AN INTRODUCTION TO

NIGHT VISION
TECHNOLOGY
()
AN INTRODUCTION TO
NIGHT VISION
TECHNOLOGY
R Hradaynatb
DEFENCE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT ORGANISATION
MINISTRY OF DEFENCE
NEW DELHI - 110 011
2002
DHDO MonogrupIs/Spccu PuIcutons Scrcs
An IntroductIon to NIgbt VIsIon TecbnoIogy
R Hradaynatb
SerIes EdItors
Edtor-n-CIc Edtors
MoIindcr SingI AsIol Kunar
A. Saravanan
Asst Edtor Edtoru Asst
FancsI CIandcr AK Scn
ProductIon
Prntng Coucr Dcsgn MurIctng
JV FanalrisIna Vinod Kunari SIarna FK Dua
SK Tyagi FK DIainagar
2002, Dcfcncc Scicniific Infornaiion & Docuncniaiion Ccnirc
(DESIDOC}, Dcfcncc F&D Organisaiion, DclIi-110 054.
All rigIis rcscrvcd. Ecci as crniiicd undcr iIc Indian CoyrigIi
Aci 1957, no ari of iIis ullicaiion nay lc rcroduccd, disiriluicd
or iransniiicd, siorcd in a daialasc or a rciricval sysicn, in any
forn or ly any ncans, clccironic, nccIanical, Ioiocoying,
rccording, or oiIcrwisc, wiiIoui iIc rior wriiicn crnission of
iIc PullisIcr.
TIc vicws crcsscd in iIc lool arc iIosc of iIc auiIor only. TIc
Ediiors or PullisIcr do noi assunc rcsonsililiiy for iIc
siaicncnis/oinions crcsscd ly iIc auiIor.
ISDN. 8186514104
Prinicd and ullisIcd ly Dirccior, DESIDOC, Mcicalfc Housc, DclIi-110 054.
C O N T E N T S
Forcuord x
Prcucc x
AcInoucdgcmcnts xu
CHAPTEF 1
VISION & HUMAN EYE 1
1.1 Iniroduciion 1
1.2 Oiical arancicrs of Iunan cyc 2
1.3 Infornaiion roccssing ly visual sysicn 6
1.4 Ovcrall nccIanisns 9
1.4.1 LigIi siinulus 9
1.4.2 TIrcsIold Vs inicnsiiy funciions & conirasi 10
1.4.3 Colour 11
1.5 Inlicaiions for nigIi vision 12
CHAPTEF 2
SEARCH & ACQUISITION 1S
2.1 ScarcI 15
2.2 Aquisiiion 16
2.3 Dlaclwcll's aroacI 18
2.4 JoInson criicria 19
2.5 Dislay signal-io-noisc raiio 20
2.6 Dcicciion wiiI iargci novcncni 22
2.7 Prolaliliiics of aquisiiion 23
2.8 Conirasi & acquisiiion 23
CHAPTEF 3
THE ENVIRONMENT 29
3.1 Iniroduciion 29
3.2 AinosIcric alsoriion & scaiicring 31
3.2.1 Scaiicring duc io rain & snow 34
3.2.2 Hazc & fog 35
3.2.3 Visililiiy & conirasi 35
3.3 AinosIcrc nodclling 38
3.4 Insiruncnis, nigIi vision & ainosIcrics 39
(u)
CHAPTEF 4
NIGHT ILLUMINATION, REFLECTIVITIES &
BACKGROUND 43
4.1 NigIi illuninaiion 43
4.1.1 MoonligIi 44
4.1.2 SiarligIi 48
4.2 Fcflcciiviiy ai nigIi 48
4.3 TIc laclground 50
4.4 Effcci on dcsign of vision dcviccs 52
CHAPTEF 5
OPTICAL CONSIDERATIONS SS
5.1 Iniroduciion 55
5.2 Dasic rcquircncnis 58
5.2.1 Sysicn arancicrs 59
5.2.2 Dcsign aroacI 64
5.2.3 Dcsign cvaluaiion 66
5.3 Oiical considcraiions 69
CHAPTEF 6
PHOTOEMISSION ??
6.1 Iniroduciion 77
6.2 PIoiocnission & iis iIcorciical considcraiions 77
6.2.1 TIcorciical considcraiions 78
6.2.2 Tycs of IoiocaiIodcs & iIcir cfficicncics 79
6.3 Dcvcloncni of IoiocaiIodcs 81
6.3.1 Conosiic IoiocaiIodcs 81
6.3.2 Alloy IoiocaiIodcs 81
6.3.3 Allali IoiocaiIodcs 82
6.3.4 Ncgaiivc affiniiy IoiocaiIodcs 83
6.3.5 Transfcrrcd clcciron(ficld assisicd} IoiocaiIodcs 85
6.4 PIoiocaiIodc rcsonsc iinc 87
6.5 PIoiocaiIodc scnsiiiviiy 87
6.6 Darl currcni in IoiocaiIodcs 90
6.7 Sunnary 91
CHAPTEF 7
PHOSPHORS 93
7.1 Iniroduciion 93
(u)
7.2 PIosIors 93
7.3 Luninous iransiiions in a IosIor 94
7.4 PIosIor nccIanisns 96
7.5 Fcduciion of lunincsccncc cfficicncy 99
7.6 Lunincsccncc dccay 99
7.7 PIosIor alicaiions 100
7.8 PIosIor scrccns 101
7.9 Scrccn falricaiion 103
7.10 PIosIor agcing 104
CHAPTEF 8
IMAGE INTENSIFIER TUBES 10S
8.1 Iniroduciion 105
8.2 Filrc oiics in inagc inicnsificrs 108
8.2.1 Conccis of filrc-oiics 109
8.2.2 Filrc-oiics facclaics 110
8.2.3 Micro-cIanncl laics 114
8.2.4 Filrc-oiic inagc invcricrs/iwisicrs 117
8.3 Elcciron oiics 117
8.4 Ccncral considcraiions for inagc inicnsificr dcsigns 120
8.5 Inagc inicnsificr iulc iycs 125
8.5.1 Ccncruton-U inagc convcricr iulcs 125
8.5.2 Ccncruton-l inagc inicnsificr iulcs 126
8.5.3 Ccncruton-2 inagc inicnsificr iulcs 127
8.5.4 Ccncruton-2 wafcr iulc 129
8.5.6 Ccncruton-3 inagc inicnsificr iulcs 131
8.5.7 Hylrid iulcs 132
8.6 Pcrfornancc of inagc inicnsificr iulcs 134
8.6.1 Signal-io-noisc raiio 134
8.6.2 Considcraiion of nodulaiion iransfcr funciion (MTF} 136
8.6.3 Luninous gain and E.D.I 137
8.6.4 OiIcr arancicrs 138
8.6.5 A noic on roduciion of inagc inicnsificr iulcs 138
CHAPTEF 9
NIGHT VISION INSTRUMENTATION 143
9.1 Iniroduciion 143
9.2 Fangc cquaiion 144
(u)
9.3 Ecrincnial lal icsiing for rangc cvaluaiion 150
9.4 Ficld icsiing 154
