has cl earl y t hought care-
fully about t he f r ami ng of her t ranscri pt s, and one cannot have ever y-
t hi ngt he per f or mance wi t h all its di vagat i ons, and also an easily un-
der st andabl e story. I f Nisa' s wor ds wer e to be wi del y r ead, concessi ons
had t o be ma de t o t he r equi r ement s of bi ogr aphi cal al l egor y, t o a
r eader s hi p pr act i ced in t he ethical i nt erpret at i on of sel ves. By t hese
f or mal means t he book' s second di scourse, Nisa' s s poken life, is br ought
cl ose to its r eader s, becomi ng a nar r at i on that makes el oquent "hu-
man" sense.
T h e book' s t hi rd distinct regi st er is Shost ak' s per sonal account of
fieldwork. " Teach me what it is to be a !Kung woman" was t he quest i on
On Et hnographi c Al l egory 107
0. On ethnography as an allegory of conquest and initiation, see Clifford 1983b.
she asked of her i nfor mant s (349). If Ni sa r es ponded wi t h pecul i ar
apt ness, her wor ds also s eemed to answer anot her quest i on, " What is
it t o be a woma n? " Shost ak told her i nfor mant s "that I want ed t o l ear n
what it meant to be a woma n in t hei r cul t ure so I coul d bet t er under -
st and what it meant in my own. " Wi t h Ni sa, t he rel at i onshi p became,
in !Kung t erms, that of an aunt t al ki ng to a young ni ece, to "a gi rl -
woma n, r ecent l y mar r i ed, st r uggl i ng wi t h t he issues o f l ove, mar r i age,
sexual i t y, wor k and i dent i t y" (4). Th e younger woma n ("ni ece, " s ome-
t i mes "daught er ") is i nst ruct ed by an exper i enced el der i n t he arts and
pai ns of woma nhood. Th e t r ansf or mi ng rel at i onshi p ends wi t h an
equal i t y in affect i on and respect , and wi t h a final wor d, pot ent i n
femi ni st meani ng: "sister" (371). Nisa speaks, t hr oughout , not as a
neut r al wi t ness but as a per son gi vi ng specific ki nds of advi ce to s ome-
one o f a part i cul ar age wi t h mani fest quest i ons and desi res. She is not
an "i nf or mant " s peaki ng cultural t rut hs, as i f to ever yone and no one,
pr ovi di ng i nf or mat i on r at her t han ci rcumst ant i al r esponses.
I n her account , Shost ak descri bes a search for per sonal knowl -
e dge , f or s omet hi ng goi ng beyond t he usual et hnogr aphi c r appor t .
She hopes that i nt i macy wi t h a !Kung woma n will, s omehow, enl ar ge
or de e pe n her sense of bei ng a mode r n West er n woma n. Wi t h-
out dr a wi ng expl i ci t lessons f r om Nisa' s exper i ence, she dr amat i zes
t hr ough her own quest the way a nar r at ed life makes sense, al l egor i -
cally, for another. Nisa' s story is r eveal ed as a j oi nt pr oduct i on, t he out -
c ome o f an encount er that cannot be rewri t t en as a subject -object di -
chot omy. Somet hi ng mor e t han expl ai ni ng or r epr esent i ng t he life
and wor ds of anot her is goi ng ons omet hi ng mor e open- ended. T h e
book is par t of a new i nt erest in r eval ui ng subject i ve (mor e accurat el y,
i n t er subj ect i ve) aspect s of r esear ch. It emer ges f r om a cruci al mome nt
of femi ni st politics and epi st emol ogy: consci ousness rai si ng and t he
s har i ng of exper i ences by women. A commonal i t y is pr oduc e d that,
by br i ngi ng separ at e lives t oget her , empower s per sonal act i on, r ecog-
ni zes a c o mmo n estate. Thi s moment of r ecent femi ni st consci ousness
is al l egor i zed i n Nisa's fable of its own relationality. (In ot her et h-
nogr aphi es , t radi t i onal l y mascul i ne stories of initiation and penet r a-
t i on di fferent l y st age t he pr oduct i ve encount er of sel f and ot her . )
6
Shost ak' s expl i ci t femi ni st al l egor y t hus reflects a specific mome nt in
whi ch t he const r uct i on of "woman' s" exper i ence is gi ven cent er st age.
It is a mo me n t o f cont i nui ng i mpor t ance; but it has been chal l enged
by r ecent count er cur r ent s wi t hi n feminist t heory. Th e assert i on o f
c o mmo n f emal e qual i t i es (and oppressi ons) across racial, et hni c, and
class l i nes is newl y pr obl emat i c. An d in some quart ers " woman" is
i o8 JAMES CLIFFORD
seen, not as a l ocus o f exper i ence, but as a shi ft i ng subj ect i ve posi t i on
not r educi bl e to any essence.
7
Shost ak' s al l egor y seems t o regi st er t hese count er cur r ent s i n its oc-
casi onal l y c ompl e x account s of t he processes of play and t r ansf er ence,
whi ch pr oduce t he final i nscri pt i on of commonal i t y. For t he book' s in-
t i mat e rel at i onshi ps are based on subtle, r eci pr ocal movement s of
doubl i ng, i magi nat i on, and desi re, movement s al l egor i zed i n one of
t he st ori es Shost ak tells i n count er poi nt to Nisa' s nar r at i vean inci-
dent t ur ni ng on t he val ue of a gi rl -woman' s body.
One day I noti ced a twelve-year-old girl, whose breasts had j ust started to de-
vel op, l ooki ng i nto the small mirror besi de the driver's wi ndow of our Land
Rover. She l ooked intently at her face, then, on tiptoe, exami ned her breasts
and as much of her body as she coul d see, then went to her face agai n. She
st epped back to see more, moved in again for a closer look. She was a lovely
girl, al t hough not out st andi ng in any way except bei ng in the full heal th and
beauty of youth. She saw me watching. I teased in the !Kung manner I had by
t hen t horoughl y l earned, "So ugly! How is such a young girl already so ugly?"
She l aughed. I asked, "You don't agree?" She beamed, "No, not at all. I'm beau-
tiful!" She cont i nued to look at herself. I said, "Beautiful? Perhaps my eyes have
become broken wi th age that I can't see where it is?" She said, "Everywhere
my face, my body. The r e is no ugl i ness at all." Thes e remarks were said easily,
wi th a broad smi l e, but wi thout arrogance. The pl easure she felt in her chang-
i ng body was as evi dent as the absence of conflict about it. (270)
A gr eat deal o f t he book is her e: an ol d voi ce, a young voi ce, a mi r r or
. . . talk of sel f-possessi on. Narci ssi sm, a t er m of devi ance appl i ed to
wo me n o f t he West , is t ransfi gured. We not i ce, t oo, that it is t he et h-
nogr apher , assumi ng a voi ce of age, who has br ought a mi r r or , j us t as
Ni sa pr ovi des an al l egori cal mi r r or when Shost ak t akes t he r ol e o f
yout h. Et hnogr aphy gai ns subjective "dept h" t hr ough t he sorts of
rol es, refl ect i ons, and reversal s dr amat i zed her e. Th e wr i t er , and her
r eader s , can be bot h young (l earni ng) and ol d (knowi ng). Th e y can
si mul t aneousl y listen, and "gi ve voi ce to, " the other. " Nisa's r eader s
f ol l owa nd pr ol ongt he play of a desi re. Th e y i magi ne, in t he mi r-
7. On racial and class divisions within feminism, see the rethinking of Rich ( 1979),
and the work of Hull, Scott, and Smith (1982), Hooks (1981), and Moraga (1983).
Strong feminist critiques of essentialism may be found in Wittig (1981) and Haraway
(1985)-
8. Ethnographies often present themselves as fictions of learning, the acquisition
of knowl edge, and finally of authority to understand and represent another culture.
The researcher begins in a child's relationship to adult culture, and ends by speaking
with the wisdom of experience. It is interesting to observe how, in the text, an author's
enunciative modes may shift back and forth between learning from and speaking for
the other. Thi s fictional freedom is crucial to ethnography' s allegorical appeal: the si-
multaneous reconstruction of a culture and a knowing self, a double "coming of age
in Samoa."
On Et hnographi c Al l egory
109
r or o f t he ot her , a gui l el ess self-possession, an uncompl i cat ed f eel i ng
of "at t ract i veness" that Shost ak translates as "I have wor k, " "I am pr o-
duct i ve, " "I have wor t h" (270).
Ant hr opol ogi cal fieldwork has been r epr esent ed as bot h a sci en-
tific "l abor at or y" and a per sonal "rite of passage. " T h e t wo met aphor s
capt ur e ni cel y t he discipline' s i mpossi bl e at t empt to fuse obj ect i ve a nd
subj ect i ve pract i ces. Unt i l recent l y, this impossibility was mas ked by
mar gi nal i zi ng t he i nt ersubj ect i ve f oundat i ons of fieldwork, by excl ud-
i ng t hem f r om seri ous et hnogr aphi c t ext s, r el egat i ng t hem to pref-
aces, memoi r s , anecdot es, confessi ons, and so fort h. Lat el y this set of
di sci pl i nary rul es is gi vi ng way. Th e new t endency t o name and quot e
i nf or mant s mor e fully and to i nt r oduce per sonal el ement s i nt o t he
t ext is al t er i ng et hnogr aphy' s di scursi ve st rat egy and mode o f aut hor -
ity. Mu c h of our knowl edge about ot her cul t ures must now be seen as
cont i ngent , t he pr obl emat i c out come of i nt ersubj ect i ve di al ogue,
t ransl at i on, and pr oj ect i on. Thi s poses f undament al pr obl ems f or any
sci ence t hat moves pr edomi nant l y f r om t he part i cul ar to t he gener al ,
that can ma ke use of per sonal t rut hs onl y as exampl es of t ypi cal phe-
nome na or as except i ons to col l ect i ve pat t erns.
On c e t he et hnogr aphi c process is accor ded its full compl exi t y o f
hi st ori ci zed di al ogi cal rel at i ons, what f or mer l y s eemed to be empi r i -
cal / i nt er pr et i ve account s of gener al i zed cul t ural facts (st at ement s and
at t ri but i ons concer ni ng "t he !Kung," "t he Samoans, " etc.) now a ppe a r
as j us t one l evel o f al l egory. Such account s may, be c ompl e x and t r ut h-
ful ; and t hey ar e, in pri nci pl e, suscept i bl e to refut at i on, as s umi ng ac-
cess t o t he same pool of cul t ural facts. But as wri t t en versi ons based on
fieldwork, t hese account s ar e cl earl y no l onger the story, but a st ory
a mo n g ot her st ori es. Nisa's di scor dant al l egori cal r egi st er st he book' s
t hr ee, never qui t e manageabl e, "voi ces"r efl ect a t r oubl ed, i nvent i ve
mo me n t i n t he hi st ory of cross-cul t ural r epr esent at i on.
AAA
Wel come of Tears is a beautiful book, combining the stories of a vanishing
people and the growth of an anthropologist.
MARGARET MEAD, blurb for the paperback edition
of Charles Wagley's Welcome of Tears
Et hnogr aphi c texts are not onl y, or pr edomi nant l y, al l egor i es.
I ndeed, as we have seen, t hey st r uggl e to limit the pl ay of t hei r "ext r a"
meani ngs , s ubor di nat i ng t hem to mi met i c, referent i al funct i ons. Th i s
s t r uggl e (whi ch of t en i nvol ves di sput es over what will count as "sci en-
tific" t heor y and what as "l i t erary" i nvent i on or "i deol ogi cal " pr oj ec-
tion) mai nt ai ns di sci pl i nary and gener i c convent i ons. I f et hnogr aphy
as a tool for posi t i ve sci ence is to be pr eser ved, such convent i ons mus t
1 I O
JAMES CLIFFORD
ma s k, o r di r e c t , mul t i pl e al l egori cal pr oc e s s e s . For ma y no t e v e r y e x -
t e n d e d de s c r i pt i o n, styl i sti c t ur n, st ory, or me t a p h o r b e r e a d t o me a n
s o me t h i n g el s e? ( Ne e d we ac c e pt t he t hr e e expl i ci t l evel s o f al l e gor y i n
a b o o k l i ke Nisa} Wh a t a bo ut its p h o t o g r a p h s , whi c h tel l t he i r o wn
s t ory?) Ar e n o t r e a d i n g s t he ms e l v e s unde c i da bl e ? Cri t i cs l i ke De Ma n
( 1979) r i g o r o us l y a d o p t s uc h a pos i t i on, a r g u i n g t hat t he c ho i c e o f a
d o mi n a n t r he t or i c , figure, or narrat i ve mo d e i n a t e xt is al ways a n i m-
pe r f e c t a t t e mp t t o i mp o s e a r e a d i n g o r r a n g e o f r e a di ng s o n a n i nt e r -
pr e t i v e pr o c e s s t hat i s o p e n - e n d e d , a s eri es o f di s pl a c e d " me a n i n g s "
wi t h n o ful l s t o p. Bu t wh e r e a s t he fr e e pl ay o f r e a di ng s ma y i n t he o r y
b e i nfi ni t e , t h e r e ar e , at a ny hi s t ori cal mo me n t , a l i mi t e d r a n g e o f ca-
no ni c a l a n d e me r g e n t al l e gor i e s avai l abl e t o t he c o mp e t e n t r e a d e r
( t he r e a d e r wh o s e i nt e r pr e t a t i o n wi l l be d e e me d pl aus i bl e by a s peci fi c
c o mmu n i t y ) . T h e s e s t r uc t ur e s o f me a n i n g are hi s t ori cal l y b o u n d e d
a n d c o e r c i v e . T h e r e i s, i n pract i ce, n o "free pl ay. "
Wi t h i n t hi s hi s t ori cal pr e di c a me nt , t he cri t i que o f s t ori es a n d pat -
t e r ns t hat pe r s i s t e nt l y i n f o r m cros s - cul t ural ac c ount s r e ma i n s a n i m-
p o r t a n t pol i t i cal as wel l as sci ent i fi c task. I n t he r e ma i n d e r o f t hi s es s ay
I e x p l o r e a b r o a d , o r i e nt i ng al l e gor y ( or mo r e accurat el y, a pa t t e r n o f
pos s i bl e al l e gor i e s ) t hat has r e c e nt l y e me r g e d as a c o nt e s t e d a r e a a
s t r uc t ur e o f r e t r o s pe c t i o n t hat ma y be c al l e d "e t hno g r a phi c pas t oral . "
Shos t ak' s b o o k a n d t he Ha r v a r d hunt e r - g a t he r e r s t udi e s , t o t he e x t e n t
t hat t he y e n g a g e i n a s e ar c h for f u n d a me n t a l , de s i r abl e h u ma n t rai t s,
ar e e n me s h e d i n t hi s s t r uc t ur e .
I n a t r e nc ha nt art i cl e, " Th e Us e a nd Ab u s e o f An t h r o p o l o g y : Re -
fl e c t i ons o n Fe mi n i s m a nd Cr os s - Cul t ur al Un d e r s t a n d i n g , " Mi c he l l e
Ro s a l d o has q u e s t i o n e d a pe r s i s t e nt t e n d e n c y t o a ppr o pr i a t e e t h n o -
g r a p h i c da t a i n t he f o r m o f a s e ar c h for or i gi ns . Ana l y s e s o f soci al
"gi ve ns " s u c h as g e n d e r a n d s e xual i t y s ho w a n al mos t r e fl e xi ve
n e e d for a nt hr o po l o g i c a l j us t - s o- s t or i e s . Be g i n n i n g wi t h S i mo n e d e
Be auvoi r ' s f o u n d i n g que s t i o n, "What is wo ma n ? " s chol arl y di s c us s i ons
" mo v e . . . t o a di a g no s i s o f c o n t e mp o r a r y s ubo r di na t i o n a n d f r o m
t h e n o n t o t he que r i e s ' Were t hi ng s al ways as t he y are t oday?' a n d t h e n
' Wh e n di d "it" st art ?' " ( 1980: 391) . Ent e r e x a mp l e s d r a wn f r o m e t h-
n o g r a p h y . I n a pr ac t i c e no t es s ent i al l y di ffe r e nt f r o m t hat o f He r b e r t
S p e n c e r , He n r y Ma i ne , Du r k h e i m, Eng e l s , or Fr e ud, it is a s s u me d
t hat e v i d e n c e f r o m "s i mpl e" s oci et i es wi l l i l l umi nat e t he o r i g i ns
a n d s t r uc t ur e o f c o n t e mp o r a r y cul t ural pat t e r ns . Ro s a l do no t e s t hat
mo s t sci ent i fi c a nt hr o po l o g i s t s have , s i nc e t he earl y t we nt i e t h c e nt ur y ,
a b a n d o n e d t he e v o l ut i o na r y s e ar c h for or i gi ns , but h e r es s ay s ug g e s t s
t hat t he r e fl e x is pe r vas i ve a nd e n d u r i n g . Mo r e o v e r , e v e n s ci ent i fi c
e t h n o g r a p h e r s c a n n o t ful l y c ont r ol t he me a n i n g s r e a d i n g s p r o -
v o k e d by t he i r a c c o unt s . Th i s is es peci al l y t r ue o f r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns that
On Et hnographi c Al l egory 1 1 1
ha v e no t hi s t or i c i z e d t he i r obj ect s , por t r ayi ng e x o t i c s oci et i es i n a n
" e t h n o g r a p h i c pr e s e nt " ( whi c h is al ways , i n fact , a pas t ) . Th i s s yn-
c h r o n i c s u s p e n s i o n effect i vel y t e xt ual i z e s t he o t he r , a n d gi ve s t he
s e n s e o f a real i t y not i n t e mpo r a l fl ux, no t i n t he s a me a mb i g u o u s ,
mo v i n g historical pr e s e nt t hat i nc l ude s a n d s i t uat es t he o t he r , t he e t h-
n o g r a p h e r , a n d t he r e ade r . "Al l oc hr oni c " r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns , t o u s e
J o h a n n e s Fabi an' s t e r m, ha v e b e e n pe r vas i ve i n t we nt i e t h- c e nt ur y sci -
ent i fi c e t h n o g r a p h y . T h e y i nvi t e al l egori cal a ppr o pr i a t i o ns i n t he
my t h o l o g i z i n g mo d e Ro s a l do r e pudi a t e s .
Ev e n t he mo s t cool l y anal yt i c a c c o unt s may be bui l t o n t hi s r e t r o -
s pe c t i v e a p p r o p r i a t i o n . E. E. Evans - Pri t chard' s The Nuer (1940) i s a
c a s e i n po i nt , for it por t r ays a n a ppe a l i ng l y h a r mo n i o u s anar c hy, a s o-
ci et y u n c o r r u p t e d by a Fall. He n r i k a Kukl i ck (1984) has a na l y z e d The
Nuer ( i n t he c o n t e x t o f a br o a d t r e nd i n Bri t i s h pol i t i cal a n t h r o p o l o g y
c o n c e r n e d wi t h a c e p h a l o u s "tribal" s oci et i es ) as a pol i t i cal al l e gor y re-
i ns c r i bi ng a r e c ur r e nt "fol k mo d e l " o f An g l o - S a x o n de mo c r a c y . Wh e n
Ev a ns - Pr i t c ha r d wri t es , " Th e r e is n o ma s t e r a n d n o s e r v a nt i n t he i r
s oc i e t y, but o nl y e qual s wh o r e g a r d t he ms e l v e s as God' s no bl e s t c r e a-
t i on, " it is no t di ffi cul t t o he a r e c h o e s o f a l o n g pol i t i cal t r adi t i on o f
nos t al gi a for "an e gal i t ar i an, c ont r ac t ual uni o n" o f fr e e i ndi v i dua l s .
Ed e n i c o v e r t o n e s ar e oc c as i onal l y u n d e r s c o r e d , as al ways wi t h Ev a ns -
Pr i t c ha r d, dri l y.
Th o u g h I have spoken of ti me and units of time the Nuer have no expressi on
equi val ent to "time" in our l anguage, and they cannot, therefore, as we can,
speak of ti me as t hough it were somet hi ng actual, whi ch passes, can be wasted,
can be saved, and so forth. I do not think that they ever experi ence the same
feel i ng of fighting against time or of havi ng to coordi nate activities with an
abstract passage of time, because their points of reference are mai nl y the ac-
tivities t hemsel ves, whi ch are generally of a leisurely character. Events fol l ow
a logical order, but they are not control l ed by an abstract system, there bei ng
no aut onomous poi nts of reference to whi ch activities have to conform with
preci si on. Nue r are fortunate. (103)
For a r e a d e r s h i p c a ug ht u p i n t he po s t - Da r wi ni a n b o u r g e o i s e x pe r i -
e n c e o f t i me a l i near, r e l e nt l e s s pr o g r e s s l e a di ng n o wh e r e c e r t ai n
a n d p e r mi t t i n g n o pa us e or cycl i c r e t ur n, t he cul t ural i s l ands o u t o f
t i me ( or "wi t hout hi st ory") de s c r i be d by ma n y e t h n o g r a p h e r s ha v e a
pe r s i s t e nt pr e l a ps a r i a n a ppe a l . We no t e , h o we v e r , t he i r oni c s t r uc t ur e
( whi c h n e e d n o t i mpl y a n i r oni c t one ) o f s uc h al l e gor i e s . For t he y ar e
p r e s e n t e d t h r o u g h t he d e t o u r o f a n e t h n o g r a p h i c s ubj ect i vi t y wh o s e
at t i t ude t o wa r d t he o t h e r is o n e o f par t i c i pant - obs e r vat i on, o r be t t e r
p e r h a p s , be l i e f- s ke pt i c i s m ( Se e We bs t e r 1982: 93) . Nu e r are f o r t u-
nat e . ( We ar e unf o r t una t e . ) T h e a ppe a l is fictional, t he t e mp o r a l e a s e
112
JAMES CLIFFORD
a n d a t t r a c t i v e a n a r c hy o f Nu e r s oc i et y a r e di s t a nt , i r r et r i ev a bl e. Th e y
a r e l os t q ua l i t i es , t ex t ua l l y r ec o v er ed .
Thi s i r o n i c a p p ea l bel o n g s t o a br o a d i deo l o g i c a l p a t t er n t ha t ha s
o r i e n t e d m u c h, p er ha p s mo s t , t wen t i et h c en t u r y c r o s s - c ul t ur a l r ep r e-
s en t a t i o n . "For us , p r i mi t i v e s o c i et i es [Naturvlker] a r e e p he me r a l . . . .
At t he v er y i n s t a n t t hey be c o me k n o w n t o us t hey a r e d o o me d . " Thu s ,
Ad o l p h Ba s t i a n i n 1881 ( q u o t ed i n Fabi an 19 83 : 12 2 ) . In 19 2 1, Br o -
ni s l a w Ma l i n o ws ki : " Et hn o l o g y is i n t he s adl y l u d i c r o u s , n o t t o s ay
t r a g i c p o s i t i o n , t ha t at t he v er y m o m e n t w he n it beg i n s t o p u t i ts wo r k-
s ho p i n o r d er , t o f o r g e i ts p r o p e r t o o l s , t o s t art r ea d y f o r wo r k o n i ts
a p p o i n t e d t as k, t he ma t er i a l o f its s t udy mel t s away wi t h ho p el es s
r a p i di t y " ( 19 61 : x v ) . Au t hen t i c Tr o br i a n d s oci et y, he i mp l i ed , wa s n o t
l o n g f o r t hi s wo r l d . Wr i t i n g i n t he 1950 s, Cl a u d e Lv i - St r a us s s aw a
g l o ba l p r o c es s o f en t r o p y . Tristes Tropiques s adl y po r t r a y s di f f er ent i -
a t ed s oc i al s t r u c t u r es d i s i n t eg r a t i n g i n t o g l o ba l ho mo g e n e i t y u n d e r
t he s ho c k o f c o n t a c t wi t h a p o t en t mo n o c u l t u r e. A Ro u s s ea u i a n q u es t
f o r " el emen t a r y " f o r ms o f hu m a n c ol l ec t i vi t y l ea ds Lv i - St r a us s t o t he
Na mbi k w a r a . Bu t t hei r wo r l d is f a l l i ng a pa r t . "I ha d be e n l o o k i n g f o r
a s o c i et y r e d u c e d t o i t s s i mp l es t ex p r es s i o n . Tha t o f t he Na mbi k w a r a
wa s s o t r ul y s i mp l e t ha t al l I c o u l d find i n it wa s i n d i v i d u a l h u m a n
bei n g s " ( 1 9 7 5 : 3 1 7 ) .
T h e t he m e o f t he v a n i s hi n g p r i mi t i v e, o f t he e n d o f t r a di t i o na l
s o c i et y ( t he v er y act o f n a mi n g it "t radi t i onal " i mp l i es a r u p t u r e) , is
p er v a s i v e i n et hn o g r a p hi c wr i t i ng . It i s, i n Ra y mo n d Wi l l i ams ' s p hr a s e,
a " s t r uc t ur e o f f eel i n g " ( 19 7 3 : 12 ) . Un d en i a bl y , wa y s o f l i f e c a n , i n
a me a n i n g f u l s en s e, "di e"; p o p u l a t i o n s a r e r eg ul a r l y v i o l en t l y di s -
r u p t e d , s o me t i me s ex t er mi n a t ed . Tr a d i t i o n s a r e c o n s t a n t l y be i n g l os t .
B u t t he p er s i s t en t a n d r ep et i t i o u s " d i s a p p ea r a n c e" o f s oc i a l f o r ms at
t he m o m e n t o f t hei r et hn o g r a p hi c r ep r es en t a t i o n d e m a n d s a na l y s i s
as a n a r r a t i v e s t r uc t ur e. A f ew y ea r s a g o t he American Ethnologist
p r i n t ed a n ar t i c l e ba s ed o n r ec en t fieldwork a m o n g t he Na mbi k -
w a r a w h o a r e sti l l s o me t hi n g mo r e t ha n "i ndi v i dua l h u m a n bei n g s . "
An d l i v i ng Tr o br i a n d c ul t ur e ha s be e n t he obj ec t o f r ec en t field s t u d y
( Wei n er 19 7 6). T h e n o w- f a mi l i a r film Trobriand Cricket s ho ws a v er y
di s t i nc t wa y o f l i f e, r ei n v en t i n g i t s el f u n d e r t he c o n d i t i o n s o f c o l o -
n i a l i s m a n d ea r l y n a t i o n ho o d .
Et hn o g r a p hy ' s d i s a p p ea r i n g obj ec t i s , t hen , i n s i g ni f i c a nt d e g r e e ,
a r het o r i c a l c o n s t r u c t l eg i t i ma t i n g a r ep r es en t a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e: "sal -
v a g e" e t hn o g r a p hy i n its wi d es t s en s e. Th e o t her is l os t , i n d i s i n t eg r a t -
i n g t i me a n d s p a c e, but s a v ed i n t he t ex t . Th e r a t i o na l e f o r f o c u s i n g
o ne' s a t t en t i o n o n v a n i s hi n g l o r e, f o r r es c u i n g i n wr i t i n g t he kn o wl -
e d g e o f o l d p eo p l e, ma y be s t r o n g ( t ho u g h it d e p e n d s o n l oc a l c i r c u m-
s t a n c es a n d c a n n o t a n y l o n g er be g en er a l i z ed ) . I d o n o t wi s h t o d e n y
On Et hnographi c Al l egory 113
s pec i f i c c a s es o f d i s a p p ea r i n g c u s t o ms a n d l a n g u a g es , o r t o c ha l l en g e
t he v a l u e o f r ec o r d i n g s u c h p he n o me n a . I d o , ho w ev er , q u es t i o n t he
a s s u mp t i o n t ha t wi t h r a p i d c ha n g e s o me t hi n g es s ent i a l ( "c ul t ur e") , a
c o he r e n t di f f er ent i a l i dent i t y , v a n i s hes . An d I q u es t i o n , t o o , t he m o d e
o f s c i ent i f i c a n d mo r a l a ut ho r i t y a s s o c i a t ed wi t h s a l v a g e, o r r e d e m p -
t i v e, et hn o g r a p hy . It is a s s u me d t ha t t he o t her s o c i et y is wea k a n d
" n eed s " t o be r ep r es en t ed by a n o u t s i d er ( a n d t ha t wha t ma t t er s i n i t s
l i f e is i ts pa s t , n o t p r es en t o r f ut ur e) . Th e r ec o r d er a n d i n t er p r et er o f
f r a g i l e c u s t o m i s c u s t o d i a n o f a n es s en c e, u n i mp e a c ha bl e wi t n es s t o a n
a ut hent i c i t y . ( Mo r eo v er , s i nc e t he "t r ue" c u l t u r e ha s a l wa y s v a n i s hed ,
t he s a l v a g ed v er s i o n c a n n o t be eas i l y r ef u t ed . )
Su c h a t t i t udes , t ho u g h t hey per s i s t , a r e d i mi n i s hi n g . Few a n t hr o -
p o l o g i s t s t o d a y w o u l d e mbr a c e t he l o g i c o f e t hn o g r a p hy i n t he t er ms
i n w hi c h it wa s en u n c i a t ed i n Fr anz Boas ' s t i me, as a l a s t - c ha nc e r es c u e
o p er a t i o n . Bu t t he a l l eg o r y o f s a l v a g e is d eep l y i n g r a i n ed . I n d e e d , I
s ha l l a r g u e i n a m o m e n t t ha t it is bui l t i n t o t he c o n c ep t i o n a n d p r a c -
t i c e o f e t hn o g r a p hy a s a p r o c es s o f wr i t i ng , s pec i f i c al l y o f t ex t u a l -
i z a t i o n . Ev er y d es c r i p t i o n o r i n t er p r et a t i o n t ha t c o n c ei v es i t s el f as
" br i n g i n g a c u l t u r e i n t o wr i t i ng , " mo v i n g f r o m o r a l - di s c ur s i v e ex p er i -
e n c e ( t he "nat i ve' s , " t he fieldworker's) t o a wr i t t en v er s i o n o f t ha t e x p e -
r i en c e ( t he et hn o g r a p hi c t ext ) is en a c t i n g t he s t r u c t u r e o f "s a l v a g e. "
To t he ex t en t t ha t t he et hn o g r a p hi c p r o c es s is s een as i n s c r i p t i o n
( r a t her t ha n , f o r e x a mp l e , as t r a ns c r i p t i o n, o r d i a l o g u e) t he r e p r e s e n -
t a t i o n wi l l c o n t i n u e t o en a c t a p o t en t , a n d q u es t i o n a bl e, a l l eg o r i c a l
s t r u c t u r e.
Thi s s t r u c t u r e is a p p r o p r i a t el y l o c a t ed wi t hi n a l o n g Wes t er n t ra-
d i t i o n o f p a s t o r a l (a t o p i c a l s o d e v e l o p e d by Ren a t o Ro s a l d o i n t hi s
v o l u me ) . Ra y m o n d Wi l l i ams ' s The Country and the City ( 19 7 3) , whi l e
d r a w i n g o n a n es t a bl i s hed t r a di t i o n o f s c ho l a r s hi p o n pa s t o r a l ( Emp -
s o n 19 5 0 , K e r m o d e 19 5 2, Fr y e 19 7 1, Po g g i o l i 19 7 5 , a m o n g o t her s )
s t r a i ns t o wa r d a g l o ba l s c o p e wi d e e n o u g h t o a c c o mmo d a t e e t hn o -
g r a p hi c wr i t i n g . H e s ho ws ho w a f u n d a men t a l c o nt r a s t be t w e e n ci t y
a n d c o u n t r y a l i g ns i t s el f wi t h o t her p er v a s i v e o p p o s i t i o n s : c i v i l i zed a n d
p r i mi t i v e, Wes t a n d " no n- Wes t , " f u t u r e a n d pas t . H e a na l y z es a c o m-
p l ex , i n v en t i v e, s t r o n g l y p a t t er n ed s et o f r es p o n s es t o s oc i al d i s l o c a t i o n
a n d c ha n g e , s t r et c hi n g f r o m cl as s i cal a nt i qui t y t o t he p r es en t . Wi l l i a ms
t r a c es t he c o n s t a n t r e e me r g e n c e o f a c o n v en t i o n a l i z ed p a t t er n o f r et r o -
s p ec t i o n t ha t l a men t s t he l os s o f a " g o o d " c o unt r y , a p l a c e w he r e a u -
t hen t i c s oc i al a n d na t ur a l c o nt a c t s wer e o n c e po s s i bl e. H e s o o n , ho w -
ev er , n o t es a n u n s et t l i n g r eg r es s i o n . For ea c h t i me o n e finds a wr i t er
l o o k i n g ba c k t o a ha p p i er p l a c e, t o a l os t , "or g a ni c " m o m e n t , o n e finds
a n o t he r wr i t er o f t ha t ea r l i er p er i o d l a me n t i n g a s i mi l ar , p r ev i o u s di s -
a p p e a r a n c e . T h e u l t i ma t e r ef er en t i s, o f c o u r s e, Ed e n (912).
114 JAMES CLIFFORD
On Et hnographi c Al l egory 115
Wi l l i ams d o e s n o t di s mi s s t hi s s t r uc t ur e as s i mpl y nos t al gi c , wh i c h
it ma ni f e s t l y i s; but r at he r fol l ows o ut a very c o mp l e x set o f t e mp o r a l ,
s pat i al , a n d mo r a l pos i t i ons . He no t e s t hat pas t oral f r e que nt l y i n-
v o l v e s a critical nostalgia, a way (as Di a mo n d [1974] a r g ue s for a c o n -
c e pt o f t h e pr i mi t i ve ) t o br e ak wi t h t he h e g e mo n i c , c o r r u p t p r e s e n t by
a s s e r t i ng t he real i t y o f a radi cal al t ernat i ve. Edwa r d Sapi r' s "Cul t ur e ,
Ge n u i n e a n d Spur i o us " (1966) r e c api t ul at e s t he s e cri t i cal pas t or al
v a l ue s . An d i n d e e d e v e r y i ma g i n e d aut he nt i c i t y p r e s u p p o s e s , a n d
is p r o d u c e d by, a pr e s e nt c i r c ums t a nc e o f fel t i naut he nt i c i t y. Bu t
Wi l l i ams ' s t r e a t me n t s ug g e s t s t hat s uc h pr oj e c t i ons n e e d n o t be c ons i s -
t e nt l y l o c a t e d i n t he pas t ; or, wha t a mo u n t s t o t he s a me t hi ng , t hat t he
" g e n u i n e " e l e me n t s o f cul t ural l i fe n e e d no t be r e pe t i t i ous l y e n c o d e d
as fr agi l e , t h r e a t e n e d , a n d t rans i ent . Th i s s e ns e o f pe r vas i ve s oci al
f r a g me n t a t i o n , o f a c o ns t a nt di s r upt i o n o f "nat ural " r e l at i ons , i s c har -
act eri s t i c o f a s ubj ect i vi t y Wi l l i ams l oos e l y c o nne c t s wi t h ci ty l i fe a n d
wi t h r o ma nt i c i s m. T h e self, c ut l o o s e f r o m vi abl e col l ect i ve t i es, is a n
i de nt i t y i n s e ar c h o f who l e ne s s , ha v i ng i nt e r nal i z e d l os s a n d e m-
b a r k e d o n a n e ndl e s s s e ar c h for aut hent i ci t y. Wh o l e n e s s by de f i ni t i o n
b e c o me s a t h i n g o f t he pas t ( rural , pr i mi t i ve , chi l dl i ke) acces s i bl e o nl y
as a fiction, g r a s p e d f r o m a s t anc e o f i n c o mp l e t e i n v o l v e me n t . Ge o r g e
El i ot' s no v e l s e p i t o mi z e t hi s s i t uat i on o f par t i c i pant - obs e r vat i on i n a
" c o mmo n c o n d i t i o n . . . a kno wa bl e c o mmu n i t y , b e l o n g [ i n g ] i deal l y i n
t h e pas t . " Middlemarch, for e x a mp l e , is pr oj e c t e d a g e n e r a t i o n bac k
f r o m t h e t i me o f its wr i t i ng t o 1830. An d t hi s is a p p r o x i ma t e l y t he
t e mp o r a l di s t a nc e t hat ma n y c o nv e nt i o na l e t h n o g r a p h i e s a s s u me
w h e n t he y de s c r i be a pa s s i ng real i t y, "t radi t i onal " l i fe, i n t he p r e s e n t
t e ns e . T h e fiction o f a kno wa bl e c o mmu n i t y "can be r e c r e a t e d t he r e J
for a wi de l y r a n g i n g mo r a l act i on. Bu t t he real s t e p t hat has b e e n jl
t a k e n is wi t hdr awal f r o m any ful l r e s p o n s e t o a n e x i s t i ng s oci et y. Va l ue 1
i s i n t h e pas t , as a g e ne r a l r e t r os pe c t i ve c o ndi t i o n, a n d is i n t he p r e - !
s e nt o nl y as a par t i c ul ar a n d pri vat e sensi bi l i t y, t he i ndi v i dua l mo r a l
ac t i on" (180).
I n Ge o r g e El i ot we c an s e e t he d e v e l o p me n t o f a s t yl e o f s oc i ol ogi -
cal wr i t i ng t hat wi l l de s c r i be wh o l e c ul t ur e s ( kno wa bl e wor l ds ) f r o m a
s pe c i fi c t e mp o r a l di s t a nc e a n d wi t h a p r e s u mp t i o n o f t he i r t r a ns i e nc e .
Th i s wi l l be a c c o mp l i s h e d f r o m a l ovi ng, de t ai l e d, but ul t i mat e l y di s - |
e n g a g e d , s t a ndpo i nt . Hi s t ori cal wo r l ds wi l l be s al vage d as t e xt ual fab- |
r i c at i ons d i s c o n n e c t e d f r o m o n g o i n g l i ved mi l i e ux a n d s ui t abl e for !
mo r a l , al l e gor i c al a ppr o pr i a t i o n by i ndi vi dual r e a de r s . I n pr o pe r l y
ethnographic pas t or al t hi s t e xt ual i z i ng s t r uc t ur e i s g e ne r a l i z e d b e y o n d
t he di s s oc i at i ons o f ni ne t e e nt h- c e nt ur y En g l a n d t o a wi de r capi t al i st
t o p o g r a p h y o f We s t e r n / n o n - We s t e r n , c i t y/ c ount r y o ppo s i t i o ns . "Pri m-
i t i ve, " no nl i t e r a t e , u n d e r d e v e l o p e d , t ri bal s oci et i es ar e c ons t ant l y yi e l d-
i n g t o pr o g r e s s , "l os i ng" t he i r t radi t i ons . "In t he n a me o f s c i e nc e , we
a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s c o mp o s e r e qui e ms , " wri t es Ro be r t Mu r p h y (1984).
Bu t t h e mo s t pr o bl e ma t i c , a n d pol i t i cal l y c h a r g e d , a s pe c t o f t hi s "pas -
t oral " e n c o d a t i o n is its r e l e nt l e s s p l a c e me n t o f o t he r s i n a pr e s e nt -
b e c o mi n g - p a s t . Wh a t wo u l d it r e qui r e , for e x a mp l e , c ons i s t e nt l y t o
as s oc i at e t h e i nve nt i ve , res i l i ent , e n o r mo u s l y var i e d s oc i e t i e s o f
Me l a ne s i a wi t h t he c ul t ur al future o f t he pl ane t ? Ho w mi g h t e t h n o -
g r a p h i e s b e di ffe r e nt l y c o n c e i v e d i f t hi s s t a ndpo i nt c o ul d be s e r i ous l y
a d o p t e d ? Pas t or al al l e gor i e s o f cul t ural l oss a n d t e xt ual r e s c ue wo u l d ,
i n a ny e v e nt , ha v e t o be t r a n s f o r me d .
9
Pe r vas i ve a s s u mp t i o n s a bo ut e t h n o g r a p h y as wr i t i ng wo u l d al s o
ha v e t o be al t e r e d. For al l e gor i e s o f s al vage ar e i mp l i e d by t he ve r y
pr ac t i c e o f t e xt ual i z at i on t hat i s ge ne r al l y a s s u me d t o be at t he c o r e o f
c ul t ur al de s c r i pt i o n. Wh a t e v e r el s e a n e t h n o g r a p h y d o e s , i t t r ans l at e s
e x p e r i e n c e i nt o t ext . T h e r e are var i ous ways o f e ffe c t i ng t hi s t rans l a-
t i on, ways t hat ha v e s i gni fi cant et hi cal a n d pol i t i cal c o n s e q u e n c e s . On e
c a n "wri t e u p " t he res ul t s o f a n i ndi v i dua l e x p e r i e n c e o f r e s e a r c h.
Th i s ma y g e n e r a t e a real i st i c a c c o unt o f t he unwr i t t e n e x p e r i e n c e o f
a n o t h e r g r o u p o r p e r s o n . On e c an pr e s e nt t hi s t e xt ual i z at i on as t he
o u t c o me o f o bs e r v a t i o n, o f i nt e r pr e t at i on, o f di a l o g ue . On e c a n c o n -
s t r uc t a n e t h n o g r a p h y c o mp o s e d o f di a l o g ue s . On e c an f e a t ur e mu l -
t i pl e voi c e s , o r a s i ngl e voi ce. On e c an por t r ay t he o t h e r as a s t abl e,
e s s e nt i al wh o l e , o r o n e c an s ho w it t o be t he pr o duc t o f a nar r at i ve o f
di s c ove r y, i n s peci fi c hi s t ori cal c i r c ums t anc e s . I ha v e di s c us s e d s o me
o f t he s e c ho i c e s e l s e wh e r e (1983a). Wh a t is i r r e duc i bl e , i n all o f t h e m,
i s t he a s s u mp t i o n t hat e t h n o g r a p h y br i ngs e x p e r i e n c e a n d di s c o ur s e
i nt o wr i t i ng.
T h o u g h t hi s is mani fe s t l y t he c as e , a n d i n d e e d refl ect s a ki nd o f
c o mmo n s e ns e , it is no t a n i n n o c e n t c o mmo n s e ns e . Si nc e ant i qui t y
t he s t or y o f a pa s s a g e f r o m t he or al / aur al i nt o wr i t i ng has b e e n a c o m-
p l e x a n d c h a r g e d o n e . Eve r y e t h n o g r a p h y e nac t s s uc h a mo v e me n t ,
a n d t hi s is o n e s o ur c e o f t he pe c ul i ar aut hor i t y t hat finds bo t h r e s c u e
a n d i r r e t r i e vabl e l o s s a ki nd o f d e a t h i n l i f e i n t he ma k i n g o f t e xt s
f r o m e v e nt s a n d di a l o g ue s . Wo r ds a n d d e e d s are t r ans i e nt ( a nd au-
9. I n my reading, the most powerful attempt to unthink this temporal setup, by
means of an ethnographic invention of Melanesia, is the work of Roy Wagner (1979,
1980). He opposes, perhaps too sharply, Western "anticipations of the past" with
Melanesian "anticipations of the future." The former are associated with the idea of
culture as a structuring tradition (1979: 162). Hugh Brody's Maps and Dreams (1982)
offers a subtle and precise attempt to portray the hunting life of Beaver I ndians in
northwest Canada as they confront world-system forces, an oil pipeline, hunti ng for
sport, etc. He presents his work as a political collaboration. And he is careful to keep the
future open, uncertain, walking a fine line between narratives of "survival," "accultura-
tion," and "impact."
i i 6
JAMES CLIFFORD
t hen t i c ) , wr i t i n g e n d u r e s (as s u p p l emen t ar i t y an d ar tific e) . T h e t ex t
e mb al ms t he ev en t as it e x t e n d s its "mean i n g . " Si n c e So c r at es' r ef u sal
to wr i t e, i tsel f p o wer f u l l y wr i t t en by Pl ato , a p r o f o u n d amb i v al en c e
t o war d t he p as s ag e f r o m or al to l i ter ate has c har ac t er i z ed Wes t er n
t hi n k i n g . An d m u c h o f t he p o we r an d p at ho s o f e t hn o g r ap hy d er i v es
f r o m t he fac t t hat it has si t u at ed its p r ac ti c e wi thi n thi s c r uc i al tr ansi -
t i o n . T h e f i el d wo r k er p r esi d es o v er , an d c o n t r o l s i n s o me d e g r e e , t he
mak i n g o f a t ex t o u t o f l ife. Hi s o r her d esc r i p t i o n s an d i n t er p r et a-
t i o n s b e c o m e p ar t o f t he "c o nsul tabl e r ec o r d o f what man has sai d"
( Geer t z 1973: 30) . T h e t ex t is a r ec o r d o f s o me t hi n g en u n c i at ed ,
i n a past. T h e st r u c t u r e, if n o t t he t hemat i c c o n t en t , o f pasto r al is
r ep eat ed .
A smal l p ar ab l e may g i v e a sen se o f why this al l eg o r y o f et h-
n o g r ap hi c r es c u e an d l oss has r ec en t l y b e c o me l ess sel f - ev i d en t . It is a
t r u e p ar ab l e.
1 0
A s t u d en t o f Af r i c an ethn' o- hi stor y is c o n d u c t i n g fi el d
r es ear c h in Gab o n . He is c o n c e r n e d wi t h t he Mp o n g w , a c oastal
g r o u p who , i n t he n i n et een t h c en t u r y , wer e ac ti v e i n c o n t ac t s wi t h Eu -
r o p e an t r ad er s an d c o l o n i st s. Th e "tribe" still ex i sts, i n t he r eg i o n
o f Li b r ev i l l e, an d t he et hn o - hi st o r i an has ar r an g ed to i n t er v i ew t he
c u r r en t Mp o n g w c hi ef ab o u t tr adi ti o nal l ife, r el i g i o u s r i tual , an d
s o o n . I n p r ep ar at i o n f o r his i n t er v i ew t he r esear c her c o n su l t s a c o m-
p e n d i u m o f l o c al c u s t o m c o mp i l ed i n t he ear l y t wen t i et h c en t u r y
by a Gab o n e s e Chr i st i an an d p i o n eer i n g et hn o g r ap her , t he Ab b
Rap o n d a- Wal k er . B e f o r e me e t i n g wi th t he Mp o n g w c hi ef t he et h-
n o g r ap he r c o p i es o u t a l ist o f r el i g i o u s t er ms, i n sti tu ti o n s an d c o n -
c ep t s , r e c o r d e d an d d ef i n ed by Rap o n d a- Wal k er . Th e i n t er v i ew wil l
f o l l o w thi s l ist, c hec k i n g whe t he r t he c u s t o ms per si st, an d if so , wi t h
what i n n o v at i o n s . At first t hi n g s g o smo o t hl y , wi t h t he Mp o n g w au -
t ho r i t y - p r o v i d i n g d esc r i p t i o n s an d i n t er p r et at i o n s o f t he t er ms s u g -
g es t ed , o r el se n o t i n g that a pr ac ti c e has b e e n ab an d o n e d . Af t er a
t i me, ho we v e r , whe n t he r esear c her asks ab o u t a par ti c ul ar wo r d , t he
c hi ef s e e ms u n c er t ai n , kni ts hi s b r o ws. "Just a mo me n t , " he says : | |
c heer f u l l y , an d d i s ap p ear s i n t o his ho u s e to r et u r n wi t h a c o p y o f Ra- jj
p o n d a- Wal k er ' s c o m p e n d i u m . For t he r est o f t he i n t er v i ew t he b o o k !
l i es o p e n o n hi s l ap . !
Ver si o n s o f thi s stor y, in i n c r easi n g n u mb er s , ar e to b e hear d i n "i
t he f o l k l o r e o f et hn o g r ap hy . Su d d e n l y c ul tur al d at a c ease t o m o v e j
s mo o t hl y f r o m or al p er f o r man c e i n t o d esc r i p t i v e wr i ti n g . No w d at a !
al so m o v e f r o m t ex t to tex t, i n sc r i p t i o n b e c o me s t r an sc r i p t i o n . B o t h
i n f o r man t an d r esear c her ar e r ead er s an d re-writers o f a c u l t u r al i n - j
v en t i o n . Thi s is n o t to say, as s o me mi g ht , that t he i n t er v i ew has e n d e d |
10. My thanks to Henry Bucher for this true story. I have told it as a parable, both
because it is one, and because I suspect he would tell it somewhat differently, having
been there.
On Ethnogr aphic Al l egory 117
i n a ster i l e s ho r t c i r c ui t. No r n e e d o n e , l i ke So c r at es i n t he Phaedrus,
l ame n t t he er o s i o n o f m e m o r y by l iter ac y. Th e i n t er v i ew has n o t , s u d -
d en l y , b e c o m e "i nauthenti c , " t he d ata mer el y i mp o s ed . Rat her , what
o n e mu s t r ec k o n wi t h ar e n e w c o n d i t i o n s o f et hn o g r ap hi c p r o d u c t i o n .
First, it is n o l o n g e r po ssi bl e to ac t as if t he o u t si d e r es ear c her is t he
so l e, o r p r i mar y , b r i n g er o f t he c u l t u r e i n t o wr i ti ng . Thi s has, i n fac t,
s e l d o m b e e n t he c ase. Ho we v e r , t her e has b e e n a c o n si st en t t e n d e n c y
a m o n g fieldworkers to hi d e, di sc r edi t, o r mar g i n al i z e p r i o r wr i t t en ac -
c o u n t s (by mi ssi o n ar i es, tr av el er s, ad mi n i st r at o r s, l o c al au t ho r i t i es,
e v e n o t her et hn o g r ap her s ) . Th e fieldworker, typic al l y, star ts f r o m
sc r at c h, f r o m a r esear c h experience, r at her t han f r o m r ead i n g o r t r an -
sc r i b i n g . T h e field is n o t c o n c ei v ed o f as al r ead y filled wi th t ex t s. Yet
thi s i n t er t ex t u al p r ed i c amen t is mo r e an d mo r e t he c ase ( Lar c o m
1983). Se c o n d , "i n f o r man t s" i n c r easi n g l y r ead an d wr i te. Th e y i n t er -
p r et p r i o r v er s i o n s o f thei r c u l t u r e, as wel l as t ho se b e i n g wr i t t en b y
e t hn o g r ap hi c sc ho l ar s. Wo r k wi th t ex t s t he p r o c ess o f i n sc r i p t i o n ,
r ewr i t i n g , an d so f o r t hi s n o l o n g er (if it ev er was) t he ex c l u si v e d o -
mai n o f o u t s i d e au t ho r i t i es. "No n l i t er at e" c u l t u r es ar e al r ead y t ex -
t u al i z ed ; t her e ar e few, if any , "vir gin" l i feway s to b e v i o l at ed an d p r e-
s er v ed b y wr i t i n g . Thi r d , a v er y wi d es p r ead , e m p o we r i n g d i st i n c t i o n
has b e e n e r o d e d : t he d i v i si o n o f t he g l o b e i n t o l i ter ate an d n o n l i t er at e
p eo p l es . Thi s d i st i n c t i o n is n o l o n g er wi d el y ac c u r at e, as n o n - Wes t er n ,
"tribal " p e o p l e s b e c o m e i n c r easi n g l y l iter ate. Bu t f u r t her mo r e, o n c e
o n e b eg i n s to d o u b t t he et hn o g r ap her ' s mo n o p o l y o n t he p o we r t o i n -
sc r i be, o n e b eg i n s t o see t he "wr i ti ng" ac tivities that hav e al way s b e e n
p u r s u e d by n at i v e c o l l ab o r at o r s f r o m an Am b r y m i sl ander ' s sk et c h
(in a f a m o u s g es t u r e) o f an i ntr i c ate k i n s hi p sy st em i n t he s an d f o r
A. B. De ac o n t o t he Si o u x Ge o r g e Swo r d' s b o o k - l en g t h c u l t u r al d e -
sc r i p t i o n f o u n d i n t he p ap er s o f J ames Wal ker . (See t he I n t r o d u c t i o n
o f thi s v o l u me , p . 15. )
B u t t he mo s t su b v er si v e c hal l en g e to t he al l eg o r y o f t ex t u al i z at i o n
I hav e b e e n d i s c u s s i n g her e is f o u n d i n t he wo r k o f Der r i d a ( 1974) .
Per hap s t he mo s t e n d u r i n g effec t o f hi s r evival o f "g r ammat o l o g y "
has b e e n to e x p a n d what was c o n v en t i o n al l y t ho u g ht o f as wr i t i n g . Al-
phabetic wr i t i n g , he ar g u es , is a r estr i c ti v e d ef i n i t i o n that ti es t he b r o ad
r an g e o f mar k s , spati al ar ti c ul ati o ns, g est u r es, an d o t her i n sc r i p t i o n s
at wo r k i n hu m a n c u l t u r es t o o c l o sel y to t he r ep r esen t at i o n o f s p eec h,
t he o r al / au r al wo r d . I n o p p o s i n g l o g o c en t r i c r ep r es en t at i o n to cri-
ture, he r adi c al l y e x t e n d s t he d ef i n i t i o n o f t he "wr i tten, " in effec t
s m u d g i n g its c l ear d i st i n c t i o n f r o m t he "sp o k en . " The r e is n o n e e d
her e to p u r s u e i n detai l a d i so r i en t i n g pr o j ec t that is by n o w wel l
k n o wn . What mat t er s for e t hn o g r ap hy is t he c l ai m that all h u m a n
g r o u p s wr i te- i f t hey ar ti c ul ate, cl assify, p o ssess an "o r al - l i ter atur e, "
o r i nsc r i be t hei r wo r l d in ritual acts. The y r ep eat ed l y "tex tual i z e"
i i 8 JAMES CLIFFORD
me a n i n g s . T h u s , i n Derri da' s e pi s t e mo l o g y , t he wr i t i ng o f e t h n o g r a -
p h y c a n n o t be s e e n as a drast i cal l y n e w f o r m o f c ul t ur al i ns c r i pt i on,
as a n e x t e r i o r i mpo s i t i o n o n a "pure, " unwr i t t e n o r a l / a ur a l uni -
v e r s e . T h e l o g o s i s n o t pr i mar y a n d t he gramme its me r e s e c o n d a r y
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
S e e n i n t hi s l i ght , t he pr oc e s s e s o f e t h n o g r a p h i c wr i t i ng a p p e a r
mo r e c o mp l e x . If, as De r r i da wo u l d say, t he c ul t ur e s s t udi e d by a n-
t hr o po l o g i s t s are al ways al r e ady wr i t i ng t he ms e l v e s , t he s pe c i al s t at us
o f t he fieldworker-scholar wh o "bri ngs t he c ul t ur e i nt o wr i t i ng" is
u n d e r c u t . Wh o , i n fact , wri t es a my t h t hat is r e c i t e d i nt o a t a pe re-
c o r de r , o r c o p i e d d o w n t o b e c o me part o f field not e s ? Wh o wr i t e s ( i n
a s e n s e g o i n g b e y o n d t r ans c r i pt i on) a n i nt e r pr e t a t i o n o f c u s t o m pr o -
d u c e d t h r o u g h i nt e ns e c o nv e r s a t i o ns wi t h k n o wl e d g e a b l e nat i ve col -
l abor at or s ? I ha v e a r g u e d t hat s uc h que s t i ons c an, a n d s h o u l d , g e n e r -
at e a r e t h i n k i n g o f e t h n o g r a p h i c aut hor i t y ( Cl i fford 1983a). I n t he
p r e s e n t c o n t e x t I wa nt me r e l y t o u n d e r l i n e t he pe r vas i ve c h a l l e n g e ,
b o t h hi s t ori cal a n d t he or e t i c al i n or i gi n, t hat pr e s e nt l y c o n f r o n t s t he
a l l e g o r y o f e t h n o g r a p h i c pract i ce as t e xt ual i z at i on.
It is i mp o r t a n t t o k e e p t he al l egori cal d i me n s i o n s i n mi n d . For i n
t he We s t t he pa s s a g e f r o m oral t o l i t erat e is a po t e nt r e c ur r i ng story
o f p o we r , c o r r upt i o n, a n d l oss. It repl i cat es ( and t o a n e x t e n t p r o -
duc e s ) t he s t r uc t ur e o f pas t oral t hat has b e e n pe r vas i ve i n t we nt i e t h-
c e n t u r y e t h n o g r a p h y . Lo g o c e nt r i c wr i t i ng is c o nv e nt i o na l l y c o n c e i v e d
t o b e a representation o f aut he nt i c s pe e c h. Pre- l i t erat e ( t he p h r a s e c o n -
t ai ns a s t ory) s oci et i es ar e oral s oci et i es ; wr i t i ng c o me s t o t h e m f r o m
"out s i de , " a n i nt r us i o n f r o m a wi de r wor l d. Wh e t h e r b r o u g h t by mi s -
s i onary, t r ade r , or e t h n o g r a p h e r , wr i t i ng is bo t h e mp o we r i n g (a ne c -
es s ary, e ffe c t i ve way o f s t or i ng a n d ma ni pul a t i ng k n o wl e d g e ) a n d
c o r r u p t i n g (a l os s o f i mme di a c y , o f t he fac e - t o- fac e c o mmu n i c a t i o n
Soc r at e s c h e r i s h e d , o f t he p r e s e n c e a n d i nt i mac y o f s pe e c h) . A c o m-
p l e x a n d fert i l e r e c e nt de ba t e has ci rcl ed a r o u n d t he val or i z at i on, hi s -
t ori cal s i gni fi c anc e , a n d e pi s t e mo l o g i c a l st at us o f wr i t i ng . " Wh a t e v e r
ma y o r ma y no t ha v e b e e n s et t l ed i n t he de ba t e , t he r e is n o d o u b t o f
wh a t has b e c o me uns e t t l e d: t he s ha r p di s t i nc t i on o f t he worl d' s cul - i
t ur e s i nt o l i t erat e a n d pre- l i t erat e; t he no t i o n t hat e t h n o g r a p h i c t e x-
t ual i z at i on i s a pr o c e s s t hat e nac t s a f u n d a me n t a l t r ans i t i on f r o m or al
e x p e r i e n c e t o wr i t t e n r e pr e s e nt a t i o n; t he a s s u mp t i o n t hat s o me t h i n g
e s s e nt i al is l os t wh e n a c ul t ur e b e c o me s "e t hnogr aphi c "; t he s t r ange l y
a mbi v a l e nt aut hor i t y o f a pract i ce t hat s al vages as t e xt a c ul t ur al l i fe
b e c o mi n g pas t .
T h e s e c o mp o n e n t s o f what I ha v e cal l ed e t h n o g r a p h i c pas t or al n o
11. The "debate" centers on the confrontation of Ong (1967, 1977, 1982) and
Derri da (1973, 1974). Tyler (1978, 1984b) tries to work past the opposition. Goody
(1977) and Eisenstein (1979) have made important recent contributions.
On Et hnographi c Al l egory
119
l o n g e r a p p e a r as c o mmo n s e ns e . Re a d i n g a n d wr i t i ng ar e g e ne r a l -
i z e d. I f t he e t h n o g r a p h e r r e ads c ul t ur e o v e r t he nat i ve' s s h o u l d e r , t h e
nat i ve al s o r e a ds o v e r t he e t hno g r a phe r ' s s h o u l d e r as h e o r s he wr i t e s
e a c h c ul t ur al de s c r i pt i o n. Fi e l dwo r ke r s are i nc r e as i ngl y c o n s t r a i n e d
i n wh a t t he y publ i s h by t he r e ac t i ons o f t ho s e pr e vi ous l y cl as s i fi ed as
no nl i t e r a t e . No v e l s by a S a mo a n ( Al fr e d We ndt ) c an c h a l l e n g e t he
por t r ai t o f hi s p e o p l e by a di s t i ng ui s he d a nt hr o po l o g i s t . T h e n o t i o n
t hat wr i t i ng is a c o r r upt i o n, t hat s o me t h i n g i rret ri evabl y p u r e is l ost
wh e n a c ul t ur al wo r l d i s t e xt ual i z e d i s, aft er De r r i da , s e e n t o be a pe r -
vas i ve, c o nt e s t a bl e , We s t e r n al l egory. Wal t er On g a n d o t he r s ha v e
s h o wn t hat s o me t h i n g i s, i n d e e d , l ost wi t h t he g e ne r a l i z a t i o n o f wri t -
i ng . Bu t a ut he nt i c c ul t ur e is no t t hat s o me t h i n g t o be g a t h e r e d u p i n
its fr agi l e , final t r ut h by a n e t h n o g r a p h e r or by a n y o n e e l s e .
Mo d e r n al l e gor y, Wal t er Be n j a mi n ( 1977) t el l s us , is b a s e d o n a
s e ns e o f t he wo r l d as t r ans i e nt a n d fr agme nt ar y. "Hi s t ory" is g r a s p e d
as a pr o c e s s , no t o f i nve nt i ve l i fe, but o f "i rresi st i bl e de c ay. " T h e
mat e r i al a n a l o g u e o f al l e gor y is t hus t he "rui n" (178), a n al ways -
d i s a p p e a r i n g s t r uc t ur e t hat i nvi t es i magi nat i ve r e c o ns t r uc t i o n. Be n -
j a mi n o bs e r v e s t hat "appr e c i at i on o f t he t r ans i e nc e o f t hi ng s , a n d t he
c o n c e r n t o r e d e e m t h e m for et erni t y, is o n e o f t he s t r o ng e s t i mp u l s e s
i n al l e gor y" ( quo t e d by Wol i n 1982 : 71 ) . My a c c o unt o f e t h n o g r a p h i c
pas t or al s ug g e s t s t hat t hi s "i mpul s e " is t o be res i s t ed, no t by a b a n d o n -
i n g a l l e g o r y a n i mpo s s i bl e a i mb u t by o p e n i n g o ur s e l v e s t o di ffer-
e n t hi s t or i e s .
AAA
Allegories are secured . . . by teaching people to read in certain ways.
TALAL ASAD (comment on this essay at the Santa Fe seminar)
I ha v e e x p l o r e d s o me i mpo r t a nt al l egori cal f o r ms t hat e x -
pr e s s "c o s mo l o g i c a l " pat t e r ns o f o r d e r a n d di s or de r , fabl es o f pe r -
s onal ( g e n d e r e d ) i de nt i t y, a n d pol i t i ci zed mo d e l s o f t e mpor al i t y. T h e
f ut ur e o f t h e s e f o r ms is unc e r t a i n; t he y are b e i n g r e wr i t t e n a n d cri ti -
c i z e d i n c u r r e n t pr ac t i c e . A fe w c o nc l us i o ns , o r at l east as s e r t i ons , ma y
be d r a wn f r o m t hi s e x pl o r a t i o n.
T h e r e is n o way defi ni t el y, s urgi cal l y, t o s e par at e t he fact ual f r o m
t he al l e gor i c al i n c ul t ur al a c c o unt s . T h e dat a o f e t h n o g r a p h y
ma k e s e n s e o nl y wi t hi n pa t t e r ne d a r r a n g e me n t s a n d nar r at i ve s ,
a n d t h e s e ar e c o nv e nt i o na l , pol i t i cal , a nd me a n i n g f u l i n a mo r e
t h a n r e fe r e nt i al s e ns e . Cul t ur al fact s are no t t r ue a n d c ul t ur al al -
l e g o r i e s fal s e. I n t he h u ma n s c i e nc e s t he r e l at i on o f fact t o al l e-
g o r y is a d o ma i n o f s t r uggl e a n d i ns t i t ut i onal di s c i pl i ne .
120 JAMES CLIFFORD
T h e me a n i n g s o f a n et hn o g r a p hi c a c c o u n t a r e u n c o n t r o l l a bl e.
Ne i t he r a n a ut hor ' s i n t en t i o n , n o r di s c i pl i na r y t r a i ni ng , n o r t he
r u l es o f g e n r e c a n l i mi t t he r ea d i n g s o f a t ex t t ha t wi l l e m e r g e
wi t h n e w hi s t or i c a l , s ci ent i f i c, o r pol i t i cal pr o j ec t s . Bu t i f e t hn o g -
r a p hi es a r e s us c ep t i bl e t o mu l t i p l e i n t er p r et a t i o n s , t hes e a r e n o t
at a n y g i v en m o m e n t i nf i ni t e, o r mer el y "s ubj ec t i ve" ( i n t he p e-
j o r a t i v e s en s e) . Re a d i n g is i n d et er mi n a t e o n l y t o t he ex t en t t ha t
hi s t o r y i t s el f is o p e n - e n d e d . If t her e is a c o m m o n r es i s t a nc e t o t he
r ec o g n i t i o n o f a l l eg o r y , a f ea r t ha t it l ea ds t o a ni hi l i s m o f r ea d i n g ,
t hi s is n o t a real i s t i c f ea r . It c o n f u s es c o n t es t s f o r me a n i n g wi t h
d i s o r d er . An d o f t en it ref l ect s a wi s h t o p r es er v e a n "obj ec t i v e"
r het o r i c , r ef u s i n g t o l o c a t e its o w n m o d e o f p r o d u c t i o n wi t hi n i n -
v en t i v e c u l t u r e a n d hi s t or i c a l c ha n g e.
A r ec o g n i t i o n o f a l l eg o r y i n es c a p a bl y p o s es t he pol i t i cal a n d et hi -
cal d i me n s i o n s o f et hn o g r a p hi c wr i t i ng . It s u g g es t s t ha t t hes e be
ma n i f es t ed , n o t hi d d e n . In t hi s l i g ht , t he o p e n a l l eg o r i z i n g o f a
Me a d o r a Ben ed i c t en a c t s a c er t a i n p r o bi t y p r o p er l y e x p o s i n g
i t s el f t o t he a c c u s a t i o n o f ha v i n g used t ri bal s o c i et i es f o r p e d a g o g i -
cal p u r p o s es . ( Let t ho s e f r ee o f s u c h p u r p o s es cas t t he first s t o n e! )
On e n e e d n o t , o f c o u r s e, p u r v ey hea v y - ha n d ed " mes s a g es , " o r
t wi s t c ul t ur a l f act s (as p r es en t l y k n o wn ) t o a pol i t i cal p u r p o s e . I
w o u l d s u g g es t as a mo d e l o f a l l eg or i c a l t act Ma r c el Maus s ' s The
Gift. No o n e w o u l d d e n y its s ci ent i f i c i mp o r t a n c e o r s c ho l a r l y c o m-
mi t men t . Yet f r o m t he o ut s et , a n d es pec i a l l y i n i ts c o n c l u d i n g
c ha p t er , t he wor k' s a i m is p a t ent : "to dr a w c o n c l u s i o n s o f a mo r a l
n a t u r e a bo u t s o me o f t he p r o bl ems c o n f r o n t i n g us i n o u r p r es en t
e c o n o mi c cri s i s " ( 19 6 7 : 2 ) . Th e bo o k wa s wr i t t en i n r e s p o n s e t o
t he br e a k d o w n o f Eu r o p e a n r ec i pr o c i t y i n Wo r l d Wa r I. T h e t r o u -
bl i n g p r o x i mi t y it s ho ws bet w een e x c ha n g e a n d wa r f a r e, t he i m-
a g e o f t he r o u n d t abl e ev o k ed at t he e n d , t hes e a n d o t her u r g e n t
r es o n a n c es ma r k t he wo r k as a s o c i a l i s t - huma ni s t a l l eg o r y a d -
d r es s ed t o t he pol i t i c al wo r l d o f t he t went i es.. Thi s is n o t t he wor k' s
o n l y " c o nt ent . " Th e ma n y r er ea d i n g s The Gift ha s g e n e r a t e d t es -
t i f y t o i ts p r o d u c t i v i t y as a t ex t . It c a n e v e n be r e a d i n c er t a i n
g r a d u a t e s emi n a r s a s a cl as s i c c o mp a r a t i v e s t u d y o f e x c ha n g e ,
wi t h a d mo n i t i o n s t o s ki m o v er t he final c ha p t er . Thi s is a s a d mi s -
t a ke. For it mi s s es t he o p p o r t u n i t y t o l ea r n f r o m a n a d mi r a bl e ex -
a mp l e o f s c i en c e d ep l o y i n g i t s el f in hi s t or y.
A r ec o g n i t i o n o f a l l eg o r y c o mp l i c a t es t he wr i t i n g a n d r ea d i n g o f
e t hn o g r a p hi e s i n p o t ent i a l l y f r ui t f ul ways . A t en d en c y e me r g e s t o
s p ec i f y a n d s ep a r a t e di f f er ent a l l eg or i c a l r eg i s t er s wi t hi n t he t ex t .
T h e ma r k i n g o f f o f e x t e n d e d i n d i g en o u s d i s c o u r s es s ho ws t he
On Et hnographi c Al l egory 121
For he l pful criticisms of this pape r I would li ke to than k Ri chard Han dl e r, Susan
Ge vi rtz, Davi d Schne i de r, Harry Be rge r, an d the Santa Fe semi nar parti ci pants, espe-
ci ally Mi chae l Fi scher.
e t hn o g r a p hy t o be a hi er a r c hi c a l s t r uc t ur e o f p o w er f u l s t o r i es
t ha t t r a ns l a t e, en c o u n t er , a n d r ec o n t ex t u a l i z e o t her p o wer f u l
s t o r i es . It is a p a l i mp s es t ( Ow en s 1980 ). Mo r eo v er , a n a wa r en es s
o f a l l eg o r y he i g ht e n s a wa r en es s o f t he na r r a t i v es , a n d o t her t e m-
p o r a l s et u p s , i mpl i c i t l y o r ex pl i c i t l y at wo r k. Is t he r e d e mp t i v e
s t r u c t u r e o f s a l v a g e- t ex t ua l i z a t i o n bei n g r ep l a c ed ? By wha t n e w
a l l eg o r i es ? Of conf l i ct ? Of e me r g e n c e ? Of s y n c r et i s m?
1 2
Fi na l l y , a r ec o g n i t i o n o f a l l eg o r y r eq u i r es t ha t as r ea d er s a n d wr i t -
er s o f e t hn o g r a p hi e s , w e s t r u g g l e t o c o n f r o n t a n d t a ke r es p o n s i -
bi l i t y f o r o u r s y s t ema t i c c o n s t r u c t i o n s o f o t her s a n d o f o u r s el v es
t hr o u g h o t her s . Thi s r ec o g n i t i o n n e e d n o t ul t i ma t el y l ea d t o a n
i r o n i c p o s i t i o n t ho u g h it mu s t c o n t e n d wi t h p r o f o u n d i r o n i es . If
w e a r e c o n d e m n e d t o t el l s t or i es we c a n n o t c o n t r o l , ma y w e n o t , at
l ea s t , t el l s t o r i es we bel i ev e t o be t r ue.
12. For recent changes i n these un de rlyi n g stories, see note 9, above, an d Brun e r
1985. See also James Boon's 1983 e xplorati on of anthropology's satiric di mensi ons.
A parti al way out can perhaps be envi si oned i n the pre -mode rn curre n t that Har r y
Be rge r has called "strong" or "me tapastoral"a tradi ti on he finds i n the wri ti n g of
Si dney, Spenser, Shakespeare, Cervantes, Mi l ton , Marve ll, an d Pope. "Such pastoral
constructs wi thi n i tself an i mage of its generi c tradi ti ons i n orde r to cri ti ci ze the m an d,
i n the process, pe rforms a cri ti que on the li mi ts of its own enterpri se even as i t i roni cally
displays its de li ght i n the activity i t criticizes" (1984: 2). Mode rn e thn ographi c examples
are rare , although much of Lvi-Strauss's Tristes Tropiques certai nly quali fi es.
STEPHEN A. T YL E R
Post-Modern Ethnography:
From Document of the Occult
to Occult Document
First Voice: Context
T h e p a p e r t hat fol l ows t hi s i nt r o duc t i o n is part o f a g r o u p o f
es s ays wr i t t e n at var i ous t i me s a n d i n r e s p o n s e t o var i ous i nf l ue nc e s .
No n e t h e l e s s , e a c h es s ay ant i ci pat es , al l ude s t o, bui l ds o n , o r p r e s u p -
p o s e s t he o t he r s . Eac h de al s i n o n e way or a n o t h e r wi t h di s c o ur s e a n d
r he t or i c , a n d e a c h c har ac t e r i z e s t he t e ns i o n b e t we e n t he pos s i bl e
wo r l ds o f c o mmo n s e ns e a n d t he i mpo s s i bl e wo r l ds o f s c i e nc e a n d
pol i t i cs . To g e t h e r t he y tel l h o w t he rhet ori cal mo d e s o f e t hi c s (ethos),
s c i e nc e (eidos), a n d pol i t i cs (pathos) are s ens ori al al l e gor i e s wh o s e r oot
me t a p h o r s "s ayi ng/ he ar i ng, " "s e e i ng / s ho wi ng , " "do i ng / a c t i ng " re-
s pe c t i ve l y c r e at e t he di s c o ur s e s o f val ue , r e pr e s e nt a t i o n, a n d wor k. Al l
o f t he es s ays s pe ak o f t he e t h n o g r a p h i c c ont e xt ual i z at i on o f t he r he t o -
ri cs o f s c i e nc e a nd pol i t i cs a nd tel l h o w t he r he t or i c o f e t h n o g r a p h y is
n e i t h e r s ci ent i fi c n o r pol i t i cal , but i s, as t he pr e fi x ethno- i mpl i e s ,
e t hi c al . T h e y al s o s pe a k o f t he suffi x -graphy i n r e mi n d e r o f t he fact
t hat e t h n o g r a p h y i t sel f is c o nt e x t ua l i z e d by a t e c h n o l o g y o f wr i t t e n
c o mmu n i c a t i o n .
Ne i t h e r par t o f t he s e ar c h for uni ve r s al k n o wl e d g e , n o r a n i ns t r u-
me n t for t he s u p p r e s s i o n / e ma n c i p a t i o n o f pe o pl e s , n o r j u s t a n o t h e r
mo d e o f di s c o ur s e o n a par wi t h t hos e o f s c i e nc e a n d pol i t i cs , e t h-
n o g r a p h y i s i ns t e a d a s upe r o r di na t e di s c our s e t o whi c h all o t h e r di s -
c o ur s e s ar e rel at i vi zed a n d i n whi c h t he y find t hei r me a n i n g a n d j u s -
t i fi cat i on. Et hno g r a phy ' s s upe r o r di na t i o n is t he c o n s e q u e n c e o f its
"i mpe r f e c t i o n. " Ne i t h e r s e l f- pe r fe c t i ng i n t he ma n n e r o f s ci ent i fi c di s -
c o u r s e n o r t ot al i zi ng i n t he ma n n e r o f pol i t i cal di s c our s e , it is de f i ne d
ne i t he r by a r e fl e xi ve at t e nt i on t o its o wn rul es n o r by t he p e r f o r ma -
t i ve i ns t r ume nt a l i t y o f t ho s e r ul e s . De f i ne d ne i t he r by f o r m n o r by re-
l at i on t o a n e x t e r na l obj ect , it p r o d u c e s n o i de al i z at i ons o f f o r m a nd
Post - Modern Et hnography
123
p e r f o r ma n c e , n o fictionalized real i t i es o r real i t i es fictionalized. Its
t r a n s c e n d e n c e is n o t t hat o f a me t a - l a n g u a g e o f a l a n g u a g e s u p e r i o r
by me a n s o f its g r e a t e r pe r f e c t i o n o f f o r mn o r t hat o f a uni t y c r e -
a t e d by s ynt he s i s a n d s ubl at i on, n o r o f praxis a n d pract i cal appl i c a-
t i on. Tr a n s c e n d e n t t h e n , ne i t he r by t he o r y n o r by pr ac t i c e , n o r by
t he i r s ynt he s i s , it describes n o k n o wl e d g e a n d produces n o ac t i on. It
t r a ns c e nds i ns t e a d by evoking wha t c a n n o t be k n o wn di s c ur s i ve l y o r
p e r f o r me d pe r fe c t l y, t h o u g h all k n o w it as i f di s c ur s i ve l y a n d p e r f o r m
it as i f pe r fe c t l y.
Ev o c a t i o n is ne i t he r pr e s e nt a t i o n n o r r e pr e s e nt a t i o n. It p r e s e n t s
n o obj e c t s a n d r e pr e s e nt s n o n e , ye t it ma k e s avai l abl e t h r o u g h ab-
s e n c e wh a t c an be c o n c e i v e d but n o t pr e s e nt e d. It is t hus b e y o n d t r ut h
a n d i mmu n e t o t he j u d g me n t o f p e r f o r ma n c e . It o v e r c o me s t he s e pa -
r at i on o f t he s e ns i bl e a n d t he c onc e i vabl e , o f f o r m a n d c o n t e n t , o f s e l f
a n d o t he r , o f l a n g u a g e a n d t he wo r l d.
Ev o c a t i o n t h a t is t o say, "e t hno g r a phy "i s t he di s c o ur s e o f t he
p o s t - mo d e r n wo r l d, for t he wo r l d t hat ma d e s c i e nc e , a n d t hat s c i e nc e
ma d e , has d i s a p p e a r e d , a nd sci ent i fi c t h o u g h t is n o w a n ar c hai c mo d e
o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s s ur v i v i ng for a whi l e yet i n d e g r a d e d f o r m wi t h-
o u t t he e t h n o g r a p h i c c o nt e x t t hat c r e at e d a nd s us t a i ne d it. Sci ent i fi c
t h o u g h t s u c c u mb e d be c a us e it vi ol at e d t he first l aw o f c ul t ur e , wh i c h
says t hat "t he mo r e ma n c ont r ol s a ny t hi ng , t he mo r e unc o nt r o l l a bl e
b o t h b e c o me . " I n t he t ot al i zi ng r he t or i c o f its my t ho l o g y , s c i e nc e pur -
p o r t e d t o b e its o wn j us t i fi cat i on a n d s o u g h t t o c ont r ol a n d a u t o n o -
mi z e its di s c o ur s e . Yet its onl y j us t i hc a t i o n was pr oof, for wh i c h t h e r e
c o u l d be n o j us t i fi c at i on wi t hi n its o wn di s c our s e , a n d t he mo r e it c o n -
t r ol l e d i ts di s c o ur s e by s ubj e c t i ng it t o t he c r i t e r i on o f pr oof, t he mo r e
unc o nt r o l l a bl e its di s c o ur s e b e c a me . Its o wn act i vi t y c ons t ant l y fr ag-
me n t e d t he uni t y o f k n o wl e d g e it s o u g h t t o proj ect . T h e mo r e it kne w,
t he mo r e t he r e was t o kno w.
Al l its t e xt ual s t r at e gi e s i t s me t h o d d e p e n d e d o n a pr i o r a n d
cri t i cal di s j unc t i o n o f l a n g u a g e a n d t he wo r l d. It ma d e vi s ual pe r -
c e p t i o n u n me d i a t e d by c o nc e pt s t he or i gi n o f k n o wl e d g e a bo ut t he
wo r l d, a n d i t ma d e l a n g u a g e t he me a n s by whi c h t hat k n o wl e d g e a p-
p e a r e d i n de s c r i pt i o ns . Sc i e nc e d e p e n d e d , i n o t h e r wo r d s , o n t he d e -
s c r i pt i ve a d e q u a c y o f l a n g u a g e as a r e pr e s e nt a t i o n o f t he wo r l d, but i n
o r d e r t o mo v e f r o m i ndi vi dual pe r c e pt t o a g r e e d - u p o n p e r c e p t i o n , it
al s o n e e d e d a l a n g u a g e o f c o mmu n i c a t i v e a de qua c y t hat c o u l d e n a b l e
c o n s e n s u s i n t he c o mmu n i t y o f sci ent i st s. I n t he e n d , s c i e nc e fai l e d
be c a us e it c o u l d n o t r e c onc i l e t he c o mp e t i n g d e ma n d s o f r e p r e s e n -
t at i on a n d c o mmu n i c a t i o n . Eve r y mo v e t o e n h a n c e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n
t h r e a t e n e d c o mmu n i c a t i o n a n d e ve r y a g r e e me n t i n c o mmu n i c a t i o n
was t he s i gn o f a n e w fai l ure i n r e pr e s e nt a t i o n.
124
STEPHEN A. TYLER
Sc i e nc e a d o p t e d a mo d e l o f l a n g u a g e as a s e l f - pe r f e c t i ng f o r m o f
c l o s e d c o mmu n i c a t i o n t hat a c hi e v e d c l os ur e by ma k i n g l a n g u a g e i t s el f
t he obj e c t o f de s c r i pt i o n. Bu t c l os ur e was b o u g h t at t he c os t o f d e -
s c r i pt i ve a de qua c y . T h e mo r e l a n g u a g e b e c a me its o wn obj ect , t he l es s
i t h a d t o say a bo ut a n y t h i n g el s e. So, t he l a n g u a g e o f s c i e nc e b e c a me
t he obj e c t o f s c i e nc e , a n d wha t h a d b e g u n as p e r c e p t i o n u n me d i a t e d
by c o n c e p t s b e c a me c o n c e p t i o n u n me d i a t e d by pe r c e pt s . T h e uni t y o f
c o mmu n i c a t i o n b r o u g h t a bo ut by l a n g u a g e di s pl a c e d t he uni t y o f
p e r c e p t i o n t hat l a n g u a g e h a d f o r me r l y wr o u g h t . La n g u a g e as c o m-
mu n i c a t i o n di s pl a c e d l a n g u a g e as r e pr e s e nt a t i o n, a n d as s c i e nc e c o m-
mu n i c a t e d be t t e r a n d be t t e r a bo ut i tsel f, it h a d l ess a n d l ess t o say
a b o u t t he wo r l d. I n a n e x c e s s o f de mo c r a c y , a g r e e me n t a mo n g s c i e n-
ti sts b e c a me mo r e i mp o r t a n t t ha n t he na t ur e o f na t ur e .
Sti l l , t hi s wo u l d no t ha v e b e e n fat al ha d it no t b e e n for t he s t ub-
b o r n r e fus al o f l a n g u a g e t o pe r fe c t i tsel f. As s c i e nc e i nc r e as i ngl y d e -
fined i t s el f as t he mo d e o f di s c o ur s e t hat ha d its o wn di s c o ur s e as its
obj e c t , e v e r y mo v e t o pe r f e c t t hat di s c o ur s e a n d fill e ve r y g a p o f p r o o f
r e v e a l e d e v e r - n e w i mpe r f e c t i o ns . Eve r y s e l f- pe r fe c t i ng, s e l f- c or r e c t i ve
mo v e c r e a t e d l ocal o r de r s t hat s p a wn e d n e w i mpe r f e c t i o ns r e qui r i ng
n e w c o r r e c t i o ns . I ns t e a d o f a c o h e r e n t s ys t e m o f k n o wl e d g e , s c i e nc e
c r e a t e d a we l t e r o f l ocal o r de r s unr e l a t e d t o o n e a n o t h e r a n d b e y o n d
t h e c o nt r o l o f a n y o n e . Sci ent i fi c k n o wl e d g e was s y s t e ma t i z e d o nl y by
t h e uni t y o f a rat i onal me t h o d t hat p r o d u c e d gr e at e r a n d g r e a t e r i rra-
t i onal i t y. T h e Ut opi an uni t y o f s c i e nc e d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m s i ght a l o n g
wi t h all t he o t h e r unr e a l obj ect s o f sci ent i fi c fant asy.
Ca u g h t u p i n t he fas c i nat i on o f t hi s gl ass be a d g a me wi t h i ts e v e r -
c h a n g i n g r ul e s o f pl ay a n d p r o mi s e o f t he al ways n e w a n d di ffe r e nt ,
s ci ent i s t s ful fi l l ed i n t he i r di s c o ur s e t hat d r e a m o f capi t al i st p r o d u c -
t i o n i n wh i c h n e w s e l f- de s t r uc t i ng pr o duc t s aut omat i c al l y r e mo v e
t h e ms e l v e s f r o m c o mp e t i t i o n wi t h still n e we r s e l f- de s t r uc t i ng p r o d u c t s
c r e a t e d t o fill a n i ns at i abl e d e ma n d for t he c o n s u mp t i o n o f t he l at es t
s ci ent i fi c b r e a k t h r o u g h , t he l at est c h a n g e i n t he r ul e s o f t he g a me . I n
t hi s wo r l d o f e v e r - c h a n g i n g fas hi ons , t he pr ovi nc i al was t he pl aye r
w h o c o n t i n u e d t o pl ay a g a me t hat h a d al ready b e e n a b a n d o n e d by
t h o s e i n t he "for e fr ont " o r o n t he "cut t i ng e d g e " o f r e s e ar c h.
As s c i e nc e c a me t o be t h o u g h t o f mo r e a n d mo r e as a g a me , it
b e c a me di s t a nc e d f r o m praxis a n d di s r upt e d t he t a ke n- f o r - g r a nt e d re-
l at i on b e t we e n t he o r y a n d pract i ce. Wh a t c ons i s t e nt pr ac t i c e c o ul d
flow f r o m a n i nc o ns t a nt t he o r y t hat u n d e r s t o o d its s i gni fi c anc e as a
pl ay i n a g a me ? T h e l ess t he o r y was g u i d e d a nd s t i mul a t e d by a r e fl e x-
i ve r e l a t i o n t o pract i cal appl i c at i on, t he l ess it c o ul d j us t i fy i t s el f as t he
s o u r c e o f pr ac t i c e . An d s i nc e t he i nfi ni t e g a me l e d o nl y t o pr ovi s i onal
k n o wl e d g e , e v e r s ubj ect t o r e vi s i on as a c o n s e q u e n c e o f c h a n g e s i n t he
Post - Modern Et hnography
125
r ul e s , i t p r o d u c e d n o uni ve r s al k n o wl e d g e a n d c o ul d no t j us t i fy i t s el f
by h o l d i n g o u t t he p r o mi s e t hat it wo u l d . Its i nv o l ut i o n c l o s e d o f f b o t h
t he r e t u r n t o t he c o nc r e t e wo r l d o f pract i ce a n d t he t rans i t t o t he
who l l y t r a ns c e nde nt a l wo r l d o f uni ve r s al k n o wl e d g e . Co n s e q u e n t l y , it
h a d t o l o o k o u t s i d e its o wn di s c o ur s e for j us t i fi cat i on, t o s e e k l egi t i -
ma t i o n i n a di s c o ur s e t hat was o t he r t ha n its o wn a n d n o t s ubj e c t t o
its r ul e s . It n e e d e d a di s c o ur s e t hat c o ul d no t be part o f t he sel f-
p e r f e c t i n g di s c o ur s e o f s c i e nc e or f o unda t i o na l i n a ny sci ent i fi cal l y ac-
c e pt a bl e way.
Sc i e nc e c h o s e a n u n e a s y c o mp r o mi s e , s ubj ug a t i ng i t s el f b o t h t o
t he di s c o ur s e o f wo r k ( pol i t i cs a n d i ndus t r y) a n d t he di s c o ur s e o f
v a l ue ( et hi cs a n d aes t het i cs ) , but s i nc e pol i t i cs a n d i ndus t r y c o nt r o l l e d
t he me a n s o f pl ay a n d c o u l d al ways t hr e a t e n t o wi t hho l d t he f u n d s o n
wh i c h t he g a me d e p e n d e d , s c i e nc e s u c c u mb e d mo r e a n d mo r e t o
l i mi t at i ons o n pl ay i mp o s e d i n t he i nt eres t s o f its mas t e r s .
Enl i s t e d fi rst as t he p r o p a g a n d a a r m o f s c i e nc e , as s e r t i ng t he l i e o f
t h e o r y a n d bas i c r e s e ar c h as t he s o ur c e o f pract i ce a n d t e c hno l o g i c a l
i n n o v a t i o n , t he di s c o ur s e o f val ue e ve nt ual l y b e c a me t he i de o l o g i c a l
me a n s for t he j us t i fi c at i on o f wor k, a n d all tal k o f v a l ue was l i nke d
i ns e pa r a bl y t o obj ect s a n d t o p e r f o r ma n c e rel at i ve t o o b j e c t s t h e r e -
al i ty fi ct i ons o f wor k. Wh a t h a d ori gi nal l y p r e s e n t e d i t sel f as t he c o n -
t e x t o f pract i cal real i t y wi t hi n whi c h t he aes t het i cs o f t he pl ay o f sci -
e n c e wo u l d find its me a n i n g a n d j us t i fi cat i on b e c a me t he c o n d i t i o n o f
a bur e a uc r a t i c unr e al i t y e s t abl i s hi ng t he l i mi t s of real i t y t h r o u g h t he
e x e r c i s e o f p o we r di s g ui s e d as r e a s o n. Al l di s c o ur s e was r e d u c e d
t o t he r he t o r i c o f wor k. But , at t hi s mo me n t o f its t r i u mp h o f t ot al
c o nt r o l , d o we s e ns e t he fi rst t r e mo r s o f t he e r u p t i o n o f t he u n c o n -
t rol l abl e?
Th i s i s t he t al e o f t he or i gi n o f t he p o s t - mo d e r n wo r l d as t ol d by
Ha b e r ma s ( 1975, 1984) a n d Ly o t a r d ( 1979) a l l o wi ng for c e r t ai n
i nt e nt i o na l i nt e r pr e t i v e l i bert i es . It i s t he f r a mi n g s t ory for a pos t -
mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y .
Free Voice: Post-Modern Ethnography
A p o s t - mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y is a c o o pe r a t i v e l y e v o l v e d t e x t
c o ns i s t i ng o f f r a g me n t s o f di s c o ur s e i n t e n d e d t o e v o k e i n t he mi n d s o f
b o t h r e a d e r a n d wr i t e r a n e me r g e n t fant as y o f a pos s i bl e wo r l d o f
c o mmo n s e n s e real i t y, a n d t hus t o p r o v o k e a n ae s t he t i c i nt e g r a t i o n
t hat wi l l ha v e a t he r a pe ut i c effect . It i s, i n a wo r d , p o e t r y n o t i n its
t e xt ual f o r m, but i n its r e t ur n t o t he or i gi nal c o nt e x t a n d f u n c t i o n
o f poe t r y, whi c h, by me a n s o f its pe r f o r ma t i v e br e ak wi t h e v e r y d a y
i a6 STEPHEN A. TYLER
s p e e c h , e v o k e d me mo r i e s o f t he ethos o f t he c o mmu n i t y a n d t he r e by
p r o v o k e d he a r e r s t o act et hi cal l y (cf. J a e g e r 1 9 4 5 : 3 76). Pos t -
mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y a t t e mpt s t o r e c r e at e t ext ual l y t hi s s pi ral o f p o -
et i c a n d ri t ual p e r f o r ma n c e ; Li ke t h e m, it de fami l i ar i z e s c o mmo n -
s e n s e real i t y i n a br a c ke t e d c o nt e x t o f p e r f o r ma n c e , e v o ke s a fant as y
wh o l e a b d u c t e d f r o m f r a g me nt s , a n d t he n r e t ur ns par t i c i pant s t o t he
wo r l d o f c o mmo n s e n s e t r a n s f o r me d , r e n e we d , a n d s acral i zed. It
has t he al l e gor i c al i mpo r t , t h o u g h not t he narrat i ve f o r m, o f a vi s i on
q u e s t o r r e l i gi ous par abl e . T h e br e ak wi t h e v e r y da y real i t y is a j o u r -
n e y apar t i nt o s t r a ng e l a nds wi t h occul t pr a c t i c e s i nt o t he he a r t o f
d a r k n e s s wh e r e f r a g me nt s o f t he fant as t i c whi rl a bo ut i n t he v o r t e x
o f t he ques t er' s di s o r i e nt e d c o ns c i o us ne s s , unt i l , ar r i ve d at t he ma e l -
s t rom' s c e nt e r , h e l os e s c o ns c i o us ne s s at t he very mo me n t o f t he mi -
r a c ul o us , r e s t or at i ve vi s i on, a n d t he n, unc o ns c i o us , is cast u p o n t o t he
fami l i ar , but f o r e v e r t r a ns f o r me d, s ho r e s o f t he c o mmo n p l a c e wo r l d.
P o s t - mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y is no t a n e w de pa r t ur e , no t a n o t h e r r u p -
t u r e i n t he f o r m o f di s c o ur s e o f t he s ort we have c o me t o e x p e c t as t he
n o r m o f mo d e r n i s t es t het i cs ' sci ent i st i c e mp h a s i s o n e x p e r i me n t a l
nove l t y, but a s e l f- c ons c i ous r e t ur n t o a n earl i er a n d mo r e p o we r f u l
n o t i o n o f t he et hi cal c har ac t e r o f all di s c our s e , as c a p t u r e d i n t he a n-
c i e nt s i gni fi c anc e o f t he fami l y o f t e r ms "et hos , " "e t hnos , " "et hi cs. "
Be c a u s e p o s t - mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y pr i vi l e ge s "di s c our s e " o v e r
"t ext , " it f o r e g r o u n d s d i a l o g u e as o p p o s e d t o mo n o l o g u e , a n d e mp h a -
s i zes t he c o o pe r a t i v e a n d col l aborat i ve na t ur e o f t he e t h n o g r a p h i c
s i t uat i on i n c ont r as t t o t he i d e o l o g y o f t he t r a ns c e nde nt a l obs e r ve r . I n
fact , it rej ect s t he i d e o l o g y o f "obs e r ve r - obs e r ve d, " t he r e b e i n g n o t h -
i n g o b s e r v e d a n d n o o n e wh o is obs e r ve r . T h e r e is i ns t e ad t he mut ua l ,
di al ogi c al p r o d u c t i o n o f a di s c our s e , o f a s t ory o f s ort s . We be t t e r
u n d e r s t a n d t he e t h n o g r a p h i c c o nt e x t as o n e o f c o o pe r a t i v e s t ory
ma k i n g t hat , i n o n e o f its i deal f o r ms , wo u l d res ul t i n a p o l y p h o n i c
t e xt , n o n e o f wh o s e par t i c i pant s wo u l d have t he final wo r d i n t he f o r m
o f a f r a mi n g s t ory o r e n c o mp a s s i n g s y nt he s i s a di s c o ur s e o n t he di s -
c o ur s e . It mi g h t be j us t t he di a l o g ue itself, or pos s i bl y a s e r i e s o f j u x -
t a p o s e d parat act i c t el l i ngs o f a s ha r e d c i r c ums t a nc e , as i n t he Sy no pt i c
Go s p e l s , o r p e r h a p s onl y a s e q u e n c e o f s e par at e t el l i ngs i n s e a r c h o f
a c o mmo n t h e me , or e v e n a c o nt r a punt a l i nt e r we a v i ng o f t e l l i ngs , o r
o f a t h e me a n d vari at i ons (cf. Mar c us a n d Cu s h ma n 1982, Cl i ffor d
1983a). Un l i k e t he t radi t i onal t el l er o f t al es or hi s fol kl ori s t c o u n t e r -
part , t he e t h n o g r a p h e r wo u l d no t f o c us o n mo n o p h o n i e p e r f o r ma n c e
a n d narrat i vi t y, t h o u g h ne i t he r wo u l d h e neces s ari l y e x c l u d e t h e m i f
t he y we r e a p p r o p r i a t e i n c o nt e x t .
I d o n o t wi s h t o s ug g e s t t hat s uc h a t e xt wo u l d r e s e mbl e a n e d i t e d
c o l l e c t i o n o f a u t h o r e d pa pe r s , o n e o f t hos e aut hor l e s s b o o k s p r o -
Post - Modern Et hnography 127
d u c e d by c o mmi t t e e , o r a n ac c i de nt al c ol l age l i ke a n i s s ue o f t he
American Anthropologist. T h e s e t hr e e us e d t o g e t he r , t h o u g h , d o c har ac -
t e r i z e a ubi qui t o us e t h n o g r a p h i c f o r m cal l ed t he "ne ws pa pe r . " I n fact ,
h a d t h e r e b e e n a mo d e r n i s t mo v e me n t i n e t h n o g r a p h y , it wo u l d ha v e
t a ke n t he n e ws p a p e r as i ts l i t erary mo d e l . T h e c ol l e c t i on a n d t he col -
l a g e pr e s e r v e di f f e r e nc e s o f pe r s pe c t i ve , but di ffer o n t he d i me n s i o n
o f a c c i de nt vs . p u r p o s e , t h o u g h we c an all t hi nk o f e di t e d c ol l e c t i ons
t hat ar e i n fact c ol l age s , s o l i ttl e d o t hei r s e l e c t i ons rel at e t o c o mmo n
t h e me s o r t opi c s t hat t hei r p r e s e n c e i n t he s a me v o l u me s e e ms acci -
de nt a l , a n d we a r e all fami l i ar wi t h t he ma t i z e d c ol l age s l i ke t he n e ws -
p a p e r , wh o s e i t e ms are mi ni ma l l y l i nke d by t he c o mmo n t h e me , "he r e
ar e t oday' s r e l e v a nc e s for n o b o d y i n part i cul ar as put t o g e t h e r by n o -
b o d y i n part i cul ar. "
Po l y p h o n y is a me a n s o f pe r s pe c t i val rel at i vi t y a n d is no t j us t a n
e v a s i o n o f aut hor i al res pons i bi l i t y o r a gui l t y e x c e s s o f d e mo c r a c y ,
t h o u g h , as Vi c o mi g h t say, it art i cul at es bes t wi t h t hat soci al f o r m, a n d
it d o e s c o r r e s p o n d wi t h t he real i t i es o f fieldwork i n pl ac e s s e ns i t i ve t o
t he i s s ue o f p o we r as s y mbo l i z e d i n t he s ubj ect - obj ect r e l a t i o ns hi p be -
t we e n h e w h o r e pr e s e nt s a n d s he wh o is r e p r e s e n t e d . An d it is n o t
t hat e t h n o g r a p h e r s have n e v e r be f o r e u s e d t he i de a o f a ut ho r l e s s
t e xt s , for my t h s a n d fol kt al es , e v e n wh e n r e l at e d by s o me o n e , ar e
p u r e e x a mp l e s o f t he f o r m, t h o u g h we mus t t hi nk i n t hat c as e o f
a c o mmi t t e e e x t e n d e d i n t i me wh o s e part i ci pant s n e v e r c o n v e n e t o
c o mp o s e t he wor k.
T h e po i nt is t hat que s t i o ns o f f o r m are no t pri or, t he f o r m i t s el f
s h o u l d e me r g e o u t o f t he j o i nt wo r k o f t he e t h n o g r a p h e r a nd hi s na-
t i ve pa r t ne r s . T h e e mp h a s i s is o n t he e me r g e n t c har ac t e r o f t e xt ual -
i z at i on, t e xt ual i z at i on b e i n g j us t t he i ni ti al i nt e r pr e t i ve mo v e t hat p r o -
v i de s a n e g o t i a t e d t e xt for t he r e a de r t o i nt e r pr e t . T h e h e r me n e u t i c
pr o c e s s is n o t r e s t r i c t e d t o t he reader' s r e l at i ons hi p t o t he t ext , but i n-
c l u d e s as we l l t he i nt e r pr e t i ve pract i ces o f t he part i es t o t he or i gi nat -
i n g d i a l o g u e . I n t hi s r e s pe c t , t he mo d e l o f p o s t - mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y
is n o t t he n e ws p a p e r but t hat or i gi nal e t h n o g r a p h y t h e Bi bl e (cf.
Ke l be r 1983).
T h e e me r g e n t a n d c o o pe r a t i v e na t ur e o f t e xt ual i z at i on al s o i n-
d e x e s a di f f e r e nt i de ol ogi c al at t i t ude t o wa r d t he e t h n o g r a p h i c o t h e r
a n d t he us e s o f e t h n o g r a p h y . T h e hi s t ory o f e t h n o g r a p h i c wr i t i ng
c hr o ni c l e s a c u mu l a t i v e s e q u e n c e o f di ffe r e nt at t i t ude s t o wa r d t he
o t h e r t hat i mpl i c a t e di ffe r e nt us e s o f e t h n o g r a p h y . I n t he e i g h t e e n t h
c e nt ur y , t he d o mi n a n t mo d e was "e t hno g r a phy as al l egory, " c e n t e r i n g
a r o u n d t he ke y c o n c e p t o f ut o pi a ni s m i n whi c h t he "nobl e s avage "
pl a y e d hi s e n n o b l i n g r ol e as a t he r a pe ut i c i ma g e . I n t he n i n e t e e n t h
c e nt ur y , t he "s avage" was n o l o n g e r no bl e ; s he was e i t he r "fal l en, " i n
128 STEPHEN A. TYLER
t he c o n t i n u i n g bi bl i cal al l e gor y, or a figure o f t he r a pe ut i c i r o n y a
mi n a t o r y Sat ani c finger, or a n i ns t anc e o f t he pr i mo r di a l "pri mi t i ve, "
a "l i vi ng fossi l " s i gni fyi ng pas t i mpe r f e c t i o n h e a l e d by t i me i n t he
e me r g i n g e v o l ut i o na r y al l egory. I n t he t we nt i e t h c e nt ur y, t he "s avage"
wa s n o l o n g e r e v e n "pri mi t i ve. " She was o nl y "data" a n d "e vi de nc e , "
t he cri t i cal d i s p r o v i n g i ns t anc e i n t he posi t i vi st r he t or i c o f pol i t i cal
l i be r al i s m. Lat e r , i n t he s t ruct ural i s t a n d s emi ot i ci s t revi val o f
s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y r at i onal i s m, h e agai n b e c a me p u r e "di ffe r e nc e , "
a f o r ma l pa t t e r n o f c ol l oc at e d s i gns t ot al l y r o bbe d o f t he r a pe ut i c si g-
ni fi c anc e . No w, i n a ddi t i o n t o t he s e , e a c h o f whi c h, o r s o me c o mb i n a -
t i on o f t h e m, still f e e ds t he i ma g i na t i o n o f s o me e t h n o g r a p h e r s o me -
wh e r e , s he has b e c o me t he i ns t r ume nt o f t he e t hno g r a phe r ' s
"e x pe r i e nc e , " t he e t h n o g r a p h e r ha v i ng b e c o me t he f o c us o f "di ffer-
e n c e " i n a pe r v e r s e v e r s i o n o f t he r o ma nt i c i s m t hat has al ways b e e n i n
e t h n o g r a p h y , n o ma t t e r h o w de s pe r a t e l y r e pr e s s e d a n d ma r g i na l i z e d
by t he obj e c t i ve i mpul s e s o f s e e ke r s for p u r e dat a. As i n t he u t o p i a n -
i s m o f t he e i g h t e e n t h c e nt ur y, t he o t h e r is t he me a n s o f t he aut hor' s
a l i e na t i o n f r o m hi s o wn si ck c ul t ur e , but t he s avage o f t he t we nt i e t h
c e n t u r y is si ck t o o ; n e u t e r e d , l i ke t he res t o f us , by t he dar k for c e s o f
t he "wor l d s ys t e m, " IT has l ost t he he a l i ng art.
