ALEXANDER WERTH

RUSSIA AT WAR 1941-1945

NEW YORK
E. P. DUTTON & CO., INC.
1964
ALSO BY ALEXANDER WERTH:
France in Ferment (1934)
The Destiny of France (1937)
France and Munich: Before and After the Surrender (1939)
The ast Days of !aris (194")
The T#i$i%ht of France (194&)
Mosco# '41 (194&)
enin%rad (1944)
The (ear of Sta$in%rad (194))
Musica$ *+roar in Mosco# (1949)
France 194",19-- (19-))
The Stran%e .istory of !ierre Mend/s,France (19-7)
America in Dou0t (19-9)
The de 1au$$e 2e3o$ution (19)")
The 4hrushche3 !hase (19)1)
5o+yri%ht6 76 19)4 0y A$e8ander 9erth: A$$ ri%hts reser3ed: !rinted in 1reat Britain: ;o
+art of this 0oo< may 0e re+roduced in any form #ithout +ermission in #ritin% from the
+u0$isher6 e8ce+t 0y a re3ie#er #ho #ishes to =uote 0rief +assa%es in connection #ith a
re3ie# #ritten for inc$usion in a ma%a>ine6 ne#s+a+er or 0roadcast:
To the Memory of
M?T(A 4.*D@A
a%ed 19
4i$$ed in Action
in Be$orussia
Bu$y 1944
CONTENTS
?ntroduction
!A2T @;C
!2C*DC T@ 9A2
? 2ussia's 1939 Di$emma
?? The So3iet,1erman !act
??? The !artition of !o$and
?A From the Finnish 9ar to the 1erman ?n3asion of France
A 2ussia and the Fa$$ of FranceDBa$tic States and Bessara0ia
A? 2ussia and the Batt$e of Britain: a !sycho$o%ica$ Turnin%,!ointE
A?? Dis+$ay of 2ussian Mi$itary Mi%htDMo$oto3's Tra%i,comic Aisit to Ber$in
A??? F 1941Dit #i$$ 0e a .a++y ;e# (earF
?G The ast 9ee<s of !eace
!A2T T9@
F2@M T.C ?;AAS?@; T@ T.C BATTC @F M@S5@9
? So3iet *n+re+aredness in Bune 1941
?? The ?n3asion
??? Mo$oto3 and Sta$in S+ea<
?A Smo$ens<: the First 5hec< to the B$it><rie%
A 5$ose,*+ @ne: Mosco# at the Be%innin% of the 9ar
A? 5$ose,*+ T#o: Autumn Bourney to the Smo$ens< Front
A?? Ad3ance on enin%rad
A??? 2out in the *<raine: F4hrushche3 3ersus Sta$inF
?G The C3acuation of ?ndustry
G Batt$e of Mosco# Be%insDThe @cto0er 1) !anic
G? Batt$e of Mosco# ??: Sta$in's .o$y 2ussia S+eech
G?? The Mosco# 5ounter,@ffensi3e
G??? The Di+$omatic Scene of the First Months of the ?n3asion
!A2T T.2CC
T.C C;?;12AD ST@2(
? The Dead of enin%rad
?? The Cnemy Ad3ances
??? Three Mi$$ion Tra++ed
?A The ado%a ife$ine
A The 1reat Famine
A? The ?ce 2oad
A?? enin%rad 5$ose,*+
A??? 9hy enin%rad FToo< ?tF
?G A ;ote on Fin$and
!A2T F@*2
T.C BA54 S*MMC2 @F 194&
? 5$ose,u+: Mosco# in Bune 194&
?? The An%$o,So3iet A$$iance
??? Three 2ussian Defeats: 4erch6 4har<o3 and Se0asto+o$
?A The 2ene#a$ of the 1erman Ad3ance
A Patrie-en-Danger and the !ost,2osto3 2eforms
A? Sta$in 2o+es in the 5hurch
!A2T F?AC
STA?;12AD
? Sta$in%rad: the 5hui<o3 Story
?? The F Sta$in%radF months in Mosco#Dthe 5hurchi$$ 3isit and after
??? 2ussians encirc$e the 1ermans at Sta$in%rad
?A Sta$in%rad 5$ose,*+s: ?: The Sta$in%rad ife$ine
??: The Scene of the Manstein 2out
A Sta$in%rad: the A%ony
A? 5$ose,*+ ???: Sta$in%rad at the Time of the 5a+itu$ation
A?? F5aucasus 2ound Tri+F
!A2T S?G
1943: (CA2 @F .A2D A?5T@2?CSD T.C !@?S. TA;1C
? The Birth of FSta$in's Mi$itary 1eniusF
?? The 1ermans and the *<raine
??? 4har<o3 under the 1ermans
?A The Cconomic Cffort of 194&,3Dthe 2ed Army's ;e# oo<Dend,ease
A Before the S+rin% u$$ of 1943DSta$in's 9arnin%
A? The Techni=ue of Bui$din% a ;e# !o$and
A?? The Disso$ution of the 5omintern and @ther 5urious C3ents in the S+rin% of 1943
A??? 4urs<: .it$er oses .is ast 5hance of Turnin% the Tide
?G @re$: 5$ose,*+ of a !ure$y 2ussian 5ity under the 1ermans
G A Short 5ha+ter on a Aast Su0Hect: 1erman 5rimes hi the So3iet *nion
G? The !artisans in the So3iet,1erman 9ar
G?? !arado8es of So3iet Forei%n !o$icy in 1943DThe Fa$$ of Musso$iniDThe FFree
1erman 5ommitteeF
G??? Sta$in's itt$e ;ationa$ist @r%y after 4urs<
G?A The S+irit of Teheran
!A2T SCAC;
1944: 2*SS?A C;TC2S CASTC2; C*2@!C
? Some 5haracteristics of 1944
?? 5$ose,*+ ?: *<rainian Microcosm
??? 5$ose,*+ ??: @dessa6 5a+ita$ of 2umanian Transniestria
?A 5$ose,*+ ???: .it$er's 5rimean 5atastro+he
A The u$$ Before D,DayDSta$in's F$irtation #ith the 5atho$ic 5hurchDFS$a3 *nityF
A? The 2ussians and the ;ormandy andin%
A?? 1erman 2out in Be$orussia: F9orse than Sta$in%radF
A??? 9hat .a++ened at 9arsa#E
?G 5$ose,*+: u0$inDthe Maidane< Murder 5am+
G 2umania6 Fin$and and Bu$%aria !ac< *+
G? 5hurchi$$'s Second Mosco# Aisit
G?? Sta$in's .orse,Tradin% #ith de 1au$$e
G??? A$ternati3e !o$icies and ?deo$o%ies to#ards the Cnd of the 9ar
!A2T C?1.T
A?5T@2(DA;D T.C SCCDS T.C 5@D 9A2
? ?nto 1ermany
?? (a$ta and After
??? Bune6 194-: Ber$in *nder the 2ussians @n$y
?A The Three Months'!eace
A !otsdam
A? The Short 2usso,Ba+anese 9arD.iroshima
Se$ected Bi0$io%ra+hy
5hrono$o%ica$ Ta0$e
Ac<no#$ed%ements
MAPS
The !artition of !o$and
The So3iet,Finnish 9ar
The Batt$e of 4ie3
The 1erman @ffensi3e a%ainst Mosco#
Mosco#: the 2ussian 5ounter,offensi3e
The enin%rad B$oc<ade
The enin%rad ife$ine
The B$ac< Summer of 194&
The Batt$e of Sta$in%rad
The 1ermans Tra++ed at Sta$in%rad
The 2ussian 9inter @ffensi3e 194&,3
The 4urs< Batt$e
The 2ussian S+rin% 1944 @ffensi3e in the South
The 2ussian Summer 1944 @ffensi3e in Be$orussia and !o$and
The i0eration of !o$and and ?n3asion of 1ermany
To#ards Aictory
Folding maps:
The 1erman @ffensi3e 1941,&
The 2ussian 5ounter,offensi3e 194&,-
Endpaper maps:
The *SS2
MAPS DRAWN BY REDERICK BROMA!E
INTRODUCTION
?n his s+eech 0efore the American *ni3ersity in 9ashin%ton on Bune 1"6 19)3Da s+eech
that foreshado#ed the Mosco# test,0an treaty t#o months $aterDthe $ate !resident
4ennedy said:
A"#$% &'( ")$* &+),&- &'( .(#./(- #0 #1+ &2# 3#1$&+,(- 4&'( USA )$5 &'( S#6,(&
U$,#$7 ')6( ,$ 3#""#$, $#$( ,- -&+#$%(+ &')$ &'( "1&1)/ )8'#++($3( #0 2)+.
A/"#-& 1$,91( )"#$% &'( "):#+ 2#+/5 .#2(+-, 2( ')6( $(6(+ 8(($ )& 2)+ 2,&'
()3' #&'(+. A$5 $# $)&,#$ ,$ &'( ',-&#+* #0 8)&&/( (6(+ -100(+(5 "#+( &')$ &'(
R1--,)$- -100(+(5 ,$ &'( 3#1+-( #0 &'( S(3#$5 W#+/5 W)+.
And he #ent on to say:
A& /()-& &2($&* ",//,#$ /#-& &'(,+ /,6(-. C#1$&/(-- ",//,#$- #0 '#"(- )$5 0)+"- 2(+(
81+$(5 #+ -)3;(5. A &',+5 #0 &'( $)&,#$<- =E1+#.()$> &(++,&#+*, ,$3/15,$% $()+/*
&2#-&',+5- #0 ,&- ,$51-&+,)/ 8)-(, 2(+( &1+$(5 ,$&# ) 2)-&(-/)$5.
Some si8 months $ater6 in a $ess conci$iatory,soundin% s+eech at 4a$inin6 de$i3ered in the
+resence of Fide$ 5astro6 4hrushche3 thundered a%ainst the Fim+eria$istsF6 ur%ed them to
c$ear out of !anama F0efore they %ot <ic<ed outF6 s#ore that the So3iet *nion cou$d
defend 5u0a from roc<et sites on 2ussian territory6 and6 #ith more than usua$ trucu$ence6
dec$ared:
W( )+( 81,/5,$% 3#""1$,-" ,$ #1+ 3#1$&+*? 81& &')& 5#(- $#& "()$ &')& 2( )+(
81,/5,$% ,& #$/* 2,&',$ &'( 0+)"(2#+; #0 &'( S#6,(& 8#+5(+- )$5 #0 #1+ #2$
(3#$#"*. N#, 2( )+( .#,$&,$% &'( +#)5 &# &'( +(-& #0 '1")$,&*. C#""1$,-" ,- 8(,$%
81,/& $#& #$/* ,$-,5( &'( S#6,(& 8#+5(+-, )$5 2( )+( 5#,$% (6(+*&',$% &# -(31+( &'(
6,3&#+* #0 3#""1$,-" &'+#1%'#1& &'( 2#+/5.
But6 ha3in% %ot that chinoiserie off his chest6 he then dec$ared6 #ith a nod at !e<in%:
S#"( 3#"+)5(- )8+#)5 3/)," &')& K'+1-'3'(6 ,- ");,$% ) "(-- #0 &',$%-, )$5 ,-
)0+),5 #0 2)+. L(& "( -)* #$3( )%),$ &')& I -'#1/5 /,;( &# -(( &'( ;,$5 #0 8/##5* 0##/
2'# ,- %($1,$(/* $#& )0+),5 #0 2)+. O$/* ) -")// 3',/5 ,- )0+),5 #0 $#&',$%, 8(3)1-(
'( 5#(-$<& 1$5(+-&)$5? )$5 #$/* 8/##5* 0##/-.
.e then reca$$ed that his son6 an airman6 #as <i$$ed in 9or$d 9ar ??6 and that mi$$ions of
other 2ussians had $ost their sons6 and 0rothers6 and fathers6 and mothers and sisters:
True6 for 5astro's 0enefit6 he ended on an unusua$ note of 0ra3ado6 sayin% that6 a$thou%h
2ussia did not #ant #ar6 she #ou$d Fsmash the enemyF #ith her #onderfu$ ne# roc<ets
if #ar #ere to 0e inf$icted on the So3iet +eo+$e:
I Izvestia, Banuary 1J6 19)4:K
9hich has6 of course6 to 0e read in the $i%ht of his usua$ $ine that it is no use tryin% to
0ui$d socia$ism or communism Fon the ruins of a thermo,nuc$ear #arF:
?n a$$ this there #as much +$ay,actin%: Si%nificant$y6 the +assa%e in his s+eech #hich the
4a$inin te8ti$e #or<ers cheered more $oud$y and #ho$ehearted$y than any other #as that
a0out the F0$oody foo$sF #ho #ere not afraid of #ar: 4a$inin6 the ancient 2ussian city of
T3er6 on$y a short distance from Mosco#6 had 0een occu+ied 0y the 1ermans in 19416
and its o$der +eo+$e remem0ered on$y too #e$$ #hat it had 0een $i<e:
4ennedy had s+o<en of the t#enty mi$$ion 2ussian dead of 9or$d 9ar ??: @fficia$$y6 the
2ussians ha3e 0een chary a0out mentionin% this fi%ureL #hen a s+ea<er mentioned it at a
meetin% of the Su+reme So3iet in @cto0er 19-96 Pravda omitted it in re+ortin% his
s+eech the ne8t day:
ISee the author's The Khrushchev Phase (ondon6 19)1)6 +: 1)1:K
But #hether the e8act num0er of casua$ties that 2ussia suffered in the $ast #ar #as
t#enty mi$$ion6 or a $itt$e more or a $itt$e $ess6 these a++a$$in% $osses ha3e $eft a dee+ mar<
on the 2ussian character6 and ha3e6 #hether #e $i<e it or not6 0een at the root of So3iet
forei%n +o$icy since the #ar6 0oth 0efore and after Sta$in's death: The 2ussian distrust of
1ermany6 and of anyone he$+in% 1ermany to 0ecome a %reat mi$itary +o#er a%ain6
remains acute: There is scarce$y a 2ussian fami$y #hich the 1erman in3asion did not
affect direct$y6 and usua$$y in the most tra%ic #ay6 and if 1ermany remains di3ided in
t#o6 and #e sti$$ ha3e trou0$e o3er Ber$in6 it is +art$y due to the memories of 1941,-:
These are sti$$ fresh in e3ery o$der 2ussian mind6 and the youn% %eneration of 2ussians
are constant$y reminded 0y 0oo<s6 fi$ms6 0roadcasts and te$e3ision sho#s of #hat 2ussia
suffered and of ho# she had to fi%ht6 first for her sur3i3a$6 and then for 3ictory:
?t #ou$d 0e id$e to s+ecu$ate on #hat #ou$d ha3e ha++ened to 2ussia6 Britain and the
*nited States in 1941,-6 if they had not 0een united in their determination to crush ;a>i
1ermany: ?t may #e$$ ha3e 0een a Fstran%e a$$ianceF (as it #as descri0ed 0y 1enera$ Bohn
2: Deane6 head of the American Mi$itary Mission in Mosco# to#ards the end of the
#ar)6 and its 0rea<do#n after the Ho0 #as done may ha3e 0een ine3ita0$e6 des+ite the
forma$ t#enty,year a$$iance that 2ussia and Britain had si%ned in 194&6 and other %ood
#artime reso$utions: 9hate3er mem0ers of the Bohn Birch Society and other +o$itica$$y
certifia0$e +eo+$e (to use rny friend Sir Denis Bro%an's +hrase) may say today a0out our
ha3in% fou%ht Fon the #ron% sideF6 #e must sti$$ say FThan< 1od for the Stran%e
A$$ianceF:
For a year6 in 194",16 Britain fou%ht .it$er a$most sin%$e,handedL and so6 in a 3ery $ar%e
measure6 did 2ussia 0et#een Bune 1941 and the end of 194&L and in 0oth cases the dan%er
of 0ein% destroyed 0y the ;a>is #as immense: Britain he$d out in 194"M1L 2ussia he$d
out in 1941,&: But e3en se3era$ months after Sta$in%rad Sta$in sti$$ dec$ared that ;a>i
1ermany cou$d not 0e defeated e8ce+t 0y the Hoint effort of the Bi% Three:
!erha+s the youn% %eneration in the 9est <no#s 3ery $itt$e a0out those days: The French
radio recent$y =uestioned some youn% +eo+$e a0out 9or$d 9ar ??6 and =uite a num0er of
them said: "Hitler connais pas" 9hen ? tau%ht at an American uni3ersity a fe# years
a%o ? found that many youn% students had on$y the ha>iest notion of .it$er6 Sta$in and
e3en 9inston 5hurchi$$: But do e3en most adu$ts in the 9est ha3e a c$ear idea of ho#
3ictory o3er ;a>i 1ermany #as achie3edE ;ot unnatura$$y6 Britons ha3e 0een interested
chief$y in the British #ar effort6 and Americans in the American #ar effort6 and this
interest has 0een <e+t u+ 0y the +$ethora of memoirs 0y British and American %enera$s:
But these memoirs ha3e6 on the #ho$e6 tended to o0scure the im+ortant fact that6 in
5hurchi$$'s 1944 +hrase6 it #as the 2ussians #ho Ftore the %uts out of the 1erman ArmyF:
?t so ha++ened6 for historica$ and %eo%ra+hica$ reasons6 that it #as6 indeed6 the 2ussians
#ho 0ore the main 0runt of the fi%htin% a%ainst ;a>i 1ermany6 and that it #as than<s to
this that mi$$ions of British and American $i3es #ere sa3ed: ;ot that the 2ussians chose
to sa3e these $i3es6 and to sacrifice mi$$ions of their o#n +eo+$e: But that is ho# it
ha++ened and6 durin% the #ar6 0oth America and Britain #ere acute$y conscious of it: FA
#a3e of nationa$ %ratitude is s#ee+in% Cn%$andF6 Sir Bernard !ares said in 194&L and6
e3en on the more officia$ $e3e$6 simi$ar sentiments #ere free$y e8+ressed: Thus Crnest
Be3in said on Bune &16 194&:
A// &'( ),5 2( ')6( 8(($ )8/( &# %,6( ')- 8(($ -")// 3#".)+(5 2,&' &'( &+("($5#1-
(00#+&- #0 &'( S#6,(& .(#./(. O1+ 3',/5+($<- 3',/5+($ 2,// /##; 8)3;, &'+#1%' &'(,+
',-&#+* 8##;-, 2,&' )5",+)&,#$ )$5 &')$;- 0#+ &'( '(+#,-" #0 &'( %+()& R1--,)$
.(#./(.
? dou0t #hether the chi$dren of Crnest Be3in's contem+oraries6 $et a$one the chi$dren's
chi$dren6 ha3e any such fee$in%s todayL and ? ho+e that this Fhistory 0oo<F #i$$ remind
them of a fe# of the thin%s Crnest Be3in had in mind:
?t shou$d6 of course6 0e added that the 2ussians #ere acute$y conscious6 throu%hout the
#ar6 of the Fune=ua$ sacrificesF made 0y the Bi% Three: The F$itt$e Second FrontF (the
$andin%s in ;orth Africa) did not materia$ise unti$ the end of 194&6 and the F0i% Second
FrontF not ti$$ the summer of 1944: The stran%e$y mi8ed fee$in%s to#ards the A$$ies
amon% the 2ussian +eo+$e durin% the #ar years are one of the recurrin% themes of this
0oo<:
9hat <ind of 0oo< is thisE ?t is $east of a$$ a forma$ history of the #ar: The 3ery sca$e of
the So3iet,1erman #ar of 1941,-6 direct$y in3o$3in% tens of mi$$ions and6 indirect$y6
hundreds of mi$$ions of +eo+$e6 #as so 3ast that any attem+t to #rite a Fcom+$eteF history
of it is out of the =uestion in one 3o$ume #ritten 0y one man: A num0er of mi$itary
histories of this #ar ha3e 0een #ritten 0y 0oth 2ussians and 1ermansL 0ut e3en the
$on%est of them6 the 3ast si8,3o$ume 2ussian Histor! o" the #reat Patriotic $ar o" the
%oviet &nion runnin% to o3er t#o mi$$ion #ords6 and tryin% to co3er not on$y the mi$itary
o+erations6 0ut Fe3erythin%F6 is sin%u$ar$y unsatisfactory in many #ays: ?t contains an
immense amount of 3a$ua0$e information #hich #as not a3ai$a0$e under Sta$inL 0ut it is
o3er0urdened #ith names of +ersons6 re%iments and di3isions and an end$ess 3ariety of
mi$itary and economic detai$s: ?t is fu$$ of e3er,recurrin% FheroicF c$ichNsL and yet fai$s
com+$ete$y6 in my 3ie#6 to te$$ the story of that immense nation,#ide drama in +ure$y
human terms: ?t has the fai$in% common to much6 thou%h not a$$6 So3iet #ritin% on the
#ar of ma<in% +ractica$$y a$$ 2ussians $oo< e8act$y a$i<e: Since this 0oo< is a0out the
#air in 2ussia6 it contains6 of course6 numerous cha+ters on the main mi$itary o+erations:
But6 in dea$in% #ith these6 ? ha3e6 as far as +ossi0$e6 a3oided enterin% into any minute
technica$ detai$s of the fi%htin%6 #hich on$y interest mi$itary s+ecia$ists6 and ha3e tried to
+ortray the dramatic s#ee+ of mi$itary e3ents6 often concentratin% on those detai$sDsuch
as the immense 1erman air su+eriority in 1941,&6 or the 2ussian su+eriority in arti$$ery at
Sta$in%rad6 or the hundreds of thousands of American $orries in the 2ed Army after the
midd$e of 1943D #hich had a direct 0earin% on the so$diers' mora$e on 0oth sides:
Further6 ? ha3e tried to treat a$$ the main mi$itary e3ents in 2ussia in their nationa$ and6
often6 internationa$ conte8t: for 0oth the mora$e in the country and inter,a$$ied re$ations
#ere 3ery noticea0$y affected 0y the +ro%ress of the #ar itse$f: There is6 for instance6
nothin% fortuitous in the intensified acti3ity of So3iet forei%n +o$icy after Sta$in%rad6 or in
the fact that the Teheran 5onference shou$d ha3e ta<en +$ace not 0efore6 0ut after the
2ussian 3ictory of 4urs<D #hich #as the rea$ mi$itary turnin%,+oint of the #ar: more so
than Sta$in%rad #hich6 in the #ords of the 1erman historian6 9a$ter 1oer$it>6 #as more
in the nature of a F+o$itico,+sycho$o%ica$ turnin%,+ointF:
This 0oo<6 therefore6 is much $ess a mi$itary story of the #ar than its human story and6 to
a $esser e8tent6 its +o$itica$ story: ? thin< ? may say that one of my chief =ua$ifications for
#ritin% this story of the #ar years in 2ussia is that ? #as there: C8ce+t for the first fe#
months of 194&6 ? #as in 2ussia ri%ht throu%h the #arDand for three years after itDand
#hat interested me most of a$$ #ere the 0eha3iour and the reactions of the 2ussian +eo+$e
in the face of 0oth ca$amity and 3ictory: ?n the fearfu$ days of 1941,& and in the ne8t t#o,
and,a,ha$f years of hard and cost$y 3ictories6 ? ne3er $ost the fee$in% that this #as a
%enuine !eo+$e's 9arL first6 a #ar #a%ed 0y a +eo+$e fi%htin% for their $ife a%ainst terri0$e
odds6 and $ater a #ar fou%ht 0y a fundamenta$$y una%%ressi3e +eo+$e6 no# roused to
an%er and determined to demonstrate their o#n mi$itary su+eriority: The thou%ht that this
#as their #ar #as6 in the main6 as stron% amon% the ci3i$ians as amon% the so$diersL
a$thou%h $i3in% conditions #ere 3ery hard a$most e3ery#here throu%hout the #ar6 and
tru$y fearfu$ durin% some +eriodsD+eo+$e #ent on #or<in% as they had ne3er #or<ed
0efore6 sometimes to the +oint of co$$a+se and death: ;o dou0t there #ere moments of
+anic and demora$isation 0oth in the Army and amon% ci3i$iansDand ? dea$ #ith these6
too6 in the course of my narrati3e: ne3erthe$ess6 the s+irit of %enuine +atriotic de3otion
and se$f,sacrifice sho#n 0y the 2ussian +eo+$e durin% those four years has fe# +ara$$e$s
in human history6 and the story of the sie%e of enin%rad is a$to%ether uni=ue:
?t may seem stran%e today to thin< that this immense !eo+$e's 9ar #as successfu$$y
fou%ht under the 0ar0arous Sta$in rN%ime: But the +eo+$e fou%ht6 and fou%ht6 a0o3e a$$6
for Fthemse$3esF6 that is6 for 2ussiaL and Sta$in had the %ood sense to rea$ise this a$most
at once: ?n the dar< days of 1941 he not on$y e8+$icit$y +roc$aimed that the +eo+$e #ere
fi%htin% this #ar for 2ussia and for Fthe 2ussian herita%eF6 thus stimu$atin% 2ussian
nationa$ +ride6 and the nationa$ sense of inHury to the utmost6 0ut he succeeded in %ettin%
himse$f a$most uni3ersa$$y acce+ted as 2ussia's national $eader: C3en the 5hurch #as
ro+ed in: ater6 he e3en de$i0erate$y sin%$ed out the 2ussians for s+ecia$ +raise6 rather at
the e8+ense of the other nationa$ities of the So3iet *nion6 for ha3in% sho#n the %reatest
+o#er of endurance6 and the %reatest +atience and for ne3er ha3in% $ost faith in the So3iet
re%imeDarid6 0y im+$ication6 in Sta$in himse$f: This #as one #ay of sayin% that6 in
fi%htin% for 2ussia6 the 2ussian +eo+$e a$so fou%ht for the So3iet system6 #hich is at $east
+art$y true6 es+ecia$$y if one considers that6 +ractica$$y throu%hout the #ar6 the t#o
0ecame e8traordinari$y c$ose$y identified6 not on$y in +ro+a%anda6 0ut a$so in +eo+$e's
minds: Simi$ar$y6 the !arty did e3erythin% to identify itse$f #ith the ArmyDe8ce+t on
one occasion6 in 194&6 #hen an attem+t #as made to 0$ame the insufficient$y e=ui++ed
Army for some %ra3e mi$itary re3erses:
This is not to say that the rN%ime had no maHor share in the credit for 2ussia's u$timate
3ictory: 0ut for the 3ast industria$isation effort that had %one on since 19&J6 and the
tremendous or%anisationa$ feat of e3acuatin% a $ar%e +art of industry to the east at the
hei%ht of the 1erman in3asion6 2ussia #ou$d ha3e 0een destroyed: A$$ the same6 many
fearfu$ mista<es had 0een made6 0oth 0efore the #ar and at the 0e%innin% of the #arL and
e3en Sta$in admitted it:
?n this 0oo<6 ? trace the 3aryin% attitudes of the 2ussian +eo+$e to 2ussia6 to the rN%ime6
and to Sta$in himse$f: Marsha$ Ohu<o36 #ho did not $i<e Sta$in6 ne3erthe$ess +aid him this
tri0ute: F(ou can say #hat you $i<e6 0ut that man has %ot ner3es of iron:F Amon% the
ran<,and,fi$e 2ussian so$diers6 Sta$in #as +o+u$ar: as Chren0ur% recent$y +ut it6 Fthey had
a0so$ute6 confidence in him:F A father,fi%ure or6 sha$$ #e say6 a 5hurchi$$,fi%ure #as
0ad$y needed in #artime and6 in s+ite of e3erythin%6 Sta$in +ro3ided it remar<a0$y
successfu$$y: A$$ the same6 as #i$$ 0e seen6 his standin% durin% the #ar had a %reat many
u+s and do#ns:
The +o+u$ar reactions to the rN%ime and to Sta$in durin% the #ar are6 of course6 on$y one
of the many as+ects of 2ussian #artime menta$ity #ith #hich ? dea$ in this 0oo<: ? #as
a$so carefu$ to #atch +eo+$e's reactions to the 1ermans and to the 9estern A$$ies: The
attitude to the 1ermans #as determined +art$y 0y direct e8+erience6 and +art$y 0y
+ro+a%anda $inesDoften seemin%$y contradictory $inesDado+ted 0y the !arty and the
%o3ernment at different sta%es of the #ar: ?n the course of my story ? re+ort on the
mountin% 2ussian an%er a%ainst the ;a>is6 the near,racia$ist anti,1erman +ro+a%anda of
Chren0ur% and others (a +ro+a%anda #hich #as sudden$y sto++ed in A+ri$ 194-6 #ith the
2ussians #e$$ inside 1ermany)6 and the effect of the 1erman occu+ation on 0oth the
$oca$ inha0itants and6 $ater6 the 3ictorious 2ed Army: ?t is scarce$y sur+risin% that many
of the 2ussian so$diers ran #i$d in 1ermany after a$$ that the 1ermans had done in the
So3iet *nion: And yet the 2ussians' attitude to indi3idua$ 1ermans at 3arious sta%es of
the #ar #as often 3ery far from fo$$o#in% the FChren0ur%F +attern:
Fee$in%s a0out the 9estern A$$ies a$so 3aried considera0$y: The distrust of the 9est had
0een so %reat that the 2ussians hea3ed a rea$ si%h of re$ief in 1941 #hen they found that
Britain had not %an%ed u+ #ith .it$er: But6 #ith thin%s %oin% from 0ad to #orse on the
2ussian front6 the c$amour for the Second Front soon startedD a c$amour #hich 0ecame
strident and a0usi3e in the summer and autumn of 194&: Much of this an%er #as #or<ed
u+ 0y the So3iet +ressL 0ut it #ou$d ha3e 0een there6 any#ayL the 2ussians #ere sufferin%
fearfu$ re3erses and the A$$ies F#ere doin% nothin%:F By the midd$e of 19436 es+ecia$$y
#ith considera0$e =uantities of end,ease de$i3eries arri3in% at the 2ussian Front6 the
attitude +erce+ti0$y chan%ed6 and in the So3iet air force in +articu$ar6 the 9estern a$$ies
#ere distinct$y +o+u$ar: 2ussian airmen #ere6 for instance6 %reat$y im+ressed 0y the
An%$o,American 0om0in%s of 1ermany: A$$ the same6 the Fune=ua$ sacrificesF #ere
somethin% of #hich the 2ussians #ere acute$y conscious e3en at the 0est of times::
5$ose on t#enty years ha3e +assed since the end of the #ar in 2ussia6 and ? am +erha+s
the on$y sur3i3in% 9esterner to ha3e $i3ed in 2ussia ri%ht throu%h the #ar years and to
ha3e <e+t an a$most day,to,day record of e3erythin% ? sa# and heard there:
!arado8ica$$y6 as far as forei%ners #ere concerned6 the #ar years #ere 0y far the most
F$i0era$F of a$$ the Sta$in era: 9e ran<ed as A$$ies6 and #ere treated accordin%$yDon the
#ho$e6 3ery #e$$: ?n the circumstances6 and es+ecia$$y as ? s+ea< 2ussian as a nati3e (?
#as 0orn in o$d St !eters0ur%)6 ? #as a0$e to s+ea< free$y and informa$$y to thousands of
so$diers and ci3i$ians: Moreo3er6 as the corres+ondent of the %unda! Times and the #riter
of the F2ussian 5ommentariesF for the BB56 read 0y Bose+h Mceod6 ? #as %i3en some
e8ce+tiona$ o++ortunities for tra3e$$in% a0out the country and 3isitin% the Front: Some of
these tri+s #ere made 0y sma$$ %rou+s of a0out fi3e or si8 corres+ondents6 0ut ? a$so
often #ent on so$o tri+sL amon% the most memora0$e of these #ere my stay in 0$oc<aded
enin%rad6 and the ten days s+ent in the *<raine at the hei%ht of the 4one3 offensi3e in
March 1944 #hich s#e+t the 2ed Army ri%ht into 2umania: @n a$$ these tri+s ? too<
e3ery o++ortunity of ta$<in% to a$$ and sundryL and 2ussian so$diers and officers6 ? soon
found6 #ere amon% the most candid and uninhi0ited ta$<ers in the #or$d: They #ere
human 0ein%s6 each #ith mar<ed indi3idua$ traits of his o#n6 and #ere =uite un$i<e the
uniform heroic ro0ots that they are often made to $oo< in some of the more officia$ So3iet
0oo<s on the #ar: Durin% those tri+s ? a$so had the o++ortunity of meetin% many famous
%enera$sDamon% them 1enera$ So<o$o3s<y at Aia>ma in the tra%ic autumn of 1941L
5hui<o3 and Ma$ino3s<y in the Sta$in%rad areaL 2o<osso3s<y in !o$andL and6 fina$$y6
Marsha$ Ohu<o3 in Ber$in:
?n Mosco# ? %ot to <no# +ersona$$y some of the to+ So3iet +o$itica$ $eaders6 +articu$ar$y
Mo$oto36 Ayshins<y and Shcher0a<o36 0ut ? cannot say that ? attem+ted any serious
4rem$ino$o%ica$ studies durin% the #ar: At the time a$$ seemed to 0e %oin% reasona0$y
smooth$y inside the 4rem$in6 es+ecia$$y after Sta$in had %i3en the necessary #ei%ht and
authority to the Fne#F %enera$s in the autumn of 1941: 9hat #e <no# a0out Sta$in and
his immediate entoura%e durin% the #ar comes chief$y from #hat a fe# 2ussians6 such as
Marsha$ (eremen<o6 and some distin%uished forei%n 3isitors6 such as 5hurchi$$6 .o+<ins6
Deane and Stettinius6 ha3e +u0$ished since the #ar: There are a$so the entertainin%
2ussian minutes of the Sta$in,de 1au$$e and Bidau$t,Mo$oto3 ta$<s in Decem0er 1944: A
more sordid +icture is +ro3ided 0y some (ine3ita0$y hosti$e) !o$es $i<e Anders and
Mi<o$aHc>y<: Thou%h this e3idence %i3es us a %enera$ idea of ho# the 2ussian $eadershi+
#or<ed6 a detai$ed account of the inner #or<in%s of the 4rem$in durin% the #ar #i$$ not
0e +ossi0$e unti$ a$$ the documents and records 0ecome a3ai$a0$e Dif they e3er do:
IThe %oin%s on amon% the ;a>i hierarchy ha3e 0ecome +u0$ic +ro+erty on$y 0ecause
1ermany #as defeated and count$ess documents #ere ca+tured: This has had6 ? fee$6 one
0ad effect on 0oo<s on 1ermany durin% the #ar: they ha3e concentrated on the actions of
the ;a>i thu%s6 and ha3e to$d us too $itt$e a0out the reactions of the 1erman +eo+$e:K
?t is most un$i<e$y that they #i$$6 0ecause they #ou$d sho# ho# %reat #as the +art +$ayed
0y +eo+$e #hose names are no# ta0oo: But #hi$e #e do not usua$$y <no# e8act$y ho#
certain far,reachin% decisions #ere ta<en 0y the 4rem$in6 #e do <no# #hat their effects
#ere:
9hi$e ? made no attem+t to s+y on hi%h %o3ernment s+heres6 ? #as6 on the other hand6
a0$e to o0ser3e6 day after day6 e3eryday $ife amon% 2ussian #or<ers and other ci3i$ians6
and the chan%es of mood amon% them from the consternation of 1941,& to the o+timism
and e$ation of 1943 on#ardDdes+ite count$ess +ersona$ $osses and the %reat hardshi+s
that most6 thou%h not a$$6 continued to suffer: (The ine=ua$ity6 es+ecia$$y in food
rationin%6 #as one of the most un+$easant as+ects of ordinary $ife in 2ussia durin% the
#arDand6 indeed6 $on% after:) ? a$so sa# a %reat dea$ of #riters6 artists and other
inte$$ectua$sD!asterna<6 !ro<ofie3 and Cisenstein amon% themDand a$so some 3ery
=ueer +o$itica$ anima$s6 such as the mem0ers of the F*nion of !o$ish !atriotsF6 that foetus
#hich soon emer%ed from the #om0 of Mother 2ussia as the u0$in 5ommittee:
A$$ these contacts #ith 0oth Fim+ortantF and Funim+ortantF +eo+$e %a3e me a %ood cross,
section of 2ussian o+inion6 #ith its many nuances, durin% the 3arious sta%es of the #arD
#hether in Mosco#6 or at the Front6 or in the ne#$y,$i0erated areasDand ? do not thin< it
necessary to a+o$o%ise for ha3in% de3oted a su0stantia$ +art of this 0oo< to +ersona$
o0ser3ations of the $ife and moods in the So3iet *nion durin% the #ar years:
I?n the ear$ier +art of this 0oo< ? ha3e used some of the descri+ti3e materia$ from my
ear$ier 0oo<s on 2ussia6 +articu$ar$y The 'ear o" %talingrad, #hich are no# out of +rint:K
? e3en 3enture to thin< that they #i$$ fi$$ a su0stantia$ %a+ in so much of the more,or,$ess
officia$ So3iet #ritin% on the #ar:
?t #ou$d6 ho#e3er6 ha3e 0een =uite insufficient to re$y entire$y on my o#n o0ser3ations6
ho#e3er numerous6 and on contem+orary +ress accounts6 in #ritin% this account of the
#ar years in 2ussia: Durin% the first fe# months of the ?n3asion it #as +ossi0$e to guess a
%reat many thin%s6 0ut it #as 3irtua$$y im+ossi0$e to e8+$ain #ith any accuracy Hust #hy6
#ithin t#o months6 the 1ermans reached the outs<irts of enin%rad and6 #ithin three,
and,a,ha$f months6 the outs<irts of Mosco#: Durin% those months #hen6 in !asterna<'s
+hrase6 autumn #as ad3ancin% in ste+s of ca$amity6 ? shared the %enera$ 0e#i$derment
and consternation of the 2ussian +eo+$e: Much e$se remained o0scure durin% the #ar:
Many such o0scure +oints ha3e 0een c$arified 0y the enormous amount of $iterature
+u0$ished in 2ussia in recent yearsDsince the GGth 5on%ress of 19-) and6 more
+articu$ar$y6 since 19-9,)" of #hich ? ha3e made a carefu$ study6 and #hich has he$+ed
me %reat$y: Thus6 the first 3o$ume of the officia$ .istory of the 9ar6 a$ready mentioned6
contains6 for a$$ its shortcomin%s6 some ama>in% facts to e8+$ain the many mi$itary6
economic6 +o$itica$ and +sycho$o%ica$ reasons for the un+re+ared,ness of the 2ed Army
to meet the 1erman ons$au%ht: ? ha3e a$so dra#n on some remar<a0$e +ersona$
reminiscences 0y 2ussian so$diers6 such as 1enera$s Bo$din and Fedyunins<y6 descri0in%
the first days of the #ar in the ?n3asion areas: The si$ence and discretion #ith #hich a$$
this #as treated in the Sta$in days is no# at an end: 9hether in #ar histories6 memoirs6
no3e$s6 or e3en +oetry6 more +erha+s has 0een #ritten in recent years a0out those fearfu$
first months of the #ar than a0out any other: A no3e$ $i<e 4onstantin Simono3's The
(iving and the Dead I !u0$ished in the *nited S$ates 0y Dou0$eday in 19)&:K is6 in fact6
the 0est6 thou%h 0e$ated6 +iece of re+ortin% there is on these months 0et#een the ?n3asion
and the Batt$e of Mosco#: 2ecent 2ussian 0oo<s6 inc$uded in the 0i0$io%ra+hy at the end
of this 3o$ume6 thro# $i%ht on many other 1941 disasters6 such as the 4ie3 encirc$ement6
in #hich the 1ermans c$aimed ))"6""" +risoners6 or the ear$y sta%es of the Batt$e of
Mosco#6 inc$udin% the e=ua$$y disastrous Aia>ma encirc$ement:
@r ta<e enin%rad6 that uni=ue story of a city of three mi$$ion +eo+$e6 of #hom near$y
one,third died of hun%er6 0ut #ou$d not surrender: ?n (eningrad, a 0oo< ? +u0$ished in
19446 ? %a3e6 in human terms6 a fu$$ and accurate account of #hat had ha++ened there
durin% the famine: But ? o03ious$y cou$d not6 at the time6 o0tain statistica$ data6 for
instance6 on the e8act amount of food a3ai$a0$e in the city #hen the 1erman rin% c$osed
round it6 or on the e8act =uantities de$i3ered at 3arious +eriods across the ice of a<e
ado%a: Today the +recise facts are to 0e found in such in3a$ua0$e recent 0oo<s as D: A:
!a3$o3's and A: A: 4arase3's on the enin%rad B$oc<ade: These are first,c$ass historica$
documents 0y any standard:
? ha3e a$so used do>ens of other 0oo<s recent$y +u0$ished on other im+ortant e+isodes of
the #arDthe %rim summer of 194&6 the tra%edy of Se0asto+o$6 the Sta$in%rad story6
!artisan #arfare durin% the different sta%es of the #ar6 and so on:
? ha3e a$so dea$t in some detai$ #ith the di+$omatic story of the #ar6 some of the e+isodes
on #hich ? #as a0$e to o0ser3e c$ose$y: My many ta$<s #ith Sir Stafford 5ri++s in 19416
and #ith Sir Archi0a$d 5$ar< 4err $ater in the #ar6 #ere of %reat 3a$ue in thro#in% $i%ht
on An%$o,So3iet re$ations: ? a$so <e+t in c$ose touch #ith the *:S: Cm0assy6 and one of
my most 3a$ua0$e contacts #as the 3ery shre#d M: 2o%er 1arreau6 1enera$ de 1au$$e's
re+resentati3e in Mosco#:
!o$itica$$y6 one of the main strands in this 0oo< is the story of So3iet,!o$ish re$ations6
#hich #ere in the 3ery centre of Sta$in's +reoccu+ations6 and #hich had im+ortant effects
on his re$ations #ith his a$$ies: first6 the crisis cu$minatin% in the 0reach of di+$omatic
re$ations #ith the !o$ish 1o3ernment in ondon in A+ri$ 1943L then the formation of a
!o$ish Army on 2ussian soi$L the #ho$e $urid 4atyn 0usiness6 then the settin% u+ of the
u0$in 5ommittee and the tra%edy of 9arsa# in the autumn of 1944: ?t #i$$ 0e seen that6
#ith a fe# im+ortant reser3ations6 and after carefu$ ref$ection6 ? tend to a%ree #ith the
2ussian 3ersion of 9arsa#6 0ut not at a$$ #ith the 2ussian 3ersion of 4atynDat $east
+endin% further information6 #hich is remar<a0$y s$o# in a++earin%: Mr 4hrushche3 has
done nothin% to c$ear that matter u+:
?n short6 ? ha3e made e8tensi3e use of recent 2ussian 0oo<s on the #arDmost of #hich
mi%ht 0e c$assified as F4hrushche3iteF6 and ipso "acto anti,Sta$inite: There is6 ho#e3er6 a
dan%er in ta<in% a$$ these as %os+e$ truth mere$y 0ecause they are anti,Sta$inite: Sta$inite
history #as notorious for its $ac< of Fo0Hecti3ityF6 and for its shame$ess su++ression and
distortion of historica$ facts: But the same6 to a $esser e8tent6 is often a$so true of
4hrushche3ite history: To %i3e a sma$$ e8am+$e: 9hen ? sa# 1enera$ 5hui<o3 at
Sta$in%rad in Fe0ruary 19436 he dec$ared that t#o mem0ers of the hierarchy had 0een on
the Sta$in%rad Front a$most a$$ throu%h the 0att$eD4hrushche3 and Ma$en<o3: @ne
#ou$d $oo< in 3ain in any recent 0oo<6 e3en in 5hui<o3's o#n e8treme$y candid story6 for
any mention of Ma$en<o3: 4hrushche3's ro$e is %reat$y ma%nified in recent histories of
the #ar and much is made of t#o +articu$ar instances (4ie3 in 1941 and 4har<o3 in
194&) #hen disaster cou$d6 a$$e%ed$y6 ha3e 0een a3erted if on$y Sta$in had fo$$o#ed
4hrushche3's ad3ice:
4hrushche3ite history6 $i<e Sta$inite history in the +ast6 suffers from sins of omission: As
Mo$oto36 Ma$en<o3 and Beria #ere Sta$in's c$osest associates on the State Defence
5ommittee (i:e: the 9ar 5a0inet6 as it #ere)6 one #ou$d correct$y assume that they
+$ayed a ro$e of the utmost im+ortance in the conduct of the #ar and the or%anisation of
the #ar economyL 0ut6 e8ce+t for a fe# rare references to Mo$oto3 as Forei%n 5ommissar
and to Beria's Ftreasona0$e acti3itiesF6 these names are not mentioned in recent accounts
of the #ar: Simi$ar$y6 the ro$e of some %enera$s6 no# in hi%h fa3our6 is ma%nified6 and
that of others6 nota0$y Ohu<o36 %reat$y minimised: ?n the officia$ .istory6 the fact that
Ohu<o3 had anythin% to do #ith the defence of enin%rad (#hich in rea$ity he sa3ed) is
mere$y mentioned in a +erfunctory one,$ine footnote: There are some other f$a#s in
4hrushche3ite history: some crucia$ $andmar<sDsuch as the far,reachin% reforms in the
2ed Army in the summer and autumn of 194& after the fa$$ of 2osto3Dare %$ossed o3er
com+$ete$y6 thou%h 1enera$ Ma$ino3s<y6 #hom ? sa# soon after#ards6 attached the
%reatest im+ortance to them:
The 3arious chan%es in the +ro+a%anda $ine6 the attitude of the +eo+$e to Sta$in and the
!arty and the re$ations 0et#een the !arty and the 2ed Army are other to+ics #hich
(+erha+s not sur+risin%$y) are rare$y touched u+on in So3iet #ritin%s on the #ar:
Much of the more or $ess officia$ F4hrushche3iteF #ritin% a$so fai$s to render the rea$
atmos+here of the #ar years: Thus6 ? find that not on$y my +ersona$ notes 0ut a$so the
So3iet +ress of the B$ac< Summer of 194&6 #hen the 1ermans #ere crashin% ahead
to#ards Sta$in%rad and into the 5aucasus6 render much more accurate$y than any officia$
history #ritten today the intense an8iety and e8as+eration that s#e+t the country: There
#ere days #hen the tone of the +ress #as frantic and a$most hysterica$ #ith patrie-en-
danger +ro+a%anda and6 a $itt$e $ater6 in its outcry a%ainst co#ardice6 diso0edience and
incom+etence in the Army: (This6 as #e sha$$ see6 #as at $east +art$y desi%ned to di3ert
the dismay in the country from Sta$in and the %o3ernment to the Army:)
Des+ite these shortcomin%s6 recent So3iet 0oo<s on the #ar sti$$ contain an enormous
amount of 3a$ua0$e factua$ materia$: ? ha3e used this e8tensi3e$y6 0ut not uncritica$$y6 and
not #ithout a %reat dea$ of $a0orious cross,chec<in%: ?n many cases ? ha3e had to
com+are 2ussian statements and fi%ures #ith their 1erman counter+arts:
Thou%h my story is chief$y concerned #ith the #ar years in the So3iet *nion6 ? thou%ht it
necessary to dea$ 0rief$y6 in an introductory +art6 #ith the 1939,41 +eriod in 2ussia: After
%oin% throu%h the So3iet +ress of the time and =uestionin% scores of 2ussians on that
+eriod6 ? ha3e tried to sho# in these cha+ters ho# the +ost,Munich de3e$o+mentsDthe
An%$o,Franco,So3iet ne%otiations in the s+rin% and summer of 19396 the So3iet,1erman
!act6 the +artition of !o$and6 the #ar #ith Fin$and6 the fa$$ of France6 the Batt$e of Britain
and the ra+id deterioration of So3iet,;a>i re$ations after Mo$oto3's Ber$in 3isit at the end
of 194" #ere +resented to the So3iet +eo+$e in their +ress6 and a$so #hat a 3ery $ar%e
num0er of So3iet +eo+$e +ri3ate$y fe$t a0out it a$$: ? thin< readers #i$$ find some
interestin% ne# facts in this story: the mi8ed fee$in%s +roduced 0y the So3iet,1erman
+act6 the %reat an8iety caused in 2ussia 0y the ra+id co$$a+se of France6 the snea<in%
sym+athy and admiration for Britain (es+ecia$$y amon% So3iet inte$$ectua$s) durin% the
0$it> #inter of 194",16 and the %reat re$ief6 ref$ected e3en in Pravda editoria$s and in
Mo$oto3's s+eeches6 at the thou%ht that6 after the fa$$ of France6 Britain #as6 #ith
American su++ort6 continuin% the #ar and that a 1erman 3ictory #as sti$$ 3ery far from
0ein% a fore%one conc$usionP 2e%ard$ess of a$$ the officia$ 0$uster a0out the in3inci0i$ity
of the 2ed Army6 an8iety in the country %re# 3ery ra+id$y durin% the first ha$f of 1941:
Des+ite a$$ Sta$in's and Mo$oto3's a0surd attem+ts after the fa$$ of (u%os$a3ia and 1reece
to +ut off the e3i$ hour 0y at $east a fe# months or e3en #ee<s6 they 0oth <ne# that a
sho#do#n #ith 1ermany #as no# ine3ita0$e6 as seems a++arent from Sta$in's FsecretF
ta$< to the mi$itary academy %raduates at the 0e%innin% of May 1941: .is on$y ho+e no#
#as to %ain Hust a $itt$e more time: There a$so seems $itt$e dou0t that some of the more
c$ear,si%hted 2ussian so$diers a$ready had the +ossi0i$ityDand desira0i$ityDof an
An%$o,So3iet a$$iance at the 0ac< of their minds:
?n conc$usion ? #ish to e8+ress my dee+est a++reciation to the ouis M: 2a0ino#it>
Foundation of ;e# (or< for their %enerous %rant #hich has he$+ed to meet so many of
the e8+enses connected #ith the #ritin% of this 0oo<:
My #armest than<s a$so %o to my friend Bo00y *$$stein for her fre=uent %ood ad3ice and
her untirin% #or< on the +roofsD#hich is far more than one norma$$y e8+ects from one's
+u0$isher's #ifeP ? a$so than< my friend Bohn 1: !attisson for his %reat he$+ in seein% the
0oo< throu%h the +ress:
Fina$$y6 ? #ish to record my s+ecia$ %ratitude to Bohn Cric<son of Manchester *ni3ersity6
our $eadin% authority on the 2ed Army and author of the admira0$e %oviet High
)ommand, for readin% the %reater +art of the manuscri+t and for ma<in% many 3a$ua0$e
and he$+fu$ criticisms and o0ser3ations:
A:9:
PART ONE P+(/15( &# W)+
C').&(+ I RUSSIA<S 19@9 DILEMMA
@n May 46 1939 there a++eared in Pravda and in a$$ other So3iet +a+ers a sma$$
+ara%ra+h entit$ed:
UKASE O THE PRESIDIUM O THE SUPREME SOAIET ON THE
APPOINTMENT O A. M. MOLOTOA AS PEOPLE<S COMMISSAR O
OREI!N AAIRS O THE USSR.
?t read:
T'( C'),+")$ #0 &'( C#1$3,/ #0 P(#./(<- C#"",--)+- #0 &'( USSR
A. M. M#/#&#6 ,- )..#,$&(5 P(#./(<- C#"",--)+ #0 #+(,%$ A00),+-. T'( &2#
01$3&,#$- )+( &# 8( (B(+3,-(5 3#$31++($&/*.
C'),+")$ #0 &'( P+(-,5,1" #0 &'( S1.+("( S#6,(& #0 &'( USSR:
M. Kalinin
S(3+(&)+* #0 &'( P+(-,5,1" #0 &'( S1.+("( S#6,(& #0 &'( USSR:
A. Gorkin
There #as no mention of Ma8im it3ino36 #ho had resi%ned on the +re3ious day Fat his
o#n re=uestF and #hom Mo$oto3 had so a0ru+t$y re+$aced at the head of So3iet
di+$omacy6 or of any other +ost he had 0een %i3en instead: The sma$$ ne#s item caused a
sensation throu%hout the #or$d6 #here it #as inter+reted as the end of an e+och:
.it$er himse$f6 at the famous mi$itary conference of Au%ust &&6 1939Dthe day 0efore the
si%nin% of the 1erman,So3iet non,a%%ression +act and 0are$y ten days 0efore the
in3asion of !o$andDdec$ared to his %enera$s: Fit3ino3's dismissa$ #as decisi3e: ?t came
to me $i<e a cannon shot6 $i<e a si%n that the attitude of Mosco# to#ards the 9estern
!o#ers had chan%ed:F
This6 $i<e count$ess other statements to the effect that the dismissa$ of it3ino3 and his
re+$acement 0y Mo$oto3 meant a Fdecisi3eF chan%e in So3iet forei%n +o$icy6 is much too
sim+$e: The most that can 0e said is that the u*ase of the Su+reme So3iet of May 3
mar<ed the officia$ end of the Fit3ino3 e+ochFL 0ut this had6 in fact6 0een +eterin% out
o3er a 3ery $on% +eriod6 es+ecia$$y since Munich in Se+tem0er 193J6 a sett$ement from
#hich the 2ussians had 0een ostentatious$y e8c$uded:
The %ra3est dou0ts a0out the success of it3ino3's co$$ecti3e security and ea%ue of
;ations +o$icy e8isted in 2ussia for a $on% time: ?n fact6 it is #ron% to descri0e this +o$icy
as Fit3ino3'sF +o$icy: .e #as +ursuin% a +o$icy $aid do#n and a++ro3ed 0y the So3iet
1o3ernment and the !arty6 and the +ersona$ factor mattered on$y in so far as he +ursued
this +o$icy #ith %reat con3iction6 enthusiasm and determination: But6 a$$ a$on%6 he had
found the resu$ts dee+$y disa++ointin% and frustratin%: For on$y a short +eriod in 1934 did
the French thin< in terms of a 1rand A$$iance a%ainst ;a>i 1ermany6 com+risin% France's
a$$ies (!o$and6 5>echos$o3a<ia6 2umania6 (u%os$a3ia)6 Britain and the So3iet *nion:
This #as #hen ouis Barthou #as Forei%n Minister: Britain #as6 ho#e3er6 $ess than
$u<e#arm to#ards the Barthou +$an6 and so #as !o$and:
After Barthou's assassination in @cto0er 1934 he #as re+$aced at the Quai d'@rsay 0y
!ierre a3a$6 #hose %reatest am0ition #as an a$$iance #ith Musso$ini's ?ta$y and some
<ind of a%reement #ith ;a>i 1ermany: ?f6 in 193-6 he si%ned a mutua$ assistance +act
#ith the So3iet *nion6 it #as chief$y for tactica$ and domestic reasons6 and the +ractica$
3a$ue of this +act #as not rated hi%h$y either in France or in 2ussia: For one thin% the
French #ere re$uctant to fo$$o# u+ the +act #ith a mi$itary con3ention:
?n March 193) came .it$er's reoccu+ation of the 2hine$andL and France's fai$ure to react
c$ear$y su%%ested to the 2ussians that France cou$d scarce$y 0e de+ended u+on to a0ide
0y her a$$iances #ith !o$and and the itt$e Cntente countries: There #as %oin% to 0e a
#idenin% %u$f 0et#een France's officia$ forei%n +o$icy and her mi$itary +ossi0i$ities once
the 2hine$and had 0een occu+ied and fortified 0y .it$er:
And #ho6 durin% those years6 had 0een the men in char%e of British +o$icyE 2amsay
MacDona$d6 Sir Bohn Simon6 #ho %a3e Musso$ini a free hand in A0yssinia at the Stresa
conference in 193-L then Ba$d#in and Simon #ho had discoura%ed any French action in
res+onse to the 2hine$and coup+ then Samue$ .oare of the .oare,a3a$ !$anL then
5ham0er$ain and .a$ifa8: A++easement had6 in 3aryin% de%rees6 0ecome the officia$
+o$icy of 0oth Britain and FranceDa++easement o3er the 2hine$and coup, a++easement
o3er S+ain6 a++easement o3er Austria and 5>echos$o3a<ia: Munich had 0een the u$timate
trium+h of the a++easement +o$icy: ?n Britain6 the fe# sincere critics of this +o$icyD
nota0$y Anthony CdenDhad 0een s#e+t aside6 and 5hurchi$$ #as $itt$e more than a 3oice
cryin% in the #i$derness: ?n France thin%s #ere no 0etter: At the end of 19376 the #e$$,
meanin% 0ut #ho$$y ineffectua$ (3on De$0os6 #ho had 0een Forei%n Minister since the
formation of Non B$um's !o+u$ar Front 1o3ernment in Bune 193)6 #ent on a $on% tour
throu%h Castern Curo+eDhe 3isited 9arsa#6 Be$%rade6 Bucharest and !ra%ueD0ut on$y
to find that France's system of a$$iances had fa$$en to ruins since the 2hine$and coup, #ith
the 5>echs a$one sti$$ +athetica$$y 0e$ie3in% that France #ou$d come to their he$+ if
1ermany attac<ed them: Si%nificant$y De$0os fai$ed to inc$ude Mosco# in his tour:
Before $on% the arch,a++easer 1eor%es Bonnet 0ecame the head of French di+$omacy:
9hen after Munich Bonnet #e$comed 2i00entro+ to !aris in Decem0er 193J6 he did not
officia$$y (as has sometimes erroneous$y 0een su%%ested) %i3e 1ermany Fa free hand in
the CastF: ;e3erthe$ess the ha$f,heartedness #ith #hich France's Fs+ecia$ re$ations #ith
third +o#ersF #ere referred to6 the e8treme$y am0i%uous statements Bonnet made a #ee<
$ater 0efore the Forei%n Affairs committee of the 5ham0er a0out France's commitments
vis-,-vis !o$and6 2umania or the So3iet *nion6 and a0o3e a$$6 the +ress cam+ai%n
$aunched #ith officia$ 0$essin%6 in inf$uentia$ +a+ers $i<e (e -atin and (e Temps, in
fa3our of $unatic schemes such as the formation of a F1reater *<raineF under the ru$e of
1erman stoo%es $i<e Bis<u+s<y and S<oro+ads<y6 $eft 3ery $itt$e dou0t a0out the
o3ertones of the Bonnet,2i00entro+ Ffriendshi+ ta$<sF:
ISee the author's France and -unich: .e"ore and /"ter the %urrender (ondon6 1939)6
++: 3J4,91:K
9hen6 durin% the fo$$o#in% summer6 Bonnet +roceeded to F#arnF 1ermany6 2i00entro+
did not fai$ to +oint out that in Decem0er 193J Bonnet had sho#n no desire to interfere
#ith either 1erman desi%ns on Dan>i% or #ith 1erman interests in the Cast %enera$$y:
The idea of a F1reater *<raineF had certain$y not 0een a 0rain#a3e of the French or
British Fa++easersF: .it$er had 0een +$ayin% #ith this idea for some #ee<s after MunichL
soon6 ho#e3er6 he rea$ised that if his +$ans for a F1reater *<raineF #ere to 0e +ursued
further at this sta%e it mi%ht resu$t in a rapprochement 0et#een 2ussia6 !o$and and
2umania:
I2o0ert 5ou$ondre6 De %taline , Hitler (!aris6 19-")6 ++: &-1,3:K
?n Banuary 1939 he to$d Bec< that he had $ost interest in the *<raine: But the 3ery fact
that such a scheme had 0een considered and a++$auded 0y inf$uentia$ sections of the
French (and British) +ress6 #as6 of course6 not $ost on Sta$in6 and his sus+icions of some
dea$ 0et#een ondon6 !aris and Ber$in ine3ita0$y %re# durin% the #inter of 193J,9:
C3en at this sta%e6 ho#e3er6 Sta$in continued to distin%uish carefu$$y 0et#een the
Fa%%ressi3eF +o#ers (1ermany6 ?ta$y6 Ba+an) and the Fnon,a%%ressi3eF +o#ers (France6
Britain6 *SA)6 a$thou%h he de+$ored the $atters' #ea<ness and %ut$essnessDas he #as to
ma<e 3ery c$ear in his 2e+ort to the 1Jth 5on%ress of the 5ommunist !arty on March 1"6
that is6 fi3e days 0efore the 1erman march into !ra%ue6 #hich +ut an end to the
+recarious F+eace in our timeF after 0are$y si8 months:
That #inter of 193J,9 #as an uneasy #inter in 2ussia: True6 the !ur%es had 0een $ar%e$y
discontinued 0y the end of 193J6 0ut thousands had 0een sent to e8i$e or to $a0our cam+sL
and manyDno one cou$d te$$ ho# manyDhad 0een shot: At the enin 5ommemorati3e
5eremony at the Bo$shoi Theatre on Banuary &16 19396 (e>ho36 Sta$in's ;o: 1
e8ecutioner6 #as sti$$ to 0e seen amon%st the to+ !arty and Army $eadersDSta$in6 Beria6
Mi<oyan6 4a%ano3ich6 Shcher0a<o36 Andreye36 4a$inin6 Sh<iriato36 Ma$en<o36
Mo$oto36 Budienny6 Me<h$is6 Ohdano36 Aoroshi$o36 and Badaye3: ?t #as to 0e (e>ho3's
$ast +u0$ic a++earance:
;o#6 at the end of the Second Fi3e,(ear !$an6 $i3in%Dthou%h not housin%Dconditions
in 2ussia6 and +articu$ar$y in Mosco#6 had %reat$y im+ro3ed: Sta$in's zhit0 stalo legche,
zhit0 stalo veseleiDF$ife has 0ecome easier6 $ife has 0ecome more cheerfu$FDhad 0ecome
the country's officia$ s$o%an: Tri3ia$ musica$ comedies6 o+erettas and comic fi$ms #ere in
3o%ue: !o+u$ar son% #riters $i<e !o<ras6 B$anter and Dunae3s<y #ere at the hei%ht of
their fameL B$anter had Hust com+osed his famous Kat!usha (#hich #as6 a$as6 to 0ecome
one of the fa3ourite so$diers' marchin% son%s in 1941) and Dunae3s<y his %hiro*a strana
mo!a rodna!a (Aast is my 5ountry) #ith the more than incon%ruous $ine F? <no# of no
other country #here man 0reathes so free$yF: (This at the hei%ht of the !ur%esP)
A$on%side +o+u$ar s$a+stic< comic fi$ms $i<e 1olga-1olga starrin% u0o3 @r$o3a6 a sort
of So3iet 1racie Fie$ds6 and i$$ustratin% ho# cheerfu$ $ife had 0ecome in the So3iet *nion
under the FSun of the Sta$in 5onstitutionF6 there #ere the +atriotic fi$ms6 amon% them
Cisenstein's /le2ander 3evs*!Dsho#in% #hat #ou$d ha++en to the descendants of the
3i$$ainous Teutonic 4ni%hts if they e3er dared in3ade .o$y 2ussia: Another famous fi$m6
Doctor -amloc*, denounced .it$er's +ersecution of the Be#s:
More or: $ess conscious$y e3ery0ody #as a#are of the ;a>i dan%er: There #as an uneasy
fee$in% that e3ery#here in the #or$d the Fa%%ressorsF #ere ha3in% it their o#n #ayD
e8ce+t #here they dared touch the So3iet *nion and her Mon%o$ian a$$y6 as Ba+an had
done at a<e .assan on$y a fe# months 0efore: But Ba+an6 ?ta$y and 1ermany #ere
0ecomin% increasin%$y arro%ant6 and throu%hout that #inter the ne#s from S+ain #as
more and more de+ressin% des+ite the meanin%$ess assurances in Pravda that Fthe
S+anish +eo+$e #ou$d not $ay do#n their arms unti$ fina$ 3ictoryF: At the 0e%innin% of
Banuary6 5o$one$ Bec<6 !o$and's stron% man6 #as on his #ay to Berchtes%aden to see
.it$er: .ad 2ussia an! friends6 a fe# #ondered on the =uietDe8ce+t6 of course6 %a$$ant
$itt$e Mon%o$iaE
;o #onder that in those days +eo+$e $oo<ed to the Army for +rotection and that for
e8am+$e some #omen ace,f$iers $i<e Aa$entina 1ri>odu0o3a6 !o$ina @si+en<o and
Marina 2as<o3a 0ecame +o+u$ar ido$s: 9hen in May 1939 one of them6 !o$ina
@si+en<o6 and the ace,f$ier Sero3 #ere <i$$ed in an air,crash6 it #as $i<e a day of nationa$
mournin%L they #ere %i3en a +u0$ic funera$ in 2ed S=uare6 and the +a$$,0earers inc$uded
Sta$in6 Mo$oto36 Beria and other $eaders:
C3ery o++ortunity #as ta<en to %$orify the Armed Forces of the So3iet home$and6
thou%h6 as some o0ser3ers $ater reca$$ed6 a$$ this #as a $itt$e $i<e #hist$in% in the dar<L
0e$o# a$$ the 0$uster a0out the in3inci0i$ity of the 2ed Army there #as a %ood dea$ of
an8iety: @n Banuary 16 19396 in its ;e# (ear's Day editoria$6 Pravda reca$$ed a recent
#arnin% 0y Sta$in himse$f: F9e must 0e ready at any moment to re+e$ an armed attac< on
our country6 and to smash and finish off the enemy on his o#n territory:F
Si%nificant$y6 at the enin 5ommemorati3e 5eremony on Banuary &16 19396 a $ar%e +art
of the $on% address de$i3ered 0y Shcher0a<o3 #as de3oted to the 2ed Army:
T'( S#3,)/,-& R(6#/1&,#$ ')- &+,1".'(5 ,$ #$( 3#1$&+*. T'( S#3,)/,-& S&)&( ,-
($3,+3/(5 8* &'( 3).,&)/,-& 2#+/5, )$5 &',- ($3,+3/("($& ,- #$/* 2),&,$% 0#+ )$
#..#+&1$,&* &# )&&)3; #1+ -&)&(. I$ -13' 3#$5,&,#$- &'(+( 3)$, #0 3#1+-(, 8( $#
91(-&,#$ #0 )$* 2,&'(+,$%-)2)* #0 &'( S&)&(...I$ 1919 #1+ P)+&* .+#%+)""(
.+#6,5(5 0#+ &'( &+)$-0#+")&,#$ #0 &'( R(5 A+"* ,$&# ) P(#./(<- M,/,&,). B1&
3#$5,&,#$- ')6( 3')$%(5, )$5 2( 3)$$#& 81,/5 1. ) ",%'&* )+"* #$ ) ",/,&,) 8)-,-.
I$ &'(-( 3#$5,&,#$- #1+ P)+&* )$5 #1+ !#6(+$"($& ')6( 81,/& 1. ) ",%'&* R(5
A+"* )$5 R(5 N)6*, )$5 ) ",%'&* )+")"($&- ,$51-&+*, )$5 ')6( /,$(5 2,&' -&((/
)$5 3#$3+(&( &'( 0+#$&,(+- #0 &',- /)$5 #0 &+,1".')$& -#3,)/,-". T'( S#6,(& U$,#$,
2',3' 2)- 2(); )$5 1$.+(.)+(5 0#+ 5(0($3(, ,- $#2 +()5* 0#+ )// ("(+%($3,(-? ,& ,-
3).)8/(, )- C#"+)5( S&)/,$ -),5, #0 .+#513,$% "#5(+$ 2().#$- #0 5(0($3( #$ )
")-- -3)/(, )$5 #0 -1../*,$% #1+ A+"* 2,&' &'(" ,$ &'( (6($& #0 ) 0#+(,%$ )&&)3;.
T'( P)+&* )$5 &'( !#6(+$"($& )+( "),$&),$,$% #1+ .(#./( ,$ ) -&)&( #0 ",/,&)+*
.+(.)+(5$(--, )$5 $# ($("* 3)$ 3)&3' 1- 1$)2)+(-.
Shcher0a<o3 reca$$ed ho#6 on$y a fe# months 0efore6 Fthe Ba+anese Samurai had fe$t on
their o#n s<in the mi%ht of So3iet armsL there6 at a<e .assan6 #here the Ba+anese
mi$itarists had tried to +ro3o<e us into #ar6 our air force and arti$$ery turned the Ba+anese
%uns into $itter and their +i$$0o8es into dustF:
This c$ash #ith the Ba+anese had6 in fact6 0een the 2ed Army's on$y rea$ e8+erience of
#ar for many years +ast6 and it #as6 a $itt$e rash$y6 0ein% he$d u+ as a stern #arnin% to a$$
other a%%ressors: At the same time6 there sti$$ seemed to 0e a certain mudd$eheadedness
a0out modern #arfareDan attitude curious$y reminiscent of certain French mi$itary
theorists at the time6 #ho +ooh,+oohed the conce+t of the 4litz*rieg5 Thus Pravda #rote
on Fe0ruary )6 19396 in connection #ith the t#entieth 0irthday of the Frun>e Mi$itary
Academy:
I$ &'( /)$5 #0 &+,1".')$& -#3,)/,-", &'( 2#+;,$% 3/)--, 1$5(+ &'( /()5(+-',. #0 &'(
P)+&* #0 L($,$ )$5 S&)/,$, ,- 81,/5,$% 1. $(2 ",/,&)+* 3#$3(.&-. #//#2,$% &'(
5,+(3&,6(- #0 &'( P)+&* )$5 C#"+)5( S&)/,$, &'( +1$C( A3)5("* ')- 5,-3)+5(5 )
%##5 $1"8(+ #0 #/5 0(&,-'(-, 3)-& )-,5( 91,&( ) 0(2 "#1/5* &+)5,&,#$-, )$5 /,91,5)&(5
&'( ($(",(- #0 &'( .(#./( 2'# ')5 &+,(5 &# ,$&(+0(+( 2,&' &'( &+),$,$% #0 B#/-'(6,;
",/,&)+* cadres 5(6#&(5 &# &'( P)+&*.
9as this intended as a ne0u$ous reference to Tu<hache3s<y and the thousands of other
+ur%es of the 2ed ArmyE Any#ay6 Sta$in and the +resent 2ed Army $eadershi+ <ne#
0est:
M,/,&)+* &'#1%'& ,$ &'( 3).,&)/,-& 2#+/5 ')- %#& ,$&# ) 8/,$5 )//(*. T'( 5)-',$%
D&'(#+,(-D )8#1& ) /,%'&$,$% 2)+ 4blitzkrieg), #+ )8#1& -")// -(/(3& )+",(- #0
&(3'$,3,)$-, #+ )8#1& &'( ),+ 2)+ 2',3' 3)$ +(./)3( )// #&'(+ ",/,&)+* #.(+)&,#$-E
)// &'(-( &'(#+,(- )+,-( 0+#" &'( 8#1+%(#,-,(<- 5()&'/* 0()+ #0 &'( .+#/(&)+,)$
+(6#/1&,#$. I$ ,&- "(3')$,3)/ 2)*, &'( ,".(+,)/,-& 8#1+%(#,-,( #6(++)&(- (91,."($&
)$5 1$5(++)&(- ")$.
This de0un<in% of the 4litz*rieg and the +rimary re$iance on FmanF seems6 $oo<in% 0ac<
on it6 a0out as incon%ruous as the a$$e%ed dead$y fear of the F+ro$etarian re3o$utionF 0y
#hich .it$er in +articu$ar #as su++osed to 0e o0sessed:
F
?t #ent on $i<e this a$most day after day durin% that #inter of 193J,9: FThe 2ed Army is
?n3inci0$e6F Pravda #rote on 2ed Army Day6 Fe0ruary &36 19396 and C: Shchaden<o6
De+uty 5ommissar for Defence6 dec$ared that6 under the $eadershi+ of 5omrade
Aoroshi$o36 the 2ed Army #as ready to Fans#er any attac< 0y the mi$itarists #ith a
smashin% 0$o# of tre0$e forceF: ;: S: 4hrushche3 a$so Hoined in this chorus e8a$tin% the
in3inci0i$ity of the 2ed Army: Be$o# a $ar%e +icture of 4hrushche36 Secretary of the
5entra$ 5ommittee of the *<rainian 5ommunist !arty6 Pravda of March 46 1939
+u0$ished this messa%e to Sta$in from the !arty 5onference of the 4ie3 +ro3ince:
T'( K,(6 P)+&* O+%)$,-)&,#$ ')- -.)+(5 $# (00#+& &# &1+$ &'( .+#6,$3( #0 K,(6 ,$&#
)$ ,".+(%$)8/( )56)$3( .#-& #0 S#6,(& U;+),$(. W( )+( /,6,$% '(+( ,$ ) 0+#$&,(+
C#$(, #$ &'( 8#+5(+ #0 &2# 2#+/5-... T'( )-3,-& 2)+"#$%(+- ')6( $#& 3()-(5 &#
&',$; #0 )&&)3;,$% S#6,(& U;+),$(. W( -2()+ &# *#1, 5()+ C#"+)5( S&)/,$, &')& 2(
-')// )/2)*- 8( ,$ ) -&)&( #0 ",/,&)+* .+(.)+(5$(--, )$5 -')// 8( 01//* 3).)8/(, 2,&'
)// &'( -&+($%&' #0 S#6,(& .)&+,#&,-", #0 5()/,$% 2,&' )$* ($(",(- )$5 #0 2,.,$% &'("
#00 &'( 0)3( #0 &'( ()+&'... U$5(+ &'( %1,5)$3( #0 *#1+ 3/#-(-& 8+#&'(+-,$-)+"-, N. S.
K'+1-'3'(6, &'( B#/-'(6,;- #0 &'( K,(6 G#$( 2,// 3)++* #1& 2,&' '#$#1+ &'( &)-;-
2,&' 2',3' &'(* ')6( 8(($ ($&+1-&(5... L#$% /,6( #1+ 2,-( /()5(+ )$5 &()3'(+, &'(
%($,1- #0 ")$;,$5, &'( 8(-& 0+,($5 )$5 0)&'(+ #0 &'( S#6,(& .(#./(, %+()& S&)/,$H
@n$y a fe# days $ater a +atriotic s+eech on the same $ines #as made 0y 4hrushche3 at the
un3ei$in% of the 4ie3 monument of She3chen<o6 the *<raine's nationa$ +oet6 endin% #ith
Fon% $i3e he #ho is $eadin% us from 3ictory to 3ictory6 our dear$y 0e$o3ed friend and
teacher6 the %reat Sta$in:F
IPravda, March 76 1939:K
The references to 4ie36 0oth in the 4ie3 !arty @r%anisation's address to Sta$in and in
4hrushche3's s+eech6 as a Ffrontier >oneF threatened 0y the FFascistsF are ty+ica$ of the
ner3ousness that e8isted in 2ussia at the time a0out .it$er's desi%ns6 des+ite a$$ the
0$uster a0out Fin3inci0i$ityF and Fim+re%na0i$ityF: The +ress cam+ai%ns in the 9est
(es+ecia$$y in France) a0out a F1reater *<raineF #hich #as to 0e detached from the
So3iet *nion and #as to +ro3ide 1ermany #ith her much,needed (e4ensraum, had
c$ear$y caused a +rofound im+ression in 2ussia: ?t #as to 0e one of the +rinci+a$ themes
in Sta$in's sur3ey of the internationa$ situation in his 2e+ort to the 1Jth 5on%ress of the
5ommunist !arty #hich o+ened in Mosco# on March 1":
The F+ersona$ity cu$tF6 as #e #ou$d no# say6 #as at its hei%ht: @n the o+enin% day of the
5on%ress6 Pravda +u0$ished a +oem 0y DHam0u$6 the 3eteran 4a>a<h 0ard6 a%ed near$y a
hundred:
T($5(+/* &'( -1$ ,- -',$,$% 0+#" )8#6(,
A$5 2'# 3)$$#& 81& ;$#2 &')& &',- -1$ ,-E*#1I
T'( /)..,$% 2)6(- #0 &'( /);( )+( -,$%,$% &'( .+),-(- #0 S&)/,$,
T'( 5)CC/,$% -$#2* .();- )+( -,$%,$% &'( .+),-(- #0 S&)/,$,
T'( "()5#2<- ",//,#$ 0/#2(+- )+( &')$;,$%, &')$;,$% *#1?
T'( 2(//-/)5($ &)8/( ,- &')$;,$%, &')$;,$% *#1.
T'( '1"",$% -2)+" #0 8((- ,- &')$;,$%, &')$;,$% *#1.
A// 0)&'(+- #0 *#1$% '(+#(-, &'(* &')$; *#1, S&)/,$, &##?
O' '(,+ #0 L($,$, &# 1- *#1 )+( L($,$ ',"-(/0?
B(2)+(, *#1 S)"1+),, ;((. #1& #0 #1+ S#6,(& '()6($H
!erha+s the on$y e8cuse for +u0$ishin% this ru00ish #as that it had a Ffo$<$orishF and
Fe8oticF f$a3our6 and #as the #or< of an i$$iterate o$d Asiatic: C3en so6 many mem0ers of
the 5on%ress must6 on the =uiet6 ha3e thou%ht it fri3o$ous and ina++ro+riate to s+$ash this
<ind of thin% o3er the front +a%e of Pravda on so so$emn and serious an occasion: For
Sta$in's forei%n +o$icy statement #as a#aited #ith 0oth ea%erness and a touch of an8iety:
?t shou$d 0e remem0ered that Curo+e #as a$ready fu$$ of dan%er si%na$s and that the
5on%ress o+ened6 and that Sta$in's re+ort #as de$i3ered6 fi3e days 0efore the 1erman
march into !ra%ue:
Sta$in di3ided the ca+ita$ist +o#ers into Fa%%ressi3eF +o#ers and Fnon,a%%ressi3eF
+o#ers6 0ut sus+ected the $atter of #antin% Fothers to +u$$ the chestnuts out of the fire for
themF6 su%%estin% that they mi%ht not 0e a3erse to seein% the So3iet *nion in3o$3ed in a
#ar #ith the Fa%%ressorsF: .e dea$t in some detai$ #ith the economic crisis in the
ca+ita$ist #or$d6 a crisis #hich had 0e%un in 19&96 and #hich6 since then6 had on$y 0een
+art$y o3ercome 0y the armaments race: Sta$in said that the %ra00in% of Manchuria and
;orthern 5hina 0y Ba+an and the ?ta$ian in3asion of A0yssinia a$ready +ointed to the
acute stru%%$e amon% the !o#ers: 9ith the ne# economic crisis (since 1937)6 this
im+eria$ist conf$ict cou$d not 0ut %ro# in intensity: ?t #as no $on%er a case of com+etition
for mar<ets6 trade #ar or dum+in%: These #ea+ons #ere no $on%er considered sufficient:
9hat 2ussia #as no# facin% #as a redistri0ution of the #or$d6 of s+heres of inf$uence
and co$onies 0y means of #ar:
The Fha3e,notsF #ere no# attac<in% the Fha3esF: Ba+an no# c$aimed to ha3e 0een tied
hand,and,foot 0y the ;ine,!o#er TreatyL this had +re3ented her from en$ar%in% her
territory at 5hina's e8+ense6 #hi$e Britain and France +ossessed 3ast co$onia$ territoriesL
?ta$y had reca$$ed that she a$so had 0een cheated of her share after the first im+eria$ist
#ar6 #hereas 1ermany #as no# demandin% a return of her co$onies and an e8tension of
her territory in Curo+e: ?n this #ay a 0$oc had 0een formed amon% the three a%%ressi3e
+o#ers6 and no# the =uestion had arisen of a ne# share,out of the #or$d 0y mi$itary
means:
The ne# im+eria$ist #ar6 Sta$in said6 had a$ready 0e%un: Since ?ta$y's ca+ture of
A0yssinia6 0oth she and 1ermany had or%anised their mi$itary inter3ention in S+ain: ?n
19376 after %ra00in% Manchuria6 Ba+an had in3aded ;orthern and 5entra$ 5hina6 and had
dri3en its forei%n com+etitors out of these ne# occu+ied >onesL in 193J 1ermany had
%ra00ed first Austria and then the Sudeten$and6 #hi$e Ba+an had occu+ied 5anton6 and6
more recent$y sti$$6 .ainan:
After the first im+eria$ist #ar6 Sta$in reca$$ed6 the 3ictorious +o#ers had created a ne#
internationa$ rN%ime of +eaceL this #as 0ased on the ;ine,!o#er Treaty in the Far Cast
and on the Treaty of Aersai$$es and other a%reements in Curo+e: The ea%ue of ;ations
#as e8+ected to re%u$ate internationa$ re$ations on a 0asis of co$$ecti3e security::: To %i3e
themse$3es a com+$ete$y free hand6 the three a%%ressor states had $eft the ea%ue: To
co3er u+ their treaty 3io$ations6 the three a%%ressor states had +roceeded to #or< on
+u0$ic o+inion #ith the he$+ of de3ices $i<e the Anti,5omintern !act: F?t #as a c$umsy
%ame6 0ecause it seems a 0it a0surd to $oo< for 5omintern 0reedin%,%rounds in the
deserts of Mon%o$ia6 the mountains of A0yssinia or in the #i$ds of S+anish Morocco:F
A$$ these con=uests #ere made 0y the a%%ressor states6 =uite re%ard$ess of the interests of
the non,a%%ressor states: FThis ne# im+eria$ist #ar has not yet 0ecome a %enera$ #or$d
#ar: ?t is 0ein% conducted 0y the a%%ressor states a%ainst the interest of the non,a%%ressor
states6 0ut these6 0e$ie3e it or not6 are not on$y retreatin%6 0ut to some e8tent conni3in% in
this a%%ression:F
?t #as not6 Sta$in said6 that the non,a%%ressi3e6 democratic countries #ere #ea<L 0oth
economica$$y and mi$itari$y these countries6 ta<en to%ether6 #ere stron%er than the Fascist
countriesL #hy then #ere they 0eha3in% in this odd #ayE ?t mi%ht6 of course6 0e ar%ued
that they #ere afraid of the re3o$ution that #ou$d fo$$o# a ne# #arL 0ut this #as 0y no
means the chief reason for their 0eha3iour:
T'( +()/ +()-#$ ,- &',-: &'( "):#+,&* #0 &'( $#$-)%%+(--,6( -&)&(-, )$5 ,$ &'( 0,+-&
./)3( B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3(, ')6( %,6($ 1. &'( .#/,3* #0 3#//(3&,6( -(31+,&*, )$5 ')6(
3')$%(5 #6(+, ,$-&()5, &# ) .#/,3* #0 $#$-,$&(+6($&,#$, &# ) .#-,&,#$ #0 D$(1&+)/,&*D.
O$ &'( 0)3( #0 ,&, &',- $#$-,$&(+6($&,#$ .#/,3* ")* 8( 5(-3+,8(5 )- 0#//#2-: DL(&
(6(+* 3#1$&+* 5(0($5 ,&-(/0 )%),$-& )%%+(--#+- )$* 2)* ,& 3)$ #+ /,;(-? ,&<- %#&
$#&',$% &# 5# 2,&' 1-, )$5 2( -')// %# #$ &+)5,$% 2,&' 8#&' &'( )%%+(--#+- )$5 &'(,+
6,3&,"-.D B1& ,$ )3&1)/ .+)3&,3( $#$-,$&(+6($&,#$ "()$- 3#$$,6)$3( ,$ )%%+(--,#$,
)$5 ($3#1+)%("($& &# &'( )%%+(--#+- &# &1+$ &'(,+ )%%+(--,#$ ,$&# ) 2#+/5 2)+...
T'(+( ,- ) 3/()+ 5(-,+( &'(+( &# /(& &'( )%%+(--#+- 5# &'(,+ 5,+&* )$5 3+,",$)/ 2#+;E
&# /(& J).)$ 8(3#"( ,$6#/6(5 ,$ 2)+ 2,&' C',$) #+, 8(&&(+ -&,//, 2,&' &'( S#6,(&
U$,#$, #+ &# /(& !(+")$* %(& 8#%%(5 5#2$ ,$ E1+#.()$ )00),+-, )$5 &# %(& ,$6#/6(5
,$ ) 2)+ )%),$-& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$... A$5 $#& 1$&,/ )// &'( 8(//,%(+($&- ')6(
&'#+#1%'/* (B')1-&(5 ()3' #&'(+ 2,// &'( $#$-)%%+(--,6( .#2(+- 3#"( 0#+2)+5E#0
3#1+-( D,$ &'( ,$&(+(-&- #0 .()3(DE2,&' &'(,+ #2$ .+#.#-)/-, )$5 5,3&)&( &'(,+ &(+"-
&# &'( .#2(+- &')& ')6( 0+,&&(+(5 )2)* &'(,+ -&+($%&' ,$ ");,$% 2)+ #$ ()3' #&'(+.
A $,3( )$5 3'(). 2)* #0 5#,$% &',$%-H
9as there not a hint that if FtheyF cou$d +$ay at this %ame of the fresh,and,0ri%ht neutra$s
dictatin% their terms to the e8hausted 0e$$i%erents6 then #hy shou$d not F#eF +$ay it6 tooE
Britain and France6 Sta$in #ent on to say6 had c$ear$y encoura%ed ;a>i 1ermany to attac<
the So3iet *nion:
T'(* )8)$5#$(5 A1-&+,), 5(-.,&( &'( #8/,%)&,#$- &# .+#&(3& '(+ ,$5(.($5($3(? &'(*
)8)$5#$(5 &'( S15($&($/)$5, )$5 &'+(2 CC(3'#-S/#6);,) &# &'( 2#/6(-? ,$ 5#,$% -#,
&'(* 8+#;( (6(+* 3#$3(,6)8/( #8/,%)&,#$? 81& )0&(+ &')&, &'(,+ .+(-- -&)+&(5 ,&- $#,-*
3)".),%$ #0 /,(- )8#1& D&'( 2();$(-- #0 &'( R1--,)$ A+"*D, &'( D8+();5#2$ #0 &'(
R1--,)$ A,+ #+3(D, &'( D5,-#+5(+-D ,$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$... T'(* ;(.& #$ 1+%,$% &'(
!(+")$- &# %# 0)+&'(+ )$5 0)+&'(+ ()-&: DY#1 :1-& -&)+& ) 2)+ )%),$-& &'(
B#/-'(6,;-, )$5 )// 2,// 8( 2(//.D
.e then referred to Fa$$ the hu$$a0a$oo in the French6 British and American +ress a0out a
1erman in3asion of So3iet *<raineF:
T'(* -3+()"(5, &,// &'(* 2(+( '#)+-(, &')& -,$3( !(+")$* 2)- $#2 ,$ 3#$&+#/ #0 &'(
-#-3)//(5 C)+.)&',)$ U;+),$( IThe eastern ti+ of 5>echos$o3a<ia6 a$so <no#n as
2uthenia:K, 2,&' )8#1& KLL,LLL .(#./(, &'( !(+")$- 2#1/5, $#& /)&(+ &')$ &'( -.+,$%
#0 19@9, )$$(B &# ,& &'( S#6,(& U;+),$( 2,&' ) .#.1/)&,#$ #0 #6(+ &',+&* ",//,#$-. I&
+()//* /##;- )- ,0 &'( .1+.#-( #0 )// &',- ',%'/* -1-.(3& -3+()",$% 2)- &# ,$3($-( &'(
S#6,(& U$,#$ )%),$-& !(+")$*, &# .#,-#$ &'( )&"#-.'(+(, )$5 .+#6#;( ) 3#$0/,3&
8(&2(($ 1- )$5 !(+")$* 2,&'#1& )$* #86,#1- +()-#$-. T'(+( ")*, #0 3#1+-(, 8(
-#"( /1$)&,3- ,$ !(+")$* 2'# )+( &',$;,$% #0 ")++*,$% #00 &'( (/(.')$& 4I "()$
S#6,(& U;+),$(7 &# &'( %$)&E&'( -#-3)//(5 C)+.)&',)$ U;+),$(. B1& /(& &'(" ')6(
$# 5#18& )8#1& ,&: ,0 &'(+( )+( -13' /1$)&,3-, &'(+( )+( 91,&( ($#1%' -&+),&-:)3;(&-
2),&,$% 0#+ &'(" '(+( (stormy applause)... I& ,- -,%$,0,3)$& &')& -#"( .#/,&,3,)$- )$5
$(2-.).(+"($ ,$ E1+#.( )$5 &'( USA -'#1/5 $#2 8( (B.+(--,$% &'(,+ %+()&
5,-)..#,$&"($& 8(3)1-( &'( !(+")$-, ,$-&()5 #0 "#6,$% 0)+&'(+ ()-&, ')6( $#2
&1+$(5 &# &'( 2(-&, )$5 )+( 5(")$5,$% 3#/#$,(-. O$( 2#1/5 &',$; &')& .)+&- #0
CC(3'#-/#6);,) 2(+( %,6($ &# &'(" )- )56)$3( .)*"($& 0#+ -&)+&,$% ) 2)+ )%),$-&
&'( S#6,(& U$,#$? )$5 $#2 &'( !(+")$- )+( +(01-,$% &# +(01$5 &'( "#$(* )$5 )+(
&(//,$% &'(" &# %# &# '(//... I 3)$ #$/* -)* &')& &',- 5)$%(+#1- %)"( -&)+&(5 8* &'(
-1..#+&(+- #0 &'( $#$-,$&(+6($&,#$ .#/,3* ")* ($5 6(+* 8)5/* 0#+ &'(".
?n any case6 Munich had 0rou%ht no $astin% +eace: The #or$d today #as fu$$ of a$arm and
uncertaintyL the +ost,#ar order had 0een 0$o#n s<y,hi%hL internationa$ $a# and treaties
and a%reements counted for 3ery $itt$e: A$$ disarmament +$ans had 0een 0uried:
C3ery0ody no# #as armin% fe3erish$y6 not $east the non,inter3ention states: F;o0ody
0e$ie3es any $on%er in those unctuous s+eeches a0out the concessions made to the
a%%ressors at Munich ha3in% started a ne# era of +eace: C3en the British and French
si%natories of the Munich a%reement don't 0e$ie3e a #ord of it: They are armin% as much
as the others are:F
And Sta$in added that6 #hi$e doin% her utmost to +ursue a +o$icy of +eace6 the So3iet
*nion cou$d not $oo< on im+assi3e$y #hi$e -"" mi$$ion +eo+$e #ere a$ready in3o$3ed in
#arL and she had underta<en the tas< of %reat$y stren%thenin% the mi$itary +re+aredness
of the 2ed Army and the 2ed ;a3y:
Throu%hout6 Sta$in reca$$ed6 the So3iet *nion had +ursued a +o$icy of +eace: She had
Hoined the ea%ue of ;ations in 19346 ho+in% that6 des+ite its #ea<ness6 the ea%ue cou$d
sti$$ act as a 0ra<e on a%%ressionL in 193- she had si%ned a mutua$ assistance +act #ith
France6 and another one #ith 5>echos$o3a<iaL a mutua$ assistance +act had a$so 0een
si%ned in 1937 #ith Mon%o$ia6 and in 193J a non,a%%ression +act #ith 5hina: The So3iet
*nion #anted +eaceL she #anted +eace and 0usiness re$ations #ith a$$ countries6 so $on%
as these did not im+in%e on her interestsL she stood for +eacefu$6 c$ose and %ood,
nei%h0our$y re$ations #ith a$$ her immediate nei%h0ours6 so $on% as these did not try6
direct$y or indirect$y6 to interfere #ith the inte%rity of her 0ordersL she stood for the
su++ort of nations #hich had 0ecome the 3ictims of a%%ression and #ere stru%%$in% for
their inde+endenceL she did not fear the a%%ressors' threats6 and #ou$d stri<e #ith dou0$e
stren%th any #armon%ers #ho mi%ht try to 3io$ate So3iet territory: 6(ong storm!
applause57
The tas<s of the !arty in forei%n +o$icy #ere:
17 T# .1+-1( &'( .#/,3* #0 .()3( )$5 #0 &'( 3#$-#/,5)&,#$ #0 81-,$(-- +(/)&,#$- 2,&'
)// 3#1$&+,(-?
M7 T# #8-(+6( &'( %+()&(-& 3)1&,#$ )$5 $#& &# )//#2 #1+ 3#1$&+* &# 8( 5+)2$ ,$&#
3#$0/,3&- 8* 2)+ provocateurs, 2'# 2(+( ,$ &'( ')8,& #0 %(&&,$% #&'(+- &# .1// &'(
3'(-&$1&- #1& #0 &'( 0,+( 0#+ &'("?
@7 T# -&+($%&'($ ,$ (6(+* 2)* &'( ",/,&)+* ",%'& #0 &'( R(5 A+"* )$5 N)6*?
47 T# -&+($%&'($ &'( ,$&(+$)&,#$)/ 8#$5- #0 0+,($5-',. 2,&' &'( 2#+;(+- #0 )//
3#1$&+,(-, 2#+;(+- ,$ 2'#-( ,$&(+(-& ,& 2)- &# "),$&),$ .()3( )$5 0+,($5-',. )"#$%
.(#./(-.
@n the face of it6 in 3ie# of #hat Sta$in said of the com+$ete 0rea<do#n of Finternationa$
$a#F and internationa$ treaties6 his s+eech su%%ested that6 in this internationa$ Hun%$e6 the
So3iet *nion #ou$d 0e #ise to remain in s+$endid iso$ationL 0ut in his +recise #ordin% he
e3ident$y too< some trou0$e not to s$am the door in the face of the French and British
statesmen: The +ossi0i$ity of a $ate dea$ #ith the 9est cou$d +erha+s sti$$ 0e read into the
reference to the Franco,So3iet mutua$ assistance +act: @n the other hand he had d#e$t far
more on the +erfidiousness of the Fnon,a%%ressorF nations than on that of the
Fa%%ressorsF6 and he had a$most %one so far as to con%ratu$ate 1ermany on her #isdom in
not ha3in% in3aded the *<raine6 as Fthe 9estF had a$$e%ed$y ur%ed her to doP
;ot #ithout si%nificance #ere a$so Sta$in's references to 2ussia's Fimmediate
nei%h0oursF: .ad not some sus+ect ne%otiations 0een %oin% on 0et#een 1ermany and
some of 2ussia's Fimmediate nei%h0oursFE .ad ;a>i di+$omacy not 0een acti3e in the
Ba$tic statesE .ad not Bec< raised the F=uestionF of the *<raine #ith .it$er at
Berchtes%aden on Banuary 76 on$y to 0e to$d 0y the FRhrer that he no $on%er re%arded the
*<raine as to+ica$:
I (e (ivre 8aune "ran9ais (!aris6 1939)6 +: 7&:K
And the 2ussians continued to sus+ect the Finns6 #ho on$y a year 0efore had ce$e0rated
the t#entieth anni3ersary of their $i0eration from Fthe Bo$she3i< yo<eF #ith the he$+ of
the 4aiser's army to#ards the end of the First 9or$d 9ar:
Such #as the trend of So3iet +o$icy on the e3e of the ;a>i march into !ra%ue: ?t #as sti$$
a #ait,and,see attitudeL the menace of #ar #as a$ready acute6 0ut it #as sti$$ not entire$y
c$ear #hat .it$er's ne8t mo3e #ou$d 0e:
The ;a>i entry into !ra%ue on March 1- not on$y +ut a fu$$ sto+ to 5ham0er$ain's Munich
i$$usions6 0ut +ut the So3iet *nion in a +osition #here a c$ear choice #ou$d ha3e to 0e
made 0efore $on%: ?t #as a$ready e3ident from Sta$in's s+eech of March 1" that he #as
an8ious to <ee+ out of it a$$Dunless there #as a +ossi0i$ity of sto++in% the a%%ressors
throu%h at $east a +artia$ restoration of Fco$$ecti3e securityFD#hich cou$d on$y mean the
conc$usion of an anti,.it$er a$$iance 0y the Fnon,a%%ressi3eF +o#ers:
F
The 1erman in3asion of 5>echos$o3a<ia came to 2ussia as a shoc<Dthou%h not +erha+s
as a %reat sur+rise: 9hen6 on March 1-6 the 0$o# fe$$6 the So3iet reaction #as fair$y
shar+: ?n re+$y to the officia$ 1erman notification that Bohemia and Mora3ia had 0een
incor+orated in the 2eich as a F+rotectorateF and that the statute of S$o3a<ia had 0een
FmodifiedF (it had 0een turned into a 1erman sate$$ite under M%r Tiso)6 it3ino3 sent the
1erman 1o3ernment a stron%$y,#orded note: ?n it he reca$$ed the 5>echs' ri%ht to se$f,
determination and denied the 3a$idity of !resident .acha's surrender to Ber$in: And
it3ino3 conc$uded: FThe action of the 1erman 1o3ernment not on$y fai$s to $essen the
dan%ers threatenin% #or$d +eace6 0ut can6 on the contrary6 on$y intensify them6 sha<e the
+o$itica$ sta0i$ity of 5entra$ Curo+e::: and stri<e another se3ere 0$o# at the +eo+$es' sense
of security:F
The a$arm in Mosco# #as e3en %reater than a++eared on the surface: True6 the +a+ers
#ere a$ready fu$$ of stories from !ra%ue a0out F1erman 3anda$ism in 5>echos$o3a<iaF
and a0out the F1esta+o terrorF thereDfor instance6 a0out a 4ar$ Benes6 secretary of the
;ie0ur% 5ommunist !arty or%anisation6 ha3in% 0een 0eaten and tortured to death 0y the
1esta+o 6Pravda, A+ri$ 16 1939): But there #as c$ear$y nothin% that the So3iet *nion
cou$d ha3e done a0out it at this sta%e: So attention sudden$y shifted to ondon6 9arsa#
Dand ithuania6 #hich had Hust had Meme$ Fshame$ess$y e8tortedF from her 0y the
1ermans6 as the So3iet +ress +ut it:
The 1ermans in Meme$6 the .un%arians in 2uthenia6 the %ro#in% threats a%ainst !o$and
Da$$ this #as %ettin% 3ery near home:
A$thou%h the in3asion of 5>echos$o3a<ia dee+$y shoc<ed British +u0$ic o+inion6
5ham0er$ain's o#n first reaction #as mi$d6 Hud%in% 0y his statement in the .ouse of
5ommons on March 1-: .o#e3er6 the outcry in the country com+e$$ed him to stri<e a
different note in his Birmin%ham s+eech on March 17: This time he s+o<e of his
Fdisa++ointment and indi%nationF6 and $ess than a fortni%ht $ater6 on March 316 he
announced the British 1o3ernment's %uarantee to !o$and:
This e8traordinary decision is +erha+s 0est e8+$ained 0y a +articu$ar$y #e$$,=ua$ified
o0ser3er6 2o0ert 5ou$ondre6 #ho #as French Am0assador in Ber$in at the time: F9ithout
any <ind of transition6 and #ith a rashness +ointin% to his %enuine an%er6 5ham0er$ain
turned a com+$ete somersau$t: .e #ent from one e8treme to the other6 and di+$omacy6
#hich is the dau%hter of #isdom and caution6 does not $i<e such e8tra3a%ant 0eha3iour:
Having 4een 4am4oozled 4! Hitler, )ham4erlain :as no: going to 4e 4am4oozled 4!
)olonel .ec*, and #as %oin% to ruin a %ame the outcome of #hich #as of the most 3ita$
im+ortance to the cause of +eace:F
I 2: 5ou$ondre6 o+: cit:6 +: &)3: (Cm+hasis added:)K
?mmediate$y after the 1erman in3asion of 5>echos$o3a<ia the British 1o3ernment had
turned to the So3iet *nion: @n March 1J .a$ifa8 as<ed Mais<y6 the So3iet Am0assador6
to ca$$ on him6 and in=uired #hat the So3iet attitude #ou$d 0e if 2umania 0ecame the
o0Hect of an un+ro3o<ed a%%ression: The So3iet 1o3ernment +rom+t$y re+$ied 0y
+ro+osin% a meetin% at Bucharest of the si8 !o#ers most direct$y in3o$3ed: The British
1o3ernment reHected this and +ro+osed6 instead6 on March &16 the +u0$ication of a Hoint
An%$o,Franco,So3iet,!o$ish dec$aration sayin% that they #ou$d enter into immediate
consu$tations a0out any Hoint action to 0e ta<en shou$d the +o$itica$ inde+endence of any
Curo+ean state 0e threatened: The So3iet 1o3ernment6 thou%h disa++ointed 0y the
reHection of its o#n +ro+osa$6 a%reed to such a dec$aration6 +ro3ided !o$and #as one of
the si%natories: But on A+ri$ 1 5ham0er$ain informed Mais<y that he had dro++ed the
idea:
@n March &36 19396 the 1ermans had occu+ied Meme$: @n that same day6 5o$one$ Bec<
re+$ied to the British +ro+osa$ for a Four,!o#er Dec$aration6 and ar%ued a%ainst it: These
mu$ti$atera$ ne%otiations #ou$d 0e 3ery com+$icated and ta<e time6 and there #as no time
to $oseL he therefore su%%ested the conc$usion of a 0i$atera$ !o$ish,British a%reement6
#ithout +reHudice6 of course6 to any #ider su0se=uent ne%otiations: 9hat %ame #as Bec<
+$ayin%E 5ertain$y he #as 0ecomin% distrustfu$ of .it$er6 and #ished to stren%then his
+osition 0y securin% a British %uarantee: At the same time he had no desire to enter into
any sort of Fdefensi3e frontF #ith the 2ussians6 as this6 he ar%ued6 mi%ht incense the
1ermans:
?n discussin% the matter #ith 1afencu6 the 2umanian Forei%n Minister6 he +ut for#ard
the 3ie# that .it$er #ou$d not attac< !o$and6 so $on% as the $atter had not 0ecome
in3o$3ed #ith 2ussiaL on$y a !o$ish,2ussian a$$iance #ou$d +roduce a 1erman in3asion
of !o$and: FDes+ite the terri0$e threat han%in% o3er his country6 and des+ite the $esson of
5>echos$o3a<ia6 Bec< +ersisted in his more than du0ious %ame of 0ac<in% 0oth horses:F
I1: 1afencu6 The (ast Da!s o" Europe (ondon6 194-)6 ++: &"3,4:K
?n the .ouse of 5ommons on March 31 5ham0er$ain made his famous statement on
!o$and: A fortni%ht $ater he announced that the %uarantee to !o$and had 0een e8tended to
2umania and 1reece: As 5ou$ondre says: FThe British 1o3ernment #as no# crashin%
ahead so fast that it e3en rushed +ast the station at #hich it shou$d ha3e sto++ed: ?t #as
enou%h to $oo< at the ma+ of Curo+e to see #hat a serious di+$omatic situation it had
created: 2umania and !o$and +ractica$$y form a continuous front from the B$ac< Sea to
the Ba$tic6 a front se+aratin% 1ermany from the *SS2: 1ermany cannot attac< 2ussia
#ithout %oin% throu%h !o$and or 2umania6 i:e: #ithout 0rin%in% into +$ay the 9estern
%uarantee6 and #ithout %oin% to #ar a%ainst Britain and France: Thus6 #ithout ha3in% to
commit himse$f6 Sta$in secured a 9estern %uarantee in the Cast #hich he had sou%ht in
3ain for ten years::: ?t must no# ha3e 0een c$ear to .it$er that on$y 0y comin% to an
a%reement #ith the *SS2 cou$d he dod%e that dou0$e front the day he decided to attac<
!o$and:F
I2: 5ou$ondre6 o+: cit:6 ++: &)3,4:K
F9ou$d it not ha3e 0een much #iserFD5ou$ondre as<sDFto stic< to the Four,!o#er
Dec$aration6 as +ro+osed on March &16 and6 if Bec< sti$$ refused to si%n6 to %o ri%ht ahead
#ith that An%$o,French,So3iet a$$iance #hich 5hurchi$$ #as demandin% #ith +ro+hetic
foresi%ht6 and #hich the 2ussians #ere then +re+ared to si%nE F
@n A+ri$ 1 the So3iet +ress +rominent$y dis+$ayed 5ham0er$ain's %uarantee to !o$and6
0ut accom+anied the story #ith an account of the .ouse of 5ommons de0ate6 in #hich
Arthur 1reen#ood as<ed #hether the So3iet *nion had 0een 0rou%ht into it6 to #hich
5ham0er$ain re+$ied that discussions #ere in +ro%ress #ith numerous countries6
inc$udin% the So3iet *nion: Three days $ater6 in connection #ith Bec<'s 3isit to ondon6
the So3iet +ress re+orted further .ouse of 5ommons discussions: ?t re+orted
5ham0er$ain as sayin% that the %uarantee to !o$and had mar<ed a shar+ chan%e in British
forei%n +o$icy: But a$ready it focused a$$ its attention on #hat #as 0ein% said a0out the
So3iet *nion and the Ftra+F the !o$es had $aid:
Sir Archibald Sinclair -),5 &')& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ '(/5 &'( ;(* &# .()3( ,$ E)-&(+$
E1+#.(. B+,&,-'-S#6,(& 3##.(+)&,#$ 2)- &'(+(0#+( #0 &'( 1&"#-& ,".#+&)$3(.
Mr loyd George )-;(5 2'* &'( B+,&,-' !#6(+$"($& ')5 $#& %#& S#6,(& -1..#+&
8(0#+( ($&(+,$% ,$&# &'(-( 3#/#--)/ #8/,%)&,#$-. B+,&),$ -'#1/5 &(// P#/)$5 &')& -'(
3#1/5 8( '(/.(5 #$/* #$ 3(+&),$ 3#$5,&,#$-. I$ &)/;,$% )8#1& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$,
C')"8(+/),$, L/#*5 !(#+%( -),5, 2)- "(+(/* &+*,$% &# )..()-( &'( O..#-,&,#$. I0
B+,&),$ 5,5 $#& -(31+( S#6,(& ),5, '(+ '(/. &# P#/)$5 2#1/5 "(+(/* 8( ) &+)..
Mr !ugh "alton '#.(5 '( 2#1/5 -##$ -(( -#"( )3&,#$ )8#1& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$, )$5
$#& :1-& 6).,5 )--1+)$3(-.
The +ress re+orted that6 accordin% to a +u0$ic o+inion +o$$ in Britain6 ei%hty,four +ercent
of the +eo+$e no# #anted c$ose coo+eration #ith the So3iet *nionL 0ut6 it added6 there
#as nothin% to sho# that the 1o3ernment #as fo$$o#in% suit: ?f the a0our and i0era$
+ress #ere no# sayin% that no resistance to 1erman a%%ression cou$d 0e effecti3e
#ithout the So3iet *nion6 The Times and the Dail! Telegraph #ere sti$$ 0eatin% a0out the
0ush6 assurin% 1ermany that no Fencirc$ementF #as contem+$ated6 and tryin% to dra#
fine distinctions 0et#een !o$ish inde+endence and !o$ish territoria$ inte%rity: FThe
Times", Pravda #rote on A+ri$ 1"6 Fis tryin% to su%%est that this is a return to co$$ecti3e
securityL 0ut it is not6 if on$y 0ecause the !o$es are sti$$ ta$<in% a0out 'ho$din% the
0a$ance':F
A$$ the same6 somethin% seemed at $ast to 0e stirrin% in Britain6 and there #as a$ready
much ta$< of conscri+tionD#hich #as6 indeed6 to 0e introduced at the end of A+ri$: But
for a fortni%ht after the announcement of the %uarantee to !o$and6 no ne# +ro+osa$s came
to Mosco# from the 9estDor 3ice 3ersa: ?t #as not ti$$ A+ri$ 1- that the British Forei%n
@ffice came for#ard #ith a +ro+osa$ to the 2ussians that they %i3e !o$and6 2umania and
other Curo+ean states a uni$atera$ %uarantee a%ainst 1erman a%%ressionDin case these
countries desired such he$+: ?t #as for these countries to decide #hat <ind of he$+ #ou$d
0e con3enient to them: This #as unacce+ta0$e to Mosco#:
More constructi3e6 from the So3iet +oint of 3ie#6 #as a simu$taneous French +ro+osa$
for a Hoint So3iet,French dec$aration 0ased on mutua$ assistance to each other6 as #e$$ as
to 2umania and !o$and: The So3iet 1o3ernment a++arent$y sensed Da$adier's dis$i<e of
the %uarantee to !o$and #hich 5ham0er$ain had forced on him and #hich made him
+refer the 2ussian a$$iance: So6 Fin order to coordinate the 3arious British6 French and
So3iet +ro+osa$sF6 the So3iet 1o3ernment no# came for#ard #ith the +ro+osa$ for a
strai%ht An%$o,Franco,So3iet a$$iance6 to 0e si%ned for a +eriod of fi3e or ten years: This
a$$iance #ou$d +ro3ide that they underta<e to render each other e3ery he$+6 inc$udin%
mi$itary he$+6 in the e3ent of an a%%ression in Curo+e on any of the three si%natories6 and
a$so to render simi$ar he$+ to a$$ Cast,Curo+ean countries 0orderin% on the So3iet *nion
0et#een the Ba$tic and the B$ac< Sea:
FThis offerF6 5ou$ondre #rote6 F#as a$most undreamed of at the time:F .e thou%ht this
#as a tremendous ste+ in the ri%ht direction6 and attri0uted it to the fact that it3ino36 the
Fco$$ecti3e security manF6 #ith his o03ious +rede$iction for the 9est6 #as sti$$ in char%e
of So3iet forei%n +o$icy: ?n actua$ fact such a +ro+osa$ cou$d not ha3e 0een made sim+$y
on it3ino3's initiati3e: But the 5ham0er$ain 1o3ernment turned do#n the So3iet
+ro+osa$ #hichD5ou$ondre ar%uedDcou$d ha3e sti$$ sa3ed the day had it 0een sei>ed
#ith 0oth hands:
?nstead of acce+tin% the So3iet +ro+osa$6 the British 1o3ernment started +roducin%Din
5ou$ondre's +hraseDmore and more so+histicated formu$ae6 the +ur+ose of #hich #as to
+ro3ide So3iet %uarantees to countries that did not e3en #ant them: The British
1o3ernment made it indeed c$ear6 in a ;ote addressed to the French 1o3ernment6 that the
3arious o0Hections raised 0y !o$and made any a%reement #ith the So3iet *nion 3ery
difficu$t:
I2: 5ou$ondre6 o+: cit:6 +: &)3:K
The Fundreamed of offerF had 0een made 0y 2ussiaDand had 0een reHected: A ne#
a++roach #as needed: ?t had no# 0ecome necessary to %i3e So3iet forei%n +o$icy not
on$y a more f$e8i0$e and o++ortunist character6 0ut a$so to %i3e it the ma8imum authority:
And Mo$oto3's +osition in the !arty #as second on$y to Sta$in's: Bust as in May 19416
#ith a 1erman in3asion threatenin%6 Sta$in #as to ta<e o3er the !remiershi+6 so in May
19396 #ith Curo+e on the 0rin< of #ar6 Mo$oto3 too< o3er the Forei%n 5ommissariat:
it3ino3 #as tem+eramenta$$y a F9esternerFD0ut he had recei3ed +oor than<s from the
9est: As a Be#6 he had 0een fierce$y a0used 0y the 1ermans for years: .e #as i$$,suited
for any ne# de+artures that mi%ht no# 0ecome necessary for So3iet forei%n +o$icy: ?n the
eyes of the !arty he no $on%er carried sufficient authority6 es+ecia$$y after the reHection 0y
ondon of the So3iet !$an of A+ri$ 17:
There #as no +erce+ti0$e chan%e in the tone of the So3iet +ress or in officia$ utterances
after Mo$oto3 had 0ecome Forei%n 5ommissar: The +ress continued to re+ort the %reat
success in Cn%$and and e$se#here of 2ussian anti,;a>i fi$ms $i<e Pro"essor -amloc* and
/le2ander 3evs*!+ +atriotic s+eeches continued to 0e made a0out the mi%ht of the 2ed
Army #hich #ou$d Fsmash any a%%ressor on his o#n territory if he e3er dared attac< the
So3iet *nionF
I Thus6 at the %raduation ceremony of the 2ed Army academies on May 7Da ceremony
attended 0y Sta$in6 Mo$oto36 Aoroshi$o36 4hrushche36 Bu$%anin6 Ohdano3 and others6
4a$inin dec$ared: F@ur +eo+$e are con3inced that6 #ith an Army $i<e ours6 they can
+eacefu$$y %o on 0ui$din% and de3e$o+in% the So3iet state6 a c$ass$ess socia$ist society and
communism: The internationa$ situation demands from you a state of constant
+re+aredness: ? ho+e you #i$$ fu$$y Hustify the confidence our +eo+$e ha3e +$aced in you:F
And 5o$one$ 2odimtse36 .ero of the So3iet *nion (and a future hero of Sta$in%rad)6 said
at the same meetin%: F9e s#ear to carry out the order of 5omrade Aoroshi$o3 to smash
any a%%ressor on his o#n territory:::FK and the +ress continued to +u0$ish ominous $itt$e
items $i<e this one in Pravda (May 1)):
HITLER<S AISIT O INSPECTION.
B(+/,$, M)* 15 4TASS7. H,&/(+ &#5)* /(0& 0#+ &'( W(-&(+$ 0+#$&,(+ &# ,$-.(3& &'( -#-
3)//(5 S,(%0+,(5 L,$(. H( 2)- )33#".)$,(5 8* -&)00 #00,3(+- )$5 8* H,""/(+, &'(
'()5 #0 &'( !(-&).#.
9as this meant to su%%est that .it$er mi%ht6 indeed6 turn on the 9est and that the So3iet
*nion and not the 9est had 0etter hurry and Hoin forcesE At any rate6 e3en a month after
Mo$oto3's a++ointment ;a>i 1ermany #as sti$$ treated as ;o: 1 Dan%er:
9hen the Su+reme So3iet met at the end of May6 A: 1: O3ere36 the 5ommissar for
Finance6 dec$ared amid $oud cheers that the e8+enditure on defence #ou$d 0e increased
from t#enty,three mi$$iard rou0$es in 193J to forty,one mi$$iard rou0$es in 1939: FThe
stron%er #e are6F he said6 Fthe 0etter #i$$ 0e the chances that +eace #i$$ not 0e distur0ed6
and that the Fascist aggressors :ill not dare attac* our countr!5" This cou$d on$y mean
;a>i 1ermany:
?n its comments on this 3ast increase in mi$itary e8+enditure6 Pravda (May &7) #as fu$$
of the usua$ 0$uster:
T',- 0,%1+( #0 4L,NN5 ",//,#$ +#18/(- "()$- $(2 %1$-, 0)-& $(2 ./)$(-, .#2(+01/ $(2
&)$;-... W,&' -13' ) ",%'&* R(5 A+"* 2( 3)$ 3)/"/* /##; ,$&# &'( 01&1+(, ;$#2,$%
&')& $# .+#6#3)&,#$ 8* #1+ 0#+(,%$ ($(",(- 3)$ 3)&3' 1- 1$)2)+(-. W( 3)$ 3)/"/*
%# )'()5 2,&' #1+ &',+5 ,6(-Y()+-P/)$... P+#6,5(5 2,&' &'( "#-& .(+0(3& (91,."($&
,$ &'( 2#+/5, #1+ R(5 A+"* 2,// -")-' )$* ($("* #+ )$* ($(",(-, $# ")&&(+ 2'(+(
&'(* 3#"( 0+#".
This #as c$ear$y intended as a #arnin% to 4oth Ba+an and 1ermany:
@ne of the most im+ortant $andmar<s durin% that %rim summer #as Mo$oto3's sur3ey of
the internationa$ situation 0efore the Su+reme So3iet on May 31:
.e #as hi%h$y critica$ of Britain and France6 0ut the s+eech #as6 a0o3e a$$6 an attac* on
#erman!5 After reca$$in% the disasters that the Munich +o$icy had a$ready 0rou%ht on
Curo+e6 Mo$oto3 said:
T'( )%%+(--,6( .#2(+- &#5)* )+( 8(3#",$% "#+( )$5 "#+( )++#%)$&. O$ &'( #&'(+
')$5, &'( +(.+(-($&)&,6(- #0 &'( 5("#3+)&,3 3#1$&+,(-, ')6,$% &1+$(5 &'(,+ 8)3;- #$
3#//(3&,6( -(31+,&*, )$5 ')6,$% )5#.&(5 ) .#/,3* #0 $#$-+(-,-&)$3( &# )%%+(--,#$, )+(
$#2 &+*,$% &# ",$,",-( &'( %+)6( 5(&(+,#+)&,#$ #0 &'( ,$&(+$)&,#$)/ -,&1)&,#$.
*nti$ 3ery recent$y6 Mo$oto3 continued6 the res+onsi0$e $eaders of France and Britain
#ere ha++i$y contem+$atin% the success of the i$$,fated Munich sett$ement:
B1& 2')& 2)- &'( +(-1/&I !(+")$* 2)-$<& -)&,-0,(5 2,&' %(&&,$% &'( S15(&($
3#1$&+*, )$5 -,"./* .+#3((5(5 &# /,91,5)&( #$( #0 &'( S/)6 3#1$&+,(-,
CC(3'#-/#6);,)... T',- :1-& -'#2- 2')& $#$-,$&(+0(+($3( .+#513(-... A$5, )0&(+ &')&,
&'( )%%+(--#+ $)&,#$- 3#$&,$1(5 )- 8(0#+(? ,$ A.+,/, !(+")$* %+)88(5 M("(/ 0+#"
L,&'1)$,), )$5 I&)/* 0,$,-'(5 #00 A/8)$,). T',$%- 2($& 0+#" 8)5 &# 2#+-(: ,$ A.+,/,
&##, &'( '()5 #0 &'( !(+")$ S&)&( 5(-&+#*(5 &'( A$%/#-!(+")$ $)6)/ )%+(("($&
)$5 &'( P#/,-'-!(+")$ $#$-)%%+(--,#$ .)3&... S13' 2)- !(+")$*<- )$-2(+ &# &'(
.+#.#-)/ #0 P+(-,5($& R##-(6(/&, ) .+#.#-)/ ,"81(5 2,&' &'( -.,+,& #0 .()3(.