9.5 Insiruncni iycs 155
Indcx lb3
FOREWORD
TIc auiIor Ias lccn onc of iIc nain arcIiiccis in iniroducing
nigIi vision iccInology io India. Hc was iniinaicly involvcd, ai a
crucial iinc, in iIc F&D on iIis suljcci lcading io iIc dcvcloncni
of a variciy of insiruncnis for usc ly iIc Arncd Forccs and iIcir
sulscqucni lull roduciion iIrougI an inicgraicd scIcnc of
iccInology iransfcr. TIc rcscni nonograI is a wclconc and
uniquc addiiion io iIc alrcady cisiing liicraiurc on nigIi vision
iccInology. Dcsidcs iniroducing all iIc arancicrs and
iccInologics iIai conrisc iIis suljcci, ii would also assisi a
rcadcr io corrcci Iis dcsign cffori io rcsuli in an cffcciivc
insiruncni. TIc dcvcloncni of iIc suljcci lcgins wiiI an
undcrsianding of iIc Iunan cyc and vision as also iIc rincilcs
undcrlying scarcI and acquisiiion. TIis siudy cnallcs onc io
rcalisc iIc liniis io wIicI Iunan olscrvaiion is rcsiricicd in
raciicc. TIc siudy furiIcr cicnds io iIc faci iIai iIc Iunan
olscrvaiions arc also consiraincd ly iIc cnvironncni, nigIi
illuninaiion, and oljcci and laclground rcflcciiviiics. Ai iIis siagc
iIc rcadcr is coscd io a discussion as io Iow iIcsc liniiaiions
can lc ovcrconc io a rcasonallc cicni ly oiical considcraiions
and ly iccInological dcvcloncnis in IoiocaiIodcs, IosIors,
filrc oiics, and clcciron oiics. TIis siudy also Icls iIc rcadcr
io faniliarisc Iinsclf in dciI wiiI iIc cvoluiion of iIc inagc
inicnsificr iulcs and iIcir uiilizaiion in insiruncnis of niliiary
inicrcsi. TIc ici is an cffori io consolidaic lasic as wcll as
iccInical infornaiion dirccily rclaicd io nigIi vision lascd on
inagc inicnsificaiion in rccisc and concisc nanncr wiiIin iIc
confincs of a singlc volunc and ii is wcll donc.
TIc nonograI Ias lccn wcll suoricd ly an cIausiivc
lisi of rcfcrcnccs. A nunlcr of iIcsc rcfcrcnccs arc also inicndcd
io Icl an inicrcsicd rcadcr io rolc inio iIc indccndcni
iccInologics wIicI analganaicd io rcsuli in nigIi vision.
(Dr APJ Aldul Kalan}
(x)
PREFACE
Vision during iIc nigIi Ias lccn onc of iIc inicrcsiing
anliiions of iIc Iunanlind and for quiic sonciinc ii was
considcrcd io lc wiiIin iIc rcaln of unaiiainaliliiy. Yci in iIc
carly iwcniiciI ccniury iIc scicniific connuniiy did iIinl of iis
ossililiiics. TIc inoriancc of ligIi-gaiIcring ly a rclaiivcly
alcrraiion-frcc oiical sysicn was wcll rcalizcd. In faci a 750
linocular wiiI an acriurc of 50 nn and an cii uil of 7 nn io
naicI iIc Iunan scoioic cyc-uil sizc was rcfcrrcd io as a nigIi-
vision linocular in carlicr liicraiurc. TIcsc did crforn wcll ai
dusl and dawn iIougI noi during iIc nigIi and Iclcd in carly
norning assaulis ly an infaniry colunn. Modcrn inicrcsi in iIc
ficld arosc wiiI an clanaiion of iIc Ioioclcciric cffcci ly Einsicin
in 1905, discovcrcd carlicr ly Hcriz in 1887. TIougI aiicnis io
dcvclo suiiallc IoiocaiIodcs lascd on Ioioclcciric cffcci for
inagc inicnsificaiion lcgan in carly 1930s, yci iIc firsi succcss
wiiI an insiruncni sysicn falricaicd around ncar-infrarcd
scnsiiivc Ag-O-Cs IoiocaiIodc, canc in 1950s only. TIis rcsulicd
in 'O' Ccncraiion nigIi vision insiruncniaiion wIcrcin iIc nigIi
sccnc Iad io lc irradiaicd wiiI ncar infrarcd radiaiion cuiiing oui
iIc visillc and iIc rcflcciions iIcrcof nadc visillc on iIc IosIor
scrccn of an inagc convcricr iulc. TIc iulc iisclf was iIc rcsuli of
a conosiic cffori wIicI lrougIi iogciIcr iIc IoiocaiIodc
iccInology, clcciron-oiics for iIc anlificaiion of wcal clccirons
iIrougI an clcciro-oiical sysicn and IosIor scrccn dcvcloncni,
all in a vacuun cnvcloc lcsidcs suiiallc cnirancc and cii
surfaccs. Ii was ly now clcar iIai wIai is rcquircd is iIc
dcvcloncni of lciicr and lciicr IoiocaiIodcs corrcsonding io
iIc naiural illuninaiion in iIc nigIi-sly, lciicr nciIods of
anlificaiion of cncrgy and nunlcr of wcal clccirons and norc
suiiallc IosIors for uliinaic vicwing lcsidcs suiiallc inui and
ouiui windows for iIc vacuun iulc iIai nay uliinaicly lc
dcsigncd. TIis dcvcloncni was furiIcr accclcraicd as ly iIcn iIc
uconing iclcvision indusiry was also looling for suiiallc IosIors
and IoiocaiIodcs io suii iIcir rcquircncnis. Ii was Icncc logical
iIai iIc nci gcncraiion of insiruncnis dcvclocd for nigIi vision
wcrc assivc in naiurc, i.c., wIcrc inaging was lascd on iIc nigIi
sly illuninaiion iisclf iIus discnsing wiiI any ariificial irradiaiion.