Ha v i n g p e r c e i v e d t he l i mi t i ng me a n i n g o f t he s e c o n d me mb e r
o f t he c o mp o u n d t e r m "e t hno g r a phy " ( "- graphy" fr. graphein "t o
wri t e") , s o me e t h n o g r a p h e r s ha v e t a me d t he s avage , no t wi t h t he p e n ,
but wi t h t he t a pe r e c o r de r , r e d u c i n g h i m t o a "st rai ght ma n, " as i n t he
s cri pt o f s o me o bs c ur e c o mi c r o ut i ne , for e v e n as t he y t hi nk t o ha v e
r e t u r n e d t o "oral p e r f o r ma n c e " o r "di al ogue , " i n o r d e r t hat t he nat i ve
h a v e a pl ac e i n t he t ext , t he y e x e r c i s e t ot al c o nt r o l o v e r h e r di s c o ur s e
a n d s t eal t he o nl y t hi ng s he has l e f t h e r voi ce. Ot he r s , i n ful l a n d
gui l t l e s s k n o wl e d g e o f t hei r c r i me , c e l e br at e i t i n "e t hnopoe t r y, " whi l e
t h e rest , l i ke Sart re, t he i r faces ha l f - t ur ne d f r o m t he o f f e n d i n g p e n ,
wr i t e o n i n a t o n e me n t l i t t l e finger o f t he l eft h a n d o n t he "eras e"
b u t t o n , i n d e x finger o n t he "pl ay" b u t t o n i n t he s i gn o f t he c uc ko l d-
c o u n t e r f e i t i n g voi c e i n t ext .
Li ke De r r i da , t he y have mi s s e d t he t r ue i mpo r t o f "di s c our s e , "
wh i c h is "t he o t h e r as us , " for t he po i nt o f di s c o ur s e is no t h o w t o
ma k e a be t t e r r e pr e s e nt a t i o n, but h o w t o avoi d r e pr e s e nt a t i o n- I n
t he i r t e xt ual i z at i on o f ps e udo - di s c o ur s e t he y have a c c o mp l i s h e d a t er-
rori s t a l i e na t i o n mo r e c o mp l e t e t ha n t hat o f t he pos i t i vi s t s . It ma y b e
t hat all t e xt ual i z at i on is al i e nat i on, but it is cert ai nl y t r ue t hat n o n -
par t i c i pat or y t e xt ual i z at i on i s a l i e na t i o n"no t u s " a n d t he r e is n o
t h e r a p y i n al i e nat i on.
As t he Ut opi ans kne w, e t h n o g r a p h y c an p e r f o r m a t he r a pe ut i c
p u r p o s e i n e v o k i n g a par t i c i pat or y real i t y, but t he y we r e wr o n g in
Post - Modern Et hnography
129
t h i n k i n g t hat real i t y c o u l d be expl i ci t l y pr oj e c t e d i n t ext . It is t hi s e c h o ,
t h e n , o f par t i c i pat or y real i t y t hat p o s t - mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y s e e ks t o
e v o k e by me a n s o f a par t i c i pat or y t e xt i n whi c h n o o n e has t he e x c l us i v e
r i g ht o f s y no pt i c t r a n s c e n d e n c e . Be c a u s e it is par t i c i pat or y a n d e me r -
g e n t , p o s t - mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y c a n n o t have a p r e d e t e r mi n e d f o r m,
f o r i t c o u l d h a p p e n t hat par t i c i pant s mi g h t d e c i d e t hat t e xt ual i z at i on
i t s el f i s i n a p p r o p r i a t e a s ha v e ma n y i nf o r ma nt s i n t he pas t , t h o u g h
t he i r o bj e c t i o ns we r e s e l d o m t a ke n t o be s i gni fi cant i n t he ms e l v e s ,
b e i n g t r e a t e d i ns t e a d as i mp e d i me n t s t o t he e t hno g r a phe r ' s mo n o -
p h o n i c t e xt . Wh a t e v e r f o r m t he t e xt t a k e s i f a n y i t wi l l s t res s s o n o -
r ant rel at i vi t y, no t o nl y b e t we e n t he t e xt a n d t he c o mmu n i t y o f di s -
c o u r s e o f wh i c h it is a p a r t t h e us ua l s e ns e o f "cul t ural rel at i vi t y"
but wi t hi n t he t e xt i t sel f as a c ons t i t ut i ve fe at ur e o f t he t ext .
T h o u g h p o s t - mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y pr i vi l e ge s di s c our s e , it d o e s
n o t l oc at e i t s el f e xc l us i ve l y wi t hi n t he pr obl e mat i c s o f a s i ngl e t radi -
t i on o f di s c o ur s e , a n d s e e ks , i n part i cul ar, t o avoi d g r o u n d i n g i t s el f i n
t he t he or e t i c al a n d c o mmo n s e n s e c at e gor i e s o f t he h e g e mo n i c Wes t -
e r n t r adi t i on. It t hus rel at i vi zes di s c o ur s e no t j us t t o f o r mt h a t fa-
mi l i ar p e r v e r s i o n o f t he mo de r ni s t ; n o r t o aut hor i al i n t e n t i o n t h a t
c o nc e i t o f t he r o ma nt i c s ; n o r t o a f o unda t i o na l wo r l d b e y o n d di s -
c o u r s e t h a t d e s p e r a t e g r a s pi ng for a s e par at e real i t y o f t he mys t i c
a n d s ci ent i s t al i ke; n o r e v e n t o hi s t ory a nd i d e o l o g y t h o s e r e f u g e s o f
t he h e r me n e u t i c i s t ; n o r e v e n l ess t o l a n g u a g e t h a t hy po s t a s i z e d
abs t r ac t i on o f t he l i ngui s t ; no r , ul t i mat el y, e v e n t o d i s c o u r s e t h a t
Ni e t z s c h e a n p l a y g r o u n d o f wor l d- l os t si gni fi ers o f t he s t ruct ural i s t
a n d g r a mma t o l o g i s t , but t o all o r n o n e of t he s e , for it is anar c hi c ,
t h o u g h n o t for t he s ake o f a na r c hy but be c a us e it r e f us e s t o b e c o me a
f e t i s hi z e d obj e c t a mo n g o bj e c t s t o be di s ma nt l e d, c o mp a r e d , cl assi -
fied, a n d n e u t e r e d i n t hat p a r o d y o f sci ent i i fi c s crut i ny k n o wn as cri ti -
c i s m. T h e e t h n o g r a p h i c t e xt is no t onl y no t an obj ect , it i s no t the o b -
j e c t ; it is i ns t e a d a me a n s , t he me di t at i ve ve hi c l e for a t r a n s c e n d e n c e
o f t i me a n d pl a c e t hat is not j us t t r a ns c e nde nt a l but a t r a ns c e nde nt a l
r e t u r n t o t i me a n d pl ace.
Be c a u s e i ts me a n i n g is n o t i n it but i n an u n d e r s t a n d i n g , o f wh i c h
it i s o nl y a c o n s u me d f r a g me nt , i t is n o l o ng e r c ur s e d wi t h t he t ask o f
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . T h e key wo r d i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t hi s di f f e r e nc e is
"e voke , " for i f a di s c o ur s e c an be s ai d t o "evoke, " t h e n it n e e d n o t r e p -
r e s e n t wh a t it e v o ke s , t h o u g h i t ma y be a me a n s t o a r e pr e s e nt a t i o n.
Si nc e e v o c a t i o n is no nr e pr e s e nt a t i o na l , it i s no t t o be u n d e r s t o o d as a
s i g n f u n c t i o n , for it is n o t a "s ymbol of," n o r d o e s it "s ymbol i z e " wha t
it e v o k e s . T h e p o s t - mo d e r n t e xt has mo v e d b e y o n d t he r e pr e s e nt a -
t i onal f u n c t i o n o f s i gns a n d has cast off t he e n c u mb r a n c e s o f t he s ub-
s t i t ut i on o f a p p e a r a n c e s , t ho s e "abs e nc e s " a n d "di ffe r e nc e s " o f t he
i 3
STEPHEN A. TYLER
g r ammat o l o g i s t . It is n o t a p r es en c e that cal l s i n t o b ei n g s o me t hi n g
t hat was ab sen t ; it is a c o mi n g to b e o f what was n ei t her t her e p r es en t
n o r ab sen t , f o r we ar e n o t to u n d er s t an d "ev o c ati o n" as l i n k i n g t wo
d i f f er en c es i n t i me an d p l ac e, as s o me t hi n g that ev o k es an d s o me -
t hi n g el se ev o k ed . Ev o c at i o n is a uni ty , a si n g l e ev en t o r p r o c ess, an d
we mu s t r esi st t he t emp t at i o n o f g r ammar that wo u l d mak e us t hi n k
t hat t he p r o p o si t i o n al f o r m "x ev o k es y" mu s t me an that x an d y ar e
d i f f er en t en t i t i es l i n k ed by a thi r d r at her p ec u l i ar "p r o c ess- en t i t y "
c al l ed "ev o k e, " an d that, mo r eo v er , x mu s t p r ec ed e y i n t i me, an d c o n -
s eq u en t l y x mu s t b e a c o n d i t i o n o f y o r y a r esul t o f x. The s e ar e al l
i l l u si o n s o f g r ammar , whi c h mak e u s d i s me mb e r u n i t i es i n t o d i sc r et e
en t i t i es an d p u n c t u at e ev en t s. We mi g ht t hi n k to c o r r ec t this si t u at i o n
b y wr i t i n g En g l i sh n o n l i n eal l y , as if it wer e Chi n es e, i n i mi t at i o n o f
Er n es t F en el l o sa an d Ez r a Po u n d : evoLes, b u t si nc e we c o u l d stil l r ead
y )
l i neal l y "x ev o k es y," an d t he el emen t s x, "ev o kes, " an d y ar e as d i sc r et e
as ev er , thi s is n o so l u t i o n . Per hap s t he best we c an d o , sho r t o f i n v en t -
i n g s o me n e w l o g o g r ap h, is a Hei d eg g er i an "ev o ki ng , " o r b et t er y et,
b e war y o f t he sn ar es o f g r ammar .
T h e who l e p o i n t o f "ev o k i n g " r at her t han "r ep r esen t i n g " is t hat it
f r ees e t hn o g r ap hy f r o m mimesis an d t he i n ap p r o p r i at e m o d e o f sc i en -
tific r het o r i c that entai l s "objects, " "facts, " "d esc r i p ti o n s, " "i n d u c -
ti o ns, " "g en er al i z at i o n s, " "ver ific ation, " "ex p er i men t , " "tr uth, " an d
l i ke c o n c ep t s that, ex c ep t as emp t y i n v o c at i o n s, hav e n o par al l el s ei -
t her i n t he ex p er i en c e o f et hn o g r ap hi c fieldwork o r i n t he wr i t i n g o f
e t hn o g r ap hi e s . Th e u r g e to c o n f o r m to t he c an o n s o f sc ientific r het o -
ric has m a d e t he easy r eal i sm o f n at u r al hi sto r y t he d o mi n an t m o d e o f
e t hn o g r ap hi c p r o s e, b u t it has b e e n an i l l uso r y r eal i sm, p r o mo t i n g , o n
t he o n e han d , t he ab su r d i t y o f "desc r i bi ng " n o n en t i t i es s u c h as "cul -
t u r e" o r "soc iety" as if t hey wer e ful l y o b ser v ab l e, t ho u g h s o me what
u n g ai n l y , b u g s , an d , o n t he o t her , t he eq u al l y r i d i c u l o u s b ehav i o r i st
p r et en s e o f "d esc r i b i n g " r ep et i t i v e p at t er n s o f ac t i o n i n i so l at i o n f r o m
t he d i s c o u r s e t hat ac to r s u s e i n c o n st i t u t i n g an d si t u at i n g thei r ac t i o n ,
an d al l i n s i mp l e mi n d e d su r et y that t he o b ser v er s' g r o u n d i n g di s-
c o u r s e is i tsel f an o b j ec ti v e f o r m suffi c i ent to t he task o f d es c r i b i n g
ac ts. T h e p r o b l e m wi t h t he r eal i sm o f natur al hi sto r y is n o t , as is o f t en
c l ai med , t he c o mp l ex i t y o f t he so - c al l ed o bj ec t o f o b ser v at i o n , n o r fail -
u r e to ap p l y suffi c i entl y r i g o r o u s an d r epl i c abl e me t ho d s , n o r e v e n
l ess t he s e e mi n g i ntr ac tabi l i ty o f t he l an g u ag e o f d esc r i p t i o n . It is i n -
st ead a f ai l u r e o f t he who l e visual ist i d eo l o g y o f r ef er en t i al d i sc o u r se,
wi t h its r het o r i c o f "desc r i bi ng , " "c o mp ar i n g , " "cl assifying, " an d "g en -
er al i z i n g , " an d its p r e s u mp t i o n o f r ep r esen t at i o n al si g ni fi c ati o n. I n
e t hn o g r ap hy t her e ar e n o "thi ng s" t her e to b e t he o bj ec ts o f a d es c r i p -
t i o n , t he o r i g i n al ap p ear an c es that t he l an g u ag e o f d esc r i p t i o n "re-
Post- Modern Ethnogr aphy
p r es en t s " as i n d ex i c al o bjec ts fo r c o mp ar i s o n , c l assi hc ati o n , an d g e n -
er al i z at i o n ; t her e is r at her a d i sc o u r se, an d that t o o , n o t hi n g , d es p i t e
t he mi s g u i d e d c l ai ms o f su c h tr ansl ati o nal mo d el s o f e t hn o g r ap hy as
st r u c t u r al i sm, et hn o - s c i en c e, an d d i al o g u e, whi c h at t emp t to r ep r e-
s en t ei t her n at i v e d i sc o u r se o r its u n c o n s c i o u s p at t er n s, an d t hu s r e-
c o m m i t t he c r i me o f n at u r al hi sto r y i n t he mi n d .
Et hn o g r ap hi c d i sc o u r se is itsel f n ei t her an o bj ec t to b e r ep r e-
s en t ed n o r a r ep r es en t at i o n o f an objec t. Co n s eq u en t l y t he v i sual i st
r het o r i c o f r ep r es en t at i o n , d e p e n d i n g f r o m t he c o n c r et en es s o f t he
wr i t t en wo r d o f de-scriberesubverts t he ethi c al p u r p o r t o f e t hn o g -
r ap hy an d c an o n l y g i v e us as r ep l ac emen t a sen se o f i n c o mp l et en es s
an d f ai l u r e, si n c e its g o al s an d me an s ar e al ways o u t o f r eac h.
Et hn o g r ap hi c d i sc o u r se is n o t par t o f a p r o j ec t who s e ai m is t he
c r eat i o n o f u n i v er sal k n o wl ed g e. It d i s o wn s t he Mep hi s t o p hel i an u r g e
t o p o we r t hr o u g h k n o wl ed g e, f o r that, t o o , is a c o n s e q u e n c e o f r ep r e-
s en t at i o n . To r ep r es en t me an s to hav e a k i n d o f mag i c al p o wer o v er
ap p ear an c es , to b e ab l e to b r i n g i n t o p r es en c e what is ab sen t , an d that
is why wr i t i n g , t he mo s t p o wer f u l me an s o f r ep r es en t at i o n , was c al l ed
"grammarye," a mag i c al act. Th e t r u e hi stor i c al si g ni fi c anc e o f wr i t i n g
is t hat it has i n c r eas ed o u r c apac i ty to c r eat e total istic i l l usi o ns wi t h
whi c h to hav e p o we r o v er t hi n g s o r o v er o t her s as if t hey wer e t hi n g s.
T h e who l e i d eo l o g y o f r ep r esen t at i o n al si g ni fi c ati o n is an i d eo l o g y o f
p o we r . To b r eak its spel l we wo u l d hav e to attack wr i t i n g , total istic r e p -
r esen t at i o n al si g n i hc at i o n , an d autho r i al autho r i ty , b u t al l thi s has al -
r ead y b e e n ac c o mp l i s hed f o r us. On g ( 1977) has mad e u s awar e o f t he
ef f ec t s o f wr i t i n g b y r e mi n d i n g us o f t he wo r l d o f or al ex p r es s i o n t hat
c o n t r ast s wi t h it. B en j ami n (1978) an d Ad o r n o ( 1977) hav e c o u n t er -
p o s e d t he i d eo l o g y o f t he "f r ag men t " to that o f t he who l e, an d De r -
r i d a ( 1974) has m a d e t he au t ho r t he c r eat u r e o f wr i t i n g r at her t han its
c r eat o r . Po s t - mo d e r n e t hn o g r ap hy b u i l d s its p r o g r am n o t so m u c h
f r o m t hei r p r i n c i p l es as f r o m t he r u b b l e o f thei r d ec o n s t r u c t i o n .
A p o s t - mo d e r n e t hn o g r ap hy is f r ag men t ar y b ec au se it c an n o t b e
o t her wi s e. Li f e i n t he field is itsel f f r ag men t ar y , n o t at al l o r g an i z ed
ar o u n d f ami l i ar et hn o l o g i c al c at eg o r i es su c h as k i n shi p , e c o n o my , an d
r el i g i o n , an d e x c e p t f o r u n u s u al i n f o r man t s l ike t he Do g o n s ag e
Og o t e m m l i , t he n ati v es s e e m to l ack c o mmu n i c ab l e v i si o ns o f a
s har ed , i n t eg r at ed who l e; n o r d o par ti c ul ar ex p er i en c es p r es en t
t hems el v es , e v e n t o t he mo s t har d e n e d so c i o l o g i st, as c o n v en i en t l y l a-
b el ed s y n ec d o c hes , mi c r o c o s ms , o r al l eg o r i es o f who l es , c ul tur al o r
t heo r et i c al . At best, we mak e d o wi th a c o l l ec t i o n o f i n d ex i c al an ec -
d o t es o r t el l i n g par ti c ul ar s wi t h whi c h to p o r t en d that l ar g er u n i t y b e-
y o n d ex p l i c i t t ex t u al i z at i o n . It is n o t j u st that we c an n o t see t he f o r est
for t he t r ees, but. that we hav e c o me to feel that t her e ar e n o f o r est s
I 3 2 STEPHEN A. TYLER
Post - Modern Et hnography 133
wh e r e t he t r e e s ar e t o o far apart , j us t as pat c he s ma k e qui l t s o nl y i f
t he s pa c e s b e t we e n t h e m ar e s mal l e n o u g h .
We c o n f i r m i n o u r e t h n o g r a p h i e s o u r c o ns c i o us ne s s o f t h e fr ag-
me n t a r y n a t u r e o f t he p o s t - mo d e r n wor l d, for n o t h i n g s o wel l de f i ne s
o u r wo r l d as t he a bs e nc e o f a s y nt he s i z i ng al l egory, or p e r h a p s it is
o n l y a paral ys i s o f c ho i c e b r o u g h t o n by o u r k n o wl e d g e o f t he i n-
e x ha us t i bl e s uppl y o f s uc h al l e gor i e s t hat ma ke s us r e f us e t he mo -
me n t o f ae s t he t i c t ot al i zat i on, t he s t ory o f s t ori es , t he hy po s t a t i z e d
wh o l e .
Bu t t he r e ar e o t h e r r e a s o ns , t oo. We k n o w t hat t he s e t e xt ual t r an-
s c e nde nt a l s , t he s e i nv o c a t i o ns o f ho l i s m, o f func t i onal l y i nt e g r a t e d
s y s t e ms ar e l i t erary t r o pe s , t he ve hi c l e s t hat carry i ma g i n a t i o n f r o m
t he par t t o t he wh o l e , t he c o nc r e t e t o t he abst ract , a n d k n o wi n g t h e m
for wh a t t he y are, wh e t h e r me c h a n i s mi c or o r g a ni s mi c , ma k e s u s s us -
pe c t t he r at i onal o r d e r t he y pr o mi s e .
Mo r e i mp o r t a n t t ha n t he s e , t h o u g h , is t he i de a t hat t he t r a ns c e n-
d e n t a l t rans i t , t he hol i s t i c mo me n t is ne i t he r t ext ual l y d e t e r mi n e d n o r
t h e e x c l us i v e r i ght o f t he aut hor , be i ng i ns t e ad t he f unc t i o na l i nt e r -
a c t i o n o f t e x t - a ut ho r - r e a de r . It is no t s o me s ecret h i d d e n i n t he t ext ,
o r b e t we e n t e xt s ; n o r i n t he mi n d o f t he a ut ho r a n d o nl y po o r l y
e x p r e s s e d / r e p r e s s e d by hi m; p o r i n t he reader' s i nt e r pr e t a t i o n, n o
ma t t e r wh a t hi s cri ti cal p e r s u a s i o n i f any. It is no t t he ne g a t i v e di -
al ect i cs o f T h e o d o r Ad o r n o , for its parat act i c o ppo s i t i o ns are part i ci -
pa t o r y f unc t i o ns r at he r t ha n t e xt ual f o r ms . T h e y de r i v e f r o m di a-
l o g u e r a t he r t ha n t he mo n o p h o n i e i nt e r nal di al ect i c o f t he a u t h o r
wi t h hi s t e xt . Ev e n t h o u g h Ad o r n o a r g ue s t hat t he essay, by me a n s o f
n e g a t i v e di al ect i cs , a i ms at t he l i qui dat i on o f all v i e wpo i nt s , it c a n n o t
a c h i e v e t hi s goal s o l o n g as it is mo n o p h o n i e , pr o j e c t e d f r o m t he vi e w-
p o i n t o f a s i ngl e aut hor . It e x pr e s s e s onl y t he c ogni t i ve ut o pi a o f t he
a u t h o r ( Ka u f f ma n n 1981: 34353) - Unl i ke ne gat i ve di al ect i cs , t he o p -
po s i t i o ns o f d i a l o g u e n e e d n o t be he l d i n u n r e s o l v e d s u s p e n s i o n wi t h-
o u t t he pos s i bi l i t y o f t r a ns c e nde nc e , but l i ke ne g a t i v e di al ect i cs , pos t -
mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y d o e s no t pract i ce s ynt he s i s wi t hi n t he t e xt . T h e
s y no pt i c t rans i t is a no ns y nt he t i c t r a ns c e nde nc e t hat is e v o k e d by, n o t
i mma n e n t i n, t he t ext . T h e t e xt has t he par adoxi c al capaci t y t o e v o k e
t r a n s c e n d e n c e wi t ho ut s ynt he s i s , wi t ho ut c r e at i ng wi t hi n i t s el f f o r ma l
de v i c e s a n d c o nc e pt ua l s t rat egi es o f t r a ns c e nde nt a l o r d e r . I n c o m-
m o n wi t h Ad o r n o 's p r o g r a m, it avoi ds any s uppo s i t i o n o f a h a r mo n y
b e t we e n t he l ogi c al - c onc e pt ual o r d e r o f t he t e xt a n d t he o r d e r o f
t hi ng s , a n d it a t t e mpt s t o e l i mi na t e t he s ubj ect - obj ect n e x u s by r e f us -
i n g t he pos s i bi l i t y o f t he i r s e par at i on or o f t he d o mi n a n c e o f o n e o v e r
t he o t h e r i n t he f o r m o f t he t e xt - as - mi r r or - of- t hought . It a c c o m-
pl i s he s a c o g ni t i v e ut o pi a n o t o f t he aut hor' s subj ect i vi t y o r o f t he
r e ade r ' s , b u t o f t he a ut ho r - t e x t - r e a de r , a n e me r g e n t mi n d t hat has n o
i ndi v i dua l l o c us , b e i n g i ns t e ad a n i nfi ni t y o f pos s i bl e l oci .
He r e , t h e n , i s a n e w ki nd o f ho l i s m, o n e t hat is e me r g e n t r at he r
t h a n g i v e n , a n d o n e t hat e me r g e s t h r o u g h t he refl exi vi t y o f t e xt -
a u t h o r - r e a d e r a n d pr i vi l e ge s n o me mb e r o f t hi s t ri ni t y as t he e x -
c l us i ve l o c us o r me a n s o f t he wh o l e . Mo r e o v e r , t hi s e me r g e n t wh o l e is
ne i t he r a t he or e t i c al obj ect n o r a n obj ect o f t he or e t i c al k n o wl e d g e ,
a n d i s c o n s e q u e n t l y ne i t he r e v o k e d by e xpl i c i t me t h o d s n o r t he de r i -
vat i onal s o u r c e o f pract i ces . It d o e s no t mot i vat e o r e na bl e pr ac t i c e i n
t he e x p e c t e d ma n n e r o f t he us ual t he or y- pr ac t i c e c or r e l at i on. It is
not , i n o t h e r wo r d s , a di al ect i cal s ynt he s i s o f t he ma ni f o l d o f i mp r e s -
s i ons t hat ne ut r al i z e s t he i r di ffe r e nc e s i n a h i g h e r - o r d e r pa t t e r n o f
t he i r s a me t y pe . It is ne i t he r a n abs t ract "t hi ng" n o r a n abs t r ac t i on
f r o m "t hi ngs , " a n d is t hus no t t he pr o duc t o f a n i nf e r e nc e wh o s e l i ne
o f d e v e l o p me n t c o u l d be t r ac e d s t e p- by- s t e p f r o m t he c o nc r e t e par -
t i cul ars o f i ts o r i g i ns , t h r o u g h t r ans f or mat i ons , t o its abs t ract a n d uni -
vers al t e r mi n u s .
It g o e s agai ns t t he gr ai n o f i nduc t i o n, d e d u c t i o n , s ynt he s i s , a n d
t he wh o l e mo v e me n t t o "s ymbol , " for its mo d e o f i n f e r e n c e is a bduc -
t i ve, a n d t he e l e me n t s it c onj oi ns , t h o u g h us e d u p i n t he fant as y, d o
n o t de l i v e r u p t he i r s e pa r a t e ne s s i n t he r e s ol ut i on o f s o me o r g a ni c t o-
tal i ty. I n Si r Wi l l i am Hami l t on' s way o f s pe a ki ng , t he y are s i mi l ar t o
c or r e l at i ve s s uc h as pa r t - who l e a n d caus e- effect , t he o n e unt hi nka bl e
wi t h o u t t he o t he r , a c o nj unc t i o n o f t e r ms t hat mut ua l l y e x pl i c a t e b u t
d o n o t d e t e r mi n e e a c h o t h e r or i n d u c e a s ynt he t i c r e duc t i o n. T h e y
e x p r e s s t he "Law o f t he Co ndi t i o ne d": "All pos i t i ve t h o u g h t l i es be-
t we e n t wo e x t r e me s , ne i t he r o f whi c h we c an c o nc e i v e as pos s i bl e , a n d
ye t as mu t u a l c ont r adi c t or i e s , t he o n e or t he o t he r we mus t r e c o g ni z e
as ne c e s s a r y " ( 1 8 6 3: 2 1 1 ) .
J u s t as t he me t a p h o r o f t he u p wa r d spi ral i nt o t he Pl at oni c "ot he r
o f uni t y, " t he "l i ght o f r e as on, " t he "hi ghe r , rat i onal " r e a l m o f c o n -
s c i ous t h o u g h t a n d facel es s a bs t r a c t i o ni nt o t he f ut ur e , mi n d e xc ar -
n a t e i s i na ppr o pr i a t e , s o , t oo, is t he o ppo s i t e me t a p h o r o f d e s c e n t
"be ne a t h t he s ur fac e " i nt o t he Pl ut oni c "ot her o f s e par at i on, " t he
"l ower" g y r e o f t he u n c o n s c i o u s , wh e r e dwe l l i n mu t u a l a n t a g o n i s m
t he da r k for c e s o f t he i rrat i onal a ni ma l a nd t he d e mo n i c rat i onal p o w-
e r s o f " u n d e r l y i n g s t r uc t ur e s "i nt o t he past , i n me mo r y , t he mi n d
c ar nal a n d i nc a r na t e .
T h e a nc i e nt me t a p h o r o f t h o u g h t as mo v e me n t , a s pe c i e s o f mo -
t i on, b e q u e a t h e d t o us by Ar i s t ot l e , is i n que s t i o n h e r e , for it is t he
s i mu l t a n e o u s j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t he s e c ont r ar y mo t i o n s a n d t he i r mu t u -
al l y ne ut r a l i z i ng confl i ct t hat e na bl e s t he wh o l e I s e e k t o e v o k e , t hat
s t i l l nes s at t he c e nt e r wh e r e t he r e is ne i t he r h i g h e r n o r l owe r , f o r wa r d
134 STEPHEN A. TYLER
Pos t - Moder n Et hnogr aphy 135
t he i l l u s i o n o f a t r a n s c en d en t a l , n ei t her t r a n s c en d en t a l s c i en c e n o r
t r a n s c en d en t a l r el i g i o n c a n be at ho m e i n it, f o r t ha t whi c h is i n ho s -
p i t a bl e t o t he t r a n s c en d en c e by a bs t r a c t i o n o f t he o n e mu s t a l s o be
u n f r i en d l y t o t he s i mi l a r c ha r a c t er o f t he o t her . Nei t her t he s c i ent i f i c
i l l us i o n o f r ea l i t y n o r t he r el i g i o us real i t y o f i l l us i o n is c o n g r u e n t wi t h
t he r ea l i t y o f f a nt a s y i n t he f a nt a s y real i t y o f t he p o s t - mo d e r n wo r l d .
Po s t - mo d e r n e t hn o g r a p hy c a p t u r es t hi s m o o d o f t he p o s t - mo d e r n
wo r l d , f o r i t, t o o , d o es n o t mo v e t o wa r d a bs t r a c t i o n, a wa y f r o m l i f e,
bu t ba c k t o ex p er i en c e. It a i ms n o t t o f os t er t he g r o wt h o f k n o w l e d g e
bu t t o r es t r u c t u r e ex p er i en c e; n o t t o u n d er s t a n d o bj ec t i v e real i t y, f o r
t ha t is a l r ea d y es t a bl i s hed by c o m m o n s en s e, n o r t o ex p l a i n ho w w e
u n d e r s t a n d , f o r t ha t is i mp o s s i bl e, but t o r ea s s i mi l a t e, t o r ei n t eg r a t e
t he s el f i n s o c i et y a n d t o r es t r u c t u r e t he c o n d u c t o f ev er y d a y l i f e.
Sa v e i n t he c o m m o n s e n s e wo r l d , d i s c o u r s e c a n n o t a u t o n o mo u s l y
d e t e r mi n e i t s r het o r i c a l ef f ec t s . Nei t her its f o r m n o r i ts a u t ho r i a l i n-
t en t i o n d e t e r mi n e ho w it wi l l be u n d er s t o o d , f o r it is i mp o s s i bl e i n t ex t
o r s p e e c h t o el i mi n a t e a mbi g u i t y a n d t o s t r uc t ur e t ot al l y f o r al l t i me
t he a udi t or ' s p u r p o s es a n d i nt er es t s . H e r r ea d i n g a n d l i s t en i n g a r e as
m u c h ex p r es s i o n s o f her i n t en t i o n s a n d wi l l as is t he a ut hor ' s wr i t i n g
a n d s p ea k i n g . No t e v e n t he c o n j u n c t i o n a n d c o n s e q u e n c e o f t hei r
j o i n t i n t er es t s a n d p u r p o s e s i n a s ha r ed i n t er p r et a t i o n d e n y a mbi g u i t y
a n d a f f i r m d et er mi n a t i v e me a n i n g ; it o n l y ex p r es s es a t emp o r a r y
s uf f i c i enc y f o r p r es en t p u r p o s es a n d c o n d i t i o n s t ha t wi l l be i ns uf f i -
c i en t f o r o t her p u r p o s es a n d d i f f er en t c o n d i t i o n s . Ev en l es s c a n t he
t ex t , by m e a n s o f i ts f o r m, di c t a t e its i n t er p r et a t i o n , f o r it c a n n o t c o n -
t r ol t he p o w er s o f its r ea d er s . The y r es p o n d t o a t ex t o u t o f v a r i o u s
s t a t es o f i g n o r a n c e, i r r ec ept i v i t y , di s bel i ef , a n d hy p er s en s i t i v i t y t o
f o r m. Th e y a r e i m m u n e i n t he first ex t r eme t o a n y n u a n c e o f f o r m,
r ea d i n g t hr o u g h i t, n o t by me a n s o f it, u n c o n s c i o u s of it ex c ep t p er -
ha p s i n c o n f u s i o n o r a n n o y a n c e. In t he s ec o n d e x t r e me a p a r a n o i d
c o n v i c t i o n o f a u t ho r i a l d ec ei t f eed s a s ea r c h f o r hi d d e n m e a n i n g s
a n d t he finding o f t he m; or , i n o n e wi t h he i g ht e n e d s ens i bi l i t y t o t he
n ec es s a r y s t r u c t u r es o f t ho u g ht a n d l a n g u a g e, t he s ea r c h is l es s f o r
t hi n g s hi d d e n by t he a u t ho r t ha n f o r t hi n g s hi d d e n f r o m t he a u t ho r
by t he s t r u c t u r e o f l a n g u a g e a n d t ho u g ht . Of t hes e l at t er t wo , t he o n e
t hi n ks t he a u t ho r a c ha r l a t a n, t he o t her a d u p e , bu t t o bo t h t he t ex t is
a c o d e d s ec r et hi d i n g a n ec es s a r y i p n er me a n i n g i r r es p o n s i v e t o t ho s e
o bs c u r i n g o r c o n c ea l i n g a p p ea r a n c es o f o u t er c o n t i n g en c i es t ha t i m-
pl i c a t e a c o m m u n i t y o f bel i ef . Bec a u s e t he t ex t c a n el i mi n a t e n ei t her
a mbi g u i t y n o r t he s ubj ec t i vi t y o f i t s a u t ho r s a n d r ea d er s , it is bo u n d t o
be mi s r ea d , s o m u c h s o t ha t we mi g ht c o n c l u d e, i n a p a r o d y o f Bl o o m,
I fiat t he m e a n i n g o f t he t ex t is t he s u m o f its mi s r ea d i n g s .
Su c h ma y i n d e e d be t he f a t e o f t he t ex t , bu t t he me a n i n g o f t hi s
n o r ba c k, pa s t n o r f u t u r e, w he n s p a c e a n d t i me c a nc el ea c h o t her o u t
i n t ha t f a mi l i a r f a nt a s y we al l k n o w as t he ev er y d a y , c o m m o n p l a c e
wo r l d , t ha t br ea c h i n t i me, t ha t ev er p r es en t , n ev er p r es en t s i mu l -
t a n ei t y o f r eal i t y a n d f a nt a s y t ha t is t he r et u r n t o t he c o m m o n s e n s e
wo r l d , f l o a t i ng , l i ke t he Lo r d Br a hma , mo t i o n l es s i n t he s u r f a c el es s
v o i d , al l p o t ent i a l i t y s u s p e n d e d wi t hi n u s i n p er f ec t r ea l i z a t i o n, a r e-
t u r n t ha t is n o t a c l i ma x , t er mi n u s , s t abl e i ma g e, o r ho meo s t a t i c eq u i -
l i br i u m, bu t a r ed u c t i o n o f t en s i o n as t he m o m e n t o f t r a n s c en d en c e
s i mu l t a n eo u s l y a p p r o a c hes , d r a ws n ea r , a n d d ep a r t s wi t ho u t ha v i n g
a r r i v ed . An d t ha t is w hy t he p o s t - mo d er n e t hn o g r a p hy is a n o c c u l t
d o c u m e n t ; it is a n en i g ma t i c , p a r a do x i c a l , a n d es o t er i c c o n j u n c t i o n o f
r ea l i t y a n d f a nt a s y t ha t ev o kes t he c o n s t r u c t ed s i mul t a nei t y we k n o w
as n a i v e r ea l i s m. It c o n j o i n s real i t y a n d f ant as y, f o r it s p ea ks o f t he
o c c u l t i n t he l a n g u a g e o f n a i v e r ea l i s m a n d o f t he ev er y d a y i n o c c u l t
l a n g u a g e , a n d ma k es t he r ea s o n o f t he o n e t he r ea s o n a bl en es s o f t he
o t her . It is a f a nt a s y r eal i t y o f a real i t y f a nt a s y w ho s e a i m is t o ev o k e i n
r ea d er a n d wr i t er al i ke s o me i n t i ma t i o n o f a p o s s i bl e wo r l d a l r ea d y
g i v en t o u s i n f a nt a s y a n d c o mmo n s e n s e , t ho s e f o u n d a t i o n s o f o u r
k n o w l e d g e t ha t c a n n o t t hems el v es be t he o bj ec t s o f o u r k n o w l e d g e ,
"f or as by t he m we k n o w all el s e, by n o u g ht el s e c a n t hey be k n o w n .
We k n o w t he m i n d e e d , bu t o nl y i n t he f act t ha t wi t h t he m a n d t hr o u g h
t he m w e kn o w" ( Ha mi l t o n 1863: 255).
Po s t - mo d e r n e t hn o g r a p hy is a r et u r n t o t he i d ea o f a es t het i c
i n t eg r a t i o n as t her a p y o n c e c a p t u r ed i n t he s en s e o f Pr o t o - I n d o -
Eu r o p e a n *ar- ("way o f bei ng , " "or der l y a n d ha r mo n i o u s a r r a n g e-
m e n t o f t he pa r t s o f a who l e" ) , f r o m whi c h ha v e c o m e En g l i s h "art, "
"ri t e, " a n d "ri t ual , " t ha t f a mi l y o f c o n c ep t s s o c l os el y c o n n e c t e d wi t h
t he i d ea o f r es t o r a t i v e ha r mo n y , o f "t her a py " i n i ts o r i g i na l s en s e o f
"ri t ual s ubs t i t ut e" (cf. Hi t t i t e tarpan-atti), a n d wi t h t he p o et as ther-
pon, " a t t en d a n t o f t he Mu s e. " Po s t - mo d er n e t hn o g r a p hy is a n o bj ec t
o f med i t a t i o n t ha t p r o v o kes a r u p t u r e wi t h t he c o m m o n s e n s e wo r l d
a n d ev o k es a n a es t het i c i n t eg r a t i o n w ho s e t her a p eu t i c ef f ec t is w o r k e d
o u t i n t he r es t o r a t i o n o f t he c o mmo n s e n s e wo r l d . Un l i ke s c i en c e, i t is
n o t a n i n s t r u men t o f i mmo r t a l i t y , f o r it d o es n o t ho l d o u t t he f a l s e
h o p e o f a p e r ma n e n t , Utopian t r a n s c en d en c e, whi c h c a n o n l y be
a c hi ev ed by d ev a l u i n g a n d f a l s i f y i ng t he c o m m o n s e n s e wo r l d a n d
t her eby c r ea t i n g i n us a s en s e o f p e r ma n e n t a l i en a t i o n f r o m ev er y d a y
l i f e as w e l i ve i n c o n s t a n t ex p ec t a t i o n o f t he mes s i a n i c d el i v er a n c e
f r o m i t t ha t c a n n ev er c o me , o r c o mes o n l y wi t h d ea t h, a n d s c i en c e
t hu s e n c o u r a g e s u s t o di e t o o s o o n . In s t ea d , it d ep a r t s f r o m t he c o m-
m o n s e n s e wo r l d o n l y i n o r d er t o r ec o n f i r m i t a n d t o r et u r n us t o it
r e n e w e d a n d mi n d f u l o f o u r r en ewa l .
Bec a u s e t he p o s t - mo d e r n wo r l d is a pos t - s c i ent i f i c wo r l d wi t ho u t
136 STEPHEN A. TYLER
i n h e r e n t fai l ur e t o c o nt r o l a mbi g ui t y a n d subj ect i vi t y is that it p r o -
v i de s g o o d r e a s o n for r e j e c t i ng t he mo d e l o f sci ent i fi c r he t or i c , t hat
Ca r t e s i a n p r e t e n s e t hat i de as are effabl e i n cl ear, u n a mb i g u o u s , obj e c -
t i ve, a n d l ogi cal e x pr e s s i o n, for t he i nne r f o r m o f a t e xt is no t l ogi cal ,
e x c e p t i n pa r o dy , but par adoxi c al a n d e ni g ma t i c , no t s o mu c h i n-
e ffabl e , as ove r - e ffabl e , i ni mi t abl y effabl e, po s s e s s i ng a s ur pl us o f
e l i abi l i t y t hat mu s t al ways e x c e e d t he me a n s o f its effabi l i t y, s o t hat t he
i nfi ni t e pos s i bi l i t y o f i ts effabi l i t y b e c o me s t he c o n d i t i o n o f its i n ef-
fabi l i t y, a n d t he i nt e r pr e t a t i o n o f a t e xt mu s t s t r ug g l e agai ns t t hi s s ur-
pl us o f me a n i n g , n o t wi t h its obs c ur i t y o r pove r t y.
For p o s t - mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y t he i mpl i c at i on i s, i f n o t cl ear, at
l eas t a p p a r e n t t hat its t e xt will be pr oj e c t e d ne i t he r i n t he f o r m o f t hi s
i n n e r p a r a d o x n o r i n t he f o r m o f a de c e pt i v e o u t e r l ogi c, but as t he
t e n s i o n b e t we e n t h e m, ne i t he r d e n y i n g ambi gui t y n o r e n d o r s i n g it,
n e i t h e r s ubv e r t i ng subj ect i vi t y n o r d e n y i n g obj ect i vi t y, e x p r e s s i n g i n-
s t e a d t he i r i nt e r ac t i on i n t he s ubj ect i ve c r e at i on o f a mb i g u o u s obj e c -
t i vi t i es t hat e na bl e u n a mb i g u o u s subj ect i vi t y. T h e e t h n o g r a p h i c t e xt
wi l l t hus a c hi e v e its p u r p o s e s no t by r e ve al i ng t h e m, but by ma k i n g
p u r p o s e s pos s i bl e . It will be a t e xt o f t he phys i cal , t he s p o k e n , a n d t he
p e r f o r me d , a n e voc at i on o f quo t i di a n e x p e r i e n c e , a pa l pa bl e real i t y
t hat u s e s e v e r y da y s p e e c h t o s ug g e s t wha t is i neffabl e, no t t h r o u g h ab-
s t r ac t i on, but by me a n s o f t he c o nc r e t e . It wi l l be a t e xt t o r e a d n o t
wi t h t he e y e s a l o ne , but wi t h t he ears i n o r de r t o h e a r "t he voi c e s o f
t he pa g e s " (St. Be r n a r d , q u o t e d i n St ock 1983: 408).
Other Voices: Supplement
Yes, but what you really mean is don't you think that how is it possible that
what you're trying to say is .. .
1. Co n s e n s u s i n f o r m a n d c o nt e nt b e l o n g t o t he o t h e r ki nd o f
di s c o ur s e , a n d wh o s e et hi cs is not t he que s t i o n. I f o n e is d e a f t o
t he t u n e o n e n e e d no t d a n c e t o it, a nd be s i de s t he r e is n o p r e s e n -
t at i on o f a n e t hi c , o nl y t he possi bi l i t y o f its i nf l ue nc e .
2. No , t he r e is n o i ns t anc e o f a p o s t - mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y ,
e v e n t h o u g h all e t h n o g r a p h y is p o s t - mo d e r n i n effect , n o r is o n e
l i kel y, t h o u g h s o me r e c e nt wr i t i ng has t he r i ght spi ri t , for e x a mp l e
Cr a p a n z a n o (1980), Te dl o c k (1983) a n d Ma j ne p a n d Bu l me r
( 1977) . T h e po i nt anyway i s no t h o w t o c r e at e a p o s t - mo d e r n e t h-
n o g r a p h y o r wha t f o r m it o u g h t t o t ake. T h e po i nt is t hat it mi g h t
t ake a ny f o r m but ne v e r be c o mpl e t e l y r e al i z e d. Ev e r y a t t e mp t
wi l l al ways be i n c o mp l e t e , i ns uffi ci ent , l ac ki ng i n s o me way, but
t hi s i s n o t a de f e c t s i nc e it is t he me a n s t hat e na bl e s t r a n s c e n d e n c e .
Tr a n s c e n d e n c e c o me s f r o m i mpe r f e c t i o n no t f r o m pe r l e d i on.
Post - Modern Et hnography
*37
3. No , i t is no t a que s t i o n o f for m, o f a ma n n e r o f wr i t i ng as
s uc h, a n d e v e n t h o u g h I s pe a k o f p o l y p h o n y a n d pe r s pe c t i val
rel at i vi t y, f r a g me nt a t i o n, a n d so o n , t he s e are no t ne c e s s a r y c o m-
p o n e n t s o f f o r m. T h e r e is h e r e n o aes t het i c o f f o r m. Ly o t a r d
( 1979: 80) no t e s t wo pos s i bi l i t i es . Let us cal l o n e "wri t i ng at t he
l i mi t , " wh e r e we s e e k t o p u s h agai ns t l i mi t s i mp o s e d by c o n v e n -
t i ons o f s ynt ax, me a n i n g , a n d g e nr e , a n d l et us cal l t he o t h e r
"wri t i ng wi t hi n t he l i mi t , " wr i t i ng s o cl ear a n d c o mmo n s e n s i c a l
t hat i ts ve r y r e a s o na bl e ne s s e v o k e s wha t i s b e y o n d r e a s o n. I n b o t h
c as e s t he wr i t i ng is a nt i - g e nr e , ant i - for m.
4. Pe r s pe c t i ve is t he wr o n g me t a p h o r . It c o nj ur e s i ma g e s a p -
p r o p r i a t e t o de s c r i pt i ve wr i t i ng, wri t i ng i n t h o u g h t pi c t ur e s o r hi -
e r o g l y p h s . It is no t a bus i ne s s o f "s eei ng" at al l , for t hat is t he
me t a p h o r o f s c i e nc e , n o r is it a "doi ng"; t hat is t he me t a p h o r of
pol i t i cs . T h e r e is n o a t t e mpt t o g o b e y o n d l a n g u a g e by me a n s
o f vi s i on a n d ac t i on. Po l y p h o n y is a be t t e r me t a p h o r be c a us e it
e v o k e s s o u n d a n d h e a r i n g a n d s i mul t ane i t y a n d h a r mo n y , no t pi c-
t ur e s a n d s e e i n g a n d s e q u e n c e a n d l i ne. Pr o s e a c c o mpl i s he s at
mo s t o nl y a ki nd o f s e que nt i al p o l y p h o n y unt i l t he r e a de r a d d s hi s
v o i c e t o it.
5. Yes, it is a f o r m o f r e al i s m; it de s c r i be s n o obj ect s a n d
ma k e s n o br e ak b e t we e n de s c r i bi ng a nd wha t is b e i n g de s c r i be d.
It d o e s no t de s c r i be , for t he r e is n o t h i n g it c o ul d de s c r i be . S o
mu c h for t he i de a o f e t h n o g r a p h y as a "de s c r i pt i on o f real i t y. " De -
s c r i pt i ons o f real i t y are o nl y i mi t at i ons o f real i ty. Th e i r mo d e is
mimetic, but t he i r mimesis c r e at e s onl y i l l us i ons o f real i t y, as i n t he
fictional real i t i es o f s c i e nc e . That , is t he pr i c e t hat mu s t be pai d for
ma k i n g l a n g u a g e d o t he wo r k o f t he e ye s .
6. Pe r c e pt i o n has n o t h i n g t o d o wi t h it. An e t h n o g r a p h y is
n o a c c o u n t o f a r at i onal i z e d mo v e me n t f r o m pe r c e pt t o c o nc e pt .
It b e g i n s a n d e n d s i n c o nc e pt s . T h e r e is n o or i gi n i n p e r c e p t i o n ,
n o pr i or i t y t o vi s i on, a n d n o dat a o f obs e r vat i on.
7. No , it is no t s ur r e al i s m. It is t he r e al i s m o f t he c o mmo n -
s e ns e wo r l d , wh i c h is o nl y s ur r e al i n t he fictions o f s c i e nc e a n d
i n t he s c i e nc e o f fiction. Wh o s e c o mmo n s e n s e ? Why , anybody' s ,
wh i c h i s n o t t o say e ve r ybody' s , as T h o ma s Re i d ( 1895: 692 701)
di d.
8. Tr a ns l a t i o n? No t i f we t hi nk o f it as f o r di ng a s t r e a m t hat
s e pa r a t e s o n e t e xt f r o m a n o t h e r a n d c h a n g i n g l a n g u a g e s i n mi d -
s t r e a m. Th i s i s mimesis o f l a n g u a g e , o n e l a n g u a g e c o p y i n g a no t he r ,
whi c h n e v e r ma k e s a c o p y anyway, but a mo r e or l ess c o n t o r t e d
or i gi nal . T h o u g h t hi s f o r m o f mimesis o f f e n d s l ess t ha n t hat o f vi -
s i o n, it is still a silly i de a t o s u p p o s e t hat o n e mi g h t r e n d e r t he
me a n i n g s o f a n o t h e r folk in t e r ms al r e ady k n o wn t o us j ust as i f
STEPHEN A. TYLER
t h e o t h e r s h a d n e v e r b e e n t he r e at al l . For it is no t for us t o k n o w
t he me a n i n g f o r t h e m unl e s s it is al r e ady k n o wn t o us bo t h, a n d
t hus n e e d s n o t r ans l at i on, but onl y a ki nd o f r e mi n d i n g . So, t he r e i s
n o o r i g i na t i ng t e x t t o pl ay t he part o f t he mi s s i ng obj ect . N o obj e c t
o f a ny ki nd p r e c e d e s a n d c ons t r ai ns t he e t h n o g r a p h y . It c r e at e s its
o wn obj ect s i n i ts u n f o l d i n g a n d t he r e a de r s uppl i e s t he rest .
9. Bu t wha t o f t he e x p e r i e n c e o f t he e t h n o g r a p h e r ? Sur e l y
t hat a mo u n t s t o s o me t h i n g pr i or s i nce t he e t h n o g r a p h y is at t h e
ve r y l eas t a r e c o r d o f t hat e x p e r i e n c e . No , it is n o t a r e c o r d o f e x -
p e r i e n c e at all; it is t he me a n s o f e x p e r i e n c e . Th a t e x p e r i e n c e be -
c a me e x p e r i e n c e o nl y i n t he wr i t i ng o f t he e t h n o g r a p h y . Be f o r e
t hat it was o nl y a d i s c o n n e c t e d array o f c ha nc e h a p p e n i n g s . N o
e x p e r i e n c e p r e c e d e d t he e t h n o g r a p h y . T h e e x p e r i e n c e was t he
e t h n o g r a p h y . Ex p e r i e n c e is n o mo r e a n obj e c t i n d e p e n d e n t o f t he
e t h n o g r a p h y t ha n all t he o t h e r s b e h a v i o r , me a n i n g s , t ext s , a n d
s o o n .
10. No o r i g i n o ut s i de t he t e xt j us t l i t erat ure t h e n , o r a n o d d
ki nd o f lit. cri t. ? Yes, l i t erat ure, but no t i n t he s e ns e o f t ot al sel f-
refl exi vi t y, o f l i t erat ure a bo ut i t sel f a n d n o t h i n g el s e. An e t h-
n o g r a p h y do e s no t i nvi t e mo v e me n t f r o m t e xt t o t e xt a l o ne . It is
n o t j u s t a c ol l e c t i on o f c l e ve r al l us i ons t o o t h e r t ext s , t h o u g h i t c a n
o bv i o us l y d o t hat as wel l as any o t he r t ext . It e v o ke s wh a t c a n
n e v e r b e p u t i nt o a t e xt by a ny wri t er, a n d t hat is t he c o mmo n -
s e n s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t he r e ade r . An e t h n o g r a p h y is n o t t he
aut hor' s c ogni t i ve ut o pi a s i nc e n o a ut ho r c an ful l y c o nt r o l t he
r e ade r ' s r e s po ns e . He r t ext d e p e n d s o n t he reader' s s u p p l e me n t a -
t i on. T h e i n c o mp l e t e n e s s o f t he t e xt i mpl i c at e s t he wo r k o f t he
r e a de r , a n d hi s wo r k de r i ve s as mu c h , i f n o t mo r e , f r o m t h e or al
wo r l d o f e v e r y da y e x pr e s s i o n a nd c o mmo n s e n s e u n d e r s t a n d i n g
as it d o e s f r o m t he wo r l d o f t ext .
1 1 . Po s t - mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y d e n i e s t he i l l us i on o f a sel f-
p e r f e c t i n g di s c o ur s e . No c or r e c t i ve mo v e me n t s f r o m t e xt t o obj e c t
a n d bac k agai n i n t he ma n n e r o f e mpi r i c i s m, a n d n o s u p p l e me n -
tal , s el f- refl exi ve mo v e me n t s f r o m flawed s ubl at i on t o s c at he l e s s
t r a n s c e n d e n t ma r k its c o ur s e . Ea c h t e xt r e t ai ns a s e pa r a t e s e n s e
wi t hi n t he di s c o ur s e wi t ho ut b e i n g s ubo r di na t e d t o a g r a n d e v o l u -
t i onar y my t h o f ul t i mat e perfect i bi l i t y. Ea c h t e xt is aki n t o a Le i b-
ni z i an mo n a d , pe r fe c t i n its i mperfect i bi l i t y.
Po s t - mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y f o r e g o e s t he t al e o f t he pas t as e r -
r o r a n d d e n i e s t h e my t h o f t he f ut ur e as ut opi a. N o o n e be l i e ve s
a n y mo r e i n t he u n c o n d i t i o n e d fut ur e . T h e pas t at l eas t has t he
a d v a n t a g e o f h a v i n g b e e n . Mo d e r n i s m, l i ke Chri s t i ani t y, t a ug ht us
t o v a l ue p o s t p o n e me n t , t o l ook a he a d t o a sci ent i fi c ut o pi a , l o
Post - Modern Et hnography 139
d e v a l u e t he pas t , a n d ne g a t e t he pr e s e nt . I n cont ras t , t he pos t -
mo d e r n wo r l d is i n a s e ns e t i me l e s s ; past , pr e s e nt , a n d f u t u r e c o -
e x i s t i n al l di s c o ur s e , a n d s o we ma y say wi t h e qua l s e n s e t ha t al l
r e pe t i t i o ns are fictive a n d all di f f e r e nc e s are i l l us i ons . We ma y say
t hat c o ns e r v a t i o n is not o f obj ect s but o f t i me . Obj e c t s c h a n g e , but
t i me d o e s not , whi c h ma k e s it r e as onabl e for us t o say t hat wh e n
we s e e t he s a me obj e c t t wi ce it is not t he s a me . No t h i n g i s t he
s a me , j u s t t i me , wh i c h is n o t h i n g a n d no t pe r c e i vabl e . T o s p e a k i n
t he l a n g u a g e o f i de nt i t i e s , t o say "I saw t he s a me t hi ng, " o r "it ha s
c h a n g e d , " o r "it has mo v e d " r e qui r e s a c h a n g e d t i me a n d c h a n g e -
l e s s obj e c t s a n d s ubj ect s , but a di s c our s e c an ma k e al l t h r e e t i me ,
s ubj e c t , a n d o b j e c t wh a t it wi l l . It is no t e ns l a v e d by t he h e g e -
mo n y o f t he n o u n , by t he pe r c e pt i o n o f c ha ng e l e s s obj ect s by
c h a n g e l e s s s ubj ect s .
Di s p e r s e d a ut ho r s hi p mi r r or s thi s di s pe r s e d self, t hi s i n c o n -
s t ant s ubj ect , j us t as t he i n c o mp l e t e n e s s o f t he t e xt mi r r o r s t he
di s s o l ut i o n o f t he obj ect , but p o s t - mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h y is no t
t h e r e b y a n o n y mo u s i n t he ma n n e r o f bur e auc r at i c di s c o ur s e o r o f
a t e l e vi s i on seri al . It is ne i t he r t he DSM III (Diagnostic and Statis-
tical Manual), t hat t errori s t b l u d g e o n o f t he ps ychi at ri s t , t he fac e -
l ess p o n d e r o s i t y o f "t he ma ni c - de pr e s s i v e pe r s onal i t y is c har ac t e r -
i z e d by, " n o r t he e xpl oi t at i ve ps e udo - na r r a t i v e o f "Dal l as, " wi t h its
i ns i di o us hi s s i n t he ears o f t he p o o r of: "See, t he ri ch ar e r i c h but
mi s e r abl e . "
An e t h n o g r a p h y is a fant as y, but it is not , l i ke t he s e , a fiction,
for t he i de a o f fiction ent ai l s a l oc us o f j u d g me n t o ut s i de t he fic-
t i on, wh e r e a s a n e t h n o g r a p h y we ave s a l oc us o f j u d g me n t wi t hi n
i tsel f, a n d t hat l o c us , t hat e v o c a t i o n o f real i ty, is al s o a fant as y. It is
n o t a real i t y fant as y l i ke "Dal l as, " no r a fant as y real i t y l i ke t he
DSM III; it is a real i t y fant as y o f a fant as y real i ty. Th a t is t o say, it
is r e al i s m, t he e v o c a t i o n o f a pos s i bl e wo r l d o f real i t y a l r e a dy
k n o wn t o us i n fant as y.
12. T h e cri t i cal f unc t i o n o f e t h n o g r a p h y de r i ve s f r o m t he
fact t hat it ma k e s its o wn c o nt e x t ua l g r o u n d i n g part o f t he q u e s -
t i on a n d n o t f r o m h a wk i n g pi c t ur e s o f al t ernat i ve ways o f l i fe as
i n s t r u me n t s o f Utopian r e f o r m.
13. A c onfl i c t e d f o r m? Yes , ful l o f u n r e s o l v e d confl i ct , b u t n o t
agoni s t i c , no t v i o l e nt l i ke s c i e nc e n o r a n i n s t r u me n t o f v i o l e nc e
l i ke pol i t i cs . It has n o n e o f t he r a pe o f t he sci enti st' s "l o o ki ng at, "
o r o f t he ma c h o b r a g g a d o c i o o f "let's s ee, " o r o f t he d e p l o y me n t o f
a r mi e s o f a r g u me n t , o r o f t he s ubj ugat i on o f t he we a k i n t he pol i -
ti ci an's "do i ng t o. " S e e k i n g ne i t he r t he r e a s o n t hat ma k e s p o we r
no r t he p o we r t hat ma k e s r e a s o n, it f o u n d s i n t he r e c e pt i vi t y o f
140
STEPHEN A. TYLER
"l i s t e ni ng t o" a n d i n t he mut ual i t y o f "t al ki ng wi t h. " It t akes its
me t a p h o r f r o m a n o t h e r part o f t he s e n s o r i u m a n d r e pl ac e s t he
mo n o l o g u e o f t h e bul l ho r n wi t h di a l o g ue .
14. I cal l e t h n o g r a p h y a me di t at i ve ve hi c l e be c a us e we c o me
t o i t ne i t he r as t o a ma p o f k n o wl e d g e n o r as a g u i d e t o ac t i on, n o r
e v e n for e nt e r t a i nme nt . We c o me t o it as t he st art o f a di f f e r e nt
k i n d o f j o u r n e y .
The paper given at the Santa Fe seminar on the Making of Ethnographic Texts has
been revised and "sandwiched" between the "Context" and "Supplement" appearing
here. Both "Context" and "Supplement" were written after the seminar and are as
much dialogical responses to seminar papers and discussion as they are the working out
of themes and conflicts in these parerga to The Said and the Unsaid (Tyler 1978).
T AL AL AS AD
The Concept of Cultural
Translation in British Social
Anthropology
Introduction
Al l a nt hr o po l o g i s t s are fami l i ar wi t h E. B. Tyl or' s f a mo u s defi -
ni t i o n o f c ul t ur e : "Cul t ur e o r Ci vi l i zat i on, t ake n i n its wi d e e t h n o -
g r a p h i c s e n s e , is t hat c o mp l e x wh o l e whi c h i nc l ude s k n o wl e d g e , bel i ef,
art , mo r a l s , l aw, c u s t o m, a n d a ny o t he r capabi l i t i es a n d habi t s ac-
q u i r e d by ma n as a me mb e r o f soci et y. " It wo u l d be i nt e r e s t i ng t o t r ac e
h o w a n d w h e n t hi s n o t i o n o f c ul t ur e , wi t h its e n u me r a t i o n o f "capabi l -
i t i es a n d habi t s " a n d its e mp h a s i s o n wha t Li nt o n c al l e d social heredity
( f o c u s i n g o n t he pr o c e s s o f l e a r ni ng ) , was t r a ns f o r me d i nt o t he n o t i o n
o f a textthat i s, i nt o s o me t h i n g r e s e mbl i ng a n i ns c r i be d di s c o ur s e .
On e o b v i o u s c l ue t o t hi s c h a n g e is t o be f o u n d i n t he way t hat a n o t i o n
o f language as t he p r e c o n d i t i o n o f hi s t ori cal c o nt i nui t y a n d s oci al
l e a r n i n g ("cul t i vat i on") c a me t o d o mi n a t e t he pe r s pe c t i ve o f s oci al a n-
t hr o po l o g i s t s . I n a g e ne r a l way, o f c o ur s e , s uc h a n i nt e r e s t i n l a n g u a g e
p r e d a t e s Ty l o r , but i n t he n i n e t e e n t h a n d earl y t we nt i e t h c e nt ur i e s it
t e n d e d t o b e c e nt r al t o vari et i es o f nat i onal i s t l i t erary t he o r y a n d e d u -
c a t i o n (cf. Ea g l e t o n 1 98 3: c h. 2) r at he r t han t o t he o t h e r h u ma n sci -
e n c e s . Wh e n a n d i n wh a t ways di d i t b e c o me cruci al for Bri t i s h soci al
a n t h r o p o l o g y ? I d o n o t i n t e n d t o a t t e mpt s uc h a hi s t or y he r e , but
me r e l y t o r e mi n d o ur s e l v e s t hat t he phr a s e "t he t rans l at i on o f cul -
t ur e s , " wh i c h i nc r e a s i ng l y s i nc e t he 1950s has b e c o me a n a l mo s t banal
de s c r i pt i o n o f t he di s t i nct i ve t ask o f soci al a nt hr o po l o g y , was no t al -
ways s o mu c h i n e v i d e n c e . I wa nt t o st ress t hat t hi s a p p a r e n t s hi ft i s
n o t i de nt i c al wi t h t he o l d pr e - Func t i o na l i s m/ Func t i o na l i s m pe r i o di z a -
t i on. No r is it s i mpl y a ma t t e r o f a di rect i nt e r e s t i n l a n g u a g e a n d
me a n i n g t hat wa s pr e v i o us l y l ac ki ng (Cri ck 1976). Br oni s l aw Mal i -
no ws ki , o n e o f t he f o u n d e r s o f t he s o- cal l ed Func t i onal i s t s c ho o l ,
wr o t e mu c h o n "pr i mi t i ve l a n g u a g e " a n d c ol l e c t e d e n o r mo u s q u a n -
142 TALAL ASAD
Th e Concept of Cultural Translation
143
Ev e n Ma x Gl u c k ma n ( 1973: 905) , r e s p o n d i n g s hor t l y a f t e r wa r d
t o Le a c h , a c c e pt s t he cent ral i t y o f "cul t ural t rans l at i on, " whi l e p r o p o s -
i n g a v e r y di f f e r e nt g e n e a l o g y for t hat a nt hr o po l o g i c a l pract i ce.
Yet de s pi t e t he g e ne r a l a g r e e me n t wi t h whi c h t hi s n o t i o n has b e e n
a c c e p t e d as part o f t he s e l f- de fi ni t i on o f Bri t i s h soci al a n t h r o p o l o g y , i t
ha s r e c e i v e d l i ttl e s ys t e mat i c e x a mi na t i o n f r o m wi t hi n t he pr o f e s s i o n.
On e part i al e x c e p t i o n i s Ro d n e y Ne e d h a m' s Belief, Language, and Expe-
rience ( 1972) . Th i s i s a c o mp l e x , s chol arl y wo r k t hat d e s e r v e s e x t e n d e d
t r e a t me nt . He r e , h o we v e r , I wi s h t o c o nc e nt r a t e o n a s ho r t e r t e xt ,
Er ne s t Gel l ner' s "Co nc e pt s a n d Soci et y, " whi c h a p p e a r s t o be fai rl y
wi de l y u s e d i n u n d e r g r a d u a t e c o ur s e s at Bri t i s h uni ve r s i t i e s a n d is still
avai l abl e i n s e ve r al p o p u l a r c ol l e c t i ons . I p r o p o s e , t he r e f o r e , t o d e v o t e
t he n e x t s e c t i on t o a de t ai l e d e x a mi na t i o n o f t hat es s ay a n d t h e n t o
t ake u p s o me po i nt s t hat e me r g e f r o m my di s c us s i on i n t he s e c t i ons
t hat fol l ow.
A Theoretical Text
Gel l ner' s "Co nc e pt s a n d Soci et y" is c o n c e r n e d wi t h t he way i n
wh i c h Func t i onal i s t a nt hr o po l o g i s t s de al wi t h p r o b l e ms of i nt e r pr e t -
i n g a n d t r ans l at i ng t he di s c o ur s e o f al i en s oci et i es . Hi s basi c a r g u me n t
is t hat (a) c o n t e mp o r a r y a nt hr o po l o g i s t s i nsi st o n i nt e r pr e t i ng e x o t i c
c o n c e p t s a n d be l i e fs wi t hi n a soci al c ont e xt , but t hat (b) i n d o i n g s o
t he y e n s u r e t hat a ppa r e nt l y a bs ur d or i n c o h e r e n t as s e r t i ons ar e al -
ways g i v e n a n ac c e pt abl e me a n i n g , a n d t hat (c) whi l e t he c o nt e x t ua l
me t h o d o f i nt e r pr e t a t i o n is i n pr i nc i pl e val i d, t he "exces s i ve chari t y"
t ha t us ua l l y g o e s wi t h it i s not . T h e p a p e r c o nt a i ns s e ve r al d i a g r a ms
i n t e n d e d t o fi x a n d cl ari fy t he r e l e vant cul t ural pr oc e s s e s vi sual l y.
Ge l l n e r i n t r o d u c e s t he p r o b l e m o f i nt e r pr e t at i on by r e f e r e nc e t o
Kur t Sa mue l s s o n' s Religion and Economic Action ( 1961) , whi c h is a n
e c o n o mi c hi st ori an' s at t ack o n t he We be r i a n Pr ot e s t ant - e t hi c t he s i s .
S a mu e l s s o n t ake s i s s ue wi t h t he fact t hat We be r a n d hi s s u p p o r t e r s
h a v e r e i n t e r p r e t e d r e l i gi ous t ext s i n a way t hat e na bl e s t h e m t o e xt r ac t
me a n i n g s t hat c o nf i r m t he t hes i s . Ge l l ne r pr e s e nt s t hi s e x a mp l e me r e l y
t o br i ng o u t mo r e s har pl y t he c ont r as t i ng pos i t i on o f t he Func t i onal i s t
a n t h r o p o l o g i s t :
I am not concerned, nor compet ent , to argue whether Samuelsson's empl oy-
ment , i n this particular case, of his tacit principle that one must not re-
i nterpret the assertions one actually finds, is valid. What is relevant here is
that if such a pri nci pl e is made explicit and general i zed, it woul d make non-
sense of most sociological studi es of the relationship of bel i ef and conduct. We
t i t i es o f l i ngui s t i c mat e r i al ( pr ove r bs , ki ns hi p t e r mi no l o g y , ma g i c a l
s pe l l s , a n d s o o n ) for a nt hr o po l o g i c a l anal ys i s . Bu t h e n e v e r t h o u g h t
o f hi s wo r k i n t e r ms o f t he t rans l at i on o f c ul t ur e s .
Go d f r e y Li e nhar dt ' s p a p e r "Mo de s o f Th o u g h t " (1954) is pos s i bl y
o n e o f t he e a r l i e s t c e r t a i nl y o n e o f t he mo s t s u b t l e e x a mp l e s o f t he
u s e o f t hi s n o t i o n o f t r ans l at i on expl i ci t l y t o de s c r i be a c e nt r al t ask o f
s oci al a n t h r o p o l o g y . " Th e p r o b l e m o f de s c r i bi ng t o o t he r s h o w me m-
be r s o f a r e mo t e t ri be t hi nk t he n be g i ns t o a ppe a r l ar ge l y as o n e o f
t r ans l at i on, o f ma k i n g t he c o h e r e n c e pr i mi t i ve t h o u g h t has i n t he l an-
g u a g e s it real l y l i ves i n, as cl ear as pos s i bl e i n o u r o wn " (97). Th i s s t at e-
me n t is q u o t e d a n d cri t i ci zed i n t he art i cl e by Er ne s t Ge l l ne r t hat I
a na l y z e i n t he n e x t s e c t i on, a nd I shal l r e t ur n t o it i n t he c o n t e x t o f
Gel l ner' s a r g u me n t . He r e I dr a w at t e nt i on bri efl y t o Li e nhar dt ' s us e o f
t he wo r d "t rans l at i on" t o r e f e r not t o l i ngui s t i c ma t t e r pe r s e, but t o
" mo d e s o f t h o u g h t " t hat are e mb o d i e d i n s uc h mat t e r . It ma y no t b e
wi t h o u t s i gni fi c anc e , i nci dent al l y, t hat Li e nha r dt has a b a c k g r o u n d i n
En g l i s h l i t e r at ur e , t hat h e was a pupi l o f F. R. Leavi s' s at Ca mb r i d g e
b e f o r e h e b e c a me a pupi l a n d c ol l abor at or o f E. E. Evans - Pr i t c har d' s
at Ox f o r d .
Ox f o r d i s, o f c o ur s e , f a mo u s as t he a nt hr o po l o g i c a l c e nt e r i n Bri t -
a i n mo s t s e l f - c o ns c i o us a bo ut i ts c o n c e r n wi t h "t he t r ans l at i on o f cul -
t ur e s . " T h e b e s t - k n o wn i nt r o duc t o r y t e x t bo o k t o e me r g e f r o m t hat
c e nt e r , J o h n Beat t i e' s Other Cultures (1964), e mp h a s i z e d t he cent ral i t y
o f t he "pr o bl e m o f t rans l at i on" for soci al a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d di s t i n-
g u i s h e d ( but di d no t s e par at e ) "cul t ure" f r o m "l anguage " i n a way t hat
wa s b e c o mi n g fami l i ar t o a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s t h o u g h no t ne c e s s ar i l y
t h e r e f o r e e nt i r e l y cl ear ( s ee p p . 8990).
It is i nt e r e s t i ng t o fi nd E d mu n d Le a c h, wh o has n e v e r b e e n as s oci -
a t e d wi t h Ox f o r d , e mp l o y i n g t he s a me no t i o n i n hi s c o nc l us i o n t o a
hi s t or i c al s ke t c h o f soci al a n t h r o p o l o g y a d e c a d e l at er:
Let me recapitulate. We started by emphasi zi ng how di fferent are "the
ot hers"and made t hem not only different but remot e and inferior. Senti-
mental l y we t hen took the opposi te track and argued that all human bei ngs
are alike; we can underst and Trobri anders or the Barotse because thei r moti -
vati ons are j ust the same as our own; but that didn't work ei ther, "the others"
remai ned obstinately other. But now we have come to see that the essential
probl em is one of translation. The linguists have shown us that all translation | j |
is difficult, and that perfect translation is usually i mpossi bl e. And yet we know
that for practical purposes a tolerably satisfactory translation is always pos-
sible even when the original "text" is highly abstruse. Languages are di fferent
but not so di fferent as all that. Looked at in this way social anthropol ogi sts are
e ngage d in establ i shi ng a met hodol ogy for the translation of cultural lan-
guage. (Leach 1973:772)
144 TALAL ASAD
The Concept of Cultural Translation 145
shall find ant hropol ogi st s dri ven to empl oy the very opposi t e pri nci pl e, the
i nsi stence rather than refusal of contextual re-i nterpretati on. (20)
Bu t t hi s mo d e s t di s c l ai me r o f c o mp e t e n c e al l ows t o o ma n y i nt e r -
e s t i ng que s t i o ns t o dri ft by. T o b e g i n wi t h, it cal l s for n o g r e a t c o mp e -
t e n c e t o n o t e t hat S a mu e l s s o n do e s no t h o l d t o t he pr i nc i pl e t hat o n e
mu s t never r e i nt e r pr e t . No r d o e s h e i nsi st t hat t he r e is never a si gni fi -
c a nt c o n n e c t i o n b e t we e n a r e l i gi ous t e xt a n d i ts s oci al c o nt e x t , but
o n l y t hat t he c o nc l us i o n t he We be r t hes i s s e e ks t o ma k e c a n n o t be e s -
t abl i s he d. ( Se e , e. g. , S a mu e l s s o n 1 96 1 : 6 g. ) T h e r e i s, f u r t h e r mo r e , a
r e al c o nt r a s t t hat Ge l l ne r mi g ht ha v e pi c ke d u p b e t we e n t he S a mu e l s -
s o n e x a mp l e a n d t he t ypi cal ant hr opol ogi s t ' s pr e di c a me nt . For e c o -
n o mi c hi s t or i ans a n d s oci ol ogi s t s i nvol ve d i n t he We b e r de ba t e , hi s -
t ori cal t e xt s ar e a pr i ma r y d a t u m i n rel at i on t o whi c h t he soci al
c o n t e x t s mu s t be r e c o ns t r uc t e d. T h e a nt hr o po l o g i c a l fieldworker be -
g i ns wi t h a s oci al s i t uat i on wi t hi n whi c h s o me t h i n g i s s ai d, a n d it is t he
c ul t ur al s i gni fi c anc e o f t he s e e nunc i a t i o ns t hat mus t be r e c o ns t r uc t e d.
Th i s i s n o t t o say, o f c o ur s e , t hat t he hi s t or i an c an e v e r a p p r o a c h hi s
ar c hi val mat e r i al wi t ho ut s o me c o nc e pt i o n o f its hi s t ori cal c o nt e x t , or
t hat t he fieldworker c a n de fi ne t he soci al s i t uat i on i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f
wh a t was s ai d wi t hi n it. T h e cont ras t , s uc h as it i s, is o n e o f o r i e nt a -
t i on, wh i c h fol l ows f r o m t he fact t hat t he hi s t or i an is given a text a n d
t h e e t h n o g r a p h e r has to construct one.
I n s t e a d o f i nve s t i gat i ng t hi s i mpo r t a nt cont ras t , Ge l l ne r r us he s
a l o n g t o de f i ne a nd c o mme n d what h e cal l s "mo de r a t e Func t i o na l -
i s m" as a me t h o d , whi c h
consists of the insistence on the fact that concepts and beliefs do not exi st i n
i sol ati on, i n texts or in i ndi vi dual mi nds, but in the life o f me n and societies.
Th e activities and institutions, in the context of which a word or phrase or set
of phrases is used, must be known before that word or those phrases can be
unders t ood, before we can really speak of a concept or a belief. (22)
Th i s is we l l put , a nd, e v e n if it has b e e n sai d be f o r e , it is wo r t h
r e s t at i ng. At t hi s po i nt t he r e a de r mi g h t e x p e c t a di s c us s i on o f t he di f-
f e r e n t ways i n wh i c h l a n g u a g e is e n c o u n t e r e d by t he e t h n o g r a p h e r i n
t he field, h o w ut t e r a nc e s are p r o d u c e d , verbal me a n i n g s o r g a n i z e d ,
r he t or i c al effect s at t ai ne d, a n d cul t ural l y a ppr o pr i a t e r e s p o n s e s el i c-
i t e d. Af t e r al l , Wi t t g e ns t e i n h a d al r e ady s e ns i t i z e d Bri t i s h phi l o s o -
p h e r s t o t he c o mp l e x i t y o f l a ng ua g e - i n- us e , a n d J. L. Aus t i n h a d s et
u p di s t i nc t i ons b e t we e n t he di ffe r e nt l evel s o f s p e e c h p r o d u c t i o n a n d
r e c e p t i o n i n a way t hat f o r e s h a d o we d what a nt hr o po l o g i s t s wo u l d
l at er cal l t he e t h n o g r a p h y o f s pe a ki ng . Bu t Ge l l ne r h a d pr e v i o us l y re-
j e c t e d t he s ug g e s t i o n t hat t hi s phi l os ophi c al mo v e me n t h a d a n y t h i n g
o f v a l ue t o t e ac h ( s ee hi s po l e mi c i n Words and Things 1959), a n d l i ke
o t h e r cri t i cs, h e al ways i ns i s t ed t hat its c o n c e r n wi t h u n d e r s t a n d i n g
e v e r y d a y l a n g u a g e was me r e l y a di s gui s e for d e f e n d i n g e s t abl i s he d
wa y s o f s p e a k i n g a bo ut t he wo r l d, for d e n y i n g t hat it was pos s i bl e for
s uc h s p e e c h - wa y s t o be i l l ogi cal o r abs ur d. Ge l l ne r has al ways b e e n d e -
t e r mi n e d t o ma i nt a i n t he di s t i nc t i on b e t we e n d e f e n d i n g a n d e x p l a i n -
i n g "c o nc e pt s a n d bel i efs " a n d t o wa r n agai ns t t he ki nd o f a n t h r o p o -
l ogi cal t r ans l at i on t hat r ul e s o u t a pri ori t he cri ti cal di s t anc e ne c e s s a r y
for e x p l a i n i n g h o w c o n c e p t s act ual l y f unc t i o n, for "to u n d e r s t a n d t he
working o f t he c o n c e p t s o f a soci et y, " h e wri t es , "is t o u n d e r s t a n d its
i ns t i t ut i ons " ( p. 18; s e e al s o n o t e 1 o n t he s a me pa g e ) .
Th i s is wh y Gel l ner' s br i e f s t a t e me nt a b o u t mo d e r a t e Func t i o na l -
i s m q u o t e d a b o v e l e ads h i m i mme di a t e l y t o a di s c us s i on o f Du r k h e i m 's
Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, whi c h, be s i de s b e i n g "one o f t he
f o u n t a i n h e a d s o f Func t i o na l i s m i n ge ne r al " (22), is c o n c e r n e d t o e x -
pl ai n r a t he r t ha n t o d e f e n d c o n c e p t s t o e x pl a i n, mo r e preci s el y, "t he
c o mp u l s i v e na t ur e o f o u r c at e gor i al c o nc e pt s " (22) i n t e r ms o f c e r t ai n
c ol l e c t i ve pr o c e s s e s . T h u s :
Our cont emporary invocations of the functional, social-context approach to
the study and i nterpretati on of concepts is in various ways very di fferent from
Durkhei m' s. Durkhei m was not so much concerned to defend the concepts of
pri mi ti ve societies: in their setting, they did not need a defence, and in the
setti ng of modern and changi ng societies he was not anxi ous to defend what
was archaic, nor loath to suggest that some intellectual l uggage mi ght well be
archaic. He was really concerned to expl ai n the compul si veness o f what i n
practice di d not seem to need any defence (and in so doi ng, he cl ai med he was
sol vi ng the probl em of knowl edge whose solution had in his view evaded Kant
and ot hers, and t o be sol vi ng it wi t hout falling i nt o either empi ri ci sm or apri-
ori sm). Whet her he was successful I do not propose to discuss: for a variety of
reasons it seems to me that he was not. (23)
It is c l e ar t hat Ge l l ne r has r e c o g n i z e d t he basi c pr oj e c t o f Elemen-
tary Formsnamely, its a t t e mpt t o e x pl a i n t he c o mp u l s i v e na t ur e o f
s oci al l y d e f i n e d c o n c e p t s b u t h e mo v e s t o o hast i l y f r o m a c o ns i de r a -
t i on o f wh a t mi g h t be i nv o l v e d i n s uc h a p r o b l e m t o a di s mi s s al o f
Du r k h e i m' s a t t e mp t at e x pl a na t i o n. T h e pos s i bi l i t y t hat a pri ori de-
nunciation ma y n o t f ur t he r t he p u r p o s e s o f e x p l a n a t i o n a ny be t t e r
t h a n defense d o e s no t s e e m t o be e nv i s a g e d i n "Co nc e pt s a n d Soci et y. "
I ns t e a d, t h e r e a d e r is r e mi n d e d , by way o f quo t a t i o n f r o m Li e nha r dt ,
t hat t he c o n t e mp o r a r y a nt hr o po l o g i s t t ypi cal l y "appe ar s t o ma k e i t a
c o n d i t i o n o f a g o o d t r ans l at i on t hat it c o nv e y s t he c o h e r e n c e whi c h h e
a s s u me s is t he r e t o be f o u n d i n pr i mi t i ve t ho ug ht " (26). So we ha v e
h e r e wh a t I t hi nk is a mi s l e a di ng c o nt r a s t Dur khe i m' s a t t e mpt t o e x -
pl ai n v e r s us t h e c o n t e mp o r a r y ant hr opol ogi s t ' s a t t e mp t t o d e f e n d . I
shal l r e t ur n t o t hi s po i nt l at er, but h e r e I wa nt t o i nsi st t hat t o a r g u e
for a f o r m o f c o h e r e n c e by whi c h a di s c o ur s e is h e l d t o g e t h e r is n o t
i ps o fact o t o j us t i fy o r d e f e n d t hat di s c our s e ; it is me r e l y t o t ake a n
146
TALAL ASAD
e s s e nt i al s t e p i n t he p r o b l e m o f e x p l a i n i n g i ts compulsiveness. An y o n e
fami l i ar wi t h ps yc hoanal ys i s wo u l d t ake t hi s po i nt qui t e easi l y. We
mi g h t put it a n o t h e r way: t he cri t eri on o f abst ract "c o he r e nc e " or
"l ogi cal i t y" ( Ge l l ne r t e n d s t o us e t he s e a n d o t h e r t e r ms i n t e r c h a n g e -
abl y) i s n o t al ways , a nd i n e v e r y c as e , deci s i ve for a c c e pt i ng o r rej ect -
i n g di s c o ur s e . Th i s is be c a us e , as Ge l l ne r hi ms e l f correct l y o bs e r v e s ,
" La n g u a g e f unc t i o ns i n a vari et y o f ways o t h e r t ha n ' r e fe r r i ng t o o b-
j e c t s ' " (25). No t e v e r y ut t e r a nc e i s a n assertion. T h e r e are ma n y t hi ng s
t hat l a n g u a g e - i n - u s e d o e s , and is intended to do, wh i c h e x pl a i ns wh y we
ma y r e s p o n d pos i t i vel y t o di s c our s e t hat ma y s e e m i n a d e q u a t e f r o m a
n a r r o w "l ogi cal " p o i n t o f vi ew. T h e f unc t i o ns o f a par t i c ul ar l a n g u a g e ,
t h e i nt e nt i o ns o f a part i cul ar di s c our s e , are o f c o ur s e par t o f wha t
e v e r y c o mp e t e n t e t h n o g r a p h e r t ri es t o g r a s p be f o r e he c an a t t e mp t
a n a d e q u a t e t r ans l at i on i nt o hi s o wn l a ng ua g e .
Ge l l ne r d o e s s e e m hal f- awar e o f t hi s poi nt , but qui c kl y b r u s h e s it
a s i de i n hi s e a g e r n e s s t o di s pl ay t o Func t i onal i s t a nt hr o po l o g i s t s t he i r
"e xc e s s i ve chari t y" i n cul t ural t rans l at i on.
Th e situation, faci ng a social anthropol ogi st who wishes to i nterpret a con-
cept , asserti on or doctri ne i n an alien cul ture, is basically si mpl e. He is, say,
faced with an assertion S in the local l anguage. He has at his disposal the l arge
or infinite set of possible sentences in his own l anguage. . . .
He may not be whol l y happy about this situation, but he cannot avoid it.
The r e is no third l anguage whi ch coul d medi ate bet ween the native l anguage
and his own, in whi ch equi val ences coul d be stated and whi ch woul d avoi d the
pitfalls arising from the fact that his own l anguage has its own way of han-
dl i ng the worl d, whi ch may not be those of the native l anguage studi ed, and
whi ch consequent l y are liable to distort that whi ch is bei ng translated.
Naively, peopl e somet i mes think that reality itself coul d be this ki nd of
medi at or and "third l anguage. " . . . For a variety of powerful reasons, this is
o f course n o good. (2425)
Ag a i n , t hi s s e ns i bl e s t a t e me nt mi g h t s e e m t o s o me r e a de r s t o s u p -
p o r t t he d e ma n d t hat t he e t h n o g r a p h e r mu s t try t o r e c o ns t r uc t t he
v a r i o us ways i n wh i c h t he "nat i ve l a ng ua g e " ha ndl e s t he wo r l d, c o n -
ve ys i n f o r ma t i o n , a n d c ons t i t ut e s e x p e r i e n c e , b e f o r e t r ans l at i ng a n
a l i e n di s c o ur s e i nt o t he l a n g u a g e o f hi s e t h n o g r a p h i c t ext . But Gel l -
ner' s a c c o u n t p r o c e e d s i n a di ffe r e nt , a n d very d u b i o u s , di r e c t i on.
Ha v i n g l oc at e d a n e qui val e nt Eng l i s h s e nt e nc e , h e c o n t i n u e s , t h e
a n t h r o p o l o g i s t not i c e s t hat it i nevi t abl y carri es a v a l ue c o n n o t a t i o n
t hat it i s, i n o t h e r wo r ds , e i t he r Go o d or Ba d. "I d o no t say ' t rue' o r
' fal se' , for t hi s o nl y ari s es wi t h r e g a r d t o s o me t ype s o f as s e r t i on. Wi t h
r e g a r d t o o t he r s , o t h e r di c hot omi e s , , s uc h as ' me a ni ng f ul ' a n d ' abs urd'
o r ' s ens i bl e' o r 'silly' mi g h t appl y. I de l i be r at e l y us e t he ' Go o d' a nd
' Bad' s o as t o c o v e r all s uc h pos s i bl e pol ar al t ernat i ves , wh i c h e v e r
mi g h t be s t appl y t o t he e qui v a l e nt o f S" (27).
The Concept of Cultural Translation 147
Ha v e we n o t g o t h e r e s o me very c ur i ous a s s umpt i o ns , whi c h n o
pr a c t i c e d t r ans l at or wo u l d e v e r make ? T h e first is t hat e val uat i ve di s -
c r i mi n a t i o n is al ways a ma t t e r o f c h o o s i n g b e t we e n pol ar al t e r nat i ve s ,
a n d s e c o n d , t hat e val uat i ve di s t i nc t i ons ar e finally r e duc i bl e t o "Go o d"
a n d "Bad. " Cl e ar l y ne i t he r o f t he s e a s s u mp t i o n s i s ac c e pt abl e w h e n
s t at e d as a g e ne r a l rul e. An d t he n t he r e is t he s u g g e s t i o n t hat t he
t rans l at or' s t ask ne c e s s ar i l y i nv o l v e s ma t c h i n g s e n t e n c e for s e nt e nc e .
Bu t i f t he s ki l l ed t rans l at or l ooks first for any pr i nc i pl e o f c o h e r e n c e
i n t he di s c o ur s e t o be t r ans l at e d, a n d t he n t ri es t o r e p r o d u c e t hat c o -
h e r e n c e as ne a r l y as h e c an i n hi s o wn l a n g u a g e , t he r e c a n n o t be a
g e n e r a l r ul e as t o wha t uni t s t he t rans l at or will e mp l o y s e n t e n c e s ,
p a r a g r a p h s , o r e v e n l ar ge r uni t s o f di s c o ur s e . T o t ur n my p o i n t
a r o u n d : t he a ppr o pr i a t e ne s s o f t he uni t e mp l o y e d i t s el f d e p e n d s o n
t h e pr i nc i pl e o f c o h e r e n c e .
Bu t Gel l ner' s par abl e o f t he ant hr opol ogi s t - t r ans l at or r e qui r e s t he
a s s u mp t i o n t hat it is s e nt e nc e s t hat t he l at t er ma t c he s , be c a us e t hat
ma k e s it e as i e r t o di s pl ay h o w t he si n o f e xc e s s i ve chari t y oc c ur s . Ha v -
i n g ma d e a n i ni t i al e qui v a l e nc e b e t we e n a s e n t e n c e i n t he l ocal l an-
g u a g e a n d o n e i n hi s o wn , t he a nt hr o po l o g i s t not i c e s t hat t he Eng l i s h
s e n t e n c e c ar r i e s a "Bad" i mpr e s s i o n. Th i s wor r i e s t he a n t h r o p o l o g i s t
be c a us e , s o r u n s Gel l ner' s par abl e , an e t h n o g r a p h i c a c c o u n t g i v i n g
s uc h a n i mp r e s s i o n mi g h t be t h o u g h t t o be di s pa r a g i ng t he nat i ve s h e
ha s s t udi e d, a n d t o di s pa r a g e o t he r c ul t ur e s is a s i gn o f e t h n o c e n -
t ri s m, a n d e t h n o c e n t r i s m i n t ur n is a s y mp t o m o f p o o r a n t h r o p o l o g y
a c c o r d i n g t o t he do c t r i ne s o f Func t i onal i s t a nt hr o po l o g y . Func t i o na l -
ist me t h o d r e qui r e s t hat s e n t e n c e s al ways be e v a l ua t e d i n t e r ms o f
t he i r o w n s oci al c o nt e x t . So t he wo r r i e d a nt hr o po l o g i s t r e i nt e r pr e t s
t h e o r i g i na l s e n t e n c e , wi t h a mo r e fl exi bl e a n d c ar e ful u s e o f t h e c o n -
t e xt ual me t h o d , i n o r d e r t o p r o d u c e a "Go o d" t r ans l at i on.
T h e s i n of e x c e s s i v e chari t y, a n d t he c o nt e x t ua l me t h o d i tsel f, ar e
t o g e t h e r l i nke d, Ge l l ne r wri t es , t o t he rel at i vi s t i c- funct i onal i s t vi e w o f
t h o u g h t t hat g o e s back t o t he En l i g h t e n me n t :
The (unresol ved) di l emma, which the thought of the Enl i ght enment faced,
was bet ween a relativistic-functionalist view of thought, and the absolutist
claims of enl i ght ened Reason. Vi ewi ng man as part of nature, as enl i ght ened
Reason requi res, it wi shed to see his cogni ti ve and evaluative activities as parts
of nature too, and hence as varying, legitimately, from organi sm to organi sm
and cont ext to cont ext . (Thi s is the relativistic-functionalist view.) But at t he
same t i me in recommendi ng life accordi ng to Reason and Nature, it wi shed at
t he very least to e xe mpt this view itself (and, in practice, s ome others) from
such a relativism. (31)
Typi cal l y, Gel l ner' s phi l o s o phi c a l f o r mul a t i o n pr e s e nt s t hi s "unr e -
s o l v e d d i l e mma " as an abst ract o ppo s i t i o n b e t we e n t wo c o n c e p t s " a
148
TALAL ASAD
rel at i vi st i c-funct i onal i st vi ew of t hought " and "t he absolutist cl ai ms of
enl i ght ened Reason. " But how do t hese t wo "concept s" wor k as "cor-
rel at es o f . . . t he i nst i t ut i ons of [West ern] soci et y"? (cf. Gel l ner , p. 18).
It woul d not be difficult to ar gue that t he claims of "enl i ght ened Rea-
son" ar e materially mor e successful in Thi r d Wor l d count r i es t han
ma ny relativistic vi ews, that t hey have exer t ed gr eat er authority t han
t he l at t er i n t he devel opment o f i ndust ri al economi es and t he f or ma-
t i on of nat i on states. We shall have occasi on to discuss this f ur t her
whe n exami ni ng t ransl at i on as a process o f power . Th e poi nt is t hat
"t he absol ut i st cl ai ms of enl i ght ened Reason" are in effect an institu-
tionalized force, and t hat as such it is by defi ni t i on commi t t ed to advanc-
ing i nt o and appr opr i at i ng alien territory, and that its opponent s
(whet her expl i ci t l y relativistic or not) are by defi ni t i on defensive. Th u s
whe n Gel l ner cont i nues on t he same page to char act er i ze this abst ract
di l e mma i n t he at t i t udes of ant hropol ogi st s, he fails to consi der what
"cul t ur al t ransl at i on" mi ght i nvol ve whe n it is consi der ed as institu-
t i onal i zed practice gi ven t he wi der rel at i onshi p of unequal soci et i es.
For it is not t he abst ract l ogi c of what i ndi vi dual West er n ant hr opol o-
gists say i n t hei r et hnogr aphi es, but the concr et e l ogi c of what t hei r
count r i es (and per haps t hey t hemsel ves) do in t hei r rel at i ons wi t h t he
Th i r d Wor l d that shoul d f or m t he st art i ng poi nt for this par t i cul ar
di scussi on. T h e di l emmas o f "rel at i vi sm" appear di fferent l y de pe nd-
i ng on whet her we t hi nk of abst ract ed under s t andi ng or of hi st ori cal l y
si t uat ed pract i ces.
Howe ve r , Gel l ner says he is not in pri nci pl e agai nst ant hr opol ogi -
cal rel at i vi sm. " My mai n poi nt about t ol er ance- engender i ng con-
t ext ual i nt er pr et at i on, " he wri t es, "is that it calls for caut i on" (32). But
why such caut i on is r eser ved f or "t ol er ance- engender i ng" as oppos ed
t o i nt ol er ance- engender i ng cont ext ual i nt erpret at i ons is not ex-
pl ai ned. Af t er all, Gel l ner insisted earl i er that all t ransl at ed sent ences
ar e bound to be r ecei ved ei t her as " Good" or as " Bad. " Wh y shoul d we
be suspi ci ous onl y o f t hose that appear " Good" ? I f "it is t he prior de-
t er mi nat i on t hat S, t he i ndi genous affi rmat i on, be i nt er pr et ed f avour -
ably, whi ch det er mi nes j us t how muc h cont ext will be t aken i nt o con-
si der at i on" (33), can we per haps escape this vi ci ous ci rcul ari t y by
adopt i ng an unsympathetic at t i t ude? Gel l ner does not addr ess hi ms el f
di r ect l y t o this possibility her e, but one must assume that it cannot be
a sol ut i on, especi al l y in vi ew of the cl ai m that "t here is not hi ng [sic] in
t he nat ur e o f t hi ngs or societies to di ct at e visibly j us t how muc h con-
t ext is r el evant to any gi ven ut t erance, or how the cont ext s houl d be
des cr i bed" (33).
Yet can this last r emar k be meant seri ousl y? Nothing}] How, t hen,
is communi cat i on even bet ween i ndi vi dual s i n t he same society ever
Th e Concept of Cultural Translation 149
possi bl e? Wh y does one ever say to f or ei gner s that t hey have mi s-
under s t ood s omet hi ng t hey hear d or saw? Does social l ear ni ng pr o-
duce no skills in t he di scri mi nat i on of rel evant cont ext s? Th e answer s
to t hese quest i ons shoul d be obvi ous, and t hey ar e connect ed wi t h t he
fact t hat t he ant hropol ogi st ' s t ransl at i on is not mer el y a mat t er o f
mat chi ng sent ences in t he abstract, but of learning to live another form of
life and t o s peak anot her ki nd o f l anguage. Whi c h cont ext s ar e r el e-
vant i n di ffer ent di scursi ve event s is s omet hi ng one l earns i n t he
cour s e of l i vi ng, and even t hough it is oft en very difficult t o ver bal i ze
t hat knowl e dge , it is still knowl edge about s omet hi ng "in t he nat ur e o f
soci et y, " about s ome aspect of l i vi ng, that i ndi cat es (al t hough it does
not "di ct at e") j us t how muc h cont ext is r el evant to any gi ven ut t er-
ance. T h e poi nt , of cour se, is not that the et hnogr apher cannot know
what cont ext is appr opr i at e for gi vi ng sense to typical st at ement s, or
t hat he is i nduced to be mor e chari t abl e t han he shoul d be in translat-
i ng t hem, but t hat his at t empt s at t ransl at i on may meet wi t h pr obl ems
r oot ed in t he linguistic mat eri al s he wor ks wi t h and the social condi -
t i ons he wor ks i nbot h i n the field and in his o wn society. Mor e on
this l at er.
T h e l at t er hal f o f Gel l ner' s essay is devot ed to exampl es f r om et h-
nogr aphi c st udi es in or der to display, first, excessi ve chari t y in t ransl a-
t i on, and t hen, t he expl anat or y advant ages of t aki ng a critical l ook at
t he l ogi c of al i en rel i gi ous di scourse.
T h e first set of exampl es comes f r om Evans-Pri t chard' s Nuer Reli-
gion ( 1956) , in whi ch odd- s oundi ng initial t ransl at i ons of Nu e r reli-
gi ous di scour se, such as t he not or i ous st at ement that "a twin is a bi r d, "
ar e r ei nt er pr et ed. " Thi s ki nd of st at ement , " Gel l ner obser ves,
"appear s t o be in conflict wi t h t he pri nci pl e of i dent i t y or non-
cont r adi ct i on, or wi t h c ommon sense, or wi t h mani fest obser vabl e
fact: h uma n t wi ns ar e not bi rds, and vice ver sa" (34). Ac c or di ng to
Gel l ner , Evans-Pri t chard' s r ei nt er pr et at i on absol ves Nu e r t hought
f r om t he char ge of "pre-l ogi cal ment al i t y" by an arbi t rary use of t he
cont ext ual met hod. Th e appar ent absurdi t y is r ei nt er pr et ed to deny
t hat Nu e r bel i efs conflict wi t h mani fest fact by rel at i ng the me a ni ng o f
t he "abs ur d" st at ement t o "l ogi cal " behavi or . Gel l ner i ndi cat es how
this is done by quot i ng (with t he del i berat e omi ssi on of one si gni fi cant
sent ence) f r om Evans- Pr i t char d:
no contradi cti on is i nvol ved in the statement which, on the contrary, appears
qui t e sensi bl e and even true, to one who presents the idea to hi msel f in the
Nuer l anguage and within their system of religious t hought . [ He does not
t hen take their statements about twins any more literally than they make and
underst and t hem themsel ves. ] They are not saying that a twin has a beak, feathers,
and so forth. Nor in their everyday relations as twins do Nuers speak of them as birds or
15
TALAL ASAD
act towards them as though they were birds. (35. Sent ence in brackets omi t t ed by
Gel l ner; emphas i s s uppl i ed by Gel l ner.)
At t hi s p o i n t Gel l n er br ea ks o f f t he q u o t a t i o n a n d i nt er j ec t s i n
m o c k d es p a i r : " But wha t , t hen , would c o u n t as p r e- l o g i c a l t ho u g ht ?
On l y , p r es u ma bl y , t he beha v i o u r o f a t ot al l y d e m e n t e d p er s o n , s uf f er -
i n g f r o m p e r m a n e n t ha l l u c i n a t i o n s , w ho would t r ea t s o me t hi n g w hi c h
is p er c ep t i bl y a hu m a n bei n g as t ho u g h it ha d al l t he a t t r i but es o f a
bi r d " (35). So ea g er is Gel l n er t o nai l u t t er a n c es t ha t mu s t c o u n t as
ex p r es s i o n s o f "pr e- l o g i c a l t ho u g ht " ( why is he s o ea g er ?) t ha t he d o e s
n o t p a u s e t o c o n s i d er c a r ef ul l y wha t Ev a n s - Pr i t c ha r d is t r y i n g t o
d o . I n f ac t , Ev a n s - Pr i t c ha r d d ev o t es s ev er a l p a g es t o ex p l a i n i n g t hi s
s t r a n g e s en t en c e. It is p l a i n t ha t he is c o n c e r n e d t o explain (i n t er ms o f
Nu e r s oc i a l l i f e) , n o t t o justify (i n t er ms o f Wes t er n c o m m o n s e n s e , o r
Wes t er n v a l u es ) . T h e a i m o f t hi s ki n d o f ex eg es i s is c er t a i nl y n o t t o
p e r s u a d e Wes t er n r ea d er s t o a d o p t Nu e r r el i g i o us pr a c t i c es . No r d o e s
it r u l e o u t t he pos s i bi l i t y t ha t i n d i v i d u a l s p ea ker s ma k e mi s t a kes o r
u t t er a bs u r d i t i es i n t hei r r el i g i o u s d i s c o u r s e w he n e mp l o y i n g t hei r
t r a di t i o na l wa y s o f t hi n ki n g . It is n o t c l ea r , t her ef o r e, why Gel l n er
s ho u l d p o i n t t o t hi s e x a mp l e f r o m Nuer Religion t o s ubs t a nt i a t e hi s
c ha r g e o f ex c es s i v e c ha r i t y o n t he pa r t o f Func t i o na l i s t a n t hr o p o l o -
g i s t s . Ev a n s - Pr i t c ha r d is t r y i ng t o ex p l a i n t he c o he r e n c e t ha t g i v es
Nu e r r el i g i o u s d i s c o u r s e i ts s en s e, n o t t o d e f e n d t ha t s en s e as ha v i n g a
u n i v er s a l s t a t u s a f t er al l , Ev a ns - Pr i t c ha r d hi ms el f wa s a Ca t ho l i c
bo t h bef o r e a n d a f t er hi s m o n o g r a p h o n Nu e r r el i g i o n wa s wr i t t en.