.e then referred to the ne# +o$itica$ and mi$itary treaty 0et#een 1ermany and ?ta$y
#hich6 he said6 #as Fa%%ressi3e 0y its 3ery natureF:
I$ &'( .)-&, &'(-( &2# 3#1$&+,(- .+(&($5(5 &# 8( 3#$3(+$(5 2,&' &'(,+ :#,$& 8)&&/(
)%),$-& 3#""1$,-". H($3( )// &'( 01-- )8#1& &'( A$&,-C#",$&(+$ P)3&. N#2 &'(
3)"#10/)%( ')- 8(($ 5+#..(5... B#&' &'( /()5(+- )$5 &'( .+(-- #0 &'( &2# 3#1$&+,(-
#.($/* &)/; )8#1& &'( $(2 &+()&* 8(,$% 5,+(3&(5 )%),$-& &'( "),$ E1+#.()$
5("#3+)3,(-...
A$thou%h there #ere no# some si%ns that the non,a%%ressi3e countries #ere at $ast
0e%innin% to fa3our a front a%ainst a%%ression6 it sti$$ remained to 0e seen ho# serious
this chan%e of heart rea$$y #as: F?t may #e$$ 0e that these countries may $i<e to sto+
a%%ression in some areas6 0ut #i$$ not interfere #ith a%%ression in other areas:F And
Mo$oto3 0rou%ht in that Sta$in =uote a0out the FchestnutsF and a0out the need to 0e#are
of provocateurs #ho mi%ht try to dra% the So3iet *nion into #ar:
.e6 c$ear$y6 continued to 0e 3ery hosti$e to 1ermany6 0ut #as a$so e8treme$y distrustfu$
of Britain and FranceL 0ut e3en so6 he said6 FThere are some si%ns that the democratic
countries ha3e 0ecome a#are of the utter co$$a+se of their non,inter3ention +o$icy6 and of
the need of creatin% a sin%$e front of the +eacefu$ +o#ers a%ainst a%%ression: The British,
!o$ish !act is a ne# e$ement in Curo+e6 a$$ the more so as 1ermany has torn u+ her +act
#ith !o$and::: And there is a$so a tendency amon% the non,a%%ressi3e Curo+ean +o#ers
to see< the co$$a0oration of the *SS2 in or%anisin% resistance to a%%ression:F That #as
#hy6 he said6 the So3iet 1o3ernment had acce+ted the +ro+osa$ of Britain and France to
o+en ne%otiations for the +ur+ose of stren%thenin% the re$ations 0et#een these three
countries6 and for or%anisin% a +eace front a%ainst any further de3e$o+ment of a%%ression:
F9e entered into these ne%otiations #ith France and Britain in mid,A+ri$: These ta$<s
ha3e not yet 0een conc$uded: But from the outset #e rea$ised that if there is rea$$y a
desire to create an effecti3e front of +eace,$o3in% countries a%ainst a%%ression6 then the
minimum conditions to 0e fu$fi$$ed are these:
17 T'(+( "1-& 8( ) .1+(/* 5(0($-,6(, 81& (00(3&,6( "1&1)/ )--,-&)$3( .)3& 8(&2(($
B+,&),$, +)$3( )$5 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$?
M7 T'(+( "1-& 8( %1)+)$&((- 8* )// &'+(( P#2(+- &# &'( 3#1$&+,(- 8#+5(+,$% #$ &'(
S#6,(& U$,#$, )$5 &# #&'(+ 3#1$&+,(- ,$ C($&+)/ )$5 E)-&(+$ E1+#.(?
@7 T'(+( "1-& 8( 3#$3+(&( )%+(("($&- 8(&2(($ &'( &'+(( )8#1& &'( ,""(5,)&( )$5
(00(3&,6( ),5 &# 8( +($5(+(5 ,$ &'( (6($& #0 )%%+(--,#$ )%),$-& (,&'(+ #0 &'(" #+
)%),$-& &'( 3#1$&+,(- %1)+)$&((5 8* &'(".D
.a3in% e$a0orated at some $en%th on the +er+$e8ities of +act,ma<in% for the +rotection of
the many frontiers so +recarious$y maintained 0et#een the Ba$tic and the B$ac< Sea and
0et#een the So3iet *nion and ;a>i 1ermany6 Mo$oto3 introduced another motif into his
discourse #hich #as $i<e an echo of Sta$in's s+eech of March 1":
S13' )+( #1+ &)/;- 2,&' B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3(. T')& 5#(- $#& "()$ &')& 2( ,$&($5 &#
8+(); #00 81-,$(-- +(/)&,#$- 2,&' 3#1$&+,(- /,;( !(+")$* )$5 I&)/*. A& &'( 8(%,$$,$%
#0 19@N !(+")$* #00(+(5 1- ) $(2 3+(5,& #0 MLL ",//,#$ ")+;-? 81& -,$3( $#
)%+(("($& 0#//#2(5, &'( 91(-&,#$ #0 &',- 3+(5,& 2)- 5+#..(5. H#2(6(+, )& &'( ($5 #0
19@N &'( !(+")$ !#6(+$"($& )%),$ +),-(5 &'( 91(-&,#$ #0 (3#$#",3 &)/;-, )$5 #0
&'( MLL ",//,#$ ")+;- 3+(5,&. T'( !(+")$- 2(+( +()5* &# ");( 3(+&),$ 3#$3(--,#$-,
)$5 &'(,+ #+(,%$ T+)5( M,$,-&+* -),5 &')& H(++ S3'$1++( 2#1/5 3#"( &# M#-3#2.
B1& ,$-&()5 ,&. 2)- 5(3,5(5 &')& A"8)--)5#+ S3'1/($81+% 2#1/5 3#$513& &'( &)/;-.
S,$3( &'(+( 2(+( -#"( 5,-)%+(("($&-, &'( &)/;- 8+#;( 5#2$. B1& $#2 &'(+( )+( -,%$-
&')& &'( &)/;- ")* 8( +(-1"(5. W( )/-# -,%$(5 +(3($&/* ) .+#0,&)8/( &+)5( )%+(("($&
2,&' I&)/*...
?n conc$usion6 Mo$oto3 said that re$ations #ith !o$and had Fim+ro3edFL that re$ations
#ith Tur<ey #ere F%oodF6 and that he had recent$y #arned the Ba+anese Am0assador that
the So3iet *nion #ou$d defend 0oth her o#n frontiers and those of the Mon%o$ian
!eo+$e's 2e+u0$ic a%ainst any Ba+anese,Manchurian a%%ression:
T'( S#6,(& U$,#$ ,- $#& 2')& ,& 2)-, -)* ,$ 19M1, &'#1%' (6($ -#"( #0 #1+
$(,%'8#1+- -((" &# ')6( 0#+%#&&($ ,&. N#+ ,- &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 2')& ,& 2)- &($, #+
(6($ 0,6( *()+- )%#? ,&- -&+($%&' ,- 0)+ %+()&(+. I$ -.,&( #0 5(/)*- )$5 '(-,&)&,#$-,
-#"( 5("#3+)3,(- )+( 8(3#",$% 3#$-3,#1- #0 &',- -,"./( &+1&'? *(& ,$ )$* 0+#$& #0
&'( .()3(01/ .#2(+- +(-,-&,$% )%%+(--,#$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 3)$$#& 81& '#/5 ) ./)3( ,$
&'( 0+#$& +)$;.
9hat Mo$oto3 had said a0out trade ta$<s #ith 1ermany did not6 on the face of it6 amount
to muchL it mi%ht ha3e 0een meant as a mi$d #arnin% to the 9est6 #here some of
5ham0er$ain's c$ose associates sti$$ considered Ftrade ta$<sF #ith 1ermany to 0e their 0est
ho+e of resumin% an a++easement +o$icy: Mo$oto3 #as6 of course6 a#are of the $on%,
standin% tu%,of,#ar %oin% on in Britain6 0e$o# and a0o3e the surface6 inside and outside
the Tory !arty6 0et#een the ad3ocates and the o++onents of a +act #ith the So3iet *nion:
*nti$ further notice the So3iet +ress maintained a fair$y consistent anti,;a>i $ine6 +$ayin%
the F9esternF card: @n Bune 9 Tass re+orted from ondon 5ham0er$ain's statement in the
.ouse of 5ommons on the Franco,British,So3iet ta$<sL there #as6 5ham0er$ain had said6
a common +oint of 3ie# a0out the main features of the intended a%reement6 and to s+eed
u+ the ta$<s .:M: 1o3ernment had decided to send to Mosco# a re+resentati3e of the
Forei%n @ffice: This #as the 0e%innin% of the FStran% MissionF: S+ecia$ +rominence #as
%i3en to inf$uentia$ utterances in Britain in fa3our of a +act #ith the So3iet *nion6
nota0$y to 5hurchi$$'s artic$e in the Dail! Telegraph on Bune 9: 5hurchi$$ e3en #ent so far
as to ad3ocate a Hoint %uarantee to the Ba$tic States and Fin$and6 and dec$ared that such a
+act #as as much in the interests of the So3iet *nion as it #as in the interests of France
and Britain: But6 said 5hurchi$$6 there #as no time to $ose:
At the same time6 the So3iet +a+ers continued to carry numerous stories a0out F1erman
$ootin% in 5>echos$o3a<iaF (.u0ert 2i+<a in the %pectator =uoted 0y Pravda on Bune 9)6
FAustria under the hee$ of the ;a>i in3adersF (Pravda Bune 1))6 FC8ecutions in S+ainF
;Pravda Bune 1-)6 and so on: A$on%side #ith this #ent accounts a0out %ro#in% 1erman
+ressure on !o$and6 and re+orts of some of the more 3io$ent s+eeches 0y ;a>i $eadersD
such as 1oe00e$s's attac< on Cn%$and in his Dan>i% s+eech at the end of Bune6 #ith its
Fhands off Castern Curo+eP F s$o%an: A$to%ether the %ro#in% 3io$ence o3er Dan>i% #as
0ein% fu$$y re+orted6 and in a tone 3ery far from friend$y to the 1ermans: These6 the
So3iet +ress <e+t on su%%estin%6 #ere out for trou0$e:
D)$C,% ,- &((",$% 2,&' !(+")$ ",/,&)+* &+13;- &')& ')6( 3#"( 0+#" KO$,%-8(+%...
D)$C,% ,- 8(,$% ,$6)5(5 8* '#+5(- #0 D&#1+,-&-D )$5 #&'(+ ',%'/* -1-.(3& (/("($&-...
T'( !(+")$ .).(+- )+( 3#$&,$1,$% &# 3)++* -3+()",$% '()5/,$(- )8#1& P#/)$5<-
D)%%+(--,6($(--D. T'( #$lkischer %eobachter ,- -3+()",$% &')& &'( P#/(- 2)$& &#
,$6)5( E)-& P+1--,), P#"(+)$,), S,/(-,) )$5 #&'(+ !(+")$ &(++,&#+,(-.
IPravda, Bu$y &6 1939:K
A$thou%h6 #hene3er there #as any 3ita$$y im+ortant 0usiness to discuss #ith .it$er6 the
British 1o3ernment #ou$d send him Cden6 Simon6 .a$ifa8Dor 5ham0er$ain in +erson6
the British !rime Minister seemed to thin< that an e8+erienced Forei%n @ffice officia$6
$i<e Mr Stran%6 #as more than %ood enou%h for Mosco#: This choice had6 indeed6 0een
se3ere$y criticised 0y the @++osition +ress and @++osition s+ea<ers6 #ho had ar%ued that
at $east some0ody of .a$ifa8's or Cden's stature shou$d 0e sent there: But6 in
5ham0er$ain's 3ie# .a$ifa8 had other thin%s to do6 #hi$e Cden #as much too friend$y to
the 2ussiansDhe had a$ready %one to Mosco# in 193-D and Mr Stran% #ou$d 0e 0etter
suited to #hat 5ham0er$ain #anted to 0e no more than an e8+$oratory missionDor
mere$y a so+ to the @++osition: .e #as determined to turn a deaf ear to a$$ the #arnin%s6
comin% from 5hurchi$$ and others6 that the time factor #as of the utmost im+ortance: ?t
#as indeed not sur+risin% that the Stran% a++ointment shou$d ha3e aroused $itt$e
enthusiasm in Mosco#:
There is a remar<a0$e +assa%e in Mais<y's reminiscences a0out the 3isit he +aid .a$ifa8
on Bune 1&6 the day of Stran%'s de+arture for Mosco#:
T# %(& &'( &'+((-.#2(+ .)3& 3#$3/15(5 2,&' &'( 1&"#-& -.((5E0#+ &')& 2)- #1+
8)-,3 #8:(3&E)$5 &# 5,-3#6(+ #1+ B+,&,-' .)+&$(+-< +()/ ,$&($&,#$-, &'( S#6,(&
!#6(+$"($& 5(3,5(5 &# ,$6,&( L#+5 H)/,0)B &# M#-3#2... O$ J1$( 1M I 2)-
,$-&+13&(5 &# 3)// #$ H)/,0)B ,$ ) .(+-#$)/ 3).)3,&*, )$5 &# 1+%( '," ,$ ) 0+,($5/* 81&
.+(--,$% 2)* &# %# &# M#-3#2 2,&'#1& 5(/)* &# 3#"./(&( &'( $(%#&,)&,#$- )$5 &# -,%$
&'( .)3&.
I?: Mais<y6 Kto pomogal Hitlern (9ho .e$+ed .it$erE)6 Mosco#6 19)&: Cn%$ish
trans$ation6 ondon6 19)4:K
After +ointin% out to .a$ifa8 the e8treme ur%ency of the +ro0$em6 Mais<y said6 F'?f you
can %o to Mosco# ri%ht a#ay6 ord .a$ifa86 ? sha$$ as< my 1o3ernment to send you an
officia$ in3itation:' A hard and mysterious $oo< came o3er .a$ifa8's face: .e $oo<ed at the
cei$in%6 then ru00ed the 0rid%e of his nose6 and then so$emn$y dec$ared: '? sha$$ 0ear it in
mind:' ? rea$ised of course that he cou$d not decide on this 3isit to Mosco# #ithout
referrin% the matter to the 5a0inet::: After a #ee<6 there #as sti$$ no re+$y:F
I?n conc$usion6 Mais<y #rites that he had an im+ortant +ostscri+t to ma<e to this account
of his meetin% #ith .a$ifa8 on Bune 1&: ?n the Documents of British Forei%n !o$icy
+u0$ished $ater 0y the British 1o3ernment6 there #as .a$ifa8's o#n account of this
meetin%: Accordin% to this6 Mais<y had su%%ested that .a$ifa8 shou$d %o to Mosco#
F#hen thin%s had ca$med do#nF6 to #hich .a$ifa8 had re+$ied that nothin% #ou$d +$ease
him 0etter6 0ut that at the +resent moment it #ou$d 0e im+ossi0$e for him to $ea3e
ondon:
Mais<y then +roceeds to demonstrate that6 in .a$ifa8's account of the same meetin%6 the
Forei%n Secretary had to$d Ft#o untruthsF6 0oth sho#in% that6 $i<e 5ham0er$ain6 he #as
$ess than $u<e#arm a0out comin% to a =uic< a%reement #ith Mosco#: This $ac< of
enthusiasm6 on 0oth .a$ifa8's and 5ham0er$ain's +art6 is6 of course6 fu$$y 0orne out 0y
5hurchi$$ in #hat he said at the time and #rote $ater:
F?t #as decided to send a s+ecia$ en3oy to Mosco#: Mr Cden6 #ho had made usefu$
contacts #ith Sta$in (in 193-) 3o$unteered to %o: This %enerous offer #as dec$ined 0y the
!rime Minister: ?nstead6 on Bune 1&6 Mr Stran%6 an a0$e officia$6 0ut #ithout any standin%
outside the Forei%n @ffice6 #as entrusted #ith this momentous mission:
This #as another mista<e: The sendin% of so su0ordinate a fi%ure %a3e actua$ offence:F
(5hurchi$$6 o+: cit:6 3o$: ?6 +: 34):)
?t shou$d6 of course6 0e remem0ered throu%hout that Mais<y6 a Fit3ino3 manF at heart6
#as more enthusiastic a0out the Tri+artite A$$iance as Fthe on$y #ay of sto++in% .it$erF
than #ere either Sta$in or Mo$oto3:K
Stran% arri3ed in Mosco# in the midd$e of Bune and had6 to%ether #ith the British
Am0assador6 Sir 9i$$iam Seeds6 and the French Am0assador6 M: ;a%%iar6 a num0er of
meetin%s #ith Mr Mo$oto3: The first meetin% on Bune 1)6 $asted an hourL another meetin%
on Bu$y 1 $asted an hour and a ha$fL and sti$$ another6 on Bu$y J6 t#o hours:
et us remem0er that these discussions arose from the di+$omatic e8chan%es that had
%one on since A+ri$: After reHectin% the Fit3ino3 !$anF on A+ri$ 176 the British
1o3ernment had as<ed the So3iet *nion to enter into a num0er of uni$atera$
commitmentsL in its ;ote of May 14Dthis #as a$ready after Mo$oto3 had ta<en o3erD
the So3iet 1o3ernment dec$ared that the $atest British +ro+osa$s did not contain the
+rinci+$e of reci+rocity6 and +ut the So3iet *nion in a +osition of ine=ua$ityL the a0sence
of these %uarantees to the So3iet *nion in case of a%%ression on the one hand6 and the
Fun+rotected +ositionF of its ;orth,9estern frontiers6 on the other6 mi%ht #e$$ act as an
incenti3e for the a%%ressors to attac< 2ussia: ?t therefore +ro+osed a more detai$ed
3ersion of the Fit3ino3 !$anF of A+ri$ 17:
A$ (00(3&,6( A$%/#-+)$3#-S#6,(& "1&1)/ )--,-&)$3( .)3&, 3#"./(&( 2,&' 417 ) &'+((-
.#2(+ %1)+)$&(( &# &'( 3#1$&+,(- #0 E)-&(+$ )$5 C($&+)/ E1+#.( (B.#-(5 &#
)%%+(--,#$, &'(-( 3#1$&+,(- &# ,$3/15( L)&6,), E-&#$,) )$5 ,$/)$5, )$5 2,&' 4M7 )
D3#$3+(&( )%+(("($&D )"#$% &'( &'+(( .#2(+- )- &# &'( $)&1+( )$5 &'( 6#/1"( #0
&'( '(/. &'(* 2#1/5 +($5(+ ()3' #&'(+ )$5 &# &'( %1)+)$&((5 -&)&(-. DW,&'#1& -13'
)$ )%+(("($&D, &'( N#&( 3#$3/15(5, D&'( "1&1)/ )--,-&)$3( .)3&- ")* 2(// +("),$
-1-.($5(5 ,$ ",5-),+, )- 2( ;$#2 0+#" &'( (B.(+,($3( #0 CC(3'#-/#6);,)D.
IAA! SS2 (So3iet Forei%n !o$icy Archi3es) An%$o,Franco,So3iet ta$<s6 3o$: ???6 f: 396
=uoted in Istori!a veli*oi otechestvennoi voin! %oviets*ogo %o!uza (.istory of the 1reat
!atriotic 9ar of the So3iet *nion)6 3o$: ? (Mosco#6 19)"): 2eferred to in future as
?A@ASS:K
The Hoint An%$o,French +ro+osa$s of May &76 in re+$y to this ;ote6 #ere a mar<ed
im+ro3ement on ear$ier effortsL they +ro3ided for direct An%$o,French aid to the So3iet
*nion in the e3ent of a Fdirect attac<F6 0ut $eft the =uestion of the Ba$tic States sti$$
unreso$3ed: Mo$oto3's ne# ;ote of Bune & no# stressed the need for Fa$$,round6 effecti3e
and immediateF mutua$ aid6 and +ro+osed to co3er Be$%ium6 1reece6 Tur<ey6 2umania6
!o$and6 at3ia6 Cstonia and Fin$and in the Hoint %uarantees: ?t e3en +ro3ided that the
mutua$ assistance #ou$d a++$y in cases #hen one of the si%natories had 0ecome in3o$3ed
in #ar 0y he$+in% a neutra$ Curo+ean country that had a++$ied for such he$+:
IAA! SS26 3o$: ???6 ff: 4),47:K
9hat Mo$oto3 #as in fact su%%estin% #as a mutua$ assistance +act co3erin% +ractica$$y
the #ho$e of Curo+e:
The ta$<s #ere 0ecomin% increasin%$y com+$icated: The 2ussians raised the =uestion of
Findirect a%%ressionF: This meant in the first +$ace6 the use 0y 1ermany of the Ba$tic
States as a 0ase for a%%ression F#ith the conni3anceF of the %o3ernments of those
countries: The +ossi0i$ity of 2ussian +re3enti3e action here cou$d6 in the British 3ie#6 not
0e ru$ed out: The 2ussians a$so #anted to <no# if their troo+s cou$d ha3e access to
!o$ish territory in case of need: They #anted a concrete a%reement on the +recise mi$itary
contri0ution the So3iet *nion6 Britain and France #ou$d ma<e to the Fcommon effortF:
oo<in% 0ac< on these crucia$ days 1ri%ore 1afencu6 the 2umanian Forei%n Minister6
#rote: FThe 9estern !o#ers #ere see<in% for a +sycho$o%ica$ effect (they did not hide
this fact): They #ished to create a so$idarity 0et#een the 9est and the Cast #hich #ou$d
+re3ent .it$er from startin% his #ar: This +$an #as +erfect$y Hustified ::: and any de$ay in
its rea$isation seemed into$era0$e: The So3iet 3ie# #as e=ua$$y tena0$e: Mosco# did not
#ant to en%a%e itse$f $i%ht$y: ?f des+ite a%reement in +rinci+$e6 #ar 0ro<e out6 the %reatest
1erman effort mi%ht 0e made a%ainst the *SS2:F
IThe trou0$e is that6 as Sta$in #as to say to 5hurchi$$ in 194&6 he (Sta$in) <ne# +erfect$y
#e$$ that such a F+sycho$o%ica$ effectF #as tota$$y insufficient to restrain .it$er:K
Any#ay6 the Stran%,Mo$oto3 ta$<s #ere $eadin% no#here6 and6 on Bu$y &3 Mo$oto3
fina$$y +ro+osed that France and Britain send a mi$itary mission to Mosco#:
The manner and motions of this mission #ere to sho# 0efore $on% ho# Finto$era0$eF Mr
5ham0er$ain thou%ht Fany de$ayF: 9hat he sti$$ #anted F#ithout de$ayF #as a
F+sycho$o%ica$ effectFL on the other hand a mi$itary con3entionDto the 2ussians Fthe
on$y rea$ test of 9estern sincerityFD#as +recise$y #hat he #as not in a hurry to si%n:
But #ere the 2ussians #ho$ehearted a0out an a$$iance #ith Britain and FranceE @n Bune
&9 Ohdano3 +u0$ished in Pravda a shar+$y critica$ artic$e on the 9estern !o#ers6 a$most
su%%estin% that an a$$iance #ith the FMunichitesF #ou$d 0e a dou0tfu$ asset: 2eferences
to the Sie%fried ine a$so a++eared in the So3iet +ress from time to time6 su%%estin% that
France's stri<in% +o#er a%ainst 1ermany mi%ht 0e insufficient: And amon% the So3iet
hierarchy there mi%ht #e$$ ha3e 0een the $in%erin% thou%ht that6 so soon after the Army
!ur%es6 the 2ed Army had 0etter not ta<e on a +o#erfu$ enemy $i<e ;a>i 1ermany6
unless some definite mi$itary con3ention cou$d 0e reached #ith Biritain and France: Short
of this6 it mi%ht (as Sta$in had a$ready su%%ested on March 1") 0e +refera0$e to remain
Fneutra$F: But ho#E
;or did it esca+e the 2ussians' notice that since Munich6 and indeed to the 3ery moment
the #ar 0ro<e out6 there #ere im+ortant +eo+$e in +o#er or near the $e3ers of +o#er in
Britain and e$se#here #ho in their frantic efforts to a++ease .it$er6 #ere +re+ared to %o
to a$most any $en%ths:
IThe $ist of a++easersDMr .udson6 Sir .orace 9i$son6 ord 4ems$ey6 etc:D#hich
emer%es from the Dir<sen archi3es6 that is the +a+ers of the 1erman Am0assador in
ondon unti$ the out0rea< of the #ar6 ca+tured 0y the 2ussians and +u0$ished
su0se=uent$y6 Do*ument! i material! *anuna vtoroi mirovoi voin!5 T5II /r*hiv Dir*sena
6<=>?->=7, (Mosco#6 194J)6 e3en a$$o#in% for a %ood dea$ of se$ecti3e editin%6 certain$y
0ears out #hat e3ery e8+erienced and so0er o0ser3er of the +o$itica$ scene must ha3e
<no#n or stron%$y sus+ected at the time:K
?n a$$ circumstances the 2ussians had to +re+are themse$3es for an imminent ;a>i thrust
east#ards a%ainst !o$and and the not un$i<e$y e3ent that such an offensi3e mi%ht
encom+ass the Ba$tic States and +ossi0$y 2umania6 that is6 a front e8tendin% from the
Ba$tic to the B$ac< Sea: C3en if the 1erman offensi3e sto++ed in the face of the 2ussian
#inter6 the 2ussians must ha3e feared a 1erman in3asion in the s+rin% of 194" #ith the
9est ta<in% a rin%side seat 0ehind the Ma%inot ine6 un$ess of course definite %uarantees
of co,ordinated mi$itary action #ere mutua$$y +ro3ided:
@n Au%ust 46 Pravda re+orted from ondon that Britain and France had a%reed to send a
mi$itary mission to Mosco#: This re+ort #as accom+anied 0y an account of the .ouse of
5ommons de0ate6 in the course of #hich Cden #e$comed the decision: .e thou%ht that
this #ou$d Freso$3e distrustF6 and ho+ed that these ta$<s #ou$d soon $ead to an a%reement:
.e +ro+osed6 ho#e3er6 that6 in addition to admira$s and %enera$s6 the British 1o3ernment
shou$d send Fa re+resentati3e +o$itica$ $eaderF to Mosco#6 Fso that a$$ the ta$<s cou$d 0e
conc$uded #ithin a #ee<F: There #as no time to $ose6 Cden said6 since !o$and #as no#
0ein% threatened6 as 5>echos$o3a<ia had 0een6 and it #as essentia$ to create a +eace front
#ith the utmost s+eed6 so as to discoura%e a%%ression: To these #arnin%s 5ham0er$ain
turned a deaf ear:
But for se3era$ days after that 3ery $itt$e more #as said in the So3iet +ress a0out this
mi$itary mission: For o3er a #ee< a carefree ho$iday mood seems to ha3e rei%ned in
Mosco#: @n Au%ust 16 indeed6 a monumenta$ A%ricu$tura$ C8hi0ition o+ened in the
ca+ita$6 #ith Mo$oto3 +residin% o3er the o+enin% ceremony: Sta$in #as re+resented 0y a
co$ossa$ statue at the entrance of the C8hi0ition: A$thou%h6 on$y a fortni%ht 0efore6 the
So3iet +ress had re+orted a hi%h$y critica$ s+eech 0y 4hrushche3 on the state of stoc<,
0reedin% in the *<raineDa s+eech in #hich he casti%ated the ha$f,heartedness of so
many *ol*hozni*i #ho #ho$$y $ac<ed the +ro+er co$$ecti3ist s+irit6 and #ere6 in fact6
enemies of the co$$ecti3e sector of the *ol*hozesDthe o+enin% of the A%ricu$tura$
C8hi0ition %a3e rise to ra+turous eu$o%ies on the state of So3iet A%ricu$ture:
W,&' &',- (B',8,&,#$ &'ravda 2+#&( #$ A1%1-& 1> 2( )+( 3(/(8+)&,$% ) %/#+,#1-
6,3&#+* #0 -#3,)/,-". T',- ,- &'( &($&' 8,+&'5)* #0 &'( kolkhoz -*-&(", )$5 ) +(.#+& #$
,&- )3',(6("($&-. I& 2)- ,$ &'( )1&1"$ #0 19M9 &')& &'( .()-)$&- -&)+&(5 ($&(+,$% &'(
kolkhozes 8* 2'#/( 6,//)%(- )$5 5,-&+,3&-. I& 2)- &'( *()+ #0 &'( !+()& C')$%(. T'(
,$3)$&)&,#$- #0 &'( T+#&-;*,&( )$5 B1;')+,$,&( )%($&- #0 )-3,-" )8#1& &'(
,$(6,&)8/( 3/)-' 8(&2(($ &'( 2#+;(+- )$5 &'( .()-)$&-, )$5 )8#1& &'( ,".#--,8,/,&*
#0 81,/5,$% -#3,)/,-" ,$ #$( 3#1$&+* ')6( 8(($ &'+#2$ ,$&# &'( 51-&8,$ #0 ',-&#+*.
N(2 ")3',$(+* ')- &);($ &'( ./)3( #0 &'( ,$5,6,51)/ .()-)$&<- ./#1%', 2##5($
')++#2, -,3;/( )$5 -3*&'(.
These ra+tures continued for se3era$ days6 and &"6""" to 3"6""" +eo+$e a day 3isited the
e8hi0ition6 #ith its ornate domes6 Sta$in,1othic s+ires and its or%y of fountains6 co$ossa$
statues of enin and Sta$in6 and #ith Aera Mu<hina's %iant si$3er statue of the #or<er
#ith the hammer and the *ol*hoznitsa #ith the sic<$e s#ee+in% into a %$orious future
a0o3e the main entrance: The o+u$ent and $uscious e8hi0its in a$$ the 3arious +a$aces and
+a3i$ions #ere there to sho# that a%ricu$ture under the *ol*hoz system had 0ecome a
ma%nificent$y %oin% concern6 #hereas6 accordin% to Pravda, the +easantry in ;a>i
1ermany #as Funder%oin% a +rocess of continuous +au+erisationF:
Mosco# #as in a festi3e mood6 and the 0$essin%s of +eace seemed #onderfu$ under the
#ise $eadershi+ of 5omrade Sta$in: ;o dou0t6 not a$$ #as #e$$D$east of a$$ in a %reat
num0er of *ol*hozesD0ut conditions had certain$y 0ecome easier in the $ast fi3e years:
The C8hi0ition teemed #ith $emonade and ice,cream sta$$s and eatin% +$aces6 and6 in their
$i%ht summer c$othes6 +eo+$e $oo<ed cheerfu$6 contented and e3en su+erficia$$y
+ros+erous: 9ar seemed a $on% #ay a#ay6 #hate3er the +a+ers said a0out Fmore ;a>i
+ro3ocations in Dan>i%F:
At $ast6 on Au%ust 1&6 Pravda announced the arri3a$ in Mosco# of the British and French
Mi$itary Missions:
T'( M,--,#$-, '()5(5 8* A5",+)/ D+)B )$5 !($(+)/ D#1"($3, 2(+( "(& *(-&(+5)*
"#+$,$% )& &'( L($,$%+)5 S&)&,#$ 8* ) $1"8(+ #0 S#6,(& .(+-#$)/,&,(-... L)&(+ ,$ &'(
5)*, C#"+)5( A. M. M#/#&#6 +(3(,6(5 &'( /()5(+- #0 &'( M,--,#$-. P+(-($& )& &'(
"((&,$% 2(+( )/-# S,+ W,//,)" S((5-, M. N)%%,)+, )$5 &'( D(.1&* #+(,%$
C#"",--)+ A. P. P#&(";,$... L)&(+ &'(* 2(+( +(3(,6(5 8* D(0($3( C#"",--)+
A#+#-',/#6 )$5 &'( C',(0 #0 &'( !($(+)/ S&)00 #0 &'( R(5 A+"*, A+"* C#"")$5(+
#0 &'( 1-& +)$;, B. M. S').#-'$,;#6.
?n the e3enin% a 0an=uet #as %i3en in honour of the British and French Mi$itary
Missions6 and a$$ the So3iet to+ 0rass #ere thereD Aoroshi$o36 Sha+oshni<o36 Budienny6
Timoshen<o6 heads of the 4ie3 and Be$orussian Mi$itary Districts and $eaders of the
;a3y and Air Force: FFriend$y toasts #ere e8chan%ed 0et#een 5omrade Aoroshi$o3 and
the heads of the British and French Mi$itary Missions:F
IPravda, Au%ust 1&6 1939:K
That #as as much as the So3iet +u0$ic #ere a$$o#ed to $earn at that sta%e a0out the
An%$o,French 3isit: 9hat did it rea$$y amount toE The 3isit had 0een announced more
than three #ee<s 0eforeL 0ut the British and French had o03ious$y 0een in no %reat hurry
to come6 ha3in% tra3e$$ed 0y s$o# 0oat to enin%rad: ;eed$ess to say6 no0ody had e3er
heard of Admira$ Dra8 or 1enera$ Doumenc: 9hy had no0ody of note come to Mosco#
D.a$ifa8 or Da$adierEDnot 5ham0er$ain6 of course6 for #ho #ou$d #ant to see him@ A$$
the same6 there #as o03ious$y Fsomethin% in itF if a$$ the to+ army and na3y and air,force
$eaders #ere attendin% the 0an=uet::: These #ere the <ind of confused im+ressions +eo+$e
had in Mosco# at the time: 5ertain$y nothin% had 0een done in ondon or !aris to fire
the So3iet +u0$ic's ima%ination:
!resent,day So3iet historians treat this An%$o,French Mi$itary Mission #ith the utmost
se3erity: F.ere #ere %enera$s and admira$s #ho had either reached the retirin% a%e6 or
#ere ho$din% on$y secondary +osts::: The British 1o3ernment's attitude to the Mission
#as so fri3o$ous that it had not e3en %i3en them any +o#ers: @n$y to#ards the end of the
ta$<s6 after a $ot of insistin% 0y the So3iet side6 did Dra8 +roduce some sort of credentia$s6
0ut e3en these did not a$$o# him to si%n any <ind of a%reement #ith the *SS2: The
credentia$s of the French %enera$ #ere no 0etter: A$$ they had 0een em+o#ered to do #as
to conduct ne%otiations #ith us:F The Histor! reca$$s that after the So3iet 1o3ernment
had +ro+osed that Britain and France send mi$itary missions to Mosco#6 these +eo+$e
Fhad ta<en e$e3en days to +re+are for their de+arture6 and had then ta<en si8 more days to
tra3e$ 0y s$o# car%o,+assen%er 0oat to enin%rad6 and thence to Mosco#F:
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 +: 1)J: ?n Mais<y's Memoirs Admira$ Dra8 is made to $oo< $i<e
someone strai%ht out of !: 1: 9odehouseK
The +rinci+$e under$yin% the So3iet +ro+osa$s #as not on$y reci+rocity6 0ut a$so e=ua$ity
in the #ar effort to 0e +ut into this mutua$ assistance 0y the t#o sides: But e3en 0efore
Sha+oshni<o3 out$ined his +ro+osa$s in detai$6 he had a$ready 0een ta<en a0ac< 0y the
British reaction to his first mention of the Fres+ecti3e contri0utionsF:
W'($ B. M. S').#-'$,;#6 -),5 &')& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 2)- +()5* &# ");( )6),/)8/(
)%),$-& &'( )%%+(--#+ 1ML ,$0)$&+* 5,6,-,#$-, -,B&(($ 3)6)/+* 5,6,-,#$-, 5,LLL "(5,1"
)$5 '()6* %1$-, 9,LLL &# 1L,LLL &)$;-, )$5 5,LLL &# 5,5LL 8#"8(+ )$5 0,%'&(+
./)$(-, !($(+)/ H(*2##5, ) "("8(+ #0 &'( B+,&,-' M,--,#$, &)/;(5 )8#1& 0,6(
,$0)$&+* )$5 #$( "(3')$,-(5 5,6,-,#$-. T',- ,$ ,&-(/0 2)- ($#1%' &# -1%%(-& )
0+,6#/#1- B+,&,-' )&&,&15( &# &'( &)/;- 2,&' &'( S#6,(& U$,#$.
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 +: 1)96 =uotin% from AA! SSS2 (Forei%n !o$icy Archi3es)6 An%$o,
French,So3iet ;e%otiations in 19396 3: ?$$6 f: 13J:K
The Histor! does not6 ho#e3er6 mention the su%%estions of the French6 #ho had a
numerica$$y far $ar%er army than the British:
The mi$itary con3ention the 2ussians +ro+osed #as to 0e 0ased on three e3entua$ities:
17 I THE BLOC O A!!RESSORS ATTACK RANCE AND BRITAIN. I$ &',-
3)-( &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 2,// ");( )6),/)8/( -(6($&* .(+ 3($& #0 &'( )+"(5 0#+3(- &')&
+)$3( )$5 B+,&),$ 2,// 5,+(3& )%),$-& &'( D"),$ )%%+(--#+D, ,.(. !(+")$*. T'1-, ,0
&'(* 1-( $,$(&* 5,6,-,#$-, &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 2,// 1-( -,B&*-&'+(( ,$0)$&+* 5,6,-,#$- )$5
-,B 3)6)/+* 5,6,-,#$-, 2,&' &'( )..+#.+,)&( $1"8(+ #0 %1$-, &)$;- )$5 ./)$(-E
)/&#%(&'(+ )8#1& &2# ",//,#$ "($.
I$ &',- 3)-( P#/)$5 "1-& .)+&,3,.)&( 2,&' )// '(+ )+"(5 0#+3(-, ,$ 6,(2 #0 '(+
)%+(("($&- 2,&' B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3(. P#/)$5 "1-& 3#$3($&+)&( 0#+&* &# 0#+&*-0,6(
5,6,-,#$- #$ '(+ W(-&(+$ 8#+5(+- )$5 )%),$-& E)-& P+1--,). T'( B+,&,-' )$5 +($3'
!#6(+$"($&- "1-& #8&),$ P#/)$5<- 1$5(+&);,$% &# /(& &'( S#6,(& )+"(5 0#+3(- .)--
&'+#1%' &'( A,/$# B1/%( )$5, ,0 .#--,8/(, &'+#1%' L,&'1)$,) &# &'( 8#+5(+- #0 E)-&
P+1--,), )$5 )/-#, ,0 $(3(--)+*, &'+#1%' !)/,3,).
M7 I THE A!!RESSION IS DIRECTED A!AINST POLAND AND RUMANIA.
I$ &',- 3)-(, P#/)$5 )$5 R1")$,) "1-& ");(
1-( #0 )// &'(,+ )+"(5 0#+3(-, )$5 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 2,// .)+&,3,.)&( 8* )- "13' )-
1LL .(+ 3($& #0 &'( 0#+3(- ("./#*(5 )%),$-& !(+")$* 8* B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3(... I$
&',- 3)-(, )$ ,$5,-.($-)8/( 3#$5,&,#$ #0 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$<- .)+&,3,.)&,#$ ,- &')&
B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3( -'#1/5 ,""(5,)&(/* 5(3/)+( 2)+ #$ &'( )%%+(--#+. M#+(#6(+, &'(
S#6,(& U$,#$ 3)$ &);( .)+& ,$ -13' ) 2)+ #$/* ,0 &'( B+,&,-' )$5 +($3'
!#6(+$"($&- 3#"( &# ) 3/()+ 1$5(+-&)$5,$% 2,&' P#/)$5 )$5 R1")$,) 4)$5, ,0
.#--,8/(, 2,&' L,&'1)$,)7 )8#1& &'( 0+(( .)--)%( #0 &'( S#6,(& )+"(5 0#+3(- &'+#1%'
&'( A,/$# B1/%(, !)/,3,) )$5 R1")$,).
@7 I THE A!!RESSOR ATTACKS THE SOAIET UNION BY MAKIN! USE
O THE TERRITORIES O INLAND, ESTONIA OR LATAIA. I$ &',- 3)-(
+)$3( )$5 B+,&),$ "1-& $#&
#$/* 5(3/)+( 2)+ #$ &'( )%%+(--#+ 4#+ &'( 8/#3 #0 )%%+(--#+-7 D81& "1-& )/-# -&)+&
)3&,6( )$5 ,""(5,)&( ",/,&)+* #.(+)&,#$- )%),$-& &'( "),$ )%%+(--#+D, .1&&,$% ,$&#
#.(+)&,#$ -(6($&* .(+ 3($& #0 &'( 0#+3(- ("./#*(5 8* &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 4&'( S#6,(&
U$,#$ 2#1/5 .1& ,$&# #.(+)&,#$ 1@6 5,6,-,#$-7. DS,$3( P#/)$5 ,- 8#1$5 8* '(+
)%+(("($&- 2,&' B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3(, -'( "1-& ,$&(+6($( )%),$-& !(+")$*, )$5
"1-& )/-#, 8* )%+(("($& 8(&2(($ '(+-(/0 #$ &'( #$( ')$5 )$5 B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3( #$
&'( #&'(+, %,6( 0+(( .)--)%( &# #1+ &+##.- &'+#1%' &'( A,/$# B1/%( )$5 !)/,3,)...
S'#1/5 R1")$,) 8( 5+)2$ ,$&# &'( 2)+, ) -,",/)+ )%+(("($& -'#1/5 8( ")5(
8(&2(($ R1")$,), +)$3( )$5 B+,&),$ 3#$3(+$,$% &'( 0+(( .)--)%( #0 S#6,(& &+##.-
)3+#-- R1")$,)$ &(++,&#+*.D
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 ++: 1)9,7"6 =uotin% AA! SSS2 (So3iet Forei%n !o$icy Archi3es):K
Accordin% to the So3iet 3ersion Admira$ Dra8 than<ed 1enera$ Sha+oshni<o3 for
out$inin% his +$an6 0ut it #as not acce+ted 0y the British and French6 and there #ere no
serious British or French counter,+ro+osa$s: ?nstead6 0oth the French and the British
made the most of the F!o$ish o0stac$eF: The British had6 indeed6 no intention of 0rin%in%
+ressure to 0ear on the !o$ish 1o3ernment:
The attitude of 1enera$ Doumenc6 head of the French Mission6 #as rather different:
FT#ice he ca0$ed the French 9ar Ministry sayin% he intended to send 1enera$ Aa$in6 a
mem0er of the Mission6 to 9arsa#6 in order to o0tain the !o$ish 1o3ernment's consent:
But the resu$t #as on$y a te$e%ram from the French 9ar Ministry to the French Mi$itary
AttachN in Mosco# +ro+osin% to +ost+one Aa$in's 3isit to 9arsa#:F
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 +: 17" =uotin% a French document ori%ina$$y ca+tured 0y the 1ermans6
and found in the 1erman Forei%n @ffice archi3es 0y the 2ussians: This e+isode is
confirmed 0y !au$ 2eynaud in (a France a sauvA l0Europe (!aris6 1947)6 3o$: ?6 +: -J":K
A$$ that the French and British found to +ro+ose6 accordin% to the So3iet Histor!, #as
that the So3iet *nion shou$d dec$are #ar on 1ermany in the e3ent of a 1erman attac< on
!o$and6 0ut shou$d ta<e no mi$itary action 0efore the 1erman troo+s reached the So3iet
0orders: FA$$ this sho#s that they #ere much $ess interested in he$+in% !o$and than in
%ettin% the So3iet *nion in3o$3ed in a #ar a%ainst 1ermany:F
I?0id:6 +: 17": K
A$ready in Bune 1939 the %o3ernments of at3ia and Cstonia6 fri%htened of 0oth 1ermany
and 2ussia6 had6 under 1erman +ressure6 conc$uded Ffriendshi+ +actsF #ith 1ermany:
But !o$and's +osition +resented 0y far the most ur%ent +ro0$em since 0y Au%ust 1- the
1ermans #ere +oised to in3ade her at any moment: C3en in these conditions no +ro%ress
#as made in the An%$o,Franco,So3iet mi$itary ta$<s in Mosco#: @n Au%ust 176 says the
So3iet Histor!, the ta$<s #ere +ost+oned unti$ Au%ust &16 so that the British and French
Missions cou$d 0e %i3en time to disco3er the rea$ attitude of their res+ecti3e %o3ernments
to the +assa%e of So3iet troo+s throu%h !o$and: The Admira$ #as sti$$ not in a hurry6
#hereas 1enera$ Doumenc he$d that nothin% #as $ost yet6 0ut that there #as no time to
$ose: .e considered that6 on that day6 the 2ussians #ere sti$$ in dead earnest a0out the
mi$itary con3ention: ?n his dis+atch to !aris on Au%ust 17 he #ired FThere is a definite
#i$$ on the +art of the 2ussians not to stay outside as s+ectators6 and a c$ear desire to
commit themse$3es ri%ht u+ to the hi$t: There is no dou0t that the *SS2 #ants a mi$itary
+actL 0ut she does not #ant from us a meanin%$ess scra+ of +a+erL Marsha$ Aoroshi$o3
assured me that a$$ =uestions of mutua$ he$+6 communications6 etc:6 #ou$d 0e discussed
#ithout any difficu$ty6 once #hat the 2ussians ca$$ 'the cardina$ =uestion'Dthe 2ussian
access to !o$ish territoryDhas 0een satisfactori$y so$3ed:F
I!au$ 2eynaud6 o+: cit:6 3o$: ?6 +: -J7:K
That day6 in des+eration Doumenc e3en sent one of his aides6 5a+tain Beauffre6 to
9arsa# to see Marsha$ 2yd>,Smi%$y6 0ut to no a3ai$L his re+$y #as a re+etition of his
remar< to the French Am0assador: F9ith the 1ermans #e may $ose our freedom6 #ith
the 2ussians #e sha$$ $ose our sou$:F
I !au$ 2eynaud6 o+: cit:6 3o$: ?6 +: -J7:K
Fina$$y6 on Au%ust &1 Admira$ Dra8 said that he had recei3ed no further information
from ondon6 and +ro+osed that the ne8t meetin% ta<e +$ace in three or four days:
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 +: 17&6 =uotin% AA! SSS26 An%$o,Franco,So3iet
;e%otiations6 f: &"4:K
At this +oint the 2ussians as<ed for a c$ear ans#er as to ho# the British and French
3isua$ised So3iet +artici+ation in mutua$ assistance in 3ie# of the !o$ish attitudeL no
re+$y #as recei3ed:
?n his con3ersation #ith the French Mi$itary AttachN on Au%ust &3Dthe day of
2i00entro+'s arri3a$ in Mosco#DAoroshi$o3 said: F9e cou$d not #ait for the 1ermans
to smash the !o$ish Army6 after #hich they #ou$d ha3e attac<ed us::: Meantime6 you
#ou$d 0e stationed at your frontier6 tyin% u+ +erha+s ten 1erman di3isions: 9e needed a
s+rin%0oard from #hich to attac< the 1ermansL #ithout it6 #e cou$d not he$+ you:F
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 +: 17&6 =uotin% Archi3es of Ministry of Defence of the *SS2:K
?t #as #ith a touch of me$ancho$y that Aoroshi$o3 said a0out the same time to 1enera$
Doumenc6 #ho had informed him of Da$adier's $atest te$e%ram orderin% himD#ithout
anythin% ha3in% 0een sett$ed a0out !o$andDto si%n Fthe 0est +ossi0$e mi$itary
con3ention6 #ith the Am0assador's consent6 and su0Hect to the French 1o3ernment's
su0se=uent a++ro3a$F: F9e ha3e #asted e$e3en days for nothin%: 9e raised the =uestion
of mi$itary co$$a0oration #ith France many years a%o Ian a$$usion to the a0orti3e offer
a$ready made in 193- 0y So3iet Am0assador !otem<in to M: Bean Fa0ry6 then French
Minister of 9arK: ast year6 #hen 5>echos$o3a<ia #as on the ed%e of the a0yss6 #e
#aited for a si%na$ from FranceL our 2ed Army #as ready to stri<e: But the si%na$ ne3er
came: @ur %o3ernment6 and the #ho$e of the So3iet +eo+$e #anted to rush to the he$+ of
5>echos$o3a<ia and to fu$fi$ the o0$i%ations arisin% from the treaties: ;o# the British and
French %o3ernments ha3e dra%%ed out these +o$itica$ and mi$itary ta$<s far too $on%:
Therefore other +o$itica$ e3ents are not to 0e ru$ed out: ?t #as necessary to ha3e a definite
re+$y from !o$and and 2umania a0out our troo+s' ri%ht of +assa%e: ?f the !o$es had %i3en
an affirmati3e ans#er6 they #ou$d ha3e as<ed to 0e re+resented at these ta$<s:F
I !au$ 2eynaud6 o+: cit:6 3o$: ?6 +: -JJ:K
A$thou%h6 in the 2ussian 3ie#6 France #as at $east as much to 0$ame for Munich as
Britain6 the 0rea<do#n of the An%$o,Franco,So3iet mi$itary ta$<s in 1939 is attri0uted
much more to Britain than to France: At the root of the trou0$e there #as6 amon% other
thin%s6 that ine+t F%uaranteeF to !o$and6 #hich had on$y encoura%ed the !o$es in their
suicida$ anti,So3iet +o$icyDa %uarantee the dan%ers of #hich the French 1o3ernment
had seen at once: ?n 2ussian eyes6 the inconc$usi3e ta$<s #ith Admira$ Dra8
demonstrated 5ham0er$ain's continued resistance to a firm mi$itary a$$iance #ith the
So3iet *nion6 as #e$$ as his determination not to o3ercome the !o$ish 1o3ernment's
o0Hections to direct 2ussian aid: @n the other hand6 it seems o03ious that Sta$in and
Mo$oto3 had 0een e8treme$y distrustfu$ of Britain and France throu%hout and had ne3er
0een rea$$y enthusiastic a0out the a$$iance: C3en if conc$uded6 it mi%ht sti$$ ha3e +roduced
a F+honey #arF in the #est6 and ha3e he$+ed 2ussia no more than the British F%uaranteeF
he$+ed !o$and #hen it came to the test: 9ithout the stron%est mi$itary commitments 0y
France6 Britain and !o$and6 the a$$iance offered no attraction to them: Short of such
commitments6 a $ast,minute dea$ #ith .it$er #as a$most certain$y at the 0ac< of Sta$in's
mind from A+ri$ or May on#ards:
C').&(+ II THE SOAIET-!ERMAN PACT
?t is customary to $oo< for turnin% +oints in history: Much has6 of course6 0een read into
Sta$in's s+eech of March 1" #ith its +hrase a0out the FchestnutsF6 su%%estin% a Fcurse on
0oth your housesF and a desire to <ee+ out of any mi$itary entan%$ements: C3en more has
0een made of .it$er's s+eech of A+ri$ &J6 19396 in #hich 0oth the !o$ish,1erman non,
a%%ression +act and the An%$o,1erman na3a$ a%reement #ere denounced6 and in #hich
the FRhrer refrained from his ha0itua$ attac< on the Bo$she3i< menace: A shre#d
o0ser3er $i<e 2o0ert 5ou$ondre6 the French Am0assador in Ber$in6 had at once
considered this omission as 3ery si%nificant6 and6 in his dis+atches to the Quai d'@rsay6
had =uoted authoritati3e 1erman sources in su++ort of his assessment: 1afencu a$so
$oo<ed u+on this .it$er s+eech of A+ri$ &J as a startin% +oint: FFacin% the fai$ure of his
9estern +o$icy6 the FRhrer a$ready contem+$ated an a0out,turn in his Castern +o$icy:
Such a chan%e ::: #ou$d o03ious$y find su++ort amon% the 1erman 1enera$ Staff::: as
#e$$ as in 1erman economic circ$es:F
I 1: 1afencu6 o+: cit:6 +: 17-:K
This #as #ritten in 194- and since then there ha3e 0een a 3ariety of data to sho# that the
matter #as not as sim+$e as that: 9e <no#6 for instance6 that it too< .it$er a 3ery $on%
time to %et used to the idea of a +act #ith Mosco#6 and that 2i00entro+6 in +articu$ar6
0ecame enthusiastic a0out it some time 0efore the FRhrer did: But none the $ess6 it is
+ro0a0$e that6 a$ready in A+ri$6 after the British %uarantee to !o$and6 he <e+t the
+ossi0i$ity of an a%reement #ith Mosco# u+ his s$ee3e:
A$thou%h there is e3idence to sho# that there #ere ear$ier contacts6 the So3iet Histor!
no# c$aims that it #as the 1ermans #ho made the first tentati3e a++roach to 2ussia on
May 3"6 19396 #hi$e the An%$o,Franco,So3iet ta$<s F#ere a$ready in fu$$ s#in%F:
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 +: 174:K
@n that day 9ei>sSc<er6 the +ermanent head of the 1erman Forei%n @ffice6 to$d 1: A:
Asta<ho36 the So3iet char%N d'affaires in Ber$in6 that Fthere #as a +ossi0i$ity of
im+ro3in% So3iet,1erman re$ationsF: .e +ointed out that6 in renouncin% the 5ar+athian
*<raineD#hich had 0een handed o3er to .un%ary in the +artition of 5>echos$o3a<iaD
1ermany had e$iminated a casus 4elli #ith the So3iet *nion: And he #ent on to say: F?f
the So3iet 1o3ernment #ishes to discuss an im+ro3ement in So3iet,1erman re$ations6
then it shou$d <no# that such a +ossi0i$ity no# e8ists: ?f6 ho#e3er6 the So3iet *nion
#ants to +ersist6 to%ether #ith Britain and France6 in its +o$icy of encirc$in% 1ermany6
then 1ermany is ready to meet the cha$$en%e:F
The So3iet Histor! re+orts that6 at this sta%e6 the 2ussians mere$y re+$ied that the future
of So3iet,1erman re$ations de+ended +rimari$y on the 1ermans themse$3es6 in itse$f a
curious #ay of FreHectin%F their ad3ances: And then6 on Au%ust 36 accordin% to the So3iet
Histor!:
R,88($&+#. &#/5 !. A. A-&);'#6 &')& &'(+( 2(+( $# ,$-#/18/( .+#8/("- 8(&2(($ &'(
USSR )$5 !(+")$* D,$ &'( 2'#/( )+() 8(&2(($ &'( B)/&,3 )$5 &'( B/)3; S(). A//
91(-&,#$- 3#1/5 8( -#/6(5 ,0 &'( S#6,(& !#6(+$"($& )33(.&(5 &'(-( .+(",-(-.D
R,88($&+#. ")5( $# -(3+(& #0 &'( 0)3& &')& !(+")$* ')5 8(($ 3#$513&,$% -(3+(&
$(%#&,)&,#$- 2,&' B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3(, 81& 5(3/)+(5 &')& D,& 2#1/5 8( ()-,(+ 0#+ &'(
!(+")$- &# &)/; &# &'( R1--,)$-, 5(-.,&( )// ,5(#/#%,3)/ 5,00(+($3(-, &')$ 2,&' &'(
B+,&,-' )$5 &'( +($3'D. H)6,$% -),5 &')&, R,88($&+#. &'($ +(-#+&(5 &# &'+()&-.
DI0,D '( -),5, D*#1 ')6( #&'(+ -#/1&,#$- ,$ ",$5, ,0 *#1 &',$;, 0#+ ,$-&)$3(, &')& &'(
8(-& 2)* #0 -(&&/,$% *#1+ .+#8/("- 2,&' 1- ,- &# ,$6,&( )$ A$%/#-+($3' ",/,&)+*
",--,#$ &# M#-3#2, &'($ &')&<- *#1+ 81-,$(--. #+ #1+ #2$ .)+&, 2( 5#$<& ",$5 )//
&'( -3+()",$% )%),$-& 1- ,$ &'( -#-3)//(5 W(-&-E1+#.()$ 5("#3+)3,(-. W( )+(
-100,3,($&/* -&+#$% &# &+()& )// &',- ;,$5 #0 &',$% 2,&' +,5,31/( )$5 3#$&(".&. T'(+(
,-$<& ) 2)+ 2',3' 2( 3#1/5$<& 2,$.D
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 +: 1746 =uotin% Archi3es of the Ministry of Defence of the *SS2
(Ar<hi3 M@ SSS2):K
2i00entro+ then +ro+osed that 1ermany and the So3iet *nion si%n a secret +rotoco$
di3idin% into s+heres of interest the #ho$e area 0et#een the B$ac< Sea and the Ba$tic:
F*n#i$$in% to enter into such an a%reement #ith 1ermany6 and sti$$ ho+in% for a
successfu$ conc$usion of the mi$itary ta$<s #ith Britain and France6 the So3iet
1o3ernment informed Ber$in on Au%ust 7 that it considered the 1erman +ro+osa$
unsuita0$e6 and reHected the idea of the secret +rotoco$:F
I ?0id:6 =uotin% So3iet Forei%n !o$icy Archi3es (AA! SSS2):K
I$ ',- 5,-.)&3' #0 A1%1-& N, A-&);'#6 (B.+(--(5 &'( 6,(2 &')& &'( !(+")$- 2#1/5
$#& #8-(+6( -(+,#1-/*, #+ 0#+ )$* /($%&' #0 &,"(, )$* #8/,%)&,#$- &'(* ",%'& ($&(+
,$&# 1$5(+ -13' )$ )++)$%("($&. DB1& I 8(/,(6( &')&, #$ ) -'#+&-&(+" 8)-,-, &'(*
2#1/5 /,;( &# 3#"( &# -#"( ;,$5 #0 )%+(("($& 2,&' 1- )/#$% &'( /,$(- -1%%(-&(5, )$5
-# &# $(1&+)/,-( 1-... W')& 2#1/5 ')..($ $(B& 2#1/5 8( 5(&(+",$(5 $#& 8* )$*
#8/,%)&,#$- ($&(+(5 ,$&# 8* &'( !(+")$-, 81& 8* &'( $(2 ,$&(+$)&,#$)/ -,&1)&,#$ &')&
2#1/5 8( 3+()&(5.D
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 ++: 174,-6 =uotin% So3iet Forei%n !o$icy Archi3es (AA! SSS2):K
9e need not here dea$ in detai$ #ith the fami$iar story of ho# the ;a>i $eaders6
determined to stri<e at !o$and6 #ere %ro#in% more and more im+atient at Mosco#'s
re$uctance to commit itse$f6 and #ith the frantic F3ery ur%entF te$e%rams that #ere 0ein%
e8chan%ed 0et#een 2i00entro+ and the 1erman Cm0assy in Mosco#6 or #ith ho#6 in the
end6 in re+$y to .it$er's te$e%ram6 Sta$in %a3e his assent to the +ressin% +ro+osa$ that
2i00entro+ arri3e in Mosco# Fon Au%ust && or6 at the 3ery $atest6 on Au%ust &3 F: 9hat
is ne# is the #ay in #hich this #ho$e e+isode is no# hand$ed 0y the 2ussians:
By the midd$e of Au%ust6 the 1erman $eaders had 0ecome acute$y #orried: The 1erman
Cm0assy in Mosco# #as %ettin% frantic #ires as<in% #hat #as ha++enin% a0out the
Mi$itary Missions: Before these ta$<s had started6 Schu$en0ur% Ithe 1erman Am0assadorK
as<ed the ?ta$ian Am0assador6 2ossi6 to find out from 1r>y0o#s<i6 the !o$ish
Am0assador6 #hether !o$and #ou$d acce+t So3iet mi$itary aid: Schu$en0ur% then
+rom+t$y informed Ber$in of the !o$ish Am0assador's re+$y: @n no account #ou$d !o$and
a$$o# So3iet troo+s to enter or e3en to cross !o$ish territory6 or $et the 2ussians use
!o$ish airfie$ds: At the same time Schu$en0ur% #as instructed 0y 9ei>sSc<er to te$$ the
So3iet 1o3ernment that if it +referred an a$$iance #ith Cn%$and6 2ussia #ou$d 0e $eft
face,to,face #ith 1ermany: By choosin% instead an understandin% #ith 1ermany6 the
So3iet *nion #ou$d ha3e her security %uaranteed:
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 +: 17-6 =uotin% D1F!6 series D6 3o$: A??6 +: 13:K
Simi$ar tem+tin% +romises #ere made to Asta<ho36 #ho re+orted:
T'( !(+")$- )+( #86,#1-/* 2#++,(5 8* #1+ $(%#&,)&,#$- 2,&' &'( B+,&,-' )$5
+($3' ",/,&)+*. T'(* ')6( 8(3#"( 1$-.)+,$% ,$ &'(,+ )+%1"($&- )$5 .+#",-(- &#
)6(+& )$ )%+(("($&. I 3#$-,5(+ &')& &'(* )+( &#5)* +()5* &# ");( &'( ;,$5 #0
5(3/)+)&,#$- )$5 %(-&1+(- 2',3' 2#1/5 ')6( 8(($ ,$3#$3(,6)8/( -,B "#$&'- )%#.
I?0id:6 =uotin% AA! SSS2 (So3iet Forei%n !o$icy Archi3es):K
@n Au%ust 1-6 Schu$en0ur% to$d Mo$oto3:
A& .+(-($& &'(* =&'( B+,&,-' )$5 +($3'> )+( )%),$ &+*,$% &# .1-' &'( S#6,(& U$,#$
,$&# ) 2)+ )%),$-& !(+")$*. T',- .#/,3* ')5 6(+* 8)5 3#$-(91($3(- 0#+ R1--,) ,$
1914. I& ,- ,$ &'( ,$&(+(-&- #0 8#&' !(+")$* )$5 R1--,) &# )6#,5 ) "1&1)/ ")--)3+(
0#+ &'( 8($(0,& #0 &'( W(-&(+$ 5("#3+)3,(-.
I ?A@ASS6 i0id:6 =uotin% So3iet Ministry of Defence Archi3es:K
Schu$en0ur% then +ro+osed to 2ussia a non,a%%ression +act6 com+$ete #ith a +rotoco$ on
the res+ecti3e s+heres of interest: A%ain the So3iet 1o3ernment F dec$ined F6 and
Schu$en0ur%6 much discoura%ed6 re+orted to Ber$in that the So3iet 1o3ernment too<
treaty o0$i%ations 3ery serious$y and e8+ected the same attitude from its co,si%natories:
IThis does not ta$$y #ith the 1erman 3ersion6 #hich says that Mo$oto3 first mentioned a
non,a%%ression +act on Au%ust 1-: The date is im+ortant: ?t #as four days after the
arri3a$ of the Dra8 Mission a0out #hose FseriousnessF the 2ussians #ere no# 3ery
dou0tfu$: See 9: 2: Shirer6 The Bise and Fall o" the Third Beich (ondon6 19)")6 +: -&1:K
By no# the An%$o,Franco,So3iet mi$itary ta$<s had6 indeed6 reached a dead$oc<6 0oth on
Fnumerica$ reci+rocityF and6 more immediate$y6 on the !o$ish issueL and #hen6 on Au%ust
&"6 .it$er sent his famous te$e%ram to Sta$in as<in% him to recei3e 2i00entro+ Fon
Tuesday6 Au%ust && or6 at the $atest6 on 9ednesday6 Au%ust &3 F6 and sayin% that
2i00entro+ #ou$d arri3e #ith fu$$ +o#ers for si%nin% the non,a%%ression +act6 Fas #e$$ as
the +rotoco$F6 Sta$in a%reed:
?t shou$d6 ho#e3er6 0e remem0ered that6 a+art from the +o$itica$ soundin%s underta<en 0y
the 1ermans in 0oth Ber$in and Mosco#6 there #ere a$so the trade ne%otiations #hich ran
+ara$$e$ #ith the +o$itica$ soundin%s6 and had6 of course6 some 0earin% on them: ?ndeed6 it
#as 0y announcin% the Trade A%reement #ith 1ermany on Au%ust &1 that the So3iet
1o3ernment +re+ared the %round for the much more s+ectacu$ar and6 to many6 a$most
un0e$ie3a0$e announcement that #as to come three days $ater: But the #ordin% of the
Pravda editoria$ of Au%ust &1 accom+anyin% the announcement of the Trade A%reement
#as si%nificant enou%h to anyone #ho cou$d read 0et#een the $inesDand6 in this case6 it
did not e3en re=uire outstandin% +o$itica$ acumen to do so:
Shirer is +ro0a0$y =uite ri%ht in sayin% that it #as on Au%ust 19 that Sta$in made his
choice6 un$ess it #as on the &"th6 after the recei+t of .it$er's +ersona$ te$e%ram:
T'( 8(-& 3#$3/1-,#$ &',- 2+,&(+ 3)$ 3#"( &# ,- &')&, )- #0 A1%1-& 14, 2'($
A#+#-',/#6 5(")$5(5 D)$ 1$(91,6#3)/ )$-2(+D #$ &'( 91(-&,#$ #0 )//#2,$% S#6,(&
&+##.- &# "((& &'( !(+")$- ,$ P#/)$5, &'( K+("/,$ -&,// ')5 )$ #.($ ",$5 )- &#
2',3' -,5( &# :#,$... A& )$* +)&(, S&)/,$ 5#(- $#& -((" &# ')6( ")5( ',- 0,$)/ 5(3,-,#$
1$&,/ &'( )0&(+$##$ #0 A1%1-& 19.
I Shirer6 o+: cit:6 +: -3-:K
@n the 19th6 the So3iet +ress #as6 on the face of it6 sti$$ 3io$ent$y anti,;a>i: ?t made it
=uite a++arent that a 1erman attac< on !o$and #as no# a$most certain$y a matter of days:
Thus6 Pravda of Au%ust 19 sti$$ +u0$ished a TASS messa%e from 9arsa# under the
headin%: F1C2MA; !2@A@5AT?@;S ?; DA;O?1F6 and a TASS messa%e from
Ber$in6 under the headin%: FA;T?,!@?S. 5AM!A?1; ?; 1C2MA;(F:
T'( #$lkischer %eobachter &#5)* .+#",$($&/* 5,-./)*(5 3#""($&- ,$ &'( I&)/,)$
.+(-- &# &'( (00(3& &')& &'( &($-,#$ 8(&2(($ !(+")$* )$5 P#/)$5 D3)$ $# /#$%(+ 8(
-(&&/(5 8* ) "(+( -(&&/("($& #0 &'( D)$C,% 91(-&,#$D. A// !(+")$ .).(+- )+( &+*,$%
&# .+(-($& P#/)$5 )- )$ D)%%+(--#+D, )$5 )- &'( 3+()&#+ #0 D)$ ,$&#/(+)8/(
-,&1)&,#$D. B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3( )+( 8(,$% )&&)3;(5 2,&' -.(3,)/ 6,#/($3(. I$ ,&-
(5,&#+,)/, &'( #$lkischer %eobachter -)*-: DT'( .+#8/(" #0 D)$C,% )$5 &'( C#++,5#+
)+( +,.( 0#+ ) !(+")$ -#/1&,#$.D T'( .).(+- )+( #.($/* &'+()&($,$% 2)+. DE6(+*
5)* &')&<- 2)-&(5.D -)*- &'( #$lkischer %eobachter, D,$3+()-(- &'( 5)$%(+ #0 2)+.D
By the &1st6 the em+hasis in the TASS re+orts from Ber$in had s$i%ht$y shifted6 0ut on$y
s$i%ht$yL the main su%%estion #as sti$$ that a 1erman attac< on !o$and #as imminentL 0ut
no# it #as a$so su%%ested that !o$and #ou$d 0e crushed #ithin a 3ery short time:
.erlin, /ugust CD5 The threats a%ainst !o$and today are e3en more 3io$ent: A$$ the +a+ers
are screamin% a0out the F!o$ish terror a%ainst 1ermansF6 and a0out Fthe cro#din% of
!o$ish +risons 0y 1ermansF: At the same time the 1erman ne#s+a+ers are #ritin% a0out
Fthe mi$itary #ea<ness of !o$andF and her inca+acity to #ithstand a 1erman 0$o#:
?t #as not6 ho#e3er6 this seemin%$y routine story #hich attracted the reader's attention
that day6 0ut the front,+a%e editoria$ on the So3iet,1erman Trade and 5redit A%reement:
?t started from afar6 as it #ere:
E6($ #$/* ) 0(2 *()+- )%#, !(+")$* '(/5 0,+-& ./)3( ,$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$<- &+)5(
&1+$#6(+. I$ 19@1 S#6,(&-!(+")$ &+)5( )"#1$&(5 &# 1,1LL ",//,#$ ")+;-. I$ 6,(2 #0
&'( -&+),$(5 .#/,&,3)/ +(/)&,#$-, &'(+( 2)- ) ")+;(5 5(3/,$( ,$ &',- &+)5(. U$&,/ 19@5,
!(+")$* 2)- -&,// 0,+-& ,$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$<- 0#+(,%$ &+)5(, 81& 8* 19@N -'( 2)-
5#2$ &# 0,0&' ./)3(, )0&(+ B+,&),$, &'( USA, B(/%,1" )$5 H#//)$5. T',- /#-- #0 &'(
S#6,(& ")+;(& "1-& ')6( 2#++,(5 8#&' !(+")$ 81-,$(-- 3,+3/(- )$5 &'( !(+")$
!#6(+$"($&. T')& ,- 2'*, -,$3( &'( 8(%,$$,$% #0 /)-& *()+, $(%#&,)&,#$- 2(+(
3#$513&(5 8(&2(($ &'( &2# 3#1$&+,(-, 2,&' 3(+&),$ ,$&(+6)/-, #$ &+)5( )$5 3+(5,&
91(-&,#$- 2,&' ) 6,(2 &# ($/)+%,$% S#6,(&-!(+")$ &+)5(. D(-.,&( 5,00,31/&,(- &')&
)+#-( ,$ &'(-( $(%#&,)&,#$- ,$ 6,(2 #0 &'( &($-( .#/,&,3)/ )&"#-.'(+(, &'(+( 2)- )
")+;(5 ,".+#6("($& ,$ +(3($& "#$&'-. T')$;- &# &'( 5(-,+( #0 8#&' -,5(- &#
,".+#6( 3#""(+3,)/ +(/)&,#$- 8(&2(($ &'( &2# 3#1$&+,(-, )// ")&&(+- #0 5,-.1&( ')6(
$#2 8(($ -(&&/(5...
The editoria$ #ent on to say that a trade and credit a%reement had 0een si%ned in Ber$in
on Au%ust 19 0y 5omrade Ba0arin6 of the So3iet Trade De$e%ation6 and .err Schnurre: ?t
#as a satisfactory a%reement: under it6 1ermany %ranted the *SS2 a credit of &""
mi$$ion mar<s for +urchases to 0e made in 1ermany durin% the ne8t t#o yearsDmost$y
machine too$s and other industria$ e=ui+ment: The So3iet *nion #ou$d su++$y6 durin% the
same +eriod6 F3arious commoditiesF for 1J" mi$$ion mar<s: The %reat ad3anta%e of the
1erman credit #as that it #as in the nature of a financia$ $oan6 and the So3iet *nion
cou$d +ay 1erman firms in cash: The annua$ interest rate on this $oan #as fi3e +ercent6
#hich #as chea+er than the interest on +re3ious $oans: A$so6 the $oan #ou$d not 0e
re+aya0$e for se3en and a ha$f years:
This su%%estion of +eacefu$ 1erman,So3iet trade re$ations for o3er se3en years to come
#as sufficient$y start$in% at a moment #hen the 1ermans #ere a0out to in3ade !o$and:
But the conc$usion of the artic$e #as e3en more start$in%: FThis a%reement shou$d %reat$y
stimu$ate trade 0et#een the *SS2 and 1ermany6 and should 4ecome a turning point in
the economic relations 4et:een the t:o countries5 The ne# trade and credit a%reement
0et#een the *SS2 and 1ermany6 thou%h 0orn in an atmos+here of strained +o$itica$
re$ations6 is desi%ned to c$ear this atmos+here: It can 4ecome an important step to:ards a
"urther improvement in not onl! the economic relations 4ut also the political relations
4et:een the &%%B and #erman!5"
ICm+hasis added:K
5$ear$y6 the die #as a0out to 0e cast: 9hat a$so contri0uted to Sta$in's decision to si%n u+
#ith 1ermany #as the situation in the Far Cast: ?n Au%ust 1939 the fierce 0att$e of
.a$<in 1o$ #as 0ein% fou%ht a%ainst the Ba+anese6 and the 2ussians #ere afraid of
0ecomin% in3o$3ed in a t#o,front #arDa%ainst 1ermany in Curo+e and a%ainst Ba+an in
Asia: A +act #ith 1ermany #ou$d a$most automatica$$y end the #ar #ith Ba+an6 .it$er's
a$$y:
2i00entro+'s 3isit to Mosco# and the si%nin% of the So3iet,1erman ;on,A%%ression !act
of Au%ust &3 came a$most as a com+$ete sur+rise to the 2ussian +u0$ic6 and if no0ody
o+en$y dec$ared himse$f dee+$y shoc<ed and scanda$ised6 it #as sim+$y 0ecause it #as
Fnot doneFDes+ecia$$y after the !ur%e yearsDto 0e o+en$y shoc<ed or scanda$ised 0y
anythin% #ith #hich 5omrade Sta$in and 5omrade Mo$oto3 #ere direct$y associated: ?t
is6 ne3erthe$ess6 o03ious that6 at heart6 mi$$ions of 2ussians #ere dee+$y +er+$e8ed 0y
#hat had ha++ened6 after their country had 0een in the 3an%uard of the Fanti,Fascist
stru%%$eF e3er since the ;a>is had come to +o#er:
IThis is a$so confirmed 0y the reco$$ections of so com+etent an o0ser3er as 9o$f%an%
eonhard6 #hose account is 0ased on firsthand e8+erience at the time #ithin the
5omintern esta0$ishment: )hild o" the Bevolution (ondon6 19-7): At the same time6
accordin% to Bean 5ham+enois6 a $eadin% French corres+ondent in Mosco#6 mere #as
a$so #ides+read chuc<$in% amon% many 2ussians a0out the +unishment meted out to
Cn%$and and France Fafter a$$ their dirty tric<sF:K
The menta$ a$i0is to #hich many 2ussiansD#hether #or<ers or inte$$ectua$sDresorted6
at $east durin% the ear$y sta%es of the !act6 #ere that Sta$in and Mo$oto3 no dou0t <ne#
#hat they #ere doin%L that they had6 after a$$6 <e+t the So3iet *nion out of #ar (here #as
somethin% corres+ondin% rou%h$y to the Fco#ard$y re$ief and shameF reaction in the 9est
at the time of Munich)L and that the !act6 thou%h distastefu$6 had 0een rendered ine3ita0$e
0y the attitude of France6 Britain and !o$and: ;or #as it dou0ted that Sta$in and Mo$oto3
must ha3e had a %reat many reser3ations a0out the #ho$e thin%:
The reactions to the Fdea$F #ith .it$er #ere to under%o numerous chan%es durin% the
t#enty,t#o months the !act #as in forceL 0ut it seems c$ear that Sta$in and Mo$oto3 #ere
fu$$y conscious of the mi8ed fee$in%s #ith #hich the !act #as recei3ed in the country:
Throu%hout the !act +eriod6 the So3iet +ress6 for e8am+$e6 maintained a mar<ed
a$oofness vis-,-vis ;a>i 1ermany: There #ere no fa3oura0$e comments on any as+ects of
the ;a>i rN%ime at any time6 and there #as6 strict$y s+ea<in%6 no re+ortin% #hatsoe3er on
the 1erman scene in the So3iet ne#s+a+ers6 0eyond the re+roduction of #ar
communi=uNs and some officia$ utterances 0y .it$er6 es+ecia$$y #hen these concerned
So3iet,1erman re$ations: ?m+ortant ne#s items6 such as Sta$in's toast durin% 2i00entro+'s
3isitDFSince the 1erman +eo+$e $o3e their FRhrer so much6 $et us drin< the FRhrer's
hea$thFD#ere carefu$$y <e+t out of the 2ussian +ress:
Durin% the #ee< +recedin% 2i00entro+'s 3isit6 A3iation Day had 0een ce$e0rated on
Au%ust 1J6 and ha$f the front +a%e of Pravda that day #as occu+ied 0y a dra#in%
sho#in% Sta$in and Aoroshi$o3 sur3eyin% a 0ound$ess airfie$d #ith thousands of +$anes
on it: F1reat and touchin% is our airmen's $o3e for 5omrade Sta$inF6 the editoria$ #rote6
#hi$e6 on +a%e &6 a famous airman commented ra+turous$y on F5omrade Sta$in's
+rofound <no#$ed%e in a3iation mattersF6 and reca$$ed some of the outstandin% feats of
So3iet a3iation in recent years and their heroesD5h<a$o36 1romo36 1ri>odu0o3a6
2as<o3a and @si+en<o: The same +a+er re+orted6 on its forei%n ne#s +a%e6 FBe#ish
+o%roms in 5>echos$o3a<iaF (TASS6 !ra%ue)6 and F!ersecution of !o$es in 1ermanyF
(TASS6 9arsa#):
@n Au%ust 196 Pravda re+orted the A3iation Day meetin% at Tushino Airfie$d6 attended
0y a mi$$ion +eo+$e: here a$so #as a +icture of the !arty and Army $eaders +resent at the
air dis+$ayD Sta$in6 Mo$oto36 Aoroshi$o36 4a%ano3ich6 Ohdano36 Mi<oyan6 Beria6
Sh3erni<6 Ma$en<o36 Bu$%anin6 Shcher0a<o36 Sh<iriato36 Budienny6 o<tiono3 and
Mi<hai$o3: @n Au%ust &" the +$ace of honour #as %i3en to a Fetter from !ra%ueF6
entit$ed: FThe 5>ech !eo+$e are ;ot Defeated:F And then6 on Au%ust &16 there a++eared6
as #e ha3e seen6 the famous editoria$ on the So3iet,1erman Trade and 5redit A%reement6
#ith its si%nificant conc$udin% +ara%ra+h6 foreshado#in% a +o$itica$ rapprochement
0et#een the t#o countries:
But on the fo$$o#in% t#o daysDAu%ust && and &3Dthere #as sti$$ nothin% of any
im+ortance6 e8ce+t the usua$ seemin%$y anti,1erman ne#s items $i<e these: FMany !o$es
+re+arin% to f$ee from Dan>i%F6 or FMass Arrests in Meme$: 1esta+o arrestin% not on$y
!o$es6 0ut a$so ithuanians6 !o$ish !ress says:F
@n Au%ust &4 came the 0om0she$$: Bi% front,+a%e +ictures in Pravda sho#in% Mo$oto36
Sta$in6 2i00entro+6 1aus6 De+uty Secretary of State at the 1erman Forei%n @ffice and its
$e%a$ ad3iser6 and an inter+reter: The editoria$ on the So3iet,1erman ;on,A%%ression
!act ar%ued a$on% the fo$$o#in% $ines:
T'( P)3& 2)- 3#$-,-&($& 2,&' &'( S#6,(& U$,#$<- .#/,3*. DW( -&)$5 0#+ .()3( )$5 &'(
3#$-#/,5)&,#$ #0 81-,$(-- +(/)&,#$- 2,&' )// 3#1$&+,(-.D R(3)//,$% R).)//# )$5 &'(
S#6,(&-!(+")$ N(1&+)/,&* A%+(("($& #0 19M6, ,& -),5: DY(-&(+5)*<- )%+(("($&
0#//#2- ,$ &'( 0##&-&(.- #0 &'( 19M6 )%+(("($&, (B3(.& &')& ,& %#(- -&,// 01+&'(+, -,$3(
A+&. 1 .+(3/15(- )$* )%%+(--,6( )3&,#$- )%),$-& &'( 3#--,%$)&#+* (,&'(+ )/#$( #+ 2,&'
#&'(+ P#2(+-, 2',/( A+&. M .+#6,5(- 0#+ $(1&+)/,&* ,$ &'( (6($& #0 )$ )&&)3; #$ (,&'(+
-,%$)&#+* 8* ) &',+5 .#2(+.D A+&. @ 3)//(5 0#+ 3#$-1/&)&,#$ #$ ")&&(+- #0 3#""#$
,$&(+(-&. A+&. 4 2)- .)+&,31/)+/* ,".#+&)$& -,$3( ,& #8/,%(5 &'( -,%$)&#+,(- $#& &# &);(
.)+& ,$ )$* %+#1.,$% #0 P#2(+- 2',3' ",%'&, 5,+(3&/*, #+ ,$5,+(3&/*, 8( ),"(5 )& &'(
#&'(+ -,%$)&#+*.
The editoria$ a$so hi%h$y commended Art: - +ro3idin% for the +eacefu$ and friend$y
sett$ement of any dis+utes and for the creation of commissions in the e3ent of more
serious conf$icts6 as #e$$ as Art: ) #hich s+ecified that the !act #as 3a$id for ten years
and #as automatica$$y rene#a0$e for fi3e more yearsL here #as a c$ear +romise of a
$astin% +eace: The $ast +ara%ra+h concerned ratification Fas =uic<$y as +ossi0$eF:
Be$o# the +icture of the 4rem$in meetin% there #as this announcement:
A& @.@L ..". #$ A1%1-& M@ ) 0,+-& 3#$6(+-)&,#$ &##; ./)3( 8(&2(($... A. M. M#/#&#6
)$5 &'( #+(,%$ M,$,-&(+ #0 !(+")$*, H(++ 6#$ R,88($&+#.. T'( 3#$6(+-)&,#$ &##;
./)3( ,$ &'( .+(-($3( #0 C#"+)5( S&)/,$ )$5 &'( !(+")$ A"8)--)5#+ C#1$& 6#$
5(+ S3'1/($81+%. I& /)-&(5 )8#1& &'+(( '#1+-. A0&(+ )$ ,$&(+6)/ &'( 3#$6(+-)&,#$ 2)-
+(-1"(5 )& 1L ..". )$5 ($5(5 2,&' &'( -,%$,$% #0 &'( N#$-A%%+(--,#$ A%+(("($& #0
2',3' &'( &(B& 0#//#2-.
Another communi=uN concerned the arri3a$ in Mosco#6 at 1:3" +:m: on Au%ust &36 of
Fthe Forei%n Minister of 1ermany6 .err Boachim 3on 2i00entro+F and the +ersons
accom+anyin% him6 amon% them .err 1aus6 Baron 3on DTrn0er%6 .err !: Schmidt6 !rof:
1: .offmann6 .err 4: Schnurre6 etc: ?t a$so %a3e a $on% $ist of the +ersona$ities #ho had
%one to the airfie$d to meet them6 amon% them De+uty Forei%n 5ommissar A: !:
!otem<inL De+uty 5ommissar for Forei%n Trade6 M: S: Ste+ano3L De+uty 5ommissar of
the ?nterior6 A: ;: Mer<u$o3L the 5hairman of the Mosco# 5ity So3iet6 etc: !resent #ere
a$so mem0ers of the 1erman Cm0assy6 #ith Am0assador 3on der Schu$en0ur% at their
head6 as #e$$ as the ?ta$ian Am0assador and Mi$itary AttachN: @n the fo$$o#in% day
Pravda 0rief$y re+orted 2i00entro+'s de+arture Fat 1:&- +:m: on Au%ust &4F: The same
+eo+$e #ho had come to meet him had a$so %one to see him off:
The editoria$ that day6 ho#e3er6 dea$t #ith nothin% more e8citin% than the State +urchases
of 3e%eta0$es:
For the ne8t fe# days nothin% more #as said a0out the So3iet,1erman !act and6
sur+risin%$y6 there #ere no re+orts of any Fs+ontaneousF and FenthusiasticF mass
meetin%s any#here in 2ussia a++ro3in% it: The forei%n +ress reactions6 as re+orted in the
So3iet !ress6 seemed remar<a0$y inconc$usi3e6 e8ce+t for the ondon %tar #hich #as
re+orted to ha3e 0$amed 5ham0er$ain for #hat had ha++ened: @n Au%ust &96 Pravda
=uoted .: ;: Brai$sford6 the 3eteran a0our Hourna$ist6 as sayin% somethin% simi$ar:
C=ua$$y inconc$usi3e #ere the 3arious ne#s items +rintedDa0out mi$itary +re+arations in
!o$and6 Britain6 and so on:
(et there #as a %reat dea$ of uneasiness in the countryL this may 0e %au%ed from the
+u0$ication6 on Au%ust &76 of an inter3ie# #ith Aoroshi$o3 in #hich he e8+$ained #hy
the ta$<s #ith Britain and France had 0ro<en do#n:
T'( &)/;-, '( -),5, ')5 -&#..(5 8(3)1-( #0 -(+,#1- 5,-)%+(("($&-. T'( S#6,(&
M,/,&)+* M,--,#$ &##; &'( 6,(2 &')& -,$3( &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ ')5 $# 3#""#$ 0+#$&,(+
2,&' &'( )%%+(--#+ (sic), -'( 3#1/5 '(/. !+()& B+,&),$, +)$3( )$5 P#/)$5 #$/* ,0 '(+
&+##.- 3#1/5 3+#-- P#/,-' &(++,&#+* ,$ #+5(+ &# ");( 3#$&)3& 2,&' &'( )%%+(--#+
0#+3(-. T'( P#/(- -),5 &')& &'(* $(,&'(+ $((5(5 $#+ 2)$&(5 S#6,(& '(/.. A-;(5 ,0
&'(+( 2)- )$* &+1&' ,$ &'( "aily !erald +(.#+& &')&, ,$ 3)-( #0 2)+, &'( S#6,(& U$,#$
2#1/5 #331.* .)+&- #0 P#/)$5 )$5 )/-# '(/. &'( P#/(- 2,&' ./)$(-, "1$,&,#$-, (&3.,
A#+#-',/#6 -),5 N#, )55,$%: DW( 5,5 $#& 8+(); #00 &'( &)/;- 2,&' B+,&),$ )$5
+)$3( 8(3)1-( 2( ')5 -,%$(5 ) $#$-)%%+(--,#$ .)3& 2,&' !(+")$*? #$ &'(
3#$&+)+*, 2( -,%$(5 &',- .)3& 8(3)1-(, ).)+& 0+#" )$*&',$% (/-(, &'( ",/,&)+* &)/;-
2,&' B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3( ')5 +()3'(5 ) 3#"./(&( 5()5/#3;.D
The #ho$e su%%estion #as that the So3iet *nion #as +re+ared to %o to #ar #ith ;a>i
1ermany6 0ut that she cou$d not do so in 3ie# of the attitude of Britain6 France and
es+ecia$$y !o$and:
Durin% the ne8t fe# days the ne#s continued to 0e hi%h$y confusin%Dmore a0out !o$ish
Fdefence measuresF6 British Fmi$itary +re+arationsF6 a0out an a++ea$ 0y the S$o3a<
!remier6 M%r Tiso6 as<in% 1ermany6 on 0eha$f of the S$o3a< +o+u$ation6 to send troo+s to
S$o3a<ia6 a0out 1erman shi+s $ea3in% American +orts6 and so on: @n Au%ust 3" there
#ere on$y short ne#s items a0out F1enera$ Mo0i$isation in !o$andF6 and a0out
Am0assador ;e3i$e .enderson's meetin% #ith .it$er and 2i00entro+:
?t #as not ti$$ Au%ust 31Di:e: one day 0efore the 1erman in3asion of !o$andDthat
Mo$oto3 made a statement on the So3iet,1erman !act 0efore the Su+reme So3iet: ?f6
on$y four days 0efore6 Aoroshi$o3 s+o<e of the 0rea<do#n of the ta$<s #ith Britain and
France more in sorro# than in an%er6 Mo$oto3 started that day on his series of anti,French
and anti,British s+eeches6 #ith $astin% co,e8istence #ith ;a>i 1ermany as their <eynote:
Since the 3rd Session of the Su+reme So3iet6 he said6 the internationa$ situation had
sho#n no turn for the 0etter6 either in Curo+e or in the Far Cast: The ta$<s #ith Britain
and France had %one on since A+ri$6 i:e: for four months6 and they had $ed to nothin%:
!o$and had made any a%reement im+ossi0$e6 and6 in her ne%ati3e attitude6 Poland had
4een supported 4! .ritain5 .e then ridicu$ed the British and French mi$itary missions
#ho had come to Mosco# #ithout any +o#ers or credentia$sL the #ho$e thin% F#asn't
seriousF: Then came his monumenta$ defence of the So3iet,1erman !act:
W( )// ;$#2 &')& -,$3( &'( N)C,- 3)"( &# .#2(+, +(/)&,#$- 8(&2(($ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$
)$5 !(+")$* ')6( 8(($ -&+),$(5. B1& 2( $((5 $#& 52(// #$ &'(-( 5,00(+($3(-? &'(*
)+( -100,3,($&/* 0)",/,)+ &# *#1 )$*2)*, C#"+)5(- D(.1&,(-.
B1&, )- C#"+)5( S&)/,$ -),5 #$ M)+3' 1L, D2( )+( ,$ 0)6#1+ #0 81-,$(-- +(/)&,#$-
2,&' )// $)&,#$-D? )$5 ,& -(("- &')&, ,$ !(+")$*, &'(* 1$5(+-&##5 C#"+)5( S&)/,$<-
-&)&("($& 3#++(3&/*, )$5 5+(2 &'( +,%'& 3#$3/1-,#$-.
A1%1-& M@ "1-& 8( +(%)+5(5 )- ) 5)&( #0 %+()& ',-&#+,3 ,".#+&)$3(. I& ,- ) &1+$,$%
.#,$& ,$ &'( ',-&#+* #0 E1+#.(, )$5 $#& #$/* E1+#.(.
O$/* +(3($&/* &'( !(+")$ N)C,- 3#$513&(5 ) 0#+(,%$ .#/,3* 2',3' 2)- (--($&,)//*
'#-&,/( &# &'( S#6,(& U$,#$. Y(-, 1$&,/ +(3($&/*, ,$ &'( +()/" #0 0#+(,%$ .#/,3*, &'(
S#6,(& U$,#$ )$5 !(+")$* 2(+( ($(",(-. T'( -,&1)&,#$ ')- $#2 3')$%(5, )$5 2(
')6( -&#..(5 8(,$% ($(",(-. T'( .#/,&,3)/ )+& ,$ 0#+(,%$ )00),+- ,-... &# +(513( &'(
$1"8(+ #0 ($(",(- #0 #$(<- 3#1$&+*, )$5 &# &1+$ *(-&(+5)*<- ($(",(- ,$&# %##5
$(,%'8#1+-.
H,-&#+* ')- -'#2$ &')& ($",&* )$5 2)+ 8(&2(($ R1--,) )$5 !(+")$* ')6( $(6(+
/(5 &# )$* %##5. T'(-( &2# 3#1$&+,(- -100(+(5 "#+( 0+#" &'( /)-& W#+/5 W)+ &')$
)$* #&'(+.
Mo$oto3 o03ious$y e8+ected a ne# #ar in Curo+e to 0rea< out at any momentL 0ut this
did not seem to #orry him undu$y: FC3en if a mi$itary co$$ision cannot 0e a3oided in
Curo+e6 the sca$e of such a #ar #i$$ 0e $imited: @n$y the +artisans of a %enera$ #ar in
Curo+e can 0e dissatisfied #ith this:F
T'( S#6,(&-!(+")$ )%+(("($& ')- 8(($ 6,#/($&/* )&&)3;(5 ,$ &'( A$%/#-+($3' )$5
A"(+,3)$ .+(--, )$5 (-.(3,)//* ,$ -#"( D-#3,)/,-&D .).(+-... P)+&,31/)+/* 6,#/($& ,$
&'(,+ 5($1$3,)&,#$- #0 &'( )%+(("($& )+( -#"( #0 &'( +($3' )$5 B+,&,-' -#3,)/,-&
/()5(+-... T'(-( .(#./( )+( 5(&(+",$(5 &')& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ -'#1/5 0,%'& )%),$-&
!(+")$* #$ &'( -,5( #0 B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3(. O$( ")* 2(// 2#$5(+ 2'(&'(+ &'(-(
2)+"#$%(+- ')6($<& %#$( #00 &'(,+ '()5-. &aughter.(
U$5(+ &'( S#6,(&-!(+")$ A%+(("($&, &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ ,- $#& #8/,%(5 &# 0,%'& (,&'(+
#$ &'( B+,&,-' #+ &'( !(+")$ -,5(. T'( USSR ,- .1+-1,$% '(+ #2$ .#/,3*, 2',3' ,-
5(&(+",$(5 8* &'( ,$&(+(-&- #0 &'( .(#./(- #0 &'( USSR, )$5 8* $#8#5* (/-(. &oud
cheers.(
I0 &'(-( %($&/("($ ')6( -13' )$ ,++(-,-&,8/( 5(-,+( &# %# &# 2)+, 2(// &'($E/(& &'("
%# &# 2)+ 8* &'("-(/6(-, 2,&'#1& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$. &aughter and cheers.( W(<// -((
2')& ;,$5 #0 2)++,#+- &'(* 2,// ");(. &oud laughter and cheers.(
Mo$oto3 had set the tone of the Fde0ateF:
Soon after#ards Shcher0a<o3 rose to s+ea<: FT#o %reat nations6F he said6 Fha3e
so$emn$y dec$ared their %ood,nei%h0our$y re$ations::: And no# the 9estern socia$ists are
furious: For they #ou$d $i<e the So3iet *nion and 1ermany to attac< one another:F
9hat Mo$oto3 had said a0out the British and French6 Shcher0a<o3 continued6 sho#ed
that6 in their ne%otiations #ith the So3iet *nion their attitude6 es+ecia$$y that of the
British6 #as insincere: There #as no rea$ desire to form a mutua$ assistance front: .e then
+ro+osed that6 in 3ie# of the F+erfect c$arityF of Mo$oto3's statement6 there shou$d 0e no
de0ate6 that the +o$icy of the So3iet %o3ernment 0e a++ro3ed and the So3iet,1erman
a%reement ratified:
;eed$ess to say6 neither Mo$oto3 nor Shcher0a<o3 had any %rounds for fearin% a de0ateL
0ut there is no reason to su++ose that it #ou$d ha3e 0een mar<ed 0y any hi%h de%ree of
enthusiasm:
A fe# hours $ater the 1ermans in3aded !o$and: ;othin% #as said in Mosco# at that sta%e
of the ro$e that the So3iet *nion #as %oin% to +$ay in the destruction of that country6
e8ce+t for a s$i%ht$y mysterious TASS statement on Au%ust 3" denyin% that So3iet troo+s
#ere 0ein% transferred to the Far Cast:
O$ &'( 3#$&+)+*, TASS ,- )1&'#+,-(5 &# -&)&( &')&, #2,$% &# &'( -&+),$(5 -,&1)&,#$ ,$
&'( W(-&, &'( %)++,-#$- #$ &'( W(-&(+$ 0+#$&,(+ #0 &'( USSR )+( 8(,$% +(,$0#+3(5.
;eed$ess to say6 Mo$oto3's and 2i00entro+'s Secret !rotoco$ #as not +u0$ished: This6 as
#e <no#6 +ro3ided that Fin the e3ent of territoria$ and +o$itica$ transformationsF the
northern frontier of ithuania #ou$d 0e the frontier of the So3iet,1erman Fs+heres of
interestF in the Ba$tic States6 and6 rou%h$y6 the ;are#,Aistu$a,San $ine the +ro3isiona$
demarcation $ine: The So3iet *nion and 1ermany #ou$d su0se=uent$y decide #hether to
maintain an inde+endent !o$ish state6 and if so6 #ithin #hat frontiers:
Before $on%6 as #e sha$$ see6 the occu+ation 0y the 2ed Army of Castern !o$and #as to
0e re+resented as Fthe $i0eration of 9estern Be$orussia and the 9estern *<raineF and as
a means of sa3in% these areas from the ;a>is:
The +resent,day So3iet assessment of the So3iet,1erman !act is that it #as a measure
that had 0een forced on 2ussia #hich sim+$y had no a$ternati3e:
IFor e8am+$e e8,Am0assador Mais<y's criticism of British forei%n +o$icy in 1939 in his
memoirs:K
?t is one of the 3ery fe# +oints on #hich 4hrushche3 has ne3er attac<ed or criticised
Sta$in6 0ut has6 on the contrary6 fu$$y Hustified his action:
C').&(+ III THE PARTITION O POLAND
The co3era%e in the So3iet +ress of the 1erman in3asion of !o$and #as a$most
un0e$ie3a0$y thin: ?t $oo<ed as thou%h there #ere a desire to ma<e +eo+$e thin< and ta$<
a0out it as $itt$e as +ossi0$e: An attem+t #as made to %i3e the im+ression that this #as a
sma$$ $oca$ #ar6 of no +articu$ar conse=uence to the So3iet *nion6 #here $ife6 than<s to
the #isdom of 5omrade Sta$in6 #as %oin% on norma$$y and +eacefu$$y:
Much s+ace #as %i3en in the +ress to a %reat +o+u$ar fUte at the Dynamo Stadium in
Mosco# on the e3e of the 1erman in3asion of !o$and6 to another fUte at So<o$ni<i a fe#
days $ater6 and to the ?nternationa$ (outh Days #hich #ere ce$e0rated in Mosco#6
enin%rad and 4ie3 at the end of the first #ee< of the #ar (thou%h the =uestion #hich
nations #ere re+resented at these (outh Days #as $eft remar<a0$y 3a%ueDand no
#onderP):
?n re+ortin% the #ar itse$f6 the So3iet +ress tried at first to sound as neutra$ and o0Hecti3e
as +ossi0$e: Both the 1erman and the !o$ish communi=uNs #ere +u0$ishedL 0ut
contro3ersia$ matters $i<e the F@+eration .imm$erF at 1$ei#it>D#here 1ermans6
dressed in !o$ish uniform6 attac<ed a 1erman #ire$ess stationD#ere carefu$$y a3oided:
I?n the So3iet +ost,#ar Histor! of the #ar6 on the other hand6 the %reatest +rominence is
%i3en to this far,reachin% ;a>i +ro3ocation a%ainst !o$and:K
.it$er's 2eichsta% s+eech announcin% the in3asion of !o$and #as %i3en under a three,
co$umn headin% in Pravda on Se+tem0er &: The s+eech #as im+ortant since6 in the
course of it6 .it$er said: F? can endorse e3ery #ord that Forei%n 5ommissar Mo$oto3
uttered in his Su+reme So3iet s+eech6F and +ro+osed the ratification of the So3iet,
1erman !act: The ne#s that Britain had dec$ared #ar on 1ermany #as %i3en on$y a t#o,
co$umn headin%:
2e$ations #ith ;a>i 1ermany #ere #hat seemed to interest the So3iet 1o3ernment most:
@n Se+tem0er )6 Pravda +rominent$y re+orted that6 in the +resence of 2i00entro+6 .it$er
had recei3ed the ne# So3iet Am0assador6 5omrade Sh<3artse3 and the So3iet Mi$itary
AttachN6 5omrade !ur<aye3: FAfter +resentin% his credentia$s6 the So3iet Am0assador
had a $en%thy ta$< #ith .it$er:F
C3ents in Britain and France #ere on$y 3ery thin$y re+orted6 0ut6 si%nificant$y +erha+s6
considera0$e interest #as sho#n in the American attitude to the #ar in Curo+e:
But that Fo0Hecti3ityF in re+ortin% the #ar in !o$and did not $ast $on%: Ten days after the
1erman in3asion Pravda +u0$ished its first Fsur3eyF of the !o$ish,1erman #ar #hich6 it
said6 #as mar<ed 0y an e8traordinari$y ra+id ad3ance of the 1erman troo+sL the a0sence
of any +ro+er fortifications in 9estern !o$and and %reat 1erman air su+eriority6 as a
resu$t of #hich +ractica$$y a$$ !o$ish airfie$ds6 most of the !o$ish air force and most
communication centres had 0een destroyed: The Fsur3eyF stressed the %reat su+eriority of
the 1erman $and forces6 #ith their $ar%e num0ers of tan<s and hea3y %uns6 and a$so
commented on the tota$ $ac< of Fany effecti3e he$+F from Britain and France: A$thou%h6 it
conc$uded6 a $ar%e +art of the !o$ish Army had succeeded in crossin% the Aistu$a6 the
!o$ish command #as un$i<e$y to continue stron% resistance6 since it had $ost +ractica$$y
its entire mi$itary and economic 0ase:
Better sti$$ #as to come: Three days $ater6 on Se+tem0er 146 a Pravda editoria$ ar%ued
that the !o$ish Army had practicall! not "ought at all5
W'* ,- &',- P#/,-' A+"* $#& #00(+,$% &'( !(+")$- )$* +(-,-&)$3( &# -.(); #0I I& ,-
8(3)1-( P#/)$5 ,- $#& ) '#"#%($(#1- 3#1$&+*. O$/* -,B&* .(+3($& #0 &'( .#.1/)&,#$
)+( P#/(-, &'( +(-& )+( U;+),$,)$-, B(/#+1--,)$- )$5 J(2-... T'( (/(6($ ",//,#$
U;+),$,)$- )$5 B(/#+1--,)$- )+( /,6,$% ,$ ) -&)&( #0 $)&,#$)/ #..+(--,#$... T'(
)5",$,-&+)&,#$ ,- P#/,-', )$5 $# #&'(+ /)$%1)%( ,- +(3#%$,-(5. T'(+( )+( .+)3&,3)//*
$# $#$-P#/,-' -3'##/- #+ #&'(+ 31/&1+)/ (-&)8/,-'"($&-. T'( P#/,-' C#$-&,&1&,#$ 5#(-
$#& %,6( $#$-P#/(- &'( +,%'& &# 8( &)1%'& ,$ &'(,+ #2$ /)$%1)%(. I$-&()5, &'( P#/,-'
!#6(+$"($& ')- 8(($ .1+-1,$% ) .#/,3* #0 0#+3(5 P#/#$,-)&,#$...
The more heroic e+isodes of the !o$ish so$diers' resistance to su+erior 1erman forcesD
#hether at .e$ or 9ester+$atte or in 9arsa#D#ere not mentioned at a$$L instead6 on
Se+tem0er 146 Pravda re+orted that Fafter a tour of ins+ection of the Front6 .it$er had
arri3ed at od> at 3 +:m:F 2e+orts of 1erman air attac<s on rai$#ay trains and of Fthe
f$i%ht of the !o$ish 1o3ernmentF #ere intended to con3ey the im+ression that 0y the
midd$e of Se+tem0er !o$and #as in a com+$ete state of chaos:
The fu$$ si%nificance of the artic$e on the *<rainians and Be$orussians soon 0ecame
a++arent: @n Se+tem0er 17 Mo$oto3 made a 0roadcast in #hich he dec$ared that t#o
#ee<s of #ar had demonstrated the Finterna$ inca+acityF of the !o$ish State: A$$ industria$
centres had 0een $ostL nor cou$d 9arsa# 0e considered any more the ca+ita$ of the !o$ish
State: ;o one <ne# #here the !o$ish 1o3ernment #as: The situation in !o$and therefore
ca$$ed for the %reatest 3i%i$ance on the +art of the So3iet *nion: The So3iet 1o3ernment
had informed the !o$ish Am0assador6 Mr 1r>y0o#s<i6 that the 2ed Army had 0een
ordered to ta<e under its +rotection the +o+u$ations of 9estern Be$orussia and the
9estern *<raine:
1r>y0o#s<i had6 indeed6 0een informed that day that a$thou%h it had 0een neutra$ Fu+ ti$$
no#F6 the So3iet 1o3ernment cou$d no $on%er 0e neutra$ in the face of rei%nin% chaos in
!o$and or the fact that Four 0$ood,0rothers6 the *<rainians and Be$orussians6 are 0ein%
a0andoned to their fate:::F
And then came the guerre "raEche et 8o!euse5 ?n a fe# days the 2ed Army occu+ied 3ast
stretches of country #hich had constituted the eastern ha$f of !o$and: The #ar
communi=uN of Se+tem0er 17 announced that the 2ed Army had crossed the !o$ish
frontier a$$ the #ay from at3ia to 2umaniaL that6 in the north6 Mo$odechno and
Barano3ichi had 0een occu+ied6 and6 in the south6 2o3no and Du0no: Se3en !o$ish
fi%hters had 0een 0rou%ht do#n6 three !o$ish 0om0ers had 0een forced to $and6 and their
cre#s had 0een ta<en +risoner: By Se+tem0er &" the 2ed Army had occu+ied 4o3e$6
#o#6 Ai$no and 1rodno: Three !o$ish di3isions had 0een disarmed6 and )J6""" officers
and men ta<en +risoner:
@n Se+tem0er 19 a Hoint So3iet,1erman communi=uN #as +u0$ished sayin% that the tas<
of the So3iet and 1erman troo+s #as to Frestore +eace and order #hich had 0een
distur0ed 0y the disinte%ration FraspadG of the !o$ish State6 and to he$+ the +o+u$ation of
!o$and to reor%anise the conditions of its +o$itica$ e8istenceF:
?f6 durin% the 1erman in3asion of !o$and6 the So3iet +ress #as e8treme$y reticent in its
accounts of #hat #as ha++enin%6 and carefu$$y refrained from any Fstrai%htF re+ortin%6 it
no# em0ar<ed on an or%y of ra+turous artic$es and descri+ti3e re+orts on the enthusiasm
#ith #hich the 2ed Army #as 0ein% #e$comed 0y the +eo+$e of the 9estern *<raine and
9estern Be$orussiaD
H)..* D)*- ,$ &'( L,8(+)&(5 A,//)%(- 4+(.#+& 0+#" &'( R#6$# )+()7.
J18,/)$& C+#25- H()+&,/* W(/3#"( N. S. K'+1-'3'(6.
P#.1/)&,#$ &# R(5 A+"*: DY#1 ')6( S)6(5 #1+ L,6(-HD
Such #ere some of the head$ines: @n Se+tem0er &" Pravda re+orted F%reat animation in
#o#F and the %reat enthusiasm #ith #hich the +eo+$e there had %one to see the fi$m
Fenin in 191JF:
Another re+ort from the 2o3no area read: FAn o$d +easant6 named Murash6 #ent u+ to
our so$diers: '? am se3enty6' he said6 'and ? <no# that there is in Mosco# a man #ho is the
father of a$$ the o++ressed6 a man #ho thin<s of us and cares for us: And ? <no# that his
name is Bose+h Sta$in:'F
A$$ the same6 the So3iet hierarchy must ha3e <no#n that there #as at $east some s$i%ht
uneasiness in the country o3er #hat #as in effect a +artition of !o$and in the com+any of
.it$er: .ence6 for instance6 the +u0$ication in Pravda on Se+tem0er 1J of a +oem 0y
;i<o$ai Aseye3 ca$$ed F.o$d (our .eads *+FD
T'( /)$5/#+5-< (panski) 0/)% ')- 8(($ &+)"./(5 1$5(+0##&,
B1& *#1, P#/,-' .(#./(, ')6( $#& 8(($ '1",/,)&(5...
Y#1 &#,/(+- #0 P#/)$5, 5# $#& 8(/,(6( &'( &)/(
T')& 2( ')6( -&(..(5 0#+2)+5
J1-& &# )55 &# *#1+ -#++#2-.
I0 2( ')6( 3+#--(5 &'( 0+#$&,(+,
I& ,- $#& &# ");( *#1 )0+),5?
W( 5# $#& 2)$& *#1 &# 3+,$%( &# 1-?
P+#15/* *#1 3)$ '#/5 1. *#1+ '()5-.
?n fact6 the %reat maHority of Frea$F !o$es #ere to remain under 1erman occu+ation6 as
most of the +eo+$e in the areas ta<en o3er 0y the 2ussians #ere *<rainians or
Be$orussians: As #e no# <no#6 the ;4AD soon %ot 0usy in the $i0erated territories of
the 9estern *<raine and 9estern Be$orussia: The de+ortation to the east of Fhosti$eF and
Fdis$oya$F !o$es #as to run into hundreds of thousands: They #ere to constitute a maHor
+o$itica$ +ro0$em in 1941,&: The !o$ish so$diers ca+tured 0y the 2ussians #ere
demo0i$ised 0efore $on%6 0ut most of the ca+tured !o$ish officers #ere to remain in
2ussian ca+ti3ityD#ith dire conse=uences6 as #e sha$$ see:
The $and reform in the $i0erated areasDa reform descri0ed in the So3iet +ress as ear$y as
Se+tem0er &7 as Fthe distri0ution of $and$ord estatesFD0e%an a$most at once:
@n Se+tem0er &7 Pravda +u0$ished a ma+ of !o$and sho#in% the +ro3isiona$
demarcation $ine 0et#een the 2ussian and 1erman armed forces: This ran from the south,
east corner of Cast !russia do#n to 9arsa# and then further south a$on% the ri3er San:
@n the fo$$o#in% day 2i00entro+ came on his second 3isit to Mosco#: @n Se+tem0er &9
Pravda +u0$ished a $ar%e front,+a%e +hotoi%ra+h sho#in% Mo$oto3 si%nin% the 1erman,
So3iet A%reement of Friendshi+ and on the Frontier 0et#een the *SS2 and 1ermanyL
standin% 0ehind him #ere 2i00entro+6 Sta$in6 !a3$o3 (the inter+reter)6 and 1aus: The
+a+er a$so s+o<e of the dinner %i3en 0y Mo$oto3 in 2i00entro+'s honour: Amon% those
+resent #ere Forster6 1aus6 Schnurre6 and 4ordt of the 2i00entro+ +arty6 Schu$en0ur%
and Ti++e$s<irch of the 1erman Cm0assy6 as #e$$ as Sta$in6 Aoro,shi$o36 4a%ano3ich6
Mi<oyan6 Beria6 Bu$%anin and Ao>nesens<y:
F5omrade Mo$oto3 and .err 3on 2i00entro+ e8chan%ed s+eeches of #e$come: The
dinner too< +$ace in a friend$y atmos+here:F That day the fo$$o#in% So3iet,1erman
Statement #as +u0$ished:
H)6,$% -,%$(5 &#5)* )$ )%+(("($& 2',3' 0,$)//* -(&&/(5 &'( .+#8/("- &')& ')5
)+,-($ 0+#" &'( 5,-,$&(%+)&,#$ #0 &'( P#/,-' S&)&(, )$5 ')6,$% &'1- /),5 &'( -#/,5
0#1$5)&,#$- 0#+ ) /)-&,$% .()3( ,$ E)-&(+$ E1+#.(, &'( S#6,(& )$5 !(+")$
!#6(+$"($&- 5(3/)+( &')& &'( /,91,5)&,#$ #0 &'( 2)+ 8(&2(($ !(+")$* #$ &'( #$(
')$5 )$5 !+()& B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3( #$ &'( #&'(+ 2#1/5 8( ,$ &'( ,$&(+(-&- #0 )//
$)&,#$-.
I0, '#2(6(+, &'( ($5()6#1+- #0 8#&' %#6(+$"($&- +("),$ 0+1,&/(--, &',- 2,// #$/*
-'#2 &')& !+()& B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3( 2,// 8()+ &'( +(-.#$-,8,/,&* 0#+ 3#$&,$1,$% &'(
2)+. I0 &',- 2)+ ,- &# 3#$&,$1(, &'( !#6(+$"($&- #0 !(+")$* )$5 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$
2,// 3#$-1/& ()3' #&'(+ #$ &'( $(3(--)+* "()-1+(- &# 8( &);($.
4S,%$(57 Molotov. )ibbentrop.
ater6 durin% the #ar6 ? had occasion to discuss #ith a num0er of So3iet inte$$ectua$s the
effect this statement had in 2ussia at the time: ?t a++eared that the Freco3eryF of 9estern
Be$orussia and the 9estern *<raine had indeed caused much satisfaction6 +art$y 0ecause
it had +ushed the So3iet frontier further #estDand no0ody had e3er trusted .it$er:
Second$y the one thin% many +eo+$e dreaded #as that Britain and France mi%ht ma<e
+eace #ith 1ermany: They <ne# that 2ussia had 0ecome thorou%h$y disre+uta0$e in
French and British eyes o3er the F+artitionF of !o$and6 and feared that there mi%ht 0e a
9estern dea$ #ith .it$er at 2ussia's e8+ense:
;o sooner #as the #ar in !o$and o3er6 than the 2ussians inf$icted on Cstonia6 at3ia and
ithuania Fmutua$ aid and trade a%reementsF under #hich the So3iet *nion #as %i3en
mi$itary6 air and na3a$ 0ases in a$$ three countries: ?n that matter6 too6 the consummation
of the secret +rotoco$ dra#n u+ 0y 2i00entro+ and Mo$oto36 #hen the So3iet ;a>i treaty
#as conc$uded6 made steady +ro%ress: Ai$no6 ho#e3er6 #hich had 0een +art of !o$and6
#as handed 0ac< to ithuania 0y the 2ussians after they had secured the re=uired mi$itary
ho$d on that sma$$ country6 as they had on the t#o other Ba$tic States:
Mean#hi$e Mo$oto3 and 2i00entro+ continued to %o throu%h a$$ the usua$ motions of
friendshi+: @n Se+tem0er &96 0efore $ea3in% Mosco#6 2i00entro+ dec$ared in a statement
to Tass:
A%),$ &',- 6,-,& &# M#-3#2 2)- &## -'#+&, )$5 I '#.( "* $(B& 6,-,& 2,// /)-& /#$%(+.
A// &'( -)"(, 2( ")5( %##5 1-( #0 &'(-( &2# 5)*-.
17 !(+")$-S#6,(& 0+,($5-',. ,- $#2 0,$)//* (-&)8/,-'(5?
M7 N(,&'(+ 3#1$&+* 2,// )//#2 )$* ,$&(+0(+($3( 0+#" &',+5 .)+&,(- ,$ E)-&-E1+#.()$
)00),+-?
@7 B#&' 3#1$&+,(- 2,-' ) +(-&#+)&,#$ #0 .()3(, )$5 &'(* 2)$& B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3( &#
-&#. &'(,+ )8-#/1&(/* -($-(/(-- )$5 '#.(/(-- 2)+ )%),$-& !(+")$*?
47 I0, '#2(6(+, ,$ &'(-( 3#1$&+,(-, &'( 2)+"#$%(+- %),$ &'( 1..(+ ')$5, &'($
!(+")$* )$5 &'( USSR 2,// ;$#2 '#2 &# +()3& &# &',-.
.e then referred to Fthe %reat +ro%ramme of economic coo+eration #hich had 0een
a%reed u+on and #hich #ou$d 0e 3a$ua0$e to 0oth countriesF6 and6 he conc$uded: FThe
ta$<s too< +$ace in a +articu$ar$y friend$y and s+$endid atmos+here: ? shou$d $i<e6 a0o3e
a$$6 to stress the e8traordinari$y cordia$ rece+tion %i3en me 0y the So3iet 1o3ernment and
+articu$ar$y 0y .err Staun and .err Mo$oto3:F
I Pravda, Se+tem0er 3"6 1939:K
oo<in% 0ac< on this statement6 a num0er of 2ussians $ater to$d me that it had created a
Frather reassurin% im+ressionF: Amon% many 2ussians there #as the ho+eDor the
i$$usionDthat 2i00entro+ +erha+s 0e$on%ed to that Hstpoliti* faction in 1ermany #ho
#ere decided$y a%ainst conf$ict #ith 2ussia: That #as the im+ression that Sta$in and
Mo$oto3 a$so hadL they #ere6 moreo3er6 con3inced that Am0assador 5ount Schu$en0ur%
0e$on%ed to the o$d Bismarc<ian6 no,#ar,#ith,2ussia schoo$ of thou%ht: ?n this they #ere
ri%ht: The 0i% =uestion mar< #as .it$er himse$f:
@n @cto0er J6 a #ee< after the 2i00entro+ 3isit to Mosco#6 .it$er made another +eace
offer to Britain and France6 0ut it #as reHected6 a%ain6 one sus+ects6 to the 2ussians'
re$ief:
The So3iet !ress durin% the #ee<s fo$$o#in% the destruction of !o$and ma<es +retty
nauseatin% readin%: Thus6 Pravda of @cto0er 17 +u0$ished an artic$e 0y Da3id Oas$a3s<y6
an o$d hac<6 ironica$$y a Be#6 #hom enin had once descri0ed as Fthe most corru+t +en in
2ussiaF:
I$ )// -(+,#1-$(--, &'#1%' -3)+3(/* )8/( &# -1..+(-- ) -",/(, &'( +($3' .+(-- ')-
,$0#+"(5 &'( 2#+/5 #0 ) -($-)&,#$)/ .,(3( #0 $(2-. I$ P)+,- ,$ -13'-)$5--13' ) -&+((&
) $(2 P#/,-' !#6(+$"($& ')- 8(($ 0#+"(5, 2,&' !($(+)/ S,;#+-;, )& ,&- '()5. T'(
&(++,&#+* #0 &',- %#6(+$"($& 3#$-,-&-, ,& )..()+-, #0 -,B +##"-, ) 8)&'+##" )$5 ) 2.3.
C#".)+(5 2,&' &',- &(++,&#+*, M#$)3# ,- ) 8#1$5/(-- (".,+(.
I$ &'( !+()& P)+,- S*$)%#%1(, S,;#+-;, )55+(--(5 &'( J(2,-' 8)$;(+- #0 P)+,-. T'(
S*$)%#%1( 2)- )5#+$(5 2,&' ) 0/)% 2,&' ) 2',&( ()%/(, 2',3' &'( C',(0 R)88, "1-&
')6( &1+$(5 ,$&# ;#-'(+ "()&, -,$3( &',- ,- ) 8,+5 &')& #+&'#5#B J(2- 5# $#&, )- )
+1/(, 1-( )- 0##5.
I$ 0#+"(+ P#/)$5, &'( J(2- 1-(5 &# 8( 0+,%'&($(5 &# 5()&' #0 &'( P#/,-' $#8,/,&* )$5
#0 .#%+#"-, 81& &'( J(2,-' 8)$;(+- ,$ P)+,- ')5, #86,#1-/*, $#&',$% &# 0()+ 0+#"
!($(+)/ S,;#+-;,...