(x)
Ccncraiion I inagc inicnsificr iulcs wcrc iIc firsi io acar wIicI
involvcd a najor coniriluiion in icrns of iis filrc oiics inui and
ouiui windows and a IoiocaiIodc nucI norc scnsiiivc io iIc
ovcrall scciral disiriluiion of iIc nigIi sly. TIc carlicr
IoiocaiIodcs Iad a lowcr quaniun cfficicncy and Icncc iIrcc
sucI iulcs Iad io lc coulcd io givc an adcquaic ligIi anlificaiion
for vision wiiIoui losing on iIc rcsoluiion. Ii was only a naiicr of
iinc lcforc Ccncraiion II inagc inicnsificr iulcs acarcd wiiI
IoiocaiIodcs on iIc mtur sccnc ly iniroducing clcciron cncrgy
anlificaiion and clcciron nuliilicaiion iIrougI nicrocIanncl
laics (Iollow-filrc nairi} io cnallc adcquaic ligIi anlificaiion
io lc acIicvcd wiiI only onc iulc. Dcvcloncnis Iavc sincc
coniinucd loiI in cvolving norc and norc scnsiiivc IoiocaiIodcs
and lciicr and lciicr dcsigns for iIc nicrocIanncl laics.
Undcrsianding of iIc funciioning of a IoiocaiIodc rcsulicd in iIc
cvoluiion of nodcrn day ncgutuc ccctron unt IoiocaiIodcs.
NcvcriIclcss ii can lc siaicd iIai scoc siill cisis in cngnccrng
ncwcr and ncwcr IoiocaiIodcs wiiI siill IigIcr quaniun dcicciion
cfficicncics wiiI naicIing clcciron-oiics and nicrocIanncl laics
wiiI lciicr and lciicr signal-io-noisc raiio.
TIis nonograI Ias lccn organiscd in ninc cIaicrs. TIc
firsi cIaicr on Vson und tIc Humun Ec discusscs iIc laclground
againsi wIicI all vision including nigIi-vision insiruncniaiion
Ias io lc uliinaicly asscsscd. TIc nci cIaicr ScurcI und
Acquston rclaics io iIc arancicrs iIai coniriluic iowards
csiallisIing a visual linc io an oljcci of inicrcsi. TIc criicria for
dcicciion, oricniaiion, rccogniiion and idcniificaiion arc canincd
as also iIc rclaiionsIi of conirasi io Icl scarcI and acquisiiion.
CIaicr III discusscs iIc cnvironncni iIai is nainly iIc
ainosIcrc (inicrvcning ncdiun}, iis aiicnuaiion of iIc oiical
signal and iIcrcly iIc cffcci on conirasi and visililiiy. TIc nci
cIaicr canincs nigIi-illuninaiion in dciail as also rcflcciancc
fron surfaccs of inicrcsi and fron iIc laclground.
Aficr faniliarizing wiiI all iIc faciors iIai affcci insiruncni
dcsign for nigIi vision alicaiions, ii is lui naiural io considcr
various dcsign asccis sucI as iIosc rclaicd io oiical arancicrs,
iIc cvoluiion of IoiocaiIodcs and iIc dcvcloncni of IosIors
lcforc onc gocs inio iIc dciails of iIc inagc inicnsificr iulcs wIicI
forn iIc nainsiay of nigIi vision sysicns lascd on inagc
inicnsificaiion. CIaicrs V, VI, VII arc iIcrcforc dcvoicd io cacI of
iIc faciors, i.c., Oiics, PIoiocaiIodcs and PIosIors. CIaicr VIII
on Imugc Intcnscr TuIcs includcs discussion on clcciron-oiics
and filrc oiics iIai is rclcvani io iIc naling of inicnsificr iulcs.
CIaicr IX iIcn concludcs ly drawing aiicniion io ovcrall
(x)
considcraiions for insiruncni dcsign for nigIi vision sysicns.
PIoiograIs and illusiraiions of sonc inicrcsiing sysicns dcsigncd
and dcvclocd ly Dcfcncc F&D Organisaiion also find a lacc in
iIis final cIaicr.
TIis nonograI is liniicd io nigIi vision lascd on inagc
inicnsificaiion. TIougI rcfcrcnccs in iIc ici io 'iIcrnal inaging'
do find a lacc Icrc and iIcrc, iIis ici docs noi includc iIc
conicnorary dcvcloncni in nigIi vision lascd on tIcrmu mugng.
Olviously iIai sIould forn iIc suljcci naiicr of an indccndcni
volunc.
DcIradun R Hradaynatb
Forncr Dirccior & DisiinguisIcd Scicniisi
Insiruncnis F&D EsiallisIncni
DF&DO, DcIradun
(xu)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
TIc auiIor's iIanls arc rinarily duc io Dr APJ Aldul
Kalan wIo iniiiaicd iIis idca of a nonograI on nigIi vision
iccInology. Many iIanls arc ccriainly duc io Dr SS MuriIy, forncr
Dirccior, DESIDOC, and iIc rcscni Dirccior Dr MoIindcr SingI
for iIcir crsisicncc and aiicncc and io iIc grou of scicniisis
wIo Iclcd nc in liicraiurc scarcI and in consolidaiing iIc
conicnis of iIis volunc. TIanls arc also duc io a fcw scicniisis ai
IFDE, DcIradun, wIo Iclcd nc in oliaining sonc sccific
liicraiurc and ly way of discussions. Pariicularly, ny iIanls arc
duc io SIri EDavid wIo Iclcd nc wiiI various figurcs and
IoiograIs iIai Iavc lccn includcd Icrcin. I an also indclicd
io SIri M Srinivasan of DcDclfi, Punc, for iIc IoiograIs rcfcrrcd
io in CIaicr VIII, and io iIc Dirccior, IFDE, for all iIc oiIcr
IoiograIs.
Finally, I lilc io rccord ny sinccrc iIanls io SIri KK VoIra
wIo rovidcd nc wiiI worling sacc and io SIri Swaroo CIand an
E-Soldicr worling wiiI SIri VoIra, for Iis diligcni day-io-day
assisiancc.