No w w he t he r Ev a n s - Pr i t c ha r d s u c c eed s i n ex p l a i n i n g t he ba s i c c o -
he r e n c e o f Nu e r r el i g i o u s d i s c o u r s e i s , o f c o u r s e, a n o t her q u es t i o n .
Sev er a l Br i t i s h a n t hr o p o l o g i s t s f o r e x a mp l e , Ra y m o n d Fi r t h (1966)
( t h o u g h n o t , t o my k n o w l ed g e, a n y Nu e r t hems el v es ) ha v e d i s p u t ed
a s p ec t s o f Ev a ns - Pr i t c ha r d' s i n t er p r et a t i o n . Bu t s u c h d i s a g r eemen t s
a r e sti l l a bo u t d i f f er en t wa y s o f ma k i n g s en s e o f Nu e r r el i g i o u s di s -
c o u r s e, n o t a bo u t t o o m u c h o r t o o l i t t l e "chari t y" i n t r a ns l a t i o n. In f ac t
c o n t r a r y t o Gel l ner ' s a l l eg a t i o n s , Ev a ns - Pr i t c ha r d' s ex eg es i s does ma k e
q u i t e ex p l i c i t a p p a r en t "c ont r a di c t i ons , " o r at l ea s t a mbi g u i t i es , i n
Nu e r c o n c e p t s f o r e x a mp l e , bet w een t he n o t i o n o f "a s u p r e me a n d
o mn i p r e s e n t bei n g " a n d t hat o f "l es s er s pi ri t s , " bo t h o f whi c h a r e c a t e-
g o r i z ed as kwoth. An d it is pr ec i s el y bec a u s e Ev a ns - Pr i t c ha r d i ns i s t s o n
k e e p i n g t he d i f f er en t s en s es o f kwoth t o g et her as pa r t s o f " o n e c o n -
c ep t " a n d d o e s n o t t r ea t t he m as ho m o n y m s (as Ma l i n o ws ki mi g ht
ha v e d o n e by r el a t i n g t he w o r d t o d i f f er en t c o n t ex t s o f u s e) t ha t
t he Nu e r c o n c ep t o f s pi r i t mi g ht be s a i d t o be "c o nt r a di c t o r y . " Bu t
w he t he r t he i dent i f i c a t i o n o f a mbi g u i t i es a n d " c o nt r a di c t i o ns " i n t he
ba s i c c o n c ep t u a l r ep er t o i r e o f a l a n g u a g e p r o v i d es o bv i o u s ev i d en c e
o f "pr e- l o g i c a l t ho u g ht " i s, o f c o u r s e, a di f f er ent i s s u eI w o u l d s u g -
The Concept of Cul tural Transl ati on 151
g es t t ha t o n l y s o m e o n e wi t h a v er y na i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f wha t wa s
i n v o l v ed i n t r a ns l a t i o n c o u l d t hi nk t ha t it d o es .
Yet Gel l ner ' s d i s c o u r s e t ypi cal l y ev a d es t he i s s ues it s e e ms t o be
r a i s i ng , i n a s t yl e t ha t s eeks t o hu r r y t he r ea d er a l o n g o v er a s er i es o f
a r c hl y p hr a s e d di s c l a i mer s :
I do not wi sh to be mi s unders t ood: I am not argui ng that Evans-Pritchard' s
account of Nu er concept s is a bad one. ( Nor am I anxi ous to revi ve a doct ri ne
of pre-l ogi cal mental i ty a la Lvy-Bruhl .) On the contrary, I have the great est
admi rat i on for it. What I am anxi ous to argue is that cont ext ual i nterpreta-
t i on, whi ch offers an account of what asserti ons "really mean" i n oppos i t i on to
what they s eem to mean in i sol ati on, does not by itself cl i nch matters. (38)
No w w h o w o u l d ha v e c l a i med it di d? Cer t a i nl y Ev a n s - Pr i t c ha r d d o e s
no t . In a n y c a s e t he o p p o s i t i o n bet w een a " c o nt ex t ua l i n t er p r et a t i o n "
a n d o n e t ha t is n o t c o n t ex t u a l is ent i r el y s p u r i o u s . No t hi n g ha s me a n -
i n g "i n i s o l a t i o n. " Th e p r o bl em is a l wa y s , wha t ki n d o f c o n t ex t ?
Bu t t ha t is s o me t hi n g Gel l n er n ev er di s c us s es , ex c ep t by s u g g es t -
i n g t ha t t he a n s wer mu s t i n v o l v e a v i c i o us c i r c u l a r i t y o r by u t t er i n g
r e p e a t e d wa r n i n g s a g a i ns t "ex c es s i v e" c har i t y ( when is c ha r i t y n o t "ex -
c es s i v e"?) . H e a p p ea r s u n a wa r e t ha t f o r t he t r a ns l a t or t he p r o bl e m o f
d e t e r mi n i n g t he r el ev a n t ki n d o f c o n t ex t i n ea c h c a s e is s o l v ed by skill
i n t he u s e o f t he l a n g u a g es c o n c e r n e d , n o t by a n a pr i or i "a t t i t ude" o f
i n t o l er a n c e o r t o l er a n c e. An d ski l l is s o me t hi n g t ha t is learnedthat
i s , s o me t hi n g t ha t is nec es s a r i l y c i r c ul ar , but n o t v i c i o us l y s o . We a r e
d ea l i n g n o t wi t h a n abs t r ac t ma t c hi n g o f t wo s et s o f s en t en c es , bu t
wi t h a s oci al p r a c t i c e r o o t ed i n mo d e s o f l i f e. A t r a ns l a t o r ma y ma k e
mi s t a kes , o r he ma y kn o wi n g l y mi s r ep r es en t s o m e t hi n g m u c h as
p e o p l e ma k e mi s t a kes o r l i e i n ev er y d a y l i f e. Bu t we c a n n o t p r o d u c e a
g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e f o r i d en t i f y i n g s u c h t hi n g s , pa r t i c ul a r l y n o t t hr o u g h
w a r n i n g s t o be c a r ef ul o f "t he c o n t ex t u a l me t ho d o f i n t er p r et a t i o n . "
An d s o t o a n o t her o f Gel l ner ' s c ha r mi n g di s c l a i mer s : "To s ay al l
t hi s i s n o t t o a r g u e f o r a s c ep t i c i s m o r a g n o s t i c i s m c o n c e r n i n g w ha t
m e m be r s o f a l i en l a n g u a g es me a n , still l es s t o a r g u e f o r a n a bs t en t i o n
f r o m t he c o n t ex t u a l m e t ho d o f i n t er p r et a t i o n . ( On t he c o nt r a r y , I
s ha l l a r g u e f o r a f ul l er u s e o f it, f ul l er i n t he s en s e o f a l l o wi n g f or t he
po s s i bi l i t y t ha t wha t p e o p l e m e a n is s o met i mes a bs ur d. ) " (39). T h e
c ha r m o f t hi s s t a t emen t c o ns i s t s i n Gel l ner ' s c heeky a p p r o p r i a t i o n o f
hi s o p p o n en t ' s m e t ho d t o s t r en g t hen hi s o w n di s t i nc t i v e p o s i t i o n .
B u t be f o r e t ha t i s d o n e , we a r e g i v en f u r t her e x a mp l e s o f t he
t o l e r a n c e - e n g e n d e r i n g c o n t ex t u a l me t ho d at wo r k i n Leac h' s Political
Systems of Highland Burma. Thu s a c c o r d i n g t o Lea c h, Ka c hi n s t a t e-
me n t s a bo u t t he s u p er n a t u r a l wo r l d a r e "i n t he l as t a na l y s i s , n o t hi n g
m o r e t ha n wa y s o f d es c r i bi n g t he f o r ma l r el a t i o ns hi p s t ha t ex i s t
be t w e e n r eal p er s o n s a n d real g r o u p s i n o r d i n a r y Ka c hi n s oc i et y "
152 TALALASAD
Th e Concept of Cultural Translation 153
l ar s t a t e me nt s ( or t he y wo u l d no t us e i t), a n d it ma k e s s e ns e al s o, al -
t h o u g h o f a di ffe r e nt ki nd, t o Ge l l ne r , wh o st at es t hat by d e c e i v i n g its
us e r s it s o me h o w u p h o l d s a soci al s t r uc t ur e . S e n s e or n o n s e n s e , l i ke
t r ut h o r f a l s e h o o d , a ppl i e s t o statements a nd no t t o abs t ract c o n c e p t s .
T h e r e s e e ms t o me n o e v i d e n c e h e r e o f a "nons e ns i c al " c o n c e p t , be -
c a us e t h e r e is n o anal ys i s o f soci al l y s i t uat e d s t a t e me nt s .
Bu t t he r e is al s o a mo r e i mp o r t a n t fai l ure e v i de nt i n t hi s e x a mp l e :
t he l ack o f a ny a t t e mpt t o e x p l o r e its coherencethat wh i c h ma k e s i ts
s oci al e ffe c t s uc h a po we r f ul possi bi l i t y. Of c o ur s e , pol i t i cal di s c o ur s e
e mp l o y s l i es , hal f- t r ut hs , l ogi cal t ri ckery, a n d s o o n . Yet t hat is n o t
wh a t g i v e s it its compulsive c har ac t e r , any mo r e t ha n t he us e o f t r ue o r
c l e ar s t a t e me nt s d o e s , a n d c o mpul s i v e ne s s is preci s el y wha t is i n v o l v e d
i n Gel l ner' s e x a mp l e . It is no t t he abst ract l ogi cal s t at us o f c o n c e p t s
t hat is r e l e v a nt he r e , but t he way i n whi c h speci fi c pol i t i cal di s c o ur s e s
s e e m t o mo bi l i z e o r di r e c t t he be ha v i o r o f p e o p l e wi t hi n g i v e n c ul t ur al
s i t uat i ons . T h e c o mp u l s i v e n e s s o f "bobi l i ty" as a pol i t i cal c o n c e p t is a
f e a t ur e n o t o f gul l i bl e mi n d s b u t o f c o h e r e n t di s c o ur s e s a n d pr ac t i c e s .
T h a t is wh y it is es s ent i al for a t rans l at or o f po we r f ul pol i t i cal i d e o l o -
g i e s t o a t t e mp t t o c o n v e y s o me t h i n g o f t hi s c o h e r e n c e . To ma k e non-
s e n s e o f t he c o n c e p t is t o ma k e n o n s e n s e o f t he s oci et y.
Gel l ner' s final e x a mp l e c o me s f r o m hi s o wn fieldwork a mo n g t he
c e nt r al Mo r o c c a n Be r be r s , a n d is i n t e n d e d t o c l i nc h t he a r g u me n t
t hat a n unc ha r i t a bl e c ont e xt ual i s t ma k e s be t t e r s e ns e o f t he s oc i e t y h e
de s c r i be s by e mp h a s i z i n g t he i n c o h e r e n c e o f its c o nc e pt s : "Two c o n -
c e pt s a r e r e l e vant , " he wri t es , "baraka a n d agurram (pi . igurramen).
Baraka is a wo r d whi c h c an me a n s i mpl y ' e no ug h' , but it al s o me a n s
p l e n i t u d e , a n d a bo v e all bl e s s e dne s s ma ni f e s t e d a mo n g s t o t h e r t h i n g s
i n pr o s pe r i t y a n d t he p o we r t o c aus e pr os pe r i t y i n o t he r s by s upe r -
na t ur a l me a n s . An agurram is a po s s e s s o r o f baraka" (43).
Igurramentranslated as "sai nt s" i n Gel l ner' s l at er wr i t i ngs ( e . g. ,
1969) a r e a fai rl y pr i vi l e ge d a n d i nfl uent i al mi no r i t y i n t he t ri bal s o -
ci et y o f c e nt r al Mo r o c c a n Be r be r s w h o act as foci o f r e l i g i o us v a l u e s
a n d al s o as me d i a t o r s a n d arbi t rat ors a mo n g s t t he tri bal p o p u l a t i o n
wi t h w h o m t he y l i ve. " Th e l ocal be l i e f is t hat t he y are s e l e c t e d by Go d .
Mo r e o v e r , Go d ma k e s hi s c hoi c e mani fe s t by e n d o wi n g t ho s e w h o m
h e has s e l e c t e d wi t h c e r t ai n charact eri s t i cs , i n c l u d i n g magi c al p o we r s ,
a n d g r e a t g e ne r o s i t y , pr os pe r i t y, a c ons i de r - t he - l i l i e s at t i t ude , paci -
fism, a n d s o for t h" (43).
Th i s i s Gel l ner' s "t rans l at i on. " Bu t hi s t oo- fl ue nt us e o f a r e l i g i o us
v o c a bul a r y wi t h s t r o ng , a n d p e r h a p s i rrel evant , Chr i s t i an o v e r t o n e s
mu s t p r o mp t do ubt s a n d que s t i o ns at t hi s poi nt . Wh a t pr e c i s e l y ar e
t h e be ha v i o r a n d di s c o ur s e s t r ans l at e d h e r e as "a c ons i de r - t he - l i l i e s at-
t i t ude , " "make s hi s c ho i c e mani fes t , " a n d "e ndo wi ng , " for i ns t anc e ?
Do t he Be r be r s be l i e ve t hat Go d endows t hei r "sai nt s" wi t h di s pos i -
( q u o t e d o n p. 40). At t hi s poi nt Ge l l ne r i nt e r v e ne s : "It is pos s i bl e t o
d i s c e r n wha t has h a p p e n e d . Leach' s e x e g e t i c p r o c e d u r e s have al s o
s a v e d t he Ka c hi ns f r o m b e i n g c r e di t e d wi t h wha t t he y appear t o be say-
i ng " a n d t hus ma d e it pos s i bl e "to at t ri but e me a n i n g t o as s e r t i ons
wh i c h mi g h t o t he r wi s e be f o u n d to l ack it" (41). Ge l l ne r g o e s o n t o
i nsi st t hat h e is no t c o n c e r n e d t o di s put e Leach' s i nt e r pr e t at i ons , but
me r e l y "to s h o w h o w t he r a n g e o f c ont e xt , a n d t he ma n n e r i n wh i c h
t he c o n t e x t i s s e e n , ne c e s s ar i l y affect t he i nt e r pr e t at i on" (41). Th i s i s a
s i gni fi c ant r e ma r k, be c a us e it is i n d e e d not Leach' s r e duc t i o ni s m t o
wh i c h Ge l l ne r obj ect s ( we shal l find h i m i ns i s t i ng o n it hi ms e l f l at er i n
c o n n e c t i o n wi t h Be r b e r r e l i gi ous i de ol ogy) but t o t he fact t hat t hi s e x -
a mp l e o f r e d u c t i o n i s mwh i c h Ge l l ne r mi s l e a di ng l y cal l s "c ont e x-
t u a l i s m" s e e ms t o d e f e n d , r at he r t han t o at t ack, t he c ul t ur al di s -
c o u r s e c o n c e r n e d .
Gel l ner' s d e mo n s t r a t i o n o f h o w "t he uncharitable ma y be ' c ont e x-
t ual i st ' i n t he s e c o n d , d e e p e r a n d be t t e r s e ns e " (42) be g i ns by pr e s e nt -
i n g a fi ct i t i ous wo r d i n a hct i t i ous s o c i e t y t he wo r d "bobl e, " u s e d i n a
wa y r e ma r ka bl y l i ke t he Eng l i s h wo r d "nobl e. " T h u s we are t ol d t hat it
c a n b e a p p l i e d t o p e o p l e wh o act ual l y di s pl ay cert ai n habi t ual f o r ms
o f c o n d u c t , as wel l as t o p e o p l e wh o o c c u p y a part i cul ar s oci al s t at us
i r r e s pe c t i v e o f t he i r be havi or . "But t he po i nt i s: t he s oci et y i n q u e s t i o n
d o e s n o t di s t i ng ui s h two concepts, bo bl e (a) a n d bo bl e (b). It o nl y us e s
t he wo r d bo bl e t o ut c our t " (42). T h e l ogi c o f bobi l i t y is t h e n a na l y z e d
f u r t h e r t o s h o w h o w
bobility is a concept ual devi ce by whi ch the pri vi l eged class of the society in
quest i on acquires s ome of the prestige of certain virtues respected in that so-
ciety, wi thout the i nconveni ence of needi ng to practice it, thanks to t he fact
that the same word is appl i ed either to practitioners of those virtues or to oc-
cupi ers of favoured posi ti ons. It is, at the same time, a manner of rei nforci ng
the appeal of those virtues, by associating t hem, t hrough the use of the same
appel l ati on, with presti ge and power. But all this needs to be said, and to say it
is to bri ng out the internal logical i ncoherence of the concept an i ncoher-
ence whi ch, i ndeed, is socially functional. (42)
I n fact t he c o n c e p t o f "bobi l i ty" i s not s h o wn t o be incoherenteven if
it be a c c e p t e d t hat t he ambi gui t y o f t he word al l ows it t o be u s e d i n
pol i t i cal di s c o ur s e t o c o ns o l i da t e t he l e gi t i mac y o f a r ul i ng cl ass ( and
t h e r e f o r e , i n pr i nc i pl e , al s o t o u n d e r mi n e t hat l e gi t i mac y) . Gel l ner' s
s at i s fi ed c o nc l us i o n t o hi s fictional e x a mp l e is s ur e l y far t o o has t y:
"Wha t t hi s s ho ws , h o we v e r , is t hat t he ove r - c har i t abl e i nt e r pr e t e r , d e -
t e r mi n e d t o d e f e n d t he c o nc e pt s h e is i nve s t i gat i ng f r o m t he c h a r g e
o f l ogi c al i n c o h e r e n c e , is b o u n d t o mi s de s c r i be t he soci al s i t uat i on. To
make sense of the concept is to make nonsense of the society" (42, e mp h a s i s
a d d e d ) . Cl earl y t he wo r d "bobi l i ty" ma ke s s e ns e t o its us e r s in part i ni
154 TALAL ASAD
The Concept of Cul tural Transl ati on 15 5
d o n o t k n o w as t he a g e n t i n f act , t he s u r r o u n d i n g t r i bes men t he m-
s el v es . T h e igurramen a r e "s el ec t ed" ( f or a pa r t i c ul a r s oci al r o l e? f o r a
mo r a l v i r t ue? f o r a r el i g i o u s des t i ny ?) by t he p eo p l e. Th e "s el ec t i o n"
a p p ea r s t o be vox Dei a n d is i n real i t y vox populi. Or is it?
I n r eal i t y t he s oci al p r o c es s d es c r i bed by t he a n t hr o p o l o g i s t as "s e-
l ec t i o n" is t he l o c u s o f a vox o n l y i f it is p r e t e n d e d t ha t t ha t p r o c es s
c o n s t i t u t es a c ul t ur a l t ex t . For a t ex t mu s t ha v e a n a u t ho r t he o n e
w ho ma k e s hi s v o i c e hea r d t hr o u g h it. An d i f t ha t v o i c e c a n n o t be
Go d' s , it mu s t be s o m e o n e el s e' s t he p eo p l e' s . Thu s Gel l n er t he a t he-
i st i ns i s t s o n a n s wer i n g a t heo l o g i c a l q u es t i o n : w ho s p ea ks t hr o u g h
hi s t o r y , t hr o u g h s oc i et y ? In t hi s pa r t i c ul a r c a s e, t he a n s wer d e p e n d s
o n t he t ex t c o n t a i n i n g at o n c e t he "real , " u n c o n s c i o u s m e a n i n g a n d i ts
a p p r o p r i a t e t r a ns l a t i o n. Thi s f u s i o n o f s i g ni f i er a n d s i g ni f i ed is es p e-
ci al l y ev i d en t i n t he wa y i n whi c h t he Is l a mi c c o n c ep t o f baraka is m a d e
t o s o u n d r ema r ka bl y l i ke t he Chr i s t i a n c o n c ep t o f g r a c e as p o r t r a y ed
by a n ei g ht een t h- c en t u r y s kept i c , s o t ha t t he c o n d i t i o n s d ef i n i n g t he
agurram's baraka a r e r ef er r ed t o wi t h a k n o w i n g Gi bbo n i a n s mi l e as
" s t i g ma t a " a n d by t ha t d ef t s i g n, a p o r t i o n of t he Ber ber c ul t ur a l
t ex t is at o n c e c o n s t r u c t ed ( ma d e u p ) a n d d es i g n a t ed ( s ho w n u p )
wi t hi n Gel l ner ' s t ex t , as ex q u i s i t e a u n i o n o f wo r d a n d t hi n g as a n y t o
be f o u n d i n al l hi s wr i t i ng s .
B u t s o c i et y is n o t a t ex t t ha t c o mmu n i c a t es i t s el f t o t he s ki l l ed
r ea d er . It is p e o p l e w ho s p ea k. An d t he u l t i ma t e me a n i n g o f wha t
t hey s ay d o e s n o t r es i d e i n s o c i et y s o c i et y is t he c ul t ur a l c o n d i t i o n i n
w hi c h s p ea ker s act a n d a r e a c t ed u p o n . Th e p r i v i l eg ed p o s i t i o n t ha t
Gel l n er a c c o r d s hi ms el f f o r d e c o d i n g t he real me a n i n g o f wha t t he
Ber ber s s ay ( r eg a r d l es s o f wha t t hey t hi nk t hey s ay) c a n be ma i n t a i n ed
o n l y by s o m e o n e w ho s u p p o s es t hat t r a ns l a t i ng o t her c u l t u r es is es -
s ent i a l l y a ma t t er o f ma t c hi n g wr i t t en s en t en c es i n t wo l a n g u a g es ,
s u c h t ha t t he s e c o n d s et o f s en t en c es be c o me s t he "real me a n i n g " o f
t he firstan o p er a t i o n t he a n t hr o p o l o g i s t a l o n e c o n t r o l s , f r o m field
n o t e bo o k t o p r i n t ed et hn o g r a p hy . In o t her wo r d s , it is t he p r i v i l eg ed
p o s i t i o n o f s o m e o n e w ho d o es no t , a n d c a n a f f or d n o t t o , e n g a g e i n a
g e n u i n e d i a l o g u e wi t h t ho s e he o r s he o n c e l i v ed wi t h a n d n o w writes
a bo u t (cf. As a d , ed . 19 7 3 : 17 ) .
I n t he mi d d l e o f hi s art i cl e, w he n d i s c u s s i n g a n t hr o p o l o g i c a l r el a -
t i v i s m, Gel l n er c o mp l a i n s t ha t " a n t hr o p o l o g i s t s w er e rel at i vi s t i c, t o l er -
a nt , c o n t e x t u a l l y - c o mp r e he n d i n g vi s --vi s t he s a v a g es w ho a r e a f t er
al l s o m e d i s t a n c e away, but abs ol ut i s t i c , i n t o l er a n t vi s - - vi s t hei r i m m e -
d i a t e n e i g hbo u r s o r p r ed ec es s o r s , t he me mbe r s o f o u r o w n s o c i et y
w ho d o n o t s ha r e t hei r c o m p r e he n d i n g o u t l o o k a n d a r e t hems el v es
' et hn o c en t r i c ' . . ." (31).
Why ha v e I t r i ed t o i ns i s t i n t hi s p a p e r t ha t a n y o n e c o n c e r n e d
wi t h t r a ns l a t i ng f r o m o t her c u l t u r es mu s t l o o k f o r c o he r e n c e i n di s -
t i o n a l c ha r a c t er i s t i c s s u c h as "g r ea t g en er o s i t y a n d pa c i f i s m, " o r d o
t hey t a ke it r a t her t ha t t hes e c ha r a c t er i s t i c s a r e conditions o f s ai nt l i -
n es s , o f t he c l o s en es s o f igurramen t o Go d ? Do t he Ber ber s r eal l y be-
ha v e as t ho u g h r el i g i o u s a n d mo r a l virtues wer e " ma ni f es t a t i o ns " o f
d i v i n e c ho i c e? Wha t d o t hey say a n d ho w d o t hey be ha v e w he n p e o p l e
f ai l t o di s p l a y t he v i r t ues t hey ought t o ha v e? By w ho m is a n agurram's
beha v i o r c o n c ep t u a l i z ed as a "c o ns i der - t he- l i l i es a t t i t ude, " g i v en t ha t
he ha s bo t h f a mi l y a n d p r o p er t y , a n d t ha t t hi s f act is t a ken by t he Ber -
ber s t o be p er f ec t l y i n o r d er ? Gel l n er d o e s n o t g i v e t he r ea d er t he
r el ev a n t ev i d en c e f o r a n s wer i n g t hes e i mp o r t a n t q u es t i o n s , w ho s e s i g-
n i f i c a n c e f o r hi s t r a ns l a t i o n wi l l e m e r g e i n a mo me n t .
The reality of the si tuati on is, however, that the igurramen are in fact se-
l ect ed by the s urroundi ng ordi nary tri besmen who use thei r services, by bei ng
cal l ed to perf orm t hose services and bei ng pref erred to t he rival candi dat es
f or t hei r perf ormance. What appears t o be vox Dei is in reality vox populi.
Moreover, t he matter of t he bl essed characteristics, the sti gmata [sic] of
agurram-hood is more compl i cat ed. It is essential that successful candi dat es to
agurram status be credited with t hese characteristics, but it is equal l y essenti al ,
at any rate with regard to s ome of t hem, that they s houl d not really possess
t hem. For i nst ance, an agurram who was ext remel y generous i n a cons i der-
the-l i l i es spirit woul d s oon be i mpoveri s hed and, as such, fail by anot her cru-
cial test, that of prosperi ty.
Ther e is here a crucial di vergence bet ween concept and reality, a di ver-
genc e whi ch mor eover is qui te essential for the worki ng of the social system.
( 4 3 - 4 4 )
It i s n o t at al l c l ea r f r o m t he a c c o u n t g i v en by Gel l n er wha t is
m e a n t by t he s t a t emen t , " The l ocal bel i ef is t ha t t hey a r e s el ec t ed by
Go d " " s el ec t ed " f o r wha t ex a c t l y ? For bei n g ar bi t r at or s ? Bu t a r bi t r a -
t i o n mu s t be i ni t i a t ed by o n e o r o t her m e m be r o f t he t ri bal s o c i et y ,
a n d t ha t f ac t c a n ha r d l y be u n k n o w n t o t he t r i bes men . For be i n g p a -
ci f i c? Bu t pa c i f i s m is a v i r t ue, n o t a r ewa r d . For wo r l d l y s u c c es s a n d
p r o s p er i t y ? Bu t t ha t c a n n o t be a l ocal definition o f s a i nt l i nes s , o r t he
Fr en c h c o l o n i a l r ul er s w o u l d ha v e be e n r eg a r d ed as mo r e s ai nt l y t ha n
a n y agurram.
It i s r eal l y n o g r ea t ex p l a n a t o r y a c hi ev emen t f o r a Eu r o p e a n a n -
t hr o p o l o g i s t t o i n f o r m hi s a g n o s t i c a n d / o r m o d e r n Eu r o p e a n r ea d er s
t ha t t he Ber ber s bel i ev e i n a pa r t i c ul a r ki n d o f d i r ec t i n t er v en t i o n o f
t he d ei t y i n t hei r af f ai rs , t ha t t hey a r e o f c o u r s e mi s t a ken i n t hi s bel i ef ,
a n d t ha t t hi s mi s t a ken bel i ef c a n ha v e s oci al c o n s eq u en c es . In t hi s
k i n d o f ex er c i s e w e d o n o t l ea r n what t hey bel i ev e, bu t o n l y that wha t
t hey bel i ev e is q u i t e w r o n g : t hus , t he Ber ber s bel i ev e t ha t G o d "s e-
l ec t s " igurramen; we k n o w Go d d o es n o t ex i s t ( or i f s o me o f us sti l l "be-
l i ev e" he d o es , w e "kno w" he d o es n o t i n t er v en e di r ec t l y i n s ec u l a r hi s -
t o r y ) ; e r g o t he "s el ec t or " mu s t be a n o t her a g en t w ho m t he t r i bes men
156 TALAL ASAD
The Inequality of Languages
A c ar e ful r e a d i n g o f Gel l ner' s p a p e r s ho ws t hat a l t h o u g h he
r ai s e s a n u mb e r o f i mp o r t a n t que s t i o ns , h e n o t o nl y fai l s t o a n s we r
t h e m, b u t mi s s e s s o me o f t he mo s t cruci al as pe c t s o f t he p r o b l e m wi t h
wh i c h t he e t h n o g r a p h e r is e n g a g e d . T h e mo s t i nt e r e s t i ng o f t he s e , i t
s e e ms t o me , is t he p r o b l e m o f wha t o n e mi g h t cal l "une qua l - l a n-
g u a g e s " a n d it is t hi s I wa nt n o w t o di s c us s i n s o me det ai l .
Al l g o o d t r ans l at i on s e e ks t o r e p r o d u c e t he s t r uc t ur e o f a n al i e n
di s c o ur s e wi t hi n t he t ransl at or' s o wn l a ng ua g e . Ho w t hat s t r uc t ur e
( or "c ohe r e nc e ") is r e p r o d u c e d wi l l , o f c o ur s e , d e p e n d o n t he g e n r e
c o n c e r n e d ("poet ry, " "sci enti fi c anal ysi s, " "narrat i ve, " et c. ) , o n t he re-
s o ur c e s o f t he t ransl at or' s l a n g u a g e , as wel l as o n t he i nt e r e s t s o f t he
t r ans l at or a n d / o r hi s r e a de r s hi p. Al l s uc c e s s ful t rans l at i on i s p r e mi s e d
o n t h e fact t hat it is a d d r e s s e d wi t hi n a speci fi c l a n g u a g e , a n d t he r e -
f o r e al s o t o a s peci fi c s et o f pract i ces , a speci fi c f o r m o f l i fe. T h e fur -
t he r t hat f o r m o f l i fe is f r o m t he or i gi nal , t he l ess me c ha ni c a l is t he
r e p r o d u c t i o n . As Wal t e r Be n j a mi n wr ot e : " Th e l a n g u a g e o f a t rans l a-
t i on c a n i n fact mu s t l e t i t sel f g o , so t hat it gi ves voi c e t o t he intentio
o f t he or i gi nal no t as r e p r o d u c t i o n but as h a r mo n y , as a s u p p l e me n t
t o t he l a n g u a g e i n wh i c h it e x pr e s s e s itself, as its o wn ki nd o f intentio"
( 1 96 9: 79) . It i s, i nc i de nt al l y, for t he r e a de r t o e val uat e t hat intentio,
n o t f o r t h e t r ans l at or t o p r e e mp t t he e val uat i on. A g o o d t r ans l at i on
s h o u l d al ways p r e c e d e a cri t i que. An d we c an t ur n thi s a r o u n d by say-
i n g t hat a g o o d c r i t i que is al ways a n "i nt ernal " cri t i que- t hat i s, o n e
b a s e d o n s o me s h a r e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g , o n a j o i nt l i fe, whi c h it a i ms t o
Th e Concept of Cultural Transl ati on 157
c o u r s e s , a n d ye t d e v o t e d s o ma n y pa g e s t o s h o wi n g t hat Gel l ner' s t e xt
i s l ar ge l y i n c o h e r e n t ? T h e r e a s o n is qui t e s i mpl e : Ge l l ne r a n d I s pe a k
t he s a me l a n g u a g e , b e l o n g t o t he s a me a c a de mi c pr o f e s s i o n, l i ve i n
t he s a me s oci et y. I n t aki ng u p a cri ti cal s t anc e t owar d hi s t e xt I a m
contesting wha t h e says, not translating it, a n d t he radi cal di f f e r e nc e be -
t we e n t he s e t wo act i vi t i es is pr e c i s e l y wha t I i nsi st o n. Sti l l , t he p u r p o s e
o f my a r g u me n t is n o t t o e x pr e s s an at t i t ude o f "i nt ol e r anc e " t o wa r d
a n " i mme d i a t e n e i g h b o u r , " but t o try a n d i de nt i fy i n c o h e r e n c e s i n hi s
t e x t t ha t cal l for r e me d y , be c a us e t he a nt hr o po l o g i c a l t ask o f t rans l a-
t i o n d e s e r v e s t o be ma d e mo r e c o he r e nt . T h e p u r p o s e o f t hi s cri t i -
c i s m, t h e r e f o r e , is t o f ur t he r a col l ect i ve e nde a v o r . Cri t i ci zi ng "s avages
w h o a r e aft er all s o me di s t anc e away, " i n a n e t h n o g r a p h i c mo n o g r a p h
t h e y c a n n o t r e a d, d o e s n o t s e e m t o me t o ha v e t he s a me ki nd o f p u r -
p o s e . I n o r d e r for cri t i ci s m t o be r e s pons i bl e , it mu s t al ways be a d-
d r e s s e d t o s o me o n e wh o c an c ont e s t it.
e n l a r g e a n d ma k e mo r e c o h e r e n t . S u c h a c r i t i q u e n o l ess t ha n t h e
o bj e c t o f c r i t i c i s mi s a po i nt o f vi ew, a ( cont ra) version, h a v i n g o nl y
pr o v i s i o na l a n d l i mi t e d aut hori t y.
Wh a t h a p p e n s wh e n t he l a ng ua g e s c o n c e r n e d ar e s o r e mo t e t hat
i t i s v e r y di ffi cul t t o r e wr i t e a h a r mo n i o u s intentio? Ru d o l f Pannwi t z ,
q u o t e d i n t he Be n j a mi n es s ay o n wh i c h I ha v e j u s t dr a wn, ma k e s t h e
f o l l o wi n g o bs e r v a t i o n:
Our translations, even the best ones, proceed from a wrong premi se. The y
want to turn Hi ndi , Greek, Engl i sh into German instead of t urni ng German
i nt o Hi ndi , Greek, English. Our translators have a far greater reverence for
t he usage of their own l anguage than for the spirit of the forei gn works. . . .
Th e basic error of the translator is that he preserves the state in whi ch his own
l anguage happens to be instead of al l owi ng his l anguage to be powerful l y af-
fect ed by the forei gn t ongue. Particularly when translating from a l anguage
very remot e from his own he must go back to the primal el ement s of l anguage
itself and penet rat e to the poi nt where work, i mage, and t one converge. He
mus t e xpand and deepen his l anguage by means of the forei gn l anguage.
( 1969: 80- 81)
Th i s cal l t o t r a ns f o r m a l a n g u a g e i n o r d e r t o t rans l at e t he c o h e r -
e n c e o f t he or i gi nal , po s e s a n i nt e r e s t i ng c ha l l e ng e t o t he p e r s o n sat i s-
fied wi t h a n a b s u r d - s o u n d i n g t rans l at i on o n t he a s s u mp t i o n t hat t he
o r i g i na l mu s t ha v e b e e n e qual l y abs ur d: t he g o o d t r ans l at or d o e s n o t
i mme d i a t e l y a s s u me t hat u n u s u a l di ffi cul t y i n c o n v e y i n g t he s e n s e o f
a n al i e n di s c o ur s e d e n o t e s a faul t i n t he l at t er, but i ns t e ad cri t i cal l y
e x a mi n e s t he n o r ma l st at e o f hi s or he r own l a n g u a g e . T h e r e l e v a nt
q u e s t i o n t h e r e f o r e i s n o t h o w t ol e r ant a n attitude t he t r ans l at or o u g h t
t o di s pl ay t o wa r d t he or i gi nal a ut ho r ( an abst ract et hi cal d i l e mma ) ,
b u t h o w s h e c a n t est t he t o l e r a nc e o f he r o wn l a n g u a g e for a s s u mi n g
u n a c c u s t o me d f o r ms .
Bu t t hi s p u s h i n g b e y o n d t he l i mi t s o f one' s habi t ual us a g e s , t hi s
b r e a k i n g d o w n a n d r e s h a p i n g o f one' s o wn l a n g u a g e t h r o u g h t he p r o -
c e s s o f t r ans l at i on, i s n e v e r a n easy bus i ne s s , i n par t be c a us e (i f I ma y
b e a l l o we d a hypos t at i z at i on) it d e p e n d s o n t he wi l l i ngne s s o f t he
t rans l at or' s language t o s ubj ect i t sel f t o t hi s t r a ns f o r mi ng po we r . I at -
t r i but e , s o me wh a t fictitiously, vol i t i on t o t he l a n g u a g e be c a us e I wa n t
t o e mp h a s i z e t hat t he ma t t e r is l argel y s o me t h i n g t he t r ans l at or c a n-
n o t d e t e r mi n e by i ndi v i dua l act i vi t y ( any mo r e t ha n t he i ndi v i dua l
s p e a k e r c an affect t he e v o l ut i o n o f hi s or he r l a n g u a g e ) t h a t i t is g o v -
e r n e d by i ns t i t ut i onal l y d e f i n e d p o we r r e l at i ons b e t we e n t he l an-
g u a g e s / mo d e s o f l i fe c o n c e r n e d . To put it c r ude l y: be c a us e t he l an-
g u a g e s o f T h i r d Wo r l d s o c i e t i e s i nc l udi ng , o f c o ur s e , t he s oc i e t i e s
t hat s oci al a nt hr o po l o g i s t s ha v e t radi t i onal l y s t u d i e d a r e "we ake r " i n
r e l at i on t o We s t e r n l a ng ua g e s ( and t oday, es peci al l y t o Engl i s h) , t he y
ar e mo i e l i kel y t o s ubmi t t o forci bl e t r a ns f o r ma t i o n i n t he t r ans l at i on
158 TALAL ASAD Th e Concept of Cultural Translation 159
pr o c e s s t ha n t he o t h e r way a r o u n d . T h e r e a s o n f o r t hi s i s, first, t hat i n
t he i r po l i t i c a l - e c o no mi c r e l at i ons wi t h Th i r d Wo r l d c o unt r i e s , We s t -
e r n na t i o ns h a v e t he g r e a t e r abi l i t y t o ma n i p u l a t e t he l at t er. An d , s e c -
o n d , We s t e r n l a n g u a g e s p r o d u c e a n d d e p l o y desired k n o wl e d g e mo r e
r e adi l y t ha n Th i r d Wo r l d l a n g u a g e s d o . ( Th e k n o wl e d g e t hat T h i r d
Wo r l d l a n g u a g e s d e p l o y mo r e easi l y is no t s o u g h t by We s t e r n s oc i e t i e s
i n qui t e t he s a me way, or for t he s a me r e as on. )
Ta k e mo d e r n Ar abi c as a n e x a mp l e . Si nc e t he earl y n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r y t he r e has b e e n a g r o wi n g v o l u me o f mat e r i al t r ans l at e d f r o m
E u r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s e s p e c i a l l y Fr e nc h a nd En g l i s h i n t o Ar abi c .
Th i s i nc l ude s sci ent i fi c t e xt s as wel l as "soci al s ci ence, " "hi st ory, " "phi -
l o s o phy , " a n d "l i t erat ure. " An d f r o m t he n i n e t e e n t h c e nt ur y , Ar a bi c
as a l a n g u a g e has b e g u n as a res ul t t o u n d e r g o a t r a ns f o r ma t i o n ( l ex-
i cal , g r a mma t i c a l , s e ma nt i c ) t hat is far mo r e radi cal t ha n a n y t h i n g
t o b e i de nt i f i e d i n Eu r o p e a n l a n g u a g e s a t r a ns f o r ma t i o n t hat has
p u s h e d it t o a p p r o x i ma t e t o t he l at t er mo r e cl os el y t han i n t he pas t .
S u c h t r a ns f o r ma t i o ns s i gnal i nequal i t i es i n t he p o we r (i . e. , i n t he ca-
pacities) o f t he r e s pe c t i ve l a ng ua g e s i n r e l at i on t o t he dominant f o r ms
o f di s c o ur s e t hat ha v e b e e n a nd are still be i ng t r ans l at e d. T h e r e ar e
var i e t i e s o f k n o wl e d g e t o be l earnt , but al so a hos t o f mo d e l s t o be
i mi t a t e d a n d r e p r o d u c e d . I n s o me cas es k n o wl e d g e o f t he s e mo d e l s i s
a p r e c o n d i t i o n for t he p r o d u c t i o n o f mo r e k n o wl e d g e ; i n o t h e r c as e s
i t is a n e n d i n i tsel f, a mi me t i c g e s t ur e o f p o we r , a n e x p r e s s i o n o f d e -
s i re for t r a ns f o r ma t i o n. A r e c o g ni t i o n o f t hi s we l l - kno wn fact r e mi n d s
u s t hat i ndus t r i al c api t al i s m t r a ns f o r ms no t o nl y mo d e s o f p r o d u c t i o n
but al s o ki nds o f k n o wl e d g e a n d st yl es o f l i fe i n t he Th i r d Wo r l d. An d
wi t h t h e m, f o r ms o f l a n g u a g e . T h e res ul t o f ha l f - t r a ns f o r me d s t yl es
o f l i fe wi l l ma k e for ambi gui t i e s , whi c h an uns ki l l ful We s t e r n t r ans -
l at or ma y s i mpl i fy i n t he di r e c t i on o f hi s o wn "s t rong" l a n g u a g e .
Wh a t d o e s t hi s a r g u me n t i mpl y for t he a nt hr o po l o g i c a l c o n c e p t
o f c ul t ur al t rans l at i on? Th a t pe r ha ps t he r e is a g r e a t e r s t i ffnes s i n e t h-
n o g r a p h i c l i ngui s t i c c o nv e nt i o ns , a g r e a t e r i nt ri ns i c r e s i s t anc e t h a n
c a n b e o v e r c o me by i ndi vi dual e x p e r i me n t s i n mo d e s o f e t h n o g r a p h i c
r e pr e s e nt a t i o n.
I n hi s pe r c e pt i v e es s ay "Mo de s o f Th o u g h t , " whi c h Ge l l ne r cri ti -
c i z e s for ma k i n g ove r - c har i t abl e a s s umpt i o ns a bo ut t he c o h e r e n c e o f
"pr i mi t i ve t ho ug ht , " Li e nha r dt has t hi s t o say:
Whe n we live with savages and speak their l anguages, l earni ng to represent
their experi ence to oursel ves in their way, we come as near to thi nki ng like
t hem as we can wi thout ceasi ng to be oursel ves. Eventually, we try to represent
their concept i ons systematically in the logical constructs we have been brought
up to use; and we hope, at best, thus to reconcile what can be expressed in
thei r l anguages, with what can be expressed in ours. We medi at e bet ween
thei r habits of thought, whi ch we have acquired with t hem, and those of our
own society; in doi ng so, it is not finally some mysteri ous "primitive phi l oso-
phy" that we are expl ori ng, but the further potentialities of our t hought and
l anguage. ( 1954: 96- 97)
I n t he field, as Li e nha r dt ri ght l y s ugge s t s , t he pr o c e s s o f t r ans l at i on
t ake s pl ac e at t he very mo me n t t he e t h n o g r a p h e r e n g a g e s wi t h a s pe -
ci fi c mo d e o f l i f e j us t as a c hi l d do e s i n l e a r ni ng t o g r o w u p wi t hi n a
s peci fi c c ul t ur e . Fi e l e ar ns t o find hi s way i n a n e w e n v i r o n me n t , a n d a
n e w l a n g u a g e . An d l i ke a c hi l d h e n e e d s t o ve r bal i z e explicitly wha t
t h e p r o p e r way o f d o i n g t hi ng s is, be c a us e t hat i s h o w l e a r n i n g p r o -
c e e d s . (Cf. A. R. Lur i a o n "s ynpraxi c s pe e c h" i n Lur i a a n d Yu d o v i c h
1 9 7 1 : 5 0 . ) Wh e n t he c hi l d/ a nt hr o po l o g i s t b e c o me s a d e p t at a dul t
ways , wh a t h e has l e ar nt b e c o me s implicitas a s s u mp t i o n s i n f o r mi n g
a s h a r e d mo d e o f l i fe, wi t h all its r e s o na nc e s a n d areas o f uncl ari t y.
Bu t l e a r n i n g t o l i ve a n e w mo d e of l i fe is no t t he s a me as l e a r n i n g
a b o u t a n o t h e r mo d e o f l i fe. Wh e n a nt hr o po l o g i s t s r e t ur n t o t he i r
c o unt r i e s , t he y mu s t wri t e u p "t hei r pe o pl e , " a n d t he y mu s t d o s o i n
t he c o n v e n t i o n s o f r e pr e s e nt a t i o n al r e ady c i r c ums c r i be d ( al r e ady
"wri t t en a r o u n d , " "bo unde d") by t hei r di s c i pl i ne , i ns t i t ut i onal l i fe,
a n d wi d e r s oci et y. "Cul t ural t rans l at i on" mus t a c c o mmo d a t e i t s el f t o a
di f f e r e nt l a n g u a g e no t onl y i n t he s e ns e o f Eng l i s h as o p p o s e d t o
Di n k a , o r Eng l i s h as o p p o s e d t o Kabbas hi Ar abi c , but al s o i n t he s e n s e
o f a Br i t i s h, mi d d l e cl ass, a c a de mi c g a me as o p p o s e d t o t he mo d e s o f
l i fe o f t h e "tri bal " S u d a n . T h e s t i ffnes s o f a p o we r f u l e s t a bl i s he d
s t r uc t ur e o f l i fe, wi t h its o wn di s c ur s i ve g a me s , its o wn "s t r ong" l an-
g u a g e s , is wha t a mo n g o t he r t hi ng s finally d e t e r mi n e s t he e ffe c t i ve -
ne s s o f t he t r ans l at i on. T h e t rans l at i on is a ddr e s s e d t o a ve r y s peci fi c
a u d i e n c e , whi c h is wa i t i ng t o r e a d about a n o t h e r mo d e o f l i fe a n d t o
ma n i p u l a t e t he t e x t it r e a ds a c c o r di ng t o e s t abl i s he d r ul e s , n o t t o
l e a r n to live a n e w mo d e o f l i fe.
I f Be n j a mi n was r i ght i n p r o p o s i n g t hat t r ans l at i on ma y r e qui r e
n o t a me c ha ni c a l r e p r o d u c t i o n o f t he ori gi nal but a h a r mo n i z a t i o n
wi t h i ts intentio, it fol l ows t hat t he r e is n o r e a s o n wh y t hi s s h o u l d be
d o n e o nl y i n t he s a me mo d e . I n d e e d , it c o ul d be a r g u e d t hat "t rans -
l at i ng" a n al i e n f o r m o f l i fe, a n o t h e r c ul t ur e , is no t al ways d o n e be s t
t h r o u g h t he r e pr e s e nt a t i o na l di s c o ur s e o f e t h n o g r a p h y , t hat u n d e r
c e r t ai n c o ndi t i o ns a dr amat i c p e r f o r ma n c e , t he e x e c u t i o n o f a d a n c e ,
o r t he p l a y i n g o f a pi e c e o f mus i c mi g ht be mo r e apt . T h e s e wo u l d all
be productions o f t he or i gi nal a n d not me r e i nt e r pr e t at i ons : t r ans -
f o r me d i ns t a nc e s o f t he or i gi nal , no t aut hor i t at i ve t e xt ual r e pr e s e nt a -
t i ons o f it (cf. Ho l l a n d e r 1959). But wo ul d t he y be t h o u g h t o f by mo s t
s oci al a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s as val i d e xe r c i s e s i n t he "t rans l at i on o f c ul t ur e "?
I t hi nk not , be c a us e t he y all rai s e a n ent i rel y di ffe r e nt d i me n s i o n o f
( he r e l a t i o ns hi p b e t we e n t he a nt hr o po l o g i c a l "work" a n d its a u d i e n c e ,
i 6 o
TALAL ASAD
t he q u e s t i o n o f di ffe r e nt uses ( pract i ces ) , as o p p o s e d me r e l y t o di ffe r -
e n t writings and readings ( me a ni ng s ) o f t hat wor k. An d as soci al a n-
t hr o po l o g i s t s we ar e t r ai ne d t o t rans l at e o t he r cul t ural l a n g u a g e s as
t e xt s , n o t t o i n t r o d u c e o r e nl a r g e cul t ural capaci t i es , l e ar nt f r o m
o t h e r ways o f l i vi ng, i nt o o u r o wn . It s e e ms t o me ve r y l i kel y t hat t h e
n o t i o n o f c ul t ur e as text has r e i nf o r c e d t hi s vi e w o f o u r task, be c a us e it
faci l i t at es t he a s s u mp t i o n t hat t rans l at i on is essentially a ma t t e r o f ve r -
bal r e pr e s e nt a t i o n.
Reading Other Cultures
Th i s i ne qual i t y i n t he p o we r o f l a n g u a g e s , t o g e t h e r wi t h t he
fact t hat t he a n t h r o p o l o g i s t t ypi cal l y wri t es a bo ut a n i l l i t erat e ( or at
a ny r at e n o n - En g l i s h - s p e a k i n g ) po pul a t i o n for a l argel y a c a d e mi c ,
En g l i s h - s p e a k i n g a u d i e n c e , e n c o u r a g e s a t e n d e n c y I wo u l d n o w l i ke
t o di s c us s : t he t e n d e n c y t o r e a d t he implicit i n al i e n c ul t ur e s .
Ac c o r d i n g t o ma n y soci al a nt hr o po l o g i s t s , t he obj e c t o f e t h n o -
g r a phi c t r ans l at i on is no t t he hi st ori cal l y s i t uat e d s p e e c h ( t hat is t he
t ask o f t h e fol kl ori s t o r t he l i ngui s t ) , but "cul t ure, " a n d t o t r ans l at e
c ul t ur e t he a nt hr o po l o g i s t mu s t first r e a d a n d t h e n r e i ns c r i be t he i m-
pl i ci t me a n i n g s t hat l i e b e n e a t h / wi t h i n / b e y o n d s i t uat e d s p e e c h . Ma r y
Do u g l a s put s t hi s ni cel y:
Th e ant hropol ogi st who draws out the whol e scheme of the cosmos whi ch is
i mpl i ed i n [the observed] practices does the primitive cul ture great vi ol ence if
he seems to present the cosmol ogy as a systematic phi l osophy subscri bed to
consci ousl y by i ndi vi dual s. . . . So the primitive world view whi ch I have de-
fined above is rarely itself an object of contempl ati on and specul ati on in the
pri mi ti ve cul ture. It has evol ved as the appanage of other social institutions.
To this ext ent it is produced indirectly, and to this extent the primitive cul ture
must be taken to be unaware of itself, unconsci ous of its own condi t i ons.
( . 1966: 91)
On e di f f e r e nc e b e t we e n t he a nt hr o po l o g i s t a nd t he l i ngui s t i n t he
ma t t e r o f t r ans l at i on is p e r h a p s t hi s: t hat whe r e a s t he l at t er is i mme -
di at e l y f a c e d wi t h a s peci fi c pi e c e o f di s c o ur s e p r o d u c e d wi t hi n t he
s oc i e t y s t udi e d, a di s c o ur s e t hat is then t e xt ual i z e d, t he f o r me r mu s t
c o ns t r uc t t he di s c o ur s e as a cul t ural t e xt i n t e r ms o f me a n i n g s implicit
i n a r a n g e o f pract i ces . T h e c ons t r uc t i on o f cul t ural di s c o ur s e a n d i ts
t r ans l at i on t hus s e e m t o be facet s o f a s i ngl e act. Th i s po i nt is b r o u g h t
o u t i n Dougl as ' s c o mme n t s o n h e r o wn t rans l at i ons o f t he me a n i n g s o f
t h e p a n g o l i n cul t a mo n g t he Lel e:
The r e are no Lel e books of theol ogy or phi l osophy to state the meani ng of t he
cult. Th e metaphysical implications have not been expressed to me in so many
Th e Concept of Cultural Translation
161
words by Lel e, nor did I even eavesdrop a conversati on bet ween di vi ners
coveri ng this ground. . . .
What ki nd of evi dence for the meani ng of this cult, or of any cult, can be
sensibly demanded? It can have many different levels and ki nds of meani ng.
But t he one on whi ch I ground my argument is the meani ng whi ch emerges
out of a pattern in whi ch the parts can incontestably be shown to be regul arl y
rel ated. No one member of the society is necessarily aware of the whol e pat-
t ern, any more than speakers are able to be explicit about the linguistic pat-
terns they empl oy. ( 1966 : 173 74)
I' ve s u g g e s t e d e l s e wh e r e ( As ad 1983a) t hat t he at t r i but i on o f i m-
pl i ci t me a n i n g s t o a n al i e n pract i ce regardless of whether they are acknowl-
edged by its agents is a charact eri s t i c f o r m of t he ol ogi c al e xe r c i s e , wi t h
a n a nc i e nt hi s t ory. He r e I wa nt t o no t e t hat r e f e r e nc e t o t he l i ngui s t i c
pa t t e r ns p r o d u c e d by s pe a ke r s d o e s no t ma k e a g o o d a na l o g y b e c a u s e
l i ngui s t i c patterns are no t me a n i n g s t o be t r ans l at e d, t he y ar e r ul e s t o
b e s ys t e mat i c al l y de s c r i be d a n d anal ys e d. A nat i ve s p e a k e r i s a wa r e o f
h o w s uc h pa t t e r ns s h o u l d be p r o d u c e d e v e n wh e n h e c a n n o t ve r bal i z e
t hat k n o wl e d g e expl i ci t l y i n t he f o r m of rul es . T h e a p p a r e n t l ack of
abi l i t y t o ve r bal i z e s uc h s oci al k n o wl e d g e d o e s no t ne c e s s ar i l y c ons t i -
t ut e e v i d e n c e o f u n c o n s c i o u s me a n i n g s (cf. Du mme t t 1981) . T h e c o n -
c e p t of "unc o ns c i o us me a n i n g " be l o ng s t o a t he o r y o f t he r e pr e s s i ve
u n c o n s c i o u s , s uc h as Freud' s , i n whi c h a p e r s o n ma y be sai d t o "know"
s o me t h i n g unc o ns c i o us l y .
T h e bus i ne s s o f i de nt i f y i ng u n c o n s c i o u s me a n i n g s i n t he t ask o f
"cul t ural t r ans l at i on" is t h e r e f o r e p e r h a p s be t t e r c o mp a r e d t o t he ac-
t i vi t y o f t he ps y c ho a na l y s t t ha n t o t hat o f t he l i ngui s t . I n d e e d Br i t i s h
a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s ha v e s o me t i me s p r e s e n t e d t hei r wo r k i n pr e c i s e l y
t h e s e t e r ms . T h u s Davi d Poc oc k, a pupi l o f Evans - Pri t chard' s , wr i t e s :
In short, t he work of t he social anthropol ogi st may be regarded as a hi ghl y
compl ex act of translation in whi ch author and translator collaborate. A more
preci se anal ogy is that of the relation bet ween the psychoanalyst and his sub-
ject. Th e analyst enters the private world of his subject in order to learn the
grammar of his private l anguage. If the analysis goes no further it is no differ-
ent in ki nd from the underst andi ng whi ch may exist bet ween any two peopl e
who know each ot her well.[!] It becomes scientific to the ext ent that the private
l anguage of i nti mate underst andi ng is translated into a public l anguage, how-
ever speci al i zed from the layman's poi nt of view, whi ch in this case is the lan-
guage of psychol ogi sts. But the particular act of translation does not distort
t he private experi ence of the subject and ideally it is, at least potentially, ac-
cept abl e to hi m as a scientific representati on of it. Similarly, the model of
Nue r political life whi ch emerges in Professor Evans-Pritchard's work is a sci-
entific model meani ngful to his fellow-sociologists as sociologists, and it is
effecti ve because it is potentially acceptable to the Nuer in some ideal situation in
which they could be. supposed to be interested in themselves as men living in society. Th e
col l aborati on of natural scientists may from this poi nt of view be seen as devel -
l 6 2
TALAL ASAD
opi ng l anguage enabl i ng certain peopl e to communi cat e with i ncreasi ng sub-
tlety about a distinct area of natural phenomena whi ch is defi ned by the name
o f t he particular sci ence. Thei r science is, in the literal meani ng of the t erm,
their commons ens e, their c ommon meani ng. To move from this c o mmo n
sense to the "common sense" of the wider public i nvol ves agai n an act of
translation. The situation of social anthropol ogy, or sociology in general , is
not at this level so very different. The difference lies in the fact that so-
ciological phe nome na are objectively studi ed only to the extent that their sub-
jecti ve meani ng is taken into account and that the peopl e studi ed are pot en-
tially capabl e of shari ng the sociological consci ousness that the sociologist has
of t hem. (1961:8889; emphasi s added)
I ha v e q u o t e d t hi s r e ma r ka bl e pa s s a g e i n ful l be c a us e it st at es ve r y l u-
ci dl y a po s i t i o n t hat i s, I t hi nk, br oadl y ac c e pt abl e t o ma n y a n t h r o p o l -
ogi s t s w h o wo u l d o t he r wi s e c o ns i de r t he ms e l v e s t o be e n g a g e d i n ve r y
di f f e r e nt ki nds o f e nt e r pr i s e . I have q u o t e d i t al s o be c a us e t he n a t u r e
o f t he c ol l abor at i on b e t we e n "aut hor a nd t rans l at or" is neat l y b r o u g h t
o u t i n t he s u b s e q u e n t r e f e r e nc e t o t he ps yc hoanal ys t as sci ent i st : i f t he
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l t rans l at or, l i ke t he anal ys t , has final aut hor i t y i n d e -
t e r mi n i n g t he subj ect ' s me a n i n g s i t i s t he n t he f o r me r wh o b e c o me s
the real author o f t he l at t er. I n t hi s vi ew, "cul t ural t rans l at i on" is a
ma t t e r o f d e t e r mi n i n g i mpl i ci t me a n i n g s n o t t he me a n i n g s t he na-
t i ve s p e a k e r act ual l y a c k n o wl e d g e s i n hi s s pe e c h, no t e v e n t he me a n -
i ng s t he nat i ve l i s t e ne r neces s ari l y ac c e pt s , but t ho s e he is "pot e nt i al l y
c a pa bl e o f s har i ng" wi t h sci ent i fi c aut hor i t y "in s o me i deal s i t uat i on":
i t is wh e n h e c a n say, for e x a mp l e , wi t h Ge l l ne r , t hat vox Dei is i n real -
i t y vox populi, t hat h e ut t ers t he t r ue me a n i n g o f hi s t radi t i onal di s -
c o ur s e , a n e s s e nt i al me a n i n g o f hi s c ul t ur e . T h e fact t hat i n t hat "i deal
s i t uat i on" h e wo u l d n o l o n g e r be a Mus l i m Be r be r t r i be s ma n, but
s o me t h i n g c o mi n g t o r e s e mbl e Pr ofe s s or Ge l l ne r , d o e s no t a p p e a r t o
wo r r y s uc h c ul t ur al t rans l at ors .
Th i s p o we r t o c r e at e me a n i n g s for a s ubj ect t h r o u g h t he n o t i o n o f
t h e "i mpl i ci t " or t he "unc ons c i ous , " to authorize them, has o f c o u r s e
b e e n di s c us s e d for t he anal ys t - anal ys and r e l at i ons hi p ( e. g. , r e c e nt l y i n
Ma l c o l m 1982). It ha s no t , t o my k n o wl e d g e , b e e n c o n s i d e r e d wi t h r e -
g a r d t o wha t t he cul t ural t rans l at or do e s . T h e r e are, o f c o ur s e , i mp o r -
t ant di f f e r e nc e s i n t he c as e o f t he a nt hr o po l o g i s t . It ma y be p o i n t e d
o u t t hat t he l at t er d o e s no t impose hi s t rans l at i on o n t he me mb e r s o f
t h e s oc i e t y wh o s e cul t ural di s c o ur s e h e unr ave l s , t hat hi s e t h n o g r a p h y
is t h e r e f o r e no t aut hor i t at i ve i n t he way t he anal yst ' s cas e s t udy i s. T h e
a n a l y s a n d c o me s t o t h e anal ys t , o r is r e f e r r e d t o t he l at t er by t h o s e
wi t h aut hor i t y o v e r h i m, as a pat i e nt i n n e e d o f he l p. T h e a n t h r o p o l o -
gi s t , by c ont r as t , c o me s t o t he s oci et y h e want s t o r e ad, h e s e e s h i ms e l f
as a l e a r ne r , n o t as a g u i d e , a n d h e wi t hdr aws f r o m t he s oc i e t y wh e n
h e has a d e q u a t e i n f o r ma t i o n t o i ns cri be its c ul t ur e . H e d o e s not c o n -
Th e Concept of Cultural Translation 163
s i de r t he s oci et y, a n d ne i t he r d o its me mb e r s c o ns i de r t h e ms e l v e s t o
be , si ck: t he s oc i e t y is ne v e r s ubj ect t o t he ant hr opol ogi s t ' s aut hor i t y.
Bu t t hi s a r g u me n t is n o t qui t e as c onc l us i ve as i t may s e e m at first
s i ght . It r e ma i n s t he c as e t hat t he e t hno g r a phe r ' s t r a ns l a t i o n/ r e pr e -
s e nt a t i o n o f a par t i c ul ar c ul t ur e i s i nevi t abl y a t e xt ual c ons t r uc t , t hat
as r e p r e s e n t a t i o n it c a n n o t nor mal l y be c o nt e s t e d by t he p e o p l e t o
w h o m it is at t r i but e d, a n d t hat as a "sci enti fi c t ext " it e v e nt ua l l y be -
c o me s a pr i v i l e g e d e l e me n t i n t he pot e nt i al s t or e o f hi s t ori cal me mo r y
for t h e no nl i t e r a t e s oci et y c o n c e r n e d . I n mo d e r n a n d mo d e r n i z i n g
s oc i e t i e s , i ns c r i be d r e c o r ds ha v e a gr e at e r p o we r t o s ha pe , t o r e f o r m,
s e l ve s a n d i ns t i t ut i ons t han fol k me mo r i e s d o . T h e y e v e n c o ns t r uc t
fol k me mo r i e s . T h e ant hr opol ogi s t ' s mo n o g r a p h ma y r e t ur n, r e t r ans -
l at e d, i nt o a "we ake r " Th i r d Wor l d l a ng ua g e . I n t he l o n g r un, t he r e -
f o r e , i t i s n o t t he pe r s o na l aut hor i t y o f t he e t h n o g r a p h e r , b u t t h e s o -
ci al a ut ho r i t y o f hi s e t h n o g r a p h y t hat mat t e r s . An d t hat aut hor i t y is
i ns c r i be d i n t he i ns t i t ut i onal i z e d for c e s of i ndus t ri al capi t al i s t s oc i e t y
( s e e p a g e 158 a bo v e ) , whi c h are c ons t ant l y tending t o p u s h t he me a n -
i ng s o f var i ous T h i r d Wor l d s oci et i es i n a s i ngl e di r e c t i on. Th i s is no t
t o say t hat t he r e ar e n o r e s i s t anc e s t o t hi s t e nde nc y . But "res i s t ance" i n
i t s el f i ndi c at e s t he p r e s e n c e o f a d o mi n a n t force.
I mu s t st ress I a m no t a r g u i n g t hat e t h n o g r a p h y pl ays a ny g r e a t
r ol e i n t he r e f o r ma t i o n o f o t h e r c ul t ur e s . I n t hi s r e s pe c t t he effect s o f
e t h n o g r a p h y c a n n o t b e c o mp a r e d wi t h s o me o t h e r f o r ms o f r e p r e -
s e n t i n g s o c i e t i e s f o r e x a mp l e , t el evi s i on films p r o d u c e d i n t he We s t
t ha t a r e s o l d t o T h i r d Wo r l d c ount r i e s . ( Th a t a nt hr o po l o g i s t s r e c o g -
ni z e t he p o we r o f t e l e vi s i on is refl ect ed, i nci dent al l y, i n t he i nc r e a s i ng
n u mb e r o f a nt hr o po l o g i c a l films b e i n g ma d e for t he me d i u m i n Bri t -
ai n. ) Still l ess c an t he effect s o f e t h n o g r a p h y c o mp a r e wi t h t he pol i t i -
cal , e c o n o mi c , a n d mi l i t ary c ons t r ai nt s o f t he wo r l d s ys t e m. My po i nt
is o nl y t hat t he pr o c e s s o f "cul t ural t rans l at i on" is i nevi t abl y e n me s h e d
i n c o n d i t i o n s o f p o we r p r o f e s s i o n a l , nat i onal , i nt e r nat i onal . An d
a m o n g t he s e c o ndi t i o ns is t he aut hor i t y o f e t h n o g r a p h e r s t o u n c o v e r
t he i mpl i c i t me a n i n g s o f s ubo r di na t e s oci et i es . Gi v e n t hat t hat is s o,
t h e i nt e r e s t i ng q u e s t i o n for e nqui r y i s n o t wh e t h e r , a n d i f s o t o wh a t
e x t e n t , a nt hr o po l o g i s t s s h o u l d be rel at i vi st s o r rat i onal i s t s , cri t i cal o r
c har i t abl e , t o wa r d o t h e r c ul t ur e s , but h o w p o we r e nt e r s i nt o t he p r o -
c e s s o f "cul t ural t rans l at i on, " s e e n bot h as a di s c ur s i ve a n d as a n o n -
di s c ur s i ve pr ac t i c e .
Conclusion
For s o me ye ar s I have b e e n e x e r c i s e d by t hi s puz z l e . Ho w i s i t
t hat t he a p p r o a c h e x e mpl i f i e d by Gel l ner' s p a p e r r e ma i ns at t ract i ve t o
164 TALAL ASAD
s o ma n y a c a d e mi c s i n s pi t e o f its be i ng de mo ns t r a bl y faul t y? Is it p e r -
h a p s b e c a u s e t he y ar e i nt i mi da t e d by a style? We kno w, o f c o ur s e , t hat
a nt hr o po l o g i s t s , l i ke o t h e r a c a de mi c s , l e ar n no t me r e l y t o us e a s c hol -
arl y l a n g u a g e , but t o fe ar it, t o a dmi r e it, t o be c apt i vat e d by it. Yet t hi s
d o e s n o t qui t e a n s we r t he que s t i o n be c a us e it d o e s no t tel l us why s u c h
a s c hol ar l y s t yl e s h o u l d c a pt ur e s o ma n y i nt e l l i ge nt p e o p l e . I n o w p u t
f o r wa r d t hi s t e nt at i ve s o l ut i o n. Wh a t we ha v e h e r e is a st yl e e as y t o
t e a c h, t o l e ar n, a n d t o r e p r o d u c e (i n e x a mi n a t i o n a ns we r s , a s s e s s me n t
e s s ays , a n d di s s e r t at i ons ) . It i s a s t yl e t hat faci l i t at es t he t e xt ual i z at i on
o f o t h e r c ul t ur e s , t hat e n c o u r a g e s t he c o ns t r uc t i o n o f d i a g r a mma t i c
a n s we r s t o c o mp l e x cul t ural que s t i ons , a nd t hat is wel l s ui t e d t o ar-
r a n g i n g f o r e i g n c ul t ur al c o nc e pt s i n cl earl y ma r k e d h e a p s o f "s e ns e "
o r "no ns e ns e . " Ap a r t f r o m b e i n g eas y t o t e ac h a n d t o i mi t at e , t hi s s t yl e
p r o mi s e s vi s i bl e res ul t s t hat c an readi l y be g r a de d. S u c h a s t yl e mu s t
s ur e l y b e at a p r e mi u m i n a n e s t abl i s he d uni ve r s i t y di s c i pl i ne t hat as -
pi r e s t o standards o f s ci ent i fi c obj ect i vi t y. Is t he po pul a r i t y o f t hi s s t yl e,
t h e n , n o t a r e fl e c t i on o f t he ki nd o f p e d a g o g i c i ns t i t ut i on we i nhabi t ?
Al t h o u g h it is n o w ma n y years s i nc e Gel l ner' s p a p e r was first p u b -
l i s he d, i t r e pr e s e nt s a doc t r i nal pos i t i on t hat is still p o p u l a r t oday.
I ha v e i n mi n d t he s o c i o l o g i s m a c c o r di ng t o whi c h r e l i gi ous i d e o l o g i e s
a r e s ai d t o g e t t he i r real me a n i n g f r o m t he pol i t i cal o r e c o n o mi c s t r uc -
t ur e , a n d t he s e l f - c o nf i r mi ng me t h o d o l o g y a c c o r di ng t o wh i c h t hi s r e -
d u c t i v e s e ma n t i c pr i nc i pl e is e v i de nt t o t he ( aut hor i t at i ve ) a n t h r o p o l o -
gi s t a n d n o t t o t he p e o p l e b e i n g wr i t t e n abo. ut. Th i s po s i t i o n t h e r e f o r e
a s s u me s t hat it is no t o nl y pos s i bl e but ne c e s s a r y for t he a n t h r o p o l o -
gi s t t o act as t r ans l at or a n d cri ti c at o n e a n d t he s a me t i me . I r e g a r d
t hi s po s i t i o n as unt e na bl e , a n d t hi nk t hat it is r e l at i ons a nd pr ac t i c e s
o f p o we r t hat gi ve i t a me a s u r e o f vi abi l i ty. (For a cri t i cal di s c us s i o n o f
t hi s po s i t i o n as it rel at es t o Is l ami c hi s t ory, s e e As a d 1980.)
T h e pos i t i ve p o i n t I h a v e t ri ed t o ma k e i n t he c o u r s e o f my i nt e r -
r o g a t i o n o f Gel l ner' s t e xt has t o d o wi t h wha t I ha v e c al l e d t he i ne qua l -
i ty o f l a n g u a g e s . I ha v e p r o p o s e d t hat t he a nt hr o po l o g i c a l e nt e r pr i s e
o f c ul t ur al t r ans l at i on ma y be vi t i at ed by t he fact t hat t he r e are a s y m-
me t r i c al t e n d e n c i e s a n d pr e s s ur e s i n t he l a n g u a g e s o f d o mi n a t e d a n d
d o mi n a n t s oci et i es . An d I ha v e s u g g e s t e d t hat a nt hr o po l o g i s t s n e e d t o
e x p l o r e t he s e pr o c e s s e s i n o r d e r t o d e t e r mi n e h o w far t he y g o i n d e -
fining t h e pos s i bi l i t i es a n d t he l i mi t s o f e ffe c t i ve t r ans l at i on.
I n addition to the members of the Santa Fe seminar who discussed an early draft
of this articleand especially Paul Rabinow, who commented on it at l engthI wish to
thank Tanya Baker, John Di xon, Rodney Needham, and Keith Nield for their helpful
criticism.
GEORGE E. MARCUS
Contemporary Problems
of Ethnography in
the Modern World System
Et h n o g r a p h i e s ha v e al ways b e e n wr i t t e n i n t he c o n t e x t o f
hi s t or i c c h a n g e : t he f o r ma t i o n o f st at e s ys t e ms a n d t he e v o l u t i o n
o f a wo r l d pol i t i cal e c o n o my . But as i de f r o m t he us e o f a f e w wel l -
e s t a bl i s he d t e c h n i q u e s for t aki ng i nt o a c c o unt c h a n g e , hi s t ory, a n d p o -
l i ti cal e c o n o my ,
1
e t h n o g r a p h e r s o f a n i nt e r pr e t i ve b e n t mo r e i nt e r -
1. The two most common modes for self-consciously fixing ethnography in his-
toric time are what I shall call the salvage mode and the redemptive mode. I n the sal-
vage mode, the ethnographer portrays himself as "before the deluge," so to speak.
Signs of fundamental change are apparent, but the ethnographer is able to salvage a
cultural state on the verge of transformation. This rhetoric is most transparent when a
succession of ethnographers writing on the same cultural subject position themselves
historically i n the same momentous way; each ethnographer is "before the deluge," but
nonetheless each finds a culture he or she can relate to previous representations without
much sensitivity to historical change between periods of fieldwork. I n the redemptive
mode, the ethnographer demonstrates the survival of distinctive and authentic cultural
systems despite undeniable changes. The redemption of cultural authenticity is often
undertaken and measured against some imputed pre-modern or pre-capitalist state
the "golden age" moti for else a spatial, rather than temporal, preserve is found for
cultural authenticity amidst transformationthe anthropologist's Odyssey up-river or
to the back country to situate fieldwork where "they still do it." Rabinow's Moroccan
fieldwork (1977) as epic j ourney employs this narrative posture, but in the end, he ex-
plodes the illusion that the pure ethnographic subject can be found even i n the back
country. I n his recent sophisticated Samoan ethnography, Shore (1982) elides the his-
toric context by this move of finding spatially a place for ethnography free of the un-
wanted complications of a compellingly present world-historical political economy.
Ther e are many similar examples of magisterial ethnographies that make their contri-
butions at the cost of such maneuvers. What is finally shaking ethnography free of these
ahistorical modes of taking account of the historical contexts of its production are ex-
periments either oriented explicitly to locating their subjects within the framework of
historicist world-system perspectives or probing the nature of historical consciousness
in their subjects' lives. The latter kind of experiment, involving the simultaneous repre-
sentation of multiple temporal perspectives, opens up ethnography to issues of history
and historical narrative in unprecedented ways, which go far beyond merely embed-
di ng ethnographic subjects more effectively in Western historical narratives. Renato
Rosaldo's recent account (1980) of the I longot histories is a key experiment in this vein.
He, too, ends with a "before the deluge" motif, but the sense of being on the verge of
i 6 6
GEORGE E. MARCUS
e s t e d i n p r o b l e ms o f c ul t ur al me a n i n g t ha n i n soci al a c t i o n h a v e n o t
g e ne r a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d t he ways i n whi c h cl os el y o b s e r v e d c ul t ur al
wo r l d s ar e e mb e d d e d i n l arger, mo r e i mpe r s o na l s ys t e ms . No r ha v e
t he y po r t r a y e d t he r ol e o f t he s e wo r l ds i n t he s ort o f e v e nt s a n d p r o -
c e s s e s t hat ma k e hi s t ory, s o t o s pe ak, pe r ha ps be c a us e e t h n o g r a p h y as
de s c r i pt i o n has n e v e r b e e n part i cul arl y a mbi t i o us i n t hi s way. Ch a n g e
a n d t he l ar ge r f r a me wo r k s o f l ocal pol i t i cs have us ual l y b e e n t r e a t e d i n
s e pa r a t e t he or e t i c al o r c o nc e pt ua l di s c our s e wi t h s o me e t h n o g r a p h i c
det ai l a d d e d for i l l us t rat i on. T h e de s c r i pt i ve s pac e o f e t h n o g r a p h i e s
i t s el f has n o t s e e me d a n a ppr o pr i a t e c o nt e x t for wo r k i n g t h r o u g h c o n-
c e pt ua l p r o b l e ms o f t hi s l ar ge r o r de r . T h e wo r l d o f l ar ge r s y s t e ms a n d
e v e n t s has t hus o f t e n b e e n s e e n as e xt e r nal l y i mp i n g i n g o n a n d b o u n d -
i n g l i t t l e wo r l ds , but no t as i nt e gr al t o t h e m.
I n a n t h r o p o l o g y a n d all o t he r h u ma n s c i e nc e s at t he mo me n t ,
"hi gh" t he or e t i c al d i s c o u r s e t h e b o d y o f i de as t hat aut hor i t at i ve l y
uni f y a f i e l di s i n di sarray. T h e mo s t i nt e r e s t i ng a n d pr ovoc at i ve t h e o -
ret i cal wo r ks n o w are preci s el y t hos e t hat poi nt t o pract i ce ( s ee Or t n e r
1984), t hat i s, t o a b o t t o m- u p r e f o r mul a t i o n o f cl assi c que s t i o ns , wh i c h
h i n g e s o n h o w t he pr e vi ous l y t a ke n- f o r - g r a nt e d fact s o f h i g h t he o r y
ar e t o be r e p r e s e n t e d .
2
T h e s e wor ks c ons t i t ut e r e n e we d as s aul t s o n
pos i t i vi s t pe r s pe c t i v e s , r e a r me d by t he pos t war h e r me n e u t i c , p h e -
n o me n o l o g i c a l , a n d s e mi ot i c fas hi ons i n Co nt i ne nt a l p h i l o s o p h y t hat
ar e finally h a v i n g a n i mpa c t o n An g l o - Ame r i c a n soci al t h o u g h t . T h e
c o n c e p t s o f s t r uc t ur e o n whi c h s uc h pe r s pe c t i ve s d e p e n d e d are real l y
pr o c e s s e s t hat mu s t be u n d e r s t o o d f r o m t he po i nt o f vi e w o f t he act or,
a r e al i z at i on t hat rai s es p r o b l e ms o f i nt e r pr e t a t i o n a n d pr e s e nt s o p -
po r t uni t i e s for i nno v a t i o n i n wr i t i ng a c c o unt s o f soci al real i t y.
Th i s s hi ft o f t he or e t i c al c o nc e r n t o wa r d p r o b l e ms o f mi c r os oc i al
de s c r i pt i o n a n d c ont e xt ual i t y c an har dl y be at t r i but e d t o i nt e l l e c t ual
fundamental transformation is far more convincing in his text because it grows out of
an account in which the forms of I longot historic consciousness intersecting with our
privileging of global world history have been the unrelieved focus.
2. Duri ng the mi d-1970s, this practice-focused attack on positivist high theory was
itself conducted within the genre of abstract theoretical discussion, separate f rom, and
pointing to, genres of practice. By the 1980s, this critique has moved to a suspension of
paradigmatic authority and a questioning of the utility of system building in favor of
free play and experimentation in the specific rendering of accounts of social life. A per-
fect example of the shift in emphasis toward the more substantively ethnographic and
experimental among the "high" theory treatments of the challenge to positivism is the
evolving work of Richard J. Bernstein. I n his The Restructuring of Social and Political The-
ory, published in 1976, Bernstein, like Anthony Giddens (1979), monitors the challenge
to predominant Anglo-American social theory and endorses the apparent evolution of
a new kind of theory. I n his Beyond Objectivism and Relativism: Science, Hermeneutics, and
Practice, published in 1983, Bernstein focuses strongly on practice. Significantly, he
ends with a plea for the production of open-ended dialogic works, which is precisely
where the most radically experimental ethnographies have been heading.
Et hnography in the Modern World System 167
f a s hi o ns a l o ne . Ev e n c o n t i n u i n g effort s t o bui l d ma c r o pe r s pe c t i v e s
ar e i n f u s e d wi t h c o n c e r n s a bo ut mat t e r s o f mi c r o de s c r i pt i o n a n d i n-
t e r pr e t a t i o n. I n t he field o f pol i t i cal e c o n o my , whi c h c an be s e e n as a
c o n t i n u i n g c o mme n t a r y u p o n wo r l d c o ndi t i o ns i n t e r ms mo s t r e l e -
v a nt t o We s t e r n offi c i al dom a n d st at ecraft , t he maj or r e c e nt i n n o v a -
t i on i n effort s at ma c r o s y s t e m bui l di ng has b e e n t he wo r l d- s y s t e m
pe r s pe c t i v e i n t r o d u c e d by I mma n u e l Wal l ers t ei n d u r i n g t he earl y
1970s. T h e a de qua c y o f Wal l erst ei n' s c e nt e r - pe r i phe r y f o r mu l a t i o n
a n d hi s o v e r v i e w i nt e r pr e t a t i o ns o f hi s t ory are t he s ubj ect o f l i vel y d e -
bat e , d e p e n d e n t s i gni fi cant l y o n di s c us s i ons o f l ocal s i t uat i ons . T h e
i mp o r t a n t i nf l ue nc e a n d a ppe a l o f hi s wor k has b e e n t he i n t r o d u c t i o n
o f a f r a me wo r k for t he i nt i mat e r e as s oc i at i on o f hi s t or y a n d s oci al
t he o r y . Th i s has as its pract i cal r e s e ar c h i mpe r a t i v e t he d o i n g o f l ocal -
l evel s t udi e s o f pr o c e s s e s a n d t hei r soci al c o n s t r u c t i o n i n o t h e r
wo r d s , o f e t h n o g r a p h y s ens i t i ve t o i ts c o n t e x t o f hi s t ori cal pol i t i cal
e c o n o my .
3
Wh a t t he a p p r o p r i a t e fact s o f soci al t he o r y are a n d h o w t o r e p r e -
s e nt t h e m c o mb i n i n g bo t h i nt e r pr e t at i on a nd e x p l a n a t i o n is t hus a
c u r r e n t t opi c o f wi d e s p r e a d i nt e r e s t t hat c an be p o s e d r he t or i c al l y
a n d r e pe t i t i ve l y i n t he or e t i c al di s c our s e , but c an onl y be p u r s u e d i n
t he d o i n g o f fieldwork a nd t he wr i t i ng o f e t h n o g r a p h y . Th i s is wh y
e t h n o g r a p h y h i t h e r t o wi de l y v i e we d o ut s i de a n t h r o p o l o g y as ma r -
gi nal i n b o t h its pr ac t i c e ( me r e de s c r i pt i on) a nd its s ubj ect ma t t e r ( t he
pr i mi t i ve , t he e xot i c , al i en o t h e r ) h a s b e e n a ppr o pr i a t e d by a n u m-
be r o f fi el ds t hat s o me t i me s r e c o g ni z e a nt hr o po l o g y ' s l abor i n t hi s
v i ne y a r d, a n d s o me t i me s d o no t .
4
3. Thi s move toward the ethnographic in American academic political economy, I
would argue, is related to a widely perceived decline of the post-Worl d War I I interna-
tional order in which America has held a hegemonic position and to an undermining of
the Ameri can form of the welfare state itself. A sense of profound transition in the
foundations of domestic and international reality, as seen from the American perspec-
tive, has in turn been reflected intellectually in a widespread retreat from theoretically
centralized and organized fields of knowledge. Goals of organizing scholarly practice in
such diverse fields as history, the social sciences, literature, art, and architecture have
given way to fragmentation and a spirit of experimentation that aims to explore ways to
evoke and represent diversity in social lifeto convey the richness of experience, to
probe the meaning of details of everyday life, to remember symbols and associations
long forgotten. Among the vehicles of experimentation, precocious in relation to this
trend, is ethnography in anthropology.
4. At the present moment, anthropology both attracts and repels those caught by
the spirit of experimentation in a diversity of fields. I t is ethnography that primarily
attracts. We find philosophers, literary critics, historians, and political economists read-
ing ethnographies of the Balinese and Azande, not out of intrinsic interest in the sub-
ject mailer, bui for their distinctive textual devices and modes of exploring theoretical
issues in I he process of ethnographic representation itself. I t is the traditional subject
mailer of anthropologythe primitive or alien otherthat primarily repels, or, rather,
underfills ihe full potential of anthropology's relevance in a widespread intellectual
i68
GEORGE E. MARCUS
Th i s p a p e r e x p l o r e s h o w t he c o nv e nt i o ns o f e t h n o g r a p h i c wr i t i ng
a n d t h e e n t h o g r a p h i c po s t ur e o f aut hor i t y me r g e i n s i ngl e t e xt s wi t h
t he k i n d o f anal yt i c t as ks o f mac r os oc i al t he o r y me n t i o n e d a bo v e . I n-
d e e d , e t h n o g r a p h y ha s s h o wn t he effect s o f ma j o r e v e nt s a n d l a r g e
s y s t e ms o n t he e v e r y da y l i fe o f t ho s e us ual l y po r t r a y e d as vi ct i ms ( t he
s ubj e c t s o f e t h n o g r a p h y ha v e us ual l y b e e n vi ct i ms , or, be c a us e o f
mo d e r n e nt ho g r a phy ' s c o mmi t me n t t o soci al cri t i ci s m, t he y have at
l eas t b e e n po r t r a y e d as s uc h) , but it has rarel y b e e n di r e c t e d t o a n-
s we r i n g ma c r o s o c i o l o g i c a l que s t i o ns a bo ut t he c aus e s o f e v e nt s o r t he
c o ns t i t ut i o n o f maj or s ys t e ms a n d pr oc e s s e s , us ual l y r e p r e s e n t e d mo r e
f o r ma l l y a n d abs t ract l y i n o t he r c o nc e pt ua l l a n g u a g e s .
5
1 shal l a d d r e s s
trend, which it has long anticipated. The figure of the primitive or the alien other is no
longer as compelling as it was in similar experimental periods (e.g., the late nineteenth
century and the 1920s and 1930s). Global homogenization is more credible than ever
before, and though the challenge to discover and represent cultural diversity is strong,
doing so in terms of spatio-temporal cultural preserves of otherness seems outmoded.
Rather, the strongest forms of difference are now defined within our own capitalist cul-
tural real m, gender and lifestyle constructs being two prominent fields of representa-
tion for exploring difference. The Samoan or Trobriand islander, juxtaposed to us, is
no longer as convincing or believable a figure for an alternative way of being as he once
was in a less saliently perceived world order of interpenetrating common concerns.
What is more, linked to this perception of the declining significance of the primitive is
the notion that anthropology is losing its raison d'etre. I t is unfortunate, and certainly
an artifact of current intellectual moods, both that strong evidence running counter to
perceptions of homogenization is ignored for lack of interest, and that anthropology
has been received in such a limited way, associated more with its exotic subject matter
than with its distinctive mode of understanding reality.
5. A sense of experimentation pervades contemporary ethnographic writing even
among those who continue to write well within the tradition of realist conventions.
What motivates experiments is the recognition of a much more complex world, which
challenges the traditional modes of representing cultural difference in ethnographic
writing. I view the experimental responses to this challenge as moving in two divergent
directions. One trend of experimentation is intensely concerned with getting at the rep-
resentation of authentic other-cultural experience, with going beyond existing inter-
pretive or symbolic perspectives on cultural meaning toward the most deep-seated and
radical level at which difference can be evoked. Some of these experiments, those that
fix on differing cultural constructions of the person, remain true to realist conventions.
Others shift more radically to modernist concerns with textual f orm; other cultural
experience can only be evoked or represented by a fundamental change in the way we
think about the construction of ethnographic texts. Dialogic interchanges between eth-
nographer and other, the sharing of textual authority with subjects themselves, auto-
biographical recounting as the only appropriate form for merging other cultural expe-
rience with the ethnographer's ownthese are all attempts to change radically the way
the conventional subject matter of ethnography has been constituted in order to convey
authentically other cultural experience.
The other trend of experimentation, and the one to which I limit myself in this
paper, is relatively well satisfied with the means interpretive anthropology has devel-
oped to represent cultural difference, but instead explores new and more effective ways
in which ethnographic texts can take account of the manner in which world-historical
political economy constitutes their subjects. These experiments remain well within real-
ist conventions, but they are no less innovative in the kinds of texts they generate.
Et hnography in the Modern World System 16g
Ethnography and the Invisible Hand
Si nc e t he mi d- 1970s t he r e has b e e n n o s ho r t a g e o f wo r k s a d-
d r e s s i n g wha t An t h o n y Gi d d e n s (1979) has c al l e d t he c e nt r al p r o b -
l e ms o f s oci al t he or y: t he i nt e gr at i on o f act i on pe r s pe c t i ve s , s t a n d i n g
f o r t he pos i t i vi s t p a r a d i g m p r e d o mi n a n t i n po s t wa r An g l o - Ame r i c a n
s oci al t h o u g h t , wi t h me a n i n g pe r s pe c t i ve s , s t a ndi ng for t he i nt e r -
pr e t i v e p a r a d i g m, wh i c h has effect i vel y c h a l l e n g e d it. But f e w s u c h
wo r ks ha v e b e e n p o s e d as t he or i e s o f pract i ce, e l i di ng for t he mo me n t
t he p e n c h a n t i n We s t e r n soci al t h o u g h t for abst ract , a l l - e n c o mp a s s i n g
p a r a d i g ma t i c s t r uc t ur e s t o t he o r y ( Bour di e u' s Outline of a Theory of
Practice [1977] is p e r h a p s t he key, a n d mo s t i nfl uent i al , e x c e p t i o n ) .
Ev e n r ar e r ar e wo r ks ful l y r e c o g ni z i ng t hat t he c ha l l e ng e o f i nt e r -
pr e t i v e a p p r o a c h e s d o e s n o t real l y p o s e a p r o b l e m of g r a n d t he o r e t i -
cal s y nt he s i s s o mu c h as p r o b l e ms o f t e xt ual r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
6
Pe r h a p s t he mo s t s ophi s t i c at e d s t a t e me nt o f t he i nt i mat e l i nka g e
b e t we e n k n o wl e d g e o f mo d e r n s oci et y a nd its r e pr e s e nt a t i o n i n real i st
g e n r e s o f wr i t i ng i s i n t h e wo r ks o f Bri t i s h l i t erary a nd c ul t ur al cri t i c
Ra y mo n d Wi l l i ams . It is wo r t h q u o t i n g h i m at l e ng t h f r o m a bo o k-
l e n g t h s e r i e s o f i nt e r v i e ws t hat s ur ve y hi s wri t i ngs :
It is very striking that the classic techni que devi sed in response to the i mpos-
sibility of unders t andi ng cont emporary society from experi ence, the statistical
6. One recent volume that does seem to locate the problem of integrating systems
and meaning perspectives in that of textual representation is Advances in Social Theory
and Methodology, edited by K. Knorr-Cetina and A. V. Cicourel (1981). As Knorr-Cetina
frames the probl em, advances in the study of microprocesses duri ng the past decade or
so have overwhelmed those in the study of macrosystems. The question then is not how
micro and macro perspectives can be equally integrated, but how macro perspectives
can be brought back into accounts of microsituations and processes. Knorr-Cetina re-
views three techniques for integrating micro and macro levels textually. First, the
macrosystem may be portrayed as the mere summation of microsituations or processes.
Second, the macro may be represented as a result of the totality of unintended conse-
quences emanating f rom the multitude of microsituations. Thi r d, macrosystems may
be represented as they are subtly imagined or registered within the ongoing life pro-
cesses of an intensely studied and interpreted microsituation. Knorr-Cetina dismisses
the first technique, as do I . Of the remaining two, she finds the third most attractive and
least problematic:.
i n de t ai l o n e maj or vari et y o f s uc h c o n t e mp o r a r y e x p e r i me n t a t i o n
wi t h t he e t h n o g r a p h i c g e n r e n a me l y , its c o nt r i but i o n t o t he u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g o f t he o p e r a t i o n o f capi t al i st pol i t i cal e c o n o my . T h e g e ne r a l
po i nt s ma d e i n t he n e x t s e c t i on a bo ut t he t e xt ual s t r at e gi e s o f s uc h
e x p e r i me n t s wi l l t h e n b e d e v e l o p e d by an e x t e n d e d c o mme n t a r y o n
Paul Wi l l i s's Learning to Labour ( 1981) .
170 " GEORGE E. MARCUS
Et hnogr aphy i n t he Moder n Worl d Syst em 17 1
mo d e of anal ysi s, had its preci se ori gi ns within the peri od o f whi ch you are
s peaki ng. For wi t hout the combi nat i on of statistical theory . . . and arrange-
ment s for col l ect i on of statistical data . . . the society that was emer g i ng out of
the i ndustri al revol ut i on was literally unknowabl e. I tried to devel op this con-
trast i n The Country and the City bet ween the knowabl e communi t y, a t erm us ed
wi th i rony because what is known is s hown to be i ncompl et e, and the new
s ens e of the darkl y unknowabl e. . . . New f orms had to be devi s ed to pene-
trate what was rightl y percei ved to be to a large ext ent obscure. . . . From the
i ndustri al revol ut i on onwards , qualitatively al teri ng a permanent probl em,
t here has dev el oped a type o f society whi ch is less i nterprtabl e f rom experi -
en c emea n i n g by experi ence a l ived contact with the available arti cul ati ons,
i ncl udi ng thei r compari s on. The result is that we have become i ncreasi ngl y
cons ci ous of t he positive power of t echni ques of analysis, whi ch at thei r maxi -
mu m are capabl e of i nt erpret i ng, let us say, the movement s of an i nt egrat ed
worl d ec onomy, and of the negat i ve qualities of a nai ve observati on whi ch can
never gai n knowl edge of realities like t hese. . . . Experi ence becomes a for-
bi dden word, whereas what we ought to say about it is that it is a l i mi ted word,
for t here are many ki nds of knowl edge it will never gi ve us, in any of its ordi -
nary senses.
The general probl em whi ch has exerci sed many pr oduc er s per haps mor e
of t en in plays than in novel s i s whet her to break with the realist tradi ti on
al t oget her or to try to ext end it. I think there is a case for s eei ng how far cer-
tai n areas whi ch the bourgeoi s f orm typically excl uded coul d now be i nte-
grat ed in the novel . . . . That has produced ext reme compl i cat i ons for the
tradi ti onal f or m because it di d depend, in my view, on the idea of a knowabl e
communi t y, and now we are faced with the .fact that this cannot be cal l ed
a c ommuni t y and is not knowabl e in f ormer ways. The resul t is an ex t r eme
crisis of f orm. . . . But I thi nk that a much more ext ensi ve theoreti cal di scus-
si on of t he possibil ities in all the available f orms is necessary. . . . Al ongs i de
this theoreti cal debat e we need a lot of exampl es of practice, so that peopl e
can s ee how far a particular f orm can be taken. We must be very experi ment al
a bout i t . (Wil l iams i g 8 i : 1 6 4 - 6 5 , 2 7 2 - 7 3 )
Fo r t hi s ex p er i men t a l a n d et hn o g r a p hi c m o m e n t i n t he hi s t o r y o f
Wes t er n s oci al t heo r y , Wi l l i a ms ha s pr ec i s el y d ef i n ed t ex t c o n s t r u c t i o n
as t he c r uc i bl e f o r i n t eg r a t i n g t he ma c r o i nt o t he mi c r o , c o mbi n i n g
a c c o u n t s o f i mp er s o n a l s y s t ems i n t o r ep r es en t a t i o n s o f l o c a l l i f e as
c ul t ur a l f o r ms bo t h a u t o n o mo u s a n d c o n s t i t u t ed by t he l a r g er o r d er .
It is n o t i mp o r t a n t t ha t Wi l l i a ms is t a l ki ng a bo u t t he n o v el , w he r e a s w e
a r e d ea l i n g wi t h e t hn o g r a p hy a n d i nt er p r et i v e a na l y s i s . Wi t h t he l at -
t er i n f a s hi o n , pr ac t i c al p r o bl ems o f d es c r i p t i o n a n d ex p o s i t i o n ha v e
be c o m e m u c h l i ke t he p r o bl ems o f t he s oci al i s t real i s t n o v el i n t he
t wen t i et h c en t u r y , Wi l l i ams ' s p r i ma r y c o n c er n .
Wi l l i a ms s ha r es t he En g l i s h Ma r x i s t t r a di t i o n, a n d pa r t i c ul a r l y i ts
e mp ha s i s o n c u l t u r e, wi t h t ho s e w ho s e e m t o be p r o d u c i n g t he mo s t
s o p hi s t i c a t ed r eal i s t et hn o g r a p hy , s ens i t i v e t o p r o bl ems o f c ul t ur a l
me a n i n g , y et i ns i s t ent o n e m be d d i n g a na l y s es o f ev er y d a y l i f e i n
Ma r x i s t p er s p ec t i v es o n capi t al i s t pol i t i cal ec o n o my . H e ha s o bv i o u s l y
be e n a ma j o r i n f l u en c e o n Ma r x i s t s c ho l a r s o f c ul t ur e, es p ec i a l l y t ho s e,
s u c h as Pa ul Wi l l i s , w ho ha v e f o u n d a t ex t u a l m e d i u m i n e t hn o g r a p hy .
Wi l l i a ms d ef i n es t he p r o bl em f o r t ho s e e t hn o g r a p he r s c o n c e r n e d as
wr i t er s eq u a l l y wi t h f o r ms o f l i f e a n d wo r l d s y s t ems .
Gi v en t he pa s t c o mmi t me n t o f a n t hr o p o l o g y t o hol i s t i c r ep r es en -
t a t i o n a n d a l l us i o n i n et hn o g r a p hy , ho w mi g ht a n a d eq u a t e a c c o u n t
be c o n s t r u c t ed i n t he t er ms we ha v e s o f ar d i s c u s s ed ? Wha t i s ho l i s m
o n c e t he l i n e be t w e e n t he l ocal wo r l d s o f s ubj ec t s a n d t he g l o ba l wo r l d
o f s y s t ems be c o me s r adi c al l y bl ur r ed? Ho w , t hen , is t he r ep r es en t a -
t i o na l s p a c e o f t he real i s t et hn o g r a p hy t o be t ex t ua l l y bo u n d e d a n d
c o n t a i n ed i n t he c o mp el l i n g r ec o g n i t i o n o f t he l a r g er s y s t ems c o n t ex t s
o f a n y e t hn o g r a p hi c s ubj ec t s ? Tw o mo d e s o f t ex t c o n s t r u c t i o n s u g g es t
t hems el v es .
Fi rs t , by s eq u en t i a l na r r a t i v e a n d t he ef f ec t o f s i mul t a nei t y , t he
e t hn o g r a p he r mi g ht t ry i n a s i ng l e t ex t t o r ep r es en t mu l t i p l e, bl i ndl y
i n t e r d e p e n d e n t l o c a l es , ea c h ex p l o r ed et hn o g r a p hi c a l l y a n d mu t u a l l y
l i n ked by t he i n t e n d e d a n d u n i n t e n d e d c o n s eq u en c es o f ac t i vi t i es
wi t hi n t he m. If t he i n t en t w er e mer el y t o d emo n s t r a t e r a n d o m i nt er -
d e p e n d e n c i e s by whi c h ev er y o n e is u n ex p ec t ed l y c o n n e c t e d t o ev er y -
o n e el s e i n t he m o d e r n wo r l d , i f o nl y y o u l o o k ed ha r d e n o u g h, t hi s
w o u l d be a n a bs u r d a n d p o i nt l es s p r o j ec t t o s ho w, say, t he c o n n e c -
t i o n be t w e e n men t a l hea l t h i n Amer i c a a n d t he p r i c e o f t ea i n Chi n a .
Ra t her , t he p o i n t o f t hi s ki n d o f pr o j ec t w o u l d be t o s t art wi t h s o m e
p r i o r v i ew o f a s y s t em a n d t o p r o v i d e a n et hn o g r a p hi c a c c o u n t o f i t,
by s ho w i n g t he f o r ms o f l ocal l i f e t ha t t he s y s t em en c o mp a s s es , a n d
t he n l e a d i n g t o n o v el o r r ev i s ed v i ews o f t he n a t u r e o f t he s y s t em i t -
s el f , t r a n s l a t i n g i ts abs t r ac t qua l i t i es i n t o mo r e f ul l y hu m a n t er ms .
Ma r ket s ( Ad a m Smi t h' s i nvi s i bl e ha n d ) a n d capi t al i s t m o d e s o f
p r o d u c t i o n , d i s t r i bu t i o n , a n d c o n s u mp t i o n ( Marx' s v er s i o n o f t he i n-
v i s i bl e ha n d c o m m o d i t y f et i s hi s m) a r e p er ha p s t he mo s t o bv i o u s
v i ews o f s y s t ems as obj ec t s f o r ex p er i men t a t i o n wi t h mul t i - l o c a l e et h-
n o g r a p hi e s . The s e w o u l d ex p l o r e t wo o r mo r e l oc a l es a n d s ho w t hei r
i n t er c o n n ec t i o n s o v er t i me a n d s i mu l t a n eo u s l y . Whi l e t her e a r e t ex t s
l i ke t hi s i n fiction ( f o r ex a mp l e, Al ek s a n d er So l zheni t s y n' s The First
Circle), I k n o w o f n o n e i n t he l i t er a t ur e o f et hn o g r a p hy . H o w e v e r ,
s u c h mu ki - l o c a l e e t hn o g r a p hy is o f t en ev o k ed t hes e da y s , es p ec i a l l y
a m o n g c er t a i n pol i t i c a l ec o n o mi s t s , as a s or t o f i dea l f o r e x p e r i me n t a -
t i o n i n r ea l i s t et hn o g r a p hy .
T h e di f f i c ul t i es o f wr i t i ng s u c h a wo r k a r e wel l i l l us t r a t ed by ex i s t -
i n g j o u r n a l i s t i c a c c o u n t s t ha t d o a p p r o x i ma t e t he et hn o g r a p hi c , s u c h
as St e p he n Fay's Beyond Greed (1982), a n i nq ui r y i n t o t he r ec en t at -
172 GEORGE E. MARCUS Et hnography in the Modern World System 173
ar e . I n hi s s t udy o f wo r k i n g cl ass y o u t h i n a s c ho o l s e t t i ng, Wi l l i s
wr i t e s i n t he s e c o n d mo d e o f st rat egi cal l y s i t uat ed e t h n o g r a p h y , di s -
c u s s e d i n t he n e x t s e c t i on. He r e it is i nt e r e s t i ng t o no t e t hat Wi l l i s a n d
o t h e r e t h n o g r a p h e r s w h o wr i t e expl i ci t l y wi t hi n t he Mar xi s t t he o r e t i -
cal t r adi t i on ( e . g. , Mi c ha e l Taus s i g i n The Devil and Commodity Fetishism
in South America) ha v e t he po we r f ul a dv a nt a g e o f pl a c i ng t he l a r g e r
o r d e r i n t he b a c k g r o u n d whi l e f o c us i ng i nt e ns e l y u p o n a cl os el y o b-
s e r v e d l oc al e as e t h n o g r a p h i c subj ect . Be c a u s e fami l i ari t y, o r at l eas t
a c qua i nt a nc e , wi t h t he Mar xi s t f r a me wo r k c an be a s s u me d o n t he par t
o f t h e r e a de r , mu c h o f t h e wo r k o f i nv e nt i ng a r e pr e s e nt a t i o n o f t he
l a r g e r o r d e r is a c c o mp l i s h e d me r e l y by o r i e nt i ng or r e f e r r i ng t he s i t u-
a t e d e t h n o g r a p h y t o i s s ue s o f Mar xi s t t he or y. T h e Mar xi s t s y s t e m i s
there, s o t o s pe ak, t o b e i n v o k e d . A c o mmi t me n t t o it by t he e t h-
n o g r a p h e r ma k e s it avai l abl e as a n i ma g e o f s ys t e m wo r k e d i nt o t he
e t h n o g r a p h y . (I a m no t , o f c o us e , s u g g e s t i n g t hat t hi s is why t he c o m-
mi t me n t i s ma d e by a wri t er, a nd i n t he c ur r e nt f r a g me n t a t i o n o f
p a r a d i g ms , s o me v e r s i o n o f a Marxi s t f r a me wo r k is avai l abl e t h r o u g h
mo r e e c l e c t i c f o r ms o f it, s uc h as wo r l d- s y s t e m t he or y, t o s c hol ar s wi t h
n o p r e v i o u s c o mmi t me n t t o Ma r x i s m. ) It is t he mo s t s ophi s t i c at e d a n d
c o h e r e n t f r a me wo r k for c o nc e pt ua l i z i ng mo d e r n s oci et i es t o s ur vi ve
t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e nt ur y . Ex p l o r i n g t he cul t ural me a n i n g s o f t he p r o -
d u c t i o n o f l abor o r c o mmo d i t y fe t i s hi s m pr o v i de s t e xt ual me a n s for
b r i n g i n g t he l a r g e r o r d e r i nt o t he s pac e o f e t h n o g r a p h y .