And more #itticisms of the same <indL 0ut not a #ord a0out the ;a>is and Mr
Oas$a3s<y's o#n fe$$o#,Be#s in FformerF !o$and: The cartoons in the +ress #ere
0ecomin% increasin%$y anti,British and anti,French: Thus 4u<ryni<sy +u0$ished one
sho#in% a F5a+ita$istF and a FSocia$,DemocratF $oc<in% a door mar<ed FDemocracyF and
a FFrench 5ommunistF +ee+in% throu%h the 0arred #indo#: The Socia$,Democrat carried
a shie$d mar<ed F9ar for DemocracyF:
?t #as not ti$$ @cto0er 31 that Mo$oto3 made another s+eech 0efore the Su+reme So3ietD
this #as the famous s+eech in #hich he #e$comed the disa++earance of !o$and6 Fthat
monster chi$d of the Treaty of Aersai$$esF IA +hrase for #hich6 in retros+ect6 he #as to 0e
ta<en to tas< in 3o$: ? of the officia$ Histor! o" the $ar, +u0$ished in 19)":K6 and dec$ared
that not 1ermany6 0ut Britain and France #ere no# the Fa%%ressorF nations:
?t #as this s+eech #hich mar<ed6 as it #ere6 the >enith of So3iet,1erman Ffriendshi+F
and Fso$idarityFL first it dea$t #ith !o$and: FThe ru$ers of !o$and used to ma<e a %reat fuss
o3er the 'soundness' of their State and the 'mi%ht' of their Army: A short 0$o# at !o$and
from the 1erman Army6 fo$$o#ed 0y one from the 2ed Army #as enou%h to reduce to
nothin% this monster chi$d of the Treaty of Aersai$$es:F
.e then dea$t #ith the British and French %uarantees to !o$and6 and remar<ed Famidst
%enera$ $au%hterF that Fno one <ne# to this day #hat <ind of %uarantees these #ereF: .e
noted that the #ar in the 9est had not yet de3e$o+ed:
FBut the #ho$e conce+t of 'a%%ression' has chan%ed: Today #e cannot use the #ord in the
same sense as three or four months a%o: 3o: #erman! stands "or peace, :hile .ritain
and France are in "avour o" continuing the :ar5 /s !ou see, the roles have 4een
reversed5"
ICm+hasis added:K
.e e3en im+ro3ed on this +erformance 0y %oin% on:
N#2 B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3(, $# /#$%(+ )8/( &# 0,%'& 0#+ ) +(-&#+)&,#$ #0 P#/)$5, )+(
.#-,$% )- D0,%'&(+- 0#+ 5("#3+)&,3 +,%'&- )%),$-& H,&/(+-,-"D. T'( B+,&,-'
!#6(+$"($& $#2 3/),"- &')& ,&- )," ,-, $# "#+(, #+ $# /(--, ,0 *#1 ./()-(, D&'(
5(-&+13&,#$ #0 H,&/(+,-"D. S# ,&<- )$ ,5(#/#%,3)/ 2)+, ) ;,$5 #0 "(5,(6)/ +(/,%,#1-
2)+.
O$( ")* /,;( #+ 5,-/,;( H,&/(+,-", 81& (6(+* -)$( .(+-#$ 2,// 1$5(+-&)$5 &')&
,5(#/#%* 3)$$#& 8( 5(-&+#*(5 8* 0#+3(. I& ,- &'(+(0#+( $#& #$/* $#$-($-,3)/ 81& )/-#
3+,",$)/ &# .1+-1( ) 2)+ D0#+ &'( 5(-&+13&,#$ #0 H,&/(+,-"D 1$5(+ &'( 8#%1- 8)$$(+
#0 ) -&+1%%/( 0#+ D5("#3+)3*D. A$5 2')& ;,$5 #0 5("#3+)3* ,- ,&, )$*2)*, 2,&' &'(
+($3' C#""1$,-& P)+&* ,$ :),/I
?t #as on$y #hen dea$in% #ith the $i0eration of the 9estern *<raine and 9estern
Be$orussia that Mo$oto3 did dro+ somethin% $i<e a hint that 1ermany6 after a$$6 sti$$
constituted a +otentia$ dan%er to the So3iet *nion: F@ur re$ations #ith 1ermany ha3e
radica$$y im+ro3ed: 9e are neutra$: But #e cou$d not remain neutra$ in res+ect of Castern
!o$and6 since this involved acute pro4lems o" our countr!0s securit!5 ICm+hasis added:K
Moreo3er6 the +o+u$ations of 9estern Be$orussia and the 9estern *<raine had 0een $eft
to their fate6 and this #e cou$d not a$$o#:F
Since the incor+oration of these territories in the So3iet *nion6 Mo$oto3 said6 the
+o+u$ation of the country had %ro#n 0y some thirteen mi$$ion +eo+$e6 o3er se3en mi$$ion
*<rainians6 three mi$$ion Be$orussians6 one mi$$ion !o$es and one mi$$ion Be#s: The #ar
a%ainst !o$and had cost the So3iet *nion 734 dead and 16J)& #oundedL and the 2ed
Army had ca+tured from the !o$es 9"" %uns6 1"6""" machine,%uns6 3"" +$anes6 one
mi$$ion she$$s6 etc:
.e then s+o<e of the mutua$ assistance +acts #ith the Ba$tic States and6 indeed6
contended that these did not6 in any #ay6 constitute interference in their interna$ affairs:
This6 ho#e3er6 did not end his di+$omatic sur3ey: ;e8t on the $ist #as Fin$and:
enin%rad6 Mo$oto3 said6 #as on$y t#enty mi$es from the Finnish frontier6 and cou$d thus
0e she$$ed from Finnish territory: ate$y there had 0een a$$ <inds of a0surd rumours: The
So3iet *nion #as su++osed to ha3e demanded from Fin$and the transfer of Ai0or% and of
the north side of a<e ado%a: This #as a $ie:
I!recise$y the territory the 2ussians #ere e3entua$$y to anne8:K
F@ur demands are minima$: ?n our ta$<s #ith Tanner and !aasi,<i3i #e +ro+osed a mutua$
assistance +act on the $ines of those si%ned #ith the other Ba$tic States: The Finns said
they #ere neutra$L so #e did not insist: 9hat #e are as<in% for is on$y a sma$$ area of a
fe# do>en <i$ometres north,#est of enin%rad6 in return for #hich #e are #i$$in% to %i3e
them an area t#ice that si>e: 9e are a$so as<in% for a na3a$ 0ase at the #estern end of the
1u$f of Fin$and: 9e ha3e no# a na3a$ 0ase at Ba$tis<i in Cstonia on the south side of the
%u$fL #e #ant a simi$ar 0ase on the north side:F Mo$oto3 ar%ued that these demands #ere
eminent$y reasona0$e6 and re%retted that the Finns #ere 0ein% difficu$t:
IFrom the Finnish +oint of 3ie# these 2ussian demands did not $oo< as tri3ia$ as Mo$oto3
tried to su%%est6 and e3ents #ere soon to sho# that the Finns had %ood %rounds for
mistrustin% 2ussia's intentions:K
.e then 0rief$y dea$t #ith Ba+an6 sayin% that 0et#een May and mid,Se+tem0er there had
0een hea3y fi%htin% in the Far Cast: Ba+an had #anted to anne8 a +art of Mon%o$iaL 0ut if
Cn%$and's %uarantee to !o$and #as a scra+ of +a+er6 the So3iet *nion's %uarantee to the
Mon%o$ian !eo+$e's 2e+u0$ic #as not: @n Se+tem0er 1- +eace had 0een restored
0et#een Ba+an and the So3iet *nion:
?n conc$usion he remar<ed that the *nited States 1o3ernment had $ifted its em0ar%o on
arms to 0e$$i%erent nations6 and this6 he said6 Faroused $e%itimate dou0tsF: This com+$aint
fitted6 of course6 the officia$ $ine that not 1ermany6 0ut Britain and France #ere no# the
Fa%%ressorsF: This ar%ument #as i$$ustrated a fe# days $ater 0y another 4u<ryni<sy
cartoon in Pravda sho#in% British and French %enera$s and ca+ita$ists in to+ hats =ueuin%
u+ for armaments in front of F*nc$e Sam's Bar%ain BasementF:
Mo$oto3's s+eech of @cto0er 316 1939 mar<s the end of the first +hase of the So3iet,
1erman FhoneymoonF: The reco3ery 0y the So3iet *nion of 9estern Be$orussia and the
9estern *<raineD inc$udin% some areas6 such as #o#6 #hich had ne3er 0een +art of
the o$d 2ussian Cm+ireDsu%%ested to many 2ussians that6 from a nationa$ +oint of 3ie#6
the rapprochement #ith ;a>i 1ermany cou$d ha3e some distinct ad3anta%es: ?t is true
that a$$ these anne8ations #ere mi8ed u+ #ith Facute +ro0$ems of our country's securityF
as Mo$oto3 had said6 and this cou$d +rimari$y refer on$y to a +otentia$ dan%er from ;a>i
1ermany: ;e3erthe$ess there #as a #ides+read fee$in% in the country that Fneutra$ityF
+aidL that as a resu$t of the So3iet,1erman !act the So3iet *nion had 0ecome 0i%%er and6
as yet #ithout too much 0$oodshed6 more secure:
Fo$$o#in% the +artition of !o$and6 the #estern frontier of the So3iet *nion had 0een
mo3ed se3era$ hundred mi$es further #estL the Ba$tic States had 0een Fneutra$isedF
throu%h the esta0$ishment of So3iet mi$itary 0ases there: There #as6 of course6 that threat
to enin%rad $eft #hich had no# to 0e dea$t #ith:
The F$i0erationF of Castern !o$and6 #ith its 7"" 2ussian dead6 had 0een one of the
chea+est #ars e3er fou%ht and %a3e the +$easant i$$usion of the 2ed Army's in3inci0i$ity:
The Finnish #ar6 #ith its enormous casua$ties (4J6""" 2ussian dead a$one) #as to raise
some hi%h$y a#<#ard =uestions a0out the 2ed Army's o3er#he$min% +o#er and
efficiency: !o$itica$$y6 the Finnish #ar cou$d not6 as #e sha$$ see6 ha3e 0een hand$edDat
$east in its initia$ sta%esDmore ine+t$y than it #as:
C').&(+ IA ROM THE INNISH WAR TO THE !ERMAN
INAASION O RANCE
The 2ussians considered the Finnish frontier6 runnin% on$y t#enty mi$es north,#est of
enin%rad6 a +otentia$ threat to 2ussia's second $ar%est city: The 2ussians6 as Mo$oto3
said in his s+eech of @cto0er 316 #ere Fon$yF as<in% that the frontier 0e +ushed 0ac< Fa
fe# do>en <i$ometresF6 #hi$e a much $ar%er area #as to 0e %i3en to Fin$and further north
in return for this concession: Moreo3er6 the 2ussians6 an8ious to contro$ the 1u$f of
Fin$and and so to +rotect enin%rad and its sea route6 had as<ed for a na3a$ 0ase6 i:e: for
the +ort of .an%T on the north side of the 1u$f:
I ?n 194-6 !aasi<i3i and 4e<<onen6 0oth future +residents of Fin$and6 #ho had fa3oured
accommodation #ith the 2ussians6 to$d me that they had considered the 2ussian
+ro+osa$s moderate and understanda0$e6 and maintained that the #ar cou$d ha3e 0een
a3oided had their +o$icy +re3ai$ed:K
The ne%otiations continued for t#o months6 unti$ at the end of ;o3em0er there #as a
frontier incident6 rea$ or ima%inary: Des+ite Finnish denia$s the 2ussians c$aimed that the
Finns had she$$ed the So3iet 0order <i$$in% se3era$ 2ussian so$diers: The 2ussians
demanded that the Finnish Army #ithdra# t#enty or t#enty,fi3e <i$ometres from the
frontier: The Finnish 1o3ernment denied that the incident had occurred and refused to
com+$y: @n ;o3em0er &9 Mo$oto3 sent a note to ?rHe 4os<inen6 the Finnish Minister in
Mosco#6 in #hich he dec$ared:
H)6,$% +(01-(5 &# 2,&'5+)2 &'(,+ &+##.- 0+#" &'( S#6,(& 8#+5(+ 8* (6($ &2($&* #+
&2($&*-0,6( ;,/#"(&+(- )0&(+ &'( 2,3;(5 -'(//,$% #0 S#6,(& &+##.- 8* ,$$,-' &+##.-,
&'( !#6(+$"($& #0 ,$/)$5 ')- -'#2$ &')& ,& 3#$&,$1(- &# "),$&),$ ) '#-&,/( )&&,&15(
&# &'( S#6,(& U$,#$. S,$3( ,& ')- 6,#/)&(5 &'( $#$-)%%+(--,#$ .)3&... 2( $#2 )/-#
3#$-,5(+ #1+-(/6(- 0+(( #0 &'( #8/,%)&,#$- )+,-,$% 0+#" &',- .)3&.
@n the same day Mo$oto3 made a radio announcement in #hich he said6 in effect6 that
#ar had 0een dec$ared on Fin$and since the t#o months' ne%otiations had on$y $ed to the
she$$in% 0y the Finns of So3iet troo+s in the enin%rad area: .e announced that the
So3iet +o$itica$ and economic re+resentati3es in Fin$and had 0een reca$$ed: At the same
time Mo$oto3 a$so #ent out of his #ay to state that the So3iet *nion Fre%arded Fin$and6
no matter #hat its rN%ime #as6 as an inde+endent and so3erei%n StateF: This statement
#as a$$ the more curious since6 three days $ater6 the 2ussians set u+ the FFinnish !eo+$e's
1o3ernmentF of TeriHo<i under @tto 4uusinen:
FS+ontaneousF mass demonstrations of an%er #ere re+orted from a$$ o3er the So3iet
*nion in Pravda of ;o3em0er 3"6 a$on%side the te8t of the Mo$oto3 0roadcast: .ere are
a fe# head$ines:
DL(& 1- S&+,;( M(+3,/(--/* )& &'( E$("*HD 4M)-- "((&,$% )& &'( B#/-'(6,; P/)$& ,$
L($,$%+)57.
M#-3#2: DW( S')// A$-2(+ ,+( 2,&' ,+(HD
K+#$-&)5&: DO1+ P)&,($3( ,- )& )$ E$5HD
T'( P(#./(<- W+)&': DW,.( &'( ,$$,-' A56($&1+(+- #00 &'( )3( #0 &'( E)+&'.D
K,(6: DT'( )&( #0 B(3; )$5 M#-3,3;, A2),&- T'("HD
@n the fo$$o#in% day6 the So3iet +ress 0rief$y re+orted Fc$ashes 0et#een So3iet and
Finnish troo+sF:
More start$in%6 ho#e3er6 #as the Fmonitorin% re+ort6 trans$ated from the FinnishF of an
a$$e%ed FAddress 0y the 5entra$ 5ommittee of the Finnish 5ommunist !arty to the
a0ourin% !eo+$e of Fin$andF: And then on Decem0er &6 the So3iet +ress +u0$ished this
TASS re+ort from enin%rad:
ORMATION O A PEOPLE<S !OAERNMENT O INLAND
B* )%+(("($& 2,&' &'( +(.+(-($&)&,6(- #0 ) $1"8(+ #0 L(0&-2,$% .)+&,(- )$5 2,&'
,$$,-' -#/5,(+- 2'# ')5 +(8(//(5, ) $(2 %#6(+$"($& #0 ,$/)$5E&'( P(#./(<-
!#6(+$"($& #0 &'( ,$$,-' D("#3+)&,3 R(.18/,3E2)- 0#+"(5 )& T(+,:#;, &#5)*.
ITeriHo<i is on the 1u$f of Fin$and on$y a fe# mi$es across the Finnish 0order: ?t used to
0e a fa3ourite seaside resort #ith !etro,%raders 0efore the 2e3o$ution:K
The +remier and forei%n minister of this %o3ernment #as @tto 4uusinen6 one of the most
acti3e mem0ers of the 5omintern for many years +ast6 and he had si8 ministersD
some0ody ca$$ed Mauri 2osen0er%6 the Minister of Finance6 A8e$ Antti$a6 Minister of
Defence6 Taure echin6 Minister of the ?nterior and three others: ;o one <ne# #ho
e8act$y6 #ith the e8ce+tion of 4uusinen6 these +eo+$e #ere: @n the same day it #as
announced that di+$omatic re$ations had 0een esta0$ished 0et#een the So3iet *nion and
the Finnish Democratic 1o3ernment:
The ne#s of the formation of the ne# Finnish 1o3ernment #as not on$y recei3ed F#ith
Hu0i$ant enthusiasm 0y the +eo+$e of enin%radF 0utDa$ready on the 3ery day of its
formationDFThe *ol*hoz-ni*s of Tataria 'hearti$y #e$comed' the !eo+$e's 1o3ernment of
Fin$and F:
FPravda, Decem0er &61939: K
4uusinen #as %oin% from stren%th to stren%th: @n the fo$$o#in% day (Decem0er 3)
Pravda +u0$ished a front,+a%e +icture sho#in% Mo$oto3 si%nin% the Mutua$ Assistance
and Friendshi+ !act 0et#een the *SS2 and the Finnish Democratic 2e+u0$ic: Standin%
0ehind him #ere Ohdano36 Aoroshi$o36 Sta$in and 4uusinen: ?t #as not =uite c$ear #hat
had ha++ened to the other mem0ers of the ne# Finnish 1o3ernment: The !act +ro3ided
that the Fratification +a+ersF #ou$d 0e Fe8chan%ed 0y the t#o %o3ernments at .e$sin<iF:
The same issue of Pravda +u0$ished a ma+ sho#in% the ne# So3iet,Finnish frontier
a%reed u+on 0et#een Mo$oto3 and 4uusinen: a+art from a $ease 0y 2ussia of .an%T6
on$y a sma$$ area of Finnish territory north,#est of enin%radD$ess than ha$f,#ay
to#ards Ai0or% IAii+uri in Finnish (see ma+):KD#as to 0e ceded to the So3iet *nion: ?n
return6 Fin$and recei3ed $ar%e stretches of 4are$ia6 inc$udin% the #ho$e @$onet> area6 east
of a<e ado%a:
?t is more than dou0tfu$ #hether these terms did indeed im+ress the Finns 0y their sho#
of F%enerosityF: Be that as it may6 the c$ause sti+u$atin% that the ratification +a+ers #ere
to 0e Fe8chan%edF at .e$sin<i 0et#een the 2ussians and 4uusinen #as =uite another
matter: ?t su%%ested that the F$i0erationF of Fin$and 0y the 2ed Army6 accom+anied 0y
the TeriHo<i 1o3ernment6 #ou$d on$y 0e a matter of a fe# days6 at most of #ee<s:
Both mi$itari$y and +o$itica$$y6 Sta$in's and Mo$oto3's misca$cu$ations cou$d not ha3e
0een #orse: The FTeriHo<i 1o3ernmentF #as set u+ t#o or three days after Mo$oto3 had
e8+$icit$y dec$ared his continued reco%nition of the Finnish 1o3ernment at .e$sin<i6 and6
e8ce+t for the ca+ture of !etsamo in the far north in the midd$e of Decem0er6 the 2ed
Army's ad3ance on either the 4are$ian ?sthmus or in 5entra$ Fin$and #as e8treme$y s$o#
and arduous: The FMannerheim ineF #as much stron%er than the 2ussian command had
antici+ated6 and Finnish resistance #as e8treme$y tou%h: ?ndeed6 casua$ties #ere ra+id$y
mountin%: Anyone #ho $i3ed in enin%rad <ne# that the hos+ita$s had difficu$ties in
co+in% #ith the thousands of #ounded +ourin% in day after day: Mean#hi$e6 the
communi=uNs #ere 0rief and uni$$uminatin%6 e8ce+t for sho#in% that most of the hea3y
fi%htin% #as ta<in% +$ace on the 4are$ian ?sthmus: The disconcerted So3iet +u0$ic soon
%uessed that the Finnish #ar #as nothin% $i<e the #a$<o3er in Castern !o$and: Sti$$6 the
myth of the FTeriHo<i 1o3ernmentF had to 0e <e+t u+ for =uite a #hi$e6 as #e$$ as the
myth that the F9hite,Finnish 5$i=ue at .e$sin<iF #as Funre+resentati3eF of the Finnish
+eo+$e:
Pravda e3en resorted to =uotin% from some artic$e in a 2umanian +a+er #hich #as
su++osed to ha3e said: FThe +resent 'ru$in% circ$es' of Fin$and consist chief$y of e8,
Tsarist functionaries: :: Forei%n Minister Cr<<o recent$y reca$$ed the ha++y times #hen
Fin$and #as a 2ussian 1rand,Duchy: 1enera$ Mannerheim is +articu$ar$y attached to the
%ood o$d Tsarist days6 #hen he #as a +ersona$ A:D:5: to ;icho$as ??: ?t #as Mannerheim
#ho6 in 191J6 stran%$ed Fin$and's democratic freedoms #ith the he$+ of forei%n 6sic7
troo+s:F Pravda did not s+ecify that the forei%n troo+s in =uestion #ere 1erman troo+s:
F
Decem0er &16 1939 #as Sta$in's )"th 0irthday #hich6 need$ess to say6 #as mar<ed 0y an
or%y of $audatory artic$es (FSta$in 5ontinues the 9or< of eninF 0y Mo$oto36 FSta$in and
the Bui$d,*+ of the 2ed ArmyF 0y Aoroshi$o36 FSta$in6 the 1reat Cn%ine,Dri3er of
.istoryF6 0y 4a%ano3ich6 FSta$in is enin To,DayF6 0y Mi<oyan6 etc:)6 +oems and
musica$ com+ositions6 amon% them !ro<ofie3's6 musica$$y admira0$e6 Hde to %talin5
T#o days $ater the +ress 0e%an to +u0$ish the 0irthday %reetin%s Sta$in had recei3ed from
a0road: The +$ace of honour #as %i3en to the te$e%ram from .it$er6 fo$$o#ed 0y that from
2i00entro+:
?n his 0irthday %reetin% to Sta$in on Decem0er &16 .it$er said:
... P/()-( )33(.& "* "#-& -,$3(+( 3#$%+)&1/)&,#$-. I -($5 )& &'( -)"( &,"( "* 6(+*
8(-& 2,-'(- 0#+ *#1+ .(+-#$)/ %##5 '()/&' )$5 0#+ ) ')..* 01&1+( 0#+ &'( .(#./(- #0
) 0+,($5/* S#6,(& U$,#$.
Adol* !itler.
2i00entro+ #as e3en more %ushin%:
R("("8(+,$% &'( ',-&#+,3 '#1+- )& &'( K+("/,$ 2',3' ")+;(5 &'( 8(%,$$,$% #0 )
5(3,-,6( 3')$%( ,$ &'( +(/)&,#$- #0 #1+ 3#1$&+,(- )$5 2',3' &'1- /),5 &'( 0#1$5)&,#$-
0#+ /#$% *()+- #0 0+,($5-',. 8(&2(($ #1+ &2# .(#./(-, ./()-( )33(.& "* "#-& 3#+5,)/
3#$%+)&1/)&,#$- #$ *#1+ 6L&' 8,+&'5)*.
+oachim von )ibbentrop.
Sta$in sent .it$er a rather con3entiona$ te$e%ram of than<s6 0ut in his te$e%ram to
2i00entro+ he said: FThe friendshi+ 0et#een the +eo+$es of the So3iet *nion and
1ermany6 cemented 0y 0$ood6 has e3ery reason to 0e so$id and $astin%:F
The im+ression +ersisted amon% the So3iet hierarchy that 2i00entro+ #as more
#ho$ehearted a0out the So3iet,1erman !act than .it$er #as: ;o dou0t they #ou$d ha3e
+referred it the other #ay round:
Third on the $ist #as the te$e%ram from 4uusinen6 fo$$o#ed 0y 0irthday %reetin%s from
5hian% 4ai,She<6 M%r Tiso6 the !resident of S$o3a<ia6 Mr SaraHo%$u of Tur<ey6 and the
+articu$ar$y o0se=uious messa%es from the $eaders of Cstonia6 at3ia and ithuania:
There #ere no 0irthday %reetin%s from any 9estern $eaders6 #ho #ere 0usy at the time
e8+e$$in% the So3iet *nion from the ea%ue of ;ations:
4uusinen #ired: F?n the name of the toi$in% +eo+$e of Fin$and6 fi%htin% hand,in,hand
#ith the heroic 2ed Army for the $i0eration of their country from the yo<e of the 9hite
1uards6 hire$in%s of forei%n im+eria$ists6 the !eo+$e's 1o3ernment of Fin$and sends its
#armest %ood #ishes to you6 5omrade Sta$in6 the %reat 6veli*i7 friend of the Finnish
!eo+$e:F
A fe# days $ater Sta$in re+$ied: FTo the .ead of the !eo+$e's 1o3ernment of Fin$and6
@tto 4uusinen6 TeriHo<i: Than< you for your %ood #ishes::: ? #ish the Finnish +eo+$e and
the !eo+$e's 1o3ernment of Fin$and a s+eedy and com+$ete 3ictory o3er the o++ressors of
the Finnish +eo+$e6 the Mannerheim,Tanner %an%:F
Short$y 0efore the Finnish #ar had 0e%un6 there #as6 at Munich6 an a0orti3e attem+t on
.it$er's $ife: .e had a$ready $eft #hen the e8+$osion occurred6 in #hich si8 +ersons #ere
<i$$ed and si8ty #ounded: !rom+t$y Am0assador Sh<3artse3 ca$$ed on 2i00entro+ to
+resent him the condo$ences of the So3iet 1o3ernment Fin connection #ith the terrorist
act in Munich6 #hich had caused serious $oss of $ifeF: Pravda a$so re+orted that6
accordin% to .imm$er6 the +$ot had ori%inated a0road and that a re#ard of J""6""" mar<s
#ou$d 0e +aid in any currency to anyone #hose information #ou$d $ead to the disco3ery
of the crimina$s: .it$er's Munich s+eech6 de$i3ered 0efore the e8+$osion6 #as re+orted in
Pravda under a three,co$umn headin%:
Durin% the Finnish #ar So3iet re$ations #ith 1ermany continuedD at $east on the face of
itDto 0e friend$y6 #hi$e the hosti$ity to Britain and France 0ecame much more strident
than 0efore: True6 there #ere6 from time to time6 some seemin%$y ine8+$ica0$e de3iations
from this o03ious $ineL thus6 at the end of ;o3em0er6 Pravda sur+risin%$y re+roduced an
artic$e from the 3ineteenth )entur! (ondon) dee+$y sym+athetic to !o$and and
descri0in% the ruth$ess 0om0in% 0y the 1ermans of trains cro#ded #ith refu%ees: ?t #as
$i<e a confirmation of the numerous stories of 1erman 0ruta$ity in !o$and #hich 2ussian
so$diers had 0rou%ht 0ac< from there6 and #hich #ere #ide$y current in 2ussia: Pravda0s
inconsistency is 0ut one of the minor mysteries in that 3ery stran%e +eriod in 2ussian
history: (et6 on the surface6 So3iet,1erman re$ations cou$d not 0e 0etter:
As the Finnish #ar +ro%ressed6 the officia$ 2ussian attitude to Britain and France 0ecame
more and more hosti$e: Ty+ica$ #as Pravda0s ;e# (ear editoria$ on Banuary 16 194":
F@ur country is the $and of the %reatest historica$ o+timism: @n the other hand6 the
ca+ita$ist #or$d6 as it enters 194"6 is torn 0y a%onisin% contradictions: 5o3erin% u+ their
im+eria$ist aims #ith hy+ocritica$ s$o%ans a0out their '0att$e for democracy'6 the British
and French financia$ o$i%archies6 he$+ed on 0y their faithfu$ f$un<eys from the Second
?nternationa$DB$um6 Bouhau86 5itrine and Be3inDare <ind$in% the f$ames of the ne#
#ar:F
The c$ass #ar in Britain6 France and the *SA6 said Pravda, #as stron%er than e3er
0et#een the Fo3er#he$min% maHority of the +eo+$eF #ho did not #ant #ar6 and a handfu$
of ca+ita$ists #ho cared nothin% for the +eo+$e's 0$ood and #ere on$y interested in their
o#n +rofits: FA$$ the honest sons and dau%hters of the British6 French and American
+eo+$es ha3e 0randed #ith contem+t that %an%Dran%in% from the !o+e to the ondon
stoc<0ro<ersD#ho ha3e started a$$ this screamin% and ye$$in% o3er the no0$e he$+ %i3en
0y the 2ed Army to the Finnish +eo+$e stru%%$in% a%ainst their o++ressors:F
A fe# days $ater there #ere an%ry artic$es on Fthe shamefu$ comedy of the 'e8+u$sion' of
the So3iet *nionF from the ea%ue of ;ationsDa comedy sta%ed 0y Britain and France:
These #ere6 moreo3er6 no# sendin% arms to Fin$and:
?n themse$3es6 the An%$o,French arms shi+ments to Fin$and did not matter 3ery muchL
0ut it is =uite o03ious that the indi%nation the 2ussian attac< on Fin$and had caused in
Britain6 France6 America and Scandina3ia6 %a3e the 2ussian $eaders food for an8ious
thou%ht: They dreaded the +ossi0i$ity that Fin$and mi%ht 0ecome common %round for a
reconci$iation 0et#een 1ermany and the 9estern !o#ers6 a reconci$iation from #hich
2ussia #ou$d 0e made to suffer: This $ar%e$y e8+$ains the ea%erness #ith #hich they
hastened to #ind u+ the Finnish #ar and to ma<e +eace #ith the FMannerheim %an%F
#ithout #aitin% for the FTeriHo<i %o3ernmentF to ma<e its trium+ha$ entry into .e$sin<i:
The idea of turnin% a Fhosti$eF Fin$and into a Ffriend$yF Fin$and #ith the he$+ of this
a0surd de3ice had miscarried com+$ete$y and had mere$y si$enced those Finnish e$ements
Dinc$udin% men $i<e !aasi<i3iD#hich had criticised their %o3ernment for reHectin% the
ori%ina$ 2ussian +ro+osa$s:
9hat then had 0een the +ro%ress of the actua$ mi$itary o+erationsE
;either at the time6 nor $ater6 did the 2ussians do much f$a%,#a3in% o3er the Finnish #ar:
?t is no# o+en$y admitted that the first month of the #ar #as an a$most undi$uted disaster:
The most the 2ussians achie3ed in Decem0er #as to ad3ance6 in the course of F3ery
hea3y fi%htin%F6 0et#een fifteen and forty mi$esL 0ut6 ha3in% reached the Mannerheim
ine +ro+er6 #ith its net#or< of +o#erfu$ fortifications6 they came to a ha$t: @n the
4are$ian ?sthmus6 as #e$$ as in 5entra$ Fin$and6 the 2ussians #ere handica++ed 0y sno#6
in some +$aces fi3e or si8 feet dee+: The fe# a3ai$a0$e roads #ere hea3i$y defended 0y
the Finns6 and the 2ussians had +ractica$$y no trained s<i troo+s6 in #hich the Finnish
army a0ounded: To mo3e hea3y e=ui+ment on such terrain #as as %ood as im+ossi0$e:
The Finns #ere hea3i$y armed #ith automatic rif$es and tommy%uns6 #hi$e the 2ussians
#ere not: Tem+eraturesDaround minus 3"V5: D#ere a0norma$$y $o#: A $ar%e
+ro+ortion of the So3iet troo+s F#ere sim+$y un+re+ared for this <ind of #arfareL they
had had no e8+erience of mo3in% on s<is throu%h $a<e and forest country6 and had no
e8+erience at a$$ of 0rea<in% throu%h +ermanent $ines of fortifications6 or of stormin%
+i$$0o8es and other reinforced concrete structuresF:
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 +: &)):K
By the 0e%innin% of Banuary6 the offensi3e #as sto++ed: Marsha$ Timoshen<o #as
a++ointed 5ommander,in,5hief6 and6 for a #ho$e month6 the 2ussians +$anned and
+re+ared for a 0rea<,throu%h of the Mannerheim ine: ar%e reinforcements6 es+ecia$$y
of en%ineers6 #ere to 0e mustered for the +ur+ose: Massi3e su++ort of tan<s6 +$anes and
%uns #as +ro3ided for in an a$$,out offensi3e effort to o3ercome the Finnish
fortifications: Moreo3er6 three infantry di3isions6 reinforced 0y ca3a$ry and tan<s6 #ere
assi%ned the tas< of out,f$an<in% the Mannerheim ine in the Ai0or% area across the ice
of the 1u$f of Fin$and:
The stormin% of the Mannerheim ine6 +receded 0y a tremendous arti$$ery 0arra%e Ffrom
thousands of %unsF6 did not 0e%in ti$$ Fe0ruary 11: But the ad3ance #as sti$$ s$o#L
a$thou%h the 2ussians destroyed and ca+tured many of the +i$$0o8es6 the Finns in the
sur3i3in% +i$$0o8es continued their des+erate resistance6 and casua$ties #ere 3ery hi%h on
0oth sides: The stee$ and concrete fortifications of the Mannerheim ine6 many of them
connected 0y under%round +assa%es6 #ith reinforced concrete #a$$s three feet thic<6 #ere6
indeed6 in many cases a$most in3u$nera0$e e3en to the hea3iest +oundin%: ?t too< near$y a
#ee< after a 0rea<throu%h a$on% an ei%ht,mi$e front 0efore the 2ussians 0e%an to ma<e
any decisi3e +ro%ress: By Fe0ruary &1 most of the #estern +art of the Mannerheim ine
had 0een o3errun6 0ut the 2ussian $osses had 0een so hea3y that their forces had to 0e
re%rou+ed and further hea3y reinforcements had to 0e 0rou%ht u+ 0efore the offensi3e
cou$d 0e resumed6 #hat remained of the Mannerheim ine con=uered and Ai0or%
ca+tured:
Fu$$,sca$e o+erations #ere on$y re,started on Fe0ruary &J: As the 2ussians a++roached
Ai0or%6 they met #ith another maHor o0stac$e Dthe f$oodin% of $ar%e areas 0y the Finns
D0ut they fina$$y reached the Ai0or%,.e$sin<i hi%h#ay: By no# the resistance of the
Finnish Army had6 in the main6 0een 0ro<en: @n March 46 Mannerheim informed the
Finnish 1o3ernment that the Army cou$d no $on%er resist successfu$$y: The So3iet,
Finnish !eace Treaty #as si%ned in Mosco# on March 1&:
IAfter the Finnish attem+ts to o0tain 1erman or American mediation had fai$ed6 tentati3e
ne%otiations #ere started in Banuary in Stoc<ho$m 0et#een the #e$$,<no#n Finnish
+$ay#ri%ht6 .e$$a 9uo$iHo<iD#ith Forei%n Minister Tanner's consentDand Mme
4o$$ontai6 the So3iet Am0assador: A 3ariety of ne%otiations continued throu%hout
Banuary and Fe0ruary6 thou%h the Finns sti$$ ho+ed to o0tain su0stantia$ mi$itary aidD
inc$udin% troo+sDfrom S#eden6 and a$so ho+ed that the S#edes #ou$d a$$o# French and
British troo+s to %o to Fin$and 3ia S#eden: @n this +oint the S#edes6 afraid of 0ecomin%
in3o$3ed in a maHor #ar6 #ou$d not yie$d and6 indeed6 ad3ised the Finns to ma<e +eace
#ith the 2ussians on the 0est +ossi0$e terms:K
A$most throu%hout the F9inter 9arF there had 0een somethin% of a ne#s 0$ac<out in
2ussia6 e3en thou%h +eo+$e in Mosco#6 and es+ecia$$y enin%rad6 had a fair idea of #hat
#as %oin% on: But 3ery $itt$e #as said at first a0out the %reat offensi3e a%ainst the
Mannerheim ine in Fe0ruary6 and sti$$ $ess a0out the a0orti3e ad3ance into 5entra$
Fin$andL and it #as not ti$$ the first #ee< of March6 after three months of inconc$usi3e
and most$y frustratin% ne#s6 that the So3iet +ress at $ast 0e%an to s+ea< of F3ictories on
the Mannerheim ineF: And then6 sudden$y6 on March 1&6 it #as announced that the
!eace Treaty 0et#een the *SS2 and Fin$and had 0een si%ned: The si%nin% #as done 0y
Mo$oto36 Ohdano3 and Aassi$e3s<y on the 2ussian side6 and 2yti6 !aasi<i3i and 1enera$
9aiden on the Finnish side: The terms #ere harder than those ori%ina$$y +ro+osed 0y the
2ussiansD$et a$one those ori%ina$$y Fa%reed toF 0y 4uusinen: ;o# the #ho$e 4are$ian
?sthmus6 inc$udin% Ai0or% and numerous is$ands6 a +art of 2y0achi !eninsu$a on the
Arctic6 #est of Murmans<6 and the country north of a<e ado%a #ere anne8ed 0y the
So3iet *nionL moreo3er6 she recei3ed a thirty,year $ease on .an%T for a na3a$ 0ase:
;othin% #as said any more a0out the FTeriHo<i 1o3ernmentFL it mi%ht ne3er ha3e
e8isted: A$$ that it had achie3ed in effect #as to unify the Finnish +eo+$e (many of #hom
had thou%ht the ori%ina$ 2ussian +ro+osa$s =uite reasona0$e)6 and to cause much
unnecessary resentment in Fin$and: ;o# this resentment #as further increased 0y the $oss
of Ai0or%:
Since6 0y March -6 the 2ed Army cou$d easi$y ha3e occu+ied .e$sin<i and other +arts of
Fin$and6 the Finns may 0e said to ha3e 0een $et off $i%ht$yL ne3erthe$ess6 #ithout the $oss
of Ai0or%6 it is Hust concei3a0$e that the Finns mi%ht ha3e 0een $ess ea%er to attac< the
So3iet *nion in 1941: ?n itse$f6 Ai0or% #as of 3ery $itt$e strate%ic 3a$ue6 0ut its $oss #as
<een$y fe$t in Fin$and6 #here the many thousands of FAi0or% refu%eesF added %reat$y to
anti,2ussian fee$in%: Durin% the 9ar6 many 2ussians a%reed (on the =uiet) that the
anne8ation of Ai0or% had 0een a serious mista<e:
As distinct from Britain and France6 1ermany had6 in the officia$ 2ussian 3ie#6 remained
commenda0$y neutra$ durin% the So3iet,Finnish #ar: C3en so6 the thou%ht must ha3e
crossed the 2ussian $eaders' minds that 1ermany mi%ht yet ta<e ad3anta%e of Finnish
%rie3ances and $on%in% for re3en%e: @n the face of it6 it is true6 the 2ussians had attained
their o0Hecti3e6 #hich #as to render enin%rad Fin3u$nera0$eF: This6 as it turned out6
short,$i3ed ad3anta%e #as out#ei%hed 0y the fact that the +erformance of the 2ed Army
in the Finnish 9ar #as far from %ood: There #as a dan%er that the 1ermans mi%ht dra#
certain conc$usions from this:
That the So3iet 1enera$ Staff #as not satisfied #ith the 2ed Army's record in Fin$and
may 0e seen from the far,reachin% measures that 0e%an to 0e ta<en soon after#ards to
reor%anise the Army: 194" #as to 0ecome6 in 1enera$ Ohu<o3's #ords6 the Fyear of the
%reat transformationF in the 2ed Army:
For a$$ that re$ations #ith 1ermany had remained hi%h$y satisfactory on the surface
throu%hout the duration of the So3iet,Finnish 9ar: A$$ the a0use in the So3iet +ress #as
reser3ed for the 9estern democracies #hich6 it #as no# c$aimed6 #ere more an8ious
than e3er to F%enera$ise the #arF and to dra% the neutra$s into it: As ear$y as Banuary 176
Pravda 0e%an to s+ea< a0out An%$o,French desi%ns on the neutra$ity of the Scandina3ian
countries: .it$er's s+eeches continued to 0e +o$ite$y re+orted6 nota0$y the one on Banuary
3" in #hich he said that6 than<s to the So3iet,1erman !act6 1ermany had a Ffree rearF in
the Cast: the state #hich Britain had %uaranteed had disa++eared from the face of the
earth in ei%hteen days: Pravda a$so du$y re+orted his threats to Cn%$and and his
announcement that F1ermany #ou$d 0e 3ictoriousF:
@n Fe0ruary 116 #ith the So3iet,Finnish #ar sti$$ in fu$$ s#in%6 a ne# So3iet,1erman
economic a%reement #as si%ned: This6 said Pravda, #as a 3ery %ood thin%: F!resent,day
1ermany is a hi%h$y,de3e$o+ed industria$ +o#er re=uirin% many ra# materia$sL and these
the So3iet *nion can $ar%e$y su++$y: 9e a$so are a %reat industria$ +o#erL ne3erthe$ess6
#e can do #ith certain forms of im+orted industria$ e=ui+ment::: @ur trade #ith Britain
and France has d#ind$ed6 and the increase in our trade #ith 1ermany is on$y to 0e
#e$comed::: The ne# economic a%reement had 0een #e$comed 0y the 1Il*ischer
.eo4achter and other 1erman +a+ers:F
IPravda, Fe0ruary 176 194":K
The 3o$ume and e8act nature of these e8chan%es #as not stated: Three days $ater Pravda
re+orted another .it$er s+eech a%ain 0oastin% of the =uic< 3ictory o3er !o$and and
announcin% that there #as Fmore to comeF: As Pravda +ut it: 'F? am determined to +ursue
this 0att$e to the finish6' .it$er said #ith +articu$ar 3i%our:F
IPravda, Fe0ruary 1J6 194":K
There #as a c$ear su%%estion here that an attac< in the 9est #as no# in the offin%:
Mo$oto3 #aited ti$$ the end of March 0efore ma<in% a statement to the Su+reme So3iet
on the termination of the Finnish 9ar and on the internationa$ situation %enera$$y: This
s+eech #as6 at $east out#ard$y6 the most 3io$ent$y anti,British and anti,French e3er made:
.e #as no $on%er re%rettin% the 0rea<do#n in the An%$o,French,So3iet ta$<s durin% the
+re3ious yearL on the contrary6 he no# said that Fthe So3iet *nion had 0een determined
not to 0ecome a too$ in the hands of the An%$o,French im+eria$ists in their anti,1erman
stru%%$e for #or$d he%emonyF:
FThe An%$o,French im+eria$ists6F he said6 F#anted to turn the #ar in Fin$and into a #ar
a%ainst the So3iet *nion: But they fai$ed in this6 and the So3iet *nion's re$ations #ith
1ermany continue to 0e %ood:F The An%$o,French hosti$ity to the So3iet *nion6 he #ent
on6 had 0een most 3io$ent in connection #ith the Finnish =uestion6 and he then
indi%nant$y s+o<e of the +o$ice raid on the So3iet trade de$e%ation in !aris6 and of the
F3irtua$ e8+u$sionF from France of the So3iet Am0assador6 Baco0 Surit>: The So3iet
1o3ernment had had to reca$$ him:
After referrin% to the satisfactory economic re$ations #ith 1ermany6 Mo$oto3 then
com+$ained of British and French interference #ith So3iet,1erman trade: FThey sei>e our
shi+s in the Far Cast6 0ecause they are a$$e%ed to 'he$+ 1ermany'L yet 2umania se$$s ha$f
her oi$ to 1ermany6 and 2umania remains unmo$ested:F .e then +rotested a%ainst the
3arious Ffa0ricationsF concernin% 2ussia's a$$e%ed desi%ns on ?ndia and other +arts of the
British Cm+ire: F@ur +o$icy is a +o$icy of neutra$ity6 and ? <no# it isn't to the taste of the
An%$o,French im+eria$ists6 #ho #ant to inf$ict on us a +o$icy of hosti$ity and #ar a%ainst
1ermany:F
!ointed$y he remar<ed that 5ham0er$ain6 #ho had ho+ed that the Finnish 9ar #ou$d
de3e$o+ into somethin% different6 #as %reat$y distressed #hen he heard of the Finnish,
So3iet +eace sett$ement: .e s+o<e of the 141 +$anes and the other e=ui+ment Britain had
sent to Fin$and6 and of the mi$itary he$+ France and S#eden had %i3en her:
.e conc$uded some#hat morose$y 0y sayin% that the #ar in Fin$and had cost the So3iet
*nion 4J674- dead and 1-J6""" #oundedDfor a sma$$ Ffrontier rectificationF:
IThe Finns +ut the 2ussian $osses much hi%her:K
Sayin% that the Finns #ere minimiisin% their $osses6 Mo$oto3 then FestimatedF that they
had $ost )"6""" dead and &-"6""" #ounded: These fi%ures %a3e the 2ussians 0ut $itt$e
%rounds for 0oastin%6 nor #ere they $i<e$y to foster Finnish,So3iet re$ations: Si%nificant$y
he #as 3ery s+arin% in his +raise of the %enera$s #ho had conducted the cam+ai%n:
A$to%ether6 as ? #as $ater to$d 0y many 2ussians6 Mo$oto3's re+ort on the Finnish 9ar
had $eft them #ith an un+$easant and frustratin% fee$in%: The on$y t#o thin%s that cou$d
0e said in fa3our of the #ar #ere that it had achie3ed its immediate o0Hecti3e (0ut at a
terri0$e +rice6 and in 3ery unfortunate conditions)Dand that it #as no# o3er: .ere and
there6 =uestions #ere a$so as<ed a0out the FTeriHo<i 1o3ernmentF6 0ut it #as soon made
c$ear to the 0ri%ht youn% +eo+$e #ho as<ed them that they had 0etter shut u+:
I9o$f%an% eonhard6 o+: cit:6 +: J):K
Pravda 0rief$y announced that6 in 3ie# of the chan%ed internationa$ situation6 the Finnish
F!eo+$e's 1o3ernmentF had 0een disso$3ed: This #as the end of that a0surd e8+eriment:
At one time6 #hi$e the #ar #as sti$$ on6 Pravda had +u0$ished a $on% $istDco3erin% t#o
#ho$e +a%es of the +a+erDof the officers and so$diers decorated for 0ra3eryL 0ut there
#as remar<a0$y $itt$e f$a%,#a3in% o3er the conc$usion of the Finnish 9arDmuch $ess6
indeed than o3er the F3ictoryF #on in Castern !o$and: .ere at $east much cou$d 0e made
of the6 more or $ess %enuine6 enthusiasm #ith #hich the *<rainians and Be$orussians
#e$comed the 2ed ArmyL there #as nothin% $i<e that in 4are$ia6 #here +ractica$$y the
entire +o+u$ation had 0een e3acuated6 or had f$ed6 to Fin$and: Ai0or%6 the on$y $ar%e city
occu+ied 0y the 2ussians6 had 0een a0andoned 0y a$$ its inha0itants: A0o3e a$$ there #as
the de+ressin% effect of the hea3y casua$ties suffered and of the sus+icion that a$$ #as not
+erfect #ith the 2ed Army: Then6 $ess than a month after the si%nin% of the So3iet,
Finnish !eace Treaty6 1ermany in3aded Denmar< and ;or#ay: This %a3e rise to more
an8iety:
Durin% that short inter3a$ nothin% of any conse=uence ha++ened in 2ussia6 #ith the
e8ce+tion of the meetin% of the Su+reme So3iet at the 0e%innin% of A+ri$ #hich a++ro3ed
the 194" 0ud%et: A$ready the effects of the Finnish 9ar cou$d 0e fe$t here: As Pravda
#rote in its editoria$ of A+ri$ -: FThe Su+reme So3iet has a++ro3ed the 0ud%et of the
*SS2 for 194": 9ith %reat enthusiasm it 3oted a $ar%e increase in our defence
e8+enditure: @ur country must ha3e an e3en more +o#erfu$ 2ed Army and ;a3y if it is
to discoura%e the #armon%ers: The fifty,se3en mi$$iard rou0$es to 0e s+ent on
stren%thenin% our defence #i$$ he$+ the 2ed Army and ;a3y to so$3e any +ro0$ems
connected #ith the security of our State:F
The tone of this editoria$ #as remar<a0$y free of the usua$ 0$uster6 and #as +erha+s
intended to con3ey that the 2ed Army #ou$d6 in the future6 %i3e a 0etter account of itse$f
than it had done in the Finnish 9ar:
Before the actua$ 1erman attac< on Denmar< and ;or#ay6 the So3iet +ress tended to
echo the 1erman char%es of FAn%$o,French 3io$ations of ;or#e%ian so3erei%ntyF: This
#as6 indeed6 the +hrase used 0y Pravda on A+ri$ 9: By the time the +a+er had 0een
+rinted6 the 1ermans #ere a$ready 0usy occu+yin% the t#o Scandina3ian countries:
Durin% the days that fo$$o#ed6 the 2ussian +ress continued6 on the face of it6 to fo$$o# the
1erman $ine: Thus6 on A+ri$ 1"6 to%ether #ith the ne#s that 1erman troo+s had occu+ied
0oth 5o+enha%en and @s$o6 the So3iet +a+ers +u0$ished under a three,co$umn headin%
the FMemorandum of the 1erman 1o3ernmentF #hich6 they said6 had 0een read o3er the
radio 0y 1oe00e$s: T#o days $ater6 TASS6 in a messa%e from @s$o6 referred to Quis$in%
as Fthe ne# head of the ;or#e%ian 1o3ernmentF: .o#e3er6 it did not deny the continued
e8istence of the FotherF ;or#e%ian 1o3ernment:
After that the 1erman and British communi=uNs6 as #e$$ as TASS re+orts from ondon
#ere +u0$ished #ith a certain air of neutra$ity and im+artia$ity: ?n a 3ariety of #ays the
fact #as em+hasised that the So3iet *nion <e+t strict$y neutra$ in the Scandina3ian #ar:
For e8am+$e6 on A+ri$ 1&6 there #as an an%ry officia$ TASS denia$ of a 3e: 'or* Times
story that most of the 1erman troo+s that had occu+ied ;ar3i< had tra3e$$ed there 0y #ay
of enin%rad and Murmans<:
(et there seems $itt$e dou0t that6 in the eyes of the So3iet $eaders6 the #ar #as s+readin%
much too near home: A$thou%h at the time nothin% #as +u0$ished a0out it in the So3iet
+ress6 much is made in the So3iet Histor! o" the $ar of the #ay in #hich direct So3iet
di+$omatic inter3ention sa3ed S#eden from 0ein% occu+ied 0y the 1ermans: FAfter the
;a>i in3asion of Denmar< and ;or#ay6 the So3iet 1o3ernment informed 5ount
Schu$en0ur%6 the 1erman Am0assador in Mosco#6 that it #as definite$y interested in the
+reser3ation of S#edish neutra$ity:F
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ?: +: 39-:K
Accordin% to So3iet di+$omatic documents =uoted 0y the Histor!, F0oth the S#edish
!remier and the S#edish Forei%n Minister6 in addressin% (Mme) A: M: 4o$$ontai6 the
So3iet Am0assador6 #arm$y than<ed the So3iet *nion for ha3in% restrained 1ermany
and for ha3in% sa3ed S#edish neutra$ityF:
Mean#hi$e6 the So3iet +ress #ent on #ith its rather routine and seemin%$y Fneutra$F
co3era%e of the #ar in ;or#ay6 #ith occasiona$ sur3eys stressin% the %enera$ ine+titude
of the An%$o,French o+erations: The $ast of these sur3eys a++eared in Pravda on May 96
and conc$uded that the 1ermans had as %ood as #on: @n the fo$$o#in% day the 1ermans
struc< out in the #est:
?nside 2ussia the most im+ortant de3e$o+ments durin% the ;or#e%ian #ar concerned the
reor%anisation of the 2ed Army: @n May J6 194" an u*ase of the !residium of the
Su+reme So3iet announced the creation of ne# mi$itary tit$esDMaHor,1enera$6
ieutenant,1enera$ and Army 1enera$6 in addition to the a$ready e8istin% tit$e of Marsha$
of the So3iet *nion:
IThese re+$aced the c$umsier and $ess Fdistin%uishedF tit$es6 such as FArmy 5ommander
of the 1st 2an<F6 the e=ui3a$ent of FArmy 1enera$F:K
At that time four men he$d the ran< of Marsha$ of the So3iet *nion: Aoroshi$o36
Timoshen<o6 Sha+oshni<o3 and 4u$i<:
ISha+oshni<o36 a hi%h$y +rofessiona$ so$dier #hom the So3iets had inherited from the
Tsarist Army6 #as to 0e 5hief,of,Staff durin% a $ar%e +art of the 1941,- #arL he retired6
in the end6 o#in% to i$$,hea$th: 4u$i<6 on the other hand6 #as a +o$itica$ u+start #ho #as
to fade out soon after the 0e%innin% of the #ar: .e #as to 0e 0$amed for much of the
un+re+aredness of the 2ed Army in 19416 and6 in +articu$ar6 for ha3in% fai$ed to e=ui+ it
#ith u+,to,date machine,%uns and other automatic #ea+ons6 #hich at first +$aced the
2ussian infantryman at a terri0$e disad3anta%e a%ainst the 1erman so$dier:K
At the same time Aoroshi$o3 #as a++ointed De+uty !remier and 5hairman of the
Defence 5ommittee of the *SS2L his +re3ious +ost of 5ommissar of Defence #ent to
Timoshen<o: 5orres+ondin% tit$es #ere a$so created in the So3iet ;a3y: Durin% the
months that fo$$o#ed6 the +ress #as fi$$ed #ith army nominations and +romotions6
com+$ete #ith +ictures of a$$ the ne# %enera$s6 #hich fi$$ed four +a%es of Pravda for days
and days: 5oincidin% #ith the 1erman in3asion of France6 this un+recedented +u0$icity
%i3en to hundreds of 2ed Army %enera$s #as no dou0t ca$cu$ated to ha3e a reassurin%
effect on the +u0$ic:
C').&(+ A RUSSIA AND THE ALL O RANCE-BALTIC
STATES AND BESSARABIA
Durin% my #ar years in 2ussia ? +ut these t#o =uestions to a %reat num0er of +eo+$e:
F9hat did you fee$ a0out the So3iet,1erman !actEF and FAt #hat +oint6 #hi$e the !act
#as in force6 did you 0e%in to ha3e serious dou0ts a0out itE F
The ans#er to the first =uestion #as6 a$most in3aria0$y6 somethin% $i<e this: FC3ery0ody
thou%ht it nasty and un+$easant to ha3e to +retend to ma<e friends #ith .it$erL 0ut6 as
thin%s #ere in 19396 #e had to %ain time at any +rice6 and there #as no choice: 9e did
not thin< that Sta$in himse$f +articu$ar$y $i<ed the idea6 0ut #e had tremendous faith in his
Hud%mentL if he decided on the non,a%%ression +act #ith .it$er6 he must ha3e thou%ht that
there #as no other #ay:F The ans#er to the second =uestion #as in3aria0$y a$on% these
$ines: F9e started %ettin% rea$$y ner3ous #hen #e sa# that .it$er had mana%ed to smash
the French Army #ithin a month6 or $ess: 9e had had considera0$e confidence in the
French Army and had a$so heard a $ot a0out the Ma%inot ine andD$et's face itD#e
thou%ht the #ar in France #ou$d $ast a $on% time6 and that the 1ermans #ou$d 0e %reat$y
#ea<ened as a resu$t: Se$fishED#e$$6 yes6 #e #ere6 0ut #ho isn'tE That #e #ere
fri%htened may 0e seen from the frantic haste #ith #hich6 #hi$e the 1ermans #ere 0usy
finishin% off the French6 #e %ra00ed the Ba$tic States6 Bessara0ia and ;orthern
Bu<o3ina: And then came those draconian $a0our $a#s6 the reor%anisation of the 2ed
Army6 and a$$ the rest of it: 9e ne3er e8+ected for a moment that the 1ermans #ou$d
attac< and a0o3e a$$ in3ade us the #ay they did6 0ut #e fe$t that #e had to +re+are for a
3ery hard fi%ht if .it$er #ere mad enou%h to turn our #ay:F
And then there #as a su++$ementary =uestion #hich ? $i<ed to as<: ?t #as this: FBet#een
the fa$$ of France and the in3asion of the So3iet *nion there #as the #ar 0et#een
1ermany and Cn%$andD and #hat did you thin< of thatEF .ere the ans#ers 0ecame
much more confused 0ut6 rou%h$y6 they 0oi$ed do#n to this: F9e de3e$o+ed a sudden
contem+tDyes6 contem+tDfor the French: @n Cn%$and our fee$in%s #ere 3ery di3ided:
9e had 0een conditioned to 0e anti,British6 #hat #ith 5ham0er$ain6 Fin$and and the rest:
But %radua$$y6 3ery %radua$$y #e 0e%an to admire the Cn%$ishDfor standin% u+ to .it$er:
There #as a %ood dea$ in our +a+ers a0out the 0om0in% of ondon6 5o3entry6 and so on:
9e a$so 0e%an to fee$ sorry for the Cn%$ish +eo+$e6 andD0e%an to fee$ that6 sooner or
$ater6 #e mi%ht ha3e to face somethin% simi$ar: @ur inte$$ectua$s fe$t +articu$ar$y stron%$y
a0out it: The idea of a 'Hust #ar'6 a '+eo+$e's #ar' 0e%an to cross some +eo+$e's minds: But
then6 in May6 there #as .ess6 and #e %ot fearfu$$y sus+icious of the Cn%$ish a%ain:F
C3er since Se+tem0er 19396 the officia$ So3iet $ine had 0een that the #ar 0et#een
Britain6 France and 1ermany #as an Fim+eria$istF #arL 0ut6 since the +artition of !o$and6
the +o#ers %ui$ty of +ursuin% this Fim+eria$istF #ar #ere Britain and France6 0ut not
1ermany: They6 and not 1ermany6 #ere no# the Fa%%ressorsF: Durin% the Finnish 9ar6
1ermany had 0een Fneutra$F6 #hi$e Britain and France had demonstrated their dee+
hosti$ity to the So3iet *nion 0y he$+in% Fin$and #ith arms and 3o$unteers6 and 0y
e8+e$$in% 2ussia from the ea%ue of ;ations: The 1erman occu+ation of Denmar< and
;or#ay #as at first #ide$y attri0uted in the So3iet +ress to An%$o,French F+ro3ocationF6
thou%h soon after#ards the 2ussian +$eadin% #ith 1ermany not to occu+y S#eden
sho#ed that they #ere an8ious to $imit the dama%e in Scandina3ia:
So3iet re$ations #ith Britain and France remained 0ad$y strained6 and the So3iet +ress
an%ri$y re+orted the +ersecution of the French 5ommunistsD#hom Mosco# itse$f had
+ut in a ho+e$ess$y a#<#ard and difficu$t +osition #ith its Fim+eria$ist #arF s$o%ans: The
French #or<in%,c$assDand the 5ommunists in +articu$arD#ho in any other
circumstances #ou$d ha3e fou%ht ;a>i 1ermany #ho$ehearted$y6 #ere +recise$y the
+eo+$e #ho #ere 0ein% to$d 0y the 2ussiansDand6 more +articu$ar$y 0y Dimitro3 and the
5ominternD that the #ar a%ainst ;a>i 1ermany #as an Fim+eria$istF #ar and so6 in
conse=uence6 not a FHustF #ar: A different mora$e of the French 5ommunists mi%ht not
ha3e made any %reat difference at the time of the 1erman 0rea<,throu%h into France in
May 194"6 and the French Army #ou$d +ro0a0$y ha3e ca+itu$ated in any caseL 0ut6
undou0ted$y6 Mosco# he$+ed in some de%ree to #ea<en French resistance6 e3en thou%h it
#as o03ious$y in the 2ussians' interest to stren%then it and to <ee+ .it$er +inned do#n in
France as $on% as +ossi0$e:
?t #as a$$ 3ery #e$$ for communist +ro+a%anda $ater to ado+t the fashiona0$e Chren0ur%
$ine that France had 0een F0etrayedF 0y her 0our%eoisie6 0ut the mora$e of the #ho$e
nation #as $o# in May,Bune 194"6 inc$udin% that of the French #or<in%,c$ass: The
So3iet,1erman !act and the su0se=uent 2ussian and 5omintern +ro+a%anda a0out the
Fim+eria$ist #arF had +$aced the French 5ommunistsD#hether $eaders or ran<,and,fi$e
Din a tru$y tra%ic di$emma: Many of them stron%$y sus+ected that theyDand FranceD
#ere 0ein% sacrificed 0y Mosco#6 to #hom the sur3i3a$ of the So3iet *nion6 #ith the
he$+ of the So3iet,1erman !act6 #as the ;um0er @ne +riority:
I This tra%ic di$emma amon% the French 5ommunists in the face of the: So3iet,1erman
!act and the 1erman in3asion of France is e8amined in detai$ in the author's France,
<=JD-<=KK (ondon6 19-))6 ++: 179,&"&: This cha+ter #as6 si%nificant$y6 omitted from
the 2ussian trans$ation +u0$ished in Mosco# in 19-9:K
9hether or not6 as is no# c$aimed 0y communists6 certain French 5ommunist $eaders
too< a firm anti,1erman lutte , outrance $ine in the first #ee< in Bune6 the So3iet $eaders
#ere 3ery carefu$ at the time to a3oid anythin% that mi%ht ha3e caused .it$er the $east
offence: ;e3erthe$ess6 there #as a si%nificant chan%e in the tone of the So3iet +ress as the
French tra%edy de3e$o+ed: At first it #as distinct$y ma$e3o$ent to#ards France and
Britain: Thus in summin% u+ the resu$ts of the first fi3e days of the mi$itary o+erations in
the 9est6 Pravda #rote in its editoria$ of May 1):
Durin% these first fi3e days6 the 1erman armies ha3e achie3ed considera0$e successes:
They ha3e occu+ied the %reater +art of .o$$and6 inc$udin% 2otterdam: The ;ether$ands
1o3ernment has a$ready run off 6s4ezhalo7 to Cn%$and: ?t had 0een a $on%,standin%
am0ition of the An%$o,French 0$oc to dra% .o$$and and Be$%ium into its #ar a%ainst
1ermany::: After the 1ermans had foresta$$ed Britain and France in Scandina3ia6 these
t#o countries mo3ed hea3en and earth to %et .o$$and and Be$%ium into the #ar::: So far6
the An%$o,French 0$oc can 0oast of on$y one success: it has thro#n t#o more sma$$
countries into the im+eria$ist #arL t#o more nations ha3e no# 0een condemned to
sufferin% and hun%er:
;o one #i$$ 0e decei3ed 0y the An%$o,French $amentations o3er the 3io$ations of
internationa$ $a#: As soon as the #ar had s+read to ;or#ay6 the British %ra00ed the
Faroe and ofoten is$andsDhea3en on$y <no#s in 3irtue of #hat internationa$ $a#: 9e
no# see ho# %reat is the res+onsi0i$ity of the An%$o,French im+eria$ists #ho6 0y
reHectin% 1ermany's +eace offers6 set off the Second ?m+eria$ist 9ar in Curo+e:
There #as no mention of the ruth$ess 0om0in% of 2otterdam6 and6 on the fo$$o#in% day6
in a re3ie# of the mi$itary situation descri0in% 1erman successes6 there #ere a%ain the
same +hrases a0out the ;ether$ands 1o3ernment ha3in% Frun offF to ondon6 F$ea3in%
the army and the country to their fateF: @n the same day Pravda +u0$ished a +articu$ar$y
nauseatin% anti,British artic$e 0y Da3id Oas$a3s<y:
But6 durin% the fo$$o#in% #ee<6 #ith the 1ermans crashin% on to#ards Dun<ir<6 the tone
sudden$y chan%ed: The re+orts 0ecame much more factua$: C3ery im+ortant 5hurchi$$
s+eech #as =uoted at some $en%th6 as #as a$so 2eynaud's famous patrie en danger
s+eech to the Senate on May &1: Si%nificant$y6 much s+ace #as %i3en to the =uestion of
American he$+ to Britain and France: @n Bune -6 5hurchi$$'s +ost,Dun<ir< s+eechDF#e
sha$$ fi%ht on the 0eaches ::: #e sha$$ ne3er surrenderFD#as +u0$ished under a three,
co$umn headin% in Pravda5 @n the same day the +a+er announced that Mo$oto3 had
Fraised no o0HectionF to the British 1o3ernment's a++ointment of Sir Stafford 5ri++s as
Am0assador to Mosco#:
9hen the resistance of the French army fina$$y co$$a+sed 0y the midd$e of Bune6 and
!Ntain as<ed the 1ermans for an armistice6 the 2ussians seemed sudden$y to 0ecome
o0sessed #ith one %reat fear: #hich #as that Britain mi%ht ma<e +eace #ith 1ermanyD
for #hat #ou$d ha++en thenE Most si%nificant in this res+ect #as the mi$itary sur3ey in
Pravda of Bune &" 0y MaHor,1enera$ !: A: ?3ano3: F;ot on$y has the French Army 0een
smashed6 0ut France has no# $ost a$$ her 3ita$ industria$ centres: This is France's
dA4Lcle55: Another of Britain's a$$ies has 0een +ut out of action6 and no# Britain is $eft
face to face #ith 1ermany and ?ta$y: 'et 4oth sides have might! economic resources, and
there"ore the! ma! continue the :ar "or a ver! long time !et, and it is much too earl! to
tr! to "oretell the outcome o" this :ar5
I Cm+hasis addedK
?t is hi%h$y sym+tomatic that the acti3ity of the British air,force shou$d ha3e 0een
s#itched from the 0att$e in France to the 0om0in% of economic tar%ets in 1ermany:F And
there fo$$o#ed $on% and detai$ed accounts of British air,raids on 1ermany:
ITASS6 ondon6 =uotin% 2euter:K
There #as not the s$i%htest su%%estion any more that a +eace sett$ement 0et#een
1ermany and Britain #ou$d 0e a %ood thin%P
Stu+efied 0y .it$er's o3er#he$min% 3ictory o3er France6 2ussia no# dro++ed a$$ further
+retence of res+ect for the so3erei%nty of the Ba$tic States: ithuania6 Cstonia and at3ia
#ere occu+ied6 draconian ne# $a0our $e%is$ation im+osed on So3iet industry6 Bessara0ia
and ;orthern Bu<o3ina occu+iedDa$$ this #as 0ein% done #ithin the $ast fortni%ht in
Bune: A$ready on Bune 176 Pravda re+orted that there #as F%reat reHoicin% at 4aunasF6 as
the 2ed Army entered ithuania6 addin% si%nificant$y that Fits Fascist dictator6 SmetonaF
had ""led to #erman!"5 Durin% the fo$$o#in% days6 the So3iet +ress re+orted simi$ar
FHu0i$ant demonstrationsF from Ta$$inn and 2i%a: The %o3ernments of the Ba$tic States
#ere accused of +$ottin% a%ainst the So3iet *nion and at3ia and Cstonia6 in +articu$ar6
of ha3in% F%ross$y 3io$ated their mutua$ assistance +acts #ith the So3iet *nionF: This
no# demanded that Fthey set u+ %o3ernments #hich #ou$d res+ect their treaties #ith the
So3iet *nion and that they %i3e free access to their territory to So3iet troo+s6 #hich
#ou$d %uarantee that these treaties #ou$d 0e res+ected F:
IPravda, Bune 176 194":K
?t #as =uic< #or<: @n Bune 1J it #as a$ready announced that Mr !a$ets<is F#ho had 0een
+ut in a concentration cam+ 0y the I+ro,;a>iK Smetona %an% in 1939F6 had 0ecome
ithuanian !remier: Simi$ar miracu$ous chan%es #ere to ta<e +$ace in the ne8t fe# days
in at3ia and Cstonia: @n the 3ery day Pravda +u0$ished the D;B re+ort from Ber$in of
F.it$er's meetin% #ith the French de$e%ation in the Forest of 5om+i/%neF it a$so
descri0ed the FHu0i$ant rece+tion %i3en to the 2ed Army 0y the Cstonian +eo+$e at
Ta$$innF: Some time $ater Mo$oto3 #as to e8+$ain the di+$omatic 0ac<%round of the
2ussian in3asion of the Ba$tic States as 0est he cou$dL 0ut e3ery 2ussian c$ear$y thou%ht
he understood #hy the 2ed Army had marched inD#hi$e .it$er #asn't $oo<in%:
The direct connection 0et#een the in3asion of the Ba$tic States on the one hand6 and the
fa$$ of France on the other6 #as so em0arrassin%$y o03ious that6 on Bune &36 the So3iet
1o3ernment found it necessary to +u0$ish this e8traordinary statementDdenyin% that it
#as Fdissatisfied #ith the 1erman successes in the 9estF:
I$ 3#$$(3&,#$ 2,&' &'( ($&+* #0 S#6,(& &+##.- ,$&# &'( B)/&,3 S&)&(- &'(+( )+(
.(+-,-&($& +1"#1+- ,$ &'( W(-&(+$ .+(-- )8#1& 1LL #+ 15L S#6,(& 5,6,-,#$- 8(,$%
3#$3($&+)&(5 #$ &'( !(+")$ 0+#$&,(+. T',- ,- -1..#-(5 &# )+,-( 0+#" &'(
5,--)&,-0)3&,#$ 0(/& ,$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ #6(+ !(+")$*<- ",/,&)+* -133(--(- ,$ &'(
W(-&, )$5 &# .#,$& &# ) 5(&(+,#+)&,#$ #0 S#6,(&-!(+")$ +(/)&,#$-.
TASS ,- )1&'#+,-(5 &# -&)&( &')& &',- ,- &#&)//* 1$&+1(. T'(+( )+( #$/* (,%'&(($ &#
&2($&* S#6,(& 5,6,-,#$- ,$ &'( B)/&,3 3#1$&+,(-, )$5 &'(* )+( $#& 3#$3($&+)&(5 #$ &'(
!(+")$ 8#+5(+, 81& )+( -3)&&(+(5 &'+#1%'#1& &'( B)/&,3 3#1$&+,(-.
;o F+ressureF on 1ermany is intended and the mi$itary measures ta<en ha3e on$y one
aim: #hich is to safe%uard the mutua$ aid 0et#een the So3iet *nion and these countries:
As for So3iet,1erman re$ations6 the TASS statement #ent out of its #ay to say that the
occu+ation of the Ba$tic StatesDor 1ermany's 3ictory in the 9est6 for that matterDcou$d
not in any #ay affect them6 thou%h it #as carefu$ not to say #hether6 or not6 the Ba$tic
States had 0een occu+ied #ith 1erman consent: FThere is a de$i0erate attem+tF (the
TASS statement #ent on) Fto cast a shado# on So3iet,1erman re$ations: ?n a$$ this there
is nothin% 0ut #ishfu$ thin<in% on the +art of certain British6 American6 S#edish and
Ba+anese %ent$emen::: They seem to 0e inca+a0$e of %ras+in% the o03ious fact that the
%ood,nei%h0our$y re$ations 0et#een the So3iet *nion and 1ermany cannot 0e distur0ed
0y rumours and chea+ +ro+a%anda6 since these re$ations are 0ased not on tem+orary
moti3es of an ad hoc ;*on!un*turn!i7 character6 0ut on the fundamenta$ State interests of
the *SS2 and 1ermany:F
So far so %oodL 0ut si8 days $ater it #as announced that Fthe So3iet,2umanian conf$ict
o3er Bessara0ia and ;orthern Bu<o3inaF had 0een Fsatisfactori$y sett$edF: 9hereu+on
the So3iet +ress +roceeded to re+ort the FHu0i$antF rece+tion %i3en 0y the +o+u$ation of
these t#o areas to the 2ed Army:
IAccordin% to the 2ussian +ost,#ar Histor!, the 2ussians had 0ecome increasin%$y
#orried6 es+ecia$$y since May 194"6 0y 2umania's F%ro#in% su0ser3ienceF to 1ermanyL
0oth Tatarescu and 4in% 5aro$6 #ho had6 for a time6 tried to sit on the fence6 #ere no#
0e%innin% to $ean hea3i$y o3er to the 1erman side: ?t #as on Bune &) that the So3iet
1o3ernment +resented #hat #as in effect an u$timatum to the 2umanian 1o3ernment
demandin% an Fimmediate so$utionF of the =uestion concernin% the return of Bessara0ia
to the So3iet *nion: ?t a$so demanded the transfer to the So3iet *nion of ;orthern
Bu<o3ina #hich #as ethnica$$y *<rainian: An additiona$ ar%ument concernin% ;orthern
Bu<o3ina #as that Fin ;o3em0er 191J the !eo+$e's Assem0$y 6veche7 of Bu<o3ina had6
ref$ectin% the #i$$ of the +eo+$e6 decided in fa3our of Hoinin% So3iet *<raineF:
Da3idescu6 the 2umanian Am0assador in Mosco#6 dec$ared6 on the fo$$o#in% day6 his
%o3ernment's FreadinessF to enter into ne%otiations #ith the So3iet 1o3ernmentL 0ut the
$atter demanded a F5$ear and +reciseF ans#er: This came a$most immediate$y6 and on
Bune &J the 2ed Army 0e%an to mo3e into the t#o areas:
@n Bune &3 1ermany had 0een informed of the So3iet demands on 2umania6 F0ut had to
dec$are that she #as not interested in the =uestion of Bessara0iaF: As the Histor! says:
F9hi$e the Batt$e of France #as %oin% on6 it #as +articu$ar$y undesira0$e for the 1ermans
to com+$icate their re$ations #ith the So3iet *nion: Moreo3er6 the 1ermans feared that6
in the e3ent of a So3iet,2umanian conf$ict6 2umania mi%ht $ose her oi$#e$$s6 #hi$e
1ermany #as e8treme$y an8ious that these shou$d remain intactF:
For hard,0oi$ed Frea$ismF the 2ussian conduct in this case #as hard to 0eat: The Histor!
adds that6 F#ith the 0est #i$$ in the #or$dF6 Britain #as una0$e at the time to Finterfere in
So3iet,2umanian re$ationsF6 since she #as #ho$$y tied u+ 0y the #ar in the 9est:
(?A@ASS6 ?6 +: &J1): 2umania Hoined the A8is in ;o3em0er 194":K
W
Durin% the fe# days se+aratin% the occu+ation of the Ba$tic States and of Bessara0ia,
Bu<o3ina6 a num0er of other si%nificant thin%s ha++ened: @n Bune &- it #as announced
that di+$omatic re$ations had 0een esta0$ished 0et#een the So3iet *nion and (u%os$a3ia:
Mi$an 1a0ri$o3ic #as a++ointed Am0assador to Mosco# and A: A: !$otni<o3
Am0assador to Be$%rade:
But that #as not a$$: @n the fo$$o#in% day came a rea$ 0om0she$$ of another <indDthe
u*ase of the !residium of the Su+reme So3iet +$acin% So3iet industry 3irtua$$y on a #ar
footin%: The ei%ht,hour #or<in%,day #as no# introduced6 and the fu$$ si8,day #or<in%,
#ee<L more im+ortant sti$$6 #or<ers and em+$oyees #ere no# tied to their +articu$ar
enter+rise or office6 and there cou$d no $on%er 0e any mi%ration of $a0our: The u*ase a$so
+ro3ided for the most ri%id disci+$inary measures a%ainst a0senteeism and simi$ar
offences:
;eed$ess to say6 count$ess Fs+ontaneousF meetin%s of #or<ers #ere re+orted from a$$
o3er the country6 a$$ a++ro3in% the u*ase, the +ur+ose of #hich6 accordin% to a$$ the
s+ea<ers at these meetin%s6 #as to increase the mi$itary mi%ht of the So3iet *nion: The
fa$$ of France #as ha3in% its immediate re+ercussions inside 2ussia:
S+ea<in% at a +$enary session of the So3iet Trade *nion Federation on Bune &-6 ;: M:
Sh3erai< said: F9e are $i3in% in a ca+ita$ist encirc$ement and the #ar is ra%in% o3er %reat
areas: ?t is our %ood fortune not to 0e in the #ar6 0ut #e must 0e +re+ared for a$$
emer%encies: 9e must do a$$ #e can to 0e many times stron%er than #e areL #e must in
e3ery #ay and at any moment 0e ready to face e3ery +ossi0$e ordea$:F
After the fa$$ of France6 it #as on$y too c$ear to e3ery0ody that there #as on$y one
country from #hich these Fordea$sF cou$d no# come: ?t #as certain$y not Cn%$and6 and
not e3en Ba+an: And Sh3erni< #ent on: F5omrades6 as 5omrade Sta$in has tau%ht us6 the
most dan%erous thin% in the #or$d is to 0e cau%ht una#ares: To 0e cau%ht una#ares
means fa$$in% a 3ictim to the une8+ected: Today the internationa$ situation demands from
us that #e stren%then the defence of our country and the mi%ht of our armed forces day
after day:F
Durin% that historic #ee<6 the co3era%e of e3ents in the 9est sho#ed a s$i%ht6 if on$y
3ery s$i%ht6 +ro,British 0ias: 5hurchi$$'s s+eeches sayin% Britain #ou$d fi%ht ti$$ fina$
3ictory6 #ere du$y re+orted6 and6 as ear$y as Bune &16 there #as a first mention in the
2ussian +ress of de 1au$$e and his refusa$ to surrender to the 1ermans: @n the other
hand6 !Ntain #as re+orted as ca$$in% for the termination of the #ar 0et#een 1ermany and
BritainL and the So3iet +ress a$so +u0$ished the Franco,1erman armistice terms6 and the
re+ort of the 1erman .i%h 5ommand on the French cam+ai%n: &76""" 1ermans <i$$ed6
1J6""" missin%6 1116""" #ounded: !risoners ta<en: 169""6"""6 inc$udin% fi3e army
commanders:
The fact that 1erman $osses #ere on$y a0out ha$f of #hat had 0een the 2ussian $osses in
the F$itt$eF Finnish 9ar cannot ha3e +assed uno0ser3ed: The secret ho+e that 1ermany
#ou$d ha3e found herse$f %reat$y #ea<ened 0y her #ar in the 9est had 0een dashed to
the %round: ;o#6 for the first time6 the 2ussians heard names 0andied a0out #hich6
0efore $on%6 #ere to ac=uire so ominous a rin%: 2undstedt6 4$eist6 1uderian:
For a$$ that6 the +retence that re$ations #ith 1ermany #ere %ood had sti$$ to 0e <e+t u+:
A$on%side re+orts of the Fe$ection cam+ai%nsF in the Ba$tic States6 the So3iet !ress
+u0$ished e8tracts from a 1erman 9hite !a+er disc$osin% FAn%$o,French intri%ues
a%ainst the So3iet *nionF at the time of the Finnish 9ar6 their +$ans to 0om0 Ba<u6 and
simi$ar matters: And then came Mo$oto3's Su+reme So3iet s+eech of Au%ust 16 194" in
#hich he commented in his o#n +ecu$iar #ay on a$$ the s+ectacu$ar and tra%ic e3ents of
the $ast fe# months: ?n a de3ious and su0t$y am0i%uous manner he intimated that he #as
not dis+$eased and +erha+s re$ie3edDas he most certain$y #asDthat Britain had not
%i3en u+ the stru%%$e:
!(+")$* ')- )3',(6(5 ) %+()& -133(-- )%),$-& &'( =W(-&(+$> A//,(-. B1& -'( ')- $#&
-#/6(5 '(+ 01$5)"($&)/ .+#8/(", 2',3' ,- &# -&#. &'( 2)+ #$ 3#$5,&,#$- 5(-,+)8/( &#
'(+. O$ J1/* 19 &'( )eichskanzler #00(+(5 .()3( $(%#&,)&,#$- &# !+()& B+,&),$, 81&
&'( B+,&,-' !#6(+$"($& +(:(3&(5 ',- #00(+, ,$&(+.+(&,$% ,& )- ) 5(")$5 0#+
3).,&1/)&,#$. I& +(./,(5 &')& ,& 2#1/5 %# #$ &,// 0,$)/ 6,3&#+*. T'( B+,&,-' !#6(+$"($&
')- (6($ 8+#;($ #00 5,./#")&,3 +(/)&,#$- 2,&' +)$3(. A// &',- "()$- &')& !+()&
B+,&),$ 5#(- $#& 2,-' &# %,6( 1. '(+ 3#/#$,(- )$5 2)$&- &# %# #$ 0,%'&,$% 0#+ 2#+/5
5#",$)&,#$, (6($ &'#1%' &',- 2,// 8( "13' "#+( 5,00,31/& 0#+ '(+ -,$3( &'( 5(0()& #0
+)$3( )$5 -,$3( I&)/*<- ($&+* ,$&# &'( 2)+.
.a3in% de$i3ered this side,<ic< at FBritish im+eria$ismF6 Mo$oto3 then +roceeded: FThe
end of the #ar is not in si%ht: 9e are $i<e$y to 0e faced #ith a ne# sta%e of the #arDa
stru%%$e 0et#een 1ermany and ?ta$y6 on the one hand6 and Britain6 supported 4! the
&nited %tates, on the other:F The reference to the *nited States #as c$ear$y intended to
su%%est that 1ermany's chances of #innin% the #ar #ere not necessari$y %ood:
?t is hi%h$y si%nificant that e3en #hen thin%s $oo<ed 0$ac<est for Britain6 the 2ussians
too< a reasona0$y o+timistic 3ie# of her chancesL thus6 the chief ideo$o%ica$ Hourna$ of
the 5ommunist !arty6 .olshevi* of Bu$y 1-6 194" conc$uded its sur3ey 0y sayin% that
Britain #as Ffar from finishedF6 #hi$e a simi$ar $ine had a$ready 0een ta<en 0y the #e$$,
<no#n economist6 !rof: C: Aar%a in -irovo!e Khoziaistvo i -irova!a Politi*a (9or$d
Cconomy and 9or$d !o$itics) ear$y in Bune6 #hen the co$$a+se of France #as a$ready
imminent:
As for the future of So3iet,1erman re$ations6 Mo$oto3 mere$y re+eated6 a$most #ord for
#ord6 the TASS communi=uN of Bune &3: FThere has recent$y 0een in the British and +ro,
British +ress much s+ecu$ation on the +ossi0i$ity of discord 0et#een the So3iet *nion
and 1ermany: Attem+ts ha3e 0een made to fri%hten us #ith the %ro#in% mi%ht of
1ermany: But our re$ations are not 0ased on tem+orary ad hoc considerations6 0ut on the
fundamenta$ state interests of the t#o countries:F
9hat he said a0out Britain #as at any rate distinct$y $ess i$$,tem+ered than anythin% said
or +u0$ished for a $on% time: FThere ha3e 0een no su0stantia$ chan%es in our re$ations
#ith Cn%$and: After a$$ the hosti$e acts she has committed a%ainst us6 it #as hard to
e8+ect any fa3oura0$e de3e$o+ments in An%$o,So3iet re$ations6 even though the
appointment o" )ripps as .ritish /m4assador to -osco: ma! point to a desire on the
part o" #reat .ritain to improve her relations :ith the %oviet &nion5"
I Cm+hasis added:K
The incor+oration in the So3iet *nion of the Ba$tic States6 Bessara0ia and ;orth
Bu<o3ina #as +resented 0y Mo$oto3 in a manner that #as to 0e e8+ected: ?t #as6 no
dou0t6 +$easin% to see the So3iet *nion reco3er some of the territories #hich had once
0e$on%ed to the o$d Tsarist Cm+ire6 and e3en to anne8 an areaD ;orthern Bu<o3ina6
inc$udin% the $ar%e city of 5>erno#it>D#hich had ne3er 0een +art of it: ;orthern
Bu<o3ina6 Mo$oto3 said6 #as chief$y inha0ited 0y *<rainians and Mo$da3iansDand
these6 as #e$$ as the inha0itants of Bessara0ia6 had no# 0ecome So3iet citi>ens F#ith
%reat HoyF: There #as no# e3ery reason to 0e$ie3e that re$ations #ith 2umania #ou$d
0ecome norma$ a%ain: As for the Ba$tic States6 Mo$oto3 e8+$ained their incor+oration in
the So3iet *nion in the fo$$o#in% terms:
The mutua$ assistance +acts #e had #ith ithuania6 at3ia and Cstonia did not +roduce
the desired resu$ts: The 0our%eois c$i=ues in these countries #ere hosti$e to the So3iet
*nion6 and the anti,So3iet FBa$tic CntenteF 0et#een at3ia and Cstonia #as $atter$y
e8tended to ithuania:
Therefore6 es+ecia$$y in 3ie# of the internationa$ situation6 #e demanded a chan%e in the
%o3ernment +ersonne$ of ithuania6 at3ia and Cstonia6 and the introduction into these
countries of additiona$ 2ed Army formations: ?n Bu$y free +ar$iamentary e$ections too<
+$ace in a$$ three countries6 and #e can no# note #ith satisfaction that the +eo+$es of
ithuania6 at3ia and Cstonia in a friend$y Alan e$ected re+resentati3es #ho ha3e since
unanimous$y dec$ared themse$3es in fa3our of the introduction of the So3iet system in a$$
three countries6 and for their incor+oration in the *SS2: ;inety,fi3e +er cent of a$$ these
+eo+$e had +re3ious$y formed +art of the *SS2 6sic75
Mo$oto3 rec<oned that6 since Se+tem0er 19396 the +o+u$ation of the So3iet *nion had
increased 0y a0out t#enty,three mi$$ion +eo+$e6 a$$ of #hich meant Fan im+ortant
increase in our mi%ht and territoryF:
2e$ations #ith Tur<ey and ?ran6 he #ent on6 #ere no# Ffair$y norma$F6 des+ite the
re3e$ations in the 1erman 9hite !a+er on the sinister ro$e the t#o countries had +$ayed
in the An%$o,French +$ottin% a%ainst the So3iet *nion: 2e$ations #ith Ba+anDsince the
$ic<in% she had recei3ed at .a$<in 1o$D#ere no# a$so Ffair$y norma$F6 and a
Manchu<uo,Mon%o$ian commission #ou$d short$y dea$ #ith the frontier +ro0$em
0et#een the t#o countries: And then: F? sha$$ not d#e$$ on our re$ations #ith the *SA if
on$y 0ecause there is nothin% %ood to re+ort: F(aughter5G 9e understand that some
Americans don't $i<e our successes in the Ba$tic countries:F .e a$so referred to the %o$d
0e$on%in% to the Ba$tic States #hich the *SA had F%ra00edF6 e3en thou%h the So3iet
*nion had 0ou%ht this %o$d from them:
.e ended #ith the su%%estion that the #ar #ou$d continue for a $on% timeL and that Fthe
entire So3iet +eo+$eF must remain in a state of Fmo0i$ised +re+arednessF in 3ie# of the
dan%er of a mi$itary attac< on them: F9e must not 0e cau%ht una#ares 0y any 'accident'
or any of the tric<s of our forei%n enemies:F
!a$ets<is6 4irchenstein and auristin res+ecti3e$y re+resentin% ithuania6 at3ia and
Cstonia6 s+o<e at this Su+reme So3iet meetin%6 and on Au%ust & ne# $a#s #ere ado+ted
on the FFormation of the Mo$da3ian SS2F6 on the F?nc$usion of ;orthern Bu<o3ina and
the 4hotins<6 A<<erman and ?smai$ districts of Bessara0ia in the *<rainian SS2F6 and on
the FAdmission of the ithuanian6 at3ian and Cstonian SS2's into the *SS2F: These
$a#s #ere +assed at the re=uest of the +ar$iaments of the three countries6 and in 3irtue of
Arts: 34 and 3- of the So3iet 5onstitution: The !residium of the Su+reme So3iet #as
instructed to fi8 the date for e$ections in the three countries: @n Au%ust 1" Pravda
+u0$ished a F!oem on Sta$inF 0y Sa$ome ;eris6 a ithuanian +oetess:
Meantime6 in the three Ba$tic States a +ur%e #as 0ein% carried out amon%st FFascistF and
other unre$ia0$e e$ements6 #ith Ayshins<y6 De<ano>o3 and Ohdano3 su+er3isin% these
o+erationsL estimates 3ary as to the num0er of +ersons de+orted from the Ba$tic
2e+u0$ics 0et#een Bu$y 194" and the out0rea< of the So3iet,1erman #ar6 0ut it is not
im+ro0a0$e that they ran into tens of thousands:
A$thou%h the Ba$tic States6 $i<e the rest of Curo+e6 had 0een affected 0y the #ar in the
9est6 consumer %oods #ere sti$$ +$entifu$ in cities $i<e Ta$$inn and 2i%a6 and e3en $on%
after#ards6 a$$ the e$a0orate and in%enious +rete8ts 2ussians used to thin< u+ in 194"
for%oin% on more or $ess officia$ FmissionsF to these ne#$y,reco3ered territories in order
to re+$enish their #ardro0es and 0uy other nice thin%s continued to 0e a standin% Ho<e:
The e$ections in the three Ba$tic So3iet 2e+u0$ics fo$$o#ed the usua$ So3iet +attern6 0ut
2ussians #ho 3isited these countries in the autumn of 194" had no %reat i$$usions a0out
their +eo+$es' unanimous $o3e for the So3iet *nion: There #ere stron% +ro,So3iet
currents amon% the at3ian #or<in% c$ass6 0ut that #as a0out a$$: 9hen the 1ermans
o3erran the Ba$tic States in Bune,Bu$y 19416 they met #ith 3ery $itt$e o++osition from the
+o+u$ationL certain e$ements continued to 0e 3io$ent$y anti,So3iet6 as is admitted in much
of the 2ussian +ost,#ar #ritin% on that sta%e of the #ar: The Cstonians6 a$thou%h most of
them dis$i<ed the 1ermans6 had stron% affinities #ith Fin$and6 and Fin$and #as at #ar
#ith 2ussia:::
C').&(+ AI RUSSIA AND THE BATTLE O BRITAIN: A
PSYCHOLO!ICAL TURNIN!-POINTI
?n +ost,#ar So3iet histories of the #ar6 there is a mar<ed tendency to minimise the
im+ortance of Britain's resistance to 1ermany 0et#een the fa$$ of France and the summer
of 1941L one So3iet author #ent so far as to say that the Batt$e of Britain #as somethin%
of a mythL there had rea$$y 0een no such thin%: There had 0een im+ortant air 0att$es o3er
Britain6 0ut it had ne3er come to a rea$ c$ash 0et#een the F0u$<F of the 1erman and
British forces: @ne e8+$anation current$y offered in recent histories is that .it$er's fear of
the 2ed Army sto++ed him from ma<in% an a$$,out attem+t to in3ade Cn%$and:
A$thou%h this assertion may ha3e some su0stance6 one mi%ht as #e$$ reca$$ that6 on
Au%ust &36 194"6 i:e: Hust as the Batt$e of Britain #as a0out to start in rea$ earnest6
Pravda as %ood as e%%ed .it$er on to attac< Cn%$and: ?n its editoria$ that day6 ce$e0ratin%
the first anni3ersary of the So3iet,1erman !act6 it #rote:
T'( -,%$,$% #0 &'( P)3& .1& )$ ($5 &# &'( ($",&* 8(&2(($ !(+")$* )$5 &'( USSR,
)$ ($",&* 2',3' ')5 8(($ )+&,0,3,)//* 2#+;(5 1. 8* &'( 2)+"#$%(+-... A0&(+ &'(
5,-,$&(%+)&,#$ #0 &'( P#/,-' S&)&(, !(+")$* .+#.#-(5 &# B+,&),$ )$5 +)$3( )
&(+",$)&,#$ #0 &'( 2)+E ) .+#.#-)/ 2',3' 2)- -1..#+&(5 8* &'( S#6,(&
!#6(+$"($&. B1& &'(* 2#1/5 $#& /,-&($, )$5 &'( 2)+ 3#$&,$1(5, 8+,$%,$% ')+5-',.-
)$5 -100(+,$%- &# )// &'( $)&,#$- 2'#" &'( #+%)$,-(+- #0 &'( 2)+ ')5 5+)%%(5 ,$&#
&'( 8/##58)&'... W( )+( $(1&+)/, )$5 &',- P)3& ')- ")5( &',$%- ()-,(+ 0#+ 1-? ,& ')-
)/-# 8(($ #0 %+()& )56)$&)%( &# !(+")$*, since she can be completely con*ident o*
peace on her ,astern borders.
ICm+hasis added:K
After referrin% to the Cconomic A%reement of Fe0ruary 116 194"6 the artic$e conc$uded
that So3iet,1erman re$ations had Fhonoura0$y stood the test of timeF6 #hich #as a$$ the
more 3a$ua0$e #ith a %reat #ar ra%in% e$se#here:
The most nota0$e ne#s items in the So3iet +ress durin% the $ast #ee< of Au%ust and the
0e%innin% of Se+tem0er #ere a 0rief announcement on Au%ust &4 of Trots<y's death
IThis read as fo$$o#s: Fondon6 Au%ust && (TASS): ondon radio re+orts that Trots<y
has died in hos+ita$ in Me8ico 5ity of a fractured s<u$$6 the resu$t of an attem+t on his $ife
0y one of the +ersons in his immediate entoura%e:FKL another Timoshen<o s+eech on the
reor%anisation of the 2ed ArmyL a TASS denia$ of a Ba+anese re+ort that Sta$in had6 at
the end of Au%ust6 discussed #ith Am0assador Schu$en0ur% an a%reement 0et#een the
*SS26 1ermany6 ?ta$y and Ba+an on the a0o$ition of the Anti,5omintern !act: FTASS is
authorised to state that this is a +ure in3ention: Durin% the $ast si8 or se3en months
5omrade Sta$in has had no meetin% #ith Schu$en0ur%:F @n Se+tem0er -6 there #as a
re+ort on the destroyers that the *nited States had %i3en to Britain: From Se+tem0er 9 on6
fo$$o#in% the first %reat 1erman air,raid on ondon on the ni%ht of Se+tem0er 76 more
and more s+ace #as de3oted to the Batt$e of BritainDthou%h it #as ne3er ca$$ed that:
There #as at first scarce$y any first,hand re+ortin% of ne#s from Four o#n
corres+ondentF6 0ut the co3era%e6 consistin% chief$y of officia$ 1erman and British
communi=uNs6 e8tracts from D;B and 2euter re+orts6 and =uotations from the British
and American +ress6 etc:6 ran into t#o or three co$umns e3ery day6 and #as reasona0$y
#e$$,0a$anced: Thus6 on Se+tem0er 1) TASS re+orted from ondon: FAccordin% to
2euter6 it #as officia$$y stated that the 1ermans $ost today 1J- +$anes6 and the British
&-:F @n @cto0er 16 there #as a simi$ar re+ort from ondon sayin% that6 durin%
Se+tem0er6 the 1ermans had $ost 161"& +$anes and at $east &67-- airmen6 a%ainst a $oss of
319 British +$anes: F1)J British airmen 0a$ed out o3er British territory:F
Des+ite the dryness of this re+ortin%6 the ne#s from Cn%$and undou0ted$y stirred the
ima%ination of the 2ussian +u0$ic: Se3era$ 2ussians $ater to$d me that the most common
reaction at the time had 0een: F9e$$6 at $ast these 1erman 0astards are %ettin% it in the
nec< from some0ody:F There #as somethin% e$se that made an e3en %reater
+sycho$o%ica$ im+act: ondon #as the first %reat city the 0om0in% of #hich #as 0ein%
re+orted in the So3iet +ress in some detai$: There had 0een +ractica$$y nothin% a0out the
0om0in% of !o$ish cities6 and the de3astatin% 1erman air,raid on 2otterdam had scarce$y
0een mentioned at a$$: But no# the +a+ers #ere fu$$ of stories a0out F%i%antic firesF6
casua$ties6 e3acuees6 she$ter difficu$ties6 and the $i<e6 and the 2ussian reader 0e%an to see
it a$$ in terms of a human drama: Si%nificant$y6 after re+ortin% for se3era$ days that most
of the 1erman 0om0in% #as done in the Cast Cnd6 in the ondon doc<s6 Fin the +oorer
areas of the cityF6 it #as a$so re+orted some days $ater that F0om0s had 0een dro++ed on
Buc<in%ham !a$aceF:
And then a0out a month after the 0e%innin% of the 0om0in% of ondon6 there #as the first
maHor first,hand re+ort in the So3iet +ress from the TASS corres+ondent in ondon: ?n
Pravda on @cto0er -6 there a++eared an account of FA Aisit 0y the TASS 5orres+ondent
to one of the Fie$d Batteries of Anti,Aircraft 1uns in the ondon areaF: FThe +resent
system of anti,aircraft defences in Cn%$andF6 it said6 Fis much more im+ressi3e than
anythin% the uft#affe has yet encountered:F After descri0in% the 0attery's ni%ht
o+erations6 the TASS corres+ondent IThe TASS corres+ondent #as Andre# 2othstein:
Si%nificant is not the fact that a British su0Hect and a communist shou$d ha3e #ritten so
sym+athetica$$y of the British +eo+$e6 0ut that the So3iet +ress shou$d ha3e +u0$ished
e3ery #ord of his story: Such thin%s do not ha++en 0y accident in 2ussia:K #ent on:
I$ &'( "#+$,$% I 2)- )8/( &# %(& "#+( 3/#-(/* )391),$&(5 2,&' &'( &2($&* -#/5,(+-
")$$,$% &'( 8)&&(+*. M#-&/* &'(-( 2(+( *#1$% 2#+;(+- #0 &2($&*-&'+(( #+ &2($&*-
0#1+E",$(+-, &+)$-.#+& 2#+;(+-, .+,$&(+-, "(3')$,3-, 8(-,5(- ) -")//(+ $1"8(+ #0
("./#*((- )$5 1$-;,//(5 /)8#1+(+-. N,$( #0 &'( -#/5,(+- 2(+( &+)5( 1$,#$ "("8(+-,
)"#$% &'(" &2# ",$(+-. T'( 0##5 +)&,#$- &'(* %#& 2(+( -)&,-0)3&#+*. T'( 8)&&(+*
')5 8(($ &'(+( #$/* ) 0(2 2((;-. T'( 3##; 4) 3#+.#+)/7 2'# 2)- ) ",$(+, 3#",$%
0+#" &'( -)"( 6,//)%( )- J)3; H#+$(+, &'( 3#""1$,-& 3'),+")$ #0 &'( S#1&' W)/(-
",$(+-< 0(5(+)&,#$, -'#2(5 "( &'( "($1. #+ 8+();0)-& &'(* ')5 &(), .#++,5%(,
8)3#$ 4#+ -)1-)%(7 )$5 (%%? 0#+ /1$3', "()& )$5 &2# 6(%(&)8/(-, )$5 ) -2((&? )& 5
..". &'(* ')5 &(), 8+()5 )$5 81&&(+ 4#+ ")+%(7, :)" )$5 8,-31,&-? )& K ..". -1..(+
,$3/15,$% )$#&'(+ "()& 3#1+-(. T'(* 2(+( %(&&,$% 1M #C #0 8+()5 ) 5)*, 1M #C #0
"()&, L.5 /8 #0 6(%(&)8/(-, M #C #0 0+(-' 0+1,&, )$5 ) 2((;/* +)&,#$ #0 @.5 #C #0 81&&(+.
The TASS corres+ondent added that there #ere Fdo>ens of such 0atteriesF in the ondon
area6 and commented on the comrade$y atmos+here amon%st a$$ these men: FThe
0eha3iour of the ser%eants is entire$y different from #hat it used to 0e durin% the 1914,1J
#ar:F This artic$e caused a rea$ stir in 2ussia: ?t #as somethin% =uite ne#: There had
ne3er 0een any Fhuman interestF stories in the So3iet +ress a0out the 1ermans and their
FmenusF6 $et a$one a0out Frenchmen and ;or#e%ians: There #as a$so a c$ear su%%estion
that this #as a F+eo+$e's #arF in #hich the F+ro$etariatF #ere +$ayin% as acti3e a +art as
any6 inc$udin% Bac< .orner's fe$$o# 3i$$a%ers #ho cou$d reasona0$y 0e su++osed to 0e
communists:
For a time6 at any rate6 a su0t$e <ind of fe$$o#,fee$in% for the British +eo+$e #as thus
created in 2ussia: The inte$$ectua$s fe$t it6 of course6 most acute$y: Anna A<hmato3a
#rote a +oem on the 0om0in% of ondon6 #hich #as not6 ho#e3er6 to 0e +u0$ished unti$
1943:
T,"(, 2,&' ,&- 8#$* ')$5,
I- $#2 2+,&,$% S');(-.()+(<- &2($&*-0#1+&' 5+)").
N#, /(& 1- -##$(+ +()5 H)"/(& )$5 C)(-)+ )$5 L()+
A8#6( &'( /()5($ +,6(+.
N#, /(& 1- +)&'(+ )33#".)$* 5)+/,$% J1/,(&
W,&' -,$%,$% )$5 &#+3'(- &# '(+ %+)6(.
N#, /(& 1- -##$(+ /##; ,$&# M)38(&'<- 2,$5#2,
A$5 &+("8/(, &#%(&'(+ 2,&' &'( ',+(5 "1+5(+(+-.
B1& $#& &',-, $#& &',-, $#& &',-.
T',- #$( 2( 3)$$#& 8()+ &# +()5.
IAnna A<hmato3a6 Iz4ranno!e (A Se$ection) (Tash<ent6 1943)6 +: 1&:K
And ;i<o$ai Ti<hono36 fu$$ of fore0odin%6 #rote another +oem #hich #as fina$$y
+u0$ished in 19-):
T'+#1%' &'( $,%'&, &'+#1%' -'((&- #0 +),$, )$5 &'( 2,$5 31&&,$% ',- 3'((;-,
L()+$,$% ',- /(--#$ )- '( %#(- )/#$%,
T'( ")$ #0 L#$5#$ 2,$5- ',- 2)* &# &'( -'(/&(+,
D+)%%,$% ',- +1% )/#$% &'( 2)&(+* .)6("($&.
T'(+(<- &'( 3#/5 -&((/ ;(* ,$ ',- .#3;(&,
A ;(* &# +##"- $#2 &1+$(5 &# .+,3;/* +188/(.
W( -&,// )+( /()+$,$% /(--#$- )& #1+ -3'##/ 5(-;,
B1& )& $,%'& 2( 5+()" #0 &'( 3#",$% (B)".
I(iteraturna!a -os*va (Mosco#6 19-))6 +: 499:K
Cs+ecia$$y amon% the inte$$ectua$s6 there had6 a$$ a$on%6 0een a distaste for the So3iet,
1erman !act6 and a %ro#in% fee$in% that #hat #as no# ha++enin% to Cn%$and #ou$d6
sooner or $ater6 ha++en to 2ussia too: FAt ni%ht #e dream of the comin% e8amF:::
@n @cto0er &- Pravda contained three ne#s items6 each si%nificant in its o#n #ay:
F.it$er meets FrancoF6 #hich su%%ested that 2ussia #as certain$y in 3ery stran%e
com+anyL FThe C3acuation of 5hi$dren from Ber$inF6 #hich su%%ested that Cn%$and #as
hittin% 0ac< hardL and another TASS messa%e from ondon sayin% that there had 0een
%reat im+ro3ements $ate$y in the or%anisation of air,raid she$ters: And6 t#o days $ater:
F2oose3e$t #arns !Ntain a%ainst co$$a0oration #ith 1ermany and a%ainst dec$arin% #ar
on Cn%$and:F After that came the ne#s of the ?ta$ian attac< on 1reece Dsu%%estin% that
the #ar #as no# s+readin% to the Ba$<ans6 a +oint a0out #hich 2ussia had a$#ays 0een
3ery sensiti3e:
IAnother curious ne#s item durin% that #ee< #as the arri3a$ in Mosco# of Matias
2a<osi6 the .un%arian communist $eader: ?t #as stated that he had 0een in Hai$ for fifteen
years6 and had no# 0een re$eased as a resu$t of the recent So3iet,.un%arian ne%otiations:K
C').&(+ AII DISPLAY O RUSSIAN MILITARY MI!HTE
MOLOTOA<S TRA!ICOMIC AISIT TO BERLIN
And then came ;o3em0er 194": The So3iet 1o3ernment c$ear$y fe$t that the +eo+$e
needed reassurin%: The ;o3em0er 7 ce$e0rations of the &3rd anni3ersary of the Bo$she3i<
2e3o$ution #ere mar<ed 0y a s+ectacu$ar dis+$ay of the So3iet *nion's mi$itary mi%htL
this #as not on$y meant to restore the So3iet +u0$ic's confidence6 0ut a$so to im+ress
1ermany: At the Bo$shoi Theatre6 on the e3e of 2e3o$ution Day6 there #as the usua$
meetin% at #hich 4a$inin6 the 3enera0$e !resident of the So3iet *nion6 s+o<e6 sayin% that
Fof a$$ the $ar%e States6 the *SS2 is6 in fact6 the on$y one not to 0e in3o$3ed in #ar6 and is
scru+u$ous$y o0ser3in% its neutra$ityF: To this Pravda added: F9hat #e see in the
ca+ita$ist #or$d is a +rocess of sa3a%e destruction of #hat %enerations of human 0ein%s
had created: !eo+$e6 cities6 industries6 cu$ture are 0ein% ruth$ess$y destroyed:F
IPravda, ;o3em0er 96 194":K
?n his @rder of the Day6 on ;o3em0er 76 the 5ommissar of Defence6 Marsha$
Timoshen<o dec$ared: FThe 2ed Army is +re+ared6 at the first summons of the !arty and
the 1o3ernment6 to stri<e a crushin% 0$o# at anyone #ho may dare to 3io$ate the sacred
frontiers of our socia$ist state:F
As Pravda descri0ed it on ;o3em0er 96 the ;o3em0er 7 mi$itary dis+$ay #as a 3ery 0i%
affair:
T'( ",/,&)+* .)+)5( ,$ &'( 3).,&)/ #0 #1+ 3#1$&+* 2)- &+1/* 5)CC/,$%. T+##.- #0
(6(+* ;,$5 5("#$-&+)&(5 8(0#+( C#"+)5( S&)/,$ )$5 &'( /()5(+- #0 &'( P)+&* )$5
&'( !#6(+$"($& &'(,+ .+(.)+(5$(-- 0#+ &'( 5(0($3( #0 &'( -)3+(5 0+#$&,(+- #0 &'(
S#6,(& U$,#$.
T'( .)+)5( 5("#$-&+)&(5 &'( +()/ ",%'& #0 &'( S#6,(& A+"*. T'( -91)+(- #0 3,&,(-
-'##; 2,&' &'( &'1$5(+ #0 ",%'&* ($%,$(-, )$5 &'( +'*&'",3 ")+3' #0 &'( 8)&&)/,#$-.
O1+ 3#"8)& ./)$(- 0/(2 #6(+ #1+ 3,&,(- ,$ ,".(33)8/( 0#+")&,#$. T'(+( 2(+( ")$*
#0 &'(" (6(+*2'(+(: ,$ M#-3#2, R,%), L2#2, O+(/, T)//,$$, CC(+$#2,&C, A#+#$(C',
K,(6, O5(--), A+3')$%(/, M1+")$-;, S(8)-&#.#/, T8,/,-,, N#6#-,8,+-;, I+;1&-;,
E+(6)$, A,8#+%, K+)-$#*)+-;, B);1, A/") A&), A/)5,6#-&#; )$5 #&'(+ 3,&,(-.
A/&#%(&'(+, #6(+ 5,LLL 3#"8)& ./)$(- #0 5,00(+($& &*.(- )$5 3/)--(- &##; .)+& ,$
&'(-( ),+ .)+)5(- )$5, 81& 0#+ &'( 8)5 2()&'(+ ,$ -#"( ./)3(-, &'(+( 2#1/5 ')6(
8(($ N,LLL. O1+ .+#15 S&)/,$ H)2;- 0/(2 &'(-( +(")+;)8/( ./)$(-, &'( 2#+; #0 #1+
%/#+,#1- S#6,(& 3#$-&+13&#+-.
IF Sta$in .a#<sF #as the affectionate term for So3iet airmen:K
?t then s+o<e $yrica$$y of the F%ro#in% army of Sta<hano3itesF #ho had a$so ta<en +art in
the +arade6 and of the thousands of chi$drenDthose FSo3iet chi$dren #ho ha3e a ha++y6
c$oud$ess today and a secure tomorro#F:
There #as6 of course6 no su%%estion that a hi%h +ro+ortion of the -6""" +$anes that had
ta<en +art in these air +arades near the 1erman6 Finnish and Ba+anese 0orders6 and
e$se#here6 #ere #ho$$y o0so$ete: ;o dou0t the %enera$ +u0$ic <ne# no 0etter6 0ut the
1erman mi$itary and air attachNs at the 2ed S=uare +arade may #e$$ ha3e dra#n more
+rofessiona$ conc$usions:
?n enin%rad6 #here there a++ears to ha3e 0een no air dis+$ay o#in% to 0ad #eather6 the
+arade #as directed 0y the commander of the enin%rad Mi$itary District6 .ero of the
So3iet *nion6 t:,1en: 4ir+onos6 #ho #as to come to a tra%ic end in the 4ie3
encirc$ement6 0are$y ten months $ater:
oo<in% 0ac< on this stran%e +eriod6 one has the curious fee$in% that6 in his o#n #ay6
Mo$oto3 #as made to +$ay in 2ussia the +art of a3a$L $i<e a3a$6 he #as le vidangeur,
#ho had to do a$$ the dirty #or<6 #hi$e !NtainDand Sta$inDtried to <ee+ their hands
re$ati3e$y c$ean6 and refrained6 as far as +ossi0$e6 from any direct dea$in%s #ith the
1ermans: ?t #as si%nificant that6 in the TASS denia$ +u0$ished at the end of Au%ust6 a
+oint shou$d ha3e 0een made of the fact that Sta$in had not seen the 1erman Am0assador
Fdurin% the $ast si8 or se3en monthsF:
Mo$oto36 on the other hand6 #as e8treme$y 0usy and acti3e: A$thou%h he did not %o to
a3a$'s e8treme of sayin% "8e souhaite la victoire allemande", it #as his Ho0 to +resent to
the So3iet +eo+$e the So3iet,1erman !act at a$$ its sta%es in the most fa3oura0$e $i%ht
+ossi0$e:
This does not mean that Mo$oto3 cra#$ed and %ro3e$$ed to the 1ermansL on the contrary6
he had6 throu%hout6 0een thorou%h$y hard,headed and 0usiness$i<e in his dea$in%s #ith
them and #as one of the fe# men not to a++ear im+ressed6 sti$$ $ess o3era#ed6 0y .it$er6
#hen he at $ast met him face,to,face in Ber$in on ;o3em0er 1&6 194":
This is 0orne out 0y the story of the e3ents $eadin% u+ to Mo$oto3's 3isit to Ber$in in
;o3em0er 194" and his hand$in% of the matter: ?n Bune6 #ithout as<in% the 1ermans'
+ermission6 the 2ussians had occu+ied the Ba$tic States6 Bessara0ia and ;orthern
Bu<o3ina: The 1ermans then 0ecame +articu$ar$y a$armed 0y the 2ussians' +ro8imity to
the 2umanian oi$fie$ds6 a source of oi$ su+reme$y im+ortant to 1ermany: This started a
+rocess #hich6 #ithin a fe# months6 #as to end in the com+$ete 1erman su0Hu%ation of
2umania6 and the 3irtua$ occu+ation of Bu$%aria6 to 0e fo$$o#ed 0y the 1erman in3asion
of (u%os$a3ia and 1reece: The 1erman +enetration of 2umania had 0e%un6 in a more or
$ess camouf$a%ed form6 soon after the 2ussian occu+ation of t#o of 2umania's northern
+ro3inces and had coincided #ith .it$er's FAienna A#ardF6 under #hich a $ar%e +art of
Transy$3ania had 0een handed o3er to .un%ary: 9hat #as $eft of 2umaniaDno# a +$ain
Fascist dictatorshi+ under AntonescuD#as F%uaranteedF 0y 1ermany and ?ta$y:
I4in% 5aro$ a0dicated and #ent to S#it>er$and #ith Madame R+escu6 $ea3in% the throne
to his youn% son Michae$:K
The 2ussians too< the 0e%innin% of this 1erman +enetration of the Ba$<ans 3ery 0ad$y6
and char%ed the 1erman 1o3ernment #ith 3io$atin% Artic$e ??? of the So3iet,1erman
!act #hich ca$$ed for consu$tation: The 1ermans retorted that they had not 0een
consu$ted a0out either the Ba$tic States or Bessara0ia,Bu<o3ina: A further com+$ication
arose from re+orts that 1erman troo+s had 0een seen in Fin$and6 ostensi0$y in transit to
;orthern ;or#ay6 and that 1ermany #as se$$in% $ar%e =uantities of armaments to
Fin$and: 9orse sti$$6 at the end of Se+tem0er the 1ermans informed Mo$oto3 that a
mi$itary a$$iance #as a0out to 0e si%ned 0y 1ermany6 ?ta$y and Ba+an6 an a$$iance #hich6
the 1ermans c$aimed6 #as directed a%ainst the *nited States: Mo$oto3 reacted shar+$y to
this +iece of ne#s6 demandin% fu$$ information on the treaty6 and a$so +ressed the
1ermans for more detai$s on their acti3ities in 2umania and Fin$and: A fe# days $ater the
1ermans informed Mo$oto3 that they #ere sendin% a Fmi$itary missionF to 2umania6
#hich +roduced from him the reHoinder: F.o# many troo+s does that re+resentEF
2e$ations #ere 0ecomin% se3ere$y strained 0et#een Ber$in and Mosco#6 and on @cto0er
136 2i00entro+ sent a $on%6 #ordy and +erha+s de$i0erate$y 3a%ue $etter to Sta$in6
+ro+hesyin% the ear$y co$$a+se of Cn%$and and +ro+osin% that Mo$oto3 come to Ber$in6
F#here the FRhrer cou$d e8+$ain +ersona$$y his 3ie#s re%ardin% the future mou$din% of
re$ations 0et#een our t#o countriesF: .e si%nificant$y added in an under$ined +assa%e
that Fit a++ears to 0e the mission of the Four !o#ers (the So3iet *nion6 1ermany6 ?ta$y
and Ba+an) to ado+t a $on%,ran%e +o$icy ::: throu%h the de$imitation of their interests on a
#or$d sca$eF:
?t #as o03ious$y necessary for the 2ussians to try to find out #hat the 1ermans #ere u+
to ne8t6 and the in3itation to Ber$in #as acce+ted: But there is nothin% to sho# that they
#ere %enuine$y interested in sharin% the British $ion's s<inDany#ay the $ion #as sti$$
a$i3eDor in Hoinin% in any 1erman,?ta$ian,Ba+anese a$$iance a%ainst the *nited States:
9hat they #ere #orried a0out6 a0o3e a$$6 #ere the Ba$<ans and Fin$and:
As #e <no# from the 1erman documents +u0$ished since the #ar6 2i00entro+6 durin% his
first Ber$in meetin% #ith Mo$oto36 har+ed a0o3e a$$ on the imminent co$$a+se of the
British Cm+ire6 and su%%ested that6 in the share,out of this Cm+ire6 the 2ussians mi%ht 0e
interested in e8tendin% their Fs+here of inf$uenceF to the south6 +articu$ar$y to#ards the
!ersian 1u$f: Mo$oto3 #as not im+ressed6 any more than he #as 0y .it$er's haran%ue6 in
the afternoon6 a0out a Fcommon dri3e to#ards an access to the oceanF6 im+$yin% that the
2ussians mi%ht +erha+s 0e interested in ?ndia: ?nstead6 Mo$oto3 fired =uestion u+on
=uestion at .it$er: F;o forei%n 3isitor6F Schmidt6 .it$er's inter+reter $ater reca$$ed6 Fhad
e3er s+o<en to him in this #ay in my +resence:F Mo$oto3 #anted +recise ans#ers to his
=uestions a0out the ;e# @rder in Curo+e and Asia6 and6 a0o3e a$$6 a0out 1erman
machinations in Fin$and6 2umania6 Bu$%aria and Tur<eyDareas in #hich the 2ussians
#ere direct$y interested: @n the +rete8t that there mi%ht soon 0e a British air,raid6 .it$er6
com+$ete$y ta<en a0ac< 0y Mo$oto3's manner6 0ro<e off the discussion unti$ the ne8t day:
9hen they met a%ain on the 13th6 Mo$oto3 once more sho#ed no interest in the share,out
of the British Cm+ire6 0ut ar%ued6 instead6 that the 1erman,?ta$ian %uarantee to 2umania
#as directed a%ainst the So3iet *nion6 and6 since the 1ermans #ere un#i$$in% to
Fre3o<eF it6 2ussia #ou$d 0e #i$$in% to %i3e a simi$ar %uarantee to Bu$%aria6 a su%%estion
#hich .it$er too< 3ery 0ad$y: Bu$%aria6 the FRhrer said6 had not as<ed for such a
%uarantee and6 in any case6 he #ou$d ha3e to consu$t Musso$ini on the su0Hect: A%ain6
thorou%h$y dis+$eased #ith his trou0$esome and im+ertinent 3isitor6 .it$er 0ro<e off the
ta$< on the same +rete8t as on the +re3ious ni%ht: .e did not attend the %a$a 0an=uet
Mo$oto3 %a3e that ni%ht at the So3iet Cm0assy: This 0an=uetDat #hich Ffriend$yF toasts
#ere e8chan%ed 0y Mo$oto3 and 2i00entro+D#as interru+ted 0y an air,raid #arnin%6
soon to 0e fo$$o#ed 0y the drone of +$anes6 and the %uests scattered to she$ters6
2i00entro+ rushin% Mo$oto3 to the near,0y she$ter of the 1erman Forei%n @ffice: 9hi$e
they #ere there6 2i00entro+ +u$$ed out of his +oc<et the draft of an a%reement #hich6 in
effect6 transformed the Three,!o#er !act into a Four,!o#er !actL under this6 1ermany6
?ta$y and Ba+an reco%nised the +resent frontiers of the So3iet *nionL #hi$e6 accordin% to
the secret +rotoco$s definin% each country's Fterritoria$ as+irationsF6 the So3iet *nion #as
to e8+and Fin the direction of the ?ndian @ceanF:
A%ain6 the infuriatin% Mo$oto3 #as not interestedL and <e+t on returnin% instead to
=uestions $i<e Fin$and6 2umania and .un%ary6 and 1erman +$ans for Bu$%aria6
(u%os$a3ia6 1reece and Tur<eyL he a$so continued to insist on the +reser3ation of
S#edish neutra$ity:
2i00entro+6 more and more e8as+erated6 dec$ared that Mo$oto3 had not ans#ered the
fundamenta$ =uestionL #hich #as #hether the So3iet *nion #ou$d Fco,o+erate in the
%reat $i=uidation of the British Cm+ireF: Fina$$y6 Mo$oto3 cou$d not resist it: F?f you are
so sure that Britain is finished6 then #hy are #e in this she$terE F
I Sta$in #as to te$$ 5hurchi$$ a0out this +artin% shot in Au%ust 194&: 5hurchi$$6 The
%econd $orld $ar, 3o$: ???6 +: -J):K
The 3isit ended inconc$usi3e$y6 and a fortni%ht +assed 0efore Sta$in himse$f too< u+ the
0a$$ and un$i<e Mo$oto3 in Ber$in sho#ed some interest in Hoinin% the Three,!o#er !act
as a fourth mem0er: .e mi%ht #e$$ ha3e thou%ht that he cou$d not o0tain any satisfaction
from .it$er 0y any other means:
.is main +ro+osa$s #ere that the 1ermans c$ear out of Fin$andL that 2ussia si%n a mutua$
assistance +act #ith Bu$%aria6 that she esta0$ish a mi$itary and na3a$ 0ase #ithin ran%e of
the Tur<ish straitsL and that ?ran 0e reco%nised as a 2ussian s+here of interest: Sta$in must
ha3e <no#n that there #as 0ut a sma$$ chance that .it$er #ou$d acce+t these demands:
C3en at this $ate hour6 Sta$in sti$$ made it c$ear that he #as not interested in ?ndia or any
other +art of the British Cm+ire: .is +rimary concern #as that .it$er shou$d $ea3e the
Ba$<ans and Fin$and strict$y a$one: ;o re+$y to these +ro+osa$s #as e3er recei3ed from
Ber$in:
.o# #as the Mo$oto3 3isit +resented to the So3iet +eo+$eE The So3iet +ress certain$y
made a 0ra3e effort to sho# its readers that the So3iet,1erman !act #as sti$$ a %ood
thin%6 and that re$ations #ith the 1ermans #ere sti$$ correct6 if not cordia$: And yet6 the
So3iet ne#s+a+er reader6 #e$$,trained to read 0et#een the $ines6 must ha3e %uessed that
thin%s had not %one too #e$$6 as he read the fo$$o#in% items:
COMRADE A. M. MOLOTOA<S AISIT TO BERLIN, B(+/,$, N#6("8(+ 1M
4TASS7:
C#"+)5( M#/#&#6 2)- %,6($ ) 0(-&,6( (torzhestvennaya) +(3(.&,#$ ,$ B(+/,$...