R Hradaynatb
CHAPTER 1
VISION & HUMAN EYE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Vision cniails crcciionly iIc cyc-lrain sysicn, of iIc
cnvironncni lascd on rcflcciancc of iIc siaiic or cIanging oIscuuIc
sccnc illuninaicd ly a ligIi sourcc or a nunlcr of sourccs, and
iIai of iIc sourccs iIcnsclvcs. In nosi cascs, iIc illuninaiion is
naiural and duc io sun, noon and siars along wiiI ossillc
rcflcciancc of iIcsc sourccs ly clouds, sly, or any land or waicr
nass. TIcsc days ariificial illuninaiion is also of significancc. TIc
aliliiy of a ung scccs io rccognizc and rcrcscni sourccs, oljccis,
iIcir locaiion, sIac, sizc, colour, sIading, novcncni and oiIcr
cIaracicrisiics rclcvani io iis lanning of aciion or inicraciion dcfincs
iis oIscuuIc sccnc. TIc oIscuuIc sccnc would iIus lc liniicd ly
iIc caaliliiy of a scccs and iIc infornaiion sougIi ly ii. Susiaincd
vision would furiIcr rcquirc largc sicady-siaic scnsiiiviiy io rocrly
rcaci io anliiudc and wavclcngiI cIangcs in iIc illuninaiing
sourccs. TIus crcciion of a givcn sccnc sIould noi gci disioricd
ly olscrvaiion fron sunligIi ai nooniinc io siarligIi ai nigIi, or
undcr a widc rangc of colourcd or wIiic ariificial sourccs or ly facing
away or iowards iIc sun.
Vision as crccivcd alovc would iIcrcforc call for
roccssing of iIc inui visual signal io aiiain wIai Ias lccn siaicd.
For insiancc locaiion of oljccis in sacc or iIcir novcncni nay lc
Iclcd ly
(a} Sicrcosis, i.c., using cucs rovidcd ly iIc visual inui in iwo
saiially scaraicd cycs.
(l} Oiic flow, i.c., ly using infornaiion rovidcd io iIc cyc fron
noncni io noncni (i.c., scaraicd in iinc}
(c} Acconnodaiion, i.c., ly dcicrnining iIc focal lcngiI wIicI
will lcsi lring an oljcci inio focus, and
2 An Intoducton to HgIt Vson TccInoog
(d} Scgncniaiion, i.c., iIc roccss of ciraciing infornaiion aloui
arcas of iIc inagc (callcd rcgions or scgncnis} iIai arc visually
disiinci fron onc anoiIcr and arc coniinuous in sonc fcaiurc,
sucI as colour, dciI or noiion.
As iIcsc arc roccsscs iIai can ialc lacc all ovcr iIc
inagc, arallcl roccssing ly iIc visual sysicn would lc quiic in
ordcr. Lilcwisc, iIc variallc rcflccicd oiical signal rcccivcd ly iIc
cyc is roccsscd ly iIc visual sysicn ovcr a widc rangc for consiancy
of luninancc, colour and conirasi ly aroriaic nciworling of iIc
individual signals fron cacI Ioiorcccior. Howcvcr, rccogniiion of
a sourcc ciiIcr ly dircci vicwing or ly sccular rcflcciion would
nccd a diffcrcni iyc of roccssing for iis lrigIincss.
1.2 OPTICAL PARAMETERS OF HUMAN EYE
TIis nonograI is rcsiricicd io iIc oiical and roccssing
asccis of iIc Iunan cyc and rciina, iIougI in aciual raciicc iIc
cniirc liological roccsscs of iIc cyc-rciina-lrain conlinaiion nccds
io lc discusscd and undcrsiood as far as rcscnily lnown.
Ii was HclnIoliz|1| wIo suggcsicd a scIcmutc cc wIicI
is a closc rcrcscniaiion of iIc living cyc wiiI fairly accuraic
cIaracicrisiics as dcfincd ly iIc firsi-ordcr iIcory of gconciric oiics.
Figurc 1.1 sIows a cross-scciion iIrougI sucI an cyc
wIilc Tallc 1.1 dciails iis oiical arancicrs|1,2,3|. Dccnding on
7.2
3.6
6.96
7.38
22.38
15
H
I
R
1
R
3
H
N
I
N
F
I
2.38
1.96
R
2
F
20
FIgure 1.1. OptIcaI constants oI HeImboItz's scbematIc eye (aII
dImensIons are In mm).
Vson Humun Ec 3
iIc dcgrcc of acconnodaiion dcsircd, iIc radius of iIc anicrior
lcns surfacc is assuncd io cIangc u io + 6.0 nn, wIilc cvcryiIing
clsc rcnains ficd. TIc cornca is assuncd io lc iIin, and so also
iIc iris wIicI is suoricd on iIc anicrior lcns surfacc. TIc oiical
aranciric valucs arc for sodiun ligIi.
TabIe 1.1. OptIcaI parameters oI tbe scbematIc eye
Puumctc SmIo Hudus Dstuncc om Hcuctuc Hcuctuc
(scc (mm) concu uctcx ouc ndcx
Fg. l.l) (mm) (dotcs)
Cornea F
1
8 0 41.6 (for raciical
uroscs a iIin
curvcd surfacc}
AnterIor
Lcns F
2
10 3.6 12.3
surfacc
Focal lanc F 13.04
Princial H 1.96
lanc
Nodal lanc N 6.96
PosterIor
Lcns F
3
6 7.2 20.5
surfacc
Focal lanc F 22.38
Princial H 2.38
lanc
Nodal lanc N 7.38
Enirancc 3.04
uil osiiion (sizc 1.15 uil diancicr}
Eii uil 3.72
osiiion (sizc 1.05 uil diancicr}
VoIumes
Eyc lcns 30.5 1.45
Anicrior 1.33
cIanlcr
Posicrior 1.33
cIanlcr
Eyc as a 66.6
wIolc
TIc alcrraiions of iIc cyc arc wcll docuncnicd clscwIcrc
as also iIc crrors of rcfraciion. MciIods do cisi for cvaluaiing iIc
linc srcad funciion of iIc cyc, rciina and iIc cniirc visual sysicn
ccrincnially, as also sonc of iis gconciric alcrraiions. Ii is
inicrcsiing io noic iIai iIc cyc focuscd for infiniiy cIiliis osiiivc
4 An Intoducton to HgIt Vson TccInoog
sIcrical alcrraiion and for vcry ncar disianccs ncgaiivc, wIilc for
inicrncdiaic disianccs (around 50 cn} ii is csscniially zcro. TIc
linc srcad is nininun for a uil diancicr of 2.4 nn, and for
snallcr diancicrs, iIc srcad aroacIcs iIc diffraciion linii. Ai
2.4 nn also ii is alnosi diffraciion liniicd wiiI an concniial uout
rcrcscniing scuttc and dctI o ocus. As iIc uil diancicr
incrcascs lcyond 2.4 nn, iIc uout lcconcs norc ronincni and
doninaics iIc Cuassian srcad.