T h u s , it mi g h t be e x p e c t e d t hat wi t h t hi s a dv a nt a g e , t he mo s t s o-
phi s t i c a t e d e x p e r i me n t s i n e t h n o g r a p h y s ens i t i ve t o pol i t i cal e c o n o my
mi g h t i ni t i al l y ari s e wi t hi n t he Mar xi s t t radi t i on, or at l east a Mar xi s t
f r a me wo r k , a n d t hi s s e e ms t o be t he cas e. Of c o ur s e , e v e nt ua l l y t he
r e a d y - ma d e Mar xi s t c ons t r uc t may no t be an a dv a nt a g e . It is a s ho r t
c ut t hat c a n l e ave ma n y o f t he ambi gui t i e s i n Mar xi s t ma c r o - s y s t e m
c o n c e p t s u n p a c k e d , e v e n t h o u g h e t h n o g r a p h e r s ar e wo r k i n g c r e a-
t i vel y wi t hi n it. Fu r t h e r mo r e , it can s t a nd i n t he way o f t he pos s i bl e
i n v e n t i o n o f n e w s y s t e m pe r s pe c t i ve s wo r k i n g u p f r o m e t h n o g r a p h y .
Co nv e r s e l y , e t h n o g r a p h i c proj ect s pot ent i al l y pr o v i de p o we r f u l i nt e r -
nal c r i t i que s a n d a da pt a t i o ns o f t he Mar xi s t t he o r y o f c api t al i s m t o
c h a n g i n g gl obal c o ndi t i o ns . I n a ny cas e, t he Mar xi s t s ys t e m i ma g e r y
r e ma i n s t he mo s t c o n v e n i e n t a n d c o mp r e h e n s i v e f r a me wo r k for e m-
b e d d i n g s i ngl e - l oc al e e t h n o g r a p h y i n pol i t i cal e c o n o my .
Paul Willis's Learning to Labour
Wi l l i s's s ubj ect i s, br o a dl y s pe a ki ng , h o w bes t t o u n d e r s t a n d l a-
b o r i n capi t al i s t s o c i e t y h o w it is c o ns t i t ut e d as c ul t ur al e x p e r i e n c e .
As Karl Pol anyi e mp h a s i z e d i n The Great Transformation (1944), t he re-
t e mp t by t he Hu n t br o t he r s o f Dal l as a n d t he i r Sa udi al l i es t o c o r n e r
t he wo r l d s i l ver ma r ke t . T h e nar r at i ve c o mp l e x i t y is c o ns i de r a bl e i n
a n a c c o u n t l i ke t hi s , whi c h i n fact is de a l i ng wi t h t he h u ma n d i me n -
s i o ns o f t he o p e r a t i o n o f t he i nvi s i bl e h a n d , mar ke t s , i n capi t al i st s o -
ci et i es . T o tel l hi s st ory, Fay has t o j u g g l e o v e r a d o z e n l ocal es a n d
act ors ' pe r s pe c t i v e s , s i mul t a ne o us l y a n d bl i ndl y i nf l ue nc i ng o n e a n-
o t he r , a n d i n a ddi t i o n h e mu s t s us t ai n a nar r at i ve s e q u e n c e o f e v e nt s .
He e x pl a i ns h o w c o mmo d i t y ma r ke t s wor k; h e s pe c ul at e s a bo ut wh a t
t h e Hu n t s o f Dal l as a r e t hi nki ng , as wel l as po r t r a y i ng t he i r s oci al
b a c k g r o u n d ; h e d o e s t he s a me for t he Saudi s ; he e x pl a i ns t he o p e r a -
t i ons o f f e de r a l r e g ul a t o r y a g e nc i e s a n d o t he r bur e a uc r a c i e s , as we l l
as t he i r r e s p o n s e t o e v e nt s ; h e e x pl a i ns t he pe r s pe c t i ve s a n d ac t i ons o f
o t h e r ma j o r c o mmo d i t y t r ade r s ; a n d he de s c r i be s ma n - o n - t h e - s t r e e t
a n d i ndus t r y r e ac t i ons t o t he cri si s i n t he si l ver ma r ke t . No w t hi s i s t he
k i n d o f s ubj ect t hat e t h n o g r a p h y o u g h t t o be abl e t o t ake o n , e s p e -
ci al l y i f it i n t e n d s t o say s o me t h i n g a bo ut t he c ul t ur e o f capi t al i s t s o-
ci et i es . Fay's b o o k is a d e mo n s t r a t i o n a nd s uc c e s s ful h a n d l i n g ( for a
j o ur na l i s t , i f p e r h a p s no t for a n e t h n o g r a p h e r ) o f t he pract i cal di ffi -
c ul t i e s i n c o ns t r uc t i ng a mul t i - l oc al e a c c o unt o f a s y s t e m o r a ma j o r
soci al d r a ma e n c o mp a s s e d by it.
I n t he s e c o n d , mu c h mo r e ma n a g e a b l e , mo d e , t he e t h n o g r a p h e r
c o ns t r uc t s t he t e xt a r o u n d a s t rat egi cal l y s e l e c t e d l oc al e , t r e at i ng t h e
s y s t e m as b a c k g r o u n d , al bei t wi t ho ut l o s i ng s i ght o f t he fact t hat i t
is i nt e gr al l y c ons t i t ut i ve o f c ul t ur al l i fe wi t hi n t he b o u n d e d s ubj e c t
ma t t e r . T h e r he t or i c al a n d s e l f- c ons c i ous e mp h a s i s o n t he s t rat egi c
a n d p u r p o s e f u l s i t uat i ng o f e t h n o g r a p h y i s a n i mp o r t a n t mo v e i n
s uc h wo r ks , l i nki ng it t o br o a de r i s s ues o f pol i t i cal e c o n o my . T h e fact
is t hat t he s i t uat i ng o f mo s t a nt hr o po l o g i c a l e t h n o g r a p h y wh y t hi s
g r o u p r a t he r t h a n a no t he r , wh y t hi s l oc al e r a t he r t ha n a n o t h e r h a s
n o t b e e n a c k n o wl e d g e d as a maj or pr o bl e m, o r at l east as a n i s s ue t hat
r e l at e s t o a ny b r o a d e r ai m o f r e s e ar c h. I ns t e a d, it has o f t e n b e e n di c -
t at e d by o ppo r t uni t y . No t s o wi t h a n e t h n o g r a p h y s ens i t i ve t o pol i t i cal
e c o n o my , whi c h mu s t a ns we r t he que s t i o n, "Why pr e c i s e l y are y o u i n
t hi s l oc al e r at he r t ha n a no t he r ? " Th i s rhet ori cal s e l f - c o ns c i o us ne s s
a b o u t t he s e l e c t i on a n d b o u n d i n g o f t he e t h n o g r a p h i c s ubj ect s h o u l d
b e s e e n as a pract i cal f o r e s h o r t e n i n g o f t he i deal , but l ess ma n a g e a b l e ,
mul t i - l oc al e s y s t e ms e t h n o g r a p h y . Ot h e r o pt i o ns o r al t e r nat i ve s for
s i t ua t i ng t he e t h n o g r a p h y are al ways pr e s e nt . On e is o bl i g e d t o be
s e l f- c ons c i ous l y j us t i f y i ng ( or s t rat egi c) i n t he p l a c e me n t o f e t h n o g r a -
p h y pr e c i s e l y be c a us e o f sensi t i vi t y t o t he b r o a d e r s ys t e m r e pr e s e nt a -
t i o n t hat is at s t ake, f o r e s h o r t e n e d by t he pract i cal a dv a nt a g e o f e t h -
n o g r a p h y fixed i n a s i ngl e l ocal e.
T h e s e t wo mo d e s ar e t hus n o t mut ual l y e xc l us i ve c o n c e p t u a l l y
t he s e c o n d is a c o mp r o mi s e d v e r s i o n o f t he firstbut. t e xt ual l y t he y
174 GEORGE E. MARCUS
Et hnography in the Modern World System
175
e x p e r i e n c e r e s o na t e s i n t he s e o t he r cri ti cal l ocal es ( t he h o me l oc al e
a n d pa r e nt a l pe r s pe c t i v e s h o w t hat t he c ul t ur e is g e ne r a t i o na l l y re-
p r o d u c e d , but al s o t hat t he s c hool , not t he h o me , is its si t e o f f o r ma -
t i on; t he s h o p floor l ocal e s ho ws t he c ont i nui t y o f o ppo s i t i o na l c ul t ur e
i n t he wo r k c o n t e x t a n d its ve r y di ffe r e nt c o n s e q u e n c e s ) . S o t h e r e is a
ve r y s peci fi c a n d s t rat egi c c i r c ums c r i bi ng o f t he s ys t e m po r t r a y e d i n
t he t e xt for t he p u r p o s e s o f Willis's a r g u me n t . He pays s o me a t t e nt i o n
t o mi d d l e cl ass c ul t ur e , as ma ni f e s t e d i n staff a n d o t h e r s t ude nt s , a n d
h e r e c o g n i z e s di s t i nct pe r s pe c t i ve s for gi rl s, Wes t I ndi a ns , a n d As i a ns ,
but ma i nl y h e ke e ps t o a s c hool - s i t uat e d e t h n o g r a p h y o f hi s t we l ve
n o n c o n f o r mi s t boys .
Th i s e t h n o g r a p h y , a r r a ng e d by t opi cal h e a d i n g s , is p r e s e n t e d as
v e r ba t i m di s c us s i o ns a mo n g t he l ads , wi t h t he a ut ho r pr e s e nt as i nt e r -
l o c ut o r . St r a i g ht f o r wa r d c o mme n t a r y e l abor at i ng o n t he di s c o ur s e al -
t e r na t e s wi t h c ut t i ngs o f di a l o g ue f r o m g r o u p di s c us s i ons wi t h Wi l l i s .
T h e r e are oc c as i onal de s c r i pt i ons o f t he a t mo s p h e r e o f t he s c ho o l as a
pl a c e , b u t t he r e p o r t i n g o f d i a l o g u e is t he ma i n f o r m o f e t h n o g r a p h i c
e v i d e n c e e mp l o y e d by Wi l l i s. T h e di s t i nc t i ve ne s s o f t he e t h n o g r a p h y
t hus l i es no t s o mu c h i n its s us t a i ne d narrat i ve t e c hni que , but i n its
c o ns t r uc t i v e mo v e s : h o w it de fi ne s t opi cs , shi ft s f r o m o n e l oc al e t o a n-
o t h e r , j u x t a p o s e s o t h e r pe r s pe c t i ve s a n d t hus br i ngs t he l ar ge r wo r l d ,
i n wh i c h t he y o u t h s are e mb e d d e d , oc c as i onal l y i nt o foc us .
T h e mo s t s al i ent or gani z at i onal mo v e i n t he t e xt is its bi f ur c a t i o n
i nt o a first par t l abe l l e d "Et hno g r a phy " a n d a s e c o n d part l abe l l e d
"Anal ys i s . " Cl earl y Wi l l i s s e e s e t h n o g r a p h y pr i mar i l y as a me t h o d ,
a n d i n t e xt o r g a ni z a t i o n it mu s t be set off a n d r e p r e s e n t e d as s uc h.
T h i s first par t i s p r e s u ma b l y t he dat a, but i t is as mu c h anal ys i s as
de s c r i pt i o n. T h e s e c o n d part , "Anal ysi s, " is real l y a t he or e t i c al refl ec-
t i on o n t he first part , as wel l as a ma ni f e s t o for t he v a l ue o f e t h n o g r a -
p h y i n r e s e a r c h o n pol i t i cal e c o n o my . It rel i es o n j a r g o n a n d abs t rac-
t i ons , but is rhet ori cal l y c o ns t r uc t e d u p o n r e f e r e nc e s back t o t he
nat ur al i s t r e pr e s e nt a t i o n o f t he boys ' c ul t ur e o f t he first part . Cl e ar l y
Wi l l i s s e e s t he n e e d t o abs t ract t he t heoret i cal c o nt r i but i o n o f e t h-
n o g r a p h y f r o m t he act ual wr i t i ng o f e t h n o g r a p h i c de s c r i pt i on. Th i s is
n o t t he s i mp l e de s c r i pt i o n/ t he o r y d i c h o t o my t hat s e e ms t o be pr e -
s e n t e d . T h e r e ar e t wo di ffe r e nt l evel s o f anal yt i c di s c our s e , t he s e c o n d
r e l y i ng for its effect o n t he fact o f t he first p r e c e d i n g it. T h e first par t
p r o v i d e s a c e r t ai n aut hor i t y for t he val i di t y a n d aut he nt i c i t y o f t he
t he or e t i c al e l a bo r a t i o ns o f t he s e c o n d part . By s e pa r a t i ng e t h n o g r a -
p h y f r o m anal ys i s , Wi l l i s gai ns a f r e e d o m o f e x po s i t i o n, i n whi c h hi s
o wn e l a bo r a t i o ns o f t he l ads ' e mb e d d e d cri t i que o f capi t al i s m s e e m a
na t ur a l e x t e n s i o n o f t hi s cri t i que by t aki ng off f r o m a n e t h n o g r a p h i c
pl a t f o r m. On l y i n t he a p p e n d i x d o e s h e sel f- cri t i cal l y d e mo n s t r a t e hi s
d u c t i o n o f a ny h u ma n r e s o ur c e t o a c o mmo d i t y by ma r k e t di s c i pl i ne
mu s t ne c e s s ar i l y be i n c o mp l e t e a n d a fiction. T h e r e is a n e e d t o d e -
mys t i fy c o mmo d i t y fe t i s hi s m o f var i ous sort s a nd t o u n d e r s t a n d l abor
as a ful l y h u ma n pr oc e s s . T h e cul t ural a n d soci al s t udy o f wo r k i n g
cl as s es has b e e n t he maj or r at i onal e for b o t t o m- u p , e t h n o g r a p h i c
s t udi e s i n t he Mar xi s t t r adi t i on, a n d part i cul arl y i n t he Bri t i s h Mar xi s t
t r adi t i on.
T h e r e is a ve r y l o n g t r adi t i on i n En g l a n d o f f o c us i ng a t t e nt i o n o n
t he p r o b l e m o f t he po o r , e x t e n d i n g f r o m t he i nc e pt i o n o f ma r k e t
c a pi t a l i s m a n d t he paral l el d e v e l o p me n t o f a s c i e nc e o f e c o n o mi c s t o
t he pr e s e nt . T h e i ni t i at i on o f a n e t h n o g r a p h i c t r adi t i on wi t hi n Ma r x -
i s m t h r o u g h Engel s ' s firsthand a c c o unt s o f t he wo r k i n g cl ass a n d fac-
t or y c o n d i t i o n s i n Ma n c h e s t e r was j us t a c o nt i nua t i o n o f t hi s l i ne o f
i nqui r y i n Bri t i s h i nt el l ect ual l i fe, but n o w e n c o mp a s s e d wi t hi n t he
mo s t s ys t e mat i c a n d po we r f ul t heoret i cal f r a me wo r k for u n d e r s t a n d -
i n g mo d e r n We s t e r n pol i t i cal e c o n o my . T h e i nt e r e s t i n t he e v e r y da y
l i fe a n d c o ndi t i o ns o f t he wo r k i n g cl as s es has c o n t i n u e d a mo n g s oci al
s ci ent i s t s a n d l i t erary cri ti cs wh o i dent i fy t he ms e l v e s as Mar xi s t s a n d
s oci al i s t s . Wi l l i s's s t udy o f wo r k i n g cl ass boys at s c ho o l is firmly a n d
s e l f- c ons c i ous l y wi t hi n t hi s t radi t i on, a nd hi s e t h n o g r a p h y is me a n t t o
i mp r o v e u p o n t he qual i t y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g cl ass f o r ma t i o n pr o c e s s e s
t hat ha v e l o n g b e e n t he focal c o n c e r n o f Mar xi s t s c hol ar s i n En g l a n d .
Speci fi cal l y, Wi l l i s s t rat egi cal l y l ocat es hi s s ubj ect ma t t e r as t he o p -
pos i t i onal c ul t ur e t hat whi t e wo r k i n g cl ass mal e s c r e at e i n s c ho o l . Hi s
e t h n o g r a p h y is r e pl e t e wi t h r e f e r e nc e s t o o t he r l ocal es i n wh i c h hi s
s ubj e c t s l i ve, s uc h as t he h o me , s t reet , a n d d a n c e hal l , but h e c h o o s e s
t he s c ho o l e n v i r o n me n t be c a us e t hi s is wh e r e cl ass confl i ct has a day-
t o- day ma ni f e s t a t i o n, a n d it is wh e r e t he cri t i cal d e v e l o p me n t o f cl as s
c o n s c i o u s n e s s o c c ur s a mo n g n o n c o n f o r mi s t y o ut hs , a c o ns c i o us ne s s
a n d s et o f o r i e nt a t i o ns t he y t ake t o t he s h o p floor aft er l e a v i ng s c ho o l .
Wi l l i s' s ke y a r g u me n t r e s i de s i n t he i r ony t hat a cul t ural f o r m c r e a t e d
f r o m r e s i s t anc e t o d o mi n a n t cl ass i ndoc t r i nat i on i n t he s c ho o l be -
c o me s t he a da pt i v e me a n s o f a c c o mmo d a t i o n t o fac t or y l i fe.
Wi l l i s's e t h n o g r a p h i c foc us is a g r o u p o f t we l ve bo y s i n a wo r k i n g
cl ass s c ho o l , l i nke d by f r i e nds hi p a nd a mu t u a l r e c o g ni t i o n o f t he c o n -
s pi r ac y i n t he i r n o n c o n f o r mi s m. Wi l l i s no t e s t hat c o nt r o l s t udi e s we r e
d o n e a mo n g c o n f o r mi s t bo y s o f mi ddl e - c l as s b a c k g r o u n d , l abe l l e d
"ear' ol es " by t he no nc o nf o r mi s t s , a nd al s o a mo n g c o n f o r mi s t wo r k i n g
cl ass l ads . Bu t t he s e o t he r r e f e r e nc e s are onl y b r o u g h t oc c as i onal l y
i nt o t he t ext . Ce nt r al l y h e is c o n c e r n e d wi t h a r e pr e s e nt a t i o n o f t he
o p p o s i t i o n a l c ul t ur e a mo n g hi s t we l ve l ads , a n d wi t h s o me s hi ft i ng t o
s h o p floor a n d h o me e n v i r o n me n t s ( di s c us s i ons wi t h par e nt s ) t o s h o w
h o w t he focal l y r e p r e s e n t e d o ppo s i t i o na l c ul t ur e c r e at e d f r o m s c ho o l
176 GEORGE E. MARCUS
7. Perhaps the most devastating flaw, from the perspective of a methodologically
mi nded social science, is the self-fulfilling and circular manner in which Willis selected
his sample and makes broader claims from it. Though he did control studies among
conformist working class youth, he by fiat draws his boundary of concern around the
manifestly cultural form of nonconformist boys without examining the process by
which some become conformist and others do not. Rather he is interested in the given
of nonconformism and sees it as the heart of working class consciousness and culture.
The problem and process of variation do not bother him much. This is perhaps the
ideological bias of the work. While it is an immensely attractive project to locate and
evoke vividly a cultural form in origin and then to show its continuities in other locales,
Willis's work is flawed. This stacking of the deck in sampling would not be so noticeable
i f Willis did not explicitly employ the rhetoric of formalist sociology's concern with
method in his writing. Generalization from ethnography is a classic problem, and is
even more saliently so in ethnography sensitive to political economy, but to adopt the
methodologist's rhetoric is to weaken the suggestive power of ethnography, which is tra-
ditionally where its will to generalize has lain.
8. Other recent works that experiment with the representation of the experience
of ethnographic subjects and the systems of political economy that interpenetrate their
lives are Michael Taussig's The Devil and Commodity Fetishism in South America ( 1980) and
the paper by Daniel Bertaux and Isabelle Bertaux-Wiame (1981) on the survival of ar-
tisanal bakeries in France. The latter very much resembles Willis's effort, except that its
subject is the petite bourgeoisie rather than the working class. Taussig's book is pre-
sented less self-consciously as ethnography and more as an argument about the folk
critical perspective on capitalismcreatively developed by those being proletarianized (in
this, his book shares an important claim with Willis's ethnography, from which is de-
rived much of the attraction and promise of interpretive ethnography that is sensitive
to political economy: that it can discuss and articulate for the literate middle classes
novel and insightful critiques of society embedded in the talk and life worlds of those
most patently victimized by capitalism). Nonetheless, Taussig depends on his authority
as an ethnographer, even though the ethnography remains in the wings and is only
Et hnography in the Modern World System
' 77
cri t i cal s ubt e x t o f h e d g e s t hat r uns t h r o u g h Willis's b o o k a n d wr e s t l e s
wi t h all t he pr e v i o us l y di s c us s e d p r o b l e ms as s oc i at e d wi t h t he wr i t i ng
o f e t h n o g r a p h i e s s ens i t i ve t o pol i t i cal e c o n o my . It s t rai ns b e t we e n t he
t wo t e xt ual mo d e s we ha v e di s c us s e d: it t akes t he f o r m o f s t rat egi cal l y
s i t uat e d e t h n o g r a p h y , but c ons t ant l y has t he i deal o f mul t i - l oc al e e t h-
n o g r a p h y i n vi ew. As we shal l s e e , it d e v e l o p s bo t h o f t he al t e r nat i ve s
f o r me r g i n g t he ma c r o a n d mi c r o pe r s pe c t i ve s t hat Kar i n Kn o r r -
Ce t i na ( 1981) r e v i e ws ( s ee f o o t n o t e 6). It e mbr a c e s t he c o n v e n t i o n s o f
r e a l i s m, ye t u n d e r s t a n d s t he i r l i mi t at i ons . By t he i nc l us i on o f t he
a b o v e me n t i o n e d a p p e n d i x , i n whi c h t he r e ac t i ons o f t he s ubj ect s t o
t h e e t h n o g r a p h e r ' s a c c o unt o f t h e m are s a mpl e d, it s i gnal s a wa r e ne s s
o f a pos s i bl e h e r me n e u t i c cri t i que o f its cl ai ms , a n d o f t he pe r s i s t i ng
p r o b l e m o f t r ans l at i ng t he oral i nt o t he l i t erary. Fi nal l y, it pr o v i de s t he
s t r o ng e s t pos s i bl e s t a t e me nt o f t he i mpo r t a nc e o f e t h n o g r a p h y for
t he r e c o ns t r uc t i o n o f h i g h t he o r y by c o mp l e x i f y i n g t he d e t e r mi n a t i o n
o f e v e n t s a n d ac t i ons at any po i nt i n a n abst ract l y c o n c e i v e d s oci al o r -
d e r . Wi l l i s d e mo n s t r a t e s wha t stati sti cal a p p r o a c h e s c a n n o t d o a n d
h o w t he y i n fact ove r s i mpl i fy. T h e bo o k is wr i t t e n wi t h a s t r o ng c o m-
mi t me n t t o Mar xi s t t he or y, but it r e c o g ni z e s t he val ue o f s i mi l ar k i n d s
o f e t h n o g r a p h i c s t udi e s b e y o n d t he cri t i cal f o c us u p o n t he wo r k i n g
cl as s . It i s t hus t he mo s t c o mp r e h e n s i v e me di t a t i o n o n a t r e nd o f e x -
p e r i me n t a t i o n t hat s e e ks t o a da pt t he wr i t i ng o f e t h n o g r a p h y t o t ake
i nt o a c c o u n t l ar ge r i s s ues o f pol i t i cal e c o n o my a n d b r o a d e r vi st as o f
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
Willis's Main Conceptual Moves
The idea of cultural forms forged by resistance and accommodation to
capitalist institutions. I n o p e n i n g hi s s t udy, Wi l l i s says, "I vi e w t he cul -
t ural , n o t s i mpl y as a s et o f t r ans fe r r e d i nt e r nal s t r uc t ur e s (as i n t h e
us ua l n o t i o n s o f s oci al i s at i on) n o r as t he pas s i ve r e s ul t o f t he ac t i on o f
d o mi n a n t i d e o l o g y d o wn wa r d s (as i n cert ai n ki nds o f Ma r x i s m) , but at
l e as t i n par t as t he p r o d u c t o f col l ect i ve h u ma n pr axi s " (4). Ap p r o p r i -
at e t o a Mar xi s t for w h o m the pr obl e mat i c g i v e n is t he capi t al i st o v e r -
l ay u p o n h u ma n di vers i t y, c ul t ur e is no t wha t pr e e xi s t s t hi s hi s t or i c
ove r l ay, but i s h o w h u ma n s wh o s e l i ves ar e s t ruct ural l y de f i ne d by i n-
s t i t ut i onal l y e n a c t e d capi t al i st pr i nc i pl e s r e s p o n d t o t h e m i n t he i r
selectively brought on stage, so to speak, to provide a legitimating rhetoric for his
mi xed-mode, self-consciously moralistic and broadly transcendent purpose. Neither
Taussig nor Bertaux and Bertaux-Wiame have written the kind of probing, meditative
subtext about the nature of such ethnography that Willis has. Nor have they touched as
comprehensively on so many major issues of writing such ethnography.
aut hor i al art i fi ce. T h e r e he pr e s e nt s ve r bat i m d i a l o g u e d e p i c t i n g t he
bo y s ' r e a c t i o n t o t he i r r e a d i n g o f hi s book. T h e y c a n r e l at e t o t he i r
o wn wo r d s , but n o t t o Wi l l i s's i nt e r pr e t i ve e l abor at i ons o f t he i r wo r l d
vi e w. Appr o pr i a t e l y , h e a r g ue s t hat t hi s fai l ure o f r e c o g ni t i o n is i t s el f a
val i dat i on o f t he i r r e j e c t i on o f "ment al " l abor, whi c h s c hol ar l y p r o d -
uc t s e mb o d y , i n favor o f "manual " l abor a nd i mme d i a t e e x p e r i e n c e ,
a n o p p o s i t i o n at t he he ar t o f wo r k i n g cl ass c ul t ur e . T h u s , wh e t h e r i n
fact , o n c l os e i ns pe c t i o n, t he t he or e t i c al di s c us s i ons o f par t 2 c a n be
d e r i v e d f r o m t he e t h n o g r a p h i c di s c us s i ons o f part 1 is a n o p e n q u e s -
t i on; t he po i nt is t hat rhet ori cal l y t he y are effect i vel y s o d e r i v e d .
Be f o r e p r o c e e d i n g t o a di s c us s i on o f Willis's s peci fi c c l ai ms for
e t h n o g r a p h y , it i s wo r t h s t at i ng bri efl y wh y t hi s part i cul ar wo r k me r i t s
s o mu c h a t t e nt i o n. De s pi t e s everal flaws,
7
whi c h Wi l l i s c o nf r o nt s i n a
r e v e a l i n g a f t e r wo r d a d d e d t o t he Ame r i c a n e di t i o n, Learning to La-
bour, i n its a mbi t i o n a n d g r a s p o f t he p r o b l e ms o f a c hi e v i ng a t e xt t hat
p r o b e s t he e x p e r i e n c e o f its s ubj ect s whi l e a de qua t e l y r e p r e s e n t i n g
t h e l a r g e r o r d e r i n whi c h t he y are i mpl i c at e d, s t ands as t he s t at e o f t h e
art for e t h n o g r a p h i e s t hat r e ma i n wi t hi n real i st ( or, as Wi l l i s c at e -
g o r i z e s t h e m, nat ural i s t ) c o nv e nt i o ns o f wr i t i ng.
8
T h e r e i s a sel f-
178 GEORGE E. MARCUS
Et hnography in the Modern World System
! 79
a r e s i s t a n c e - a n d - a c c o mmo d a t i o n v i e w o f pr ol e t ar i an c ul t ur e , e v e n
t h o u g h h e d o e s o v e r pl a y t he off- s t age i ma g e o f pre- capi t al i s t c ul t ur al
pur i t y a mo n g hi s s ubj ect s ; t he l at t er s t rai ns t o i nve s t pos i t i ve me a n i n g
a n d richness i n a cul t ural f o r m t hat s e e ms e nt i r e l y o ppo s i t i o na l . )
Fi nal l y, Wi l l i s ma k e s a s t r o ng a r g u me n t for t he i rreduci bi l i t y a n d
a u t o n o my o f t he cul t ural l evel o f anal ys i s , very s i mi l ar to t he f o u n d a -
t i onal po s t ul a t e o f s uc h Ame r i c a n cul t ural t heori s t s as Davi d S c h n e i d e r
a n d Cl i ffor d Ge e r t z . T h e r e is a r e i fyi ng bi as bui l t i nt o t hi s po s t ul a t e .
I n Wi l l i s' s b o o k it b e c o me s mo r e a ppa r e nt as h e mo v e s f r o m e t h-
n o g r a p h i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o t he mo r e abst ract l y anal yt i c s e c t i o n, a n d
e s pe c i al l y wh e n h e ma k e s a s t r o ng pl e a i n t he a f t e r wo r d for t he v a l ue
o f t h e e t h n o g r a p h i c as a n a p p r o a c h wi t hi n Ma r x i s m. For Wi l l i s, t hi s
radi cal i ns i s t ence o n t he i rreduci bi l i ty and t he a ut o no my o f t he cul t ural ,
at wh a t e v e r c os t i n rei fi cat i on, is a s a f e g ua r d agai ns t t he p e n c h a n t i n
We s t e r n ( or bo ur g e o i s ) soci al t h o u g h t t o de v a l ue o r ma r g i na l i z e wha t
t he c ul t ur al e mp h a s i z e s : t he c o nc r e t e ne s s a n d c o mmo n s e n s i c a l i t y o f
e v e r y d a y l i fe, i nt ract abl e t o f o r mul a t i o ns o f s t ruct ural d e t e r mi n a t i o n
as a pr i v i l e g e d mo d e o f di s c o ur s e i n bo ur g e o i s s oci et y ( whi c h al s o i n-
fect s mu c h Mar xi s t wri t i ng) . As Wi l l i s st at es:
The mai n poi nt here, t hough, is not to attempt an exact t axonomy of
"cultural forms" or a ri gorous theoretical conceptual i zati on of "the cultural."
What I want to emphasi ze in the general approach of this book is the way that
the field of symbolic and material, lived relations shoul d be represent ed in
thei r own concret eness, at their own level, wi thout continually reduci ng t hem,
mechani sti cal l y, to basic det ermi ni ng structures. Social reproduct i on and con-
tradi cti on must be shown not as abstract entities, but as embedded dynam-
ically within the real lives of real peopl e in a way that is not si mpl e "corre-
s pondence" or "reflection" of unchanged, somehow "deeper" structures. . . .
Agent s ' i ntenti ons do not proceed from themsel ves, but are bound up in the
compl ex way in whi ch structures are inhabited t hrough "cultural forms". . . .
The role of et hnography is to show the cultural vi ewpoi nt of the op-
pressed, their "hidden" knowl edges and resistances as well as the basis on
whi ch ent rappi ng "decisions" are taken in some sense of liberty, but whi ch
nevert hel ess hel p to produce "structure." Thi s is, in part, the project of show-
i ng the capacities of the worki ng class to generate, albeit ambi guous, compl ex,
and oft en ironic, collective and cultural forms of knowl edge not reduci bl e to
t he bourgeoi s forms and the i mportance of this is as one of the bases for
political change. ( 1981: 2013)
T h u s , l i ke t he a nt hr o po l o g i c a l e t h n o g r a p h e r , Wi l l i s de f i ne s a n a u t o n o -
mo u s c ul t ur e c o n c e p t t hat faci l i t at es t he aut he nt i c de pi c t i o n o f h u ma n
di ve r s i t y a n d di f f e r e nc e agai ns t t he bi as t o e l i de it, but hi s a g e n d a , u n -
l i ke t he ant hr opol ogi s t ' s , has a s e l f- c ons c i ous l y pol i t i cal de fi ni t i on.
Fu r t h e r mo r e , i n Wi l l i s's a g e n d a , t he s t agi ng o f t he cul t ural for t|he
e v e r y d a y l i fe a n d e x p e r i e n c e . A cul t ural f o r m t hus ari s es f r o m a
g r o up' s cl ass po s i t i o n i n a n i ns t i t ut i onal o r de r , a nd its r e pr e s e nt a t i o n
a n d anal ys i s ar e t he p u r p o s e o f e t h n o g r a p h i c r e s e a r c h a n d wr i t i ng.
For Wi l l i s , t he radi cal na t ur e o f e t h n o g r a p h y is t hat it e n d s by r e de f i n-
i n g capi t al i s t s t r uc t ur e i t sel f i n h u ma n t e r ms t o e l uc i dat e c ul t ur al
f o r ms d e mo n s t r a t e s wha t t he h u ma n me a n i n g s o f s t r uc t ur e are.
I n t hi s , Wi l l i s is ve r y cl os e t o c ur r e nt no t i o ns o f c ul t ur e i n f o r mi n g
t h e wr i t i ng o f e t h n o g r a p h y i n Ame r i c a n a nt hr o po l o g y . Bu t wh e r e
Wi l l i s radi cal l y di v e r g e s f r o m a nt hr o po l o g i c a l c o ns t r uc t i o ns o f c ul t ur e
for t he p u r p o s e s o f wr i t i ng a bo ut it is i n hi s vi e w o f its i nt e gr al l y i nt e r -
sti ti al a n d c ons t i t ut i ve c har ac t e r b o u n d u p wi t h a g i v e n o r d e r o f pol i t i -
cal e c o n o my . Cul t ur e is no t sui g e ne r i s , but is cl ass c ul t ur e o r s ub-
c ul t ur e , e nt a i l i ng its f o r ma t i o n i n hi s t ori c p r o c e s s i t or i gi nat e s i n
pr o c e s s e s o f r e s i s t anc e a n d a c c o mmo d a t i o n t o hi s t ori cal l y mo me n t o u s
t r e nds o f i ns t i t ut i on bui l di ng . A cul t ural f o r m is t hus f o r g e d i n cl ass
confl i ct .
No w t hi s v i e w o f c ul t ur e sui t s Wi l l i s very wel l , be c a us e wo r k i n g
cl as s es as di s t i nc t i ve c ul t ur al f o r ms me a t for t he e t h n o g r a p h e r a r e
p u r e i nv e nt i o ns o f a part i cul ar wo r l d hi st ori cal s y s t e m o f pol i t i cal
e c o n o my . I n t he i ndus t r i al Wes t , cl ass c ul t ur e is t he o nl y c ul t ur e t hat
de f i ne s t he f o r m o f l i fe o f ma n y pe o pl e . Ant hr o po l o g i s t s , s peci al i s t s i n
t he s t udy o f t ho s e o n t he ma r g i ns o f wor l d hi s t ori cal t r e nds e ma n a t -
i n g f r o m t he Wes t , are a c c us t o me d t o s t a g i ng c ul t ur e as a n i nt e gr al
s pa t i o - t e mpo r a l i s ol at e, not wi t ho ut its o wn i nt e r nal c o nt r a di c t i o ns ,
but at l eas t wi t h i ts o wn i nt e gr i t y agai ns t t he wo r l d, s o t o s pe ak. T h i s i s
mu c h di f f e r e nt f r o m t he Marxi s t e mpha s i s , whi c h vi e ws c ul t ur e as a
p r o d u c t o f s t r ug g l e ; t he r e is n o s e l f- c ont ai ne d i nt e gr i t y e nt a i l e d i n t he
c o n c e p t ; i t i s a f unc t i o n o f c r i t i que a n d a c c e pt a nc e i n t h o u g h t a n d ac-
t i o n a mo n g t ho s e var i ous l y s i t uat e d i n a s ys t e m o f pol i t i cal e c o n o my ,
wh i c h is no t finally mo no l i t hi c , o n c e v i e we d f r o m t he pe r s pe c t i v e o f
an e t h n o g r a p h y o f cul t ural f o r ms , but r at he r a di vers i t y o f r e s p o n s e s
t o t he e n a c t e d pr i nc i pl e s o f capi t al i st pol i t i cal e c o n o my .
T h e p r o b l e m for c o n t e mp o r a r y e t h n o g r a p h i c e x p e r i me n t s i n a n-
t h r o p o l o g y is h o w t o s ynt he s i z e t he s e t wo e mp h a s e s i n t he t e xt ual r e p-
r e s e nt a t i o n o f c ul t ur e , s i nc e a r o u n d t he wor l d a nt hr o po l o g i s t s o f t e n
de a l t he s e days wi t h s ubj ect s for w h o m bo t h e mp h a s e s appl y. T h e a n-
t hr o po l o g i c a l bi as is t o e mp h a s i z e or gi ve pri ori t y real i t y t o t he pr e -
capi t al i s t d i me n s i o n s o f t he l i ves o f e t h n o g r a p h i c s ubj ect s . Wi l l i s's v i e w
o f c ul t ur e is a n i mp o r t a n t correct i ve t o t hi s. Conve r s e l y, as we shal l
s e e , Wi l l i s's p r e d i c a me n t o f ha v i ng t o i nves t r i c hne s s o f me a n i n g i n
"t hi n" c ul t ur al f o r ms pur e l y g e ne r a t e d by r e s po ns e s t o c api t al i s m
is not f a c e d by mo s t a nt hr o po l o g i s t s . ( Co mp a r e Taus s i g 1980 wi t h
Wi l l i s : T h e f o r me r has a ri ch b o d y o f l or e wi t h whi c h t o r e p r e s e n t
i 8o
GEORGE E. MARCUS
p u r p o s e o f e t h n o g r a p h i c r e pr e s e nt a t i o n i s pr i mar i l y a me a n s t o t he
e n d o f e l uc i da t i o n o f a n e mb e d d e d cri t i que o f capi t al i s t s oc i e t y i n
wo r k i n g cl as s l i fe, a c o n c e p t u a l mo v e t o wh i c h we n o w t ur n.
The ethnographer's articulation of the critical theory embedded in working
class experience. On e o f t he g r e a t c ur r e nt at t ract i ons o f e t h n o g r a p h y t o
t r adi t i ons o f c ul t ur al cri t i ci s m i n t he Wes t , a n d es peci al l y t he Mar xi s t
t r a di t i o n, i s t h e mo v e t hat Wi l l i s ma k e s (as d o e s Taus s i g) i n l e t t i ng
e t h n o g r a p h y d e mo n s t r a t e t hat t he mo s t po we r f ul a n d no v e l cri t i ci s ms
o f capi t al i s t s oc i e t y l i e e mb e d d e d i n t he e ve r yday c o ndi t i o ns a n d t al k
o f e t h n o g r a p h i c s ubj ect s , mo r e po we r f ul a n d nove l e v e n t ha n t he c o n -
t r i but i ons o f i nt el l ect ual s wh o s e s e l f- c ons c i ous task cul t ural cri t i ci s m
ha s b e e n . T h e e t h n o g r a p h e r is t he mi dwi f e , as it we r e , wh o de l i v e r s
a n d ar t i c ul at e s wha t i s ve r nac ul ar l y e x p r e s s e d i n wo r k i n g cl ass l i ves ,
a n d f o r t ha t ma t t e r , mi d d l e cl ass l i ves.
Ha v i n g t he cri t i que c o me f r o m t he s ubj ect r at he r t ha n t he a u t h o r
as cri t i c c an b e s e e n as a mo v e t o s hi ft t he res pons i bi l i t y o f cri t i ci s m t o
t h o s e w h o ar e r e p r e s e n t e d as soci al act ors , a nd i n s o d o i n g , t o find a
n e w a n d p o we r f u l aut he nt i c i t y for wor ks o f cul t ural cri t i ci s m. T h e t ra-
di t i onal q u e s t o f e t h n o g r a p h y , i n a n t h r o p o l o g y at l east , for t he "na-
ti ve's p o i n t o f vi ew" b e c o me s i n its g ui s e o f cul t ural cri t i ci s m a s e a r c h
f o r a n a ut he nt i c cri t i cal t he or y, e mb o d i e d i n t he l i ves o f t he vi c t i ms o f
ma c r o s o c i a l s ys t e ms , wh o are mo s t o f t e n t he s ubj ect o f e t h n o g r a p h y .
I nc i de nt al l y, t hi s mo v e al s o ful fi l l s Knorr- Cet i na' s f a v o r e d mo d e o f i n-
t e g r a t i n g t he ma c r o wi t h t he mi c r o i n t hat t he e x t r a c t e d a n d ar t i c u-
l a t e d cri t i cal t he o r y o f t he s ubj ect is al s o a r e pr e s e nt a t i o n e n c a p s u -
l a t e d i n t he mi c r o - f o c us e d e n t h o g r a p h y , o f hi s fol k u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
t h e ma c r o s o c i a l s y s t e m. As Wi l l i s st at es:
Thi s is why the et hnography of visible forms is limited. The external , more
obvi ousl y creative, varied and somet i mes random features must be read back
to their heart. The logic of living must be traced to the heart of its conceptual
rel ati onshi ps if we are to understand the social creativity of a culture. Thi s
always concerns, at s ome level, a recogni ti on of, and action upon, the particu-
larity of its pl ace within a determi nate social structure.
One of the most profound reasons why this social creativity cannot be
expres s ed rationally at the surface of the cul ture is that it is truly onl y hal f t he
story. It really does not proceed with a pure expressi ve purpose from the cen-
ter o f the cul ture. We must posit the penetrati on [Willis's j argon for percept i ve
underst andi ngs of capitalist reality in the lads' own i di om] as a clean and co-
herent i nsi ght i n order to say what it is, but the concrete forms of cul tures, as
et hnography insistently remi nds us, do not allow single pure dynami cs. In
thei r very format i on these "insights" are di storted, t urned and deposi t ed i nt o
ot her forms s uch as subjective affirmation of manual l abourwhi ch make
it hard t o bel i eve t here has ever been, or coul d ever be, even a noi ion of a
Et hnography in the Modern World System 181
rational kernel , never mi nd that it shoul d be easily expressed. Thi s means ,
amongs t ot her thi ngs, that we must di sti ngui sh bet ween the level of the cul-
tural and t he level of practical consci ousness in our specification of creativity
and rationality. (1981:12122)
T h u s , Wi l l i s de f i ne s t he a ppr o pr i a t e f unc t i o n o f t he e t h n o g r a p h e r as
mi d wi f e . T h e l ads e mb o d y t he cri ti cal i ns i ght s , but i n a n e n g a g e d ,
s t u n t e d way, wh i c h t he e t h n o g r a p h e r c an regi s t er. T h u s , it is for t h e
e t h n o g r a p h e r t o br i ng o u t a n d cl ari fy t he i ns i ght s as wel l as t o e x p l a i n
wh y t h e y ma y l e ad t o u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e s or i nac t i on. As Wi l l i s
s ays , "It i s t he a p p a r e n t cul t ural a s c e ns i o n o f t he wo r k i n g cl ass wh i c h
br i ng s t he hel l o f its o wn real pr e s e nt " (122).
It is wo r t h r e ma r k i n g o n wh y t hi s p o s t u r e o f t he e t h n o g r a p h e r as
mi d wi f e t o i n d i g e n o u s cri t i cal t he or y is s uc h a n a p p e a l i n g mo v e i n
Mar xi s t cul t ural anal ys i s , e s pe c i al l y i n its pe r s i s t i ng f o c us o n t he wo r k-
i n g cl ass ( hi s t ori cal l y wel l de f i ne d i n Eng l a nd) . Th i s cl ass is t he "c ho s e n
p e o p l e " w h o mo s t e x p e r i e n c e t he c ont r adi c t i ons o f c api t al i s m, a n d
t he s t at e o f wh o s e c o ns c i o us ne s s is a mat t e r o f pe r e nni a l d e b a t e a mo n g
Mar xi s t i nt e l l e c t ual s . An d s o Wi l l i s says, "It [ t he wo r k i n g cl ass p o t e n -
ti al f o r i ns i g ht ] i s e mb e d d e d i n t he o nl y cl ass i n t he capi t al i s t s oci al
f o r ma t i o n wh i c h d o e s no t have a s t ruct ural l y bas e d v e s t e d i nt e r e s t i n
my s t i f y i n g i tsel f. . . . T h e wo r k i n g cl ass d o e s not have t o be l i e v e t he
d o mi n a n t i de o l o g y . It d o e s no t n e e d t he ma s k o f d e mo c r a c y t o c o v e r
its' f a c e o f o p p r e s s i o n . T h e ve r y e x i s t e nc e a nd c o ns c i o us ne s s o f t he
mi d d l e cl ass is d e e p l y i nt e g r a t e d i nt o t hat s t r uc t ur e whi c h gi ve s it
d o mi n a n c e " (123).
By hi s e t h n o g r a p h i c mi dwi f e r y a mo n g t he prol et ari at , Wi l l i s r e -
ve al s t hat t he y, a n d n o t t he i nt el l ect ual s , e mb o d y t he mo s t p o we r f u l
c r i t i que o f c api t al i s m, a n d t hi s i s as it s h o u l d be , g i v e n t he i r s t r at e gi c
po s i t i o n i n Mar xi s t t he or y. Wi l l i s's e t h n o g r a p h y t hus p r o p o s e s t o r e -
s ol ve t he l o n g s t a n d i n g e mb a r r a s s me n t i n Ma r x i s m o f t he n e e d for
r adi c al mi d d l e cl ass i nt el l ect ual s ( or i nt el l ect ual s o f wo r k i n g cl ass or i -
gi n) t o be t he art i cul at e c o ns c i o us ne s s o f wo r k i n g cl ass ma s s e s . Wi l l i s
p r e s u me s t o s h o w t hat t he y c an s pe ak e qual l y a n d effect i vel y f o r
t h e ms e l v e s ( but wi t h o u t hi s b e i n g sel f- cri t i cal e n o u g h a bo ut t he h e r -
me n e u t i c p r o b l e ms o f r e al i z i ng t hi s c l ai m t ext ual l y, di s c us s e d be l o w) .
I n s u mma r y f o r m, Wi l l i s s e e s t he he ar t o f hi s s ubj ect s ' cri t i ci s m o f
c a pi t a l i s m i n t he di s t i nc t i on t he y ma k e b e t we e n me nt a l a n d ma n u a l
l abor , t he i r e l a bo r a t e r e j e c t i on o f t he f o r me r a n d t he i r e mb r a c i n g o f
t he l at t er as t he c e nt r al ma l e - o r i e nt e d e t ho s o f t he i r cul t ural f o r m.
The l a ds s e e b e h i n d t he i d e o l o g y o f s c ho o l i ng i n p r e p a r i n g s t ude nt s
f o r wo r k t o t he real na t ur e o f wo r k t o t he na t ur e o f l abor p o we r , as
a c o mmo d i t y l i ke n o o t he r , i n Willis's t e r ms . Mo s t i mpor t ant l y, t h e
y o u t h s rej ect qual i fi cat i ons as t he me a n s t o soci al mobi l i t y. For t h e m,
l 8 2
GEORGE E. MARCUS
al l j o b s ar e t h e s a me a n d e qual l y me a ni ng l e s s ; t he y t ake r e f u g e a n d
s at i s fact i on i n a y o u t h s ubc ul t ur e t hat e mpha s i z e s a d v e n t u r e a nd vi r-
i l e e x p e r i e n c e . Ma nua l l abor is an e mb l e m o f t hi s e mp h a s i s i t s t a nds
for ma s c ul i ni t y a n d o p p o s i t i o n t o aut hori t y. T h e o ppo s i t i o na l c ul t ur e
at s c ho o l d e v e l o p s t he me a n s o f t aki ng i nfor mal c ont r ol o f t he p r o -
d u c t i o n pr o c e s s . Mo s t pr oxi mat e l y, t he "ear' ol es, " o r c o n f o r mi s t s t u-
d e n t s , s t a nd as foi l s for t he l ads a n d t he e mb o d i me n t o f t he wo r l d o f
qual i fi c at i ons l e a di ng t o mi d d l e cl ass mys t i fi cat i ons o f wo r k, wh i c h
t he y rej ect .
So , t he l ads t ur n o u t t o c onfi r m basi c Mar xi s t no t i o ns o f t he c e n-
tral r ol e o f t he r e d u c t i o n o f l abor t o a c o mmo d i t y i n capi t al i s t p r o d u c -
t i on. Et h n o g r a p h y i n Wi l l i s's h a n d s t hus po we r f ul l y val i dat e s Mar xi s t
t h e o r y by a ut he nt i c a t i ng its cl ai ms a mo n g t he mo s t i mp o r t a n t e t h-
n o g r a p h i c s ubj ect s o f all, t he wo r k i n g cl ass. Mu c h o f Willis's c l ai m
h i n g e s o n hi s abi l i ty t o p e r s u a d e t he r e a de r by t e xt ual art i fi ce o f
t he me a n i n g f u l n e s s o f t he boys ' n o n c o n f o r mi s t be ha v i o r a g a i ns t t he
mi d d l e cl ass t e n d e n c y t o di s mi s s it as mi ndl e s s de v i a nc e , al i e nat i on, o r
d e l i n q u e n c y . We shal l c o ns i de r be l o w wh e t h e r t he i nve s t i t ur e o f t he
bo y s ' o ppo s i t i o na l c ul t ur e wi t h t he res pect abi l i t y o f me a n i n g t h e
f o u n d a t i o n f r o m whi c h g r o ws a cri ti cal t he o r y e mb o d i e d i n e v e r y da y
e x p e r i e n c e i s effect i vel y a c hi e v e d.
The system beyond the ethnographic locale enacted in the irony of un-
intended consequences. T h e pos t ul at e o f u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e s i s a
me a n s by wh i c h a n e t h n o g r a p h e r c an p u s h anal ys i s b e y o n d t he l oc al e
o f pr i ma r y fieldwork t o r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns o f t he ma c r o - s y s t e m ( c o n v e n -
t i onal l y c o n c e i v e d as abst ract s t ruct ures ) i n cul t ural , s t ruct ural l y c o n -
t i ng e nt t e r ms . Wi l l i s ma k e s ful l us e o f t hi s mo v e , whi c h Kno r r - Ce t i na
di s c us s e s ( s ee f o o t n o t e 6) as o n e o f t he mo d e s o f br i ng i ng ma c r o pe r -
s pe c t i ve s bac k i nt o t he c ur r e nt r e i g n o f pr oduc t i vi t y i n mi c r o p e r s p e c -
t i ves . I n fact , t he c e nt r al a r g u me n t o f t he bo o k is t he o n e a b o u t t he
u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t he l ads ' o ppo s i t i o na l c ul t ur e f o r me d at
s c hool : h o w t he y s ys t emat i cal l y di s qual i fy t he ms e l v e s f r o m mi d d l e
cl ass j o b s as t he i roni c effect o f cl ass confl i ct i n t he s c hool s ; h o w, wi t h-
o u t c o e r c i o n , y o ut hs f u n n e l t he ms e l v e s o n t o t he s h o p fl oor. As Wi l l i s
c o n c l u d e s t he e t h n o g r a p h y s e c t i on o f hi s book:
The r e is also a sense in whi ch, despi te the ravagesfairly well contai ned at
this poi nt anywaymanual work stands for somet hi ng and is a way of con-
tri buti ng to and substantiating a certain view of life whi ch criticises, scorns
and deval ues others as well as putti ng the self, as they feel it, in s ome el usi ve
way ahead of t he game. The s e feel i ngs arise precisely from a sense of their
own l abour power whi ch has been learnt and truly appropri ated as i nsi ght
and sel f-advance within the dept hs of the counter-school cul ture as it devel -
Et hnography in the Modern World System 183
ops specific class forms in the institutional context. It is difficult to think how
atti tudes of such strength and i nformal and personal validity coul d have been
formed in any ot her way. It is they, not formal school i ng, whi ch carry "the
lads" over into a certain application to the producti ve process. In a sense,
t herefore, there is an el ement of sel f-domi nati on in the acceptance of subor-
di nate rol es in western capitalism. However, this damnat i on is experi enced,
paradoxically, as a form of true l earni ng, appropri ati on and as a ki nd of resis-
tance. How are we to understand this? ( 1 9 8 1 : 1 1 3 )
Th i s i s t he f r a mi n g que s t i o n Wi l l i s us e s t o o r g a ni z e hi s e l a bo r a t i o ns o f
t he s e c o n d , anal ys i s part o f t he book. T h o u g h it is t he n e e d for c a s h
t hat finally p u s h e s t he l ads i nt o t he pr o duc t i v e pr oc e s s , it is ma s c u l i n e
c h a u v i n i s m, f o r g e d i n o p p o s i t i o n t o s c hool , t hat a da pt s t h e m t o t h e
s h o p floor a n d p r o v i d e s t he l i ne o f c ont i nui t y b e t we e n t he t wo l oc al e s .
T h e u n i n t e n d e d - c o n s e q u e n c e s mo v e ma y be a ni ce s o l ut i o n t o t h e
p r o b l e m o f ma c r o - s y s t e m r e pr e s e nt a t i o n i n e t h n o g r a p h y wh o s e s pi ri t
is i nt e r pr e t i v e , but it is al s o t he mo s t not abl y h e d g e d d i me n s i o n o f
Wi l l i s's a c c o unt . He is c ons t ant l y h e d g i n g agai ns t t he ci rcul ari t y o f
ma k i n g a n a r g u me n t o f s uc h g e ne r a l i mpl i c at i on f r o m s o s mal l a
s a mp l e a n d f r o m hi s r e c o g ni t i o n, but s ys t e mat i c e l i di ng , o f o t h e r vari -
ant r e s p o n s e s t o s c ho o l bo t h a mo n g mi d d l e cl ass a n d c o n f o r mi s t
wo r k i n g cl ass l ads ( s ee f o o t no t e 7); he al s o h e d g e s agai ns t t he d a n g e r
o f a n "ove r s oc i al i z e d" vi e w o f hi s o wn n o n c o n f o r mi s t s ubj e c t s , as t hor -
o u g h p r o d u c t s o f t he cul t ural f o r m t hat i s, finally, Wi l l i s's abs t r ac t e d
f o c us o f anal ys i s . Fu r t h e r mo r e , t he u n i n t e n d e d - c o n s e q u e n c e s mo v e
s e e ms v e r y c l os e t o o l d - f a s h i o n e d func t i onal i s t t e l e ol ogy, al bei t a n
i r oni c f o r m o f i t a g e n t s d o wha t t he y d o i n t hei r v a r i o us c o nt e x t s ,
a n d h e y pr e s t o ! t h e r e i s ne a t o r d e r i n t he s ys t e m. A c e r t ai n r e c o g ni -
t i on o f t he me s s i ne s s o f real l i fe is s i mpl y a d d e d t o c o nv e nt i o na l n o -
t i ons o f func t i onal i s t o r de r . Th i s is i n d e e d a n i mp r o v e me n t o n pas t
mo v e s o f r e p r e s e n t i n g t he soci al s ys t e m, but it is har dl y a bo l d br e ak
wi t h e a s y n o t i o n s o f o r de r .
A Commentary on Textual Moves Used
to Achieve the Above Conceptual Arguments
Wi l l i s' s He r me n e u t i c Sens i t i vi t y
I woul d j us t like to mark a recogni ti on here that, no matter how modi fi ed,
parti ci pant observati on and the met hods under its aegis, display a t endency
towards natural i sm and therefore to conservatism. The et hnographi c account
is a supremel y ex post facto product of the actual uncertainty of life. The r e
devel ops, unwi l l ed, a false unity whi ch asks, "What follows next?" "How di d it
end?" "What makes sense of it?". The subjects stand too square in their self-
i84
GEORGE E. MARCUS
referenced worl d. Th e met hod is also patroni si ng and condes cendi ngi s it
possi bl e to i magi ne the et hnographi c account upwards i n a class society? . . .
The et hnographi c account, for all its biases insists upon a level of human
agency whi ch is persistently overl ooked or deni ed but whi ch i ncreases i n i m-
port ance all the ti me for ot her levels of the social whol e. Al t hough the worl d
is never directly "knowable," and cannot empirically present itself in the way
that the et hnographi c account seems somet i mes to suggest, it must nevert he-
less be specifically regi stered s omewhere in theory if theory pret ends to any
rel evance at all. (Willis 1981:194)
At i s s ue h e r e is t he h e r me n e u t i c cri t i que of Wi l l i s's cl ai m t o ha v e
e x t r a c t e d a wo r k i n g cl ass cri ti cal t he o r y f r o m t he wo r ds a n d ac t i ons o f
hi s s ubj e c t s , a t he o r y t hat h a p p e n s powe r ful l y t o c o nf i r m Mar xi s t t he -
ory. We s h o u l d recal l , i n t hi s r e g a r d, t he cent ral c ons t r uc t i ve mo v e o f
Wi l l i s's t e x t t h e di s t i nct s e par at i on o f e t h n o g r a p h y f r o m anal ys i s .
Th i s mo v e ma y be a f unc t i o n o f Wi l l i s's r e t e nt i o n o f a r he t o r i c o f
pos i t i vi s t s o c i o l o g i s m t hat r e pr e s e nt s e t h n o g r a p h y as me r e l y a me t h o d
a n d t he r e p o r t i n g o f dat a. Ne v e r t he l e s s , t hi s c ons t r uc t i ve di vi s i on
mo s t i mpo r t a nt l y f r a me s a l e gi t i mat e d, a u t o n o mo u s anal yt i c voi c e
t h r o u g h wh i c h Wi l l i s c an d e v e l o p a t heoret i cal di s c o ur s e i n a l a n g u a g e
t o wh i c h h e is a c c u s t o me d , whi l e r e l yi ng o n r e f e r e nc e back t o t he e t h-
n o g r a p h y s e c t i o n as a s ug g e s t i o n t hat it i s not real l y hi s voi c e , but a
me d i a t i o n o f wha t is e mb o d i e d i n t he e t h n o g r a p h y o f t he l ads , c o n -
c e i v e d , s i gni fi cant l y, as ve r bat i m i nt e r vi e w t rans cri pt s . So , we mi g h t
say t hat t he r e pr e s e nt a t i o n o f wo r k i n g cl ass e x p e r i e n c e is no t at all
Wi l l i s' s pr i ma r y goal ; r at he r , Wi l l i s d e v e l o p s e t h n o g r a p h i c r e p r e s e n t a -
t i ons o f wo r k i n g cl ass e x p e r i e n c e t o r e fe r t o it i n a way t hat s e r v e s hi s
t he or e t i c al e x po s i t i o n. Et h n o g r a p h y gi ve s b o d y t o Willis's bo o k, but it
is n o t i n i t s el f t he ma i n poi nt .
T h e r e i s at l east a hi nt o f a s l e i g ht - o f - ha nd he r e , a n d wha t a he r -
me n e u t i c s ens i t i vi t y i nc o r po r a t e d i n t he narrat i ve of e t h n o g r a p h y
d o e s i s t o i mp o s e s t a nda r ds o f puri t ani cal ho ne s t y u p o n c l ai ms , s u c h
as t h o s e at t he he ar t o f Willis's t ext , a bo ut wh o s pe aks for wh o m, a n d
wh a t is act ual l y b e i n g aut hent i cal l y r e pr e s e nt e d. Do e s Willis's art i cul a-
t e d cri ti cal t he o r y o f capi t al i s m real l y c o me f r o m t he l ads? Do e s t he
e t h n o g r a p h e r di s c o v e r s uc h i ns i ght s , as is a r g u e d , o r d o e s h e e v o k e
t h e m i n hi s s ubj ect s i n hi s e n g a g e me n t wi t h t h e m, or , mo s t c r ude l y ,
d o e s h e me r e l y as s ert by fiat t hat wha t h e is s ayi ng i n hi s o wn wo r d s is
a n ac c ur at e gl os s o f wha t t he s ubj ect s have sai d a n d me a nt ? T h e s e ar e
ve r y o l d e pi s t e mo l o g i c a l p r o b l e ms cent ral t o t he pract i ce o f e t h n o g r a -
phy , wh i c h are c ur r e nt l y b e i n g p r o b e d i n t he i mpa c t t hat h e r me n e u t i c
p h i l o s o p h y is ha v i ng o n a nt hr o po l o g i c a l t ho ug ht . Pe r ha ps , mo s t c e n -
t ral l y, t he i s s ue i s o n e o f t r ans l at i ng t he oral i t y o f t he s ubj ect s i nt o t he
l i t eracy o f t he e t h n o g r a p h e r i n t hi s cas e, t he tal k o f t he l ads i nt o t he
Et hnography in the Modern Worl d System 185
j a r g o n - l a d e n , d e n s e pr o s e o f Wi l l i s i n hi s c o mme n t a r i e s a n d t he o r e t i -
cal e l a bo r a t i o ns .
Gi v e n t he di s array o f pa r a di g ms I ha v e me n t i o n e d , it is a s e d u c -
t i ve i de a at t he mo me n t t o l i beral a nd radi cal cul t ural cri t i cs i n s e a r c h
o f s o me di r e c t i o n t hat t he ne c e s s ar y i ns i ght s ar e there i n t he l i ves o f
s ubj e c t s , t o be u n e a r t h e d by c ar e ful i nt e r pr e t at i on wi t hi n a g e n r e
s uc h as e t h n o g r a p h y . As a res ul t , t he s peci al a ppe a l o f t he ki nd o f
c l a i m Wi l l i s ma k e s d o e s t e nd t o bl unt t he s ke pt i c i s m o f h e r me n e u t i c
s el f- cri t i ci s m, a n d it g e t s off r at he r easi l y. To ma k e t he c l ai m pa s s i o n-
at el y a n d e voc at i ve l y is s uffi ci ent t o wi n o v e r mi d d l e cl ass r e a de r s t o a
mo v e t hat t r ans fe r s t he b u r d e n o f cri t i ci s m t o t he s ubj ect a n d mo di f i e s
t he f u n c t i o n o f t he anal ys t wi t h very at t ract i ve i mpl i c at i ons for t he
c o n t e mp o r a r y p r e d i c a me n t s o f t heory.
Ho w mu c h h e r me n e u t i c s ens i t i vi t y is t he r e , t h e n , i n Wi l l i s's bo o k?
Wi l l i s i s ve r y s h r e wd i n d e e d a bo ut t he l i mi t at i ons o f e t h n o g r a p h y a n d
t he pos s i bl e obj e c t i ons t o hi s cl ai m t hat h e has i n fact aut he nt i c al l y
s p o k e n for t he l ads , but t he i mpo r t a nt po i nt h e r e i s t hat t hi s a wa r e -
ne s s is no t a n i nt e gr al part o f hi s t ext , n o r for h i m a f o u n d a t i o n o f
wr i t i ng e t h n o g r a p h y . As i n s o ma n y real i st a c c o unt s , h e r me n e u t i c
s h r e wd n e s s , wh e n it is pr e s e nt , is ma r g i na l i z e d (as i n t he very s h r e wd
a p p e n d i x pr e v i o us l y di s c us s e d a n d i n Wi l l i s's a f t e r wo r d a d mi s s i o n s
a b o u t t he l i mi t at i ons o f nat ur al i s m i n e t h n o g r a p h i c a c c o u n t s s e e t he
q u o t a t i o n a bo v e ) . S o whi l e he r me ne ut i c a l l y awar e o n t h e ma r g i n s ,
Wi l l i s k e e p s hi s di s t anc e f r o m hi s s ubj ect s ; t he s ort o f e n g a g e me n t o u t
o f wh i c h h e r me n e u t i c r e fl e c t i on ari s es i s o nl y a l e i t mo t i f i n hi s t e x t
a n d n o t a n i nt e gr al c o mp o n e n t o f e i t he r its e t h n o g r a p h i c r e pr e s e nt a -
t i ons o r t h e anal ys i s t hat fol l ows .
T h e Do mi n a n t Bo u r g e o i s Wor l d Ev o k e d
Ra t he r T h a n J u x t a p o s e d Et hno g r a phi c a l l y
Si nce my mai n focus was on the cul ture of the "lads," the "ear'oles" necessarily
became s omet hi ng of a dramati c foil for their activity and creativity. . . .
Nevert hel ess, the general case I am argui ng is that, in di fferent ways, all social
agent s have a hand collectively in constructi ng their own destiny, doi ng so i n a
way whi ch is not si mpl y det ermi ned from outsi de and which often enjoys the
l abyri nthi ne compl exi t y of a "cultural form. " But this cannot be said all at
once! And if the et hnographi c act of "giving life" to one particular "cultural
form" seems to take life from others, to make others look anemi c, then this
shoul d not be taken to mean that "social theory" is true onl y for the former.
Thi s book shoul d not encourage the dismissal or marginalization of the more
conformi si in school , but shoul d encourage concrete research in t hem from
similar perspecti ves l o uncover the compl exi ty and promi se of their social
exi stence. (Willis 1981 :KC> 7)
i86
GEORGE E. MARCUS
Wi l l i s e nt e r t a i ns t he pos s i bi l i t y t hat t he s a me c o nc e pt ua l mo v e s h e has
ma d e i n r e g a r d t o t he wo r k i n g cl ass c o u l d be ma d e , wi t h as pr o duc t i v e
r e s ul t s , i n r e g a r d t o var i ous s e g me n t s o f t he d o mi n a n t b o u r g e o i s i e .
Wh a t be l i e s t hi s pos s i bi l i t y is t he fact t hat Wi l l i s h i ms e l f d o e s n o t
c h o o s e t o r e p r e s e n t i n t he s e e t h n o g r a p h i c ways t he l ar ge r cl ass wo r l d
b e y o n d t hat o f hi s wo r k i n g cl ass s ubj ect s , e v e n t h o u g h h e di d d o "con-
t rol " fieldwork a mo n g t he "ear' ol es" a n d t he t e xt i s s pr i nkl e d wi t h i n-
s i ght s a b o u t t he c ul t ur al f o r m o f t he d o mi n a n t cl ass i n c ont r as t t o t hat
o f t he l ads . Ra t he r , i ns t e ad o f cros s - cl as s paral l el j ux t a po s i t i o ns o f e t h-
n o g r a p h y , h e c h o o s e s t o e v o k e t he capi t al i st wo r l d i n a v a g u e , pe r s o ni -
fied way. Ra t he r t ha n d e p e n d o n t he ki nd o f e t h n o g r a p h y h e d o e s for
hi s focal wo r k i n g cl ass s ubj ect s , he rel i es o n t he e t h n o g r a p h i c a l l y u n -
e x a mi n e d i ma g e s o f c l as s - s t r uc t ur e d s oci et y bui l t i nt o t he t r adi t i on o f
Mar xi s t t he or y. Th i s i s, as I have n o t e d , bo t h a n a dv a nt a g e o f wr i t i ng
e t h n o g r a p h y wi t hi n t he Mar xi s t t r adi t i on (it pr o v i de s a r e a d y - ma d e ,
cl as s i c, a n d fami l i ar me a n s o f e v o k i n g t he mac r os oc i al o r de r ) a n d a
d i s a d v a n t a g e ( t he us e o f r e a d y - ma d e ma c r o i ma g e s t e nds t o cari -
c a t ur e t he dar kl y u n k n o wa b l e wor l d i n c ont r as t wi t h t he e t h n o -
gr aphi c al l y e l uc i da t e d wo r l d o f wo r k i n g cl ass s ubj ect s ) .
Ra t he r t ha n j u x t a p o s i n g e t h n o g r a p h i c r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns o f di ffer-
e n t cl as s es , Wi l l i s pr e s e nt s an e t h n o g r a p h y o f t he wo r k i n g cl ass, a n d
j u s t assumes a n e t h n o g r a p h i c pe r s pe c t i v e o n t he mi d d l e cl ass by c o n -
t rast ( i nci dent al l y, Wi l l i s is awar e o f t hi s pr o bl e m, as i ndi c a t e d i n t he
a b o v e quo t a t i o n: "But t hi s c a nno t be sai d all at onc e ! ") . T h u s , h e
ma k e s t he l ads real , but h e c ho o s e s t o rei fy t he l ar ge r s y s t e m i n wh i c h
t he y l i ve. Th i s is i nc ons i s t e nt wi t h t he spi ri t o f t he e t h n o g r a p h i c a p -
p r o a c h h e e l o que nt l y p r o mo t e s . Wh a t is "t he s ys t e m" for t h e l ads is
t he ot her' s ( t he mi d d l e cl ass) cul t ural f o r m. T h e t e xt ual p r o b l e m h e r e
is c ar e ful l y r e p r e s e n t i n g o n e f o r m o f l i fe whi l e c ar i c at ur i ng t ho s e o f
t he o t he r s b e y o n d it as "t he s ys t em. "
At s t ake h e r e is t he val i di t y o f t he " u n i n t e n d e d - c o n s e q u e n c e s "
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t he s y s t e m, l i nki ng e t h n o g r a p h i c l ocal es . Wh i l e Wi l l i s
l i mi t s h i ms e l f i n d e mo n s t r a t i n g t he wo r ki ng s o f t he s y s t e m as u n -
i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e s t o t he y o ut hs ' cul t ural e v o l ut i o n i n t he s c ho o l
a n d o n t he s h o p fl oor, for c ons i s t e nc y h e mus t al s o a r g u e t hat rel a-
t i ons between cl as s es , wh o s e cul t ural f o r ms are o f t e n s i t uat e d i n di ffe r -
e n t e t h n o g r a p h i c l ocal es (except for t he s c hool ) , a r e al s o c ha r a c t e r i z e d
by l i nka g e s o f u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e s e ma n a t i n g f r o m act i vi t y e t h-
no g r a phi c a l l y r e c o u n t e d . I f all part i ci pant s i n t he capi t al i st s oci al or -
d e r d e v e l o p c r e at i ve cul t ural f o r ms o f a c c o mmo d a t i o n a n d r e s i s t anc e
l i ke t he l ads , t h e n h o w o n t he cul t ural l evel , c an capi t al i s m a n d its
d o mi n a n t cl as s es be ma d e t o a p p e a r mo r e di r e c t e d, i de ol ogi c al l y
b o u n d , a n d i nt e nt i onal t han t he l ads as vi ct i ms? If t he s ys t e m t hor -
Et hnography in the Modern World System 187
I nv e s t i ng Me a n i n g i n t he Lads ' Li ves
Fi nal l y, all o f Willis's c o nc e pt ua l mo v e s d e p e n d o n hi s abi l i t y t o
p e r s u a d e t he r e a d e r t hat t he y o ut hs ' c ul t ur e is i n fact pos i t i ve l y me a n -
ingful a n d c r e at i ve , t hat t he y ar e o n t o s o me t h i n g , r at he r t ha n j u s t
b e i n g t he a l i e na t e d cl ass bo t h i n c o ndi t i o ns o f wo r k a n d spi ri t . T h e
cri t i cal mo v e is t o di s s oc i at e t he wo r l d o f wor k, whi c h t he l ads d o
c l e ar l y s e e as me a n i n g l e s s , f r o m t he wo r l d o f e x p e r i e n c e , wh i c h t he y
c e l e br a t e a n d creat i vel y e l abor at e as a f o r m o f r e be l l i on. Be c a u s e
Wi l l i s r e f e r s o nl y obl i que l y t o t he ri ches t c o nt e x t for t he pe r s ua s i v e
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f wo r k i n g cl ass c r e a t i v i t y y o ut h p o p u l a r c u l t u r e
h e i s l eft wi t h r a t he r t hi n mat e r i al s t h r o u g h whi c h t o e v o k e t he s t yl e
a n d creat i vi t y o f t he boys ' e x p e r i e n c e . T h e r e is t hus a s t r ai ni ng a n d
s pe c i al p l e a d i n g i n hi s r e p e a t e d prai s e o f t he me a n i n g f u l c o n t e n t o f
t he i r o ppo s i t i o na l c ul t ur e , whi c h, t h o u g h pas s i onat e l y as s e r t e d (as i f
t h e r e we r e mu c h mo r e t o it t ha n h e c an tel l us wi t hi n t he c o nf i ne s o f
e t h n o g r a p h y ) , still r i ngs hol l ow. For e x a mp l e , as Wi l l i s s t at es :
Thus the whol e nature of "really doi ng things", of bei ng physically active
in the worl d, of gi vi ng l abour power in a certain way, is seen by "the lads" not
si mpl y as a defensi ve measure, or as a negative response, but as an affirmation
and expressi on of what it seems has been genui nel y and creatively l earned. It
speaks of a distinct maturity, a practice of ability and perspecti ve, that others
are felt not to have. Despi te its intrinsic meani ngl essness manual l abour, at
least at this peri od in their lives, comes to mean for "the lads" in Hammer-
town an asserti on of their freedom and a specific kind of power in the worl d.
( 1 9 8 1 : 104)
Obv i o us l y , Wi l l i s has gr e at a dmi r a t i o n for t he me a n i n g t hat hi s s ub-
jects a r e abl e t o de r i v e f r o m t he me a n i n g l e s s n e s s o f t he i r pl ac e i n s o -
ci et y. But i n e x p r e s s i n g s uc h a dmi r a t i o n, h e c a n n o t e s c a pe s u g g e s t i n g
t he i na ut he nt i c i t y o f it a nd t he s e l f - de c e pt i o n i nv o l v e d, wi t ho ut a
mu c h mo r e di r e c t t r e a t me nt o f wo r k i n g cl ass po pul a r c ul t ur e . Wi l l i s
fi nal l y ret reat s f r o m hi s e n t h u s i a s m for t he l ads' o ppo s i t i o na l c ul t ur e s
o u g h l y o p e r a t e s by unwi t t i ng i n t e r d e p e n d e n c i e s a n d u n i n t e n d e d , but
c o o r d i n a t e d , c o n s e q u e n c e s , t h e n it wo u l d be di ffi cul t t o s us t ai n t he
c o n v e n t i o n a l way o f r e p r e s e n t i n g t he d o mi n a n t cl ass o r cl as s es i n
Ma r x i s t t he or y. As l o n g as Wi l l i s pe r s oni fi e s a n d c ar i c at ur e s t he s ys -
t e m b e y o n d t he e t h n o g r a p h i c r e pr e s e nt a t i o n o f t he wo r k i n g cl ass, h e
n e e d n o t c o me t o t e r ms wi t h t hi s di ffi cul ty. If he h a d i ns t e a d c o n -
s t r uc t e d hi s t e x t o n cros s - cl as s e t h n o g r a p h i c j ux t a po s i t i o ns , h e wo u l d
h a v e h a d t o fac e t he ful l i mpl i c at i ons o f hi s u n i n t e n d e d c o n s e q u e n c e s
mo r e s quar e l y.
i 8 8 GEORGE E. MARCUS
w h e n h e r e s p o n d s s ympat he t i c al l y t o t he c o mpl a i nt s o f fe mi ni s t s i n
t h e a f t e r wo r d, wr i t t e n for t he Ame r i c a n e di t i on o f Learning to Labour:
wh a t me a n i n g t he l ads ' l i ves ha v e for t h e m is bui l t o n t he o p p r e s s i o n
o f w o me n . I n t he t e xt i tsel f, Wi l l i s d o e s a c k n o wl e d g e i n pa s s i ng t he
r a c i s m a n d s e x i s m t hat f r a me hi s s ubj ect s ' o ppo s i t i o na l c ul t ur e , c e n -
t e r e d o n vi ri l e mas c ul i ni t y, but h e d o e s not c o n f r o n t t h e m s e r i ous l y
unt i l t he refl ect i ve a f t e r wo r d. So, i n a s e ns e , t he t e xt ual mo v e o f
i nv e s t i ng me a n i n g i n wha t mi g ht be v i e we d as me a n i n g l e s s , anar c hi c
l i ves , is d o n e i n a "he d o t h pr ot e s t t o o mu c h " ma n n e r , a n d finally wi t h
c o n s i d e r a b l e a mbi v a l e nc e . Yet, as t he r he t or i c ne c e s s ar y b o t h for c o n -
v i n c i n g e t h n o g r a p h i c r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns a nd cl ai ms d r a wn f r o m t h e m,
t h e s uc c e s s ful h a n d l i n g o f t hi s t e xt ual mo v e wo u l d s e e m f u n d a me n t a l .
Conclusion
Th e book is not an attempt to give a full anthropological account of the full
range of the whol e life process of twelve i ndi vi dual swhi ch i ndeed woul d
have had to take in much else, i ncl udi ng their physical and emoti onal devel -
opment , sexuality, experi ence in the family, and their detai l ed exi stence in a
whol e nei ghbourhood and sweep of local life. I was concentrati ng on certain
cul tural and symbolic processes within a relatively discrete "cultural form, "
focused mai nl y in the school, and on the transition to work whi ch t ouched
upon many of t hese thi ngs, certainly, but not as a neutral taxonomi cal chart-
i ng of t hem. Perhaps we shoul d call this a "cultural et hnography" to distin-
gui sh it from anthropol ogi cal approaches. (Willis 1 9 8 1 : 21718)
An t h r o p o l o g i s t s ma y be di s c o nc e r t e d a n d i rri t at ed by t he way i n
wh i c h Wi l l i s as e t h n o g r a p h e r di s t anc e s hi ms e l f f r o m t he s a me pr oj e c t
i n a n t h r o p o l o g y by t ri vi al i zi ng t he p u r p o s e o f t he l at t er as n o n d i r e c t e d ,
i nfl e xi bl e ho l i s m; t a x o n o mi c de s c r i pt i o n f o r i t s o wn s ake , wi t h o u t a
r e d e e mi n g p o i n t or a r g u me n t . No n e t h e l e s s , Wi l l i s d o e s p o s e t he c hal -
l e n g e for t he a nt hr o po l o g i c a l t r adi t i on o f e t h n o g r a p h y , u n d e r l a i n
p e r h a p s by a n unat t ai nabl e i deal o f ho l i s m no t t o be t a ke n l i t eral l y, t o
a ppl y e t h n o g r a p h y t o proj ect s o f br o a de r p u r p o s e a n d t he or e t i c al s i g-
ni fi c anc e , l i ke hi s o wn . Th i s ent ai l s t he wr i t i ng o f mi x e d - g e n r e t e xt s ,
s i mi l ar t o t ho s e e n v i s i o n e d by Ra y mo n d Wi l l i ams for soci al r e al i s m, i n
wh i c h e t h n o g r a p h i c r e pr e s e nt a t i o n a n d aut hor i t y wo u l d be a vari abl y
s al i e nt c o mp o n e n t . Co nt r a r y t o Willis's o u t mo d e d p e r c e p t i o n o f t he
s t at e o f e t h n o g r a p h y wi t hi n a nt hr o po l o g y , s uc h mi x e d - g e n r e t e xt s ,
s e ns i t i ve t o b o t h t he i n n e r l i ves o f s ubj ect s and t he na t ur e o f wo r l d
hi s t or i c al pol i t i cal e c o n o my , ar e a ma j o r c o n c e r n o f t he t r e n d o f
e x p e r i me n t a t i o n i n c o n t e mp o r a r y a n t h r o p o l o g y t hat we ha v e b e e n
di s c us s i ng .
Et hnography in the Modern World System 189
I s hal l ve r y bri efl y de al wi t h t wo o t he r ki nds o f mi x e d - g e n r e
t e xt s i n t he mo v e t o wa r d e t h n o g r a p h i e s t hat ambi t i ous l y t ake o n
p r o b l e ms o f soci al t he or y, pol i t i cal e c o n o my , a n d hi s t ory. I n o n e ki nd
o f t e xt , it is t he c o n v e n t i o n s o f e t h n o g r a p h i c r e pr e s e nt a t i o n t hat ar e
l eft i n t he b a c k g r o u n d , ma r g i na l i z e d, o r s u b o r d i n a t e d t o a p u r p o s e
t hat c o nt r i but e s t o t he e x p l a n a t i o n o f mo me n t o u s hi s t ori c e v e nt s ; i n
t he o t h e r ki nd o f t ext , e t h n o g r a p h i c r e pr e s e nt a t i o n is t he f o c us , i f n o t
o bs e s s i o n, whi l e t he wo r l d o f hi s t ori c pol i t i cal e c o n o my , a l t h o u g h
b r o u g h t i nt o t he t ext , ge t s subt l y s hi ft e d t o t he b a c k g r o u n d by a st rat -
e g y o f e v o c a t i o n r at he r t ha n by s ubs t ant i ve r e pr e s e nt a t i o n. I n b o t h
c as e s , t he t e xt s are wr i t t e n f r o m t he e x p e r i e n c e o f fieldwork a n d t he
a ut ho r i t y d e r i v e d f r o m it, but t he r e is n o s i mpl e c or r e l at i on b e t we e n
fieldwork d o n e a n d s ymme t r i c al t e xt as r e po r t a g e wr i t t e n f r o m t hat
e x p e r i e n c e . Ra t he r , i n bo t h cas es , a n d mo s t s al i ent l y i n t he first, e t h-
n o g r a p h i c de t ai l s har e s t e xt ual s pac e wi t h o t he r vari et i es o f wr i t i ng ,
i n c l u d i n g hi s t ori cal nar r at i ve , l i t erary e x e g e s i s , a n d a ut o bi o g r a phi c a l
c o n f e s s i o n .
Ethnography and Revolutionary Upheaval
T h e part i cul ar c o n c e r n h e r e is h o w t he wr i t i ng o f e t h n o g r a -
p h y c a n be a d a p t e d t o a ddr e s s cl assi c hi s t ori c que s t i o ns o f c a us a t i o n,
t h o s e t hat r e qui r e e x pl a na t i o ns o f maj or e ve nt s . T h e que s t i o n o f s o-
ci al a n d pol i t i cal r e v o l ut i o ns is a n e xc e l l e nt , pe r e nni a l cas e i n po i nt .
For t he e t h n o g r a p h e r , mu c h d e p e n d s o n s e r e ndi pi t y a n d o p p o r -
t u n i t y wh e r e a n d wh e n t he e t h n o g r a p h e r was s i t uat e d i n r e l a t i o n t o
t he e v e nt . Et h n o g r a p h y t hat has c o n c e r n e d i t sel f wi t h gr e at r e v o l u-
t i ons has us ual l y b e e n s i t uat e d t o r e c o u n t t he effect s o f r e v o l ut i o n o n
e v e r y d a y l i fe i n t he f o r m o f vi l l age s t udi e s . For me , t he mo s t vi vi d vi l -
l age - l e ve l e t h n o g r a p h y r e g i s t e r i ng pos t - r e vol ut i onar y c o ndi t i o ns i s
Wi l l i am Hi nt on' s Fanshen (1966), wi t h its s t ri ki ng a c c o unt o f h o w a r e v-
o l ut i o na r y s oci al t he o r y is a ppl i e d i n t he recl assi fi cat i on a n d r e s h a p -
i ng of l ocal vi l l age s oci et y.
But e t h n o g r a p h y c o ul d d o mu c h mo r e i f e t h n o g r a p h e r s i n o p -
p o r t u n e c i r c ums t a nc e s wr o t e a c c o unt s o f gr e at e r a mbi t i o n. Wi t h t he
c a r e f ul t e x t ua l u s e o f e t h n o g r a p h i c r e pr e s e nt a t i o n, t he y c o u l d e n t e r
i nt o t he c e nt r al de ba t e s a bo ut t he or i gi n a nd c o ur s e o f r e v o l ut i o na r y
Appendix: Short Takes on Other Experimental Uses of
Ethnography in Addressing Problems of Political Economy
and Social Theory
i g O GEORGE E. MARCUS
Et hnography in the Modern World System
T h e mo d e r n i s t f o r m o f t he es s ay pe r ha ps me e t s t hi s n e e d . It o p -
p o s e s c o nv e nt i o na l s ys t e mat i c anal ys i s , abs ol ve s t he wri t er f r o m hav-
i ng t o d e v e l o p t he br o a de r i mpl i c at i ons o f hi s t h o u g h t ( whi l e n o n e t h e -
l ess i ndi c a t i ng t hat t he r e are s uc h i mpl i c at i ons ) o r o f h a v i n g t o t i e
l o o s e e n d s t o g e t he r . T h e essayi st c an mys t i fy t he wo r l d, l e ave hi s s ub-
j e c t s ' ac t i ons o p e n - e n d e d as t o t he i r gl obal i mpl i c at i ons , f r o m a r he -
t ori cal p o s t u r e o f p r o f o u n d ha l f - unde r s t a ndi ng , h a l f - b e wi l d e r me n t
wi t h t he wo r l d i n whi c h t he e t h n o g r a p h i c s ubj ect a n d t he e t h n o g -
r a p h e r l i ve. Th i s is t hus a f o r m wel l s ui t e d t o a t i me s uc h as t he
p r e s e n t , wh e n pa r a di g ms are i n di s array, p r o b l e ms i nt ract abl e, a n d
p h e n o me n a o nl y part l y u n d e r s t o o d . It is finally a h e d g e o n t he hol i s t i c
c o mmi t me n t s o f a nt hr o po l o g i c a l e t h n o g r a p h y . T h e o p e n - e n d e d my s -
t ery o f p h e n o me n a part l y e x p l a i n e d ( "t here are al ways al t e r nat i ve
i nt e r pr e t at i ons ") is a n es s ent i al fe at ur e o f t he r he t or i c o f t he e x p e r i -
me n t a l po s t ur e . Unl i ke real i st e t h n o g r a p h y , whi c h c an be back-
g r o u n d e d wh e n t he t e xt s quar e l y a ddr e s s e s gr e at e v e nt s , t he mo d e r n -
ist e t h n o g r a p h i c es s ay g r a ppl e s wi t h t he t e xt ual p r o b l e m o f h o w t he
wo r l d i s t o s e r ve as b a c k d r o p o n c e c o nv e nt i o na l t e c hni que s o f real i st i c
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ar e r ul e d out .
Pe r h a p s t he mo s t i nt e ns i ve a n d expl i ci t refl ect i on o n t he es s ay as a
f o r m o f wr i t i ng a ppr o pr i a t e t o mo de r ni t y is t hat o f T h e o d o r Ad o r n o
( s e e Ka u f f ma n n 1981) , a n d es peci al l y hi s refus al t o i mp o s e o r d e r
t h r o u g h wr i t i ng o n a wo r l d wh o s e e s s e nc e is its f r a g me nt a r y c har ac -
t er. Ra t h e r t ha n a t t e mp t i n g t o r e pr e s e nt t he s ys t e m o r ma j o r e v e nt s
by a n o r de r l y a c c o u n t o f t h e m, t o whi c h r e al i s m is part i al , t he mo d e r n
es s ay pe r mi t s , o r r at he r s anc t i ons , t he ul t i mat e h e d g e i t l e gi t i mat e s
f r a g me n t a t i o n , r o u g h e d g e s , a nd t he s e l f- c ons c i ous a i m o f a c hi e v i ng
a n effect t hat di s t ur bs t he r e ade r . T h e es s ay i n t hi s mo d e r n i s t s e ns e is
t hus a par t i c ul ar l y a ppr o pr i a t e s e l f- c ons c i ous po s t ur e for t he mo s t
radi cal l y e x p e r i me n t a l e t h n o g r a p h i e s . T h e y wa nt t o c h a n g e t he c o n -
v e nt i o na l f o c us i n e t h n o g r a p h y a n d t hus t he pe r c e pt i o n o f r e a de r s .
As n o t e d , t he y shi ft foc us t o t he di al ogi c a nd t he r e c i pr oc i t y o f p e r
s pe c t i v e s i nv o l v e d i n any e t h n o g r a p h i c proj ect . T h e y wa nt t o say
s o me t h i n g a bo ut t he mo d e r n wo r l d as mu c h , i f no t mo r e , by sel f-
c o n s c i o u s a t t e nt i o n t o t he f o r m o f t he e t h n o g r a p h i c t e xt as by di r e c t
a t t e nt i o n t o t he b o u n d e d wo r l d o f t he e t h n o g r a p h i c s ubj ect .
T h e s ubt l e t y of t hi s us e o f t he essay is t hat wh e t h e r or no t t he s ub-
ject is e xpl i c i t l y v i e we d as l i vi ng i n a f r a g me n t e d wo r l d s y s t e m, at t he
l e ve l o f h e r e x p e r i e n c e a n d t hat o f t he e t h n o g r a p h e r t he b r o a d e r
wo r l d i s e v o k e d i ndi r e c t l y t h r o u g h t he a t t e mpt i n e t h n o g r a p h i c wri t -
i ng t o c o n v e y al i e n e x p e r i e n c e . Th i s is t he radi cal a p p r o a c h t o t he
r e pr e s e nt a t i o n o f cul t ural di ffe r e nc e i n a wor l d wh e r e t he s al i e nc e
o f d i f f e r e n c e has d i mi n i s h e d , at l east a mo n g We s t e r n mi d d l e cl ass
pr o c e s s e s t he ms e l v e s . Mi c hae l Fi scher' s Iran: From Religious Dispute to
Revolution (1980) is a pr i me , i f not uni que , e x a mp l e o f a mi x e d - g e n r e
a c c o u n t i n wh i c h t he rhet ori cal fixing o f t he e t hno g r a phe r ' s a ut ho r i t y
a n d t he c ar e ful i nt r o duc t i o n o f e t h n o g r a p h i c det ai l s h a p e a n a r g u -
me n t d e a l i n g wi t h t he c aus at i on a nd or i gi ns o f r e v o l ut i o n r at he r t h a n
i ts effect s . T h e cri t i cal e t h n o g r a p h i c r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns ar e t h o s e o f
Shi ' i t e r e l i gi ous e d u c a t i o n , whi c h Fi s c he r s t udi e d i n Qu m b e f o r e t h e
r e v o l ut i o n. T h e bo o k i t sel f o p e n s wi t h t he fixing o f e t h n o g r a p h i c a u-
t hori t y, wi t h Fi s c he r e n g a g e d i n di s c us s i on wi t h a n ayat ol l ah. I n d e e d ,
t hi s e s t abl i s he s t hat "he was t he r e , " but it d o e s mu c h mo r e t ha n t hi s ,
s i nc e it is a pr e s e nt a t i o n o f t he real i t y a nd me d i u m o f Shi ' i t e i d e o l o g y
a n d wo r l d vi e w i tsel f, i ns e par abl e f r o m t he st yl es o f di s c o ur s e i n wh i c h
i t i s e x p r e s s e d . Fr o m t hi s b e g i n n i n g o n wa r d , t he e t h n o g r a p h y o f Shi ' i t e
c ul t ur e is t h r e a d e d t h r o u g h a t ext t hat al t e r nat e s b e t we e n hi s t or i c al
nar r at i ve , mo me n t - t o - mo me n t r e po r t i ng o f r e v o l ut i o na r y e v e nt s , s o-
c i ol ogi c al cl ass anal ys i s , t e xt ual e x e g e s i s , a nd t he e t h n o g r a p h i c r e p r e -
s e nt a t i o n o f l i fe i n Qu m i tsel f. T h o u g h it is mu c h h a r d e r t o pi n d o w n
as e t h n o g r a p h y t han Willis's expl i ci t l y l abel l ed s t udy, Fi scher' s b o o k
n o n e t h e l e s s d e p e n d s , as do e s Willis's book, o n s t rat egi cal l y s i t uat e d
e t h n o g r a p h y , a n d s e l f- c ons c i ous l y s o. Th u s , wh e n t he e t h n o g r a p h e r
t ake s o n de ba t e s a bo ut mo me n t o u s e v e nt s ( and t he ma c r o s y s t e ms o f
pol i t i cal e c o n o my t he y i mpl i c at e ) , e t h n o g r a p h y i t sel f mo v e s f r o m c e n-
t er pl ac e t o pl ay a pe r i pat e t i c rol e i n t ext c ons t r uc t i on.
Ethnography and the Modern Essay: Undermining
Realist Representation in an Uncertain World
An d wha t o f t ho s e wh o vi e w t he r e pr e s e nt a t i o n o f l ar ge r , i m-
p e r s o n a l s y s t e ms wi t hi n t he nar r at i ve s pa c e o f e t h n o g r a p h y as u n -
t e na bl e , ye t are s ens i t i ve t o t r e nds i n pol i t i cal e c o n o my a n d still s e e t he
n e e d t o e v o k e t h e m i n s o me way? Th i s is t he p r e d i c a me n t o f t he mo r e
radi cal , mo d e r n i s t e x p e r i me n t s i n e t h n o g r a p h y t h o s e t u r n i n g away
f r o m real i st c o n v e n t i o n s t o wa r d e l abor at e e x p e r i me n t a t i o n wi t h f o r m
a n d a t t e nt i o n t o reci proci t y o f pe r s pe c t i ve s , t he di al ogi c c o n t e x t o f
fieldwork, a n d e v e n t o t he i nc o r po r a t i o n o f mul t i pl e aut hor i al voi c e s
i n t he c o n v e n t i o n a l s i ng l e - a ut ho r - c o nt r o l l e d t ext . Mu c h mo r e s t r o ng l y
t h a n Ra y mo n d Wi l l i ams , wh o ho l ds t o r e al i s m, s uc h e x p e r i me n t a l
wr i t e r s feel t hat radi cal l y i nt e r pr e t i ve e t h n o g r a p h i e s c an n e v e r g a i n
k n o wl e d g e o f t he real i t i es t hat stati sti cs c a n t h e y p e r h a p s d o n o t
e v e n r e c o g n i z e t he pri ori t y or pr i vi l e ge d val i di t y o f s uc h abs t ract l y
r e p r e s e n t e d real i t i es . T h e y s e e k r at he r a me a n s o f e v o k i n g t he wo r l d
wi t h o u t r e p r e s e n t i n g it.
i g2 GEORGE E. MARCUS
Et hnogr aphy in the Moder n World System 19 3
r ea d er s hi p s . Su c h e t hn o g r a p hy s eeks t o c o n v ey t he qua l i t y o f i ts s u b-
j ec t s ' e x p e r i e n c e , f r ee o f t he med i a t i o n o f c u s t o ms a n d i ns t i t ut i o ns ,
c o n c e p t s t ha t c a r r y a n e m be d d e d bi as t o wa r d s eei n g o r d er , w he r e o n
t he l ev el o f e x p e r i e n c e s u c h o r d er is n o t f el t o r i ma g i n ed t o t he s a me
d e g r e e . T h e e t hn o g r a p hy as m o d e r n es s ay p r o f o u n d l y d i s r u p t s t he
c o m m i t m e n t t o ho l i s m t ha t is at t he hea r t o f mo s t real i s t e t hn o g r a p hy
a n d t ha t is i n c r ea s i n g l y p r o bl ema t i c (as t he he d g e s i n Wi l l i s' s t ex t i ndi -
c a t e) . It d o e s n o t p r o mi s e t ha t its s ubj ec t s a r e pa r t o f a l a r g er o r d er .
I n s t ea d , by t he o p e n - e n d e d n e s s o f t he f o r m, it ev o kes a br o a d er wo r l d
o f u n c er t a i n o r d e r t hi s is t he p o s e t he mo d er n i s t es s ay c ul t i v a t es s u-
p r emel y . I n a s en s e, wi t h t he a p p r o p r i a t e r het o r i c o f t he es s ay, m o d -
er n i s t e t hn o g r a p hy d ec l i n es t he p r o bl ema t i c o f t he m o d e s o f et h-
n o g r a p hy s ens i t i v e t o pol i t i cal e c o n o my t ha t we ha v e d i s c u s s ed , whi l e
be i n g s i mi l a r l y mo t i v a t ed by t he p r ed i c a men t o f wr i t i n g e t hn o g r a p hy
i n r ec o g n i t i o n o f a wo r l d f o r whi c h t he t wen t i et h- c en t u r y e t hn o -
g r a p hi c p a r a d i g m n o w s eems i n a d eq u a t e. Th e r het o r i c o f t he m o d e r n
es s a y as a g u i d e t o c o n s t r u c t i n g e t hn o g r a p hy is mer el y v er y s t r o n g
me d i c i n e , c o mp a r e d t o Wi l l i s' s o r Fi s cher' s mo v e s t o me r g e t he p er -
s p ec t i v es o f e t hn o g r a p hy a n d pol i t i c al ec o n o my .
Ac t u a l e x a mp l e s o f e t hn o g r a p hy s et i n t he r het o r i c o f t he m o d e r n
es s a y a r e f ew, a l t ho u g h it is t he ki nd o f t ex t wr i t er s ei t her a s p i r e t o o r
en t er t a i n t he pos s i bi l i t y o f a n d t hen s hy a wa y f r o m i n ex p er i men t a l
t i mes . Vi n c e n t Cr a p a n z a n o ' s Tuhami: Portrait of a Moroccan ( 1980) a n d ,
m o r e r ec ent l y , hi s Waiting (1985) a r e p er ha p s t he mo s t p r o mi n e n t ex -
i s t i ng ex p er i men t a l et hn o g r a p hi es t ha t c a n be v i ewed as e mp l o y i n g
t he r het o r i c o f t he m o d e r n es s ay. Th e l at t er wo r k i n pa r t i c ul a r , whi c h
u s es t he d i a l o g i c c a p t u r i n g o f mu l t i p l e v o i c es t o e x p o s e t he c o n d i t i o n
o f e n t r a p me n t a m o n g t he whi t es o f c o n t emp o r a r y So u t h Af r i c a , r e-
v ea l s t he i n her en t c o n c er n o f s u c h mo d er n i s t t ec hn i q u es wi t h pol i t i c a l
e c o n o my . Far f r o m bei n g i ns ul a r a n d p a r o c hi a l , t he d i s c o u r s e o f t he
whi t es i n t he p l ea s a n t So u t h Af r i c a n c o u n t r y s i d e is f ul l o f " kn o wi n g "
i r o n y a bo u t t hei r o w n p o s i t i o n a n d t ha t o f t hei r s oc i et y g l oba l l y . Li ke-
wi s e, i n Tuhami, t he f o r m o f t he t ex t as wel l as its s u bj ec t a s pi r i t -
p o s s es s ed p r o l et a r i a n t i l ema ker s er v es as a s t a t emen t a bo u t c o l o n i a l
a n d p o s t - c o l o n i a l Al g er i a n s oc i et y.
A s u s t a i n ed t o l er a n c e o f i n c o mp l et en es s a n d i n d et er mi n a t en es s
a bo u t t he o r d er i n t he wo r l d t ha t l i es be y o n d t he ex p er i en c e o f e t hn o -
g r a p hi c s ubj ec t s , i n t en s el y f o c u s ed u p o n , s eems t o be a key r het o r i c a l
ma r k er i n mo d er n i s t et hn o g r a p hy . For ex a mp l e, o n e c o m m o n i d ea o f
t ex t c o n s t r u c t i o n is t o s t r i ng t o g et her a s et o f s ep a r a t e es s a y s d ea l i n g
wi t h d i f f er en t t he me s o r i n t er p r et a t i o n s o f t he s a me s ubj ec t (i f i ts ac-
t ua l s t y l e w er e n o t t ha t o f t he c o c ks u r e En g l i s h es s ayi s t , c o mbi n e d
wi t h a hea v y d o s e o f s c i ent i s t i c c er t a i nt y , Gr eg o r y Ba t es o n' s Naven
[ 1936] mi g ht be s een i n i ts a c t ua l na r r a t i v e s t r u c t u r e a n d s pi r i t as a n
ea r l y e x a m p l e o f t he e t hn o g r a p hy as m o d e r n es s ay; i n d e e d it wa s
wr i t t en d u r i n g a t i me o f p r o f o u n d g l oba l u n c er t a i n t y l i ke t he c o n t e m-
p o r a r y p er i o d ; t he o d d n e s s o f Naven is its mi n g l i n g o f beha v i o r i s t a n d
he r me n e u t i c c o n c er n s ) . Fu r t her mo r e, t he e t hn o g r a p hy as es s a y o f t en
d ef i n es i t s el f as s u c h by a p r o mi n e n t me t a c o mme n t a r y o n t he di f f i -
c ul t i es o f d o i n g e t hn o g r a p hy i n t he m o d e r n wo r l d , whi l e d o i n g it. I n
g en er a l , t hen , it i s t he r ev ea l ed mo d er n i s t c o n s c i o u s n es s o f t he et h-
n o g r a p hi c wr i t er , t r o u bl ed by t he i n t er p r et i v e t as k at ha n d , t ha t e m -
be d s i n t he t ex t r ef er en c es t o t h br o a d er wo r l d s he a n d her s ubj ec t s
s ha r e. I v i ew mo d er n i s t ex p er i men t s as t he c u r r en t o u t er l i mi t t o t he
wa y s e t hn o g r a p hy as a ma t t er o f t ex t ua l s t r a t eg y ha n d l es t he mi c r o -
ma c r o i n t eg r a t i o n p r o bl e m wi t h whi c h t hi s p a p er beg a n .