IThe 2ussian adHecti3e is some#here ha$f,#ay 0et#een Ffesti3eF and Fso$emnF: ?t mi%ht
0e trans$ated as F A:?:!::K
L#$% 8(0#+( &'( )++,6)/ #0 ',- &+),$ )& &'( A$')/&(+ B)'$'#0, &'(+( ')5 )--("8/(5
#$ &'( -&)&,#$ ./)&0#+" &'( +(.+(-($&)&,6(- #0 6)+,#1- !(+")$ %#6(+$"($& #+%)$-,
&'( +(.+(-($&)&,6(- #0 &'( !(+")$ H,%' C#"")$5, &'( D,./#")&,3 C#+.- #0 B(+/,$,
"("8(+- #0 &'( S#6,(& E"8)--* )$5 T+)5( D(/(%)&,#$ )$5 0#+(,%$ )$5 !(+")$
:#1+$)/,-&-.
T'( ./)&0#+" 2)- 5(3#+)&(5 2,&' 0/#2(+- )$5 (6(+%+(($-, )$5 &'( "),$ ($&+)$3( #0
&'( -&)&,#$ 2,&' &'( S&)&( 0/)%- #0 !(+")$* )$5 &'( USSR. A// &'( )5:#,$,$% -&+((&-
2(+( 3+#25(5 2,&' .(#./( /#$% 8(0#+( &'( )++,6)/ #0 &'( &+),$.
C#"+)5( M#/#&#6 2)- "(& 8* #+(,%$ M,$,-&(+ 6#$ R,88($&+#.? C#"")$5(+ #0 &'(
OKW, !($(+)/ ,(/5-M)+-')/ K(,&(/? &'( '()5 #0 &'( L)8#1+ +#$&, D+ L(*? &'(
'()5 #0 &'( !(+")$ P#/,3(, H(++ H,""/(+? &'( '()5 #0 &'( !(+")$ !#6(+$"($&
P+(-- O00,3(, D+ D,(&+,3', S&)&( S(3+(&)+* W(,C-P3;(+, H(++ S&((%, &'( B1+%#")-&(+
#0 B(+/,$, )$5 ")$* #&'(+-.
H(++ 6#$ R,88($&+#. &'($ )33#".)$,(5 C#"+)5( M#/#&#6 &# ',- B(//(61(
+(-,5($3(. T'( !(+")$ .+(-- 1$)$,"#1-/* 3#$-,5(+- &'( )++,6)/ #0 C#"+)5(
M#/#&#6 )- ) 0)3& #0 0,+-&-+)&( .#/,&,3)/ ,".#+&)$3(.
IPravda, ;o3em0er 136 194":K
And then:
I$ &'( )0&(+$##$ #0 N#6("8(+ 1M ) 3#$6(+-)&,#$ &##; ./)3( ,$ &'( $(2 C')$3(//(+*
8(&2(($ &'( R(,3'-;)$C/(+ #0 !(+")$*, H(++ H,&/(+ )$5 C#"+)5( M#/#&#6, ,$ &'(
.+(-($3( #0 R,88($&+#. )$5 &'( D(.1&* #+(,%$ C#"",--)+, A. !. D(;)$#C#6. T'(
3#$6(+-)&,#$ /)-&(5 "#+( &')$ &2# '#1+-.
IPravda, ;o3em0er 136 194":K
@n the fo$$o#in% day6 accordin% to Pravda, Mo$oto3 had further con3ersations in Ber$in6
and $eft in the mornin% of ;o3em0er 14: The fo$$o#in% communi=uN #as +u0$ished:
I$ &'( 3#1+-( #0 ',- 6,-,& &# B(+/,$ #$ N#6("8(+ 1M-1@, #+(,%$ C#"",--)+ A. M.
M#/#&#6 ')5 ) 3#$6(+-)&,#$ 2,&' &'( R(,3'-;)$C/(+, H(++ A5#/0 H,&/(+ )$5 #+(,%$
M,$,-&(+ H(++ 6#$ R,88($&+#.. T'( (B3')$%( #0 6,(2- &##; ./)3( ,$ )$ )&"#-.'(+(
#0 "1&1)/ &+1-& )$5 (-&)8/,-'(5 "1&1)/ 3#".+('($-,#$ #$ )// &'( ,".#+&)$&
91(-&,#$- 3#$3(+$,$% &'( USSR )$5 !(+")$*. A. M. M#/#&#6 )/-# ')5 )
3#$6(+-)&,#$ 2,&' R(,3'-")+-3')// !#(+,$% )$5 )$#&'(+ 2,&' H(++ H,&/(+<- 5(.1&*
)& &'( '()5 #0 &'( N)&,#$)/-S#3,)/,-& P)+&*, H(++ R15#/0 H(--.
O$ N#6("8(+ 1@, A. M. M#/#&#6 ')5 ) 0,$)/ 3#$6(+-)&,#$ 2,&' H(++ 6#$
R,88($&+#..
IPravda, ;o3em0er 1-:K
Then there #as another story on the Ffesti3e atmos+hereF in #hich Mo$oto3 #as seen off
from the Anha$ter Bahnhof: After 1" a:m: 2i00entro+ had co$$ected Mo$oto3 at the
Be$$e3ue !a$ace to accom+any him to the station: A%ain the station #as decorated #ith
f$a%s6 f$o#ers and e3er%reens6 and Mo$oto3 and 2i00entro+ re3ie#ed a %uard of honour:
A.)+& 0+#" R,88($&+#., M#/#&#6 )$5 ',- .)+&* 2(+( -(($ #00 8* R(,3'-",$,-&(+ D+
L(""(+-, H,""/(+, L(*, D,(&+,3', W(,C-P3;(+? H,""/(+<- 5(.1&*, D)/1(%(?
!($(+)/ T'#")- +(.+(-($&,$% K(,&(/ =(&3.>. C#"+)5( M#/#&#6 2)- )/-# -(($ #00 8*
"("8(+- #0 &'( S#6,(& E"8)--* )$5 T+)5( D(/(%)&,#$ ,$ B(+/,$, &# 2'#" '(
2)+"/* -),5 %##5-8*(. H)6,$% &')$;(5 H(++ 6#$ R,88($&+#. 0#+ &'( +(3(.&,#$ '(
')5 8(($ %,6($, C#"+)5( M#/#&#6 &'($ &##; /()6( #0 &'( +(.+(-($&)&,6(- #0 &'(
!(+")$ %#6(+$"($& 2'# ')5 3#"( &# -(( '," #00.
IPravda, ;o3em0er 1-:K
;othin% #as re3ea$ed at the time a0out the rea$ nature of the Mo$oto3,.it$er,2i00entro+
ta$<s and a$thou%h6 in the fina$ communi=uN6 there #as that +hrase a0out the Fmutua$
trustF6 2ussian readers had an uneasy fee$in% that somethin% #as not =uite ri%ht: There
#as a $itt$e too much a0out the f$o#ers and e3er%reens at the Anha$ter Bahnhof6 0ut no
mention of any Ffriend$y atmos+hereF in the first re+ort on the .it$er,Mo$oto3 meetin%6
e3en thou%h it had $asted Fmore than t#o hoursF:
5ou$d somethin% 0e read into the fact that 4eite$ had mere$y sent his de+uty to see
Mo$oto3 offE And into the fact that Mo$oto3 had said %ood,0ye F#arm$yF to the mem0ers
of the 2ussian Cm0assy6 0ut not to the 1ermansE
I!erha+s the F#armthF #as de$i0erate$y omitted in the account of Mo$oto3's $ea3e,ta<in%6
since the 1ermans +resent inc$uded such +articu$ar$y unsa3oury characters as .imm$er
and Da$ue%e: 5urious6 too6 #as the omission of any mention of Mo$oto3's second
meetin% #ith .it$er:K
;eed$ess to say6 there #as nothin% in the So3iet +a+ers a0out the British air,raid on
Ber$in6 #hich had forced 2i00entro+ and his %uest into a she$ter6 #here Mo$oto3 had
made one or t#o caustic remar<s: But these #ere to 0e =uoted in Mosco# su4 rosa
0efore $on%:
@n ;o3em0er 1J the So3iet +ress +rinted +hoto%ra+hs of Mo$oto3 and .it$er in the ne#
5hance$$eryL Mo$oto3 had a com+$ete$y noncommitta$ e8+ression6 and .it$er one of those
strained and oi$y semi,smi$es6 into #hich anythin% cou$d 0e read: Mo$oto3 $oo<ed much
the same in the +hoto%ra+h #ith 2i00entro+L 0ut the $atter at $east tried to $oo< a $itt$e
more cheerfu$: ?t #as e8act$y a month after the +u0$ication of these +hoto%ra+hs that
.it$er fina$$y decided on !$an Bar0arossa6 i:e: the in3asion of the So3iet *nion:
Mo$oto3's most unusua$ manner of ta$<in% to .it$er had certain$y somethin% to do #ith it:
A$thou%h .it$er had considered an attac< on 2ussia as ear$y as the summer of 194"6 his
fina$ decision #as not ta<en unti$ after his infuriatin% meetin%s #ith Mo$oto3:
C').&(+ AIII D1941E IT WILL BE A HAPPY YEARD
@n the face of it6 nothin% seemed to ha3e chan%ed in 2ussia as a resu$t of Mo$oto3's
;o3em0er 3isit to Ber$in: And yet6 a$$ <inds of stran%e ne#s items 0e%an to a++ear in the
+ress: for instance6 a TASS denia$6 on ;o3em0er 1)6 of an American re+ort that Ba+an
had offered the So3iet *nion the #ho$e or +art of ?ndia in e8chan%e for Castern Si0eriaD
a curious coincidence6 to say the $east6 so soon after .it$er's mention of ?ndia to Mo$oto3:
Then6 for t#o days (;o3em0er 1),17)6 Pravda ran6 for no a++arent reason6 t#o #ho$e
+a%es 0y AndrN Maurois on F9hy France ost the 9arF6 #hich for a$$ their cry+to,
Aichyism6 #ere scarce$y +ro,1erman: @n the ne8t day there #as a story a0out 4""6"""
Frenchmen 0ein% thro#n 0y the 1ermans out of orraine6 and there #ere numerous
re+orts of FFamine in !arisF: There #ere further su%%estions of the So3iet *nion not
0ein% rea$$y sym+athetic to the A8is !o#ersL thus6 on ;o3em0er 1J6 TASS denied a
1erman story that .un%ary had Hoined the 1erman,?ta$ian,Ba+an a8is F#ith the a++ro3a$
and encoura%ement of the So3iet *nionF: Then6 as $ater6 there #ere fre=uent accounts of
1erman air,raids on Cn%$and (5o3entry6 Manchester6 etc:) and of the air 0$oc<ade of
Britain6 shi++in% $osses6 and so on:
@ne of the +ecu$iarities of the So3iet,1erman !act #as that it +ro3ided for no Fcu$tura$F
contacts 0et#een the t#o countries6 and one of the fe# manifestations of a hei%htened
2ussian interest in 1erman Kultur #as Cisenstein's +roduction6 on ;o3em0er &&6 194"6
of the $al*Mre at the Bo$shoi Theatre: A +ecu$iarity of this Cisenstein +roduction #as his
ori%ina$ and uncon3entiona$ treatment of the 9a%ner o+eraD#ith +antomime effects
introduced6 for instance6 in Act ? to i$$ustrate Sie%mund's narrati3e: Mem0ers of the
1erman Cm0assy #ho attended the premiNre referred to the Fde$i0erate Be#ish tric<sF
#ith #hich Cisenstein had desecrated the Master's #or<: But6 on the other hand6
Sie%$inde #as sun% 0y Mme S+i$$er6 #ho6 accordin% to Mosco# %ossi+6 #as Mo$oto3's
$ady,friend D+erha+s a su0t$e com+$iment to the 1ermans:
;othin% much ha++ened in Decem0er: There #ere the usua$ ce$e0rations of 5onstitution
Day6 and there #ere many se$f,con%ratu$atory artic$es sayin% that6 in 193J6 the So3iet
*nion had a +o+u$ation of 17" mi$$ion6 in 1939 one of 1J3 mi$$ion6 and in 194"6 one of
193 mi$$ion6 since the Ba$tic 2e+u0$ics had Hoined the *SS2 and Bessara0ia and
;orthern Bu<o3ina had 0een freed from Fthe yo<e of the 2umanian 0oyarsF:
The e$ections in the ne# 4are$o,Finnish 2e+u0$ic6 and in the 9estern *<raine and
Be$orussia $ater in Decem0er +ro3ed a Fda>>$in% 3ictory of the Sta$in B$oc of 5ommunist
and ;on,!arty 5andidatesF: The +ress a$so re+orted that at a Su+reme So3iet e$ection
meetin% at 5>erno#it>6 the candidate6 1enera$ 1: 4: Ohu,<o36 5ommander of the S+ecia$
4ie3 Mi$itary District6 had dec$ared to his 3oters: F*nder the #ise $eadershi+ of 5omrade
Sta$in6 our country has 0ecome the mi%htiest country in the #or$dFDa statement
stran%e$y contrastin% #ith the much more cautious #ords 1enera$ Ohu<o3 #as to use
on$y a fe# months $ater:
The +ress continued to dea$ in some detai$ #ith the situation in Britain6 #ith 5hurchi$$'s
statement that the dan%er of an in3asion #as not o3er6 #ith British 3ictories in the
9estern Desert and #ith ?ta$ian defeats in A$0ania: There #as a$so a re+ort of some
+articu$ar$y +o#erfu$ ne# American 0om0ersL a$to%ether6 much interest continued to 0e
sho#n in American aid to Britain: @ccasiona$$y6 there #ere a$so some more e8+$icit$y
anti,;a>i items $i<e this in Pravda of Decem0er 19: F.un%ary: A$$ Be#s (e8ce+t 36-"")
De+ri3ed of Aotin% 2i%hts:F
;e# (ear 1941 #as ce$e0rated in 2ussia #ith the usua$ e8u0erance and in the customary
ho$iday atmos+here6 com+$ete #ith the %iant ;e# (ear +arties for chi$dren6 and
ce$e0rations in mi$$ions of homes: The editoria$s in the +ress tried to sound hi%h$y
reassurin%: @n Decem0er 316 194" Pravda #rote: F9e can $oo< 0ac< on 194" #ith a
fee$in% of dee+ satisfaction::: As 5omrade 4a$inin said on ;o3em0er )6 our economic
+ro%ress resu$ted in an e$e3en +er cent increase of +roduction::: Much #as done in 194"
0y the !arty and the 1o3ernment to increase the mi$itary mi%ht of the *SS2 and the
defensi3e stren%th and mi$itary +re+aredness of the +eo+$e: There ha3e 0een %reat
im+ro3ements in the trainin% and education of the Army and ;a3y +ersonne$6 and
im+ortant #or< is 0ein% done in the mi$itary education of the ci3i$ian +o+u$ation6 and of
our youn% +eo+$e in +articu$ar::: ?n a$$ fie$ds our successes ha3e 0een stu+endous:F
And after reca$$in% once a%ain the incor+oration of ne# territories in the So3iet *nion6
the editoria$ conc$uded: F 1941 #i$$ 0e the fourth year of the third Sta$inist Fi3e,(ear
!$an: And as #e enter 19416 #hich #i$$ 0e a year of an e3en more tremendous
de3e$o+ment of our socia$ist economy6 the So3iet +eo+$e are $oo<in% into their future
cheerfu$$y and fu$$ of confidence:F
?ronica$$y6 durin% the ne8t fe# days6 the So3iet +ress s+o<e more and more fre=uent$y of
the +ossi0i$ity of a 1erman in3asion of Cn%$and6 $ar%e$y on the stren%th of s+ecu$ation in
the British +ress: 9as there here a touch of #ishfu$ thin<in%E C3en in Fe0ruary and
March this motif #as fre=uent$y to 0e found in the 2ussian +a+ers:
Since the Mo$oto3 3isit to Ber$in and6 e3en more so6 since the midd$e of Banuary6 the
2ussians had6 indeed6 more and more cause for uneasiness6 0ut they continued for as $on%
as +ossi0$e to ho+e that 1ermany #as sti$$ not interested in the Cast: @n Banuary 7 a
+hoto%ra+hDo03ious$y o$d6 and datin% from Se+tem0er 194"D#as +u0$ished in Pravda
sho#in% a cro#d of Cn%$ish chi$dren in a trench #atchin% an An%$o,1erman do%fi%ht in
the s<y: 9ou$d .it$er %et 0o%%ed do#n in the 9estE
.o#e3er6 a++earances had to 0e <e+t u+: @n Banuary 116 Pravda announced FAnother
Aictory of So3iet Forei%n !o$icyF: the si%nin% of the So3iet,1erman A%reement on the
State Frontier 0et#een the t#o countries6 a frontier runnin% from the ?%or<a ri3er to the
Ba$tic6 most$y throu%h Fformer !o$andF: There #as a +icture of Mo$oto3 and Schu$en0ur%
si%nin% the a%reement: The +u0$ication of the a%reement #as accom+anied 0y a
communi=uN on reci+roca$ +ro+erty c$aims in ithuania6 at3ia and Cstonia and on the
re+atriation of 1ermans from these countriesL as #e$$ as on a ne# Mi<oyan,Schnurre
economic a%reement: A$$ #as #e$$6 Pravda su%%ested:
T'( .+(-($& )%+(("($&, 8)-(5 #$ &'( S#6,(&-!(+")$ )%+(("($& #0 (8+1)+* 11,
194L, 3#6(+- &'( .(+,#5 0+#" (8+1)+* 11, 1941 &# A1%1-& 1, 194M )$5 ")+;- &'(
$(B& -&)%( ,$ &'( (3#$#",3 .+#%+)""( )..+#6(5 8* &'( S#6,(& )$5 !(+")$
!#6(+$"($&-. I& .+#6,5(- 0#+ ) "13' /)+%(+ 6#/1"( #0 &+)5( &')$ &')& .+#6,5(5 0#+
51+,$% &'( .+(6,#1- .(+,#5. T'( USSR 2,// -($5 ,$51-&+,)/ +)2 ")&(+,)/-, #,/
.+#513&- )$5 0##5-&100-, .)+&,31/)+/* %+),$... !(+")$* 2,// -($5 1- ,$51-&+,)/
(91,."($&. T',- $(2 (3#$#",3 )%+(("($& #0 J)$1)+* 1L, 1941 ")+;- ) %+()& -&(.
0#+2)+5.
The e8act 3o$ume and nature of this trade #as <e+t dar< at the time6 and e3en today it
remains one of the more o0scure as+ects of the $ast #ar: There are conf$ictin% 3ie#s as to
the contri0ution these 2ussian su++$ies made to 1ermany's #ar economy: 5ertain
1erman studies ha3e tended to e8a%%erate their im+ortance6 #hi$e the 2ussians ha3e
tried6 on the contrary6 to minimise them: More recent$y !rofessor Friedens0ur% of the
9est 1erman Deutsches Institut "Mr $irt %cha"ts"orschung +u0$ished a detai$ed study on
the su0Hect: Accordin% to him6 1ermany recei3ed from the So3iet *nion 0et#een Banuary
16 194" and Bune &&6 1941 rou%h$y the fo$$o#in% de$i3eries: 1:- mi$$ion tons of %rain6
1""6""" tons of cotton6 & mi$$ion tons of +etro$eum +roducts6 1:- mi$$ion tons of tim0er6
14"6""" tons of man%anese and &)6""" tons of chromium:
The $ast t#o items #ere of course of %reat im+ortance to 1ermany's #ar industry at the
time #hen the British 0$oc<ade had de+ri3ed it of many of its customary sources of
su++$y: Accordin% to Friedens0ur%6 2ussia had not su++$ied them 0efore the So3iet,
1erman !act had come into force: .e a$so c$aims that the 2ussians had reso$d to
1ermany co++er 0ou%ht from the *nited States: @n the other hand6 the 2ussians seem to
ha3e recei3ed fair$y $itt$e in return: Accordin% to the same author6 1erman statistics for
that +eriod sho# a 0a$ance of &39 mi$$ion 2eichsmar<s in the 2ussians' fa3our6 #hi$e the
2ussian statistics for 194" sho#ed a 0a$ance of 3J" mi$$ion rou0$es a$so in their fa3our6 a
sum #hich the .it$er rN%ime had ne3er +aid and #hich the author asserts the 2ussians
themse$3es refrained from c$aimin% after the #ar6 su%%estin% that they found it more
con3enient to for%et a0out it:
Durin% May and Bune 1941 #hen Sta$in dreaded more than e3er a 1erman attac<6
im+ortant ra# materia$s such as co++er and ru00er #ere 0ein% rushed to 1ermany 0y
e8+ress trains from the Cast and the Far Cast to <ee+ .it$er ha++y in an effort of
Fa++easementF that #as as frantic as it #as futi$e: A fe# #ee<s $ater this co++er6 after
+rocessin%6 #as used to <i$$ thousands of 2ussians:
So6 on the surface6 a$$ seemed #e$$ on Banuary 1" #hen the ne# economic a%reement #as
si%ned #ith 1ermanyDan a%reement #hich co3ered the +eriod u+ to Au%ust 16 194&D
0y #hich time the 1ermans #ere #e$$ on their #ay to Sta$in%rad and the 5aucasus:
But on$y three days $ater a ne# <ind of rot started: Pravda +u0$ished the fo$$o#in%
ominous statement: FThe forei%n +ress has su%%ested that #e had a++ro3ed the entry of
1erman troo+s into Bu$%aria: ?f there are 1erman troo+s in Bu$%aria6 they are there
#ithout our consent: 9e #ere ne3er consu$ted:F ?t had no# 0ecome c$ear that the
1ermans had ta<en no notice of Mo$oto3's +$ea that the FCastern Ba$<ansF #ere a So3iet
s+here of interest: (et6 if the 2ussians #ere annoyed they sti$$ sho#ed it on$y 0y sma$$
+etu$ant +in+ric<s: Thus6 for no o03ious immediate reason6 they attac<ed 4nut .amsun6
ca$$in% him a Frottin% cor+seF #ho did not share his fe$$o#,;or#e%ians' hearty dis$i<e for
1erman ru$e: FAnd to thin< that this cor+seDrottin% a$i3eDused to 0e a hi%h$y +o+u$ar
author in our country'F
I Pravda5 Banuary &-6 1941:K
.it$er's s+eech of Banuary 3" #as du$y re+orted: .e said that the outcome of the #ar had
a$ready 0een sett$ed in 194"L that an a$$,out *,0oat #ar a%ainst Cn%$and #ou$d start in the
s+rin%6 and that the Americans #ere F#astin% their timeF: But #hat struc< the 2ussians
most #as that there #as no mention of the So3iet *nion: Moreo3er6 there #as that
ominous $itt$e +hrase at the end: F? ha3e ca$cu$ated e3ery concei3a0$e +ossi0i$ity:F Sta$in
<ne# that6 0y no#6 his Decem0er F+ro+osa$sF had 0een i%nored 0y .it$er:
Mosco#'s ner3ousness +roduced stran%e resu$ts: @n Banuary 3" there #as an u*ase of the
!residium of the Su+reme So3iet a++ointin% Beria6 head of the ;4AD6 F1enera$
5ommissar of State SecurityFL a fe# days $ater the !eo+$e's 5ommissariat of the ?nterior
(;4AD) #as turned into t#o different commissariatsD?nterior (;4AD) under : !:
Beria and Security (;4B) under A: ;: Mer<u,$o3:
The +hrase Fmo0i$isationa$ +re+arednessF <e+t recurrin% o3er and o3er a%ain in
+ro+a%anda and the +ressL the u*ase of the +re3ious Bune on $a0our disci+$ine #as 0ein%
more and more ri%id$y enforced6 Fs$ac<ersF and a0sentees in industry 0ein% su0Hected to
ruth$ess +unishmentL %reat attention #as 0ein% %i3en to the trainin% of youn% +eo+$e for
industry in a net#or< of esta0$ishments $i<e rai$#ay and FO@ (factory) schoo$s #ith their
)""6""" +u+i$s: These youn% +eo+$e #ere intended to 0ecome an im+ortant $a0our
reser3e in the %reat nationa$ emer%ency:
?n the midd$e of Fe0ruary6 at the 1Jth A$$,*nion 5onference of the !arty6 $on%6 detai$ed
and rather critica$ re+orts #ere +roduced 0y Ma$en<o3 on the FSuccesses and
Shortcomin%s of ?ndustry and 2ai$#aysF6 0y ;: Ao>nesens<y on the F1enera$ !ro%ress of
the Cconomy of the *SS2 in 1941 F6 and so on:
The usua$ %$orification of the Fin3inci0$eF 2ed Army6 referred to as recent$y as Decem0er
194" 0y Ohu<o3 as Fthe mi%htiest army in the #or$dF6 %a3e #ay to a more so0er and
critica$ assessment: @n 2ed Army Day6 Fe0ruary &36 19416 the same 1enera$ Ohu<o3
c$ear$y su%%ested in an artic$e in Pravda that the Army #as under%oin% a +rocess of
transformation6 #hich had not yet 0een com+$eted6 and that thin%s #ere sti$$ far from
+erfect: 19416 he #rote6 #ou$d 0e the year of the F%reat chan%eF 6perelom7 in the 2ed
Army6 the year of Fthe reconstruction of the #ho$e system of the so$diers' trainin% and
educationF: .e con%ratu$ated himse$f on the chan%es that had a$ready 0een made since
the Finnish 9ar6 and +ointed out that in Au%ust 194" the officer's Fsin%$e commandF had
0een restored6 #hich meant that the officer #as no $on%er under the thum0 of the
commissarL as a resu$t the status6 res+onsi0i$ity and authority of the officers had 0een
%reat$y increased: This6 Ohu<o3 em+hasised6 #as the Fessentia$ foundationF on #hich the
other reforms #ou$d 0e 0ui$t:
.e stressed the im+ortance of mi$itary F+rofessiona$ismF and attri0uted the s+ectacu$ar
defeat of the French Army in 194" $ar%e$y to the French so$diers' $o# standard of
trainin%6 and to their un,fami$iarity #ith modern #ea+ons: ?n the 2ed Army such Fs$o++i,
nessF #ou$d not 0e to$erated: FAn im+eria$ist #ar is ra%in% round us: ?n the
reconstruction of our system of mi$itary trainin% #e ha3e achie3ed some un=uestiona0$e
successes: The trainin% is ta<in% +$ace in near,com0at conditions6 and #e ha3e im+ro3ed
the tactica$ s<i$$ of our troo+sL 0ut it #ou$d 0e a %ra3e error to 0e smu% and com+$acent
a0out itL much sti$$ remains to 0e done:F
The #ho$e artic$e6 #ithout soundin% a$armist6 ne3erthe$ess 0etrayed a certain fee$in% of
uneasiness6 thou%h it is im+ossi0$e to say #hether a man $i<e Ohu<o3 antici+ated a
1erman in3asion on$y four months $aterL the #ho$e su%%estion under$yin% his artic$e #as
that the F%reat chan%eF in the 2ed Army #as a fair$y $on%,term affair #hich #as not
$i<e$y to 0e com+$eted unti$ 194&:
?n rea$ity the internationa$ situation in Fe0ruary 1941 #as a$ready ra+id$y deterioratin%
from the 2ussian +oint of 3ie#: The 0i% =uestion #as #hether .it$er #ou$d mo3e #est or
east:
@n Fe0ruary 1)6 the So3iet +ress =uoted The TimesD#ith some re$ief6 one may sus+ect
Don the continued dan%er of a 1erman in3asion of Cn%$andL on Fe0ruary &- it re+orted
another .it$er s+eech +romisin% more 3ictories o3er the British6 0ut a%ain6 as on Banuary
3"6 there #as no mention o" the %oviet &nion5 And then the trou0$e in the Ba$<ans started
in rea$ earnest: @n March 36 Andrei Ayshins<y6 De+uty Forei%n 5ommissar6 informed the
Bu$%arian 1o3ernment that he Fdisa%reedF #ith its decision to $et 1erman troo+s enter
Bu$%aria Fto +rotect +eace in the Ba$<ansF: F@n the contrary6F Ayshins<y said6 F#e
consider that this measure #i$$ mere$y e8tend the area of conf$ict to the Ba$<ans6 and the
So3iet 1o3ernment cannot6 therefore6 su++ort the Bu$%arian 1o3ernment's +o$icy:F This
#as 0$unt enou%hL it #as6 in fact6 the first o+en and officia$ c$ash 0et#een So3iet and
1erman interests:
There #ere no# 1erman troo+s in .un%ary6 Bu$%aria and 2umania: But on March &7
there #as a +o+u$ar u+risin% in Be$%rade a%ainst (u%os$a3ia 0ecomin% a 1erman sate$$ite
#ith the conni3ance of its ru$ers: A %rou+ of officers6 #ith 1enera$ Simo3ic at their head6
had or%anised the coup, #hich too< +$ace t#o days after !remier 53et<o3ic and his
Forei%n Minister6 #ith !rince !au$'s 0$essin%6 had si%ned in Aienna an a%reement Hoinin%
the Tri+artite !act 0et#een 1ermany6 ?ta$y and Ba+an: The Simo3ic re3o$t aroused %reat
+o+u$ar enthusiasm amon%st the Ser0s and incensed .it$er:
Thin<in% no dou0t that the 1ermans #ou$d sti$$ Frec<onF #ith the So3iet *nion6 and
o03ious$y una#are of .it$er's decision to in3ade (u%os$a3ia6 the So3iet 1o3ernment
hastened to conc$ude a Friendshi+ and ;on,A%%ression !act #ith the ne# (u%os$a3
1o3ernment: Si%nificant$y6 it did not dare +ro+ose to (u%os$a3ia a Mutua$ Assistance
!act #hich #ou$d ha3e committed 2ussia to immediate mi$itary action6 shou$d 1ermany
attac<: Sta$in and Mo$oto3 #ere #ron% if they thou%ht that such =ua$ified su++ort #ou$d
fri%hten off .it$er:
@n A+ri$ - the Friendshi+ and ;on,A%%ression !act #as so$emn$y si%ned in Mosco# in
the +resence of Forei%n Minister Simic6 Am0assador 1a0ri$o3ic and t#o of his assistants
on the (u%os$a3 side and Mo$oto36 Sta$in and Ayshins<y on the 2ussian side: ess than
t#enty,four hours $ater the 1ermans in3aded (u%os$a3ia and the uft#affe dro++ed
thousands of 0om0s on defence$ess Be$%rade: @n A+ri$ 76 Pravda carried on its 0ac<
+a%e6 and in uns+ectacu$ar ty+e6 a TASS messa%e from Ber$in sayin% that 1ermany had
dec$ared #ar on (u%os$a3ia and 1reece and that the 1erman Army had started mi$itary
o+erations a%ainst these t#o countries: The massi3e 0om0in% of Be$%radeD.it$er's
re3en%e for the Funheard,ofF affront he had sufferedD#as +$ayed do#nDe3en thou%h6
as time #as to sho#6 (u%os$a3ia's %a$$ant re3o$t and tra%ic resistance +ro3identia$$y
de$ayed the in3asion of 2ussia 0y a fe# #ee<s:
There #as no officia$ 2ussian reaction to the 1erman in3asion of (u%os$a3ia: A$$ the
So3iet Forei%n 5ommissariat dared to do in the ne8t fe# days #as to instruct Ayshins<y
to inform the .un%arian Am0assador that Fthe So3iet *nion cou$d not a++ro3e of
.un%ary's attac< on (u%os$a3iaF:
@n A+ri$ 11 the So3iet +ress re+orted 5hurchi$$'s s+eech sayin% that6 for se3era$ months
+ast6 the 1ermans had concentrated $ar%e armoured and other forces in Bu$%aria6 .un%ary
and 2umania: But it refrained from any comment and6 for the ne8t fe# #ee<s6 it re+orted
in a routine and Fo0Hecti3eF <ind of #ay the 1ermans' +ro%ress in (u%os$a3ia6 1reece
and 5rete: There #ere no $amentations o3er the tra%ic fate of the (u%os$a3s #ith #hom a
Friendshi+ !act had so recent$y 0een si%ned: A sho#do#n #ith .it$er seemed ine3ita0$eL
Sta$in's and Mo$oto3's one aim no# #as to +ut off the e3i$ hourDat any +rice:
C').&(+ IX THE LAST WEEKS O PEACE
?n So3iet no3e$s and fi$ms +roduced 0oth durin% and since the 9ar6 the ne#s of the
?n3asion of Bune &&6 1941 is often re+resented as a com+$ete sur+rise: Fife #as so
+eacefu$ and ha++y6 and #e #ere +re+arin% to %o on ho$iday #hen sudden$y6 on that
$o3e$y Sunday:::F @dd$y enou%h6 that is +recise$y #hat ha++ened to a %reat many ordinary
So3iet citi>ens6 #ho had 0een conditioned for years into thin<in% that the 2ed Army #as
the finest army in the #or$d6 and that Ctit$er #ou$d ne3er dare attac< 2ussia: @thers6 more
so+histicated6 reacted the #ay the hero of Simono3's no3e$6 The (iving and the Dead did:
F?t seemed that e3ery0ody had 0een e8+ectin% the #ar for a $on% time and yet6 at the $ast
moment6 it came $i<e a 0o$t from the 0$ueL it #as a++arent$y im+ossi0$e to +re+are onese$f
in ad3ance for such an enormous misfortune:F But the +o$itica$$y minded +eo+$e in
2ussia must ha3e <no#n for some time that the dan%er of #ar #as immense6 and there
can 0e no dou0t that the in3asion of (u%os$a3ia must ha3e dee+$y sha<en 0oth Sta$in and
Mo$oto3:
For some months +ast6 the 4rem$in had 0een recei3in% s+ecific and %ra3e #arnin%s: As
ear$y as Fe0ruary6 after his 3isit to An<ara6 Sir Stafford 1ri++s had to$d the So3iet
Forei%n 5ommissariat that the 1ermans #ere +re+arin% to in3ade the Ba$<ans and that
they #ere a$so +$annin% an attac< on the So3iet *nion Fin the near futureF: A0out the
same time6 simi$ar information had 0een %i3en 0y Sumner 9e$$es to 4onstantin
@umans<y6 the So3iet Am0assador in 9ashin%ton: And then6 in A+ri$6 there #as
5hurchi$$'s famous messa%e to Sta$in:
?n the +ost,#ar Histor! these #arnin%s are treated some#hat un%racious$yDthey #ere
Fnot disinterested #arnin%sF6 the su%%estion 0ein% that the British and Americans #ere
mere$y tryin% to dra% the 2ussians into the #ar and turn them into FCn%$and's so$diersF:
?nstead6 the Histor! c$aims that So3iet ?nte$$i%ence in !o$and6 5>echos$o3a<ia and e3en
1ermany had <e+t the %o3ernment fu$$y informed on #hat #as %oin% on:
Be that as it may6 it seems certain that Mo$oto3 and Sta$in #ere 0oth fu$$y a#are of the
dan%er of a 1erman attac< 0ut sti$$ ho+ed that they cou$d +ut off the e3i$ hourDat $east
ti$$ the autumn6 #hen the 1ermans #ou$d not attac<L and then 0y 194&6 2ussia #ou$d 0e
0etter +re+ared for #ar:
2ussia's Friendshi+ !act #ith (u%os$a3ia had not deterred .it$erL it had turned out a
$amenta0$e fiasco: True6 there had 0een a num0er of su0t$e $itt$e Fanti,1ermanF
demonstrations 0efore thatDa fe# +in+ric<s in the +ress6 as #e ha3e seen6 and a fe#
other $itt$e demonstrations6 such as the a#ard of a Sta$in !ri>e in March 1941 to
Cisenstein's ferocious$y anti,1erman fi$m6 /le2ander 3evs*!, as #e$$ as to some other
stron%$y,nationa$ist and im+$icit$y Fanti,in3aderF #or<s $i<e A$e8ei To$stoy's no3e$6 Peter
I, Sha+orin's oratorio6 The Field o" Kuli*ovo, and Ser%eie3,Tsens<y's no3e$ on the Sie%e
of Se0asto+o$: Behind the scenes at the end of March6 Manui$s<y6 Aice,!resident of the
5omintern6 had e3en dec$ared that6 in his o+inion6 Fa #ar #ith ;a>i 1ermany cou$d no#
scarce$y 0e a3oidedF: The story %ot round Mosco#: Better sti$$6 in March a num0er of
2ussian officers of Timoshen<o's entoura%e had in3ited the British Mi$itary AttachN to a
+arty: The con3ersation had 0een %uarded and non,committa$ unti$ the atmos+here had
#armed u+D no dou0t he$+ed 0y the 3od<aDand6 in the end6 some of the officers #ent
so far as to drin< to Fthe 3ictory o3er our common enemyF:
?n the course of the e3enin% they had made no secret of their dee+ concern a0out the
%enera$ situation6 es+ecia$$y in the Ba$<ans:
I.a3in% heard a0out this6 ? as<ed 5ri++s in Mosco# in Bu$y 1941 #hether it #as true:
F(es6 that is6 rou%h$y6 #hat ha++ened: ?t #as certain$y somethin% of a +ointer: ?t #as a$$
the more si%nificant since ?6 as Am0assador6 continued to 0e as %ood as 0oycotted 0y
0oth Sta$in and Mo$oto3:F The story #as a$so $ater confirmed to me 0y 5o$one$ C: 2:
1reer6 the British Mi$itary AttachN6 thou%h he #as uncertain a0out the e8act date of the
incident:K
@fficia$$y6 no dou0t6 0oth Sta$in and Mo$oto3 had to %o on +retendin% that they #ere not
fri%htened: After the si%nin% of the So3iet,(u%os$a3 !act 1a0ri$o3ic6 (u%os$a3
Am0assador in Mosco# (as he $ater to$d me himse$f)6 as<ed Sta$in: F9hat #i$$ ha++en if
the 1ermans turn on youEF To #hich Sta$in re+$ied: FA$$ ri%ht6 $et them comePF
@n A+ri$ 13Dthe day Be$%rade fe$$Dthe So3iet,Ba+anese ;on,A%%ression !act #as
si%ned: ?t #as a dou0tfu$ insurance6 0ut sti$$ an insurance that the 2ussians too< in 3ie#
of the %ro#in% 1erman menace: C3ery0ody in Mosco# #as start$ed 0y Sta$in's
e8traordinary dis+$ay of cordia$ity to Matsuo<a6 the Ba+anese Forei%n Minister6 #ho had
come from Ber$in to Mosco# to si%n the !act: .e too< the un+recedented ste+ of seein%
Matsuo<a off himse$f at the rai$#ay station: .e em0raced him and said: F9e are Asiatics6
too6 and #e'3e %ot to stic< to%etherP F To ha3e secured Ba+anese neutra$ity in these
conditions6 and the +romise 0y Ba+an not to attac< 2ussia re%ard$ess of any commitments
she had si%ned F#ith third +artiesF #as6 in Sta$in's eyes6 no mean achie3ement: As $on% as
Ba+an stuc< to her #ord6 it meant the a3oidance of a t#o,front #ar6 if 1ermany attac<ed:
@n that station +$atform Sta$in #as in an unusua$$y e8u0erant mood6 e3en sha<in% the
hands of rai$#aymen and tra3e$$ers as he #a$<ed do#n the +$atform arm,in,arm #ith
Matsuo<a:
True6 he a$so thre# his arm round the nec< of 5o$one$ 3on 4re0s6 the 1erman Mi$itary
AttachN6 #ho had a$so come to see Matsuo<a off6 sayin% F9e are %oin% to remain friends6
#on't #eEF But #hat mattered most to Sta$in that day #as his +act #ith Ba+an: Sta$in had
no %reat i$$usions a0out the 1ermans: Si%nificant$y6 at the end of A+ri$6 he te$e+honed
?$ya Chren0ur% sayin% that his anti,;a>i no3e$6 The Fall o" Paris, cou$d no# 0e
+u0$ished: (Chren0ur% conc$uded from this ca$$ that6 in Sta$in's 3ie#6 #ar #ith 1ermany
#as no# ine3ita0$e:)
@n May Day6 there #as a +articu$ar$y im+ressi3e mi$itary +arade in 2ed S=uare6
com+$ete #ith motorised units6 many ne# 4A and T,34 tan<s6 and hundreds of +$anes: ?t
#as rumoured in Mosco# that a$$ these troo+s #ere on their #ay to Mins<6 enin%rad
and the !o$ish 0order: Am0assador 5ount Schu$en0ur% noted on May & that the tension in
Mosco# #as %ro#in%6 and that the rumours of a So3iet,1erman #ar #ere 0ecomin%
increasin%$y +ersistent: @n that day .it$er made his s+eech on the Ba$<an cam+ai%nL as in
his t#o +re3ious s+eeches6 there #as a%ain no mention of the So3iet *nion:
@n May - a rece+tion #as %i3en in the 4rem$in to hundreds of youn% officers6 ne#
%raduates of the mi$itary academies: Sta$in s+o<e at this meetin%: @fficia$$y6 nothin% #as
disc$osed 0eyond #hat Pravda #as to #rite on the fo$$o#in% day: The artic$e #as
entit$ed: F9e must 0e +re+ared to dea$ #ith any sur+rises:F F?n his s+eech6 5omrade
Sta$in noted the +rofound chan%es that had ta<en +$ace in the 2ed Army in the $ast fe#
years6 and em+hasised that6 on the stren%th of the e8+erience of modern #ar6 its
or%anisation had under%one im+ortant chan%es6 and it had 0een su0stantia$$y re,e=ui++ed:
5omrade Sta$in #e$comed the officers #ho had %raduated from the mi$itary academies
and #ished them a$$ success in their #or<: .e s+o<e for forty minutes and #as $istened to
#ith e8ce+tiona$$y %reat attention:F
@03ious$y he had said much more than that in "ort! minutes5
After the out0rea< of the #ar6 ? #as %i3en a fair$y detai$ed account of this meetin%6 to
#hich %reat im+ortance #as attached in Mosco# at the time: ? %athered that the main
+oints that Sta$in had then made #ere these:
17 T'( -,&1)&,#$ ,- (B&+("(/* -(+,#1-, )$5 ) !(+")$ )&&)3; ,$ &'( $()+ 01&1+( ,- $#&
&# 8( +1/(5 #1&. T'(+(0#+(, D8( .+(.)+(5 &# 5()/ 2,&' )$* -1+.+,-(-D.
M7 T'( R(5 A+"* ,- $#&, '#2(6(+, -100,3,($&/* -&+#$% &# -")-' &'( !(+")$- ()-,/*?
,&- (91,."($& ,- -&,// 0)+ 0+#" -)&,-0)3&#+*? ,& ,- -&,// -100(+,$% 0+#" ) -(+,#1- -'#+&)%(
#0 "#5(+$ &)$;-, "#5(+$ ./)$(- )$5 "13' (/-(. T'( &+),$,$% #0 /)+%( ")--(- #0
-#/5,(+- ,- -&,// 0)+ 0+#" ')6,$% 8(($ 3#"./(&(5. T'( 0+#$&,(+ 5(0($3(- ,$ &'( $(2
&(++,&#+,(- )+( 0)+ 0+#" %##5.
@7 T'( S#6,(& !#6(+$"($& 2,// &+*, 8* )// &'( 5,./#")&,3 "()$- )& ,&- 5,-.#-)/, &#
.1& #00 ) !(+")$ )&&)3; #$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ )& /()-& &,// &'( )1&1"$, 8* 2',3' &,"(
,& 2,// 8( &## /)&( 0#+ &'( !(+")$- &# )&&)3;. I& ")*, #+ ")* $#&, -133((5.
47 I0 ,& -133((5-, &'($, almost inevitably, &'( 2)+ 2,&' N)C, !(+")$* 2,// 8( 0#1%'&
,$ 194ME,$ "13' "#+( 0)6#1+)8/( 3#$5,&,#$-, -,$3( &'( R(5 A+"* 2,// ')6( 8(($
8(&&(+ &+),$(5, )$5 2,// ')6( 0)+ "#+( 1.-&#-5)&( (91,."($&. D(.($5,$% #$ &'(
,$&(+$)&,#$)/ -,&1)&,#$, &'( R(5 A+"* 2,// (,&'(+ 2),& 0#+ ) !(+")$ )&&)3;, #+ ,&
")* ')6( &# &);( &'( ,$,&,)&,6(, -,$3( &'( .(+.(&1)&,#$ #0 N)C, !(+")$* )- &'(
5#",$)$& .#2(+ ,$ E1+#.( ,- D$#& $#+")/D.
57 E$%/)$5 ,- $#& 0,$,-'(5, )$5 &'( 2(,%'& #0 &'( A"(+,3)$ 2)+ .#&($&,)/ ,- /,;(/* &#
3#1$& "#+( )$5 "#+(. T'(+( ,- ) 6(+* %##5 3')$3( &')&, )0&(+ &'( -,%$,$% #0 &'( N#$-
A%%+(--,#$ P)3& 2,&' J).)$, &')& 3#1$&+* 2,// -&)* 91,(& )- 0)+ )- &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ ,-
3#$3(+$(5.
Sta$in reiterated that the +eriod Ffrom no# ti$$ Au%ustF #as the most dan%erous of a$$:
I? ha3e com+i$ed this from se3era$ 2ussian 3er0a$ sourcesL a$$ of them a%reed in the main6
and +articu$ar$y on one of the most im+ortant +oints: Sta$in's con3iction that the #ar
#ou$d Fa$most ine3ita0$yF 0e fou%ht in 194&6 #ith the 2ussians +ossi0$y ha3in% to ta<e
the initiati3e:K
?mmediate$y fo$$o#in% this Sta$in s+eech to the youn% officers6 there #as a succession of
des+erate 2ussian attem+ts to Fa++easeF the 1ermans in order to at $east +ost+one the
in3asion6 if there #as to 0e one: @n May ) an u*ase of the !residium of the Su+reme
So3iet a++ointed Sta$in6 unti$ then Fon$yF Secretary,1enera$ of the !arty6 !resident of the
5ounci$ of !eo+$e's 5ommissars6 i:e: head of the So3iet 1o3ernment: Mo$oto3 0ecame
De+uty,!resident6 #hi$st remainin% at the same time Forei%n 5ommissar:
The %enera$ +u0$ic6 not unnatura$$y6 sa# a dan%er si%na$ in this a++ointment of Sta$in as
head of the %o3ernmentL in more norma$ conditions this #ou$d not ha3e ha++ened: @ne
of the men most im+ressed 0y this %o3ernment chan%e #as 5ount Schu$en0ur% #ho6 in a
series of dis+atches to Ber$in6 ar%ued that Sta$in #as the most determined o++onent of
any conf$ict #ith 1ermany: But his counse$s of moderation fe$$ on deaf ears in Ber$inL
.it$er had decided $on% a%o to attac< 2ussia6 re%ard$ess of #hat Schu$en0ur%6 an
e8+onent of the traditiona$ Bismarc<ian Hstpoliti*, thou%ht or ad3ised:
The ne8t fe# #ee<s #ere mar<ed 0y a <ind of co$d,footed o++ortunism on Sta$in's +artL
to im+ress .it$er #ith his Ffriend$inessF and Fso$idarityF he too< such incon%ruous and
%ratuitous ste+s as c$osin% do#n the em0assies and $e%ations of countries no# occu+ied
0y the 1ermans6 such as Be$%ium6 1reece and (u%os$a3ia6 #hich im+$ied a sort of de
"acto, if not de 8ure reco%nition of their con=uest 0y 1ermany:
I This measure #as6 of course6 not e8tended to the French FAichyF Cm0assy in Mosco#
#hich had e8isted since 194": The Am0assador #as the erst#hi$e $eft,#in% +o$itician
1aston Ber%ery6 #hose American #ife6 a former Schia+are$$i mode$6 #ou$d te$$ 2ussians
ho# nice !aris #as under the 1erman occu+ation: "(es /llemands sont tellement
corrects5"G
For %ood measure6 the strictest instructions #ere reiterated to the mi$itary authorities in
the frontier areas and e$se#here on no account to shoot do#n any of the numerous
1erman reconnaissance +$anes f$yin% o3er So3iet territory: ?n May 19416 the So3iet
1o3ernment #ent so far as to %i3e officia$ reco%nition to the short,$i3ed +ro,1erman and
anti,British %o3ernment of 2ashid A$i in ?ra<Da country #ith #hich the So3iet *nion
had not had any di+$omatic re$ations 0efore:
A$so in May6 on$y a fe# days after Sta$in had 0ecome head of the %o3ernment6 the
2ussians #ere +u>>$ed and a$armed 0y the start$in% ne#s of .ess's arri3a$ in Britain: The
ne#s #as +resented in a hi%h$y confusin% manner: TASS re+orted from Ber$in on May 1&
that6 accordin% to the 1ermans6 .ess had F%one insaneFL 0ut this #as not 0orne out 0y
TASS dis+atches from ondon6 and the sus+icion immediate$y arose of an An%$o,
1erman dea$Dneed$ess to say6 at 2ussia's e8+ense:
.o#e3er6 the So3iet +ress said 3ery $itt$e a0out .essL he #as an a#<#ard su0Hect at a
time #hen to+ +riority had to 0e %i3en to the de3e$o+ment of cordia$ re$ations #ith ;a>i
1ermany: C3erythin% #as done to <ee+ the 1ermans ha++y6 and considera0$e =uantities
of oi$ and other materia$s in short su++$y #ere rushed to 1ermany #ithout +ressin% for
the de$i3ery of industria$ e=ui+ment from 1ermany due to 2ussia under the Trade
A%reement:
9hereas Schu$en0ur% remained amica0$e in his ta$<s #ith Mo$oto36 the 1erman
1o3ernment's res+onse to Sta$in's friend$y economic and di+$omatic %estures #as
+recise$y ni$: ?t seems6 therefore6 that it #as in sheer des+eration thatDe8act$y a #ee<
0efore the ?n3asionDSta$in decided to +u0$ish that famous TASS communi=uN of Bune
146 a document #hich #as to fi%ure +rominent$y in a$$ So3iet histories of the #ar #ritten
under 4hrushche3 as the most damnin% +iece of e3idence of Sta$in's #ishfu$ thin<in%6
shortsi%htedness and tota$ $ac< of understandin% of #hat #as %oin% on in 1ermany e3en
at that $ate hour: This is the te8t of the famous TASS communi=uN:
E6($ 8(0#+( C+,..-<- )++,6)/ ,$ L#$5#$ )$5 (-.(3,)//* )0&(+ '( ')5 )++,6(5 &'(+(,
&'(+( ')6( 8(($ "#+( )$5 "#+( +1"#1+- #0 )$ D()+/* 2)+D 8(&2(($ &'( S#6,(&
U$,#$ )$5 !(+")$*. I& ,- )/-# +1"#1+(5 &')& !(+")$* ')- .+(-($&(5 8#&'
&(++,&#+,)/ )$5 (3#$#",3 3/),"- &# &'( S#6,(& U$,#$... A// &',- ,- $#&',$% 81& 3/1"-*
.+#.)%)$5) 8* 0#+3(- '#-&,/( &# &'( USSR )$5 !(+")$* )$5 ,$&(+(-&(5 ,$ )$
(B&($-,#$ #0 &'( 2)+.
TASS ,- )1&'#+,-(5 &# -&)&(: 17 !(+")$* ')- $#& ")5( )$* 3/),"- #$ &'( USSR, )$5
,- $#& #00(+,$% ,& )$* $(2 )$5 3/#-(+ 1$5(+-&)$5,$%? &'(+( ')6( 8(($ $# -13' &)/;-.
M7 A33#+5,$% &# S#6,(& ,$0#+")&,#$, !(+")$* ,- )/-# 1$-2(+6,$%/* #8-(+6,$% &'(
3#$5,&,#$- #0 &'( S#6,(&-!(+")$ N#$-A%%+(--,#$ P)3&, :1-& )- &'( USSR ,- 5#,$%.
T'(+(0#+(, ,$ &'( #.,$,#$ #0 S#6,(& 3,+3/(-, &'( +1"#1+- #0 !(+")$*<- ,$&($&,#$ &#
&()+ 1. &'( P)3& )$5 &# 1$5(+&);( )$ )&&)3; #$ &'( USSR )+( 2,&'#1& )$*
0#1$5)&,#$. A- 0#+ &'( &+)$-0(+ &# &'( $#+&'(+$ )$5 ()-&(+$ )+()- #0 !(+")$* #0
&+##.- 51+,$% &'( .)-& 2((;-, -,$3( &'( 3#"./(&,#$ #0 &'(,+ &)-;- ,$ &'( B)/;)$-,
-13' &+##. "#6("($&- )+(, #$( "1-& -1..#-(, .+#".&(5 8* "#&,6(- 2',3' ')6( $#
8()+,$% #$ S#6,(&-!(+")$ +(/)&,#$-.
@7 A- ,- 3/()+ 0+#" '(+ 2'#/( .()3( .#/,3*, &'( USSR ,$&($5- &# #8-(+6( &'(
3#$5,&,#$- #0 &'( S#6,(&-!(+")$ P)3&, )$5 )$* &)/; #0 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ .+(.)+,$%
0#+ 2)+ ,- ")$,0(-&/* )8-1+5.
47 T'( -1""(+ +)//,(- $#2 &);,$% ./)3( )"#$% R(5 A+"* +(-(+6,-&- )$5 &'(
3#",$% ")$Q16+(- ')6( $# .1+.#-( #&'(+ &')$ &'( &+),$,$% #0 +(-(+6,-&- )$5 &'(
3'(3;,$% #0 +),/2)* 3#""1$,3)&,#$-. A- (6(+*#$( ;$#2-, -13' (B(+3,-(- &);( ./)3(
(6(+* *()+. T# +(.+(-($& &'(" )- -#"(&',$% '#-&,/( &# !(+")$* ,- )8-1+5, &# -)* &'(
/()-&.
I ?n the recent Histor! Sta$in is ta<en se3ere$y to tas< for this TASS communi=uN: F*+ to
the $ast moment ?: A: Sta$in tried to +re3ent a 1erman attac< and tried to inf$uence the
1erman 1o3ernment: ?n order to test 1ermany's intentions and to inf$uence her
%o3ernment6 Sta$in caused TASS to +u0$ish this communi=uN::: ?t ref$ected Sta$in's
incorrect assessment of the +o$itica$ and mi$itary atmos+here: !u0$ished at a time #hen
#ar #as a$ready on our thresho$d6 the TASS statement mis%uided So3iet +u0$ic o+inion
and #ea<ened the 3i%i$ance of the So3iet +eo+$e and of the So3iet Armed Forces:F
(?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 +: 4"4:)K
The Histor! is no dou0t =uite ri%ht in sayin% that it #as much too $ate in the day to FtestF
1ermany's intentionsL 0ut6 on the other hand it seems de$i0erate$y to e8a%%erate the
TASS communi=ue's so+orific effect on the So3iet +eo+$e:
The 2ussians #ere sufficient$y used to readin% 0et#een the $ines of %o3ernment
communications not to o3er$oo< the innuendo of the +hrase: FThese troo+ mo3ements6
one must suppose, are +rom+ted 0y moti3es #hich ha3e no 0earin% on So3iet,1erman
re$ations:F Far from 0ein% undu$y reassured 0y this TASS communi=uN6 a 3ery hi%h
+ro+ortion of the 2ussian +eo+$e s+ent the ne8t fe# days an8ious$y #aitin% for Ber$in
FreactionsF to it: Accordin% to 1afencu6 the 2umanian Minister in Mosco#6 thousands of
+eo+$e #ere %$ued to their #ire$ess sets $istenin% to ne#s from Ber$in: But they $istened in
3ain: The 1erman 1o3ernment did not res+ond in any #ay to the TASS statement6 and
did not e3en +u0$ish it: 9hen6 on the ni%ht of Bune &16 Mo$oto3 as<ed Schu$en0ur% to
ca$$ on him6 it #as too $ate:
Schu$en0ur%6 a++arent$y #ho$$y uninformed of .it$er's +$ans6 #as una0$e to %i3e any
ans#er to Mo$oto3's an8ious =uestions as to Fthe reasons for 1ermany's dissatisfactionFL
and not unti$ he returned to the Cm0assy did he recei3e 2i00entro+'s instructions to %o to
see Mo$oto3 and6 F#ithout enterin% into any discussions #ith himF to read out to him a
ca0$ed document #hich6 framed in .it$er's most 3itu+erati3e manner6 #as in fact a
dec$aration of #ar:
IAs Shirer says6 F?t #as a fami$iar dec$aration6 stre#n #ith a$$ the sho+#orn $ies and
fa0rications at #hich .it$er and 2i00entro+ had 0ecome so e8+ert::: !erha+s ::: it
someho# to++ed a$$ the +re3ious ones for sheer effrontery and deceitF (o+: cit:6 +: J47):K
Sic< at heart6 the Am0assador dro3e 0ac< to the 4rem$in Hust as da#n #as 0rea<in%6 and
read the document to Mo$oto3: Accordin% to Schu$en0ur%'s account6 the Forei%n
5ommissar $istened in si$ence6 and then said 0itter$y: FThis is #ar: Do you 0e$ie3e that
#e deser3ed thatEF
PART TWO
+#" &'( I$6)-,#$ &# &'( B)&&/( #0 M#-3#2
C').&(+ I SOAIET UNPREPAREDNESS IN JUNE 1941
?n the ear$y mornin% hours of Bune &&6 19416 !$an Bar0arossaDon #hich .it$er and his
%enera$s had #or<ed for the $ast si8 monthsD came into action: And the 2ussians #ere
not +re+ared for the ons$au%ht:
The three,+ron%ed 1erman in3asion6 aimin% at enin%rad in the north6 Mosco# in the
midd$e6 and the *<raine and the 5aucasus in the south6 #ith the u$timate o0Hect of
occu+yin% #ithin a short time +ractica$$y the #ho$e of Curo+ean 2ussia u+ to a $ine
runnin% from Archan%e$ to Astra<han6 #as to +ro3e a fai$ure: But the first #ee<s of the
#ar and6 indeed6 the first three,and,a,ha$f months #ere6 to the 2ussians6 an a$most
unmiti%ated disaster: The %reater +art of the 2ussian air force #as #i+ed out in the first
fe# daysL the 2ussians $ost thousands of tan<sL hundreds of thousands6 +erha+s as many
as a mi$$ion 2ussian so$diers #ere ta<en +risoner in a series of s+ectacu$ar encirc$ements
durin% the first fortni%ht6 and 0y the second #ee< of Bu$y some 1erman %enera$s thou%ht
the #ar as %ood as #on:
.o# #as this +ossi0$eE Sta$in's inter+retation of these initia$ disastersD#hich #as to
remain the officia$ 3ersion for many years after#ardsD#as that the e$ement of surprise
had 0een o3er#he$min%$y in the 1ermans' fa3our: ;o dou0t6 Sta$in himse$f $ater admitted
that Fcertain mista<esF had 0een made on the 2ussian sideL 0ut there #as no mention of
these Fmista<esF at first6 and the on$y e8+$anation %i3en in Bu$y #as the Fsuddenness and
+erfidious,nessF of the 1erman attac<:
This e8+$anation did not entire$y satisfy the 2ussian +eo+$e at the timeL they had 0een
to$d so much for years a0out the tremendous mi%ht of the 2ed Army that the non,sto+
ad3ance of the 1erman steam,ro$$er durin% the first three #ee<s of the #arDto
Smo$ens<6 to the outs<irts of 4ie3 and to on$y a short distance from enin%rad Dcame as
a terri0$e shoc<: There #as much =uestionin% and heart,searchin% as to #hat had %one
#ron%: But6 in the face of the fearfu$ threat of the destruction of 2ussia6 and des+ite much
sotto-voce %rum0$in%6 this #as not a time for recrimination6 and6 #hate3er had %one
#ron%6 and #hate3er the mista<es that had 0een made6 the on$y thin% to do #as to fi%ht
the in3aders: The mysti=ue of a %reat nationa$ #ar6 of a $ife,and,death stru%%$e too< dee+
root in the 2ussians' consciousness #ithin a 3ery short timeL and the Fnationa$ #arF
motifs of Sta$in's famous 0roadcast of Bu$y 3 made such a dee+ im+ression +recise$y
0ecause they e8+ressed the thou%hts #hich6 in the tra%ic circumstances of the time6 the
2ussian +eo+$eDconscious$y or unconscious$yD#anted to hear c$ear$y stated: .ere at
$ast #as a c$ear +ro%ramme of action for a stunned and 0e#i$dered nation:
But the fact remains that at first 2ussia +ro3ed tota$$y un+re+ared to meet the 1erman
ons$au%ht6 and that in @cto0er 1941 the 1ermans 3ery near$y #on the #ar:
9hi$e Sta$in #as a$i3e6 no serious attem+t #as made o+en$y to ana$yse the numerous
$on%,term6 as #e$$ as immediate causes of the mi$itary disasters of 1941L and it #as not6
in fact6 ti$$ after the &"th 5on%ress of the 5!S* (5ommunist !arty of the So3iet *nion)
in 19-)6 and 4hrushche3's shar+6 and at times e3en e8a%%erated6 criticisms of Sta$in's
Fmi$itary %eniusF that So3iet mi$itary historians %ot do#n to the Ho0 of e8+$ainin% #hat
rea$$y ha++ened:
The e8+$anations %i3en for the disasters of 1941 are numerous and touch on a 3ery #ide
ran%e of su0Hects: Amon% the +rinci+a$ $on%,term causes some #ere historica$ (e:%: the
1937 +ur%es in the 2ed Army)L some #ere +sycho$o%ica$ (the constant +ro+a%anda a0out
the in3inci0i$ity of the 2ed Army)L some #ere +rofessiona$ ($ac< of any +ro+er
e8+erience of #ar amon% the 2ed Army as com+ared #ith the 1ermans and6 in many
cases6 a $o# standard of trainin%)L some6 fina$$y6 #ere economic (the fai$ure of the So3iet
#ar industries6 des+ite the 0reathin%,s+ace +ro3ided 0y the So3iet,1erman !act6 to turn
the 2ed Army into a #e$$,e=ui++ed modern army):
9hether6 as seems $i<e$y6 the 2ed Army #ou$d ha3e 0een +erfect$y fit to fi%ht the
1ermans in 194&6 it #as o03ious$y not in a condition to do so in 1941:
@ne of the most im+ortant recent 2ussian +u0$ications6 +rinted in 19)"6 is the first
3o$ume of the officia$ Histor! o" the $ar5 This e8+$ains #ith refreshin% candour many of
the thin%s that #ent #ron% in 1941: ?n +articu$ar6 it dea$s in considera0$e detai$ #ith the
0ad +sycho$o%ica$ conditionin% for the Fne8tF #ar of 0oth the 2ed Army and the So3iet
+eo+$e %enera$$y:
Thus6 it dra#s +articu$ar attention to the #ishfu$ thin<in% +er3adin% the famous Dra"t
Field Begulations of 1939 #hich said:
A$* ($("* )&&)3; #$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 2,// 8( "(& 8* ) -")-',$% 8/#2 0+#" ,&-
)+"(5 0#+3(-?
I0 )$* ($("* ,$0/,3&- 2)+ 1.#$ 1-, #1+ R(5 A+"* 2,// 8( &'( "#-& 0,(+3(/*-)&&)3;,$%
)+"* &'( 2#+/5 ')- (6(+ ;$#2$?
W( -')// 3#$513& &'( 2)+ #00($-,6(/*, )$5 3)++* ,& ,$&# ($("* &(++,&#+*?
T'( )3&,6,&* #0 &'( R(5 A+"* 2,// )," )& &'( 3#"./(&( 5(-&+13&,#$ #0 &'( ($("* )$5
&'( )3',(6("($& #0 ) 5(3,-,6( 6,3&#+* at a small cost in blood.
The +resent,day Histor! stron%$y criticises this document6 as #e$$ as other +ieces of
mi$itary doctrine current in the 2ed Army 0efore 1941:
S#6,(& -&+)&(%,3 &'(#+* =,& -)*-> )- .+#.#1$5(5 8* &'( D+)0& ,(/5 R(%1/)&,#$- #0
19@9 )$5 #&'(+ 5#31"($&- 5,5 $#& .+#6( &# 8( ($&,+(/* +()/,-&,3. #+ #$( &',$%, &'(*
5($,(5 &'( (00(3&,6($(-- #0 &'( blitzkrieg 2',3' &($5(5 &# 8( 5,-",--(5 )- ) /#.-,5(5
8#1+%(#,- &'(#+*. S#6,(& ",/,&)+* &'(#+* 2)- /)+%(/* 8)-(5 #$ &'( .+,$3,./( #0 ($5,$%
)$* )&&)3; #$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 2,&' &'( 3#"./(&( +#1& #0 &'( ($("* #$ ',- #2$
&(++,&#+*.
Thus6 the #ho$e em+hasis of So3iet mi$itary theory #as on the o""ensive, and the fai$ure
of 0oth !o$and and France to 0rea< the 1erman attac< #as6 a$$ too easi$y6 attri0uted to a)
the $ac< of or%anised resistance and 0) the nefarious acti3ities of Ffifth co$umnsF in the
rear in the case of France6 and to the $ac< of nationa$ homo%eneity in the case of the
!o$ish army:
S#6,(& -&+)&(%* 4-)*- &'( !istory) 3#$-,5(+(5 de*ence )- )$ (--($&,)/ .)+& #0 2)+, 81&
-&+(--(5 ,&- -18-,5,)+* +#/( ,$ +(/)&,#$ &# #00($-,6( #.(+)&,#$-. I$ .+,$3,./(, #1+
-&+)&(%* 3#$-,5(+(5 ) 0#+3(5 retreat )- ) .#--,8,/,&*, 81& #$/* #$ ) /,",&(5 )$5
,-#/)&(5 .)+& #0 &'( 0+#$&, )$5 )- ) &(".#+)+* "()-1+(, 3#$$(3&(5 2,&' .+(.)+)&,#$-
0#+ &'( #00($-,6(. -he .uestion o* large *orces having to break out o* a threatened
encirclement /as never seriously e0amined at all... 4E".')-,- )55(5.7
This ma<es6 indeed6 ironica$ readin% in the $i%ht of #hat ha++ened in 1941: There is
another im+ortant +oint the Histor! ma<esD name$y6 the Fdeadenin%F effect on So3iet
mi$itary thou%ht of the Sta$in F+ersona$ity cu$tF:
T',- D.(+-#$)/,&* 31/&D /(5 &# 5#%")&,-" )$5 -3'#/)-&,3,-", 2',3' ,".),+(5 &'(
,$5(.($5($& ,$,&,)&,6( #0 ",/,&)+* +(-()+3'. I& 2)- $(3(--)+* &# 2),& 0#+ &'(
,$-&+13&,#$- 8* ) -,$%/( ")$, )$5 &# /##; 0#+ &'( 3#$0,+")&,#$ #0 &'(#+(&,3)/
.+#.#-,&,#$-, $#& ,$ /,0( )$5 .+)3&,3)/ (B.(+,($3(, 81& ,$ +()5*-")5( 0#+"1/)( )$5
91#&)&,#$-... A// &',- %+()&/* +(513(5 &'( -3#.( #0 )$* 0+(( 5,-31--,#$- #0 ",/,&)+*
&'(#+*.
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 +: 439: K
There #ere other shortcomin%s: The 2ed Army had had 3ery $itt$e actua$ e8+erience of
#ar: ?ts on$y maHor e8+erience dated 0ac< to the 5i3i$ 9ar of 191J,&"6 and the conditions
in #hich that #ar #as fou%ht had 3ery $itt$e re$e3ance to modern #arfare: C8+erience
#as6 indeed6 soon to sho# that heroes of the 5i3i$ 9ar $i<e Budienny and Aoroshi$o3
#ere com+$ete$y out of their de+th in the #ar conditions of 1941: True6 there had6 since
then6 0een the #ar in S+ain6 in #hich the 2ussians had +artici+ated in a sma$$ #ay6 0ut6 as
the Histor! says6
T'( /,",&(5 )$5 .(31/,)+ $)&1+( #0 &'( 2)+ ,$ S.),$ 2)- 2+#$%/* ,$&(+.+(&(5. T'1-,
&'( 3#$3/1-,#$ 2)- +()3'(5 &')& &'( 3#$3(.& #0 /)+%( &)$; 1$,&-E&'#1%' 2( 2(+(
&'( 0,+-& &# ')6( )../,(5 &'(" ,$ .+)3&,3(E 2)- (++#$(#1-. A- ) +(-1/& #1+
"(3')$,-(5 &)$; 3#+.- 2(+( 5,--#/6(5, )$5 5,5 $#& 8(%,$ &# 8( +(3#$-&,&1&(5 )%),$
1$&,/ &'( 6(+* (6( #0 &'( !(+")$ ,$6)-,#$.
I?0id:K
There had a$so 0een6 in 193J,96 the successfu$ 0att$es a%ainst the Ba+anese at a<e
.assan and .a$<in 1o$6 0ut these a%ain #ere different from the 3ast #ar of 1941: 5ertain
0itter $essons6 it is true6 had 0een $earned from the 9inter 9ar in Fin$and6 0ut had not yet
0een sufficient$y im+$emented: As for the 1erman in3asion of !o$and and France6 there
#as sti$$ an irres+onsi0$e tendency in the 2ed Army to ima%ine that Fit cou$dn't ha++en
hereF: At $east not a$on% a 3ast front:
This irres+onsi0$e o+timism and #ishfu$ thin<in% #ere faithfu$$y ref$ected in the
F+o$itica$,educationa$F #or< done in the 2ed Army in 194",1: The Histor! no# readi$y
admits that some a++a$$in% mista<es #ere made in this education6 es+ecia$$y in a$$
=uestions concernin% 1ermany: *nder the inf$uence of the So3iet,;a>i !act6 anti,;a>i
+ro+a%anda #as toned do#n to an a$most un0e$ie3a0$e e8tent: ;othin% #as done to
su%%est that the 1ermans #ere 2ussia's most $i<e$y enemies in the ne8t #ar: ?nstead6 the
Mo$oto3 $ine continued to 0e +$u%%ed that it #as in the Fstate interestsF of 0oth countries
not to attac< one another: Much of the +ro+a%anda 0oth in the army and amon% the So3iet
+eo+$e %enera$$y #as6 in 194" and e3en in 19416 fu$$ of the most infanti$e #ishfu$
thin<in%:
@n the e3e of the 9ar (says the Histor!7 %reat harm #as done 0y su%%estin% that any
enemy attac<in% the So3iet *nion #ou$d 0e easi$y defeated: There #ere +o+u$ar fi$ms
such as I" $ar )omes Tomorro: and the $i<e #hich <e+t ru00in% in the idea::: C3en some
army +a+ers fo$$o#ed a simi$ar $ine: Many #riters and +ro+a%andists +ut across the
+ernicious idea that any fascist or im+eria$ist state that attac<ed us #ou$d co$$a+se at the
3ery first shots6 since the #or<ers #ou$d re0e$ a%ainst their %o3ernment: They #ho$$y
underrated the e8tent to #hich6 in fascist countries6 the masses had 0een do+ed6 ho#
terror had $ar%e$y si$enced the re0e$s6 and ho# so$diers6 officers and their fami$ies had a$$
ac=uired a 3ested interest in mi$itary $oot:
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 ++: 434,-:K
;e3erthe$ess6 e3en after the #ar had started6 Mo$oto3 and Sta$in sti$$ continued to
distin%uish 0et#een the F$on%,sufferin%F 1erman +eo+$e and the crimina$ ;a>i c$i=ueP
Such6 accordin% to the Histor!, #ere the main factors of the +sycho$o%ica$
un+re+aredness of the So3iet +eo+$e and of the 2ed Army in 19416 on the e3e of the
1erman in3asion: The +icture6 it must 0e said6 is s$i%ht$y e8a%%erated 0ecause6 as #i$$
ha3e 0een seen from our story of the So3iet,1erman !act +eriod6 there #as
un=uestiona0$y in the country a %ro#in% uneasiness #hich6 es+ecia$$y after the fa$$ of
(u%os$a3ia in A+ri$ 19416 de3e$o+ed into rea$ an8iety:
;o $ess serious than this +sycho$o%ica$ un+re+aredness for an a$$,out #ar a%ainst ;a>i
1ermany #as the mi$itary un+re+aredness of the 2ed Army 0oth as re%ards the actua$
trainin% of the men and the =uantity and es+ecia$$y the =ua$ity of their e=ui+ment:
A maHor =uestion that arises in this connection is #hether the So3iet 1o3ernment rea$$y
made fu$$ use of the t#enty,t#o months' res+ite %i3en it 0y the So3iet,1erman !act: The
ar%ument +ut for#ard 0y +resent,day So3iet historians is that the So3iet *nion had a 3ery
sound economic and industria$ 0ase in 194",16 that Fthe im+ortance of the defence
measures ta<en durin% these t#enty,t#o months cannot 0e o3erratedF6 0ut that the net
resu$t of it a$$ #as not as %ood as mi%ht ha3e 0een e8+ected: @n the one hand it is true6
S#6,(& (3#$#"* ')5 ) ")&(+,)/ )$5 &(3'$,3)/ 8)-( 2',3' 2#1/5 .(+",& ,& &# ("8)+;
#$ &'( ")---.+#513&,#$ #0 )// 0#+"- #0 "#5(+$ )+")"($&- ... )$5 "((& &'( $((5- #0
8#&' &'( A+"(5 #+3(- )$5 &'( .#.1/)&,#$ ,$ 3)-( #0 2)+... T'( )+")"($&-
,$51-&+*, 8)-(5 #$ ) '()6* ,$51-&+*, 2)- )8/(, 8(0#+( &'( 2)+, &# -1../* &'( A+"*
2,&' )// &'( $(3(--)+* (91,."($&, &# -(& )-,5( +(-(+6(-, )$5 01//* -1../* $(2
0#+")&,#$- 2,&' (91,."($& #$3( &'( 2)+ ')5 8(%1$. W,&' 6)-& +)2 ")&(+,)/
+(-#1+3(-, &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 2)- (3#$#",3)//* .+(.)+(5 &# +(.(/ ) 0)-3,-& )%%+(--,#$.
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 +: 4"-:K
The So3iet *nion had the $ar%est en%ineerin% industry in Curo+e6 and some 96""" $ar%e
ne# industria$ enter+rises had 0een set u+ under the three Fi3e,(ear !$ansD16-"" under
the first6 46-"" under the second6 and 36""" durin% the first three years of the third (that
is6 u+ to 1941): ?n 194" she +roduced 1J:3 mi$$ion tons of stee$6 31 mi$$ion tons of oi$ and
1)) mi$$ion tons of coa$Dthese +roduction fi%ures #ere6 moreo3er6 to 0e su0stantia$$y
increased in 1941: Mi$itary e8+enditure had re+resented on$y 1&:7 +er cent of the 0ud%et
durin% the Second Fi3e,(ear !$an6 0ut had6 since the 0e%innin% of 9or$d 9ar ??6 risen to
&):4 +er cent6 and6 in 19416 Fthere #as a further increase in connection #ith the technica$
re,e=ui+ment of the ArmyF: Since Se+tem0er 19396 in +articu$ar6 measures had 0een
ta<en 0y the !arty and the 1o3ernment to increase in the ne8t one,and,a,ha$f to t#o years
the +roducti3e ca+acity of certain armaments industries6 and +articu$ar$y of the aircraft
industry6 0y at $east 1"" +er cent:
But a$$ this +$annin% #as one thin%6 and the actua$ resu$ts #ere =uite another: These6 as
the Histor! admits6 #ere sti$$ e8treme$y disa++ointin% 0y the end of 194"L nor #ere they
s+ectacu$ar 0y any means 0y the midd$e of 19416 at the time of the 1erman in3asion:
The ne# So3iet mode$sDthe (a<,1 and Mi%,3 fi%hters and the !e,& 0om0ersD0e%an to
0e +roduced in 194"6 0ut on$y in 3ery sma$$ =uantities: Thus on$y t#enty Mi%,3's6 si8ty,
four (a<,$'s and one or t#o !e,&'s #ere +roduced in 194": The +osition im+ro3ed
some#hat in the first ha$f of 19416 #hen 1694) of the ne# fi%hter +$anesDthe Mi%,3's6
a%%,3's and (a<,1'sD#ere +roduced6 as #e$$ as 4-J !e,& 0om0ers and &49 ?$,&
stormovi*s5
But these =uantities #ere tota$$y insufficient to increase su0stantia$$y the +ro+ortion of
modern +$anes in the army6 and6 0y Bune 19416 the %reat maHority of army +$anes
consisted of o0so$ete mode$s:
I ?A@ASS: 3o$: ?6 +: 41-:K
The +erformance of the tan< industry #as no 0etter: ?n Bune 1941 the 2ed Army had a
3ery $ar%e num0er of tan<s6 0ut near$y a$$ of these6 too6 #ere o0so$ete:
The ne# tan<s6 the 4A and the T,34D#hich #ere $ater to +ro3e more than a match for
the 1erman tan<sD#ere not yet in +roduction in 1939L in 194" on$y &43 4A tan<s and
11- T,34 tan<s #ere +roducedL not ti$$ the first ha$f of 1941 #as there an im+ressi3e
increaseL durin% that +eriod 393 4A's and 1611" T,34's came off the assem0$y $ine:
Simi$ar$y6 the +roduction of %uns6 mortars and automatic #ea+ons +roceeded at Fan
into$era0$y s$o# +aceF: For this the De+uty 5ommissars for Defence6 1: ?: 4u$i<6 : O:
Me<h$is and A: C: Shchaden<o are 0$amedL 4u$i<6 in +articu$ar6 is ta<en to tas< for
ha3in% ne%$ected the +roduction of automatic rif$es6 the 3a$ue of #hich he +ersisted in
denyin%6 and the $ac< of #hich #as to +ut the 2ussian infantryman at a %reat
disad3anta%e: The +roduction of ammunition in 1941 #as $a%%in% 0ehind e3en that of the
%uns: A$thou%h the first s+ecia$ anti,tan< rif$es #ere made in 2ussia in 194",16 these had
not yet 0een su++$ied to the Army 0y the 0e%innin% of the #ar:
I?0id:6 +: 41):K
Another 3ery serious #ea<ness of the 2ed Army #as the a0sence of a $ar%e,sca$e
automo0i$e industry in the So3iet *nionL in Bune 1941 the So3iet *nion had a tota$ of
on$y J""6""" motor 3ehic$es6 and a $ar%e +ro+ortion of %uns had to 0e dra#n either 0y
horses or 0y #ho$$y inade=uate farm tractors:
@n the other hand 2ussian arti$$ery is estimated 0y 2ussian e8+erts to ha3e 0een 0etter
than 1erman arti$$eryL Het roc<ets6 first used in the Finnish 9ar6 0e%an to 0e +roduced on
a $ar%e sca$e in 194",16 and 4osti<o3's famous *at!usha mortars #ere e8treme$y +o+u$ar
#ith the 2ed Army a$most from the 3ery 0e%innin%: They first came into action at
Smo$ens< a0out the midd$e of Bu$y:
2adar #as sti$$ in its infancy in the 2ed Army6 and e3en ordinary #ire$ess
communications 0et#een army units #ere not the %enera$ ru$e: FC3en the minimum
re=uirements #ere not fu$fi$$ed in this res+ect: As a resu$t a $ot of o0so$ete materia$ #as
used: Many officers did not <no# ho# to hand$e #ire$ess communications ::: and
+referred the o$d,fashioned te$e+hone:F
I ?0id:6 +: 4--:K
?n a hi%h$y mo0i$e #ar this often +ro3ed =uite use$ess:
This is Hust one e8am+$e in many of the #ides+read +rofessiona$ inferiority of the 2ussian
so$dier and officer as com+ared #ith their 1erman o++osite num0ers in 19416 and it #as6
in fact6 not ti$$ 1943 that6 in the estimation of the 2ussian mi$itary $eaders themse$3es6 the
2ussian so$dier and officer 0ecame +rofessiona$$y as com+etent as the 1erman6 if not
more so:
Aery fe# officers or so$diers in 1941 had had any direct e8+erience of #ar6 and many of
them #ere no3ices #ho had on$y $ate$y 0een trained as Fre+$acementsF for the thousands
of officers #ho had 0een +ur%ed 0ac< in 1937 and 193J: A$thou%h the officer's Fsin%$e
commandF had 0een re,introduced in Au%ust 194" throu%h the ec$i+se of mi$itary
commissars6 an uneasy re$ationshi+ continued to e8ist 0et#een many officers and those
!arty and 4omsomo$ cadres in the Army #hich #ere e8+ected to %o on Fhe$+in%F the
officersL and6 in Bu$y6 the fu$$y,f$ed%ed mi$itary commissars #ere reintroduced a%ain:
A$thou%h (in Bu$y 194") fifty,four +er cent of officers #ere !arty mem0ers or !arty
candidates and t#enty,t#o +er cent #ere 4omsomo$s6 there remained6 amon% the
officers6 a constant after,taste of the Tu<hache3s<y affair6 and a fee$in% of strain 0et#een
them and certain !arty 0osses in the army #ith their anti,officer com+$e8: ?t #as not ti$$
the autumn of 194&6 as #e sha$$ see6 that the officer fu$$y came into his o#n ri%hts:
The trainin% of s+ecia$ised troo+sDnota0$y tan< cre#s and airmenDhad a$so 0een
serious$y ne%$ected: There are some =uite astoundin% admissions on this score in the
officia$ Histor!5 ;ot on$y #as there a shorta%e of modern tan<s and +$anes in the frontier
areas on the day the 1ermans struc<6 0ut there #as a$so a serious shorta%e of +ro+er$y
trained airmen and tan< cre#s:
T'( $(2 &)$;- 5,5 $#& 8(%,$ &# )++,6( ,$ &'( 0+#$&,(+ C#$(- 1$&,/ A.+,/-M)* 1941,
)$5, #$ J1$( MM, ,$ )// &'( 0,6( M,/,&)+* D,-&+,3&-, &'(+( 2(+( $# "#+( &')$ 5LN KA<-
)$5 96K T-@4<- ,$ )//. T+1(, &'(+( 2(+( 3#$-,5(+)8/( $1"8(+- #0 #/5 &)$;- 4BT-5<-,
BT-K<-, T-M6<-, (&3.7 81& 8* J1$( 15, #$/* &2($&*--(6($ .(+ 3($& 2(+( ,$ 2#+;,$%
#+5(+.
9orse sti$$D
T'( &+),$,$% #0 -.(3,)/,-&- 0#+ &'( $(2 &)$;- +(91,+(5 ) 3#$-,5(+)8/( &,"(. S,$3(
&'(+( 2)- ) -'#+&)%( #0 &)$; 3+(2-, ,& 2)- $(3(--)+* &# &+)$-0(+ &# &'( &)$; 1$,&-
#00,3(+-, -(+%()$&- )$5 -#/5,(+- 0+#" #&'(+ )+"* 0#+")&,#$-E0+#" ,$0)$&+* )$5
3)6)/+* 1$,&-. B1& &,"( 2)- &## -'#+& &# /(& &'(-( /()+$ &'(,+ :#8 .+#.(+/*. B* &'(
8(%,$$,$% #0 &'( 2)+, ")$* &)$; "($ ')5 ')5 #$/* #$(-)$5-)-')/0 &# &2# '#1+-<
(B.(+,($3( ,$ )3&1)/ &)$; 5+,6,$%. E6($ ")$* #00,3(+- ,$ &)$; 1$,&- 2(+( $#& 01//*
91)/,0,(5 &# 3#"")$5 &'("... S,",/)+/*, #1+ ),+"($ ')5 $#& 8(3#"( .+#.(+/*
0)",/,)+,-(5 2,&' &'( $(2 ./)$(-.
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 ++: 47-,):K
Thus6 in the Ba$tic Mi$itary District those o+eratin% the ne# +$anes had had6 0y Bune &&6
on$y fifteen hours' f$yin% e8+erience6 and those in the 4ie3 Mi$itary District as $itt$e as
four hoursD e8traordinary fi%ures #hen one considers that in the *S air force6 for
instance6 1-" hours' f$yin% e8+erience are re=uired 0efore com0at:
Such #ere some of the e8traordinary shortcomin%s in the 2ed Army on the day the
1ermans attac<ed: There #ere many others6 #ith #hich the Histor! dea$s in some detai$:
The frontier #as an e8treme$y $on% oneDthe Finnish frontier6 0et#een the Arctic and the
1u$f of Fin$and a0out 7-" mi$es $on%6 and the F1ermanF frontier6 0et#een a +oint Hust
east of Meme$ on the Ba$tic and the mouth of the Danu0e in 2umania6 o3er 16&-" mi$es
$on%:
;o dou0t the So3iet 1o3ernment too< a fe# 0e$ated +recautions in May 1941L 0ut the
troo+s that #ere mo3ed nearer the frontier F#ere neither fu$$y mo0i$ised nor at fu$$
stren%th6 and they $ac<ed the necessary trans+ort: The rai$#ays #or<ed accordin% to a
+eacetime schedu$e6 and the #ho$e de+$oyment of these troo+s #as carried out 3ery
s$o#$y6 since it #as not thou%ht that the #ar #ou$d start in the immediate future:F
B* J1$( MM, "#-& #0 &'( &+##.- ,$ &'( 0+#$&,(+ )+()- 2(+( -3)&&(+(5 #6(+ 2,5( -.)3(-.
I$ &'( S.(3,)/ B)/&,3 M,/,&)+* D,-&+,3& &'(* 2(+( -3)&&(+(5 #6(+ ) 5(.&' #0 19L ",/(-
0+#" &'( 0+#$&,(+? ,$ &'( W(-&(+$ D,-&+,3& #6(+ ) 5(.&' #0 6L &# 19L ",/(-, ,$ &'( K,(6
D,-&+,3& #6(+ ) 5(.&' #0 8(&2(($ M5L )$5 @NL ",/(-.
The 1enera$ Staff of the *SS2 assumed that these troo+s #ou$d 0e 0rou%ht u+ to fu$$
stren%th durin% se3era$ days that #ou$d e$a+se 0et#een mo0i$isation and the actua$
0e%innin% of mi$itary o+erations:
T'( 2'#/( 5(0($3( #0 &'( S&)&( 0+#$&,(+ 2)- 8)-(5 #$ &'( )--1".&,#$ &')& ) -1+.+,-(
)&&)3; 8* !(+")$* 2)- #1& #0 &'( 91(-&,#$, )$5 &')& ) .#2(+01/ !(+")$ #00($-,6(
2#1/5 8( .+(3(5(5 8* ) 5(3/)+)&,#$ #0 2)+, #+ 8* -")//--3)/( ",/,&)+* #.(+)&,#$-,
)0&(+ 2',3' &'( S#6,(& &+##.- 3#1/5 &);( 1. &'(,+ 5(0($-,6( .#-,&,#$-... N#
#.(+)&,#$)/ #+ &)3&,3)/ )+"* %+#1.- ')5 8(($ 0#+"(5 &# +(.(/ ) -1+.+,-( )&&)3;.
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 +: 474:K
The Histor! %oes on to =uote a ta0$e sho#in% that in the main in3asion areas the 1ermans
had a c$ear four or fi3e,to,one su+eriority o3er the 2ussiansL 0ut6 in addition to this
numerica$ su+eriority6 they a$so enHoyed %reat =ua$itati3e su+eriority6 many of the So3iet
so$diers in the frontier areas 0ein% fresh conscri+tsDyoun%sters #ithout any <no#$ed%e
or e8+erience:
There #as a$so6 as a$ready mentioned6 an a++a$$in% shorta%e of modern tan<s on the
2ussian side6 and of +ro+er$y trained tan< cre#s: The e=ui+ment of the frontier troo+s6
says the Histor!, F#as not to 0e com+$eted unti$ the end of 1941 or the 0e%innin% of
194&F:
C3en %rimmer is the story of ho# the modern 2ussian +$anes in the #estern areas #ere
destroyed6 most$y on the 3ery first day of the in3asion:
The fast ne# +$anes re=uired $on%er run#ays than had e8isted 0eforeL and it so ha++ened
that in the summer of 1941 a #ho$e net#or< of ne# airfie$ds #as 0ein% 0ui$t in the
frontier >ones: This 0ui$din% of ne# airfie$ds and the reconstruction of the o$d ones #as
in the hands of the ;4AD: And here comes6 in the Histor!, the su%%estion of +erha+s
de$i0erate sa0ota%e on the +art of Beria's or%anisation: Ta<in% no notice of the #arnin%s
from the mi$itary6 Beria +roceeded to 0ui$d and re0ui$d a $ar%e num0er of airfie$ds in the
frontier areas simu$taneous$y:
I?n rea$ity6 there a++ears to 0e no Fo0Hecti3eF +roof that Beria #as a traitor or a 1erman
a%ent6 0ut he has a$#ays 0een a3ai$a0$e #hen in recent years a#<#ard facts ha3e had to
0e e8+$ained: This footnote shou$d not su%%est that the author has e3er had any <ind$y
fee$in%s for Beria:K
A- ) +(-1/&, #1+ 0,%'&(+ ),+3+)0& 2(+( 3#$3($&+)&(5, #$ J1$( MM, #$ ) 6(+* /,",&(5
$1"8(+ #0 ),+0,(/5-, 2',3' .+(6($&(5 &'(,+ .+#.(+ 3)"#10/)%(, ")$#(16+)8,/,&* )$5
5,-.(+-)/. A/-#, -#"( #0 &'( $(2 ),+0,(/5- ... ')5 8(($ 81,/& "13' &## 3/#-( &# &'(
0+#$&,(+, 2',3' ")5( &'(" -.(3,)//* 61/$(+)8/( ,$ &'( (6($& #0 ) -1+.+,-( )&&)3;. T'(
)8-($3( #0 ) .+#.(+ $(&2#+; #0 ),+0,(/5- #$ J1$( MM )$5 &'( #6(+3+#25,$% #0 ) -")//
$1"8(+ #0 &'( #/5(+ ),+0,(/5-E&'( /#3)&,#$ #0 2',3' 2)- .(+0(3&/* 2(// ;$#2$ &# &'(
($("*E)33#1$& 0#+ &'( 6(+* %+)6( /#--(- #1+ ),+ 0#+3( -100(+(5 51+,$% &'( 6(+* 0,+-&
5)*- #0 &'( 2)+.
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?6 ++: 47),7:K
C3erythin% e$se at the frontier #ent #ron% on that &&nd of Bune: The carryin% ca+acity of
the rai$#ays in the frontier areasDa$$ ac=uired since 1939D#as three or four times $o#er
on the 2ussian side than on the 1erman side: A$so6 the 0ui$din% of fortifications a$on% the
Fne#F 0orders #as on$y at an initia$ sta%e in Bune 1941: A +$an had 0een dra#n u+ in the
summer of 194" for fortifyin% this 0order6 0ut it #as a +$an stretchin% o3er se3era$ years:
The fortifications on the Fo$dF (193J) 0order had 0een dismant$ed6 and6 on the Fne#F
frontier on$y a fe# hundred +i$$0o8es and %un em+$acements had 0een 0ui$t 0y the time
the #ar started: Anti,tan< ditches and other anti,tan< and anti,infantry o0stac$es had 0een
0ui$t to the e8tent of $ess than t#enty,fi3e +er cent of the +$an: The 1ermans #ere6 of
course6 3ery #e$$ informed a0out these fortifications6 airfie$ds6 etc: The Histor! mentions
not on$y numerous 1erman commando raids that had ta<en +$ace since 19396 0ut a$so the
more than -"" 3io$ations of So3iet airs+ace 0y the uft#affe6 1-& of them since Banuary
1941: To a3oid any un+$easantness #ith .it$er6 the frontier troo+s6 accordin% to the
Histor!, had 0een %i3en strict orders not to shoot do#n any 1erman reconnaissance
+$anes o3er So3iet territory:
I The Histor! actua$$y attri0utes this order not to Sta$in or Mo$oto36 0ut to Ftraitor BeriaF
#ho had the frontier %uards under his Hurisdiction:K
A si%nificant conc$usion made 0y the Histor! is that the So3iet 1enera$ Staff had some
+erfect$y sound +$ans for Fma<in% the frontier much $ess 3u$nera0$e 0y the end of 1941 or
the 0e%innin% of 194&F6 0ut that6 in 3ie# of the 1erman menace in 19416 e3erythin% had
0een done Ftoo s$o#$y and too $ateF: And there fo$$o#s the assertion that neither the
1enera$ Staff6 nor the 5ommissariat of Defence #ou$d ha3e sho#n such incom+etence
Fif there had not 0een those #ho$$y unHustified re+ressions a%ainst the $eadin% officers
and +o$itica$ cadres of the Army in the 1937,J !ur%eF:
This reference to Tu<hache3s<y and the other 3ictims of the !ur%e is6 of course6 a
monumenta$ understatement #hen one considers that +erha+s as many as 1-6""" officers
D+ro0a0$y a0out ten or fifteen +er cent of the tota$6 0ut #ith a hi%her +ro+ortion of
+ur%Nes in the hi%her ran<sD#ere either tem+orari$y6 or fina$$y e$iminated: Amon% those
tem+orari$y e$iminated #ere such distin%uished so$diers as the future Marsha$s 1o3oro3
and 2o<osso3s<y:
The mess and mudd$e on the 2ussian side of the frontier #as6 of course6 in stri<in%
contrast #ith #hat #as %oin% on on the 1erman side: .ere6 since the midd$e of 194"6 i:e:
e3en 0efore !$an Bar0arossa had 0een fina$$y ado+ted on Decem0er 1J6 the 1ermans had
0een thorou%h$y +re+arin% their %round for a +ossi0$e attac< on the So3iet *nion: 2oads6
inc$udin% auto4ahnen, rai$#ays and a $ar%e net#or< of airfie$ds had 0een 0ui$t durin% the
year +recedin% the in3asionL durin% that +eriod the 1ermans had 0ui$t or modernised no
fe#er than &-" airfie$ds and fifty $andin% stri+s in !o$and for their dead$y .ein<e$s6
Dorniers and Messerschmitts:
?n the #ords of a 1erman chronic$er6 Fmi$$ions of 1erman so$diers 0ro<e into 2ussia in
Bune 19416 #ithout enthusiasm6 0ut #ith a =uiet confidence in 3ictoryF:
I !hi$i++i and .eim6 Der Feldzug gegen %o:8etrussland (The 5am+ai%n a%ainst So3iet
2ussia) (Stutt%art6 19)&)6 +: 11:K
C').&(+ II THE INAASION
And no# 0e%an for the 2ussian +eo+$e 1annAe terri4leDthe most terri0$e it had e3er
<no#n: ?n a matter of a fe# days and #ee<s death and destruction s#e+t o3er 3ast +arts
of the country: ?n the frontier >ones6 and6 indeed6 much further in$and6 the concentrated
1erman ons$au%ht smashed6 ca+tured or #ho$$y disor%anised the 2ed Army units facin%
itL the So3iet air force #as as %ood as #i+ed out in the #estern areas on the 3ery first day
of the 1erman in3asionL #ithin fi3e days the 1erman forces had a$ready ca+tured Mins<6
the ca+ita$ of Be$orussia6 #e$$ #ithin the So3iet *nion's 193J 0ordersL nor did it ta<e
much $on%er for the 1erman armies to occu+y a$$ the areas incor+orated 0y the So3iet
*nion since 1939D 9estern Be$orussia6 the 9estern *<raine6 ithuania6 at3ia and
Cstonia: ?n the north6 the Finns smashed throu%h to the o$d 1939 0order Hust north,#est of
enin%rad: By Bu$y J6 the 1ermans #ere a$ready cro#in% that the #ar in 2ussia #as
F+ractica$$yF #on:
There is no dou0t that 2ussia #as da>ed 0y these terri0$e initia$ re3erses6 and yet6 a$most
from the first day6 it #as c$ear that it #as a national :ar5
IThis #as somethin% that #as understood 0y the 0est forei%n o0ser3ers of 2ussia: Thus a
fe# days 0efore ? $eft ondon for 2ussia on Bu$y &6 19416 ? had a $on% ta$< #ith the $ate
Sir Bernard !ares #ho said: F? can a$ready see it's %oin% to 0e a tremendous nationa$ #ar6
a 0i%%er and 0etter 1J1&:F Simi$ar$y6 at the end of Bune6
1: Bernard Sha# #rote in a $etter to The Times that6 #ith Sta$in no# on our side6 #e
#ere sure to #in the #ar: @n the other hand6 British mi$itary e8+erts at 9ar @ffice or
Ministry of ?nformation 0riefin%s 3ery c$ear$y su%%ested that they did not thin< the #ar in
2ussia #ou$d $ast more than a fe# #ee<s or6 at most6 months:K
A fee$in% of consternation s#e+t the country6 0ut it #as com0ined #ith an under,current
of nationa$ defiance and the a++rehension that it #ou$d 0e a $on%6 hard and des+erate
stru%%$e:
C3ery0ody rea$ised that mi$$ions of $i3es #ou$d 0e $ost6 and yet on$y 3ery fe# +eo+$e
seem to ha3e 3isua$ised the +ossi0i$ity of utter mi$itary defeat and a tota$ con=uest of
2ussia 0y the 1ermans: ?n this res+ect the contrast #ith France durin% the 1erman
in3asion of 194" is 3ery stri<in%:
This fundamenta$ confidence #as characteristic of the attitude of the 2ussian +eo+$e and
of the $ar%e maHority of the *<rainians and Be$orussiansL it did not e8ist in ithuania6
at3ia6 Cstonia6 or in the 9estern *<raine6 #here +ro,;a>i and other anti,So3iet
inf$uences #ere stron%: ?n these areas the 1erman in3asion #as either #e$comed or
suffered #ith re$ati3e indifference:
IB: S: Te$+u<ho3s<y6 1eli*a!a otechestsvenna!a voina %oviets*ogo %o!uza, <=J<-K5 (The
1reat !atriotic 9ar of the So3iet *nion): (Mosco#6 19-9)6 +: 39:K
The hosti$ity #ith #hich the 2ussians #ere surrounded in +arts of the 9estern *<raine
on$y recent$y incor+orated in the So3iet *nion6 is #e$$ i$$ustrated in the memoirs of
1enera$ Fedyunins<y6 #ho te$$s of ho#6 in May 19416 his car 0ro<e do#n in a 3i$$a%e
near 4o3e$:
T'(+( %)&'(+(5 )+#1$5 1- ) 3+#25 #0 )8#1& &2($&* .(#./(. N# #$( 2)- -)*,$%
)$*&',$%. S#"(, (-.(3,)//* &'( 8(&&(+-5+(--(5 #$(-, -",+;(5 ")/,3,#1-/* )& 1-. N#
#$( #00(+(5 &# '(/.. N# 5#18&, &'(+( 2(+( )"#$% &'(" -#"( .##+ .(#./(, 2'#
-*".)&',-(5 2,&' 1-, 2'# ')5 +(3(,6(5 /)$5 0+#" &'( S#6,(& )1&'#+,&,(-, )$5 2'#
2(+( /)&(+ &# 0,%'& 8+)6(/* ,$ &'( R(5 A+"* #+ ,$ P)+&,-)$ 1$,&-. B1& $#2 &'(* 2(+(
-,/($&, 0+,%'&($(5 8* +1"#1+- #0 )$ ()+/* )++,6)/ #0 &'( N)C,- )$5 8* &'+()&- 0+#"
&'( ;1/);- )$5 &'( B)$5(+) 8#*-.
I1enera$ ?: ?: Fedyunins<y6 Podn!at!ie po trevoge (2aised 0y the A$arm): (Ministry of
Defence !u0$ishin% .ouse6 Mosco#6 19)1): Bandera #as a F*<rainian ;ationa$istF #ho
$ater o+en$y co$$a0orated #ith the ;a>is:K
W
9hat #ere the first days of the #ar $i<e in the frontier areas in3aded 0y the 1ermansE
The memoirs of some of the 2ussian so$diers +u0$ished in the $ast fe# years6 es+ecia$$y
those of 1enera$ Fedyunin,s<y and of 1enera$ Bo$din6 %i3e a stri<in% +icture of those
e3ents:
I1enera$ Fedyunins<y6 o+: cit:6 1enera$ ?: A: Bo$din6 %tranits! Ohizni (!a%es from my
ife): (Ministry of Defence !u0$ishin% .ouse6 Mosco#6 19)1):K
?n A+ri$ 1941 Fedyunins<y (#ho #as $ater to +$ay a distin%uished ro$e in the #arD
es+ecia$$y in 0rea<in% the enin%rad 0$oc<ade) #as a++ointed commander of the 1-th
?nfantry 5or+s of the S+ecia$ 4ie3 Mi$itary District6 #ith his head=uarters in the 9est,
*<rainian to#n of 4o3e$6 some thirty mi$es east of the 0order 0et#een the So3iet *nion
and 1erman,occu+ied !o$and6 and on the main $ine to 4ie3:
A& &'( &,"( #0 "* )++,6)/ ,$ K#6(/, &'( -,&1)&,#$ #$ #1+ W(-&(+$ 0+#$&,(+ 2)-
8(3#",$% "#+( )$5 "#+( &($-(. +#" ) %+()& 6)+,(&* #0 -#1+3(-, )$5 0+#" #1+ )+"*
)$5 0+#$&,(+-%1)+5 +(3#$$),--)$3(, 2( ;$(2 &')& -,$3( (8+1)+* !(+")$ &+##.-
')5 8(%1$ &# 3#$3($&+)&( )/#$% #1+ 8#+5(+-... A,#/)&,#$- #0 #1+ ),+--.)3( ')5 8(($
#$ &'( ,$3+()-( ,$ +(3($& "#$&'-... A& &')& &,"( 2( 5,5 $#& *(& ;$#2 &')& S&)/,$,
5,-+(%)+5,$% &'( +(.#+&- #0 #1+ ,$&(//,%($3( )$5 #0 &'( 3#"")$5(+- #0 #1+ 0+#$&,(+
5,-&+,3&-, ')5 8)5/* ",-:15%(5 &'( ,$&(+$)&,#$)/ -,&1)&,#$ )$5 .)+&,31/)+/* &'(
&,",$% #0 &'( N)C, )%%+(--,#$.
The %enera$ found that the troo+s in the frontier areas #ere sti$$ on a +eace footin% and
that the reor%anisation #as +roceedin% 3ery s$o#$y: The ne# +$anes and tan<s #hich
#ere to re+$ace the o0so$ete mode$s #ere arri3in% on$y at a 3ery s$o# +ace: The o$der
officers6 inc$udin% some #ho had ser3ed in the Tsarist army6 too< a serious 3ie# of the
comin% #ar6 0ut amon% the youn%er so$diers and officers6 there #as a %ood dea$ of
de+$ora0$e com+$acency:
M)$* #0 &'(" &'#1%'& &')& #1+ A+"* 3#1/5 2,$ )$ ()-* 6,3&#+* )$5 &')& &'(
-#/5,(+- #0 )$* 3).,&)/,-& 3#1$&+*, ,$3/15,$% N)C, !(+")$*, 2#1/5 $#& 0,%'& )3&,6(/*
)%),$-& &'( R(5 A+"*. T'(* )/-# 1$5(++)&(5 &'( ",/,&)+* (B.(+,($3( )$5 &'(
($#+"#1- &(3'$,3)/ (91,."($& #0 &'( !(+")$ A+"*. W'($ &'( -'#25#2$ 3)"(,
&'( ",%'& #0 &'( !(+")$ A+"* 3)"( )- ) 3#"./(&( -1+.+,-( &# -#"( #0 #1+ #00,3(+-.
A$thou%h the famous TASS communi=uN of Bune 14 dismissed the rumours of 1ermany's
a%%ressi3e intentions as Fcom+$ete$y %round$essF6 Fedyunins<y reiterates that Fit #as
com+$ete$y contrary to #hat #e #ere a0$e to o0ser3e in the frontier areasF6 and he te$$s
the story of ho#6 on Bune 1J6 a 1erman deserter came o3er to the 2ussians: 9hi$e drun<6
he had hit an officer6 and #as afraid of 0ein% court,martia$$ed and shotL he a$so c$aimed
that his father #as a communist: This 1erman so$dier dec$ared that the 1erman Army
#as %oin% to in3ade 2ussia at 4 a:m: on Bune &&:
Fedyunins<y +rom+t$y '+honed the $oca$ army commander6 Tan< 1enera$ !ota+o36 0ut
#as to$d that the #ho$e thin% must 0e Fa +ro3ocationF6 and that Fit #as no use %ettin% into
a +anic a0out such nonsenseF: T#o days $ater Fedyunins<y #as 3isited 0y 1enera$
2o<osso3s<y6 #ho did not share !ota+o3's com+$acency6 and seemed e8treme$y a%itated:
?n the ear$y hours of Bune &&6 Fedyunins<y #as ca$$ed o3er the te$e+hone 0y !ota+o36
#ho ordered that the troo+s 0e ready for any emer%ency6 0ut added that ammunition had
not yet 0een distri0uted:
I ')5 &'( ,".+(--,#$ &')& )& A+"* H()591)+&(+-, &'(* 2(+( -&,// $#& 91,&( -1+( &')&
&'( N)C,- ')5 -&)+&(5 ) 2)+.
The 1-th ?nfantry 5or+s #as e8+ected to ho$d a $ine a0out si8ty mi$es #ide:
W( ')5 &# 5(./#* #1+ 0#+3(- )$5 #331.* #1+ 5(0($-,6( .#-,&,#$- 1$5(+ 3#$-&)$&
-'(//,$% )$5 ),+ 8#"8,$%. C#""1$,3)&,#$- 2(+( #0&($ 8+#;($ )$5 3#"8)& #+5(+-
#0&($ +()3'(5 &'( 1$,&- 2,&' %+()& 5(/)*... N(6(+&'(/(--, #1+ #00,3(+- 5,5 $#& /#-(
3#$&+#/, )$5 2( +()3'(5 &'( 5(0($-,6( .#-,&,#$- 2'(+( &'( 0+#$&,(+ %1)+5- ')5
)/+()5*, 0#+ -(6(+)/ '#1+-, 8(($ 2)%,$% )$ 1$(91)/ -&+1%%/(. E6($ &'( 2,6(- #0 &'(
0+#$&,(+ %1)+5- 2(+( ,$ &'( 0,+,$% /,$(, 3)++*,$% 2)&(+ )$5 )""1$,&,#$, )$5 &);,$%
3)+( #0 &'( 2#1$5(5. S#"( #0 &'( 2#"($ 2(+( 0,+,$% )& &'( )56)$3,$% N)C,-... B1&
&'( +)$;- #0 &'( 0+#$&,(+ %1)+5- 2(+( "(/&,$% )2)*. E6(+*2'(+( 8)++)3;- )$5
'#1-(-, -(& #$ 0,+( 8* ($("* -'(//-, 2(+( 8/)C,$%. T'( 0+#$&,(+ %1)+5- 2(+( 0,%'&,$%
&# &'( /)-& ")$? &'(* ;$(2 &')&, ,$ &')& ",-&* 5)2$ #0 J1$( MM, &+##.- 2(+( -.((5,$%
&# &'(,+ +(-31(.
Throu%hout that first day6 Fedyunins<y's troo+s #ithstood the 1erman ons$au%ht6 0ut the
1ermans thre# in more and more ne# forces6 and to#ards the e3enin%6 the 2ussians6
ha3in% suffered 3ery hea3y $osses6 0e%an to #ithdra#: The situation #as further
com+$icated 0y 1erman +aratroo+ $andin%s in the 2ussian rear6 as #e$$ as 0y numerous
fa$se re+orts of other +aratroo+ $andin%s s+read 0y Fenemy a%entsF: ?n 4o3e$ the Bandera
%an%s6 actin% as a 1erman fifth co$umn6 #ere causin% ha3ocDattac<in% 2ussian army
cars6 0$o#in% u+ 0rid%es6 and s+readin% these fa$se re+orts: As $ar%e 1erman armoured
forces #ere a++roachin% 4o3e$ from the north#est6 a$on% the Brest,4o3e$ road6 it #as
decided to e3acuate 4o3e$: !arts of the 1-th ?nfantry 5or+s continued to fi%ht6 #hi$e
a$ready encirc$ed 0y the 1ermans: C3en so6 in three days' fi%htin%6 the main forces of the
5or+s had 0een +ushed 0ac< on$y some t#e$3e to t#enty mi$es from the frontier:
;e3erthe$ess6 4o3e$ had to 0e a0andoned6 and ne# defensi3e +ositions to 0e ta<en u+
further east: But 0efore e3acuatin% 4o3e$6 the #ounded and the fami$ies of army officers
had to 0e e3acuated:
M#-& #00,3(+-< 2,6(-, 1-(5 &# 0+(91($& :#1+$(*-, &##; #$/* &'( 8)+( (--($&,)/- 2,&'
&'(". B1& -#"( /#-& &'(,+ '()5-, )$5 2#1/5 &);( &# &'( +),/2)* -&)&,#$ &',$%- /,;(
.+)"-, ",++#+- )$5 (6($ 0/#2(+-.#&-... T'#-( ,$ 3')+%( #0 &'( (6)31)&,#$ ')5 91,&(
) :#8 &# 8+,$% &'(-( .(#./( &# &'(,+ -($-(-...
The retreat #as ty+ica$ of so many simi$ar retreats in Bune 1941: The 1ermans had
com+$ete contro$ of the air6 and $osses from strafin% #ere hea3yL moreo3er sa0oteurs did
their 0est to harass the 2ussian retreat 0y 0$o#in% u+ 0rid%es:
R),/2)* :1$3&,#$- )$5 U$(- #0 3#""1$,3)&,#$ 2(+( 8(,$% 5(-&+#*(5 8* !(+")$
./)$(- )$5 5,6(+-,#$,-& %+#1.-. T'(+( 2)- ) -'#+&)%( #0 2,+(/(-- -(&- )& )+"*
'()591)+&(+-, $#+ 5,5 ")$* #0 1- ;$#2 '#2 &# 1-( &'("... O+5(+- )$5 ,$-&+13&,#$-
2(+( -/#2 ,$ )++,6,$%, )$5 -#"(&,"(- 5,5 $#& )++,6( )& )//... T'( /,),-#$ 2,&'
$(,%'8#1+,$% 1$,&- 2)- #0&($ 3#"./(&(/* )8-($&, 2',/( $#8#5* &+,(5 &# (-&)8/,-' ,&.
T);,$% )56)$&)%( #0 &',-, &'( ($("* 2#1/5 #0&($ .($(&+)&( ,$&# #1+ +()+, )$5 )&&)3;
&'( S#6,(& '()591)+&(+-... D(-.,&( !(+")$ ),+ -1.+(")3*, #1+ ")+3',$% 3#/1"$-
5,5 $#& 1-( )$* .+#.(+ 3)"#10/)%(. S#"(&,"(- #$ $)++#2 +#)5-, 8#&&/($(3;- 2(+(
0#+"(5 8* &+##.-, )+&,//(+*, "#&#+ 6(',3/(- )$5 0,(/5 ;,&3'($-, )$5 &'($ &'( N)C,
./)$(- ')5 &'( &,"( #0 &'(,+ /,0(... O0&($ #1+ &+##.- 3#1/5 $#& 5,% ,$, -,"./* 8(3)1-(
&'(* 5,5 $#& (6($ ')6( &'( -,"./(-& ,"./("($&-. O33)-,#$)//* &+($3'(- ')5 &# 8( 51%
2,&' '(/"(&-, -,$3( &'(+( 2(+( $# -.)5(-...
(et des+ite the terri0$e $osses suffered 0y the 2ussians6 mora$e remained reasona0$y hi%h:
F?t #ou$d6 of course6F says Fedyunins<y6 F0e #ron% to deny that there #ere cases of
'ner3es' or co#ardice6 0ut they #ere rather unusua$6 and ra+id$y o3ercome 0y the
steadfastness sho#n 0y the maHority of the so$diers6 #hose mora$e #as sustained 0y the
!arty:F
.o# hea3y the $osses #ere cou$d 0e Hud%ed from a re%iment Fedyunins<y re3ie#ed one
day: F?t #as no# no $ar%er than a +eacetime infantry 0atta$ion:F
?t is curious ho#6 after te$$in% this des+erate story of the 1-th ?nfantry 5or+s retreat6 and
the story of the t#o re%iments #ho 0ro<e out of a 1erman encirc$ement after ei%ht days'
hea3y fi%htin%6 Fedyunins<y then d#e$$s on the effect on the troo+s of Sta$in's famous
0roadcast of Bu$y 3:
I& ,- ')+5 &# 5(-3+,8( &'( ($#+"#1- ($&'1-,)-" )$5 .)&+,#&,3 1./,0& 2,&' 2',3' &',-
)..()/ 2)- "(&. W( -155($/* -(("(5 &# 0((/ "13' -&+#$%(+. W'($ 3,+31"-&)$3(-
.(+",&&(5, -'#+& "((&,$%- 2#1/5 8( '(/5 8* &'( )+"* 1$,&-. T# ./)&##$- )$5
3#".)$,(- .#/,&,3)/ ,$-&+13&#+- 2#1/5 (B./),$ &'( .#-,&,#$ )& &'( +#$&, )$5 &(//
&'(" '#2, ,$ +(-.#$-( &# &'( P)+&*<- )..()/, &'( 2'#/( S#6,(& .(#./( 2(+( +,-,$% /,;(
#$( ")$ &# 0,%'& &'( '#/* )&'(+/)$5 2)+. T'(* -&+(--(5 &')& &'( 2)+ 2#1/5 8( 6(+*
')+5, )$5 &')& ")$* #+5()/-, .+,6)&,#$- )$5 -)3+,0,3(- 2(+( *(& )'()5, 81& &')& &'(
N)C,- 2#1/5 $(6(+ 5(0()& #1+ .#2(+01/ )$5 ')+5-2#+;,$% .(#./(.