Figurc 1.2 is lasically a slcicI sIowing iIc llood suly
io iIc cyc rcrcscniing aricrics and vcins as sIadcd and darl lincs,
rcscciivcly |4|.
TIc cornca (C} wiiI iIc sclcra (S} rcrcscni iIc ouicr
filrous cnvcloc of iIc cyclall. WIilc iIc cornca is iransarcni, iIc
sclcra is carly wIiic. TIc sclcra is alnosi fivc-siiIs of iIc cnvcloc.
TIc iwo siruciurcs arc dovciailcd inio onc anoiIcr liologically. TIc
cornca is iIiclcsi (aloui 1nn} osicriorly, gradually lcconing
FIgure 1.2. HaII cross-sectIon oI tbe representatIve bIoIogIcaI eye
(+- Cornea, 5 - ScIera, +D - CboroId, 4 - RetIna, -
OptIc Nerve, 1 - IrIs, - Lens. Tbe bIack and sbaded
parts denote veIns and arterIes).
R
S
C
L
N
Ch
I
Vson Humun Ec 5
iIinncr anicriorly. Ai iIc siic of iIc oiic ncrvc, iIc sclcra sliis u
inio a nciworl of inicrlacing lundlcs, callcd iIc lanina crilrosa,
lcaving a scrics of finc sicvc-lilc acriurcs, iIrougI wIicI iIc lundlc
of oiic ncrvc asscs fron iIc cyc.
TIc cIoroid (CI} is inicroscd lciwccn iIc sclcra (S} and
rciina (H} and is cIicfly conccrncd along wiiI iIc ciliary lody and
iris (I } in sulying nuiriiion io iIc inicrnal aris of iIc cyc. Ii
forns a coniinuous dccly igncnicd coai, ccci ai iIc cnirancc
of iIc ncrvc inio iIc glolc. NourisIncni io iIc rciinal igncni laycr
and iIc ouicr rciinal laycrs is rovidcd ly iIc cIoroidal caillarics,
wIilc iIc inncrnosi laycrs of rciina arc scrvcd ly iIc rciinal aricry.
TIc rciina (H} is a ncnlranc coniaining iIc icrninal aris
of iIc oiic ncrvc filrcs, suoricd ly a conncciing nciworl. Ii lics
lciwccn iIc cIoroid and iIc ncnlranc cnclosing iIc viircous lody.
Ii dininisIcs in iIiclncss fron 0.4 nn around iIc oiic ncrvc
cnirancc io 0.2 nn iowards iIc fronial sidc. Ii is crfccily
iransarcni and of a urlisI rcd colour, duc io iIc visual urlc
rcscni in iIc rods. Vicwing fron iIc froni iIcrc is a ycllowisI soi
soncwIai oval in sIac wiiI iis Iorizonial ais ncasuring around
2-3 nn. A snall circular dcrcssion in iIc ccnirc lnown as fovca
ccniralis Ias iIc nainun acling of concs in an arca around
3nn in diancicr. Corrcsonding io iIc cnirancc of iIc oiic ncrvc,
onc olscrvcs a wIiiisI circular disc of around 1.5 nn diancicr
lnown as iIc oiical disc, wIicI rcscnis a llind soi as iIis arca
Ias no ncrvc-cndings. Ii is aloui 3 nn io iIc nasal sidc of iIc
ycllowisI soi. TIc ligIi cnicring iIc cornca asscs iIrougI iIc
full iIiclncss of iIc rciina wIicI is a iIin 350 n sIcci of
iransarcni iissuc and oiical ncrvc Icad io rcacI iIc laycrs of
rods and concs. TIc rocriics of rods and concs arc vcry viial as
Ioiorccciors. Ii is wcll lnown iIai concs in iIc nacular rcgion,
i.c., fovca ccniralis and iis surround arc IigIly aclcd ai around
0.003 nn ccnirc io ccnirc. Arcciaiion of forn and colour iIcrcforc
is lciicr ossillc wiiI conc-vision wIicI rcsonds alovc a ccriain
visual iIrcsIold. Ai iIc sanc iinc ii is lnown iIai our rods arc
caallc of signalling cvcn iIc alsoriion of singlc Ioion and signal
low ligIi lcvcl Icnoncna iIougI wiiIoui clcar arcciaiion of forn
and colour. Elcciric inulscs arising in iIcsc Ioiorccciors arc
iransniiicd via rciinal inicrncurons io iIc inncrnosi ganglion ccll
laycrs wiiI around 100,000 cclls. TIc aons of iIcsc cclls forn iIc
b An Intoducton to HgIt Vson TccInoog
oiic ncrvc and convcy iIc infornaiion furiIcr io iIc various arcas
in iIc visual sysicn of iIc lrain.
TIc iris (I } ariscs fron iIc anicrior surfacc of iIc ciliary
lody and rcsulis in an adjusiallc diaIragn iIc ccniral acriurc
of wIicI is lnown as uil. TIc diaIragn dividcs iIc sacc lciwccn
iIc cornca and iIc lcns inio iwo cIanlcrs wIicI arc fillcd wiiI a
fluid iIc aqucous Iunour. TIc ciliary lody is in iurn, a
coniinuaiion of iIc rciina and iIc cIoroid. TIc iris Ias a firn
suori ly lying on iIc lcns. TIc coniraciilc diaIragn rcacis io
iIc inicnsiiy of ligIi and accordingly adjusis iIc uil diancicr
fron 7 nn io 2nn fron siarligIi io noonligIi. In a givcn osiiion
ii also cuis off narginal rays wIicI unlcss siocd would dininisI
iIc sIarncss of iIc rciinal inagc.
TIc lcns (L} is a iransarcni, colourlcss siruciurc of iIc
lcniicular sIac, of sofi consisicncc cncloscd in a iigIi clasiic
ncnlranc wIosc iIiclncss varics in diffcrcni aris of iIc lcns. TIc
circunfcrcncc is circular, 9 nn in dia, wiiI iIc ccniral iIiclncss
as 5 nn in an aduli. TIc osicrior surfacc is norc IigIly curvcd,
and cnlcddcd in a sIallow dcrcssion in iIc viircous Iunour, wIilc
iIc anicrior surfacc is in coniaci wiiI aqucous Iunour. TIc viircous
Iunour is a iransarcni colourlcss gclaiinous nass wIicI fills iIc
osicrior caviiy of iIc cyc and occuics aloui four-fifiIs of iIc
inicrior of iIc cyclall. TIc aqucous Iunour is iransarcni and
colourlcss fluid and scrvcs as a ncdiun in wIicI iris can ocraic
frccly.