MI CHAEL M. J . FI SCHER
Ethnicity and the Post-Modern
Arts of Memory
I
Co n c l u s i o n s a n d Re- Vi s i o n s
History as celebrated by Mnemosoune is a deciphering of the invisible, a
geography of the supernatural. . . . It throws a bridge between the world of
the living and that beyond to which everything that leaves the light of day
must return. It brings about an "evocation" of the past. . . . Memory
appears as a source of immortality. . . . JEAN-PIEKRE VERNANT
Our period is not defined by the triumph of technology for technology's sake,
as it is not defined by art for art's sake, as it is not defined by nihilism. It is
action for a world to come, transcendence of its periodtranscendence of
self which calls for epiphany of the Other. EMANUEL LEVINAS
Thi s p a p er br i n g s t o g et her t wo i ndi r ec t l y r el a t ed e t hn o -
g r a p hi c p he n o m e n a o f t he 1970 s a n d t g8os t he florescence o f et h-
ni c a u t o bi o g r a p hy a n d t he a c a d emi c f a s c i na t i o n wi t h t ex t u a l t heo r i es
o f d e f e r r e d , hi d d e n , o r o c c u l t ed m e a n i n g
1
i n o r d er t o as k w he t he r
NOTE: My use of "post-mode rn " i n this essay follows that of Jean-Franoi s Lyotard
(1979): i t is that mome n t of mode rn i sm that defi nes i tself against an i mme di ate past
("post") an d that is skeptically i nqui si ti ve about all grounds of authori ty, assumpti on, or
con ve n ti on ("mode rn i sm"). Lyotard's de fi n i ti on allows for cycles of mode rn i sm that de -
cay an d renew, as we ll as drawi n g atte nti on to the various techniques for que sti oni ng
an d de ori e n ti n g/re ori e n ti n gte chn i que s ran gi n g from surreali sm i n the arts to de ve l-
opme n ts i n the n atural sciences (fractals, catastrophe theory, pragmati c paradoxe s, un -
deci dables). Alte rn ati ve defi ni ti ons of post-moderni sm as ei ther an unlabe le d afte r-
math of early twe nti e th-ce ntury mode rn i smsor, as Fredri c Jameson would have i t, a
re tre at f rom poli ti cally charged mode rn i sm back i nto bourgeois complace n cye mpty
the te rm of any substantive me an i n g an d (i n Jameson's case) assert unsubstanti ated
negati ve poli ti cal evaluati ons. An alli ed usage of post-mode rn to that e mploye d he re ,
an d to whi ch I am also i n de bte d, is that of Stephen Tyle r (see this volume ).
1. For reasons of space, this second phe n ome n on wi ll have to re mai n an un de r-
song, on ly allude d to peri odi cally. "Occulted" is a key te rm from Stephen Tyler's essay i n
this volume , an essay wi th whi ch the present paper is i n te n de d to resonate. "De fe rre d"
i nvokes Jacques Derri da's efforts to show how metaphors de pe n d on an d create new
di splacements f rom meani ngs i n other texts, how no text exists i n and of itself. "Hi d-
de n " re fe rs to Walte r Benjami n's attempts at "revelati on" or recovery of meani ngs sedi-
Ethni ci ty and t he Arts of Memory 195
t hey c a n r ev i t a l i ze o u r ways o f t hi n ki n g a bo u t ho w c u l t u r e o p er a t es
a n d r ef a s hi o n o u r p r a c t i c e o f e t hn o g r a p hy as a m o d e o f c ul t ur a l cri t i -
c i s m. Ju s t as t he t r avel a c c o u n t a n d t he e t hn o g r a p hy s er v ed as f o r ms
f o r ex p l o r a t i o n s o f t he "pr i mi t i v e" wo r l d ( s ee Prat t i n t hi s v o l u me ) a n d
t he r eal i s t n o v el s er v ed as t he f o r m f o r ex p l o r a t i o n s o f bo u r g e o i s
m a n n e r s a n d t he s el f i n ear l y i ndus t r i a l s oc i et y , s o et hn i c a u t o bi o g r a -
p hy a n d a u t o bi o g r a p hi c a l f i c t i on c a n p er ha p s s er v e as key f o r ms f o r
ex p l o r a t i o n s o f pl ur al i s t , po s t - i ndus t r i a l , l at e t wen t i et h- c en t u r y s oc i et y .
T h e r ec en t p r o l i f er a t i o n o f a u t o bi o g r a p hi c a l wo r ks t ha t t a ke et h-
ni c i t y as a f oc a l p u z z l e s eems t o be p o o r l y a c c o mmo d a t e d wi t hi n t he
t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i o l o g i c a l l i t er a t ur e o n et hni c i t y . Wo r ks s u c h as Ma x i n e
H o n g Ki ng s t o n' s The Woman Warrior (1976), Mi c ha el Ar l en' s Passage to
Ararat ( 19 7 5 ) , a n d Ma r i t a Gul den' s Migrations of the Heart (1983) a r e
i n a d eq u a t el y c o m p r e he n d e d t hr o u g h di s c us s i o ns o f g r o u p s ol i da r i t y ,
t r a di t i o na l v a l u es , f a mi l y mobi l i t y , pol i t i cal mo bi l i z a t i o n, o r s i mi l a r s o -
c i o l o g i c a l c a t eg o r i es . I mmi g r a n t n o v el s o f r ebel l i o n a g a i ns t t he f a mi l y ,
i n t er ma r r i a g e, a n d a c c u l t u r a t i o n a r e mo r e r el ev a n t t o t hes e s o -
c i o l o g i c a l c o n c ep t i o n s .
Wha t t he n e w e r wo r ks br i n g ho m e f o r c ef ul l y i s , first, t he p a r a d o x -
i cal s en s e t ha t et hni c i t y is s o me t hi n g r ei n v en t ed a n d r ei n t er p r et ed i n
ea c h g e n e r a t i o n by ea c h i n d i v i d u a l a n d t ha t it is o f t en s o me t hi n g
q u i t e p u z z l i n g t o t he i n d i v i d u a l , s o me t hi n g o v er whi c h he o r s he l a c ks
c o n t r o l . Et hni c i t y is n o t s o me t hi n g t ha t is s i mp l y p a s s ed o n f r o m g e n -
er a t i o n t o g en er a t i o n , t a u g ht a n d l ea r n ed ; it is s o me t hi n g d y n a mi c ,
o f t en u n s u c c es s f u l l y r ep r es s ed o r a v o i d ed . It c a n be p o t en t e v e n w he n
n o t c o n s c i o u s l y t a u g ht ; it is s o me t hi n g t ha t i ns t i t ut i o na l i z ed t ea c h-
i n g eas i l y ma k e s c ha uv i ni s t , s t eri l e, a n d s uper f i c i a l , s o me t hi n g t ha t
e m e r g e s i n f u l l o f t e n l i ber a t i n g f l o wer o n l y t hr o u g h s t r u g g l e. I n -
s o f a r as et hn i c i t y is a d eep l y r o o t ed emo t i o n a l c o m p o n e n t o f i dent i t y ,
it i s o f t en t r a n s mi t t ed l es s t hr o u g h c o g n i t i v e l a n g u a g e o r l ea r n i n g ( t o
w hi c h s o c i o l o g y ha s a l mo s t ent i r el y r es t r i c t ed i t s el f ) t ha n t hr o u g h
me n te d i n layers of language . Othe rs who have become theoreti ci ans of i nterest for the
pre se nt mood i n clude Harol d Bloom (li ke De rri da, concerned wi th i n te rte xtuali tyi n
his te rms, "the an xi e ty of i n flue n ce "); Si gmun d Fre ud an d Jacques Lacan (as semioticians
i nte re ste d i n the dynami cs of what Fre ud called "the soul," locati ng what is repressed,
i mpli ci t, me di ate d, or what Tyle r calls the "unsai d"); Wi l he l m Di lthe y, Cli fford Ge e rtz,
an d Vi ctor Tur n e r (as e xplori n g constructivist understandi ngs of symbolic me an i n g, i n
Geertz's phrase "models of an d models for"); Han s-Ge org Gadame r (for his arti culati on
of me an i n g eli ci ted through the juxtaposi ti on of hi stori cal hori zons and cultural tradi -
ti ons); Fri e dri ch Ni etzsche an d Mi che l Foucault (for thei r i nqui ri es i nto the he ge moni c
powe r of lan guage ); Max an d Uri e l We i n re i ch an d Mi che l Serres (for the i r concerns
wi th i n te r-re fe re n ce an d i nterli ngui sti cs). I t is no coincidence that the i nterest i n these
authorsre n e we d i nterest i n the case of Fre ud, Ni etzsche, an d Be n jami n (a re acti on
agai nst the Ne w Cri ti ci sm of the 1960s i n li te rature , an d against Parsoni ani sm i n an -
thropology) appears contemporaneously wi th the florescence of ethni c autobi ography,
l i i e r e is a common ali ty of i n qui ry characteristic of the present mome n t.
196 MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
Ethnicity and the Arts of Memory
197
t rol , a n d ye t r e qui r e s a n e ffor t o f s e l f- de fi ni t i on.
2
Et hni ci t y i n its c o n -
t e mp o r a r y f o r m i s t hus ne i t he r , as t he s oci ol ogi cal l i t erat ure wo u l d
ha v e it, s i mpl y a ma t t e r o f g r o u p pr oc e s s ( s uppo r t s ys t e ms ) , n o r a
ma t t e r o f t r ans i t i on ( as s i mi l at i on) , n o r a mat t e r o f s t r a i g ht f o r wa r d
t r a ns mi s s i o n f r o m g e n e r a t i o n t o g e ne r a t i o n ( s oci al i zat i on) .
I n s o me ways , t he c o n t e mp o r a r y r e i nv e nt i o n o f e t hni c i de nt i t y
t h r o u g h r e me mb e r i n g is n o t h i n g ne w. T h e Py t h a g o r e a n n o t i o n o f
me mo r y ( whi c h fas c i nat e d Pl at o) al s o c o nc e i v e d o f t he wo r l d as o n e
o f o bl i v i o n, o f s uperfi ci al a ppe a r a nc e s b e h i n d whi c h l ay t he h i d d e n
real i t i es . On l y t he s oul t hat e n g a g e d i n me mo r y e x e r c i s e s , i n r e -
c o l l e c t i o ns , i n pr e s e r v i ng t he k n o wl e d g e o f t hi s wo r l d wh e n p r o c e e d -
i n g t o t he n e x t a n d a v o i di ng t he wat e r s o f Le t he ( or Ame l e s ) wh e n
r e t u r n i n g t o t hi s wo r l d f r o m t he cel est i al r e al ms wo u l d be abl e t o e s -
c a p e t he c yc l e s o f r e bi r t h, t he fl ux o f me a n i n g l e s s r e pe t i t i ons , a n d t he
e n t r o p y t o wa r d r e duc t i o ns o f h u ma n be i ng s i nt o me c ha ni c a l o r be s -
ti al c i phe r s . On l y t h r o u g h me mo r y , h o n e d by c o ns t a nt e x e r c i s e a n d
e ffor t , c o u l d o n e p u r g e t he si ns o f pas t l i ves, pur i fy t he s oul , a s c e n d
a n d e s c a p e f r o m obl i vi ous r e pe t i t i ons .
3
So , t o o , c o n t e mp o r a r y e t hni c r e - c r e at i ons are g i v e n i mp e t u s by
t he fe ar n o t me r e l y o f b e i n g l e ve l l e d i nt o i de nt i c al i ndus t r i al h o mi -
ni ds , but o f l o s i ng a n et hi cal (cel est i al ) vi s i on t hat mi g h t s e r ve t o r e n e w
t he s el f a n d e t hni c g r o u p as wel l as c ont r i but e t o a ri cher, po we r f ul l y
d y n a mi c pl ural i s t s oci et y. I n e x p l o r i n g why whi t e Ame r i c a p r o d u c e s
b i o g r a p h i e s , whi l e bl ack Ame r i c a p r o d u c e s a ut o bi o g r a phi e s , Ar n o l d
Ra mp e r s a d (1983) po i nt s o u t t hat a ut o bi o g r a phy (at l east i n its mo s t
p o t e n t f o r ms ) is pr e di c a t e d o n a mo r a l vi s i on, o n a vi brant r e l at i on
b e t we e n a s e ns e o f s el f a n d a c o mmu n i t y , o n a r e t r os pe c t i ve o r p r o -
phe t i c a p p e a l t o a c o mmu n i t y o f spi ri t , be it r e l i gi ous or soci al , o r o n
wha t Ha n s - Ge o r g Ga d a me r mi g h t call a feel for a mo r a l t r adi t i on.
Et hni c anxi e t y, t hat f e e l i ng we l l i ng u p o u t o f my s t e r i o us d e p t h s , i s
n o t t he o nl y i nt e r e s t i ng as pe c t o f c o n t e mp o r a r y e x p r e s s i o n s o f e t h-
ni ci t y. Ra t he r , t he y s e e m t o be a refl ex o f mo r e g e ne r a l c ul t ur al p r o -
c e s s e s . T o a We s t e r ne r , l at e t we nt i e t h- c e nt ur y s oci et y gl obal l y s e e ms t o
be c ha r a c t e r i z e d by s ur fac e h o mo g e n i z a t i o n , by t he e r o s i o n o f publ i c
e n a c t me n t s o f t r adi t i on, by t he l oss o f ri t ual a nd hi s t ori cal r o o t e d n e s s .
Cul t ur a l e l e me n t s s e e m t o be i nc r e as i ngl y f r a g me n t e d , vol i t i onal ,
arbi t rary ma t t e r s o f pe r s o na l st yl e. Ce l e br at i ons a n d ri t ual s i n t he
Un i t e d St at e s , for i ns t anc e , o f t e n s e e m t o be i roni c, r e fl e c t i ng g o o d -
n a t u r e d no nbe l i e f , s kept i cal , he do ni s t i c , a n d c o mme r c i a l i n o v e r t o n e .
4
An d yet , cl earl y, t he s e are r e ac t i ons t o t he s uperfi ci al i t i es of s uc h sit-
i. On Freud's usage, see Bruno Bettleheim (1983).
3. On Pythagorean and Platonic notions of memory, see Jean-Pierre Vernant
(111(15/1983).
,|. Wi l i oml ) K. Washburn, in Victor Turner, ed. i g82, 299.
p r o c e s s e s a n a l o g o u s t o t he d r e a mi n g a n d t r a ns f e r e nc e o f p s y c h o -
anal yt i c e n c o u n t e r s .
Second, wha t is di s c o v e r e d a n d r e i n v e n t e d i n t he n e w wo r ks a b o u t
e t hni c i t y i s, p e r h a p s i ncreas i ngl y, s o me t h i n g ne w: t o be Ch i n e s e -
Ame r i c a n is no t t he s a me t hi ng as b e i n g Ch i n e s e i n Ame r i c a . I n t hi s
s e n s e t h e r e is n o r ol e mo d e l for b e c o mi n g Ch i n e s e - Ame r i c a n . It i s a
ma t t e r o f finding a voi c e o r st yl e t hat d o e s no t vi ol at e one' s s e ve r al
c o mp o n e n t s o f i dent i t y. I n part , s uc h a pr o c e s s o f a s s u mi n g a n e t hni c
i de nt i t y is a n i ns i s t e nc e o n a pl ural i st , mul t i di me ns i o na l , o r mul t i -
f a c e t e d c o n c e p t o f sel f: o n e c an be ma n y di ffe r e nt t hi ngs , a n d t hi s
p e r s o n a l s e n s e c a n be a c r uc i bl e for a wi de r soci al e t ho s o f pl ur al i s m.
Third, t he s e a r c h or s t r uggl e for a s e ns e o f e t hni c i de nt i t y is a
( r e - ) i nv e nt i o n a n d di s c ove r y o f a vi s i on, bo t h et hi cal a n d f ut ur e -
o r i e n t e d . Wh e r e a s t he s e ar c h for c o h e r e n c e is g r o u n d e d i n a c o n n e c -
t i on t o t he pas t , t he me a n i n g abs t r ac t e d f r o m t hat pas t , a n i mp o r t a n t
c r i t e r i o n o f c o h e r e n c e , i s a n e t hi c wor kabl e for t he f ut ur e . S u c h vi -
s i ons c a n t ake a n u mb e r o f f o r ms : t he y c an be bo t h cul t ural l y s peci fi c
( e . g. , t he bi bl i cal s t rai ns o f bl ack vi ct ori es o v e r o ppr e s s i o n) a n d di al e c -
t i cal l y f o r me d as cri t i ques o f h e g e mo n i c i de o l o g i e s ( e. g. , as al t er-
nat i ve s t o t he me l t i n g po t r he t or i c o f as s i mi l at i on t o t he bl a nd, ne ut r a l
s t yl e o f t he c o n f o r mi s t 1950s).
T w o pr e l i mi na r y e x a mp l e s are bo t h r e t r os pe c t i ve a c c o unt s e x -
p r e s s i n g s ur pr i s e at t he p o we r o f pol i t i cal l y c h a r g e d crys t al l i zat i ons .
I n American Immigrants in Israel ( 1981) , Ke vi n Av r uc h q u o t e s a n Ame r i -
c a n w h o wryl y recal l s e x p l o d i n g at SDSe r s wh o at t ac ke d Is rael i n
1967, g i v i n g t h e m Israel ' s c as e i n gr e at det ai l : "At t he t i me , I di dn' t
k n o w wh e r e t hat at t i t ude a n d all t hat i nf o r ma t i o n c a me f r o m. " Si mi -
l arl y, Mar i t a Go l d e n r e me mb e r s b e i n g i n hi g h s c hool wh e n Ma r t i n
Lu t h e r Ki ng was as s as s i nat ed:
The days after King's deat h saw an invisible barricade of tensi ons rise bet ween
the whi te and black students at Western Hi gh School. The black students di d
not know t hen that in a few mont hs many of us woul d repudi ate our whi te
fri ends, no l onger finding t hem "relevant." Fi ndi ng instead their mere pres-
ence i nconsi stent with a "commi tment to the struggle," whi ch is what our lives
became overni ght, (p. 15)
T h e s e pa s s a g e s i l l us t rat e a l ack o f expl i ci t k n o wl e d g e , a s e ns e o f t he
b u r i e d c o mi n g t o t he s ur fac e , a n d t he c o mp u l s i o n o f a n "i d- l i ke"
for c e . T h e id, as Fr e ud ori gi nal l y us e d t he t e r m, was me r e l y das Es,
t he i t - ne s s o f e x p e r i e n c e , ma d e part i cul arl y p o t e n t for t he Ge r ma n -
s p e a k i n g c hi l d, wh o i s r e f e r r e d t o i n t he ne ut e r da s Kindand w h o
o nl y g r a dua l l y d e v e l o p s a n a c k n o wl e d g e d , e n g e n d e r e d , i n d i v i d u a t e d
sel f. T h e r e c o g ni t i o n o f s o me t h i n g a bo ut one' s es s ent i al b e i n g t hus
s e e ms t o s t e m f r o m o ut s i de one' s i mme d i a t e c o ns c i o us ne s s a n d c o n -
i g 8 MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
u a t i o n s : as Be n j a mi n a n d Fr eu d i n di f f er i ng wa y s p o i n t ed o u t , l a n-
g u a g e i t s el f c o n t a i n s s e d i me n t e d l ayer s o f emo t i o n a l l y r es o n a n t met a -
p ho r s , k n o w l e d g e , a n d a s s o c i a t i o ns , whi c h w he n p a i d a t t en t i o n t o c a n
be e x p e r i e n c e d as d i s c o v er i es a n d r ev el a t i o ns . I n d e e d , m u c h o f t he
c o n t e mp o r a r y p hi l o s o p hi c a l m o o d (i n l i t erary c r i t i c i s m a n d a n t hr o -
p o l o g y , as wel l as i n p hi l o s o p hy ) is t o i n q u i r e i n t o wha t is hi d d e n i n
l a n g u a g e , wha t is d ef er r ed by s i g ns , wha t is p o i n t ed t o , wha t i s r e-
p r es s ed , i mpl i c i t , o r med i a t ed .
Wha t t hu s s e e m i ni t i al l y t o be i ndi v i dua l i s t i c a u t o bi o g r a p hi c a l
s ea r c hi n g s t u r n o u t t o be r ev el a t i o ns o f t r a di t i o ns , r e- c o l l ec t i o n s o f
d i s s emi n a t ed i dent i t i es a n d o f t he d i v i n e s p a r ks f r o m t he br ea k i n g
o f t he v es s el s . The s e a r e a m o d e r n v er s i o n o f t he Py t ha g o r ea n art s o f
m e m o r y : r et r o s p ec t i o n t o g a i n a v i s i o n f o r t he f ut ur e. In s o be c o mi n g ,
t he s ea r c hes a l s o t u r n o u t t o be p o wer f u l c r i t i ques o f s ev er a l c o n t e m-
p o r a r y r het o r i c s o f d o mi n a t i o n .
I n a p er i o d w he n t he wr i t i ng a n d r ec ep t i o n o f e t hn o g r a p hy a r e
s ubj ec t s o f m u c h i nt er es t a n d d eba t e a m o n g a n t hr o p o l o g i s t s ( s ee
Ma r c u s a n d Fi s c her 1986), t he p er s p ec t i v es o n et hni c i t y e m bo d i e d i n
a u t o bi o g r a p hi c a l l i t er a t ur e s u g g es t n ew ways o f r ea d i n g a n d wr i t i n g
e t hn o g r a p hi e s .
II
Di s s emi n a t i o n s a n d Pr o - Vo c a t i o ns
The word's power does not consist in its explicit contentif, generally
speaking, there is such a thing-but in the diversion that is involved in it.
CHAIM NACHMAN BIALIK
T h e s t r a t eg y o f t hi s p a p er is t hr eef o l d : et hn o g r a p hi c l i s t en-
i n g , a t t en t i o n t o c ul t ur a l c r i t i c i s m, a n d a t t en t i o n t o ex p er i men t a l wr i t -
i n g . Fi rs t o f al l , t he s t r a t eg y i s t o l i s t en t o t he v o i c es o f s ev er a l et hn i c
g r o u p s t hr o u g h a u t o bi o g r a p hi es . Au t o bi o g r a p hy wa s c ho s e n bec a u s e,
l i ke e t hn o g r a p hy , it ha s a c o mmi t me n t t o t he a c t ua l . Au t o bi o g r a p hi c a l
f i c t i o n wa s al s o i n c l u d ed bec a u s e t he mo d a l i t i es o f v er a c i t y i n o u r a g e
c a n n o l o n g er (i f t hey ev er c o u l d ) be l i mi t ed t o t he c o n v en t i o n s o f r ea l -
i s m. I n d e e d , as Mu r r a y Ba u mg a r t e n r i g ht l y p o i n t s o u t , ev er s i nc e t he
ma s s i v e l i ng ui s t i c d i s t u r ba n c es o f Na z i Deu t s c h, St al i ni s t Ru s s i a n , a n d
o t he r f o r ms o f t wen t i et h- c en t u r y d o u bl e- t hi n k, i n c l u d i n g t he d e a d e n -
i n g l a n g u a g e o f Ame r i c a n of f i c i al es e, "real i s m as t r us t i n l a n g u a g e is
n o l o n g e r r ea di l y avai l abl e"; it is as i f "s urreal i s t mo n t a g e , c ubi s t c ol -
l a g e, a n d ex i s t ent i a l i s t p a r a bl e a r e t he o n l y a p p r o p r i a t e pos s i bi l i t i es "
(1982 : 1 1 7 ) . Mo r eo v er , t he c o n v en t i o n s o f r ea l i s m, es p ec i a l l y as pr a c -
t i c ed i n t r a di t i o na l et hn o g r a p hy , t hems el v es c o n t a i n a n d a r e m a d e c o -
he r e n t t hr o u g h a l l eg o r i c a l met a p ho r s ( s ee Cl i f f or d i n t hi s v o l u me ) .
Ethni ci ty and t he Arts of Memory
! 9 9
I n d i r ec t i o n ( v i de Bi al i k a bo v e) is i n her en t i n l a n g u a g e u s e a n d s ho u l d
be ex p l o i t ed c o n s c i o u s l y r a t her t ha n i g n o r ed , d en i ed , a n d a l l o wed t o
mi s l ea d . Du r i n g t he pa s t t wo d ec a d es et hn i c a u t o bi o g r a p her s ha v e
p r o d u c e d br i l l i ant ex p l o r a t i o n s a i med at r ed i s c o v er i n g t he s o u r c es o f
l a n g u a g e , a n d t her eby al s o t he n a t u r e o f m o d e r n real i t y.
I n t hi n k i n g a bo u t ho w t o r ea d , a na l y z e, a n d i n t er p r et t hes e c o n -
t e mp o r a r y a u t o bi o g r a p hi c a l t ex t s , it o c c u r r ed t o m e t ha t t he et hn i c
s ea r c h is a mi r r o r o f t he bi f oc al i t y t ha t ha s a l wa y s be e n pa r t o f t he
a n t hr o p o l o g i c a l r a t i o na l e: s eei n g o t her s a g a i ns t a ba c k g r o u n d o f o u r -
s el v es , a n d o u r s el v es a g a i ns t a ba c k g r o u n d o f o t her s . Th e j u x t a p o s i n g
o f ex o t i c c u s t o ms t o f a mi l i a r o n es , o r t he r el a t i v i zi ng o f t a ken - f o r -
g r a n t ed a s s u mp t i o n s , ha s al ways be e n t he ki n d o f c ul t ur a l c r i t i c i s m
p r o mi s e d by a n t hr o p o l o g y . Thi s bi f ocal i t y, or r ec i p r o c i t y o f p er s p ec -
t i v es , ha s be c o m e i nc r ea s i ng l y i mp o r t a n t i n a wo r l d o f g r o w i n g i n t er -
d e p e n d e n c e be t w e e n s oc i et i es : me mbe r s o f c u l t u r es d es c r i bed a r e i n -
c r ea s i n g l y cri t i cal r ea d er s o f et hn o g r a p hy . No l o n g er c a n r het o r i c a l
f i g u r es o f t he "pr i mi t i v e" o r t he "ex ot i c " be u s ed wi t h i mp u n i t y : a u d i -
en c es ha v e be c o me mu l t i p l e. "Bi f ocal i t y" mo r e o v e r mu s t i n c r ea s i n g l y
be a s ho r t ha n d f o r "t wo o r mo r e" c u l t u r es i n j u x t a p o s i t i o n a n d c o m-
p a r i s o n . Su c c es s f u l c r o s s - c ul t ur a l c o mp a r i s o n r eq u i r es at l eas t a t hi r d
c a s e t o a v o i d s i mpl i s t i c bet t er - wo r s e j u d g me n t s , t o f o s t er mu l t i p l e a x es
o f c o mp a r i s o n ,
5
a n d t o ev o k e a s en s e o f t he l a r g er u n i v er s es i n w hi c h
c u l t u r es a r e s i t ua t ed ( s ee al s o Ma r c u s i n t hi s v o l u me) . Cu l t u r es a n d
et hn i c i t i es as s et s a r e m o r e l i ke f a mi l i es o f r es embl a n c es t ha n s i mp l e
t y p o l o g i c a l t r ees .
T h e et hn i c , t he et hn o g r a p her , a n d t he c r o s s - c ul t ur a l s c ho l a r i n
g en er a l o f t en beg i n wi t h a p er s o n a l emp a t het i c "dua l t r a c ki ng , " s eek-
i n g i n t he o t her c l ar i f i c at i on f or p r o c es s es i n t he sel f . On e t hi n ks p er -
ha p s o f t he g r ea t Is l a mi c s c ho l a r a n d Ca t ho l i c my s t i c Lo u i s Ma s s i g n o n ,
w ho u s e d Su f i s m as a p r o x y f o r hi s o wn d i l emma s i n a p o s t - Chr i s t i a n ,
a nt i - my s t i c a l wo r l d . Ex a mp l es c o u l d be mu l t i p l i ed . Am o n g t he mo s t
s ens i t i v e a n d bes t a n t hr o p o l o g i c a l wo r ks a r e t ho s e t ha t br i n g p er s o n a l
e n g a g e m e n t s o f t hi s s or t i n t o pl ay, al bei t us ua l l y o n l y as a s u bt ex t ,
r a r el y hi g hl i g ht ed o r ex pl i c i t l y a c k n o w l ed g ed . On e t hi nks o f t he a s s o -
c i a t i o n be t w e e n t he l at e Vi c t o r Tur ner ' s e n g a g e m e n t wi t h Nd e m b u ri t -
ual a n d s y mbo l s a n d hi s t u r n t o Ca t ho l i c i s m; o f St a nl ey Ta mbi a h' s
wo r k o n B u d d hi s m i n Tha i l a n d , whi c h, u n l i ke s o m u c h wr i t t en a bo u t
l l u d d hi s m by Wes t er n er s , t reat s it wi t h r es p ec t as a p o t en t pol i t i c a l
f o r c e, i n a n o bl i q u e a t t emp t t o u n d er s t a n d its d y n a mi c s i n hi s o w n
d o u bl e d ho m e l a n d o f Sri La n ka ; a n d p er ha p s ev en o f Lv i - St r a us s ,
5. Thi s was i hr subject of a conference organi zed by M. C. Bateson at Coolfon t,
Wrsl Vi rgi n i a, in J nut' '()H,|, un de r the auspices of the I n te rcultural Foun dati on , wi th
support I fon i i hr Wri i i i ri (I re n Foundati on, the Smi thsoni an I n sti tuti on , an d the
( -roi |.;i'lowu I i n i vri nil y < ' .mi ri lor I Me n i ll!ut al Si udies.
200
MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
w ho s e wo r k o n Ame r i c a n I n d i a n my t ho l o g i es mi g ht be u n d e r s t o o d as
a n act o f a t o n e me n t f o r a wo r l d d es t r o y ed , par al l el t o t he c r ea t i o n o f
t he Ta l m u d t ha t i s, a p r es er v a t i o n t o g et her wi t h a cri t i cal a p p a r a t u s
p er mi t t i n g r eg en er a t i v e u s e by f u t u r e g en er a t i o n s .
6
Su c h e n g a g e m e n t
n e e d n o t be et hn i c o r r el i g i o us i n c o n t en t : St ev en Fel d' s a c c o u n t i n g o f
Ka l ul i a es t het i c s , ut i l i z i ng hi s p er f o r mer ' s k n o w l e d g e a n d ski l l s as wel l
as hi s a c a d emi c o n e s , is o n e o f t he hn es t r ec en t ex a mp l es . H e is a bl e t o
p r o v i d e n o t mer el y a c o n v i n c i n g d es c r i p t i o n but , mo r e i mp o r t a n t , a
cri t i cal a p p a r a t u s
7
t ha t g i v es t he r ea d er a s et o f c o n c ep t u a l t o o l s wi t h
s en s o r y a n d c o g n i t i v e ba s es radi cal l y di f f er ent f r o m o u r o w n .
It s ho u l d be c l ea r t ha t I a m no t a d v o c a t i n g a r ed u c t i v e r ea d i n g o f
e t hn o g r a p hi e s i n t er ms o f t he bi o g r a p hi es o f t hei r a u t ho r s . It is t r u e
t ha t p r o f es s i o n a l s ma y a dj us t t hei r r ea d i n g s o f et hn o g r a p hi es a c c o r d -
i n g t o t hei r k n o w l e d g e o f t he wr i t er s . Thi s ma k es r ea d i n g r i c her a n d
m o r e i n f o r me d . It a l l ows t he r ea d er t o br i n g t o t he t ex t ma n y o f t he
n u a n c e s , t aci t u n d er s t a n d i n g s , a n d i mpl i c i t p er s p ec t i v es t ha t i n f o r me d
t he w r i t e r t o br i n g , as Pl a t o mi g ht say, a d ea d t ex t t o f ul l er l i f e.
8
Bu t
i n t he c a s e o f c a s ua l o r u n s o p hi s t i c a t ed r ea d er s , r ea d i n g i n t er ms o f
t he bi o g r a p hy o f t he wr i t er c a n be i nv i di o us a n d des t r uc t i v e, ex p l a i n -
i n g a wa y t he t ex t r a t her t ha n en r i c hi n g it. Wha t I a m s u g g es t i n g i n-
s t ea d is a r ea d i n g o f et hn o g r a p hi es as t he j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f t wo o r
m o r e c ul t ur a l t r a di t i o ns a n d p a y i n g a t t ent i o n bo t h i n r ea d i n g a n d i n
c o n s t r u c t i n g et hn o g r a p hi es t o t he ways i n whi c h t he j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f
c u l t u r a l t r a di t i o ns wo r ks o n bo t h t he c o n s c i o u s a n d u n c o n s c i o u s l ev -
el s . Fo r ma n y t he s ea r c h i n a n o t her t r a di t i on, s u c h as p e r ha p s Gul den' s
i n Ni g er i a o r my o w n i n Ir a n, c a n s er v e as a wa y o f e x p l o r i n g o ne' s
o w n pa s t , n o w d i s a p p ea r ed f o r ev er . On e n eed s a u t hen t i c a n c ho r a g e s
6. The Tal mud discusses the mi n uti ae of te mple worshi p, a f orm of worshi p lon g
gone by the ti me the Tal mud was wri tte n . I t thereby tran sforme d what once we re rules
of ri tual i n to a tool for de ve lopi n g argume n tati on an d dialectical skills (Ne usn e r 1981).
So, too, Lvi -Strauss has tri e d to collect myths, many of whi ch no longe r fun cti on
i n the i r ori gi n al contexts, an d, by collati ng the m and suggesting procedures for i n te r-
pre ti n g the m, has made the m li ve agai n as the subjects of i ntellectual discussion an d,
i n te lle ctual growth (see Han dl e man 1982). No one, for instance, wi ll ever agai n be able
to analyze a single i nci de nt, symbolic figure, or single myth vari ant apart f rom othe r
vari ants an d othe r re le vant myths, or be able to i gnore the n oti on of myth as a ki n d of
language wi th rules of syntax an d meani ngs ge ne rate d systematically through con -
trasti ve di fferences of usage of i nci dents, characters, or symbols.
7. Feld's account moves from a te xtual analysis of a poem bui lt aroun d the call of
an aban don e d chi ld, to an analysis of the Kaluli typologies of bi rds based on sounds, to
a musi cal analysis of songs such as those vised i n the Gi saro ri tual, to the Kaluli rhe tori -
cal analysis of the ways words are made poeti c, an d to an analysis of the Kaluli vocabu-
lary an d the ory of musi c, i n whi ch sonic structure is coded i n me taphors of the move -
me n t of wate r. Kaluli musi c, poe try, aesthetics, an d epistemology i n ge ne ral are bui lt
aroun d soun d, i n stri ki n g contrast to Western epi stemology, whi ch pri vi leges vision (see
also Tyl e r 1984c).
8. See Plato's Phaedrus an d the comme n tary on i t by Jacques De rri da i n his Dis-
semin ation s.
Ethni ci ty and the Arts of Memory 201
t ha t c a n a l l o w a ki n d o f d u a l o r mu l t i p l e t r a c ki ng ( bet ween s el f a n d
o t her ) , t ha t g en er a t e a r i c h, s y mp a t het i c c ur i os i t y f o r det ai l a n d c ul -
t ur a l l o g i c , t ha t c a n be s u bj ec t ed t o mu t u a l c r i t i c i s m o r mu t u a l r ev el a -
t i o n f r o m bo t h t r a di t i o ns . At t he s a me t i me, o n e n e e d s a c hec k a g a i n s t
a s s i mi l a t i n g t he o t her t o t he sel f, s eei n g o n l y wha t is s i mi l a r o r di f f er -
en t . On e mu s t a v o i d c o mp a r i s o n by st ri ct dua l i s t i c c o nt r a s t . A t hi r d ,
f o u r t h, o r fifth c o mp a r i s o n i nev i t a bl y i nv o l v es mu l t i d i men s i o n a l i t y ,
a n d a s en s e o f l a r g er u n i v er s es o f s i g ni f i c a nc e. In et hn i c a u t o bi o g -
r a p hi es , t he t r y i ng o n o f a l t er na t i v e i dent i t i es is o n e t ec hn i q u e f o r
a c hi ev i n g t hi s mu l t i d i men s i o n a l i t y .
T h e s t r a t eg y f or wr i t i ng t hi s p a p er , t hen , ha s be e n t o j u x t a p o s e
five s et s o f a u t o bi o g r a p hi c a l wr i t i ng s , t ho s e o f Ar me n i a n - Ame r i c a n s ,
Chi n es e- Amer i c a n s , Af r o - Amer i c a n s , Mex i c a n - Amer i c a n s , a n d Na -
t i v e Amer i c a n s . T h e i d ea is t o a l l o w mu l t i p l e s et s o f v o i c es t o s p ea k f o r
t hems el v es , wi t h my o w n aut hor ' s v o i c e mu t e d a n d ma r g i n a l i z ed as
c o mme n t a r y . Whi l e it r ema i n s t r ue t ha t I s t a g e t hes e v o i c es , t he r ea d er
is d i r ec t ed t o t he o r i g i na l s ; t he t ex t is n o t her met i c a l l y s ea l ed , bu t
p o i n t s be y o n d i tsel f . Par al l el wr i t i ng s f r o m my o w n et hn i c t r a d i t i o n
a r e e v o k e d i n t he i n t r o d u c t i o n s a n d c o n c l u s i o n s as p o i n t s o f f u r t her
c o n t a c t , i n o r d er , as Tz ev t a n To d o r o v p ut s it ( 19 82/ 19 84: 2 5 0 - 5 1 ) , t o
a v o i d "t he t emp t a t i o n t o r e p r o d u c e t he v o i c es o f t hes e figures ' as t hey
r ea l l y are' : t o t ry t o d o a wa y wi t h my o w n p r es en c e ' f or t he ot her ' s
s a ke' . . . [ or ] t o s u bj u g a t e t he o t her t o mys el f , t o ma k e hi m i n t o a
ma r i o n et t e. "
Wha t e me r g e s as a c o n c l u s i o n is n o t s i mp l y t ha t pa r a l l el p r o c es s es
o p er a t e a c r o s s Ame r i c a n et hn i c i dent i t i es , bu t a s en s e t ha t t hes e et h-
ni c i t i es c o n s t i t u t e o n l y a f a mi l y o f r es embl a n c es , t ha t et hni c i t y c a n n o t
be r e d u c e d t o i dent i c a l s o c i o l o g i c a l f u n c t i o n s , t ha t et hni c i t y is a p r o -
c es s o f i n t er - r ef er en c e be t w e e n t wo o r mo r e c ul t ur a l t r a di t i o ns , a n d
t ha t t hes e d y n a mi c s o f i nt er c ul t ur a l k n o w l e d g e p r o v i d e r es er v o i r s f o r
r e n e w i n g h u m a n e v a l ues . Et hn i c m e m o r y is t hu s , o r o u g ht t o be, f u -
t u r e, n o t pa s t , o r i en t ed .
If mu l t i p l e v o i c es a r e e n g a g e d i n t hi s ex p er i men t , s o, t o o , i t is
ho p e d , wi l l mu l t i p l e r ea d er s hi p s . By i n v o ki n g t he d i s c o u r s es o f a
n u m be r o f d i f f er en t g r o u p s , a c c es s is p r o v i d ed t o t he m f o r r ej o i n d er .
' The d i s c o u r s e o f t he t ex t is n o t s ea l ed by a p r o f es s i o n a l r het o r i c o r
a u t ho r i t y t ha t d en i es s t a n d i n g t o n o n p r o f es s i o n a l i n t er l o c u t o r s . At
t he s a me t i me, it d r a ws me mbe r s o f t hes e di f f er ent et hn i c d i s c o u r s es
i n t o t he c o mp a r a t i v e p r o j ec t o f a n t hr o p o l o g y . It d o e s n o t a l l o w et h-
ni c s t o p r o t es t mer el y o n t he t er ms o f t hei r i nt ui t i v e u n d er s t a n d i n g s
o f t hei r o w n r het o r i c s , bu t a t t emp t s t o c o n c ei v e o f s u c h i n t u i t i o n as
but o n e v a l i d s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e .
Fi nal l y, t he abi l i t y o f t ex t s s u c h as t ho s e r ev i ewed i n t hi s p a p e r t o
d el i v er c ul t ur a l c r i t i c i s m wi t ho u t t he s t er eo t y p i c di s t o r t i o ns t ha t t r a di -
202
MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
t i onal c r os s - c ul t ur al c at e gor i z at i ons have o f t e n p r o d u c e d is a n i mp o r -
t a nt mo d e l for e t h n o g r a p h y . No gr e at e r i ndi c t me nt s o f r ac i s m i n
Ame r i c a e xi s t t ha n Char l i e Mi ngus ' s Beneath the Underdog, Raul Sal i nas' s
"A Tr i p T h r o u g h t he Mi n d Jai l , " t he a ng r y wri t i ngs o f Fr ank Ch i n , t he
por t r ai t s o f t r a uma by J a me s We l c h or Ge r al d Vi z e no r . No n e o f t he s e ,
h o we v e r , me r e l y i ndi ct s , a nd cert ai nl y n o n e bl a me s o nl y o p p r e s s o r s
o u t s i d e t he s el f a n d e t hni c g r o u p ; all Act i vel y d e mo n s t r a t e t he c r e a-
t i o n o f n e w i de nt i t i e s a n d wor l ds . Rat he r t ha n nai ve effort s at di r e c t
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n , t he y s ug g e s t o r e v o k e cul t ural e me r g e n c e ( s e e Ty l e r i n
t hi s v o l u me ) . On e o f t he r e a s o ns for t he rel at i ve s e ns e t hat t he s e po r -
t rai t s ar e l ess s t e r e o t y pe d is t hei r at t e nt i on t o t he i ne ffe c t i ve ne s s o f
t e x t ua l t e c h n i q u e s t h a t i s, t he s e l f- c ons c i ous e mp l o y me n t o f s u c h
de v i c e s as t r a ns f e r e nc e , dr e am- t r ans l at i on, t al k- st ory, mul t i pl e voi c e s
a n d pe r s pe c t i v e s , t he hi g hl i g ht i ng o f h u mo r o u s i nve r s i ons a n d di al e c -
ti cal j u x t a p o s i t i o n o f i de nt i t i e s / t r adi t i ons / c ul t ur e s , a n d t he c r i t i que o f
h e g e mo n i c di s c o ur s e s . I n t he f a s hi o na bl e j a r g o n o f t he day, t he y i l l us -
t rat e i nt e r t e xt ual i t y, i nt e r - r e f e r e nc e , a n d t he i nt e r l i ngui s t i c mo da l i -
t i es o f p o s t - mo d e r n i s t k n o wl e d g e . On t he pract i cal l evel , s uc h sel f-
c o n s c i o u s a n d v i r t uo s o t e c hni que c o ul d c o nt r i but e t o a r e i nv i g o r a t e d
e t h n o g r a p h i c l i t e r at ur e , o n e t hat c an agai n fulfill t he a nt hr o po l o g i c a l
p r o mi s e o f c ul t ur al cri t i ci sm: o f ma k i n g o u r t a ke n- f o r - g r a nt e d ways
r e c o g ni z a bl e as s oc i oc ul t ur al c ons t r uc t i ons for whi c h we c an e x e r c i s e
r e s pons i bi l i t y.
I n t he wo r k i n g draft o f t hi s p a p e r , t he five s our c e s ( et hni ci t i es ) o f
e t h n i c a u t o b i o g r a p h y e ac h pr o v i de d a s e par at e s e c t i on. I a t t e mp t e d t o
s u g g e s t s o me t h i n g a bo ut t he r a ng e or hi s t ori cal t raj ect ory o f a ut o bi o -
g r a phi c a l wr i t i ng wi t hi n e a c h et hni ci t y, as wel l as t o hi g hl i g ht i n e a c h
s e c t i o n a di ffe r e nt s e ns e of, a nd t e c hni que for c a pt ur i ng , e t hni c i t y.
T h a t o r g a ni z a t i o n, a l t h o u g h c l os e t o t he e t h n o g r a p h i c di s c o v e r y st rat -
e gy, p r o v e d u n wi e l d y for r e ade r s . I n t he pr e s e nt draft , I ha v e re-
v e r s e d t he hi e r ar c hi c al st ress: e a c h s e c t i on f o c us e s o n a wr i t i ng t act i c,
ye t I r e t ai n t he di vi s i on by et hni ci t y be c a us e t he r e d o e s s e e m t o b e
s o me c o n n e c t i o n b e t we e n part i cul ar e x p e r i e n c e s o f e t hni c g r o u p s a n d
t h e t e c h n i q u e s u s e d t o c apt ur e , reveal , or e x o r c i s e t ho s e e x p e r i e n c e s .
Th i s d o e s no t me a n t hat any tacti c o r t e c hni que is u s e d e xc l us i ve l y by
wr i t e r s o f a g i v e n et hni ci t y. ( Qui t e t he c ont r ar y: all t he s e t e c h n i q u e s
ar e avai l abl e t o, a n d are us e d by, wri t ers o f all et hni ci t i es . ) Ho we v e r ,
wh a t a s i mpl e o r g a ni z a t i o n by t e c hni que a l o ne wo u l d e n d a n g e r i s
t he s e n s e o f hi s t ori cal t raj ect ory o f wr i t i ng i n e a c h e t hni c t r a di t i o n.
9
9. For instance, Ameri ndi an writing draws on a long tradition of philosophical,
mythic, and simply humorous engagement with trickster figures. Black autobiographical
wri ti ng is also a long-established tradition. One can trace it back to the slave narratives of
Musl i m West Africans (and others) brought to America, and, more immediately in the
modern period, black autobiographies contributed to the core development of the
postWorld War I I civil rights movement. That inovemenl is hard 10 conceive of with-
Ethnicity and the Arts of Memory
203
A s i mp l e o r g a ni z a t i o n by t e c h n i q u e a l o ne al s o l e ads t o t he d a n g e r o f
r e d u c i n g t he p o l y p h o n y a n d t e x t ur e o f mul t i pl e st yl es o f any e t hni c
wr i t i ng t r adi t i on i nt o a me r e e x a mp l e for a uni voc al a r g u me n t .
Am o n g t he e l e me n t s o f t e x t ur e ( apart f r o m st yl e, mul t i pl e t e c h-
n i q u e s , a n d d i a l o g u e wi t h pr e de c e s s o r s ) are e x pl o r a t i o ns o f p s y c h o -
anal yt i c a n d f e mi ni s t pe r s pe c t i ve s . It is s t ri ki ng t he d e g r e e t o wh i c h
c o n t e mp o r a r y a u t o b i o g r a p h e r s are f o n d o f d e p l o y i n g ps y c ho a na l y t i c
l a n g u a g e a n d / o r l ogi c t o de s c r i be o r mo d e l e t hni c pr oc e s s e s . S o me -
wh a t l es s i nno v a t i v e ar e t he ways e t hni c i t y is e n g e n d e r e d . Cul t ur a l
he r i t a g e is o f t e n figured i n pat e r nal o r mat e r nal i ma g e r y . Ch i l d r e n
pa t t e r n t he ms e l v e s , aft er all, o n bo t h s a me a n d o p p o s i t e s e x pa r e nt s
( or o t h e r adul t s ) i n c o mp l e x , o f t e n react i ve, ways . On e e t h n o g r a p h i c
way t o ask i f a n d h o w c o n t e mp o r a r y de bat e s a bo ut g e n d e r r ol e s a r e
r e fl e c t e d h e r e is t o pay at t e nt i on t o bo t h ma l e a n d f e ma l e a ut ho r s ,
ma l e a n d f e ma l e i ma g e r y .
We p r o c e e d f r o m t he pai n o f s i l e nc e t o t he wi s d o m o f l a ug ht e r .
Tr a n s f e r e n c e
My ancestors talk
to me in dangling
myths.
Each word a riddle
each dream
heirless.
On sunny days
I bury
words.
They put out roots
and coil around
forgotten syntax.
Next spring a full
blown anecdote
will Sprout. DIANA DER HOVANESSIAN, "Learning an Ancestral Tongue"
1 0
out thi nki ng of Ralph Ellison's Invisible Man (1952), Claude Brown's Manchila in the
Promised Land (1965), Maya Angelou's / Know Why the Caged Bird Sings (i g6g), The Auto-
biography of Malcolm X (with Al ex Haley, 1973), Eldridge Cleaver's Soul on Ice (1968).
Chinese-American (like Mexican-American) writing has generated class-linked differ-
ential reactions. Some Chinese-Americans whose families did not experience the rail-
roads, sweatshops, and Chinatowns resent Kingston's books as giving further credence
lo stereotypes. Male writers, such as Frank Chin and Jeffrey Paul Chan, have also criti-
cized Kingston for pandering to stereotypic exoticism, rather than creating alternative
visions ( Ki m 1982).
10. Compare William Saroyan carrying fragments of his father's writings on
scraps of paper, like seeds that inspire his imagination (Here Comes There Goes You Know
Who, p. 36).
204 MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
Ethnicity and the Arts of Memory
205
afraid of? . . . Probably of bei ng expos ed in some way, or pul l ed down by t he
connect i on: that association of di fference . . . with somet hi ng deepl y pe-
jorati ve . . . And in the end I came to hate my father for my fear. . . . I l oved
hi m t oo . . . He was my father. But also I was afraid of him. Somet hi ng always
lay bet ween us s omet hi ng unspoken and (it seemed) unreachabl e. We were
strangers. (1975: 7)
Ar l e n de s c r i be s t he a mbi v a l e nc e s ( paral l el i ng hi s fat her' s) g e n e r a t e d
i n hi ms e l f: t he c h i l d h o o d fears t hat hi s An g l o - Ame r i c a n c a mo u f l a g e
wo u l d c o me u n d o n e ( t error for hi ms e l f wh e n h e s e e s a J e wi s h bo y
b e i n g b e a t e n ; a Sc ot t i s h bo y as s e r t i ng t hat Ar l e n c o ul d no t pos s i bl y
be Eng l i s h) ; t he fe ar o f ge t t i ng t oo e mo t i o na l l y cl os e t o Ar me n i a n s ;
a n d a b o v e al l , b e i n g u n a b l e t o r e a d a bo ut t he mas s ac r e s o f t he Ar me -
ni a ns by t he Ot t o ma n s ( b e c o mi n g angr y, but i rrat i onal l y no t at t he
Ot t o ma n s ) . "
To e x o r c i s e t hi s anxi e t y, Ar l e n vi si ts Sovi e t Ar me n i a . Ini t i al l y t he
a mb i v a l e n c e r e c ur s : i nabi l i t y t o feel a ny t hi ng at t he mo n u me n t s ;
a n g e r at t h e t ouri s t s ' s l urs a n d s t e r e o t y pe s a bo ut Ar me n i a n s c o n f i d e d
t o h i m as a p p a r e n t l y s i mpl y a n Ame r i c a n t ouri s t . Event ual l y, h o we v e r ,
t he r e is e n g a g e me n t , a mo v e me n t o ut s i de o f hi ms el f, a r e c o g ni t i o n o f
c o n n e c t i o n s b e t we e n hi s pe r s onal d i l e mma s a nd t ho s e o f o t h e r Ar me -
ni ans . Ar l e n i gni t e s t he a n g e r o f hi s Ar me n i a n g u i d e by a s ki ng a b o u t
Ar me n i a n s ubmi s s i v e ne s s t o t he Ot t o ma n s , t he i r c ol l us i on i n t he i r
o wn s e c o nd- c l a s s s t at us . T h e g u i d e ac c us e s h i m o f wa n t i n g t o t ear
d o w n hi s f a t he r ( "Fat herl and, fat her. I t i s t he s a me t hi ng" [1975 : 98].):
"' Al l t hat An g l o - S a x o n c o o l ne s s a n d d e t a c h me n t . . . . No t l i ke a p r o p e r
s on! ' . . . An d t h e n Sarki s s u d d e n l y t ook my h a n d s i n hi s , a n d I l o o k e d
i nt o hi s f a c e a n d saw t hat he was c r yi ng" (i bi d: 99).
Fo l l o wi ng t hi s cat hart i c b r e a k t h r o u g h , a pi c t ur e o f a n e i g h t e e n t h -
c e n t u r y . me r c h a n t f r o m Er z u r u m br i ngs a n as s oci at i ve fl ash. T h e fac e
r e mi n d s Ar l e n o f hi s fat he r : "bur ni ng e ye s i n a c o mp o s e d , i mpa s s i v e
l ace": "I r e al i z e d at t hat mo me n t t hat t o be a n Ar me n i a n , t o ha v e l i ve d
as an Ar me n i a n , was t o have b e c o me s o me t h i n g crazy . . . c r az e d, t hat
d e e p t h i n g d e e p wh e r e t he de e p- s e a s oul s o f h u ma n be i ng s t wi st
a n d t ur n" ( i bi d: 103).
1 2
Hi s fat he r ha d a t t e mp t e d t o fr e e h i m o f t he
pa i n o f t h e pas t , but s u d d e n l y Mi c hae l Ar l e n r e me mb e r s hi s f a t he r
t e l l i ng h i m "wi t h s upr i s i ng s everi t y a n d i nt ens i t y" ( p. 139) wh e n h e
was e i g ht t o l e a r n t o bo x . Ar l e n s pe c ul at e s o n t he effect s o f c e nt ur i e s
1 1. Compare Saroyan's distorted anger at his father (ibid., p. 36).
12. Compare Saroyan's comic version, as Bedrosian (1982: 287) aptly characterizes
i l : "Homeless except for each other, forced to create an entire heritage through a
chance meeting, demonstrating through their boyant, child-like spirits that life is comic
alter all, [and adding further historical-epic depth] these Armenians remind us of the
irrepressible and wacky daredevils of Sassoon."
Mi c ha e l Al i e n' s Passage to Ararat ( 1975) is a n ar c he t ypi c al t e xt
for di s pl a y i ng t he "t r ans fe r e nc e " me c h a n i s ms o f et hni ci t y, a n d for
c o mi n g t o t e r ms wi t h a n i d- l i ke for c e , e x p e r i e n c e d as d e f i n i n g one' s
sel f, yet c o mi n g f r o m wi t ho ut . Cruci al h e r e i s t he c o n q u e s t o f a n a nx i -
e t y t hat ma ni f e s t s i t sel f t h r o u g h r e pe t i t i on o f be havi or al pat t e r ns , a n d
t hat c a n n o t b e ar t i c ul at e d i n rat i onal l a n g u a g e but c an onl y be a c t e d
o ut . T h e a na l o g y h e r e i s wi t h t he t hi r d o f t he t hr e e mo d e s o f c o mmu -
ni c a t i o n r o ut i ne l y di s t i ng ui s he d i n ps yc hoanal yt i c t he r a py : c o g ni t i v e ,
r at i onal , c o ns c i o us i nve s t i gat i on; t rans l at i on f r o m d r e a ms i nt o l i ne ar ,
t e xt l i ke ve r bal i z at i ons ( t he r e by i nt r o duc i ng t he di s t or t i ons o f t he me -
di a t i ng l a n g u a g e ) ; a n d t r a ns f e r e nc e , i n whi c h n o t e xt is p r o d u c e d , b u t
r a t he r a r e pe t i t i o n t owar d t he anal ys t o f be ha v i o r pat t e r ns pr e v i o us l y
e s t a bl i s he d t o wa r d s o me pr i or s i gni fi cant o t he r .
Mi c ha e l Al i e n' s e t hni c anxi e t y be g i ns wi t h t he s i l e nc e o f hi s f a t he r
a b o u t t he Ar me n i a n pas t . By a t t e mpt i ng t o s par e c hi l dr e n k n o wl e d g e
o f pa i nf ul pas t e x p e r i e n c e s , par e nt s o f t e n c r e at e a n obs e s s i ve v o i d i n
t he c hi l d t hat mu s t be e x p l o r e d a n d filled i n. Ar l e n c l ai ms h e has n o
o b v i o u s c h i l d h o o d e x p e r i e n c e s e x c e p t t he wa r mt h a n d fami l y h a p -
pi ne s s o f e a t i ng i n t he Go l d e n Ho r d e Re s t aur ant (a favori t e, as wel l , o f
Wi l l i a m Saroyan' s ) . Yet t he s i l e nc e o f hi s fat he r is a dr amat i c al l y e n -
a c t e d a mbi v a l e nc e ful l o f i mp o r t for t he s on: t he fat he r a t t e mpt s a n d
s pe c t ac ul ar l y fai l s t o b e c o me Engl i s h, c h a n g e s hi s n a me , ( a l t ho ug h a
wri t er) d o e s not wr i t e or tal k a bo ut Ar me n i a n s , mar r i e s a n o t h e r e x i l e
(a Gr e e k - Ame r i c a n ) , dr e s s e s "wi t h t he me t i c ul o us c ar e o f t he i dl e o r
i ns e c ur e , " a t t e mpt s t o ho l d c our t at t he St. Re gi s Ho t e l , c o me s h o me
t o me a l s "de voi d o f t ast e or pers onal i t y, " pac e s i n "a l i ttl e r o o m e u p h e -
mi s t i cal l y c al l e d t he l i brary, " s e nds hi s c hi l dr e n t o b o a r d i n g s c ho o l ,
a n d e v e nt ua l l y mo v e s t o Ame r i c a wh e n ant i - for e i gn s p e e c h e s a r e
ma d e i n Par l i ame nt . I n Ame r i c a , he feels' hi ms e l f a n i ne ffe c t ual Ar -
me n i a n , abe t t e d by hi s unc e r t ai nt y a bo ut h o w t o t reat hi s c hi l dr e n; ye t
h e l a nds hi s first Ame r i c a n j o b wi t h what hi s s o n r e me mb e r s as a vi r-
t u o s o t r i u mp h o f Ar me n i a n wi l e: mo v i e p r o d u c e r Loui s Ma y e r as ks
h i m wha t h e is g o i n g t o d o ; h e r e s p o n d s t hat he has b e e n t al ki ng t o
S a m Go l d wy n ( wh o h a d t ol d h i m t o try r ac e hor s e s ) . Maye r : Ho w
mu c h di d h e offe r you? Ar l e n, Sr. : No t e n o u g h . Maye r : Ho w a b o u t
$1, 500 f o r t hi rt y we e ks ? Ar l e n: I'll t ake it.
Mi c ha e l Arl en' s s t a t e me nt a bo ut t he Go l d e n Ho r d e Re s t a ur a nt
b e i n g hi s onl y real Ar me n i a n c h i l d h o o d e x p e r i e n c e is f o l l o we d by a
s t a t e me n t o f a mbi v a l e nc e a b o u t hi s fat he r . I n d e e d hi s t e xt i s s t r uc t ur e d
b e g i n n i n g , mi d d l e , a n d e n d wi t h pat e r nal i ma g e r y . Be g i n n i n g :
I was onl y slightly curi ous about my Armeni an backgroundor so I t hought ,
al t hough i f I had underst ood how to acknowl edge such matters, I mi ght have
known that I was haunt ed by it. Mostly I was afraid of il What was I
2o6
MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
o f p r o v o c a t i o n f r o m t he s u r r o u n d i n g maj ori t y p o p u l a t i o n , Ar me n i a n
pr ot e s t , mo b r e s p o n s e ( t he cl assi c dy na mi c , Ma r g a r e t Be d r o s i a n c o m-
me n t s , o f a bul l y c o mmi t t i n g a mi s d e e d o n t he sly, t he n f e i g n i n g b e i n g
wr o n g e d w h e n t he vi ct i m cri es o ut ; a n d s he ci t es t he Ot t o ma n i nt e -
rior mi ni s t e r Tal aat Be y : "We' ve b e e n r e p r o a c h e d for ma k i n g n o di s -
t i nc t i on b e t we e n t he i n n o c e n t Ar me n i a n s a nd t he gui l t y, but t hat was
ut t e r l y i mpo s s i bl e i n vi e w o f t he fact t hat t hos e wh o we r e i n n o c e n t t o-
da y mi g h t be gui l t y t o mo r r o w" [ Be dr o s i a n 1982: 234]). S u c h a n e n -
v i r o n me n t l e ads t o a t ur ni ng i nwa r d: " Th e e y e s [ of t he por t r ai t ]
s e e me d a l mo s t t o b u r n o u t at me . Bu r n i n g e y e s i n a f r o z e n fac e . . .
di d h e s et hi s e x p r e s s i o n , fr e e z e part o f hi ms el f, hi s f a c e a l l s ave t he
e y e s , wh i c h n o ma n c an c o n t r o l a n d t a p hi s finger o n t he c o f f e e c u p ,
a n d c ur l a n d unc ur l hi s h a n d i ns i de hi s wel l - cut p o c k e t . . . a n d man-
age?" (102 3). Suc h a n e n v i r o n me n t Ar l e n s pe c ul at e s l e ads t o art s o f
mi ni a t ur i z a t i o n, i n t hi s c as e not a creat i ve e x pr e s s i o n t h r o u g h s mal l -
ne s s , but a n obs e s s i ve g e s t ur e , an effort t o b e c o me i nvi s i bl e.
An x i e t y c o n f r o n t e d , di agnos i s e x p l o r e d , t he bo o k e n d s a g a i n wi t h
t he fat he r , wi t h d r e a ms as an i n d e x o f t he l i berat i on a c hi e v e d. Mi c ha e l
Ar l e n recal l s hi s fat her' s anxi e t y d r e a ms a bo ut his fat he r : n o t b e i n g
abl e t o u n d e r s t a n d hi s Ar me n i a n . Mi c hae l Ar l e n refl ect s t hat h e ,
Mi c ha e l , n o l o n g e r d r e a ms s o fr e que nt l y o f hi s fat he r (hi s pa s s a g e t o
Ar a r a t ha s b e e n l i be r at i ng) . As h e put s it, t he n e e d t o s et t he f a t he r
f r e e ha s b e e n me t ( p. 292).
Arl en' s t ext is s t r ai ght for war d a n d s e l f - c o ns c i o us ,
1 3
de s c r i bi ng e t h-
ni c a nx i e t y as a n a ppr o a c h- a v o i da nc e t o a pas t t hat is l ar ge r t ha n o n e -
sel f, t hat is r e c o g n i z e d by o t he r s as de f i ni ng o f one' s i dent i t y, a n d ye t
t hat d o e s no t s e e m t o c o me f r o m one' s o wn e x p e r i e n c e . It ma k e s o n e
fe e l n o t i n c o nt r o l o f one' s o wn be i ng . It is a hi s t ori cal real i t y pr i nc i pl e :
i ndi v i dua l e x p e r i e n c e c a n n o t be a c c o unt e d for by itself. It e x p r e s s e s
i t s el f i n r e pe t i t i o ns .
1 4
Yet h e c o nc l ude s weakl y o n a fal s e no t e . He
c l ai ms hi s is a t al e o f c o nque s t , o f finding pe a c e a n d s ecuri t y: " Ho w
s t r a ng e t o finally me e t one' s past : t o s i mpl y me e t it, t he way o n e mi g h t
finally a c k n o wl e d g e a p e r s o n wh o ha d b e e n i n one' s c o mp a n y a l o n g
whi l e , ' So it's y o u' " (253). Anx i e t y , he s e e ms t o say, is r e l i e v e d by e s t ab-
l i s hi ng c o nt i nui t y wi t h t he pas t wh e r e pr e vi ous l y t he r e was br e a c h, si-
l e nc e , anxi e t y. T h e r e s e e ms t o be al mos t a fai l ure h e r e t o c r e at e for
t he f ut ur e , s o me t h i n g p e r h a p s figured i n t he t e xt by t he a b s e n c e o f
hi s Ame r i c a n - Gr e e k mo t h e r .
13. "What [is] one to make of such a story? I use the word 'make' in the sense of ' to
fashion'; or . . . 'to re-create'" (p. 177).
14. Michael Arl en the writer, his father the writer; the father as the i mmi grant to
America, the guide in Soviet Armenia, the eighteenth-century Erzurum merchant; the
Armeni an heritage in general.
Ethnicity and the Arts of Memory 207
Mi c ha e l Ar l e n i s b u t o n e o f a gr adual l y g r o wi n g n u mb e r o f Ar me -
ni a n l i t erary voi c e s , s everal o f w h o m ha v e b e e n r e v i e we d i n a r e c e nt
di s s e r t at i on by Ma r g a r e t Be dr o s i a n. T h e t h e me o f p u z z l e me n t , o f o b -
s c ur e fat he r s , is a s t r o ng r e c ur r e nt o n e , but ma t e r na l i ma g e r y c a n be
e qual l y s t r o ng . '
5
I n a n o t h e r me d i u m, t he pai nt e r Ar s hi l e Go r ky us e s
i ma g e s o f hi s mo t h e r a nd t r ans fe r e nc e l i ke t e c hni que s o f i ndi r e c t i o n,
r e pe t i t i o n, a n d r e wo r ki ng . Gor ky ( bor n Vo s da ni g Ad o i a n i n 1904 o f a
l i ne o f t hi r t y - e i g ht g e n e r a t i o n s o f pri est s) was a s ur vi vor o f t he ma s -
s ac r e s , c hi l d o f a mo t h e r wh o di e d o f s t arvat i on at t hi r t y- ni ne , n o t e at -
i n g s o t hat h e r c hi l dr e n mi g ht l i ve. He c ho s e t he n a me s "t he bi t t er
o n e " ( Go r ky ) a n d Ac hi l l e s ( Ar s hi l e ) wh o s e wr a t h ke pt h i m f r o m bat t l e
unt i l a n e w wr a t h i mp e l l e d h i m t o act. Abs t r ac t i on a n d e x p r e s s i o n i s m
we r e f o r h i m t e c hni que s , no t o f s po nt a ne i t y a nd t he a u t o n o mo u s u n -
c o ns c i o us , but o f ma s k i n g v ul ne r a bl e t rut hs . Du r i n g Wo r l d War II, h e
i s s ue d a n i nvi t at i on for a c o ur s e i n c a mo uf l a g e : "An e p i d e mi c o f d e -
s t r uc t i on s we e p s t h r o u g h t he wo r l d t oday. T h e mi n d o f ci vi l i zed ma n
is s et t o s t o p it. Wh a t t he e n e my wo u l d de s t r oy, h o we v e r , he mu s t first
s e e . T o c o n f u s e a n d par al yz e hi s vi s i on i s t he r ol e o f c a mo u f l a g e "
( quo t e d i n Be d r o s i a n 1982: 355). Hi s pa i nt i ng s are c ar e ful l y r e -
wo r k e d i ma g e s : o f hi s mo t h e r , o f hi s nat al vi l l age ne a r La ke Va n, of
t he fami l y g a r d e n i n t hat vi l l age, o f t he Tr e e o f t he Cr os s us e d by vi l -
l age r s t o at t ach s uppl i c a t i o ns t o Go d . Hi s s l o g a ns we r e cl ear: "Fr om
o u r Ar me n i a n e x p e r i e n c e will I c r e at e n e w f o r ms t o i gni t e mi n d s a n d
ma s s a g e heart s !"; "Ha v i ng a t r adi t i on e na bl e s y o u t o t ackl e n e w p r o b -
l e ms wi t h aut hor i t y, wi t h s ol i d foot i ng. "
Tr a n s f e r e n c e , t he r e t ur n o f t he r e pr e s s e d i n n e w f o r ms , a n d r e p e -
t i t i ons wi t h t he i r di s t o r t i o ns ar e all me c h a n i s ms t h r o u g h wh i c h e t h-
ni ci t y is g e n e r a t e d . T h e y al s o s ug g e s t pos s i bl e wr i t i ng t act i cs. T h r e e
us es o f t r a ns f e r e nc e a n d r e pe t i t i on c an be di s t i ng ui s he d i n r e c e nt
e t h n o g r a p h i c wr i t i ng. Fi rst, t he r e is t he di s c ove r y or el i ci t i ng o f ps y-
c ho l o g i c a l pa t t e r ns o f t r a ns f e r e nc e p r o p e r a mo n g e t h n o g r a p h i c s ub-
jects, as i n t h e wo r k o f Ga n a n a t h Ob e y e s e k e r e ( 1981) , whe r e , mo r e -
o v e r , s u c h s ys t e mat i c pat t e r ns g e ne r a t e n e w soci al f o r ms . S e c o n d ,
I h e r e i s t he anal y. is o f c h a n g e t h r o u g h i n t e n d e d r e pe t i t i ons t hat i n
fact wo r k t h r o u g h mi s a ppr o pr i a t i o n o r di s t or t i on. T h e cl assi c s uc h
h i g h l i g h t i n g o f t he i ndi r e c t i on o f cul t ural d y n a mi c s is Marx' s o bs e r v a -
l i o ns o n t he Fr e nc h Re v o l ut i o n u s i n g b o r r o we d l a n g u a g e a n d c o s -
iti me s f r o m t he Ro ma n Re publ i c a nd o n hi s t ory ne v e r wo r k i n g o u t
15. See for instance the two lovely poems by David Kherdian about an old man
("Dedeh Dedeh") and an old woman ("Sparrow"), each representing the Armeni an
past, reproduced in Bedrosian (1982).
2o8
MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
t h e s a me way t he s e c o n d t i me .
1 6
Mars hal l Sahl i ns' s r e c e nt bo o k o n
Ca p t a i n Co o k a n d t h e s t ruct ural c h a n g e s Ha wa i i a n s oc i e t y u n d e r we n t
i n t he p e r i o d f o l l o wi ng hi s d e a t h si mi l arl y e xpl oi t s t he de l i ne a t i o n
o f i n t e n d e d r e pe t i t i o n or r e pr o duc t i o n o f cul t ural f o r ms l e a d i n g t o
u n i n t e n d e d di s t or t i on, i nve r s i on, a n d c h a n g e . Th i r d , a n d p e r h a p s
mo s t i nt r i g ui ng , t he r e is t he s ug g e s t i o n o f Vi n c e n t Cr a p a n z a n o i n
Tuhami (1980) t hat i n part t he d y n a mi c o f t he i nt e r vi e ws b e t we e n h i m-
s el f a n d T u h a mi was o n e o f mut ua l t r a ns f e r e nc e , wi t h T u h a mi pl a c i ng
t he e t h n o g r a p h e r i n t he u n c o mf o r t a b l e rol e o f c ur e r . Cr a p a n z a n o
s u g g e s t s t hat ma n y e t h n o g r a p h i c s i t uat i ons par t ake o f t hi s a mbi g ui t y :
i n f o r ma n t s pr e s e nt a n d t ai l or i nf o r ma t i o n as i f t he a n t h r o p o l o g i s t
we r e a g o v e r n me n t offi ci al , a phys i c i an, or o t h e r a g e n t o f ai d o r d a n -
g e r ; t he a n t h r o p o l o g i s t is pl a c e d i n pos i t i ons t hat c o ns t r a i n hi s ac-
t i ons , a n d h e , t o o , c r e at e s rol es for t he i nf o r ma nt . I n o t h e r wo r d s t he
e me r g e n c e o f e t h n o g r a p h i c k n o wl e d g e is no t unl i ke t he c r e a t i o n o f
e t hni c i dent i t y. Cr a p a n z a n o hi nt s at t hi s al so i n a n art i cl e r e p o r t i n g
a po s s e s s i o n c as e , wh e r e h e i nt e r vi e ws t he h u s b a n d , Mu h a mma d ,
a n d hi s wi f e i nt e r vi e ws t he wi fe, Da wi a .
1 7
No t onl y d o t he p o s s e s s e d
c o u p l e p r e s e n t di f f e r e nt ve r s i ons o f t he s a me e v e nt , but t he s e v e r s i o ns
d e p e n d u p o n t he i nt e r l oc ut or s , t he r e b e i n g p e r h a p s e v e n a mi l d
ri val ry b e t we e n t he t wo e t h n o g r a p h e r s . By r e c o g ni z i ng s uc h d y n a mi c s
o f g a i n i n g i n f o r ma t i o n a nd i ns i ght , a nt hr o po l o g i s t s ' i n f o r ma n t s -
c ol l abor at or s gai n a mo r e dy na mi c rol e, a nd we be g i n t o s e e o u r o wn
ba s e s o f k n o wl e d g e as mo r e s ubt l y c o ns t r uc t e d t h r o u g h t he ac t i on o f
o t h e r s . Ou r k n o wl e d g e is s h o wn t o be l ess obj ect i ve, mo r e n e g o t i a t e d
by h u ma n i nt e r e s t s , a nd t he s ubj ect for gr e at e r r e s pons i bi l i t y i n t he
i nt e r a c t i o ns a n d et hi cal h o n e s t y o f fi e l dwor k (i n Tyl er' s s e n s e i n t hi s
v o l u me ) .
Dr e a m- Wo r k
Ma x i n e Ho n g Ki ngs t on' s The Woman Warrior ( 1975) is an ar-
c he t y pi c a l t e x t for di s pl a y i ng e t hni c i t y pr oc e s s e s a n a l o g o u s t o t rans l a-
t i ons o f d r e a ms . Jus t as a d r e a m n e e d s t o be t r ans l at e d i nt o a t e xt o r
l i ne a r ve r bal di s c o ur s e s o t hat it c an be a na l y z e d by s o me o n e w h o has
n o t e x p e r i e n c e d t he vi s ual i mage r y, s o Ki ngs t on' s t e xt is d e v e l o p e d as
a s e r i e s o f f r a g me n t s o f t radi t i onal s t ori es , my t hs , a nd c u s t o ms i m-
p o s e d by pa r e nt s , but no t a de qua t e l y e x p l a i n e d , at cri t i cal po i nt s
o f h e r c h i l d h o o d , whi c h t hus ar e e mb e d d e d i n c o ns c i o us ne s s t o b e
wo r k e d o u t t h r o u g h , a n d i nt e g r a t e d wi t h, o n g o i n g e x p e r i e n c e . Th i s
16. See the opening passages of The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte.
17. "Muhammad and Dawia" in V. Crapanzano and V. Garrison, eds. (1977)-
Ethnicity and the Arts of Memory 209
pr o c e s s o f i nt e g r a t i o n is a n a l o g o u s t o t hat e x p e r i e n c e d by t he anal y-
s a n d i n ps yc hoanal yt i c t he r apy, wh o mus t t rans l at e f r o m t he i ma g e r y
o f d r e a ms i nt o verbal di s c o ur s e s o t hat bot h h e a n d t he anal ys t c a n
r e a s o n t h r o u g h it. T h e pr oc e s s o f art i cul at i ng wha t it me a n s t o be
Ch i n e s e - Ame r i c a n , for Ki ng s t o n, is t he pr oc e s s o f c r e a t i ng a t e xt t hat
c an be i nt e r r o g a t e d a nd ma d e c o he r e nt .
T h e first f r a g me nt , "No Na me Wo ma n, " is t he t al e o f a fat her' s si s-
t er w h o has a n i l l e gi t i mat e c hi l d, is f o r c e d by t he e n r a g e d vi l l agers t o
ha v e t he c hi l d i n a pi gs t y, a n d wh o t he n c o mmi t s s ui c i de . T h e s t ory,
says Ki n g s t o n , was t ol d t o wa r n y o u n g gi rl s ( "now t hat y o u ha v e s t ar t e d
t o me n s t r u a t e " [5]), but al s o t o t est t he Ame r i c a n - b o r n chi l dren' s abi l -
i ty t o e s t abl i s h real i t i es : t o di s t i ngui s h wha t is pe c ul i ar t o one' s fami l y,
t o po v e r t y , t o Ch i n e s e n e s s . T h e o bs c ur e s t ory g a i ns for c e as Ki n g s t o n
c o n s i d e r s t he al t e r nat i ve pos s i bl e i nt e r pr e t at i ons it mi g h t c o nt a i n: wa s
t hi s a u n t c o e r c e d (a fi gur e o f f e ma l e o b e d i e n c e ) o r was s he a n act i ve
t e mpt r e s s : i n d e e d why, s i nc e s he was ma r r i e d t o a h u s b a n d off i n
Ame r i c a , was s he still i n he r nat al h o me r at he r t han i n h e r hus ba nd' s
par e nt s ' h o u s e p r e v i o u s t r ans gr e s s i ons ? T h e a unt b e c a me a n al l e-
g o r y o f i nt e r nal s t r ug g l e s for t he a do l e s c e nt Ki ng s t o n: all y o u n g
w o me n wi s h t o be at t ract i ve t o t he o ppo s i t e s e x, but s el ect i vel y: h o w t o
ma k e a Ch i n e s e fal l i n l ove wi t h me , but not Cauc as i ans , Ne g r o e s , o r
J a p a n e s e ? Amb i g u i t i e s e x p l o d e : w o me n ar e , o f c o ur s e , d e v a l u e d i n
Ch i n e s e s oci et y, ye t t hi s aunt' s fat he r ha d ha d onl y s o ns b e f o r e t he
a u n t wa s b o r n a n d h a d a t t e mp t e d t o t r a de a bo y - i nf a nt f o r a gi rl -
i nfant : pr e s uma bl y , h e l o v e d hi s onl y d a u g h t e r a n d p e r h a p s e n c o u r -
a g e d h e r r e be l l i o us ne s s .
T h e a mbi g ui t i e s o f t he woman' s rol e are e l a bo r a t e d i n "Whi t e Ti -
ge r . " Ki n g s t o n was t a ug ht s he wo u l d g r o w u p t o be wi fe a n d s l ave, ye t
s he was al s o t a ug ht t he s o n g o f t he warri or w o ma n a var i ant o f t he
gr e at Ni s h a n S h a ma n l e g e n d
1 8
w h o a v e n g e d he r fami l y l i ke a ma n .
' I'he s t or y o f Fa Mu La n, t he war r i or wo ma n , is o f g o i n g u p t he mo u n -
t ai n i nt o t he c l o uds , wh e r e s he l e ar ns s pi ri t ual a n d phys i cal s t r e ng t h,
hi di ng h e r t i me unt i l at t we nt y- t wo s he r e t ur ns t o b e c o me a war r i or .
T h e par al l e l for Ki ng s t o n is t he unr e a l de v a l ua t i o n o f gi rl s i n h e r Chi -
n e s e c o mmu n a l s e t t i ng, f r o m whi c h s he finds a n e s c a pe i nt o Ame r i -
can s oci et y, wh e r e s he c an b e c o me a s t r o ng p e r s o n i n he r o wn r i ght .
1 Jke Fa Mu La n , s he feel s s he mu s t stay away unt i l s t r o ng e n o u g h t o
r e t ur n a n d r e f o r m t he st i fl i ng Chi ne s e i mmi g r a n t c o mmu n i t y .
18. On the Nishan Shaman, see Stephen Durant (197g). I n the Manchu story, the
ivsolulion between the statuses of (a) the powerful female shaman who teases and
I.nulls the wealthy and powerful and (b) the widowed daughter-in-law (urun, "work
woman") is to take the shaman's implements away, making her again merely an urun.
this, as Kingston's version shows, is hardly a necessary resolution.
210
MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
" Sha ma n " is a bo u t t he g ho s t s t or i es Ki ngs t on' s mo t he r t o l d as wo r k
s t o r i es t o chi l l t he hea t i n t he f a mi l y l a undr y ; t al es o f her o es w ho
w o u l d ea t a n y t hi n g i n g r ea t q ua nt i t i es ( " The e mp e r o r s u s e d t o ea t t he
p e a k e d h u m p o f p u r p l e d r o med a r i es . . . Eat ! Eat ! my mo t he r w o u l d
s ho u t . . . t he bl o o d p u d d i n g a wo bbl e i n t he mi d d l e o f t he t abl e. ") ;
s t o r i es o f wa r t i me ho r r o r s . H e r mo t he r wa s a w o m a n o f a c c o mp l i s h-
m e n t a n d s t r en g t h: s he ha d a d i p l o ma f r o m a s c ho o l o f mi d wi f er y ,
a n d k n e w ho w t o r ec i t e g en ea l o g i es t o t al k ba c k her c hi l dr en' s f r i g ht -
e n e d s pi r i t s a f t er n i g ht ma r es a n d ho r r o r films. Su c h f a mi l i a l p o w er s
c a n a l s o be r ep r es s i v e ( " Chi nes e d o n o t s mi l e f o r p ho t o g r a p hs . The i r
f a c es c o m m a n d r el a t i v es i n f o r ei g n l a n d s ' s en d m o n e y ' a n d p o s -
t er i t y f o r e v e r ' p u t f o o d i n f r o n t o f t hi s pi c t ur e' ") a n d r eg r es s i v e
( w he n e v e r s he w o u l d r et u r n ho m e , Ki n g s t o n w o u l d r eg r es s i n t o f ea r
o f g ho s t s , n i g ht ma r es o f wa r t i me a i r p l a nes , a n d l et ha r g i c i l l nes s ) .
The s e a n d o t her "tal k s t or i es " i n t he v o l u me ( a n d t he c o m p a n i o n
v o l u m e Chinamen) s ho w ho w s t or i es c a n be c o me p o wer f u l s o u r c es o f
s t r en g t h, ho w t hey wo r k di f f er ent l y f or ea c h g en er a t i o n , ho w t hey a r e
bu t f r a g men t a r y bi t s t ha t ha v e t o be t r a ns l a t ed, i n t eg r a t ed , a n d r e-
w o r k e d . ( " Unl es s I s ee her l i f e br a n c hi n g i nt o mi n e, s he g i v es m e n o
a nc es t r a l hel p. ") Part o f t he f r a g men t a r y c o n t ex t o f t he s t o r i es , o f t he
u n e x p l a i n e d c u s t o ms , o f t he p a r a n o i a a bo u t n o n - Chi n es e, a n d o f
t he g en er a l s ec r ec y a bo u t o r i g i n s is g r o u n d e d i n s ur v i v a l t act i cs t ha t
t he i mmi g r a n t s d e v e l o p e d a g a i ns t t he d i s c r i mi n a t o r y i mmi g r a t i o n
p o l i c i es o f t he Un i t ed St a t es a g a i ns t As i a ns . Peo p l e c ha n g e d n a me s ,
l i ed a bo u t t hei r a g es a n d p o r t s o f ent r y , a n d g en er a l l y c o v er ed t hei r
t r a c ks s o t ha t t hei r l i ves be c a me uni nt el l i g i bl e t o t hei r c hi l d r en ( who
be i n g ha l f - Amer i c a n w er e n o t ent i r el y t r u s t wo r t hy ei t her ) . No n -
Chi n e s e a r e c a l l ed g ho s t s , bu t f o r t he Amer i c a n - Chi n es e c hi l d r en ,
g ho s t s a r e t he bi za r r e f r a g men t s o f pas t , t r a di t i o n, a n d f a mi l i a l sel f -
o v er p r o t ec t i v en es s t ha t mu s t be ex t er n a l i z ed a n d t a med .
" Dr ea m- wo r k" c a n be p r o s p ec t i v e, as wel l as r et r o s p ec t i v e: da y -
d r e a ms as wel l as wo r k i n g t hr o u g h pas t ex p er i en c es . Fr a nk Chi n ,
Jef f r ey Pa ul Cha n , a n d Sha wn H s u Wo n g , as wel l as Ki n g s t o n , ut i l i ze
t he d i l e mma s o f Chi n es e- Amer i c a n ma l es t o ex p l o r e f u r t her t he n o v -
el t i es o f Chi n es e- Amer i c a n n es s s u g g es t ed i n " Whi t e Ti g er . " Ki n g s t o n
t her e d es c r i bes t he n e e d t o g et away f r o m Chi n a t o w n t o g a i n t he
s t r en g t h t o r e d e e m ( r ec o v er , c ha n g e, a n d c r ea t e) her i dent i t y . T h e
f u r t her t as k is t o c o n s t r u c t o r find i ma g es t ha t a r e n ei t her Chi n e s e
n o r Eu r o p e a n . The r e a r e n o c l ea r r o l e mo d el s f o r bei n g Chi n es e-
Ame r i c a n . Be i n g Chi n es e- Amer i c a n ex i s t s o n l y as a n ex p l o r a t o r y
pr o j ec t , a ma t t er o f finding a v o i c e a n d s t yl e. Am o n g t he ex p l o r a t o r y
t act i cs a r e ef f o r t s t o c l a i m Amer i c a , t o a s s er t a g g r es s i v e s ex u a l i dent i t y ,
t o i ma g i n a t i v el y t ry o n o t her mi n o r i t y ex p er i en c es , a n d t o q u es t i o n
bo t h he g e m o n i c whi t e i d eo l o g i c a l c a t eg o r i es a n d t ho s e o f Chi n a t o w n .
Ethni ci ty and the Arts of Memory
211
Thi s p r o j ec t is d o u bl y i mp o r t a n t f or wr i t er s : f o r p er s o n a l sel f -
d ef i n i t i o n , a n d a l s o t o o v e r c o me t ho s e p u bl i s her s a n d cri t i cs w ho c o n -
s i s t ent l y r ej ec t a n y wr i t i ng s c o n t r a d i c t i n g p o p u l a r raci s t v i ews o f As i a n -
Ame r i c a n s as ei t her t ot al l y ex o t i c , as n o d i f f er en t f r o m a n y o n e el s e
( d en i a l o f c u l t u r e) , o r , finally, as mo d e l mi n o r i t i es ( hu mbl e, wel l -
m a n n e r e d , l a w- a bi d i n g , f a mi l y - o r i en t ed , ha r d - wo r ki n g , ed u c a t i o n -
s eeki n g ) .
I n r es p o n s e, as El a i n e Ki m des c r i bes (1982), Fr a nk Chi n cal l s hi m-
s el f a Chi n a t o w n c o wbo y , i ns i s t i ng o n hi s r o o t s i n t he Ame r i c a n Wes t
a n d hi s ma n l y r u g g e d n e s s . Thi s p o s e is pa r t i c ul a r l y u s ef u l a g a i n s t t he
ex o t i c s t er eo t y p e o f Chi n es e as "pi g t a i l ed hea t hen s i n si l k g o w n s a n d
s l i p p er s , w hi s p e r i n g Co n f u c i a n a p ho r i s ms a bo u t filial pi et y. " T h e p o s e
is a l s o u s ef u l a g a i n s t t he mo d e l mi n o r i t y s t er eo t y p e u s ed : (a) t o d e -
p r ec i a t e bl a c ks ; (b) t o d e n y t he hi s t o r y o f Chi n es e- Amer i c a n s ( Chi n es e
d o n o t t u r n t o t he g o v e r n me n t foi" ai d bec a u s e f o r s o l o n g t he g o v e r n -
m e n t wa s ho s t i l e t o t hei r l eg a l s t at us a n d t hey t hu s ha d t o hi d e f r o m
t he g o v e r n me n t , wi t h t he c o n s e q u e n c e t ha t p o v er t y , s ui c i de, a n d t u ber -
c ul o s i s f l o u r i s hed i n Chi n a t o w n u n n o t i c ed by whi t e s oc i et y ) ; (c) a n d t o
ema s c u l a t e As i a n - Amer i c a n ma l es . Chi n recal l s t he cl as s i c s i t ua t i o n i n
s c ho o l w he r e bl a c ks a n d Chi c a n o s a r e a s ked why t hey c a n n o t be l i ke
t he Chi n es e: s t ay o u t o f t r o ubl e, mi n d y o u r f ol ks , s t u d y ha r d , a n d
o bey t he l a ws : " An d t her e we c hi n a me n wer e, i n Li n c o l n El emen t a r y
Sc ho o l , Oa k l a n d , Ca l i f o r ni a , i n a wo r l d w he r e ma n l i n es s c o u n t s f o r
ev er y t hi n g , s u r r o u n d e d by ba d bl ac ks a n d ba d Mex i c a n ki ds . . . s u d -
d en l y s t r i p p ed a n d s ha v ed ba r e by t hi s c o p wi t h n o ma n l y s t yl e o f m y
o w n , u n l es s it wa s s i s s i nes s " ( q u o t ed by Ki m, p. 178).
If t hes e raci s t , i d eo l o g i c a l s t er eo t y p es n e e d be c o u n t er ed , s o , t o o ,
Chi n a t o w n n e e d s t o be e x p o s e d . Chi n i ma g es Chi n a t o w n as d ec a y i n g
be n e a t h a n ex o t i c f a a d e, as a s eni l e l i v i ng c o r p s e, p o p u l a t ed by i n ha bi -
t a nt s i m a g e d as bu g s , s p i d er s , a n d f r o g s , e n g a g e d i n act i vi t i es i ma g e d
as f u n er a l s ( p r es er v a t i o n o f d ec a y i n g pas t s u n d e r i v or y ma s ks ) . H e -
r o e s c o w bo y s m u s t es c a p e t o s ur v i v e. Li ke Ki n g s t o n , Chi n m o v e d
o u t , p r ef er r i n g t o bu i l d s t r en g t h i n Seat t l e, r et u r n i n g o n l y o n t e m p o -
r a r y f o r a y s t o t he ba t t l eg r o u n d o f c ha n g e i n Sa n Fr a nc i s c o . I n hi s wr i t -
i n g , Chi n a t t emp t s t o c r ea t e a t o u g h, a g g r es s i v e, ba c k- t a l ki ng y o u n g
ma l e he r o , a n a d o l es c en t s ex ua l i t y a n d a g g r es s i o n t ha t a r e p e r ha p s
s i g n s o f a n e w v o i c e a n d i dent i t y n o t y et f o u n d .
Jef f r ey Pa ul Cha n , Ki m n o t es , wr i t es n o t di s s i mi l a r l y : bo t h u s e t he
i m a g e o f Chi n a t o w n as a c hi c ken c o o p . In hi s s ea r c h f o r a n e w s t y l e
f o r t he Chi n e s e - Ame r i c a n , Cha n a l s o pl ays wi t h t he r o l es o f o t her mi -
n o r i t i es , es p ec i a l l y t ha t o f t he Amer i c a n I n d i a n . Th e I n d i a n is a t t r a c -
t i v e bec a u s e he ha s ( t o o u t s i d er s ) u n q u es t i o n a bl e r o o t s i n Amer i c a .
Thi s i s a t he m e t ha t bo t h Ki n g s t o n a n d Sha wn H s u Wo n g a l s o d e -
v el o p : t he n e e d pa r t i c ul a r l y o f Chi n es e- Amer i c a n ma l es t o ma r k a n d
212
MICHAEL M. J . FISCHER
ap p r o p r i at e t he l an d . Wo n g ' s n ar r at o r is hau n t e d by t he g ho st s o f
g r an d f at her s who bui l t t he r ai l r o ads, i mag i n i n g t hei r st r u g g l es, t hei r
l et t er s h o m e to Chi n a, an d ev en fantasi z es hi ms el f as an o l d n i g ht
t r ai n fi l l ed wi t h Chi n ame n , r u n n i n g al o n g t he tr ac ks, hear t b u r n i n g
l i ke a r e d ho t e n g i n e . The s e g r an d f at her s l aid r o o t s i n t he l an d , l i ke
"r o o ts o f g i an t tr ees, " l ike "shar p tal o ns in t he ear t h o f m y c o u n t r y . "
Rai n s f o r d , t he n ar r at o r o f Homebase ( 1979) , has a whi t e g i r l f r i en d ,
who p at r o n i z es hi m, t el l i n g hi m that he is t he p r o d u c t o f t he r i c hest
an d o l d es t c u l t u r e i n t he wo r l d , a c i vi l i z ati on t hat i n v en t ed man y o f
t he c o m p o n e n t s o f m o d e r n l ife, mak i n g hi m feel e v e n s har p er an x i et y
ab o u t hav i n g n o t hi n g o f hi s o wn i n Amer i c a. He r ejec ts thi s "l ove, "
an d s he, cl assical l y, tel l s hi m to g o bac k wher e he c ame f r o m: g o
ho m e . B u t ho m e is her e. It is an Amer i c an I n d i an who s ho ws hi m
ho w t o fi n d hi s Ame r i c an r o o ts: he s ho u l d r et r ac e whe r e hi s p e o p l e
hav e b e e n , al l o v er Amer i c a, see t he t o wn he is n a m e d after . He d o e s
thi s, d e t e r mi n e d that Amer i c a "mu st g i v e m e l eg en d s wi t h spir it, " an d
d r e am i n g o f a r ec o n c i l i at i o n wi t h a Chi n es e- Amer i c an girl i n Wi s-
c o n s i n who s e g r an d f at her f r o m Chi n a had fl ed t he West Co ast . I n
Chinamen, Ki n g s t o n , t o o , emp has i z es t he t he me o f m e n c l ai mi n g
Amer i c a, wr i t i n g o f r ai l r o ad wo r k er s her o i c an d mas c u l i n e at t i mes
s u c h as t he str i ke o f 1869: b ar e- c hest ed , mu s c u l ar y o u n g g o d s v i c -
t i mi z ed , k ep t wo man l es s , d y i n g i n t he wi l d er n ess. Bu t , says o n e o f
t he m, "We' re mar k i n g t he l an d n o w. "
Dr e am- wo r k s i mu l t an e o u s l y t he i n t eg r at i o n o f d i s s o n an t p ast
f r ag me n t s an d t he d ay d r e ami n g "tr y i ng - o n" o f al ter nati v e p o ssi b l e
i d en t i t i es i s b o t h d esc r i p t i v e o f o n e way (or o n e set o f way s) et h-
ni c i ty wo r k s an d s u g g es t s a wr i t i n g tactic o f f r ag men t s . He r e , t o o ,
Cr ap an z an o ' s Tuhami, r ef er r ed to ab o v e, mi g ht ser v e as an e x a m p l e
o f a r ec en t et hn o g r ap hi c t ex t that ex p l o i t s this tactic. T h e r ead er
is p r e s e n t e d wi t h a p u z z l e: to hel p t he au t ho r an al y z e bits o f i n t er -
v i ews i n whi c h t he i n f o r man t d r aws equal l y o n r eal ity an d f an t asy f o r
me t ap ho r s wi t h whi c h to d esc r i b e t he i mpo ssi bi l i ti es o f hi s ex i s t en c e.
Tu ha m i is a m e m b e r o f Mo r o c c o ' s su b p r o l etar i at; t he styl e o f hi s d i s-
c o u r s e p e r hap s i l l ustr ates what Pi er r e B o u r d i e u p r o v o c at i v el y cal l s
t he t r u n c at ed c o n s c i o u s n es s o f man y me mb e r s o f su c h su b p r o l et ar i -
at s .
1 9
I f s o , Cr ap an z an o ' s r ec o r d i n g o f Thami mi g ht p r o v i d e an ac -
c ess to t he d i sc o u r se o f an e me r g e n t n e w soc ial c l ass, an al o g o u s t o
t he e m e r g e n t d i sc o u r se o f Chi n es e- Amer i c an wr i ter s' c o n c e r n wi t h
c hi c k en c o o p s an d r ai l r o ad s, c o wb o y s an d I n d i an s. Ot he r si mi l ar wr i t-
i g. "The Disenchantment of the World," in Algeria i960 (New York: Cambridge
University Press, 1979).
Ethnicity and the Arts of Memory
213
i n g tactics ar e easi l y i mag i n ab l e, su c h as t he u se o f t he j u x t ap o s e d
v i ewp o i n t s o f d i f f er en t i n f o r man t s an d / o r au t ho r s ,
2 0
an d Ra s ho m o n -
l i ke d es c r i p t i o n s f r o m d i f f er en t p er sp ec t i v es.
2 1
Al t er n at i v e Sel v es an d Bi fo c al i ty
Two r ec en t bl ac k au t o b i o g r ap hi es by Char l es Mi n g u s an d
Mar i t a Go l d e n d e v e l o p t he n o t i o n o f mu l t i p l e sel v es an d e x a m i n e t he
r eal i ty c o n st r ai n t s o n en ac t i n g al ter nati v e sel v es. Th e y al so e x p l o r e
t he u s e o f al t er n at i v e sel v es to c hal l en g e d o mi n an t he g e m o n i c i d eo l o -
g i es, t he o n e by ap p l y i n g an et hn i c aest het i c (thus b ei n g e t hn o g r ap hi c
i n styl e as wel l as c o n t en t ) , t he o t her by p i o n eer i n g t he bi fo c al i ty that
an t hr o p o l o g y has al way s p r o mi s ed . Al i c e Wal ker , an o t her bl ac k wr i t er ,
n o t es : " Whe n I l o o k at p eo p l e i n Ir an an d Cu b a, t hey l o o k l i ke
k i n fol k" ( Br ad l ey 1984: 3 5 - 3 6 ) . Thi s is e c ho e d by Max i n e Ho n g
Ki n g s t o n an d Ame r i c an I n d i an wr i ter Lesl i e Mar mo n Si l ko , who p o r -
tr ay y o u n g m e n i n Ame r i c an u n i f o r m i n so u t heast Asi a sev er el y d i s-
t u r b e d by t he i nabi l i ty t o d i st i n g u i sh t he e n e m y f r o m ki nfo l k. As a hu -
man i s t c u l t u r al c r i ti c i sm o f nati o nal i st, cl ass, an d o t her he g e m o n i c
po l i ti c al d i sc o u r ses, t hese o b ser v at i o n s si g nal t he p o t en t i al f o r a p o we r -
f u l c o u n t e r r het o r i c , si mi l ar to t ho se d e v e l o p e d by t he smal l n at i o n s o f
Eu r o p e , t ho s e o n t he wr o n g si de o f hi stor y, who s e "d i sab u sed v i ew o f
hi st o r y " is t he "so u r c e o f thei r c u l t u r e, o f thei r wi s d o m, o f t he ' n o n -
s er i o u s spirit' that mo c k s g r an d e u r an d g l o r y " ( Ku n d er a 1984).
Mi n g u s' s Beneath the Underdog ( 1971) uti l i z es a tr i par ti te sel f as
n ar r at o r ; a t el l i n g to a psy c hi atr i st as t he o v er al l nar r ati v e f r ame; an d
an o b sessi v e f o c u s o n a f at her fi g u r e. Th e tr i par ti te sel f is i n t r o d u c ed
o n t he first p ag e, an d r efl ec ted u p o n ag ai n n ear t he l ast (p. 255) : an
i n b o r n , ev er - l o v i n g g en t l e so u l who al way s g ets t ak en ; a f r i g ht e n e d
an i mal that, f r o m ex p er i en c e, l ear n s to attac k f o r f ear o f b e i n g at-
t ac k ed ; an d a d i st an c ed thi r d who st an d s ap ar t wat c hi n g t he o t he r
t wo . T h e t hr ee sel v es ap p ear t hr o u g ho u t t he t ex t as al t er n at i n g , i n t er -
b r ai d e d v o i c es l i k e t he c al l - an d - r esp o n se o f a j az z s e s s i o n k e e p i n g
t he r ead er al er t to p er sp ec t i v e an d c i r c u mst an c e.
Eq u al l y st r i k i n g is Mi ng us' s t ex t u al str ateg y o f p o s i n g t he au t o -
b i o g r ap hy as a tel l i ng , a tal k- stor y, to a J ewi sh psy c hi atr i st ( " r emem-
20. Recent examples of such "polyphony" are Birds of My Kalam Country by I an
Maj nep and Ralph Bulmer (1977), and Piman Shamanism by Donald M. Bahr, Juan
Gregorio, David I . Lopez, and Albert Alvarez (1974).
21. See the discussion of N. Scott Momaday below, or in anthropology see Richard
Price's First-Time (1983) in which oral accounts are juxtaposed to archival ones; or
Renato Rosaldo's Ilongot Headhunting (1980) which pursues a similar goal more
discursively.
214
MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
ber s a y i n g y o u carne t o m e n o t o nl y bec a u s e I' m a ps y c hi a t r i s t bu t a l s o
bec a u s e I' m a Jew? An d t her ef o r e c o u l d r el a t e t o y o u r p r o bl ems ?"
p . 7). Thi s a l l o ws t he a u t ho r t o pl ay wi t h f o u r s u bd ev i c es , l i ke i m-
p r o v i s a t o r y j a z z t he me s t ha t r ea p p ea r per i odi c a l l y . Fi rs t , t her e a r e t he
p s y c ho l o g i c a l d ev i c es o f f a br i c a t i o n ( i n v o l v i n g t he r ea d er i n s o r t i n g
o u t t he p u z z l es o f i dent i t y , c o nt r o l by t he s el f v er s u s c o n t r o l by o u t s i d e
f o r c es ) , a n d c ha n g i n g t he s ubj ec t o r c r y i ng ( s i gnal s o f bl o c ka g es ,
a v o i d a n c es , p a i n , a n d i r r a t i ona l c o mp u l s i o n s ) . Sec o n d , t he t he m e o f
p i m p i n g is u s e d as a mul t i - r eg i s t er met a p ho r . It d es c r i bes t he na r -
rat or' s u s e o f w o m e n as a c hi l di s h wa y t o p r o v e hi s m a n ho o d ( br ea ki n g
o u t o f s u bo r d i n a t i o n a n d d e p e n d e n c y t he p i mp as ma s t e r by i m-
p o s i n g s u bo r d i n a t i o n o n o t her s ) . It is a me t a p ho r o f e c o n o mi c s ur -
vi val , o f t he d i l e mma s o f bl ac k mu s i c i a n s w ho c a n n o t ma k e it o n mu s i c
a l o n e, bu t mu s t p r o s t i t ut e t hems el v es a n d o t her s , me a n i n g a m o n g
o t he r t hi n g s a r eg r es s i v e d e p e n d e n c e o n w o m e n ( " He wa n t ed t o ma k e
i t a l o n e wi t ho u t a n y he l p f r o m w o m e n o r a n y o n e el s e, " p. 132). Tha t
i s , n a r r a t o r as bo t h p i m p a n d p r o s t i t ut e. An d it is a bi t t er d es c r i p t i o n
o f t he raci s t e c o n o mi c s y s t em c o n t r o l l ed by whi t es ("Jazz is bi g bu s i n es s
t o t he whi t e ma n a n d y o u can' t mo v e wi t ho u t hi m. We j u s t wo r k- a n t s , "
p . 137 ) . T h e t hi r d d ev i c e is r ec u r r en t d r ea ms a bo u t Fat s Na v a r r o , a
Fl o r i d a - bo r n Cu ba n mu s i c i a n w ho d i ed at t went y - s i x o f t u ber c u l o s i s
a n d na r c o t i c a d d i c t i o n , w ho s er v es t hr o u g ho u t t he bo o k as a n a l t er
e g o t o w h o m t he p r o j ec t o f wr i t i ng a bo o k is c o n f i d ed . Th e bo o k is t o
a c hi ev e l i ber a t i o n, bo t h ec o n o mi c ( f a nt a s i es o f f at r oy a l t i es ) a n d s pi r -
i t ual . T h e d r e a ms i n c l u d e med i t a t i o n s o n a d ea t h wi s h, c en t er i n g o n
t he i d ea t ha t o n e c a n di e ( onl y?) w he n o n e wo r ks o u t one' s ka r ma , p r e-
c i s el y wha t wa s d e n i e d Fat s .