But the retreat continued6 and 0y Bu$y J Fedyunins<y's troo+s had #ithdra#n to the
4orosten fortified $ine in the *<raine6 a$ready #e$$ inside the Fo$dF 0orders of the So3iet
*nion: @n Au%ust 1&6 after a further retreat to#ards 4ie36 Fedyunins<y #as summoned
to Mosco#6 and ordered 0y 1enera$ Aassi$e3s<y to f$y immediate$y to enin%rad6 #here
the situation #as 0ecomin% e3en more serious than in the south:
More dramatic and tra%ic sti$$ than Fedyunins<y's story of the first days of the #ar is that
of 1enera$ Bo$din #ho6 in the #inter of 19416 #as to 0ecome famous as the commander
res+onsi0$e for the defence of Tu$a:
.e heard of the imminence of a 1erman in3asion on the e3enin% of Bune &16 #hi$e
attendin%6 #ith other officers6 the +erformance of a 4orneichu< comedy at the Army
@fficers' c$u0 at Mins<:
S155($/* C#/#$(/ B/#;',$, '()5 #0 &'( ,$&(//,%($3( 5(.)+&"($& #0 #1+ -.(3,)/
W(-&(+$ M,/,&)+* D,-&+,3&, )..()+(5 ,$ #1+ 8#B )$5 /()$,$% #6(+ &'( -'#1/5(+ #0 #1+
3#"")$5(+, A+"* !($(+)/ P)6/#6, 2',-.(+(5 -#"(&',$% ,$ ',- ()+. DI& 3)$<& 8(
&+1(,D P)6/#6 -),5...
T1+$,$% &# "(, '( -),5: DS(("- $#$-($-( &# "(. O1+ +(3#$$),--)$3( +(.#+&- &')&
&',$%- )+( /##;,$% 6(+* )/)+",$% )& &'( 0+#$&,(+. T'( !(+")$ &+##.- )+( -1..#-(5
&# 8( +()5* 0#+ )3&,#$E)$5 (6($ &# ')6( -'(//(5 -#"( #0 #1+ .#-,&,#$-.D T'($ '(
&#13'(5 "* ')$5, )$5 .#,$&(5 )& &'( -&)%(, -1%%(-&,$% 2( ')5 8(&&(+ %# #$ 2)&3',$%
&'( ./)*...
The +$ay no $on%er meant anythin% to Bo$dinL he 0e%an to 0rood a0out the a$armin% ne#s
that had 0een comin% in for the $ast fe# daysDfor instance6 the ne#s from 1rodno on
Bune &" that the 1ermans had ta<en do#n the 0ar0ed,#ire entan%$ements 0arrin% the
A3%usto3,Seini main road6 that the rum0$in% of count$ess en%ines cou$d 0e heard that day
from across the 0order6 and that se3era$ reconnaissance +$anes6 some of them carryin%
0om0s6 had 3io$ated 2ussian air s+ace:
@n the &1st6 there had 0een re+orts of hea3y 1erman troo+ concentrations at 3arious
+oints6 com+$ete #ith hea3y and medium tan<s: .e #as +u>>$ed 0y the Army
commander's F@$ym+ian ca$mF:::
This ca$m did not $ast $on%: ?n the ear$y hours of the mornin%6 Bo$din recei3ed an a%itated
'+hone ca$$ from !a3$o36 as<in% him to come to .ead=uarters immediate$y:
Ten minutes $ater he #as there:
DW')&<- ')..($(5ID I -),5.
DC)$<& 91,&( ");( #1&,D -),5 P)6/#6, D-#"( ;,$5 #0 5(6,/+* %#,$% #$. !($(+)/
K1C$(&-#6 <.'#$(5 0+#" !+#5$# ) 0(2 ",$1&(- )%#. S),5 &'( !(+")$- ')5 3+#--(5
&'( 8#+5(+ )/#$% ) 2,5( 0+#$& )$5 2(+( 8#"8,$% !+#5$#, 2,&' ,&- )+"*
'()591)+&(+-. T(/(.'#$( 3#""1$,3)&,#$- ')6( 8(($ -")-'(5, &'( )+"* 1$,&- ')6(
')5 &# 3')$%( #6(+ &# +)5,#. T2# 2,+(/(-- -&)&,#$- )+( )/+()5* #1& #0 )3&,#$, "1-&
')6( 8(($ 5(-&+#*(5... T'(+( ')6( )/-# 8(($ 3)//- 0+#" !#/18(6 #0 &'( 1L
&'
A+"*
)$5 C#/#$(/ S)$5)/#6 #0 &'( 4&'. M#-& 1$./()-)$& $(2-. T'( !(+")$- )+( 8#"8,$%
(6(+*2'(+(.D
O1+ 3#$6(+-)&,#$ 2)- ,$&(++1.&(5 8* ) 3)// 0+#" M#-3#2: ,& 2)- M)+-')/
T,"#-'($;#, &'( C#"",--)+ #0 D(0($3(, 2'# 2)$&(5 P)6/#6 &# +(.#+& #$ &'(
-,&1)&,#$... S##$ K1C$(&-#6 <.'#$(5 )%),$ &# -)* &')& &'( !(+")$- 2(+( 3#$&,$1,$%
&'(,+ ),+ )&&)3;-. A/#$% &',+&* ",/(- )// &'( &(/(.'#$( )$5 &(/(%+).' /,$(- 2(+( 5#2$.
L,),-#$ 8(&2(($ ")$* 1$,&- ')5 8(($ 8+#;($... D1+,$% &'( $(B& ')/0-'#1+ "#+( )$5
"#+( $(2- 3)"( ,$. T'( 8#"8,$% 2)- %+#2,$% ,$ ,$&($-,&*. T'(* 2(+( 8#"8,$%
B(/#-&#; )$5 !+#5$#, L,5), B+(-&, A#/;#6*-;, S/#$," )$5 #&'(+ B(/#+1--,)$ &#2$-.
H(+( )$5 &'(+(, &'(+( ')5 8(($ !(+")$ .)+)&+##. /)$5,$%-. M)$* #0 #1+ ./)$(-
')5 8(($ 5(-&+#*(5 #$ &'( %+#1$5, )$5 &'( L10&2)00( 2(+( $#2 -&+)0,$% &+##.- )$5
3,&,C($-. T'( !(+")$- ')5 )/+()5* #331.,(5 5#C($- #0 /#3)/,&,(-, )$5 2(+( .1-',$%
,$/)$5...
Then came another '+hone ca$$ from Timoshen<o6 #ho said:
DC#"+)5( B#/5,$, +("("8(+ &')& $# )3&,#$ ,- &# 8( &);($ )%),$-& &'( !(+")$-
2,&'#1& #1+ ;$#2/(5%(. W,// *#1 ./()-( &(// P)6/#6 &')& C#"+)5( S&)/,$ ')-
0#+8,55($ &# #.($ )+&,//(+* 0,+( )%),$-& &'( !(+")$-.D
DB1& '#2 ,- &')& .#--,8/(ID I *(//(5 ,$&# &'( +(3(,6(+. DO1+ &+##.- )+( ,$ 01// +(&+()&.
W'#/( &#2$- )+( ,$ 0/)"(-, .(#./( )+( 8(,$% ;,//(5 )// #6(+ &'( ./)3(... D
DN#,D -),5 T,"#-'($;#, D&'(+( ,- &# 8( $# ),+ +(3#$$),--)$3( "#+( &')$ &',+&*-0,6(
",/(- 8(*#$5 &'( 0+#$&,(+.D
I )+%1(5 &')& -,$3( &'( N)C,- ')5 ;$#3;(5 #1& .+)3&,3)//* )// #1+ 0+#$&-/,$( ),+ 0#+3(,
&',- 2)- ,".#--,8/( )$*2)*, )$5 ,$-,-&(5 &')& 2( &'+#2 ,$ &'( 01// 2(,%'& #0 #1+
,$0)$&+*, )+&,//(+* )$5 )+"#1+, )$5 (-.(3,)//* #1+ )$&,-),+3+)0& %1$-. B1&
T,"#-'($;# -&,// -),5 N#?E#$/* +(3#$$),--)$3( #0 $#& "#+( &')$ &',+&*-0,6( ",/(-
,$-,5( ($("* &(++,&#+*. ..
I& 2)- $#& &,// -#"( &,"( /)&(+ &')& M#-3#2 #+5(+(5 1- &# .1& ,$&# )3&,#$ &'( DR(5
P)3;(&D, ,.(. &'( ./)$ 0#+ 3#6(+,$% &'( S&)&( 0+#$&,(+. B1& &',- #+5(+ 3)"( &## /)&(...
T'( !(+")$- ')5 )/+()5* ($%)%(5 ,$ 01//--3)/( ",/,&)+* #.(+)&,#$-, )$5 ')5, ,$
-(6(+)/ ./)3(-, .($(&+)&(5 5((. ,$&# #1+ &(++,&#+*.
A fe# hours $ater6 #ith Timoshen<o's +ermission6 Bo$din f$e# to Be$osto<: .is +$ane #as
hit 0y t#enty 0u$$ets from a Messerschmitt6 0ut ne3erthe$ess mana%ed to $and on an
airfie$d t#enty mi$es east of the city: A fe# minutes $ater nine 1erman +$anes a++eared
o3er the airfie$d and dro++ed their 0om0s6 #ithout any interferenceL there #ere no anti,
aircraft %uns on that airfie$d: Se3era$ cars and Bo$din's +$ane #ere destroyed:
E6(+* ",$1&( 3#1$&(5. W( ')5 &# %(& &# &'( 1L&' A+"* H()591)+&(+-. T'(+( 2(+(
$# 3)+- )& &'( ),+0,(/5, -# I &##; ) -")// &+13;, )$5 &#%(&'(+ 2,&' -#"( #00,3(+- )$5 )
$1"8(+ #0 -#/5,(+-E&2(/6( .(#./( ,$ )//E2( %#& ,$&# ,&. I &##; &'( -()& $(B& &# &'(
5+,6(+, )$5 &#/5 '," &# 5+,6( &# B(/#-&#;.
DI&<- 5)$%(+#1-, C#"+)5( !($(+)/,D '( -),5, D&2($&* ",$1&(- 8(0#+( *#1 /)$5(5,
&'(+( 2)- ) !(+")$ .)+)&+##. /)$5,$%? -# &'( 3#"")$5(+ #0 &'( ),+0,(/5 &#/5 "(.D
A$ 1$./()-)$& 8,& #0 $(2-, 81& ,& 3#1/5$<& 8( '(/.(5. I& 2)- ,$3+(5,8/* '#&, )$5 &'(
),+ -"(/& #0 81+$,$%...
A& /)-& 2( +()3'(5 &'( B(/#-&#; "),$ +#)5. T'+#1%' &'( 2,$5-3+(($ I 3#1/5 -((
0,0&(($ !(+")$ 8#"8(+- )..+#)3',$% 0+#" &'( 2(-&. T'(* 2(+( 0/*,$% /#2, 2,&'
.+#6#3)&,6( ,$-#/($3(, )- &'#1%' #1+ -;* 8(/#$%(5 &# &'(". O$ &'(,+ 01-(/)%(- I
3#1/5 3/()+/* -(( &'( -.,5(+- #0 &'( N)C, -2)-&,;).
@n the #ay6 Bo$din sto++ed a cro#d of #or<ers #anderin% in the o++osite direction:
DW'(+( )+( *#1 %#,$%ID I )-;(5.
DT# A#/;#6*-;,D &'(* -),5.
DW'# )+( *#1ID
DW( ')5 8(($ 2#+;,$% #$ 0#+&,0,3)&,#$-. B1& &'( ./)3( 2'(+( 2( 2#+;(5 ,- $#2 /,;(
) -() #0 0/)"(-,D -),5 )$ (/5(+/* ")$ 2,&' )$ (B')1-&(5 /##; #$ ',- 0)3(.
T'(-( .(#./( -(("(5 &# ')6( /#-& &'(,+ '()5-, $#& ;$#2,$% 2'(+( &'(* 2(+( %#,$%
)$5 2'*.
T'($ 2( "(& ) 0(2 3)+-, /(5 8* ) G,--1L1. T'( 8+#)5 /()6(- #0 )$ )-.,5,-&+) 2(+(
.+#&+15,$% 0+#" #$( #0 &'( 2,$5#2-. I& 2)- &'( 3)+ #0 -#"( /#3)/ &#. #00,3,)/. I$-,5(
2(+( &2# 2#"($ )$5 &2# 3',/5+($.
DS1+(/*,D I -),5, D)& ) &,"( /,;( &',- *#1 ",%'& ')6( "#+( ,".#+&)$& &',$%- &#
&+)$-.#+& &')$ *#1+ )-.,5,-&+). Y#1 ",%'& ')6( &);($ -#"( #/5 .(#./( #+ 3',/5+($.D
W,&' &'(,+ '()5- 8($&, &'( 2#"($ 2(+( -,/($&. T'( 5+,6(+, &##, &1+$(5 )2)*, 0((/,$%
)-')"(5.
And then came the 1erman strafin%:
T'+(( 6#//(*- #0 ")3',$(-%1$ 0,+( ',& #1+ &+13;. T'( 5+,6(+ 2)- ;,//(5. I ")$)%(5 &#
-1+6,6(, )- I :1".(5 #1& :1-& ,$ &,"(. B1& 2,&' &'( (B3(.&,#$ #0 "* A.D.C. )$5 )
5,-.)&3' +,5(+, )// 2(+( ;,//(5...
N()+8*, I $#&,3(5 &'( -)"( #/5 G,--1L1. I 2($& 1. &# ,&. T'( 2#"($, &'( 3',/5+($, &'(
5+,6(+ 2(+( )// ;,//(5... O$/* &'( (6(+%+(($ /()6(- #0 &'( )-.,5,-&+) 2(+( -&,// -&,3;,$%
#1& #0 &'( 2,$5#2.
.orror +i$ed u+on horror that day: Be$osto< #as in a com+$ete state of chaos6 at the
rai$#ay station a train +ac<ed #ith #omen and chi$dren e3acuees #as 0om0ed6 and
hundreds #ere <i$$ed:
At $ast6 to#ards e3enin%6 Bo$din reached the .ead=uarters of the 1"th Army #hich had
mo3ed out of Be$osto< to a $itt$e #ood some distance outside the city: ?t consisted of t#o
tents6 #ith a ta0$e and a fe# chairs: 1enera$ 1o$u0e3 #as there6 #ith a num0er of staff
officers: .e had 0een una0$e to communicate #ith the Front (i:e: Army 1rou+)
.ead=uarters as the te$e+hone $ines had 0een destroyed6 and radio communications #ere
0ein% constant$y Hammed 0y the enemy: 1o$u0e3 to$d Bo$din:
DA& 5)*8+(); &'+(( !(+")$ )+"* 3#+.-, -1..#+&(5 8* ")--(- #0 &)$;- )$5
8#"8(+-, )&&)3;(5 "* 5&' ,$0)$&+* 3#+.- #$ "* /(0& 0/)$;. D1+,$% &'( 0,+-& '#1+-, )//
5,6,-,#$- -100(+(5 6(+* '()6* /#--(-... D
H,- 0)3( )$5 6#,3( -'#2(5 &')& '( 2)- 5((./* -');($. H)6,$% )-;(5 "* .(+",--,#$
&# /,%'& ) 3,%)+(&&(, '( 1$0#/5(5 ) ").:
DT# .+(6($& #1+ 8(,$% #1&0/)$;(5 ,$ &'( -#1&', I 5(./#*(5 &'( 1@&' "(3')$,-(5
3#+.- )/#$% &'( +,6(+ K1+(&C, 81& )- *#1 ;$#2, I6)$ A)-,/,(6,3', &'(+( )+( 6(+* 0(2
&)$;- ,$ #1+ 5,6,-,#$-. A$5 2')& 3)$ *#1 (B.(3& 0+#" &'#-( #/5 TM6 &)$;-E#$/*
%##5 ($#1%' 0#+ 0,+,$% )& -.)++#2-,.. D
From his further re+ort it emer%ed that 0oth the aircraft and the anti,aircraft %uns of the
army cor+s had 0een smashed6 and that s+ies had a++arent$y informed the 1ermans
#here the army's fue$ dum+s #ere6 for durin% the 3ery first hours of the in3asion6 these
had a$$ 0een destroyed 0y 0om0in%:
Then 1enera$ ;i<itin6 commander of the )th ca3a$ry cor+s6 arri3ed and re+orted ho# his
men6 after successfu$$y re+e$$in% the first 1erman attac<s6 had 0een a$most #ho$$y
e8terminated 0y 1erman aircraft: The remnants of the ca3a$ry cor+s had 0een
concentrated in a #ood north,east of Be$osto<:
oo<in% u+ from the ma+6 1enera$ 1o$u0e3 said:
DI&<- ')+5, 6(+* ')+5, I6)$ A)-,/,(6,3'. M* "($ )+( 0,%'&,$% /,;( '(+#(-. B1& 2')&
3)$ *#1 5# )%),$-& ) &)$; #+ ) ./)$(I W'(+( &'(+( ,- )$* 3')$3( #0 3/,$%,$% &#
-#"(&',$% 2( '#/5 #$? 2( 0,%'& 8)3; 0+#" )$* -&+#$% .#-,&,#$, )$5 &'( ($("*
3)$$#& 5,-/#5%( 1-. B1& &'(+( )+( 0(2 -13' .#-,&,#$-, )$5 &'( N)C,- 5+,6( &'(,+
2(5%(- 0#+2)+5, &'(* )6#,5 0+#$&)/ )&&)3;-, &'(* %(& +#1$5 1-? &'(* %),$ 8#&' &,"(
)$5 -.)3(. T'( 0+#$&,(+ %1)+5-, &##, )+( 0,%'&,$% 2(//, 81& 0(2 #0 &'(" )+( /(0& )$5
2( ')6( $# "()$- #0 -1..#+&,$% &'(". A$5 -# &'( N)C,- )56)$3(, ,$-#/($&/*,
")+3',$% 1.+,%'&, 8(')6,$% /,;( 3#$91(+#+-. A$5 &')&<- #$ &'( 6(+* 0,+-& 5)* #0 &'(
2)+H W')&<// ')..($ )0&(+ &')&ID
At that 3ery moment communications #ith Mins< #ere reesta0$ished6 and 1enera$
!a3$o3 +roceeded to %i3e Bo$din +erem+tory orders a0out the counter,offensi3e the 1"th
Army #as to carry out that ni%ht: Bo$din o0Hected6 +ointin% out that the 1"th Army had
0een as %ood as #i+ed out: For a moment !a3$o3 seemed to hesitate6 and then said:
FThese are my orders: ?t's for you to carry them out:F
9hat6 Bo$din ref$ected6 #as the meanin% of these tota$$y unrea$istic ordersE And he
re$ated that6 $on% after the #ar6 he disco3ered that men $i<e !a3$o3 used to issue such
orders6 Fmere$y for the record6 to sho# Mosco# that somethin% #as 0ein% done to sto+
the 1ermansF:
IBo$din does not mention the fact that !a3$o3 #as6 soon after#ards6 to 0e shot for his
incom+etenceDor as a sca+e%oat: !a3$o3 is a$so mentioned in Chren0ur%'s memoirs as
one of the 2ussian %enera$s he met in 1937 in S+ain: .e a$so refers to !a3$o3's tra%ic end
in 1941:K
The rest of this tra%ic cha+ter in Bo$din's 0oo< dea$s #ith the attem+ts6 durin% the &3rd6 to
mount a counter,offensi3e #ith the remnants of the 1"th Army6 some other units and the
armoured cor+s under 1enera$ .ats<i$e3ich6 #hich #as sti$$ in com+arati3e$y %ood
sha+e: But a$$ day $on% the troo+s and the army head=uarters #ere 0ein% attac<ed 0y
enemy aircraft: @ne %enera$ #as <i$$ed6 and a$thou%h .ats<i$e3ich's tan< cre#s fou%ht
0ra3e$y6 they #ere 0e%innin% to run out of fue$: Bo$din6 una0$e to contact the Front
head=uarters6 sent t#o +$anes to Mins<6 0e%%in% for fue$ to 0e f$o#n to the head=uarters
of the 1"th Army: But 0oth +$anes #ere shot do#n:
?t #as in this des+erate situation that Marsha$ 4u$i< sudden$y arri3ed from Mosco#:
I4u$i< #as a FSta$inistF u+start #ho had risen to the to+ of the Army hierarchy since the
1937 !ur%e: itt$e more #as to 0e heard of him after the 0e%innin% of the #ar:K
H( /,-&($(5 &# "* (B./)$)&,#$-, &'($ ")5( ) 6)%1( %(-&1+(, )$5 "1"8/(5: DY(-, I
-((...D I& 2)- 91,&( #86,#1- &')&, 2'($ /()6,$% M#-3#2, '( ')5 $# ,5() &')& &'(
-,&1)&,#$ 2)- )- -(+,#1- )- &',-. S##$ )0&(+2)+5-, &'( M)+-')/ /(0& #1+ 3#"")$5
.#-&. W'($ -)*,$% %##58*(, '( -),5 '( 2#1/5 -(( 2')& '( 3#1/5 5#.
A- I 2)&3'(5 ',- 3)+ 5+,6,$% )2)*, I 2#$5(+(5 2')& '( ')5 3#"( 0#+... I ')5 ;$#2$
'," )- ) ")$ #0 ($(+%* )$5 2,//-.#2(+, 81& $#2 ',- $(+6(- -(("(5 &# ')6( %,6($
2)*. !($(+)/ N,;,&,$ -(("(5 &# &',$; -#, &##. W'($ &'( 3)+ ')5 5,-)..()+(5 ,$ )
3/#15 #0 51-&, '( +(")+;(5: DA -&+)$%( 6,-,&D...
A 0(2 ",$1&(- /)&(+ H)&-;,/(6,3' )++,6(5. H( 2)- ,$ ) -&)&( #0 %+()& )%,&)&,#$. DW(
)+( 0,+,$% #1+ /)-& -'(//-. O$3( 2(<6( 5#$( &')&, 2( -')// ')6( &# 5(-&+#* &'( &)$;-.D
DY(-,D I -),5, DI 5#$<& -(( 2')& (/-( 2( 3)$ 5#.D
W,&',$ ) 0(2 '#1+-, !($(+)/ H)&-;,/(6,3' 5,(5 ) '(+#<- 5()&' #$ &'( 0,(/5 #0 8)&&/(.
Surrounded on a$$ sidesD$i<e the other troo+s in the famous FBe$osto< !oc<etFD#ithout
ammunition6 the %enera$s6 officers and so$diers under Bo$din s+$it into sma$$ %rou+s6 and
started mo3in% east6 ho+in% for the 0est::: Bo$din's sma$$ %rou+ of men6 #ho +ic<ed u+
more and more so$diers in the #oods in the course of their forty,fi3e days' tre<Din the
end there #ere &6""" of themDfina$$y mana%ed to cross the front near Smo$ens< and to
Hoin the main 2ussian forces:
There #ere count$ess other units #ho did not ha3e Bo$din's %ood $uc<6 and #ho #ere
either #i+ed out 0y the 1ermans6 or forced to surrender: Bo$din admits that6 durin% the
first fe# days of the tre<6 the mora$e amon% some of his o#n so$diers #as $o#6 es+ecia$$y
as a resu$t of 1erman $eaf$ets sayin%: FMosco# has surrendered: Any further resistance is
use$ess: Surrender to 3ictorious 1ermany no#:F (et most of them #ere not des+erate6 0ut
an%ry:
W
The first,hand accounts of 1enera$s Fedyunins<y and Bo$din confirm that Sta$in and the
Army .i%h 5ommand sti$$ seemed6 e3en at the t#e$fth hour6 to ha3e ho+ed to a3oid the
#ar: ?t #as not unti$ the ni%ht of the in3asion that ur%ent directi3es #ere sent out to the
army secret$y to man the %un em+$acements a$on% the frontierL to dis+erse the aircraft
concentrated on the frontier,>one airfie$ds6 and to %et the troo+s and anti,aircraft defences
into a state of mi$itary +re+aredness: ;o other measures #ere +rescri0ed and e3en these
orders came too $ate:
Thus 1enera$ !ur<aye3 reca$$s that #hen he started mo3in% his troo+s to the frontier6 the
#ar had a$ready 0e%un se3era$ hours 0efore: Another commander6 Army,1enera$ !o+o36
reca$$s that #hen the 1ermans started their air raids on Brest,ito3s< it a$$ came as a
com+$ete sur+rise: A re%iment #hich #as rushed to the frontier from 2i%a #as
interce+ted 0y su+erior 1erman forces ad3ancin% north and +ractica$$y e8terminated:
The officia$ So3iet Histor! admits that in many frontier areas the 1ermans 0ro<e a$$
resistance #ithin a short time: Many troo+s #ent into 0att$e com+$ete$y un+re+ared and
the 1ermans had $itt$e difficu$ty in 0rea<in% throu%h the frontier defences: The So3iet air
force #as a$most #i+ed out o3er $ar%e areas: Durin% the first days of the #ar 1erman
0om0ers raided si8ty,si8 airfie$ds6 es+ecia$$y those #here the most modern +$anes #ere
concentrated: Before noon6 on Bune &&6 16&"" +$anes #ere destroyed6 J"" of them on the
%round: The 5entra$ Sector suffered the hea3iest casua$ties of a$$D-&J +$anes #ere
destroyed on the %round and &1" in the air:
There #ere +ractica$$y no reser3es in the frontier areasL te$e+hone and te$e%ra+h
communications #ere disru+ted in the 3ery first hours of the #arL army units $ost contact
#ith each otherL some front commanders $ac<ed the necessary o+erationa$ and strate%ic
trainin%6 and the e8+erience re=uired for the command of $ar%e o+erationa$ forces in #ar
conditions: Throu%hout the day the So3iet 1enera$ Staff #as una0$e to %ain a c$ear idea
of #hat #as ha++enin%:
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 ++: &" and &J,&9:K
?ssued at 7:1- a:m: on Bune &&6 the first directi3e of the 1enera$ Staff to the frontier
troo+s ref$ects their i%norance of the true situation and6 seen in retros+ect6 has the rin% of
0itter tra3esty:
17 O1+ &+##.- )+( &# )&&)3; ($("* 0#+3(- 2,&' )// &'( -&+($%&' )$5 "()$- )& &'(,+
5,-.#-)/, )$5 &# )$$,',/)&( &'(" 2'(+(6(+ &'(* ')6( 6,#/)&(5 &'( S#6,(& 8#+5(+.
M7 O1+ +(3#$$),--)$3( )$5 3#"8)& ),+3+)0& -')// )-3(+&),$ 2'(+( ($("* ),+3+)0&
)$5 /)$5-0#+3(- )+( 3#$3($&+)&(5. B* -&+,;,$% ",%'&* 8/#2- #1+ ),+3+)0& )+( &#
-")-' &'( "),$ ($("* &+##. 3#$3($&+)&,#$- )$5 &'(,+ ),+3+)0& #$ ,&- ),+0,(/5-. T'(-(
8/#2- )+( &# 8( -&+13; )$*2'(+( 2,&',$ -,B&* &# ) '1$5+(5 ",/(- #0 !(+")$
&(++,&#+*. M("(/ )$5 KO$,%-8(+% )+( &# 8( '()6,/* 8#"8(5. U$&,/ 01+&'(+ $#&,3(, $#
),+ )&&)3;- )+( &# 8( ")5( #$ ,$$,-' #+ R1")$,)$ &(++,&#+*.
This order6 %i3en after the So3iet air force had a$ready 0een +ractica$$y e$iminated6 cou$d6
natura$$y6 not 0e carried out: By the end of Bune &&6 the $eft f$an< of the 1erman Army
1rou+ 5entre had a$ready ad3anced far 0eyond 4aunas6 #here it had routed the 2ussian
11th Army6 no# in disorder$y retreat from 4aunas to Ai$no:
;o dou0t6 here and there6 the 2ussians #ere a0$e to han% on6 as for instance the %arrison
of the 5itade$ at Brest,ito3s<6 #hich6 a$thou%h surrounded on a$$ sides and constant$y
0om0ed and she$$ed6 he$d out for o3er a month6 ti$$ Bu$y &4: 9hen the 1ermans fina$$y
ca+tured the 5itade$6 most of its defenders #ere dead or se3ere$y #ounded: The main
1erman forces in the area6 ho#e3er6 0y,+assed Brest,ito3s< and +ushed thirty,fi3e
mi$es east on the 3ery first day of the #ar:
The first officia$ communi=uN6 +u0$ished at 1" +:m: on Bune &&6 #as +ro0a0$y intended to
+re3ent +anic or 0e#i$derment amon% the So3iet +o+u$ation:
I$ &'( 3#1+-( #0 &'( 5)*, +(%1/)+ !(+")$ &+##.- 0#1%'& #1+ 0+#$&,(+ &+##.- )$5
)3',(6(5 ",$#+ -133(--(- ,$ ) $1"8(+ #0 -(3&#+-. I$ &'( )0&(+$##$, 2,&' )56)$3(
0,(/5 0#+3(- #0 &'( R(5 A+"* )++,6,$% )& &'( 0+#$&,(+, &'( )&&)3;- #0 &'( !(+")$
%+#1.- ')6( 8(($ +(.(//(5 )/#$% "#-& #0 &'( 0+#$&,(+ 2,&' '()6* /#--(- &# &'( ($("*.
That the 1enera$ Staff itse$f had no 3ery c$ear idea of #hat #as ha++enin% on the first
day of the #ar is confirmed 0y the second directi3e %i3en to the troo+s in the frontier
area: The South,9estern Army 1rou+ #as to start6 on the 3ery ne8t day6 a maHor
offensi3e6 #hich #ou$d $ead6 0y the end of Bune &46 to the ca+ture of u0$in6 some thirty
mi$es 0eyond the So3iet 0orderP The ;orth,9estern Army 1rou+ #as at the same time to
ca+ture Su3a$<i6 and a$$ three Army 1rou+s #ere6 moreo3er6 ordered to surround any
1erman forces that had +enetrated into So3iet territory:
A0surd thou%h the order #as6 a +athetic attem+t #as made to carry it outL in a num0er of
+$aces the 2ussians succeeded in concentratin% #hat tan<s they sti$$ had in the frontier
areasL 0ut6 in the a0sence of air su++ort they #ere #i+ed out 0y 1erman 0om0ers:
The 1erman ad3ance continued a$most #ithout a hitch: ar%e 2ussian forces #ere
tra++ed in the Be$osto< +oc<et and e$e3en di3isions in the Mins< area: By Bune &J the
1ermans had a$ready reached the city of Mins<6 #ere +ushin% dee+ into the Ba$tic
2e+u0$ics and #ere a++roachin% !s<o36 on the strai%ht $ine to enin%rad:
A fe# days $ater the remnants of si8teen 2ussian di3isions #ere facin% t#o +o#erfu$
1erman tan< formations a$on% the Bere>ina6 and under these conditions it #as
unthin<a0$e to form a ne# &&" mi$es $on% defence $ineL some de$ayin% actions #ere6
ho#e3er6 fou%ht #ith %reat %a$$antry 0y the 2ussians6 nota0$y east of Mins<6 at Boriso36
#here they thre# in a $ar%e num0er of tan<s6 thou%h most of them o0so$ete: These
de$ayin% actions to some e8tent he$+ed to %ain time in #hich to 0rin% u+ reser3es and
or%anise a defence in de+th in #hat a$ready came to 0e <no#n as the FSmo$ens<,Mosco#
directionF:
Some minor de$ayin% actions #ere a$so fou%ht6 #ith suicida$ 0ra3ery6 a%ainst the 1erman
Army 1rou+ South: .e$d u+ in the 2o3no area and una0$e to +ursue their ad3ance
to#ards 4ie36 the 1ermans turned north and %ot 0o%%ed do#n for some time in #hat
#ere descri0ed as F0att$es of $oca$ im+ortanceF: But 0y Bu$y 96 the 1ermans had 0ro<en
throu%h to Ohitomir6 #hich #as ca+tured6 and #ere threatenin% to 0rea< throu%h to 4ie3
and to encirc$e the main 2ussian forces in the ;orthern *<raine: But here a%ain6 at
Berdiche36 the 2ussians thre# in some armour and there #as hea3y fi%htin% around
Berdiche3 for a$most a #ee<:
C').&(+ III MOLOTOA AND STALIN SPEAK
?t #as not unti$ se3era$ hours after the 1ermans had in3aded the So3iet *nion that an
officia$ announcement #as made o3er the radio 0y Forei%n 5ommissar Mo$oto3: FMen
and #omen6 citi>ens of the So3iet *nion6F he 0e%an in a fa$terin%6 s$i%ht$y stuttery 3oice:
FThe So3iet 1o3ernment and its head6 5omrade Sta$in6 ha3e instructed me to ma<e the
fo$$o#in% statement:
A& 0#1+ #<3/#3; &',- "#+$,$%, 2,&'#1& 5(3/)+)&,#$ #0 2)+, )$5 2,&'#1& )$* 3/),"-
8(,$% ")5( #$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$, !(+")$ &+##.- )&&)3;(5 #1+ 3#1$&+*, )&&)3;(5 #1+
0+#$&,(+ ,$ ")$* ./)3(-, )$5 8#"8(5 0+#" &'( ),+ G',&#",+, K,(6, S(8)-&#.#/,
K)1$)- )$5 -#"( #&'(+ ./)3(-. T'(+( )+( #6(+ MLL 5()5 #+ 2#1$5(5. S,",/)+ ),+
)$5 )+&,//(+* )&&)3;- ')6( )/-# 8(($ ")5( 0+#" R1")$,)$ )$5 ,$$,-' &(++,&#+*.
The ne8t sentence 0etrayed Mo$oto3's e8traordinary dismay and su%%ested that6 in its
dea$in%s #ith the 1ermans6 the So3iet 1o3ernment #ou$d ha3e 0een #i$$in% to consider
a$most any concessions to +ut off the e3i$ hour:
T',- 1$'()+5-#0 )&&)3; #$ #1+ 3#1$&+* ,- )$ 1$.)+)//(/(5 )3& #0 .(+0,5* ,$ &'(
',-&#+* #0 3,6,/,-(5 $)&,#$-. T',- )&&)3; ')- 8(($ ")5( 5(-.,&( &'( 0)3& &')& &'(+( 2)-
) $#$-)%%+(--,#$ .)3& 8(&2(($ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ )$5 !(+")$*, ) .)3& &'( &(+"- #0
2',3' 2(+( -3+1.1/#1-/* #8-(+6(5 8* &'( S#6,(& U$,#$. W( ')6( 8(($ )&&)3;(5 (6($
&'#1%', &'+#1%'#1& &'( .(+,#5 #0 &'( P)3&, &'( !(+")$ !#6(+$"($& ')5 8(($
1$)8/( &# ");( &'( -/,%'&(-& 3#"./),$& )8#1& &'( USSR $#& 3)++*,$% #1& ,&-
#8/,%)&,#$-. T'(+(0#+( &'( 2'#/( +(-.#$-,8,/,&* 0#+ &',- )3& #0 +#88(+* "1-& 0)// #$
&'( N)C, +1/(+-.
Mo$oto3 then s+o<e of the 3isit he had recei3ed at -:3" in the mornin% from the 1erman
Am0assador6 #ho had informed him that 1ermany had decided to attac< the So3iet
*nion 0ecause of 2ussian troo+ concentrations on the frontier:
.e stated em+hatica$$y that no So3iet +$ane had e3er 0een a$$o#ed to cross the 0order6
and he 0randed as F$ies and +ro3ocationsF the announcement o3er the 2umanian radio
that mornin% that the 2ussians had 0om0ed 2umanian airfie$ds6 and .it$er's statement
Ftryin% after the e3ent to concoct stories a0out the non,o0ser3ance of the So3iet,1erman
!act 0y the So3iet *nionF: But no# that the 1ermans had attac<ed the So3iet *nion6 the
So3iet 1o3ernment had ordered its troo+s to re+e$ the attac< and to thro# the 1ermans
out of So3iet territory:
T',- 2)+ ')- $#& 8(($ ,$0/,3&(5 1.#$ 1- 8* &'( !(+")$ .(#./(, #+ 8* &'( !(+")$
2#+;(+-, .()-)$&- )$5 ,$&(//(3&1)/-, #0 2'#-( -100(+,$%- 2( )+( 01//* )2)+(, 81& 8*
!(+")$*<- 8/##5&',+-&* +1/(+-, 2'# ')6( )/+()5* ($-/)6(5 &'( +($3', &'( CC(3'-,
&'( P#/(-, &'( S(+8-, )$5 &'( .(#./(- #0 N#+2)*, D($")+;, H#//)$5, B(/%,1",
!+((3( )$5 #&'(+ 3#1$&+,(-.
Mo$oto3 did not dou0t that the So3iet armed forces #ou$d do their duty and smash the
a%%ressor: .e reca$$ed that 2ussia had 0een in3aded 0efore6 that6 in the %reat +atriotic #ar
of 1J1&6 the #ho$e 2ussian +eo+$e had risen as one man to crush ;a+o$eon: The same
#ou$d ha++en to Farro%ant .it$erF:
T'( !#6(+$"($& #0 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ ,- 5((./* 3#$6,$3(5 &')& &'( 2'#/( .#.1/)&,#$
#0 #1+ 3#1$&+* 2,// 5# &'(,+ 51&*, )$5 2,// 2#+; ')+5 )$5 3#$-3,($&,#1-/*. O1+
.(#./( "1-& 8( "#+( 1$,&(5 &')$ (6(+. T'( %+()&(-& 5,-3,./,$(, #+%)$,-,$% )8,/,&*
)$5 -(/0/(--$(-- 2#+&'* #0 ) S#6,(& .)&+,#& "1-& 8( 5(")$5(5 #0 (6(+*8#5* &# "((&
&'( $((5- #0 &'( A+"*, N)6* )$5 A,+ #+3(, )$5 &# -(31+( 6,3&#+*.
T'( !#6(+$"($& 3)//- 1.#$ *#1, "($ )$5 2#"($ 3,&,C($- #0 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$, &#
+)//* (6($ "#+( 3/#-(/* +#1$5 &'( %/#+,#1- B#/-'(6,; P)+&*, )+#1$5 &'( S#6,(&
!#6(+$"($& )$5 #1+ %+()& /()5(+, C#"+)5( S&)/,$. O1+ 3)1-( ,- %##5. T'( ($("*
2,// 8( -")-'(5. A,3&#+* 2,// 8( #1+-.
T'(+( 2(+( ) 0(2 3)&3' .'+)-(- &')& -&13;E)8#1& &',- 8(,$% )$#&'(+ D.)&+,#&,3
2)+D )0&(+ &'( "#5(/ #0 1N1M? )- 2(// )- &'( /)-& .)+)%+).': DO1+ 3)1-( ,- %##5. T'(
($("* 2,// 8( -")-'(5. A,3&#+* 2,// 8( #1+- (pobeda budet za nami).1 B1& &'(
%($(+)/ &#$( #0 &'( 8+#)53)-&, )$5 (-.(3,)//* &'( 3#"./),$& &')& &'( !(+")$- ')5
D")5( $# 5(")$5-D #$ R1--,), /(0& )$ 1$()-*, )/"#-& '1",/,)&,$%, 0((/,$%. I& &##;
&2(/6( ,$3+(5,8/* /#$% )$5 )$B,#1- 5)*- 8(0#+( S&)/,$ ',"-(/0 8+#)53)-& &# &'(
R1--,)$ .(#./(.
?n the midst of the conf$ictin%6 reticent and6 to a$$ a++earances6 untrue mi$itary
communi=uNs6 the 2ussian +eo+$e deri3ed #hat cheer they cou$d from 5hurchi$$'s
historic 0roadcast on the ni%ht of Bune &&6 $ess than t#enty,four hours after the 1erman
in3asion:
These #ere the +assa%es that made a +articu$ar$y stron% im+ression on the 2ussians: .e
admitted that: F;o one has 0een a more consistent o++onent of communism than ? ha3e
in the $ast t#enty,fi3e years: ? #i$$ unsay no #ord that ? ha3e s+o<en a0out it:F But then
he #ent on6 as on$y he cou$d do:
I -(( &'( R1--,)$ -#/5,(+- -&)$5,$% #$ &'( &'+(-'#/5 #0 &'(,+ $)&,6( /)$5... I -(( &'("
%1)+5,$% &'(,+ '#"(- 2'(+( &'(,+ "#&'(+- )$5 2,6(- .+)*E)', *(-, 0#+ &'(+( )+(
&,"(- 2'($ )// .+)*E0#+ &'( -)0(&* #0 &'(,+ /#6(5 #$(-... I -(( &'( &($ &'#1-)$5
6,//)%(- #0 R1--,) 2'(+( &'( "()$- #0 (B,-&($3( ,- 2+1$% -# ')+5/* 0+#" &'( -#,/, 81&
2'(+( &'(+( )+( -&,// .+,"#+5,)/ :#*-, 2'(+( "),5($- /)1%' )$5 3',/5+($ ./)*. I -((
)56)$3,$% #$ )// &',- ,$ ',5(#1- #$-/)1%'& &'( N)C, 2)+ ")3',$(... I -(( &'( 51//,
5+,//(5, 5#3,/(, 8+1&,-' ")--(- #0 &'( H1$ -#/5,(+* ./#55,$% #$ /,;( ) -2)+" #0
3+)2/,$% /#31-&-. I -(( &'( !(+")$ 8#"8(+- )$5 0,%'&(+- ,$ &'( -;*, -&,// -")+&,$%
0+#" ")$* ) B+,&,-' 2',..,$%, 5(/,%'&(5 &# 0,$5 2')& &'(* 8(/,(6( ,- )$ ()-,(+ )$5
-)0(+ .+(*...
And thenDthe assurance that there #ou$d ne3er 0e a dea$ #ith .it$er6 and the +romise
that Britain #ou$d su++ort 2ussia6 and fina$$y6 the con3iction that: F.e I.it$erK #ishes to
destroy the 2ussian +o#er 0ecause he ho+es that if he succeeds in this6 he #i$$ 0e a0$e to
0rin% 0ac< the main stren%th of his Army and Air Force from the Cast and hur$ it u+on
this ?s$and::: F
The comments ? heard from 2ussians #ere a$most a$$ a$on% these $ines: F9e had heard
a0out .essL #e sus+ected that there mi%ht #e$$ 0e a dea$ 0et#een Britain and 1ermany:
9e remem0ered Munich and those An%$o,Franco,So3iet ta$<s in the summer of 1939:
9e had fe$t dee+$y a0out the 0om0in% of ondon6 0ut had6 a$$ a$on%6 0een tau%ht to
distrust Cn%$and: @ne of our first thou%hts6 #hen 1ermany in3aded us6 #as that it had
+erha+s 0een done 0y a%reement #ith Cn%$and: That Cn%$and shou$d 0e an A$$yDyes6 an
A$$yD#as more than #e had e3er ho+ed for:::F
At $ast Sta$in s+o<e: ?t #as an e8traordinary +erformance6 and not the $east im+ressi3e
thin% a0out it #ere these o+enin% #ords: F5omrades6 citi>ens6 0rothers and sisters6
fi%hters of our Army and ;a3yP ? am s+ea<in% to you6 my friendsPF This #as somethin%
ne#: Sta$in had ne3er s+o<en $i<e this 0efore: But the #ords fitted +erfect$y into the
atmos+here of those days:
Sta$in 0e%an 0y sayin% that the ;a>i in3asion #as continuin%6 des+ite the heroic defence
of the 2ed Army6 and a$thou%h Fthe 0est 1erman di3isions and air force units had a$ready
0een smashed and had found their %ra3e on the fie$d of 0att$eF: *nderstatin% the
territoria$ $osses a$ready suffered6 Sta$in then said that the ;a>i troo+s had succeeded in
ca+turin% ithuania6 a $ar%e +art of at3ia6 the #estern +art of Be$orussia and +arts of the
#estern *<raine: 1erman +$anes had 0om0ed Murmans<6 @rsha6 Mo%i$e36 Smo$ens<6
4ie36 @dessa and Se0asto+o$: FA serious threat han%s o3er our country:F
Did this mean6 Sta$in as<ed6 that the 1erman,Fascist troo+s #ere in3inci0$eE @f course
notP The armies of ;a+o$eon and of 9i$$iam ?? a$so used to 0e considered in3inci0$eL yet
they #ere smashed in the end: And the same #ou$d ha++en to .it$er's army: F@n$y on our
territory has it6 for the first time6 met #ith serious resistance:F That a F+art of our
territoryF had6 ne3erthe$ess6 0een occu+ied6 #as chief$y due to the fact that the #ar had
0e%un in conditions fa3oura0$e to the 1ermans and unfa3oura0$e to the 2ed Army:
A& &'( &,"( #0 &'( )&&)3;, &'( !(+")$ &+##.-, 1KL 5,6,-,#$- ,$ )//, ')5 8(($ 01//*
"#8,/,-(5 )$5 2(+( ,$ ) -&)&( #0 ",/,&)+* .+(.)+(5$(-- )/#$% &'( S#6,(& 0+#$&,(+,
"(+(/* 2),&,$% 0#+ &'( -,%$)/ &# )56)$3(. T'( S#6,(& &+##.- ')5 $#& 8(($ 01//*
"#8,/,-(5, )$5 ')5 $#& 8(($ "#6(5 &# &'( 0+#$&,(+. I".#+&)$&, &##, 2)- &'( 0)3& &')&
)-3,-& !(+")$* 1$(B.(3&(5/* )$5 .(+0,5,#1-/* 6,#/)&(5 &'( 19@9 N#$-A%%+(--,#$
P)3& 8(&2(($ '(+-(/0 )$5 &'( USSR, 2'#//* ,$5,00(+($& &# &'( 3#$-,5(+)&,#$ &')& -'(
2#1/5 8( 8+)$5(5 )- &'( )%%+(--#+ 8* &'( 2'#/( 2#+/5.
Sta$in then +roceeded to Hustify the So3iet,1erman !act:
O$( ",%'& 2(// )-;: H#2 2)- ,& .#--,8/( 0#+ &'( S#6,(& !#6(+$"($& &# -,%$ ) $#$-
)%%+(--,#$ .)3& 2,&' -13' ,$'1")$ -3#1$5+(/- )- H,&/(+ )$5 R,88($&+#.I H)5 $#& )
-(+,#1- ",-&);( 8(($ ")5(I O0 3#1+-( $#&H A $#$-)%%+(--,#$ .)3& ,- ) .()3( .)3&
8(&2(($ &2# -&)&(-, )$5 &')& 2)- &'( .)3& &')& !(+")$* .+#.#-(5 &# 1- ,$ 19@9. N#
.()3(-/#6,$% -&)&( 3#1/5 ')6( +(:(3&(5 -13' ) .)3& 2,&' )$#&'(+ 3#1$&+*, (6($ ,0
-3#1$5+(/- /,;( H,&/(+ )$5 R,88($&+#. -&##5 )& ,&- '()5. A// &'( "#+( -#, )- &',- P)3&
5,5 $#& ,$ )$* 2)* 6,#/)&( &'( &(++,&#+,)/ ,$&(%+,&*, ,$5(.($5($3( #+ '#$#1+ #0 #1+
3#1$&+*.D
Sta$in #ent on to say that the !act had %i3en the So3iet *nion time to +re+are a%ainst a
1erman attac< shou$d ;a>i 1ermany decide to em0ar< on one:
T',- 2)+ ')- 8(($ ,$0/,3&(5 #$ 1-, )$5 #1+ 3#1$&+* ')- ($&(+(5 ,$&# ) /,0(-)$5-5()&'
-&+1%%/( )%),$-& ,&- "#-& 2,3;(5 )$5 .(+0,5,#1- ($("*, !(+")$ )-3,-". O1+
&+##.- )+( 0,%'&,$% '(+#,3)//* )%),$-& '()6* #55-, )%),$-& )$ ($("* '()6,/* )+"(5
2,&' &)$;- )$5 ),+3+)0&... T'( "),$ 0#+3(- #0 &'( R(5 A+"*, )+"(5 2,&' &'#1-)$5-
#0 &)$;- )$5 ./)$(-, )+( $#2 ($&(+,$% &'( 8)&&/(... T#%(&'(+ 2,&' &'( R(5 A+"*, &'(
2'#/( #0 #1+ .(#./( )+( +,-,$% &# 5(0($5 &'(,+ 3#1$&+*.
T'( ($("* ,- 3+1(/ )$5 "(+3,/(--. H( ),"- )& %+)88,$% #1+ /)$5, #1+ 2'()& )$5 #,/.
H( 2)$&- &# +(-&#+( &'( .#2(+ #0 &'( /)$5#2$(+-, +((-&)8/,-' T-)+,-", )$5 5(-&+#*
&'( $)&,#$)/ 31/&1+( #0 &'( .(#./(- #0 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$... )$5 &1+$ &'(" ,$&# &'(
-/)6(- #0 !(+")$ .+,$3(- )$5 8)+#$-.
T'(+( -'#1/5 8( $# +##" ,$ #1+ +)$;- 0#+ 2',".(+(+- )$5 3#2)+5-, 0#+ 5(-(+&(+-
)$5 .)$,3-"#$%(+-. O1+ .(#./( -'#1/5 8( 0()+/(-- ,$ &'(,+ -&+1%%/( )$5 -'#1/5
-(/0/(--/* 0,%'& #1+ .)&+,#&,3 2)+ #0 /,8(+)&,#$ )%),$-& &'( )-3,-& ($-/)6(+-...
After a reference to enin6 Sta$in said:
W( "1-& ,""(5,)&(/* .1& #1+ 2'#/( .+#513&,#$ #$ ) 2)+ 0##&,$%, )$5 ./)3(
(6(+*&',$% )& &'( -(+6,3( #0 &'( +#$& )$5 &'( #+%)$,-)&,#$ #0 &'( ($("*<- +#1&... T'(
R(5 A+"* )$5 N)6* )$5 &'( 2'#/( S#6,(& .(#./( "1-& 0,%'& 0#+ (6(+* ,$3' #0 S#6,(&
-#,/, 0,%'& &# &'( /)-& 5+#. #0 8/##5 0#+ #1+ &#2$- )$5 6,//)%(-... W( "1-& #+%)$,-(
(6(+* ;,$5 #0 '(/. 0#+ &'( R(5 A+"*, ");( -1+( &')& ,&- +)$;- )+( 3#$-&)$&/*
+($(2(5, )$5 &')& ,& ,- -1../,(5 2,&' (6(+*&',$% ,& $((5-. W( "1-& #+%)$,-( &'(
+).,5 &+)$-.#+& #0 &+##.- )$5 (91,."($&, )$5 '(/. &# &'( 2#1$5(5.
... A// ($&(+.+,-(- "1-& ,$&($-,0* &'(,+ 2#+; )$5 .+#513( "#+( )$5 "#+( ",/,&)+*
(91,."($& #0 (6(+* ;,$5... A "(+3,/(-- -&+1%%/( "1-& 8( 1$5(+&);($ )%),$-& )//
5(-(+&(+- )$5 .)$,3-"#$%(+-... W( "1-& 5(-&+#* -.,(-, 5,6(+-,#$,-&- )$5 ($("*
.)+)&+##.(+-... M,/,&)+* &+,81$)/- -'#1/5 ,""(5,)&(/* &+* )$*#$( 2'#, &'+#1%'
.)$,3 #+ 3#2)+5,3(, ,- ,$&(+0(+,$% 2,&' #1+ 5(0($3(, +(%)+5/(-- #0 .#-,&,#$ #+ +)$;...
And then came the famous Fscorched,earthF instructions:
W'($(6(+ 1$,&- #0 &'( R(5 A+"* )+( 0#+3(5 &# +(&+()&, )// +),/2)* +#//,$% -&#3; "1-&
8( 5+,6($ )2)*. T'( ($("* "1-& $#& 8( /(0& ) -,$%/( ($%,$(, #+ ) -,$%/( +),/2)*
&+13;, )$5 $#& ) .#1$5 #0 8+()5 $#+ ) .,$& #0 #,/. T'( kolkhozniki "1-& 5+,6( )2)*
)// &'(,+ /,6(-&#3;, ')$5 &'(,+ %+),$ +(-(+6(- &# &'( S&)&( #+%)$- 0#+ (6)31)&,#$ &# &'(
+()+... A// 6)/1)8/( .+#.(+&*, 2'(&'(+ %+),$, 01(/ #+ $#$-0(++#1- "(&)/-, 2',3'
3)$$#& 8( (6)31)&(5, "1-& 8( 5(-&+#*(5.
Then fo$$o#ed the F+artisan #arF instructions:
I$ &'( #331.,(5 &(++,&#+,(- .)+&,-)$ 1$,&- "1-& 8( 0#+"(5... T'(+( "1-& 8(
5,6(+-,#$,-& %+#1.- 0#+ 0,%'&,$% ($("* 1$,&-, 0#+ -.+()5,$% &'( .)+&,-)$ 2)+
(6(+*2'(+(, 0#+ 8/#2,$% 1. )$5 5(-&+#*,$% +#)5- )$5 8+,5%(- )$5 &(/(.'#$( )$5
&(/(%+).' 2,+(-? 0#+ -(&&,$% 0,+( &# 0#+(-&-, ($("* -&#+(- )$5 +#)5 3#$6#*-. I$ &'(
#331.,(5 )+()- ,$&#/(+)8/( 3#$5,&,#$- "1-& 8( 3+()&(5 0#+ &'( ($("* )$5 ',-
)33#"./,3(-, 2'# "1-& 8( .(+-(31&(5 )$5 5(-&+#*(5 )& (6(+* -&(....
This #ar6 Sta$in continued6 #as not an ordinary #ar 0et#een t#o armiesL it #as a #ar of
the entire So3iet +eo+$e a%ainst the 1erman,Fascist troo+s: The +ur+ose of this a$$,+eo+$e
#ar #as not on$y to destroy the threat han%in% o3er the So3iet *nion6 0ut a$so to he$+ a$$
the nations of Curo+e %roanin% under the 1erman yo<e: ?n this #ar the So3iet +eo+$e
#ou$d ha3e faithfu$ a$$ies in the +eo+$es of Curo+e and America6 inc$udin% the 1erman
+eo+$e ens$a3ed 0y their rin%$eaders ::: the So3iet +eo+$e's stru%%$e for the freedom of
their country #ou$d 0e mer%ed #ith the stru%%$e of the +eo+$es of Curo+e and America
for their inde+endence and their democratic freedoms:
I$ &',- 3#$$(3&,#$ &'( ',-&#+,3 -&)&("($& #0 M+ C'1+3',// #$ B+,&),$<- '(/. &# &'(
S#6,(& U$,#$ )$5 &'( -&)&("($& 8* &'( U$,&(5 S&)&(- !#6(+$"($& #$ ,&- 2,//,$%$(--
&# '(/. #1+ 3#1$&+* 3)$ #$/* "((& 2,&' ) 0((/,$% #0 %+)&,&15( ,$ &'( '()+&- #0 #1+
.(#./(, )$5 )+( ',%'/* ,$5,3)&,6(.
And then came the conc$usion:
C#"+)5(-, #1+ 0#+3(- )+( ,""()-1+)8/* /)+%(. T'( ,$-#/($& ($("* "1-& -##$
8(3#"( )2)+( #0 &',-. T#%(&'(+ 2,&' &'( R(5 A+"*, ")$* &'#1-)$5- #0 2#+;(+-,
kolkhozniki )$5 ,$&(//(3&1)/- )+( %#,$% &# &'( 2)+. M,//,#$- "#+( 2,// +,-(. T'(
2#+;(+- #0 M#-3#2 )$5 L($,$%+)5 ')6( )/+()5* 8(%1$ &# 0#+" )$ opolcheniye
4'#"( %1)+57 #0 ")$* &'#1-)$5- ,$ -1..#+& #0 &'( R(5 A+"*. S13' opolcheniye
0#+3(- "1-& 8( 3#$-&,&1&(5 ,$ (6(+* &#2$ &'+()&($(5 2,&' ,$6)-,#$...
A S&)&( D(0($3( C#"",&&(( ')- 8(($ 0#+"(5 &# 5()/ 2,&' &'( +).,5 "#8,/,-)&,#$ #0
)// &'( 3#1$&+*<- +(-#1+3(-? )// &'( .#2(+ )$5 )1&'#+,&* #0 &'( S&)&( )+( 6(-&(5 ,$ ,&.
IThe mem0ers of this 5ommittee6 +resided o3er 0y Sta$in6 #ere Mo$oto3 (De+uty
5hairman)6 Aoroshi$o36 Ma$en<o3 and Beria6 a fact not mentioned in the 19)1 Histor!,
#hich mere$y states that Sta$in #as 5hairman:K
T',- S&)&( D(0($3( C#"",&&(( ')- ("8)+;(5 1.#$ ,&- 2#+;, )$5 ,& 3)//- 1.#$ &'(
2'#/( .(#./( &# +)//* +#1$5 &'( P)+&* #0 L($,$ )$5 S&)/,$, )$5 +#1$5 &'( S#6,(&
!#6(+$"($& 0#+ &'( -(/0/(-- -1..#+& #0 &'( R(5 A+"* )$5 N)6*, 0#+ &'( +#1&,$% #0
&'( ($("*, 0#+ #1+ 6,3&#+*...
A// &'( -&+($%&' #0 &'( .(#./( "1-& 8( 1-(5 &# -")-' &'( ($("*. O$2)+5, &# 6,3&#+*H
The effect of this s+eech6 addressed to a ner3ous6 and often fri%htened and 0e#i$dered
+eo+$e6 #as 3ery im+ortant: *nti$ then there had 0een somethin% artificia$ in the
adu$ation of Sta$inL his name #as associated not on$y #ith the stu+endous effort of the
Fi3e,(ear !$ans6 0ut a$so #ith the ruth$ess methods em+$oyed in the co$$ecti3isation
cam+ai%n and6 #orse sti$$6 #ith the terror of the !ur%es:
The So3iet +eo+$e no# fe$t that they had a $eader to $oo< to: ?n his re$ati3e$y short
0roadcast Sta$in not on$y created the ho+e6 if not yet the certainty6 of 3ictory6 0ut he $aid
do#n6 in short si%nificant sentences6 the #ho$e +ro%ramme of #artime conduct for a
#ho$e nation: .e a$so a++ea$ed to the nationa$ +ride6 to the +atriotic instincts of the
2ussian +eo+$e: ?t #as a %reat +u$$,yourse$3es,to%ether s+eech6 a 0$ood,s#eat,and,tears
s+eech6 #ith 5hurchi$$'s +ost,Dun<ir< s+eech as its on$y +ara$$e$:
An admira0$e descri+tion of the effect of Sta$in's s+eech is to 0e found in 4onstantin
Simono3's famous no3e$6 The (iving and the Dead+ here the s+eech #as $istened to in a
fie$d hos+ita$:
S&)/,$ -.#;( ,$ ) &#$(/(--, -/#2 6#,3(, 2,&' ) -&+#$% !(#+%,)$ )33($&. O$3( #+ &2,3(,
51+,$% ',- -.((3', *#1 3#1/5 '()+ ) %/)-- 3/,3; )- '( 5+)$; 2)&(+. H,- 6#,3( 2)- /#2
)$5 -#0&, )$5 ",%'& ')6( -(("(5 .(+0(3&/* 3)/", 81& 0#+ ',- '()6*, &,+(5 8+()&',$%,
)$5 &')& 2)&(+ '( ;(.& 5+,$;,$% 51+,$% &'( -.((3'...
T'(+( 2)- ) 5,-3+(.)$3* 8(&2(($ &')& (6($ 6#,3( )$5 &'( &+)%,3 -,&1)&,#$ #0 2',3'
'( -.#;(? )$5 ,$ &',- 5,-3+(.)$3* &'(+( 2)- -&+($%&'. P(#./( 2(+( $#& -1+.+,-(5. I&
2)- 2')& &'(* 2(+( (B.(3&,$% 0+#" S&)/,$.
T'(* /#6(5 '," ,$ 5,00(+($& 2)*-, 2'#/('()+&(5/*, #+ 2,&' +(-(+6)&,#$-? )5",+,$%
'," )$5 *(& 0()+,$% ',"? )$5 -#"( 5,5 $#& /,;( '," )& )//. B1& $#8#5* 5#18&(5 ',-
3#1+)%( )$5 ',- ,+#$ 2,//. A$5 $#2 2)- ) &,"( 2'($ &'(-( &2# 91)/,&,(- 2(+( $((5(5
"#+( &')$ )$*&',$% (/-( ,$ &'( ")$ 2'# -&##5 )& &'( '()5 #0 ) 3#1$&+* )& 2)+.
S&)/,$ 5,5 $#& 5(-3+,8( &'( -,&1)&,#$ )- &+)%,3? -13' ) 2#+5 2#1/5 ')6( 8(($ ')+5 &#
,")%,$( )- 3#",$% 0+#" ',"? 81& &'( &',$%- #0 2',3' '( -.#;(Eopolcheniye,
.)+&,-)$-, #331.,(5 &(++,&#+,(-, "()$& &'( ($5 #0 ,//1-,#$-... T'( &+1&' '( &#/5 2)- )
8,&&(+ &+1&', 81& )& /)-& ,& 2)- 1&&(+(5, )$5 .(#./( 0(/& &')& &'(* -&##5 "#+( 0,+"/* #$
&'( %+#1$5...
A$5 &'( 6(+* 0)3& &')& S&)/,$ -'#1/5 ')6( &)/;(5 )8#1& &'( 1$')..* 8(%,$$,$% #0 )
6)-& )$5 &(++,8/( 2)+ 2,&'#1& 3')$%,$% ',- 6#3)81/)+*, )$5 &')& '( -'#1/5 ')6(
-.#;($ ,$ ',- )/"#-& 1-1)/ 2)* )8#1& &'( %+()& 81& $#& ,$-1.(+)8/( 5,00,31/&,(- &')&
2#1/5 ')6( &# 8( #6(+3#"(E &',-, &##, -1%%(-&(5 $#& 2();$(--, 81& %+()& -&+($%&'.
DM* 0+,($5-D, S,$&-#6 +(.()&(5 #6(+ )$5 #6(+ )%),$. A$5 -155($/* '( +()/,-(5 &')&
,$ )// &'( %+()& )$5 (6($ %,%)$&,3 2#+; &')& S&)/,$ ')5 8(($ 5#,$%, &'(+( ')5 8(($ )
/)3; #0 :1-& &'(-( 2#+5-: DB+#&'(+- )$5 -,-&(+-H M* 0+,($5-HDE)$5, (6($ "#+( -#,
&'( 0((/,$%- &')& -&##5 8(',$5 &'(-( 2#+5-. W)- ,& #$/* ) &+)%(5* /,;( &'( 2)+ &')&
3#1/5 %,6( 8,+&' &# &'(-( 2#+5- )$5 &'(-( 0((/,$%-I ... A8#6( )//, 2')& 2)- /(0& ,$ ',-
'()+& )0&(+ S&)/,$<- -.((3' 2)- ) &($-( (B.(3&)&,#$ #0 ) 3')$%( 0#+ &'( 8(&&(+.
This +assa%e is a$$ the more remar<a0$e as it #as #ritten in 19-J6 #hen the %enera$
attitude to Sta$in had a$ready 0ecome e8treme$y critica$L 0ut Simono3 #as c$ear$y
un#i$$in% to distort history on this cardina$ +oint: @ther #or<s #ritten in the $ate 19-"'s6
#ithout e8ce+tion6 admit the e8treme im+ortance of Sta$in's 0roadcast of Bu$y 3De3en
thou%h some do not e3en mention his name6 0ut mere$y s+ea< of a F%o3ernment
communicationF:
C').&(+ IA SMOLENSK: THE IRST CHECK TO THE
BLITGKRIE!
The State Defence 5ommittee6 the formation of #hich Sta$in had announced in his Bu$y 3
s+eech6 #as char%ed not on$y #ith the mi$itary conduct of the #ar 0ut a$so #ith Fthe ra+id
mo0i$isation of a$$ the country's resourcesF: Amon% the decisions it made in these crucia$
days #ere many of far,reachin% im+ortance: They concerned the #ho$e fie$d of economic
#artime or%anisation6 inc$udin% industria$ mo0i$isation and the e3acuation of #ho$e
industries to the east as #e$$ as reor%anisation #ithin the armed forces:
Mi$itari$y6 the State Defence 5ommittee decided to decentra$ise the command system to
some e8tent 0y di3idin% the enormous front into three main sectors6 each #ith a
5ommand of its o#n: Aoroshi$o3 #as a++ointed to command the F;orth,9estern
DirectionF6 inc$udin% the Ba$tic and ;orthern F$eetsL Timoshen<o #as a++ointed to the
F9estern DirectionF6 and Budienny to the FSouth,9estern DirectionF6 inc$udin% the
B$ac< Sea F$eet: As +rinci+a$ mem0ers of their 9ar 5ounci$s (i:e: the senior !arty $eaders
for the areas concerned) they #ere %i3en Ohdano36 Bu$%anin and 4hrushche3
res+ecti3e$y:
@n Bu$y 1) the mi$itary commissars #ere re,introduced: : O: Me<h$is6 head of the
!o$itica$ !ro+a%anda of the 2ed Army6 had fanatica$$y su++orted this measure:
I Me<h$is had 0een notorious in the +ast as one of the F+ur%ersF of the Army6 and #as
he$d direct$y res+onsi0$e for the $i=uidation of B$ucher: .e #as somethin% of a
F+o$itisationF fanatic6 and had 0een on +articu$ar$y 0ad terms #ith Timoshen<o: A
+rotN%N of Aoroshi$o36 he #as un+o+u$ar #ith the Fyoun%erF %enera$s6 and fina$$y6 in
194&6 after the disastrous 4erch o+eration in the 5rimea6 he #as demoted: .e #as
shar+$y dis$i<ed not on$y 0y men $i<e Ohu<o3 and 2o<osso3s<y6 #ho did not fa3our the
re,introduction of the officer,and,commissar dua$ command in the Army in 19416 0ut
a$so6 on more +ersona$ %rounds6 0y some to+,ran<in% mem0ers of the !o$it0uro6 such as
Shcher0a<o3: The e3entua$ a0o$ition of dua$ command shou$d not 0e confused #ith the
!o$itica$ De+artments in the Army6 #hich continued as 0efore: @n Me<h$is6 see Bohn
Cric<son6 The %oviet High )ommand, ondon6 19)&:K
@ne cannot he$+ sus+ectin% that the re,introduction of commissars #as somethin% of a
+anic measure due to the fear of a $atent6 if not o+en6 conf$ict 0et#een the Army and the
!arty6 and the dou0t #hether some of the officers (many of #hom had hi%h$y un+$easant
memories of the +ur%es) #ou$d +ro3e re$ia0$e: ?t is difficu$t to 0e sure ho# much hosti$ity
to the !arty there #as amon% the officers: ?n the hi%her ran<s6 many 3eterans of the
2e3o$ution such as Budienny and Aoroshi$o3 #ere +ro0a0$y more F!artyF than FArmyF6
and others6 $i<e 4one36 #ere ha$f,and,ha$f: But se3era$ of the 0ri$$iant youn%er %enera$s6
such as Ohu<o36 To$0u<hin6 2o<osso3s<y and 1o3oro36 #ere +ro0a0$y more FArmyF
than F!artyF: The $ast t#o6 for instance6 had themse$3es 0een +ur%ed in 1937 and6 thou%h
no# fu$$y reha0i$itated6 must sti$$ ha3e had a %ood many reser3ations a0out the !arty6
ho#e3er stron% their +atriotism:
?n fact the mi$itary commissars #ere to +ro3e a cause of friction and #ere to 0e a0o$ished
a%ain in the autumn of 194&:
Simi$ar$y6 it #as decided at the end of Bune to mo0i$ise mem0ers of the !arty and
4omsomo$ as "polit4oits!", i:e: F+o$itica$ so$diersF to 0e incor+orated in the Army: Cach
o4*om or *rai*om (i:e: +ro3incia$ +arty committee) #as to mo0i$ise #ithin three days
0et#een -"" and -6""" 5ommunists6 and +$ace them at the dis+osa$ of the 5ommissariat
of Defence: ?n this #ay 9-6""" polit4oits! #ere mo0i$ised6 and of these -J6""" #ere sent
into the Army in the fie$d #ithin the first three months of the #ar:
Another measure #as the a++ro3a$ of the constitution of the opolcheni!e, i:e: main$y
#or<ers' 0atta$ions6 in cities $i<e Mosco#6 enin%rad6 4ie36 @dessa6 Ma<eye3<a6
1or$o3<a and other industria$ centres: These Fhome %uardF units #ere to 0e used
e8tensi3e$yD and often 3ery #astefu$$yDto fi$$ in %a+s at the front6 nota0$y in the
defence of Mosco#6 enin%rad and @dessa: The story of these +oor$y,trained and +oor$y,
armed units is one of the most tra%ic in the #ho$e #ar: Bud%in% from the a3ai$a0$e fi%ures6
the ea%erness to Hoin the opolcheni!e 3aried from +$ace to +$ace: ?t #as hi%hest in
enin%rad6 rather $o#er in Mosco#6 and much $o#er in 4ie3:
A+art from the opolcheni!e, a 3ariety of other emer%ency formations #ere constituted in
0oth to#ns and 3i$$a%es6 such as anti,+aratroo+ units6 and orders #ere %i3en for air,raid
+recautions:
A$$ So3iet citi>ens 0et#een the a%es of 1) and )" (men) and 1J and -" (#omen) must
com+u$sori$y ta<e +art in ci3i$,defence %rou+s to 0e constituted 0y enter+rises6 offices
and house committees: The trainin% in anti,aircraft and anti,%as defence is to 0e carried
out 0y the @soa3ia<him:
IThe @soa3ia<him #as the FSociety for aidin% defence and the aircraft and chemica$
industriesFL it #as a F3o$untary societyF6 set u+ $on% 0efore the #ar6 for %i3in% some
mi$itary e8+erience to the +o+u$ation: ater6 durin% the #ar6 it #as renamed D@SAAF
(Ao$untary society for aidin% the army6 air force and na3y):K
Another im+ortant set of instructions issued at the end of Bune concerned the or%anisation
of +artisan #arfare in the enemy rearL 0ut #hi$e the +rinci+$e of the thin% #as im+ortant6
$ar%e,sca$e +artisan #ar 0ehind the 1erman $ines did not de3e$o+ unti$ considera0$y $ater:
9hi$e the State Defence 5ommittee #ere ma<in% these +$ans and a$so $ayin% the
foundations for a thorou%h economic reor%anisation of the country6 the mi$itary situation
continued to 0e disastrous: At the 0e%innin% of Bu$y there #ere $ar%e %a+s in the front:
The Ffirst eche$onF of the 2ed Army had suffered such a++a$$in% $osses in the first #ee<s
of the in3asion that it scarce$y sti$$ counted as an effecti3e force: The ho+es of ho$din% a
ne# defence $ine (referred to 0y the 9estern +ress as the FSta$in ineF) runnin% from
;ar3a on the 1u$f of Fin$and6 throu%h !s<o36 !o$ots<6 and then a$on% the Dnie+er to
4herson on the B$ac< Sea6 had 0een smashed: And thou%h there #ere sti$$ reser3es of
men6 the 2ed Army #as sufferin% se3ere shorta%es of #ea+ons of a$$ <inds:
?n these circumstances the So3iet command had to decide on +riorities6 and it decided
that the first +riority #as to ma<e e3ery effort to ho$d u+ the enemy in the FSmo$ens<,
Mosco# directionF:
Seen in +ers+ecti3e6 the 0att$e of Smo$ens< #as to mar< the 0e%innin% of a ne# +hase in
the cam+ai%n and6 indeed6 to introduce a decided$y different +attern into the stru%%$e
0et#een ;a>i 1ermany and So3iet 2ussia: ?n the Smo$ens< area6 for the first time6 So3iet
resistance succeeded in 0rin%in% the 1erman 4litz*rieg ad3ance to a ha$t6 if on$y for a
cou+$e of months: Thus6 at the 3ery centre of %ra3ity of the in3aders' attac<6 on the direct
road to Mosco#6 the freedom of manoeu3re of the 1erman .i%h 5ommand #as serious$y
restricted and its a$$,im+ortant time schedu$e u+set:
?t #as on Bu$y 1) that 3on Boc<'s ad3ance %uards reached the outs<irts of Smo$ens<Dand
ran into resistance such as they had not met 0efore: .itherto they had encountered on$y
$imited nests of resistance and re$ati3e$y sma$$ units ma<in% heroic and suicida$ $ast,ditch
stands: This time they #ere met #ith firm resistance on a coherent and re$ati3e$y #ide
front:
The 2ussians #ere determined not to a$$o# the enemy to ad3ance much further: They
thre# in reser3es a$on% a #ide front from Ae$i<ie u<i to Mo>yr6 and their counter,
attac<s #ere successfu$ in chec<in% the 1erman ad3ance: Thou%h Smo$ens< itse$f fe$$6
hea3y fi%htin% continued in the area6 and for the rest of Bu$y and Au%ust the 1ermans
fai$ed to 0rea< throu%h the 2ussian $ine6 firm$y sta0i$ised a0out t#enty to t#enty,fi3e
mi$es east of Smo$ens<Dthe (artse3o,(e$nya,Desna ine:
As usua$6 1erman and 2ussian histories disa%ree a0out #hich side had the numerica$
ad3anta%e in men and materia$ in the Smo$ens< 0att$e: 1enera$ 1uderian6 for e8am+$e6
has referred to Fthe 2ussians' %reat numerica$ su+eriority in tan<sF: ?n 3ie# of the hea3y
2ussian $osses ear$ier6 this is e8treme$y im+ro0a0$e6 thou%h it must 0e remem0ered that6
after such a dee+ and ra+id ad3ance into enemy territory6 many of the 1erman tan<s may
not ha3e 0een o+erationa$ any more: 9ear and tear #ou$d ha3e ta<en their to$$6 and the
su++$y $ines #ere 0y no# so e8tended (in a country #ith inade=uate roads) that s+ares
and fue$ may #e$$ not ha3e 0een arri3in% at the front =uic<$y enou%h6 or in the =uantities
needed:
Such numerica$ com+arisons are6 in any case6 often mis$eadin%D #hether in the heat of
the 0att$e6 or after the e3entDand it #ou$d 0e fruit$ess to discuss the ri3a$ c$aims in detai$
here: There #ere6 ho#e3er6 three factors #hich fa3oured the 2ussians in the 0att$e around
Smo$ens<: First$y6 the mora$e of the 2ussian troo+s #as no# much hi%her than it had
0eenL the thou%ht that they #ere not fi%htin% in distant Be$orussia6 0ut $itera$$y on the
road to Mosco# had an im+ortant +sycho$o%ica$ effect: Second$y6 So3iet arti$$ery6 #hich
#as a$most the on$y #ea+on the 2ed Army had #ith #hich to fi%ht 0oth tan<s and
aircraft6 #as considera0$y 0etter than the 1erman: Third$y6 3ery im+ortant mi$itari$y and
e3en more so +sycho$o%ica$$y6 there #as the first a++earance of the de3astatin% *at!usha
mortars: As Marsha$ (eremen<o $ater #rote:
W( 0,+-& &+,(5 #1& &',- -1.(+8 2().#$ )& R15$*), $#+&'-2(-& #0 S"#/($-;. I$ &'(
)0&(+$##$ #0 J1/* 15, &'( ()+&' -'##; 2,&' &'( 1$1-1)/ (B./#-,#$ #0 :(& ",$(-. L,;(
+(5-&),/(5 3#"(&-, &'( ",$(- 2(+( '1+/(5 ,$&# &'( ),+. T'( 0+(91($& )$5 5)CC/,$%
(B./#-,#$-, &'( /,;( #0 2',3' ')5 $(6(+ 8(($ -(($, -&+13; &'( ,")%,$)&,#$. T'( (00(3&
#0 &'( -,"1/&)$(#1- (B./#-,#$ #0 5#C($- #0 &'(-( ",$(- 2)- &(++,0,3. T'( !(+")$-
0/(5 ,$ .)$,3, )$5 (6($ #1+ #2$ &+##.- $()+ &'( .#,$&- #0 &'( (B./#-,#$-, 2'# 0#+
+()-#$- #0 -(3+(3* ')5 $#& 8(($ 2)+$(5 &')& &',- $(2 2().#$ 2#1/5 8( 1-(5, +1-'(5
8)3; 0+#" &'( 0+#$& /,$(.
I1o!enno-istoriches*ii zhurnal, 19-96 ;o: 16 +: -1 (.istorico,mi$itary Bourna$)6 =uoted 0y
?A@SS:K
The 2ussians had a$so thro#n in a fe# modern +$anes6 so that 1erman air su+remacy #as
no $on%er =uite as com+$ete as it had 0een durin% the first three #ee<s of the #ar:
But #hate3er the numerica$ su+eriority of either side6 the essentia$ fact remains that the
2ussians succeeded in s$o#in% do#n6 and then ha$tin%6 the 1erman 4litz*rieg Hust east of
Smo$ens<Dand that this had se3era$ im+ortant conse=uences:
From the 2ussian +oint of 3ie# it #as a des+erate rear%uard actionD0ut one on a $ar%e
enou%h sca$e6 and $on% enou%h sustained6 to %i3e the 2ussian .i%h 5ommand a
0reathin%,s+ace: The FSmo$ens< ineF #as the shie$d 0ehind #hich the So3iet armies
#ere a0$e to re%rou+6 and 0rin% u+ reser3es6 for the defence of Mosco#: But for this6
Mosco# mi%ht #e$$ ha3e fa$$en6 as .it$er had ori%ina$$y +$anned6 0efore the #inter set in:
From the 1erman +oint of 3ie# the 2ussian stand in the Smo$ens< area #as the first
chec< to their +$ans6 and the resu$tin% de$ay faced them #ith a maHor strate%ic +ro0$em:
@n Au%ust 46 #hen the hea3y fi%htin% around Smo$ens< had a$ready %one on for a0out
three #ee<s6 .it$er he$d a conference at ;o3y Borisso36 at the head=uarters of Army
1rou+ 5entre: Accordin% to 1uderian6 #ho attended it6 .it$er desi%nated the industria$
area of enin%rad as his +rimary o0Hecti3e: .e had not yet decided #hether Mosco# or
the *<raine #ou$d come ne8t6 0ut seemed to inc$ine to#ards the $atter tar%et::: .e ho+ed
to 0e in +ossession of Mosco# and 4har<o3 0y the time #inter 0e%an: But no decisions
#ere reached on this day:
I.ein> 1uderian6 Panzer (eader (ondon6 19-&)6 ++: 1J9,9":K
For the ne8t t#enty days hea3y6 0ut sti$$ inconc$usi3e fi%htin% continued in the Smo$ens<
area6 and #hen .it$er he$d another conference on Au%ust &36 1uderian's +$eadin% in
fa3our of a concentrated dri3e on Mosco# #as turned do#n: .it$er had fina$$y made u+
his mind to attac< the *<raine and the 5rimea6 sayin% that the ra# materia$s and the
a%ricu$ture of the *<raine #ere 3ita$$y im+ortant to the +rosecution of the #ar: As for the
5rimea6 it #as Fa So3iet aircraft carrier for attac<in% the 2umanian oi$fie$dsF6 and must
therefore 0e e$iminated: FMy %enera$s6F he said6 F<no# nothin% a0out the economic
as+ects of #ar:F 9hether or not .it$er sti$$ thou%ht that6 under this ne# +$an6 Mosco#
cou$d fa$$ 0efore the #inter6 it #as c$ear to 1uderian that this #as no# most un$i<e$y6 and
he too< .it$er's decision 3ery 0ad$yDor at $east so he said after the #ar: .e #as $ater to
refer to .it$er's decision to mo3e t#o armies and one tan< %rou+ to the south6 instead of
concentratin% the attac< on Mosco#6 as a Ffata$ errorF:
W
Thou%h the 2ussians dismiss as fantastic the 1erman c$aim to ha3e ca+tured 34J6"""
+risoners6 o3er 36""" tan<s and o3er 36""" %uns in the Smo$ens< fi%htin%6 2ussian $osses
#ere undou0ted$y hea3y: They themse$3es admit the $oss of 3&6""" men Fmissin%F6 )J-
tan<s and 1617) %uns:
I?A@ASS6 3o$: &6 +: 77:K
;e3erthe$ess the Smo$ens< 0att$e #as one of the turnin% +oints of the #ar: The 2ussians
had ha$ted the 1erman 4litz*rieg, and had forced .it$er to chan%e his +$ans: Furthermore6
it had an im+ortant effect on mora$e #ithin the 2ed Army: 9hereas6 initia$$y6 many
2ussian so$diers had 0een6 as it #ere6 +sycho$o%ica$$y o3er#he$med 0y the +o#er of the
1erman army6 and +articu$ar$y 0y the num0er of their tan<s6 0y the end of Bu$y more and
more 2ussian so$diers had $earnt to use #ea+ons such as %renades and FMo$oto3
coc<tai$sF a%ainst tan<s6 and (+erha+s 0ecause of +e+,ta$<s 0y the Army's +ro+a%anda
ser3ices) a hea$thy hatred of the 1ermans more and more too< the +$ace of sheer fear: An
im+ortant aid to mora$e #as a $a3ish distri0ution of meda$s and decorations6 thou%h not
as $a3ish as it 0ecame $ater: A0out a thousand decorations #ere a#arded after Smo$ens<
and se3en men #ere %i3en the tit$e F.ero of the So3iet *nionF:
C').&(+ A CLOSE-UP ONE: MOSCOW AT THE BE!INNIN!
O THE WAR
? arri3ed in 2ussia on Bu$y 36 19416 that is6 t#e$3e days after the 0e%innin% of the 1erman
in3asion: 1eo%ra+hica$$y6 the Hourney from ondon to Mosco# #as of a <ind that #as
on$y concei3a0$e in #artime: tra3e$$in% #ith the second 0atch of the British Mi$itary
Mission6 ? #as f$o#n to ?n3erness6 then to the Shet$ands6 and from there6 0y 5ata$ina
f$yin% 0oatDa$$ in one si8teen,hour ho+Dto Archan%e$: The $ast fe# hours #e f$e# o3er
the 3ast uninha0ited tundra country of the 4o$a !eninsu$a: Then6 after f$yin% o3er the
9hite Sea and Archan%e$ har0our6 #e came do#n on the #aters of the D3ina ri3er6 some
mi$es south of Archan%e$: .ere6 on 0oard a sort of $ar%e house,0oat6 a sum+tuous su++er
had 0een $aid on 0y the $oca$ mi$itary authorities6 and this su++er continued6 ri%ht throu%h
the F#hiteF ni%ht ti$$ t#o or three in the mornin%: Amon% the mem0ers of this second
0atch of the Mi$itary MissionDthe first 0atch6 #ith 1enera$ Mason MacFar$ane at its
head6 had f$o#n to Mosco# a fe# days 0eforeD#ere t#o .ome @ffice officia$s in
co$one$'s uniform6 one a fire,fi%htin% e8+ert6 #ho #as ta<in% a stirru+ +um+ to Mosco#6
and the other a she$ter e8+ert:
@ur hosts #ere a co$one$ and t#o maHors6 0oth e8treme$y amia0$e6 and6 as the e3enin%
+ro%ressed6 other officers Hoined the +arty: Se3era$ referred to Sta$in's 0roadcast that day6
and thou%ht it #ou$d 0e a 3ery $on% and hard #ar6 0ut that 2ussia #ou$d #in it in the end:
@ne of the maHors assured me that Mosco#'s air defences #ese such that it #ou$d
+ro0a0$y ne3er 0e 0om0ed6 and that the same #as true of enin%rad:
A$$ of them #ere ea%er$y interested in Britain #ith #hich 2ussia had6 o03ious$y6 had 3ery
$itt$e contact for a $on% time: The curious thin% #as that 0oth the co$one$ and the t#o
maHors sho#ed a 3ery s+ecia$ interest in 2udo$f .ess and seemed6 in fact6 rather #orried
a0out him: They had read 5hurchi$$'s s+eech and said that the 2ussian +eo+$e had 0een
3ery %ratified 0y it6 thou%h they <ne# that 5hurchi$$ had 0een one of the chief
Finter3entionistsF in the 5i3i$ 9arL e3en so6 one of them as<ed6 #as ? rea$$y a0so$ute$y
sure that .ess's +ro+osa$s had 0een turned do#nE They #ere6 o03ious$y6 not =uite sure
yet of either Britain's or America's dis+osition:
@utside6 it had 0een a F#hiteF ni%ht throu%hout: The fir trees on the stee+ sandy 0an<s of
the ri3er #ere si$houetted a%ainst the 0rief t#i$i%ht: There #ere $ots of mos=uitoes a0out:
After a cou+$e of hours' s$ee+ #e #ere ta<en in motor,0oats some distance u+ the ri3er
and then 0y car to an airfie$d: At ) a:m: the sun #as a$ready hi%h in the s<y: B$ades of
%rass and #i$d f$o#ers #ere s#e+t 0y the #ind as #e #a$<ed to the +$ane: ?t #as a
$u8urious %iant Dou%$as6 and for three or four hours #e f$e# o3er #hat $oo<ed $i<e one
3ast intermina0$e forest: Then6 at 2y0ins<6 #e crossed the Ao$%a and6 after f$yin% o3er
some more thic<$y +o+u$ated country6 #e reached the outs<irts of Mosco#:
@n the face of it6 Mosco# $oo<ed +erfect$y norma$: The streets #ere cro#ded and the
sho+s #ere sti$$ fu$$ of %oods: There seemed no food shorta%e of any <indL in Marosei<a
Street6 ? #a$<ed that first day into a 0i% food sho+ and #as sur+rised 0y the enormous
dis+$ay of s#eets and pastila and marmelad+ +eo+$e #ere sti$$ 0uyin% food free$y6 #ithout
any cou+ons: ?n their summer c$othes the youn% +eo+$e of Mosco# $oo<ed anythin% 0ut
sha00y: Most of the %ir$s #ore #hite 0$ouses6 and the men #hite6 ye$$o# or 0$ue s+orts
shirts6 or 0uttoned,u+ shirts #ith em0roidered co$$ars: !osters on the #a$$s #ere 0ein%
ea%er$y read6 and there #ere certain$y +$enty of +osters: a 2ussian tan< crushin% a %iant
cra0 #ith a .it$er moustache6 a 2ed so$dier rammin% his 0ayonet do#n the throat of a
%iant .it$er,faced ratDBazdavit0 "ascists*u!u gadinu, it said: crush the Fascist 3erminL
a++ea$s to #omenDF9omen6 %o and #or< on the co$$ecti3e farms6 re+$ace the men no#
in the ArmyP F @n numerous houses the front +a%es of that mornin%'s Pravda or Izvestia
#ith the fu$$ te8t of Sta$in's s+eech #ere stuc< u+6 and e3ery#here cro#ds of +eo+$e #ere
re,readin% it:
A$$ sorts of +ecu$iar thin%s #ere ha++enin%: ? sa# the $ast issue of .ez4ozhni*, the
F%od$essF +a+erL it #as entire$y de3oted to indi%nant denunciations of the ;a>i
+ersecutions of the !rotestant and 5atho$ic 5hurches in 1ermanyP 5$ear$y6 Sta$in #as
#or<in% for the %reatest unity amon% the 2ussian +eo+$e6 and anti,re$i%ious +ro+a%anda
had com+$ete$y 3anished since the #ar had 0e%un: .o#e3er6 the .ez4ozhni*0s volte-"ace
#as a 0it 0$atant6 and6 in fact6 this #as to 0e its $ast issue: ?t #as c$osed do#n Fo#in% to
+a+er shorta%eF: ?nstead6 Cme$ian (aros$a3s<y6 the Fanti,1odF $eader6 #as +u0$ishin%
+am+h$ets $i<e The #reat Patriotic $ar, in the 0est nationa$ist tradition6 #hich they #ere
no# se$$in% on 0oo<sta$$s:
!art$y +erha+s as a resu$t of Sta$in's #arnin% a%ainst s+ies and Fdi3ersionistsF there #as a
rea$ s+y mania in Mosco#: !eo+$e seemed to see s+ies and +aratroo+ers e3ery#here: The
British army ;:5:@:s #ho had tra3e$$ed #ith me from Archan%e$ had a most un+$easant
e8+erience on that 3ery first day: From the airfie$d6 they had %one to Mosco# in a $orry6
to%ether #ith the Mission's $u%%a%e: At a street corner they had 0een sto++ed 0y the
mi$itiaL +u>>$ed 0y the unfami$iar British uniforms6 a cro#d had %athered round them and
some0ody had said F+arachutistsF6 #hereu+on the cro#d had %ro#n an%ry and
3ociferous: So the ;:5:@:s had to 0e ta<en off to a +o$ice station6 #here they #ere fina$$y
rescued 0y an Cm0assy officia$:
C3eryone #as 0ein% as<ed for +a+ers on a$$ <inds of occasions6 and it #as a0so$ute$y
essentia$ to ha3e these in order6 es+ecia$$y after the midni%ht curfe#6 #hen a s+ecia$ +ass
#as re=uired: S+ea<in% anythin% 0ut 2ussian aroused immediate sus+icion:
Au8i$iary mi$itia,#omen #ere +articu$ar$y <een: ? remem0er #a$<in% #ith Bean
5ham+enois IThe A%ence .a3as corres+ondent in Mosco# #ho Hoined the Free French
in 1941:K a$on% 1or<i Street at sunset6 #hen sudden$y a mi$itia,#oman +ounced on him
shoutin%: F9hy are you smo<in%EF and ordered him to +ut out his ci%arette at onceL she
thou%ht he mi%ht 0e si%na$$in% to 1erman aircraftP
A$$ day $on%6 so$diers #ere marchin% a$on% the streets6 usua$$y sin%in%: The opolcheni!e
mo3ement #as in fu$$ s#in%L durin% those first days of Bu$y tens of thousands of men6
many of them e$der$y6 3o$unteered6 a++earin% at assem0$y +ointsDsuch as the one
o++osite the house ? $i3ed in6 in 4ho<h$o3s<y aneD0y the hundred6 a$$ carryin% sma$$
0und$es or suitcases: After 0ein% sorted outDand +art$y reHectedDthey #ere sent to
trainin% cam+s:
A+art from that6 the mood in Mosco# sti$$ seemed reasona0$y ca$m: !eo+$e cou$d sti$$ 0e
seen $au%hin% and Ho<in% in the streets thou%h6 si%nificant$y6 3ery fe# ta$<ed o+en$y
a0out the #ar:
? found the enin Mauso$eum c$osed6 and #as #a3ed a#ay6 0ut #ithout any e8+$anation6
0y t#o 0ayoneted %uards: @n the surface6 $ife seemed6 in many #ays6 to %o on as 0efore:
Fourteen theatres #ere o+en and in3aria0$y cro#ded6 and restaurants and hote$s
continued to 0e +ac<ed:
For a$$ that6 Mosco# #as +re+arin% for air raids: A$ready on Bu$y 96 s+ecia$ truc<s 0e%an
to run a$on% the tram,$ines6 distri0utin% hea+s of sand: That #ee< ? #rote an artic$e on the
ondon 0$it> and on British air raid +recautions6 and this #as +rom+t$y +u0$ished in
Izvestia, #as much ta$<ed a0out6 and e3en +roduced some +o$emics on the +ros and cons
of +ourin% 0uc<ets of #ater o3er incendiaries6 #hich ? had dec$ared to 0e #ron%: My
story of the ondon 0$it> #as #ide$y discussed6 a$$ the more so as durin% the So3iet,
1erman !act the 2ussian +ress had not d#e$t 3ery much on Britain's e8+eriences of
0om0in%:
The +ros+ect of 1erman air raids $ed6 0y the second #ee< of Bu$y6 to a $ar%e,sca$e
e3acuation of chi$dren from Mosco#: Many #omen #ere a$so ur%ed to $ea3e and to #or<
on *ol*hozes5 2ai$#ay stations #ere cro#ded #ith +eo+$e #ho had +ermits to $ea3e
Mosco#: Many of the #omen ? sa# at the 4urs< Station on the ni%ht of Bu$y 116 on their
#ay to 1or<i6 #ere #ee+in%L many thou%ht they #ou$d not %et 0ac< to Mosco# for a
$on% time6 and +erha+s6 for a$$ they <ne#6 the 1ermans #ou$d come:
W
An%$o,2ussian re$ations #ere ra+id$y im+ro3in%: Sir Stafford 5ri++s6 #ho had 0een co$d,
shou$dered 0y the 2ussians ri%ht u+ to the 0e%innin% of the ;a>i in3asion6 had t#o
meetin%s #ith Sta$in in the second #ee< of Bu$y6 and on Bu$y 1& the An%$o,So3iet
A%reement #as so$emn$y si%ned 0y Mo$oto3 and 5ri++s in Mo$oto3's office at the
4rem$in6 in the +resence of Sta$in6 Admira$ 4u>netso36 1enera$ Sha+oshni<o36 1enera$
Mason MacFar$ane6 and aurence 5ad0ury6 head of the British Trade Mission: Sta$in6
throu%h an inter+reter6 ta$<ed at some $en%th to Mason MacFar$ane6 and choco$ates and
So3iet cham+a%ne #ere ser3ed:
At o>o3s<y's I A De+uty Forei%n 5ommissar and the De+uty,5hief of So3inform,
0ureau: .is chief in the $atter or%anisation #as that e8treme$y hard FSta$inistF +arty 0oss6
mem0er of the !o$it0uro6 A: S: Shcher0a<o3K +ress conference on the fo$$o#in%
afternoon6 the 2ussians #ere sti$$ sho#in% sur+rise at the si%nin% of the a%reement
+ro3idin% for mutua$ aid and +romisin% not to ma<e a se+arate +eace #ith 1ermany:
o>o3s<y himse$f seemed +$easant$y sur+rised6 and said it #as the 0i%%est 0$o# for
.it$er6 since it smashed his +$an for fi%htin% Cast and 9est se+arate$y: As<ed #hether the
*SA cou$d 0e considered a si$ent +artner to this a%reement6 he said %a$$ant$y: FThe *SA
is too %reat a country to 0e si$ent:F
The +ress set,u+ in Mosco# durin% those first #ee<s of the #ar #as a 3ery stran%e one:
The on$y officia$ sources of information #ere the So3iet +ress #ith their #ar
communi=uNs and their #ar reportages, and these +ress conferences he$d three times a
#ee< 0y o>o3s<y:
The reportages in the +ress dea$t chief$y #ith iso$ated cases of 2ussian 0ra3ery and
heroism6 thou%h6 occasiona$$y6 es+ecia$$y in the army +a+er6 Bed %tar, there #ere some
usefu$ ana$ytica$ artic$es: The communi=uNs tended to 0e ca%ey and often %a3e on$y the
3a%uest indications of #here the fi%htin% #as actua$$y ta<in% +$ace6 0ut +eo+$e soon
$earned to read 0et#een the $ines: Fi%htin% in Fthe Mins< directionF or Fthe Smo$ens<
directionF usua$$y meant that these cities had a$ready 0een $ost6 and a study of the
communi=uN 3oca0u$ary tau%ht one to understand the de%ree of the 2ussian set0ac<sL
thus Fhea3y defensi3e 0att$es a%ainst su+erior enemy forcesF meant that the 2ussians
#ere in fu$$ and disorder$y retreatL this #as the #orst of a$$ the communi=uN +hrases:
The %enera$ tendency of o>o3s<y's +ress conferences #as to su%%est that a$$ the 2ussian
set0ac<s #ere tem+oraryL that6 #hate3er the $oss of territory6 the 1ermans #ere not %oin%
to #inL that Mosco# and enin%rad6 in any case6 #ou$d not 0e $ostL that 2ussian $osses
#ere admitted$y hi%h6 0ut that 1erman $osses #ere hi%her sti$$ Dthe most =uestiona0$e of
his ar%umentsL that re$ations 0et#een 1ermany and her sate$$ites #ere hi%h$y strained6
a$so a =uestiona0$e +ro+osition in the summer and autumn of 1941: @ccasiona$$y he
re3ea$ed im+ortant factsDsuch as the destruction 0y the 2ussians of the Dnie+er Dam or
the de+ortation to the east of the entire +o+u$ation of the Ao$%a,1erman Autonomous
So3iet 2e+u0$icDa matter of a0out ha$f,a,mi$$ion +eo+$e: MaHor disasters6 such as the
ca+ture 0y the 1ermans of many hundreds of thousands of +risoners6 and the stu+endous
$osses in aircraft6 #ere not mentioned at a$$: @n the other hand6 he tended6 if anythin%6 to
e8a%%erate the num0er of 1erman tan<s and aircraft en%a%ed on the 2ussian FrontL thus6
he s+o<e of 1"6""" 1erman tan<s ta<in% +art in the fi%htin%:
o>o3s<y #as an @$d Bo$she3i<6 #ith a smooth6 cosmo+o$itan 3eneer6 a first,3inta%e
Nmi%rN6 #ho had s+ent many years in 1ene3a and !aris6 had <no#n enin6 s+o<e %ood
French6 and6 #ith his 4ar4iche and carefu$$y cut c$othes6 $oo<ed rather $i<e an o$d 4oule-
vardier, #hom one cou$d #e$$ ima%ine on the terrace of the ;a+o$itain durin% la 4elle
ApoPue5 After the 2e3o$ution6 he had 0een acti3e on the Pro"intern, the 2ed Trade *nion
?nternationa$6 a 0ody of sma$$ conse=uence6 and $ater 0ecame a mem0er of the Forei%n
Affairs 5ommissariat: 9ith his @$d Bo$she3i< 0ac<%round6 he must ha3e had some
an8ious moments durin% the !ur%esL nor can he ha3e 0een ha++y durin% the So3iet,
1erman !act: .o#e3er6 o>o3s<y #as a %ood sur3i3or thou%h6 +ersona$$y6 he did not fit
3ery #e$$ into the Sta$in,Mo$oto3 milieu5 ?n 1943 he 0ecame a $eadin% mem0er of the
Be#ish Anti,Fascist 5ommittee6 and this $ed6 in the end6 to his do#nfa$$L in 19496 a$on%
#ith other +rominent mem0ers of this 5ommittee6 that +erfect$y harm$ess o$d man #as
shot:
?n 1941 he #as consideredD#ron%$y +erha+sDas one of the Forei%n 5ommissariat's
sur3i3ors of the it3ino3 era6 more sym+athetic to the 9est than Mo$oto36 thou%h6 on
one nota0$e occasion6 he 3ery c$ear$y dissociated himse$f from it3ino3: ?t #as a curious
incident: Hust a cou+$e of days 0efore the si%nin% of the 5ri++s,Mo$oto3 a%reement6
it3ino3D#ho had 0een under a c$oud since May 1939D#as to s+ea< on Mosco# radioL
0ut #hen it came to the +oint6 he s+o<e on$y on the forei%n #a3e,$en%ths6 and in Cn%$ish:
@n the fo$$o#in% mornin%6 the So3iet +ress %a3e a fe# scra+s of his 0roadcastL $ea3in%
out his Fet 0y%ones 0e 0y%onesF and F#e ha3e a$$ made mista<esF6 it concentrated6
instead6 on the +assa%e in #hich he asserted that the 1ermans #ere the common enemy
and that Fthere must 0e no de "acto armistice in the 9estF: 9hen o>o3s<y #as as<ed
#hat ro$e it3ino3 #as %oin% to +$ay in future6 he re+$ied6 3ery re$uctant$y6 that FMr
it3ino3 #ou$d +resuma0$y 0roadcast a%ain:F
The sources of information a3ai$a0$e to the 2ussian +u0$ic #ere +retty #aterti%ht: At the
3ery 0e%innin% of the #ar a$$ +ri3ate #ire$ess sets had to 0e handed in to the mi$itiaL on$y
forei%n di+$omats6 Hourna$ists and certain 2ussian officia$s #ere a$$o#ed to <ee+ theirs:
e3eryone e$se had on$y $ouds+ea<ers %i3in% the Mosco# +ro%ramme: ?t certain$y #ou$d
ha3e 0een unfortunate if some of the 1erman +ro+a%anda stories had %ot round6
es+ecia$$y from those rusty o$d 9hite,2ussian co$one$s #ith their a$coho$ic 3oicesD
that's at $east ho# they soundedD#ho 0e$$o#ed a0out FSta$in and his zhid! (yids)F
+re+arin% to f$ee the country6 a0out their Ffat 0an< 0a$ances at Buenos AiresF6 a0out the
Fmi$$ions of +risonersF ta<en 0y the 1ermans6 the Fdes+erate +$i%ht of the 2ed ArmyF6
Fthe imminence of the fa$$ of Mosco# and enin%radF6 a0out the 1ermans 0rin%in% Frea$
socia$ism to 2ussiaF6 and the $i<e:
;ot that the ne#s #as 0y any means %oodDe3en #ithout these 1erman commentaries:
A$ready6 0y Bu$y 116 it #as <no#n that the 1ermans #ere %ettin% near Smo$ens<6 and that
most of the Ba$tic re+u0$ics had 0een o3errunL 0y the 14th6 it #as announced that fi%htin%
#as ta<in% +$ace Fin the direction of @stro3FD#hich su%%ested a ra+id 1erman ad3ance
to#ards enin%rad from the southL 0y the &&nd6 it #as $earned that the Finns #ere
fi%htin% Fin the direction of !etro>a3ods<FL 0y Bu$y &J6 that the 1ermans #ere ad3ancin%
on 4ie3: But the fact that6 0y the midd$e of Bu$y6 the 1ermans seemed to ha3e %ot stuc< at
Smo$ens< created in Mosco# a curious state of eu+horia6 a fee$in% that +erha+s the #orst
#as o3erDe3en thou%h the ne#s from 0oth the enin%rad Front and the *<raine
continued to 0e distressin%$y 0ad:
The first air raid on Mosco# too< +$ace on the ni%ht of Bu$y &1L #hat #as most
im+ressi3e #as the tremendous anti,aircraft 0arra%e6 #ith shra+ne$ from the anti,aircraft
she$$s c$atterin% do#n on to the streets $i<e a hai$stormL and do>ens of search$i%hts
$i%htin% the s<yL ? had ne3er seen or heard anythin% $i<e it in ondon: Fire,#atchin% #as
or%anised on a 3ast sca$e: ater ? heard that many of the fire,#atchers had 0een 0ad$y
inHured 0y incendiary 0om0s6 sometimes throu%h ine8+erience 0ut usua$$y throu%h sheer
2ussian foo$hardi,ness: (oun%sters #ou$d at first Hust +ic< u+ the 0om0s #ith their 0are
handsP
?t #as soon $earned that there #ere three circ$es of anti,aircraft defences round Mosco#6
and that6 durin% the first raid6 0are$y ten or fifteen 1erman +$anes (out of &"") had 0ro<en
throu%h: Some hi%h e8+$osi3e 0om0s and some incendiaries cou$d 0e heard dro++in%6 0ut
on$y 3ery fe#: There #ere =uite a num0er of 0ro<en #indo#s the ne8t mornin%6 a fe#
0om0,craters6 inc$udin% one in 2ed S=uare6 a fe# fires6 #hich #ere ra+id$y +ut out6 0ut
nothin% 3ery serious: @n the ni%ht of Bu$y &&6 there #as a second 0$it>6 #hich a$so caused
on$y $imited dama%e6 e8ce+t that o3er a hundred +eo+$e #ere <i$$ed #hen one 0i% she$ter
off Ar0at S=uare recei3ed a direct hit: But6 as on the first ni%ht6 on$y a 3ery sma$$ num0er
of +$anes %ot throu%h:
The air raids continued6 off and on6 throu%h the $ast days of Bu$y and most of Au%ust: ?n
the instructions issued at the end of Bu$y it #as no# said that sand must 0e used a%ainst
incendiaries6 rather than #aterDthou%h6 in rea$ity6 #ater continued to 0e used as #e$$:
;o shir<in% #as a$$o#ed in fire,fi%htin%: Three fe$$o#s %ui$ty of ne%$ect6 and so he$d
res+onsi0$e for the destruction 0y fire of a $ar%e #arehouse #orth three mi$$ion rou0$es6
#ere shot:
IA: 9erth6 -osco: 0J< (ondon6 194&)6 +: 1"":K
? #rote at the time:
I 2#$5(+ ,0 M#-3#2 ,- &);,$% &'( 8/,&C )- 2(// )- L#$5#$I P(#./( /##; %+,"? )$5
&'(+( )+( ",%'&* 0(2 8#"8 :#;(-. P(+').- .(#./( '(+( 0((/ individually "#+(
'(/./(-- &')$ &'(* 5# ,$ L#$5#$. A"81/)$3(- )+( 3#".)+)&,6(/* -3)+3(, )$5
.(+').- &## .+(3,#1- &# +,-; ,$ ) 8,% 8/,&C, )$5 &'(* &'(+(0#+( 5# $#& 3#//(3& &'(
2#1$5(5 51+,$% ) +),5, 81& #$/* )0&(+ &'( )//-3/()+ ')- %#$(. U$&,/ &'($ &'( 2#1$5(5
')6( #$/* &'( /#3)/ 0,+-&-),5 &# +(/* 1.#$. T'( 0,+(-2)&3',$% +1/(- )+( 6(+* 5+)-&,3,
)$5 ) 5)$%(+#1- )"#1$& #0 -/((. ,- /#-&... $#+ )+( "#-& #0 &'( -'(/&(+- )5).&(5 *(&
0#+ -/((.,$%.
I?0id:6 +: 111:K
But6 on the #ho$e6 Mosco#6 durin% those t#o first months of the #ar6 +resented a rather
+arado8ica$ si%ht: @fficia$ o+timism #as 0ein%6 more or $ess6 <e+t u+ 0y the !ress: The
ha$tin% of the 1ermans at Smo$ens< #as made out to 0e of the utmost im+ortance6 e3en
thou%h the ne#s from other sectors of the front #as sti$$ $oo<in% hi%h$y ominous: But at
$east the 1erman ad3ance #as not #hat it had 0een durin% the des+erate first fortni%ht:
5onditions in Mosco# #ere 0ecomin% more difficu$t: ?f6 at the 0e%innin% of Bu$y6 there
#as no rea$ shorta%e of anythin%Dfood and ci%arettes in +articu$ar #ere +$entifu$6 and so
#ere e3en nice,$oo<in% 0o8es of choco$ates Fmade in 2i%a6 at3ian SS2F6 no# a$ready in
1erman handsDsome hoardin% #ent on in a sma$$ish #ay a$$ the time6 and6 0y Bu$y 1-6
the food shorta%e 0ecame 3ery noticea0$e6 and the mountains of ci%arette +ac<ets
dis+$ayed at a$most e3ery street corner ra+id$y disa++eared: @n Bu$y 1J drastic food
rationin% #as introduced6 and the +o+u$ation s+$it u+ into fa3oured6 semi,fa3oured and
unfa3oured cate%ories6 the rations of the $atter 0ein% a$ready e8treme$y mea%re: True6 the
*ol*hoz mar<ets continued to function6 0ut +rices #ere risin% ra+id$y: There #ere sti$$
some consumer %oods in the sho+s6 and at the end of Au%ust ? e3en mana%ed to 0uy a fur
coat of sortsDmade of #hite Si0erian do%s<inDin a sho+ in Sto$eshni<o3 ane6 #here
there #as sti$$ a fair$y %ood assortment of reindeer polushu4*i (fur Hac<ets) and the $i<e: ?
+aid 33- rou0$es (a0out X7) for my Fdo%,coatFD#hich #as chea+: But other sho+s6 ?
found6 #ere a$ready =uic<$y runnin% out of shoes6 %a$oshes and valen*i (fe$t 0oots):
2estaurants #ere6 ho#e3er6 continuin% as 0efore6 and %ood mea$s #ere sti$$ ser3ed in the
0i% hote$sDthe Metro+o$e6 Mos<3a6 or in restaurants $i<e the famous Ara%3i in 1or<i
Street: The 5oc<tai$ .a$$ in 1or<i Street #as a$so cro#dedL the theatresDfourteen of
themDand the cinemas #ere #or<in% norma$$y and many of them #ere com+etin% in
+roducin% to+ica$ and +atriotic sho#s: The Bo$shoi Theatre #as c$osed6 0ut its "iliale in
!ush<in Street #as #or<in%6 and there #ere the usua$ cro#ds of youn% +eo+$e
c$amourin% outside for s+are tic<ets6 in case any0ody had one6 and6 inside the theatre6
%i3in% frantic o3ations #hene3er the famous tenors emeshe3 or 4o>$o3s<y san%: At the
Ma$yi Theatre they #ere +$ayin% 4orneichu<'s In the &*rainian %teppes+ #hen one of the
characters said:
T'(+( ,- $#&',$% "#+( ")55($,$% &')$ 2'($ *#1<+( ,$&(++1.&(5 :1-& )- *#1 )+(
3#"./(&,$% &'( +##0 #0 *#1+ 3#&&)%(. I0 #$/* 2( ')6( 0,6( "#+( *()+-H B1& ,0 2)+
3#"(-, &'($ 2( -')// 0,%'& 2,&' ) 0,(+3($(-- )$5 )$%(+ &'( /,;( #0 2',3' &'( 2#+/5
')- $(6(+ -(($H
?t 0rou%ht the house do#n:
9hene3er in cinemas Sta$in a++eared on ne#sree$s6 there #as frantic cheerin%D#hich6
in the dar<6 +eo+$e +resuma0$y #ou$dn't do un$ess they fe$t $i<e it: There cou$d 0e no
dou0t a0out Sta$in's authority6 es+ecia$$y since that Bu$y 3 0roadcast: .e #as the *hoziain,
the 0oss6 #ho it #as ho+ed <ne# #hat he #as doin%: C3en so6 +eo+$e fe$t that thin%s had
%one 0ad$y #ron%6 and many #ere %reat$y sur+rised that 2ussia shou$d ha3e 0een
in3aded at a$$:
!atriotic +$ays #ere 0ein% concocted6 such as The )on"rontation in Tairo3's 4amerny
Theatre6 in #hich a 1erman a%ent fina$$y %i3es u+ in des+air6 findin% a$$ the 2ussian
+eo+$e com+$ete$y unitedL or +$ays a0out Su3oro3 or 4utu>o36 those 3ictorious F2ussian
ancestorsF: The Crmita%e 1arden continued to 0e cro#ded on Sundays 0y a ha$f,ci3i$ian6
ha$f,mi$itary +u0$icL here6 in a cro#ded ha$$6 Busia 1o$dstein +$ayed Tchai<o3s<y's
1iolin )oncerto, #hi$e in one of the theatres they #ere +$ayin% Fsatirica$ s<etchesF
ridicu$in% .it$er and 1oe00e$s6 and 1erman so$diers and 1erman %enera$s and 1erman
+aratroo+ers6 #ho #ere a$#ays out#itted 0y the +atriotic 2ussian 3i$$a%ers: ;one of it6
+erha+s6 terri0$y con3incin% in the circumstances: ;e3erthe$ess6 +eo+$e enHoyed it6 and
$au%hed:
!oets and com+osers #ere 0usy #ritin% +atriotic +oems or +atriotic #ar son%s6 and
so$diers #ou$d 0e seen marchin% do#n the streets sin%in% the +re,#ar (ittle .lue %car",
or Kat!usha or 1 4oi za rodinu, v 4oi za %talina (?nto 0att$e for the country6 into 0att$e for
Sta$in)6 or A$e8andro3's 0rand,ne# and so$emn %acred $ar, #hich #as to remain a <ind
of semi,officia$ anthem throu%hout the #ar years:
But a$on%side a$$ this6 many theatres continued as 0eforeDthe Mosco# Art Theatre %oin%
on #ith The Three %isters, and /nna Karenina, and The %chool "or %candal, and the usua$
Bo$shoi Ba$$et season o+enin% at the end of Se+tem0er #ith %:an (a*e, #ith
e+eshins<aya dancin%::: This on$y a fe# days 0efore the 1ermans' Ffina$F offensi3e
0e%an:::
The British and American Cm0assies #ere 3ery acti3e durin% those days: 5ri++s and
Steinhardt had 0ecome fami$iar Mosco# fi%ures6 and cou$d often 0e seen on ne#sree$s:
At the end of Bu$y di+$omatic re$ations #ere restored #ith the !o$ish 1o3ernment in
ondon6 thou%h this #as soon to $ead to the first com+$ications: 9hen6 a day or t#o after
the Mais<y,Si<ors<i A%reement of Bu$y 3"6 ? as<ed o>o3s<y #hether the re$ease of
!o$ish #ar +risoners had 0e%un and #hether ste+s had 0een ta<en to form a !o$ish Army
in 2ussia6 he 0ecame e8treme$y ca%ey6 sayin% that such ste+s :ere 0ein% ta<en6 0ut #ith
the !o$es Fscattered a$$ o3er the So3iet *nionF6 there #ere a $ot of +ractica$ +ro0$ems sti$$
to 0e sett$edL nor cou$d he state ho# many !o$ish +risoners there #ere6 since this #ou$d
%i3e a#ay 3ita$ secrets to the enemy:
Soon after that Si<ors<i referred in a 0roadcast to the destruction of !o$and 0y 1ermany
and 2ussia in 19396 and demanded that !o$and 0e restored #ithin her 1939 frontiers:
Izvestia immediate$y +rotested:
S#++*, 81& 0+#$&,(+- )+( $#& ,""1&)8/(, )$5 &'( B+,&,-' !#6(+$"($& +()/,-(- &',-,
)$5 ')- $#& %1)+)$&((5 )$* E)-&-E1+#.()$ 0+#$&,(+-. M+ E5($ -),5 -# &'( #&'(+
5)*. B1& 2,&' %##52,// #$ 8#&' -,5(-, P#/)$5 )$5 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 2,// -(&&/( &',-
91(-&,#$, )- &'(* -(&&/(5 -# ")$* #&'(+ 91(-&,#$-. M#+(#6(+, R1--,) 5,5 $#& 2)$& &#
D5(-&+#*D P#/)$5, 81& "(+(/* 2)$&(5 &# .+(6($& &'( !(+")$- 0+#" %(&&,$% &## $()+
M,$-; )$5 K,(6.
Di+$omatic re$ations #ere a$so resumed #ith the e8i$ed %o3ernments of (u%os$a3ia6
Be$%ium and ;or#ay: An im+ortant An%$o,So3iet decision #as to occu+y ?ranL a
decision #hich #as to +roduce some unintentiona$$y amusin% stories in Pravda, #hose
corres+ondent6 descri0in% the enthusiasm #ith #hich the So3iet troo+s #ere #e$comed
0y the !ersian +o+u$ation6 =uoted one o$d man as sayin%: F? #e$come you in the name of
Artic$e ) of the Treaty of 19&1:F This a$so %a3e rise to some 0itter Ho<es $i<e this one:
FThan< 1od #e'3e occu+ied !ersiaL #hen the 1ermans ha3e occu+ied the #ho$e of
2ussia6 #e'$$ ha3e some#here to run a#ay to:F
The hi%h$i%ht of di+$omatic acti3ity durin% that %rim summer #as .arry .o+<ins's 3isit
to 0e fo$$o#ed $ater 0y the Bea3er0roo< 3isit: A$$ this6 es+ecia$$y the .o+<ins 3isit6 had a
cheerin% effect on the 2ussians: The e8act +ur+ose of the .o+<ins 3isit #as6 of course6
not disc$osed at the time6 e8ce+t that it #as assumed that the Americans #ere %oin% to
Fhe$+F: ;eed$ess to say6 amon% ordinary 2ussians there #as a$ready much ta$< a0out the
necessity of a Second FrontL #hy cou$dn't the British $and in FranceE Aery $itt$e #as6 as
yet6 said a0out this officia$$y6 0ut !arty +ro+a%anda had6 c$ear$y6 s+read the #ord that this
#as 3ery im+ortant6 if not a0so$ute$y decisi3e: A %ood dea$ #as made6 as a so+ to 2ussian
mora$e6 of British air raids on 1ermany6 thou%h e3ery0ody seemed to fee$ that that #asn't
enou%h::: But of the acti3e and6 at times6 cantan<erous corres+ondence that #as a$ready
%oin% on 0et#een 5hurchi$$ and Sta$in6 nothin% #as yet <no#n to the 2ussian +u0$ic:
Both Sir Stafford 5ri++s and 1enera$ Mason MacFar$ane6 the head of the British Mi$itary
Mission6 #ere #e$$,dis+osed to the 2ussians6 e3en thou%h MacFar$ane occasiona$$y
s+o<e of Fthis 0$ood,stained rN%imeF and 5ri++s had had to suffer a %ood many
humi$iations at the time of the So3iet,1erman !act: ? used to see a %reat dea$ of 0oth of
them durin% that summer and ear$y autumn: Both considered the situation at the 2ussian
front serious6 0ut ne3er ho+e$ess6 and #ere6 c$ear$y6 con3inced that the 2ussians #ou$d
not 0e crushed6 e3en thou%h there #ere times #hen thin%s $oo<ed +retty des+erateDat the
3ery 0e%innin%6 and then after the 1ermans had ca+tured 4ie3 and forced the Dnie+er6
and then a%ain #hen they c$osed in on enin%rad6 and started their Ffina$F offensi3e
a%ainst Mosco#: But throu%hout6 0oth considered 2ussia as a $astin% and decisi3e factor
in the stru%%$e a%ainst ;a>i 1ermany: Both #ere %reat$y im+ressed 0y Sta$in6 0y his
<no#$ed%e of detai$s6 thou%h 5ri++s to$d me6 a0out the midd$e of Au%ust6 that6 at $east on
one occasion6 he had found Sta$in F0ad$y ratt$edF6 addin%6 ho#e3er6 that he may ha3e
0een +$ay,actin%6 and sim+$y tryin% to %et Britain and America to do more than they #ere
doin%: 5ri++s #as6 a0o3e a$$6 im+ressed 0y the fact that6 #ith +ossi0$y one e8ce+tion6
Sta$in in his ne%otiations #ith the British and the Americans a$#ays e8+ressed himse$f in
terms of a long :ar, his re=uest for a$uminium6 in +articu$ar6 #as ta<en 0y 5ri++s as an
indication of Sta$in's thin<in% a $on% #ay ahead:
Some of the youn%er British and American di+$omats and Hourna$ists6 ho#e3er6 tended to
thin< that the 2ussians #ere headin% for catastro+he: @ne American #oman,Hourna$ist
thou%ht she #ou$d6 Fas a nootra$F6 stay on to see from her .ote$ ;ationa$ #indo# the
1ermans march throu%h 2ed S=uare: Some e3en %$oated o3er the enthusiasm #ith #hich
the at3ians and Cstonians #ere said to 0e #e$comin% the 1ermans: But6 in the main6
there #as amon% the Hourna$ists a fee$in% of %ood#i$$ and admiration for the 2ussians:
A+art from the F0our%eoisF Hourna$istsD#ho #ere 3ery fe# at the 0e%innin% of the #ar6
0ut #ho recei3ed reinforcements as time #ent onDthere #ere the so,ca$$ed F5ominternF
Hourna$istsDcorres+ondents of communist +a+ers: They had had a difficu$t time durin%
the So3iet,1erman !act6 and no# <e+t rather a$oof: ;or #ere the communist $eaders
from forei%n countriesD!iec<6 Thore>6 *$0richt6 1ott#a$d6 Anna !au<er6 Dimitro3Dto
0e seen at a$$ in 1941: ?t #as scarce$y <no#n e3en #hether they #ere sti$$ in Mosco#:
A+art from the 3ery sma$$ num0er of officia$ communist corres+ondentsDat $east three
of these #ere Americans and t#o #ere S+aniardsDthere #ere some other +eo+$e 3a%ue$y
connected #ith the 5omintern6 #ith the forei%n ser3ices of Mosco# radio6 or #ith
-osco: 3e:s, amon% them the once,famous Borodin6 #ho had 0een So3iet 2ussia's
foremost emissary in 5hinaL many of these #ere sur3i3ors of a$$ <inds of +ur%es6 and
some had 0een on$y recent$y a$$o#ed to return from e8i$eL they #ere6 as it #ere6 the
f$otsam and Hetsam of a no# 0y%one era: The 2ussians did not encoura%e them to mi8
#ith Fres+ecta0$eF a$$ied6 thou%h 0our%eois6 corres+ondents: @ne of the 0est of these
seemin%$y $ost sou$s #as Bohn 1i00ons6 a con3inced 1$as%o# communist6 #ho had
fou%ht the B$ac<,and,Tans in his ear$y youth and had6 since the c$osin% do#n of the
Dail! $or*er in 19396 0een #or<in% on Mosco# 2adio: .e #as one of the fe# +eo+$e ?