TIc oiic ncrvc (H} collccis iis filrcs fron iIc ganglion in
iIc rciina and asscs iIrougI iIc cyclall. TIc filrcs fron iIc rigIi
Ialvcs of loiI iIc rciinas ass inio iIc rigIi oiical iraci and iIc
filrcs fron iIc lcfi Ialvcs ass inio iIc lcfi oiical iraci, cacI iraci
coniaining a ncarly connon ficld of vision fron loiI iIc cycs. DoiI
iIc iracis coniinuc io iIc ccnirc of vision in iIc lrain.
1.3 INFORMATION PROCESSING BY VISUAL SYSTEM
TIc coniinuous Ioion sircan iIai is incidcni on loiI
iIc cycs as a rcsuli of ligIi rcflcciancc fron iIc cnvironncni is
aroriaicly focuscd on iIc rciinal rccciors (i.c., rods and concs}
iIrougI iis oiical sysicn (i.c., cornca, uil, lcns and iIc
inicrvcning saccs occuicd ly aqucous and viircous Iunour}. TIis
Ioion sircan variallc in sacc (x,,z}, iinc (t} and wavclcngiI (}
is sanlcd in sacc and wavclcngiI ly iIc iIrcc iycs of conc
Vson Humun Ec ?
rccciors cacI scnsiiivc io rcd, grccn and lluc and aroriaicly
filicrcd ly iIc saiial and cIronaiic acriurcs of iIcsc rccciors.
Scc Fig. 1.3 for iIcir rcsonsc.
Sinlc suns and diffcrcnccs of iIcsc signals rcsulis in
an acIronaiic signal, a rcd-grccn signal, and a lluc-grccn signal. A
arallcl ariiiion of iIc inagc is ly saiial locaiion, aroinaicly
iIc landwidiI of visual ncurons. TIc IsycoIysical and Iysiological
cvidcncc io daic suggcsi a ariiiion in jusi iwo icnoral lands. TIc
icnoral frcqucncy roccssing nay lc in icrns of siaiic and noving
cononcnis.
TIc rolc of rciina as a roccssor is significanily conlc.
Aarcnily inncdiaicly aficr iIc firsi laycr of rccciors, cvcry ncuron
rcccivcs nuliilc conncciions fron nuliilc variciics of adjaccni
inicrncurons wiiI various anaionical and Iysiological rolcs. EacI
ncuron Ias iyically 50,000 conncciions wiiI oiIcr ncurons. TIus
cvcn lcforc iIc signal lcavcs iIc rciina, cacI ganglion (in iIc final
ncural laycr} rclays infornaiion as lascd on inicraciions lciwccn
scvcral rcccior iycs, non-lincar saiial sunnaiion, loiI
suliraciivc and nuliilicaiivc inIiliiion, far ficld cffccis, and so
FIgure 1.3. ReIatIve spectraI sensItIvItIes oI tbe tbree types oI cones;
bIue, green and red (determIned agaInst a dIm wbIte
background).
BLUE
GREEN
RED
400 500
700
600
L
O
G

R
E
L
A
T
I
V
E

S
E
N
S
I
T
I
V
I
T
Y
WAVELENGTH (nm)
S An Intoducton to HgIt Vson TccInoog
on. Ai iIc siagc of iIc ganglion laycr in iIc rciina, ii is olscrvcd
iIai iIis laycr coniains iwo inicrnicd ccll iycs iIai diffcr in sizc
and in iIc way iIcy inicgraic iIc signals fron iIc concs and iIc
rods via iIc inicr-ncurons. TIc final signals fron iIc rciina iisclf
arc iIus in iwo arallcl cIanncls wIicI rcacI iIc idcniificd rcgions,
i.c., iIc nagno- and arvoccllular sysicns of iIc laicral gcniculaic
nuclcus of iIc iIalanus|5|. EacI sysicn is idcniificd wiiI ccriain
vision arancicrs. TIus, iIc arvoccllular sysicn Ias infornaiion
rcgarding colour, IigI saiial rcsoluiion, low conirasi scnsiiiviiy
and is slow (siaiic scnsiiivc}. TIc nagnoccllular sysicn on iIc oiIcr
Iand is colour llind, Ias IigI conirasi scnsiiiviiy and low saiial
rcsoluiion, carrics sicrcosis infornaiion, and is fasi (novcncni
scnsiiivc}. TIis infornaiion wIicI gocs io diffcrcni laycrs of iIc
rinary visual coric is analyscd for iIc crcciion of (i} colour
(ii}forn, and (iii} novcncni, locaiion and saiial organisaiion in ai
lcasi iIrcc scaraic roccssing sysicns. TIus iIc iwo aiIways ai
iIc lowcr lcvcl sccn io lc rcarrangcd inio iIrcc suldivisions for
rclaying iIc infornaiion io IigIcr visual arcas. TIai novcncni,
IigI conirasi scnsiiiviiy and sicrcosis infornaiion is carricd
iIrougI onc sysicn and lcads onc io rcdici iIai novcncni of ciiIcr
iIc olscrvcr or iIc oljcci, or sicrco-vicwing iwo inagcs of iIc sanc
oljcci would lcad io casicr dcicciion of Iard-io-scc oljccis.
Vision, is scrvcd loiI ly iIc to-doun and Iottom-u
roccssing roccdurcs, ossilly sinuliancously. TIc Iottom-u
roccdurc analyscs iIc siinulus in icrns of iIc infornaiion sougIi
ly iIc rciinal roccsscs as dcscrilcd alovc, roccssing arallcly
snall clcncnis of a sccnc, iIcn joining iIcn inio largcr and largcr
grous, and uliinaicly rcscniing ii as a singlc sccnc. TIc arancicrs
of analysis could lc uniforniiy of sIading or colour and iIcir
variaiion, ccriain gconcirics lilc cdgcs, convciiics, cic.,
(scgncniaiion}, or novcncni (oiic flow}, or dciI (sicrcosis} and
oricniaiion. TIc to-doun rincilc would ocraic via organiscd
crccis rccordcd in our ncnory and inrovcncnis on ii in casc
sonciIing ncw Ias lccn olscrvcd wIicI was noi in iIc ncnory-
aclagc carlicr. TIc Iottom-u roccss can lc iIougIi of as dutu-
ducn wIilc iIc to-doun could lc rcfcrrcd io as Inoucdgc ducn.