Fi nal l y, t he u s e o f t he f a t her figuration i s, o f c o u r s e, a l s o p a r t o f
t he n a r r a t i o n t o t he p s y c hi a t r i s t t he f o u r t h s u bd e v i c e bu t it a l s o i n -
t r o d u c es a n e l e me n t o f c ho i c e a n d r et r a c i ng o f g en ea l o g i c a l c o n n e c -
t i o n ( " So me d a y I ma y c ho o s e a n o t her f a t her t o t ea c h me, " p . 96).
Mi n g u s ' s f a t her a p p ea r s hr s t i n hi s c hi l d ho o d t r a u ma s ( bei n g d r o p p e d
o n hi s he a d , ha v i n g hi s d o g s ho t by a n ei g hbo r , ki n d er g a r t en a c c us a -
t i o n s o f bei n g a s ex u a l p er v er t , a n d a bo v e al l p a t er n a l bea t i n g s a n d
t hr ea t s o f c a s t r a t i o n f or bed wet t i n g , l at er d i s c o v er ed t o be d u e t o
d a m a g e d ki d n ey s ) . Th e f a t her g a v e hi m hi s first mu s i c a l i n s t r u men t ,
bu t be i n g emo t i o n a l l y u n r es p o n s i v e al s o s et u p a l o n g i n g f o r a r ea l
f a t her . ( The f at her' s o w n a n x i et y s t r uc t ur e is a n a l y z ed as s t e m m i n g
f r o m be i n g a f r us t r a t ed a r c hi t ec t c o n d e m n e d t o l i f e i n t he Pos t Of f i c e,
a n d as ma n i f es t i n g i t sel f by t ea c hi n g hi s c hi l d r en a f a l s e, raci s t s en s e
o f s u p er i o r i t y o n t he g r o u n d s t ha t t hey wer e l i g ht - s ki n n ed . ) Mi d -
bo o k, Mi n g u s r et u r n s t o find o u t a bo u t hi s f a t her , a n d hea r s y et a g a i n
t ha t he is n o t f ul l y bl ack, t ha t he is a d es c en d a n t o f Abr a ha m Li nc ol n' s
c o u s i n , a n d t ha t
Ethni ci ty and the Arts of Memory
2 15
"a l ot of tal ki ng about f r eedom . . . [is] a waste of ti me 'cause even a
slave coul d have i nner f r eedom if he want ed it."
"That's brai nwashi ng by the whi te man."
"Careful , boy y ou ain't totally black." (95)
Whi t e c o n n ec t i o n s a r e n o t t he o n l y t r o u bl i n g o n es . Cl as s p r ej u d i c es
wi t hi n t he bl a c k c o mmu n i t y a l s o t hr ea t en y o u n g Mi n g u s . Th e f a t her
a d v i s es : "So t el l t he m y o u r g r a n d f a t her wa s a n Af r i c a n c hi ef t a i n
n a m e d Mi n g u s " (96). The r e is a l s o a c er t a i n a mo u n t o f pl a y wi t h al t er-
n a t i v e et hn i c ma s ks . Mi n g u s g r o ws u p i n Wat t s a n d is l i g ht - s ki n n ed ; i n
t he mi r r o r he t hi n ks he c a n s ee s t r ai ns o f In d i a n , Af r i c a n , Mex i c a n ,
As i a n , a n d whi t e, a n d he wo r r i es t hat he is "a l i t t l e o f ev er y t hi n g ,
who l l y n o t hi n g " (50).
Mex i c a n is a ma j o r a l t er na t i v e i dent i t y ( " Mex i c a n Mo o d s " ) .
2 2
Hi s
first g i r l f r i en d w he n a g e d five wa s Mex i c a n ; s o wa s a gi rl w ho a l mo s t
s n a g g e d hi m i n t o ma r r i a g e at s ev en t een . La t er , i n Sa n Fr a nc i s c o , a
Jewi s h mu s i c i a n ha d t r i ed t o g i v e hi m a br ea k i n a whi t e u n i o n : he wa s
a c c ep t ed as Mex i c a n unt i l a bl ack mu s i c i a n t u r n ed hi m i n. Jewi s hn es s
is a n o t he r et hni c i t y p l a y ed wi t h, pa r t i c ul a r l y t hr o u g h hi s Jewi s h p s y -
c hi a t r i s t a n d t he ps y c hi a t r i s t s at Bel l ev u e, w ho i ni t i al l y s e e m l i ke Na z i s
t hr ea t en i n g l o bo t o my , bu t w ho ev en t u a l l y mi d wi f e a f eel i n g o f r es p ec t
a n d l o v e:
The truth is doct or, I'm i nsecure and I'm black and I'm scared to deat h of
povert y and especi al l y poverty al one. I'm hel pl ess wi t hout a woman, afrai d of
t omorrow. . . . It was easy to be proud and feel cont empt and say to t hes e
beaut i f ul wo men, "I don't want your dirty money! " so that was one good t hi ng
that ha ppened in Bel l evue, havi ng a f eel i ng of l ove and respect for t hem
agai n. . . . My musi c is evi dence of my soul's will to live beyond my sperm' s
grave. (245-46)
T h e wi l d hu m o r , ex c es s i v e s ex ua l i t y , a n d a n g u i s h o f Mi ng us ' s s t yl e
he l p p o s e t he c o n t r a d i c t i o n s a n d p uz z l es o f hi s et hn i c s ea r c h: t he di f -
f er en c es a m o n g t he w o m e n u p o n w ho m he d e p e n d s t w o mi s t r es s es ,
a mi d d l e cl as s bl a c k wi f e, a n d a bl o n d n u r s e; t he t ent a t i v e t r y i n g o n o f
o t he r mi n o r i t i es ' i dent i t i es ; t he hi n t o f ex p l o r i n g Af r i c a n c o n n ec t i o n s ;
a n d t he s en s e o f mi x e d bl o o d o r her i t a g e. Mi ng us ' s c r i t i que o f r a c i s m
i s p o i g n a n t , ma c a br el y hu mo r o u s , a v er ba l j a z z - bl u es , s o p hi s t i c a t ed i n
s t y l e a n d t ec hn i q u e, wi el d i n g a n et hni c a es t het i c t o br i n g t he r ea d er t o
a p er s p ec t i v e a n d u n d er s t a n d i n g .
Ma r i t a Gul den' s Migrations of the Heart (1983) ex p l o r es t he Af r i c a n
c o n n e c t i o n s m o r e di r ec t l y , a n d i l l us t r at es a d i f f er en t f o r m o f c r i t i q ue,
p e r ha p s l es s i n n o v a t i v e i n s t yl e, bu t p i o n eer i n g a n o l d p r o mi s e o f a n -
t hr o p o l o g y t o be a "bi f ocal " m o d e o f c ul t ur a l c r i t i c i s m. Go l d e n ma r -
. Tlx- n ame of the album that i n 1962 he said was his best.
2 l 6 MICHAEL M.J. FISCHER
r i es a Ni g e r i a n a n d g o es t o Ni g er i a t o r eex p er i en c e her Ame r i c a n -
n es s . T h e ma r r i a g e f ai l s . Th e s t or y is a p a i nf ul , y et ev en t u a l l y
s t r en g t hen i n g , r ec o g n i t i o n t ha t i dent i t y is n o t t o be c o n s t r u c t ed wi t h
t he f r ee wi l l o f r o ma n t i c f a nt a s y . The r e a r e real i t y p r i nc i p l es t ha t c o n -
s t r a i n: t r a di t i o ns , g r o wt h p a t t er n s , a n d d y n a mi c s be y o n d t he e g o . Sev -
er a l s c hema t a s t r u c t u r e Gul den' s t ex t : r ep et i t i o ns o f t he f a t her f i g ur e,
c o u n t er v a i l i n g bu t s ec o n d a r y mo t he r figures ( mo t her , mo t her - i n -
l a w) , r ebel l i o n s a n d g r a d u a l t e mp e r i n g i n t o ma t u r e w o m a n ho o d , a n d
a s ki l l f ul p o r t r a i t o f t he d ev a s t a t i n g d y n a mi c s o f a n i nt er c ul t ur a l ma r -
r i a g e t ha t d o e s n o t wo r k.
T h e p a t r i a r c ha l figures ( f a t her a n d hu s ba n d ) wi t h whi c h s he
s t r u g g l es s e e m t o be t he p r i ma r y v ehi c l es f or et hni c i t y - wo r k.
[My f at her] was as assured as a pant her . . . he bequeat hed to meg o l d
nug g et s of fact, myt h, l egend. . . . By his own defi ni ti on he was "a black man
a nd pr o ud o f it." . . . Africa: "It wasn't dark unti l the whi t e man got there."
Cl eopat ra: "I don't care WHAT they teach you in school , she was a black
woma n. " . . . t he expl oi t s of Toussai nt L' Ouverture. (34)
Yet a l s o :
He was a hard, nearl y i mpossi bl e man to l ove when l ove meant excl usi ve
ri ghts to his soul . . . he rel i ed [on his many women] . . . to enhance the i m-
provi sat i onal nat ure of his life. (34)
H e r Af r i c a n l o v er , t hen hu s ba n d , is a l mo s t a d o u bl e t o her f a t her . Hi s
a s s u r a n c e first at t ract s her :
env el oped in the aura of s upr eme conf i dence that bl os s omed around all t he
Af ri cans I had ever met . . . I'd read about my past and now it sat across f r om
me in a steak hous e, pl aci d, and even a bit s mug. . . . I rubbed my f i ngers
across hi s hand. "What're you doi ng?" he asked. "I want s ome of your confi-
denc e to rub of f o n me, " I said. ( 5 0 - 5 1 )
B o t h m e n ha v e a r ea s o f r et i c en c e s he c a n n o t p en et r a t e. Wi t h her f a-
t her t he mu t u a l l ack o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s ma n i f es t ed i n hi s d e m a n d
t ha t s he g et ri d o f her "nat ur al " ha i r - d o , i n hi s ( a n d her ) i nabi l i t y t o
s ha r e g r i ef w he n her mo t he r di es , a n d i n hi s t a ki ng u p wi t h a n o t he r
w o m a n , w h o m s he r es ent s . Wi t h her hu s ba n d , t he mu t u a l l ac k o f
u n d e r s t a n d i n g l i es i n hi s f a mi l i a l a n d pa t r i a r c ha l t r a di t i o ns , f o r i n-
s t a n c e, hi s s ha r i n g o f e c o n o mi c r es o u r c es wi t h hi s f r a t er na l g r o u p at
t he e x p e n s e o f hi s c o n j u g a l f ami l y. Ini t i al l y s he finds t he p a t r i a r c ha l ,
ma s c u l i n e Ni g er i a n c u l t u r e at t r ac t i ve:
Lagos is an aggressi vel y mascul i ne city, and its men ex ude a dogmat i c confi -
denc e. . . . it was this mascul i ni ty that made the men so undeni abl y attractive.
Ni geri a was thei r count ry to destroy or save. That knowl edge ma de t hem
Ethni ci ty and t he Arts of Memory
2 17
stri de and pr een in sel f -appreci ati on. Thi s assurance became for an Af ro-
Amer i c an wo ma n a gaily wrapped gift to be o pened anew every day. (84)
Ul t i ma t el y , s he f eel s t he a s s u mp t i o n s o f t hi s c u l t u r e t o be d ev a s -
t a t i ng l y d e n y i n g o f her s en s e o f sel f. Wo m e n , s he is t o l d by a n o t he r
wi f e, a r e f o r g i v en a l mo s t ev er y t hi n g as l o n g as t hey f ul f i l l t he d u t y t o
s et t he s t a g e o n whi c h t hei r m e n l i ve. Li f e is c o mp l i c a t ed i n Ni g er i a ,
p a r t i c ul a r l y w he n her fianc res i s t s ma r r i a g e unt i l he f eel s financially
i n d e p e n d e n t , w he n s he finds a j o b a n d he c a n n o t , l a t er w he n he d e -
m a n d s a c hi l d bef o r e s he is r ea dy , a n d w he n he g i v es m o n e y t o r a i s e
hi s br o t her ' s c hi l d r en at t he e x p e n s e o f her c o mf o r t .
T h e p r i ma r y f r a mes o f Gul den' s bo o k a r e t he por t r a i t s o f a ma r -
r i a g e g o n e awr y, par t l y f o r r ea s o n s o f c ul t ur a l l y c o nf l i c t i ng a s s u mp -
t i o n s , a n d o f a w o m a n g r a d u a l l y f r eei n g her s el f f r o m d e p e n d e n c i e s
a n d u n e x a m i n e d n o t i o n s o f i dent i t y . Bu t wha t is i mp o r t a n t her e a r e
t he r ef l ec t i o ns o n wha t it is t o be a bl ack Ame r i c a n a g a i n , a n i d en t i t y
t o be c r ea t ed , a n d a s o c i o l o g i c a l real i t y t o be s t r u g g l ed f o r . Ju s t as Af -
r i c a is i ni t i al l y a n o v er - r o ma n t i c i z ed i ma g e o f "my pas t , " a n i ma g e
o f s el f - c o n f i d en c e, o n e t ha t i nev i t a bl y is s ha ken by a c l o s er l o o k
Ni g er i a ha s i ts o w n p r o bl ems , a n Ame r i c a n d o es n o t s l i p s o eas i l y i n t o
a n Af r i c a n s et o f r o l es s o , t o o , Amer i c a is n o t t o be a c c ep t ed i n i ts
r ea l i t i es o f r a c i s m o r i n d i v i d u a l f a nt a s i es ( s uc h as t ho s e o f her f a t her ) .
G o l d e n r et u r n s f r o m her o r d ea l i n Af r i c a t o Bo s t o n ( Bo s t o n bec a u s e it
i s n o t Wa s hi n g t o n o r Ne w York, w he r e s he g r ew u p a n d w he r e t her e
a r e t o o ma n y r eg r es s i v e pul l s ) . The r e s he finds t he raci al a t mo s p he r e
a l mo s t u n bea r a bl e. On e ha s t he f eel i n g , ho wev er , t ha t s he wi l l n o w
he l p t o c ha n g e t he s i t ua t i o n s i mp l y by bei n g a s t r o n g er , r i c her p er s o n .
Thi s u s e o f Af r i c a is wha t a n t hr o p o l o g i c a l c ul t ur a l c r i t i c i s m o u g ht
t o be a bo u t : a di a l ec t i c a l o r t wo - di r ec t i o na l j o u r n e y e x a mi n i n g t he r e-
al i t i es o f bo t h s i des o f c ul t ur a l d i f f er en c es s o t ha t t hey ma y mu t u a l l y
q u es t i o n ea c h o t her , a n d t her eby g en er a t e a real i s t i c i ma g e o f h u m a n
po s s i bi l i t i es a n d a s el f - c o n f i d en c e f o r t he ex p l o r er g r o u n d e d i n c o m-
p a r a t i v e u n d e r s t a n d i n g r a t her t ha n et hn o c en t r i s m. It is p er ha p s wha t
Ma r g a r et Me a d p r o mi s e d i n Coming of Age in Samoa a n d Sex and Tem-
perament in Three Primitive Societies, a n d f a i l ed f ul l y t o del i v er . The s e
i n f l u en t i a l bo o k s he l p e d Amer i c a n s s ee t ha t Ame r i c a n a d o l es c en t pa t -
t er n s o f r ebel l i o u s n es s a n d Amer i c a n s ex r o l es wer e n o t "nat ur al , "
bu t c ul t ur a l l y mo l d e d , a n d s o mi g ht be a l t er ed t hr o u g h d i f f er en t
c hi l d - r ea r i n g me t ho d s . Su c h c ul t ur a l c r i t i c i s m o f Amer i c a w o r k e d by
j u x t a p o s i n g a l t er na t i v e p a t t er n s el s ewher e i n t he wo r l d : t ha t i s, r ea l
w o r l d e x a mp l e s , n o t Utopian f a nt a s i es . In t oday' s mo r e s o p hi s t i c a t ed
wo r l d , we k n o w t ha t t he Sa mo a n a n d Ne w Gu i n ea s o c i et i es a r e m o r e
c o mp l i c a t e d t ha n Ma r g a r et Mea d d es c r i bed , as al s o is Amer i c a . Ma r i t a
2 j g MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
I n t er - r ef er en c e
And Louie would come through
melodramatic music, like in the
monotan tan laranlCruz
Diablo, El Charro Negro! Bogard
smile (his smile is deadly as
his viasas!). He dug roles, man,
and nameslike blackie, little
Louie . . .
JOSE MONTOYA, "El Louie"
Within the dark morada average
chains rattle and clacking prayer
wheels jolt
the hissing spine to uncoil wailing
tongues
of Nahuatl converts who slowly
wreath
rosary whips to flay one another
BERNICE ZAMORA, "Restless
Serpents"
Per ha p s t he mo s t s t r i ki ng f ea t ur e o f Mex i c a n - Amer i c a n wr i t -
i n g , p r es en t i n o t her et hn i c wr i t i ng t o o , but br o u g ht t o its mo s t ex -
pl i c i t a n d d r a ma t i c l ev el her e, is i nt er l i ng ui s t i c pl ay: i n t er f er en c e,
a l t er n a t i o n , i n t er - r ef er en c e. Thi s wa s t he s ubj ec t o f t he first Ar m e n i a n
p o e m c i t ed a bo v e. It is c l ea r i n t he t ex t u r e o f bl ack En g l i s h. So m e
Me x i c a n - Ame r i c a n wr i t er s u s e Sp a n i s h, o t her s En g l i s h, s o m e ha v e al -
t er n a t i n g / mi r r o r i n g p a g es o r c ha p t er s o f Sp a n i s h a n d En g l i s h ( r e-
c i p r o c a l t r a ns l a t i o ns ) . Chi c a n o l i t er ar y j o u r n a l s (El Grito, Entrelinas,
Revista Chicano-Riquena) a r e r es o l ut el y bi l i ng ua l . Sp a n i s h p hr a s es o c -
c u r wi t hi n t he f l ow o f En g l i s h, a n d Sp a n i s h wo r d s a n d g r a mma t i c a l
s t r u c t u r e t a ke o n c ha n g es i n f l u en c ed by En g l i s h. I n d e e d , f o r s o m e
pochismo o r calo, t he Chi c a n o s l a ng , t akes o n a . p r i v i l eg ed r o l e. Sa y s
Be r n i c e Za mo r a :
I l ike to t hi nk of Cal o as the l anguage of Chi cano l iterature . . . It is evol vi ng
as a l iterary mo de, and t he writers I enjoy most f or thei r consi st ency o f Cal o
are Ceci l i o Camavi l l o, Jose Mont oya, and Raul Salinas. I am f ond of Cal o be-
caus e of t he us age of Engl i sh phonemes with Spani sh ger und or verb endi ng s
. . . es ki pi ando [ ski ppi ng] . . . Indi os pasando we wat chando. . . . I teach Cal o
wi t h t he premi s e that it is a conflict of l anguages resol ved. ( Quot ed i n Bruce-
Nov a 1980 a: 20 9)
Ri c a r d o Sa n c hez p r o v i d es a n e x a mp l e o f bi l i ng ua l i ns i s t enc e:
Soy un mani t o por herenci a y un pachuco por experi enci a [I am a nati ve New
Mexi can by heri t age and a pachuco by e x p e r i e n c e ] . . . I was born number 13 ,
t he first o n e i n t he fami l y to be born out s i de o f New Mexi co and Col orado
si nce s omewher e en el si gl o 16 [in the si xt eent h cent ury] . . . soy mest i zo [I'm
a mes t i zo] , sci on to the beautiful and turbul ent reality of i ndo-hi spani c con-
cat enat i on, ay, mi abuel a materna [my maternal grandmot her] was born i n
Ethni ci ty and the Arts of Memory
2 19
t he tewa puebl o of san Juan, t here bet ween taos and espanol a . . . un mu n d o
ni es panol ni i ndi gena: ay, mundo de pol i col ores [a worl d nei t her Spanish nor
i ndi an: ay, worl d of pol ycol ors] when mi nds oul s se ponen a reconf i gurar
[start to rest ruct ure] new hori zons. (Bruce-Nova 1980 a: 221)
Bu t o f f ar m o r e i nt er es t t ha n s i mp l y l i ng ui s t i c i n t er f er en c e o r c o d e
s wi t c hi n g , a n d t he ed u c a t i o n d eba t e g en er a t ed o v er bi l i n g u a l i s m, is t he
f ac t , as Mi c hel Ser r es p u t s it, "Il f a ut l i re l ' i nt er f r enc e c o m m e i nt er -
r f r en c e" (it is n ec es s a r y t o r ea d i n t er f er en c e as i n t er - r ef er en c e) .
2
'
Wha t k eep s t he i nt er l i ng ui s t i c s i t ua t i o n vi tal is n o t mer el y t he c o n t i n u -
i n g wa v es o f Mex i c a n s en t er i n g t he Un i t ed St at es a n d t he flow ba c k
a n d f o r t h a c r o s s t he bo r d er , s o t hat g r a d u a l d i s a p p ea r a n c e i n a n En -
g l i s h e n v i r o n me n t is l es s l i kel y, but t he c ul t ur a l vi t al i t y o f r ef er en c es t o
Me x i c a n hi s t o r y , Sp a n i s h c i vi l i zat i on, a n d p r e- Co l u mbi a n c i v i l i za t i on,
as wel l as t o p a r t i c ul a r Chi c a n o s t yl es ( s uc h as t he p a c hu c o "zoot s ui t "
s u bc u l t u r e o f El Pa s o a n d Lo s An g el es c el ebr a t ed i n Mo nt o y a ' s "El
Lo u i e, " a figure p a r a l l el i n g t he bl a c k St a g g e r l e e )
2 4
o r c ul t ur a l e n -
v i r o n me n t s ( s uc h as t he P n i t en t es c ul t o f Ne w Mex i c o d es c r i bed i n
t he o p e n i n g p o e m o f Za mor a ' s "Res t l es s Ser p ent s " ) .
Po et i c a u t o bi o g r a p hy a n d t he o u t r i g ht no v l i s t i c fiction o f
Ru d o l f o An a y a , Ro n Ar i a s , a n d Ro l a n d o H i n o j o s a ha s p e r ha p s
be e n mo r e bo l dl y ex p er i men t a l her e t ha n p r o s e a u t o bi o g r a p hy . Bu t ,
i f o n e c o n s i d er s Jo s e An t o n i o Vi l l arreal ' s Pocho (1959) as a v ei l ed a u t o -
bi o g r a p hy (it is o f t en c o u n t e d as t he first ma j o r Chi c a n o n o v el , al -
t ho u g h Vi l l a r r ea l d o e s n o t l i ke t he l abel "Chi c a no") , t hen t o g et her
wi t h Er n es t o Gal arza' s Barrio Boy ( 19 7 1) , Ri c ha r d Ro dr i g uez ' s Hunger
of Memory ( 19 81) , a n d Sa n d r a Ci s ner os ' s ( " s emi - a ut o bi o g r a p hi c a l " )
The House on Mango Street (1983), p r o s e a u t o bi o g r a p hy ha s s et o u t
m a n y o f t he t hema t i c p r eo c c u p a t i o n s o f Chi c a n o wr i t i ng .
Vi l l a r r ea l es t a bl i s hes t he t hemes o f i mmi g r a t i o n , d ea l i n g wi t h
Me x i c a n r el i g i o u s a n d s ex u a l i nhi bi t i o ns , a n d f ami l i al r el a t i o ns i n
Pocho. In The Fifth Horseman (1974) he r ewo r ks t he Mex i c a n g e n r e o f
n o v el s a bo u t t he 19 10 r ev o l u t i o n s o as t o c r ea t e a po s i t i v e a nc es t r a l
figure f o r t he c o n t e mp o r a r y Chi c a n o : a p r o t a g o n i s t w ho a f t er t he
"s uc c es s " o f t he r ev o l u t i o n r ef u s es t o j o i n t he v i c t o r i o us a r my i n p l u n -
d e r i n g t he p eo p l e, a n d , s t a y i ng t r ue t o t he r ev o l u t i o n , flees t o t he
Un i t e d St a t es . Vi l l arreal ' s f a t her , i n d eed , f o u g ht f or Pa n c ho Vi l l a ,
c o m i n g i n 19 21 first t o Tex a s a n d t he n t o Ca l i f o r ni a . ( Bo t h f a t her a n d
s o n r e t u r n e d ev en t u a l l y t o Mex i c o ; t he s o n r ec ent l y o n c e a g a i n r e-
t u r n e d t o t he St at es . ) Gal arza' s Barrio Boy s t yl es i t s el f as o r i g i n a t i n g i n
o r a l v i g n et t es , a n d t her eby ex p l o r es t he p r eo c c u p a t i o n o f Chi c a n o
23. L'Interfrence ( 19 7 2: 15 7 ) , cited by Baumgarte n (1982:154), who develops
the n oti on hi mse lf wi th re fe re n ce to Je wi sh-Ame ri can wri ti n g, especially Yi ddi sh-
i n flue n ce d wri ti n g, but n ot li mi te d to that set of i nte r-re fe re nce s.
24. See Gre i l Marcus's chapter on Sly Stone i n his Mystery Train (1975).
Go l d en ' s na r r a t i v e p o i n t s t o s o me o f t he c o mp l ex i t i es o n bo t h s i des o f
a n y c ul t ur a l d i v i d e t ha t n e e d t o be a d d r es s ed i n c o n t e mp o r a r y a n -
t hr o p o l o g i c a l ef f o r t s at c ul t ur a l c r i t i c i s m ( s ee f u r t her Ma r c u s a n d
Fi s c her i g86) .
220 MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
Ethnicity and the Arts of Memory
221
t o u s e i n c r e at i ve s c ul pt ur e , as i n t he pas t santeros c a r v e d r e l i gi ous fig-
ur e s ; Hi s p a n i c mo d e r n i t y i n pa i nt i ng ( Pi casso) o u t p a c e d An g l o , a n d
ba r r i o graffi ti c o u l d be mu c h mo r e , g i v e n t he c ha nc e ; l i t e r at ur e ,
t o o , c a n be po we r f ul l y s ynt he s i z e d o u t o f a bi cul t ural s i t uat i on: wi t -
ne s s t hi s p o e m:
stupi d ameri ca, see that chi cano
wi th t he bi g kni fe
in his steady hand
he doesn't want to kni fe you
he wants to sit on a bench
and carve christfigures
but you won't let hi m.
he is the picasso
of your western states
but he will di e
wi t h one t hous and masterpi eces
hangi ng onl y from his mi nd.
I n t e r - r e f e r e n c e h e r e e n c o mp a s s e s bo t h fol k t radi t i on (santeros) a n d
h i g h mo d e r n i s m i n t he Hi s pani c wor l d ( Pi cas s o) , b r i n g i n g t h e m t o
c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n An g l o Ame r i c a ( t he Eng l i s h me d i u m) , whi l e cri t i ci z-
i n g t he o p p r e s s i o n a n d cul t ural de pr i v a t i o n i mp o s e d by Ame r i c a .
T h e s e a r c h for e na bl i ng hi s t ori es a n d my t hs i n mu c h earl y Chi -
c a n o wr i t i ng t o o k t he f o r m o f s e e k i n g o ut cuentos ( s t ori es ) , a n d mu c h
o f t he l i t erary i d e o l o g y was o n e o f c a pt ur i ng a nd pr e s e r v i ng a n oral
c ul t ur e . Gal arza' s Barrio Boy pr e s e nt s i t sel f as a wr i t t e n v e r s i o n o f or al
v i g ne t t e s t ol d t o t he fami l y. To ma s Ri vera' s y no se lo trago la tierra (and
the earth did not part) al t e r nat e s a s hor t a n e c d o t e wi t h a l o n g e r v i g ne t t e
vi vi dl y r e c r e a t i ng ar c he t ypi c al cri ses a n d d i l e mma s o f t he e x p l o i t e d
p o o r Ch i c a n o s o f Te x a s ; t he effect is o f a col l ect i ve voi c e o f t he p e o p l e ,
p o we r f u l a n d s e a r i ng , wi t h t hat e t e r nal , but n o t ahi s t ori cal , qual i t y o f
fol kt al e s , t he qual i t y t hat Wal t er Be n j a mi n i de nt i fi e d as c o mi n g f r o m
s h a r e d e x p e r i e n c e . Cu r e r s a n d g r a ndpa r e nt s , o f t e n f e ma l e (curan-
deras, abuelitas), figure as i mpo r t a nt s o ur c e s o f t radi t i on, o f my s t e r i o u s
k n o wl e d g e , a n d o f c ul t ur al s t r e ng t h: t he curandera Ul t i ma i n Ru d o l f o
Anaya' s Bless Me Ultima (1972) is o n e o f t he ri ches t o f t he s e figures;
Faus t o i n Ro n Ari as' s The Road to Tamazunchale ( 1975) i s a c o mi c ma l e
abuelito c o u n t e r p a r t . Bo t h Ana y a a n d Ari as mo v e b e y o n d r e t e l l i ng o f
or al fol k c ul t ur e , u s i n g "magi cal real i s m" t o c r e at e a ri chl y i nv e nt i v e
u n i v e r s e p r e g n a n t wi t h Chi c a no as s oci at i ons . Ul t i ma is still a h e a l i n g
fi gur e , u s i n g t r adi t i onal l or e o n t he s i de o f g o o d . A f o r me r e n c y c l o p e -
di a s a l e s ma n, Faus t o i s al r e ady a very mo d e r n i s t ol d ma n , wh o i ns t e a d
wr i t e r s wi t h p r e s e r v i n g wha t has b e e n l argel y an oral c ul t ur e , al bei t
a t t a c he d t o t he wo r l ds o f Hi s pa ni c l i t eracy. Rodr i gue z ' s Hunger of
Memory is a n a r g u me n t for Engl i s h as t he me d i u m o f i ns t r uc t i o n
i n s c ho o l s , r e t a i ni ng Spa ni s h onl y as a l a n g u a g e o f i nt i mac y; i ts d e -
s c r i pt i ons o f t he t wo very di ffe r e nt wor l ds are i n t e n d e d t o d e n y t hat
s uc c e s s i n No r t h Ame r i c a c an be a c c o mp a n i e d by r e t a i ni ng t he c o m-
mu n a l r i c hne s s o f t h e bar r i o. Ro d r i g u e z ha s r o u s e d a s t o r m o f c o n t r o -
ve r s y, e x p o s i n g d e e p cl ass di vi s i ons a mo n g Me x i c a n - Ame r i c a n s , b u t
al s o p o i n t i n g t o t he a mbi g ui t y o f mi d d l e cl ass Me x i c a n - Ame r i c a n
wr i t e r s u s i n g t he fi gur e o f t he p o o r as a ve hi c l e o f e x p r e s s i o n r a t he r
t h a n wr i t i ng a bo ut t he i r o wn e x pe r i e nc e s . Ma ny Ch i c a n o c o mme n -
t at ors a c k n o wl e d g e t he di dac t i c na t ur e o f Ch i c a n o wr i t i ng i n t he 1960s
as a ke y c o mp o n e n t o f t he ri se o f a pol i t i cal mo v e me n t . Ci s ne r o s is o n e
o f a n u mb e r o f wri t ers wh o ha v e b e g u n t o wri t e mo r e di r e c t l y o f
t h e ms e l v e s ; s h e us e s a f r a g me nt a r y , ri chl y e voc at i ve , v i g ne t t e s t yl e, i n
Eng l i s h.
T h e a nt a g o ni s m/ a nx i e t y di r e c t e d t o wa r ds Rodr i gue z ' s a ut o bi o -
g r a p h i c a r g u me n t , as wel l as t he c o mme n t a r y o n t he pol i t i cal di da c -
t i c i s m o f e ar l i e r Ch i c a n o wr i t i ng, po s e t he key i s s ues for t he c r e a t i o n
o f aut he nt i c al l y i nt e r - r e fe r e nt i al e t hni c voi c e s , as wel l as al e r t i ng us t o
t he di ve r s i t y wi t hi n t he Ch i c a n o ( not t o me n t i o n t he l ar ge r Hi s pa ni c -
Ame r i c a n ) c o mmu n i t y : di vers i t y o f cl ass, o f r e g i o n (in Me x i c o ; Te x a s
vs . Cal i for ni a vs. Chi c a g o ) , o f g e ne a l o g y ( pr i de i n Spai n vs. pr i de i n
p r e - Co l u mb i a n anc e s t r y) .
T h e mo s t f a mo u s p o e ms o f t he Ch i c a n o mo v e me n t , for e x a mp l e ,
Ru d o l p h o ' s "Corky, " Gonzal es ' s "I a m Jo a qui n, " Al ur i s t a ( Al be r t o
Uri st a) ' s Floricanto en Aztlan, a n d Ab e l a r d o De l gado' s "St upi d Ame r -
i ca, " ar e o p e n s e a r c he s for e na bl i ng hi s t ori es o f Ch i c a n o i de nt i t y.
"I a m Jo a qui n" bui l ds o n Me x i c a n hi s t ory, pi c t ur i ng t he Un i t e d St at es
as a ne ur o t i c evi l gi ant ( i nvade r o f Me x i c o ; d e ma n d e r o f as s i mi l at i on
i n t o a whi r l po o l o r me l t i n g p o t t hat wo u l d d e n y Me x i c a n - Ame r i c a n s
t he i r anc e s t r y) a n d t he Chi c a no na t i o n as a c o u n t e r gi ant i n t he p r o -
c e s s o f c r e a t i o n t h r o u g h b l o o d sacri fi ces ( of t he past a n d p e r h a p s f u-
t ur e : t he e x a mp l e o f Israel is po s e d) . Al uri s t a, i nf l ue nc e d by Car l os
Ca s t e n e d a , c o ns t r uc t s a s o me wh a t di ffe r e nt he r oi c pas t , c e n t e r e d l es s
o n Hi s p a n i c - Me x i c a n hi s t ory, a n d mo r e o n a pr e - Co l umbi a n my t h o s
(fiori-canto, "fl owe r - s ong, " is a Spa ni s h t rans l at i on o f t he Na hua t l for
"poet ry") ; Az t l an, t he r e g i o n o f n o r t h e r n Me x i c o i n c l u d i n g wh a t i s
n o w t he s o u t h we s t e r n Un i t e d St at es , is a r e al m o f a nc i e nt wi s d o m, far
o l d e r t ha n t he An g l o s e t t l e me nt s a n d mo r e i n t u n e wi t h t he h a r mo -
ni e s o f na t ur e a n d t he uni ve r s e . De l gado' s s hor t p o e m e x p o s e s t he i n-
abi l i t y o f An g l o Ame r i c a t o r e c o g ni z e i n Chi c a no s t he i r ri ch ant i qui t y,
c r e at i ve mo d e r n i t y , a n d s ynt he t i c fert i l i t y. Ch i c a n o kni ve s c an be p u t
222
MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
o f p a s s i v el y y i el d i n g t o f a i l i ng hea l t h, bri l l i ant l y c r ea t es a n a c t i v e e n d
g a m e , ha n g i n g o u t wi t h a y o u n g t een a g er , i n v en t i n g r el a t i o ns wi t h a
Per u v i a n l l a ma her d er , t r a n s p o r t i n g hi ms el f t o a n c i en t Cu z c o , a c t i n g
as a c o y o t e t o br i n g wet ba c ks i n t o t he Un i t ed St a t es , a n d t ea c hi n g
t he m ho w t o ea r n a l i v i ng wi t ho u t wo r k i n g by p l a y i n g c o r p s e. Tha n k s
p e r ha p s t o k n o w l e d g e g a i n ed f r o m hi s en c y c l o p ed i a s , Faus t o' s e n d
g a m e is f ul l o f a l l us i o ns a n d p a r o d i es . Ro l a n d o Fl i noj os a' s Rites and
Witnesses (1982) wo r ks t he or al m o d e i n a wi l dl y c o mi c , but l es s ma g i -
c al , d i r ec t i o n , be i n g l a r g el y c o n s t r u c t ed o f d i a l o g u es s et i n ma j o r i n -
s t i t ut i o ns t ha t ma n i p u l a t e hi s c ha r a c t er s ' l i ves i n my t hi c a l Kl ai l Ci t y,
Be l k e n Co u n t y , s o u t h Tex a s (a ba n k t hat kn o ws ev er y o ne' s g en ea l o g i es
a n d bu s i n es s , i n al l s en s es , t he bet t er t o st ay o n e s t ep a hea d of t he m i n
ma n i p u l a t i n g r ea l es t a t e, pol i t i c s , c a r eer s , r a n c hi n g , a n d ba n ki n g ; t he
Ar my , w hi c h br i n g s t o g et her a Chi c a n o f r o m Kl ail Ci t y a n d a Ca j u n
f r o m Lo u i s i a n a t o f i g ht i n As i a u n d e r Sgt . Ha t a l s ki ) . Sat i r e her e f u n c -
t i o ns l i ke a ha l l o f mi r r o r s t o real i t y, r a t her t ha n a t t emp t i n g t o c r ea t e a
c o u n t e r wo r l d . It i s a s er i es o f mi r r o r s t ha t ref l ect d eep l y , wi t h a s cal -
pel ' s p r ec i s i o n , r ev ea l i n g ev er d e e p e r l ayers l i ke a cuento de nunca
acabar ( s t or y wi t ho u t en d ) .
Tw o a u t o bi o g r a p hi c a l p o e ms t ha t l i ke "St upi d Amer i c a " d e p e n d
l es s o n c r ea t i n g n ew my t hs of Mex i c a n o r Az t l a n pas t s i l l us t r a t e t he
r i c hn es s o f i n t er - r ef er en c e: Ra ul Sal i nas ' s "A Tr i p Th r o u g h t he Mi n d
Jai l " (1969) wr i t t en i n j ai l a n d d ed i c a t ed t o El d r i d g e Cl ea v er , r ef l ec t -
i n g o n t he d es t r u c t i o n o f hi s c hi l d ho o d ba r r i o i n Au s t i n , Tex a s ; a n d
Ber n i c e Za mo r a ' s "Res t l es s Ser p ent s . " Sa l i na s el eg a n t l y r ev i ews t he
t r a j ec t o r y o f c hi l d ho o d a n d y o u t h, t her eby ma k i n g a p o wer f u l i ndi c t -
m e n t o f t he o p p r es s i o n i n t hes e ba r r i os . Th e first ha l f o f t he p o e m
d es c r i bes c hi l d ho o d s c en es o f pl a y i ng i n c hu c k - ho l ed s t r eet s , l ea r n i n g
g a m e p l a y i n g t hat t ur ns a g g r es s i v i t y i nwa r d, br i bi ng gi rl s wi t h Ju i c y
Fr ui t g u m ( a n a p t e u p he m i s m , u s i n g a p r ep a c k a g ed , s t er i l e c o n s u m e r
g o o d f r o m o u t s i d e f or s ed u c i n g t a bo o ed o bj ec t i v es ) , et hn i c r ej ec t i o n
at s c ho o l , a n d bei n g s c a r ed by La Ll o r o n a ( t he w e e p i n g w o m a n w ho
i n ha bi t s s t r ea ms a n d ki d n a p s n a u g ht y c hi l d r en ) . The s ec o n d ha l f p a r -
al l el s t he first i n t he t r a n s f o r ma t i o n s of y o u t h: ha n g i n g o u t at Sp a n -
i s h To w n Ca f e, t he "first g r o w n - u p (13) ha n g o u l " (13 = ma r i j u a n a ) ,
s ni f f i ng g a s , d r i n ki n g mus c a t el , c ha s ed by t he l l o r o n a o f p o l i c e s i r en s ,
p a i n t i n g graf f i t i ( p a c hu c o " c o ul d- be art i st s") . Th e ba r r i o is g o n e , bu t
"You l i v e o n , c a p t i v e i n t he l o n el y cel l bl o c ks o f my mi n d . " T h e p o e m ,
d ed i c a t ed t o Cl ea v er , n a mes Chi c a n o ba r r i os a c r os s t he St a t es . T h e
p o em' s d es c r i p t i o n is a p o wer f u l i n d i c t men t , but t he p o em' s r es u l t is
s t r en g t h: " y o u k e e p m e away f r o m INSANITY'S hu n g r y jaws, " p r o v i d i n g
"i dent i t y . . . a s en s e of bel o n g i n g , " whi c h is "so es s ent i a l t o a d u l t d a y s
o f i mp r i s o n men t . "
Ethni ci ty and the Arts of Memory 223
We t u r n finally t o Ber n i c e Za mor a ' s Restless Serpents. T h e bea u t y
her e, i n par t , l i es i n t he way s he i nj ect s a f ema l e ( s he r ej ec t s " f emi -
n i s t " )
2 3
p o i n t o f vi ew, c o u n t er p o s i n g it as a hea l i n g p o t ent i a l a g a i ns t
t he s el f - d es t r u c t i v en es s of t he ma l e wo r l d s d ep i c t ed by Sa l i n a s ,
Mo n t o y a ("Fl Lo ui e" ) , a n d t he P n i t en t es cul t s he d es c r i bes . T h e c ul t
o f flagellation d u r i n g Ea s t er week is f a s c i na t i ng a n d at t ract s her t o i ts
p i l g r i ma g e c en t er ; but as a w o m a n s he is n o t a l l o wed i n t o t he c en t er .
She o f f er s a n a l t er na t i v e i ma g er y , o f l o c o mo t i o n t o t he c en t er ( s wi m-
m i n g i n s t ea d o f r i d i n g u p dr y a r r o y o s ) , o f na t ur a l c y c l es o f l i f e- g i v i n g
bl o o d ( i ns t ea d o f t he ex c l us i v el y ma l e d ea t h- d ea l i n g bl o o d s a c r i f i c es o f
flagellation a n d mo c k c r uc i f i x i o n) . Th e s er p en t s p er ha p s a r e t he sel f -
r e n e w i n g ( p er i o di c a l l y s ki n - s hed d i n g ) i ma g es o f a n c i en t Me x i c o ( t he
d e s c e n d i n g p l u m e d s er p en t g o d s ) . As Br u c e- No v a (1982) p u t s it, at
t he be g i n n i n g of Za mor a ' s 5 8- p o em bo o k, t he my t hi c bea s t s a r e res t -
l es s , w a n t i n g t hei r d u e ; t he c o s mi c o r d er is o u t o f p ha s e, t he r i t ual s
a r e w r o n g , i n wa r d l y t u r n ed , s el f - des t r uc t i v e a g g r es s i o n ; at t he e n d a n
a l t er na t i v e ri t ual , n u a n c e d i n t he i ma g er y o f c o m m u n i o n a n d t he s ex
act , ma l e i n g es t ed by f ema l e, s o o t hes t he s er p en t s . Ot her w o m e n wri t -
er s t o o u s e t hi s s ubt l e t ec hn i q u e o f u n d e r mi n i n g a n i ni t i al p o i n t
o f v i ew a n d s ho w i n g il i n a di f f er ent l i g ht t hr o u g h wo men ' s ey es .
Ev a n g el i n a Vi gi l ' s " Du mb Br o a d " d es c r i bes a w o m a n i n f as t 8 A. M.
bu m p e r - t o - bu m p e r traffi c wi t h bo t h ha n d s o f f t he wheel , t he r ea r
v i ew mi r r o r t u r n e d p er p en d i c u l a r , as s he t ea s es her ha i r , fixes her
l i ps t i ck, p u t s o n ey es ha d o w, a n d s o o n ; t he p o e m en d s t r i u mp ha n t l y
wi t h her " s p o r t i n g a s p l en d i d ha i r - do , " t u n i n g t he r a d i o , l i g ht i n g a
c i g a r et t e, a n d be i n g ha n d e d c o f f ee, t he r ef r a i n " d u mb br o a d " n o w, as
it e n d s t he p o e m , bei n g s u bv er t ed , a l mo s t a c o mmu t er ' s "El Lo u i e. "
It c o u l d be s ai d t ha t i n t er - r ef er en c e is wha t et hni c i t y is es s ent i a l l y
al l a bo u t , bu t r a r el y is t he c o n t r i bu t i o n of i nt er l i ng ui s t i c c o n t ex t s o
c l ea r a n d s o o bv i o u s l y r i c h as a v ehi c l e f o r f u t u r e c r ea t i v i t y : be t w e e n
En g l i s h a n d Hi s p a n i c wo r l d s ; a m o n g s ubc ul t ur a l s t y l es , ma s s c u l t u r e,
a n d " hi g h" c u l t u r e; bet w een ma l e a n d f ema l e wo r l d s . Th e s u bv er -
s i v en es s o f a l t er na t i v e p er s p ec t i v es ( f emi ni s t , mi no r i t y ) f o r t he t a ken -
f o r - g r a n t ed a s s u mp t i o n s of d o mi n a n t i d eo l o g i es , a n d t he p o l y p ho n y
o f mu l t i p l e v o i c es ( En g l i s h, Sp a n i s h) , a r e mo d el s f or mo r e t ex t u r ed ,
n u a n c e d , a n d r eal i s t i c e t hn o g r a p hy .
2 6
25. Fe mi n i sm, Zamora says, i gnores race. The Chicana's relati on to Chi cano me n
she says is di ffe re n t from that of feminists wi th thei r me n , owi ng amon g othe r reasons
to the loss of Chi can o me n to whi te wome n . She sees a parallel proble m for black
wome n . (See i nte rvi e w i n Bruce -Nova 1980:214.)
26. See agai n he re note 21 above.
224
MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
I r o ni c Hu mo r
. . . the yet unseen translation where Indians have been backed up into and
on long liquor nights, working in their minds, the anger and madness will
come, forth in tongues and fury
SIMON ORTIZ, "Irish Poets on Saturday Night and an Indian"
Tricksters must learn better how to balance the forces of good and evil
through humor in the urban world
GERALD VIZENOR, Wordatrows
Pe r h a p s n o t h i n g de f i ne s t he pr e s e nt c o ndi t i o ns of k n o wl e d g e
s o we l l as i r ony. Ev e r mo r e awar e , i n e v e r mo r e pr e c i s e ways , o f t he
c o mp l e x i t y o f soci al l i fe, wr i t e r s ha v e h a d t o find ways t o i nc o r po r a t e ,
a c k n o wl e d g e , a n d e x pl o i t o u r i nc r e as i ngl y e mpi r i c al u n d e r s t a n d i n g s
o f t h e c o n t e x t , pe r s pe c t i v e , i nst abi l i t y, confl i ct , c ont r adi c t i on, c o mp e -
t i t i on, a n d mul t i l a y e r e d c o mmu n i c a t i o n s t hat c har ac t e r i z e real i t y.
I r o n y is a s e l f - c o ns c i o us mo d e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d o f wr i t i ng, wh i c h
refl ect s a n d mo d e l s t he r e c o g ni t i o n t hat all c o nc e pt ua l i z a t i o ns ar e
l i mi t e d, t hat wh a t i s s oci al l y ma i nt a i ne d as t r ut h i s o f t e n pol i t i cal l y
mo t i v a t e d . St yl i st i cal l y, i r ony e mp l o y s rhet ori cal de vi c e s t hat s i gnal
real o r f e i g n e d di s be l i e f o n t he part o f t he a ut ho r t owar ds h e r o r hi s
o wn s t a t e me nt s ; it o f t e n c e nt e r s o n t he r e c o g ni t i o n o f t he p r o b l e m-
at i c n a t u r e o f l a n g u a g e ; a n d s o it r e v e l s o r wa l l o ws i n sat i ri cal
t e c h n i q u e s .
2 7
Re c e n t Ame r i n d i a n a ut o bi o g r a phi e s and' a ut o bi o g r a phi c a l fiction
a n d p o e t r y are a mo n g t he mo s t s ophi s t i c at e d e x e mp l a r s o f t he u s e
o f i r oni c h u mo r as a s urvi val ski l l , a t ool for a c k n o wl e d g i n g c o m-
pl e xi t y, a me a n s o f e x p o s i n g or s ubv e r t i ng o ppr e s s i v e h e g e mo n i c i de -
o l o g i e s , a n d an art for affi r mi ng l i fe i n t he face o f obj e c t i ve t r oubl e s .
T h e t e c h n i q u e s o f t r a ns f e r e nc e , t al k- s t ori es , mul t i pl e voi c e s o r pe r -
s pe c t i v e s , a n d al t e r nat i ve s el ves are all g i v e n d e p t h o r e x p a n d i n g r e s -
o n a n c e s t h r o u g h i r oni c t wi st s. T h u s , t al k- s t ori es o r nar r at i ve c o n -
ne c t i o ns t o t he pas t , t o t he a ni ma t e d c o s mo s , a n d t o t he p r e s e n t are
p r e s e n t e d as t he he a l i ng me d i c i n e no t o nl y for I ndi a ns but for Ame r i -
c a ns a n d mo d e r n fol k at l ar ge . Se a r i ng port rai t s o f I ndi a n pa i n are
wi e l d e d t o e x p o s e whi t e poe t s ' a ppr o pr i a t i o ns o f I ndi a n ho l i s m wi t h
n a t u r e as r o ma nt i c i z i ng , t ri vi al i zi ng, a n d h e g e mo n i c wh i t e wa s h i n g .
Op e n n e s s t o c o ns t r uc t i o n o f n e w i de nt i t i e s is p r o mo t e d by t he fact
27. Hayden Whi te, f rom whom this characterization is adapted, has described the
efforts of nineteenth-century historiography and social theory to overcome the irony of
the Enlightenmentby rhetorical strategies of romance, tragedy, and comedyonly to
end in an even more sophisticated and thorough irony (White 1973). For the present
century, see Marcus and Fischer (1986), Lyotard (1979), and the recent essays of Tyl er,
including the one in this volume.
Ethnicity and the Arts of Memory 225
28. From the introduction to Vizenor's Wordarrows.
t hat a l mo s t al l wr i t e r s a c k n o wl e d g e a c r e at i ve s e ns e o f b e i n g o f mi x e d
he r i t a g e .
N. Scot t Mo ma d a y , p e r h a p s t he h i g h pri es t o f t he h e a l i n g p o we r
o f t he wo r d ( " Th e pos s i bi l i t i es o f s t or yt e l l i ng are pr e c i s e l y t h o s e o f
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e h u ma n e x p e r i e n c e " ) ,
2 8
i s a ski l l ful e x p e r i me n t e r
wi t h mul t i pl e voi c e s a n d pe r s pe c t i ve s . Hi s first me mo i r , The Way to
Rainy Mountain (1969), t races t he mi g r a t i o n r o ut e o f t he Ki owas f r o m
Mo n t a n a t o Ok l a h o ma , e a c h c ha pt e r t ol d i n t hr e e voi c e s : t hat o f e t e r -
nal l e g e n d a r y s t ori es ; t hat o f hi s t ori cal a n e c d o t e or e t h n o g r a p h i c o b -
s e r v a t i o n, o f t e n a s i ngl e s e nt e nc e or t wo i n i mpe r s o na l , fl at, de s c r i p-
t i ve o r s ci ent i fi c pr o s e ; a n d t hat o f a pe r s o na l r e mi ni s c e nc e , o f t e n
l yri cal a n d e voc at i ve o f a mo o d . Pe r s onal e x p e r i e n c e , c ul t ur al n o r m o r
g e ne r a l i z a t i o n, a n d vi s i onary t al e are t hus i nt e r br a i de d s o as t o c a p-
t ur e , a n d r e - pr e s e nt i n mut ua l r e i nf o r c e me nt , t he s e pa r a t e l e ve l s o f
me a n i n g f u l n e s s , whi l e at t he s a me t i me e x p o s i n g a n d h e i g h t e n i n g t he
r he t or i c al ve hi c l e s t hat s h a p e t he s e l evel s . A l e an, s par s e , ye t s h a r p
a n d mu l t i d i me n s i o n a l , poe t i c effect is a c hi e v e d.
I n a s e c o n d me mo i r , The Names (1976), Mo ma d a y pl ays wi t h c hi l d-
h o o d fant as i e s , s e e i n g hi ms e l f s o me t i me s as a whi t e c o n f r o n t i n g h o s -
t i l e, d u mb , u n a p p e a l i n g I ndi a ns , a n d at o t h e r t i me s s e e i n g h i ms e l f as
t he I n d i a n . S u c h o pt i o ns c o me bo t h f r o m hi s e x p e r i e n c e a n d hi s g e n -
e a l o g y . Mo ma d a y is Ki o wa o n hi s fat her' s s i de, a n d hi s mo t h e r s t yl e d
h e r s e l f as a n I ndi a n, a l t h o u g h o nl y o n e o f he r gr e at g r a n d mo t h e r s
wa s Ch e r o k e e . S h e wa s no t a c c e p t e d by t he Ki owa, a n d t h e fami l y
mo v e d t o Ne w Me x i c o , wh e r e Mo ma d a y h a d e x p e r i e n c e s wi t h t he Na -
vaj o, Ta n o a n Pu e b l o , a n d b e i n g a me mb e r o f a g a n g o f whi t e t o u g h s .
Mo ma da y ' s l i fe hi s t ory, hi s phys i cal fe at ur e s , a n d hi s i de as a b o u t t he
p o t e n c i e s o f s t ory t e l l i ng are i nc o r po r a t e d i nt o t he c har ac t e r o f J o h n
Bi g Bl uf f T o s a me h ( a l o ng wi t h t he i nt r o duc t i o n t o The Way to Rainy
Mountain) i n hi s Pul i t zerpri ze wi n n i n g no v e l House Made of Dawn
(1968). T h e focal c har ac t e r o f t hi s nove l , Abe l , is a vi ct i m o f i l l egi t i -
ma c y ( no t k n o wi n g hi s fat he r o r hi s fat her' s he r i t age , Na v a j o p e r h a p s )
a n d e x c l u s i o n by o t h e r I ndi a ns . Abe l is a t r a ns f o r ma t i o n o f t he figure
o f Ira Ha y e s ( t he Pi ma I ndi a n wh o h e l p e d rai se t he flag at I wo J i ma
a n d aft e r t he war fel l mor t al vi ct i m t o t he rol e, p r o v i d e d by whi t e s o -
ci et y, o f o ut c a s t al c ohol i c I ndi a n) . Abe l , t oo, is a ve t e r an, but hi s p r o b -
l e ms ar e pr i mar i l y c a u s e d by I ndi a ns a n d n o n - An g l o s . He is a n e m-
b a r r a s s me n t t o T o s a me h by ful fi l l i ng t he whi t e s t e r e o t y pe s o f t h e
vi ol e nt , s upe r s t i t i ous , i nart i cul at e I ndi a n. He is r e d e e me d by r e t ur n-
i n g t o hi s d y i n g g r a n d f a t h e r a n d e n t e r i n g a c e r e mo n i a l r ac e t h e
g r a n d f a t h e r h a d o n c e wo n . T h r o u g h t he ri t ual he is abl e ( Abel ?) t o
226
MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
recal l t he Navaj o pr a y e r s o ng , " Ho u s e Ma d e o f Da wn, " wh i c h e ar l i e r
h e h a d uns uc c e s s f ul l y s o u g h t .
Le s l i e Ma r mo n Si l ko (a mi x e d bl o o d Laguna) ' s Ceremony ( 1977)
de a l s wi t h t he s a me i s s ue s i n ve r y s i mi l ar ways . She , t oo, us e s t he d e -
vi ce o f a n I n d i a n t r a uma t i z e d by war (i n hi s me mo r i e s t he ki l l i ng o f
J a p a n e s e me r g e s wi t h t h e d e a t h o f hi s unc l e Jos i ah; hi s pr a y e r s t o s t o p
t h e Phi l i ppi ne rai ns c aus e h i m gui l t for t he d r o u g h t a n d l os s o f ani -
ma l s s uf f e r e d by hi s fami l y and p e o p l e : "Tayo di dn' t k n o w h o w t o e x -
pl ai n . . . t hat h e h a d no t ki l l ed . . . but t hat he h a d d o n e t hi ng s far
wor s e ") . S h e , t o o , us e s c har ac t e r t ype s t o e x p l o r e t he p r o p e r i nt e gr a-
t i on wi t h t he pr e s e nt wo r l d. Ta y o , t he pr ot agoni s t , is ha l f - Me x i c a n,
ha l f - La g una , a n d t hus l o o k e d d o wn o n by hi s l o ng - s uf f e r i ng Chr i s t i an
La g u n a aunt . T h e latter's s o n, Roc ky, a do pt s whi t e o ut l o o ks a n d e d u -
c at i on, a n d is t h o u g h t t o be t he fami l y' s gr e at h o p e t o e s c a pe I n d i a n
pove r t y. He , h o we v e r , is ki l l ed i n t he Phi l i ppi ne s ( wr o ng s o l ut i o n) ,
c a u s i n g Ta y o t o a d d survi vor' s gui l t t o hi s c o nf us i o ns . Emo , Ha r l e y ,
a n d Le r o y are t he s t e r e ot ypi c I n d i a n v e t e r a ns wh o try t o r e c a p t u r e
t he i r s e n s e o f b e l o n g i n g t o Ame r i c a by dr i nki ng a n d t e l l i ng s t ori es of
t he i r mo r e p o t e n t days . E mo carri es a r o u n d a l i ttl e b a g o f t e e t h o f
J a p a n e s e s ol di e r s h e has ki l l ed, a n d e ve nt ual l y t ur ns hi s fr us t r at i on o n
hi s f e l l o w vi c t i ms , ki l l i ng hi s t wo buddi e s . It is Ta y o i n t he e n d w h o
r e p r e s e n t s t he pa t h o u t o f t he mi x t ur e s a n d c o nf us i o ns o f t he I n-
d i a n a n d o f mo d e r n Ame r i c a .
Hi s r e d e mp t i o n c o me s t h r o u g h t wo o l d - me d i c i n e me n , par t i c u-
l arl y Ol d Be t o n i e w h o l i ves o n s ki d r ow i n Ga l l up. Ol d Be t o n i e n o t
o n l y i ns i s t s t hat o n e mu s t c o n f r o n t t he s i c kne s s - wi t c he r y i n o ne s e l f
a n d n o t t ake t he e as y way out , wr i t i ng off all whi t e s ("It was I n d i a n
wi t c he r y t hat ma d e whi t e p e o p l e " [139]), for wi t c he r y wo r ks l ar ge l y
t h r o u g h fe ar , but h e al s o i nsi st s t hat t he he a l i ng c e r e mo n i e s t h e m-
s e l ve s mu s t c h a n g e ( "t hi ngs whi c h don' t shi ft a n d g r o w ar e d e a d "
[133]). I n d e e d , hi s ri t ual i mp l e me n t s cons i s t o f c a r dbo a r d b o x e s , o l d
c l o t h i n g a n d r ags , dr y r oot s , t wi gs , s age , mo u n t a i n t o ba c c o , wo o l ,
n e ws p a p e r s , t e l e p h o n e bo o ks (t o k e e p t rack o f na me s ) , c a l e nda r s ,
c o k e bot t l e s , p o u c h e s a n d bags , a n d d e e r - h o o f crackers: "I n t he o l d
days it was s i mpl e . A me d i c i n e p e r s o n c o ul d ge t by wi t ho ut all t he s e
t hi ng s . Al l t h e s e t hi ng s have s t ori es al i ve i n t h e m" (123). Ce r e mo n i e s
a n d s t or i e s are no t j us t e nt e r t a i nme nt : " Th e y are all we ha v e t o fight
o f f i l l nes s a n d de a t h" (2). Ta y o mu s t c o n f r o n t t he wi t c he r y i n hi ms e l f,
i n hi s fe l l ow ve t e r ans , a n d i n Ame r i c a . T h e c l i max oc c ur s a l o n g t he
c ha i n- l i nk f e n c e o f a u r a n i u m mi n e n e a r a n a t o mi c t est si t e. T h e p r o b -
l e m o f t h e I n d i a n i s a n a l o g o u s t o t hat o f t he whi t e s :
Th e n they grew away from the earth
sun . . . plants and animals . . .
Ethnicity and the Arts of Memory
227
when they look
they see only objects
The worl d is a dead thi ng for t hem . . .
The y fear the worl d.
The y destroy what they fear.
The y fear themsel ves.
Hu m o r is a cri t i cal c o mp o n e n t o f t he he a l i ng t al k- s t ori es t hat r e -
e s t abl i s h c o n n e c t i o n s t o t he pas t , t o t he c o s mo s , a n d t o t he pr e s e nt .
H u m o r i s a s urvi val ski l l agai ns t wi t c he r y a n d evi l . Ge r a l d Vi z e n o r , a
h a l f - Ch i p p e wa ( Ani s hi na be ) I ndi a n acti vi st, is a maj or pr ac t i t i one r o f
t he fine art o f t he t ri ckst er. Wordarrows (1978b) is a s eri es o f por t r ai t s
d r a wn f r o m hi s e x p e r i e n c e as di r e c t or o f t he Ame r i c a n I n d i a n Em-
p l o y me n t a n d Gu i d a n c e Ce nt e r i n Mi nne a po l i s , whi c h al s o i n f o r ms
hi s c o mi c n o v e l Darkness in St. Louis Bearheart (1978a). He says h e re-
f u s e d t o wo r k wi t h t he Co mmu n i s t Party, whi c h a t t e mp t e d t o s u p p o r t
hi s o r g a n i z i n g act i vi t i es , "becaus e i n a ddi t i o n t o pol i t i cal r e a s o n s
t he r e was t o o l i ttl e h u mo r i n c o mmu n i s t s pe e c h, ma k i n g it i mpo s s i bl e
t o k n o w t he he a r t s o f t he s pe ake r s " ( 1978b: 17). T h e port rai t s i n Word-
arrows a r e ful l o f s a dne s s , but al s o s mal l abs ur di s t vi ct ori es . T h e r e is
Ba pt i s t e Sai nt S i mo n I V o r "Bat Four, " t ol d by hi s f a t he r t hat h e is
s t upi d a n d a ba c kwa r d a n d a fool , wh o t ri es t o b e c o me a t ri cks t er, bal -
a n c i n g e n e r g i e s o f g o o d a n d evi l , but "hard as h e t ri ed, a n d i n g o o d
h u mo r , h e fai l e d as a t ri ckst er a n d s et t l ed for t he rol e o f a fool . Evi l
was t o o mu c h for h i m t o bal anc e . As a fool . . . h e was a bri l l i ant s uc -
ces s , " t a l ki ng hi l ar i ous n o n s e n s e t o ge t hi s cas e di s mi s s e d i n c o ur t , t o
we a s e l mo n e y o u t o f hi s soci al wo r ke r , a nd s o o n ( 1978b: 54). T h e r e is
t he " c o n f e r e n c e s avage , " or "no ma di c c o mmi t t e e bear, " w h o n e v e r
wa s h e s o r c h a n g e s hi s c l ot he s , g o e s t o all t he c o nf e r e nc e s , a n d s l e e ps
wi t h whi t e w o me n as a ki nd o f "foul be a r raci s m t est . " An d t he r e is t he
s t ory o f t he c r i ppl e w h o sel l s hi s wo o d e n l e g for a dr i nk ( t he l e g has a
l abel o n it t o be ma i l e d back) , for whi c h t he whi t e mor al is "s t op dr i nk-
i ng, " but t he t ri bal mo r a l is t o find fr e e b o o z e wi t h a wo o d e n l e g. N o
wo n d e r t he r e is t hus al s o "Cus t er o n t he Sl i ps t r e am, " a Bu r e a u o f I n-
d i a n Affai rs e mp l o y e e a n d r e i nc ar nat i on o f Cus t e r , wh o s uffers hi s
o wn n i g h t ma r e s o f humi l i a t i o n at t he h a n d s o f t he I ndi a ns , a n d s o
s p e n d s all hi s t i me i n hi s p a d d e d chai r. Darkness in St. Louis Bearheart,
wh i c h ge t s a pr e v i e w i n Wordarrows, is an abs ur di s t c o me d y s et aft er
t he c o l l a ps e o f Ame r i c a n ci vi l i zat i on, aft er oi l r uns o ut a n d t he g o v -
e r n me n t t ake s bac k t he t rees o n t he r e s e r vat i ons for fuel , f o r c i ng a
p i l g r i ma g e o f t he I ndi a ns f r o m t he i r s ac r e d for e s t l ands , l e d by P r o u d e
Ce da r f a i r ( c l o wns a n d t ri ckst ers) . Al o n g t he way t he y me e t a n d o v e r -
c o me a s e r i e s o f e n e mi e s , s uc h as Si r Ceci l St apl es , t he mo n a r c h o f
u n l e a d e d g a s o l i ne , w h o wa g e r s five gal l ons wo r t h o f gas agai ns t t he
l i enor' s l i fe; t he fas t - food fasci st s, wh o h a n g wi t c he s f r o m t he raft ers
228
MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
t o s ea s o n bef o r e c u t t i n g t he m u p f o r t a ke- o u t o r d er s ; a n d t he g o v e r n -
m e n t r eg i o n a l w o r d ho s p i t a l s , mo d el l ed o n t he BI A, s et u p o n t he t he-
o r y o f Co n g r e s s t ha t s oci al p r o bl ems a n d c r i me a r e c a u s ed by l a n -
g u a g e , wo r d s , g r a mma r , a n d c o n v er s a t i o n s . (Si r Cec i l St apl es ' s m o t he r
ha d be e n s t er i l i zed by t he g o v e r n me n t f or ha v i n g i l l eg i t i ma t e c hi l d r en
whi l e o n wel f a r e; s o s he be c a me a t r uc k d r i v er a n d t o o k t o k i d n a p p i n g
c hi l d r en f r o m s ho p p i n g ma l l s , r a i s i ng t he m i n her t r uc k, a n d w he n
t hey w e r e g r o w n , s et t i n g t he m o u t at r es t - s t ops . )
Ja me s Wel c h ( o f Bl a c kf eet a n d Gr o s Ven t r e p a r en t a g e) u s es a
g r i m m e r s o r t o f i r o n i c c o me d y . Hi s n o v el Winter in the Blood is a bo u t a
Bl a c kf eet m a n w ho s e emo t i o n s be c o me f r o z en ( s ha d o wy i n v er s i o n s o f
Mi c ha el Ar l en' s ei g ht een t h- c en t u r y Ar me n i a n mer c ha n t ) i n a n i n-
v er t ed Wes t er n : t he c o wbo y her e is t he I n d i a n w ho s e ho r s e is o u t o f
c o n t r o l a n d w h o wa t c hes hel p l es s l y as a d ea t h o c c u r s ( t he t a bl ea u ha p -
p e n s t wi c e, f r a mi n g t he t ex t ) . Wel c h a l s o wr i t es p o et r y . Wi t h s ens i t i v e
i r o n y , i n " Ar i z o n a Hi g hwa y s " Wel c h wr i t es o f l o v e f o r a Na v a j o gi rl : he
f eel s c u t o f f f r o m hi s et hn i c ( g en er a l In d i a n ) r o o t s by hi s ed u c a t i o n
a n d c r a f t as a p o et ; he f eel s whi t e ("a l i t t l e pal e") , flabby ("bel l y s of t as
her s " ) , a n d o v er d r es s ed ( "my s ho es t o o cl ean") . In s t ea d o f be i n g a n
i n a p p r o p r i a t e l o v er , he t r i es t o be a s pi r i t ua l g u i d e, bu t f eel s hi ms el f
i n s t ea d a ma l ev o l en t g ho s t . Su c h i r o ny c a n be s ea r i n g , as i n " Ha r l e m
Mo n t a n a : Ju s t o f f t he Res er v a t i o n" :
We need no runners here. Booze is law . . .
When you di e, if you di e, you will r emember
t he t hree y o ung bucks who shot the grocery up,
l ocked t hems el ves in and cri ed for days, we're rich
hel p us, oh God, we're rich.
Sev er a l me a n i n g s c o a l es c e her e, as Mi c ha el Ca s t r o p o i n t s o u t ( 19 83 :
16 5 ) : t he i ma g e o f d es p er a t i o n i n p o v er t y , t he d es p a i r o f ha v i n g l o c k ed
t he ms e l v e s i n f r o m bo t h whi t e a n d I n d i a n wo r l d s , u n a bl e t o u s e t he
r i c hes o f ei t her . Th e i ma g er y o f t he i nabi l i t y t o d i s c o v er a n d e x p r e s s
o ne' s i dent i t y , o f bei n g a dr i f t a n d l os t bet w een wo r l d s , r ec ur s :
In s t unt ed l i ght, Bear Chi l d tells a story
to the mi rror. He acts his na me out ,
creeks mus cl i ng gorges fill his glass
wi t h g umbo. The bear crawls o n all fours
and barks l ike a dog. Sl i theri ng snake-wi se
he bal ances a nickel on his nose. The effect
a snake i n heat, ("D-Y BAR")
Ca s t r o a g a i n : Bea r Chi l d c a n n o t find hi ms el f , l et a l o n e t he t r a di t i o na l
w i s d o m a n d p o w e r o f hi s bea r n a mes a k e a n d t o t em; hi s a t t emp t s at
r ec o v er y t hr o u g h a c t i n g o u t hi s n a me a r e bu t a p a t het i c c ha r a d e, a n d
. Wel c h l ea v es hi m at t he bar , "hea d d o w n , t he d o r ma n t hea r . "
Ethni ci ty and the Arts of Memory
229
The s e i ma g es o f p a i n a r e c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t t he t r i vi al i zi ng, s u p er -
ficial r o ma n t i c i s m wi t h whi c h ma n y whi t es a t t emp t t o a p p r o p r i a t e I n -
d i a n c o n s c i o u s n es s . " Ma ny I n d i a n wr i t er s p er c ei v ed [ Ga r y ] Sny der ' s
a c c l a i med bo o k [Turtle Island] as pa r t o f a n ew caval ry c ha r g e i n t o
t hei r t er r i t o r y by wi l d - ey ed n eo - r o ma n t i c s s eeki n g t o p o s s es s n o t
mer el y t hei r l a n d , as ha d t he i n v a d er s o f t he p r ev i o u s c en t u r y , bu t
t hei r v er y s pi ri t " ( Ca s t r o 1983 : 159). Thu s Si l ko:
Ironical l y, as whi te poet s at t empt to cast off thei r Angl o- Ameri can val ues,
thei r Angl o- Amer i c an ori gi ns, they viol ate a f undament al bel i ef hel d by the
tribal peopl e t hey des i re to emul at e: they deny their history, thei r very ori -
gi ns. The wri t i ng of i mi tati on "Indian" poems t hen, is patheti c evi dence that
in mor e t han two hundr ed years, Angl o- Ameri cans have fail ed to create a sat-
isfactory i denti ty for t hemsel ves. ( Quot ed in Castro 1983 : 213)
Ag a i n , c o m m e n t i n g o n Ma u r i c e Ken n y (a Mo ha wk) ' s r ef us a l t o pl ay
"s avi or a n d wa r r i o r , pr i es t a n d p o e t . . . s a v a g e a n d p r o p het , a n g el o f
d e a t h a n d a p o s t l e o f t r ut h, " Ca s t r o s ays (169):
Kenny comi cal l y r emi nds us of how t he eagernes s of spiritually starved whi tes
to romant i ci ze t he Nat i ve Ameri can deni es the Indian's cont emporary reality
and humani t y, at t he s ame ti me obf uscat i ng the fact that what Ameri ca has
bec ome is now our c o mmo n probl em:
Agai n I s poke of hunger:
A "Big Mac" woul d do, instant cof f ee
plastic pizza, anyt hi ng but hol y water.
I r o n y a n d hu m o r a r e t act i cs t ha t et hn o g r a p her s ha v e o n l y s l o wl y
c o m e t o a p p r ec i a t e, a l bei t r ec ent l y wi t h i n c r ea s i n g i nt er es t . A n u m be r
o f a n a l y s es n o w ex i s t o f p r ev i o u s l y u n n o t i c ed o r mi s u n d e r s t o o d i r o -
n i es ( ei t her i n t e n d e d o r u n i n t en t i o n a l l y r ev ea l i ng ) i n pa s t e t hn o -
g r a p hi c w r i t i n g s e e Cr a p a n z a n o i n t hi s v o l u me, Ja mes B o o n (19 7 2)
o n Lv i - St r a u s s , Do n H a n d e l m a n (1979) o n Ba t es o n . In c r ea s i n g l y at -
t en t i o n is be i n g p a i d t o t he u s es o f l a u g ht er a m o n g et hn o g r a p hi c s u b-
j ec t s ( Ba kht i n 19 65 , Ka r p 1985, Fi s c her 1984). Et hn o g r a p he r s a r e
p o i n t i n g o u t t he r het o r i c a l d ev i c es t hey e mp l o y ( Ma r c us a n d Fi s c her
1986). Co n s i d er a bl e p o t ent i a l still ex i s t s , ho wev er , t o c o n s t r u c t t ex t s
u t i l i z i n g h u m o r a n d o t her d ev i c es t ha t d r a w a t t en t i o n t o t hei r o w n
l i mi t a t i o n s a n d d e g r e e o f a c c ur a c y , a n d t ha t d o s o wi t h a es t het i c el e-
g a n c e , a n d a r e p l ea s u r a bl e t o r ea d , r a t her t ha n wi t h p ed a n t i c l a bo r ed -
n es s . T h e s t yl i s t c l o s es t t o s u c h a n a mbi t i o n i n a n t hr o p o l o g y i s , p er -
ha p s , Lv i - St r a us s ( a n d i n l i t erary c r i t i c i s m, Ja c q u es Der r i d a ) . Thi s , I
r ec o g n i z e, is a p er s o n a l j u d g me n t , a n d n ei t her Lv i - St r a us s n o r Der -
r i da a r e u n p r o bl ema t i c . The y a r e l es s mo d el s t o emu l a t e t ha n ex -
a mp l es o n w hi c h t o bu i l d i n m o r e a c c es s i bl e, r ep l i c a bl e wa y s . For t he
t i me bei n g , p ed a n t i c l a bo r ed n es s is a l s o di f f i cul t t o a v o i d, bec a u s e ed i -
2 3
MICHAEL M. J . FISCHER
t o r s an d r ead er s stil l n e e d to b e ed u c at ed to u n d er s t an d s u c h t ex t s.
Su b t l et y is a qual i ty that s eems o f t en (but n o t nec essar i l y ) t o r u n
c o u n t e r to t he c an o n s o f ex p l i c i t n ess an d u n i v o c al me an i n g e x p e c t e d
i n sc i enti fi c wr i t i n g . Bu t , as St ep hen Ty l er has el o q u en t l y p o i n t ed o u t ,
t he d e m a n d f o r u n i v o c al me an i n g is o f t en sel f - d ef eat i n g ( Ty l er 1978).
I l l
Re- Co l l ec t i o n s an d I n t r o d u c t i o n s
Postmodern knowledge . . . refines our sensitivity to differences and
reinforces our ability to tolerate the incommensurable.
JEAN-FRANOIS LYOTARD, The Postmodern Condition
Et hn i c i t y is mer el y o n e d o mai n , o r o n e ex emp l ar , o f a m o r e
g en er al p at t er n o f c ul tur al d y n ami c s i n t he l ate t wen t i et h c en t u r y .
Et hn i c au t o b i o g r ap hi c al wr i t i n g par al l el s, mi r r o r s, an d ex emp l i f i es
c o n t e mp o r ar y t heo r i es o f textual i ty, o f k n o wl ed g e, an d o f c u l t u r e.
B o t h f o r ms o f wr i t i n g s u g g es t p o wer f u l mo d e s o f c ul tur al c r i ti c i sm.
Th e y ar e p o s t - mo d e r n in thei r d e p l o y me n t o f a ser i es of t ec hn i q u es :
bi fo c al i ty o r r ec i p r o c i ty o f p er sp ec t i v es, j u x t ap o s i t i o n i n g o f mu l -
t i p l e r eal i ti es, i n t er t ex t u al i t y an d i nter - r efer enti al i ty , an d c o mp ar i s o n
t hr o u g h f ami l i es o f r es emb l an c e. I n so f ar as t he p r esen t ag e is o n e o f
i n c r eas i n g p o t en t i al i t i es f o r d i al o g u e, as wel l as c onfl i c t, a m o n g c ul -
t u r es, l esso n s f o r wr i t i n g e t hn o g r ap hy may b t ak en f r o m wr i t er s b o t h
o n et hn i c i t y an d o n tex tual i ty , k n o wl ed g e, an d c u l t u r e.
Ethnicity. Su b st an t i v el y what hav e we l ear n ed ? First, t hat t he
d i f f er en t et hn i c i t i es c o n st i t u t e a fami l y o f r es emb l an c es : si mi l ar , n o t
i d en t i c al ; eac h en r i c hi n g b ec au se o f its i n t er - r ef er en c es, n o t r ed u c i b l e
t o mec han i c al f u n c t i o n s o f sol i dar i ty, mu t u al ai d, pol i ti c al mo b i l i z a-
t i o n , o r so c i al i z ati o n. It is t he i n t er - r ef er en c es, t he i n t er weav i n g o f
c u l t u r al t hr ead s f r o m d i f f er en t ar en as, that g i v e ethni c i ty its p ho e n i x -
l i ke c ap ac i t i es f o r r ei n v i g o r at i o n an d r ei n sp i r at i o n . To kill thi s pl ay b e-
t we e n c u l t u r es, b et ween r eal ities, is to kil l a r eser v o i r that su stai n s an d
r e n e ws hu m a n e atti tudes.
I n t he m o d e r n , t ec hn o l o g i c al , sec u l ar wo r l d , et hn i c i t y has b e c o m e
a p u z z l i n g q u est to t ho se affl icted by it. B u t r at her t han est ab l i shi n g
a s en s e o f ex c l u si v i t y o r sep ar at i o n , r eso l u t i o n s o f c o n t e mp o r ar y
et hn i c i t y t en d t o war d a pl ur al i sti c u n i v er sal i sm, a t ex t u r ed s en s e o f
b e i n g Amer i c an . (We ar e all et hn i c s, in o n e sen se, p er hap s ; b u t o n l y
s o m e feel et hn i c i t y as a c o mp el l i n g f o r c e,
2 9
o n l y s o me hav e an ear f o r
29. See George Lipsitz's "The Meaning of Memory: Class, Family, and Ethnicity in
Early Network Television" (forthcoming) for an analysis of mechanisms operating im-
Ethnicity and the Arts of Memory 231
t he mu s i c o f its r ev el at i o n s. ) No t o n l y is t he i n d i v i d u al i sm o f et hn i c
s e ar c he s p o s i n g t he st r u g g l es o f sel f- defi ni ti o n as i d i o s y n c r at i c
hu man i st i c al l y t e mp e r e d by t he r ec o g n i t i o n that par al l el p r o c es s es af-
fec t i n d i v i d u al s ac r o ss t he c ul tur al s p ec t r u m, b u t t he t o l er an c e an d
p l u r al i sm o f Ame r i c an so c i ety s ho u l d b e r ei n f o r c ed by thi s r ec o g n i -
t i o n . T h e r ec r eat i o n o f ethni c i ty in eac h g en er at i o n , ac c o mp l i s hed
t hr o u g h d r e am- an d t r an sf er en c el i k e p r o c esses, as m u c h as t hr o u g h
c o g n i t i v e l an g u ag e , l ead s to effo r ts to r ec o v er , fill i n, ac t o u t , u n r av el ,
an d r ev eal . T h o u g h t he c o mp u l s i o n s , r ep r essi o n s, an d sear c hes ar e
i n d i v i d u al , t he r es o l u t i o n ( f i n d i n g p eac e, st r en g t h, p u r p o s e , v i si o n) is
a r ev el at i o n o f c u l t u r al artifice. No t o n l y d o es this r ev el at i o n he l p d el e-
g i t i mi z e an d p l ac e i n p er sp ec t i v e t he he g e mo n i c p o we r o f r ep r essi v e
po l i ti c al o r maj o r i ty d i sc o u r ses, it sensi ti z es us to i mp o r t an t wi d er c ul -
tur al d y n ami c s i n t he p o st - r el i g i o u s, p o st - i mmi g r an t , t ec hn o l o g i c al
an d sec u l ar so c i et i es o f t he l ate t wen t i et h c en t u r y . I n t hese so c i et i es
p r o c es s es o f i mmi g r at i o n an d c ul tur al i n t er ac t i o n hav e n o t s l o wed ;
q u i t e t he c o n t r ar y . The r e is i n c r easi n g l y a di ver si ty o f c ul tur al t ap es-
try t hat is n o t a s man y hav e a s s u m e d b e i n g ho m o g e n i z e d i n t o
b l an d n es s . T h e g r eat c hal l en g e is whet her thi s r i c hn ess c an b e t u r n e d
i n t o a r es o u r c e f o r i ntel l ec tual an d c ul tur al r ei n v i g o r at i o n .
T h e po ssi bi l i ty al way s ex i sts that t he ex p l o r at i o n of e l e me n t s o f
t r ad i t i o n wil l r e mai n super fi c i al , mer el y tr ansi ti o nal to d i s ap p ear an c e.
I n t he first g en er at i o n o f i mmi g r at i o n , p r o b l ems ar e c o m m u n a l an d
f ami l y - r el at ed ; i n l ater o n es v esti g es r emai n at t he p er s o n al l ev el , an d
t hey , t o o , wil l d i sap p ear ! Thi s is t he tr adi ti o nal so c i o l o g i c al st an c e: t he
Yi d d i s h t heat er is r ep l ac ed by assi mi l at ed J ewi sh wr i ter s l ike B e r n ar d
Mal amu d , Phi l i p Ro t h, an d Saul Bel l o w, an d they , t o o , wil l pass. The r e
is, ho we v e r , an o t her , m o r e ex c i t i n g p o ssi b i l i t y t hat t her e ar e c u l -
tur al r es o u r c es i n t r ad i t i o n s that c an b e r ec o v er ed an d r e wo r k e d i n t o
en r i c hi n g t o o l s f o r t he p r esen t , as Ar shi l e Go r k y d ep l o y s hi s m o t he r
t hr o u g h hi s p ai n t i n g . It is, su g g est s Ro b er t Al t er (1982), n o t Ro t h,
Mal amu d , an d B el l o w who d ef i n e a J ewi s h r en ai ssan c e i n Am e r i c a
i n d e e d , t hey ar e total l y en c ap s u l at ed i n i mmi g r an t ad j u s t me n t s b u t
r at her , t he es t ab l i s hmen t o f a n e w ser i o u s, p o s t - o r t ho d o x , J ewi s h
s c ho l ar s hi p by s u c h wr i ter s as l i ng ui sts Ur i el an d Max Wei n r ei c h, hi s-
t o r i an s J ac o b Ne u s n e r an d Ge r s ho m Sc ho l em, p hi l o s o p her s Ha n n a h
Ar e n d t an d Eman u e l L v i n as, an d l iter ar y critics Har o l d B l o o m an d
Ro b er t Al t er hi msel f , al l r eso l u t el y mo d e r n , y et abl e to i n v o l v e t he
p ast i n a d i al o g u e g en er at i n g n e w p er sp ec t i v es fo r t he p r es en t an d f u -
t u r e .
3 0
Or m o r e g en er o u s l y , as Mu r r ay B au mg ar t e n s u g g es t s (1982),
perfectly and ultimately unsuccessfully to homogenize, coopt, and suppress interest in
ethnicity.
30. Eric Gould makes a similar point in contrasting the work of Edmond Jabs
with the Jewish ethnic novels of mid-century America (Gould, ed. 1985 : xvi).
232 MICHAEL M. J. FISCHER
Ethnicity and the Arts of Memory
233
t i vat e i n t he r e a d e r a de s i r e for communitas wi t h o t he r s , whi l e pr e s e r v -
i n g r a t he r t ha n e ffac i ng di ffe r e nc e s .
Ethnography as Cultural Critique. Ra t he r t han r e p e a t t he e t h-
n o g r a p h i c c o da s t o e a c h o f t he five wr i t i ng tacti cs di s c us s e d i n part II
o f t hi s p a p e r , wh i c h c o nc e pt ua l l y b e l o n g h e r e ,
3 1
it is bes t t o e n d wi t h a
c h a l l e n g e , a cal l for a r e n e we d b e g i n n i n g . No t mu c h e t h n o g r a p h y ye t
e xi s t s t hat ful fi l l s t he a nt hr o po l o g i c a l p r o mi s e o f a ful l y bi focal cul -
t ural cri t i ci s m. Or r at he r , wha t exi s t s was dr af t e d wi t h l ess s ophi s t i -
c a t e d a u d i e n c e s i n mi n d t ha n exi s t t oday o n all t he c o nt i ne nt s o f o u r
c o mmo n e a r t h.
Cul t ur al cri t i ci s m t hat o pe r a t e s di al ect i cal l y a mo n g pos s i bl e cul -
t ural a n d e t hni c i dent i fi cat i ons is o n e i mpo r t a nt di r e c t i on i n wh i c h t he
c u r r e n t f e r me n t a b o u t e t h n o g r a p h y s e e ms t o l e ad. I f t hi s is t r ue , t h e n
finding a c o n t e x t for e t h n o g r a p h i c proj ect s i n t he pr o v o c a t i v e l i t er-
a t ur e o n mo d e r n e t hni c i t y c an onl y e n h a n c e t hei r cri t i cal pot e nt i al .
31. The idea of the paper was that the sections of part I I should be staged "to
speak for themselves." Because the first draft did not achieve this goal in a way readers
found illuminating, the second draft (printed here) has reverted to a more traditional
authorial guiding voice. A third, future version, when both author and readers have
become more expert, would again remove the intrusive interpretations to this place of
re-collection and reconsiderationby reader and authoras to how to do it better.
The ideas for this paper were first developed in a course at Rice University on
Ameri can Culture, and I am indebted to the student participants. For stimulating
discussions I would like to thank members of the Rice Circle for Anthropology (in
1982- 84 comprised of George Marcus, Stephen Tyler, Tul i o Maranhao, Julie Taylor,
I van Karp, Lane Kaufmann, Gene Hol l and, myself, and occasional others), as well as
the participants in the seminar "The Making of Ethnographic Texts," particularly
Renato Rosaldo, who led the discussion of the first draft of this paper, and James
Cl i fford, who made helpful suggestions at a later stage.
Thi s paper is dedicated to the memory of my father, Eric Fischer, who read from
it at his last seder table (while it was being delivered in Santa Fe) and who died as it was
being polished a year later just before Shavuot. His own first and last English-language
booksThe Passing of the European Age (Cambridge, Mass., 1943) and Minorities and Mi-
nority Problems (Takoma Park, Md. , 1980)are very much concerned with similar issues.
wh a t i s e n d u r i n g a b o u t Ma l a mu d , Ro t h, Be l l ow, Si ng e r , a n d He n r y
Ro t h is t he interference b e t we e n Yi ddi s h a n d Eng l i s h t hat t he t e x t ur e
a n d i d i o m o f t he i r Eng l i s h pr e s e r ve s , r e wor ks , a n d gi ft s back wi t h n e w
r i c hne s s t o Eng l i s h; a n d t he inter-references t o dua l o r mul t i pl e c ul t ur al
t r adi t i ons . Je wi s h e t hni c i t y a n d o t he r et hni ci t i es ha v e al ways g r o wn i n
a n i nt e r l i ngui s t i c c o nt e x t . T h e f ut ur e o f Je wi s h wr i t i ng ma y d e p e n d
u p o n t he c r e a t i o n o f a r e n e we d i nt e r - r e fe r e nt i al st yl e: Cy nt hi a Oz i c k
(1983) wo u l d d o it t h r o u g h t he r e c r e at i on i n Eng l i s h o f a l i t urgi cal
a n d mi dr a s hi c voi c e ; S h mu e l Ag n o n a n d J o r g e Lui s Bo r g e s d o it
t h r o u g h a mi r r o r i n g pl ay i n whi c h a nc i e nt narrat i ves are pl a c e d i n
mo d e r n s e t t i ngs wi t h r e s o l ut i o ns e c h o i n g a nc i e nt t e xt s . On e o f t he
mo s t i mp o r t a n t o f c o n t e mp o r a r y Je wi s h proj ect s i n e t hni c i t y is Je wi s h
f e mi n i s m, part i cul arl y by t hos e wh o feel t he ms e l v e s o r t h o d o x ( e . g. ,
Gr e e n b e r g 1 98 1 ; He s c h e l 1983; Prel l - Fol des 1978). For h e r e i s a c o n -
t e xt , pa r e x c e l l e nc e , d e ma n d i n g hiddush ( creat i ve i nt e r pr e t a t i o n) , i n-
f o r me d k n o wl e d g e o f t he t ext s a n d t radi t i ons o f t he pas t s o ri ch t hat
n e w pos s i bi l i t i es ma y be di s c o v e r e d.
Writing Tactics. Co n t e mp o r a r y e t hni c a ut o bi o g r a phi e s par -
t ake o f t he mo o d o f me t a - di s c o ur s e , o f d r a wi n g a t t e nt i o n t o t he i r o w n
l i ngui s t i c a n d fictive na t ur e , o f u s i n g t he nar r at or as a n i ns c r i be d fig-
u r e wi t hi n t he t e xt wh o s e ma ni pul a t i o n cal l s a t t e nt i o n t o aut hor i t y
s t r uc t ur e s , o f e n c o u r a g i n g t he r e a de r t o s e l f- c ons c i ous l y par t i c i pat e i n
t he p r o d u c t i o n o f me a n i n g . Th i s is qui t e di ffe r e nt f r o m p r e v i o u s
a ut o bi o g r a phi c a l c o nv e nt i o ns . T h e r e we r e o n c e t i me s a n d c ul t ur al
f o r ma t i o n s wh e n t he r e was l i ttl e s el f- refl ect i on, l i ttl e e x p r e s s i o n o f i n-
t eri ori t y, a n d a u t o b i o g r a p h y s e r v e d as a mo r a l di dact i c f o r m i n wh i c h
t he s ubj e c t / nar r at or was l i ttl e mo r e t ha n a s u m o f c o n v e n t i o n s , us e f ul
t o da y pr i mar i l y for e x p l o r i n g t he l ogi c a n d g r o u n d i n g o f t h o s e mo r a l -
i t i es ( Fi s c he r 1982b, 1983). Ro ma nt i c poe t i c s ma d e t he a ut ho r / na r -
r at or a n d hi s o r he r i nt eri ori t y cent ral : k n o wl e d g e i t sel f was t h o u g h t
i ns e pa r a bl e f r o m t he cul t i vat i on o f i ndi vi dual mi n d s . Re a l i s m a g a i n
d e e mp h a s i z e d t he i ndi vi dual , e l e vat i ng soci al a n d hi s t ori cal r e fe r -
e n c e s , ma k i n g t he i ndi vi dual t he l oc us o f soci al pr oc e s s : t hi s i s t he mo -
me n t o f t he cl assi c i mmi gr ant - as s i mi l at i on st ory o f s t r ug g l e b e t we e n
ma r g i na l i ndi vi dual a n d o n t he o n e s i de f a mi l y / c o mmuni t y a n d o n t he
o t h e r s i de n o n c o mmu n a l soci et y. T h e charact eri s t i c o f c o n t e mp o r a r y
wr i t i ng o f e n c o u r a g i n g par t i c i pat i on o f t he r e a de r i n t he p r o d u c t i o n
o f me a n i n g o f t e n d r a wi n g o n pa r o di e i mi t at i on o f rat i onal i s t i c c o n -
v e n t i o n ( Ki ng s t o n, Mi n g u s , Vi z e no r ) , or us i ng f r a g me n t s o r i n c o m-
pl e t e ne s s t o for c e t he r e a de r t o ma k e t he c o nne c t i o ns ( Ki ng s t o n,
Ci s ne r o s , Mo ma d a y ) i s no t me r e l y de s c r i pt i ve o f h o w e t hni c i t y i s e x -
p e r i e n c e d , but mo r e i mpo r t a nt l y is a n et hi cal de vi c e a t t e mp t i n g t o ac-
P AUL RABI NOW
Representations Are Social Facts:
Modernity and Post-Modernity
in Anthropology
Beyond Epistemology
I n hi s i nfl uent i al book Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature ( 1979) ,
Ri c ha r d Ro r t y a r g ue s t hat e p i s t e mo l o g y as t he s t udy of me nt a l r e p r e -
s e nt a t i o ns a r o s e i n a part i cul ar hi s t ori cal e p o c h , t he s e v e n t e e n t h c e n -
t ur y; d e v e l o p e d i n a speci fi c soci et y, t hat o f Eu r o p e ; a n d e v e nt ua l l y
t r i u mp h e d i n p h i l o s o p h y by b e i n g cl os el y l i nke d t o t he pr o f e s s i o na l
c l ai ms o f o n e g r o u p , ni ne t e e nt h- c e nt ur y Ge r ma n pr o f e s s o r s o f phi -
l o s o phy . For Rort y, t hi s t ur n was not a for t ui t ous o n e : " Th e de s i r e for
a t he o r y o f k n o wl e d g e is a de s i r e for c o ns t r a i nt a de s i r e t o find
' f o unda t i o ns ' t o whi c h o n e mi g h t cl i ng, f r a me wo r ks b e y o n d wh i c h o n e
mu s t no t stray, obj e c t s whi c h i mp o s e t he ms e l v e s , r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns wh i c h
c a n n o t be gai ns ai d" (315). Radi c al i z i ng T h o ma s Ku h n , Rort y por t r ays
o u r o bs e s s i o n wi t h e p i s t e mo l o g y as an ac c i de nt al , but e v e nt ua l l y s t eri l e,
t u r n i n g i n We s t e r n c ul t ur e .
Pr a g ma t i c a n d Ame r i c a n , Rort y' s bo o k has a mor al : mo d e r n p r o -
f e s s i o na l p h i l o s o p h y r e pr e s e nt s t he "t r i umph o f t he que s t for c e r t ai nt y
o v e r t he q u e s t for r e a s o n" (61). T h e c hi e f cul pri t i n t hi s me l o d r a ma
i s We s t e r n phi l os ophy' s c o n c e r n wi t h e pi s t e mo l o g y , t he e q u a t i o n o f
k n o wl e d g e wi t h i nt e r nal r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns a nd t he c or r e c t e v a l ua t i o n
o f t ho s e r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns . Le t me bri efl y o ut l i ne Rorty' s a r g u me n t , a d d
s o me i mp o r t a n t s peci fi cat i ons by I an Ha c ki ng , t he n c l ai m t hat Mi c he l
Fouc aul t has d e v e l o p e d a pos i t i on t hat e na bl e s us t o s u p p l e me n t Ro r t y
i n i mp o r t a n t ways . I n t he res t o f t he p a p e r I e x p l o r e s o me ways i n
wh i c h t he s e l i ne s o f t h o u g h t are r e l e vant t o di s c our s e s a b o u t t he
o t he r . Speci fi cal l y, i n t he s e c o nd s ect i on I di s c us s r e c e nt de ba t e s a bo ut
t he ma k i n g o f e t h n o g r a p h i c t ext s ; i n t he t hi r d s e c t i on, s o me di ffe r -
e n c e s b e t we e n fe mi ni s t a n t h r o p o l o g y a nd a nt hr o po l o g i c a l f e mi n i s m;
a n d , finally, i n t he f o ur t h s e c t i on, I put f o r wa r d o n e l i ne o f r e s e a r c h,
my o wn .
Represent at i ons Are Social Facts
235
Ph i l o s o p h e r s , Ror t y a r g ue s , ha v e c r o wn e d t hei r di s c i pl i ne t he
q u e e n o f t he s c i e nc e s . Th i s c o r o na t i o n rest s o n t he i r c l ai m t o be t he
s peci al i s t s o n uni ve r s al p r o b l e ms a n d t hei r abi l i ty t o pr o v i de us wi t h a
s u r e f o u n d a t i o n for all k n o wl e d g e . Phi l os ophy' s r e al m is t he mi n d ; its
pr i v i l e g e d i ns i ght s es t abl i s h its c l ai m t o be t he di s c i pl i ne t hat j u d g e s all
o t h e r di s c i pl i ne s . Th i s c o n c e p t i o n o f phi l o s o phy i s, h o we v e r , a r e c e nt
hi s t ori cal d e v e l o p me n t . For t he Gr e e ks t he r e was n o s ha r p di vi s i on be -
t we e n e x t e r na l real i t y a n d i nt e r nal r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns . Unl i ke Ar i s t ot l e ,
Des cart es ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f k n o wi n g rest s o n ha v i ng c or r e c t r e pr e s e nt a -
t i ons i n a n i nt e r nal s pac e , t he mi n d . Ror t y ma k e s t he po i nt by s ayi ng:
" Th e no v e l t y was t he no t i o n o f a s i ngl e i n n e r s pac e i n whi c h bodi l y
a n d pe r c e pt ua l s e ns a t i o ns ( c o nf us e d i de as o f s e ns e a nd i ma g i na t i o n i n
De s c ar t e s ' s phr a s e ) , ma t he ma t i c a l t r ut hs , mo r a l rul es , t he i de a o f Go d ,
mo o d s o f d e p r e s s i o n , a n d all t he rest o f what we n o w cal l ' me nt al '
we r e obj ect s o f quas i - obs e r vat i on" (50). Al t h o u g h not all o f t he s e e l e -
me n t s we r e n e w o n e s , De s c ar t e s s ucces s ful l y c o mb i n e d t h e m i nt o a
n e w pr o bl e ma t i c , s e t t i ng as i de Ari st ot l e' s c o n c e p t o f r e a s o n as a g r a s p
o f uni v e r s a l s : b e g i n n i n g i n t he s e v e n t e e n t h c e nt ur y, k n o wl e d g e be -
c a me i nt e r nal , r e pr e s e nt a t i o na l , a n d j u d g me n t a l . Mo d e r n p h i l o s o p h y
was b o r n wh e n a k n o wi n g s ubj ect e n d o we d wi t h c o ns c i o us ne s s a n d its
r e pr e s e nt a t i o na l c o nt e nt s b e c a me t he cent ral p r o b l e m for t h o u g h t ,
t he p a r a d i g m of all k n o wi n g .
T h e mo d e r n n o t i o n o f e pi s t e mo l o g y , t he n, t ur ns o n t he cl ari fi ca-
t i on a n d j u d g me n t o f t he subject' s r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns . "To k n o w is t o r e p -
r e s e n t ac c ur at e l y wh a t is o ut s i de t he mi n d ; s o t o u n d e r s t a n d t he pos s i -
bi l i ty a n d n a t u r e o f k n o wl e d g e is t o u n d e r s t a n d t he way i n wh i c h t he
mi n d is abl e t o c o ns t r uc t s uc h r e pr e s e nt at i ons . Phi l os ophy' s e t e r nal
c o n c e r n is t o be a g e ne r a l t he or y o f r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns , a t he o r y wh i c h
wi l l di v i de c ul t ur e u p i nt o t he areas whi c h r e pr e s e nt real i t y wel l , t ho s e
wh i c h r e p r e s e n t it l ess wel l , a n d t hos e whi c h d o no t r e pr e s e nt it at all
( de s pi t e t he i r p r e t e n s e o f d o i n g s o) " (3). T h e k n o wl e d g e ar r i ve d at
t h r o u g h t h e e x a mi n a t i o n o f r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns about "real i ty" a n d "t he
k n o wi n g s ubj ect " wo u l d be uni ve r s al . Th i s uni ve r s al k n o wl e d g e i s, o f
c o u r s e , s c i e nc e .
It wa s o nl y at t he e n d o f t he En l i g h t e n me n t t hat t he ful l y e l a bo -
r a t e d c o n c e p t i o n o f p h i l o s o p h y as t he j u d g e o f all pos s i bl e k n o wl e d g e
a p p e a r e d a n d was c a n o n i z e d i n t he wo r k o f I mma n u e l Kant . " Th e
e v e n t u a l d e ma r c a t i o n o f phi l o s o phy f r o m s c i e nc e was ma d e pos s i bl e
by t h e n o t i o n t hat phi l os ophy' s c o r e was a ' t heory o f kno wl e dg e ' , a t he -
o r y di s t i nc t f r o m t he s c i e nc e s be c a us e it was t hei r f o unda t i o n, " Ro r t y
a r g u e s (132). Ka nt e s t abl i s he d as a pri ori t he Car t e s i an cl ai m t hat we
ha v e c e r t ai nt y o nl y a bo ut i deas . Kant , "by t aki ng e v e r y t hi ng we say t o
be a b o u t s o me t h i n g we have c ons t i t ut e d, ma d e it pos s i bl e for e pi s -
t e mo l o g y t o b e t h o u g h t o f as a f o unda t i o na l s c i e nc e . . . . He t hus e n -
23" PAUL RABINOW
Represent at i ons Are Social Facts 237
j u d g me n t . Th i s po i nt is ma d e very s ucci nct l y by I an Ha c k i n g i n "Lan-
g u a g e , Tr u t h , a n d Re as on" (1982). Paral l el to Rort y' s di s t i nc t i on of
c e r t ai nt y v e r s us r e a s o n, Ha c k i n g dr a ws a di s t i nc t i on b e t we e n t ho s e
p h i l o s o p h i e s i nv o l v e d i n t he que s t for t r ut h a nd t h o s e wh i c h h e cal l s
s t yl es o f t hi nki ng , s o as no t t o l i mi t t h e m t o mo d e r n p h i l o s o p h y
t hat o p e n u p n e w possi bi l i t i es by p r o c e e d i n g i n t e r ms o f "t rut h o r
f a l s e ho o d. "
Ha c k i n g put s for war d what is basi cal l y a s i mpl e poi nt : wha t is c ur -
r e nt l y t ake n as "t rut h" is d e p e n d e n t o n a pri or hi s t ori cal e v e n t t h e
e me r g e n c e o f a st yl e o f t hi nki ng a bo ut t rut h a n d fal si t y t hat e s t ab-
l i s he d t he c o n d i t i o n s for e nt e r t a i ni ng a pr o po s i t i o n as b e i n g c a pa bl e
o f b e i n g t a ke n as t r ue or fal se i n t he first pl ace. Ha c k i n g put s it t hi s
way: "By r e a s o n i n g I don' t me a n l ogi c. I me a n t he very o p p o s i t e , for
l o g i c is t he pr e s e r v a t i o n o f t rut h, whi l e a st yl e o f r e a s o n i n g is what
br i ng s i n t he possi bi l i t y o f t rut h or f a l s e ho o d. . . . s t yl es o f r e a s o n i n g
c r e a t e t he pos s i bi l i t y o f t rut h a n d f a l s e ho o d. De d u c t i o n a n d i n d u c -
t i on me r e l y pr e s e r v e it" (5657). Ha c k i n g is not "agai nst " l ogi c , o nl y
a g a i ns t its c l ai ms t o f o u n d a nd g r o u n d all t r ut h. Lo g i c is fine i n its o wn
d o ma i n , but t hat d o ma i n is a l i mi t e d o n e .