<ne# #ho $i3ed in the famous 5omintern hote$6 the u86 in 1or<i Street: .is #ife6 a cosy
sentimenta$ fat #oman6 continued to +ine for her nati3e Southam+ton: But Bohn 1i00ons6
thou%h he had $i3ed throu%h many som0re crises since 193)6 remained a stran%e$y ha++y
and 0a$anced man: True6 durin% the ne8t %rim #inter of 1941,&6 he #as to suffer dee+$y
from ha3in% tea #ithout su%ar and on$y a +iece of dry 0read6 #hi$e his 0oss on Mosco#
2adio6 #ith a hi%her,cate%ory ration card6 #as in the same office eatin% ham and e%%s:
F?t's +art of the system6F he #ou$d say6 Fand no dou0t they are ri%ht6 0ut it #as 0$oody
un+$easant to smell the ham and e%%s: A$$ the more so as the 0oss thou%ht it #as =uite
norma$6 and ne3er offered me e3en a scra+ of the ham:F
C').&(+ AI CLOSE-UP TWO: AUTUMN JOURNEY TO THE
SMOLENSK RONT
The Batt$e of (e$nya6 south,east of Smo$ens<6 #hich #ent on throu%hout the #ho$e of
Au%ust6 #as not a maHor 0att$e of the So3iet,1erman #ar6 and yet one has to $i3e 0ac<
into the fearfu$ summer of 1941 to rea$ise ho# 3ita$ it #as for 2ussian mora$e:
Throu%hout Au%ust and +art of Se+tem0er it #as 0ui$t u+ 0y the 2ussian +ress and 0y
2ussian +ro+a%anda out of a$$ +ro+ortion to its rea$ or u$timate im+ortance6 and yet here
#as not on$y6 as it #ere6 the first 3ictory of the 2ed Army o3er the 1ermansL here #as
a$so the first +iece of territoryD+erha+s on$y 1"" or 1-" s=uare mi$esDin the #ho$e of
Curo+e recon=uered from .it$er's 9ehrmacht: ?t is stran%e to thin< that in 1941 e3en that
#as considered a 3ast achie3ement:
After the ca+ture of Smo$ens<6 the 1ermans #ere he$d u+ a$on% most of the 5entra$
FrontL 0ut they had mana%ed to dri3e a #ed%e south,east of Smo$ens<6 ca+turin% the to#n
of (e$nya and a num0er of 3i$$a%es:
Accordin% to 1uderian6 there #as some dis+ute amon% the 1erman %enera$s #hether to
defend the (e$nya sa$ient6 or to e3acuate itL in the end it #as decided to e3acuate it6
thou%h at hea3y $oss of $ifeD#hich c$ear$y su%%ests that the 2ussians actua$$y dro3e the
1ermans out6 after #ee<s of hea3y fi%htin%: The +rice +aid in human $i3es 0y the
2ussians for this F+resti%e 3ictoryF had 0een 3ery hi%h6 and #hen6 $ater in @cto0er6 the
0i% 1erman offensi3e had started a%ainst Mosco#6 the 2ussians in #hat had 0een the
(e$nya sa$ient #ere doomed to encirc$ement:
A$thou%h6 unti$ then6 forei%n corres+ondents had not 0een a$$o#ed at the Front6 the
(e$nya 3ictory #as somethin% that ca$$ed for #or$d#ide +u0$icity6 and se3en or ei%ht
#ere ta<en in cars on a #ee<'s tri+6 0e%innin% on Se+tem0er 1-: 9hat6 in retros+ect6 #as
so stri<in% a0out it #as a certain tra%ic +athos of the #ho$e scene: Tra%ic #as the to#n of
Aia>ma6 e8+osed to constant air attac< from near,0y 1erman airfie$dsL more tra%ic sti$$
#ere the youn% airmen at the sma$$ fi%hter airfie$d near Aia>maD#ho6 #ith their se3en
or ei%ht sorties a day o3er the 1erman $ines6 #ere on a constant near,suicide Ho0L tra%ic6
too6 #as the com+$ete$y de3astated countryside of the F(e$nya sa$ientF6 #here e3ery
3i$$a%e and e3ery to#n had 0een destroyed6 and the fe# sur3i3in% ci3i$ians #ere no#
$i3in% in ce$$ars or du%outs:
Aia>ma6 #here #e arri3ed in the $ate afternoon6 $oo<ed a$most norma$6 in s+ite of a $ar%e
num0er of so$diers and 0om0ed houses: ?t #as a harm$ess $itt$e to#n6 #ith its fe#
%o3ernment 0ui$din%s in the centra$ s=uare6 and a fe# dere$ict churches6 and a statue of
enin6 and the rest of the to#n a mass of =uiet +ro3incia$ streets6 #ith #ooden houses and
$itt$e %ardens in front of them6 and ro#s of rou%h #ooden fences: ?n the %ardens %re#
$ar%e sunf$o#ers and dah$iasL and o$d #omen6 #ith scar3es round their heads6 chatted in
front of the %arden %ates: The +$ace cou$d not ha3e chan%ed much since the days of
1o%o$:
The inter3ie# #e had on that first ni%ht at Aia>ma #ith 1enera$ So<o$o3s<y6 at that time
1enera$ 4one3's 5hief of Staff6 #as in the circumstances reassurin%: .e s+o<e in a =uiet6
e3en 3oice6 descri0in% #hat the 2ussian army had done on this 5entra$ Sector durin% the
+ast fe# #ee<s: .e attached the %reatest im+ortance to the fact that the 2ussians had
sto++ed the 1erman ad3ance 0eyond Smo$ens<L c$aimed that Fse3era$ 1erman armiesF
had 0een smashed u+ in the $ast month6 and that6 in the first days of Se+tem0er a$one6
they had suffered &"6""" casua$tiesL se3era$ hundred 1erman +$anes had 0een shot do#n
in this sector o3er a num0er of #ee<s: The 4litz*rieg as such6 he said6 #as o3er6 and the
+rocess of F%rindin% do#nF the 1erman #ar machine had no# started in rea$ earnest6 and
the 2ussians had e3en succeeded in reca+turin% a considera0$e s$ice of territory in this
sector: To chec< the 2ussian counter,offensi3e6 the 1ermans had had to 0rin% u+
reinforcements in the $ast fe# days:
.e thou%ht 1erman communications #ere 0ein% serious$y interfered #ith 0y the
+artisans in the enemy rear: .e a$so thou%ht that 2ussian arti$$ery #as %reat$y su+erior to
1erman arti$$ery6 thou%h he admitted that the 1ermans sti$$ had %reat air and tan<
su+eriority: Another im+ortant +oint he made #as that the 2ussian troo+s a$$ had
polushu4*i (shee+s<in Hac<ets) and other ade=uate #inter c$othes and they cou$d stand
e3en fifty de%rees of frostL the 1ermans cou$d not stand u+ to it: ?t #as si%nificant that he
shou$d6 a$ready then6 ha3e attached the %reatest im+ortance to the +art #inter #as soon
%oin% to +$ay: As an afterthou%ht he said that he cou$d on$y s+ea< of the 5entra$ Front6
and cou$d not s+ea< #ith first,hand <no#$ed%e of Aoroshi$o3 in the north and Budienny
in the south6 #here6 indeed6 the situation #as then e8treme$y serious:
As<ed #hether6 in 3ie# of #hat he had said6 a ne# 1erman offensi3e a%ainst Mosco#
#as no# im+ossi0$e6 he said: F@f course not: They may a$#ays try a $ast des+erate
%am0$e6 or e3en a fe# '$ast des+erate' %am0$es: .ut I don0t thin*," he added firm$y6 "that
the! :ill get to -osco:5"
At sunset #e dro3e to a sma$$ fi%hter 0ase outside Aia>ma: .ere #ere the FSta$in
.a#<sFDthe %talins*ie so*ol!Din their o#n surroundin%s: The moment #e arri3ed6 #e
heard the drone of en%ines and6 des+ite the %ro#in% dar<ness6 a 2ussian fi%hter s#oo+ed
do#n and $anded %racefu$$y on the airfie$d:
A cro#d of airmen on the %round ran u+ to the ne# arri3a$: The ne#$y,$anded +$ane #as
a fi%hter6 0ut had 0een fitted #ith a 0om0 0ay::: The youn% +i$ot #as6 0y no#6 0usi$y
e8aminin% one of the #ooden #in%s #hich had 0een +ierced 0y an anti,aircraft she$$: .e
had dro++ed his 0om0s on a 1erman airfie$d near Smo$ens<6 and there had 0een some
hea3y anti,aircraft fire: .e had set fire to a han%ar6 and seemed 3ery +$eased #ith the
resu$t: .e #as a0out t#enty6 0ut had done a %ood dea$ of f$yin%: 9hen as<ed ho# much
f$yin% a day he did6 he said: FFrom here to the 1erman $inesDoh6 fi3e6 si86 se3en raids a
dayL on$y ta<es a0out an hour or so6 there and 0ac<:F There #as another youn%6 fair,
haired airman #hom ? as<ed ho# he $i<ed the dan%erous $ifeL F? $o3e it: ?t may 0e
dan%erous6 0ut e3ery moment of it is e8citin%: ?t's the 0est $ife there is: ?t's #e$$ #orth it:F
(Did he rea$$y mean itE ? #ondered:)
ater #e #ere sho#n a roc<et that #as used 0y these +$anes a%ainst tan<s: C3en so6 there
#as somethin% +athetic a0out these s$o# o0so$ete +$anes 0ein% used as su++osed fi%hter,
0om0ersD#ith +ro0a0$y 3ery $itt$e effect6 0ut at a terri0$y hi%h cost in 2ussian $i3es:
That #ee< s+ent in the Smo$ens< countryDthe Smo$enshchinaD #as6 in a sense6 a
heartenin% 0ut a$so a hi%h$y tra%ic e8+erience: This #as6 historica$$y6 one of the o$dest of
2ussian $ands6 not Cstonian6 at3ian or e3en Be$orussian or *<rainianL this #as 3ery
near$y the heart of o$d Musco3y: The ancient city of Smo$ens< #as a$ready in 1erman
hands6 and the front #as runnin% some t#enty or t#enty,fi3e mi$es east of it: There #ere
3i$$a%es throu%h #hich #e tra3e$$ed #here the 1ermans had not yet 0een: There #ere
hard$y any youn% men $eft in these 3i$$a%esL on$y #omen and chi$dren and a fe# 3ery o$d
men6 and many of the #omen #ere an8ious and fu$$ of fore0odin%: Many of these
3i$$a%es in the fronta$ >one had 0een 0om0ed and machine,%unned: Some 3i$$a%es and
sma$$ to#ns6 $i<e Du<ho3shchina6 had 0een com+$ete$y #i+ed out 0y 1erman 0om0in%6
and the fie$ds of rye and f$a8 around them had remained unhar3ested:
And then there #ere the so$diers: 9e 3isited many re%imenta$ head=uarters6 some of
them on$y a mi$e or t#o from the front $ine6 and #ith she$$s fre=uent$y fa$$in% around: For
the $ast month these men had 0een ad3ancin%6 thou%h at hea3y cost: Many of the officers6
$i<e 5o$one$ 4iri$o36 #ho recei3ed us on a #ooded hi$$ o3er$oo<in% the 1erman $ines on
the other side of a narro# +$ain6 #ere $i<e somethin% out of To$stoyD0ra3e6 a $itt$e %ruff6
ta<in% #ar in their strideL some of these men had retreated hundreds of mi$es6 0ut no#
they #ere ha++y to ha3e sto++ed and e3en dri3en 0ac< the 1ermans: 4iri$o3 had ado+ted
as a Fson of the re%imentF a +athetic $itt$e fourteen,year,o$d 0oy6 #hose father and mother
had 0oth 0een <i$$ed in the 0om0in% of a near,0y 3i$$a%e:
@ne ni%ht #e stayed at a fie$d hos+ita$ consistin% of se3era$ $ar%e du%outsL t#o of them
#ere sti$$ cro#ded #ith men #ho had 0een too se3ere$y #ounded to 0e trans+ortedDmen
#ho had $ost 0oth their eyes6 or 0oth $e%sL on$y a #ee< 0efore6 there had 0een hundreds of
#ounded in these du%outs: A$$ the nurses #ere +u+i$s of the Toms< medica$ schoo$6 a$$
youn% and e8traordinari$y +retty6 as Si0erian #omen usua$$y are: There #as a staff of
se3en sur%eons6 si8 doctors and these forty,ei%ht nurses6 and6 on$y a #ee< 0efore6 they
had had to hand$e as many as 3"" #ounded a day: The o+eratin% du%out #as #e$$,
e=ui++ed6 and there #ere G,ray and 0$ood,transfusion outfits: As yet6 the chief sur%eon6 a
Mosco# man6 said6 they had not 0een short of any medica$ su++$ies:
But +erha+s the o+timism amon% the so$diers #as more on the surface: ? had a ta$< one
day #ith a ca+tain6 #hose home to#n #as 4har<o36 and #ho had studied history and
economics at 4har<o3 *ni3ersity: .e had 0een en%a%ed in some hea3y fi%htin% round
4ie3 durin% the +re3ious month6 unti$ his re%iment had 0een mo3ed to this Smo$ens<
sector: .e #as in a %$oomy mood: F?t's no use +retendin% that a$$ is #e$$6F he said: FThe
f$a%,#a3in%6 the hurrah,+atriotism of our +ress are a$$ 3ery #e$$ for +ro+a%anda +ur+oses
to <ee+ u+ mora$eL 0ut it can 0e o3erdoneDas it sometimes is: 9e sha$$ need a $ot of he$+
from a0road: ? <no# the *<raineL ? <no# ho# immense$y im+ortant it is for our #ho$e
nationa$ economy: ;o# #e ha3e $ost 4ri3oi 2o% and Dne+ro+etro3s<6 and #ithout the
4ri3oi 2o% iron ore6 4har<o3 and Sta$ino6 if #e don't $ose them too6 #i$$ find it hard to
#or< at anythin% $i<e fu$$ ca+acity: enin%rad6 #ith its s<i$$ed $a0our6 is a$so more or $ess
iso$ated: And #e Hust don't <no# ho# much further the 1ermans are %oin% to +ushD#ith
their troo+s a$ready at !o$ta3a6 #e may #e$$ $ose 4har<o3: 9e'3e 0een hearin% for #ee<s
a0out the Cconomic 5onference that's to meet in Mosco#L they say ord Bea3er0roo< is
on his #ayL ? #onder #hat %ood it'$$ do:::F
.e #ent on: FThis is a 3ery %rim #ar: And you cannot ima%ine the hatred the 1ermans
ha3e stirred u+ amon% our +eo+$e: 9e are easy,%oin%6 %ood,natured +eo+$e6 you <no#L
0ut ? assure you6 they ha3e turned our +eo+$e into s+itefu$ mu8i*s5 Ol!ie mu8i*iDthat's
#hat #e'3e %ot in the 2ed Army no#6 men thirstin% for re3en%e: 9e officers sometimes
ha3e a Ho0 in <ee+in% our so$diers from <i$$in% 1erman +risonersL ? <no# they #ant to do
it6 es+ecia$$y #hen they see some of these arro%ant6 fanatica$ ;a>i s#ine: ? ha3e ne3er
<no#n such hatred 0efore: And there's %ood reason for it: Thin< of those to#ns and
3i$$a%es o3er there6F he said6 +ointin% at the red sunset o3er Smo$ens<L Fthin< of a$$ the
torture and de%radation these +eo+$e are made to suffer:F There #as a f$ic<er of mad
hatred in his eyes: FAnd ? cannot he$+ thin<in% of my #ife and my o#n ten,year,o$d
dau%hter in 4har<o3:F .e #as si$ent for a time6 contro$$in% himse$f6 and hammerin% one
<nee #ith his fin%ers: F@f course6F he said at $ast6 Fthere are the +artisansL they are at $east
a personal so$ution to thousands of +eo+$e o3er there: There comes a moment #hen
+eo+$e can't 0ear it any $on%er: They %o off into the #oods6 in the ho+e that they may
murder a 1erman some time: @ften it's $i<e suicideL often they <no# that6 sooner or $ater6
they are a$most sure to 0e cau%ht6 and to 0e +ut throu%h a$$ the 0east$iness the 1ermans
are ca+a0$e of:::F
.e then ta$<ed a0out the +artisans %enera$$y6 thou%ht they #ere im+ortant6 thou%h not as
im+ortant as they mi%ht 0e: And sooner or $ater6 if the 2ussians #ent on retreatin%6 the
+artisans #ou$d $ose touch #ith their sources of su++$y6 and #ou$d soon 0e short of arms:
F;o dou0t they can continue to carry on sa0ota%e in a sma$$ #ay6 and 3arious forms of
+assi3e resistance6 0ut they may no $on%er constitute a serious armed force: ?f on$y #e
had fu$$y +re+ared the +artisan mo3ement6 if on$y #e had +i$ed u+ thousands of arms
dum+s throu%hout 9estern 2ussia: Somethin% #as done6 0ut not near$y enou%hL and in
the south there are6 unfortunate$y6 no #oods::: F
?t #as durin% this 3isit to the Front that ? first met A$e8ei Sur<o36 the 2ussian +oet:6 #ho
#as there as a #ar corres+ondent: ater durin% the #ar #e reca$$ed those days: FThose
#ere fearfu$ days6F he said: FDo you <no# that #e #anted to sho# you +eo+$e some of
our tan<sD#e$$6 ? can no# te$$ you6 #e didn't ha3e a damned thin%P F
The to#n of Doro%o0u>hDfamous 0efore the #ar for its cheesesD on the 0an<s of the
*++er Dnie+er6 #hich #e reached one ni%ht6 after tra3e$$in% for hours a$on% terri0$y
muddy6 0um+y roads6 had 0een 0om0ed 0y the 1ermans6 and no# nothin% #as $eft of it
0ut the she$$s of the stone and 0ric< 0ui$din%s and the chimney stac<s of the #ooden
housesL of its 1"6""" inha0itants6 on$y a0out 1"" +eo+$e #ere sti$$ there: ?n Bu$y6 in 0road
day$i%ht6 #a3es of 1erman +$anes had dro++ed hi%h e8+$osi3es and incendiary 0om0s
o3er the to#n for a #ho$e hour: There #ere no troo+s there at the timeL men6 #omen6
chi$dren had 0een <i$$edDno0ody <ne# ho# many:
After s+endin% the ni%ht in an army tent outside the to#nD#e sa# the ne8t mornin%
some fifty +eo+$e6 most$y #omen and some +a$e,$oo<in% chi$dren6 $inin% u+ for food
outside an army canteen in one of the fe# on$y ha$f,destroyed 0ui$din%s of the to#nD#e
dro3e to (e$nya throu%h #hat #as no# Frecon=uered territoryF: There had 0een hea3y
fi%htin% there: The #oods #ere shattered 0y she$$fireL there #ere6 here and there6 $ar%e
mass,%ra3es6 #ith crude$y,+ainted #ooden o0e$is<s on to+ of them6 in #hich hundreds of
2ussian so$diers had 0een 0uried: The 3i$$a%e of *sha<o3o6 #here some of the hea3iest
fi%htin% had ta<en +$ace for o3er a month6 had 0een ra>ed to the %roundL and on$y from
the 0are +atches a$on% the road cou$d one rou%h$y ima%ine #here the houses had stood: ?n
*stino3<a6 another 3i$$a%e some distance a#ay6 most of the thatched roofs had 0een torn
a#ay 0y 0om0 0$astL the +eo+$e in the 3i$$a%e had f$ed 0efore the 1ermans cameL 0ut no#
there #ere faint si%ns of $ife a%ain: An o$d +easant and t#o $itt$e 0oys had returned since
the 2ussians had reca+tured the 3i$$a%e6 and #ere #or<in% in the deserted fie$ds6 di%%in%
u+ +otatoesD+otatoes that had 0een so#n $on% 0efore the 1ermans had come: And there
#as no0ody e$se in the 3i$$a%e6 e8ce+t an o$d #oman6 a 0$ind o$d #oman #ho had %one
insane: She #as there #hen the 3i$$a%e #as she$$ed6 and had %one mad: ? sa# her
#anderin% 0arefooted a0out the 3i$$a%e6 carryin% a fe# dirty ra%s6 a rusty +ai$ and a
tattered shee+s<in: @ne of the 0oys said that she s$e+t in her shattered hut6 and they %a3e
her +otatoes6 and sometimes so$diers +assin% throu%h the 3i$$a%e #ou$d %i3e her
somethin%6 thou%h she ne3er as<ed for anythin%: She Hust stared #ith her 0$ind #hite eyes
and ne3er uttered any articu$ate #ords6 e8ce+t the #ord ")herti"Dthe de3i$s:
9e dro3e on to (e$nya6 throu%h more mi$es of uncut fie$ds: @nce #e dro3e off the road
into a #ood6 0ecause there #ere three or four 1erman +$anes o3erhead: ?n the #ood there
#ere 2ussian 0atteries and other si%ns of mi$itary acti3ity: (e$nya had 0een #ho$$y
destroyed: @n 0oth sides of the road $eadin% to the centre of the to#n6 a$$ the housesD
most$y #ooden housesDhad 0een 0urned6 and a$$ that #as $eft #as +i$es of ashes and
chimney,stac<s6 #ith fire+$aces some #ay do#n: ?t had 0een a to#n of a0out 1-6"""
inha0itants: The on$y 0ui$din% sti$$ intact #as a $ar%e stone church: Most of the ci3i$ians
#ho had 0een here durin% the 1erman occu+ation had no# %one: The to#n had 0een
ca+tured 0y the 1ermans a$most 0y sur+rise6 and 3ery fe# ci3i$ians had had time to
esca+e: ;ear$y a$$ the a0$e,0odied men and #omen had 0een formed into forced,$a0our
0atta$ions6 and dri3en into the 1erman rear: A fe# hundred e$der$y +eo+$e and chi$dren
had 0een a$$o#ed to stay on in the to#n: The ni%ht the 1ermans decided to +u$$ out of
(e$nyaD for the 2ussians #ere c$osin% in6 threatenin% to encirc$e the to#nD the
remainin% +eo+$e of (e$nya #ere ordered to assem0$e inside the church: They s+ent a
ni%ht of terror: Throu%h the hi%h #indo#s of the church 0$ac< smo<e #as +ourin% in6 and
they cou$d see the f$ames: For the 1ermans #ere no# %oin% round the houses6 +ic<in% u+
#hat fe# 3a$ua0$es they cou$d find6 and then systematica$$y settin% fire to e3ery house in
the to#n: The 2ussians dro3e into the to#n throu%h the 0urnin% #rec<a%e6 and #ere a0$e
to re$ease the no# home$ess +risoners:
?n the course of this one and on$y 3isit to the Front #e had ta$<ed to three 1erman
airmen6 the cre# of a 1erman 0om0er that had 0een shot do#n a$most immediate$y after
their raid on Aia>ma:
IThey had Hust missed the house #here #e #ere stayin%6 0ut had <i$$ed se3era$ +eo+$e in
the house across the street: The e+isode is descri0ed in -osco: 0J<5G
A$$ three #ere arro%ant6 0oasted of ha3in% 0om0ed ondon6 and #ere =uite sure that
Mosco# #ou$d fa$$ 0efore the #inter:
They ar%ued that the #ar a%ainst 2ussia had 0een rendered ine3ita0$e 0y the #ar a%ainstL
Cn%$andL it #as +art of the same #arL and once 2ussia had 0een <noc<ed out6 Cn%$and
#ou$d 0e 0rou%ht to her <nees: FAnd #hat a0out AmericaEF some0ody as<ed: FAmerica6
that's a $on% #ay a#ay: /meri*a, das ist sehr :eit5" They a$so said that it had ta<en "ive
2ussian fi%hters to 0rin% do#n their .ein<e$:::
C').&(+ AII ADAANCE ON LENIN!RAD
9hi$e the 2ed Army succeeded in sta0i$isin% the Front east of Smo$ens<6 e3ents in the
north and6 0efore $on%6 in the south6 too< a turn for the #orse: The une=ua$$ed tra%edy of
enin%rad #i$$ 0e re$ated in some detai$ $ater in this 0oo<6 and the 1erman ad3ance on
enin%rad need 0e mentioned on$y 0rief$y here: The 1erman +$an #as to ma<e one ra+id
thrust throu%h !s<o36 u%a and 1atchina to enin%rad6 and to ca+ture the city6 #hi$e the
Finns #ere e8+ected to stri<e from the north: A second en3e$o+in% mo3ement #as to 0e
carried out round a<e ?$men6 and then on to !etro>a3ods<6 east of a<e ado%a6 #here
the 1erman troo+s #ere to Hoin #ith the Finns: The 2ussian troo+s of the F;orth,9est
DirectionF6 under Aoro,shi$o36 had 0een routed in the Ba$tic 2e+u0$ics6 and the
9ehrmacht crashed throu%h to @stro3 and the ancient 2ussian city of !s<o3 on their #ay
to enin%rad6 some &"" mi$es to the north: They had ca+tured @stro3 on Bu$y 1" and
!s<o3 t#o days $ater: Another 1erman force6 after ca+turin% 2i%a and occu+yin% the
#ho$e of at3ia6 #as ra+id$y ad3ancin% into Cstonia6 #ith the 2ussians retreatin% in
disorder to Ta$$inn6 the ca+ita$ of Cstonia and one of the most im+ortant So3iet na3a$
0ases on the Ba$tic: @f the ori%ina$ thirty di3isions of the ;orth,9estern Front on$y fi3e
#ere no# fu$$y manned and fu$$y armed6 the rest #ere $eft #ith a ten to thirty +er cent
com+$ement of either men or e=ui+ment:
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 ++: 7J,79:K
By Bu$y 1"6 the +osition #as as disastrous as durin% the #orst sta%es of the 2ussian
retreat throu%h Be$orussia: The 1ermans had a &4 to one su+eriority in men6 four to one
in %uns and near$y si8 to one in mortars6 not to s+ea< a0out tan<s and aircraft:
I?n this6 as in most other cases6 there is a discre+ancy 0et#een the 2ussian and the
1erman estimates of the 1erman forces in3o$3ed: Accordin% to Te$+u<ho3s<y6 o+: cit:6
the 1ermans had assem0$ed for their thrust a%ainst enin%rad 7""6""" men6 16-"" tan<s
and 16&"" +$anes: The 1ermans6 #ithout %i3in% any fi%ure for the num0er of men in
Heeresgruppe 3ord, c$aim that it had on$y 9"" tan<s and 3-" +$anes in its dri3e on
enin%rad: (See footnote 0y its 1erman editors6 A: .i$$%ru0er and B: A: Baco0son on +: -)
of the 1erman trans$ation of Te$+u<ho3s<y's 0oo<6 Die %o:8etische #eschichte des
#rossen 1aterlQndischen Krieges, <=J<-K (The So3iet .istory of the 1reat !atriotic 9ar
1941,-)6 (Fran<furt6 19)1):K
To s$o# do#n the 1erman ad3ance on enin%rad6 not on$y #ere some re%u$ar reser3e
troo+s thro#n in6 es+ecia$$y a$on% the 2i3er u%a6 0ut a$so fresh$y im+ro3ised
opolcheni!e units6 consistin% of #or<ers' 0atta$ions6 student and e3en schoo$0oy
0atta$ions6 so characteristic of that levAe en masse s+irit #hich #as to +ro3e stron%er in
enin%rad than in a$most any other So3iet city: Moreo3er6 se3era$ hundred thousand
ci3i$ians had 0een mo0i$ised6 ear$y in Bu$y6 to di% three $ines of trenches6 anti,tan<
ditches6 and other6 admitted$y rudimentary6 defences on the a++roaches to enin%rad: The
FouterF $ine of defence #as a$on% the 2i3er u%a:
As it is no# o+en$y admitted6 no fortifications of any <ind e8isted in that +art of 2ussiaL
for e3en thou%h the So3iet 1o3ernment had 0een e8treme$y concerned a0out the security
of enin%rad6 and had e3en em0ar<ed on its 9inter 9ar of 1939,4" to +ush the Finnish
frontier 0ac<6 Fit had ne3er e3en occurred to any0ody 0efore the #ar that enin%rad
mi%ht 0e threatened from the south or south#estF:
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 +: &1":K
The 1ermans +ushed on re$ent$ess$y6 and reached the u%a ri3er $on% 0efore the 2ussian
defences #ere com+$ete: ;e3erthe$ess6 0y Bu$y 1"6 a $on% stretch of the u%a ine had
0een manned 0y the so,ca$$ed u%a o+erationa$ %rou+6 consistin% of four re%u$ar infantry
di3isions and three di3isions of enin%rad opolcheni!e5 The 1erman ad3ance #as6
indeed6 s$o#ed do#n6 0ut the 1ermans succeeded in esta0$ishin% a num0er of
0rid%eheads on the north side of the u%a:
Mean#hi$e6 other 1erman forces #ere o3errunnin% Cstonia on the #est side of a<e
!ei+us: Brea<in% throu%h to 4unda on the 1u$f of Fin$and east of Ta$$inn on Au%ust 76
the 1ermans cut off the 2ussian forces #ho had retreated to the Cstonian ca+ita$: C3en
0efore that6 other 1erman forces had +ushed north to 4in%ise++ a$on% the east 0an< of
a<e !ei+us6 and the threat to enin%rad had %ro#n immense$y: The 1ermans had forced
the ;ar3a ri3er and #ere not on$y ad3ancin% on the former 2ussian ca+ita$ from the
;ar3a,4in%ise++ area6 #here the 2ussians had a$ready suffered terri0$e $osses in hea3y
fi%htin%6 and from the u%a area6 0ut #ere a$so ad3ancin% to the east of enin%rad6 0oth
north and south of a<e ?$men6 #ith the o03ious +ur+ose of iso$atin% enin%rad from the
east and Hoinin% #ith the Finns on the east side of a<e ado%a:
?n Bu$y6 the Finns had a$ready struc< out in t#o directionsD across the 4are$ian ?sthmus
u+ to the frontier6 and to the east of a<e ado%a6 to#ards !etro>a3ods<6 on the 0an<s of
a<e @ne%a:
A +articu$ar$y harro#in% e+isode #as the attem+t of the So3iet troo+s marooned at
Ta$$inn to esca+e 0y sea: For o3er a month they had tried to sto+ the 1ermans ca+turin%
Ta$$inn from the south: A $ar%e +art of the So3iet Ba$tic ;a3y #as sti$$ at Ta$$inn6 and the
%reatest +ossi0$e num0er of troo+s #ere to 0e e3acuated 0y sea: ?t #as a <ind of Dun<ir<6
0ut #ithout air co3er6 a$$ a3ai$a0$e 2ussian aircraft 0ein% concentrated in and around
enin%rad6 #here the situation #as a$ready hi%h$y critica$6 as the 1ermans had 0y this
time +ractica$$y cut off enin%rad from the east:
At Ta$$inn there #ere &"6""" 2ussian troo+s6 and these6 to%ether #ith the Ba$tic ;a3y6
had tied u+ su0stantia$ 1erman forces #ithin a radius of ten to t#enty mi$es for o3er a
month: &-6""" ci3i$ians #ere mo0i$ised to stren%then the defences to the south of the city6
thou%h ho# enthusiastic these Cstonians #ere may 0e =uestioned:
The 1ermans started their a$$,out attac< on Ta$$inn on Au%ust 196 0ut the 2ussians6
su++orted 0y the %uns of the coasta$ defences and #arshi+s6 #ere a0$e to ho$d their
%round for near$y a #ee<: @n Au%ust &)6 ho#e3er6 the 1ermans 0ro<e into the city6 and
the 2ussian Su+reme 5ommand ordered the e3acuation of Ta$$inn6 a$$ the more so as
enin%rad 0ad$y needed #hat troo+s and shi+s cou$d sti$$ 0e rescued: After t#o more
days of intensi3e street fi%htin%6 the con3oy of troo+ trans+orts and #arshi+s sai$ed from
Ta$$inn har0our: The 1ermans c$aimed that Fnot a sin%$e shi+F #ou$d 0e a0$e to $ea3e
Ta$$innL 0ut6 accordin% to the 2ussians6 FmostF of the shi+s6 inc$udin% the f$a%,shi+
-ins*, %ot throu%h6 des+ite constant attac<s from 1erman aircraft and tor+edo 0oats6 and
f$oatin% mines #hich the 1ermans had scattered throu%hout the 1u$f of Fin$and: The
0i%%est $osses #ere suffered 0y the tra#$ers and destroyers tryin% to ta<e the con3oy
throu%h the 1erman minefie$ds: ?n the end6 the F%reater +artF of the shi+s6 carryin%
se3era$ thousand so$diers6 $anded in 4ronstadt or enin%rad:
The 2ussian na3a$ %arrisons of Da%o and other is$ands off the Cstonian coast6 he$d out ti$$
the midd$e of @cto0er6 #hen the -"" sur3i3ors of the defence of Da%o succeeded in
sai$in% under co3er of ni%ht to .an%T6 the 2ussian na3a$ 0ase in Fin$and6 #hich #as then
sti$$ in 2ussian hands:
?t #as6 in fact6 not unti$ the 2ussian armies had retreatedDor f$ed mi%ht 0e the ri%ht #ord
Dto the immediate 3icinity of enin%rad after the co$$a+se of the Fu%a ineF6 that they
0e%an to contain the 1ermans #ith any success: Aoroshi$o3 had $ost his head com+$ete$y6
and it #as not unti$ 1enera$ Ohu<o3 #as rushed to enin%rad at the 0e%innin% of
Se+tem0er and reor%anised the troo+s on the s+ot that the defence of enin%rad 0e%an in
rea$ earnest::: ?t #as to 0ecome the %reatest of a$$ the %reat 2ussian stories of human
endurance: ;e3er yet had a city of the si>e of enin%rad 0een 0esie%ed for near$y t#o,
and,a,ha$f years:
C').&(+ AIII ROUT IN THE UKRAINE DK'+1-'3'(6 6(+-1-
S&)/,$D
Meantime6 as #e ha3e seen6 .it$er had decided to stri<e his main 0$o#6 not at Mosco#6
0ut at the *<raine: A0andonin%6 for the time 0ein%6 the dri3e on Mosco#6 he had
transferred some troo+s to the north to s+eed u+ the ca+ture of enin%rad6 and e3en $ar%er
reinforcements #ere sent to the *<raine6 #hich6 to%ether #ith the 5rimea6 he +$anned to
o3errun #ithin a fe# #ee<s:
Car$y in Bu$y6 the 2ussians had had a fe# $oca$ successes in the *<raineL thus they had
chec<ed a 1erman 0rea<throu%h to 4ie3 some ten or t#e$3e mi$es outside the city: But at
the end of Bu$y and the 0e%innin% of Au%ust6 the 4litz*rieg had 0een resumed: @n Au%ust
17 the 1ermans occu+ied Dnie+ro+etro3s<6 at the far end of the Dnie+er 0end6 and forced
the Dnie+er6 des+ite the So3iet Su+reme 5ommand's order to ho$d the Dnie+er ine at a$$
costs: 4herson6 ;i<o$aye3 and the iron,ore centre of 4ri3oi 2o% #ere ca+tured:
?n the south,#est @dessa #as cut off 0y the 2umanians from the So3iet Fmain$andF:
Mean#hi$e6 north of 4ie36 the 1ermans had started another offensi3e in the %enera$
direction of 4onoto+6 !o$ta3a and6 u$timate$y6 4har<o3: Thus6 0y the 0e%innin% of
Se+tem0er6 4ie3 formed6 in fact6 the ti+ of a $on% and constant$y narro#in% sa$ient6 the
1ermans ha3in% ad3anced far to the east 0oth north and south of the *<rainian ca+ita$:
?t is here that #e come to one of the maHor contro3ersies of the #arDa contro3ersy
in3o$3in% not on$y .it$er and his %enera$s6 0ut a$so Sta$in and 4hrushche3: 4hrushche3
#as a Mem0er of the 9ar 5ounci$ attached to the staff of Marsha$ Budienny6 the 5:,in,5:
of the FSouth,9estern DirectionF:
I ?t shou$d 0e e8+$ained6 to a3oid confusion6 that the F South,9estern DirectionF #as one
of the three FDirectionsF into #hich the #ho$e Front had 0een s+$it in Bu$y: Se3era$
FFrontsF (i:e: Army 1rou+s) came under the authority of each FDirectionF: @ne of the
FFrontsF that came under the authority of the FSouth,9est DirectionF #as the FSouth,
9est FrontF6 the +rinci+a$ 3ictim of the 4ie3 encirc$ement: By @cto0er 19416 the Front
#as no $on%er di3ided into FDirectionsF6 0ut on$y into FFrontsF (i:e: Army 1rou+s): ?n
Se+tem0er the commander of the FDirectionF #as Budienny6 the commander of the
FFrontF #as 4ir+onos:K
!resent,day histories are untirin% in their +raise of 4hrushche3 #ho6 as a mem0er of the
!o$it0uro and as Secretary of the 5entra$ 5ommittee of the *<rainian 5ommunist !arty6
aroused e3ery#here6 they say6 the +atriotic fer3our of the +eo+$e of the *<raine6 and of
4ie3 in +articu$arDe3en thou%h6 $ac<in% the %reat +ro$etarian and re3o$utionary
traditions of Mosco# and enin%rad6 the levAe en masse seems to ha3e 0een considera0$y
$ess s+ectacu$ar there than in the other t#o cities: Moreo3er6 4ie3 had a +ecu$iar
menta$ity: @n$y some t#enty years 0efore it had 0een occu+ied in =uic< succession 0y
the 1erman and Austrian armies6 #ho had +ut u+ a +u++et ru$er6 .etman S<oro,+ads<y6
at the head of the *<rainian FstateF6 0y *<rainian nationa$ists under !et$ura6 0y 2eds6
9hites and 2eds a%ain and6 for a short time6 in 19&"6 e3en 0y !i$suds<i's !o$es: @$der
+eo+$e may ha3e remem0ered that the 1erman,Austrian occu+ation of 191J had not 0een
as terri0$e as a$$ that:
As 0y Se+tem0er 96 the 1ermans #ere ad3ancin% on ;e>hin I Se3enty mi$es C;C of
4ie3:K from the north6 and other 1erman armies had +enetrated far into the Dnie+er 0end
in the south6 and as no 2ussian reser3es #ere a3ai$a0$e to chec< these t#o 1erman
ad3ances6 Budienny and 4hrushche3 decided to +u$$ out of the 4ie3 sa$ient:
@n Se+tem0er 116 they informed Sta$in that his +re3ious instructions to des+atch t#o
infantry di3isions from 4ie3 to sto+ the 1erman ad3ance in the north cou$d not 0e carried
outL that the So3iet armies in the *<raine had 0een 0ad$y #ea<ened 0y #ee<s of hea3y
fi%htin%6 and that6 des+ite the Su+reme 5ommand's o+inion to the contrary6 they
considered the time ri+e for #ithdra#in% to a ne# *ne in the east:
@n that same day6 in s+ea<in% to 1enera$ 4ir+onos6 commander of the South,9estern
Front6 Sta$in Fem+hatica$$y reHected the +ro+osa$ to a0andon 4ie3 and to #ithdra# the
troo+s from the 4ie3 sa$ient to the 2i3er !syo$ Iin the 4urs<,!o$ta3a areaK: .e insisted
that troo+s 0e ta<en from other sectors of the Front and thro#n a%ainst the 1ermans
ad3ancin% on 4onoto+ Ieast of ;e>hinK:::F .e a$so re$ie3ed Budienny of his command
and re+$aced him 0y Timo,shen<o6 #ho arri3ed in 4ie3 on Se+tem0er 13 to ta<e u+ his
ne# duties:
@n that day6 the 0ott$enec< from #hich the four armies of the South,9estern Front cou$d
ha3e +u$$ed out #as on$y t#enty mi$es #ideD0et#een o<h3itsa and u0ny::: T#o days
$ater6 1erman tan< formations c$osed this 0ott$enec<:
.ere #e come to the c$ima8 of the Sta$in,4hrushche3 contro3ersy6 of #hich so much is
made in the +resent,day Histor!:
O$ S(.&("8(+ 14 M):#+-!($(+)/ T1.,/#6, C',(0 #0 S&)00 #0 &'( S#1&'-W(-& +#$&,
3#$-,5(+(5 ,& ',- 51&* &# ,$0#+" !($(+)/ S').#-'$,-;#6, &'( C',(0 #0 S&)00 ,$
M#-3#2, #0 &'( 3)&)-&+#.',3 -,&1)&,#$... T'(+( 2(+(, '( 3#$3/15(5, #$/* ) 3#1./( #0
5)*- /(0&. !($(+)/ S').#-'$,;#6 3)//(5 &',- +(.#+& D.)$,3;*D, )-;(5 &'(
3#"")$5(+- #0 &'( S#1&'-W(-& +#$& $#& &# /#-( &'(,+ '()5- )$5 &# 3)++* #1&
C#"+)5( S&)/,$<- #+5(+- #0 S(.&("8(+ 11.
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 +: 1"J:K
But on Se+tem0er 1)6 the 1ermans c$osed the 0ott$enec<6 and the four So3iet armies #ere
surrounded::: @ne of them6 the 37th6 #as sti$$ ho$din% the 4ie3 0rid%ehead on the #est
0an< of the Dnie+er: A$$ these troo+s6 says the Histor!, had a$ready suffered 3ery hea3y
$osses6 F#ere disor%anised and had $ost most of their fi%htin% ca+acity: A$$ this cou$d
ha3e 0een a3oided if Budienny's and 4hrushche3's ad3ice had 0een fo$$o#ed in time:F
I?0id:6 +: 1"J:K
After +ointin% out that the Su+reme 5ommand had a 3ery erroneous idea of the #ho$e
situation6 the Histor! %oes on:
S,$3( &'( S1.+("( C#"")$5 -&,// 2#1/5 $#& #+5(+ ) %($(+)/ +(&+()&, &'( W)+
C#1$3,/ #0 &'( S#1&'-W(-&(+$ D,+(3&,#$ )33(.&(5 N. S. K'+1-'3'(6<- .+#.#-)/ &#
)8)$5#$ K,(6 )$5 &# /()5 &'( &+##.- #0 &'( S#1&'-W(-& +#$& #1& #0 &'(
($3,+3/("($&. S,$3( &'( ($("* ')5 $#& *(& 3#$-#/,5)&(5 ',- 0+#$& )/#$% &'( P-*#/,
&',- -(("(5 &'( #$/* +()-#$)8/( -#/1&,#$. O$ B15,($$*<- )$5 K'+1-'3'(6<- 8(')/0,
&',- 5(3,-,#$ 2)- &+)$-",&&(5 6(+8)//* 8* !($(+)/ B)%+)",)$ &# !($(+)/ K,+.#$#-,
2'# 2)- &'($ )& P+,/1;,, &'( '()591)+&(+- #0 &'( S#1&'-W(-& +#$&... I$-&()5 #0
,""(5,)&(/* 3)++*,$% #1& &',- #+5(+, K,+.#$#- 0,$)//* )-;(5 M#-3#2 2'(&'(+ #+ $#&
&# 3)++* #1& &'( ,$-&+13&,#$- #0 &'( W)+ C#1$3,/ #0 &'( S#1&'-W(-&(+$ D,+(3&,#$.
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 +: 1"9:K
?t #as not ti$$ 11:4" +:m: on Se+tem0er 17 that Sha+oshni<o3 re+$ied that the Su+reme
5ommand had authorised the a0andonment of 4ie36 0ut sti$$ said nothin% a0out 0rea<in%
across the ri3er !syo$: Thus6 t#o days #ere #asted in #hich su0stantia$ 2ussian forces
cou$d ha3e 0ro<en out6 0ut did not: 9hat fo$$o#ed #as an incoherent attem+t to 0rea< out
of the encirc$ementL it #as a$$ the more incoherent since communications 0et#een the
3arious army head=uarters #ere non,e8istent: Thus6 se+arated from the other armies6 the
37th Army continued its ho+e$ess fi%ht for 4ie3 durin% the ne8t fe# days6 and on$y then
0e%anD#ithout any ho+e of successDto fi%ht its #ay out:
@n$y some units succeeded in 0rea<in% outDfor e8am+$e one of &6""" men #ith 1enera$
Ba%ramian at their head: The 1enera$ Staff of the South,9est Front and mem0ers of its
9ar 5ounci$6 ha3in% 0een una0$e to find a sin%$e +$ane6 fo$$o#ed Ba%ramian #ith J""
men6 0ut #ere cut off 0y 1erman tan<s: ;ear o<h3itsa6 a 0att$e ra%ed for t#o days in the
course of #hich 1enera$ 4ir+onos #as morta$$y #ounded and M: A: Burmistren<o6 a
mem0er of the 9ar 5ounci$ and Secretary of the 5entra$ 5ommittee of the *<rainian
5ommunist !arty6 as #e$$ as the 5hief of Staff of the Army 1rou+6 1enera$ Tu+i<o36
#ere <i$$ed: @n$y 3ery fe# mem0ers of the 1enera$ Staff esca+ed: Tens of thousands of
so$diers6 officers and +o$itica$ +ersonne$ died in the une=ua$ stru%%$e6 or #ere ta<en
+risoner6 many of them #ounded:
I?0id:6 +: 11"6 ?t is understood that Budienny6 Timoshen<o and 4hrushche3 esca+ed 0y
air from 4ie3:K
The 1ermans c$aim that the 9ehrmacht ca+tured no fe#er than ))-6""" +risoners in the
4ie3 encirc$ement: Accordin% to the Histor! there #ere )776"J- men on the South,
9estern Front at the 0e%innin% of the 4ie3 o+eration: But of these a tota$ of 1-"6-41 men
had esca+ed encirc$ement: The troo+s that #ere encirc$ed fou%ht on throu%h the %reater
+art of Se+tem0er and suffered 3ery hea3y $osses6 #hi$e others succeeded in 0rea<in%
out: ;ot more than one,third of the num0er of troo+s #ho had 0een ori%ina$$y surrounded
#ere ta<en +risoner:W These 2ussian statistics #ou$d reduce the num0er of +risoners
ta<en to a0out 17-6""": @ne cannot he$+ sus+ectin% that the truth must $ie some#here
ha$f,#ay 0et#een the 2ussian and the 1erman fi%ures:
The =uestion remains #hether Sta$in #as not +erha+s ri%ht6 after a$$6 to ha3e c$un% to the
4ie3 sa$ient for as $on% as he did: !arado8ica$$y6 the Histor! su%%ests that this 1erman
3ictory in the *<raine ho+e$ess$y u+set .it$er's time,ta0$e:
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 +: 111:K
This6 indeed6 coincides #ith the +re3a$ent 1erman 3ie#: ?n the o+inion of some of the
$eadin% 1erman %enera$s6 the time #asted on the 4ie3 o+eration 3ery $ar%e$y u+set the
+$ans of the 1erman .i%h 5ommand to reach Mosco# 0efore the #inter had set in: Thus
.aider considered that the Batt$e of 4ie3 #as the %reatest strate%ic mista<e in the Castern
cam+ai%n6 an o+inion shared 0y 1uderian6 #ho s+o<e of the Batt$e of 4ie3 as a %reat
tactica$ 3ictory6 0ut dou0ted that %reat strate%ic ad3anta%es #ere to 0e deri3ed from it:
I1uderian6 o+: cit:6 ++: &&-,):K
1uderian found some comfort6 thou%h not 3ery much6 in the thou%ht that a$thou%h Fthe
+$anned assau$t on enin%rad had to 0e a0andoned in fa3our of a ti%ht in3estmentF the
+ros+ects for occu+yin% the Donets Basin and reachin% the Don #ere no# %ood: ?t is not
=uite c$ear6 thou%h6 #hether6 at the time6 he entire$y a%reed #ith the @4.'s 0e$ief Fthat
the enemy #as no $on%er ca+a0$e of creatin% a firm defensi3e front or offerin% serious
resistance in the area of Army 1rou+ SouthF:
?n any case6 ho#e3er6 the 1ermans had torn a &"",mi$e %a+ in the 2ussian front in the
*<raine6 and6 in the ne8t t#o months6 they occu+ied the #ho$e Castern *<raine and
near$y the #ho$e 5rimea6 and #ere not thro#n some distance 0ac< unti$ after they had
ca+tured 2osto3:
A$thou%h @dessa #as to ran< officia$$y amon% the four Fhero citiesF (the others 0ein%
enin%rad6 Mosco# and Sta$in%rad)6 its defence a%ainst one 1erman and ei%hteen
2umanian di3isions 0et#een Au%ust - and @cto0er 1) 0y the S+ecia$ Maritime Army
under 1enera$ !etro3 #as in rea$ity somethin% of a side,sho# in the %enera$ +attern of the
#ar in 1941:
I ?t #as $on% after the #ar that6 on 4hrushche3's initiati3e6 4ie3 #as added to the Fhero
citiesF: ?n mi$itary =uarters this decision #as shar+$y criticised6 one co$one$6 #ho had
%one ri%ht throu%h the #ho$e #ar6 te$$in% me: F.ero city6 my footP ?t #as one of our
#orst s<edadd$es:FK
2eachin% the B$ac< Sea coast at the 0e%innin% of Au%ust6 the enemy had cut off @dessa
from the 2ussian Fmain$andF6 0ut this main 2ussian na3a$ 0ase in the #estern +art of the
B$ac< Sea #as a0$e to maintain communications 0y sea #ith 0oth the 5rimea and the
5aucasus: The B$ac< Sea ;a3y and Marines +$ayed an im+ortant +art in the defence of
@dessa #here e8treme$y hea3y fi%htin% #as ra%in% at the end of Au%ust and $osses in
effecti3es reached as much as forty +er cent o3era$$6 and in the case of the marines6 as
much as se3enty to ei%hty +er cent: ?n order to ho$d @dessa as $on% as +ossi0$e6 for this
tied u+ considera0$e enemy forces6 reinforcements #ere sent 0y sea6 inc$udin% a num0er
of those in3a$ua0$e *at!usha mortars6 #hose mass +roduction had on$y Hust 0e%un:
?t is remar<a0$e6 in 3ie# of the 1erman air su+eriority6 that the 2ussians shou$d ha3e
0een a0$e to maintain6 as they c$aim6 re%u$ar sea communications from @dessa
throu%hout the sie%e of the city: They e3en c$aim that they mana%ed to e3acuate 0y sea to
the 5aucasus 3-"6""" ci3i$ians6 that is a0out ha$f of the +o+u$ation6 and some &""6"""
tons of industria$ e=ui+ment:
9hen +ractica$$y the #ho$e of the 5rimea6 #ith the e8ce+tion of Se0asto+o$6 had 0een
o3errun 0y the 1ermans6 J"6""" so$diers and a considera0$e amount of mi$itary
e=ui+ment #ere successfu$$y trans+orted 0y sea from @dessa to Se0asto+o$ and the
5aucasusDand this des+ite a $ar%e,sca$e attem+t at sa0ota%e 0y enemy a%ents #ho6 at the
hei%ht of the e3acuation6 set fire to numerous +ort insta$$ations:
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: n6 +: 11J:K
@dessa fe$$ after t#o and a ha$f months of e8treme$y fierce fi%htin%6 and $osses #ere
hea3y on 0oth sides: The 2ussians #ere 3ery sur+rised 0y the tou%hness of the 2umanian
troo+s6 since 2umania's mi$itary record6 +articu$ar$y in 9or$d 9ar ?6 had not 0een e8act$y
%$orious: Accordin% to the 2ussiansDa$#ays +rone to e8a%%erate enemy $ossesDthe
2umanians had $ost 11"6""" men at @dessaL 0ut this is 0y no means a fantastic fi%ure6
since6 accordin% to the 2umanians6 their army $ost6 0et#een the out0rea< of the #ar and
@cto0er 1"6 19416 as many as 7"6""" dead and 1""6""" #ounded:
ITe$+u<ho3s<y6 o+: cit:6 1erman edition6 +: -J:K
@dessa and a$$ the country 0et#een the Dniester and the 9estern Bu%6 #ere to 0e
incor+orated in 2umania under the name of Transniestria: There #as6 as #e sha$$ see6
%oin% to 0e a mar<ed difference 0et#een the 2umanian and the 1erman occu+ation
rN%ime:
9hether 17-6""" +risoners #ere ta<en east of 4ie36 or 4""6""" or )""6"""Da$$ this
2ussian and 1erman =ui00$in% o3er fi%ures is one thin%L another is #hat a$$ this
re+resented in human terms:
A hea3y si$ence hun% o3er the #ho$e =uestion a$$ throu%h the #ar and6 indeed6 for many
years after: 5ertain$y6 Mo$oto3 issued6 from time to time6 $on% ;otes on the i$$,treatment
of 2ussian #ar,+risoners6 or on atrocities committed 0y the 1ermans in the occu+ied
areas of the So3iet *nion: But these #ere c$umsy documents6 in #hich horrors #ere +i$ed
u+on horrors to such an e8tent that those #ho read them6 not on$y in the 9est6 0ut e3en in
2ussia in 1941,36 on$y ha$f,0e$ie3ed themDif that: C8ce+t for some atrocities the
1ermans had committed in the re$ati3e$y sma$$ areas around Mosco# that #ere $i0erated
0y the 2ussians in the #inter of 1941,&6 there #as sti$$ 3ery $itt$e first,hand information
on the 1erman occu+ation6 or e3en on the 1erman treatment of #ar,+risoners: @n$y after
Sta$in%rad6 #hen the 2ussians 0e%an to $i0erate enormous areas6 did the truth 0e%in to
emer%e: And e3en then6 not the #ho$e truth: The fu$$ enormity of it did not 0e%in to 0e
measured unti$ the $i0eration of !o$and #ith its su+er,death,cam+s and the occu+ation of
1ermany #hen stoc< cou$d at $ast 0e ta<en of #hat had ha++ened to the 2ussians
de+orted to 1ermany as s$a3e $a0our6 or ca+tured as #ar +risoners6 +articu$ar$y in 1941,&:
For $on% after the #ar6 3ery $itt$e #as said a0out those #ho #ere ta<en +risoner in those
ear$y #ar daysL a sti%ma #as sti$$ attached to those unfortunate +eo+$e:
The human tra%edy of the 2ussian +risoners #as not to 0e o+en$y discussed in 2ussia
unti$ $on% after the #ar: By far the most %ra+hic account of #hat it #as $i<e to ha3e 0een
tra++ed in the 4ie3 Cncirc$ement #as not to 0e #ritten unti$ t#enty years after6 and
+u0$ished in the form of a short story in 3ov!i -ir of Banuary 19)3: But thou%h +resented
as fiction6 it is the ta$e of one of its sur3i3ors6 and has the rin% of a0so$ute authenticity:
?n the thirty +a%es of Through the 3ight, eonid Ao$yns<y succeeds in te$$in% the story of
1erman ca+ti3ity #ith the same concentrated intensity that So$>henitsyn had %i3en to his
account of the Sta$in $a0our cam+s:
The story 0e%ins on Se+tem0er 176 1941 in a *<rainian 3i$$a%e6 Hust as the 1erman rin% is
a0out to c$ose round the 2ussians:
M)$* *()+- )0&(+2)+5-, I +()5 ) 8##; 8* 6#$ T,..(/-;,+3', ) !(+")$ %($(+)/, 2'#
2+#&( &')& &'( ($3,+3/("($& #0 #1+ &+##.- ()-& #0 K,(6 ')5 &,(5 5#2$ /)+%( !(+")$
0#+3(-, )$5 -# +1,$(5 H,&/(+<- %)"(, -,$3( ,& 5(/)*(5 ',- #00($-,6( )%),$-& M#-3#2.
N# 5#18& &')&<- :1-& '#2 &',$%- ')..($(5... B1& 2( ;$(2 $#&',$% )8#1& &')&. T#
'1$5+(5- #0 &'#1-)$5- #0 "($ &+*,$% 51+,$% &'#-( $,%'&- &# 8+(); #1& #0 &'(
!(+")$ +,$%... %+#.,$% &'(,+ 2)* &'+#1%' 0#+(-&- )$5 ")+-'(-, )$5 1$5(+ )
'),/-&#+" #0 !(+")$ 8#"8- )$5 -'(//- ... )// &',- 2)- $#&',$% 81& ) 6)-& )$5
,$(B./,3)8/( &+)%(5*.
@n that ni%ht of the 17th6 the narrator #as #anderin% a$on% a roadL t#o or three thousand
motor 3ehic$es #ere 0urnin%L it #as im+ortant not to $et the 1ermans ha3e them: That
ni%ht6 too6 he sa# a %rou+ of ten senior officers a$so #a$<in% to#ards o<h3itsa (#here
there #as 0e$ie3ed to 0e a %a+ in the rin%)Dhe reco%nised amon% them the 5ommander
of the Front6 1enera$ 4ir+onos:
N#& 1$&,/ -(6(+)/ *()+- /)&(+ 5,5 I /()+$ &')& '( -'#& ',"-(/0 &')& $,%'&E#+ ,& ")*
')6( 8(($ &'( 0#//#2,$% $,%'&, ')6,$% +(01-(5 &# 0/* #00 ,$ ) ./)$( &')& ')5 8(($ -($&
0#+ '," 2,&' %+()& 5,00,31/&*... H,- +("),$- ')6( -,$3( 8(($ +(81+,(5 ,$ K,(6. W,&'
'," )/-# 5,(5 ) "("8(+ #0 ',- 2)+ 3#1$3,/, B1+",-&+($;#, 2'# ')5 8(($ &'( S(3#$5
S(3+(&)+* #0 &'( C($&+)/ C#"",&&(( #0 &'( U;+),$,)$ CP 8(0#+( &'( 2)+.
I?t is curious to note that6 accordin% to the officia$ Histor! 4ir+onos #as F<i$$edFL there is
no mention of his suicide:K
@n the fo$$o#in% mornin%6 the narrator and three other so$diers6 seein% 1erman tan<s
a++roachin%6 hid in an o3er%ro#n ra3ine: But the 1ermans noticed them6 and +roceeded
to machine,%un the 0ottom of the ra3ine: @ne man #as <i$$ed6 0ut the three others
surrendered: (The thou%ht of suicide crossed the narrator's mind6 0ut no more:) A 1erman
so$dier6 a decent and +$easant fe$$o# at first si%ht6 s$a++ed their faces6 and ordered them
to em+ty their +oc<ets: 5$ose$y fo$$o#ed 0y a tan<6 they had to run to a 3i$$a%e ca$$ed
4o3a$i: By the end of the day6 1"6""" +risoners #ere assem0$ed there:
@n the fo$$o#in% mornin%6 the F5ommissars6 5ommunists and Be#sF #ere summoned to
come for#ard6 after the arri3a$ of some fifteen SS,men in 0$ac< uniforms and #ith s<u$$s
on their ca+s: Some three hundred came for#ard6 #ere stri++ed to the #aist and $ined u+
in the yard: Then the inter+reter6 a youn% man6 s+ea<in% #ith a stron% 1a$ician accent6
shouted that some must sti$$ 0e hidin%L and anyone #ho denounced a 5ommunist6
5ommissar or Be# cou$d ta<e his c$othes and other 0e$on%in%s: FAnd6 amon% ten
thousand men6 you #i$$ a$#ays find a do>en or t#o such +eo+$eL it may not 0e a hi%h
+ercenta%e6 0ut there it is: Such +eo+$e do e8ist6 and a$#ays #i$$:F So6 in the end6 four
hundred #ere shot6 0ein% ta<en a#ay ten at a time6 and ordered to di% their %ra3es:
T'(* )// 5,(5 -,/($&/*, (B3(.& #$(, 2'# 1&&(+(5 '()+&-+($5,$% -3+()"-, )- '( 3+)2/(5
)& &'( SS-"($<- 0((&: DD#$<& ;,// "(H M* "#&'(+ ,- ) U;+),$,)$.D O$( #0 &'( SS-"($
;,3;(5 '," ,$ &'( 0)3(, )$5 ;$#3;(5 ',- &((&' #1&, )$5 '( 2)- ')1/(5 #00 &# &'(
(B(31&,#$ %+#1$5, ',- 8)+( 0((& 5+)%%,$% &'+#1%' &'( 51-&.
The sur3i3in% #ar +risoners #ere marched first to one cam+6 and then to another6 and the
so$diersDFdecent,$oo<in%6 ordinary cha+s6 +erha+s 1erman #or<in%,menFD
automatica$$y shot any stra%%$ers6 or anyone fa$$in% do#n 0y the road,side: The rest of the
story is one of such constant star3ation6 co$d and humi$iation that the +risoners ra+id$y
$ost a$$ human sem0$ance and human di%nity: The narrator and t#o other men succeeded
in esca+in%D0ut they #ere the $uc<y e8ce+tions:
C').&(+ IX THE EAACUATION O INDUSTRY
The e3acuation of industry threatened 0y the 1erman in3asion had 0een one of the So3iet
1o3ernment's maHor concerns a$most since the moment the #ar had 0e%un: Durin% the
3ery first days of the #ar t#o im+ortant industria$ centres #ere $ost: 2i%a and Mins<L 0ut
there #as nothin% of outstandin% industria$ im+ortance in ithuania6 the rest of at3ia6
Be$orussia6 or the 9estern *<raine: The %reat industria$ areas of the Curo+ean +art of the
So3iet *nion threatened 0y the in3asion6 or6 at any rate6 0y destruction from the air6 #ere
the #ho$e of 5entra$ and Castern *<raineDinc$udin% the 4har<o36 Dne+ro+etro3s<6
4ri3oi 2o%6 Mariu+o$ and ;i<o+o$ areas6 and the Don0asDand second$y6 the industria$
areas of Mosco# and enin%rad:
9hether or not the So3iet 1o3ernment 0e$ie3ed6 in the ear$y #ee<s of the #ar6 that the
1ermans #ou$d reach enin%rad6 Mosco#6 4har<o36 or the Don0as6 it 3ery ri%ht$y
decided6 there and then6 to ta<e no chances6 and $aid do#n as a firm +rinci+$e the
e3acuation of a$$ essentia$ industries6 and +articu$ar$y the #ar industries6 to the east: ?t
<ne# from the start that this #as a matter of $ife and death if the 1ermans #ere %oin% to
o3errun $ar%e areas of Curo+ean 2ussia:
This trans+$antation of industry in the second ha$f of 1941 and the 0e%innin% of 194& and
its Frehousin%F in the east6 must ran< amon% the most stu+endous or%anisationa$ and
human achie3ements of the So3iet *nion durin% the #ar:
A stee+ increase in #ar +roduction and the reor%anisation of the entire #ar industry on a
ne# 0asis de+ended on the ra+id transfer of hea3y industry from the #estern and centra$
areas of Curo+ean 2ussia and the *<raine to the distant rear6 #here it #ou$d not on$y 0e
out of the 1erman army's reach6 0ut #ou$d a$so 0e 0eyond the ran%e of 1erman aircraft:
As ear$y as Bu$y 46 the State Defence 5ommittee ordered the 5hairman of the #osplan,
Ao>nesens<y6 to dra# u+ a detai$ed +$an for settin% u+ in the east #hat #as6 in effect6 Fa
second $ine of industria$ defenceF: The aim #as to or%anise a Fcoherent +roducti3e
com0ination 0et#een the industries a$ready e8istin% in the east and those to 0e
trans+$anted thereF:
The e3acuation of industry to the *ra$s6 the Ao$%a country6 9estern Si0eria and 5entra$
Asia6 started at a 3ery ear$y sta%e of the #ar6 not on$y from industria$ centres immediate$y
threatened 0y the 1ermans6 0ut from other centres as #e$$: Thus6 as ear$y as Bu$y &6 it #as
decided to mo3e the armoured,+$ate mi$$ from Mariu+o$ in the Southern *<raine6 to
Ma%nito%ors<6 thou%h Mariu+o$ #as sti$$ hundreds of mi$es a#ay from the front: @n the
fo$$o#in% day6 the State Defence 5ommittee6 after a++ro3in% the +$ans for the out+ut of
%uns and sma$$ arms durin% the ne8t fe# months6 decided to transfer to the east t#enty,
si8 armament +$ants from enin%rad6 Mosco# and Tu$a: Durin% the same #ee< it #as
decided to send east +art of the e=ui+ment6 #or<ers and technica$ staff from the diese$
de+artment of the 4iro3 !$ant in enin%rad and the Tractor !$ant in 4har<o3: Another
$ar%e +$ant for manufacturin% tan< en%ines #as to 0e transferred from 4har<o3 to
5he$ia0ins< in the *ra$s:
At the same time6 the con3ersion of certain industries #as decided u+on: thus6 the 1or<i
automo0i$e +$ant #as to concentrate on the out+ut of tan< en%ines: These t#o decisions
$aid the foundations for a 3ast Ao$%a,*ra$s com0ine for the mass,+roduction of tan<s:
Simi$ar ste+s #ere ta<en in res+ect of the aircraft industry:
9ith the 1erman threat to the Castern *<raine %ro#in%6 it #as decided to e3acuate
#ithout de$ay such 3ast enter+rises as the Oa+oro>hie stee$ mi$$s (Oa+oro>hsta$): @n
Au%ust 7 orders #ere %i3en to e3acuate the enormous tu0e,ro$$in% mi$$ at
Dnie+ro+etro3s<: The first trains e3acuatin% this +$ant $eft on Au%ust 96 and the ninth
%rou+ of trains $oaded #ith the +$ant's e=ui+ment6 arri3ed at !er3oura$s< in the *ra$s on
Se+tem0er ): By Decem0er &4 it #as in +roduction a%ain:
Many other $ar%e +$ants #ere a$so e3acuated durin% Au%ust: The dismant$in% and $oadin%
of the e=ui+ment #ent on non,sto+ for t#enty,four hours a day6 often under enemy
0om0in%: The si>e of the o+eration may 0e Hud%ed from the fact that in the case of
Oa+oro>hsta$ a$one6 it re=uired J6""" rai$#ay truc<s to e3acuate the entire +$ant and its
stoc<s: Most of the e=ui+ment6 #ei%hin% some -"6""" tons6 #as +ut to #or< in the
Ma%nito%ors< en%ineerin% com0ine:
@n Se+tem0er &16 : !: 4orniets6 of the *<rainian 1o3ernment6 #ho su+er3ised the
e3acuation6 #as a0$e to re+ort to the 1o3ernment that FAt Oa+oro>hie a$$ +$ants ha3e
0een e3acuated: The e3acuation too< +$ace in an or%anised manner6 and #ith +ro+er
camouf$a%e:F .e added that the ra# materia$s #ere no# 0ein% e3acuated: ?n addition to
the $oca$ #or<ers6 many hundreds of miners had 0een 0rou%ht to Oa+oro>hie to he$+ #ith
the dismant$in% of the stee$,mi$$ e=ui+ment:
2ather $ess successfu$ #as the e3acuation of some of the +$ants of the Don0as6 #hich #as
o3errun 0y the 1ermans more =uic<$y than had 0een e8+ected6 and here the scorched,
earth +o$icy #as e8tensi3e$y a++$ied: Simi$ar$y6 the Dnie+er Dam #as at $east +art$y
demo$ished 0y the retreatin% 2ussians: A$$ the same6 it had 0een +ossi0$e to rescue a %reat
dea$: a$to%ether6 &J3 maHor industria$ enter+rises had 0een e3acuated from the *<raine
0et#een Bune and @cto0er6 0esides 13) sma$$er factories:
More difficu$t6 in the chaotic conditions of the first #ee<s of the in3asion6 had 0een the
e3acuation of the industria$ +$ants of Be$o,russia6 a$$ the more so as the rai$#ays #ere
under constant air 0om0ardmentL e3en so6 some 1"" enter+rises (thou%h not com+ara0$e
in im+ortance to those of the *<raine) #ere e3acuated6 chief$y from the eastern +arts of
Be$oirussia (1ome$ and Aite0s<):
The e3acuation of enin%rad +$ants6 and their #or<ers6 0e%an in Bu$y after the 1ermans
had reached the u%a ri3erL 0ut on$y ninety,t#o enter+rises s+ecia$isin% in #ar
+roduction6 and some #or<sho+s of the 4iro3 and ?>hora +$ants #ere e3acuated in timeL
the rest #ere tra++ed in enin%rad after the 1ermans had cut a$$ the rai$#ay $ines:
The $ar%e,sca$e industria$ e3acuation of Mosco# #as not started unti$ @cto0er 1"6 #ith
the 1ermans on$y a fe# mi$es a#ay: But 0y the end of ;o3em0er 49J enter+rises had
0een mo3ed to the east6 to%ether #ith a0out &1"6""" #or<ers: ;o fe#er than 716"""
rai$#ay #a%ons #ere re=uired for this e3acuation: Durin% those %rim #inter months
measures #ere a$so ta<en to e3acuate from Fthreatened areasF $i<e 4urs<6 Aorone>h and
the ;orth,5aucasian +ro3inces6 as much as +ossi0$e of the a3ai$a0$e food reser3es6 as
#e$$ as the e=ui+ment of many $i%ht,industry factories:
This fantastic mi%ration of industries and men to the east #as not com+$eted #ithout
considera0$e difficu$ties: there #ere %i%antic 0ott$enec<s at certain maHor rai$#ay
Hunctions such as 5he$ia0ins<6 and the e3acuees suffered some terri0$e hardshi+s on the
#ay to the *ra$s6 Si0eria and 4a>a<hstan in the $ate autumn and at the hei%ht of #inter:
A$to%ether6 0et#een Bu$y and ;o3em0er 1941 no fe#er than 16-&3 industria$ enter+rises6
inc$udin% 163)" $ar%e #ar +$ants had 0een mo3ed to the eastD&&) to the Ao$%a area6 ))7
to the *ra$s6 &44 to 9estern Si0eria6 7J to Castern Si0eria6 3"J to 4a>a<hstan and
5entra$ Asia: The Fe3acuation car%oesF amounted to a tota$ of one and a ha$f mi$$ion
rai$#ay #a%on,$oads:
This trans+$antation of industry to the east at the hei%ht of the 1erman in3asion in 1941
is6 of course6 an a$to%ether uni=ue achie3ement: But it #ou$d6 at the same time 0e nai3e to
assume that e3erythin% of any industria$ im+ortance #as either e3acuated in time6 or
destroyed on the stren%th of Sta$in's Fscorched,earthF instructions of Bu$y 3:
After the #ar6 the So3iet 1o3ernment officia$$y c$aimed that6 a+art from destroyin% si8
mi$$ion houses6 $ea3in% t#enty,fi3e mi$$ion +eo+$e home$ess6 s$au%hterin% or carryin% off
se3en mi$$ion horses6 se3enteen mi$$ion head of catt$e6 t#enty mi$$ion +i%s6 etc:6 the
1ermans and their a$$ies had a$so Fdestroyed 316J-" industria$ enter+rises6 em+$oyin%
some four mi$$ion +ersons 0efore the #ar6 and had destroyed or carried a#ay &396"""
e$ectro,motors and 17-6""" machine,too$sF:
IMo$oto3's s+eech on 2e+arations on Au%ust &)6 194)6 at the !aris !eace 5onference for
the Sate$$ite countries6 =uoted in 1neshn!a!a Politi*a %oviets*ogo %o!uza, <=JR (So3iet
Forei%n !o$icy 194)) (Mosco#6 1947)6 ++: &9),7:K
C3en a$$o#in% for the fact that6 #ith an eye on re+arations Mo$oto3 =uoted some %reat$y
inf$ated fi%ures for the industria$ e=ui+ment destroyed or $ooted 0y the 1ermans and their
a$$ies6 his statement is6 in fact6 sti$$ an admission that a 3ery im+ortant =uantity of such
e=ui+ment #as $eft 0ehind:
C3erythin% tends to sho# that a 3ery im+ortant +art in this e3acuation of industry and its
Fresett$ementF in the east #as +$ayed 0y Mo$oto36 Beria6 Ma$en<o3 and 4a%ano3ich6 0ut
one #ou$d $oo< in 3ain for any of these names in +resent,day accounts of this %i%antic
achie3ement #hich #as u$timate$y to ena0$e 2ussia to carry on the #ar: ?nstead6 the
names that are no# %i3en +ride of +$ace are Mi<oyan and 4osy%in6 #ho remain amon%
Mr 4hrushche3's c$osest associates6 and Ao>nesens<y6 #ho #as shot6 a++arent$y in the
course of the $urid Fenin%rad AffairF in 1949:
Cs+ecia$$y #hen the Batt$e of Mosco# #as at its hei%ht6 and after the 2ussian counter,
offensi3e had 0e%un6 the 2ussian #or<in%,c$ass #or<ed #ith redou0$ed ener%y in
resett$in% the e3acuated #ar +$ants: .ere #as the com0ination of a %reat feat of
or%anisation #ith an a$most un+ara$$e$$ed e8am+$e of mass de3otion6 for the men and
#omen en%a%ed in re,startin% the e3acuated armaments industry had to #or< at the
hei%ht of #inter6 #ith #orse than inade=uate food and housin%:
?n @cto0er6 many %o3ernment de+artments6 such as the !eo+$e's 5ommissariats of
Aircraft !roduction6 Tan< !roduction6 Armaments6 ?ron and Stee$6 and Munitions #ere
e3acuated from Mosco# to 4ui0yshe3: Ao>nesens<y6 the head of #osplan, #as
instructed to send a #ee<$y re+ort to Mosco# on the +ro%ress of the armaments
industries: Simi$ar$y6 a +art of the apparat of the 5entra$ 5ommittee of the 5!S* had
0een e3acuated to 4ui0yshe3 and F#as authorised to send recommendations and
instructions to the re%iona$ +arty committees of the Ao$%a6 *ra$s6 Si0erian and 5entra$,
Asian +ro3inces concernin% the or%anisation of industries e3acuated to these areas6 and
a$so concernin% a%ricu$tura$ State +urchasesF: S+ecia$ Fe3acuation 0asesF #ere
esta0$ished in industria$ centres such as 1or<i6 4ui0yshe36 5he$ia0ins<6 ;o3osi0irs<6
S3erd$o3s<6 Ma%nito%ors<6 Tash<ent6 etc:
Many e3acuated factories #ere mer%ed #ith $oca$ enter+risesL thus6 a $ar%e tan< +$ant
from the *<raine #as inte%rated #ith a num0er of $oca$ +$ants6 to form a $ar%e com0ine
#hich came to 0e <no#n as the FSta$in *ra$s Tan< 9or<sF6 #hi$e the 5he$ia0ins<
Tractor !$ant6 ha3in% mer%ed #ith the e3acuated 4har<o3 Diese$ 9or<s and +arts of the
enin%rad 4iro3 !$ant came to 0e +o+u$ar$y <no#n as FTan<o%radF:
Some of the Findustria$ %iantsF cou$d not 0e trans+$anted as sin%$e units6 and had to 0e
decentra$ised: thus +art of the Mosco# Ba$i,Bearin% !$ant 0ein% re,sett$ed in Sarato36
another in 4ui0yshe36 and sti$$ another in Toms<: A$$ this created a 3ariety of ne#
or%anisationa$ +ro0$ems:
Durin% the #ar6 ? had the o++ortunity of ta$<in% to many #or<ers6 0oth men and #omen6
#ho had 0een e3acuated to the *ra$s or Si0eria durin% the %rim autumn or ear$y #inter
months of 1941: The story of ho# #ho$e industries and mi$$ions of +eo+$e had 0een
mo3ed to the east6 of ho# industries #ere set u+ in a minimum of time6 in a++a$$in%$y
difficu$t conditions6 and of ho# these industries mana%ed to increase +roduction to an
enormous e8tent durin% 194&6 #as6 a0o3e a$$6 a story of incredi0$e human endurance: ?n
most +$aces6 $i3in% conditions #ere fearfu$6 in many +$aces food #as 3ery short6 too:
!eo+$e #or<ed 0ecause they <ne# that it #as a0so$ute$y necessaryDthey #or<ed t#e$3e6
thirteen6 sometimes fourteen or fifteen hours a dayL they F$i3ed on their ner3esFL they
<ne# that ne3er #as their #or< more ur%ent$y needed than no#: Many died in the
+rocess: A$$ these +eo+$e <ne# #hat $osses #ere 0ein% suffered 0y the so$diers6 and they
Din the Fdistant rearFDdid not %rum0$e muchL #hi$e the so$diers #ere sufferin% and
ris<in% so much6 it #as not for the ci3i$ians to shir< e3en the most cri++$in%6 most
heart0rea<in% #or<: At the hei%ht of the Si0erian #inter6 some +eo+$e had to #a$< to
#or<Dsometimes three6 four6 si8 mi$esL and then #or< for t#e$3e hours or more6 and
then #a$< 0ac< a%ain6 day after day6 month after month:
There #as $itt$e or no e8a%%eration in the stories +u0$ished in the +ressDfor instance the
story of ho#6 on an em+ty s+ace outside S3erd$o3s<6 t#o enormous 0ui$din%s #ere
erected in a fortni%ht for a factory 0ein% 0rou%ht from the *<raine:
A"#$% &'( "#1$&),$- )$5 &'( .,$( 0#+(-&- &'(+( ,- -.+()5 #1& &'( 8()1&,01/ 3).,&)/
#0 &'( U+)/-, S6(+5/#6-;. I& ')- ")$* 0,$( 81,/5,$%-, 81& I 2)$& &# &(// *#1 #0 &'( &2#
"#-& +(")+;)8/( 81,/5,$%- ,$ &'( )+(). W,$&(+ ')5 )/+()5* 3#"( 2'($ S6(+5/#6-;
+(3(,6(5 C#"+)5( S&)/,$<- #+5(+ &# (+(3& &2# 81,/5,$%- 0#+ &'( ./)$& (6)31)&(5 0+#"
&'( -#1&'. T'( &+),$- .)3;(5 2,&' ")3',$(+* )$5 .(#./( 2(+( #$ &'( 2)*. T'( 2)+
0)3&#+* ')5 &# -&)+& .+#513&,#$ ,$ ,&- $(2 '#"(E)$5 ,& ')5 &# 5# -# ,$ $#& "#+(
&')$ ) 0#+&$,%'&. #1+&(($ 5)*-, )$5 $#& )$ '#1+ "#+(H I& 2)- &'($ &')& &'( .(#./(
#0 &'( U+)/- 3)"( &# &',- -.#& 2,&' -'#6(/-, 8)+- )$5 .,3;)B(-: -&15($&-, &*.,-&-,
)33#1$&)$&-, -'#. )--,-&)$&-, '#1-(2,6(-, )+&,-&-, &()3'(+-. T'( ()+&' 2)- /,;( -&#$(,
0+#C($ ')+5 8* #1+ 0,(+3( S,8(+,)$ 0+#-&. AB(- )$5 .,3;)B(- 3#1/5 $#& 8+(); &'(
-&#$* -#,/. I$ &'( /,%'& #0 )+3-/)".- .(#./( ')3;(5 )& &'( ()+&' )// $,%'&. T'(* 8/(2
1. &'( -&#$(- )$5 &'( 0+#C($ ()+&', )$5 &'(* /),5 &'( 0#1$5)&,#$-... T'(,+ 0((& )$5
')$5- 2(+( -2#//($ 2,&' 0+#-&8,&(, 81& &'(* 5,5 $#& /()6( 2#+;. O6(+ &'( 3')+&- )$5
8/1(.+,$&-, /),5 #1& #$ .)3;,$% 3)-(-, &'( 8/,CC)+5 2)- +)%,$%. H1$5+(5- #0 &+13;-
;(.& +#//,$% 1. 2,&' 81,/5,$% ")&(+,)/-... O$ &'( &2(/0&' 5)*, ,$&# &'( $(2 81,/5,$%-
2,&' &'(,+ %/)-- +##0-, &'( ")3',$(+*, 3#6(+(5 2,&' '#)+-0+#-&, 8(%)$ &# )++,6(.
B+)C,(+- 2(+( ;(.& )/,%'& &# 1$0+((C( &'( ")3',$(-... A$5 &2# 5)*- /)&(+, &'( 2)+
0)3&#+* 8(%)$ .+#513&,#$.
IPravda, Se+tem0er 1J6 194&:K
At the time6 ho#e3er6 the +ress scarce$y e3er referred to the s+ecia$ difficu$ties arisin%
from #ar,time shorta%es: For e8am+$e6 a 1o3ernment ?nstruction of Se+tem0er 116 19416
$aid do#n that stee$ and reinforced concrete #ere to 0e used 3ery s+arin%$y6 Fand on$y in
cases #hen the use of other $oca$ materia$s6 such as tim0er6 #as technica$$y #ho$$y out of
the =uestionF: So6 es+ecia$$y in 19416 many of the factory 0ui$din%s #ere made of #ood:
T'(-( 81,/5,$%- 2(+( )+3',&(3&1+)//* 5,-./()-,$%, )$5 #0&($ )/&#%(&'(+ .1$* &# /##;
)&? 81&... 1-1)//* (6($ /)+%( 0)3&#+* 81,/5,$%- 2(+( (+(3&(5 ,$ ) ")&&(+ #0 0,0&(($ &#
&2($&* 5)*-... P(#./( 2#+;(5 5)* )$5 $,%'&E&'( -3($( #0 &'(,+ 2#+; 8(,$% /,& 8* )+3
/)".- #+ 8* (/(3&+,3 81/8- -1-.($5(5 #$ &+((-... I$ #$( #0 &'( A#/%) 3,&,(- &'( $(2
81,/5,$%- #0 &'( /)+%(-& ),+3+)0& 0)3&#+* ,$ &'( 3#1$&+* 2(+( 8(,$% 81,/& ,$ &',- 2)*...
E6($ 8(0#+( &'( +##0 ')5 8(($ 3#"./(&(5, &'( ")3',$(-&##/- 2(+( )/+()5*
01$3&,#$,$%. E6($ 2'($ &'( &'(+"#"(&(+ 2($& 5#2$ &# 0#+&* 5(%+((- 8(/#2, .(#./(
3#$&,$1(5 &# 2#+;. O$ D(3("8(+ 1L, 0#1+&(($ 5)*- )0&(+ &'( )++,6)/ #0 &'( /)-& &+),$-
/#)5- #0 (91,."($&, &'( 0,+-& M,% 0,%'&(+-./)$( 2)- .+#513(5. B* &'( ($5 #0 &'(
"#$&', &',+&* M,% ./)$(- 2(+( &1+$(5 #1&... S,",/)+/*, &'( /)-& /#& #0 2#+;(+- #0 &'(
K')+;#6 T)$; W#+;- /(0& K')+;#6 #$ O3&#8(+ 19? 81& )/+()5* #$ D(3("8(+ N, ,$
&'(,+ $(2 U+)/- -1++#1$5,$%-, &'(* 2(+( )8/( &# )--("8/( &'(,+ 0,+-& &2($&*-0,6( T-
@4 &)$;-, 2',3' 2(+( .+#".&/* -($& &# &'( 0+#$&.
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 +: 1-1:K
Thou%h a 3ery hi%h +ro+ortion of So3iet hea3y industry6 and es+ecia$$y #ar industry6 #as
successfu$$y mo3ed to the east #ithin four or fi3e months6 there #as an ine3ita0$e dro+ in
+roduction in the meantime: There #as6 in fact6 a %a+ of near$y a yearDrou%h$y from
Au%ust 1941 to Au%ust 194& #hen the 2ed Army #as e8treme$y short of e=ui+ment6 and
this shorta%e #as 3ery near$y disastrous 0et#een @cto0er 1941 and the fo$$o#in% s+rin%:
?t #as6 as #e sha$$ see6 one of the +rinci+a$ reasons #hy the Batt$e of Mosco# #as on$y a
+artia$6 and not a com+$ete 3ictory: ?t a$so $ar%e$y accounts for the 2ussians' %rie3ous
re3erses of the fo$$o#in% summer:
C3en so6 the increase in armament +roduction immediate$y after the in3asion #as 3ery
considera0$e: ?n the #ho$e of 1941 the aircraft industry +roduced a tota$ of near$y 1)6"""
+$anes of a$$ ty+es6 of #hich more than 1"6""" #ere +roduced after the in3asion6 0ut
most$y 0et#een Bu$y and @cto0er: The fi%ures for the +roduction of tan<s and other
#ea+ons #ere e=ua$$y stri<in%6 and the +roduction of munitions of a$$ <inds in the second
ha$f of 1941 #as a$most three times #hat it had 0een in the first: The tra%edy of it #as
that6 0y @cto0er6 a$$ this +ro%ress came 3irtua$$y to a standsti$$:
The difficu$ties facin% the So3iet armaments industry in the east #ere enormous: ;ot a$$
the #or<ers of the e3acuated +$ants cou$d 0e transferred at the same time as the
machineryL in many cases6 for a 3ariety of reasons6 on$y forty or fifty +er cent of the
#or<ers fo$$o#ed: There #as a$so at first a 3ery serious shorta%e of certain ra# materia$s:
.i%h,%rade stee$s for armour,+$atin%6 had6 in the main6 0een +roduced in the Castern
*<raineL this meant a fundamenta$ recon3ersion of the 3arious +roduction +rocesses in
the east: This recon3ersion resu$ted in a tem+orary $o#erin% of the out+ut of the 0$ast and
o+en,hearth furnaces: There #as an e8treme shorta%e of mo$y0denum and man%anese: A
hi%h +ro+ortion of the man%anese had 0een +roduced in the ;i<o+o$ area6 #hich #as no#
under 1erman occu+ation: ;e# man%anese minin% areas had to 0e o+ened u+ in the
*ra$s and 4a>a<hstan6 #here conditions of terrain and c$imate +resented incredi0$e
difficu$ties: The ;i<o+o$ miners6 #ho had 0rou%ht to the east their minin% e=ui+ment6
started +roducin% man%anese ore6 #ith the he$+ of $oca$$y conscri+ted $a0our6 in a remote
+art of S3erd$o3s< +ro3ince6 #here man%anese minin% had 0een on$y tentati3e$y 0e%un
short$y 0efore the #ar: The %radua$ or%anisation of the $ar%e,sca$e sme$tin% of
ferroman%anese at the 4ush3is< +$ant6 in the 4u>0as and at Ma%nito%ors< #as $ater
descri0ed as Fa stu+endous industria$ 3ictory e=ua$ in im+ortance to a maHor mi$itary
3ictoryF: ;o more remar<a0$e as a fact of human endurance #as the de3e$o+ment of
mo$y0denum mines in the #ater$ess ste++e near a<e Ba$<hash in 5entra$ Asia:
9hen the 1ermans had o3errun the Don0as6 the So3iet *nion $ost o3er si8ty +er cent of
her coa$ out+ut6 and the +roduction of coa$ had to 0e ste++ed u+ in the *ra$s6 the 4u>0as
and 4ara%anda areasL in Decem0er 1941 it #as decided to sin< forty,four ne# mines
#ithin the ne8t three months: Des+erate efforts #ere a$so made to increase the out+ut of
a$uminium6 nic<e$6 co0a$t6 >inc6 oi$6 chemica$s6 etc:6 in the east:
The critica$ situation is 0est summarised in the second 3o$ume of the officia$ Histor!:
I$ &'( /)&( )1&1"$ #0 1941 #1+ 3#1$&+* /,6(5 &'+#1%' ,&- "#-& 5,00,31/& 5)*-, 8#&'
",/,&)+,/* )$5 (3#$#",3)//*. T'( 0+#$& +(91,+(5 "#+( )$5 "#+( )+")"($&- )$5
"1$,&,#$-, 81& #2,$% &# &'( (6)31)&,#$ #0 -# ")$* ./)$&-, &'( $1"8(+ #0 0)3&#+,(-
.+#513,$% 2)+ (91,."($& ')5 -')+./* 0)//($... B* &'( ($5 #0 O3&#8(+, $#& ) -,$%/(
./)$& ,$ &'( -#1&' 2)- 2#+;,$%. O0 &'( 8/)-& 01+$)3(- ,$ #.(+)&,#$ #$ J1$( 1, #$/*
&',+&*-(,%'& .(+ 3($& 2(+( $#2 2#+;,$%? #0 &'( #.($-'()+&' 01+$)3(-, #$/* 0,0&*-&2#
.(+ 3($&? #0 &'( (/(3&+,3--&((/--"(/&,$% 01+$)3(-, &',+&*-(,%'& .(+ 3($&, #0 &'( +#//,$%-
",//-, 0,0&*-&2# .(+ 3($&. C#".)+(5 2,&' J1$( 1941, 2( 2(+( .+#513,$% 8* &'( ($5
#0 O3&#8(+ 1941, &',+&*-&'+(( .(+ 3($& #0 .,%-,+#$, 0#+&*-&2# .(+ 3($& #0 -&((/, 0#+&*-
&2# .(+ 3($& #0 +#//(5-,+#$. B* D(3("8(+, &'( #1&.1& #0 -&((/ ')5 5+#..(5 8* &2#-
&',+5-. W( ')5 /#-& )// &'( 3#)/ ",$(- #0 &'( D#$8)- )$5 #0 &'( M#-3#2 B)-,$? +#//(5
$#$-0(++#1- "(&)/- 2(+( 5#2$ &# .+)3&,3)//* $#&',$%, )$5 &'( &#&)/ ,$51-&+,)/ #1&.1&
')5 5+#..(5 -,$3( J1$( 8* #6(+ 0,0&* .(+ 3($&.
I& 2)- &'( /#2(-& .#,$& +()3'(5 &'+#1%'#1& &'( 2)+.
T'( ",%+)&,#$ #0 &'( ),+3+)0& ,$51-&+* ')5 ) 5,-)-&+#1- (00(3& #$ &'( #1&.1& #0
./)$(-. T',- 5+#..(5 ,$ N#6("8(+ &# )8#1& &',+&* .(+ 3($& #0 ,&- S(.&("8(+ #1&.1&?
&'(+( 2)- $# "()$- #0 +(./)3,$% &'( '()6* /#--(- -100(+(5 8* #1+ ),+ 0#+3( ,$ &'(
8)&&/(- #0 M#-3#2, L($,$%+)5, (&3. O$/* 8* 3#$3($&+)&,$% )// ),+3+)0& +(-(+6(- #$ &'(
"#-& 5(3,-,6( -(3&#+- #0 &'( 0+#$& 3#1/5 &'( S#6,(& ),+ 0#+3( 3)++* #$ )& )// ,$ &'(
2,$&(+ 0,%'&,$% #0 1941-M.
O2,$% &# (6)31)&,#$, &'(+( 2)- )/-# ) '()6* 5+#. ,$ &'( #1&.1& #0 &)$;- 51+,$% &'(
/)&( )1&1"$ )$5 2,$&(+ "#$&'-, )$5 &'( -)"( )../,(5 &# &'( .+#513&,#$ #0 %1$- )$5
"1$,&,#$-.
N#+ 2)- &'( 3#$6(+-,#$ #0 .()3( .+#513&,#$ &# 2)+ .+#513&,#$ ()-*: #1& #0 &'(
&',+&* )%+,31/&1+)/ ")3',$(+* ./)$&- ()+")+;(5 0#+ -13' 3#$6(+-,#$, #$/* $,$( ')5
&'( $(3(--)+* (91,."($& 0#+ 5#,$% -#.
I$ &'( "1$,&,#$- ,$51-&+* &'(+( 2)- ) -(+,#1- -'#+&)%( #0 0(++#)//#*-, $,3;(/, )$5
$#$-0(++#1- "(&)/-. T'(+( 2(+( )/-# 5(-.(+)&( -'#+&)%(- #0 )/1",$,1", 3#..(+ )$5
&,$. T'( /#-- #0 &'( D#$8)- 2,&' ,&- ',%'/*-5(6(/#.(5 3'(",3)/ ,$51-&+,(-, )$5 &'(
(6)31)&,#$ #0 &'( 3'(",3)/ ,$51-&+,(- #0 M#-3#2 )$5 L($,$%+)5, +(-1/&(5 ,$ ) -')+.
5+#. ,$ &'( #1&.1& #0 (B./#-,6(-. O1& #0 &'( &2($&*--,B 3'(",3)/ ./)$&- (6)31)&(5 &#
&'( ()-& #$/* (,%'& ')5 +()3'(5 &'(,+ 5(-&,$)&,#$ 8* &'( 8(%,$$,$% #0 D(3("8(+, )$5
#$/* 0#1+ #0 &'(-( ')5 -&)+&(5 .+#513&,#$.
B(&2(($ A1%1-& )$5 N#6("8(+ 1941, @L@ "1$,&,#$- ./)$&- 2(+( #1& #0 )3&,#$? &'(-(
1-(5 &# .+#513( (6(+* "#$&' ")$* ",//,#$- #0 -'(//-, ),+ 8#"8-, -'(//-3)-(-,
5(&#$)&,$% 01-(-, ')$5-%+($)5(- )$5 -#"( M5,LLL &#$- #0 (B./#-,6(-.
T'(+( 2)- ) %+#2,$% 5,-.+#.#+&,#$ 8(&2(($ &'( $1"8(+ #0 %1$- .+#513(5 )$5 &'(
)"#1$& #0 )""1$,&,#$ )6),/)8/( 0#+ ()3' %1$. I$ &'( -(3#$5 ')/0 #0 1941 &'( 0+#$&
2)- 3',(0/* 1-,$% &'( )""1$,&,#$ +(-(+6(- )331"1/)&(5 ,$ .()3(-&,"(. B1& )0&(+ -,B
"#$&'-, &'(-( +(-(+6(- 2(+( .+)3&,3)//* 5#2$ &# C(+#, 2',/( 31++($& .+#513&,#$ 2)-
01/0,//,$% &'( )+"*<- $((5- #$/* 1. &# 0,0&* #+ -,B&* .(+ 3($&...
A+art from these hea3y $osses6 So3iet industry a$so suffered from a serious shorta%e of
man+o#er: The annua$ a3era%e of #or<ers and em+$oyees in the nationa$ economy had
dro++ed from 31:& mi$$ion in 194" to &7:3 mi$$ion in 1941L in ;o3em0er this fi%ure had
dro++ed to 19:J mi$$ion: Some had 0een $eft 0ehind in the occu+ied areasL others #ere
sti$$ on their #ay to the east: But on ;o3em0er 96 #hi$e the 1ermans #ere sti$$
+ro+hesyin% the imminent fa$$ of Mosco#6 the State Defence 5ommittee $aid do#n
+recise +$ans for the s+eedin% u+ of +roduction in the east6 and6 in +articu$ar6 it sti+u$ated
that6 in 194&6 &&6""" +$anes and &&6""" to &-6""" hea3y and medium tan<s 0e +roduced:
Bust as 2ussia #as 0ecomin% industria$$y more and more de+endent on the east6 0y the
end of 1941 she had 0ecome a$most e=ua$$y de+endent on the east for food:
The #ar had serious$y $o#ered the efficiency of a%ricu$ture: Most of the men in the
3i$$a%es had 0een ca$$ed u+6 inc$udin% the tractor dri3ers #ho had 0een ca$$ed u+ to dri3e
tan<s: Many of the horses6 automo0i$es and tractors had 0een re=uisitioned for the Army:
!ractica$$y a$$ the a%ricu$tura$ #or< in 2ussia durin% the #ar #as done 0y #omen and
ado$escents: ?n many *ol*hozes the +$ou%hin% #as reduced to the most e$ementary forms6
#hi$e at har3est,time the +o+u$ation of the #ho$e nei%h0ourhood6 inc$udin% to#n,
d#e$$ers6 #as mo0i$ised to he$+: .orses #ere used #hen they #ere sti$$ a3ai$a0$e6 and
#hen there #ere sti$$ tractors6 they #ere usua$$y fitted #ith %as %enerators6 0ecause of the
oi$ shorta%e:
The territoria$ $osses suffered in 1941 had an a$most catastro+hic effect on 2ussian food
su++$ies: Before the #ar6 the territory o3errun 0y the 1ermans 0y ;o3em0er 1941 had
+roduced thirty,ei%ht +er cent of the cerea$s6 ei%hty,four +er cent of the su%ar6 and
contained thirty,ei%ht +er cent of the catt$e and si8ty +er cent of the +i%s: By Banuary 16
194&6 the num0er of co#s in the So3iet *nion (not countin% those in the occu+ied areas)
had dro++ed from &7:J mi$$ion to 1- mi$$ion and the num0er of +i%s had dro++ed 0y o3er
si8ty +er cent:
The Ao$%a country6 the *ra$s6 9estern Si0eria and 4a>a<hstan #ere to 0ecome the
So3iet *nion's Ffood 0aseF for the %reater +art of the #ar: The areas under cu$ti3ation
#ere %reat$y e8tended6 and cro+s #hich had not 0een %ro#n in these +arts 0efore6 $i<e
su%ar,0eet and sunf$o#er6 #ere introduced: 9ith the $oss of the Don and 4u0an country
in the summer of 194&6 the de+endence on the Feastern food 0aseF #as to 0ecome e3en
%reater:
C').&(+ X BATTLE O MOSCOW BE!INSE THE OCTOBER
16 PANIC
?n his statement to us at Aia>ma in the midd$e of Se+tem0er6 1enera$ So<o$o3s<y had
made three im+ortant +oints: first6 that des+ite terri0$e set0ac<s the 2ed Army #as
%radua$$y F%rindin% do#nF the 9ehrmachtL second$y that it #as 3ery $i<e$y that the
1ermans #ou$d ma<e one $ast des+erate attem+t6 or e3en Fse3era$ $ast des+erate
attem+tsF to ca+ture Mosco#6 0ut they #ou$d fai$ in thisL and6 third$y6 that the 2ed Army
#as #e$$,c$othed for a #inter cam+ai%n:
The im+ression that the 2ussians #ere ra+id$y $earnin% a$$ <inds of $essons6 #ere
dismissin% as use$ess some of the +re,#ar theories6 #hich #ere #ho$$y ina++$ica0$e to
+re3ai$in% conditions6 and that +rofessiona$ so$diers of the hi%hest order #ere ta<in% o3er
the command from the Army F+o$iticiansF and the Fci3i$ #ar $e%endsF $i<e Budienny and
Aoroshi$o3 #as to 0e confirmed in the ne8t fe# #ee<s: Some 0ri$$iant so$diers had
sur3i3ed the Army !ur%es of 1937,J6 nota0$y Ohu<o3 and Sha+oshni<o36 and had
continued at their +osts durin% the #orst time of the 1erman in3asionL Ohu<o3 had
$itera$$y sa3ed enin%rad in the nic< of time 0y ta<in% o3er from Aoroshi$o3 #hen a$$
seemed $ost: A+art from him and Sha+oshni<o36 Timo,shen<oDa first,c$ass staff officer
#ho had started his career in the Tsar's armyD#as a$most the on$y one of the +re,#ar to+
0rass to +ro3e a man of a0i$ity and ima%ination:
The first months of the #ar had 0een a schoo$ of the %reatest 3a$ue to the officers of the
2ed Army6 and it #as a0o3e a$$ those #ho had distin%uished themse$3es in the o+erations
of Bune to @cto0er 1941 #ho #ere to form that 0ri$$iant plAiade of %enera$s and marsha$s
the $i<e of #hom had not 0een seen since ;a+o$eon's #rande /rmAe5 ?n the course of the
summer and autumn im+ortant chan%es had 0een made in the or%anisation of the air force
0y 1enera$ ;o3i<o36 and in the use of arti$$ery 0y 1enera$ Aorono3L 0oth Ohu<o3 and
4one3 had +$ayed a $eadin% ro$e in ho$din% u+ the 1ermans at Smo$ens<L 2o<osso3s<y6
Aatutin6 5hernia<ho3s<y6 2otmistro36 Bo$din6 Ma$ino3s<y6 Fedyunins<y6 1o3oro36
Merets<o36 (eremen<o6 Be$o36 e$ushen<o6 Ba%ramian and numerous other men6 #ho
#ere to 0ecome famous durin% the Batt$e of Mosco# or in other im+ortant 0att$es in
19416 #ere men #ho had6 as it #ere6 #on their s+urs in the hea3y fi%htin% durin% the first
months of the #ar: Distinction in the fie$d no# 0ecame Sta$in's criterion in ma<in% to+
army a++ointments: ?t is6 indeed6 +erfect$y true that Fthe summer and autumn 0att$es had
0rou%ht on a mi$itary +ur%e6 as o++osed to a +o$itica$ +ur%e of the mi$itary: There #as a
%ro#in% rest$essness #ith the incom+etent and the ine+t: The %reat and si%na$ stren%th of
the So3iet .i%h 5ommand #as that it #as a0$e to +roduce that minimum of hi%h ca$i0re
commanders ca+a0$e of steerin% the 2ed Army out of tota$ disasterF:
ICric<son6 o+: cit:6 +: )&4:K
*ndou0ted$y some of the commanders had on$y a +ure$y nomina$ !arty affi$iation6 and
some of the ne# men6 such as 2o<osso3s<y6 had actua$$y 0een 3ictims of the Army
!ur%es of 1937,J6 and so cou$d not ha3e had any tender fee$in%s for Sta$in:
The %tav*a, the 1enera$ .ead=uarters of the So3iet .i%h 5ommand #as set u+ on Bune
&36 and a fe# days $ater the State Defence 5ommittee (14@)6 consistin% of Sta$in6
Mo$oto36 Aoro,shi$o36 Ma$en<o3 and BeriaL on Bu$y 1" the "%tav*a of the .i%h
5ommandF 0ecame the "%tav*a of the Su+reme 5ommandF6 #ith Sta$in6 Mo$oto36
Aoroshi$o36 Budienny6 Sha+oshni<o3 and 1enera$ Ohu<o36 the 5hief of Staff6 as
mem0ers: @n Bu$y 19 Sta$in 0ecame Defence 5ommissar and on Au%ust 7 5ommander,
in,5hief:
The 5ommissar system #as %reat$y reinforcedL the commissars6 as Fre+resentati3es of the
!arty and the %o3ernment in the 2ed ArmyF #ere to #atch o3er the officers' and so$diers'
mora$e6 and share #ith the commander fu$$ res+onsi0i$ity for the unit's conduct in 0att$e:
They #ere a$so to re+ort to the Su+reme 5ommand any cases of Fun#orthinessF amon%st
either officers or +o$itica$ +ersonne$: This #as a han%o3er from the ci3i$ #ar6 and6 indeed6
from the much more recent +eriod #hen the officer cor+s #as sus+ected of unre$ia0i$ity:
?n +ractice6 in 19416 the commissars +ro3ed6 in the %reat maHority of cases6 to 0e either
men #ho a$most fu$$y su++orted the officers6 or #ere6 at most6 a minor technica$
nuisanceL 0ut ins+ired 0y the same lutte , outrance s+irit6 and6 faced dai$y 0y +ressin%
mi$itary tas<s6 the o$d +o$itica$ and +ersona$ differences 0et#een officer and commissar
#ere no# usua$$y $ess harsh than in the +ast: C3en so6 the dua$ command had its
dra#0ac<s6 and6 at the time of Sta$in%rad6 the commissars' ro$e #as to 0e drastica$$y
modified:
9hether or not there #as any serious need for %i3in% the officer a F!arty #hi+F6 there
#as certain$y e3en $ess need for the ;4AD's Frear security unitsF to chec< +anic throu%h
the use of machine,%unners ready to <ee+ the 2ed Army from any unauthorised
#ithdra#a$s: F9hat initia$ fears there mi%ht ha3e 0een that the troo+s #ou$d not fi%ht
#ere soon dis+e$$ed 0y the stu00orn and 0itter defence #hich the 2ed Army +ut u+
a%ainst the 1ermans6 fi%htin%6 as .aider o0ser3ed6 'to the $ast man'6 and em+$oyin%
'treacherous methods' in #hich the 2ussian did not cease firin% unti$ he #as deadF:
ICric<son6 o+:,cit:6 +: -9J:K
These Frear security unitsF #ere a re3i3a$ of a +ractice inherited from the 5i3i$ 9ar6 and
+ro3ed #ho$$y unnecessary in 19416 the Army itse$f dea$in% ri%orous$y #ith any cases of
co#ardice and +anic:
The ro$e of the ;4AD in actua$ mi$itary o+erations remains rather o0scure6 thou%h it is
<no#n that6 a+art from the Frontier 1uards6 #ho #ere under ;4AD Hurisdiction6 and
#ho #ere the first to meet the 1erman ons$au%ht6 there #ere to 0e some 3ery im+ortant
occasions in #hich ;4AD troo+s fou%ht as 0att$e unitsDfor e8am+$e at Aorone>h in
Bune,Bu$y 194&6 #here they he$+ed to +re3ent a +articu$ar$y dan%erous 1erman
0rea<throu%h: But there #as a much %rimmer side to the ;4AD's connection #ith the
2ed ArmyL thus6 not on$y 2ussian +risoners #ho had mana%ed to esca+e from the
1ermans6 0ut e3en #ho$e Army units #hoDas so often ha++ened in 1941Dhad 0ro<en
out of 1erman encirc$ement6 #ere su0Hected as sus+ects to the most harsh and +etty
interro%ation 0y the @:@: 6Hso4! HtdelSS+ecia$ De+artment) run 0y the ;4AD: ?n
Simono3's no3e$6 The (iving and the Dead, there is a +articu$ar$y sic<enin% e+isode 0ased
on actua$ fact6 in #hich a $ar%e num0er of officers and so$diers 0rea< out of a 1erman
encirc$ement after many #ee<s' fi%htin%: They are +rom+t$y disarmed 0y the ;4ADL 0ut
it so ha++ens that at that 3ery moment the 1ermans ha3e started their offensi3e a%ainst
Mosco#6 and as the disarmed men are 0ein% ta<en to a ;4AD sortin% station6 they are
tra++ed 0y the 1ermans6 and sim+$y massacred6 una0$e to offer any resistance:
A+art from that6 ho#e3er6 the ;4AD interfered $ess than 0efore #ith the 2ed Army IThis
is not to say that the Army #as $eft strict$y to itse$f: @fficers #ere sti$$ su0Hected to
;4AD sur3ei$$ance:KL the 0order,$ine 0et#een the mi$itary and the F+o$itica$F e$ements in
the Army #as 3anishin%6 and Sta$in himse$f +resided o3er this de3e$o+ment: 9hate3er he
had done in the +ast to #ea<en the army 0y his +ur%es and his constant +o$itica$
interference6 he had $earned his $esson from the summer and autumn of 1941: Aoroshi$o3
and Budienny #ere +ushed into the 0ac<%round and the ro$e of the ;4AD 0osses %reat$y
reduced: The +atriotic6 nationa$ist and F1J1&F $ine #as #ho$ehearted$y ta<en u+ 0y a$$
ran<s of the army: A$$ the mi$itary ta$entDdisco3ered and tested in the first 0att$es of the
#ar and6 in some cases6 0efore that in the Far CastD#as assem0$ed6 a$$ a3ai$a0$e reser3es
#ere thro#n into 0att$e6 inc$udin% some crac< di3isions from 5entra$ Asia and the Far
Cast6 a measure made +ossi0$e 0y the ;on,A%%ression !act conc$uded #ith the Ba+anese
in 1939:
9hate3er 0ad memories and reser3ations the %enera$s may ha3e had6 Sta$in had 0ecome
the indis+ensa0$e unifyin% factor in the patrie-en-danger atmos+here of @cto0er,
;o3em0er 1941: There #as no a$ternati3e: The 1ermans #ere on the outs<irts of
enin%rad6 #ere +ushin% throu%h the Don0as on their #ay to 2osto36 and on Se+tem0er
3" the Ffina$F offensi3e a%ainst Mosco# had started:
The Batt$e of Mosco# fa$$s6 0road$y6 into three +hases: the first 1erman offensi3e from
Se+tem0er 3" to near$y the end of @cto0erL the second 1erman offensi3e from ;o3em0er
17 ri%ht u+ to Decem0er -L and the 2ussian counter,offensi3e of Decem0er )6 #hich
$asted ti$$ s+rin% 194&:
@n Se+tem0er 3" 1uderian's +an>er units on the southern f$an< of Heeresgruppe -itte
(Army 1rou+ 5entre) thrust a%ainst 1$u<ho3 and @re$6 #hich fe$$ on @cto0er & IThe
sur+rise #as com+$ete: The trams #ere sti$$ runnin% at @re$ #hen the 1erman tan<s 0ro<e
in:K6 0ut #ere then he$d u+ 0y a tan< %rou+ under 5o$one$ 4atyu<o3 0eyond Mtsens<6 on
the road to Tu$a: @ther 1erman forces $aunched fu$$ sca$e attac<s from the south,#est in
the Bryans< area and from the #est on the Smo$ens<,Mosco# road: ar%e So3iet troo+
concentrations #ere encirc$ed south of Bryans< and in the Aia>ma area due #est of
Mosco#: The 1ermans had +$anned to contain So3iet troo+s surrounded in the Aia>ma
area main$y 0y infantry6 thus freein% their +an>er and motorised di3isions for a $i%htnin%
ad3ance on Mosco#: But for more than a #ee<6 fi%htin% a circu$ar 0att$e of e8treme
ferocity6 the remnants of the 19th6 &"th6 &4th and 3&nd Armies and the troo+s under
1enera$ Bo$din tied u+ most of the 1erman 4th Army and of the 4th Tan< 5or+s: This
resistance ena0$ed the So3iet Su+reme 5ommand to e8tricate and #ithdra# more of their
front $ine troo+s from the encirc$ement to the Mo>hais< $ine and to 0rin% u+ reser3es
from the rear:
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 +: &4-: As usua$ in such matters6 there are considera0$e discre+ancies
0et#een 1erman and 2ussian6 and e3en 0et#een 2ussian accounts of the Aia>ma
encirc$ement: The 1erman c$aim6 re+eated 0y Ti++e$s<irch6 that Fthe 2ussians $ost in the
Aia>ma area si8ty,se3en infantry6 si8 ca3a$ry and se3en tan< di3isions6 tota$$in% ))36"""
+risoners6 as #e$$ as 16&4& tan<s and -641& %unsF6 is dismissed 0y some 2ussians as Fa
+iece of 1erman day,dreamin%6 or a de$i0erate dece+tion ca$cu$ated to e8tract decorations
and +romotions from the FRhrer: ?n rea$ity ten So3iet di3isions (ei%ht infantry6 one
motorised and one ca3a$ry) #ere fi%htin% a%ainst thirty or thirty,t#o 1erman di3isions:
Moreo3er6 these (encirc$ed) 2ussian di3isions6 serious$y #ea<ened 0y ear$ier fi%htin%6
tied u+ thirty or thirty,t#o 1erman di3isions #est of Aia>ma for a #ee< (from @cto0er )
to 13):F 3arodno!e opolcheni!e -os*v! (Mosco# .ome 1uard)6 (Mosco#6 19)1)6 ++:
141,&:
The officia$ Histor!, #hi$e not acce+tin% inf$ated 1erman c$aims6 su%%ests that a far
%reater num0er of troo+s #ere encirc$ed at Aia>ma:
?t is a$so certain from numerous 2ussian 0rea<,out accounts that the num0er of 2ussian
dead must ha3e 0een enormous (cf: 3arodno!e opolcheni!e -os*v!, ?: A: Bo$din6 o+:
cit:6 and others): ?t is +erha+s si%nificant that6 #hi$e c$aimin% -"6""" +risoners in the
Brians< encirc$ement in @cto0er 19416 1uderian shou$d6 #hen referrin% to the Aia>ma
encirc$ement6 mention no fi%ure at a$$ for +risoners ta<en there: May0e his fi%ures
disa%reed #ith the officia$ ones:K
By @cto0er ) 1erman tan< units had 0ro<en throu%h the 2>he3,Aia>ma defence $ine and
#ere ad3ancin% to#ards the Mo>hais< $ine of fortified +ositions some fifty mi$es #est of
Mosco#6 #hich had 0een im+ro3ised and +re+ared durin% the summer of 19416 and ran
from 4a$inin (north,#est of Mosco# on the Mosco#,enin%rad 2ai$#ay $ine)6 to 4a$u%a
(south,#est of Mosco# and ha$f,#ay 0et#een Tu$a and Aia>ma)6 Ma$oyaros$a3ets and
Tu$a: The fe# troo+s mannin% these defences cou$d ha$t the ad3ance units of the
Heeresgruppe -itte, 0ut not the 0u$< of the 1erman forces:
9hi$e reinforcements from the Far Cast and 5entra$ Asia #ere on their #ay to the
Mosco# Front6 the 14@ .ead=uarters thre# in #hat reser3es they cou$d muster: The
infantry of 1enera$s Artemie3 and e$ushen<o and the tan<s of 1enera$ 4ur<in #hich
fou%ht here #ere6 0y @cto0er 96 +$aced under the direct orders of the So3iet Su+reme
5ommand: @n the fo$$o#in% day Ohu<o3 #as a++ointed 5: in 5: of the #ho$e front:
But the 1ermans 0y+assed the Mo>hais< $ine from the south and ca+tured 4a$u%a on
@cto0er 1&: T#o days $ater6 outf$an<in% the Mo>hais< $ine in the north6 they 0ro<e into
4a$inin: After hea3y fi%htin% Mo>hais< itse$f #as a0andoned on @cto0er 1J: A$ready on
the 14th fierce 0att$es #ere ra%in% in the Ao$o<o$ams< sector6 mid#ay 0et#een Mo>hais<
and 4a$inin6 some fifty mi$es north,#est of Mosco#:
The situation #as e8treme$y serious: There #as no continuous front any more: The
1erman air force #as master of the s<y: 1erman tan< units6 +enetratin% dee+ into the
rear6 #ere forcin% the 2ed Army units to retreat to ne# +ositions to a3oid encirc$ement:
To%ether #ith the army6 thousands of So3iet ci3i$ians #ere mo3in% east: !eo+$e on foot6
or in horse carts6 catt$e6 cars6 #ere mo3in% east in a continuous stream a$on% a$$ the roads6
ma<in% troo+ mo3ements e3en more difficu$t:
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 +: &44:K
Des+ite stiff resistance e3ery#here6 the 1ermans #ere c$osin% in on Mosco# from a$$
directions: ?t #as t#o days after the fa$$ of 4a$inin6 and #hen the threat of a 0rea<throu%h
from Ao$o<o$ams< to ?stra and Mosco# $oo<ed a near,certainty6 that the FMosco# +anicF
reached its hei%ht: This #as on @cto0er 1): To this day the story is current that6 on that
mornin%6 t#o 1erman tan<s 0ro<e into 4him<i6 a northern su0ur0 of Mosco#6 #here
they #ere +rom+t$y destroyedL that t#o such tan<s e3er e8isted6 e8ce+t in some
fri%htened Musco3ite's ima%ination6 is not confirmed 0y any serious source:
9hat ha++ened in Mosco# on @cto0er 1)E Many ha3e s+o<en of the 0i% s<edadd$e
64olshoi drap7 that too< +$ace that day: A$thou%h6 as #e sha$$ see6 this is an o3er,
%enera$isation6 @cto0er 1) in Mosco# #as certain$y not a ta$e of the Funanimous heroism
of the +eo+$e of Mosco#F as recorded in the officia$ Histor!5
?t too< the Mosco# +o+u$ation se3era$ days to rea$ise ho# serious the ne# 1erman
offensi3e #as: Durin% the $ast days of Se+tem0er and6 indeed6 for the first fe# days of
@cto0er6 a$$ attention #as centred on the 0i% 1erman offensi3e in the *<raine6 the ne#s
of the 0rea<throu%h into the 5rimea6 and the Bea3er0roo< 3isit6 #hich had 0e%un on
Se+tem0er &9: At his +ress conference on Se+tem0er &J o>o3s<y had tried to sound
3ery reassurin%6 sayin% that the 1ermans #ere $osin% Fmany tens of thousands deadF
outside enin%rad6 0ut that no matter ho# many more they $ost6 they sti$$ #ou$dn't %et
into enin%radL he a$so said that Fcommunications continued to 0e maintainedF6 and that6
a$thou%h there #as rationin% in the city6 there #as no food shorta%e: .e a$so said that
there #as hea3y fi%htin% Ffor the 5rimeaF6 0ut denied that the 1ermans had as yet
crossed the !ere<o+ ?sthmus: As for the 1erman c$aim of ha3in% ca+tured -""6""" or
)""6""" +risoners in the *<raine6 after the $oss of 4ie36 he #as much more ca%ey6 sayin%
that the 0att$e #as continuin%6 and that it #as not in the 2ussian's interest to %i3e out
information +remature$y: .o#e3er6 he added the some#hat sinister +hrase: FThe farther
east the 1ermans +ush6 the nearer #i$$ they %et to the %ra3e of ;a>i 1ermany:F .e
seemed to 0e +re+ared for the $oss of 4har<o3 and the Don0as6 thou%h he did not say so:
?t did not 0ecome c$ear unti$ @cto0er 4 or - that an offensi3e a%ainst Mosco# had started6
and6 e3en so6 it #as not c$ear ho# 0i% it #as: There #as6 need$ess to say6 nothin% in the
2ussian +a+ers a0out .it$er's s+eech of @cto0er & announcin% his Ffina$F dri3e a%ainst
Mosco#:
.o#e3er6 o>o3s<y referred to it in his +ress conference of @cto0er 7: .e $oo<ed s$i%ht$y
f$ustered6 0ut said that .it$er's s+eech on$y sho#ed that the fe$$o# #as %ettin% des+erate:
F.e <no#s he isn't %oin% to #in the #ar6 0ut he has to <ee+ the 1ermans more or $ess
contented durin% the #inter6 and he must therefore achie3e some maHor success6 #hich
#ou$d su%%est that a certain stage of the #ar has c$osed: The second reason #hy it is
essentia$ for .it$er to do somethin% 0i% is the An%$o,American,So3iet a%reement6 #hich
has caused a fee$in% of des+ondency in 1ermany: The 1ermans cou$d6 at a +inch6
s#a$$o# a 'Bo$she3i<' a%reement #ith Britain6 0ut a 'Bo$she3i<' a%reement #ith America
#as more than the 1ermans had e3er e8+ected:F o>o3s<y added that6 any#ay6 the
ca+ture of this or that city #ou$d not affect the fina$ outcome of the #ar: ?t #as as if he
#as a$ready +re+arin% the +ress for the +ossi0$e $oss of Mosco#: (et he mana%ed to end
on a note of 0ra3ado: F?f the 1ermans #ant to see a fe# hundred thousand more of their
+eo+$e <i$$ed6 they'$$ succeed in thatDif in nothin% e$se:F
The ne#s on the ni%ht of the 7th #as e3en #orse6 #ith the first officia$ reference to
Fhea3y fi%htin% in the direction of Aia>maF:
@n the Jth6 #hi$e Pravda and Izvestia #ere carefu$ not to sound too a$armed 6Pravda
actua$$y started #ith a routine artic$e on FThe 9or< of 9omen in 9ar,TimeF)6 the army
+a+er6 Bed %tar, $oo<ed e8treme$y dis=uietin%: ?t said that Fthe 3ery e8istence of the
So3iet State #as in dan%erF6 and that e3ery man of the 2ed Army Fmust stand firm and
fi%ht to the $ast dro+ of 0$oodF: ?t descri0ed the ne# 1erman offensi3e as a $ast des+erate
f$in%:
H,&/(+ ')- &'+#2$ ,$&# ,& (6(+*&',$% '( ')- %#&E(6($ (6(+* #/5 )$5 #8-#/(&( &)$;,
(6(+* ",5%(& &)$; &'( !(+")$- ')6( 3#//(3&(5 ,$ H#//)$5, +)$3( #+ B(/%,1" ')-
8(($ &'+#2$ ,$&# &',- 8)&&/(... T'( S#6,(& -#/5,(+- "1-& )& )$* .+,3( 5(-&+#* &'(-(
&)$;-, #/5 )$5 $(2, /)+%( #+ -")//. A// &'( +,00-+)00 )+"#1+ #0 +1,$(5 E1+#.( ,- 8(,$%
&'+#2$ )%),$-& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$.