A considcrallc anouni of iIc Iottom-u roccssing is donc in iIc
rciina iisclf. Ovcrall nccIanisns could lc discusscd as undcr, in
icrns of rcsonsc io ligIi siinulus, conirasi and colour.
Vson Humun Ec 9
1.4 OVERALL MECHANISMS
1.4.1 LIgbt StImuIus
LigIi siinulus ccricnccd suljcciivcly as IgItncss is
ncasurcd in icrns of uniis of luninancc, i.c., candcla cr squarc
ncirc (cd/n
2
}. Dascd on iIis, onc can dcfinc iIc luninosiiy funciion
of a siandardizcd cyc for concs and rods indccndcnily, i.c., for
Ioioic and scoioic vision. Figurc 1.4 sIows iIc nornaliscd
rclaiivc scciral scnsiiiviiy. Howcvcr, ii is inoriani io ialc inio
accouni iIc uil sizc and iIc luninosiiy funciion of loiI concs
and rods, so iIai iIc rciinal illuninaiion is corrccily ncasurcd. TIc
FIgure 1.4. NormaIIsed spectraI sensItIvIty oI IumInosIty IunctIons
Ior scotopIc and pbotopIc vIsIon.
unii of rciinal illuninancc iroland (td} is a nuliilc of iIc luninancc
(L} in cd/n
2
and uil arca (P } in nn. As iIc luninosiiy funciions
of loiI scoioic and Ioioic vision arc diffcrcni, iIc scoioic and
Ioioic irolands gci a diffcrcni valuc (Fig. 1.5}.
TIc iroland valucs can lc convcricd io Ioion valucs.
TIc dcicrninaiion of iIc aciual rciinal illuninaiion in icrns of
alsorlcd Ioions rcquircs assuniions aloui iransnission losscs
fron iIc corncal surfacc io iIc rciina causcd ly iIc cniirc oiical
sysicn of iIc cyc, as also ly iIc rolaliliiy of Ioion alsoriion
ariicularly ai vcry low ligIi lcvcls. According io a nunlcr of worlcrs,
in scoioic vision iIc nunlcr of Ioions iIai cciic iIc rods is
400 450 500 550 600 650 700
0.00
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
WAVELENGTH (nm)
R
E
L
A
T
I
V
E

S
E
N
S
I
T
I
V
I
T
Y
PHOTOPIC
SCOTOPIC
lU An Intoducton to HgIt Vson TccInoog
around 25 cr ccni of iIosc incidcni on iIc cornca, iIougI iIc
signal iransniiicd io iIc lrain suggcsis iIc arrival of around 5 cr
ccni. Yci rods Iavc lccn sIown io lc IigIly scnsiiivc and cvcn
signalling iIc alsoriion of singlc Ioions. Ecrincnial csiinaics
sIow iIai onc scoioic iroland corrcsonds io aloui four cffcciivc
Ioion alsoriions cr sccond. TIc rclaiionsIi of luninancc, uil
diancicr, and rciinal luninancc ovcr iIc cniirc visillc rangc is sIown
in Fig. 1.5.
1.4.2 TbresboId LI IntensIty FunctIons & Contrast
TIrcsIold us inicnsiiy funciion in rcscci of Ioioic
(conc} vision rcfcrrcd io as iIc Wclcr-FccIncr funciion is sIown in
Fig.1.6. TIc funciion can lc ui down io a fair aroinaiion in
iIc forn.




= +
(1.1}
WIcrc L is iIc incrcncnial luninancc as a funciion of iIc luninancc
laclground L, and L
U
is iIc iIrcsIold luninancc incrcncni for a
darl luninancc valuc L
U
wIicI is jusi ai iIc iIrcsIold vision of iIc
cyc. Powcr n Ias a valuc fron 0.5 io 1 wIilc I is a consiani. WIcn
L>>L
U
i.c., lcyond a ccriain valuc of rciinal luninancc and n 1,
L/L is a consiani. TIc consiancy of L/L lnown as Wclcr's Law
FIgure 1.S. ReIatIonsbIp oI IumInance, pupII dIameter and vIsuaI
IunctIon. Dasbed curves represent measured stImuIus
response In sIngIe prImate rod and cone.
starlight moonlight indoor lighting sunlight
damage
possible
6 4 2 0 2 4
6 8 Luminance
(log cd/cm
2
)
Pupil diameter (mm)
7.1 6.6 5.5 4.0 2.4 2.0 2.0 2.0
4.0 0.22 0.70
1.1
2.6
rod
4.5 6.5 8.5
cone
Retinal
luminance
(log td)
scotopic
Luminance of
white paper in
Visual function
photopic
scotopic mesopic
photopic
scotopic
threshold
photopic
threshold
rod
saturation
begins
best
acuity
good colour vision, good acuity no color vision, poor acuity
2.1
Vson Humun Ec ll
clains iIai conirasi rcnains consiani wiiI cIangcs of luninancc
in an olscrvallc sccnc alovc a ccriain nininal lcvcl of rciinal
luninancc. Ii Ias io lc noicd iIai Wclcr's Law is ocraiivc for
luninanccs as rcflccicd fron iIc olscrvallc sccnc and analyscd ly
iIc cyc-lrain sysicn. TIc crcciion of ligIi sourccs and IgItncss
as sucI is in addiiion io iIc ocraiion of iIc Wclcr's Law.
Various dcfiniiions of conirasi arc in usc, lui as all iIcsc
arc lascd on a raiio, iIcy all yicld invariancc of conirasi fron a
cIangc in illuninaiion lcvcl. A iIrcsIold-vs-inicnsiiy curvc for rod
vision is sIown in Fig. 1.7. Ii can lc olscrvcd iIai rods unlilc
concs arc saiuraicd ly sicady laclgrounds as a conscqucncc of
iIcir IigI scnsiiiviiy and lacl of gain conirol. Ai iIc lowcr ligIi
lcvcls, iIcy arc lnown io signal iIc arrival of cvcn singlc Ioions.
Olviously, lccausc of iIcir low saiial rcsoluiion and saiuraiion,
iIcir coniriluiion io dayiinc vision is raiIcr insignificani as againsi
concs.