By d r a wi n g t hi s di s t i nc t i on o n e avoi ds t he p r o b l e m o f t ot al l y rel a-
t i vi z i ng r e a s o n or o f t ur ni ng di ffe r e nt hi st ori cal c o n c e p t i o n s of t r ut h
a n d fal si t y i n t o a que s t i o n o f s ubj ect i vi s m. T h e s e c o n c e p t i o n s ar e hi s -
t ori cal a n d s oci al fact s. Th i s po i nt is wel l put by Ha c k i n g wh e n h e says:
" He n c e a l t h o u g h whi c he v e r pr o po s i t i o ns are t rue ma y d e p e n d o n t he
dat a, t he fact t hat t he y ar e c a ndi da t e s for be i ng t r ue is a c o n s e q u e n c e
o f a n hi s t ori cal e v e nt " (56). Th a t t he anal yt i cal t ool s we us e wh e n we
i nve s t i gat e a s et o f p r o b l e ms g e o me t r y for t he Gr e e ks , e x p e r i me n t a l
me t h o d i n t he s e v e n t e e n t h c e nt ur y, or stati sti cs i n mo d e r n soci al sci -
e n c e h a v e s hi f t e d is e x pl a i na bl e wi t ho ut r e c o ur s e t o s o me t r ut h
d e n y i n g r e l at i vi s m. Fu r t h e r mo r e , s c i e nc e u n d e r s t o o d i n t hi s way r e -
ma i n s qui t e obj e c t i ve "s i mpl y be c a us e t he st yl es o f r e a s o n i n g t hat we
e mp l o y d e t e r mi n e wha t c o unt s as obj ect i vi t y. . . . Pr o po s i t i o ns o f t he
s or t t hat ne c e s s ar i l y r e qui r e r e a s o n i n g t o be s ubs t ant i at e d ha v e a
pos i t i vi t y, a b e i n g t r ue or fal se, onl y i n c o n s e q u e n c e o f t he s t yl es o f
r e a s o n i n g i n wh i c h t he y oc c ur " (49, 65). Wha t Fouc aul t has cal l ed t he
r e g i me , o r g a me , o f t r ut h a n d fal si ty is bo t h a c o mp o n e n t a n d a p r o d -
uct o f hi s t ori cal pract i ces . Ot h e r p r o c e d u r e s and o t h e r obj ect s c o ul d
h a v e filled t h e bi l l j us t as wel l a n d have b e e n j us t as t r ue .
Ha c k i n g di s t i ng ui s he s b e t we e n e ve r yday, c o mmo n s e n s i c a l r e a s o n-
i n g t hat d o e s n o t n e e d t o appl y any e l abor at e set o f r e a s o ns a n d t ho s e
mo r e s pe c i a l i z e d d o ma i n s t hat d o . T h e r e i s bo t h a cul t ural a n d a hi s -
t ori cal pl ural i t y o f t he s e s pe c i al i z e d d o ma i n s a n d o f hi s t ori cal l y a n d
c ul t ur al l y di v e r s e st yl es as s oci at ed wi t h t h e m. Fr om t he a c c e pt a nc e o f
a di vers i t y o f hi s t ori cal st yl es o f r e a s o ni ng , o f me t h o d s , a n d obj e c t s ,
a bl e d p h i l o s o p h y pr o f e s s o r s t o s e e t he ms e l v e s as pr e s i di ng o v e r a tri -
b u n a l o f p u r e r e a s o n, abl e t o d e t e r mi n e wh e t h e r o t h e r di s c i pl i ne s
we r e s t ayi ng wi t hi n t he l egal l i mi t s set by t he ' s t ruct ure' o f t he i r s ub-
j e c t mat t e r s " (139).
As a di s c i pl i ne wh o s e p r o p e r acti vi ty is g r o u n d i n g c l ai ms t o kno wl -
e d g e , p h i l o s o p h y was d e v e l o p e d by ni ne t e e nt h- c e nt ur y n e o - Ka n t i a n s
a n d i ns t i t ut i onal i z e d i n ni ne t e e nt h- c e nt ur y Ge r ma n uni ve r s i t i e s . Carv-
i n g o u t a s p a c e b e t we e n i de o l o g y a n d e mpi r i c al ps y c ho l o g y , Ge r ma n
p h i l o s o p h y wr ot e its o wn hi s t ory, p r o d u c i n g o u r mo d e r n c a n o n o f t he
"great s . " Th i s task was c o mp l e t e d by t he e n d of t he n i n e t e e n t h c e n-
t ury. T h e nar r at i ve o f t he hi s t ory o f phi l o s o phy as a s eri es of gr e at
t hi nke r s c o n t i n u e s t oday i n i nt r oduc t or y phi l o s o phy c o ur s e s . Phi l os o-
phy' s c l ai m t o i nt e l l e c t ual p r e e mi n e n c e l as t ed onl y for a s ho r t t i me ,
h o we v e r , a n d by t he 1920s, onl y phi l o s o phe r s a n d u n d e r g r a d u a t e s
b e l i e v e d t hat p h i l o s o p h y was uni que l y qual i fi ed t o g r o u n d a n d j u d g e
c ul t ur al p r o d u c t i o n . Ne i t he r Ei ns t ei n no r Pi casso was ove r l y c o n-
c e r n e d wi t h wh a t Hu s s e r l mi g ht have t h o u g h t o f t h e m.
Al t h o u g h p h i l o s o p h y d e p a r t me n t s c o nt i nue t o t each e pi s t e mo l -
ogy, t he r e is a c o u n t e r t radi t i on i n mo d e r n t h o u g h t t hat f o l l o we d a n-
o t h e r pa t h. "Wi t t ge ns t e i n, He i d e g g e r a nd De we y are i n a g r e e me n t t hat
t he n o t i o n o f k n o wl e d g e as ac c ur at e r e pr e s e nt a t i o n, ma d e pos s i bl e by
s peci al me n t a l pr o c e s s e s , a n d i nt el l i gi bl e t h r o u g h a g e ne r a l t h e o r y o f
r e pr e s e nt a t i o n, n e e d s t o be a b a n d o n e d , " Rort y o bs e r v e s (6). T h e s e
t hi nke r s di d n o t s e e k t o c ons t r uc t al t e r nat e a nd be t t e r t he o r i e s o f t he
mi n d o r k n o wl e d g e . Th e i r ai m was not t o i mp r o v e e p i s t e mo l o g y but
t o pl ay a di f f e r e nt g a me . Rort y cal l s t hi s g a me h e r me n e u t i c s . By t hi s ,
he s i mpl y me a n s k n o wl e d g e wi t ho ut f o unda t i o ns ; a k n o wl e d g e t hat
e s s e nt i al l y a mo u n t s t o e di fyi ng c o nv e r s a t i o n. Rort y has s o far t ol d us
ve r y l i ttl e a bo ut t he c o nt e nt o f t hi s c o nv e r s a t i o n, p e r h a p s be c a us e
t h e r e i s v e r y l i ttl e t o tel l . As wi t h Wi t t g e ns t e i n, He i d e g g e r , a n d , i n a
di f f e r e nt way, De we y , Rort y is fac e d wi t h t he fact, t r o ubl i ng o r a mu s -
i ng , t hat o n c e t he hi s t ori cal or l ogi cal de c o ns t r uc t i o n o f We s t e r n phi -
l o s o p h y has b e e n a c c o mpl i s he d, t he r e is real l y n o t h i n g s peci al l eft for
p h i l o s o p h e r s t o d o . On c e it is s e e n t hat phi l o s o phy d o e s not f o u n d o r
l e gi t i mat e t he c l ai ms t o k n o wl e d g e o f o t h e r di s c i pl i ne s , its task be -
c o me s o n e o f c o mme n t i n g o n t hei r wor ks a nd e n g a g i n g t h e m i n
c o nv e r s a t i o n.
Tr u t h ve r s us Tr u t h or Fal si ty
Ev e n i f o n e ac c e pt s Rorty' s de c o ns t r uc t i o n o f e p i s t e mo l o g y ,
t he c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s uc h a mo v e r e ma i n very o p e n . Be f o r e e x p l o r i n g
s o me o f t h e m, it s e e ms i mpo r t a nt t o u n d e r l i n e t he poi nt t hat r e j e c t i ng
e p i s t e mo l o g y d o e s no t me a n rej ect i ng t r ut h, r e a s o n, o r s t a nda r ds o f
238 PAUL RABINOW
1. For a tre atme n t of the subject see Dre yfus and Rabi now (1982) pp. | 1 79.
Repres ent at i ons Are Social Facts 239
H a c k i n g d r a ws t he c o n c l u s i o n t ha t t hi nker s f r eq u en t l y g o t t hi n g s
r i g ht , s o l v ed p r o bl ems , a n d es t a bl i s hed t r ut hs . Bu t , he a r g u es , t hi s
d o e s n o t i mp l y t ha t w e s ho u l d s ea r c h f o r a uni f i ed Po p p er i a n r ea l m o f
t he t r u e; r a t her , a l a Paul Fey er a ben d , we s ho u l d k e e p o u r o p t i o n s i n
i n q u i r y as o p e n as p o s s i bl e. Th e Gr eeks , Ha c k i n g r emi n d s us , ha d n o
c o n c ep t , o r u s e, o f s t at i s t i cs , a f act t ha t i nv a l i da t es n ei t her Gr e e k s ci -
e n c e n o r s t at i s t i cs as s u c h. Thi s p o s i t i o n is n o t r el a t i v i s m, bu t it is n o t
i mp er i a l i s m ei t her . Ro r t y cal l s hi s v er s i o n o f al l t hi s her men eu t i c s .
H a c k i n g cal l s hi s a n a r c ho - r a t i o n a l i s m. " An a r c ho - r a t i o n a l i s m is t o l er -
a n c e f o r o t her p e o p l e c o mbi n e d wi t h t he di s c i pl i ne of one' s o w n s t a n-
d a r d s o f t r u t h a n d r ea s o n " (65). Let us cal l it g o o d s c i en c e.
Mi c hel Fo u c a u l t ha s a l s o c o n s i d er ed ma n y o f t hes e i s s ues i n pa r a l -
l el , bu t n o t i dent i c a l , f a s hi o n . Hi s Archaeology of Knowledge (1976) a n d
Discourse on Language ( 1976) a r e p er ha p s t he mo s t d e v e l o p e d a t t emp t s
t o p r es en t , i f n o t a t heo r y o f wha t Ha c k i n g r ef er s t o as "t r ut h o r
f al s i t y" a n d "s t yl es o f t ho u g ht , " t hen at l eas t a n a na l y t i c o f t he m. Al -
t ho u g h t he det a i l s o f Foucaul t ' s s y s t ema t i z a t i o n o f ho w d i s c u r s i v e o b-
j ec t s , en u n c i a t i v e mo d a l i t i es , c o n c ep t s , a n d di s c ur s i v e s t r a t eg i es a r e
f o r m e d a n d t r a n s f o r med is bey o n d t he s c o p e o f t hi s p a p er ,
1
s ev er a l
p o i n t s a r e r el ev a n t her e. Let us mer el y t ake o n e e x a mp l e as i l l us t r a t i v e.
I n t he Discourse on Language Fo uc a ul t di s c us s es s o me o f t he c o n s t r a i n t s
o n , a n d c o n d i t i o n s f or , t he p r o d u c t i o n o f t r ut h, u n d e r s t o o d as s t at e-
me n t s c a p a bl e o f bei n g t a ken s er i o us l y as t r ue o r f al s e. Am o n g o t her s ,
Fo u c a u l t e x a mi n e s t he ex i s t en c e o f s ci ent i f i c di s c i p l i nes . H e s ays :
For a di sci pl i ne to exist, t here mus t be the possibility of f or mul at i ngand o f
do i ng so ad i nf i ni t umf res h proposi t i ons. . . . Thes e proposi t i ons must con-
f orm to specific condi t i ons of objects, subject, met hods etc. . . . Wi t hi n its own
l i mi ts, every di sci pl i ne recogni ses as true and fal se proposi t i ons, but it re-
pul s es a whol e t erat ol ogy of l earni ng. . . . In short, a proposi t i on mus t fulfill
s ome oner ous and c ompl ex condi t i ons bef ore it can be admi t t ed wi thi n a
di sci pl i ne; bef ore it can be pr onounc ed true or false it must be, as Mons i eur
Cangui l hem mi ght say, "within t he true." (1976: 22324)
Fo u c a u l t g i v es t he e x a mp l e o f Men d el : " Men d el s p o k e of o bj ec t s , e m -
p l o y e d m e t ho d s a n d p l a c ed hi ms el f wi t hi n a t heo r et i c a l p er s p ec t i v e
t ot a l l y a l i en t o t he bi o l o g y o f hi s t i me. . . . Men d el s p o k e t he t r u t h, bu t
he wa s n o t dans le vrai o f c o n t e mp o r a r y bi o l o g i c a l d i s c o u r s e" (224).
T h e d emo n s t r a t i o n o f t he r i c hnes s o f t hi s s t yl e o f t hi n k i n g ha s be e n
t he g r ea t s t r en g t h o f Fo uc a ul t , Cxeorges Ca n g u i l hem, a n d o t her Fr en c h
p r a c t i t i o n er s o f t he hi s t o r y a n d p hi l o s o p hy o f s c i enc e, pa r t i c ul a r l y t he
"l i f e s c i enc es . "
It is p er ha p s n o t a c c i dent a l t ha t bo t h Ro r t y a n d Ha c k i n g a r e c o n -
c e r n e d wi t h t he hi s t o r y o f phy s i c a l s c i enc e, ma t hema t i c s , a n d p hi l o s o -
p hy . Wha t ha s be e n mi s s i n g f r o m t hei r a c c o u n t s is t he c a t eg o r y o f
p o w er , a n d t o a l es s er ex t en t (i n Ha c ki ng ' s cas e) s oc i et y. Ha c ki n g ' s c ur -
r en t v er y i n t er es t i n g wo r k o n n i n et een t h- c en t u r y s t at i s t i cs d o es , ho w -
ev er , i n c l u d e t hes e c a t eg o r i es . Al t ho u g h c o mp el l i n g i n its d ec o n s t r u c -
t i v e f o r c e, Rort y' s s t or y is l es s c o n v i n c i n g i n i ts r ef us a l t o c o m m e n t o n
ho w t he ep i s t emo l o g i c a ! t u r n i n g c a me a bo u t i n Wes t er n s o c i et y a c -
c o r d i n g t o Ror t y , l i ke Ga l i l ea n s c i enc e, it j u s t h a p p e n e d o r i n i t s i n -
abi l i t y t o s ee k n o w l e d g e as mo r e t ha n f r ee a n d ed i f y i n g c o n v er s a t i o n .
No t u n l i ke J r g e n Ha ber ma s , a l t ho u g h r ef u s i n g Ha ber ma s ' s s t r i v i n g
f o r f o u n d a t i o n a l i s m, Ro r t y s ees f r ee c o mmu n i c a t i o n , c i v i l i zed c o n v er -
s a t i o n, as t he u l t i ma t e g o a l . As Ha c k i n g s ays : " Per ha p s Ri c ha r d Rort y' s
. . . c en t r a l d o c t r i n e o f c o n v er s a t i o n wi l l s o me da y s e e m as l i ng ui s t i c a
p hi l o s o p hy as t he a na l y s i s e ma n a t i n g f r o m Ox f o r d a g en er a t i o n a g o "
(19 84 : 10 9). T h e c o n t en t o f t he c o n v er s a t i o n a n d ho w t he f r e e d o m t o
ha v e it is t o c o m e a bo u t i s, ho wev er , bey o n d t he d o ma i n of p hi l o s o p hy .
Bu t c o n v er s a t i o n , bet w een i ndi v i dua l s o r c ul t ur es , is o n l y p o s s i bl e
wi t hi n c o n t ex t s s ha p e d a n d c o n s t r a i n ed by hi s t or i c al , c ul t ur a l , a n d
pol i t i c a l r el a t i o ns a n d t he o n l y part i al l y di s c ur s i v e s oci al pr a c t i c es t ha t
c o n s t i t u t e t he m. Wha t is mi s s i n g f r o m Rort y' s a c c o u n t , t hen , is a n y
d i s c u s s i o n of ho w t ho u g ht a n d s oci al pr a c t i c es i n t er c o n n ec t . Ro r t y is
hel p f u l i n d ef l a t i n g p hi l o s o p hy ' s c l a i ms , but he s t o p s ex a c t l y at t he
p o i n t o f t a ki n g s er i o us l y hi s o w n i ns i g ht : t o wi t , t ho u g ht is n o t hi n g
m o r e a n d n o t hi n g l es s t ha n a hi s t or i c al l y l oc a t a bl e s et o f p r a c t i c es .
H o w t o d o t hi s wi t ho u t r ev er t i n g t o ep i s t emo l o g y o r t o s o m e d u bi o u s
s u p er s t r u c t u r e/ i n f r a s t r u c t u r e d ev i c e is a n o t her q u es t i o n , o n e Ro r t y is
n o t a l o n e i n n o t ha v i n g s o l v ed .
Rep r es en t a t i o n s a n d So c i et y
Mi c hel Fo uc a ul t ha s o f f er ed us s o me i mp o r t a n t t ool s f o r a n a -
l y z i n g t ho u g ht as a p ubl i c a n d s oci al pr a c t i c e. Fo uc a ul t a c c ep t s t he
ma i n e l e me n t s o f t he Ni et z s c hea n , H e i d e g g e r e a n a c c o u n t of Wes t er n
met a p hy s i c s a n d ep i s t emo l o g y Ro r t y ha s g i v en us , bu t d r a ws d i f f er en t
c o n c l u s i o n s f r o m t hes e i n s i g ht s o n es , it s eems t o me, t ha t a r e bo t h
m o r e c o n s i s t en t a n d mo r e i n t er es t i n g t ha n Rort y' s . We find, f o r ex -
a mp l e , ma n y o f t he s a me el emen t s t ha t a r e i n Rort y' s hi s t o r y o f p hi l o s -
o p h y t h e m o d e r n s ubj ec t , r ep r es en t a t i o n s , o r d e r i n Foucaul t ' s f a-
m o u s a na l y s i s o f Vel a zquez' s p a i n t i n g Las Meninas. Bu t t her e a r e a l s o
s o m e ma j o r d i f f er en c es . In s t ea d o f t r ea t i ng t he p r o bl e m o f r ep r es en -
t a t i o ns as s pec i f i c t o t he hi s t or y o f i dea s , Fo uc a ul t t reat s it as a mo r e
g e n e r a l c ul t ur a l c o n c er n , a p r o bl e m t ha t wa s bei n g w o r k e d o n i n
m a n y o t her d o ma i n s . I n The Order of Things (1973) a n d l a t er bo o ks ,
Fo u c a u l t d e mo n s t r a t e s ho w t he p r o bl em o f c o r r ec t r ep r es en t a t i o n s
ha s i n f o r me d a mu l t i t u d e o f s oci al d o ma i n s a n d pr a c t i c es , r a n g i n g
24
PAUL RABINOW
f r o m di s put e s i n b o t a n y t o pr o po s a l s for pr i s o n r e f o r m. T h e p r o b l e m
o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s for Fouc aul t is not , t he r e f o r e , o n e t hat h a p p e n e d
t o p o p u p i n p h i l o s o p h y a n d d o mi n a t e t hi nki ng t he r e for t hr e e h u n -
d r e d ye ar s . It is l i nke d t o t he wi d e r a ng e o f di s par at e , but i nt e r r e l a t e d,
s oci al a n d pol i t i cal pract i ces t hat c ons t i t ut e t he mo d e r n wo r l d, wi t h its
di s t i nc t i ve c o n c e r n s wi t h o r de r , t r ut h, a n d t he s ubj ect . Fouc aul t di f-
fers f r o m Rort y, t h e n , i n t r e at i ng phi l os ophi c al i de as as soci al pr ac -
t i ces a n d n o t c h a n c e t wi st s i n a c o nv e r s a t i o n o r i n phi l o s o phy .
Bu t Fouc aul t al s o di s agr e e s wi t h ma n y Mar xi s t t hi nke r s , wh o s e e
p r o b l e ms i n pa i nt i ng as, by de fi ni t i on, ul t i mat e l y e p i p h e n o me n a l t o,
o r e x p r e s s i v e of, wha t was "real l y" g o i n g o n i n s oci et y. Th i s br i ng s us
bri efl y t o t he p r o b l e m o f i de ol ogy. I n s everal pl aces , Fouc aul t s ug g e s t s
t hat o n c e o n e s e e s t he p r o b l e m o f t he subj ect , or r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns , a n d
o f t r ut h as s oci al pract i ces , t h e n t he very no t i o n o f i d e o l o g y b e c o me s
pr o bl e ma t i c . He says: "be hi nd t he c o nc e pt o f i de o l o g y t he r e is a ki nd
o f no s t a l g i a for a qua s i - t r a ns pa r e nt f o r m o f k n o wl e d g e , fr e e f r o m all
e r r o r a n d i l l us i on" ( 1 9 8 0 : 1 1 7 ) . I n t hi s s e ns e , t he c o n c e p t o f i d e o l o g y
is c l os e ki n t o t he c o n c e p t o f e pi s t e mo l o g y .
Fo r Fouc aul t , t he mo d e r n c o n c e p t o f i d e o l o g y is c har ac t e r i z e d by
t h r e e i nt e r r e l a t e d qual i t i es : (1) by de fi ni t i on, i de o l o g y is o p p o s e d t o
s o me t h i n g l i ke "t he t rut h, " a fal s e r e pr e s e nt a t i o n as it we r e ; (2) i de -
o l o g y is p r o d u c e d by a s ubj ect ( i ndi vi dual or col l ect i ve) i n o r d e r t o
h i d e t he t r ut h, a n d c o ns e que nt l y t he anal yst' s task c ons i s t s i n e x p o s i n g
t hi s fal s e r e pr e s e nt a t i o n; a nd r e ve al i ng t hat (3) i d e o l o g y is s e c o n d a r y
t o s o me t h i n g mo r e real , s o me i nfr as t r uc t ur al d i me n s i o n o n wh i c h
i d e o l o g y is paras i t i c. Fouc aul t rej ect s all t hr e e cl ai ms .
We ha v e al r e ady a l l ude d t o t he br o a d l i nes o f a cri t i que o f t he s ub-
j e c t a n d t he s e a r c h for cert ai nt y s e e n as ba s e d o n c or r e c t r e p r e s e n -
t at i ons . Co n s e q u e n t l y , l et us bri efl y foc us o n t he t hi r d po i nt : t he
q u e s t i o n o f wh e t h e r t he p r o d u c t i o n o f t r ut h is e p i p h e n o me n a l t o
s o me t h i n g e l s e . He has de s c r i be d hi s proj ect no t as d e c i d i n g t he t r ut h
o r fal si t y o f c l ai ms i n hi s t ory "but i n s e e i ng hi s t ori cal l y h o w effect s o f
t r ut h ar e p r o d u c e d wi t hi n di s c our s e s whi c h i n t he ms e l v e s ar e n e i t h e r
t r ue n o r fal s e" (13133). Fouc aul t p r o p o s e s t o s t udy wha t h e cal l s t he
r e g i me o f t r ut h as a n effect i ve c o mp o n e n t i n t he c ons t i t ut i on o f s oci al
pr ac t i c e s .
Fouc aul t has p r o p o s e d t hr e e wo r ki ng hy po t he s e s : "(1) Tr u t h is
t o be u n d e r s t o o d as a s ys t e m o f o r d e r e d p r o c e d u r e s for t he p r o d u c -
t i on, r e g ul a t i o n, di s t r i but i on, ci rcul at i on a n d o pe r a t i o n o f s t a t e me nt s .
(2) Tr u t h is l i nke d i n a ci rcul ar r e l at i on wi t h s ys t e ms o f p o we r wh i c h
p r o d u c e a n d s us t ai n it, a n d t o effect s o f p o we r whi c h it i n d u c e s a n d
wh i c h e x t e n d it. (3) Th i s r e g i me is not me r e l y i de ol ogi c al o r s u p e r -
s t r uc t ur al ; it was a c o ndi t i o n o f t he f o r ma t i o n a n d d e v e l o p me n t o f
Represent at i ons Are Social Facts
241
c api t al i s m" (133). We shal l e x p l o r e s o me o f t he i mpl i c at i ons o f t he s e
wo r k i n g h y p o t h e s e s i n t he n e x t t hr e e s e c t i ons o f t he pa pe r .
As Ma x We be r , I t hi nk, o n c e s ai d, s e v e nt e e nt h- c e nt ur y capi t al i s t s
we r e n o t o n l y e c o n o mi c me n wh o t r a de d a n d bui l t s hi ps , t he y al s o
l o o k e d at Re mbr a ndt ' s pai nt i ngs , d r e w ma p s o f t he wo r l d, h a d ma r k e d
c o n c e p t i o n s o f t he na t ur e o f o t he r p e o p l e s , a n d wo r r i e d a g o o d de a l
a b o u t t he i r o wn de s t i ny. T h e s e r e pr e s e nt a t i o ns we r e s t r o ng a n d e ffe c -
t i ve for c e s i n wha t t he y we r e and h o w t he y ac t e d. Ma n y n e w pos s i bi l -
i t i es for t h o u g h t a n d act i on are o p e n e d u p i f we fol l ow Ro r t y a n d
a b a n d o n e p i s t e mo l o g y ( or at l east s e e it for wha t it has b e e n : a n i m-
po r t a nt c ul t ur al mo v e me n t i n We s t e r n soci et y) a n d fol l ow Fouc aul t i n
s e e i n g p o we r as pr o duc t i v e a n d pe r me a t i v e o f soci al r e l at i ons a n d t he
p r o d u c t i o n o f t r ut h i n o u r c ur r e nt r e g i me o f po we r . He r e are s o me
i ni t i al c o nc l us i o ns a n d r e s e ar c h s t r at e gi e s t hat mi g h t fol l ow f r o m t hi s
di s c us s i o n o f e pi s t e mo l o g y . I me r e l y list t h e m be f o r e mo v i n g o n t o r e -
c e nt di s c us s i o ns i n a n t h r o p o l o g y o n h o w be s t t o de s c r i be t he o t he r .
1. Ep i s t e mo l o g y mu s t be s e e n as a hi s t ori cal e v e n t a di s t i nc -
t i ve s oci al pract i ce, o n e a mo n g ma n y o t he r s , ar t i c ul at e d i n n e w
ways i n s e v e n t e e n t h - c e n t u r y Eu r o p e .
2. We d o no t n e e d a t he o r y o f i n d i g e n o u s e p i s t e mo l o g i e s o r a
n e w e p i s t e mo l o g y o f t he ot he r . We s ho ul d be at t e nt i ve t o o u r hi s -
t ori cal pr ac t i c e o f pr oj e c t i ng o u r cul t ural pract i ces o n t o t he o t he r ;
at bes t , t he t ask is t o s ho w h o w a n d wh e n a n d t h r o u g h wha t cul -
t ural a n d i ns t i t ut i onal me a n s o t he r p e o p l e s t art ed c l a i mi ng e pi s -
t e mo l o g y for t he i r o wn .
3. We n e e d t o a n t h r o p o l o g i z e t he Wes t : s h o w h o w e x o t i c its
c o ns t i t ut i o n o f real i t y has b e e n ; e mp h a s i z e t hos e d o ma i n s mo s t
t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d as uni ve r s al (thi s i nc l ude s e p i s t e mo l o g y a n d
e c o n o mi c s ) ; ma k e t h e m s e e m as hi st ori cal l y pe c ul i ar as pos s i bl e ;
s h o w h o w t he i r c l ai ms t o t r ut h are l i nke d t o soci al pract i ces a n d
h a v e h e n c e b e c o me effect i ve for c e s i n t he soci al wor l d.
4. We mu s t pl ur al i z e a n d di vers i fy o u r a p p r o a c h e s : a basi c
mo v e a g a i ns t e i t he r e c o n o mi c o r phi l o s o phi c h e g e mo n y is t o di -
vers i fy c e nt e r s o f r e s i s t anc e : avoi d t he e r r or o f r e ve r s e es s ent i al i z-
i ng ; Oc c i d e n t a l i s m i s n o t a r e me d y for Or i e nt al i s m.
The Writing of Ethnographic Texts:
The Fantasia of the Library
T h e r e is a c ur i o us t i me l ag as c o nc e pt s mo v e acros s di s c i pl i n-
ary b o u n d a r i e s . T h e mo me n t wh e n t he hi s t ori cal pr o f e s s i o n is di s -
242 PAUL RABINOW
Repres ent at i ons Are Social Facts 24;$
I n hi s es s a y "Fant as i a o f t he Li br ar y" ( 19 7 7 ) Mi c hel Fo u c a u l t pl a y s
a d r o i t l y wi t h t he p r o g r es s i o n o f u s es Fl a uber t ma d e t hr o u g ho u t hi s
l i f e o f t he f a bl e o f t he t emp t a t i o n o f Sai nt An t ho n y . Far f r o m bei n g
t he i d l e p r o d u c t s o f a f er t i l e i ma g i n a t i o n , Fl aubert ' s r ef er en c es t o
i c o n o g r a p hy a n d p hi l o l o g y i n hi s s eemi n g l y p ha n t a s ma g o r i c r en d er -
i n g s o f t he sai nt ' s ha l l uc i na t i o ns wer e ex a c t . Fo uc a ul t s ho ws us ho w
Fl a u ber t r et u r n ed t hr o u g ho u t hi s l i f e t o t hi s s t a g i n g o f e x p e r i e n c e
a n d wr i t i ng , a n d u s ed it as a n as c et i c ex er c i s e bo t h t o p r o d u c e a n d t o
k e e p at bay t he d e m o n s t ha t ha u n t a wri t er' s wo r l d . It wa s n o a c c i d en t
t ha t Fl a uber t e n d e d hi s l i f e as a wr i t er wi t h t ha t mo n s t r o u s c o l l ec t i o n
o f c o mmo n p l a c e s Bouvard et Pcuchet. A c o n s t a n t c o mme n t a r y o n
o t her t ex t s , Bouvard el Pcuchet c a n be r ea d as a t ho r o u g h d o mes t i c a -
t i o n o f t ex t ua l i t y i nt o a s el f - c o n t a i n ed ex er c i s e o f a r r a n g i n g a n d c at a-
l o g u i n g : t he f a nt a s i a o f t he l i brary.
For t he s a ke o f t he a r g u men t , l et us j u x t a p o s e Cl i f f o r d Geer t z' s
i n t er p r et i v e a n t hr o p o l o g y t o Ja mes Cl i f f ord' s t ex t ua l i s t met a -
a n t hr o p o l o g y . If Geer t z is still s eeki n g t o c o n j u r e a n d c a p t u r e t he
d e m o n s o f ex o t i c i s mt hea t er s t at es , s ha d o w pl ays , c o c k fights
t hr o u g h hi s l i mi t ed u s e o f fictionalized s t a g i ng s i n whi c h t hey c a n a p -
p ea r t o us , t he t ex t u a l i s t / d ec o n s t r u c t i v e mo v e r u n s t he ri s k of i n v en t -
i n g ev er m o r e c l ev er filing s y s t ems f or o t her s ' t ex t s a n d o f i ma g i n i n g
t ha t e v e r y o n e el s e i n t he wo r l d is ha r d at wo r k d o i n g t he s a me t hi n g .
Les t t he a r g u m e n t r u n away i n di r ec t i o ns o f its o w n , I s ho u l d s t r es s
t ha t I a m n o t s a y i n g t hat Cl i f f ord' s en t er p r i s e has u p t o t he p r es en t
be e n a n y t hi n g bu t s a l ut a r y . T h e r a i s i ng o f a n t hr o p o l o g i c a l c o n s c i o u s -
n es s a bo u t a n t hr o p o l o g y ' s o w n t ex t ua l m o d e of o p er a t i o n wa s l o n g
o v e r d u e . Des p i t e Geer t z' s o c c a s i o na l a c k n o w l ed g emen t s o f t he i n el u c -
t abi l i t y o f f i c t i ona l i zi ng , he ha s n ev er p u s hed t ha t i ns i g ht v er y f ar.
T h e p o i n t s e e ms t o ha v e n e e d e d a met a p o s i t i o n t o br i n g ho m e i ts real
f o r c e. T h e v o i c e f r o m t he c a mp u s l i brary ha s been a s a l ut a r y o n e .
Wha t I wa n t t o d o bri ef l y i n t hi s s ec t i o n is t o r et u r n t he g a z e, t o l o o k
ba c k a t t hi s e t hn o g r a p he r o f et hn o g r a p her s , s i t t i ng a c r os s t he t a bl e i n
a c a f e, a n d , u s i n g hi s o w n des c r i p t i v e c a t eg o r i es , e x a mi n e hi s t ex t u a l
p r o d u c t i o n s .
Cl i f f or d' s c en t r a l t he me ha s be e n t he t ex t ua l c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n -
t hr o p o l o g i c a l a ut ho r i t y . Th e ma i n l i t erary d ev i c e e mp l o y e d i n e t hn o g -
r a p hi es , "f r ee i n d i r ec t s t yl e, " ha s be e n wel l a n a l y z ed by Da n Sp er ber
(1982) a n d n e e d n o t be r ehea r s ed her e. Th e i ns i g ht t ha t a n t hr o p o l o -
gi s t s wr i t e e mp l o y i n g l i t erary c o n v en t i o n s , a l t ho u g h i n t er es t i n g , is n o t
i n her en t l y c r i s i s - p r o v o ki n g . Ma n y n o w ho l d t ha t fiction a n d s c i en c e
a r e n o t o p p o s e d bu t c o mp l e me n t a r y t er ms ( De Cer t ea u 1983). Ad -
v a n c es ha v e be e n m a d e i n o u r a wa r en es s o f t he fictional ( i n t he s en s e
o f " ma d e, " "f abr i c at ed") qual i t y o f a n t hr o p o l o g i c a l wr i t i n g a n d i n
t he i n t eg r a t i o n o f its c ha r a c t er i s t i c mo d e s o f p r o d u c t i o n . T h e sel f -
c o v er i n g c ul t ur a l a n t hr o p o l o g y i n t he ( u n r ep r es en t a t i v e) p er s o n o f
Cl i f f o r d Geer t z i s j u s t t he m o m e n t w he n Geer t z is be i n g q u es t i o n ed i n
a n t hr o p o l o g y ( o n e o f t he r ec u r r en t t he me s o f t he Sa nt a Fe s emi n a r
t ha t g a v e ri s e t o t hi s v o l u me) . So , t o o , a n t hr o p o l o g i s t s , o r s o me o f
t he m i n a n y c a s e, a r e n o w d i s c o v er i n g a n d bei n g m o v e d t o n ew c r ea -
t i o n by t he i n f u s i o n o f i d ea s f r o m d ec o n s t r u c t i o n i s t l i t er a r y c r i t i c i s m,
n o w t ha t it ha s l os t its c ul t ur a l en er g y i n l i t er a t ur e d e p a r t me n t s a n d
Der r i d a is d i s c o v er i n g pol i t i c s . Al t ho u g h t her e a r e ma n y c a r r i er s o f
t hi s hy br i d i z a t i o n ( ma n y o f t ho s e p r es en t at t he s emi n a r , as wel l as
Ja me s B o o n , St e p he n Webs t er , Ja mes Si eg el , Jea n - Pa u l Du m o n t , a n d
Je a n Ja mi n ) t her e is o n l y o n e "pr o f es s i o na l , " s o t o s p ea k, i n t he c r o wd .
For , w her ea s all t he o t her s men t i o n ed a r e p r a c t i c i ng a n t hr o p o l o g i s t s ,
Ja me s Cl i f f o r d ha s c r ea t ed a n d o c c u p i ed t he r o l e o f ex of f i ci o s c r i be
o f o u r s c r i bbl i ng s . Geer t z , t he f o u n d i n g f i g ur e, ma y p a u s e be t w e e n
m o n o g r a p hs t o mu s e o n t ex t s , na r r a t i v e, d es c r i p t i o n , a n d i n t er p r et a -
t i o n . Cl i f f o r d t a kes as hi s na t i v es , as wel l as hi s i n f o r ma n t s , t ho s e a n -
t hr o p o l o g i s t s pa s t a n d p r es en t w ho s e wo r k, s el f - c o ns c i o us l y o r n o t ,
ha s be e n t he p r o d u c t i o n o f t ex t s , t he wr i t i ng o f et hn o g r a p hy . We a r e
be i n g o bs er v ed a n d i ns c r i bed.
At first g l a n c e Ja me s Cl i f f ord' s wo r k, l i ke t hat of o t her s i n t hi s vol -
u m e , s e e ms t o f o l l o w na t ur a l l y i n t he wa ke o f Geer t z' s i n t er p r et i v e
t u r n . The r e i s , ho wev er , a ma j o r d i f f er en c e. Geer t z ( l i ke t he o t her a n -
t hr o p o l o g i s t s ) i s sti l l d i r ec t i n g hi s ef f or t s t o r ei n v en t a n a n t hr o p o l o g i -
cal s c i en c e wi t h t he hel p of t ex t ua l med i a t i o n s . Th e c o r e act i vi t y is sti l l
s oc i a l d es c r i p t i o n o f t he o t her , ho w ev er mo d i f i ed by n ew c o n c ep t i o n s
o f d i s c o u r s e, a u t ho r , o r t ext . T h e o t her f o r Cl i f f or d i s t he a n t hr o p o -
l og i c a l r ep r es en t a t i o n o f t he o t her . Thi s mea n s t ha t Cl i f f o r d is s i mu l -
t a n eo u s l y m o r e firmly i n c o n t r o l o f hi s pr o j ec t a n d mo r e par as i t i c al .
H e c a n i n v en t hi s q u es t i o n s wi t h f ew c o ns t r a i nt s ; he mu s t c o n s t a n t l y
f eed o f f o t her s ' t ex t s .
Thi s n e w s pec i al i t y is c ur r ent l y i n t he p r o c es s of s el f - def i ni t i o n.
T h e first mo v e i n l eg i t i ma t i n g a n ew a p p r o a c h is t o c l a i m it ha s a n o b-
j ec t o f s t udy , p r ef er a bl y a n i mp o r t a n t o n e , t ha t ha s p r ev i o u s l y es c a p ed
n o t i c e. Paral l el t o Geer t z' s c l a i m t hat t he Ba l i n es e wer e i n t er p r et i n g
t hei r c o c k fights as c ul t ur a l t ex t s all a l o n g , Cl i f f or d a r g u es t ha t a n -
t hr o p o l o g i s t s ha v e be e n e x p e r i me n t i n g wi t h wr i t i ng f o r ms w he t he r
t hey k n ew it o r no t . Th e i nt er p r et i v e t u r n i n a n t hr o p o l o g y ha s m a d e
i ts ma r k ( p r o d u c i n g a s ubs t ant i al bo d y o f wo r k a n d a l mo s t es t a b-
l i s hi n g i t s el f as a s ubs pec i a l i t y ) , but it is sti l l n o t c l ea r w he t he r t he
d ec o n s t r u c t i v e- s emi o t i c t ur n ( an a d mi t t ed l y v a g u e l abel ) is a s a l ut a r y
l o o s e n i n g u p , a n o p e n i n g f or ex c i t i n g n ew wo r k o f ma j o r i mp o r t , o r a
t act i c i n t he field o f c ul t ur a l pol i t i cs t o be u n d er s t o o d p r i ma r i l y i n s o -
c i o l o g i c a l t er ms . As i t is c er t a i nl y t he first a n d t he t hi r d, it i s wo r t h a
c l o s er ex a mi n a t i o n .
244 PAUL RABINOW
Represent at i ons Are Social Facts 245
c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f s t yl e, r he t or i c , a n d di al ect i c i n t he p r o d u c t i o n o f a n-
t hr o po l o g i c a l t e xt s s h o u l d l e ad us t o a finer a wa r e ne s s o f o t he r , mo r e
i ma g i na t i v e , ways t o wri t e.
Cl i ffor d s e e ms , h o we v e r , t o be s ayi ng mo r e t han t hi s. Subs t ant i ve l y,
h e a r g u e s t hat f r o m Mal i nows ki o n, a nt hr o po l o g i c a l aut hor i t y has
r e s t e d o n t wo t e xt ual l e gs . An e x pe r i e nt i a l "I was t he r e " e l e me n t e s t ab-
l i s he s t he u n i q u e aut hor i t y o f t he a nt hr o po l o g i s t ; its s u p p r e s s i o n i n
t he t e x t e s t abl i s he s t he ant hr opol ogi s t ' s sci ent i fi c aut hor i t y.
2
Cl i fford
s h o ws us t hi s de v i c e at wo r k i n Geert z' s f a mo u s c oc kfi ght pa pe r : " Th e
r e s e a r c h pr o c e s s is s e pa r a t e d f r o m t he t e xt s it g e ne r a t e s a n d f r o m t he
fictive wo r l d t he y ar e ma d e t o call u p . T h e act ual i t y o f di s c ur s i ve s i t ua-
t i ons a n d i ndi v i dua l i nt e r l oc ut or s is filtered out . . . . T h e di al ogi c al ,
s i t uat i onal as pe c t s o f e t h n o g r a p h i c i nt e r pr e t at i on t e n d t o be b a n i s h e d
f r o m t he final r e pr e s e nt a t i v e t ext . No t e nt i r e l y ba ni s he d, o f c o ur s e ;
t h e r e e xi s t a p p r o v e d t opoi for t he port rayal o f t he r e s e ar c h pr o c e s s "
( 1 98 3: 1 32) . Cl i ffor d pr e s e nt s Geert z' s "appe al i ng fabl e" as par a-
di g ma t i c : t he a nt hr o po l o g i s t es t abl i s hes t hat he was t he r e a n d t h e n
d i s a p p e a r s f r o m t he t ext .
Wi t h hi s o w n g e n r e Cl i fford ma k e s a paral l el mo v e . Jus t as Ge e r t z
ma k e s a b o w t o s el f- referent i al i t y ( t he r e by e s t abl i s hi ng o n e d i me n s i o n
o f hi s aut hor i t y) a n d t he n (i n t he n a me o f s ci ence) e v a de s its c o n s e -
q u e n c e s , s o, t o o , Cl i fford t al ks a gr e at de al a bo ut t he i nel uct abi l i t y o f
d i a l o g u e ( t he r e by e s t abl i s hi ng hi s aut hor i t y as a n "o pe n" o n e ) , b u t hi s
t e xt s ar e no t t h e ms e l v e s di al ogi c . T h e y are wri t t en i n a mo di f i e d f r e e
i ndi r e c t st yl e. T h e y e v o ke an "I was t he r e at t he a n t h r o p o l o g y c o n v e n -
t i on" t o n e , whi l e c ons i s t e nt l y ma i nt a i ni ng a Fl a ube r t e a n r e mo v e . Bo t h
Ge e r t z a n d Cl i ffor d fail t o us e s el f- referent i al i t y as a n y t h i n g mo r e
t h a n a de v i c e for e s t abl i s hi ng aut hori t y. Cl i fford' s t el l i ng r e a d i n g o f
t he Ba l i ne s e c oc kfi ght as a pa no pt i c c ons t r uc t ma k e s t hi s p o i n t pe r -
s uas i vel y, but h e h i ms e l f ma k e s t he s a me o mi s s i o n o n a n o t h e r l e ve l .
He r e a ds a n d cl assi fi es, de s c r i bi ng i nt e nt i on a n d e s t abl i s hi ng a c a n o n ;
b u t hi s o w n wr i t i ng a n d s i t uat i on are l eft u n e x a mi n e d . Po i nt i ng o u t
Cl i fford' s t e xt ual s t anc e d o e s not , o f c o ur s e , i nval i dat e hi s i ns i ght s
( any mo r e t ha n hi s r e a di ng o f Mal i nows ki ' s t e xt ual mo v e s i nval i dat e s
t he anal ys i s o f t he Kul aj . It o nl y s i t uat es t h e m. We have mo v e d bac k
f r o m t he t e nt i n t he Tr o br i a nds filled wi t h nat i ves t o t he wr i t i ng de s k
i n t he c a mp u s l i brary.
3
An e s s e nt i al mo v e i n e s t abl i s hi ng di s ci pl i nary o r s ubdi s c i pl i nar y
l e gi t i mac y is cl assi fi cat i on. Cl i fford p r o p o s e s four t ype s o f a n t h r o -
2. The importance of this double move is one of the central arguments of my Re-
flections on Fieldwork in Morocco (1977).
3. I would like to thank Arj un Appadurai for his help in clarifying this and other
points.
po l o g i c a l wr i t i ng, whi c h have a p p e a r e d i n r o u g h l y c hr o no l o g i c a l o r -
de r . H e o r g a ni z e s hi s es s ay "On Et h n o g r a p h i c Aut ho r i t y " (1983a)
a r o u n d t hi s pr o g r e s s i o n, but al s o as s ert s t hat n o mo d e o f aut hor i t y i s
be t t e r t h a n a ny o t he r . " Th e mo d e s o f aut hor i t y r e v i e we d i n t hi s e s -
s a y e x p e r i e n t i a l , i nt e r pr e t i ve , di al ogi cal , p o l y p h o n i c a r e avai l abl e
t o all wr i t e r s o f e t h n o g r a p h i c t ext s , We s t e r n a n d n o n - We s t e r n . N o n e is
o bs o l e t e , n o n e is p u r e : t he r e is r o o m for i nv e nt i o n wi t hi n e a c h par a-
d i g m" (142). T h i s c o nc l us i o n g o e s agai ns t t he r he t or i c al g r a i n o f
Cl i fford' s essay. Th i s t e ns i o n is i mpo r t a nt a n d I shal l r e t ur n t o it be l o w.
Cl i fford' s ma i n t hes i s i s t hat a nt hr o po l o g i c a l wr i t i ng has t e n d e d t o
s u p p r e s s t he di al ogi c d i me n s i o n o f fieldwork, g i v i ng ful l c o nt r o l o f
t he t e x t t o t he a nt hr o po l o g i s t . T h e bul k o f Cl i fford' s wo r k has b e e n
d e v o t e d t o s h o wi n g ways i n whi c h t hi s t ext ual e l i mi na t i o n o f t he di a-
l ogi cal mi g h t be r e me d i e d by n e w f o r ms o f wr i t i ng. Th i s l e a ds h i m t o
r e a d e x pe r i e nt i a l a n d i nt e r pr e t i ve mo d e s o f wr i t i ng as mo n o l o g i c a l ,
l i nke d i n g e ne r a l t e r ms t o c ol oni al i s m. "I nt e r pr e t i ve a n t h r o p o l o g y . . .
i n its ma i n s t r e a m real i st s t r ands . . . do e s not e s c a pe t he g e ne r a l st ri c-
t ur e s o f t ho s e cri ti cs o f "col oni al " r e pr e s e nt a t i o n wh o , s i nc e 1950,
ha v e r e j e c t e d di s c o ur s e s t hat por t r ay t he cul t ural real i t i es o f o t h e r
p e o p l e s wi t h o u t pl a c i ng t hei r o wn real i t y i n j e o p a r d y " ( 133) . It wo u l d
be e as y t o r e a d t hi s s t a t e me nt as pr e f e r r i ng s o me "pa r a di g ms " t o o t h-
ers . It is pe r fe c t l y pos s i bl e t hat Cl i fford hi ms e l f is s i mpl y a mbi v a l e nt .
Ho we v e r , g i v e n hi s o wn i nt e r pr e t i ve c hoi c e s he cl earl y d o e s c ha r a c -
t eri ze s o me mo d e s as "e me r g e nt " a n d t he r e by as t e mpo r a r i l y mo r e
i mp o r t a n t . U s i n g a g r i d o f i nt e r pr e t a t i o n t hat hi ghl i ght s t he s u p p r e s -
s i o n o f t he di al ogi c , it is ha r d no t t o r e a d t he hi s t ory o f a n t h r o p o l o g i -
cal wr i t i ng as a l o o s e pr o g r e s s i o n t o wa r d di al ogi c al a n d p o l y p h o n i c
t ext ual i t y.
Ha v i n g cas t t he first t wo mo d e s o f e t h n o g r a p h i c aut hor i t y ( e x pe r i -
e nt i al a n d r e al i s t / i nt e r pr e t i ve ) i n l ar ge l y ne g a t i v e t e r ms , Cl i fford mo v e s
o n t o a mu c h mo r e e nt hus i as t i c por t r ayal o f t he n e x t s et ( di al ogi c a n d
he t e r o g l o s s i c ) . He says: "Di al ogi c a n d cons t ruct i vi s t p a r a d i g ms t e n d t o
di s pe r s e o r s ha r e o u t e t h n o g r a p h i c aut hori t y, whi l e nar r at i ve s o f i ni -
t i at i on c o nf i r m t he res earcher' s s peci al c o mp e t e n c e . Pa r a di g ms o f e x -
p e r i e n c e a n d i nt e r pr e t a t i o n are y i e l di ng t o pa r a di g ms o f di s c o ur s e , o f
d i a l o g u e a n d p o l y p h o n y " (133). T h e cl ai m t hat s uc h mo d e s ar e tri -
u mp h i n g i s e mpi r i c al l y dubi o us ; as Re na t o Ro s a l do says: " Th e t r o o ps
ar e n o t f o l l o wi ng . " Yet t he r e is cl earl y c o ns i de r a bl e i nt e r e s t i n s u c h
mat t e r s .
Wh a t is di al ogi c ? Cl i fford at first s e e ms t o be u s i n g t he t e r m i n a
l i t eral s e ns e : a t e x t t hat pr e s e nt s t wo s ubj ect s i n di s c ur s i ve e x c h a n g e .
Ke vi n Dwye r ' s "r at he r l i t eral r e c or d" (134) o f e x c h a n g e s wi t h a Mo r o c -
c an f a r me r is t he first e x a mp l e ci t ed o f a "di al ogi c" t ext . Ho we v e r , a
246 PAUL RABINOW
Repres ent at i ons Are Social Facts 247
p a g e l a t er , Cl i f f o r d a d d s : "To say t ha t a n e t hn o g r a p hy is c o m p o s e d o f
d i s c o u r s es a n d t ha t its d i f f er en t c o mp o n e n t s a r e di a l o g i c a l l y r el a t ed ,
is n o t t o say t ha t its t ex t ua l f o r m s ho u l d be t ha t o f a l i t eral d i a l o g u e"
( 135 ) . Al t er n a t e d es c r i p t i o n s a r e g i v en , but n o final d ef i n i t i o n is ar-
r i v ed at . Co n s eq u en t l y t he g enr e' s d ef i n i n g c ha r a c t er i s t i c s r ema i n
u n c l ea r .
" Bu t i f i n t er p r et i v e a ut ho r i t y is ba s ed o n t he ex c l u s i o n o f di a -
l o g u e , t he r ev er s e is a l s o t r ue: a p u r el y di a l og i c a l a ut ho r i t y r ep r es s es
t he i n es c a p a bl e f act o f t ex t ua l i za t i o n, " Cl i f f or d q ui c kl y mo v e s o n t o
r e m i n d us (134). Thi s is c o n f i r med by Dwy er ' s a d a ma n t d i s t a n c i n g o f
hi ms el f f r o m wha t he p er c ei v es as t ex t ua l i s t t r en d s i n a n t hr o p o l o g y .
T h e o p p o s i t i o n o f i n t er p r et i v e a n d d i a l o g i c is ha r d t o g r a s p s ev er a l
p a g es l a t er Cl i f f o r d p r a i s es t he mo s t r e n o w n e d r ep r es en t a t i v e o f her -
me n e u t i c s , H a n s G e o r g Ga d a mer , w ho s e t ex t s c er t a i nl y c o n t a i n n o
d i r ec t d i a l o g u es , f o r a s p i r i n g t o "radi cal d i a l o g i s m" (142). Fi nal l y,
Cl i f f o r d a s s er t s t ha t di a l o g i c t ex t s a r e, af t er al l , t ex t s , mer el y " r ep r e-
s en t a t i o n s " o f d i a l o g u es . T h e a n t hr o p o l o g i s t r et a i ns hi s o r her a u-
t ho r i t y a s a c o n s t i t u t i n g s ubj ec t a n d r ep r es en t a t i v e o f t he d o mi n a n t
c u l t u r e. Di a l o g i c t ex t s c a n be j u s t as s t a g ed a n d c o n t r o l l ed a s ex p er i -
ent i a l o r i n t er p r et i v e t ex t s . Th e m o d e of f er s n o t ex t ua l g u a r a n t ees .
Fi nal l y, be y o n d di a l o g i c t ex t s , l i es het er o g l o s s i a : "a c a r n i v a l es q u e
a r en a o f di ver s i t y. " Fo l l o wi n g Mi kha i l Ba kht i n , Cl i f f or d p o i n t s t o
Di c kens ' s wo r k as a n e x a mp l e o f t he " p o l y p ho n i c s p a c e" t ha t mi g ht
s er v e as a m o d e l f o r us . " Di c kens , t he a c t or , or al p er f o r mer , a n d p o l y -
p ho n i s t , is s et a g a i n s t Fl a uber t , t he ma s t er o f a ut ho r i a l c o n t r o l m o v i n g
Go d l i ke, a m o n g t he t ho u g ht s a n d f eel i n g s o f hi s c ha r a c t er s . Et h-
n o g r a p hy , l i ke t he n o v el , wr es t l es wi t h t hes e a l t er na t i v es " ( 137 ) . If
d i a l o g i c t ex t s f al l p r ey t o t he evi l s o f t ot a l i zi ng e t hn o g r a p hi c a dj us t -
me n t , t he n p er ha p s e v e n mo r e r adi c al het er o g l o s s i c o n es mi g ht no t :
" Et hn o g r a p hy is i n v a d ed by het er o g l o s s i a . If a c c o r d ed a n a u t o n o -
m o u s t ex t u a l s p a c e, t r a ns c r i bed at s uf f i c i ent l en g t h, i n d i g e n o u s s t a t e-
me n t s ma k e s en s e o n t er ms d i f f er en t f r o m t ho s e o f t he a r r a n g i n g et h-
n o g r a p he r . . . . Thi s s u g g es t s a n a l t er na t e t ex t ua l s t r a t eg y , a u t o p i a o f
p l u r a l a u t ho r s hi p t ha t a c c o r ds t o c o l l a bo r a t o r s , n o t mer el y t he s t a t us
o f i n d e p e n d e n t en u n c i a t o r s , bu t t ha t o f wr i t er s " (140 ).
Bu t Cl i f f o r d i mmed i a t el y a d d s : " q uo t a t i o ns a r e a l wa y s s t a g ed by
t he q u o t er . . . a mo r e radi cal p o l y p ho n y w o u l d o n l y d i s p l a c e et h-
n o g r a p hi c a ut ho r i t y , sti l l c o n f i r mi n g , t he final, v i r t u o s o o r c hes t r a t i o n
by a s i n g l e a u t ho r o f al l t he d i s c o u r s es i n hi s or her t ext " (139). Ne w
f o r ms o f wr i t i n g , n e w t ex t ua l ex p er i men t s w o u l d o p e n n e w pos s i bi l -
i t i es bu t g u a r a n t ee n o n e. Cl i f f or d is u n ea s y a bo u t t hi s . H e mo v e s o n .
Temp o r a r i l y ent hus i a s t i c f or di a l o g i c , Cl i f f or d i mmed i a t el y qua l i f i es
hi s p r a i s e. H e l ea d s u s o n t o het er o g l o s s i a : s e d u c e d f o r a pa r a -
g r a p hu n t i l we s ee t ha t it t o o i s, hlas, wr i t i ng . Cl i f f or d c l o s es hi s es -
s ay by p r o c l a i mi n g : "I ha v e a r g u ed t ha t t hi s i mp o s i t i o n o f c o he r e n c e
o n a n u n r u l y t ex t u a l p r o c es s is n o w, i n es c a p a bl y a ma t t er o f s t r a t eg i c
c ho i c e" (142).
Cl i f f or d' s p r es en t a t i o n c l ear l y of f er s a p r o g r es s i o n e v e n if, by t he
e n d o f t he es s a y , i t i s a p u r el y d ec i s i o n i s t o n e . H o w e v e r , Cl i f f o r d ex -
pl i ci t l y d en i es a n y hi er a r c hy . At first I t ho u g ht t hi s wa s m e r e i n c o n s i s -
t enc y , o r a mbi v a l en c e, o r t he e mbo d i me n t o f a n u n r es o l v ed bu t c r ea -
t i v e t en s i o n . I n o w t hi n k t ha t Cl i f f or d, l i ke e v e r y o n e el s e, i s "dans
le vrai." We a r e at a di s c ur s i v e m o m e n t i n whi c h t he a ut hor ' s i n t en -
t i o n s ha v e be e n el i mi n a t ed o r u n d er p l a y ed i n r ec en t cri t i cal t ho u g ht .
Ra t her , w e ha v e be e n l ed t o q u es t i o n t he s t r u c t u r es a n d c o n t o u r s o f
v a r i o u s m o d e s o f wr i t i n g p er s e. Fr edr i c Ja me s o n ha s i d en t i f i ed vari -
o u s e l e me n t s o f p o s t - mo d e r n wr i t i ng ( e. g . , i ts r ef us a l o f hi er a r c hy , i ts
flattening o f hi s t o r y , i ts u s e o f i ma g es ) i n a ma n n e r t ha t s e e ms t o fit
Cl i f f or d' s p r o j ec t q u i t e c l os el y .
From Modernism to Post-Modernism
in Anthropology
Fr ed r i c Ja me s o n , i n hi s " Po s t mo d er n i s m a n d Co n s u m e r So -
c i et y" (1983), o f f er s us s o me u s ef u l s t a r t i ng p o i n t s t o s i t ua t e r ec en t
d e v e l o p m e n t s i n a n t hr o p o l o g i c a l a n d met a - a n t hr o p o l o g i c a l wr i t i n g .
Wi t ho u t s eek i n g a u n i v o c a l def i ni t i o n o f p o s t - mo d er n i s m, J a m e s o n
d el i mi t s t he s c o p e o f t he t er m by p r o p o s i n g a n u mbe r o f key el e-
me n t s : i ts hi s t or i c a l l o c a t i o n, its u s e o f p a s t i c he, t he i mp o r t a n c e o f
i ma g es .
J a m e s o n l o c a t es p o s t - mo d er n i s m c ul t ur a l l y a n d hi s t or i c a l l y n o t
j u s t as a s t yl i s t i c t er m bu t as a p er i o d ma r ker . By s o d o i n g he s eeks t o
i s o l a t e a n d c o r r el a t e f ea t u r es o f c ul t ur a l p r o d u c t i o n i n t he 1960 s wi t h
o t her s oc i al a n d e c o n o mi c t r a n s f o r ma t i o n s . Th e es t a bl i s hmen t o f a n a -
l yt i c c r i t er i a a n d t hei r c o r r el a t i o n wi t h s o c i o ec o n o mi c c ha n g es is v er y
p r el i mi n a r y i n Ja mes o n ' s a c c o u n t , l i t t l e mo r e t ha n a p l a c e ma r ker .
H o w e v e r , it is wo r t h ma r k i n g t he pl a c e. La t e c a pi t a l i s m is d ef i n ed by
Ja m e s o n as t he m o m e n t w he n "t he l ast v es t i g es o f Na t u r e whi c h s ur -
v i v ed o n i n t o cl as s i cal c a pi t a l i s m a r e at l as t el i mi n a t ed : n a mel y t he
t hi r d wo r l d a n d t he u n c o n s c i o u s . Th e 60s wi l l t hen ha v e be e n t he m o -
m e n t o u s t r a n s f o r ma t i o n a l p er i o d i n whi c h t hi s s y s t emi c r es t r u c t u r i n g
t a kes p l a c e o n a g l o ba l s c al e" (207). Thi s is n o t t he p l a c e t o d e f e n d o r
c r i t i c i ze Ja mes o n ' s p er i o d i z a t i o n , whi c h he r ec o g n i z es as p r o v i s i o n a l .
Let u s s i mp l y n o t e t ha t it g i v es us t he pos s i bi l i t y o f d i s c u s s i n g c ha n g e s
i n r ep r es en t a t i o n a l f o r ms wi t hi n a c o n t ex t o f Wes t er n d e v e l o p me n t s
248 PAUL RABINOW
4. As re porte d i n Le Nouvel Observateur, Nove mbe r 1 6 - 2 2 , 1984.
Repres ent at i ons Are Social Facts
249
d ef i n i t i o n o f Ly o t a r d ( 19 7 9 ) t he e n d o f met a n a r r a t i v es Ja mes o n
d ef i n es i t s s e c o n d e l e me n t as p a s t i c he. Th e di c t i o na r y d ef i n i t i o n
"(1) An art i s t i c c o mp o s i t i o n d r a wn f r o m s ev er a l s o u r c es , (2) a ho d g e
p o d g e " i s n o t s uf f i c i ent . Po u n d , f o r ex a mp l e, d r ew f r o m s ev er a l
s o u r c es . Ja m e s o n is p o i n t i n g at a u s e o f p a s t i c he t ha t ha s l os t i t s n o r -
ma t i v e mo o r i n g s , whi c h s ees t he j u mbl i n g o f el emen t s as al l t her e i s.
H o d g e p o d g e is d ef i n ed as "a j u m bl e d mi x t u r e, " bu t it c o me s f r o m t he
Fr en c h hochepot, a s t ew, a n d t her ei n l i es t he d i f f er en c e.
Jo y c e, He mi n g w a y , Wool f , et al . beg a n wi t h t he c o n c ei t o f a n i nt e-
r i o r i z ed a n d di s t i nc t i v e s ubj ec t i vi t y t ha t bo t h d r ew f r o m a n d s t o o d at a
d i s t a n c e f r o m n o r ma l s p eec h a n d i dent i t y . The r e wa s "a l i ng ui s t i c
n o r m i n c o n t r a s t t o whi c h t he s t yl es o f t he g r ea t mo d er n i s t s " ( Ja me-
s o n 19 83: 114) c o u l d be a t t a c ked o r p r a i s ed , but i n ei t her c a s e g a u g e d .
B u t wha t i f t hi s t en s i o n bet w een bo u r g eo i s n o r ma l i t y a n d t he m o d -
er ni s t s ' s t yl i s t i c l i mi t t es t i ng c r a c ked , y i el d i n g t o a s oci al real i t y i n
whi c h w e ha d n o t hi n g bu t "styl i sti c di v er s i t y a n d het er o g en ei t y " wi t h-
o u t t he a s s u mp t i o n ( ho wev er c o nt es t a bl e) of rel at i vel y s t a bl e i d en t i t y
o r l i ng ui s t i c n o r ms ? Un d e r s u c h c o n d i t i o n s , t he c o n t es t a t o r y s t a n c e o f
t he mo d er n i s t s w o u l d l o s e its f o r c e: "Al l t ha t is l ef t is t o i mi t a t e d e a d
s t y l es , t o s p ea k t hr o u g h t he ma s ks a n d wi t h t he v o i c es o f t he s t yl es i n
t he i ma g i n a r y m u s e u m . Bu t t hi s mea n s t ha t c o n t emp o r a r y o r p o s t -
mo d e r n i s t a r t i s g o i n g t o be a bo u t art i tsel f i n a n ew ki n d o f wa y ; e v e n
mo r e , i t m e a n s t ha t o n e o f its es s ent i a l mes s a g es wi l l i n v o l v e t he n ec es -
s ary f a i l u r e o f art a n d t he a es t het i c , t he f a i l ur e o f t he n ew, t he i m-
p r i s o n me n t i n t he pas t " ( 115 16) . It s eems t o m e t ha t t hi s i mp r i s o n -
m e n t i n t he p a s t i s q u i t e d i f f er en t f r o m hi s t o r i c i s m. Po s t - mo d e r n i s m
mo v e s be y o n d t he ( wha t n o w s eems t o be a n a l mo s t c o mf o r t i n g ) es -
t r a n g e me n t o f hi s t o r i c i s m, whi c h l o o ked , f r o m a di s t a nc e, at o t her
c u l t u r es as who l es . T h e di al ec t i c o f s el f a n d o t her ma y ha v e p r o d u c e d
a n a l i en a t ed r el a t i o n s hi p , bu t it wa s o n e wi t h d ef i n a bl e n o r ms , i dent i -
t i es , a n d r el a t i o n s . To d a y , be y o n d es t r a n g emen t a n d r el a t i v i s m, l i es
p a s t i c he.
To e x e mp l i f y t hi s , Ja me s o n d ev el o p s a n anal ys i s o f no s t a l g i a films.
Co n t e mp o r a r y n o s t a l g i a films s u c h as Chinatown o r Body Heat a r e
c ha r a c t er i z ed by a " r et r o s p ec t i v e s t yl i ng, " d u bbe d "la mode rtro" by
Fr en c h c r i t i c s . As o p p o s e d t o t r a di t i o na l hi s t or i c al films whi c h s eek t o
r ec r ea t e t he fiction o f a n o t her a g e as o t her , "mode rtro" f i l ms s eek t o
e v o k e a f eel i n g t o n e t hr o u g h t he u s e o f p r ec i s e art i f act s a n d s t yl i s t i c
d ev i c es t ha t bl u r t emp o r a l bo u n d a r i es . Ja me s o n p o i n t s o u t t ha t r ec en t
n o s t a l g i a films o f t en t a ke p l a c e i n t he p r es en t ( or, as i n t he c a s e o f
Star Wars, i n t he f u t u r e) . A p r o l i f er a t i o n o f met a r ef er en c es t o o t her
r ep r es en t a t i o n s f l a t t ens a n d emp t i es t hei r c o n t en t s . On e o f t hei r c hi ef
d ev i c es i s t o d r a w hea v i l y o n o l d er pl ot s : " The a l l us i v e a n d el u s i v e
t ha t l ea d f o r wa r d t o t he p r es en t s i t ua t i o n o f t ho s e wr i t i ng t he d es c r i p -
t i o ns n o t i n a ba c kwa r d - l o o ki n g m o d e es t a bl i s hi ng t ex t u a l c o n n ec t i o n s
wi t h wr i t er s i n v er y d i f f er en t c o n t ex t s , whi c h f r eq u en t l y el i d e di f f er -
en c es . For t hi s r ea s o n , l et us a d o p t it as heur i s t i c .
T h e v a r i o u s p o s t - mo d er n i s ms f o r mi n g i n t he s i xt i es s u r f a c ed , at
l ea s t i n p a r t , as a r ea c t i o n a g a i ns t t he ea r l i er mo d er n i s t mo v e me n t s .
Cl a s s i c a l mo d e r n i s m, t o u s e a n ex p r es s i o n t ha t is n o l o n g e r o x y -
mo r o n i c , a r o s e i n t he c o n t ex t o f hi g h capi t al i s t a n d bo u r g eo i s s o c i et y
a n d s t o o d a g a i n s t i t: "it e m e r g e d wi t hi n t he bu s i n es s s o c i et y o f t he
g i l d ed a g e as s c a n d a l o u s a n d o f f en s i v e t o t he mi d d l e cl as s p u bl i c
ug l y , d i s s o n a n t , s ex u a l l y s ho c ki n g . . . . s ubv er s i v e" (124). Ja me s o n
c o n t r a s t s t he s u bv er s i v e mo d er n i s t t u r n o f t he ea r l y t wen t i et h c en t u r y
wi t h t he f l a t t eni ng , r ea c t i v e n a t u r e o f p o s t - mo d er n c u l t u r e:
Tho s e f ormerl y subversi ve and embat t l ed styl esAbstract Expres s i oni s m;
t he great moderni s t poetry of Pound, Eliot or Wallace Stevens; the Inter-
nati onal Style (Le Corbusi er, Frank Ll oyd Wri ght, Mies); Stravinsky; Joyce,
Proust and Mannf el t to be scandal ous or s hocki ng by our grandparent s
are, for the generat i on whi ch arrives at the gate in the i g6o' s , felt t o be the
es t abl i s hment and the enemy dea d, stifling, canoni cal , the reified mo nu-
ment s o ne has to dest roy to do anyt hi ng new. Thi s means that t here will be as
many di f f erent f orms of pos t moderni s m as there were hi gh moder ni s ms i n
pl ace, si nce t he f ormer are at least initially specific and local reacti ons agai nst
t hos e model s . ( 1 1 1 - 1 2 )
Ja me s o n , n o t u n l i ke Ha be r ma s (1983), cl earl y t hi nks t her e w e r e i m-
p o r t a n t cri t i cal el emen t s i n mo d e r n i s m. Al t ho u g h t hey w o u l d p r o ba -
bl y di f f er o n wha t t hey wer e, t hey w o u l d a g r ee t ha t i n a n i mp o r t a n t
s en s e t he p r o j ec t o f mo d er n i t y is u n f i n i s hed , a n d c er t a i n o f i ts f ea -
t u r es (i ts a t t emp t t o be cri t i cal , s ec ul a r , ant i - c api t al i s t , r a t i o na l ) a r e
w o r t h s t r en g t hen i n g .
I w o u l d a d d t ha t i f it a r o s e i n t he i g6os i n pa r t as a r ea c t i o n t o t he
a c a d emi c c a n o n i z a t i o n o f t he g r ea t mo d er n i s t art i s t s , p o s t - mo d e r n i s m,
m o v i n g qui c kl y , ha s i t s el f s u c c eed ed i n en t er i n g t he a c a d e my i n t he
1980 s. It ha s s uc c es s f ul l y d o mes t i c a t ed a n d p a c k a g ed i t s el f t hr o u g h
t he p r o l i f er a t i o n o f cl as s i f i cat ory s c hemes , t he c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c a n o n s ,
t he es t a bl i s hmen t o f hi er a r c hi es , bl u n t i n g o f o f f en s i v e beha v i o r , a c -
q u i es c en c e t o uni v er s i t y n o r ms . Ju s t as t her e a r e n o w art g a l l er i es f o r
graf f i t i i n Ne w York, s o , t o o , t her e a r e t hes es bei n g wr i t t en o n graf f i t i ,
br ea k d a n c i n g , a n d s o o n , i n t he mo s t a v a n t - g a r d e d ep a r t men t s . Ev en
t he So r bo n n e ha s a c c ep t ed a t hes i s o n Da v i d Bo w i e.
4
Wha t i s p o s t - mo d er n i s m? T h e first e l e me n t is i t s hi s t or i c a l l o c a t i o n
as a c o u n t er - r ea c t i o n t o mo d e r n i s m. Go i n g be y o n d t he by n o w "cl as s i c"
25O PAUL RABINOW
Repres ent at i ons Are Social Facts
t i c es ei t her . If we a t t emp t t o el i mi n a t e s oci al r ef er ent i a l i t y , o t her
r ef er en t s wi l l o c c u p y t he v o i d e d p o s i t i o n . Th u s t he r ep l y o f Dwy er ' s
Mo r o c c a n i n f o r ma n t ( when a s ked whi c h pa r t o f t hei r d i a l o g u e ha d
i n t er es t ed hi m mo s t ) t ha t he ha d n o t be e n i n t er es t ed i n a s i n g l e q u es -
t i o n a s k ed by Dw y e r is n o t t r o u bl i n g as l o n g as o t her a n t hr o p o l o g i s t s
r ea d t he bo o k a n d i n c l u d e it i n t hei r d i s c o u r s e. Bu t o bv i o u s l y n ei t her
Dw y e r n o r Cl i f f o r d w o u l d be s at i s f i ed wi t h t ha t r es p o n s e. The i r i n t en -
t i o n s a n d t hei r d i s c o u r s e s t r a t eg i es d i v er g e. It is t he l at t er t ha t s e e m t o
ha v e g o n e as t r ay.
Interpretive Communities, Power Relations, Ethics
The young conservatives . . . claim as their own the revelations of a
decentering subjectivity, emancipated from the imperatives of work and
usefulness, and with this experience they step outside the modern world.
. . . They remove into the sphere of the far-away and the archaic the
spontaneous powers of imagination, self-experience and emotion.
JRGEN HABERMAS, "ModernityAn Incomplete Project"
A v a r i et y o f i mp o r t a n t wr i t i n g i n t he pa s t d e c a d e ha s e x p l o r e d
t he hi s t or i c a l r el a t i o ns bet w een wo r l d ma c r o p o l i t i c s a n d a n t hr o p o l o g y :
T h e Wes t vs . T h e Res t ; Imp er i a l i s m; Co l o n i a l i s m; Neo - Co l o n i a l i s m.
Wo r k r a n g i n g f r o m Tal al As a d o n c o l o n i a l i s m a n d a n t hr o p o l o g y t o
Ed w a r d Sa i d o n Wes t er n d i s c o u r s e a n d t he o t her ha v e p u t t hes e q u es -
t i o ns s q u a r el y o n t he a g e n d a o f c o n t emp o r a r y d eba t e. H o w e v e r , as
Ta l a l As a d p o i n t s o u t i n hi s p a p er f o r t hi s v o l u me, t hi s by n o me a n s
i mp l i es t ha t t hes e ma c r o p o l i t i c a l ec o n o mi c c o n d i t i o n s ha v e be e n s i g-
ni f i c a nt l y a f f ec t ed by wha t g o es o n i n a n t hr o p o l o g i c a l d eba t es . We a l s o
n o w k n o w a g o o d d ea l a bo u t t he r el a t i o ns o f p o w er a n d d i s c o u r s e t ha t
o bt a i n be t w e e n t he a n t hr o p o l o g i s t a n d t he p eo p l e wi t h w ho m he / s he
wo r k s . B o t h t he ma c r o - a n d mi c r o r el a t i o n s o f p o w e r a n d d i s c o u r s e
be t w e e n a n t hr o p o l o g y a n d its o t her a r e at l as t o p e n t o i nqui r y . We
k n o w s o m e o f t he q u es t i o n s wo r t h a s ki n g a n d ha v e m a d e a s ki n g t he m
p a r t o f t he di s c i pl i ne' s a g en d a .
T h e met a r ef l ec t i o n s o n t he cri s i s o f r ep r es en t a t i o n i n e t hn o -
g r a p hi c wr i t i n g i n d i c a t e a s hi f t a wa y f r o m c o n c en t r a t i n g o n r el a t i o ns
wi t h o t her c u l t u r es t o a ( n o n t hema t i z ed ) c o n c er n wi t h t r a di t i o ns o f
r ep r es en t a t i o n , a n d met a t r a d i t i o n s o f met a r ep r es en t a t i o n s , i n o u r
c u l t u r e. I ha v e be e n u s i n g Cl i f f ord' s met a p o s i t i o n as a t o u c hs t o n e. H e
is n o t t a l ki n g p r i ma r i l y a bo u t r el a t i o ns wi t h t he o t her , ex c ep t as med i -
a t ed t hr o u g h hi s c ent r a l anal yt i c c o n c er n , di s c ur s i v e t r o p es , a n d
s t r a t eg i es . Thi s ha s t a u g ht us i mp o r t a n t t hi n g s . I ha v e c l a i med , ho w -
ev er , t ha t t hi s a p p r o a c h c o n t a i n s a n i n t er es t i n g bl i nd s p o t , a r ef us a l o f
p l a g i a r i s m o f o l d er pl o t s i s, o f c o u r s e, al s o a f ea t u r e o f p a s t i c he" ( 117 ) .
The s e films f u n c t i o n n o t s o m u c h t o d en y t he p r es en t bu t t o bl u r t he
s pec i f i c i t y o f t he pa s t , t o c o n f u s e t he l i ne bet w een pa s t a n d p r es en t ( or
f u t u r e) as di s t i nc t p er i o d s . Wha t t hes e films d o is r ep r es en t o u r r ep r e-
s en t a t i o n s o f o t her er a s . "If t her e is a n y r ea l i s m l ef t her e, it is a ' real -
i s m' whi c h s p r i n g s f r o m t he s ho c k o f g r a s p i n g t ha t c o n f i n e me n t a n d
o f r ea l i z i n g t ha t , f or wha t ev er p ec ul i a r r ea s o n s , w e s e e m c o n d e m n e d
t o s eek t he hi s t or i c a l pa s t t hr o u g h o u r o w n p o p i ma g es a n d s t er eo -
t y p es a bo u t t ha t pa s t , whi c h i t s el f r ema i n s f o r ev er o u t o f r ea c h" ( 118) .
Thi s , it s e e ms t o me , d es c r i bes a n a p p r o a c h t ha t s ees s t r a t eg i c c ho i c e
o f r ep r es en t a t i o n s o f r ep r es en t a t i o n s as i ts ma i n p r o bl em.
Al t ho u g h Ja me s o n is wr i t i ng a bo u t hi s t or i c al c o n s c i o u s n es s , t he
s a me t r en d i s p r es en t i n et hn o g r a p hi c wr i t i ng : i n t er p r et i v e a n t hr o -
p o l o g i s t s wo r k wi t h t he p r o bl em o f r ep r es en t a t i o n s o f o t her s ' r ep r e-
s en t a t i o n s , hi s t o r i a ns a n d met a c r i t i c s o f a n t hr o p o l o g y wi t h t he cl as s i -
fication, c a n o n i z a t i o n , a n d " ma ki n g avai l abl e" o f r ep r es en t a t i o n s o f
r ep r es en t a t i o n s o f r ep r es en t a t i o n s . Th e hi s t ori cal f l a t t eni ng f o u n d i n
t he p a s t i c he o f n o s t a l g i a films r ea p p ea r s i n t he met a - et hn o g r a p hi c
f l a t t en i n g t ha t ma k es al l t he wor l d' s c ul t ur es p r a c t i t i o ner s o f t ex t ua l i t y .
T h e det a i l s i n t hes e na r r a t i v es a r e pr ec i s e, t he i ma g es ev o c a t i v e, t he
n eu t r a l i t y ex emp l a r y , a n d t he m o d e rtro.
T h e final f ea t u r e o f p o s t - mo d er n i s m f or Ja me s o n is "t ext ual i t y. "
Dr a w i n g o n La c a n i a n i d ea s a bo u t s c hi z o p hr en i a , Ja me s o n p o i n t s t o
o n e o f t he d ef i n i n g c ha r a c t er i s t i c s o f t he t ex t ua l m o v e m e n t a s t he
br e a k d o w n o f t he r el a t i o n s hi p bet w een s i gni f i er s : " s c hi z o p hr en i a is a n
e x p e r i e n c e o f i s o l a t ed, d i s c o n n ec t ed , d i s c o n t i n u o u s ma t er i a l s i g ni f i er s
w hi c h f ai l t o l i nk u p i n t o a c o her en t s eq u en c e . . . a s i g ni f i er t ha t ha s
l o s t i ts s i g ni f i ed ha s t her eby be e n t r a n s f o r med i n t o a n i ma g e" (120 ).
Al t ho u g h t he u s e o f t he t er m schizophrenic o bs c u r es mo r e t ha n it i l -
l u mi n a t es , t he p o i n t is t el l i ng . On c e t he s i gni f i er is f r eed f r o m a c o n -
c e r n wi t h i t s r el a t i o n t o a n ex t er n a l r ef er en t it d o e s n o t f l oat f r ee o f
a n y r ef er en t i a l i t y at al l ; r a t her , i t s r ef er en t be c o me s o t her t ex t s , o t he r
i ma g e s . For Ja me s o n , p o s t - mo d er n t ex t s ( he is t a l ki ng a bo u t La n -
g u a g e p o et s ) pa r a l l el t hi s mo v e: " Thei r r ef er en t s a r e o t her i ma g es ,
a n o t he r t ex t , a n d t he uni t y o f t he p o e m i s n o t i n t he t ex t at al l bu t
o u t s i d e it i n t he bo u n d uni t y o f a n a bs ent bo o k" (123). We a r e ba c k
at t he "Fant as i a o f t he Li brary, " t hi s t i me n o t as bi t t er p a r o d y bu t as
c el ebr a t o r y p a s t i c he.
Obv i o u s l y t hi s d o e s noe me a n t ha t w e c a n s o l v e t he c u r r en t cri s i s
o f r ep r es en t a t i o n by fiat. A r et u r n t o ea r l i er m o d e s o f u n s el f c o n s c i o u s
r ep r es en t a t i o n is n o t a c o her en t p o s i t i o n ( a l t ho u g h t he n e w s ha s n o t
y et a r r i v ed i n mo s t a n t hr o p o l o g y d ep a r t men t s ) . Bu t w e c a n n o t s o l v e it
by i g n o r i n g t he r el a t i o ns o f r ep r es en t a t i o n a l f o r ms a n d s oc i al p r a c -
252
PAUL RABINOW
s e l f- r e fl e c t i on. Fr e dr i c Jame s on' s anal ys i s o f p o s t - mo d e r n c ul t ur e was
i n t r o d u c e d as a ki nd o f a nt hr o po l o g i c a l pe r s pe c t i ve o n t hi s c ul t ur al
d e v e l o p me n t . Ri g ht o r wr o n g ( mo r e r i ght t ha n wr o n g i n my vi e w) ,
J a me s o n s ug g e s t s ways o f t hi nki ng a bo ut t he a p p e a r a n c e o f t hi s n e w
cri si s o f r e pr e s e nt a t i o n as a hi s t ori cal e v e n t wi t h its o wn s peci fi c hi s t or -
i cal c ons t r ai nt s . Sai d a n o t h e r way, J a me s o n e na bl e s us t o s e e t hat i n
i mp o r t a n t ways no t s ha r e d by o t he r cri ti cal s t anc e s ( whi c h ha v e t he i r
o wn charact eri s t i c bl i nd s pot s ) t he po s t - mo de r ni s t is bl i nd t o h e r o wn
s i t uat i on a n d s i t ua t e dne s s be c aus e , qua po s t - mo de r ni s t , s he is c o m-
mi t t e d t o a do c t r i ne o f part i al i t y a n d fl ux for whi c h e v e n s uc h t hi ng s
as one' s o wn s i t uat i on are s o uns t abl e , s o wi t ho ut i dent i t y, t hat t he y
c a n n o t s e r v e as obj ect s o f s us t ai ne d r e fl e c t i on.
5
Po s t - mo de r ni s t pas t i c he
is b o t h a cri t i cal po s i t i o n a n d a d i me n s i o n o f o u r c o n t e mp o r a r y wo r l d.
Ja me s o n' s anal ys i s he l ps us t o es t abl i s h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t he i r i n-
t e r c o n n e c t i o n s , t he r e by a v o i di ng bo t h nos t al gi a a n d t he mi s t a ke o f
uni v e r s a l i z i ng o r o n t o l o g i z i n g a ve r y part i cul ar hi s t ori cal s i t uat i on.
I n my o p i n i o n , t he s t akes i n r e c e nt de ba t e s a bo ut wr i t i ng are no t
di r e c t l y pol i t i cal i n t he c o nv e nt i o na l s e ns e o f t he t e r m. I ha v e a r g u e d
e l s e wh e r e (1985) t hat wha t pol i t i cs is i nv o l v e d is a c a de mi c pol i t i cs , a n d
t hat t hi s l e ve l o f pol i t i cs has no t b e e n e x p l o r e d . T h e wo r k o f Pi e r r e
Bo u r d i e u is h e l p f u l i n po s i ng que s t i o ns a bo ut t he pol i t i cs o f c ul t ur e
(1984a, b) . Bo u r d i e u has t a ug ht us t o ask i n wha t fi el d o f p o we r , a n d
f r o m wh a t po s i t i o n i n t hat field, any g i v e n a ut ho r wri t es . Hi s n e w s o-
c i o l o g y o f c ul t ur al p r o d u c t i o n d o e s no t s e e k t o r e d u c e k n o wl e d g e t o
soci al po s i t i o n o r i nt e r e s t pe r se but , r at he r , t o pl ace all o f t he s e vari -
abl es wi t hi n t he c o mp l e x c o ns t r a i nt s Bo ur di e u' s habituswithin
wh i c h t he y ar e p r o d u c e d a n d r e c e i ve d. Bo u r d i e u is part i cul arl y at t e n-
t i ve t o s t r at e gi e s o f cul t ural p o we r t hat a dv a nc e t h r o u g h d e n y i n g t he i r
a t t a c h me n t t o i mme d i a t e pol i t i cal e n d s a n d t he r e by a c c u mu l a t e b o t h
s y mbo l i c capi t al a n d "hi gh" s t ruct ural pos i t i on.
Bo ur di e u' s wo r k wo u l d l e ad us t o s us pe c t t hat c o n t e mp o r a r y aca-
d e mi c pr o c l a ma t i o ns o f ant i - c ol oni al i s m, whi l e admi r abl e , ar e n o t t h e
wh o l e s t ory. T h e s e pr o c l a ma t i o ns mu s t be s e e n as pol i t i cal mo v e s
wi t hi n t h e a c a d e mi c c o mmu n i t y . Ne i t h e r Cl i fford n o r any o f t he r e s t
o f us is wr i t i ng i n t he l at e 1950s. Hi s a udi e nc e s are ne i t he r c ol oni al
offi cers n o r t ho s e wo r k i n g u n d e r t he ae gi s o f c ol oni al p o we r . Ou r p o -
litical field is mo r e fami l i ar: t he a c a d e my i n t he 1980s. He n c e , t h o u g h
not e xac t l y fal s e, s i t uat i ng t he cri si s o f r e pr e s e nt a t i o n wi t hi n t he c o n -
t ext o f t he r u p t u r e o f de c o l o ni z a t i o n i s, g i v e n t he way it is h a n d l e d ,
1 > asically be s i de t he poi nt . It is t r ue t o t he e x t e n t t hat a n t h r o p o l o g y is
cert ai nl y refl ect i ve o f t he c o ur s e o f l ar ge r wo r l d e v e nt s , a n d s peci fi -
er,. I would like to thank James Faubion for this point.
Represent at i ons Are Social Facts
253
cal l y o f c h a n g i n g hi s t ori cal rel at i ons wi t h t he g r o u p s it s t udi e s . As s e r t -
i n g t hat n e w e t h n o g r a p h i c wr i t i ng e me r g e d be c a us e o f de c o l o ni z a -
t i on, h o we v e r , l e ave s o u t preci s el y t ho s e me di a t i o ns t hat wo u l d ma k e
hi s t ori cal s e ns e o f t he pr e s e nt obj ect o f s t udy.
On e is l e d t o c o ns i de r t he pol i t i cs o f i nt e r pr e t a t i o n i n t he a c a d e my
t oday. As k i n g wh e t h e r l o ng e r , di s pe r s i ve , mul t i - a ut ho r e d t e xt s wo u l d
yi e l d t e n u r e mi g h t s e e m pet t y. Bu t t ho s e are t he d i me n s i o n s o f p o we r
r e l at i ons t o wh i c h Ni e t z s c he e x h o r t e d us t o be s c r upul o us l y at t e nt i ve .
T h e r e c a n be n o d o u b t o f t he e x i s t e nc e a n d i nf l ue nc e o f t hi s t y pe o f
p o we r r e l at i on i n t he p r o d u c t i o n o f t ext s . We o we t he s e l es s g l a m-
o r o u s , i f mo r e i mme di a t e l y c ons t r ai ni ng, c o ndi t i o ns mo r e a t t e nt i o n.
T h e t a bo o agai ns t s pe c i fyi ng t h e m is mu c h gr e at e r t ha n t he s t ri ct ures
a g a i ns t d e n o u n c i n g c ol oni al i s m; an a n t h r o p o l o g y o f a n t h r o p o l o g y
wo u l d i n c l u d e t h e m. Jus t as t he r e was f o r me r l y a di s c ur s i ve k n o t
p r e v e n t i n g di s c us s i o n o f e xac t l y t hos e fieldwork pract i ces t hat d e -
fined t he aut hor i t y o f t he a nt hr o po l o g i s t , whi c h has n o w b e e n u n t i e d
( Ra bi no w 1977) , s o, t oo, t he mi c r opr ac t i c e s o f t he a c a d e my mi g h t we l l
d o wi t h s o me s crut i ny.
An o t h e r way o f p o s i n g t hi s p r o b l e m is t o r e fe r t o "c or r i dor tal k. "
For ma n y ye ar s , a nt hr o po l o g i s t s i nfor mal l y di s c us s e d fieldwork e x p e -
r i e nc e s a mo n g t he ms e l v e s . Gos s i p a bo ut a n ant hr opol ogi s t ' s field e x -
p e r i e n c e s wa s a n i mp o r t a n t c o mp o n e n t o f t hat pers on' s r e put a t i o n.
Bu t s uc h ma t t e r s we r e not , unt i l recent l y, wr i t t e n a bo ut "seri ousl y. " It
r e ma i n s i n t he c or r i dor s a n d facul t y cl ubs . Bu t wha t c a n n o t be p u b -
l i cl y di s c us s e d c a n n o t be a na l y z e d o r r e but t e d. T h o s e d o ma i n s t hat
c a n n o t be a na l y z e d o r r e f ut e d, a n d ye t are di rect l y c e nt r al t o hi e r ar -
chy, s h o u l d n o t b e r e g a r d e d as i n n o c e n t or i rrel evant . We k n o w t hat
o n e o f t he mo s t c o mmo n t act i cs o f a n el i t e g r o u p is t o r e f us e t o di s -
c u s s t o l abel as vul gar o r u n i n t e r e s t i n g i s s u e s t hat ar e u n c o mf o r t -
abl e for t h e m. Wh e n c o r r i do r tal k a bo ut fieldwork b e c o me s di s c o ur s e ,
we l e a r n a g o o d de al . Mo v i n g t he c o ndi t i o ns o f p r o d u c t i o n o f a n t h r o -
po l o g i c a l k n o wl e d g e o u t o f t he d o ma i n o f g o s s i p wh e r e it r e ma i n s
t he p r o p e r t y o f t ho s e a r o u n d t o he a r i t i n t o t hat o f k n o wl e d g e
wo u l d b e a s t e p i n t he r i ght di r e c t i on.
My wa g e r i s t hat l o o k i n g at t he c o ndi t i o ns u n d e r wh i c h p e o p l e ar e
hi r e d, g i v e n t e n u r e , publ i s he d, a wa r de d gr ant s , a n d f e t e d wo u l d re-
pa y t he e ffor t .
6
Ho w has t he "de c ons t r uc t i oni s t " wa v e di f f e r e d f r o m
t h e o t h e r ma j o r t r e n d i n t he a c a d e my i n t he pas t d e c a d e f e mi n i s m?
7
Ho w a r e c a r e e r s ma d e n o w? Ho w ar e c ar e e r s de s t r o y e d no w? Wh a t
6. Marti n Finkelstein (1984) presents a valuable summary of some of these issues
as seen in the social sciences.
7. These issues are being explored in an important doctoral thesis being written
by Deborah Gordon at the University of California, Santa Cruz.
254 PAUL RABINOW
Stop Making Sense: Dialogue and Identity
Mar i l yn St r at he r n, i n a very c ha l l e ng i ng p a p e r (1984), "Di s -
l o d g i n g a Wo r l d Vi e w: Ch a l l e n g e a nd Co u n t e r - Ch a l l e n g e i n t he Re l a-
t i o ns hi p Be t we e n Fe mi n i s m a n d Ant hr o po l o g y , " has t ake n a n i mp o r -
t ant s t e p i n s i t uat i ng t he s t rat egy o f r e c e nt t ext ual i s t wr i t i ng t h r o u g h a
c o mp a r i s o n wi t h r e c e nt wo r k by a nt hr o po l o g i c a l fe mi ni s t s . St r a t he r n
ma k e s a di s t i nc t i on b e t we e n fe mi ni s t a nt hr o po l o g y , an a n t h r o p o l o g i -
cal s ubdi s c i pl i ne c o nt r i but i ng t o t he di sci pl i ne' s a d v a n c e me n t , a n d a n
a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l f e mi n i s m wh o s e a i m is t o bui l d a fe mi ni s t c o mmu n i t y ,
o n e wh o s e pr e mi s e s a n d goal s di ffer f r o m, and are o p p o s e d t o, a n-
t h r o p o l o g y . I n t he l at t er e nt e r pr i s e , di f f e r e nc e a n d c o nf l i c t a s hi s -
t ori cal c o n d i t i o n s o f i de nt i t y a n d k n o wl e d g e a r e t he val or i z e d t e r ms ,
n o t s c i e nc e a n d h a r mo n y .
St r a t he r n refl ect s o n he r a n n o y a n c e wh e n a s e ni or ma l e c o l l e a g u e
pr ai s e d f e mi ni s t a n t h r o p o l o g y for e nr i c hi ng t he di s c i pl i ne . He s ai d:
"Let a t h o u s a n d flowers bl o o m. " S h e s ays : " I n d e e d i t is t r ue i n g e n e r a l
t hat f e mi ni s t cri t i que has e n r i c h e d a n t h r o p o l o g y o p e n e d u p n e w
u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f i de ol ogy, t he c ons t r uc t i on o f s ymbol i c s y s t e ms , re-
s o ur c e ma n a g e me n t , pr o pe r t y c o nc e pt s , a n d so on. " An t h r o p o l o g y , i n
its rel at i ve o p e n n e s s a nd ecl ect i ci s m, has i nt e g r a t e d t he s e s ci ent i fi c a d-
v a nc e s , at first rel uct ant l y, n o w eagerl y. St r at he r n, d r a wi n g o n Kuhn' s
mu c h - u s e d p a r a d i g m c o nc e pt , poi nt s out t hat t hi s is h o w n o r ma l
s c i e nc e wor ks . Yet t he "let a t h o u s a n d flowers b l o o m" t o l e r a nc e p r o -
d u c e d a s e n s e o f une a s e ; l at er, St r at he r n r e al i z e d t hat he r u n e a s e
s t e mme d f r o m a s e ns e t hat fe mi ni s t s s h o u l d be l a bo r i ng i n o t h e r
fields, no t a d d i n g flowers t o ant hr opol ogy' s .
St r a t he r n di s t anc e s he r o wn pract i ce f r o m t he n o r ma l s c i e nc e
mo d e l i n t wo ways . Fi rst, s he cl ai ms t hat soci al a n d nat ural s c i e nc e ar e
di f f e r e nt : "not s i mpl y [ be c aus e ] wi t hi n any o n e di s c i pl i ne o n e finds di -
ve r s e ' s chool s ' (al so t r ue i n s ci ence) but t hat t hei r p r e mi s e s are c o n -
s t r uc t e d c o mpe t i t i v e l y i n rel at i on t o o n e anot he r . " S e c o n d , t hi s c o m-
pe t i t i on d o e s no t t ur n o n e pi s t e mo l o g i c a ! i s s ues al one , but ul t i mat e l y
Represent at i ons Are Social Facts
255
o n pol i t i cal a n d et hi cal di ffe r e nc e s . I n hi s essay, "What Ma ke s a n I n-
t e r pr e t a t i o n Ac c e pt a bl e ? " (1980), St anl e y Fi s h ma ke s a s i mi l ar po i nt
( al bei t t o a d v a n c e a very di ffe r e nt a g e nda ) . He a r g ue s t hat all s t at e-
me n t s ar e i nt e r pr e t a t i o ns , a n d t hat all a ppe a l s t o t he t ext , or t he fact s ,
are t h e ms e l v e s ba s e d o n i nt e r pr e t at i ons ; t he s e i nt e r pr e t a t i o ns ar e
c o mmu n i t y affai rs a n d no t s ubj ect i ve (or i ndi vi dual ) o n e s t h a t i s,
me a n i n g s a r e cul t ural o r soci al l y avai l abl e, t he y are n o t i n v e n t e d e x
ni hi l o by a s i ng l e i nt e r pr e t e r . Fi nal l y, all i nt e r pr e t at i ons , mo s t e s pe -
ci al l y t h o s e t hat d e n y t he i r st at us as i nt e r pr e t at i ons , are onl y pos s i bl e
o n t he bas i s o f o t h e r i nt e r pr e t at i ons , wh o s e r ul e s t he y affi rm whi l e a n-
n o u n c i n g t he i r ne g a t i o n.
Fi s h a r g ue s t hat we ne v e r r e s ol ve d i s a g r e e me n t s by an a ppe a l t o
t he fact s o r t he t e xt be c a us e "t he fact s e me r g e onl y i n t he c o n t e x t o f
s o me p o i n t o f vi ew. It fol l ows , t he n, t hat d i s a g r e e me n t s mu s t o c c ur
b e t we e n t h o s e w h o h o l d ( or are h e l d by) di ffe r e nt poi nt s o f vi ew, a n d
wh a t is at s t ake i n a d i s a g r e e me n t is t he ri ght t o s peci fy wha t t he fact s
c a n he r e a f t e r be s ai d t o be . Di s a g r e e me n t s are no t s et t l ed by t he fact s,
b u t ar e t he me a n s by whi c h t he fact s are s et t l ed" (338). St r a t he r n
adr oi t l y d e mo n s t r a t e s t he s e poi nt s i n he r c ont r as t o f a nt hr o po l o g i c a l
f e mi n i s m a n d e x p e r i me n t a l a nt hr o po l o g i s t s .
T h e g u i d i n g v a l ue o f t ho s e i nt e r e s t e d i n e x p e r i me n t a l e t h n o -
g r a phi c wr i t i ng, St r at he r n a r g ue s , is di al ogi c: "t he effort is t o c r e at e a
r e l a t i o n wi t h t he Ot h e r a s i n t he s e ar c h for a me d i u m o f e x p r e s s i o n
wh i c h wi l l offe r mu t u a l i nt e r pr e t at i on, pe r ha ps vi s ual i s ed as a c o mmo n
t e xt , o r as s o me t h i n g mo r e l i ke a di s c our s e . " Fe mi ni s m, for St r a t he r n,
p r o c e e d s f r o m t he i ni t i al a n d unas s i mi l abl e fact o f d o mi n a t i o n . T h e
a t t e mp t t o i nc o r po r a t e fe mi ni s t u n d e r s t a n d i n g s i nt o a n i mp r o v e d sci -
e n c e o f a n t h r o p o l o g y or a n e w r he t or i c o f di a l o g ue is t a ke n as a fur -
t he r act o f v i o l e nc e . Fe mi ni s t a n t h r o p o l o g y is t r yi ng t o shi ft di s c o ur s e ,
n o t i mp r o v e a p a r a d i g m: "that i s, it al t ers t he na t ur e o f t he a u d i e n c e ,
t he r a n g e o f r e a d e r s h i p a n d t he ki nds o f i nt e r ac t i ons b e t we e n a u t h o r
a n d r e a d e r , a n d al t ers t he s ubj ect ma t t e r o f c o nv e r s a t i o n i n t he way it
al l ows o t h e r s t o s p e a k wh a t is t al ke d a bo ut a nd w h o m o n e is t al ki ng
t o. " St r a t he r n is n o t s e e k i n g t o i nv e nt a ne w s ynt hes i s , but t o s t r e n g t h e n
di f f e r e nc e .
T h e i r o ni e s h e r e are e xhi l ar at i ng. Expe r i me nt al i s t s ( al mos t all
ma l e ) ar e n u r t u r i n g a n d opt i mi s t i c, i f j us t a t o uc h s e nt i me nt a l . Cl i fford
c l ai ms t o b e wo r k i n g f r o m a c o mbi na t i o n o f si xt i es i de al i s m a n d
e i g ht i e s i r ony. Te x t u a l radi cal s s e e k t o wo r k t owar d e s t abl i s hi ng rel a-
t i o ns hi ps , t o d e mo n s t r a t e t he i mp o r t a n c e o f c o n n e c t i o n a n d o p e n -
ne s s , t o a d v a n c e t he pos s i bi l i t i es o f s ha r i ng a nd mut ua l u n d e r s t a n d -
i ng , whi l e b e i n g fuz z y a bo ut p o we r a n d t he real i t i es o f s o c i o e c o n o mi c
c o ns t r a i nt s . St rat hern' s a nt hr o po l o g i c a l fe mi ni s t i nsi st s u p o n no t l os -
a r e t he b o u n d a r i e s o f t ast e? Wh o e s t abl i s he d a n d w h o e n f o r c e s t h e s e
ci vi l i t i es? Wh a t e v e r el s e we kno w, we cert ai nl y k n o w t hat t he mat e r i al
c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r whi c h t he t e xt ual mo v e me n t has flourished mu s t i n-
c l u d e t he uni ve r s i t y, its mi c r opol i t i c s , its t r e nds . We k n o w t hat t hi s
l e ve l o f p o we r r e l at i ons exi s t s , affect s us , i nfl ue nc e s o u r t h e me s , f o r ms ,
c o n t e n t s , a u d i e n c e s . We o we t he s e i s s ues a t t e n t i o n i f onl y t o e s t ab-
l i s h t he i r rel at i ve we i g ht . T h e n , as wi t h fi el dwork, we shal l be abl e t o
p r o c e e d t o mo r e gl obal i s s ues .