Pravda sounded the a$arm on the 9th6 #arnin% the +eo+$e of Mosco# a%ainst Fcare$ess
com+$acencyF and ca$$in% on them to Fmo0i$ise a$$ their forces to re+e$ the enemy's
offensi3eF: @n the fo$$o#in% day it ca$$ed for F3i%i$anceF sayin% that6 in addition to
ad3ancin% on Mosco#6 Fthe enemy is a$so tryin%6 throu%h the #ide net#or< of its a%ents6
s+ies and agents-provocateurs, to disor%anise the rear and to create +anicF: @n @cto0er
1&6 Pravda s+o<e of the Fterri0$e dan%erF threatenin% the country:
C3en #ithout the he$+ of enemy a%ents6 there #as enou%h in Pravda to s+read the
%reatest a$arm amon% the +o+u$ation of Mosco#: Ta$< of e3acuation had 0e%un on the
Jth6 and forei%n em0assies as #e$$ as numerous 2ussian %o3ernment offices and
institutions #ere to$d to e8+ect a decision on it 3ery short$y: The atmos+here #as
0ecomin% e8treme$y tense: There #as ta$< of Mosco# as a Fsu+er,MadridF amon% the
0ra3er6 and fe3erish attem+ts to %et a#ay amon% the $ess 0ra3e:
By @cto0er 136 the situation in Mosco# had 0ecome hi%h$y critica$: ;umerous 1erman
troo+s #hich had6 for o3er a #ee<6 0een he$d u+ 0y the FAia>ma encirc$ementF6 had
0ecome a3ai$a0$e for the fina$ attac< on Mosco#: The F9esternF Front6 under the %enera$
command of 1enera$ Ohu<o36 assisted 0y 1enera$ 4one36 and #ith 1enera$ So<o$o3s<y
as 5hief of Staff6 consisted of four sectors: Ao$o<o$ams< under 2o<osso3s<yL Mo>hais<
under 1o3oro36 Ma$oyaros$a3ets under 1o$u0e3 and 4a$u%a under Oa<har<in: There #as
a0so$ute$y no certainty that a 1erman 0rea<throu%h cou$d 0e +re3ented6 and on @cto0er
1&6 the State Defence 5ommittee had decided to ca$$ u+on the +eo+$e of Mosco# to 0ui$d
a defence $ine some distance outside Mosco#6 another one ri%ht a$on% the city 0order6
and t#o su++$ementary city $ines a$on% the outer and inner rin%s of 0ou$e3ards #ithin
Mosco# itse$f:
@n the mornin% of @cto0er 136 Shcher0a<o36 Secretary of the 5entra$ 5ommittee and of
the Mosco# !arty 5ommittee of the 5ommunist !arty6 s+o<e at a meetin% ca$$ed 0y the
Mosco# !arty @r%anisation: Fet us not shut our eyes: Mosco# is in dan%er:F .e
a++ea$ed to the #or<ers of the city to send a$$ +ossi0$e reser3es to the front and to the
defence $ines 0oth inside and outside the cityL and to increase %reat$y the out+ut of arms
and munitions:
The reso$ution +assed 0y the Mosco# @r%anisation ca$$ed for Firon disci+$ine6 a merci$ess
stru%%$e a%ainst e3en the s$i%htest manifestations of +anic6 a%ainst co#ards6 deserters and
rumour,mon%ersF: The reso$ution further decided that6 #ithin t#o or three days6 each
Mosco# district shou$d assem0$e a 0atta$ion of 3o$unteersL these came to 0e <no#n as
Mosco#'s F5ommunist Batta$ionsF and #ere6 $i<e some of the opolcheni!e re%iments6 to
+$ay an im+ortant ro$e in the defence of Mosco# 0y fi$$in% in F%a+sFDat a 3ery hea3y
cost in $i3es: 9ithin three days6 1&6""" such 3o$unteers #ere formed into +$atoons and
0atta$ions6 most of them #ith $itt$e mi$itary trainin% and no fi%htin% e8+erience:
?t #as on @cto0er 1& and 13 that it #as decided to e3acuate immediate$y to 4ui0yshe3
and other cities in the east a $ar%e num0er of %o3ernment offices6 inc$udin% many
!eo+$e's 5ommissariats6 +art of the !arty or%anisations6 and the entire di+$omatic cor+s
of Mosco#: Mosco#'s most im+ortant armaments #or<s #ere to 0e e3acuated as #e$$:
!ractica$$y a$$ Fscientific and cu$tura$ institutionsF such as the Academy of Sciences6 the
*ni3ersity and the theatres #ere to 0e mo3ed:
But the State Defence 5ommittee6 the %tav*a of the Su+reme 5ommand6 and a s<e$eton
administration #ere to stay on in Mosco# unti$ further notice: The +rinci+a$ ne#s+a+ers
such as Pravda, Bed %tar, Izvestia, Komsomols*a!a Pravda, and Trud, continued to 0e
+u0$ished in the ca+ita$:
The ne#s of these e3acuations #as fo$$o#ed 0y the officia$ communi=uN +u0$ished on
the mornin% of @cto0er 1): ?t said: FDurin% the ni%ht of @cto0er 14,1- the +osition on the
9estern Front 0ecame #orse: The 1erman,Fascist troo+s hur$ed a%ainst our troo+s $ar%e
=uantities of tan<s and motorised infantry6 and in one sector 0ro<e throu%h our defences:F
F
?n descri0in% the %reat @cto0er crisis in Mosco# it is im+ortant to distin%uish 0et#een
three factors: First6 the Army6 #hich fou%ht on des+erate$y a%ainst su+erior enemy forces6
and yie$ded %round on$y 3ery s$o#$y6 a$thou%h o#in% to re$ati3e$y +oor manoeu3ra0i$ity6
it #as una0$e to +re3ent some s+ectacu$ar 1erman $oca$ successes6 such as the ca+ture of
4a$u%a in the south on the 1&th6 of 4a$inin in the north on the 14th6 or that 0rea<throu%h
in #hat #as rather 3a%ue$y descri0ed as Fthe Ao$o<o$ams< sectorF to #hich the F+anic
communi=uNF6 +u0$ished on @cto0er 1)6 referred: C3en $on% after#ards it #as 0e$ie3ed in
Mosco# that on the 1-th the 1ermans had crashed throu%h much further to#ards
Mosco# than is a++arent today from any +u0$ished record of the fi%htin%: @n$y then6 it
#as said6 did 2o<osso3s<y sto+ the rot 0y thro#in% in the $ast reser3es6 inc$udin%
scarce$y,trained opolchents!, and troo+s from Si0eria as soon as they disem0ar<ed from
the trains: There are count$ess stories of re%u$ar so$diers and e3en opolchents! attac<in%
1erman tan<s #ith hand %renades and #ith F+etro$ 0ott$esF6 and of other F$ast ditchF
e8+$oits: The mora$e of the fi%htin% forces certain$y did not crac<: The fact that fresh
troo+s from the Far Cast and 5entra$ Asia #ere 0ein% thro#n in a$$ the time6 thou%h on$y
in $imited num0ers6 had a sa$utary effect in <ee+in% u+ the s+irit of the troo+s #ho had
a$ready fou%ht #ithout res+ite for o3er a fortni%ht:
Second$y6 there #as the Mosco# #or<in%,c$assL most of them #ere ready to +ut in $on%
hours of o3ertime in factories +roducin% armaments and ammunitionL to 0ui$d defencesL
to fi%ht the 1ermans inside Mosco# shou$d they 0rea< throu%h6 or6 if a$$ fai$ed6 to
Ffo$$o# the 2ed Army to the eastF: .o#e3er6 there #ere different shades in the
determination of the #or<ers to Fdefend Mosco#F at a$$ costs: The 3ery fact that not more
than 1&6""" shou$d ha3e 3o$unteered for the F5ommunist 0ri%adesF at the hei%ht of the
near,+anic of @cto0er 13,1) seems indicati3eL #as it 0ecause6 to many6 these im+ro3ised
0atta$ions seemed futi$e in this <ind of #ar6 or #as it 0ecause6 at the 0ac< of many
#or<ers' minds6 there #as the idea that 2ussia #as sti$$ 3ast6 and that it mi%ht 0e more
ad3anta%eous to fi%ht the decisi3e 0att$e some#here east:
Third$y6 there #as a $ar%e mass of Musco3ites6 difficu$t to c$assify6 #ho #ere more
res+onsi0$e than the others for Fthe %reat s<edadd$eF of @cto0er 1): These inc$uded
any0ody from +$ain o4!vateli, ready to run a#ay from dan%er6 to sma$$6 medium and e3en
hi%h !arty or non,!arty officia$s #ho fe$t that Mosco# had 0ecome a Ho0 for the Army6
and that there #as not much that ci3i$ians cou$d do: Amon% these +eo+$e there #as a
%enuine fear of findin% themse$3es under 1erman occu+ation6 and6 #ith re%u$ar +asses6 or
#ith +asses of sorts they had someho# #an%$edDor sometimes #ith no +asses at a$$D
+eo+$e f$ed to the east6 Hust as in !aris +eo+$e had f$ed to the south in 194" as the
1ermans a++roached the ca+ita$:
ater6 many of these +eo+$e #ere to 0e 0itter$y ashamed of ha3in% f$ed6 of ha3in%
o3errated the mi%ht of the 1ermans6 of ha3in% not had enou%h confidence in the 2ed
Army: And yet6 had not the 1o3ernment sho#n the #ay6 as it #ere6 0y frantica$$y
s+eedin% u+ on a$$ those e3acuations from the 1"th of @cto0er on#ardsE
Cs+ecia$$y in 194& the F0i% s<edadd$eF of @cto0er 1) continued to 0e a nasty memory
#ith many: There #ere some %rim Ho<es on the su0HectDes+ecia$$y in connection #ith
the meda$ FFor the Defence of Mosco#F that had 0een distri0uted $a3ish$y amon% the
so$diers and ci3i$iansL there #as the Ho<e a0out the t#o <inds of ri00onsDsome Mosco#
meda$s shou$d 0e sus+ended on the re%u$ar moirN ri00on6 others on a drap ri00onDdrap
meanin% 0oth a thic< <ind of c$oth and s<edadd$e: There #as a$so the Ho<e of a famous
and 3ery +$um+ and #e$$,e=ui++ed actress #ho had recei3ed a Mosco# Meda$ Ffor
defendin% Mosco# from 4ui0yshe3 #ith her 0reastF:
? remem0er Sur<o3 te$$in% me that #hen he arri3ed in Mosco# from the front on the
1)th6 he +honed some fifteen or t#enty of his friends6 and all had 3anished:
?n FfictionF6 more than in forma$ history6 there are some 3a$ua0$e descri+tions of Mosco#
at the hei%ht of the crisisDfor instance in Simono3's The (iving and the Dead a$ready
=uoted: .ere is a +icture of Mosco# durin% that %rim 1)th of @cto0er and the fo$$o#in%
days D#ith the rai$#ay station stam+edesL #ith officia$s f$eein% in their cars #ithout a
+ermitL the opolchents! and 5ommunist 0atta$ion men su$$en$y #a$<in%6 rather than
marchin%6 do#n the streets6 dressed in a mot$ey co$$ection of c$othes6 smo<in%6 0ut not
sin%in%L #ith the F.ammer and Sic<$eF factory #or<in% day and ni%ht turnin% out
thousands of anti,tan< hed%e,ho%s6 #hich are then dri3en to the outer rin% of 0ou$e3ardsL
#ith its sme$$ of 0urnin% +a+ersL #ith the ra+id succession of air,raids and air,0att$es o3er
Mosco#6 in #hich 2ussian airmen often suicida$$y ram enemy +$anesL #ith the
demora$isation of the maHority and the %rim determination amon% the minority to han% on
to Mosco#6 and to fi%ht6 if necessary6 inside the city:
By the 1)th6 many factories had a$ready 0een e3acuated:
A$$ the same6 0e$o# a$$ the froth of +anic and des+air there #as Fanother Mosco#F:
L)&(+, 2'($ )// &',- 8(/#$%(5 &# &'( .)-&, )$5 -#"(8#5* +(3)//(5 &')& 16&' #0
O3&#8(+ 2,&' -#++#2 #+ 8,&&(+$(--, '( =S,"#$#6<- '(+#> 2#1/5 -)* $#&',$%. T'(
"("#+* #0 M#-3#2 &')& 5)* 2)- 1$8()+)8/( &# ',"E/,;( &'( 0)3( #0 ) .(+-#$ *#1
/#6( 5,-&#+&(5 8* 0()+. A$5 *(&, $#& #$/* #1&-,5( M#-3#2, 2'(+( &'( &+##.- 2(+(
0,%'&,$% )$5 5*,$% &')& 5)*, 81& ,$-,5( M#-3#2 ,&-(/0, &'(+( 2(+( ($#1%' .(#./( 2'#
2(+( 5#,$% )// 2,&',$ &'(,+ .#2(+ $#& &# -1++($5(+ ,&. A$5 &')& 2)- 2'* M#-3#2
2)- $#& /#-&. A$5 *(&, )& &'( +#$& &')& 5)* &'( 2)+ -(("(5 &# ')6( &);($ ) 0)&)/
&1+$, )$5 &'(+( 2(+( .(#./( ,$ M#-3#2 &')& -)"( 5)* 2'#, ,$ &'(,+ 5(-.),+, 2(+(
+()5* &# 8(/,(6( &')& &'( !(+")$- 2#1/5 ($&(+ M#-3#2 &#"#++#2. A- )/2)*-
')..($- ,$ &+)%,3 "#"($&-, &'( 5((. 0),&' )$5 ,$3#$-.,31#1- 2#+; #0 &'#-( 2'#
3)++,(5 #$, 2)- $#& *(& ;$#2$ &# )//, )$5 ')5 $#& *(& 3#"( &# 8()+ 0+1,&, 2',/( &'(
8(2,/5(+"($&, &(++#+ )$5 5(-.),+ #0 &'( #&'(+- ',& *#1 8(&2(($ &'( (*(-. T',- 2)-
,$(6,&)8/(. T')& 5)* &($- #0 &'#1-)$5-, %(&&,$% )2)* 0+#" &'( !(+")$-, +#//(5 /,;(
)6)/)$3'(- &#2)+5- &'( +),/2)* -&)&,#$- )$5 &#2)+5- &'( ()-&(+$ (B,&- #0 M#-3#2?
)$5 *(&, #1& #0 &'(-( &($- #0 &'#1-)$5-, &'(+( 2(+( .(+').- #$/* ) 0(2 &'#1-)$5
2'#" ',-&#+* 3#1/5 +,%'&/* 3#$5("$.
ISimono36 o+: cit:6 +: &JJ:K
Simono3 #rote this account of Mosco# on @cto0er 1)61941 after a $a+se of near$y
t#enty yearsL 0ut his storyD#hich cou$d not ha3e 0een +u0$ished in Sta$in's dayDrin%s
true in the $i%ht of #hat ? had heard of those %rim days on$y a fe# months $ater6 in 194&:
? a$so remem0er a 3ery different <ind of storyDa story to$d me 0y a $eadin% #oman,
mem0er of the 4omsomo$ at the famous Tre<h%or<a 5otton Mi$$Da remar<a0$e %ir$ of
a0out t#enty,fi3e6 ca$$ed @$%a Sa+o>hni<o3a6 #ho 0e$on%ed to a $on% dynasty of
Mosco# cotton #ea3ers: A$$ her three 0rothers had 0een ca$$ed u+6 and one #as #ounded
and another Fmissin%F: She #as a $itt$e +$um+ and hea3y6 and had rou%h +ro$etarian
hands6 #ith c$ose$y,c$i++ed fin%ernai$s: And yet she had +oise and character6 and there
#as a so$id <ind of 2ussian 0eauty in that +a$e face6 in her $ar%e6 =uiet %rey eyes6 firm
Ha#6 fine$y sha+ed fu$$ mouth6 and her #hite teeth sho#in% #hen she smi$ed: ;ot a sin%$e
nondescri+t feature a0out herL she 0e$on%ed6 e3en +hysica$$y6 to the +ro$etarian
aristocracyL her character6 $i<e her 0ody6 sha+ed 0y %ood tradition:
IThe 'ear o" %talingrad, ++: &-&,4:K
The story she to$d me6 on Se+tem0er 196 194&6 differed in one res+ect from +resent,day
storiesL she to$d me ho# e3en the 0ra3est and most determined +eo+$e in Mosco# had
fe$t uncertain of #hether Mosco# cou$d 0e sa3edDor cou$d 0e effecti3e$y defended had
the 1ermans fou%ht their #ay into the city:
FThose #ere dreadfu$ days: ?t started a0out the 1&th: ? #as ordered6 $i<e most of the %ir$s
at the factory6 to Hoin the a0our Front: 9e #ere ta<en some <i$ometres out of Mosco#:
There #as a $ar%e cro#d of us6 and #e #ere to$d to di% trenches: 9e #ere a$$ 3ery ca$m6
0ut da>ed6 and cou$dn't ta<e it in: @n the 3ery first day #e #ere machine,%unned 0y a
Frit> #ho s#oo+ed ri%ht do#n: C$e3en of the %ir$s #ere <i$$ed and four #ounded:F She
said it 3ery ca$m$y6 #ithout affectation:
F9e #ent on #or<in% a$$ day and the ne8t dayL fortunate$y6 no more Frit>es came: But ?
#as 3ery #orried a0out father and mother I0oth of them o$d Tre<h%or<a te8ti$e #or<ersK6
#ith no0ody to $oo< after them:
F? e8+$ained this to our commissar6 and he $et me %o 0ac< to Mosco#: They #ere stran%e6
those ni%hts in Mosco#L you heard the %uns firin% so c$ear$y: @n the 1)th6 #hen the
1ermans had 0ro<en throu%h6 ? #ent to the factory: My heart #ent co$d #hen ? sa# that
the factory had c$osed do#n: A $ot of the directors had f$edL 0ut Dundu<o3 #as in char%eL
a 3ery %ood man6 #ho ne3er $ost his head: .e handed out $ar%e =uantities of food to us: ?
#as %i3en 1&- +ounds of f$our6 and se3enteen +ounds of 0utter and a $ot of su%ar6 so that
it shou$d not fa$$ into 1erman hands: For me as a 4omsomo$Dand a #e$$,<no#n
4omsomo$ at thatDit #as not much use stayin% on in Mosco#: The factory +eo+$e
su%%ested that ? cou$d e3acuate father and mother to 5he$ia0ins<: But #hate3er #as done
a0out the o$d +eo+$e6 there #as on$y one thin% ? cou$d do6 and that #as to fo$$o# the 2ed
Army: A $ot of +eo+$e had a$ready $eft Mosco#:
F? #ent and ta$<ed to mother: She #ou$dn't hear of 5he$ia0ins<: ';o6' she said6 '1od #i$$
+rotect us here6 and Mosco# #i$$ not fa$$:' That ni%ht ? #ent do#n to the ce$$ar #ith
motherL #e too< do#n a sma$$ <erosene $am+ and 0uried a$$ the su%ar and f$our and a$so
father's !arty card: 9e thou%ht #e'd $i3e in the ce$$ar if the 1ermans cameL for #e <ne#
that they cou$dn't stay in Mosco# for $on%: !erha+s ? #ou$d ha3e $eft #ith the 2ed Army6
0ut it #as hard to $ea3e mother and father a$one: That ni%ht mother cried6 and said: 'The
#ho$e fami$y has scatteredL and are you %oin% to $ea3e me6 tooE' There #as a fee$in% that
ni%ht that the 1ermans mi%ht a++ear in the street at any momentL yes6 it #as +ossi0$e6 and
4rasnaya !resnya #as the +art throu%h #hich they #ou$d ha3e come into Mosco#: There
#ere no trains any more 0y #hich #e cou$d $ea3e6 and #hat #as father to doE .e mi%ht
ha3e #a$<ed t#o or three <i$ometres6 0ut no more:::
FBut they did not come that ni%ht: At the factory the ne8t mornin% e3erythin% #as minedL
it #as on$y a case of +ressin% a 0utton6 and the #ho$e factory #ou$d ha3e %one u+ in the
air: And then came a +hone messa%e from !ronin6 the 5hairman of the Mosco# So3iet6
sayin% 'A0so$ute$y nothin% must 0e 0$o#n u+:'
FAnd it #as a$so on that day that the announcement #as made that Sta$in #as in Mosco#6
and this made an enormous difference to mora$eL it no# seemed certain that Mosco#
#ou$d not 0e $ost: C3en so6 from the northern outs<irts6 +eo+$e #ere 0ein% e3acuated to
the centre: There #ere continuous air,raid #arnin%s and 0om0s fe$$: But on the &"th the
factory #as o+ened a%ainL #e a$$ fe$t so much 0etter and #ere =uite cheerfu$ a%ain after
that:::F
?t #as6 indeed6 on @cto0er 17 that Shcher0a<o3 announced on the radio that Sta$in #as in
Mosco#: At the same time he e8+$ained to the +eo+$e of Mosco# the Fcom+$e8ityF of the
situation (in officia$ 2ussian #ar,time termino$o%y Fcom+$e8ityF a$#ays meant F%ra3ityF)
as a resu$t of the 1erman offensi3e a%ainst the ca+ita$L he a$so e8+$ained #hy it had 0een
necessary to ta<e those numerous e3acuation measures: .e firm$y denied the rumours
a0out the imminent surrender of the city6 rumours6 he said6 #hich had 0een s+read 0y
enemy a%ents: Mosco#6 he said6 #ou$d 0e defended stu00orn$y6 to the $ast dro+ of 0$ood:
FC3ery one of us6 no matter #hat his #or< or his +osition6 sha$$ act $i<e a so$dier
defendin% Mosco# a%ainst the Fascist in3aders:F
T#o days $ater6 a state of sie%e #as +roc$aimed in Mosco#: This had +art$y 0een caused
0y the $ootin% that had %one on6 here and there6 at the hei%ht of the +anicL no# a$$
F0reaches of $a# and orderF #ere to 0e dea$t #ith 0y emer%ency tri0una$s6 and a$$ s+ies6
di3ersionists and agents provocateurs #ere to 0e shot on the s+ot: The maintenance of
order inside Mosco# #as entrusted to the 5ommandant of the city and his ;4AD troo+s:
These6 to%ether #ith re%u$ar army units and ne#ty,formed F5ommunist 0atta$ionsF #ere
to man the gorods*i!e ru4ezh!, the defence $ines Hust outside and inside Mosco#: The
state of sie%e had6 0y a$$ accounts ? #as to hear $ater6 a sa$utary6 and6 indeed6 stimu$atin%
effect on mora$e:
By the end of @cto0er o3er t#o mi$$ion +eo+$e had 0een officia$$y e3acuated from
Mosco#L in addition6 there #ere many others #ho had f$ed unofficia$$yL many stories
#ere current $ater6 for instance a0out a 3ery im+ortant +erson on Mosco# 2adio6 #ho
disa++eared on @cto0er 1)6 and did not turn u+ a%ain unti$ three #ee<s $ater: Disci+$inary
action #as ta<en in some cases a%ainst such FdesertersF6 0ut there is no officia$ record of
the e8tent of these re+risa$sL it seems6 ho#e3er6 that a$$o#ances #ere made for the
%enera$ state of chaos in Mosco# that day6 and for the fact that +eo+$e #ere %enuine$y
fri%htened of fa$$in% under 1erman occu+ation:
Many of those #ho had stayed on in Mosco# $ater too< some +ride in not ha3in% $ost
their headsDor their faith in Mosco# 0ein% sa3ed IThose #ho had f$ed retorted in some
cases: F(ou didn't mind 0ein% occu+ied 0y the 1ermansD? did:FK6 and $i<ed to reca$$ the
Fheroic atmos+hereF of ha$f,em+ty Mosco# in the second ha$f of @cto0er and in
;o3em0er6 #ith the 0att$e sti$$ ra%in% not far a#ay and6 indeed6 comin% nearer and nearer
in the second ha$f of ;o3em0er: But it #as no# fe$t that the situation #as #e$$ in hand
and that a sudden 1erman incursion into Mosco#D#hich seemed so $i<e$y on that 1)th
of @cto0erDhad 0ecome im+ossi0$e:
C').&(+ XI BATTLE O MOSCOW II STALIN<S HOLY
RUSSIA SPEECH
?n the first nineteen days of their offensi3e the 1ermans had ad3anced to $ess than fifty
mi$es from Mosco# at ;oro,Fomins< and #ere e3en nearer the ca+ita$ in the
Ao$o<o$ams< area: But a$$ the time the 2ussian resistance #as stiffenin% and 0y @cto0er
1J counterattac<s s$o#ed do#n the 1erman ad3ance: osses #ere e8treme$y hea3y on
0oth sides6 there #ere si%ns of %ro#in% fati%ue amon% the 1ermans6 and 0et#een
@cto0er 1J and the 0e%innin% of ;o3em0er they made 3ery $itt$e +ro%ress:
1erman #ar memoirs stress the 9ehrmacht's su++$y difficu$tiesL 0ut it is =uite c$ear that
the famous F2ussian #interF #as in no #ay decisi3e either in @cto0er or at the 0e%innin%
of ;o3em0er: @n the contrary6 some of the 1ermans' difficu$ties arose from the fact that
the roads had not yet fro>en: To =uote 1uderian:
O$ O3&#8(+ M9 #1+ /()5,$% &)$;- +()3'(5 ) .#,$& -#"( &2# ",/(- 0+#" T1/). A$
)&&(".& &# 3).&1+( &'( 3,&* 8* ) coup de main 0),/(5 #2,$% &# &'( ($("*<- -&+#$%
)$&,-&)$; )$5 )$&,-),+3+)0& 5(0($3(-? 2( /#-& ")$* &)$;- )$5 #00,3(+-... T'(
3#$5,&,#$ #0 &'( O+(/-T1/) +#)5 ')5 "()$&,"( %+#2$ -# 8)5 &')& )++)$%("($&- ')5
&# 8( ")5( 0#+ &'( @+5 P)$C(+ D,6,-,#$ ... &# 8( -1../,(5 8* ),+... I$ 6,(2 #0 &'(
,".#--,8,/,&* #0 /)1$3',$% ) 0+#$&)/ )&&)3; #$ T1/), !($(+)/ +(,'(++ 6#$ !(*+
-1%%(-&(5 &')& ,$ #+5(+ &# 3#$&,$1( #1+ )56)$3( 2( 8*-.)-- &'( &#2$ &# &'( ()-&...
4H(7 2)- )/-# #0 &'( #.,$,#$ &')& there /as no possibility o* using motorised troops
until the *rost set in.
I1uderian6 o+: cit:6 +: 1-&: (Cm+hasis added:)K
1uderian's ar%ument that rain and mud interfered #ith the success of the first 1erman
offensi3e a%ainst Mosco# seems futi$e6 since it affected the 2ussians as much as the
1ermansL 0esides6 1uderian himse$f admits that it #as the defence +ut u+ 0y the
2ussians6 and not the mud that sto++ed him from ca+turin% Tu$a6 this <ey +osition on the
#ay to Mosco#: Moreo3er6 the 2ussians a$so s+ran% on him the un+$easant sur+rise of
thro#in% in some of their T,34 tan<s under 4atyu<o3 much to 1uderian's dis%ust:
I 1uderian6 o+: cit:6 +: &4J:K
@n the ni%ht of ;o3em0er )Dthat is6 a #ee< after the first 1erman offensi3e a%ainst
Mosco# had 3irtua$$y +etered out6 and ten days 0efore the second offensi3e 0e%anD
Mosco# ce$e0rated the &4th Anni3ersary of the 2e3o$ution: The 1ermans #ere sti$$ some
forty mi$es from Mosco#Din some +$aces e3en nearerL and a$thou%h the atmos+here in
Mosco# #as that of a 0esie%ed city6 #ith tens of thousands of #ounded cro#din% the
hos+ita$s6 and many thousands more arri3in% e3ery dayDthe con3iction that Mosco#
#ou$d not 0e $ost had steadi$y %ro#n in the +ast fortni%ht:
The usua$ C3e,of,2e3o$ution Day meetin% #as he$d on that ni%ht of ;o3em0er ) in the
$ar%e ornate ha$$ of the Maya<o3s<y tu0e station: The ha$$ #as cro#ded #ith hundreds of
de$e%ates of the Mosco# 5ity So3iet6 and 3arious !arty and trade union or%anisations6
and re+resentati3es of the Armed Forces: As many #ho attended that meetin% $ater to$d
me6 the under%round settin% of the meetin% #as uncanny6 de+ressin% and humi$iatin%:
Sta$in's s+eech at the meetin% #as a stran%e mi8ture of 0$ac< %$oom and com+$ete se$f,
confidence: After reca$$in% that the #ar had %reat$y curtai$ed6 and in many cases #ho$$y
sto++ed6 the +eacefu$ 0ui$din% of socia$ism that had %one on for so many years6 Sta$in
said:
I$ 0#1+ "#$&'- #0 2)+, 2( ')6( ')5 @5L,LLL ;,//(5, @KN,LLL ",--,$% )$5 1,LML,LLL
2#1$5(5. D1+,$% &'( -)"( .(+,#5 &'( ($("* ')5 /#-& #6(+ 0#1+ )$5 ) ')/0 ",//,#$ ,$
5()5, 2#1$5(5 )$5 .+,-#$(+-. T'(+( 3)$ 8( $# 5#18& &')& !(+")$*, 2'#-( '1")$
+(-(+6(- )+( +1$$,$% #1&, ')- 8(($ 2();($(5 "13' "#+( &')$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$,
2'#-( +(-(+6(- )+( #$/* $#2 8(,$% 01//* 5(./#*(5.
.attle o" -osco: IIS%talin0s Hol! Bussia %peech &4-
?t is e8treme$y dou0tfu$ that any0ody in 2ussia cou$d ha3e 0e$ie3ed these fi%uresL 0ut it
#as +erha+s essentia$ to o3erstate the 1erman $osses in order to 0rin% home his
contention that the 4litz*rieg had a$ready fai$ed: ?t had fai$ed6 Sta$in said6 for three
reasons: the 1ermans6 as cou$d 0e seen from .ess's mission to Cn%$and6 had ho+ed that
Britain and America #ou$d Hoin them in their #ar a%ainst 2ussia or6 at any rate6 %i3e
1ermany a free hand in the CastL this had not come off: Britain6 the *SA and the So3iet
*nion #ere in the same cam+: Second$y6 the 1ermans had ho+ed that the So3iet rN%ime
#ou$d co$$a+se and the *SS2 fa$$ to +ieces:
I$-&()5, &'( S#6,(& +()+ ,- &#5)* "#+( -#/,5 &')$ (6(+. I& ,- .+#8)8/( &')& )$* #&'(+
3#1$&+*, ')6,$% /#-& )- "13' &(++,&#+* )- 2( ')6(, 2#1/5 ')6( 3#//).-(5.
Fina$$y6 the 1ermans had e8+ected the So3iet armed forces to 0rea< do#nL after #hich
they #ou$d6 #ithout further hindrance6 +ush ri%ht on to the *ra$s: True6 the 1erman army
#as a more e8+erienced army than the So3iet Army6 0ut the 2ussians had the mora$
ad3anta%e of fi%htin% a Hust #arL moreo3er6 the 1ermans #ere no# fi%htin% in enemy
territory6 far from their su++$y 0ases and #ith communications constant$y threatened 0y
the !artisans:
IThis a$so #as said more for effect: ?n 1941 +artisan acti3ity #as sti$$ 3ery #ea< and
unor%anised:K
O1+ )+"*, )- )%),$-& &',-, ,- 0,%'&,$% ,$ ,&- #2$ -1++#1$5,$%-, 3#$-&)$&/* -1..#+&(5
8* ,&- +()+, )$5 -1../,(5 2,&' ")$.#2(+, )""1$,&,#$- )$5 0##5... T'( 5(0($3( #0
M#-3#2 )$5 L($,$%+)5 -'#2... &')& ,$ &'( 0,+( #0 &'( !+()& P)&+,#&,3 W)+ $(2
-#/5,(+-, #00,3(+-, ),+"($, %1$$(+-, &)$;-3+(2-, ,$0)$&+* "($, -),/#+-, )+( 8(,$%
0#+%(5E"($ 2'# 2,// &#"#++#2 8(3#"( &'( &(++#+ #0 &'( !(+")$ )+"*. 2Stormy
applause.)
For a$$ that6 said Sta$in6 there #ere a$so unfa3oura0$e factors6 #hich cou$d not 0e denied:
@ne #as the a0sence of a Second Front in Curo+eL #hereas the 1ermans #ere fi%htin%
the 2ed Army #ith the he$+ of numerous a$$iesDFinns6 2umanians6 ?ta$ians6 .un%arians
Dthere #ere no British or American armies on the Curo+ean main$and to he$+ 2ussia:
But there can 0e no dou0t that the formation of a Second Front on the Curo+ean main$and
Dand it un=uestiona0$y must come #ithin a 3ery short time ;storm! applauseTS#i$$
%reat$y faci$itate the +osition of our army6 and ma<e thin%s more difficu$t for the
1ermans:
The other unfa3oura0$e factor #as the 1erman su+eriority in tan<s and aircraft: The 2ed
Army had on$y a fraction of the tan<s that the 1ermans had6 e3en thou%h the ne#
2ussian tan<s #ere su+erior to those of the 1ermans: ?t #as essentia$ not on$y to +roduce
far more tan<s6 0ut a$so far more anti,tan< +$anes6 %uns6 rif$es6 mortars and %renades6 and
to de3ise and ma<e e3ery <ind of antitan< o0stac$e:
After demonstratin% that6 far from 0ein% either Fnationa$istsF or Fsocia$istsF6 the ;a>is
#ere im+eria$ists of the #orst <ind6 determined6 in the first +$ace to annihi$ate or ens$a3e
the S$a3 +eo+$es6 and after =uotin% some +articu$ar$y re3ea$in% 1erman "&ntermensch"
utterances6 Sta$in made his su+reme$y si%nificant a++ea$ to the 2ussians' nationa$ +rideD
A$5 ,& ,- &'(-( .(#./( 2,&'#1& '#$#1+ #+ 3#$-3,($3(, &'(-( .(#./( 2,&' &'( "#+)/,&*
#0 )$,")/-, 2'# ')6( &'( (00+#$&(+* &# 3)// 0#+ &'( (B&(+",$)&,#$ #0 &'( %+()&
R1--,)$ $)&,#$E&'( $)&,#$ #0 P/(;')$#6 )$5 L($,$, #0 B(/,$-;* )$5
C'(+$*-'(6-;*, #0 P1-';,$ )$5 T#/-&#*, #0 !#+;, )$5 C'(;'#6, #0 !/,$;) )$5
T3'),;#6-;*, #0 S(3'($#6 )$5 P)6/#6, #0 S16#+#6 )$5 K1&1C#6H T'( !(+")$
,$6)5(+- 2)$& ) 2)+ #0 (B&(+",$)&,#$ )%),$-& &'( .(#./(- #0 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$. A(+*
2(// &'($H I0 &'(* 2)$& ) 2)+ #0 (B&(+",$)&,#$ &'(* -')// ')6( ,&H 2'rolonged, stormy
applause.) O1+ &)-; $#2... 2,// 8( &# 5(-&+#* (6(+* !(+")$, &# &'( 6(+* /)-& ")$,
2'# ')5 3#"( &# #331.* #1+ 3#1$&+*. N# "(+3* 0#+ &'( !(+")$ ,$6)5(+-H D()&' &#
&'( !(+")$ ,$6)5(+-HD 2Stormy applause.)
There #ere not on$y mora$ reasons #hy these #i$d 0easts #ou$d +erish6 Sta$in #ent on:
The F;e# @rderF in Curo+e #as not somethin% that the 1ermans cou$d re$y on: Second$y
Dand here #as sti$$ a faint echo of Sta$in's +re3ious distinction 0et#een the F;a>i c$i=ueF
and the F1erman +eo+$eFDthe 1erman rear itse$f #as unre$ia0$e: The 1erman +eo+$e
#ere tired of the #ar of con=uest6 #hich had 0rou%ht them mi$$ions of casua$ties6 hun%er6
im+o3erishment and e+idemics:
O$/* &'( H,&/(+,&( ')/02,&- ')6( 0),/(5 &# 1$5(+-&)$5 &')& $#& #$/* &'( E1+#.()$
+()+, 81& &'( !(+")$ +()+ ,- ) 6#/3)$# +()5* &# 8/#2 1., )$5 &# 81+* &'( H,&/(+,&(
)56($&1+(+-.
And third$y6 there #as the coa$ition of the Bi% Three a%ainst the 1erman,Fascist
im+eria$ists: This #as a #ar of en%ines6 and Britain6 the *SA and the *SS2 cou$d
+roduce three times as many en%ines as 1ermany:
.e then referred to the recent Mosco# 5onference attended 0y Bea3er0roo< and
.arriman6 to the decision to su++$y the *SS2 systematica$$y #ith +$anes and tan<s6 to the
ear$ier British decision to su++$y ra# materia$s to 2ussia such as a$uminium6 tin6 $ead6
nic<e$ and ru00er6 and the $atest American decision to %rant the So3iet *nion a one
0i$$ion,do$$ar $oan:
A// &',- -'#2- &')& &'( 3#)/,&,#$ 8(&2(($ &'( &'+(( 3#1$&+,(- ,- ) 6(+* +()/ &',$%
2stormy applause) 2',3' 2,// %# #$ %+#2,$% ,$ &'( 3#""#$ 3)1-( #0 /,8(+)&,#$.
?n conc$udin%6 Sta$in said that the So3iet *nion #as #a%in% a #ar of $i0eration6 and that
she had no territoria$ am0itions any#here6 in either Curo+e or Asia6 inc$udin% ?ran: ;or
did the So3iet *nion intend to im+ose her #i$$ or her rN%ime on the S$a3 or any other
+eo+$es #aitin% to 0e $i0erated from the ;a>i yo<e: There #ou$d 0e no So3iet
interference in the interna$ affairs of these +eo+$es: But to achie3e this6 the +eo+$es of the
So3iet *nion must do their utmost to he$+ the 2ed Army #ith armaments6 munitions and
food: And he ended on the usua$ note:
L#$% /,6( #1+ R(5 A+"* )$5 #1+ R(5 N)6*H
L#$% /,6( #1+ %/#+,#1- 3#1$&+*H
O1+ 3)1-( ,- :1-&. A,3&#+* 2,// 8( #1+-H
Much more dramatic and ins+irin% #as the settin% in #hich Sta$in de$i3ered his s+eech to
the troo+s on the fo$$o#in% mornin%: ?n the distance 2ussian and 1erman %uns #ere
0oomin%6 and 2ussian fi%hter +$anes #ere +atro$$in% Mosco#: And here6 in the 2ed
S=uare6 on that co$d %rey ;o3em0er mornin%6 Sta$in #as addressin% troo+s6 many of
#hom had come from the Front6 or #ere on the #ay to the Front:
C#"+)5(-H W( )+( 3(/(8+)&,$% &'( M4&' A$$,6(+-)+* #0 &'( O3&#8(+ R(6#/1&,#$ ,$
6(+* ')+5 3#$5,&,#$-... T'( ($("* ,- )& &'( %)&(- #0 M#-3#2 )$5 L($,$%+)5... Y(&,
5(-.,&( &(".#+)+* 0),/1+(-, #1+ )+"* )$5 $)6* )+( '(+#,3)//* +(.(//,$% &'( ($("*
)&&)3;- )/#$% &'( 2'#/( 0+#$&.
2ussia6 Sta$in #ent on6 had sur3i3ed #orse ordea$s than thisL he reca$$ed 191J6 the first
anni3ersary of the 2e3o$ution and6 stretchin% some historica$ +oints6 he said:
T'+((-91)+&(+- #0 #1+ 3#1$&+* 2)- &'($ ,$ &'( ')$5- #0 0#+(,%$ ,$&(+6($&,#$,-&-. ..
W( ')5 $# )//,(-, 2( ')5 $# R(5 A+"*E2( 2(+( #$/* 8(%,$$,$% &# 3+()&( ,&E2(
')5 $# 0##5, $# )+")"($&-, $# (91,."($&. #1+&(($ -&)&(- 2(+( )&&)3;,$% #1+
3#1$&+* &'($... A$5 *(& 2( #+%)$,-(5 &'( R(5 A+"*, )$5 &1+$(5 #1+ 3#1$&+* ,$&# )
",/,&)+* 3)".. L($,$<- %+()& -.,+,& ,$-.,+(5 1- ,$ #1+ -&+1%%/( )%),$-& &'(
,$&(+6($&,#$,-&-. .. O1+ .#-,&,#$ ,- 0)+ 8(&&(+ &')$ ,& 2)- &2($&*-&'+(( *()+- )%#. W(
)+( +,3'(+ ,$ ,$51-&+*, 0##5 )$5 +)2 ")&(+,)/- &')$ 2( 2(+( &'($. W( $#2 ')6(
)//,(-, )$5 &'( -1..#+& #0 )// &'( #331.,(5 $)&,#$- #0 E1+#.(. W( ')6( ) 2#$5(+01/
)+"* )$5 ) 2#$5(+01/ $)6*... W( ')6( $# -(+,#1- -'#+&)%( #0 0##5, )+")"($&- #+
(91,."($&... L($,$<- -.,+,& ,- ,$-.,+,$% 1- ,$ #1+ -&+1%%/( )- ,& 5,5 &2($&*-&'+(( *()+-
)%#.
C)$ )$*#$( 5#18& &')& 2( 3)$ )$5 "1-& 5(0()& &'( !(+")$ ,$6)5(+-I T'( ($("* ,-
$#& )- -&+#$% )- -#"( 0+,%'&($(5 /,&&/( ,$&(//(3&1)/- ,")%,$(...
=?n his memoirs6 Chren0ur%6 #hi$e #e$comin% the s+eech as a #ho$e6 descri0ed this
+hrase as +articu$ar$y offensi3e and un,ca$$ed forL in 1941 the inte$$ectua$s #ere no more6
and no $ess #orried than the rest of the 2ussian +eo+$e: ;3ov!i -ir, Banuary6 19)3:)K
!(+")$* ,-, ,$ +()/,&*, 0)3,$% ) 3)&)-&+#.'(.
After reiteratin% that 1ermany had $ost four and a ha$f mi$$ion men in the $ast four
months6 he #ent on:
T'(+( ,- $# 5#18& &')& !(+")$* 3)$$#& -&)$5 &',- -&+),$ "13' /#$%(+. I$ ) 0(2
"#$&'-, .(+').- ,$ ')/0 ) *()+, ")*8( ) *()+, H,&/(+,&( !(+")$* "1-& 81+-& 1$5(+
&'( 2(,%'& #0 '(+ #2$ 3+,"(-.
C#"+)5(-, R(5 A+"* )$5 R(5 N)6* "($, #00,3(+- )$5 .#/,&,3)/ 2#+;(+-, "($ )$5
2#"($ .)+&,-)$-H T'( 2'#/( 2#+/5 ,- /##;,$% 1.#$ *#1 )- &'( .#2(+ 3).)8/( #0
5(-&+#*,$% &'( !(+")$ +#88(+ '#+5(-H T'( ($-/)6(5 .(#./(- #0 E1+#.( )+( /##;,$%
1.#$ *#1 )- &'(,+ /,8(+)&#+-... B( 2#+&'* #0 &',- %+()& ",--,#$H T'( 2)+ *#1 )+(
2)%,$% ,- ) 2)+ #0 /,8(+)&,#$, ) :1-& 2)+. M)* *#1 8( ,$-.,+(5 ,$ &',- 2)+ 8* &'(
'(+#,3 0,%1+(- #0 #1+ %+()& )$3(-&#+-, A/(B)$5(+ N(6-;*, D,",&+, D#$-;#,, M,$,$
)$5 P#C')+-;*, A/(B)$5(+ S16#+#6, M,3')(/ K1&1C#6H M)* *#1 8( 8/(-& 8* %+()&
L($,$<- 6,3&#+,#1- 8)$$(+H D()&' &# &'( !(+")$ ,$6)5(+-H L#$% /,6( #1+ %/#+,#1-
3#1$&+*, ,&- 0+((5#" )$5 ,$5(.($5($3(H U$5(+ &'( 8)$$(+ #0 L($,$E#$2)+5 &#
6,3&#+*H
This in3ocation of the 1reat AncestorsDthe %reat men of 2ussian ci3i$isationD!ush<in6
To$stoy6 Tchai<o3s<y6 the %reat scientists and thin<ers6 and the %reat nationa$ heroesD
A$e8ander ;e3s<y #ho routed the Teutonic 4ni%hts in 1&4&6 Dimitri Dons<oi #ho
routed the Tartars in 13J" and Minin and !o>hars<y #ho fou%ht the !o$ish in3aders in
the se3enteenth century6 Su3oro3 and 4utu>o36 #ho fou%ht ;a+o$eonDa$$ this #as
meant to a++ea$ to the +eo+$e's s+ecifica$$y Bussian nationa$ +ride: 9ith the Ba$tic States
%one6 #ith the *<raine %one6 it #as in o$d 2ussia6 one mi%ht a$most say in o$d Musco3y6
that the remainin% +o#er of resistance a%ainst the 1ermans #as chief$y concentrated:
?n #artime 2ussia6 #here e3ery officia$ utterance6 and es+ecia$$y any #ord from Sta$in
#as a#aited #ith a des+erate <ind of ho+e6 these t#o s+eeches6 es+ecia$$y the one
de$i3ered in the dramatic settin% of the 2ed S=uare6 #ith the 1ermans sti$$ on$y a short
distance outside Mosco#6 made a 3ery dee+ im+ression on 0oth the Army and the
#or<ers: The %$orification of 2ussiaDand not on$y enin's 2ussiaD had a tremendous
effect on the +eo+$e in %enera$6 e3en thou%h it made +erha+s a fe# Mar8ist,eninist
+urists s=uirm on the =uiet: .o#e3er6 e3en these rea$ised that it #as this +atriotic6
nationa$ist +ro+a%anda #hich identified the So3iet 2N%ime and Sta$in #ith 2ussia6 .o$y
2ussia6 that #as the most $i<e$y to create the ri%ht <ind of u+$ift:
?n any case6 it #as not somethin% entire$y ne#: ?t #as Sta$in's nationa$ism #hich had6 for
years no#6 trium+hed o3er Trots<y's internationa$ismL for years Sta$in had a$ready 0een
0ui$t u+ in +o+u$ar ima%ination as a state 0ui$der in the $inea%e of A$e8ander ;e3s<y (e:%:
in the Cisenstein,!ro<ofie3 fi$m)6 of ?3an the Terri0$e and !eter the 1reat (e:%: in A$e8ei
To$stoy's no3e$):
Thus6 in ;o3em0er 19416 a$$ these reminders of the Tartar ?n3asion6 of the Trou0$ed
Times6 #ith their !o$ish in3asion6 and of 1J1& did not fa$$ on deaf ears: The 2ussian
+eo+$e fe$t the dee+ insult of the 1erman in3asionDit #as somethin% more dee+$y
insulting than anythin% they had <no#n 0efore: ?n his )th of ;o3em0er s+eech Sta$in had
not missed the chance of +ointin% out the difference 0et#een ;a+o$eon and .it$erL
;a+o$eon had come to a sorry end6 0ut at $east he had not 0rou%ht to the in3aded
countries any &ntermensch +hi$oso+hy:
9e sha$$ dea$ more fu$$y in a $ater cha+ter #ith the mood in 2ussia in 1941,&L here it is
enou%h to say that in his t#o ;o3em0er s+eeches6 Sta$in had not on$y c$e3er$y ada+ted
himse$f to this mood6 0ut he did e3erythin% to stren%then and encoura%e it:
?t #as6 indeed6 a++ro+riate that such a mood shou$d 0e encoura%ed6 #ith the ancient
2ussian cities of !s<o36 ;o3%orod and T3er (4a$inin) occu+ied 0y the 1ermans6 #ith
enin%rad 3irtua$$y surrounded6 and the 1ermans sti$$ 0atterin% a%ainst hasti$y
im+ro3ised ne# 2ussian $ines thirty or forty mi$es outside Mosco#:::
As a 3ery orthodo8 5ommunist Ho<in%$y remar<ed to me some months $ater: FAt that
time it #as a0so$ute$y essentia$ to +roc$aim a 'nationa$ist ;C!':F
IThe ;e# Cconomic !o$icy (;C!) introduced in 19&1 had tem+orari$y a$$o#ed some
ca+ita$ist tradin%:K
The im+ortance of the t#o Sta$in s+eeches is not underrated e3en in the F4hrushche3iteF
Histor!:
S&)/,$<- &2# -.((3'(- ')5 )$ ($#+"#1- (00(3& #$ &'( .#.1/)&,#$ ,$ &'( #331.,(5
)+()-... S#6,(& ),+"($ 5+#..(5 8(',$5 &'( ($("* /,$(- $(2-.).(+- 2,&' )33#1$&- #0
&'( N#6("8(+ 6 "((&,$% )$5 #0 &'( R(5 S91)+( P)+)5(. T'(-( .).(+- .)--(5 0+#"
')$5 &# ')$5 )$5 2(+( &'($ ;(.& )- &+()-1+(-. W,&' &()+- #0 :#* .(#./( /()+$(5 &')&
&'( N)C, -&#+,(- )8#1& &'( 0)// #0 M#-3#2 2(+( $#&',$% 81& -&1.,5 /,(-, )$5 &')&
M#-3#2 2)- -&)$5,$% 0,+"/* /,;( ) +#3;. I$ '()+,$% &'( 6#,3( #0 &'(,+ 8(/#6(5 P)+&*
=(1.'(",-" 0#+ S&)/,$> &'(* 8(/,(6(5 "#+( 0,+"/* &')$ (6(+ ,$ &'( ",%'& #0 &'(
S#6,(& S&)&(, ,$ &'( ,$6,$3,8/( 2,// #0 &'( S#6,(& .(#./( &# 2,$, ,$ &'( ,$(6,&)8/( 5##"
#0 &'( N)C, ,$6)5(+-...
@cto0er and ;o3em0er 1941 #ere the %rimmest months in the #ho$e of the So3iet,
1erman #ar6 on$y to 0e e=ua$$ed 0y @cto0er 194&6 #hen the fate of Sta$in%rad hun% in
the 0a$ance:
By the end of Se+tem0er 19416 the %reater +art of the *<raine had 0een $ost6 and the
1ermans #ere crashin% ahead to#ards 4har<o36 the Don0as and the 5rimea: After the
dA4Lcle in the Batt$e of 4ie36 in #hich the 2ussiansDe3en accordin% to their o#n
admissionD had $ost in +risoners a$one somethin% in the nei%h0ourhood of 17-6""" men6
the 1ermans6 in the south6 had a %reat su+eriority not on$y in men 0ut in +$anes6 tan<s and
%uns:
I Men6 t#o to oneL %uns6 three to oneL +$anes6 t#o to one: (?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 +: &1J:)K
;either the %tav*a0s order to or%anise a Fstu00orn defenceF on the !ere<o+ ?sthmus in the
5rimea6 nor its order to 0ui$d so$id defences #est of 4har<o3 or the Don0as cou$d 0e
carried out in time: The mo0i$i>ation of many thousands of Don0as miners into the $oca$
opolcheni!e and the efforts made 0y 1-"6""" miners to 0ui$d ne# defence $ines #ere of
no a3ai$: By Se+tem0er &96 the 1ermans 0ro<e into the Don0as #hich #as then
+roducin% si8ty +er cent of the So3iet *nion's coa$6 se3enty,fi3e +er cent of its co<in%
coa$6 thirty +er cent of its +i%,iron and t#enty +er cent of its stee$: By @cto0er 176
2undstedt's armies had o3erran the #ho$e Don0as and6 after forcin% the Mius ri3er6
entered Ta%anro% on the Sea of A>o3L meantime6 further north6 !au$us's )th Army #as
ad3ancin% on 4har<o36 #hich #as ca+tured on @cto0er &4L the 2ussians had6 durin% the
+re3ious days6 0een e3acuatin% #hat industria$ e=ui+ment they cou$d: ?t #as a$so then6
#ith the 1ermans a$ready at Ta%anro%6 that 2ostse$mash6 the 3ast a%ricu$tura$,machinery
+$ant at 2osto3 0e%an to 0e e3acuated to the eastL this #or< continued a$most ti$$ the $ast
minute6 often under 1erman 0om0in%:
@n ;o3em0er 196 the 1ermans ca+tured 2osto36 after t#o days' 0itter street fi%htin%: But
the .i%h 5ommand considered 2osto3 so im+ortant that e3en at the hei%ht of the Batt$e
of Mosco#6 Timo,shen<o #as %i3en some reinforcements and ten days $ater6 2osto3D
Fthe %ate to the 5aucasusFD#as reca+tured 0y the 2ussians: ?t #as the first maHor
2ussian 3ictory6 thou%h the 1ermans #ere +ushed on$y some thirty to forty mi$es to the
#est6 #here they entrenched themse$3es a$on% the Mius ri3er: This 3ictory #as6
accordin% to the 2ussians (#ith some confirmation from the 1ermans) not on$y mi$itari$y
0ut a$so +o$itica$$y im+ortant as it affected Tur<ey's +o$icy to#ards 2ussia:
IThe 2ussian attac<s on 2osto3 in the south and Ti<h3in in the north a$so he$+ed to
reduce the +ressure on Mosco#: 2osto3 #as a0andoned #ithout .it$er's orders: hence the
tem+orary dis%race of 2undstedt:K
?n the meantime Manstein's 11th Army6 su++orted 0y a 2umanian Army 5or+s6 had
0ro<en into the 5rimea6 #here the 2ussian forces retreated in disorder to Se0asto+o$: By
mid,;o3em0er the #ho$e of the 5rimea #as in 1erman (or 2umanian) hands6 #ith the
e8ce+tion of Se0asto+o$6 #here three so$id defence $ines6 ten mi$es in de+th6 had 0een
or%anised: A$$ enemy attem+ts to storm the na3a$ 0ase fai$ed and under the command of
Aice,Admira$ @<tia0rs<y and 1enera$ !etro3 the 0e$ea%uered fortress he$d out unti$ Bu$y
194&: ?n under%round #or<sho+s6 more or $ess immune to the continuous 0om0in% and
she$$in%6 Se0asto+o$ made many of its o#n arms and ammunition: ?n ;o3em0er and
Decem0er a$one6 it made 4"" minethro#ers6 &"6""" hand,%renades6 and 3&6""" anti,
+ersonne$ mines6 re+aired numerous %uns6 machine,%uns6 and e3en tan<s: At that time
-&6""" men #ere defendin% Se0asto+o$6 and for ei%ht months they succeeded in tyin% u+
$ar%e 1erman and 2umanian forces #hich6 in the 2ussian 3ie#6 #ou$d other#ise ha3e
0een used to in3ade the 5aucasus across the 4erch Straits:
Thou%h thro#n 0ac< from 2osto3 and he$d at Se0asto+o$6 the 1ermans cou$d sti$$ c$aim
to ha3e caused not on$y %rie3ous mi$itary6 0ut a$so immense economic dama%e to the
2ussians in the south:
The 2ussians' +$i%ht in the north #as e3en more tra%ic: C8ce+t for a s$ender $ife,$ine
across a<e ado%a6 the 0$oc<ade of enin%rad had 0een com+$ete 0y Se+tem0er J6 #ith
the 1erman ca+ture of Sch$Rsse$0ur%L on ;o3em0er 96 e3en the ado%a %a+ #as made
a$most unusa0$e after the 1ermans had ca+tured Ti<h3in on the main rai$#ay $ine to the
south,east of the $a<e: enin%rad seemed fina$$y condemned to star3ation6 and it #as not
ti$$ Decem0er 9 that Ti<h3in #as reca+tured6 and the future 0e%an to $oo< a $itt$e $ess
des+erate: ?t is rather remar<a0$e that6 at the 3ery hei%ht of the Batt$e of Mosco#6 the
.i%h 5ommand shou$d ha3e 0een a0$e to s+are enou%h troo+s to reca+ture 0oth 2osto3
and Ti<h3inDe3en thou%h these had o03ious$y 0een $oo<ed u+on as mere$y minima$
o0Hecti3es6 #hich cou$d not 0e fo$$o#ed u+ 0y either a reca+ture of the Don0as6 or a
maHor 0reach in the enin%rad 0$oc<ade: For6 at the time6 2ussia #as not on$y short of
trained so$diers6 0ut a$so des+erate$y short of arms: And6 a0o3e a$$6 it #as c$ear that the
1ermans' ;um0er,@ne tar%et #as sti$$ the ca+ture of Mosco#6 des+ite the fai$ure of their
a$$,out @cto0er offensi3e:
C3erythin%6 0y the 0e%innin% of ;o3em0er6 tended to sho# that the 1ermans #ere
+re+arin% for another a$$,out attac<6 and #ere concentratin% hea3y forces not on$y #est6
0ut a$so north,#est and south,#est of Mosco#: The fai$ure of the first offensi3e had
%i3en the So3iet .i%h 5ommand Hust enou%h time to assem0$e $ar%e strate%ic reser3es
0ehind Mosco#6 and to stren%then their front $ine in a$$ sectors:
The fact that Mosco# #as not ca+tured in @cto0er had had an enormous$y sa$utary effect
on the so$diers' mora$e: Some si%nificance is today attached to the ea%erness #ith #hich
so$diers and officers #ere Hoinin% the !arty and the 4omsomo$L #ithin a month (@cto0er
to ;o3em0er) the num0er of !arty mem0ers in the three army %rou+s outside Mosco#
rose from 336""" to -16"""6 and of 4omsomo$ mem0ers from -96""" to 7J6"""L it #as at
this sta%e in +articu$ar that the +o$icy #as ado+ted of admittin% to the !arty6 #ith the
minimum of forma$ities6 a$most any so$dier #ho had distin%uished himse$f in 0att$eL the
identification of !arty and 5ountry #as at its hei%ht: @r rather6 the !arty ada+ted itse$f6 as
0est it cou$d6 to the nationa$ist s+irit of resistance:
After the fai$ure of the first 1erman ons$au%ht on Mosco# ci3i$ian mora$e im+ro3ed a$so:
The e3acuation of Mosco# had continued ri%ht throu%h @cto0er and the first ha$f of
;o3em0erL a0out ha$f the +o+u$ation had %one6 as #e$$ as a $ar%e +art of the industry:
thus6 out of 7-6""" meta$,cuttin% $athes6 on$y &16""" remained in Mosco#6 #hose
industries #ere no# concentratin% chief$y on the manufacture of sma$$ arms6
ammunition6 and the re+air of tan<s and motor 3ehic$es: The Mosco# s<y #as dotted
#ith 0arra%e 0a$$oons6 and there #ere anti,tan< o0stac$es in most of the main streets6 and
a %reat many anti,aircraft 0atteries: These #ere far more numerous than 0efore6 and
fire#atchin% ru$es had 0ecome e3en stricterL thousands of Musco3ites #ere en%a%ed in
fire,#atchin%: The atmos+here #as austere6 mi$itary and heroicD3ery different from
#hat it had 0een at the time of the +anic e8odus:
A$thou%h there #as the %enera$ con3iction that Mosco# #ou$d not no# 0e $ost6 the
seriousness of the comin% second offensi3e #as not underrated: As #as to 0e e8+ected
the 1ermans achie3ed considera0$e su+eriority in a num0er of +$aces: Their first 0i%
0$o#s fe$$ on ;o3em0er 1) in the 4a$inin,Ao$o<o$ams< sector of the front #here they
had three times more tan<s and t#ice as many %uns as the 2ussians: By ;o3em0er &&
they had 0ro<en into 4$in north of Mosco# and in the #est to ?stra6 the +oint nearest to
Mosco# they #ere e3er to reach in force: ?t #as no dou0t from ?stra that 1erman
%enera$s $ater remem0ered that they Fcou$d $oo< at Mosco# throu%h a +air of %ood fie$d,
%$assesF: ?stra is some fifteen mi$es #est of Mosco#:
There #ere many acts of heroism 0y 2ussian so$diers in the em0ittered fi%htin% north of
Ao$o<o$ams<6 such as the manyD if atrocious$y cost$yDfeats 0y 1enera$ Do3ator's
cossac< ca3a$ry (Do3ator himse$f #as to 0e <i$$ed durin% the 2ussian counter,offensi3e
on Decem0er 19)6 or the suicida$ resistance of !anfi$o3's anti,tan< unit #ho #ere
%uardin% the Ao$o<o$ams< hi%h#ay at the Du0ose<o3o crossroads:
O$ &')& 5)* &'( !(+")$- ')5 '#.(5 &# 8+(); &'+#1%' &# &'( A#/#;#/)"-; ',%'2)*,
)$5 &# )56)$3( #$ M#-3#2. A0&(+ ) ")--,6( ),+ )&&)3;, !(+")$ &#""*-%1$$(+-
&+,(5 &# 8+(); ,$&# &'( R1--,)$ &+($3'(-, 81& 2(+( 5+,6($ 8)3; 8* +,0/( )$5 ")3',$(-
%1$ 0,+(. T'($ ) -(3#$5 )&&)3; 2)- /)1$3'(5 8* ) 0+(-' 1$,& -1..#+&(5 8* &2($&*
&)$;-... U-,$% )$&,-&)$; +,0/(-, ')$5-%+($)5(-, )$5 .(&+#/ 8#&&/(- &'( P)$0,/#6 "($
3+,../(5 0#1+&(($ #0 &'( &)$;- )$5 &'( #&'(+ -,B 2(+( 5+,6($ 8)3;. S'#+&/*
)0&(+2)+5- &'( 2#1$5(5 -1+6,6#+- 2(+( )%),$ )&&)3;(5 8* &',+&* "#+( &)$;-. I& 2)-
&'($ &')& politruk 4.#/,&,3)/ ,$-&+13&#+7 K/#3';#6 &1+$(5 &# &'( -#/5,(+-, -)*,$%
DR1--,) ,- 8,%, 81& &'(+( ,- $#2'(+( &# +(&+()&, 8(3)1-( M#-3#2 ,- 8(',$5 1-D... O$(
8* #$( &'( S#6,(& -#/5,(+- 2(+( 8(,$% 2#1$5(5 )$5 ;,//(5 ,$ ) "(+3,/(-- 0,%'& 2',3'
/)-&(5 0#1+ '#1+-. T'( -(6(+(/* 2#1$5(5 politruk &'+(2 ',"-(/0 1$5(+ )$ ($("*
&)$; 2,&' ) 81$3' #0 ')$5-%+($)5(- )$5 8/(2 ,& 1.. T'( !(+")$-, ')6,$% /#-&
(,%'&(($ &)$;- )$5 5#C($- #0 "($, 0),/(5 &# 8+(); &'+#1%'...
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 +: &)1:K
There are 3arious 3ersions of the famous story of the FT#enty,ei%ht !anfi$o3 menFL #hat
is curious a0out such stories of suicida$ 2ussian resistance is that they are a $itt$e $i<e a
$ottery or a $uc<y di+L numerous e=ua$$y 3a$iant deeds +assed6 if not unnoticed6 at $east
unrecorded for +osterity: But there #ere a fe# sam+$e heroes6 so to s+ea<6 #ho #ere to
0e 0ui$t u+ in the +o+u$ar ima%ination: The air force had its nationa$ hero in the famous
5a+tain 1aste$$o #ho6 in the first #ee< of the #ar6 had crashed his 0urnin% +$ane into a
co$umn of 1erman tan<sL the infantryDits t#enty,ei%ht !anfi$o3 menL the !artisansD
and6 0y im+$ication a$so the 4omsomo$ and the So3iet +eo+$e %enera$$yD#ere to ha3e as
their nationa$ heroine Ooya 4osmodemians<aya6 the ei%hteen,year,o$d Mosco#
4omsomo$ %ir$6 #ho had set fire to a 1erman sta0$e and #as tortured and han%ed 0y the
1ermans in the 3i$$a%e of !etrishche3o near Mosco# durin% the %rim days of ;o3em0er
1941:
Iater in the #ar there #as a simi$ar FcanonisationF of the F(oun% 1uardF resistance
%rou+ in the minin% to#n of 4rasnodon in the Don0as: A: Fadeye3 $ater #rote a famous
no3e$ on them:K
?t so ha++ened that the story of Ooya #as disco3ered6 to%ether #ith her tortured and
fro>en 0ody6 #ith a ro+e round her nec<6 0y idin6 a Pravda re+orter at the time of the
2ussian counter,offensi3e t#o #ee<s $ater::: ?n rea$ity6 neither 1aste$$o6 nor the t#enty,
ei%ht !anfi$o3 men6 nor Ooya #ere iso$ated cases of 2ussian 0ra3ery and se$f,sacrificeL
there #ere 3ery many others in the levAe en masse atmos+here of ;o3em0er,Decem0er
1941:
@n the southern f$an< of the Mosco# front6 the industria$ city of Tu$a6 Hoined to the
ca+ita$ 0y a narro# 0ott$enec<6 #as in constant dan%er of 0ein% encirc$ed: There #as a
+articu$ar$y stron% !arty or%anisation in that o$d 2ussian centre of arms manufacture6 and
the #or<ers' 0atta$ions too< a 3ery acti3e +art in the defence of their city6 #hich #as
$i3in% in a sort of F1919F atmos+here6 dramatica$$y descri0ed 0y 1enera$ Bo$din6 #ho
#as +$aced in char%e of the defence of Tu$a on ;o3em0er &&: 1uderian had fai$ed
a$ready once to reach Tu$a6 0ut had not a0andoned his attem+ts to outf$an< and iso$ate it:
@n Decem0er 3 Tu$a #as encirc$ed6 the 1ermans ha3in% cut 0oth the rai$#ay and the
hi%hroad to Mosco#: As Bo$din te$$s the story:
O$ D(3("8(+ @, -,B&(($ ($("* &)$;-, &#%(&'(+ 2,&' "#&#+,-(5 ,$0)$&+* 3+#--(5 &'(
T1/)-M#-3#2 +),/2)* )& R(6*);,$# )$5 #331.,(5 &'+(( 6,//)%(-... I 2)- )/-# &#/5
&')&, /)&(+ ,$ &'( 5)*, &'( H,&/(+,&(- ')5 31& ,$ -(6(+)/ ./)3(- &'( T1/)-M#-3#2
',%'2)*, -#"( &($ ",/(- $#+&' #0 T1/). DW')& -')// 2( 5# $#2ID -),5 G')6#+#$;#6
4&'( /#3)/ P)+&* 3',(07. DA -&+)$%( 91(-&,#$,D I -),5, &+*,$% &# -#1$5 3'((+01/. DW(<//
:1-& %# #$ 5(0($5,$% T1/) )- 8(0#+(, )$5 %# #$ ;,//,$% )-3,-&-.D
N#& 0#+ ) "#"($& 5,5 &'( +#)+ #0 %1$- -&#. ,$ )$5 )+#1$5 T1/). I 3)//(5 1. &'(
3#"")$5 .#-& #0 &'( M5N&' +,0/( 5,6,-,#$ ,$ &'( 6,//)%( #0 P#.#6;,$#, )$5 )-;(5 0#+
,&- 3#"")$5(+, C#/#$(/ S,*)C#6. DM,;'),/ A/(B)$5+#6,3',D I ')5 &# 8(//#2 ,$&# &'(
0,(/5 &(/(.'#$(, D&);( ,""(5,)&( -&(.- &# 3/()+ &'( !(+")$- #00 &'( M#-3#2
',%'2)*HD S,*)C#6 3#1/5 ')+5/* '()+ "(. I ')5 &# -.(// #1& (6(+* 2#+5. T'($ I
3#1/5 0),$&/* '()+ '," -)*: DC#"+)5( !($(+)/, *#1+ #+5(+ 2,// 8( 3)++,(5 #1&. I )"
#+5(+,$% &'( 999&' +(%,"($& &# )&&)3;.D
I )-;(5 S,*)C#6 &# ,$0#+" "( '#1+/*. N#& 0#+ ) "#"($& 5,5 I 5#18& &')& &'(* 2#1/5
-133((5. T'($ &'( .'#$( +)$% 0+#" H.R., )$5 !($(+)/ G'1;#6 )-;(5 0#+ "(. I 0(/& ,&
2#1/5 8( )$ 1$./()-)$& 3#$6(+-)&,#$. A$5 -# ,& 2)-. DW(//, C#"+)5( B#/5,$,D
G'1;#6 -),5, D&',- ,- &'( &',+5 &,"( *#1<6( ")$)%(5 &# %(& *#1+-(/0 ($3,+3/(5. I-$<& ,&
+)&'(+ &## "13'I I )/+()5* &#/5 *#1 &# "#6( *#1+ )+"* '()591)+&(+- )$5 3#"")$5
.#-& &# L).&(6#. B1& *#1 2(+( .,%-'()5(5, 2#1/5$<& 3)++* #1& "* #+5(+...D
DC#"+)5( C#"")$5(+,D I -),5, D,0 I )$5 "* )+"* -&)00 ')5 /(0&, !15(+,)$ 2#1/5
)/+()5* 8( '(+(. T'( .#-,&,#$ 2#1/5 8( "13' 2#+-( &')$ ,& ,- $#2.D
#+ ) 3#1./( #0 ",$1&(- &'(+( 2)- ) /#15 3+)3;/( ,$ &'( +(3(,6(+, )$5 0,$)//* I 3#1/5
'()+ G'1;#6 )%),$. DW')& -&(.- )+( *#1 &);,$%ID '( -),5. I +(.#+&(5 &')& &'( 999&'
+,0/( +(%,"($& #0 &'( M5N&' 5,6,-,#$ ')5 %#$( ,$&# )3&,#$ &# 3/()+ &'( M#-3#2
',%'2)* )$5 &')&, "#+(#6(+, )$ )&&)3; 2)- 8(,$% "#1$&(5 )%),$-& &'( !(+")$- )&
K)-',+). DW')& '(/. 5# *#1 $((5ID -),5 G'1;#6. DM)* I )-; *#1 &# "#6( &'( &)$;-
#0 !(&")$<- 5,6,-,#$ -#1&'2)+5- )/#$% &'( M#-3#2 ',%'2)* &# "((& &'( 999&'
+,0/(-ID DA(+* 2(//, I -')//,D -),5 G'1;#6. DB1& *#1, &##, 5# *#1+ -&100.D
S,*)C#6 2($& #$ .'#$,$% '#1+ 8* '#1+. T'( 999&' +(%,"($& ')5 8(($ 0,%'&,$% 0#+
-(6($&(($ '#1+- 2'($ )$#&'(+ .'#$( 3)// 3)"(. A$ #6(+:#*(5 (B3,&(5 S,*)C#6
+(.#+&(5: DC#"+)5( C#"")$5(+, A(5($,$ 4&'( R(%,"($&<- 3#"")$5(+7 ')- :1-&
.'#$(5 &# -)* &')& ',- "($ )$5 &'( !(+")$ &)$;- ')6( :#,$(5 1.. T+)00,3 ")* 8(
+(-1"(5 )/#$% &'( T1/)-M#-3#2 ',%'2)*.D
IBo$din6 o+: cit:6 ++: 1J4,-:K
At Tu$a6 Decem0er 3 turned out to 0e the most critica$ dayL at most other sectors of the
front6 ho#e3er6 the 1ermans had 0een 3irtua$$y sto++ed a0out a #ee< ear$ier6 and a$ready
+re+arations #ere in fu$$ +ro%ress for the 2ussian counter,offensi3e #hich #as to start on
the )th:
To#ards the midd$e of their second offensi3e a%ainst Mosco#6 the 1ermans #ere
0e%innin% to suffer from the co$d: A $itt$e o3er a #ee< after 1uderian had 0itter$y
com+$ained that he cou$dn't mo3e his tan<s 0ecause of the mud and #as ho+in% for an
ear$y frost6 #hich #ou$d ma<e it easier to ad3ance on Mosco#6 he started to com+$ain
e=ua$$y 0itter$y a0out the frost for #hich he had $on%ed: @n ;o3em0er ) he #rote:
I& ,- ",-(+)8/( 0#+ &'( &+##.- )$5 ) %+()& .,&* &')& &'( ($("* -'#1/5 &'1- %),$ &,"(
2',/( #1+ ./)$- )+( .#-&.#$(5 1$&,/ &'( 2,$&(+ ,- "#+( )$5 "#+( )56)$3(5. I& )//
");(- "( 6(+* -)5... T'( 1$,91( 3')$3( #0 -&+,;,$% ) -,$%/( %+()& 8/#2 ,- 0)5,$%
"#+( )$5 "#+(. H#2 &',$%- 2,// &1+$ #1&, !#5 #$/* ;$#2-.
And then he said that6 on ;o3em0er 76 F#e suffered our first se3ere cases of frost0iteF:
By ;o3em0er 17 he sounded e3en more do#ncast:
W( )+( #$/* $()+,$% #1+ 0,$)/ #8:(3&,6( -&(. 8* -&(. ,$ &',- ,3* 3#/5 )$5 2,&' )// &'(
&+##.- -100(+,$% 0+#" &',- )..)//,$% -1../* -,&1)&,#$. T'( 5,00,31/&,(- #0 -1../*,$% 1-
8* +),/+#)5 )+( 3#$-&)$&/* ,$3+()-,$%... W,&'#1& 01(/, #1+ &+13;- 3)$<& "#6(... Y(&
#1+ &+##.- )+( 0,%'&,$% 2,&' 2#$5(+01/ ($51+)$3( 5(-.,&( )// &'(-( ')$5,3).-... I )"
&')$;01/ &')& #1+ "($ )+( -13' %##5 -#/5,(+-.
?t #as a$$ most distressin%: As he $ater #rote:
T'( 1941 ')+6(-& ')5 8(($ ) +,3' #$( &'+#1%'#1& &'( 3#1$&+*, )$5 &'(+( 2)- $#
-'#+&)%( #0 3)&&/(. 4B1&7 )- ) +(-1/& #0 #1+ 2+(&3'(5 +),/ 3#""1$,3)&,#$- #$/* )
-")// )"#1$& #0 0##5 3#1/5 8( -($& &# !(+")$* 0+#" &'( )+() #0 &'( S(3#$5 P)$C(+
A+"*.
=1uderian6 o+: cit:6 ++: &4),9: .ere is a$so to 0e found the much more du0ious story
a0out the #onderfu$$y %ood care the 1ermans #ere ta<in% to su++$y the 2ussian ci3i$ians
at @re$ and e$se#here #ith foodP As #e sha$$ $ater see6 @re$ suffered from an a++a$$in%
famine in the #inter of 1941,& under 1uderian's tender care: See +: )9":K
O$ N#6("8(+ 1K, 2( /()+$(5 &')& S,8(+,)$ &+##.- ')5 )..()+(5 ... )$5 &')& "#+(
2(+( )++,6,$% 8* +),/ )& R,)C)$ )$5 K#/#"$). T'( 11M&' I$0)$&+* D,6,-,#$ ")5(
3#$&)3& 2,&' &'(-( $(2 S,8(+,)$ &+##.-. S,$3( ($("* &)$;- 2(+( )&&)3;,$%
-,"1/&)$(#1-/*... &'( 2();($(5 &+##.- 3#1/5 $#& ")$)%( &',- 0+(-' ($("*. B(0#+(
:15%,$% &'(,+ .(+0#+")$3( ,& -'#1/5 8( 8#+$( ,$ ",$5 &')& ()3' +(%,"($& ')5
)/+()5* /#-& -#"( 5LL "($ 0+#" 0+#-&8,&(, &')&, )- ) +(-1/& #0 &'( 3#/5, &'( ")3',$(-
%1$- 2(+( $# /#$%(+ )8/( &# 0,+( )$5 &')& #1+ @K-"". )$&,&)$; %1$ ')5 .+#6(5
,$(00(3&,6( )%),$-& &'( R1--,)$ T-@4 &)$;-. T'( +(-1/& #0 )// &',- 2)- ) .)$,3... T',-
2)- &'( 0,+-& &,"( &')& -13' ) &',$% ')5 #331++(5 51+,$% &'( R1--,)$ 3)".),%$...
T'( 8)&&/(-2#+&',$(-- #0 #1+ ,$0)$&+* 2)- )& )$ ($5...
For a$$ that6 1uderian continued to attac< Tu$a6 and a$so records the fact that his troo+s
did6 at one moment6 cut the Tu$a,Mosco# hi%h#ay as #e$$ as the Tu$a,Mosco# rai$#ayL
0ut it is c$ear from his story that somethin% #ent #ron%Dthou%h he does not say
anythin% e8ce+t that Fthe stren%th of the troo+s #as e8hausted6 as #as their su++$y of
fue$:F
A$$ su0se=uent attac<s on Tu$a fai$ed6 $ar%e$y6 accordin% to 1uderian6 for the same
reasons6 and 0ecause on Decem0er 4 the thermometer had dro++ed to minus 31V5:6 and
on the -th to minus )JV (sic): This is a +hysica$ im+ossi0i$ity6 and must 0e re%arded6 it
seems6 as a Freudian $a+se6 0etrayin% 1uderian's ur%e to 0$ame e3erythin% on the
#eatherP
The 2ussians6 #hi$e denyin% that it #as e8ce+tiona$$y co$d in ;o3em0er6 a%ree that it
#as 3ery co$d indeed in Decem0erL #hat they 3ery ri%ht$y +oint out is that it is a stu+id
fa$$acy to ima%ine that 2ussian so$diers do hot suffer6 $i<e any0ody e$se6 from e8treme
co$dP 9hat they do say6 ho#e3er6 is that the So3iet troo+s had far 0etter #inter c$othin%
than the 1ermans:
!($(+)/ B/1"($&+,&& 8,&&(+/* )5",&- &')& &'( !(+")$ -#/5,(+- 2(+( 5(-&,$(5 &#
-.($5 &'(,+ 0,+-& 2,$&(+ ,$ R1--,) 0,%'&,$% '()6,/*, )$5 2,&' $#&',$% &# 2()+ 81&
-1""(+ 3/#&'(-, #6(+3#)&- )$5 8/)$;(&-. A& &'( -)"( &,"(, )33#+5,$% &# ',", D"#-&
#0 &'( R1--,)$ (00(3&,6(- 2(+( 2(// -1../,(5 2,&' -'#+& 01+ :)3;(&-, .)55(5 :)3;(&-
(telogreiki), 0(/& 8##&- (valenki) )$5 01+ ')&- 2,&' ()+-0/).-. T'(* )/-# ')5 01+ %/#6(-,
",&&($- )$5 2)+" 1$5(+2()+.D W( 3)$ #$/* )%+(( 2,&' &'(-( /)"($&)&,#$- #0 &'(
8()&($ N)C, %($(+)/. T'( 0)3&- '( "($&,#$- "(+(/* -'#2... &')& &'( S#6,(& H,%'
C#"")$5 .+#6(5 "#+( 0)+-,%'&(5 &')$ &'( !(+")$ H,%' C#"")$5... #+ &'( 0,+-&
&,"( ,$ W#+/5 W)+ II &'( N)C, A+"* 2)- .)--,$% &'+#1%' ) -(6(+( 3+,-,-. T'( N)C,
%($(+)/- 2(+( 5((./* 5,-3#1+)%(5 8* &'( ($#+"#1- /#--(- &'(,+ &+##.- ')5 -100(+(5,
)$5 8* &'(,+ 0),/1+( &# ($5 &'( 2)+ )%),$-& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ ,$ 1941. A// &'(,+ '#.(-
#0 2)+", 3#"0#+&)8/( 8,//(&- ,$ M#-3#2 ')5 %#$( 1. ,$ -"#;(.. .
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 +: &)J:K
The a$most astronomica$ fi%ures of 1erman $osses =uoted at the time for o03ious
+ro+a%anda +ur+oses 0y 0oth Sta$in and the So3inform0ureau communi=uNs are not
re+eated in +resent,day So3iet histories of the 9ar: ?n the course of the second 1erman
offensi3e a%ainst Mosco# (;o3em0er 1) to Decem0er -)6 says the Histor!, the 1erman
$osses #ere: --6""" dead6 o3er 1""6""" #ounded and frost0itten6 777 tan<s6 &97 %uns and
mortars6 &44 machine,%uns6 o3er -"" tommy,%uns #hich is a reasona0$e estimate6 not
%reat$y differin% from the $osses su%%ested6 for instance6 0y 1uderian:
I?0id:6 +: &)-:K
The tota$ 1erman $osses for the first fi3e months of the #ar are no# +ut not at Sta$in's
four and a ha$f mi$$ion6 0ut at 7-"6"""6 not countin% the $osses of 1ermany's a$$ies: This
fi%ure is e3en s$i%ht$y $o#er than that %i3en 0y the 1ermans themse$3es: As .i$$%ru0er
and Baco0sen say: FThere is no dou0t that 1erman $osses #ere 3ery hi%h durin% the first
+hase of the 2ussian cam+ai%n6 es+ecia$$y durin% the Batt$e of Mosco#::: The tota$ $osses
of the 1erman army in the east #ere6 u+ to Decem0er 1"6 1941 (not countin% the sic<)6
77-6"7J men (rou%h$y6 &4:&& +er cent of the eastern armies #hich6 on the a3era%e6
tota$$ed 3:& mi$$ion men): Accordin% to .a$der's Diar! the $osses #ere as fo$$o#s (in
round fi%ures) u+ to the second ha$f of the second Mosco# offensi3e:
T#&)/ 1. &# @1 J1/* M1@,LLL "($
T#&)/ 1. &# @ A1%1-& M4M,LLL "($
T#&)/ 1. &# @L S(.&("8(+ 551,LLL "($
T#&)/ 1. &# 6 N#6("8(+ 6N6,LLL "($
T#&)/ 1. &# 1@ N#6("8(+ KLL,LLL "($
T#&)/ 1. &# M@ N#6("8(+ K@4,LLL "($
T#&)/ 1. &# M6 N#6("8(+ K4@,LLL "($
@f these near$y &""6""" #ere dead6 inc$udin% J6""" officers:
As a%ainst this6 the 1erman authors %$um$y remar<6 1-)6""" #as the tota$ of the 1erman
$osses (of #hom6 some 3"6""" dead) durin% the #ho$e of the 9estern cam+ai%n in 194"P
I B: S: Te$+u<ho3s<y6 o+: cit:6 1erman edition6 footnote on +: 93:K
C').&(+ XII THE MOSCOW COUNTER-OENSIAE
?n +re+arin% for its #inter counter,offensi3e6 the So3iet .i%h 5ommand had a minimum
and a ma8imum +ro%ramme:
IAs is im+$ied in ?A@ASSK
The minimum +ro%ramme #as to restore communications #ith 0$oc<aded enin%rad6 to
$ift the threat han%in% o3er Mosco#6 and to c$ose the 1ermans' access to the 5aucasus:
The ma8imum +ro%ramme #as to 0rea< the enin%rad 0$oc<ade6 to encirc$e the 1ermans
0et#een Mosco# and Smo$ens< and to reca+ture the Don0as and the 5rimea: As thin%s
turned out6 e3en the minimum +ro%ramme #as on$y +art$y carried out: 2osto36 the
F+ad$oc< of the 5aucasusF had 0een $i0erated 0y the 2ussians at the end of ;o3em0er6
and the 1ermans #ere +ushed 0ac< to the Mius $ine6 0ut a+art from a $oca$ offensi3e in
the Don0as6 $ater in the #inter6 #hich reca+tured a sma$$ sa$ient inc$udin% Bar3en<o3o
and o>o3aya6 the 2ussians %ot no further: ?n the 5rimea6 Se0asto+o$ #as ho$din% out6
0ut the 2ussian $andin% on Decem0er &) on the 4erch !eninsu$a in the Castern 5rimea
#as to end in disaster in the fo$$o#in% s+rin%: @n the enin%rad front the reca+ture of
Ti<h3in on Decem0er 9 a$$e3iated enin%rad's su++$y +osition considera0$y: But the $and
0$oc<ade as such continued: The 2ussian ad3ance in the Mosco# area #as more
s+ectacu$ar6 yet des+ite the $i0eration of $ar%e territoriesDone of the 2ussian thrusts6 for
instance6 #ent near$y a$$ the #ay to Ae$i<ie u<i6 a matter of a0out &"" mi$esDthe
1ermans succeeded in ho$din% the 2>he3,1>hats<,Aia>ma trian%$e of fortified hed%eho%
+ositions6 $ess than a hundred mi$es #est of Mosco#:
?t #as .it$er #ho6 a%ainst the ad3ice of many of his %enera$sD these ad3ocated a maHor
#ithdra#a$Dinsisted on ho$din% 2>he36 Aia>ma6 (u<hno36 4a$u%a6 @re$ and Brians<L
and6 #ith the e8ce+tion of 4a$u%a6 a$$ these +$aces #ere he$d: Many of the discoura%ed
%enera$sDamon% them Brauchitsch6 .T++ner and 1uderianD#ere sac<ed6 #hi$e 3on
Boc< fe$$ Fi$$F: ?n the north6 3on ee0 #as a$so re$ie3ed of his command for reasons of
Fhea$thF and #as re+$aced 0y 1enera$ 4Rch$er6 a more #ho$ehearted ;a>i: .it$er had
0een %reat$y disa++ointed 0y 3on ee0's fai$ure to ca+ture enin%rad in Au%ust or
Se+tem0er6 Hust as he had 0een incensed 0y 3on Boc<'s fai$ure to ca+ture Mosco#:
2undstedt a$so fe$$ into tem+orary disfa3our after the 2ussian reca+ture of 2osto3:
The 2ussian counter,offensi3e #as $aunched on Decem0er -,) a$on% a$most the #ho$e
-)" mi$es from 4a$inin in the north to (e$ets in the south6 and durin% the 3ery first days
s+ectacu$ar +ro%ress #as made near$y e3ery#here: A characteristic of the fi%htin% in
#inter conditions #as the a3oidance6 as far as +ossi0$e6 of fronta$ attac<s on the enemy's
rear%uard6 and the formation of mo0i$e +ursuit units6 ca$cu$ated to cut the enemy's $ines
of retreat and create +anic amon% them: Such +ursuit units6 com+ara0$e to the 5ossac<s
of 1J1&6 #ho merci$ess$y harassed the #rande /rmAe, #ere com+osed of tommy,
%unners6 s<i troo+s6 tan<s and ca3a$ryDnota0$y the ca3a$ry units under 1enera$ Be$o3
and 1enera$ Do3ator: But the resu$ts of these tactics often +ro3ed disa++ointin%6 and the
ca3a$ry units suffered +articu$ar$y hea3y casua$ties:
The 0eha3iour of the 1ermans in this #inter #ar 3aried from +$ace to +$aceL usua$$y they
sti$$ offered stu00orn resistance6 0ut #ere c$ear$y o0sessed 0y the fear of encirc$ementL
thus6 #hen 0y Decem0er 13 the 2ussians c$osed in on 4a$inin and 4$in and summoned
the 1erman %arrisons to surrender6 these reHected the u$timatum6 0ut ne3erthe$ess
hastened to +u$$ out 0efore it #as too $ateDnot #ithout first6 it is true6 settin% fire to as
many 0ui$din%s as +ossi0$e: ?n other +$aces6 ho#e3er6 the 1erman retreat often
de%enerated into a +anic f$i%ht: 9est of Mosco# and in the Tu$a area6 mi$es and mi$es of
roads #ere $ittered #ith a0andoned %uns6 $orries and tan<s6 dee+$y em0edded in the sno#:
The comic F9inter Frit>F6 #ra++ed u+ in #omen's sha#$s and feather 0oas sto$en from
the $oca$ +o+u$ation6 and #ith icic$es han%in% from his red nose6 made his first
a++earance in 2ussian fo$<$ore:
@n Decem0er 136 So3inform0ureau +u0$ished its famous communi=uN announcin% the
fai$ure of the 1erman attem+t to encirc$e Mosco#6 and descri0in% the first resu$ts of the
2ussian counter,offensi3e: The ne#s+a+ers +u0$ished +hoto%ra+hs of the outstandin%
So3iet %enera$s #ho had #on the 0att$e of Mosco#: Ohu<o36 e$yushen<o6 4u>netso36
2o<osso3s<y6 1o3oro36 Bo$din6 1o$i<o36 Be$o3 and A$aso36 the future traitorP
By the midd$e of Decem0er the 2ed Army had ad3anced near$y e3ery#here 0et#een
t#enty and forty mi$es6 and had $i0erated 4a$inin6 4$in6 ?stra6 (e$ets6 and had com+$ete$y
re$ie3ed Tu$aL in the second ha$f of Decem0er the offensi3e continued6 the 2ussians
reca+turin% 4a$u%a and Ao$o<o$ams<6 #here6 in the main s=uare6 they found a %a$$o#s
#ith ei%ht 0odies han%in% from itDse3en men and one #oman: These #ere a$$e%ed$y
+artisans #hom the 1ermans had +u0$ic$y han%ed to terrorise the +o+u$ation:
?f6 on some sectors of the front the 1ermans #ere $itera$$y on the run6 in others they
continued to fi%ht 3ery stu00orn$yL thus6 in 4a$u%a6 one of the to#ns #hich .it$er had
ordered to 0e he$d at a$$ costs6 the 1ermans #ere on$y dri3en out after se3era$ days of
hea3y street fi%htin%:
True6 the 1ermans #ere often handica++ed 0y a shorta%e of ade=uate #inter c$othin%L 0ut
the 0itter co$d and the dee+ sno# did not ma<e thin%s easy for the 2ussians either: ?t
shou$d a$so 0e stressed that the 2ussians had no mar<ed su+eriority6 either in trained men
or in e=ui+ment: Accordin% to the +resent,day 2ussian Histor! the State Defence
5ommittee and the %tav*a had6 on the e3e of the 2ussian counter,offensi3e6 fai$ed6
des+ite enormous efforts6 to achie3e the necessary su+eriority in the Mosco# area6 #here
the 1ermans had concentrated their most +o#erfu$ army %rou+: They sti$$ had a
su+eriority of 1:1:1 in men6 of 1:J:1 in arti$$ery and of 1:4:1 in tan<s6 #hi$e So3iet troo+s6
0oth in the 4a$inin and the Mosco# sectors6 had 0een #ea<ened 0y the defensi3e 0att$e
for the ca+ita$: The a3ai$a0$e strate%ic reser3es #hich #ere thro#n in6 es+ecia$$y in the
areas of the main thrusts6 he$+ed to o3ercome the enemy's su+eriority in man+o#er6 0ut
#ere not sufficient to ti+ the sca$es6 the more so as the 1ermans sti$$ had more tan<s and
%uns at their dis+osa$:
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 +: &)":K
The 2ed Army #as 3ery se3ere$y handica++ed 0y a shorta%e in motorised trans+ort:
There #ere on$y J6""" truc<s a3ai$a0$e on the Mosco# sectors of the front6 a tota$$y
inade=uate num0er: ;ot e3en ha$f of the re=uired ammunition6 food and other su++$ies
cou$d 0e de$i3ered 0y motor trans+ort6 and many hundreds of horse,s$ei%hs had to 0e
used to ma<e u+ for the shorta%e in truc<s: A$thou%h the carryin% ca+acity of the horse,
s$ei%hs #as sma$$6 they had the ad3anta%e of %ettin% throu%h sno#,drifts more easi$y than
hea3y $orries:
The shorta%e of the 2ed Army's motor trans+ort in 1941,& is 3ery stri<in% #hen one
thin<s of the hundreds of thousands of American truc<s #hich #ere to increase so
enormous$y the 2ed Army's mo0i$ity from 1943 onD0ut not 0efore:
;umerous measures #ere ta<en6 des+ite a$$ these difficu$ties6 to mo3e the Army's su++$y
0ases nearer the FrontL 0ut if the %reat 2ussian counter,offensi3e in the #inter of 1941,&
+ro3ed in the end to 0e on$y a +artia$ success6 it #as due6 as #e sha$$ see6 to se3era$
factorsL shorta%e of trans+ort6 es+ecia$$y as the $ines of communications %re# $on%er and
$on%erL a %ro#in% shorta%e of arms and ammunitionL and6 fina$$y6 the e8haustin% nature
of the #inter #ar: Before s+rin% came6 the 2ed Army #as terri0$y tired: A$so6 the .i%h
5ommand had made a num0er of errors:
?n 3ery hea3y fi%htin% durin% the #ho$e of Decem0er6 and the first ha$f of Banuary6 the
2ed Army had dri3en the 1ermans a considera0$e distance a#ay from Mosco#L 0ut the
+ro%ress of the 2ussian offensi3e #as 3ery une3enL the northern f$an< had ad3anced
furthest #estD0y some &"" mi$es6 and the southern f$an< 0y near$y as much6 0ut due
#est of Mosco# itse$f6 the 1ermans #ere c$in%in% to their 2>he3,1>hats<,Aia>ma
s+rin%0oard: The %tav*a0s directi3es of Decem0er 9 sho# that the 2ussian command #as
+$annin% a 3ast encirc$ement of the 1erman forces o++osite Mosco#6 #ith one +incer
stri<in% north of them and the other south: .it$er6 on the other hand6 #ho after the +ur%e
amon% his %enera$s had assumed the su+reme command himse$f6 ordered Army 1rou+
Mitte to defend fanatica$$y the +ositions he$d #est of Mosco#6 and to ta<e no notice of
the enemy 0rea<in% throu%h on their f$an<s:
The 1ermans had suffered se3ere $osses in the Batt$e of Mosco#L they #ere fi%htin% in
unusua$ #inter conditions6 their mora$e #as often $o#L ne3erthe$ess they continued to
re+resent a formida0$e force:
By Banuary 16 the 2ussians6 dra#in% on their reser3es6 achie3ed e=ua$ity in man+o#er
and6 on some sectors of the front6 e3en a certain su+eriority in tan<s and aircraftDtan<s6
1:):16 aircraft6 1:4:1 D0ut the 1ermans sti$$ had a 3:1 su+eriority in anti,tan< #ea+ons: ?n
short6 not#ithstandin% the 2ed Army's %reat successes in Decem0er and the first ha$f of
Banuary6 its su+eriority #as6 accordin% to +resent,day So3iet historians6 tota$$y
insufficient for the maHor offensi3e the So3iet Su+reme 5ommand had in mind:
?t #as 3ery co$d in Banuary 194&6 and the hea3y sno#fa$$ had made trans+ort e8treme$y
difficu$t:
ITem+eratures a3era%ed minus &"V to &- V56 (4V to 13V of frost Fahrenheit:)K
C8ce+t for a re$ati3e$y sma$$ num0er of s<i troo+s6 the 2ussian troo+s cou$d6 in fact6 mo3e
on$y a$on% the roads6 and not #ithout much difficu$ty at that: As the 2ussians ad3anced6
the difficu$ties of usin% aircraft a$so increased6 since there #ere no airfie$ds ready for use
in the ne#$y $i0erated areas: (et a further set of instructions dated Banuary 76 194&6
confirms that the So3iet .i%h 5ommand #as sti$$ determined to 0rea< u+6 encirc$e and
destroy a$$ the 1erman forces 0et#een Mosco# and Smo$ens<: But as the 2ussians
ad3anced ra+id$y in the north6 and on$y s$o#$y in the centre6 the $ine of the front had
near$y dou0$ed in $en%th 0y the midd$e of Banuary: @n Banuary 1-6 .it$er6 thou%h
resi%ned to a0andonin% some territory6 %a3e a further order to his troo+s to ta<e u+ stron%
defensi3e +ositions east of 2>he36 Aia>ma6 1>hats< and (u<hno3o: 2i%orous
disci+$inary measures #ere introduced6 and .aider6 the 5hief of Staff6 issued a directi3e
denouncin% +anic and 0e#i$derment and +ro+hesyin% that the 2ussian offensi3e #ou$d
soon +eter out:
The 2ussian Histor! no# admits that the stren%thenin% of 1erman resistance 0y
+ro+a%anda6 disci+$inary measures6 and reinforcements from the #est6 #as underrated 0y
the So3iet .i%h 5ommand: A$ready on Banuary &-6 the 2ussians suffered their first maHor
set0ac< in fai$in% to ta<e 1>hats< 0y stormL in the southD#est of Tu$aDthe 1erman
resistance #as stiffenin% as #e$$6 and on this sector of the front the 2ed Army came
3irtua$$y to a standsti$$ 0y the end of Banuary:
But the Su+reme 5ommand sti$$ +ersisted #ith its +$an for a 0i% encirc$ement6 and
decided to dro+ a $ar%e num0er of +aratroo+s in the enemy rear6 to cut enemy
communications and to ser3e as a $in< 0et#een the +incers #hich #ere e8+ected to c$ose
round the 1ermans near Smo$ens<: (et 1erman resistance #as increasin% e3ery#here
and a$$ 2ussian attem+ts to 0rea< throu%h to Aia>ma6 the noda$ +oint in the 1erman
defences6 #ere doomed to fai$ure:
?n a num0er of +$aces the 1ermans started counter,attac<in%: 2ene#ed massi3e tan<
attac<s6 es+ecia$$y in the Aia>ma area6 +roduced more heroic deeds on the +art of the
2ussians6 simi$ar to that of the !anfi$o3 men at Ao$o<o$ams< in Decem0er: ?nside a
cartrid%e case em0edded in a tree trun< a note #as found after the #ar #ritten 0y a dyin%
so$dier6 A$e8ander Aino%rado36 #ho6 #ith t#e$3e others6 had 0een sent to sto+ 1erman
tan<s from ad3ancin% a$on% the Mins< hi%h#ayD
... A$5 $#2 &'(+( )+( #$/* &'+(( #0 1- /(0&... W( -')// -&)$5 0,+" )- /#$% )- &'(+(<-
)$* /,0( /(0& ,$ 1-... N#2 I )" )/#$(, 2#1$5(5 ,$ "* )+" )$5 "* '()5. T'( $1"8(+
#0 &)$;- ')- ,$3+()-(5. T'(+( )+( &2($&*-&'+((. I -')// .+#8)8/* 5,(. S#"(8#5* ")*
0,$5 "* $#&( )$5 +("("8(+ $(? I )" ) R1--,)$, 0+#" +1$C(. I ')6( $# .)+($&-.
!##58*(, 5()+ 0+,($5-. Y#1+ A/(B)$5(+ A,$#%+)5#6. MM.M.4M.
?t is =uite c$ear that the 2ussian .i%h 5ommand o3errated 0oth the 2ussian armies'
dri3in% force and the 0rea<do#n in the mora$e and or%anisation of the 9ehrmacht after
the set0ac<s they had suffered in Decem0er and the first +art of Banuary:
The +$ans to encirc$e and smash a$$ the 1erman forces 0et#een Mosco# and Smo$ens<6
as #e$$ as to reca+ture @re$ and Brians< +ro3ed much too am0itious: 9ith the 1ermans
most$y du% in6 and the 2ussians ad3ancin%6 the conditions created 0y a +articu$ar$y harsh
#inter u$timate$y affected the 2ussians more than it did the 1ermans: ;ot on$y #ere
reser3es in 0oth men and e=ui+ment insufficient (industria$ +roduction of #ar materia$
#as6 as e8+$ained 0efore6 at its $o#est e00)6 0ut #hat reser3es #ere used #ere thro#n in
+iecemea$: Thus6 the %tav*a0s order that Brians< 0e reca+tured6 and reinforcements 0e
sent to that area6 di3erted the 2ed Army from its main aim6 #hich #as to smash the
1ermans in the Aia>ma area: The orders issued 0y the %tav*a as $ate as March &" that the
2ed Army shou$d occu+y a $ine c$ose to Smo$ens< (Be$yi,Doro%o0u>h,(e$nya,4rasnoye6
t#enty,ei%ht mi$es south,#est of Smo$ens<)6 that it shou$d Hoin u+ #ith the 2ussians'
units in the enemy rear6 and that it shou$d ca+ture 1>hats< 0y A+ri$ 1 and Aia>ma a0out
the same time6 as #e$$ as Brians<6 and ca+ture 2>he3 not $ater than A+ri$ -6 turned out to
0e tota$$y unrea$istic:
The tha# that set in at the end of March reduced sti$$ further the 2ed Army's mo0i$ityL
nor did the 2ed Army6 0y this time6 ha3e much air su++ort6 and its su++$y $ines had
+ractica$$y 0ro<en do#n: By the end of March the 2ussian offensi3e came to a com+$ete
standsti$$: For many months after the offensi3e had sto++ed +arachutists and other troo+s
in the enemy rear under 5a3a$ry 1enera$ Be$o36 and the $oca$ +artisans6 continued to
harass 1erman communications6 0ut the net resu$t of the Banuary,March 194& o+erations
#as 0itter$y disa++ointin% after the enthusiasm caused 0y the Batt$e of Mosco# +ro+er:
IAccordin% to the 2ussians the 0u$< of the men in the Suche3<a +oc<et did not 0rea< out
unti$ the fo$$o#in% Bune:K
2ussian $osses #ere much hi%her than those of the 1ermansL the troo+s #ere #orn out6
and the shorta%e of e=ui+ment and ammunition 0e%an to 0e <een$y fe$t 0y the midd$e of
Fe0ruary: True6 $ar%e areas had 0een $i0eratedDthe #ho$e of the Mosco# +ro3ince6 most
of the 4a$inin +ro3ince6 the #ho$e of the Tu$a6 and most of the 4a$u%a +ro3ince: But the
$ar%e 2>he3,1>hats<,Aia>ma s+rin%0oard6 #hich #as to continue to threaten Mosco#6
had remained in 1erman hands: Some dead$y fi%htin% #as to %o on for this in the
summer of 194&6 and it #as not ti$$ the 0e%innin% of 1943 that the 1ermans #ere dri3en
out of it: Many so$diers #ho had fou%ht at 3arious +arts of the front $ater to$d me that
+erha+s the most heart,0rea<in% months in their e8+erience #ere Fe0ruary,March 194&:
After the hi%h ho+es that had 0een raised 0y the Batt$e of Mosco#6 e3erythin% seemed to
0e %oin% #ron% a%ain: The 1ermans had $ost the Batt$e of Mosco#6 0ut they #ere c$ear$y
3ery far from finished:
5ommentin% on the resu$ts of the 2ussian #inter offensi3e6 the +resent,day 2ussian
Histor! ma<es the fo$$o#in% im+ortant +oints:
T'( "#+)/ (00(3& (6($ #0 &'( ,$3#"./(&( 6,3&#+* #0 &'( R(5 A+"* 51+,$% &'( 2,$&(+
3)".),%$ #0 1941-M 2)- ($#+"#1-, )$5 5(3,-,6(/* -&+($%&'($(5 &'( S#6,(& .(#./(<-
0),&' ,$ 1/&,")&( 6,3&#+*?
T'( (00(3& #$ ',%'/* 518,#1- $(1&+)/- /,;( T1+;(* )$5 J).)$ 2)- /,&&/( -'#+& #0
#6(+2'(/",$%?
T')$;- &# &'( R1--,)$ 2,$&(+ #00($-,6(, ,& 2)- $#2 .#--,8/( &# -&#. &'( (6)31)&,#$ #0
3($&+)/-R1--,)$ ,$51-&+* &# &'( ()-&, 2',3' "()$& &')& &'( #1&.1& #0 )+")"($&- )$5
"1$,&,#$- ,$ &'( M#-3#2 )+() ,$ .)+&,31/)+ 3#1/5 8( +(-1"(5 )$5 ,$&($-,0,(5? ,$
-#"( 3)-(-, ./)$&- 2(+( 8+#1%'& 8)3; 0+#" &'( ()-&.
;e3erthe$ess6 the #inter offensi3e did not achie3e a$$ the desired resu$ts:
T'( #00($-,6( &##; ./)3( ,$ (B3(.&,#$)//* 5,00,31/& 3#$5,&,#$-. T'( R(5 A+"* -&,//
/)3;(5 &'( (B.(+,($3( #0 #+%)$,-,$% )$5 3#$513&,$% ) /)+%(--3)/( #00($-,6(
#.(+)&,#$. T'( (B&+("( 3#/5, &'( 5((. -$#2, &'( 6(+* /,",&(5 $1"8(+ #0 1-)8/(
+#)5-, -(6(+(/* /,",&(5 ")$#(16+)8,/,&*. T'( 5(/,6(+* #0 -1../,(- )$5 &'(
#+%)$,-)&,#$ #0 ),+0,(/5- "(& 2,&' ($#+"#1- 5,00,31/&,(-. 3or could the country supply
the Army /ith all it needed by /ay o* e.uipment, armaments and munitions. All this
had a bad e**ect on the tempo o* the o**ensive, and on the per*ormance o* the troops,
and o*ten prevented the )ed Army *rom making the best use o* *avourable conditions
*or the annihilation o* large enemy groupings. T',- 0,+-& )&&(".& &# "#1$& ) -&+)&(%,3
3#1$&(+-#00($-,6( )$5 &'($ ) %($(+)/ #00($-,6( )/#$% &'( 2'#/( 0+#$& 2)- ")+;(5 8*
-#"( -(+,#1- ",-&);(- #$ &'( .)+& #0 &'( S1.+("( C#"")$5, )$5 #0 &'( 3#"")$5
#0 -(.)+)&( )+"* %+#1.-.
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ??6 +: 3-9: (Cm+hasis added:)K
9hat #ere these mista<es and shortcomin%sE
1) The Su+reme 5ommand did not a$#ays ma<e the 0est use of the reser3es at its
dis+osa$: @ften troo+s #ere thro#n into 0att$e #ithout sufficient +re$iminary trainin%:
The reco%nition of this error #as ref$ected in the ne# re%u$ations issued 0y the State
Defence 5ommittee on March 1)6 194&:
&) @n the #ho$e6 the 2ed Army a$so $ac<ed $ar%e mechanised and armoured units6 #hich
%reat$y reduced the troo+s' stri<in% force and the s+eed of their ad3anceL the 1ermans6 on
the contrary6 used concentrated tan< formations in their counter,attac<s6 e3en in the
#inter conditions of 1941,&:
9hat is more6 ha3in% o3er,estimated the resu$ts of the Decem0er,Banuary counter,
offensi3e6 the Su+reme 5ommand did not use its reser3es rationa$$y: ?n the course of the
su0se=uent #inter cam+ai%n6 the %tav*a scattered its reser3es unnecessari$y: nine ne#
armies #ere thro#n in: t#o #ere sent to the Ao$<ho3 Front6 one to the ;orth,9est Front6
one to the 4a$inin Front6 three to the 9estern (Mosco#) Front6 one each to the Brians<
and South,9est FrontD
W'($, )& &'( 0,$)/ -&)%( #0 &'( B)&&/( #0 M#-3#2, 3#$5,&,#$- 2(+( &'#1%'&
0)6#1+)8/( 0#+ ($3,+3/,$% )$5 +#1&,$% #0 A+"* !+#1. Mitte, &'( Stavka $# /#$%(+
')5 &'( $(3(--)+* +(-(+6(-, )$5 &'( -&+)&(%,3 #.(+)&,#$, 2',3' ')5 8(($ -133(--01//*
5(6(/#.,$%, +("),$(5 1$3#"./(&(5. I0 ")--(5 0#+3(- ')5 8(($ 3#$3($&+)&(5 )%),$-&
A+"* !+#1. MitteE,.(. #$ &'( 5(3,-,6( DW(-&(+$D +#$&E&',- A+"* !+#1. 2#1/5
1$5#18&(5/* ')6( 8(($ -")-'(5.
3) The concentrated use of the air force at the initia$ sta%e of the Batt$e of Mosco#
cou$d6 for a num0er of reasons6 not 0e <e+t u+:
4) !artisan acti3ity in the enemy rear #as of %reat 3a$ue to the 2ed Army6 and had6
accordin% to 1uderian's admission6 a 3ery de+ressin% mora$ effect on the 1erman troo+s:
But many mista<es #ere a$so made in the conduct of +artisan #arfareL
A- ,& &1+$(5 #1&, &'( 3#$-&,&1&,#$ #0 /)+%( )$5 61/$(+)8/( .)+&,-)$ 0#+")&,#$-
.+#6(5 ) "):#+ (++#+... T'( ($("* 5,5 $#& ')6( &# 5()/ 2,&' $1"(+#1- )$5 (/1-,6(
-")// .)+&,-)$ 8)$5- #6(+ 2,5( )+()-. I$-&()5, '( +(-#+&(5 &# /)+%( ",/,&)+*
#.(+)&,#$- ,$ &'( )+()- #0 .)+&,-)$ )3&,6,&*. T',- 3#".(//(5 &'( .)+&,-)$ 1$,&- &#
)5#.& 5(0($-,6( &)3&,3-, 2',3' )+( $#& ,$ &'( $)&1+( #0 .)+&,-)$ 2)+0)+(, )$5 &'(,+
/#--(-, &'(+(0#+(, 2(+( 6(+* '()6*.
F
Sta$in's @rder of the Day on 2ed,Array Day on Fe0ruary &36 194& and on May,Day 194&
sounded6 +arado8ica$$y6 $ess o+timistic than his t#o s+eeches in ;o3em0er 1941 #ith the
1ermans ri%ht outside Mosco#: .e no $on%er su%%ested that the #ar #ou$d 0e #on Fin
si8 months6 +erha+s in a yearF:
The hatred of the 1ermans had6 if anythin%6 %ro#n since the Batt$e of Mosco#: ?n
reca+turin% numerous to#ns and many hundreds of 3i$$a%es6 the 2ussian so$diers %ot
their first first,hand e8+erience of the F;e# @rderF: C3ery#here the 1ermans had
destroyed #hate3er they cou$dL a$$ 0ut three houses had 0een 0urned do#n at ?stra6 for
instance6 #here they had a$so 0$o#n u+ the ancient ;e# Berusa$em Monastery: ?n se3era$
to#ns and 3i$$a%es6 #hich the 2ed Army entered6 there #ere %a$$o#s #ith F+artisansF
han%in% from them: ater6 in 194&61 e8+$ored some of the to#ns and 3i$$a%es that had
0een occu+ied then destroyed 0y the 1ermansDit #as a$#ays the same %rim story:
The 1ermans in to#ns and 3i$$a%es round Mosco#L the 1ermans in ancient 2ussian cities
$i<e ;o3%orod6 !s<o3 and Smo$ens<L the 1ermans in the su0ur0s of enin%radL the
1ermans at To$stoy's (asnaya !o$yanaL the 1ermans at @re$6 at %o36 at Shchi%ry6 the
o$d Tur%enie3 country6 the most 2ussian of a$$ the 2ussian areas: They #ere ro00in%6 and
$ootin% and <i$$in%L #hen they #ere retreatin% they #ou$d 0urn do#n e3ery house6 and in
the de+th of #inter ci3i$ians #ere $eft #ithout house and home: ;othin% $i<e this had
ha++ened to 2ussia 0eforeDe8ce+t under the Tartar in3asions: The an%er and resentment
a%ainst the 1ermans6 mi8ed #ith a fee$in% of infinite +ity for the 2ussian +eo+$e6 for the
2ussian $and6 defi$ed 0y the in3ader6 +roduced an emotiona$ reaction of nationa$ +ride
and nationa$ inHury #hich #as e8traordinari$y #e$$ ref$ected in the $iterature and music of
1941 and the ear$y +art of 194&:
Some of the 0est +oems6 thou%h un<no#n at the timeDthey #ere not +u0$ished unti$
194-Dref$ectin% the 0itter an8iety durin% the first months of the in3asion6 #ere #ritten
0y Boris !asterna<D
D# *#1 +("("8(+ &')& 5+*$(-- ,$ *#1+ &'+#)&
W'($ +)&&/,$% &'(,+ $);(5 .#2(+ #0 (6,/
T'(* 2(+( 8)+%,$% )'()5 )$5 8(//#2,$%
A$5 )1&1"$ 2)- )56)$3,$% ,$ -&(.- #0 3)/)",&*I
FBar%in% and 0e$$o#in%F and Fratt$in% their na<ed +o#er of e3i$F6 as !asterna< +ut it6 #as
not e8act$y the same thou%htDsomethin% $i<e a FMartian ?n3asionFDcon3eyed 0y that
horri0$e6 inhuman $itt$e theme of Shosta<o3ich's (eningrad %!mphon! Today it may
seem noisy6 me$odramatic6 re+etiti3e (the theme6 is6 indeed6 re+eated $ouder and $ouder
and $ouder no fe#er than e$e3en times)L yet6 as a documentary of 19416 as a ref$ection of
the fee$in% that here #as Fna<ed e3i$F in a$$ its stu+endous6 arro%ant6 inhuman$y terrifyin%
+o#er o3er,runnin% 2ussia there is a$most nothin% to e=ua$ it:
The $ament for the 2ussian and too< on other forms6 too: 4onstantin Simono3's +oems
0ecame immense$y +o+u$ar durin% that #inter of 1941,&: For instance the a%onisin%
+icture of the 2ussian retreat from the Smo$ens< +ro3ince6 #ith $ines $i<e these:
... A$5 ,& -(("(5 &')& #1&-,5( (6(+* R1--,)$ 6,//)%(
O1+ %+)$50)&'(+- ')5 +,-($ 0+#" &'( 5()5,
A$5 2(+( -',(/5,$% 1- 2,&' &'(,+ #1&-&+(&3'(5 )+"-,
A$5 .+)*,$% 0#+ 1-, &'(,+ %#5/(-- %+)$53',/5+($...