1.4.3 CoIour
As indicaicd carlicr, iIc colour scnsaiion is iclcd u ly
iIrcc indccndcni iycs of conc Ioiorccciors wiiI iIc scciral
cIaracicrisiics as sIown in Fig. 1.3. TIc iIrcc conc iycs arc
dcsignaicd lluc (H}, grccn (G}, and rcd (H}. Consiancy of colour Ias
also io lc scnscd in iIc sanc way, as iIc consiancy of conirasi wiiI
FIgure 1.6. TbresboId LI IntensIty IunctIon In respect oI pbotopIc
vIsIon.
-1 0
1 2 3 4
1
2
3
4
0
L
O
G

(

L
/

L
o
)
LOG L (td)
L
L
o
L
o
n =1
L
l2 An Intoducton to HgIt Vson TccInoog
cIangcs in illuninaiion or in iis scciral conicni. TIc scnsiiiviiics
of iIc iIrcc iycs of concs arc adjusicd in sucI a way iIai rcsonsc
raiio wIcn adaicd io colourcd ligIi is iIc sanc as iIai roduccd
in wIiic ligIi. CIronaiic adaiaiion is also ncccssary for corrcci
crcciion of oljcci colour. CIangcs in scciral illuninaiion can rcally
lc significani as sIown in iIc rcflccianccs olscrvcd fron a surfacc
facing away fron iIc sun, or dirccicd ai ii (Fig. 1.8}. TIougI crfcci
colour consiancy nay noi lc ossillc, iIc sanc is acIicvcd ovcr a
good dcal of scciral variaiion as indicaicd ly colorinciric siudics.
Colorinciric uniis arc rcrcscnicd ly a vccior in iIrcc-
dincnsional colour sacc loi along iIc iIrcc acs rcrcscniing iIc
irisiinulus valucs, iIai indirccily dcfinc Iow iIc ligIi is rcgisicrcd
ly iIc iIrcc conc iycs. lluc, grccn and rcd. As wIai is of inicrcsi
is iIc rclaiivc anounis of color along cacI siinulus, ii is sufficicni
io sccify iIc cIronaiiciiy of a ligIi siinulus wiiI only iwo of iIc
iIrcc cIronaiiciiy coordinaics io rccord iIc cIronaiic infornaiion.
1.S IMPLICATIONS FOR NIGHT VISION
Ii is olvious iIai iIc nalcd cyc rcsonds lciicr ai low
ligIi lcvcls as oliaincd undcr noonligIi or siarligIi ai uil
FIgure 1.?. TbresboId LI IntensIty IunctIon In respect oI scotopIc
vIsIon.
3
4
5
6
3
2
1
0

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2
L
o
g

(

L
/

L
o
)
LOG L (SCOTOPIC td)
Vson Humun Ec l3
diancicrs of 5 nn and norc, uiilizing scoioic vision (rods as
scnsors}. Yci as visual acuiiy is lcsi wiiI conc vision and ai IigIcr
ligIi lcvcls, ii lcconcs incraiivc io conc io ai lcasi iIai lcvcl of
luninancc in iIc sccnc as is csscniial for dcsircd saiial locaiion of
oljccis in iIc oljcci-sccnc (Fig. 1.5}. Praciical siudics of iIc linc
iransfcr funciion also sIow grcaicr dcariurc fron iIc diffraciion
inagc of a linc ai uil sizc of 4 nn and alovc and lciicr naicIing
around 2 nn. TIis could lc acIicvcd ly ciiIcr illuninaiing iIc
nigIi sccnc ariificially or ly inicnsifying iIc inagc of iIc oljcci-
sccnc. DoiI alicrnaiivcs crcaic a Iylrid siiuaiion for visual adaiion
as iIc olscrvcr is in a darl arca wIcrc iIc cyc is adaicd for rod-
vision, lui looling on a sccnc iIai is ciiIcr illuninaicd ariificially
(for a fcw scconds or ninuics} or wIosc inagc is inicnsificd. To gci
iIc lcsi rcsulis iIcrcforc iraining for susiaincd fovcal vision undcr
ovcrall darl condiiions nay lc csscniial. As oiic flow and sicrcosis
Icl lciicr undcrsianding, linocular olscrvaiion is rcfcrallc.
Earlicr dcsigns also visualiscd incrcasc of insiruncni oiic
acriurcs in sucI a fasIion iIai iIc illuninancc ai iIc cyc uil
could lc incrcascd nanifold. SucI dcviccs did lay a significani
rolc undcr dawn and dusl condiiions in niliiary ocraiions.
Asirononical iclcscocs also icnd io incrcasc iIcir acriurcs io
olscrvc iIc fainicsi siars in iIc inagc lanc dirccily or for rccording
FIgure 1.S. ReIatIve spectraI response by a reIIectIng surIace IacIng
away and IacIng towards tbe sun.
R
E
L
A
T
I
V
E

S
P
E
C
T
R
A
L

P
O
W
E
R
WAVELENGTH (nm)
150
100
50
300 400 500 600 700
0
FACING AWAY FACING TOWARD
FROM SUN SUN
l4 An Intoducton to HgIt Vson TccInoog
on IoiograIic laics or ly uiilizing inagc inicnsificrs or cIargc
coulcd dcviccs (CCD} wiiI aroriaic scnsors for iIc dcsircd rcgion
of iIc sccirun.
REFERENCES
1. HclnIoliz, H.V. "HclnIoliz's ircaiisc on Iysiological
oiics,(Vol. 1}", Translaicd fron Otcu Socct o Amccu,
3
rd
cd, (Ccrnan}, cd. ly SouiIIall, J.P.C. (FocIcsicr, N.Y.
1924}.
2. Lawrancc, L. Vsuu Otcs und SgIt Tcstng, 3
rd
cd. (London.
ScIool of Oiics, 1926.} .452.
3. Walicr, C.D. (Ed}. TIc Ecs und Vson, CIaicr 12, Handlool
of Oiics. (McCraw Hill Dool Conany}.
4. Forrcsi, J. TIc Hccognton o Ocuu Dscusc. (London. TIc
Haiian Prcss Lid}.
5. Livingsionc; Margarci, & Hulcl, D. "Scgrcgaiion of Forn, Color,
Movcncni and DciI". Sccncc, vol 240, . 740-49.
6. Waldnan, C. & Wooiion, J. Eccto-otcu Sstcms Pcomuncc
Modcng. (AriccI Housc, 1993}.