25 6 PAUL RABINOW
i n g s i g ht o f f u n d a me n t a l d i f f er en c es , p o w e r r el a t i o n s hi p s , hi er a r c hi -
cal d o mi n a t i o n . She s eeks t o ar t i c ul at e a c o mmu n a l i dent i t y o n t he
bas i s o f c onf l i c t , s ep a r a t i o n , a n d a n t a g o n i s m: part i al l y as a d e f e n s e
a g a i n s t t he t hr ea t o f e n c o mp a s s me n t by a p a r a d i g m o f l o v e, m u t u -
al i t y, a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g i n whi c h s he s ees o t her mo t i v es a n d s t r uc -
t u r es ; pa r t i a l l y as a d ev i c e t o p r es er v e mea n i n g f u l d i f f er en c e p er s e as
a di s t i nc t i v e v a l u e.
Di f f er en c e is p l a y ed o u t o n t wo l ev el s : bet ween f emi n i s t s a n d a n -
t hr o p o l o g y a n d wi t hi n t he f emi ni s t c o mmu n i t y . Fa c i ng o u t wa r d , r es i s -
t a n c e a n d n o n a s s i mi l a t i o n a r e t he hi g hes t v a l ues . Wi t hi n t hi s n e w i n-
t er p r et i v e c o mmu n i t y , ho wev er , t he v i r t ues of di a l o g i c r el a t i o n s hi p s
ha v e be e n a f f i r med. Int er na l l y , f emi ni s t s ma y d i s a g r ee a n d c o mp e t e ;
but t hey d o s o i n r el a t i o n t o o n e a n o t her . "It is pr ec i s el y bec a u s e f emi -
ni s t t heo r y d o e s n o t c o n s t i t u t e i ts pa s t as a ' t ext ' t ha t it c a n n o t be
a d d e d o n o r s u p p l a n t a n t hr o p o l o g y i n a n y s i mp l e way. For i f f emi n i s t s
a l wa y s ma i n t a i n a d i v i d e a g a i ns t t he Ot her , a m o n g t hems el v es by c o n -
t ras t t hey c r ea t e s o me t hi n g i n d e e d m u c h c l o s er t o d i s c o u r s e t ha n t o
t ex t . An d t he c ha r a c t er o f t hi s d i s c o u r s e a p p r o a c hes t he ' i nt er l o c u-
t i o n a r y c o m m o n p r o d u c t ' f or whi c h t he n e w e t hn o g r a p hy a i ms . "
Whi l e t r o p es a r e avai l abl e f or all t o u s e, ho w t hey a r e u s ed ma k es al l
t he d i f f er en c e.
Ethics and Modernity
The emergence offactions within a once interdicted activity is a sure sign of
its having achieved the. status of an orthodoxy.
STANLEY FISH, "What Makes an Interpretation Acceptable?"
Rec en t d i s c u s s i o n s o n t he ma k i n g o f et hn o g r a p hi c t ex t s ha v e
r ev ea l ed d i f f er en c es a n d p o i n t s o f o p p o s i t i o n as wel l as i mp o r t a n t
a r ea s o f c o n s en s u s . To bo r r o w y et a n o t her o f Geert z' s p hr a s es , w e c a n ,
a n d ha v e be e n , v ex i n g ea c h o t her wi t h prof i t , t he t o u c hs t o n e o f i nt er -
p r et i v e a d v a n c e. I n t hi s l ast s ec t i o n, t hr o u g h t he d ev i c e o f a s c hema t i c
j u x t a p o s i t i o n of t he t hr ee p o s i t i o ns p r ev i o us l y o u t l i n ed , 1 s hal l p r o -
p o s e my o w n . Al t ho u g h cri t i cal of d i men s i o n s o f ea c h o f t hes e p o s i -
t i o ns , I c o n s i d er t he m t o be me mbe r s , i f n o t o f a n i n t er p r et i v e c o m-
mu n i t y , at l eas t o f a n i n t er p r et i v e f ed er a t i o n t o whi c h I bel o n g .
An t hr o p o l o g i s t s , cri t i cs , f emi ni s t s , a n d cri t i cal i nt el l ec t ua l s a r e al l
c o n c e r n e d wi t h q u es t i o n s o f t r ut h a n d its s oci al l o c a t i o n; i ma g i n a t i o n
a n d f o r ma l p r o bl ems of r ep r es en t a t i o n ; d o mi n a t i o n a n d r es i s t a nc e;
t he et hi c a l s ubj ec t a n d t ec hn i q u es f o r be c o mi n g o n e. The s e t o p i c s a r e,
ho wev er , i n t er p r et ed i n d i f f er i n g f a s hi o n s ; di f f er ent d a n g er s a n d di f -
f er en t pos s i bi l i t i es a r e p i c ked out ; a n d di f f r ent hi er a r c hi es be t w e e n
t hes e c a t eg o r i es a r e d e f e n d e d .
Repres ent at i ons Are Social Facts
257
1. Interpretive Anthropologists. Tr u t h a n d s c i en c e c o n c ei v ed as
i n t er p r et i v e pr a c t i c es a r e t he c o m m a n d i n g t er ms . Bo t h a n t hr o -
p o l o g i s t a n d na t i v e a r e s een as e n g a g e d i n i n t er p r et i n g t he me a n -
i n g o f ev er y d a y l i f e. Pr o bl ems o f r ep r es en t a t i o n a r e c en t r a l f o r
bo t h, a n d a r e t he l oci o f c ul t ur a l i ma g i n a t i o n . Rep r es en t a t i o n s a r e
n o t , ho w e v e r , s ui g en er i s ; t hey s er v e as me a n s f o r ma k i n g s en s e o f
l i f e wo r l d s ( whi c h t hey a r e i n s t r u men t a l i n c o n s t r u c t i n g ) a n d c o n -
s eq u en t l y t hey di f f er i n t hei r f u n c t i o n s . Th e g o a l s o f t he a n t hr o -
p o l o g i s t a n d t he na t i v e a r e di s t i nc t . To t ake o n e e x a mp l e , s c i en c e
a n d r el i g i o n di f f er as c ul t ur a l s y s t ems i n s t r a t eg y , et ho s , a n d e n d s .
T h e pol i t i c a l a n d et hi c a l p o s i t i o ns a r e i mp o r t a n t , i f l a r g el y i m-
pl i ci t , a n c ho r s . Weber' s t wi n i dea l s o f s c i enc e a n d pol i t i c s as v o c a -
t i o ns w o u l d , i f e mbo d i e d i n a r es ea r c her , y i el d t he et hi c a l s ubj ec t
f o r t hi s p o s i t i o n . Co n c ep t u a l l y , s ci ent i f i c s p ec i f i c a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g
c u l t u r a l d i f f er en c e is at t he hea r t o f t he pr oj ec t . T h e g r ea t es t d a n -
g er , s e e n f r o m t he i ns i de, is t he c o n f u s i o n o f s c i enc e a n d pol i t i c s .
T h e g r ea t es t wea kn es s , s e e n f r o m t he o u t s i d e, i s t he hi s t or i c a l , p o -
l i t i cal , a n d ex p er i en t i a l c o r d o n s a ni t a i r e d r a wn a r o u n d i nt er -
p r et i v e s c i en c e.
2. Critics. Th e g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e is f o r ma l . T h e t ex t is pr i -
ma r y . At t en t i v en es s t o t he t r o p es a n d r het o r i c a l d ev i c es t hr o u g h
w hi c h a u t ho r i t y is c o n s t r u c t ed a l l ows t he i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t he me s
o f d o mi n a t i o n , ex c l u s i o n , a n d i neq ua l i t y as s ubj ec t ma t t er . Bu t
t hey a r e o n l y ma t er i a l . The y a r e g i v en f o r m by t he c r i t i c / wr i t er , be
s he a n t hr o p o l o g i s t o r na t i v e: " Ot her t r i bes , o t her Sc r i bes . " We
c ha n g e o u r s el v es p r i ma r i l y t hr o u g h i ma g i n a t i v e c o n s t r u c t i o n s .
T h e ki n d of bei n g s we wa n t t o be c o me a r e o p e n , p er mea bl e o n e s ,
s u s p i c i o u s o f met a n a r r a t i v es ; pl ur a l i zer s . Bu t a ut ho r i a l c o n t r o l
s e e ms t o bl u n t s el f - r ef l ec t i o n a n d t he di a l o g i c i mp u l s e. Th e d a n -
g er : t he o bl i t er a t i o n o f mea n i n g f u l d i f f er en c e, Weber ' s mu s e u mi -
fication o f t he wo r l d . Th e t r ut h t ha t ex p er i en c e a n d me a n i n g a r e
me d i a t e d r ep r es en t a t i o n a l l y c a n be o v e r - e x t e n d e d t o eq u a t e e x p e -
r i en c e a n d me a n i n g wi t h t he f o r ma l d i me n s i o n o f r ep r es en t a t i o n .
3. Political subjects. T h e g u i d i n g v a l u e is t he c o n s t i t u t i o n of a
c o mmu n i t y - ba s e d pol i t i cal s ubj ect i vi t y. An t hr o p o l o g i c a l f emi ni s t s
wo r k a g a i n s t a n o t her cas t as es s ent i a l l y di f f er ent a n d v i o l ent .
Wi t hi n t he c o mmu n i t y t he s ea r c h f or t rut f i , as wel l as s oci al a n d
es t het i c ex p er i men t a t i o n a r e g u i d ed by a di a l o g i c des i r e. T h e fi c-
t i v e o t he r a l l o ws a p l ur a l i z i ng s et of d i f f er en c es t o a p p ea r . T h e
ri s k is t ha t t hes e en a bl i n g fictions o f es s ent i a l d i f f er en c e ma y be-
c o m e r ei f i ed, t her eby r ed u p l i c a t i n g t he o p p r es s i v e s oci al f o r ms
t hey w er e me a n t t o u n d e r mi n e . St r a t her n p u t s t hi s p o i n t wel l :
" No w if f emi n i s m mo c ks t he a n t hr o p o l o g i c a l p r et en s i o n o f c r ea t -
i n g a p r o d u c t i n s o me wa y s j o i nt l y a u t ho r ed t hen a n t hr o p o l o g y
258 PAUL RABINOW
Repres ent at i ons Are Social Facts
25 9
Fr en c h a d mi n i s t r a t o r s , c o l o ni a l of f i ci al s as wel l as s oci al r ef o r mer s ,
al l c o n c e r n e d wi t h u r ba n p l a n n i n g i n t he 1920 s. By " s t u d y i n g u p " I
find my s el f i n a mo r e c o mf o r t a bl e p o s i t i o n t ha n I w o u l d be w e r e I
" g i v i ng v o i c e" o n beha l f o f d o mi n a t e d o r ma r g i n a l g r o u p s . I ha v e
c ho s e n a p o wer f u l g r o u p o f m e n c o n c er n ed wi t h i s s ues o f pol i t i c s a n d
f o r m: n ei t her her o es n o r vi l l ai ns , t hey s eem t o a f f o r d m e t he n ec es -
s ar y a n t hr o p o l o g i c a l di s t a nc e, bei n g s ep a r a t e e n o u g h t o p r ev en t a n
ea s y i dent i f i c a t i o n, y et c l o s e e n o u g h t o a f f o r d a c ha r i t a bl e, i f cri t i cal ,
u n d e r s t a n d i n g .
T h e d i s c i p l i n e o f m o d e r n u r ba n i s m wa s p u t i n t o p r a c t i c e i n t he
Fr en c h c o l o n i es , pa r t i c ul a r l y i n Mo r o c c o u n d e r Go v er n o r - g en er a l
H u be r t Ly a u t ey ( 1 9 1 2 - 2 5 ) . Th e c o l o ni a l a r c hi t ec t - p l a n n er s a n d t he
c o l o n i a l g o v e r n me n t a l of f i ci al s w ho hi r ed t he m c o n c ei v ed o f t he c i t i es
w he r e t hey w o r k e d as s oci al a n d es t het i c l a bo r a t o r i es . The s e s et t i ng s
o f f er ed bo t h g r o u p s t he o p p o r t u n i t y t o t ry o u t n ew, l a r g e- s c a l e p l a n -
n i n g c o n c e p t s a n d t o t es t t he pol i t i cal ef f ec t i v enes s o f t hes e p l a ns f o r
a p p l i c a t i o n bo t h i n t he c o l o n i es a n d ev ent ua l l y , t hey ho p e d , at ho m e .
St u d i es o f c o l o n i a l i s m ha v e unt i l r ec ent l y be e n cas t a l mo s t ex c l u -
s i vel y i n t er ms o f t hi s di al ec t i c o f d o mi n a t i o n , ex p l o i t a t i o n , a n d r es i s -
t a n c e. Thi s di a l ec t i c i s, a n d wa s , a n es s ent i a l o n e. By i tsel f , ho wev er , it
n eg l ec t s at l eas t t wo ma j o r d i men s i o n s o f t he c o l o ni a l s i t ua t i o n: i ts c ul -
t u r e a n d t he pol i t i c a l field i n whi c h it wa s s et . Thi s ha s l ed t o a n u m be r
o f s u r p r i s i n g c o n s eq u en c es ; s t r a ng el y e n o u g h t he g r o u p i n t he c o l o -
n i es w ho ha v e r ec ei v ed t he l ea s t a t t en t i o n i n hi s t ori cal a n d s o c i o l o g i c a l
s t u d i es a r e t he c o l o ni s t s t hems el v es . For t una t el y , t hi s p i c t ur e is beg i n -
n i n g t o c ha n g e ; t he v a r i ed s y s t ems o f s oci al s t rat i f i cat i on a n d t he c ul -
t ur a l c o mp l ex i t y o f c o l o ni a l l i f ea s it v a r i ed f r o m p l a c e t o p l a c e at
d i f f er en t hi s t or i c a l p er i o d s i s be g i n n i n g t o be u n d er s t o o d .
As a m o r e c o mp l e x v i ew o f c o l o ni a l c ul t ur e is bei n g a r t i c ul a t ed, I
t hi n k w e a l s o n e e d a mo r e c o mp l e x u n d er s t a n d i n g o f p o w er i n t he
c o l o n i es . T h e t wo a r e c o n n ec t ed . Po wer is f r eq u en t l y u n d e r s t o o d as
f o r c e p er s o n i f i ed : t he p o s s es s i o n o f a s i ng l e g r o u p t he c o l o ni a l i s t s .
Thi s c o n c e p t i o n is i n a d eq u a t e f o r a n u mbe r o f r ea s o n s . Fi rst , t he c o l o -
ni s t s t hems el v es w er e hi g hl y f a c t i o na l i z ed a n d s t rat i f i ed. Sec o n d , t he
s t a t e ( a n d pa r t i c ul a r l y t he c o l o ni a l s t at e) is s o me t hi n g w e n e e d t o
k n o w a g r ea t d ea l mo r e a bo ut . Thi r d , t he v i ew o f p o w e r t ha t u n d e r -
s t a n d s it as a t hi n g , o r a p o s s es s i o n , o r ema n a t i n g u n i d i r ec t i o n a l l y
f r o m t he t o p d o w n , o r o p er a t i n g pr i ma r i l y t hr o u g h t he a p p l i c a t i o n o f
f o r c e ha s be e n p u t s er i o us l y i n q u es t i o n . Wi t h l es s t ha n 20,000 t r o o p s ,
t he Fr en c h, a f t er al l , r a n I n d o c hi n a i n t he 1920 s wi t h a d e g r e e o f c o n -
t r ol t ha t t he Amer i c a n s wi t h 500,000 s o me fifty y ea r s l at er n ev er a p -
p r o a c he d . Po wer ent a i l s mo r e t ha n a r ms , a l t ho u g h it c er t a i nl y d o e s
n o t e x c l u d e t he m.
mo c k s t he p r et en s i o n t ha t f emi ni s t s c a n ev er real l y a c hi ev e t he
s ep a r a t i o n t hey des i r e. "
4. Critical, Cosmopolitan Intellectuals. I ha v e e mp ha s i z e d t he
d a n g e r s o f hi g h i n t er p r et i v e s c i en c e a n d t he o v er l y s o v er ei g n r ep -
r s en t er , a n d a m e x c l u d e d f r o m di r ec t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t he f emi -
ni s t d i a l o g u e. Let m e p r o p o s e a cri t i cal c o s mo p o l i t a n i s m as a
f o u r t h figure. T h e et hi c a l is t he g u i d i n g v a l ue. Thi s is a n o p p o s i -
t i o na l p o s i t i o n , o n e s u s p i c i o u s o f s o v er ei g n p o wer s , u n i v er s a l
t r ut hs , o v er l y r el a t i v i zed p r ec i o u s n es s , l ocal a ut hent i c i t y , mo r a l -
i s ms hi g h a n d l ow. Un d e r s t a n d i n g is its s ec o n d v a l u e, bu t a n u n d e r -
s t a n d i n g s u s p i c i o u s o f its o w n i mp er i a l t en d en c i es . It a t t emp t s t o
be hi g hl y a t t en t i v e t o ( a n d r es p ec t f ul o f ) d i f f er en c e, bu t i s a l s o
wa r y o f t he t en d en c y t o es s ent i a l i ze d i f f er en c e. Wha t w e s ha r e as
a c o n d i t i o n o f ex i s t en c e, he i g ht e n e d t o da y by o u r abi l i t y, a n d at
t i mes o u r ea g er n es s , t o o bl i t er a t e o n e a n o t her , is a s pec i f i c i t y o f
hi s t or i c a l ex p er i en c e a n d pl a c e, ho w e v e r c o mp l e x a n d c o n t es t a bl e
t hey mi g ht be, a n d a wo r l d wi d e ma c r o - i n t er d ep en d en c y e n c o m -
p a s s i n g a n y l oc al par t i c ul ar i t y. Whe t he r we l i ke it o r n o t , w e a r e
al l i n t hi s s i t ua t i o n. Bo r r o w i n g a t er m a p p l i ed d u r i n g d i f f er en t
e p o c hs t o Chr i s t i a ns , ar i s t oc r at s , mer c ha n t s , Jews , ho mo s e x u a l s ,
a n d i nt el l ec t ua l s ( whi l e c ha n g i n g its mea n i n g ) , I cal l t he a c c ep -
t a n c e o f t hi s t wi n v a l o r i z a t i o n cosmopolitanism. Let us d ef i n e c o s -
mo p o l i t a n i s m as a n et ho s o f ma c r o - i n t er d ep en d en c i es , wi t h a n
a c u t e c o n s c i o u s n es s ( o f t en f o r c ed u p o n p eo p l e) o f t he i n es c a p -
abi l i t i es a n d pa r t i c ul a r i t i es o f p l a c es , c ha r a c t er s , hi s t or i c a l t raj ec-
t o r i es , a n d f a t es . Al t ho u g h we a r e al l c o s mo p o l i t a n s , Homo sapiens
ha s d o n e r a t her p o o r l y i n i n t er p r et i n g t hi s c o n d i t i o n . We s e e m t o
ha v e t r o u bl e wi t h t he ba l a n c i n g act , p r ef er r i n g t o r ei f y l oc a l i d en -
t i t i es o r c o n s t r u c t uni v er s a l o n es . We l i ve i n - bet ween . Th e So p hi s t s
o f f er a fictive figure f o r t hi s s l ot : emi n en t l y Gr eek, y et o f t en ex -
c l u d e d f r o m c i t i z ens hi p i n t he v a r i o us po l ei s ; c o s mo p o l i t a n i n -
s i der' s o u t s i d er s o f a pa r t i c ul a r hi s t ori cal a n d c ul t ur a l wo r l d ; n o t
m e m be r s o f a p r o j ec t ed uni v er s a l r eg i me ( u n d er G o d , t he i mp e -
r i u m, o r t he l aws o f r ea s o n) ; d ev o t ees o f r het o r i c a n d t her eby
f ul l y a wa r e o f its a bus es ; c o n c e r n e d wi t h t he ev en t s o f t he da y , bu t
bu f f er ed by i r o ni c r es er v e.
T h e p r o bl ema t i c r el a t i o ns o f s ubj ect i vi t y, t r ut h, mo d er n i t y , a n d
r ep r es en t a t i o n s ha v e be e n at t he hea r t o f my o w n wo r k. Feel i n g t ha t
c o n s i d er a t i o n s o f p o w er a n d r ep r es en t a t i o n w er e t o o l o c a l i z ed i n m y
ea r l i er wo r k o n Mo r o c c o , I ha v e c ho s en a r es ea r c h t o p i c t ha t e mp l o y s
t hes e c a t eg o r i es m o r e br o a dl y . Be i n g t emp er a men t a l l y m o r e c o mf o r t -
a bl e i n a n o p p o s i t i o n a l s t a nc e, I ha v e c ho s en t o s t udy a g r o u p o f el i t e
26o
PAUL RABINOW
T h e wo r k o f Mi c hel Fo uc a ul t o n p o w e r r el a t i o ns p r o v i d es us wi t h
s o m e hel p f u l a na l y t i c t o o l s . Fo uc a ul t d i s t i n g u i s hes be t w e e n ex p l o i t a -
t i o n , d o mi n a t i o n , a n d s u bj ec t i o n ( 19 82 : 2 12 ) . H e a r g u es t ha t mo s t
a n a l y s es o f p o w e r c o n c en t r a t e a l mo s t ex c l us i v el y o n r el a t i o ns o f d o mi -
n a t i o n a n d ex p l o i t a t i o n : w ho c o n t r o l s w ho m, a n d w ho ex t r a c t s t he
f r ui t s o f p r o d u c t i o n f r o m t he p r o d u c er s . Th e t hi r d t er m, s u bj ec t i o n ,
f o c u s es o n t ha t a s p ec t o f a field o f p o w e r f a r t hes t r e mo v e d f r o m t he
d i r ec t a p p l i c a t i o n o f f o r c e. Tha t d i men s i o n o f p o w er r el a t i o ns is w he r e
t he i d en t i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o u p s is at s t a ke, a n d w he r e o r d e r i n
i ts br o a d es t m e a n i n g i s t a ki n g f o r m. Thi s is t he r ea l m i n whi c h c u l t u r e
a n d p o w e r a r e mo s t c l o s el y i n t er t wi n ed . Fo uc a ul t s o me t i me s cal l s
t hes e r el a t i o ns " g o v er n men t a l i t y , " a n d t he t er m is a hel p f u l o n e.
Fo l l o wi n g Fo uc a ul t , Ja c q u es Do n z el o t ha s a r g u ed t ha t d u r i n g t he
l a t er p a r t o f t he n i n et een t h c ent ur y , a n ew r el a t i ona l field o f g r ea t hi s -
t or i c al i mp o r t wa s bei n g c o n s t r u c t ed : Do n z el o t (1979) cal l s it t he "s o-
ci al . " Spec i f i c a r ea s , f r eq u en t l y t a ken t o be o u t s i d e o f pol i t i c s , s u c h as
hy g i e n e , f a mi l y s t r uc t ur e, a n d s ex ua l i t y , wer e bei n g m a d e i n t o t a r g et s
f o r s t a t e i n t er v en t i o n . Th e s oci al be c a me a d ema r c a t ed a n d o bj ec t i f i ed
s et o f p r a c t i c es part i al l y c o n s t r u c t ed by, a n d part i al l y u n d e r s t o o d
t hr o u g h, t he e m e r g i n g me t ho d s a n d i ns t i t ut i o ns o f t he n e w s oc i a l s ci -
e n c e di s c i p l i nes . Th e "s oci al " wa s a p r i v i l eg ed l o c us f o r e x p e r i me n t a -
t i o n wi t h n e w f o r ms o f pol i t i c al rat i onal i t y.
Ly a ut ey ' s hi g hl y s o p hi s t i c a t ed v i ew o f c o l o n i z a t i o n t u r n ed o n t he
n e e d t o br i n g s oc i al g r o u p s i n t o a d i f f er en t field o f p o w e r r el a t i o n s
t ha n ha d p r ev i o u s l y ex i s t ed i n t he c o l o n i es . I n hi s vi ew, t hi s c o u l d o n l y
be a c hi ev ed t hr o u g h l a r g e- s c a l e s oci al p l a n n i n g , i n whi c h ci t y p l a n -
n i n g p l a y ed a c ent r a l r o l e. As he s ai d i n a eu l o g y f o r hi s c hi ef p l a n n er ,
He n r i Pr os t : " The art a n d s c i enc e o f u r ba n i s m, s o f l o u r i s hi n g d u r i n g
t he cl as s i cal a g e, s eems t o ha v e s u f f er ed a t ot al ec l i p s e s i nc e t he Sec -
o n d Emp i r e. Ur ba n i s m, t he art a n d s c i enc e o f d e v e l o p i n g h u m a n a g -
g l o mer a t i o n s , is c o mi n g ba c k t o l i f e u n d e r Prost' s ha n d . Pr o s t is t he
g u a r d i a n , i n t hi s mec ha n i c a l a g e, o f ' hu ma n i s m. ' Pr o s t w o r k e d n o t
o n l y o n t hi n g s , bu t o n me n , di f f er ent t y p es o f me n , t o w h o m la Cit
o w e s s o me t hi n g mo r e t ha n r o a ds , c a na l s , s ewer s a n d a t r a n s p o r t s y s -
t em" ( Ma r r a s t , ed . i 9 6 0 : 119 ) . For Ly a u t ey a n d hi s a r c hi t ec t s , t hen ,
t he n e w hu m a n i s m a p p l i ed i t s el f a p p r o p r i a t el y n o t o n l y t o t hi n g s , bu t
t o m e n , a n d n o t o n l y t o m e n i n g en er a l t hi s wa s n o t Le Co r bus i er ' s
h u m a n i s m b u t t o m e n i n di f f er ent c ul t ur a l a n d s oci al c i r c u ms t a n c es .
T h e p r o bl e m wa s t o a c c o mmo d a t e t hi s di ver s i t y. For t hes e a r c hi t ec t s ,
p l a n n er s , a n d a d mi n i s t r a t o r s , t he t as k c o n f r o n t i n g t he m wa s ho w t o
c o n c ei v e o f a n d p r o d u c e a n e w s oci al ordonnance.
Thi s is t he r ea s o n why t he ci t i es o f Mo r o c c o w er e o f s u c h i mp o r -
t a n c e i n Ly a ut ey ' s ey es . The y s e e me d t o o f f er ho p e , a wa y t o a v o i d t he
Repres ent at i ons Are Social Facts
261
i mp a s s es bo t h o f Fr a n c e a n d o f Al g er i a . Lyaut ey' s f a mo u s d i c t u m "A
chantier [ c o n s t r u c t i o n s i t e] is wo r t h a ba t t a l i on" wa s me a n t l i t eral l y.
Ly a u t ey f ea r ed t ha t i f t he Fr en c h wer e a l l o wed t o c o n t i n u e t o p r a c t i c e
pol i t i c s as u s u a l , t he r es ul t s w o u l d c o n t i n u e t o be c a t a s t r o p hi c . A di -
r ec t l y pol i t i c a l s o l u t i o n , ho wev er , wa s n o t at ha n d . Wha t wa s u r g en t l y
r eq u i r ed wa s a n e w s ci ent i f i c a n d s t r a t eg i c s oci al art ; o n l y i n t hi s wa y
c o u l d pol i t i c s be s u bl a t e d a n d p o w e r t r ul y "ordonn."
The s e m e n , l i ke s o ma n y o t her s i n t he t wen t i et h c en t u r y , w er e t ry-
i n g t o es c a p e f r o m pol i t i c s . Thi s d i d n o t me a n , ho wev er , t ha t t hey
w e r e u n c o n c e r n e d wi t h p o w er r el a t i o ns hi p s . Far f r o m i t. The i r g o a l , a
k i n d o f t ec hn o c r a t i c s el f - c o l o n i z a t i o n , wa s t o d e v e l o p a n e w f o r m o f
p o w e r r el a t i o n s w he r e "hea l t hy " s oc i al , ec o n o mi c , a n d c ul t ur a l r el a -
t i o ns c o u l d u n f o l d . In t eg r a l i n t hi s s c heme wa s t he n e e d t o i n v en t a
n e w g o v er n men t a l i t y t hr o u g h whi c h t he (t o t hem) f at al l y d e c a d e n t
a n d i ndi v i dua l i s t i c t en d en c i es o f t he Fr en c h c o u l d be r es ha p ed . Th e y
c o n s t r u c t ed a n d a r t i c ul a t ed bo t h n e w r ep r es en t a t i o n s o f a m o d e r n o r -
d e r a n d t ec hn o l o g i es f or i ts i mp l emen t a t i o n . The s e r ep r es en t a t i o n s
a r e m o d e r n s oci al f act s .
Thi s p a p e r ha s o u t l i n ed s o me o f t he el emen t s o f t he d i s c o u r s es
a n d p r a c t i c es o f m o d e r n r ep r es en t a t i o n . Th e r el a t i o n s hi p o f t hi s
a na l y s i s t o pol i t i c al p r a c t i c e ha s be e n o n l y g l a n c i n g l y t o u c he d o n .
Wha t , ho w, a n d w ho mi g ht be r ep r es en t ed by t ho s e ho l d i n g a s i mi l a r
v i ew o f t hi n g s es c a p es f r o m o u r mo r e s t a n d a r d c a t eg o r i es o f s oc i al
a c t o r s a n d pol i t i c a l r het o r i c . I n c l o s i ng , I s i mp l y ma r k t he s p a c e.
Fo uc a ul t , r e s p o n d i n g t o t he c ha r g e t ha t by r ef u s i n g t o af f i l i at e hi ms el f
wi t h a n a l r ea d y i dent i f i ed a n d pol i t i cal l y l oc a t a bl e g r o u p he f o r f ei t ed
a n y c l a i ms t o r ep r es en t a n y bo d y o r a n y v a l u es , a n s wer ed : "Ror t y
p o i n t s o u t t ha t i n t hes e a na l y s es I d o n o t a p p ea l t o a n y ' we' t o a n y o f
t ho s e ' we' s' w ho s e c o n s en s u s , w ho s e v a l ues , w ho s e t r a di t i o ns c o n s t i t u t e
t he f r a me w o r k f o r a t ho u g ht a n d d e hn e t he c o n d i t i o n s i n w hi c h i t c a n
be v a l i d a t ed . Bu t t he p r o bl em i s, pr ec i s el y t o d ec i d e i f it is a c t ua l l y
s ui t a bl e t o p l a c e o n es el f wi t hi n a ' we' i n o r d er t o a s s er t t he p r i n c i p l es
o n e r ec o g n i z es a n d t he v a l u es o n e a c c ep t s ; o r i f it is n o t , r a t her , n ec es -
s a r y t o m a k e t he f u t u r e f o r ma t i o n o f a ' we' po s s i bl e" ( 19 84: 385 ) .
I would li ke to than k Talal Asad, James Faubi on, Stephen Foster, Mi chae l Rogi n ,
Mari l yn Strathe rn , an d the parti ci pants i n the Santa Fe semi nar. The usual disclaimers
apply. Paragraphs of this arti cle have appe are d elsewhere.
GEORGE E. MARCUS
Afterword: Ethnographic Writing
and Anthropological Careers
If you want to understand what a science is, you should look
in the first instance not at its theories or its findings, and
certainly not at what its apologists say about it; you should
look at what the practitioners of it do.
CLI FFORD GEERTZ , The Interpretation of Cultures
T h e t ask o f t he Sant a Fe s e mi na r f r o m whi c h t he s e es s ays
e me r g e d was t o i n t r o d u c e a l i t erary c o ns c i o us ne s s t o e t h n o g r a p h i c
pr ac t i c e by s h o wi n g var i ous ways i n whi c h e t h n o g r a p h i e s can be r e a d
a n d wr i t t e n. Wh a t we ha v e sai d a bo ut t he e nt e r pr i s e o f r e p r e s e n t i n g
s oc i e t y a n d c ul t ur e wo u l d no t be ne ws i n t he c o mp l e x de ba t e s o f c o n -
t e mp o r a r y l i t erary t he or y, o n e ma j o r t hr us t o f wh i c h has b e e n t o
t r a n s f o r m l i t erary cri t i ci s m i nt o a mo r e e n c o mp a s s i n g c ul t ur al cri ti -
c i s m. For t unat e l y, we di d no t ha v e t o e n t e r t o o far i nt o t he t hi c ke t s o f
t h e s e o f t e n c o n v o l u t e d a n d t echni cal de ba t e s t o ha v e a t he r a pe ut i c
e ffe c t o n a nt hr o po l o g i c a l pr ac t i t i one r s o f e t h n o g r a p h y . T h e y are
mo r e s e l f- c ons c i ous t han e v e r be f o r e t hat t he y are wri t ers wh o , as ma -
t ur i ng pr o f e s s i o na l s , r out i ne l y o u t g r o w t he mo d e l s o f e t h n o g r a p h y by
wh i c h t he y we r e i n d u c t e d i nt o a nt hr o po l o g y .
T h e que s t i o n for t he a nt hr o po l o g i s t i s, t he n, h o w c o ns e que nt i a l
t hi s l i t erary t he r a py s h o u l d b e d o e s it me r e l y a d d a n e w cri t i cal a p-
pr e c i a t i o n o f e t h n o g r a p h y , whi c h o n e c an t ake o r l e ave i n r e a d i n g a n d
wr i t i ng e t h n o g r a p h i c a c c o unt s , o r d o e s it cl ear t he way for r e c o n c e p -
t ua l i z i ng a nt hr o po l o g i c a l c ar e e r s a n d val or i z i ng i nno v a t i o ns i n s t rat e-
g i e s f o r pr oj e c t s t hat l i nk fieldwork a n d wr i t i ng? Hi s t ory, f o r e x a mp l e ,
has l o n g h a d an i nt e r nal di s c o ur s e ( t he s peci al t y o f hi s t o r i o g r a phy )
t hat ha s v i e we d its me t h o d as wr i t i ng, and a n u mb e r o f r e c e nt wo r ks
( mo s t p r o mi n e n t l y , Whi t e 1973) have s o u g h t t o gi ve t hi s di s c o ur s e a
di s t i nct l y l i t erary cast, as we have t ri ed t o d o he r e for a c o ns i de r a t i o n
o f e t h n o g r a p h y . Ho we v e r , t he pot ent i al l y radi cal i nf l ue nc e s uc h l i ter-
Aft erword 263
ary t h e r a p y mi g h t ha v e ha d o n t he pract i ce o f hi s t or i ans has b e e n c o n -
t a i ne d wi t hi n t he r e c o g ni t i o n o f "a narrat i ve p e r s p e c t i v e " o n e val i d
way o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g hi s t ori cal wri t i ng, but har dl y mo r e t h a n t hat .
T h e c o mi n g o f a l i t erary c o ns c i o us ne s s t o e t h n o g r a p h y p r o mi s e s t o be
s o me wh a t mo r e e v e nt f ul , no t onl y be c a us e t he s al i e nc e o f wr i t i ng as
pr o f e s s i o na l act i vi t y has ne v e r b e e n as mu c h o f a c o mmo n p l a c e i n a n-
t h r o p o l o g y as it has b e e n i n hi s t ory, but al s o be c a us e t hi s arri val o c c ur s
at a mo me n t wh e n t he l ar ge r t heoret i cal proj ect o f t we nt i e t h- c e nt ur y
s oci al a n d c ul t ur al a n t h r o p o l o g y is i n di sarray, l e avi ng di s c i pl i nar y d e -
bat e s t o f o c us u p o n a n d pr o bl e ma t i z e bo t h t he t e xt ual e x p r e s s i o n s o f
k n o wl e d g e a n d t he c ar e e r pr oc e s s t hat g e ne r a t e s t h e m. An d i n t hi s
l i t erary t r e a t me n t o f e t h n o g r a p h y mo r e is at s t ake t ha n t he me r e d e -
mys t i fi c at i on o f pas t d o mi n a n t c o n v e n t i o n s o f r e pr e s e nt a t i o n. Ra t he r ,
s u c h a c r i t i que l e gi t i mat e s e x p e r i me n t a t i o n a nd a s e ar c h for o p t i o n s
i n r e s e a r c h a n d wr i t i ng acti vi ty, whi c h wo u l d be e qua l t o t he c l ai ms
a n d a mbi t i o ns o f t he i nfl uent i al i nt e r pr e t i ve st yl es o f anal ys i s i n c o n-
t e mp o r a r y a nt hr o po l o g i c a l t h o u g h t .
My i nt e nt i o n is t hus t o vi ew, h o we v e r s chemat i cal l y, t he ma j o r c o n -
c e r n o f t he s e mi n a r wi t h e t h n o g r a p h i c wr i t i ng i n t he t ypi cal c a r e e r
c o n t e x t o f c o n t e mp o r a r y a nt hr o po l o g i s t s . A ful l anal ys i s i n t hi s v e i n
wo u l d rel at e t he i s s ues r ai s e d i n t he s e mi na r pa pe r s t o a de t a i l e d e t h-
n o g r a p h i c c o ns i de r a t i o n o f t he pr ofe s s i onal c ul t ur e o f a n t h r o p o l o g y
i tsel f, wh i c h Paul Ra bi no w has c al l e d for.
Mo s t o f t he a nt hr o po l o g i s t s i n t he s e mi na r p r e s e n t e d t h e ms e l v e s
as r e a d e r s o f e t h n o g r a p h y , a n d mai nl y o f i nfl uent i al cl assi cs r a t he r
t h a n o f c ur r e nt , l ess e s t abl i s he d, a nd s e l f- c ons c i ous l y e x p e r i me n t a l
wo r ks . Wh a t t hi s p e r s o n a as r e a de r s o bs c ur e d was t he fact t hat t he y,
l i ke all pr o f e s s i o na l s oc i oc ul t ur al a nt hr o po l o g i s t s , we r e equal l y, i f n o t
pr i mar i l y, wr i t e r s o f e t h n o g r a p h y , a n d a c c o mp l i s h e d o n e s at t hat . Al l
t he a n t h r o p o l o g i s t par t i c i pant s i n t he s e mi na r h a d p u b l i s h e d e t h-
n o g r a p h i c wo r ks b e y o n d a di s s e r t at i on, a n d we r e i nv o l v e d i n wr i t i ng
pr oj e c t s qui t e di ffe r e nt f r o m t he wo r k t hat h a d l a u n c h e d t hei r pr o f e s -
s i onal c a r e e r s . An s we r s t o my cas ual que s t i o n "What are y o u wo r k i n g
o n n o w? " i n c o nv e r s a t i o ns b e t we e n s e mi na r s e s s i ons r e v e a l e d a r e -
ma r k a b l e di vers i t y o f proj ect s , all e v o l v i ng i n o n e way o r a n o t h e r f r o m
t he i nt e l l e c t ual l e s s ons e a c h par t i c i pant h a d de r i v e d f r o m hi s i ni t i al
e x p e r i e n c e o f e t h n o g r a p h i c wr i t i ng as i mp o s e d pr ofe s s i onal t r ai ni ng.
I c a me t o s e e t he pa pe r s t hat we r e p r e s e n t e d a n d di s c us s e d as r e -
fl e c t i ons o f t he i r aut hor s ' be hi nd- t he - s c e ne s e v o l ut i o ns f r o m, a n d re-
ac t i ons t o, t he i r i ni t i at ory e x p e r i e n c e s as e t h n o g r a p h i c wri t ers . It is
t hus i mp o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t hat t he expl i ci t c o nc e r ns o f t he s e mi -
nar' s p a p e r s wi t h r e a d i n g pas t a n d pr e s e nt e t h n o g r a p h i e s i n t e r ms o f
t he i r r he t or i c al de v i c e s a nd l i t erary c ons t r uc t i on d o no t ari s e pri -
264 GEORGE E. MARCUS
mar i l y e i t he r f r o m t he s t i mul at i on o f pos t - s t ruct ural i s t l i t erary t h e o -
ri st s, o r f r o m a de s i r e t o a s s u me t he r ol e o f cri ti c as di s t i nc t f r o m
wr i t e r i n t h e g e n r e cri t i ci zed ( a l t ho ug h a c e nt r al cl ai m i n c o n t e mp o -
rary l i t e r ar y t he or y, e x p r e s s e d by Ge offr e y Ha r t ma n [1980], a mo n g
o t he r s , is t hat cri t i cal di s c o ur s e has a c hi e v e d, o r s h o u l d as pi r e t o, t he
s t at us o f t h e l i t e r at ur e t hat i s t he obj ect o f cri t i ci s m) . Ra t he r , t he i mp e -
t us for t he s e mi nar ' s r e a di ng s o f e t h n o g r a p h y i n a l i t erary mo d e d e -
r i ve s mo s t s t r o ng l y f r o m t he p r e d i c a me n t s o f t he par t i c i pant s as act i ve
r e s e a r c he r s a n d wri t ers , t r ai ne d i n t he a nt hr o po l o g i c a l t r adi t i on o f
e t h n o g r a p h i c pr ac t i c e a n d ac ut e l y awar e o f t he cri t i ques o f its c o n v e n -
t i ons t hat ha v e b e e n d e v e l o p i n g s i nc e t he 1960s. Re mo v i n g t he c o n -
s t r i c t i ons o n t he ways o f r e a d i n g pas t e t h n o g r a p h y , a nd t hus e x p o s i n g
f o r g o t t e n or u n n o t i c e d pos s i bi l i t i es i n it, is a ne c e s s ar y a n d nat ur al
c o n c o mi t a n t t o t he pr e s e nt e x p e r i me n t a l mo me n t , whi c h e n c o u r a g e s
a di ve r s i t y o f s t r at e gi e s a n d i nfl ue nc e s i n t he wri t i ng pr oj e c t s o f b o t h
o l de r a n d y o u n g e r a nt hr o po l o g i s t s ( see Ma r c us a nd Fi s c he r 1986).
T h o u g h s o me o f my mo s t val uabl e i ns i ght s t hus c a me i n e ffe c t
f r o m t he tal k b e t we e n s e s s i ons , I d o not i nt e nd f ur t he r t o r e ve al t hi s
ma s k e d s i de o f t he s e mi na r by ma t c h i n g part i ci pant s ' c u r r e n t wr i t i ng
pr oj e c t s , as I u n d e r s t a n d t h e m, agai ns t wha t t he y ha v e h a d t o say as
cri t i cal r e a de r s o f e t h n o g r a p h y . I ns t e ad, I wa nt t o s u g g e s t h o w t he
c u r r e n t t r e n d o f s e l f- c ons c i ous e x p e r i me n t a t i o n a nd di vers i t y o f wri t -
i ng pr oj e c t s i n a n t h r o p o l o g y mi g h t de r i v e f r o m t he c ons t i t ut i onal e x -
p e r i e n c e o f p r o d u c i n g a n e t h n o g r a p h i c a c c o unt i n t he c o ur s e o f o b -
t a i ni ng pr o f e s s i o na l c r e de nt i al s .
Re g a r dl e s s o f wh e t h e r a nt hr o po l o g i s t s e v e r publ i s h mo n o g r a p h s
a n d ma n y ne v e r d o mo s t c ar e e r s be g i n wi t h a n e t h n o g r a p h i c re-
s e a r c h pr o c e s s t hat i n all its pha s e s i nvol ve s de s c r i pt i ve - i nt e r pr e t i ve
wr i t i ng a n d t he appl i c at i ons o f t e c hni que s for t he r e pr e s e nt a t i o n o f
s oci al a n d cul t ural l i fe. Al t h o u g h t he i ni ti al e t h n o g r a p h i c e x p e r i e n c e
s e r ve s i nac c ur at e l y as t he act ual mo d e l o f pr o f e s s i o na l craft p r e s u m-
abl y t o b e r e p e a t e d t h r o u g h o u t a c ar e e r , it d o e s s h a p e t he c o g ni t i v e
t e r ms i n wh i c h a nt hr o po l o g i s t s t hi nk a n d s pe a k a bo ut t he i r r e s e a r c h
pr oj e c t s . T h e s e are s e g me n t e d pr i mar i l y as pe r i o ds o f fieldwork e n -
c o mp a s s e d as e t h n o g r a p h i c wr i t i ng proj ect s . T h e i ma g e o r c o n c e p t o f
wo r k t o wa r d "an e t h n o g r a p h y " is ve r y s t r o ng i n d e e d i n t he way a n-
t hr o po l o g i s t s t hi nk a bo ut a n d di s c us s t hei r c ar e e r proj ect s , h o we v e r
c a r e e r s o f wr i t i ng are i n fact pl a y e d out .
Te x t ua l i z a t i o n is at t he he ar t o f t he e t h n o g r a p h i c e nt e r pr i s e , b o t h
i n t he field a n d i n uni ve r s i t y s et t i ngs . I n a n i mpo r t a nt s e ns e , fieldwork
is s y n o n y mo u s wi t h t he acti vi ty o f i ns c r i bi ng di ve r s e c o nt e x t s o f oral
di s c o ur s e t h r o u g h field no t e s a nd r e c o r di ng s . Unl i ke hi s t ori cal re-
s e a r c h ( wi t h t he e x c e p t i o n o f oral hi s t ory) , e t h n o g r a p h y o r i g i na t e s i n
Aft erword 265
oral i t y a n d o nl y ma k e s t he t r ans i t i on t o wr i t i ng wi t h di ffi cul t y. Mu c h
o f t he c r i t i que o f d o mi n a n t c o n v e n t i o n s o f e t h n o g r a p h i c r e al i s m, as
wel l as al t e r nat i ve s t o t h e m, t hus ari s es f r o m r e fl e c t i ons o n t he o r i g i ns
o f a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l k n o wl e d g e i n t hi s pr i mar y pr o c e s s o f t e xt ual i z a-
t i on. T h e e t h n o g r a p h i c task as o n e o f i ns c r i pt i on, s t rat egi es o f r e p r e -
s e n t i n g d i a l o g u e i n e t h n o g r a p h i c a c c o unt s , a n d obj e c t i ons t o t he n o -
t i on o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i t s el f we r e i s s ues t hat r e c ur r e d t h r o u g h o u t t he
s e mi n a r di s c us s i o ns , e s pe c i al l y as t he y we r e f o r mu l a t e d i n t he p a p e r s
by Cl i ffor d a n d Tyl e r .
T h e a nt hr o po l o g i c a l di s s e r t at i on, t ypi cal l y a s t r a i g ht f o r wa r d ana-
l yt i cal a n d de s c r i pt i ve a c c o unt f r o m fieldwork, is t he e t h n o g r a p h y
t hat mo s t a nt hr o po l o g i s t s mus t wri t e. Si nc e t he g r a nt i ng o f pr o f e s -
s i onal c r e de nt i a l s has d e p e n d e d o n its e val uat i on, it has t e n d e d t o be a
c o ns e r v a t i v e e xe r c i s e . It is i n t u r n i n g t he di s s e r t at i on i nt o a p u b l i s h e d
mo n o g r a p h o r s eri es o f art i cl es t hat c ar e e r di r e c t i ons are d e t e r mi n e d
o n a n u mb e r o f l evel s . For o n e t hi ng , r e put a t i o ns a n d t e n u r e d e p e n d
o n wr i t i ng b e y o n d t he di s s e r t at i on. On a mo r e pe r s o na l l evel o f i nt el -
l ect ual d e v e l o p me n t , t he t r a ns f o r ma t i o n o f t he di s s e r t at i on, a n d t he
t e x t ua l i z e d field mat e r i al s o n whi c h it is bas e d, i nt o o t h e r wr i t t e n ve r -
s i o ns e mb o d i e s a r e ac t i on t o t he t r ai ni ng mo d e l o f e t h n o g r a p h i c pr ac -
t i ce. I n t hi s t r a ns f o r ma t i o n, o n e is fr e e r t o t ake ri sks a n d al s o mo r e
s ubj e c t t o i nt e r t e x t ua l i t y t ha t i s, wr i t i ng u n d e r t he i nf l ue nc e of, a n d
wi t h t he de s i r e t o i nf l ue nc e , o t he r wri t ers . Amo n g r e c e nt g e n e r a t i o n s
o f a nt hr o po l o g i s t s , t he n e w "cl assi cs, " part i cul ar e t h n o g r a p h i e s t hat
c o me t o b e r e c e i v e d as t o ke ns o f a n i de al i z e d i ma g e o f wha t t he pr ac -
t i ce o f a n t h r o p o l o g y s h o u l d e x e mpl i f y , de r i ve pr i mar i l y f r o m wr i t i ng
i n r e a c t i o n t o t he i ni t i at ory t r ai ni ng e x p e r i e n c e .
Af f e c t e d by t he g e ne r a l i nt el l ect ual mo o d o f t he p e r i o d i n whi c h it
o c c u r s , t h e i ni t i al e x p e r i e n c e o f p r o d u c i n g a n a c c o unt for pr o f e s -
s i onal qual i fi c at i on c a n be pe r s onal l y r e c o nf i r me d, qui et l y mo di f i e d,
s t r e n u o u s l y cri t i ci zed, o r e v e n rej ect ed i n t he var i e d o u t c o me s o f at-
t e mp t s t o r e wr i t e t he c ons e r vat i ve t r ai ni ng mo d e l o f e t h n o g r a p h y .
T h e g e n e r a l mo o d n o w b e i n g r e fl e xi ve a n d sel f- cri t i cal , di s s e r t at i on
c o n v e n t i o n s ar e p e r h a p s l ess c ons e r vat i ve , but t he l e gi t i mat e array o f
o p t i o n s i n t he p r o d u c t i o n o f publ i s he d a c c o unt s is al s o mo r e e x t e n -
si ve. P r o d u c i n g a n e t h n o g r a p h i c a c c o unt f r o m fieldwork ma y still oc -
c u p y i t s s e mi n a l r ol e i n i na ug ur a t i ng c ar e e r s a n d c r e a t i ng a c e r t a i n
i de o l o g i c a l c o mmu n i t y o f s ha r e d e x p e r i e n c e a mo n g a nt hr o po l o g i s t s ,
b u t it c a n n o l o n g e r be s o easi l y u n d e r s t o o d s i mpl y as t he de fi ni t i ve
mo d e l o f c r aft t o be r e p e a t e d i n a c ar e e r o f r e s e ar c h. I n ma n y c ar e e r s ,
t he ki nd o f t e x t o n e p r o d u c e s , o r fai l s t o p r o d u c e , f o l l o wi ng t he di s -
s e r t at i on is f o r ma t i v e o f t he f ut ur e wr i t i ng proj ect s o n e u n d e r t a k e s .
Of t e n as n o t t he s e de pa r t i n i nt e r e s t i ng ways f r o m di s s e r t at i on e t h-
266
GEORGE E. MARCUS
n o g r a p h y , e s pe c i al l y i n t he t e xt ual us e s ma d e o f t he c o r pus o f field
mat e r i al .
It has pr o ba bl y al ways b e e n t he cas e t hat t he i ni ti al e x p e r i e n c e o f
e t h n o g r a p h i c wr i t i ng has b e e n c ons t i t ut i onal a n d e x p e r i me n t a l i n t he
c o n t e x t o f r e s e a r c h c ar e e r s , e v e n a mo n g t he p i o n e e r i n g e x e mp l a r s o f
mo d e r n e t h n o g r a p h i c pract i ce, s uc h as Mal i nows ki , Ev a ns - Pr i t c ha r d,
a n d Fi rt h, a n d cert ai nl y for s u c c e e d i n g g e ne r a t i o ns o f a n t h r o p o l o -
gi s t s w h o ha v e c o n t i n u e d t o r e g a r d cert ai n o f t he former' s t ext s ca-
noni c al l y. Ho we v e r , t he e t h n o g r a p h y f o r g e d f r o m a pos t - di s s e r t at i on
a t t e mp t t o r e wr i t e mat e r i al by put t i ng a mo r e pe r s o na l s t a mp o n it is
i n ma n y c a r e e r s a o ne - o f - a - ki nd p h e n o me n o n r at he r t ha n a s t a n d a r d
p r o d u c t . S o me di s t i ng ui s he d c ar e e r s have b e e n ma d e by t he c o nt i nua l
r e wr i t i ng o f or i gi nal field mat eri al s , a n d it is a c o mmo n o bs e r v a t i o n
t hat w h e n a nt hr o po l o g i s t s st art a s e c o n d proj ect a n d t hus b e g i n a ne w,
t he y ar e rarel y abl e t o ac hi e ve t he fr e s hne s s a nd i nt e ns i t y o f t he pr o j -
ect s t hat i n a u g u r a t e d t he i r c ar e e r s . Of t e n, t he mo s t i nt e r e s t i ng wr i t e r s
i n a n t h r o p o l o g y are t ho s e wh o , whi l e c o n t i n u i n g t o i nv o ke e t h n o -
g r a p h i c aut hor i t y a n d t o wo r k t h r o u g h e t h n o g r a p h i c det ai l i n t he i r
wr i t i ng , n e v e r try t o r e p r o d u c e t he ki nd o f t e xt t hat t he y wr o t e i n
r e s p o n s e t o t r ai ni ng, but r at he r a t t e mpt t o e x p l o r e l e s s ons g a i n e d
f r o m t hat e x p e r i e n c e , whi c h r e qui r e s di ffe r e nt f o r ms a nd s t yl es o f
e x p o s i t i o n .
A c e r t ai n i ma g e o f t he e t h n o g r a p h y is po we r f ul l y i nc ul c at e d by
i ni t i at or y r e s e a r c h t r ai ni ng a n d art i cul at ed i n a pr ofe s s i onal s oci al i z-
i n g di s c o ur s e t hat s pe aks a r o u n d its s ubj ect r at he r t ha n t o it ( y o u o nl y
k n o w a g o o d e t h n o g r a p h y wh e n y o u r e ad o n e , de s pi t e t he wi d e s p r e a d
s e n s e t hat t he r e are s t andar ds ) . Co ns e que nt l y , t he act ual di vers i t y a n d
p a t t e r n i n g o f a nt hr o po l o g i c a l c ar e e r s as t o t he i r t e xt ual p r o d u c t s ha v e
b e e n o b s c u r e d a n d l argel y u n e x a mi n e d . T h e wo r k o f t he s e mi na r was
t o unf i x , by l i t erary t he r apy, t he nar r ow f r a me s i n whi c h e t h n o g r a -
p h i e s ha v e t ypi cal l y b e e n r e ad. Th i s has b e e n by n o me a n s a h e r me t i c
o r na i v e e nt e r pr i s e , as s o me may fear, s i nc e t he c o n c e r n o f mu c h c o n -
t e mp o r a r y l i t erary cri t i ci s m is t o e x p o s e t he hi s t ori cal a n d pol i t i cal
c o n t e x t s o f wr i t i ng pr e c i s e l y t he d i me n s i o n s e t h n o g r a p h y o f a n i n-
t e r pr e t i v e b e n t has l o n g b e e n cri t i ci zed for e l i di ng or s ki rt i ng. But ,
b e y o n d t hi s cri t i cal f unc t i o n, o u r que s t i o ni ng o f t he part i cul ar mo d e s
o f real i s t de s c r i pt i o n i n c o n t e mp o r a r y a n t h r o p o l o g y c o ndi t i o ns t he
wr i t i ng s t r at e gi e s o f a nt hr o po l o g i s t s wh o c o n t i n u e t o l ook pr i mar i l y t o
t he e t h n o g r a p h i c t r adi t i on for bo t h l i mi t s a n d pos s i bi l i t i es . By cri ti -
c i s m o f t he t e r ms i n whi c h e t h n o g r a p h y has b e e n r e c e i v e d a n d by
al t e r nat i ve r e a di ng s o f e x e mp l a r y wor ks , we have t ri ed t o e x p o s e
pos s i bi l i t i e s i n pas t e t h n o g r a p h i c wr i t i ng t hat ma k e it r e l e vant t o t he
c u r r e n t s pi ri t o f e x p e r i me n t a t i o n .
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Notes on Contributors
TALAL ASAD t ea c hes i n t he De p a r t me n t o f So c i o l o g y a n d Soc i a l An -
t hr o p o l o g y at t he Un i v er s i t y o f Hu l l , En g l a n d . H e i s a n ed i t o r o f
Economy and Society, a n d ha s wr i t t en ex t en s i v el y o n t heo r i es o f rel i -
g i o n , o n i d eo l o g y , a n d o n t he r el a t i o n s hi p o f a n t hr o p o l o g y t o c o l o -
n i a l i s m. Hi s p r es en t r es ea r c h is c en t er ed o n med i ev a l Chr i s t i a ni t y ,
be i n g a c r i t i c al - hi s t or i c al i nv es t i g a t i o n o f t he bas i c c a t eg o r i es u n d e r -
l y i n g Wes t er n a n t hr o p o l o g i c a l c o n c ep t i o n s o f r el i g i o n.
JAMES CLIFFORD t ea c hes i n t he Hi s t o r y o f Co n s c i o u s n es s Pr o g r a m at
t he Un i v er s i t y o f Ca l i f o r ni a , Sa nt a Cr uz . H e is o n t he edi t o r i a l bo a r d
o f History of Anthropology, t he American Ethnologist, a n d Cultural An-
thropology. H e ha s wr i t t en ex t en s i v el y o n t he hi s t o r y o f mi s s i o n a r y
d i s c o u r s e, t r a v el wr i t i ng , et hn o g r a p hy , a n d mu s e u ms . A c o l l ec t i o n o f
hi s es s a y s o n t hes e t o pi c s wi l l a p p ea r i n t he n ea r f u t u r e.
VI NCENT CRAPANZANO is a m e m be r o f t he De p a r t me n t o f Co mp a r a -
t i v e Li t er a t u r e at Qu e e n s Co l l eg e, Ne w York, a n d t he De p a r t me n t o f
An t hr o p o l o g y at t he Ci t y Un i v er s i t y o f Ne w Yor k Gr a d u a t e Cen t er .
H e ha s p u bl i s hed n u m e r o u s wo r ks o n s pi ri t p o s s es s i o n ( pa r t i c ul a r l y
i n Mo r o c c o ) , o n p s y c ho a n a l y s i s , a n d o n t he wr i t i ng a n d ep i s t emo l o g y
o f e t hn o g r a p hy . Hi s mo s t r ec en t et hn o g r a p hi c s t udy is Waiting: The
Whites of South Africa (1985).
MI CHAEL M. J . FISCHER t ea c hes a n t hr o p o l o g y at Ri c e Un i v er s i t y i n
H o u s t o n , Tex a s . H e ha s wr i t t en o n t he Ir a n i a n r ev o l u t i o n , o n t heo -
r et i c a l p r o bl e ms i n i n t er p r et i v e a n t hr o p o l o g y , a n d o n m o d e r n rel i -
g i o u s a n d p o et i c mo v e me n t s i n t he Thi r d Wo r l d. Hi s mo s t r ec en t
bo o k, c o - a u t ho r e d by G e o r g e Ma r c u s , is Anthropology as Cultural Cri-
tique (1986). Hi s r ec en t f i el dwo r k f o c u s es o n i ndus t r i a l r el a t i o ns a n d
r el i g i o u s i d e o l o g y i n In d i a .
GEORGE E. MARCUS is c ha i r ma n o f t he De p a r t me n t o f An t hr o p o l o g y
at Ri c e Un i v er s i t y a n d ed i t o r o f Cultural Anthropology. H e ha s p u b-
296 Not es on Cont ri but ors
l i s hed s t u d i es o f el i t es i n Po l y nes i a a n d i n t he Un i t ed St at es , a n d ha s
wr i t t en o n t ex t u a l s t r a t eg i es i n et hn o g r a p hy . Hi s mo s t r ec en t bo o k i s
Anthropology as Cultural Critique, c o - a u t ho r ed by Mi c ha el Fi s c her ( s ee
a bo v e) . Hi s c u r r en t r es ea r c h c en t er s o n t he i n v en t i o n o f i d eo l o g i es
o f s u p er i o r i t y a m o n g u p p e r a n d mi d d l e c l as s es a mi d v i s i o ns o f d e-
c l i n e a n d dec a y .
MARY LOUISE PRATT is a m e m be r o f t he De p a r t me n t o f Sp a n i s h a n d
Po r t u g u e s e at St a n f o r d Uni v er s i t y . She ha s p u bl i s hed wi d el y o n
s p eec h- a c t t heo r y a n d d i s c o u r s e anal ys i s . An ed i t o r o f Tabloid, s he i s
a c t i v el y c o n c e r n e d wi t h p o p u l a r c u l t u r e a n d i d eo l o g y . Cu r r en t l y s he
i s c o mp l e t i n g a bo o k o n t he hi s t ory, r het o r i c , a n d pol i t i c s o f t ravel
wr i t i n g , wi t h p a r t i c ul a r f o c u s o n Af r i c a a n d La t i n Amer i c a f r o m t he
e i g ht e e n t h t o t he t wen t i et h c ent ur y .
PAUL RABINOW t ea c hes a n t hr o p o l o g y at t he Uni v er s i t y o f Ca l i f o r ni a ,
Ber kel ey . H e ha s p u bl i s hed bo o ks o n p o w er a n d s y mbo l i s m i n Mo -
r o c c o , o n fieldwork, o n i n t er p r et i v e s oci al s c i enc e, a n d o n Mi c hel
Fo uc a ul t . H e is c u r r en t l y c o mp l et i n g a s t udy o f m o d e r n f o r ms o f p o -
l i t i cal r a t i ona l i t y i n Fr a nc e a n d t he Fr en c h c o l o n i es be t w e e n t he t wo
w o r l d wa r s .
RENATO ROSALDO is a m e m be r o f t he De p a r t me n t o f An t hr o p o l o g y
at St a n f o r d Uni v er s i t y . H e ha s wr i t t en wi del y o n t he s t a t us o f hi s t o r y
i n a n t hr o p o l o g i c a l wo r k, o n d i s c o u r s es o f d o mi n a t i o n i n t he Phi l -
i p p i n es , o n Ma y a n a n d Chi c a n o s t udi es . H e is c u r r en t l y finishing a
c o l l ec t i o n o f es s a y s o n et hn o g r a p hi c r het o r i c s a n d s t r a t eg i es , r et hi n k-
i n g t he r o l e o f ex p er i en c e a n d e mo t i o n i n c ul t ur a l i n t er p r et a t i o n .
STEPHEN A. TYLER t ea c hes a n t hr o p o l o g y at Ri c e Uni v er s i t y . H e ha s
wr i t t en ex t en s i v el y o n c o g n i t i v e a n d l i ng ui s t i c a n t hr o p o l o g y . Hi s
p r es en t wo r k ex p l o r es t he pos s i bi l i t i es o f a p o s t - mo d e r n e t hn o g r a p hi c
p o et i c s , wi t h s pec i a l emp ha s i s o n or al vs . l i t er a t e mo d e s a n d o n t he
wr i t i n g o f i n d i g e n o u s c o l l a bo r a t o r s . H e is p r ep a r i n g a n e w bo o k
en t i t l ed What Laksmayya Wrote: Koya Ethnographic Texts.
Publ i cati ons by each cont ri but or are listed in the Bi bl i ography.
Index
Adorn o, The odor, 131, 132, 191
Advances in Social Theory and Meth-
odology, 16911
Aestheti c i n te grati on , 125, 132
Afri ca, 9, 35, 40, 93, 116, 192, 2 16 - 17 .
See also Evan s-Pri tchard, Edward E.;
!Kung; Morocco
Afrique fantme, 13
Afro-Ame ri can s, 201, 20 2-311, 2 13 - 18
Agn on , Shn ui e l, 232
Akwe-Shavante Society, 31, 40 - 41
Alge ri a, 192
Alle gory, 67 - 68, 75. 9 8- 12 1, 122,
127 - 28, 132, 198
Allochron i c representati ons, 111
Alphabe ti c wri ti n g, 117
Alte r, Robe rt, 231
Aluri sta (Albe rto Uri sta), 220
Ambi gui ty, 13 5 - 3 6
Ame ri ca. See Un i te d States
American Anthropologist, 28
American Ethnologist, 112
American Immigrants in Israel, 196
Ame ri n di an s, 1 i 5 n, 201, 202 n, 211,
212, 224- 29 . See also Man dan
I n di an s; Yan omamo
An achron i sm, 83
An archo-rati on ali sm, 238
An aya, Rudol fo, 219, 221
An ge l ou, Maya, 203 n
An gl o-Ame ri can i de nti ty, 229
An gl o-Ame ri can thought, 166, 16711,
169. See also Bri ti sh academics
Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter, 9
An xi e ty, e thn i c, 19 7 - 9 8, 2046
Arabi c, 158
Archae ology, 4
Archaelogy of Knowledge, 238
Are n dt , Han n ah, 231
Argoiiauts of the Western Pacific, 12, 27,
. 37 - 38
Ari as, Ron , 219, 221 22
Ari stotle , 13 3 - 3 4, 235
"Ari zon a Hi ghways," 228
Ar l e n , Mi chae l, 195, 20 4-7
Arme n i an -Ame ri can s, 201, 20 4-7, 21
Arri val stories, 13; by Barrow, 47; by
Bougai n vi lle , 35, 36- 37 , 47; by
Evan s-Pri tchard, 39-40 ; by Fi rth,
3536; by Ge e rtz, 69 - 7 0 ; by Mal i -
nowski , 3 7 - 3 8; by Maybury-Le wi s,
4041; by Shostak, 42- 44, 45, 47
Art, 3, 4, 5 - 6
Asad, Talal, 9, 9711, 251, 261 n; on alle-
gori es, 119 ; on cultural translati on,
19, 22, 24, 141 - 6 4
Austi n , J. L., 144
Authori ty, 6, 15, 32, 118, 163, 189, 243
244- 47 ; i " "De e p Play," 53, 74, 76,
244; i n Iran, 192; i n Manners, Cus-
toms, and Conditions, 53, 57, 58,
5 9 - 60 , 76; i n Montaillou, 77, 7 8 -
81, 82; i n Nuer, 41, 77, 88-89, 90,
92; i n Roman Carnival, 53, 68n , 76
Autobi ography, 195, 197, 19 8-233
Autobiography of Malcolm X, 20311
Avruch, Ke vi n , 196
Azan de , 90
Babcock, Barbara, 2611
Bake r, Tan ya, 16411
Bakhti n , Mi khai l , 15, 64 n, 67, 246
Balan di e r, Georges, 8, g, 14
Bali nese cockfi ght, 5 3 - 5 4, 68- 7 6, 244
Barrio Boy, 219 - 20 , 221
Barrow, John , 46, 47
Barthe s, Rolan d, 1, 12, 105
Barton , Roy-Fran kli n , 31
Basti an, Adol ph, 112
Bate son, Gre gory, 19 2- 9 3
Baude lai re , Charle s, 56
Baumgarte n , Murray, 198, 2 3 1- 3 2
Be atti e , John , 142
Be aujour, Mi che l, 99
Beaver I n di an s, H 5 n
Be drosi an , Margare t, 20 5m 206, 207
2 9 8
Index
Belief, Language, and Experience, 143
Beneath the Underdog, 202, 2 1 3 - 1 5
Benedict, Ruth, 3, 4, 102
Benj amin, Walter, 131, 194- 95n, 198,
221; on allegory, 119; on transla-
tion, 51, 52, 156, 157, 159
Benveniste, Emile, 71
Berbers, Moroccan, 1 53- 55
Berger, Harry, 1 2 1 1 1
Bernstein, Michael Andr, 68 n
Bernstein, Richard J., i 66n
Bertaux, Daniel, i 76n, 17711
Bertaux-Wiame, Isabelle, i 76n, i 77n
Beyond Greed, 1 7 1 - 7 2
Beyond Objectivism and Relativism, i 66n
Bialik, Chaim Nachman, 198
Bible, 127
Bifocality, i gg, 21318, 233
Biocca, Ettore, 28n
Biographies, i g7
Biological anthropology, 4
Birmingham Centre for Contemporary
Cultural Studies, 23
Blacks, 9, 201, 202-311, 2 1 3 - 1 8
Bless Me Ultima, 221
Bloom, Harol d, 135, i gsn, 231
Boas, Franz, 4, 113
Bogard, Abraham, 55, 60
Bohannan, Laura, 13
Borges, Jorge Luis, 232
Bougainville, Louis de, 35, 36- 37, 47
Bourdieu, Pierre, 3, 169, 212, 252
Bouvard et Pcuchet, 243
Bowen, Elenore Smith, 1, 13
Briggs. J
e a n
> H
British academics, 1 7 - 1 8 , 89, 1 1 1 ,
1 4 1 - 6 4 , 166, 169, 1 7 0 - 7 1 , 174
Brown, Claude, 203 n
Bruce-Nova, Juan, 223
Bcher, Henry, 11611
Buddhism, 199
Bulmer, Ralph, 136
Burce, Amy, 97 n
Burke, Kenneth, 1 1 , 96
Burton, Richard, 35, 40
Bushmen. See !Kung
Canguilhem, Georges, 238
Capitalism, 172- 86 passim, 241, 247,
248
Captives, images as, 38 j
Captivity of Hans Stade of Hesse, 33- 34
Carnival, Roman, 53, 54, 6o- 68, 75
Castaneda, Carlos, 28, 30
Castaway image, 38
Castro, Michael, 228, 229
Catlin, George, 53- 68 passim, 72, 74,
75. 76
Ceremony, 226- 27
Csaire, Aim, 9
Chagnon, Napoleon, 31
Chan, Jeffrey Paul, 203 n, 210, 2 1 1 - 1 2
Charity, excessive, 143, 146, 149, 150,
151, 1 52- 53
Chicanos. See Mexican-Americans
Chi n, Frank, 202, 203 n, 210, 211
Chinamen, 212
Chinatown, 211
Chinese-Americans, 201, 203 n,
208- 12
Cicourel, Aaron V., 23, i 6gn
Cisneros, Sandra, 219, 220
Civil rights movement, 203n
Clark, Terry, 11 n
Class culture, 178. See also Middle class;
Working class
Cleaver, Eldridge, 203 n
Clifford, James, 1- 26, 39n, 9711, 233 n,
265; on allegory, 9 8 - 1 2 1 ; critique
of, 242, 243- 47,
2
5' >
2
5
2
>
2
5 5 '
o n
narrative, 32, 100, 106
Cockfight, Balinese, 53- 54, 68- 76,
244
Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 101
Colonialism, 8- g, 10, 40- 41, 42,
2 5
2
- 5 3 .
2
5 9 - 6 i ; !Kung, 46- 47,
48, 49; Nuer and, 91, 93, 96
Colorado Historical Society, 16
Coming of Age in Samoa, 1023, 217
Communication, vs. representation,
123- 24
Communist Party, 227
"Concepts and Society," 143- 56
Context, 6, 1 5 1 - 5 3
Continental philosophy, 166, 236
Conversation, 236, 239
Cooperation, enthnographic, 126,
127- 28
Cosmopolitanism, 258
Country and the City, 113, 170
Crapanzano, Vincent, 6, 23- 24,
5 1 - 7 6 , 97n, 192; and dream-work,
212; and post-modernism, 136; and
transference, 208
Crawford, L., 55, 60
Crime and Punishment, 72, 73
Cultural anthropology, 4
Cultural criticism, 3, 23, 233, 262; in
autobiography, 195, 199, 201- 2,
21718, 230; and Willis study,
180-82
Culturalist allegories, 101, 102
Cultural poetics, 3, 12, 1 6 - 1 7 , 24, 26,
12526. See also Poetry, ethnic
autobiographical
Cultural translation. See Translation
In d ex
299
Culture, 5- 6, 15, 18, 19, 141, 1 70- 71 ,
1 7 8 - 7 9
"Culture, Genuine and Spurious," 114
Custer Died for Your Sins, 9
Damas, Lon, 9
Darkness in St. Louis Bearheart. 227- 28
Davis, Natalie, 3
Deacon, A. B., 117
de Beauvoir, Simone, 1 1 0
de Certeau, Michel, 3, 5
"Deep Play," 68- 76
Deep Throat, 68- 69
Defense. See Justification
Deferred meaning, i 94n
DeHolmes, Rebecca B., 28- 30
Deictics, 53, 58, 65- 66, 75
Delgado, Abelardo, 220- 21
Deloria, Vine, 9
De Man, Paul, 100, 110
Der Hovanessian, Diana, 203
Derrida, Jacques, 10, 1 1 7 - 1 8 , 128, 131,
194 " . 195,
2 2
9
Descartes, Ren, 235
Description, 5 1 - 7 6 , 81- 87, ' 66. 175;
allegory and, 100, 101; and nar-
rative, 28, 32- 33, 34- 35, 38- 39,
41, 45; post-modernism and, 130
3
1
' ' 37
Devil and Commodity Fetishism in South
America, 17611
Dewey, John, 236
Dialectics, negative, 132
Dialogue, 1 4 - 1 5 , 175, 244.
2
4 5 - 4
6
' .
feminism and, 255, 256; in post-
modern ethnography, 126, 132, 140
Diamond, Stanley, 9
Dickens, Charles, 246
Diderot, Denis, 12
Dilthey, Wilhelm, 10, i 95n
Dinka, 1 7 - 1 8
Discourse, 5, 1 1 - 1 9 , 27, 166, 251, 256;
cultural translation and, 145- 46,
160; post-modernism and, 122- 39
passim. See also Description; Nar-
rative; Rhetoric
Discourse on Language, 238
"Dislodging a World View," 21 n, 254
Dissertations, 265- 66
Divinity and Experience, 1 7 - 1 8
Dixon, John, i 64n
Domination, 12, 81, 88, 93, 96- 97,
255, 261. See also Politics/Power
Donner, Florinda, 2831, 38
Donzelot, Jacques, 260
Douglas, Mary, 3, 160
Dream-work, 20813
"Dumb Broad," 223
Dumont, Jean-Paul, 14, 31
Durkhei m, Emile, 145
Duvignaud, Jean, 3
Dwyer, Kevin, 245, 246, 251
Eagleton, Terry, 5
Ecology: Montaillou, 7879; Nuer,
87- 88
Elective Affinities, 76
Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, 145
Eliot, George, 114
Ellison, Ralph, 203 n
Engels, F., 174
Enlightenment, 147, 224n
Epistemology, 234- 41
Essays, modernist, 1 9 1 - 9 3
Ethics, 122, 126, 131, 136, 232- 33,
257.
2
58
Ethnicity, 22, 84- 85, 194- 233
"Ethnographe devant le colonialisme," 8
Ethnographie pastoral. See Pastoral
Europe, 120, 166, 236. See also Colo-
nialism; individual countries
Evangelical justification, 59
Evans-Pritchard, Edward E., 90, 142;
Nuer of, 32, 39- 42, 77- 78 , 83, 85,
8 7- 9 7, 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 161; Nuer Religion
of, go, 14950, 151
Evocation, 12, 99, 123- 39 passim,
185- 87, 189, 190
Explanation, 19, 59, 145, 150, 167
Exploitation, 260
Fabian, Johannes, 12, 33, 1 0 1 - 2 , 111
Fanshen, 18g
"Fantasia of the Library," 243, 250
Faubion, James, 261 n
Fay, Stephen, 1 7 1 - 7 2
Feld, Steven, 200
Feminism, 17, 18, 1 9 - 2 1 , 203; Jewish,
232; and Learning to Labour, 188;
Nisa and, 107- 8; Strathern on, 254,
25556.
2
5758; Zamora and, 223
Fenellosa, Ernest, 130
Feyerabend, Paul, 238
Fictions, 5, 6- 7, 243- 44
Fieldwork accounts, 1314, 27- 50,
109, 18g, 208, 253, 264; in Nisa,
42- 46, 106- 7,
1 0
9 .
m
Nuer, 32,
39- 42, 88- 93, 9
6
Fifth Horseman, 219
Figurative style, 5n
Films, nostalgia, 249- 50
Fingere, 6
First-Time, 78
Firth, Raymond, 13, 35- 36, 38- 39, 41,
150
Fischer, Eric, 233 n
3
Index
Index
301
Habermas, Jrgen, 125, 239. 248, 251
Hacking, I an, 234, 237- 39
Hal l , Stuart, 23
Hamilton, William, 133
Handler, Richard, 1 2 m
Haraway, Donna, 26n
"Harl em Montana," 228
Harmless People, 105
Hartman, Geoffrey, 264
Harvard Kalahari Project, 45, 48, 49,
105, 110
Hawthorne, N., 66
Hayes, I ra, 225
Headman and I, 31
Heidegger, Martin, 10, 236
Hermeneutics, 10, 166; in "Deep Play,"
75, 76; in Learning to Labour, 177,
183- 85; Rorty 011, 236, 238
Hermes, 51, 52- 53, 68, 76
Herodotus, 2
Heteroglossia, 246- 47
Hi dden meaning, 194-9511, 198
Hinojosa, Rolando, 219, 222
Hi nton, William, 189
Historical and Statistical information Re-
specting the History, Condition and
Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the
United States, 60
Historical ethnography, 3, 77
History, 3, 6, 8 - 1 1 , 24, 165- 66n, 189,
262- 63; allegories and, 1 0 1 - 2 ,
119; and gender, 17- . 18; Montaillou
and, 77; post-modernism and, 24n,
249; truth and, 237
Holism, 132- 33, 171, 188, 191, 192,
224
Homebase, 212
House Made of Dawn, 225- 26
House on Mango Street, 219
Humanism, 101, 102, 260
Humboldt, Alexander von, 60
Humor, 224- 30
Hunger of Memory, 219, 220
Hunt brothers, 172
Hymes, Dell, g
Hypotyposis, 53, 5 7 ~ 5
8
"I am Joaquin," 220
I d, 196
Identity, ethnic, 195- 96, i g7, 201, 211,
216, 217, 220, 228
Ideology, 240
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, 203 n
Ilongots, 16566n
I mmi grant novels, 195
Indians. See Amerindians
Indigenous ethnographers, 9. See also
Autobiography
"Language, Trut h, and Reason," 237
"Law of the Conditioned," 133
Leach, Edmund, 3, 142, 1 5 1 - 5 2
Learning to Labour, 169, 17388
Leavis, F. R., 142
Ledere, Grard, 9
Lee, Richard, 47, 48
Leiris, Michel, 8, 9, 13
Lele, 160- 61
Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel, 3, 77- 88,
93. 94. 95. 97
Lvinas, Emanuel, 194, 231
Lvi-Strauss, Claude, 3, 112, 12111,
199-200, 229
Lienhardt, Godfrey, 1 7 - 1 8 , 142, 145,
158- 59
Linguistics, 4, 10. See also Interlin-
guistics
Linton, Ralph, 141
Literacy, 117, 118
Literary approaches, 3- 4, 5- 6, 262-
63, 266
Literature, 5- 6, 138
Logic, 237
Lyautey, Hubert, 259, 260-61
Lyotard, Jean Franois, 125, 137, i g4n,
230, 249
Macro perspectives, 22, 165- 93,
2
5
]
>
258
Maj nep, Ian Saem, 136
Malinowski, Bronislaw, 1- 2, 3, 13, 27,
29, 37- 38, 112; and cultural trans-
lation, 1 4 1 - 4 2; diaries of, 14, 31,
92; narrative-description duality of,
35; and scientific ethnography, 39,
41 ; and tent, 1- 2, 92n
Manchila in the Promised Land, 203 n
Mandan Indians, 53, 54- 60, 72, 75, 76
Manners, Customs, and Conditions of the
North American Indians, 55, 56, 57,
58, 59, 60
Maps and Dreams, 11511
Maquet, Jacques, 9
Marcus, George E., 20, 22, 24, 26m
97 n, 156- 93, 26266
Mari n, Louis, 3
Marx, Karl, 207- 8
Marxism, 23, 170- 87 passim, 240
Massignon, Louis, 199
Master narrative, 24 n
Maurs, Guillaume, 86
Maury, Pierre, 86, 87, 95
Mauss, Marcel, 120
Maximilian of Neuwied, Prince, 60
Maybury-Lewis, David, 14, 31, 39,
40- 42
Mayhew, Henry, 23
Indochina, 259
Inscription, 99, 113, 116, 117, 118
Interdisciplinarity, 3
Interference, 219, 232
Interlinguistics, igsn, 202, 218- 20,
223
Interpretive anthropology, 167, 168 n,
169, 250, 256- 58; Clifford and,
242, 243, 245, 246; Fish on, 255;
Geertz and, 53, 7 5 - 7 6 , 242, 243,
256; Gellner and, 143- 44, 1 5 1 - 5 2
Inter-references, U)5n, 201, 202, 218
23, 230, 232
Intertextuality, 117, 19511, 202, 265
Invisible Man, 20311
Iran, 190
Irony, 1 1 1 - 1 2 , 121, 182- 83, 224-30
Israel, 196
Ualienische Reise (Italian Journey), 53, 61,
62, 63, 64
Jacobson, Roman, 10
James, Henry, 66, 68 n
Jameson, Fredric, 3, 19411, 247- 50,
252
Jewish-Americans, 231- 32
Justification, 58- 59, 123, 125, 145, 150
Kachins, 1 5 1 - 5 2
Kaluli, 200
Kant, I mmanuel , 23536
Kauffmann, Angelika, 63
Kenny, Maurice, 229
Ki m, Elaine, 211
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 196
King Lear, 72, 73
Kingsley, Mary, 35
Kingston, Maxine Hong, 195, 203 n,
20810, 211 12, 213
Kipp, J.", 55. 6
Kluckhohn, Clyde, 31
Knorr-Cetina, Karin, i 6gn, 177, 180,
182
Knowable community, 170
Knowledge, 23441
Kuhn, Thomas, 3, 234, 254
Kuklick, Henrika, 111
!Kung, 42- 49, 98- 99, 103- 9
Lacan, Jacques, i 95n, 250
Lafitau, Joseph Franois, 101
Lake Regions of Central Africa, 35, 40
Lakota Belief, 1 5 - 1 6 , 17
Lakota Myth, 16, 17
Lakota Society, 16, 17
Languages: inequality of, 15660, 164;
sciences of, 4, 10. See also Inter-
linguistics
Fischer, Michael M. J., 22, 23- 24, 9711,
121 n, 190, 194- 233
Fish, Stanley, 255, 256
Flaubert, G., 243, 246
Fletcher, Angus, 98 n, 100
Florcanto en Aztlan, 220
Foster, Stephen, 261 n
Foucault, Michel, u n , i 8n, 81, 19511,
234; on Flaubert, 243; on literature,
5; Panopticon of, g2; on power/
politics, 241, 260, 261; on thought,
238, 239- 40; on truth/falsity, 237,
238, 240- 41
Fournier, Jacques, 78, 79- 80, 81, 82,
88, 93'
France, 3, 9, 259
Frankenberg, Ruth, 26n
Freeman, Derek, 102- 3
Freud, Sigmund, 195 n, 196, 198
Frye, Northrop, 9 6n- g7n, 9811, 102
Functionalist!!, 1 4 1 - 4 2, 143- 45, ' 4
D
>
147- 48, 150, 183
Fussell, Paul, 89
Gabon, 116
Gadamer, Hans-Georg, I 9 5 n , 197, 246
Galarza, Ernesto, 219- 20, 221
Garfinkel, Harold, 23
Geertz, Clifford, 3, 35, 179, uj sn, 242,
243, 256, 262; on Balinese cock-
fight, 53, 68- 76, 244; on Evans-
Pritchard, 40, 93
Gelley, Alexander, 57- 58
Gellner, Ernest, 142, 143- 56, 162,
163- 64
Gender. See Men; Women
Genres, 6, 27, 188, 189- 90
German philosophy, 236
Gevirtz, Susan, 1 2 1 1 1
Giddens, Anthony, i 66n, 16g
Gift, 120
Ginzburg, Carlo, 3
Gluckman, Max, 143
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 53,
60- 68, 6g, 75, 76
Golden, Marita, i g5, i g6, 213, 2 1 5 - 1 8
Gonzales, Rudolpho "Corky," 220
Gordon, Deborah, 2 i n, 26n
Gorky, Arshile, 207, 231
Governmenlalky, 260, 261
Grammatology, 117
Great Transformation, 17374
Great War and Modern Memory, 89
Greek philosophers, 116, 133- 34, 235,
238
Greenblatt, Stephen, 3
Griaule, Marcel, 9
Guilt, 45- 46, 47
3 0 2
Index
Me ad, Margare t, 1, 3, 9, 13, 109; an d
Coming of Age in Samoa, 102 3,
2l
7'>
an d cultural cri ti ci sm, 217; an d
fe male domai n s, 18
Me an i n g, 5 3 - 5 4, 160 - 63, t 87 - 88
Me lan e si a, 115 n
Me lvi lle , He r man , 103
Me mory, 163, 197, 198, 201
Me n , 1 8 - 1 9 ; Asi an -Ame ri can , 2 1 1 - 1 2 ;
Di n ka, 1 7 - 1 8
Me n de l , Gre gor, 238
Mn i l , Re n , 9
Me xi can -Ame ri can s, 201, 215, 21823
Mi cro perspectives, 166- 67 , i 6gn, 170,
177, 180, 182, 193
Mi ddl e class, 174, 175, i 7 6n, 181- 86
passi m, 19192
Middlemarch, 114
Mi dwi fe ry, e thn ographi c, 180, 181
Migrations of the Heart, 195, 2 15 - 18
Mi n gus, Charli e , 202, 2 1 3 - 1 5
Mi tche ll, Davi d D., 60
Mi xe d-ge n re texts, 188, 189-90
Mode rn i sm, 21, 138- 39 , i68n, 19 0 -
93, 194n , 248
"Mode s of Thought, " 142, 15 8- 5 9
Momaday, N. Scott, 225 - 26
Mon ophon y. See Un i voci ty/Mon ophon y
Montaillou, 7 7 - 87 , 88, 93, 95
Mon te squi e u, C , 2
Mon toya, Jose, 218, 223
Morocco, 15 3 - 5 5 ,
2 1 2
>
2
59> 260 -61
Mpon gw, 116
Multi -locale e thn ography, 1 7 1 - 7 3 , 177
Murphy, Robe rt, 115
Myt h, 20011
Nambi kwara, 112
Names, 225
Narayan , Ki ri n , 9 7 n
Narrati ve , 24, 28- 47 , 165m 17 1, 172,
175, 263; allegory an d, 100; Ame r-
i n di an talk-story, 224-28; and de -
scri pti on, 28, 3 2 - 3 3 , 34- 35 , 3 8-
39, 41, 45; i n Italienische Reise, 53; i n
Montaillou, 88; i n Nisa, 42- 45 , 47,
106; i n Nuer, 3940, 41, 88-93, 94
Nati on ali ty, 84- 85 . See also Ethni ci ty
Natural hi story, 130 - 31
Navarro, Fats, 214
Naven, 19 2 - 19 3
Ne e dham, Rodn e y, 5, 143, i 64n
Ne gati ve dialectics, 132
Ngritude move me n t, 9
Ne usn e r, Jacob, 231
Ne wspape rs, 127
Newsweek, 28
New-York Commercial Advertiser, 55
Ni e l d, Ke i th, i 64n
Ni etzsche, Fri e dri ch, i 95n, 253
Ni ge ri a, 2 1 6 - 1 7
Ni n e s, Charle s, 15
Ni n e s, Ri chard, 15
Nisa, 42- 46, 9 8- 9 9 , 10 3- 9
Ni shan Shaman , 209
Novels, 114, 170, 195
Nuer, 32, 39 - 42, 7 7 - 7 8, 87 - 9 7 , 1 1 1 -
12, 161
Nuer Kinship and Marriage, 90
Nuer Religion, 90, 149 - 5 0 , 151
Obe yse ke re , Gan an ath, 207
Objecti vi ty, 13, 14, 63, 9 3- 9 5 , 237
"Objecti vi ty i n An thropology," 9
Occult, 134, i 9 4n
Odor, 11
Oglalas, 1 5 - 1 6
O-Ke e -Pa ce re mon y, 53, 5 4- 60 , 67 - 68,
72. 75
Olson , Charle s, 24
"On Ethn ographi c Authori ty, 245 - 47
On g, Walte r J., 10, 1 1 - 1 2 , 119, 131
Orali ty, 1 1 5 - 1 7 , 118, 128, 177, 184-
85, 2 2 1- 2 2 , 264- 65
Order of Things, 239
Ori e n tali sm, 12
Orti gue s, Edmon d, g
Orti z, Si mon , 224
Ort n e r, She rry B., 22n ,
Other Cultures, 142
Othe rn e ss, 23, 127 - 28, 142, i 6 7 - 6 8n
Outline of a Theory of Practice, 169
Oxf or d, 142
Ozi ck, Cyn thi a, 232
Pan n wi tz, Rudolf, 157
Pan opti con , g2
Pari s, 3
Park, Mun go, 35, 38
Park, Robe rt, 23
Parti ali ty, 7 - 8, 18, 24n, 25
Parti ci pant-obse rvati on, 13, 14, 38, 111,
183- 84; i n Eliot's novels, 114; i n
Manners, Customs, and Conditions, 57;
i n Nuer, 88, g2; i n Roman Carnival,
66- 67
Passage to Ararat, i g5 , 20 4-7
Pastiche, 249-50 , 252
Pastoral, 9 6- 9 7 , 110 , 1 1 3 - 1 6 , 1 1 8 - 1 9 ,
121 n; i n Montaillou, 86-87, 95>
9 6- 9 7 ; i n Nuer, 89, 95, 9 6- 9 7
Patterns of Culture, 102
Phaedrus, 117
Phe n ome n ology, 75, 166
Index
3 3
Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature, 234
Physical an thropology, 4
Pi cchi , De bra, 30
Pi ne Ri dge Si oux Reservati on, 1 5 - 1 6
Plato, 116, 133
Pocho, 219
Pocock, Davi d, 16162
Poetics, 232. See also Cul tural poetics
Poetry, ethni c autobi ographi cal, 21g,
22023,
2 2
8
Polanyi , Karl , 17374
Poli ti cal economy, 165 - 9 3,
2
5
1
- $
e e a
^
s 0
Capi tali sm
Political Systems of Highland. Burma,
1 5 1 - 5 2
Poli ti cs/Power, 6, 11, 1 7 - 1 8 , 24, 166,
239, 2 5 1- 6 1 passim; an d cultural
tran slati on , 15 2 - 5 3 , 163, 164;
Foucault on , 241, 260, 261; Mon-
taillou an d, 81, 88, 97; Nuer an d, 88,
9 1, 93, 96, 97, 111 ; rhe tori c of, 122,
125. See also Colon i ali sm; Fe mi ni sm;
Poli ti cal economy
Polyphony/Polyvocali ty, 15, 126, 127,
137, 203, 223, 246; i n Montaillou,
82; i n Nisa, 45, 10 4- 6, 109
Posi ti vi sm, 100, 166, 169, 184
Post-mode rn i sm, 21, 22- 23,
2
4, 1 2 2 -
40, 19 4- 233, 2 47 - 5 1, 252
"Postmode rn i sm an d Con sume r So-
ciety," 24750
Poun d, Ezra, 130
Power. See Poli ti cs/Power
Practi ce, 166, 169, 170, 177
Pragmati sm, 59
Pratt, Mary Loui se, 11, 13, 24, 27 - 5 0 ,
9 7 "
Prsence Africaine, 9
Pri ce , Ri chard, 7 - 8
Prost, He n r i , 260
Psychoanalysis, 161, 162, 196, 203, 204,
209, 2 1 3 - 1 4
Puns, 69
Qui n ti l i an , 98 n
Rabi now, Paul, 24, 2611, 31, 97n , i 64n,
23461, 263; fieldwork account by,
14, 31, 165 n; an d Strathe rn , 21 n,
254. 25 5 - 5 6, 2 5 7 - 5 8
Raci sm, 202, 2 11, 214, 215
Radi n , Paul, 13
Rampe rsad, Arn ol d, i g7
Rapon da-Walke r, Abb, 116
Re ali sm, 25, 130, i 68n, 17 1, i g8, 232,
265; by Catli n , 5 7 - 5 8; De Man an d,
100; by Evan s-Pri tchard, g2; mod-
erni st essay an d, i go, 191, 192; i n
nostalgia fi lms, 250; of post-
mode rn i sm, 134, 137; Wi lli ams on ,
169 - 7 0 , 188, i go; by Wi lli s, 175,
176, 177, 185
Re ason i n g, 23738
Re de mpti ve e thn ography, gg, 113, i 65 n
Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco, 31
Re i d, Thomas, 137
Reinventing Anthropology, g
Re lati vi sm, 129, 14748, 155
Re li gi on , 135, 149 - 5 0 , 15 3 - 5 5
Religion and Economic Action, 143
"Re li gi on of the Di n ka," 1718
Re pe ti ti ons, 206, 20 7 - 8
Re pre se n tati on , 1 0 - 1 1 , 19, 77, 123,
168n , 169, 189 - 9 3, 234- 61; post-
mode rn i sm an d, 128, 129-30 , 131;
Wi lli s an d, 177, 180, 183, 184. See
also Rhetori c
Research Group on Coloni al Discourse,
26n
Restless Serpents, 222, 223
Restructuring of Social and Political The-
ory, 16611
Return to Laughter, 13
Revoluti ons, 189go
Rhe tori c, 5, 6, 1 0 - 1 1 , 12, 57, 122, 135;
allegory an d, 100; of i rony, 224; of
mode rn essay, i g i , 192; i n Mon-
taillou, 77, 81- 87 ;
m
Nuer, 77, 83,
85, 9 3 - 9 5 ; poli ti cal, 122, 125; scien-
ti fi c, 122, 123- 25 , 130, 136
Ri coe ur, Paul, 10
Rites and Witnesses, 222
Ri ve ra, Tomas, 221
Ri ve t, Paul, 9
Road to Tamazunchale, 221 22
Rodri gue z, Ri chard, 219, 220
Rogi n , Mi chae l, 26 m
Roman carni val, 53, 54, 60 -68, 75
Roman ti ci sm, 100, 114, 128, 229
Rmische Karneval (Roman Carnival), 61,
62, 63, 67
Rorty, Ri chard, 234, 235, 236, 237,
2
3
8
- 3 9 - 261
Rosaldo, Mi che lle , 1 1 0 - 1 1
Rosaldo, Re n ato, 12, 23, 24, 7 7 - 9 7 ,
i 6 5 - 6 6 n, 2330, 245
Sacks, Harve y, 23
Sahli ns, Marshall, 208
Sai d, Edward, 3, 12, 241, 251
Said and the Unsaid, 140 n
Sali nas, Raul, 202, 222, 223
Salvage e thn ography, 1 1 2 - 1 3 , 115,
118, i 65 n
3 4
Index
In d ex
3 5
Tuhami, 192,' 208, 212
Turnbul l , Colin, 1
Tur ner , Victor, 3, 98, i g5n, 199
Tyl er, Stephen A. , 1, 12, 24, 97n,
19511, 265; post-modernism of, 21,
122140, i g4n; on univocal mean-
ing, 230
Tyl or, E. B. , 141
Tyon, Thomas, 1 5 - 1 6
Typee, 103
Under the Rainbow, 31
Uni ntended consequences, 182- 83,
186, 187
United States: academic political econ-
omy in, 16711; ethnicity in, 1 9 4 -
233; social thought in, 166, 169
Univocity/Monophony, 5, 15, 126, 132,
203, 230
Urbanism, 259, 260-61
"Use and Abuse of Anthropol ogy, " 110
Utopianism, 127, 128- 29, 138- 39
Valero, Helena, 28-30, 38
van der Post, Laurens, 48
Vernant, Jean-Pierre, 194
Vi co, G., 10, 127
Vi gi l , Evangelina, 223
Village studies, 189
Villarreal, Jose Antonio, 219
Visualism, 1 1 - 1 2 , 5 7 - 5 8 , 130- 31
Vi zenor, Gerald, 202, 224, 227- 28
Wagner, Roy, 115 n
Waiting, i g2
Walker, Alice, 213
Walker, James, 1 5 - 1 7 , 117
Wallerstein, Immanuel, 22 n, 167
Warner, Lloyd, 23
Way to Rainy Mountain, 225
Weber, Max, 143, 144, 241, 257
Weiner, Annette, 20
Weinreich, Max, 195m 231
Staiger, Emil, 63
Statistics, 177, 238
Stocking, George, 11 n, g2n
Strathern, Marilyn, 2i n, 254, 255- 56,
257- 58, 2 6 m
Structures of feeling, 3, 112
Studying the Yanomamo, 31
"Stupid America, " 22021
Style, scholarly, 164
Subjection, 260
Subjectivity, 5, 13, 96, 1 1 1 , 114, 1 3 5 -
36; Catlin and, 57; Geertz and, 70,
7 3 - 7 4 ; Shostak and, 107, 108
Subversion, 5 1 - 7 6
Sun Dance and Other Ceremonies, 15
Sword, Geor ge, 15, 16, 117
Symbolic Domination, 31
Tahiti, 36- 37
Talaat Bey, 206
Tal mud, 200
Tambi ah, Stanley, 199
Tar n, Nathaniel, 1 2 - 1 3
Taussig, Michael, 176- 7711, 178- 79,
180
Tedl ock, Dennis, 136
Television, 163
Tent, 1- 2, 92 n
Textuality, 10, 12, 20- 21, 168- 73,
190- 93, 230, 24 1 - 55 passim, 264-
66; and allegory, gg, 1 1 1 , 113,
1 1 4 - 18; post-modernism and, 127,
128, 12g, 250; Wi l l i sand, 171, 173,
175, 177, 183- 88, i go. See also Dia-
l ogue; Evocation; Intertextuality;
Poly phony/Poly vocality; Representa-
tion; Rhetoric
Thomas, Elizabeth Marshall, 48, 105
Thor nt on, Robert, 97 n
Thought , analysis of, 238, 239-40
Todorov, Tzvet an, 3, g8n, 201
Transcendence, 99, 12336 passim
Transference, 203- 8
Transcription, 1 1 6 - 1 7
Translation, 22, 51 , 52, 1 37- 38 , 1 4 1 - 64
Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa,
35
Travels in West Africa, 35
Travel writing, 1 1 , 28, 33- 42 passim
"Tri p Thr ough the Mind Jail," 202, 222
Tristes Tropiques, 13, 112, 1 2 m
Trobriand Cricket, 112
Trobriands, 38, 112
Tr opes, 50, 132, 256; arrival, 37, 4 2 -
43; Orientalist, 12
Truths, 6, 7, 25, 52- 53. 237- 38, 240-
4 C 257
Samoa, 102- 3,
1 1
9 -
2
' 7
Samuelsson, Kurt, 143- 44
Sanchez, Ricardo, 2 1 8 - 1 9
Santayana, George, 78
Sapir, Edward, 3, 4, 10, 114
Saramakas, 7 - 8
Saroyan, William, 203 n, 204, 20511
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 128
Saudis, 172
Saussure, Ferdinand de, 10
Savage and the Innocent, 31
Schizophrenia, 250
Schneider, David, 12111, 179
Scholem, Gershom, 231
Scholle, Bob, 9
Schoolcraft, Henry Rome, 60
Science, 235; art and, 3, 4; interpretive,
257; rhetoric of, 122, 123- 25, 130,
136; transcendental, 135
Scientific communities, study of, 3
Scientific ethnography, 39, 41, 104- 5,
110 11
Segalen, Vi ctor, 103
Self-fashioning, 23- 24
Selves, alternative, 21318
Semiotics, 3, 11, 166, 19511
Senghor, Lopold, g
Senses, 11 13, 131
Serres, Michel, 195 n, 219
Sex (gender). See Men; Women
Sex and Temperament in New Guinea, 217
Sexuality, in Montaillou, 83- 84
Shabono, 28 - 31 , 32
Shavante, 41
Shi'ites, 190
Shore, Bradd, 1651
Shostak, Marjorie, 42- 46, 47, 48, 49,
98- 99, 103- 9, 110
Silko, Leslie Marmon, 213, 226, 227,
229
Silver market, 172
Simple style, 5 n
Snyder, Gary, 229
Social anthropology, 4
Social heredity, 141
Social planning, in colonies, 260-61
Social structure, 93~g4; Montaillou,
82- 86; Nuer, 88, g3~ gs
Sociology, 22, 23, 114, 162, 195
Socrates, 116, 117
Soul on Ice, 203 n
Sounds, 11 n, 1 2 - 1 3
South Africa, 192
South Seas, 35- 37, 102- 3
Sparrman, Anders, 46
Sperber, Dan, 243
Stade, Hans, 33- 34, 38
Weinreich, Uriel, 19511, 231
Welch, James, 202, 228
Welsh ancestry, of Mandans, 55, 5g
Wendt, Al fred, 1 i g
Werther, 61
West African Studies, 35
We, the Tikopia, 3536
"What Makes an Interpretation Accept-
able," 255
White, Hayden, 3, 26n, 22411
Whorf, Benjamin Lee, 10
Whyt e, William F., 23
Williams, Raymond, 5- 6; on pastoral,
1 1 3 - 1 4 ; on realism, 169- 70, 188,
190; on structures of feeling, 3, 1 12
Williams, William Carlos, 3
Willis, Paul, 23, 169, 171, 173- 88, 190
Winter in the Blood, 228
Wittgenstein, L., 10, 144, 236
Women, 1 7 - 1 9 ; Dinka, 17; in Migra-
tions of the Heart, 217; Nisa and, gg,
104, 1078; Woman Warrior and,
209; worki ng class and, 188; Zamora
and, 223. See also Feminism
Woman Warrior, 195, 20810
Wong, Shawn Hsu, 210, 211 - 1 2
Woolf, Virginia, 2
Wordarrows, 227
Worki ng class, 17488 passim
World system, 22, i 65n, 167
World War I, 120
World War II, 207
Yanagisako, Sylvia, 97 n
Yanoama, 28
Yanomamo, 28- 31
Yanomamo: The Fierce People, 31
Yates, Frances, 12
y no se lo trago la tierra (and the earth did
not part), 221
Zamora, Bernice, 218, 222, 223
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