R1--,), #1+ '#"(/)$5, 2')& ,- ,&I I )-; *#1?
I&<- $#& M#-3#2 '#1-(-, 2'(+( 2( 3'((+01//* /,6(5,
I& ,- +)&'(+ &'(-( .##+ '1&- 2'(+( #1+ %+)$50)&'(+- /)8#1+(5,
A$5 &'( R1--,)$ %+)6(- 2,&' &'(,+ -,"./( 3+#--(-...
.ere #as a <ind of nosta$%ia for the 2ussian land, e3en in its +oorest and most archaic
form:
@r the sti$$ more famous $ait "or me, #ith its irrationa$6 a$most re$i%ious undertones:
W),& 0#+ "(, )$5 I<// +(&1+$, #$/* 2),& 6(+* ')+5.
W),&, 2'($ *#1 )+( 0,//(5 2,&' -#++#2 )- *#1 2)&3' &'( *(//#2 +),$?
W),&, 2'($ &'( 2,$5- -2((. &'( -$#25+,0&-,
W),& ,$ &'( -2(/&(+,$% '()&,
W),& 2'($ #&'(+- ')6( -&#..(5 2),&,$%, 0#+%(&&,$% &'(,+ *(-&(+5)*-.
W),& (6($ 2'($ 0+#" )0)+, $# /(&&(+- 3#"( &# *#1,
W),& (6($ 2'($ #&'(+- )+( &,+(5 #0 2),&,$%...
W),& (6($ 2'($ "* "#&'(+ )$5 -#$ &',$; I )" $# "#+(,
A$5 2'($ 0+,($5- -,& )+#1$5 &'( 0,+(, 5+,$;,$% &# "* "("#+*.
W),&, )$5 5# $#& '1++* &# 5+,$; &# "* "("#+*, &##?
W),&, 0#+ I<// +(&1+$, 5(0*,$% (6(+* 5()&'.
A$5 /(& &'#-( 2'# 5,5 $#& 2),& -)* &')& I 2)- /13;*?
T'(* 2,// $(6(+ 1$5(+-&)$5 &')& ,$ &'( ",5-& #0 5()&',
Y#1, 2,&' *#1+ 2),&,$%, -)6(5 "(.
O$/* *#1 )$5 I 2,// ;$#2 '#2 I -1+6,6(5:
I&<- 8(3)1-( *#1 2),&(5, )- $# #$( (/-( 5,5.
This $itera$ trans$ation natura$$y does not render the rhythm of the ori%ina$L as a +oem it
is6 in fact6 3ery mediocreL 0ut6 ne3erthe$ess6 from the autumn of 19416 #hen it #as first
+u0$ished6 ri%ht throu%h 194&6 it #as the most +o+u$ar +oem in 2ussia6 #hich mi$$ions of
#omen recited to themse$3es $i<e a +rayer:
?t is difficu$t at this distance6 e8ce+t for those #ho #ere in 2ussia at the time6 to rea$ise
ho# im+ortant a +oem $i<e this #as to $itera$$y mi$$ions of 2ussian #omenL no one cou$d
te$$ ho# many hundreds of thousands had died at the front since Bune &&6 or had 0een
ta<en +risoner or #ere other#ise missin%:
A$most e=ua$$y im+ortant #ere some other +oets and #riters: !eo+$e #ere dee+$y mo3ed
for instance 0y Oo!a, Mar%arita A$i%her's +oem on the +artisan %ir$ #ho #as han%ed
outside Mosco#Da +oem $ater turned into a +$ay: This re+resents the %ir$'s ha$$ucinations
durin% the ni%ht 0et#een her torture 0y the 1ermans and her e8ecution6 Sta$in a++earin%
in the $ast scene to say that Mosco# has 0een sa3ed: ?m+ortant6 too6 #as Sur<o3's +oetry6
e:%: his +rose +oem6 / %oldier0s Hath #ritten in 1941:
I )" ) R1--,)$ ")$, ) -#/5,(+ #0 &'( R(5 A+"*. M* 3#1$&+* ')- .1& ) +,0/( ,$ "*
')$5, )$5 ')- -($& "( &# 0,%'& )%),$-& &'( 8/)3; '#+5(- #0 H,&/(+ &')& ')6( 8+#;($
,$&# "* 3#1$&+*. S&)/,$ ')- &#/5 "( &')& &'( 8)&&/( 2,// 8( ')+5 )$5 8/##5*, 81& &')&
6,3&#+* 2,// 8( ",$(.
I '()+5 S&)/,$, )$5 ;$#2 ,& 2,// 8( -#. I )" &'( 19@ ",//,#$ #0 0+(( S#6,(& "($, )$5 &#
)// #0 &'(" H,&/(+<- *#;( ,- "#+( 8,&&(+ &')$ 5()&'...
M,$( (*(- ')6( 8('(/5 &'#1-)$5- #0 5()5 8#5,(- #0 2#"($ )$5 3',/5+($, /*,$% )/#$%
&'( +),/2)*- )$5 &'( ',%'2)*-. T'(* 2(+( ;,//(5 8* &'( !(+")$ 61/&1+(-... T'( &()+-
#0 2#"($ )$5 3',/5+($ )+( 8#,/,$% ,$ "* '()+&. H,&/(+ &'( "1+5(+(+ )$5 ',- '#+5(-
-')// .)* 0#+ &'(-( &()+- 2,&' &'(,+ 2#/0,-' 8/##5? 0#+ &'( )6($%(+<- ')&+(5 ;$#2- $#
"(+3*...
@f the %reatest im+ortance6 too6 as mora$e,0ui$ders6 #ere Chren,0ur%'s artic$es in Pravda
and Bed %tarD0ri$$iant and e$o=uent diatri0es a%ainst the 1ermans6 #hich #ere 3ery
+o+u$ar in the Army: They #ere6 occasiona$$y6 criticised on the %round that he tended to
ridicu$e the 1ermans6 for%ettin% #hat a +o#erfu$6 dead$y enemy they #ere: .is
su%%estion that all 1ermans #ere e3i$ #as6 of course6 at 3ariance #ith the officia$
ideo$o%ica$ $ine (re+eated once a%ain in Sta$in's order of the day of Fe0ruary &3)6 0ut
FChren0ur%ismF #as fu$$y a++ro3ed in the circumstances as the most effecti3e form of
hate +ro+a%anda: ;or #as he a$one in ta<in% this +ro+a%anda $ine: there #ere a$so
Sho$o<ho3 and A$e8ei To$stoy6 and many others: The Fa$$ 1ermans are e3i$F motif #as to
0ecome e3en more outs+o<en in the fearfu$ summer of 194&:
C').&(+ XIII THE DIPLOMATIC SCENE O THE IRST
MONTHS O THE INAASION
Di+$omatica$$y6 the So3iet *nion #as in a 3ery stran%e +osition at the time of the 1erman
in3asion: The on$y t#o em0assies in Mosco# that seemed to count in the eyes of the
So3iet authorities 0efore that #ere the 1erman and the Ba+anese Cm0assies6 and6 of a$$
am0assadors6 5ount 3on der Schu$en0ur% #as the one the 2ussians cu$ti3ated most: The
Ba+anese Am0assador #as a$so 0ein% courted6 es+ecia$$y since the Matsuo<a 3isit a fe#
months ear$ier: As a %esture of a++easement to#ards .it$er6 di+$omatic re$ations had 0een
0ro<en off in May 1941 #ith ;or#ay6 Be$%ium6 (u%os$a3ia and 1reeceL 0ut Aichy
France #as re+resented 0y a fu$$,f$ed%ed Am0assador6 1aston Ber%ery:
A+art from S#eden6 Tur<ey6 ?ran6 Af%hanistan and Fin$and6 3ery fe# neutra$ countries
#ere re+resentedL and if6 #ith the American Cm0assy6 under aurence A: Steinhardt6
re$ations #ere correct6 0ut no more6 the British Cm0assy6 under Sir Stafford 5ri++s6 #as
officia$$y treated #ith de$i0erate coo$ness6 a$most 0orderin% on rudeness: 5ri++s had the
%reatest difficu$ty in maintainin% contact #ith the So3iet Forei%n 5ommissariat6 and6 ti$$
the out0rea< of the #ar in Bune 19416 he had not 0een +ri3i$e%ed to meet Sta$in6 and had
to content himse$f #ith occasiona$$y seein% Ayshins<y6 #hose manner #as far from
forthcomin%:
There is in 5hurchi$$'s %econd $orld $ar FAo$: 36 ++: 3&",3:K a 3ery curious +assa%e
concernin% the one and on$y messa%e he sent Sta$in on A+ri$ 36 as<in% 2ussia6 in effect6
to inter3ene in the Ba$<ans:
PRIME MINISTER TO SIR STAORD CRIPPS
#//#2,$% 0+#" "( &# M. S&)/,$, provided it can be personally delivered by you4
I ')6( -1+( ,$0#+")&,#$ 0+#" ) &+1-&(5 )%($& &')& 2'($ &'( !(+")$- &'#1%'& &'(*
')5 %#& Y1%#-/)6,) ,$ &'( $(&E,.(. )0&(+ M)+3' MLE&'(* 8(%)$ &# "#6( &'+(( #1& #0
&'( 0,6( P)$C(+ 5,6,-,#$- 0+#" R1")$,) &# S#1&'(+$ P#/)$5. T'( "#"($& &'(*
'()+5 #0 &'( S(+8,)$ +(6#/1&,#$ &',- "#6("($& 2)- 3#1$&(+")$5(5. Y#1+
EB3(//($3* 2,// +()5,/* )..+(3,)&( &'( -,%$,0,3)$3( #0 &'(-( 0)3&-.
Cden6 in his dis+atch to 5ri++s accom+anyin% the 5hurchi$$ messa%e as<ed that 5ri++s
shou$d +oint out to Sta$in (if he #ere to see him) that the So3iet *nion no# had an
o++ortunity of Hoinin% forces #ith Britain in the Ba$<ans 0y furnishin% materia$ he$+ to
(u%os$a3ia and 1reeceL this #ou$d de$ay a 1erman attac< on 2ussia:
5ri++s meantime had sent a detai$ed $etter a$on% the same $ines to Ayshins<yL and he
therefore thou%ht that 5hurchi$$'s Ffra%mentaryF messa%e #ou$d do more harm than %ood:
I %+()&/* 0()+ &')& &'( 5(/,6(+* #0 &'( P+,"( M,$,-&(+<- "(--)%( 2#1/5 $#& 8( "(+(/*
,$(00(3&1)/, 81& ) -(+,#1- &)3&,3)/ ",-&);(. I0, '#2(6(+, *#1 )+( 1$)8/( &# -')+( &',-
6,(2, I 2,// #0 3#1+-( ($5()6#1+ &# )++)$%( 1+%($&/* 0#+ )$ ,$&(+6,(2 2,&' M#/#&#6.
F? #as 3e8ed at this6F 5hurchi$$ #rote6 Fand at the de$ay #hich had occurred:F
After some acrimonious e8chan%es 0et#een 5hurchi$$ and 5ri++s via Cden6 5ri++s
fina$$y #ired more than a fortni%ht $ater (after (u%os$a3ia had a$ready 0een in3aded) that
he had sent the te8t of 5hurchi$$'s messa%e to Ayshins<yL and on A+ri$ && he #rote to
Cden:
FAyshins<y informed me in #ritin% today that messa%e had 0een con3eyed to Sta$in:F
?n the summer of 19416 in ta$<in% to me6 5ri++s a$$uded to this e+isode6 #hen he said:
I$ L#$5#$ &'(* ')5 $# ,5() 2')& 5,00,31/&,(- I 2)- 1. )%),$-& '(+(. T'(* 5,5 $#&
2)$& &# +()/,-( &')& $#& #$/* S&)/,$, 81& (6($ M#/#&#6 )6#,5(5 "( /,;( %+," 5()&'?
0#+ -(6(+)/ "#$&'- 8(0#+( &'( 2)+, A*-',$-;* 2)- "* #$/* 3#$&)3&, )$5 ) ',%'/*
1$-)&,-0)3&#+* #$( )& &')&. S&)/,$, I 3)$ &(// *#1, 5,5 $#& /ant &# ')6( )$*&',$% &# 5#
2,&' C'1+3',//, -# )/)+"(5 2)- '( /(-& &'( !(+")$- 0#1$5 #1&. A$5 M#/#&#6 2)- $#
8(&&(+. A& &'( -)"( &,"(, &'(* /(& ,& 8( 1$5(+-&##5 &')& &'(* 5,5$<& ",$5 &'(,+
",/,&)+* &)/;,$% &# #1+ ",/,&)+*.
5hurchi$$ $ater commented:
I 3)$$#& 0#+" )$* 0,$)/ :15%"($& 1.#$ 2'(&'(+ "* "(--)%(, ,0 5(/,6(+(5 2,&' )//
&'( .+#".&$(-- )$5 3(+("#$* .+(-3+,8(5, 2#1/5 ')6( )/&(+(5 &'( 3#1+-( #0 (6($&-.
N(6(+&'(/(-- I -&,// +(%+(& &')& "* ,$-&+13&,#$- 2(+( $#& 3)++,(5 #1& (00(3&,6(/*. I0 I
')5 ')5 )$* 5,+(3& 3#$&)3& 2,&' S&)/,$ I ",%'& .(+').- ')6( .+(6($&(5 '," 0+#"
')6,$% -# "13' #0 ',- ),+ 0#+3( 5(-&+#*(5 #$ &'( %+#1$5.
?t #as c$ear from #hat 1ri++s $ater said that the messa%e cou$d certain$y not ha3e 0een
de$i3ered F#ith a$$ the +rom+tness and ceremony +rescri0edF for the sim+$e reason that
Sta$in #ou$d not e3en dream of ha3in% any such FceremonyF: Fina$$y6 it is a$so c$ear that
this +articu$ar messa%e6 su%%estin% that the 2ussians inter3ene in the Ba$<ans6 #ou$d
ha3e +roduced no resu$ts6 since Sta$in had firm$y set his mind to continue in his +o$icy of
co,e8istence #ith .it$er: Moreo3er6 it #ou$d ha3e arri3ed too $ate to sa3e (u%os$a3ia:
But e3en if the 2ussians #ere fri%htened of 0ein% dra%%ed into a Ba$<an #ar they mi%ht
a$$ the same ha3e $istened to 5ri++s #hen the $atter +ersisted in #arnin% them of the
imminent 1erman attac< on the So3iet *nion: At the same time Cden <e+t on #arnin%
Mais<y #ho6 as the $atter $ater assured me6 did not fai$ to +ass these #arnin%s on to
Mosco#: But it #as no %ood:
5ri++s had no reason to 0e satisfied #ith the So3iet $eadersL ne3erthe$ess6 #hen the
in3asion started6 he did his utmost to restore norma$ re$ations 0et#een Britain and the
So3iet *nion: There is a su%%estion in 5hurchi$$'s %econd $orld $ar that the 2ussians
#ere at first #ho$$y unres+onsi3e to his famous 0roadcast of Bune &&D
... (B3(.& &')& .)+&- #0 ,& 2(+( .+,$&(5 ,$ 'ravda... )$5 &')& 2( 2(+( )-;(5 &# +(3(,6(
) R1--,)$ ",/,&)+* ",--,#$. T'( -,/($3( )& &'( &#. 2)- #..+(--,6(, )$5 I &'#1%'& ,&
"* 51&* &# 8+(); &'( ,3(. I 91,&( 1$5(+-&##5 &')& &'(* ",%'& 0((/ -'*, 3#$-,5(+,$% )//
&')& ')5 .)--(5 -,$3( &'( #1&8+(); #0 &'( 2)+.. .
IAo$ume ???6 +: 34":K
May0e they :ere shyL 0ut6 in rea$ity6 they #ere de$i%hted and6 as ? often heard it said at
the time6 F+$easant$y sur+rised F 0y 5hurchi$$'s 0roadcastL #ith their +ecu$iar menta$ity6
they had thou%ht an An%$o,1erman dea$ not entire$y out of the =uestion6 and they had
0een confirmed in this sus+icion e3er since the .ess e+isode:
A$thou%h Sta$in did not communicate #ith 5hurchi$$ +ersona$$y unti$ after the $atter had
#ritten to him on Bu$y 76 he hastened to esta0$ish c$ose re$ations #ith 5ri++s: Bare$y a
#ee< after the in3asion6 the first 0atch of the British Mi$itary Mission6 #ith 1enera$
Mason MacFar$ane at its head6 f$e# to Mosco#: At the same time 5ri++s had 0een
discussin% #ith 0oth Sta$in and Mo$oto3 the terms of a Hoint An%$o,So3iet Dec$aration6
#hich #as to 0e made +u0$ic on Bu$y 1&: The idea of this Hoint dec$aration ori%inated on
the 2ussian side6 as is a++arent from 5hurchi$$'s messa%e to 5ri++s of Bu$y 1":
?t is reasona0$e to su++ose that if Sta$in did not communicate #ith 5hurchi$$ immediate$y
after the $atter's 0roadcast of Bune &&6 it #as 0ecause the So3iet 1o3ernment #as
0e#i$dered 0y #hat #as ha++enin%: After a$$6 it too< Sta$in fu$$y e$e3en days after the
in3asion to formu$ate anythin% in the nature of a +o$icy statement e3en to his o#n +eo+$e:
A$so #ithout necessari$y fee$in% FshyF6 Sta$in may #e$$ ha3e had a 3ariety of $on%,
standin% inhi0itions6 dou0ts and reser3ations a0out British +o$icy6 and may ha3e 0een
an8ious to secure the An%$o,So3iet Dec$aration 0efore +roceedin% any further: And
#hen6 fina$$y6 on Bu$y 1J6 he did #rite to 5hurchi$$6 it #as to +ro+ose the esta0$ishment of
a Second FrontDFin the #est (northern France) and in the north (the Arctic)F:
T'( 8(-& &,"( &# #.($ &',- +#$& ,- $#2, -((,$% &')& H,&/(+<- 0#+3(- ')6( 8(($
-2,&3'(5 &# &'( ()-&... I& 2#1/5 8( ()-,(+ -&,// &# #.($ ) +#$& ,$ &'( $#+&'. T',-
2#1/5 3)// 0#+ )3&,#$ #$/* 8* B+,&,-' $)6)/ )$5 ),+ 0#+3(-, 2,&'#1& /)$5,$% &+##.- #+
)+&,//(+*. S#6,(& /)$5, $)6)/ )$5 ),+ 0#+3(- 3#1/5 &);( .)+& ,$ &'( #.(+)&,#$. W(
2#1/5 8( %/)5 ,0 !+()& B+,&),$ 3#1/5 -($5 &',&'(+, -)*, #$( /,%'& 5,6,-,#$ #+ "#+( #0
&'( N#+2(%,)$ 6#/1$&((+-, 2'# 3#1/5 8( "#6(5 &# N#+&'(+$ N#+2)* 0#+ ,$-1+%($&
#.(+)&,#$- )%),$-& &'( !(+")$-.
5hurchi$$6 in his re+$y of Bu$y &16 dismissed a$$ this as tota$$y unrea$istic6 inc$udin% the
;or#e%ian $i%ht di3ision6 #hich #as sim+$y Fnot in e8istenceF6 0ut +ro+osed a num0er of
na3a$ o+erations in the Arctic6 and the esta0$ishment of a num0er of British fi%hter
s=uadrons at Murmans<:
@n Bu$y &)6 5hurchi$$ #rote to Sta$in a%ain6 sayin% that &"" Tomaha#<s #ou$d soon 0e
sent to 2ussiaL that t#o or three mi$$ion +airs of an<$e 0oots Fshou$d short$y 0e a3ai$a0$e
in this country for shi+mentF6 and that6 moreo3er6 F$ar%e =uantities of ru00er6 tin6 #oo$
and #oo$$en c$othes6 Hute6 $ead and she$$acF #ou$d 0e +ro3ided:
A$$ this #as on$y a sma$$ 0e%innin%L 0ut it shou$d 0e remem0ered that in the summer of
1941 Britain #as6 in fact6 2ussia's on$y a$$yL the *nited States #as not in the #ar yet:
This #ou$d +art$y e8+$ain a certain +etu$ance in Sta$in's tone in his re$ations #ith Britain6
and +articu$ar$y #ith 5hurchi$$: this #as the on$y country from #hich he cou$d FdemandF
direct mi$itary co,o+erationL 0ut since such direct mi$itary aid #as c$ear$y not
forthcomin%6 the most im+ortant thin% to do #as to try to o0tain from the 9est the
ma8imum economic aid in the form of armaments and ra# materia$sL and6 in this res+ect6
the *nited States #as far more im+ortant than Britain:
The 0i% =uestionDand Sta$in #as fu$$y a#are of itD#hich 0othered 0oth Britain and the
*nited States #as #hether 2ussian resistance to 1ermany cou$d6 or cou$d not6 $ast any
$en%th of time: As one cou$d %uess at the time6 and as #e <no# no#6 5hurchi$$ #as 0y no
means certain that 2ussia #ou$d F$astF $on%:
The British mi$itary #ere a$most unanimous in 0e$ie3in% that 2ussia #ou$d 0e defeated in
a short time: e3en at +ress conferences %i3en durin% the first days of the #ar at the
Ministry of ?nformation in ondon6 9ar @ffice s+o<esmen made no secret of it: Their
tone 0ecame s$i%ht$y different 0y the midd$e of Bu$y6 $ar%e$y6 one sus+ects6 as a resu$t of
the dis+atches sent from Mosco# 0y 1enera$ Mason MacFar$ane #ho6 #hi$e referrin%
occasiona$$y to Fthis 0$oodstained rN%imeF6 ne3erthe$ess did not underrate the fi%htin%
=ua$ities of the 2ed Army: Mason MacFar$ane6 #ith #hom ? had numerous ta$<s in
Mosco#6 a++eared con3inced6 e3en durin% the 0$ac<est moments6 that the 2ussians #ere
at any rate determined to fi%ht a 3ery $on% #ar6 and that e3en the $oss of Mosco#D#hich
#as not to 0e ru$ed out ear$y in @cto0erD#ou$d not mean the end:
@+inion at the American Cm0assy in Mosco# #as rather di3ided: The Mi$itary AttachN6
MaHor ?3an (eaton6 #as con3inced that the 2ed Army #ou$d 0e smashed in a 3ery short
timeL Am0assador Steinhardt too< $ess %$oomy a 3ie#L 0ut the 0i% c$ash 0et#een the t#o
schoo$s of thou%ht #as not to come unti$ $ater6 #ith the a++ointment as end,ease
re+resentati3e in Mosco# of 5o$one$ !hi$i+ 2: Faymon3i$$e: This a++ointment #as made
0y !resident 2oose3e$t at .arry .o+<ins's su%%estion: Faymon3i$$e had accom+anied
.arriman to Mosco# at the end of Se+tem0er6 and he #as con3inced from the start that
the 2ed Army's +ros+ects #ere 0y no means as ho+e$ess as (eaton had 0een ma<in% out
e3er since the 0e%innin% of the in3asion:
The fact that Faymon3i$$e shou$d ha3e 0een a++ointed to Mosco# at .o+<ins's
su%%estion #as hi%h$y si%nificant: ?t #as .o+<ins #ho un=uestiona0$y decided6 durin%
his 3isit to Mosco# at the end of Bu$y that the 2ussians cou$d6 if not #in the #ar6 at any
rate ho$d out for a 3ery $on% time6 and this #as a$so the 3ie# he$d 0y Faymon3i$$e: And
after the Batt$e of Mosco#6 Faymon3i$$e 0ecame fina$$y con3inced that the 2ussians
#ou$d not $ose the #ar:
.arry .o+<ins's 3isit #as of crucia$ im+ortance to the #ho$e future of American,So3iet
and An%$o,So3iet re$ations: As 2o0ert C: Sher#ood #rote:
T'( 0/,%'& =0+#" A+3')$%(/> &# M#-3#2 &##; 0#1+ '#1+-, )$5 51+,$% ,& H#.;,$-
8(%)$ &# 8( +()--1+(5 )- &# &'( 01&1+( #0 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$. H( /##;(5 5#2$ 1.#$ &'(
'1$5+(5- #0 ",/(- #0 -#/,5 0#+(-&, )$5 '( &'#1%'& &')& H,&/(+ 2,&' )// &'( P)$C(+
5,6,-,#$- #0 &'( W('+")3'& 3#1/5 $(6(+ '#.( &# 8+(); &'+#1%' 3#1$&+* /,;( &',-.
@n arri3in% in Mosco#
H#.;,$- ')5 ) /#$% &)/; 2,&' S&(,$')+5& ,$ 2',3' '( -),5 &')& &'( "),$ .1+.#-( #0
',- 6,-,& 2)- &# 5(&(+",$( 2'(&'(+ &'( -,&1)&,#$ 2)- )- 5,-)-&+#1- )- .,3&1+(5 ,$ &'(
W)+ D(.)+&"($&, )$5 .)+&,31/)+/* )- ,$5,3)&(5 ,$ &'( 3)8/(- 0+#" &'( M,/,&)+*
A&&)3'S, M):#+ I6)$ Y()&#$.
The 3ie#s of Am0assador Steinhardt6 as descri0ed 0y Sher#ood6 ta$$y #ith Steinhardt's
attitude6 as ? #as a0$e to o0ser3e it in Mosco# in the summer of 1941:
S&(,$')+5& -),5 =&# H#.;,$-> &')& )$*#$( 2'# ;$(2 )$*&',$% )8#1& R1--,)$ ',-&#+*
2#1/5 ')+5/* :1". &# &'( 3#$3/1-,#$ &')& &'( !(+")$- 2#1/5 )3',(6( ()-*
3#$91(-&. R1--,)$ -#/5,(+- ",%'& )..()+ ,$(.& 2'($ ($%)%(5 ,$ #00($-,6( #.(+)&,#$-
E&'(* ')5 5#$( -# ,$ &'( N).#/(#$,3 2)+- )$5 )%),$ ,$ ,$/)$5. B1& 2'($ &'(*
2(+( 3)//(5 1.#$ &# 5(0($5 &'(,+ '#"(/)$5 &'(* 2(+( -1.(+8 0,%'&(+-, )$5 &'(+(
2(+( 3(+&),$/* ) %+()& ")$* #0 &'(". B1&, S&(,$')+5& (".')-,-(5, ,& 2)- -1.+("(/*
5,00,31/& 0#+ )$* #1&-,5(+ &# %(& ) 3/()+ .,3&1+( #0 2')& 2)- +()//* %#,$% #$... 8(3)1-(
#0 &'( .+(6),/,$% )&&,&15( #0 -1-.,3,#$ &#2)+5 )// 0#+(,%$(+- )$5 3#$-(91($&
-(3+(&,6($(--. H#.;,$- -),5 &')& '( 2)- 5(&(+",$(5 -#"('#2 #+ #&'(+ &# 8+();
&'+#1%' &',- 2)// #0 -1-.,3,#$.
=The $hite House Papers o" Harr! Hop*ins, 0y 2o0ert C: Sher#ood: Ao$ume ?6 ++: 3&7,
J (ondon6 1949):K
Then came his account of .o+<ins's first meetin% #ith Sta$in:
A0&(+ H#.;,$-<- ,$&+#513&#+* +(")+;- &# &'( (00(3& &')& &'( P+(-,5($& 8(/,(6(5 &')&
&'( "#-& ,".#+&)$& &',$% &# 8( 5#$( ,$ &'( 2#+/5 &#5)* 2)- &# 5(0()& H,&/(+ )$5
H,&/(+,-", )$5 &')& '( &'(+(0#+( 2,-'(5 &# ),5 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$, S&)/,$ -.#;(.
H( 2(/3#"(5 H#.;,$- &# &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ )$5 &'($, 5(-3+,8,$% H,&/(+ )$5
!(+")$*, -.#;( #0 &'( $(3(--,&* #0 &'(+( 8(,$% ) ",$,"1" "#+)/ -&)$5)+5 8(&2(($
)// $)&,#$-... T'( .+(-($& /()5(+- #0 !(+")$* ;$(2 $# -13' "#+)/ -&)$5)+5 )$5
+(.+(-($&(5 )$ )$&,--#3,)/ 0#+3( ,$ &'( 2#+/5 &#5)*...
DO1+ 6,(2- 3#,$3,5(,D '( 3#$3/15(5.
T'($, &1+$,$% &# H#.;,$-<- 91(-&,#$ 2')& R1--,) 2#1/5 +(91,+( &')& &'( USA 3#1/5
5(/,6(+ ,""(5,)&(/*, )$5, -(3#$5, 2')& 2#1/5 8( '(+ +(91,+("($&- #$ &'( 8)-,- #0 )
/#$% 2)+, S&)/,$ /,-&(5 ,$ &'( 0,+-& 3)&(%#+* )$&,-),+3+)0& %1$- #0 "(5,1" 3)/,8+(,
&#%(&'(+ 2,&' )""1$,&,#$E )/&#%(&'(+ ML,LLL .,(3(- #0 )$&,-),+3+)0& )+&,//(+*, /)+%(
)$5 -")//. S(3#$5, '( )-;(5 0#+ /)+%(--,C( ")3',$(-%1$- 0#+ &'( 5(0($3( #0 ',- 3,&,(-.
T',+5, '( -),5 '( $((5(5 ) ",//,#$ +,0/(-? D,0 &'( 3)/,8+( 2)- &'( -)"( )- &'( #$( 1-(5
,$ &'( R(5 A+"*, &'($ '( ')5 ./($&* #0 )""1$,&,#$.D
I$ &'( -(3#$5 3)&(%#+*, '( "($&,#$(5 0,+-&, ',%'-#3&)$( )6,)&,#$ %)-#/($(, -(3#$5,
)/1",$,1" 0#+ &'( 3#$-&+13&,#$ #0 )(+#./)$(- )$5, &',+5, &'( #&'(+ ,&("- )/+()5*
"($&,#$(5 ,$ &'( /,-& )/+()5* .+(-($&(5 &# #1+ %#6(+$"($& ,$ W)-',$%&#$.
And then came this stri<in% remar< from Sta$in: F1i3e us antiaircraft %uns and the
a$uminium and #e can fi%ht for three or four years:F
After a $on% meetin% #ith Mo$oto36 #hich #as chief$y de3oted to a some#hat
inconc$usi3e discussion a0out Ba+an6 Mo$oto3 su%%estin%6 in the course of it6 that the
*nited States %i3e Ba+an Fa #arnin%F a%ainst attac<in% 2ussia6 .o+<ins had a second
meetin% #ith Sta$in:
Since the out0rea< of the #ar6 Sta$in said6 the num0er of 1erman di3isions at the 2ussian
front had 0een increased from 17- to &3&6 and he thou%ht 1ermany cou$d mo0i$ise 3"":
2ussia had on$y 1J" di3isions at the 0e%innin%6 0ut had &4" no#6 and cou$d mo0i$ise 3-":
S&)/,$ -&)&(5 &')& '( 3)$ "#8,/,-( &')& ")$* 8* &'( &,"( &'( -.+,$% #00($-,6( 8(%,$-
,$ M)* 194M... H( ,- )$B,#1- &# ')6( )- ")$* #0 ',- 5,6,-,#$- )- .#--,8/( ,$ 3#$&)3&
2,&' &'( ($("*, 8(3)1-( &'( &+##.- &'($ /()+$ &')& !(+")$- 3)$ 8( ;,//(5 )$5 )+(
$#& -1.(+"($... H( 2)$&- &# ')6( )- ")$* -()-#$(5 &+##.- )- .#--,8/( 0#+ &'( %+()&
3)".),%$ $(B& -.+,$%.
H( ")5( "13' #0 D,$-1+%($& &+##.-D =,.(. .)+&,-)$-> 0,%'&,$% 8(',$5 &'( ($("*
/,$(-, )$5 3/),"(5 &')& &'(+( ')5 8(($ $# ")-- -1++($5(+- #0 &+##.- #$ (,&'(+ -,5(.
H( &'#1%'& &'( !(+")$- 2#1/5 -##$ ')6( &# %# #$ &'( 5(0($-,6( &'("-(/6(-, 81&
$(6(+&'(/(--, )5",&&(5 &')& 2',/( &'( R1--,)$- ')5 ) /)+%( $1"8(+ #0 &)$;- )$5
"#&#+,-(5 5,6,-,#$-, $#$( #0 5,(" 2(+( ) ")&3' 0#+ &'( !(+")$ P)$C(+ 5,6,-,#$-.
A// &'( -)"(, '( 8(/,(6(5 &')& &'( /)+%( R1--,)$ &)$;- 2(+( 8(&&(+ &')$ )$* !(+")$
&)$;-...
T'( R(5 A+"*, '( -),5, ')5 $#2 4,LLL /)+%( &)$;-, N,LLL "(5,1" &)$;- )$5 1M,LLL
/,%'& &)$;-? &'( !(+")$- ')5 ) &#&)/ #0 @L,LLL &)$;-.
.is tan< +roduction no# #as on$y 16""" +er month6 he said6 and 2ussia #ou$d 0e short
of stee$:
H( 1+%(5 &')& #+5(+- 0#+ &',- -&((/ 8( ./)3(5 )& #$3(. L)&(+ '( -),5 ,& 2#1/5 8( "13'
8(&&(+ ,0 ',- &)$;- 3#1/5 8( ")$10)3&1+(5 ,$ &'( U$,&(5 S&)&(-. H( )/-# 2,-'(5 &#
.1+3')-( )- ")$* &)$;- )- .#--,8/( &# 8( +()5* 0#+ &'( -.+,$% 3)".),%$. H( -),5 &'(
)//-,".#+&)$& &',$% 2)- &'( .+#513&,#$ #0 &)$;- 51+,$% &'( 2,$&(+E&'( &)$; /#--(-
2(+( 6(+* %+()& #$ 8#&' -,5(-, 81& !(+")$* 3#1/5 .+#513( "#+( &)$;- .(+ "#$&'
&',- 2,$&(+ &')$ R1--,). H( 2#1/5 /,;( &# -($5 ) &)$; (B.(+& &# &'( U$,&(5 S&)&(- )$5
2#1/5 %,6( &'( U$,&(5 S&)&(- ',- &)$; 5(-,%$-.
I Sher#ood6 o+ cit:6 ++: 337,J:K
F.e %a3eF6 .o+<ins %oes on6 Fa much more %$o#in% account of 2ussia's aircraft +osition6
and said that the 1erman c$aims of 2ussian air $osses #ere 'a0surd':F ;e3erthe$ess6 Fhe
e8+ressed considera0$e interest in trainin% +i$ots in America6 and $eft me the im+ression
that there #ou$d soon 0e a shorta%e of +i$ots:F
S&)/,$ +(.()&(5/* -&)&(5 &')& '( 5,5 $#& 1$5(++)&( &'( !(+")$ A+"*. T'(,+
#+%)$,-)&,#$ 2)- #0 &'( 6(+* 8(-&, )$5 &'(* ')5 /)+%( +(-(+6(- #0 0##5, "($, -1../,(-
)$5 01(/... T'( !(+")$ A+"* ,- =&'(+(0#+(> 3).)8/( #0 &);,$% .)+& ,$ ) 2,$&(+
3)".),%$ ,$ R1--,). H( &'#1%'&, '#2(6(+, &')& ,& 2#1/5 8( 5,00,31/& 0#+ &'( !(+")$-
&# #.(+)&( #00($-,6(/* "13' )0&(+ S(.&("8(+ 1, 2'($ &'( '()6* +),$- 2#1/5 8(%,$.
A0&(+ O3&#8(+ 1 &'( %+#1$5 2#1/5 8( -# 8)5 &')& &'(* 2#1/5 ')6( &# %# #$ &'(
5(0($-,6(. H( (B.+(--(5 %+()& 3#$0,5($3( &')& &'( /,$( 51+,$% &'( 2,$&(+ "#$&'-
2#1/5 8( ,$ 0+#$& #0 M#-3#2, K,(6 )$5 L($,$%+)5, .+#8)8/* $#& "#+( &')$ 1LL ;".
)2)* 0+#" 2'(+( ,& 2)- $#2. H(... &'#1%'& &'( !(+")$- 2(+( D&,+(5D, )$5 ')5 $#
-&#")3' 0#+ )$ #00($-,6(. .. T'#1%' !(+")$* 3#1/5 8+,$% 1. 0#+&* 5,6,-,#$-, ");,$%
MK5 5,6,-,#$- ,$ )//, &'(-( 5,6,-,#$- .+#8)8/* 3#1/5 $#& %(& &'(+( 8(0#+( &'( ')+5
2()&'(+ -(& ,$.
=?0id:6 +: 34":K
At this second meetin%6 Sta$in a%ain insisted that the 2ed Army's first need #as anti,
aircraft %unsDF3ast =uantities of these to %i3e +rotection to its $ines of communicationsL
second$y6 a$uminium for the construction of aero+$anesL third$y6 machine,%uns and
rif$es:F
As re%ards the +orts of entry6 he thou%ht Archan%e$ Fdifficu$t6 0ut not im+ossi0$eF since
ice0rea<ers cou$d <ee+ the +ort free a$$ #interL A$adi3osto< he thou%ht dan%erous6 as
Ba+an cou$d cut it off at any time6 and the roads and rai$roads of !ersia Finade=uateF:
DH( =S&)/,$> (B.+(--(5 +(.()&(5/* ',- 3#$0,5($3( &')& &'( R1--,)$ /,$(- 2#1/5 '#/5
2,&',$ MLL ;". #0 &'(,+ .+(-($& .#-,&,#$ ... )$5 ,$5,3)&(5 &')& &'( 0+#$& 2#1/5 8(
-#/,5,0,(5 $#& /)&(+ &')$ O3&#8(+ 1.D
?t is c$ear from #hat .o+<ins to$d Sta$in that he #as not entire$y con3inced that the
2ussians #ou$d sur3i3e the autumn:
DI 2)- ",$501/ #0 &'( ,".#+&)$3( &')& $# 4(3#$#",37 3#$0(+($3( 8( '(/5 ,$ M#-3#2
1$&,/ 2( ;$(2 &'( #1&3#"( #0 &'( 8)&&/( $#2 ,$ .+#%+(--. .. T',- 8)&&/( 2)- -&,// ,$ &'(
8)/)$3(. H($3( "* -1%%(-&,#$ &')& 2( '#/5 &',- 3#$0(+($3( )& )- /)&( ) 5)&( )-
.#--,8/(. T'($ 2( 2#1/5 ;$#2 2'(&'(+ &'(+( 2)- &# 8( ) 0+#$& )$5 )..+#B,")&(/*
&'( /#3)&,#$ #0 &'( 0+#$& 51+,$% &'( 3#",$% 2,$&(+ "#$&'-.D
;e3erthe$ess6 0asin% himse$f on Sta$in's 0e$ief that the front #ou$d 0e Fso$idified not $ater
than @cto0er 1F .o+<ins recommended to the *S 1o3ernment that such a conference
(the future Sta$in,Bea3er0roo<,.arriman conference) 0e he$d 0et#een @cto0er 1 and
@cto0er 1-:
?n conc$usion6 Sta$in said that he thou%ht 1erman mora$e +retty $o#6 and that the
1ermans #ou$d 0e demora$ised sti$$ further 0y an announcement that the *nited States
#as %oin% to Hoin in the #ar a%ainst .it$er:
S&)/,$ =H#.;,$- 3#$&,$1(5> -),5 ,& 2)- ,$(6,&)8/( &')& 2( =&'( USA> 2#1/5 0,$)//*
3#"( &# %+,.- 2,&' H,&/(+ #$ -#"( 8)&&/(0,(/5. T'( ",%'& #0 !(+")$* 2)- =-&,//> -#
%+()& &')&, (6($ &'#1%' R1--,) ",%'& 5(0($5 '(+-(/0, ,& 2#1/5 8( 6(+* 5,00,31/& 0#+
B+,&),$ )$5 R1--,) 3#"8,$(5 &# 3+1-' &'( !(+")$ ",/,&)+* ")3',$(... H( 8(/,(6(5
&'( 2)+ 2#1/5 8( 8,&&(+ )$5 .(+').- /#$% ... )$5 '( 2)$&(5 "( &# &(// &'( P+(-,5($&
&')& '( 2#1/5 2(/3#"( A"(+,3)$ &+##.- #$ )$* .)+& #0 &'( R1--,)$ 0+#$& 1$5(+ &'(
3#"./(&( 3#"")$5 #0 &'( A"(+,3)$ A+"*... ,$)//*, '( )-;(5 "( &# &(// &'(
P+(-,5($& &')&, 2',/( '( 2)- 3#$0,5($& &')& &'( R1--,)$ A+"* 3#1/5 2,&'-&)$5 &'(
!(+")$ A+"*, &'( .+#8/(" #0 -1../* 8* &'( $(B& -.+,$% 2#1/5 8( ) -(+,#1- #$( )$5
&')& '( $((5(5 #1+ '(/..
?n a remar<a0$e artic$e on his meetin%s #ith Sta$in6 .o+<ins $ater #rote:
... H( 2(/3#"(5 "( 2,&' ) 0(2 -2,0& R1--,)$ 2#+5-. H( -'##; "* ')$5 8+,(0/*,
0,+"/*, 3#1+&(#1-/*. H( -",/(5 2)+"/*. T'(+( 2)- $# 2)-&( #0 2#+5, %(-&1+( #+
")$$(+,-". I& 2)- /,;( &)/;,$% &# ) .(+0(3&/* 3#-#+5,$)&(5 ")3',$(, )$ ,$&(//,%($&
")3',$(... T'( 91(-&,#$- '( )-;(5 2(+( 3/()+, 3#$3,-(, 5,+(3&... H,- )$-2(+- 2(+(
+()5*, 1$(91,6#3)/, -.#;($ )- ,0 &'( ")$ ')5 ')5 &'(" #$ ',- &#$%1( 0#+ *()+-... I0
'( ,- )/2)*- )- I '()+5 ',", '( $(6(+ 2)-&(- ) -*//)8/(. I0 '( 2)$&- &# -#0&($ )$
)8+1.& )$-2(+... '( 5#(- ,& 2,&' &')& 91,3; ")$)%(5 -",/(E) -",/( &')& 3)$ 8( 3#/5
81& 0+,($5/*, )1-&(+( 81& 2)+". H( 31++,(- $# 0)6#1+ 2,&' *#1. H( -(("- &# ')6( $#
5#18&-. H( )--1+(- *#1 &')& R1--,) 2,// -&)$5 )%),$-& &'( #$-/)1%'& #0 &'( !(+")$
A+"*. H( &);(- ,& 0#+ %+)$&(5 &')& *#1 ')6( $# 5#18&-, (,&'(+... H( /)1%'- #0&($
($#1%', 81& ,&<- ) -'#+& /)1%', -#"(2')& -)+5#$,3 .(+').-. T'(+( ,- $# -")// &)/; ,$
',". H,- '1"#1+ ,- ;(($, .($(&+)&,$%.
ISher#ood6 o+: cit:6 +: 34-:K
A$thou%h .o+<ins had6 o03ious$y6 come #ith instructions #hich for0ade him to assume
that the 2ussians #ou$d not 0e 0eaten 0efore the #inter had set in6 Sta$in not on$y
enormous$y im+ressed him as a +erson6 0ut a$so con3inced him that the 2ussians #ou$d
ho$d the 1ermans6 and #ere +re+arin% for a 3ery $on% #ar: FA man6F Sher#ood #rote of
the .o+<ins,Sta$in meetin%s6 F#ho feared immediate defeat #ou$d not ha3e +ut
a$uminium so hi%h on the $ist of +riorities: :: The 3ery nature of Sta$in's re=uests +ro3ed
that he #as 3ie#in% the #ar on a $on%,ran%e 0asis:F
And Sher#ood added:
H#.;,$- /)&(+ (B.+(--(5 (B&+("( ,++,&)&,#$ 2,&' &'( ",/,&)+* #8-(+6(+- ,$ M#-3#2
2'($ &'(* 3)8/(5 5)+;/* .(--,",-&,3 +(.#+&- &')& 3#1/5 8( 8)-(5 #$ $#&',$% 81&
"(+( %1(--2#+; 3#/#1+(5 8* .+(:15,3(.
ISher#ood6 o+: cit:6 +: 34-:K
This .o+<ins account of his meetin%s #ith Sta$in is in3a$ua0$e: ?t is6 in fact6 the on$y
detai$ed first,hand account there is of Sta$in at the hei%ht of the 1erman in3asion: Se3era$
+oints are #orth notin%: An8ious to o0tain American aid6 Sta$in +ainted a more
fa3oura0$e +icture than #as #arranted 0y the +ro%ress of the #ar at the end of Bu$y 1941:
.e carefu$$y a3oided any su%%estion of the 2ed Army's acute shorta%e of tan<s and
aircraft: .e <ne# that he cou$d hard$y e8+ect anythin% at once and therefore stressed
himse$f the desira0i$ity of 0ui$din% u+ the So3iet air force and armour in readiness for a
s+rin% cam+ai%n in 194&: .e =uite de$i0erate$y created the im+ression of +$annin% for a
$on%,term #ar: But he #as not Fcurryin% fa3oursFL he too< it for %ranted that it #as in
0oth Britain's and America's interests to he$+ 2ussia:
.e #ent6 of course6 serious$y #ron% in assumin% that the 1ermans #ou$d not ad3ance
more than 1&- mi$es6 that the 2ussians #ou$d <ee+ not on$y Mosco# and enin%rad6 0ut
a$so 4ie36 and that the front #ou$d 0ecome sta0i$ised 0y the 0e%innin% of Se+tem0er6 or
the 0e%innin% of @cto0er at the $atest: 9as there not an e$ement of 0$uff in his a++arent
o+timismE
?t #as on the 0asis of .o+<ins's reasona0$y o+timistic forecast that the Sta$in,
Bea3er0roo<,.arriman conference #as to meet on Se+tem0er &96 a day 0efore the Ffina$F
1erman offensi3e 0e%an a%ainst Mosco#:
The assurance %i3en to .o+<ins that 4ie3 #ou$d 0e he$d may #e$$ ha3e accounted in +art
for Sta$in's determination to ho$d on to the ca+ita$ of the *<raineL a decision #hich had6
as #e <no#6 disastrous resu$ts:
@ne may #e$$ #onder6 a$$ the same6 #hether Sta$in #as not much more ner3ous a0out the
%enera$ situation than #ou$d a++ear from .o+<ins's account: The most stri<in%
su%%estion that Sta$in made to .o+<ins #as that he #ou$d F#e$come American troo+s on
any +art of the 2ussian front under the com+$ete command of the American ArmyF: More
a$armist sti$$ #ere to 0e some of Sta$in's dis+atches to 5hurchi$$ after the %reater +art of
the *<raine had 0een o3errun 0y the 1ermans: Thus6 on Se+tem0er 3 he #rote:
T'( .#-,&,#$ #0 &'( S#6,(& &+##.- ')- 3#$-,5(+)8/* 5(&(+,#+)&(5 ,$ -13' 6,&)/ )+()- )-
&'( U;+),$( )$5 L($,$%+)5. T'( +(/)&,6( -&)8,/,-)&,#$ #0 &'( 0+#$&, )3',(6(5 -#"(
&'+(( 2((;- )%#, ')- 8(($ 1.-(& 8* &'( )++,6)/ #0 &',+&* &# &',+&*-0#1+ !(+")$
,$0)$&+* 5,6,-,#$- )$5 ($#+"#1- $1"8(+- #0 &)$;- )$5 ),+3+)0&... T'( !(+")$- )+(
/##;,$% #$ &'( &'+()& ,$ &'( 2(-& )- ) 8/100... T'(* &',$; &'(* 3)$ 2(// 8()& &'(,+
($(",(- #$( )& ) &,"(E0,+-& &'( R1--,)$- )$5 &'($ &'( B+,&,-'.
T'( /#-- #0 K+,6#, R#%, (&3., 4'( 2($& #$7 ')- +(-1/&(5 ,$ ) /(--($,$% #0 #1+ 5(0($3(
3).)3,&* )$5 has con*ronted the Soviet 5nion /ith mortal danger... T'( #$/* 2)* #1&
#0 &',- "#+( &')$ 1$0)6#1+)8/( -,&1)&,#$ ,- &# #.($ ) -(3#$5 0+#$& &',- *()+
-#"(2'(+( ,$ &'( B)/;)$- #+ ,$ +)$3(... )$5 -,"1/&)$(#1-/* &# -1../* &'( S#6,(&
U$,#$ 2,&' @L,LLL &#$- #0 )/1",$,1" 8* &'( 8(%,$$,$% #0 O3&#8(+ )$5 ) ",$,"1"
monthly ),5 #0 4LL )(+#./)$(- )$5 5LL &)$;- 4-")// #+ "(5,1"7.
W,&'#1& &'(-( &2# ;,$5- #0 ),5 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 2,// 8( (,&'(+ 5(0()&(5 #+ 2();($(5
&# &'( (B&($& &')& ,& 2,// /#-( 0#+ ) /#$% &,"( ,&- )8,/,&* &# '(/. ,&- )//,(- 8* )3&,6(
#.(+)&,#$- )& &'( 0+#$& )%),$-& H,&/(+,-".
I5orres+ondence 0et#een the 5hairman of the 5ounci$ of Ministers of the *SS2 and the
!residents of the *SA and the !rime Ministers of 1reat Britain durin% the 1reat !atriotic
9ar of 1941,-6 3o$: ?6 +: &1 (Mosco#6 19-7)6 to 0e $ater referred to as %talin-)hurchill
)orrespondence or %talin-Boosevelt )orrespondence5G
And6 ten days $ater6 on Se+tem0er 136 Sta$in a%ain #rote to 5hurchi$$6 sayin% that if the
o+enin% of a second front #as not feasi0$e at +resent6 thenD
,& -(("- &# "( &')& B+,&),$ 3#1/5 -)0(/* /)$5 &2($&*-0,6( &# &',+&* 5,6,-,#$- )&
A+3')$%(/ #+ -',. &'(" &# &'( -#1&'(+$ )+()- #0 &'( USSR 6,) I+)$ 0#+ ",/,&)+* 3#-
#.(+)&,#$ 2,&' &'( S#6,(& &+##.- #$ S#6,(& -#,/ ,$ &'( -)"( 2)* ,& 2)- 5#$( 51+,$%
&'( /)-& 2)+ ,$ +)$3(. T')& 2#1/5 8( ) %+()& '(/..
I?0id:6 +: &4:K
The su%%estion that British troo+s shou$d come to he$+ 2ussia on 2ussian soi$6 as #e$$ as
the #arnin% that 2ussia mi%ht 0e defeated 0etrayed rea$ an8iety on Sta$in's +artL
ne3erthe$ess6 he conc$uded his messa%e to 5hurchi$$ on a characteristic note of 0ra3ado:
?n re+$y to a British +ro+osa$ that if6 as a resu$t of the situation at enin%rad6 the Ba$tic
F$eet #ere $ost6 the British shou$d6 after the #ar6 ma<e u+ for these 2ussian $osses6 Sta$in
remar<ed:
T'( S#6,(& !#6(+$"($&... )..+(3,)&(- &'( B+,&,-' !#6(+$"($&<- +()5,$(-- &#
3#".($-)&( 0#+ .)+& #0 &'( 5)")%(... T'(+( 3)$ 8( /,&&/( 5#18& &')&, ,0 $(3(--)+*, &'(
S#6,(& .(#./( 2,// )3&1)//* 5(-&+#* &'( -',.- )& L($,$%+)5. B1& +(-.#$-,8,/,&* 0#+ &'(
5)")%( 2#1/5 8( 8#+$( $#& 8* B+,&),$ 81& 8* !(+")$*. I &',$;, &'(+(0#+(, &')&
!(+")$* 2,// ')6( &# ");( %##5 &'( 5)")%( )0&(+ &'( 2)+.
I?0id:6 +: &-:K
The most direct e8am+$e of An%$o,So3iet co,o+eration in 1941 #as the Hoint occu+ation
of ?ran: After +re3ious consu$tations #ith the British 1o3ernment6 the So3iet
1o3ernment informed the ?ranian 1o3ernment that it #ou$d Fintroduce So3iet troo+s into
?ran in conne8ion #ith the #ides+read anti,So3iet acti3ity of 1erman a%ents in that
countryF: The troo+s #ou$d 0e FintroducedF in 3irtue of Artic$e ) of the So3iet,?ranian
A%reement of 19&1 #hich +ro3ided for such an occu+ation in the e3ent of a third +arty
threatenin% the inde+endence of ?ran and the security of the So3iet *nion: The So3iet
;ote reca$$ed that6 since the 1erman in3asion of 2ussia6 the So3iet 1o3ernment had
a$ready sent three #arnin%s to the ?ranian 1o3ernment 0ut #ithout any effect:
?t #as a$so on Au%ust &- that the British Am0assador in ?ran6 Sir 2eader Bu$$ard6
informed the ?ranian 1o3ernment of the entry of British troo+s into ?ran: This Hoint
occu+ation had the dou0$e +ur+ose of +re3entin% 1ermany from usin% ?ran as a 0ase of
o+erations a%ainst 0oth 2ussia and the ?ranian oi$fie$ds6 and of o+enin% a su++$y route
from the !ersian 1u$f to the 5as+ian Sea: Since the A$$ies6 and6 in +articu$ar6 5hurchi$$6
considered 0oth the other routesD3ia A$adi3osto< or 3ia the 2ussian ArcticDhi%h$y
+recarious6 this +roHect #as he$d to 0e of 3ita$ im+ortance as an a$ternati3e: The Hoint
o+eration #ent off remar<a0$y smooth$yL a ne# ?ranian 1o3ernment #as set u+6 and
0efore $on%6 the +ro,1erman 2e>ah Shah a0dicated6 to end his days in e8i$e in
Bohannes0ur%6 #here he died in 1944:
B+,&,-' )$5 R1--,)$ 0#+3(- "(& ,$ )",&*, )$5 T('(+)$ 2)- :#,$&/* #331.,(5 #$
S(.&("8(+ 1K, &'( S')' ')6,$% )85,3)&(5 #$ &'( .+(6,#1- 5)* ,$ 0)6#1+ #0 ',- %,0&(5
&2($&*-&2#-*()+-#/5 -#$. O$ S(.&("8(+ ML &'( $(2 S')', 1$5(+ )//,(5 )56,3(,
+(-&#+(5 &'( C#$-&,&1&,#$)/ M#$)+3'*... M#-& #0 #1+ 0#+3(- 2,&'5+(2 0+#" &'(
3#1$&+*, /()6,$% #$/* 5(&)3'"($&- &# %1)+5 &'( 3#""1$,3)&,#$-, )$5 T('(+)$ 2)-
(6)31)&(5 8* 8#&' B+,&,-' )$5 R1--,)$ &+##.- #$ O3&#8(+ 1N.
I5hurchi$$6 o+: cit:6 +: 43&: ater6 #hen ?ran 0ecame the %reat route for su++$ies to 2ussia6
numerous 2ussian6 British and American troo+s #ere to 0e seen in Teheran once more:
For a time after the e3acuation of the !o$ish FAndersF army from 2ussia6 the !o$es #ere
a$so 3ery acti3e at Teheran: The 2ussians6 #hom ? #as a0$e to o0ser3e there at the end of
19436 made a +oint of 0ein% e8treme$y FcorrectF in their 0eha3iour6 and drun<enness6 not
uncommon amon% the British and Americans6 #as strict$y +rohi0ited and
se3ere$y +unished: The 2ussians at that time did a$so en%a%e in a %ood dea$ of
+ro+a%anda in !ersia6 nota0$y 0y o+enin% a $ar%e hos+ita$ in Teheran: 9ith the su++ort of
3arious +u0$ic #e$fare schemes they encoura%ed a se+aratist mo3ement in !ersian
A>er0aiHan: ?n 194)6 under American +ressure6 they had to a0andon these +o$itica$
schemes and had to #ithdra# their troo+s:K
F
The Bea3er0roo<,.arriman Mission arri3ed in Mosco# on Se+tem0er &J: Se3era$
meetin%s #ere he$d under the chairmanshi+ of Mo$oto36 and on t#o occasions
Bea3er0roo< and .arriman had $on% con3ersations #ith Sta$in: Bea3er0roo< #as a stron%
Fhe$+,2ussiaF man6 and the economic conference #as a +re$ude to the %rantin% of a first
$end,$ease $oan of a 0i$$ion do$$ars 0y the *SA to the *SS2: ?t #as decided to shi+ a #ide
3ariety of arms6 ra# materia$s and machinery in considera0$e =uantities to the So3iet
*nion6 #hi$e in return certain 2ussian ra# materia$s #ere to 0e de$i3ered to the *SA and
Britain: The c$osin% s+eeches of the conference 0y Bea3er0roo<6 .arriman and Mo$oto3
#ere e8treme$y cordia$: Mo$oto3 stressed Fthe %reat +o$itica$ im+ortance of the
conference6 #hich had foi$ed the .it$erites' intention to destroy their enemies one 0y one6
demonstratin% to the #or$d that a mi%hty front of freedom,$o3in% +eo+$es had 0een
created6 $ed 0y the So3iet *nion6 1reat Britain and the *SA:F The fina$ communi=uN said
that Britain and America #ere %oin% to su++$y F+ractica$$y e3erythin% that 2ussia had
as<ed forF: As ? noted in Mosco# on @cto0er 4:
T'( 3#$0(+($3( ,- #6(+, )$5 ,- 8(,$% )33/),"(5 #$ )// -,5(- )- ) '1%( -133(--.
I".+(--(5 8* &'( +(")+;)8/( -.((5 2,&' 2',3' &'( 3#$0(+($3( %#& &'+#1%' ,&- 2#+;,
.(#./( ),+( .(+').- ).& &# 0#+%(& &'( /,",&(5 -3#.( #0 &'( &)/;- )$5 &'( /,",&(5
.#--,8,/,&,(- #0 5(/,6(+,$% &'( -&100 &# R1--,)... T'( R1--,)$ .).(+- )+( ");,$% ) 8,%
5,-./)* #0 &'( -133(-- #0 &'( 3#$0(+($3(, #0 &'( D1$,&(5 )$&,-H,&/(+ 0+#$&D 8* &'+(( #0
&'( %+()&(-& ,$51-&+,)/ .#2(+- ,$ &'( 2#+/5, (& 3(&(+). P(#./( +()5,$% &'( .).(+- ,$
&+)"-3)+- )..()+ &# 8( ./()-(5, &'#1%' I 5#$<& &',$; &'(* )+( #6(+2'(/"(5. T'(*
;$#2 &')& ) 0()+01//* ')+5 2,$&(+ ,- )'()5 #0 &'("...
B()6(+8+##; ')- 8(($ 6(+* "13' ,$ &'( 3($&+( #0 &',$%-, )$5 ')- .+(&&* 2(//
(3/,.-(5 (6(+*8#5*, ,$3/15,$% H)++,")$ ... )$5 !+,..-. T',- ")* 8( 1$0),+, 0#+
C+,..- )$5 &'( M,/,&)+* M,--,#$ 3(+&),$/* 5,5 ) /#& &# .+(.)+( &'( C#$0(+($3(...
E6($ -#, B()6(+8+##;<- 5*$)",3- ')6( 1$91(-&,#$)8/* 3#$&+,81&(5 &# &'( -133(-- #0
&'( C#$0(+($3(? )$5 ',- $,%'&/* &)/;- 2,&' S&)/,$ -((" &# ')6( 8(($ 5(3,-,6( ,$
-"##&',$% )2)* &'( +#1%' (5%(-... B()6(+8+##; ')- 01//* +()/,-(5 &')& &'( R1--,)$-
)+( &'( #$/* .(#./( ,$ &'( 2#+/5 &#5)* 2'# )+( -(+,#1-/* 2();($,$% !(+")$*, )$5
&')& ,& ,- ,$ B+,&),$<- ,$&(+(-& &# 5# 2,&'#1& 3(+&),$ &',$%- )$5 &# %,6( &'(" &#
R1--,)... H( )$5 E5($ )+( -),5 &# 8( &'( "#-& 2'#/(-'()+&(5 .+#-R1--,)$- ,$ &'(
C)8,$(& $#2. A& &'( /,&&/( .+(-- 3#$0(+($3( *(-&(+5)* '( 2)- 81+-&,$% 2,&'
(B18(+)$3(. S/)..,$% ',- ;$((- '( 2)- -)*,$% &')& &'( R1--,)$- 2(+( ./()-(5 2,&'
B()6(+8+##;, )$5 &'( A"(+,3)$- 2(+( ./()-(5 2,&' B()6(+8+##;E DN#2, )+($<&
&'(*, A6(+(//ID &# 2',3' H)++,")$ +(./,(5: DS1+(, *#1 8(&.D ... B()6(+8+##; ,-
.+),-,$% S&)/,$ 1. &# &'( -;,(-... I ,")%,$( '( ')- 8(($ %($1,$(/* ,".+(--(5 8*
S&)/,$<- .+)3&,3)/ ",$5, ',- #+%)$,-,$% )8,/,&*, )$5 ',- 91)/,&,(- )- ) $)&,#$)/ /()5(+...
A& &'( K+("/,$ 8)$91(& /)-& $,%'&, 3#/5 )$5 -3(.&,3)/ M#/#&#6 ")5( )$ 1$1-1)//*
2)+" -.((3'.. .
IA$e8ander 9erth6 -osco: "J< (ondon6 194&)6 ++: &&),7: Bea3er0roo<'s attitude to
2ussia had manifested itse$f much ear$ier as is 0orne out 0y the .arry .o+<ins Papers on
5hurchi$$'s famous F+ro,2ussianF 0roadcast of Bune &&: F.e conferred that day
+rinci+a$$y #ith Bea3er0roo< and Sir Stafford 5ri++s::: A$thou%h one #ou$d hard$y ha3e
e8+ected it of him6 Bea3er0roo< #as a 3ehement su++orter of immoderate and unstinted
aid to the So3iet *nion and #as su0se=uent$y an ardent6 +ersistent and sometimes (to
5hurchi$$) em0arrassin% +ro+onent of the Second Front: At the ur%in% of these t#o men6
as #e$$ as his o#n inc$ination6 5hurchi$$ #ent on the air that Sunday #ith one of his most
+o#erfu$ s+eeches:F (Sher#ood6 o+: cit:6 +: 3"-:)K
The im+ression Bea3er0roo< %a3e of the Mosco# 3isit not on$y to the corres+ondents on
the s+ot6 0ut a$so to 5hurchi$$ in his dis+atch of @cto0er 4DFthe effect of this a%reement
has 0een an immense stren%thenin% of the mora$e of Mosco#FDand the comments made
0y the 2ussians seem #ho$$y at 3ariance #ith the account %i3en after the #ar 0y
5hurchi$$:
Their rece+tion #as 0$ea< and discussions not at a$$ friend$y: ?t mi%ht a$most ha3e 0een
thou%ht that the +$i%ht in #hich the So3iets no# found themse$3es #as our fau$t: (They)
%a3e no information of any <ind: They did not e3en inform them of the 0asis on #hich
2ussian needs of our +recious #ar materia$s had 0een estimated: The Mission #as %i3en
no forma$ entertainment unti$ a$most the $ast ni%ht::: ?t mi%ht a$most ha3e 0een that it #as
#e #ho had come to as< fa3ours:
I5hurchi$$6 o+: cit:6 +: 41):K
There is no dou0t that at the time the 2ussians #ere e8treme$y +$eased #ith the +o$itica$
si%nificance of the conference and the +ro+a%anda ca+ita$ they cou$d ma<e of it and that
they #ere an8ious$y $oo<in% for#ard to the $on% term +ros+ect of American he$+ on a
$ar%e sca$e: @n the other hand the British de$i3eries that #ere immediate$y a3ai$a0$e
#ere6 of course6 a mere dro+ in the 0uc<et:
I5hurchi$$'s messa%e to Sta$in of @cto0er )6 +romised that the con3oy6 due to arri3e at
Archan%e$ on @cto0er 1&6 #ou$d carry t#enty hea3y tan<s and 193 fi%hter +$anes6 the
con3oy due on @cto0er &9 14" hea3y tan<s6 1"" fi%hter +$anes (.urricanes)6 &"" Bren
carriers6 &"" anti,tan< rif$es and -" t#o,+ounder %unsK
C3en if Fthe rece+tion #as 0$ea<FDa$thou%h Bea3er0roo< then %a3e the 3ery o++osite
im+ressionDit is more than +ro0a0$e that the ne#s from the front had somethin% to do
#ith it: 9hi$e Bea3er0roo< and .arriman #ere sti$$ in Mosco#6 the %reat 1erman
offensi3e a%ainst Mosco# had started6 first in the Brians< and three days $ater in the
Aia>ma sector: 9hate3er the future 3a$ue of the Cconomic 5onference #as to 0e6 the
Batt$e of Mosco# had to 0e #on 0y the 2ussians a$one #ith #hat #as $eft of their
o+erationa$ e=ui+ment:
9hi$e So3iet di+$omatic acti3ity #as chief$y concerned #ith the esta0$ishment of c$oser
re$ations #ith Britain and the *SA6 the 1erman in3asion had created a num0er of
additiona$ di+$omatic +ro0$ems: Fin$and6 .un%ary6 2umania and ?ta$y #ere no# in a state
of #ar #ith the So3iet *nion6 and 5hurchi$$ #as re$uctant to dec$are #ar on .un%ary6
2umania and es+ecia$$y on Fin$andL indeed6 the +ro0$em of Fin$and #as to $ead to some
considera0$e An%$o,So3iet friction:
So3iet re$ations #ith Aichy France #ere 0ro<en off6 and6 0are$y a #ee< after the 1erman
in3asion6 !Ntain authorised the formation of a French Anti,Bo$she3i< e%ionL a num0er
of S#edish 3o$unteers a$so Hoined the Finnish Army6 #hi$e a B$ue Bri%ade #as formed in
S+ain for o+erations in 2ussia6 +articu$ar$y at enin%rad: Tur<ey6 ?ran and Af%hanistan
hastened to assure 2ussia of their neutra$ity6 thou%h in the case of ?ran these assurances
#ere not acce+ted: ater in the year the So3iet 1o3ernment demanded that Af%hanistan
e8+e$ numerous A8is a%ents from its territoryDa demand #ith #hich the Af%han
1o3ernment nomina$$y com+$ied6 e8ce+t that Si%nor !ietro Quaroni6 the ?ta$ian
Am0assador at 4a0u$6 continued to remain at the centre of A8is acti3ity in Af%hanistanD
unti$ in 19436 after the fa$$ of Musso$ini6 he #as a++ointed ?ta$ian Minister to Mosco#P
Much #as made in Mosco# of the 1erman #ar on FS$a3domFL on Au%ust 1" and 11 the
first A$$,S$a3 meetin% #as he$d: ?t ca$$ed on a$$ the S$a3 +eo+$es to #a%e a ho$y #ar
a%ainst 1ermany6 and the a++ea$ #as si%ned 0y Fre+resentati3es of the +eo+$es of 2ussia6
Be$orussia6 the *<raine6 !o$and6 5>echos$o3a<ia6 (u%os$a3ia and Bu$%ariaF:
A$ready on Bu$y 1J a mutua$,aid a%reement had 0een si%ned in ondon 0et#een Mais<y6
re+resentin% the *SS2 and Ban Masary<6 re+resentin% the 5>echos$o3a< 1o3ernment in
e8i$e: The a%reement +ro3ided for an e8chan%e of ministers and the formation of
5>echos$o3a< mi$itary units under the command of a 5>echos$o3a< officer a++ro3ed 0y
the 2ussiansL these units #ou$d 0e under the su+reme command of the *SS2:
Dorothy Thom+son re$ates that the on$y +erson in ondon she met in Bu$y 1941 #ho
0e$ie3ed the 2ussians #ou$d not 0e crushed 0y the 1ermans #as !resident Benes:
ISher#ood6 o+: cit:6 +: 3&":K
2ussia's di+$omatic re$ations #ith Finde+endentF S$o3a<ia had6 of course6 automatica$$y
$a+sed6 and #ere not mentioned:
The =uestion of #hether and on #hat terms di+$omatic re$ations #ith !o$and #ere to 0e
restored +resented a much tric<ier +ro0$em:
@n the face of it6 the Mais<y,Si<ors<i a%reement of Bu$y 3"6 1941 #as $itt$e different
from the So3iet,5>echos$o3a< a%reement t#e$3e days 0eforeL in rea$ity it touched on
some e8treme$y a#<#ard matters:
?t must ha3e 0een a $itt$e em0arrassin% for the 2ussians to a%ree to the first +ara%ra+h
dec$arin% a$$ So3iet,1erman territoria$ a%reements made in 1939 to 0e nu$$ and 3oidL
there #as a$so the +ro0$em of !o$ish citi>ens in the So3iet *nion6 #hich had to 0e faced
someho#: ?n order to reso$3e this a#<#ard =uestion a +rotoco$ #as attached to the main
a%reement in #hich the So3iet 1o3ernment %ranted an amnesty to Fa$$ !o$ish citi>ens
no# im+risoned in the So3iet *nion6 either as +risoners,of,#ar or for any other 3a$id
reasonsF:
A+art from thatDas in the case of the So3iet,5>echos$o3a< A%reementDit +ro3ided for
an e8chan%e of Am0assadors and for mutua$ aid in the common #ar a%ainst ;a>i
1ermany:
This a%reement6 #hich had 0een +receded 0y some acrimonious discussions on the future
0orders of !o$and6 #as6 in the e3ent6 to mar< the 0e%innin% of another most unha++y
+hase in !o$ish,2ussian re$ations: @n the surface and for the moment6 ho#e3er6 So3iet,
!o$ish co,o+eration #as de3e$o+in% norma$$y and on Au%ust 14 a mi$itary a%reement #as
si%ned in Mosco# 0et#een the So3iet Su+reme 5ommand6 re+resented 0y 1enera$
Aassi$e3s<y and 0y the !o$ish Su+reme 5ommand6 re+resented 0y 1enera$ Bo%us>,
S>ys><oL #ithin its terms 1enera$ Si<ors<i a++ointed 1enera$ Anders 5ommander,in,
5hief of the !o$ish armed forces on So3iet territory6 and it #as announced that he Fhas
0e%un to form the !o$ish ArmyF: 1enera$ Anders had 0een on$y Hust re$eased from a
So3iet Hai$:
@n Se+tem0er 46 Mr 4ot arri3ed in Mosco# as the first !o$ish Am0assador6 and in
Decem0er 1enera$ Si<ors<i came to 2ussia6 and had some $on%Dand hi%h$y a#<#ardD
con3ersations #ith Sta$in: But this #i$$ 0e dea$t #ith $ater:
A+art from !o$and and 5>echos$o3a<ia6 re$ations #ere a$so restored durin% the first
months of the #ar #ith (u%os$a3ia6 ;or#ay6 Be$%ium and 1reece: There #as a$so an
im+ortant e8chan%e of notes 0et#een Mais<y and de 1au$$e on Se+tem0er &76 1941: The
So3iet 1o3ernment reco%nised de 1au$$e as the $eader of the Free French6 +ro+osed to de
1au$$e a$$ +ossi0$e aid in his stru%%$e a%ainst 1ermany6 and e8+ressed its determination
to fi%ht for the Fcom+$ete restoration of the inde+endence and %reatness of FranceF: De
1au$$e re+$ied in the same 3ein:
?t is hard$y sur+risin% that the Ba+anese attac< on !ear$ .ar0our shou$d ha3e come as a
%reat re$ief to the 2ussians at a time #hen the 2ed Army had Hust $aunched their
Decem0er counter,offensi3e on the Mosco# sector of the front: ?t #as6 of course6
+ossi0$e that the f$o# of su++$ies from Britain and the *nited States #ou$d s$o# do#n as
a resu$tL 0ut this consideration #as out#ei%hed 0y the immense fact that the *SA had
no# entered the #ar and that the dri3e of the Ba+anese armed forces to the #est and south
had6 at $east for the time 0ein%6 remo3ed the threat of a Ba+anese attac< on the So3iet
*nion:
@n Decem0er 1) 2oose3e$t #ired to Sta$in +ro+osin% that the 2ussians ta<e +art in a
conference at 5hun%<in%6 a$on% #ith 5hinese6 British6 Dutch and *S re+resentati3es:
Sta$in6 in his re+$y6 dod%ed the issue6 thou%h he added: F? #ish you success in the stru%%$e
a%ainst the a%%ression in the !acific:F
F%talin-Boosevelt )orrespondence, +: 1J:K
PART THREE T'( L($,$%+)5 S&#+*
C').&(+ I THE DEAD O LENIN!RAD
There #ere many mass tra%edies in the Second 9or$d 9ar: There #as .iroshima6 #here
&""6""" +eo+$e #ere <i$$ed in a fe# seconds6 and many thousands of others #ere maimed
and cri++$ed for $ifeL there #as ;a%asa<i6 on #hich the second atom 0om0 #as dro++ed:
?n Dresden 13-6""" men6 #omen and chi$dren #ere <i$$ed in t#o ni%hts in Fe0ruary
194-: At Sta$in%rad on Au%ust &36 194&6 4"6""" +eo+$e #ere <i$$ed: Car$ier in the #ar6
there had 0een the ondon B$it> and Fsma$$ stuffF $i<e 5o3entry6 #here some 7"" +eo+$e
#ere <i$$ed in one ni%ht: There #ere the massacres in hundreds of F!artisanF 3i$$a%es in
Be$orussiaL and there #ere the ;a>i e8termination cam+s #here mi$$ions +erished in %as
cham0ers and in other horri0$e #ays: The $ist is a$most end$ess:
The tra%edy of enin%rad6 in #hich near$y a mi$$ion +eo+$e died6 #as6 ho#e3er6 un$i<e
any of the others: .ere6 in Se+tem0er 19416 near$y three mi$$ion +eo+$e #ere tra++ed 0y
the 1ermans and condemned to star3ation: And near$y one,third of them diedD0ut not as
1erman ca+ti3es:
I?n the #ords of .arrison Sa$is0ury6 one of the 0est forei%n o0ser3ers of the 2ussian
#artime scene: FThis #as the %reatest and $on%est sie%e e3er endured 0y a modern city6 a
time of tria$6 sufferin% and heroism that reached +ea<s of tra%edy and 0ra3ery a$most
0eyond our +o#er to com+rehend::: C3en in the So3iet *nion the e+ic of enin%rad has
recei3ed on$y modest attention6 com+ared #ith that de3oted to Sta$in%rad and the Batt$e
of Mosco#: And in the #est not one +erson in fifty #ho thri$$ed to the coura%e of the
ondoners in the Batt$e of Britain is co%nisant of that of the enin%raders:F 63e: 'or*
Times Boo< 2e3ie#6 May 1"6 19)&:)K
enin%radDthe o$d St !eters0ur%Dhad 0een the ca+ita$ of the 2ussian Cm+ire for o3er
t#o centuries: 9ith its ;e3a em0an<ments6 its 0rid%es6 its 9inter !a$ace and .ermita%e
and do>ens of other +a$aces6 #ith its Admira$ty and St ?saac's 5athedra$6 and its Bron>e
.orseman (the famous statue of !eter the 1reat)6 its ;e3s<y !ros+ect6 its Summer
1arden and its cana$s6 #ith their hum+,0ac<ed %ranite 0rid%es6 it #asDand isDone of
the most 0eautifu$ cities in the #or$d:
For t#o centuries it had 0een not on$y 2ussia's ca+ita$6 0ut its %reatest cu$tura$ centre: ;o
2ussian city had so many $iterary associations as St !eters0ur%: !ush<in6 1o%o$6
Dostoe3s<y6 ?nno<enti Annens<y6 B$o< and Anna A<hmato3a6 to mention on$y a fe#6
#ou$d ne3er ha3e 0een #hat they #ere 0ut for that hauntin% cityD so da>>$in% in its
%randeur6 %race and harmony to !ush<inL so mysterious6 so sinister6 so surrea$ist6 if one
may say so6 to 1o%o$ and Dostoe3s<yL the 1o%o$ of The 3ose+ the Dostoe3s<y of The
Idiot and )rime and Punishment5
St !eters0ur%D!etro%rad at the timeD#as a$so #here the t#o 2e3o$utions of 1917 had
0e%un: ?n 191J6 the So3iet 1o3ernment mo3ed 2ussia's ca+ita$ to Mosco#6 and for three
or four years after#ards6 !etro%rad #as a$most a dyin% city6 hun%rier than most: From
1919 to 19&1 more than ha$f its +o+u$ation had f$ed6 and of those #ho had stayed 0ehind6
many thousands died of hun%er: So hun%er #as not ne# to enin%rad: .o#e3er6 0y 19&46
its re3i3a$Da0o3e a$$6 its industria$ re3i3a$D0e%an6 and6 0y 19416 it #as a f$ourishin%
industria$ and cu$tura$ centre a%ain and the %reatest educationa$ centre in the So3iet
*nion6 #ith6 +ro+ortionate$y6 a $ar%er student +o+u$ation than any other city:
Thou%h no $on%er the ca+ita$ of 2ussia6 it had its o#n6 s$i%ht$y sno00ish $oca$ +atriotism6
and tended to $oo< do#n on Mosco# as an u+start: ?t had6 too6 had its 0ad s+e$$s under
the So3iet rN%ime: 4iro3 had 0een assassinated here in Decem0er 19346 and that had
started the 1reat !ur%es of the $ate thirties: enin%rad had had its share6 +erha+s more
than its share6 of the Sta$in,(e>ho3 !ur%es: 5haracteristica$$y6 a %ifted #riter and +oet
$i<e @$%a Ber%ho$>6 #ho #as to +$ay so im+ortant a +art as one of the +rinci+a$
Fenin%rad,can,ta<e,itF s+ea<ers on the enin%rad radio durin% the famine #inter of
1941,&6 had s+ent se3era$ months in +rison in 1937 on some fantastic trum+ed,u+ char%e:
@ther mem0ers of her fami$y had a$so suffered in the !ur%es: And yet6 @$%a Ber%ho$>'s
0oo< of reminiscences6 The Da!time %tars, is one of the most mo3in% 0oo<s on the
fearfu$ days of the B$oc<ade: There is6 for instance6 an unfor%etta0$e descri+tion of ho#6
faint #ith hun%er and #ith on$y a crust of 0read and one ci%arette to $ast her a dayDthe
other ci%arette she <e+t for her fatherDshe #andered for ten mi$es throu%h the sno#drifts
and across the ice of the ;e3a6 a$most stum0$in% o3er dead 0odies6 to see her father6 an
e$der$y doctor6 himse$f near$y dead of hun%er6 and #ith +atients around him dyin%: She is
a ty+ica$ enin%rad +henomenonDa #oman #ho #as ready to die for enin%rad6 0ut
#ho6 at heart6 hated Sta$in:
And so6 in Se+tem0er 19416 three mi$$ion +eo+$e #ere tra++ed 0y the 1ermansL ne3er had
a city of that si>e endured #hat enin%rad #as to endure durin% the #inter of 1941,&:
C').&(+ II THE ENEMY ADAANCES
?n enin%rad the ne#s on Bune &&6 1941 of the 1erman in3asion +roduced a #a3e of
mass meetin%s6 and in the ne8t t#o #ee<s an immense num0er of enin%raders
3o$unteered for the opolcheni!e formations: At the %reat 4iro3 9or<s a$one6 1-6""" men
and #omen a++$ied for immediate mi$itary ser3ice: ;ot a$$ these a++$ications cou$d 0e
acce+ted6 since it #as essentia$ that the 4iro3 9or<s shou$d %o on +roducin% armaments:
The ori%ina$ +$an6 therefore6 to form fifteen #or<ers' di3isions had to 0e a0andoned6 and6
on Bu$y 46 it #as decided to $imit the opolcheni!e di3isions to three6 unti$ further notice:
By Bu$y 1"6 the first opolcheni!e di3ision #as sent to the front6 fo$$o#ed a fe# days $ater
0y the second and third: They had on$y a fe# days' trainin%6 #hich had ta<en +$ace in the
main s=uares of enin%rad: These three opolcheni!e di3isions #ere rushed to the so,
ca$$ed u%a defence $ine6 #hich #as 17- mi$es $on% and #as on$y s+arse$y defended 0y
three rif$e di3isions and the +u+i$s of t#o mi$itary schoo$s6 #ho had a$so 0een rushed
there from enin%rad: By Bu$y 146 the 1ermans had a$ready succeeded in esta0$ishin% a
$ar%e 0rid%ehead north of u%a6 on the ri%ht 0an< of the u%a ri3erL it #as from there that
they #ere to de3e$o+ their su0se=uent offensi3e a%ainst enin%rad:
The situation #as e8treme$y %rim6 and it seems that Aoroshi$o36 the 5: in 5: of the
;orthern Armies6 and Ohdano36 head of the enin%rad !arty or%anisation6 #ere in a tru$y
des+erate state of mind6 as one may Hud%e from the order read out to a$$ the 2ed Army
units of the F;orth,9est DirectionF on Bu$y 14:
C#"+)5(- R(5-A+"* "($, #00,3(+- )$5 .#/,&,3)/ 2#+;(+-H A 5,+(3& &'+()& #0 )$
($("* ,$6)-,#$ ,- $#2 -1-.($5(5 #6(+ L($,$%+)5, &'( 3+)5/( #0 &'( P+#/(&)+,)$
R(6#/1&,#$. W',/( &'( &+##.- #0 &'( N#+&'(+$ +#$& )+( 8+)6(/* 0,%'&,$% &'( N)C,
)$5 ,$$,-' Sch6tzcorps '#+5(- )// &'( 2)* 0+#" &'( B)+($&- S() &# T)//,$$ )$5
H)$%O, )$5 )+( 5(0($5,$% (6(+* ,$3' #0 #1+ 8(/#6(5 S#6,(& /)$5, &'( &+##.- #0 &'(
N#+&'-W(-&(+$ +#$&, #0&($ 0),/,$% &# +(.(/ ($("* )&&)3;-, )$5 )8)$5#$,$% &'(,+
.#-,&,#$- 2,&'#1& (6($ ($&(+,$% ,$&# 3#"8)& 2,&' &'( ($("*, )+( #$/* ($3#1+)%,$%
8* &'(,+ 8(')6,#1+ &'( ,$3+()-,$%/* )++#%)$& !(+")$-. C(+&),$ 3#2)+5- )$5 .)$,3-
-&+,3;($ ,$5,6,51)/- $#& #$/* )8)$5#$ &'( +#$& 2,&'#1& #+5(+-, 81& -#2 .)$,3
)"#$% &'( %##5 )$5 8+)6( -#/5,(+-. I$ -#"( 3)-(- 8#&' #00,3(+- )$5 .#/,&,3)/
2#+;(+- $#& #$/* 5# $#&',$% &# -&#. &'( .)$,3, )$5 0),/ &# #+%)$,-( &'(,+ 1$,&- 0#+
3#"8)&, 81& ,$3+()-( (6($ "#+(, 8* &'(,+ -')"(01/ 8(')6,#1+, &'( .)$,3 )$5
5,-#+%)$,-)&,#$ )& &'( +#$&.
The order #ent on to say that anyone a0andonin% the Front #ithout orders #ou$d 0e tried
0y a fie$d tri0una$ #hich cou$d order them to 0e shot6 Fre%ard$ess of ran< and +re3ious
achie3ementsF:
IA: A: 4arase3 (eningradts! v god! 4lo*ad! (The enin%raders in the (ears of the
B$oc<ade) (Mosco#6 19)")6 +: )-:K
?n the midd$e of Bu$y the enin%rad !arty or%anisation decided to mo0i$ise hundreds of
thousands of men and #omen to 0ui$d fortificationsL the #or< #as su+er3ised 0y
mem0ers of the city and +ro3incia$ committees of the !arty6 0y secretaries of the re%iona$
committees6 etc: Se3era$ defence $ines #ere 0ui$tDone6 from the mouth of the u%a to
5hudo3o6 1atchina6 *rits<6 !u$<o3o and then a$on% the ;e3aL another6 a $ine of
enin%rad's Fouter defencesF6 from !eterhof to 1atchina6 !u$<o3o6 4o$+ino and
4o$tushs<iL and then se3era$ $ines in the immediate nei%h0ourhood of the city6 inc$udin%
one in the northern su0ur0s6 facin% the Finns:
By the end of Bu$y and the 0e%innin% of Au%ust near$y a mi$$ion +eo+$e #ere en%a%ed in
the 0ui$din% of defences:
P(#./( #0 &'( "#-& 5,00(+($& &+)5(- )$5 .+#0(--,#$-E2#+;(+-, ("./#*((-,
-3'##/3',/5+($, '#1-(2,6(-, -3,($&,-&-, &()3'(+-, )+&,-&-, )3&#+-, -&15($&-, (&3.E
2#+;(5 2,&' &'(,+ .,3;- )$5 -'#6(/-. +#" "#+$,$% &,// $,%'& &'(* 2($& #$, #0&($
1$5(+ ($("* 0,+(.
I ?0id:6 +: )9:K
Much of the di%%in% done in these conditions6 0y +eo+$e not used to this <ind of #or<6
#as ine3ita0$y hasty and amateurishL many of the trenches du% #ere not dee+ enou%h6
and the minefie$ds and 0ar0ed,#ire defences #ere often $aid and 0ui$t in a ha+ha>ard
manner: ;e3erthe$ess6 #hen one considers that the 1ermans had reached the u%a $ine6
1&- mi$es south of enin%rad6 #ithin three #ee<s of the ?n3asion6 and that it too< them
o3er si8 #ee<s after that to reach the outs<irts of enin%rad6 it is c$ear that this 0ui$din%
of defence $ines +$ayed an im+ortant ro$e in sa3in% enin%rad: A$to%ether6 the +eo+$e of
enin%rad succeeded in di%%in% 34" mi$es of anti,tan< ditches6 1-6J7- mi$es of o+en
trenches6 and erectin% 4"" mi$es of 0ar0ed,#ire defences6 19" mi$es of forest o0stac$es
(fe$$ed trees6 etc:)6 and -6""" #ooden or concrete firin% +oints6 IHgnev!ie toch*i (firin%
+oints) inc$uded not on$y +ro+er +i$$0o8es6 0ut e3en the most rudimentary %un and
machine,%un em+$acements:K not countin% the 3arious defences 0ui$t inside enin%rad
itse$f:
But6 e8ce+t for one successfu$ 2ussian counter,attac< in the So$tsy area at the southern
end of the Fu%a ineF6 near a<e ?$men6 on Bu$y 14,1J6 the most the 2ussians cou$d do
#as to ho$d the 3arious defence $ines 0et#een the u%a 2i3er and enin%rad as $on% as
+ossi0$e:
The state of mind of these hundreds of thousands of +eo+$e #ho #ere di%%in% trenches
and 0ui$din% fortifications6 day after day6 can #e$$ 0e %uessedL the s+irit of se$f,sacrifice
#as there6 sure enou%h6 0ut mi8ed #ith a %reat dea$ of 0itterness: 1enera$ Fedyunins<y
te$$s ho#6 on one occasion6 some mi$es outside enin%rad6 he sa# a $ar%e %rou+ of youn%
and e$der$y #omen di%%in% $i<e mad: F(ou are di%%in% #e$$6 %ir$s6F he remar<ed: F(es6F
said an e$der$y #oman6 F#e are di%%in% #e$$6 0ut you fe$$o#s are fi%htin% 0ad$y:F
IFedyunins<y6 o+: cit:6 +: )J:K
This #as +erha+s unfairL the so$diers #ere doin% #hat they cou$dL 0ut there #as
e3ery#here a des+erate shorta%e of 0oth reser3es and hea3y e=ui+ment: C3ery#here6
e8ce+t a$on% +art of the u%a ine6 the 1ermans had %reat su+eriority: Thus6 MaHor,
1enera$ ;i<isho36 5hief of Staff of the ;orthern (i:e: Finnish) Front6 #rote in Au%ust in a
dis+atch to Marsha$ Sha+oshni<o3:
T'( 5,00,31/&,(- ,$ &'( .+(-($& -,&1)&,#$ )+,-( 0+#" &'( 0)3& &')& $(,&'(+ 5,6,-,#$)/
3#"")$5(+-, $#& )+"* 3#"")$5(+- $#+ &'( 3#"")$5(+ #0 &'( A+"* !+#1., ')6(
)$* +(-(+6(- )& )//. E6($ &'( -")//(-& ($("* 8+();&'+#1%' ')- &# 8( -&#..(5 1. 2,&'
,".+#6,-(5 -18-1$,&- 5+)2$ 0+#" #&'(+ .)+&- #0 &'( +#$&.
Moreo3er6 many of the opolcheni!e troo+s had no e8+erience at a$$L the <ind of hardshi+s
to #hich they #ere su0Hected may 0e %au%ed from the e8am+$e of the ne#$y,formed 1st
opolcheni!e di3ision #hich6 after a forced thirty,se3en mi$es march6 durin% #hich they
#ere constant$y attac<ed 0y 1erman aircraft6 #as +rom+t$y thro#n into 0att$e a%ainst
1erman motorised and +an>er troo+s:
T',- 0,+-& 8)&&/( 2',3' &'( "($ ')5 (6(+ 0#1%'& .+#6(5 ) &(++,8/( #+5()/ 8#&' &#
&'(" )$5 &'(,+ #00,3(+-. N#& #$/* 2(+( &'(* &#&)//* ,$(B.(+,($3(5, 81& &'(* ')5 $#
2().#$- 2,&' 2',3' &# 0,%'& &'( ($("* &)$;-, )$5 2'($ &'(+( 2(+( /)+%(--3)/(
)+"#1+(5 )&&)3;-, &'(* ,$(6,&)8/* +(&+()&(5.
=4arase36 o+: cit:6 +: 99:K
The stron% 2ussian stand a$on% a $ar%e +art of the u%a ine since the midd$e of Bu$y
ne3erthe$ess forced the 1ermans to re%rou+ their forces and it #as not ti$$ Au%ust J that
the Ffina$F offensi3e a%ainst enin%rad 0e%an: The defenders of the u%a ine #ere
outf$an<ed 0oth in the #est and in the east6 and 0y Au%ust &16 they found themse$3es at
the ti+ of a sa$ient6 thirteen mi$es #ide and near$y 13" mi$es dee+6 #ith the 1ermans
crashin% ahead to#ards the 1u$f of Fin$and south,#est of enin%rad and to#ards a<e
ado%a south,east of the city: For fear of 0ein% encirc$ed6 they had to +u$$ outD#hich
they did in chaotic conditions: @n Au%ust &1 the 1ermans ca+tured 5hudo3o6 thus
cuttin% the main enin%rad,Mosco# rai$#ay6 and6 0y the 3"th6 after hea3y fi%htin%6 they
ca+tured M%a6 and cut enin%rad's $ast rai$#ay $in< #ith the rest of the country: .a3in%
concentrated an enormous num0er of tan<s and +$anes 0oth south,#est and south,east of
enin%rad6 the 1ermans no# confident$y e8+ected to ta<e the city 0y storm: Des+ite
des+erate 2ussian resistance6 the 1erman forces 0ro<e throu%h to the south 0an< of a<e
ado%a: They ca+tured a $ar%e +art of the $eft 0an< of the ;e3a6 inc$udin% Sch$Rsse$0ur%6
0ut fai$ed to cross the ri3er: enin%rad #as no# iso$ated from the rest of the country6
e8ce+t for hi%h$y +recarious communications across a<e ado%a: South and south,#est
of the city the +osition of the 2ussians #as e=ua$$y des+erate6 #ith the 1ermans ha3in%
0ro<en throu%h to the 1u$f of Fin$and on$y a fe# mi$es south,#est of the city and
attac<in% hea3i$y in the 4o$+ino and !u$<o3o areas some fifteen mi$es south of
enin%rad: The 2ussians6 ho#e3er6 maintained a $ar%e 0rid%ehead at @ranien0aum6
o++osite 4ronstadt6 and to the #est of the +oint at #hich the 1ermans had reached the
1u$f: ?n the north6 on Se+tem0er 46 the Finns occu+ied the former frontier station of
Be$oostro36 t#enty mi$es north of enin%rad6 0ut #ere thro#n out on the fo$$o#in% day:
As ear$y as Au%ust &"6 at the meetin% of the enin%rad !arty a*tiv, Aoroshi$o3 and
Ohdano3 admitted the e8treme seriousness of the situation: Ohdano3 said that the #ho$e
+o+u$ation6 and +articu$ar$y the youn%6 must 0e %i3en a rudimentary trainin% in shootin%6
%renade,thro#in% and street,fi%htin%:
E,&'(+ &'( 2#+;,$%-3/)-- #0 L($,$%+)5 2,// 8( &1+$(5 ,$&# -/)6(-, )$5 &'( 8(-& )"#$%
&'(" (B&(+",$)&(5, #+ 2( -')// &1+$ L($,$%+)5 ,$&# &'( )-3,-&-< %+)6(.. .
I D: ;: !a3$o36 (eningrad 3 4lo*ade (enin%rad Durin% the B$oc<ade) (Mosco#6 19)1)6
++: 14,1-:K
@n the fo$$o#in% day the famous A++ea$ to the +eo+$e of enin%rad6 si%ned 0y
Aoroshi$o36 Ohdano3 and !o+<o36 chairman of the enin%rad So3iet6 #as +u0$ished:
L(& 1-, /,;( #$( ")$ =,& 3#$3/15(5> +,-( &# &'( 5(0($3( #0 #1+ 3,&*, #0 #1+ '#"(- )$5
0)",/,(-, #1+ 0+((5#" )$5 '#$#1+. L(& 1- 5# #1+ -)3+(5 51&* )- S#6,(& .)&+,#&- ,$
#1+ +(/($&/(-- -&+1%%/( )%),$-& ) ')&(5 )$5 +1&'/(-- ($("*, /(& 1- 8( 6,%,/)$& )$5
"(+3,/(-- ,$ 5()/,$% 2,&' 3#2)+5-, .)$,3-"#$%(+- )$5 5(-(+&(+-, /(& 1- (-&)8/,-' &'(
-&+,3&(-& +(6#/1&,#$)+* 5,-3,./,$( ,$ #1+ 3,&*. A+"(5 2,&' -13' ,+#$ 5,-3,./,$( )$5
B#/-'(6,; #+%)$,-)&,#$, /(& 1- "((& &'( ($("* )$5 &'+#2 '," 8)3;.
Durin% those days there #as no certainty at a$$ that the 1ermans #ou$d not 0rea< into
enin%rad: As !a3$o3 $ater #rote:
E6(+*&',$% ')5 8(($ .+(.)+(5 0#+ 5(-&+#*,$% &'( ($("* 0#+3(- ,$-,5( &'( 3,&*.
)3&#+,(-, 8+,5%(- )$5 .18/,3 81,/5,$%- 2(+( ",$(5, )$5 &'(,+ 2+(3;)%( 2#1/5 ')6(
0)//($ #$ &'( ($(",(-< '()5- )$5 -&#..(5 &'(,+ &)$;-. T'( 3,6,/,)$ .#.1/)&,#$, $#& &#
"($&,#$ &'( -#/5,(+- )$5 -),/#+- #0 &'( B)/&,3 /((&, 2(+( .+(.)+(5 0#+ -&+((&
0,%'&,$%. T'( ,5() #0 0,%'&,$% 0#+ (6(+* '#1-( 2)- $#& )$ )3& #0 -(/0--)3+,0,3(, 81&
),"(5 )& 5(-&+#*,$% &'( ($("*. L)&(+, &'( (B.(+,($3( #0 S&)/,$%+)5 2)- &# -'#2 &')&
-13' 2)+0)+( 3#1/5 -133((5.. .
= !a3$o36 o+: cit:6 +: 19:K
This sounds rather $i<e a +iece of 0ra3adoL for the +ro0$em of feedin% and su++$yin%
enin%rad6 #ith its near$y three mi$$ion +o+u$ation6 #ou$d6 in such conditions6 ha3e 0een
infinite$y more com+$icated than at Sta$in%rad: ;e3erthe$ess6 it is certain6 as ? #as to$d in
enin%rad in 19436 that the +ossi0i$ity of %radua$$y a0andonin% the southern (and main)
+art of the city6 and of c$in%in% on to the F!etro%rad SideF and the Aassi$i ?s$and on the
ri%ht 0an< of the ;e3a #as not entire$y ru$ed out durin% those des+erate days:
The she$$in% of enin%rad 0e%an on Se+tem0er 46 and on Se+tem0er J6 9 and 1" the city
#as su0Hected to some +articu$ar$y fierce air,raids: That of Se+tem0er J caused 17J fires6
inc$udin% that of the famous Badaye3 food storesDa0out the destruction of #hich such
e8a%%erated stories #ere to$d6 es+ecia$$y after the fearfu$ famine had started:
Fire#atchin% #as 0etter or%anised on Se+tem0er 96 and a$$ 0ut a fe# incendiaries #ere
ra+id$y +ut out: The anti,aircraft %uns 0rou%ht do#n fi3e +$anes6 0ut the s$o# So3iet
)hai*a fi%hters #ere a$most he$+$ess a%ainst the MesserschmidtsL it #as then that6 in
des+eration6 se3era$ 2ussian +i$ots rammed the 1erman +$anes:
?n these first maHor raids6 the 1ermans a$so dro++ed many de$ayed,action 0om0s and
$and,mines6 and6 not 0ein% used to hand$in% these6 many 3o$unteers (and there #ere
3o$unteers for ever!thing in enin%rad) $ost their $i3es:
There are numerous stories of des+erate fi%htin% durin% those days at !u$<o3o6 4o$+ino
and *rits<Dthe $atter on$y t#o or three mi$es from the 4iro3 9or<s6 in the south,#est of
enin%radL 0ut e8ce+t for a footnote in the officia$ Histor! sayin% that Ohu<o3 #as in
command of the defence of enin%rad from Se+tem0er 11 ti$$ the midd$e of @cto0er6
+ost,#ar accounts are si$ent a0out the chan%es that too< +$ace in the .i%h 5ommand: The
dramatic story ? heard from se3era$ +eo+$e in enin%rad in 1943 #as that a0out
Se+tem0er 1"6 #hen there #as +ractica$$y com+$ete chaos at the front6 Aoroshi$o36
0e$ie3in% that e3erythin% #as $ost6 #ent into the front $ine6 in the ho+e of %ettin% <i$$ed 0y
the 1ermans: But on Se+tem0er 11 Sta$in dis+atched Ohu<o3 to enin%rad6 and it #as
Ohu<o3 #ho fu$$y reor%anised the defence of the city #ithin three daysL in a +ress
inter3ie# ? attended in Ber$in in Bune 194-6 Ohu<o3 +roud$y referred to this fact6 thou%h
#ithout %oin% into any detai$s6 and Ayshins<y said F(es6 it #as Ohu<o3 #ho sa3ed
enin%rad:F ?t #as6 undou0ted$y6 durin% the short Ohu<o3 rei%nDafter #hich he #as
+$aced in char%e of the defence of Mosco#Dthat the front round enin%rad 0ecame
sta0i$ised:
.a3in% fai$ed to ta<e enin%rad 0y storm6 the 1erman .i%h 5ommand (not
unreasona0$y) su++osed that the city #ou$d6 0efore $on%6 0e star3ed into surrender: But
.it$er6 characteristica$$y6 ordered that no ca+itu$ation 0e acce+ted and that the city 0e
F#i+ed off the face of the earthF6 as enin%rad #ou$d +resent a dan%er of e+idemics and
#ou$d6 moreo3er6 0e mined6 and so constitute a dou0$e threat to any so$diers enterin% it:
This order (and6 incidenta$$y6 the 1erman fai$ure to ta<e enin%rad) #as to 0e e8+$ained
0y Bod$ at ;urem0er%:
,(/5-M)+-')/ 6#$ L((8, &'( S1.+("( C#"")$5(+ #0 A+"* !+#1. N#+&' )&
L($,$%+)5 ... .#,$&(5 #1& &')& ,& 2#1/5 8( )8-#/1&(/* ,".#--,8/( 0#+ '," &# ;((.
&'(-( ",//,#$- #0 L($,$%+)5 .(#./( 0(5 )$5 -1../,(5, ,0 &'(* 2(+( &# 0)// ,$&# ',-
')$5-, -,$3( &'( -1../* -,&1)&,#$ #0 &'( A+"* !+#1. 2)- 3)&)-&+#.',3 )& &'( &,"(.
T')& 2)- &'( 0,+-& 3)1-(. B1& -'#+&/* 8(0#+(, K,(6 ')5 8(($ )8)$5#$(5 8* &'(
R1--,)$ )+",(-, )$5 ')+5/* ')5 2( #331.,(5 &'( 3,&* &')$ #$( &+("($5#1- (B./#-,#$
)0&(+ )$#&'(+ #331++(5. T'( "):#+ .)+& #0 &'( ,$$(+ 3,&* 2)- 81+$(5 5#2$, 5L,LLL
.(#./( 2(+( ")5( '#"(/(--. !(+")$ -#/5,(+- ... -100(+(5 3#$-,5(+)8/( /#--(-,
8(3)1-( /)+%( )"#1$&- #0 (B./#-,6(- 2($& 1. ,$&# &'( ),+... T'( .1+.#-( #0 &'( #+5(+
2)- (B3/1-,6(/* &')& #0 .+#&(3&,$% !(+")$ &+##.- )%),$-& -13' 3)&)-&+#.'(-? 0#+
($&,+( -&)00- ')5 8(($ 8/#2$ ,$&# &'( ),+ ,$ K')+;#6 )$5 K,(6.
ITrial o" #erman -a8or $ar )riminals, 3o$: 1- (ondon 1947)6 ++: 3"),7: (To 0e
referred to in future as T1M95:)K
An order from the FRhrer's head=uarters6 dated @cto0er 76 1941 and si%ned 0y Bod$6
reiterated the FRhrer's order not to acce+t ca+itu$ation Fat either enin%rad or6 $ater6
Mosco#F: 2efu%ees from enin%rad6 says the order6 must 0e dri3en 0ac< 0y fire if they
a++roach the 1erman $ines6 0ut any f$i%ht to the east 0y Fiso$ated indi3idua$sF6 throu%h
sma$$ %a+s in the 0$oc<ade #as to 0e #e$comed6 since this cou$d on$y add to the chaos in
eastern 2ussia: This order a$so said that enin%rad shou$d 0e ra>ed to the %round 0y air
0om0in% and arti$$ery fire:
The date of this document is si%nificant: 0y the 0e%innin% of @cto0er6 the 1ermans had
%i3en u+ ho+e of ca+turin% enin%rad 0y storm: enin%rad6 and most of the enin%rad
isthmus continued to remain in 2ussian hands6 and #as tyin% do#n an army estimated 0y
the 2ussians at 3""6""" men: A$thou%h there #as no %uarantee that the 1ermans mi%ht
not attem+t another a$$,out attac< on enin%rad6 the des+erate +re+arations made at the
end of Au%ust and the 0e%innin% of Se+tem0er for defendin% e3ery house and for
destroyin% any 1erman +aratroo+er $andin% in the $ar%e o+en s=uares of enin%rad $ost
their immediate ur%encyL ne3erthe$ess the 0ui$din% of firin% +oints and +i$$0o8es inside
+ractica$$y e3ery house (es+ecia$$y corner 0ui$din%s) continued ri%ht on to Decem0erL
1"6""" so$diers and 7-6""" ci3i$ians #ere en%a%ed in this #or<:
I4arase36 o+: cit:6 +: 1&3:K
176""" firin% +oints #ere set u+ inside houses and o3er 46""" +i$$0o8es #ere 0ui$t inside
enin%rad6 as #e$$ as fifteen mi$es of 0arricades: Mi%hty 0atteries of shore6 na3a$ and
army arti$$ery #ere 0ein% insta$$ed ri%ht round enin%rad6 and the Ba$tic F$eet #as
in3a$ua0$e: C3en the %un from the cruiser /urora #hich had %i3en the si%na$ for the
stormin% of the 9inter !a$ace in 19176 #as no# stationed on the !u$<o3o hei%hts6 south
of enin%rad: But6 0y a stran%e irony6 thou%h enin%rad #as in %ra3e dan%er6 Mosco# in
@cto0er #as in e3en %reater dan%er6 and6 des+ite the 0$oc<ade6 16""" %uns and
considera0$e =uantities of ammunition and other e=ui+ment #ere f$o#n from enin%rad
to Mosco#P
I 4arase36 o+: cit:6 +: 133:K
A %rim thou%ht6 es+ecia$$y in 3ie# of the des+erate shorta%e of ammunition on the
enin%rad Front $ater in the #inter6 #hen the hun%er 0$oc<ade had enormous$y reduced
the out+ut of ammunition in enin%rad itse$f:
The immediate dan%er of a 1erman occu+ation of enin%rad had 0een a3erted 0y the
midd$e of Se+tem0erL 0ut it #as on$y too c$ear that6 cut off from the Fmain$andF6 e8ce+t
for the a<e ado%a route6 the on$y rea$ ho+e of <ee+in% the city su++$ied #ith food6 ra#
materia$s and fue$Das #e$$ as armaments and ammunition that cou$d not 0e made on the
s+otD$ay in the 0reach of the $and 0$oc<ade: ?n Se+tem0er the 2ussians made a des+erate
effort to dri3e the 1ermans out of the M%a,Sinia3ino sa$ient6 runnin% to the southern
shore of a<e ado%a6 and so to c$ear the enin%rad,Ao$o%da rai$#ay $ine: But a$thou%h
the 2ussians succeeded in esta0$ishin% a sma$$ 0rid%ehead on the south 0an< of the ;e3a6
#est of Sch$Rsse$0ur%6 and e3en in ho$din% it6 ri%ht throu%h the #inter6 at terri0$e cost in
$i3es6 the 1ermans had fortified the M%a,Sinia3ino area so stron%$y that no +ro%ress
cou$d 0e made6 and the 1erman defences here #ere not to 0e 0ro<en u+ unti$ Fe0ruary
1943:
IThe story of this futi$e attem+t to ca+ture the M%a sa$ient6 #hich ended #ith the $ast
defenders of the ;e3a 0rid%ehead 0ein% #i+ed out on A+ri$ &96 194&6 #as one of the
most tra%ic e+isodes of enin%rad's attem+t to $oosen the 1erman stran%$eho$d:K
C').&(+ III THREE MILLION TRAPPED
So6 0y the 0e%innin% of Se+tem0er6 enin%rad #as com+$ete$y iso$ated 0y $and from the
2ussian Fmain$andF6 and near$y three mi$$ion +eo+$e had 0een tra++ed there: The on$y
remainin% communications #ere #orse than +recarious: ?n 1941 2ussia #as des+erate$y
short of +$anes6 and6 #ith the 1ermans enHoyin% com+$ete air contro$ in the enin%rad
area6 any 2ussian +$ane there #as in %ra3e dan%er of 0ein% shot do#n6 e3en at ni%ht:
A+art from that6 a<e ado%a6 #ithout any +ro+er har0ours6 #as the on$y route 0y #hich
enin%rad cou$d communicate #ith the Fmain$andF:
.o# #as it +ossi0$e that so many +eo+$e shou$d ha3e remained in enin%rad6 e3en
thou%h the dire threat of a 1erman occu+ation had hun% o3er the city e3er since the
midd$e of Bu$yE And #hat ho+e #as there of feedin% this enormous +o+u$ation in case
enin%rad #as encirc$edE
?t #as c$ear6 e3en durin% the #ar6 that there had 0een some 3ery serious misca$cu$ations
some#hereL 0ut the factua$ materia$ +u0$ished in the $ast fe# years sho#s that this tra%ic
situation #as created 0y a #ho$e series of s+ecific mista<es: There had 0een $ac< of
foresi%ht on the +art of the authorities #ho6 +rimari$y concerned #ith s$o#in% do#n the
1erman ad3ance6 had %i3en a$most no thou%ht at a$$ to the =uestion of food su++$ies
inside the cityL a$so6 for se3era$ crucia$ #ee<s6 #hen the 1ermans seemed to ha3e 0een
sto++ed on the u%a ine6 there had 0een an e8cess of o+timistic +ro+a%andaL this #as
res+onsi0$e for much #ishfu$ thin<in% amon% the +eo+$e of enin%rad6 #ho sim+$y did
not 3isua$ise the city 0ein% either occu+ied or 0$oc<aded:
This $ac< of foresi%ht is i$$ustrated 0y a num0er of stri<in% facts: Thus6 durin% the
1erman 4litz*rieg ad3ance throu%h the Ba$tic 2e+u0$ics and ri%ht into the enin%rad
+ro3ince in Bune and Bu$y6 many thousands of tons of %rain #ere e3acuated 0y rai$ from
areas a0out to 0e o3errun 0y the 1ermans6 0ut to the east6 and not to enin%rad: At the
same time6 the e3acuation of industria$ +$ants from enin%rad continued to 0e de$ayed:
The 3ery s$o# +ro%ress of the e3acuation in Bu$y and Au%ust #as due to #ishfu$ thin<in%:
+eo+$e did not 0e$ie3e that the 1ermans #ou$d come any#here near the city: ?t is true
that6 o#in% to the dan%er of air,raids6 chi$dren 0e%an to 0e e3acuated in Bune and ear$y
Bu$y6 0ut odd$y enou%h to +$aces $i<e 1atchina and u%a6 on the 1ermans' direct road to
enin%rad: Soon after#ards they had to 0e hurried$y 0rou%ht 0ac< to enin%rad6 and
someD0ut not a$$D#ere then e3acuated to the east6 #here they remained in +erfect
safety unti$ the end of the #ar:
A$to%ether the e3acuation of enin%rad throu%hout Bu$y and Au%ust #as 3ery s$o#
indeed: @n$y 4"6""" +eo+$eDmost$y #or<ers of +$ants earmar<ed for e3acuation6 and
their fami$iesD$eft for the east6 0esides a0out 1-"6""" refu%ees from the Ba$tic
2e+u0$ics6 !s<o36 etc:
Some $oca$ authorities re%arded a refusa$ to 0e e3acuated as a manifestation of +atriotism6
and actua$$y encoura%ed such attitudes: @ne cou$d often hear such officia$s say: F@ur
+o+u$ation is ready to di% trenches ri%ht in the front $ine6 0ut it doesn't #ant to $ea3e
enin%rad:F This #as ty+ica$ of enin%rad's mood6 0ut it o3er$oo<ed the fact that there
#ere many +eo+$eDchi$dren6 o$d +eo+$e and in3a$ids6 #ho #ere of no use to the defence
of the city6 and #ere mere$y a drain on the city's scant food reser3es:
I!a3$o36 o+: cit:6 ++: -J,-9:K
Moreo3er6 in Bu$y and Au%ust6 most enin%raders did not <no# e8act$y #here the
1ermans #ere6 and since durin% those t#o months6 the city #as not 0ein% 0om0ed6 they
ado+ted an o+timistica$$y com+$acent attitude:
The situation ca$$ed for stron% administrati3e e3acuation measures6 0ut the authorities
hesitated to a++$y them: As a resu$t there #ere cau%ht in the 0$oc<ade &6-446""" ci3i$ians
(inc$udin% 4""6""" chi$dren) in enin%rad +ro+er6 and 3436""" +eo+$e in the su0ur0s and
other $oca$ities inside the rin% of the 0$oc<adeDa tota$ of near$y three mi$$ions:
I !a3$o36 o+: cit:6 +: )":K
To these Fmouths to 0e fedF shou$d6 of course6 0e added the troo+s #ho #ere $ater to
constitute the Fenin%rad FrontF +ro+er: The mass,e3acuation of ci3i$ians did not start
unti$ Banuary 194&6 across the ?ce 2oad of a<e ado%a: By this time6 hundreds of
thousands of ci3i$ians had a$ready died of hun%er:
The #ho$e e8tent of the disaster of enin%rad cannot 0e fu$$y understood #ithout some
<no#$ed%e of the food reser3es a3ai$a0$e at the 0e%innin% of the 0$oc<ade6 of the
rationin% measures ta<en6 and of the mea%re su++$ies 0rou%ht from outside a%ainst
a++a$$in% difficu$ties:
@n Se+tem0er )6 t#o days 0efore the $and 0$oc<ade #as fina$$y com+$ete6 !o+<o36 head
of the enin%rad So3iet6 ca0$ed to the State Defence 5ommittee in Mosco#6 sayin% that
there #as 3ery $itt$e food $eft in the city and ur%in% that as much as +ossi0$e 0e sent 0y
rai$ immediate$y:
I@n that day !o+<o3 sti$$ ho+ed that M%a #ou$d 0e reca+tured 0y the 2ussians: (?0id:6 +:
)":)K
But the rai$#ays had a$ready 0een cut6 and t#o days $ater6 a$$ other $and communications
as #e$$: @n Se+tem0er 1& it #as esta0$ished that6 on the 0asis of the rationin% system that
had 0een introduced on Bu$y 1J in Mosco#6 enin%rad and other cities6 the stoc<s
a3ai$a0$e in enin%rad for 0oth troo+s and ci3i$ians on$y amounted to:
!+),$ )$5 0/#1+ ............... @5 5)*-< -1../*
C(+()/- )$5 ")3)+#$, ......... @L 5)*-< -1../*
M()&, ,$3/15,$% /,6( 3)&&/( ... @@ 5)*-< -1../*
)&- .............................. 45 5)*-< -1../*
S1%)+ )$5 3#$0(3&,#$(+* ...... 6L 5)*-< -1../*
?n addition6 the Army and the Ba$tic ;a3y had some sma$$ Femer%ency reser3esF of foodL
0ut these did not amount to much:
Short of 0rea<in% throu%h the 0$oc<ade6 and re,esta0$ishin% rai$ communications #ith the
Fmain$andF6 there #as $itt$e ho+e of re+$enishin% these mea%re reser3es: a<e ado%a #as
3ery +oor$y e=ui++ed6 and #hat $itt$e shi++in% it had #as under constant 1erman air
attac<: The food reser3es in enin%rad #ere6 moreo3er6 constant$y threatened #ith further
destruction 0y air raids: 5onsidera0$e =uantities of %rain6 f$our and su%ar had a$ready
0een destroyed6 nota0$y on Se+tem0er J6 $ar%e$y 0ecause e3en some of the most
e$ementary air,raid +recautions had not 0een o0ser3ed: There #as sti$$ no centra$ised
contro$6 and the food in the city #as he$d 0y numerous or%anisationsL thus6 for se3era$
days after the rin% of the 0$oc<ade had c$osed6 it #as sti$$ +ossi0$e to eat in Fcommercia$F
restaurants6 #hich #ere not su0Hect to rationin%6 and #hich used u+ as much as t#e$3e
+er cent of a$$ the fats and ten +er cent of a$$ the meat consumed in the city: 5ertain
tinned %oods6 such as tinned cra06 cou$d sti$$ 0e 0ou%ht in sho+s #ithout ration,cards for
some time after Se+tem0er J:
The e8+$anation %i3en no# for a$$ this care$essness is that 0oth the ci3i$ian and the
mi$itary authorities #ere so concerned #ith 0ui$din% defences and <ee+in% the 1ermans
out of enin%rad that they had Fno time to %i3e much thou%ht to the +ro0$em of food:
I !a3$o36 o+: cit:6 +: )4:K
An e8am+$e of the %enera$ confusion6 0oth in enin%rad and e$se#here6 =uoted 0y the
same author6 is the order sent from Mosco# to enin%rad6 se3era$ days a"ter the 0$oc<ade
had 0e%un6 to des+atch se3era$ #a%on,$oads of su%ar and confectionery from enin%rad
to Ao$o%daP
The first si%n that the authorities #ere a$armed 0y the food situation in enin%rad #as the
decision6 on Se+tem0er &6 to cut do#n rations to && o>: of 0read a day for #or<ers6 14 o>:
for office #or<ers and 11 o>: for chi$dren and de+endants: @n Se+tem0er 1&6 there #as a
second cut in rationsDthe 0read ration no# #as Hust o3er 1 $0: for #or<ers6 11 o>: for
office,#or<ers and chi$dren and 9 o>: for de+endants:
There #as a$so a reduction in the meat and cerea$s rations IBy cerea$s 6*rupa7 are meant
mi$$et6 rice6 semo$ina6 0uc<#heat6 etc:K6 0ut6 to ma<e u+ for this6 the su%ar6 confectionery
and fats ration #as increased as fo$$o#s:
Su%ar and conf: Fats
9or<ers 4:- $0: month$y & $0: & o>:
Cm+$oyees
3 $0: 1&:- o>:
month$y
1 $0: & o>:
De+endants 3 $0: - o>: month$y 11 o>:
5hi$dren (to
1&)
3 $0: 1&:- o>:
month$y
1 $0: & o>:
These su%ar and confectionery rations of three to four +ounds a month and of fats of one
to t#o +ounds a month6 thou%h 0y no means %enerous 0y ordinary standards6 #ere #ho$$y
out of +ro+ortion #ith enin%rad's misera0$e food reser3esL those in char%e of
enin%rad's defence sti$$ had the o3er,o+timistic idea that the 0$oc<ade #ou$d6 someho#6
0e 0ro<en 0efore $on%:
This did not ha++en6 and to economise on Frea$F f$our6 the authorities soon had to em0ar<
on a fe3erish search for su0stitutes6 #hich cou$d 0e used as admi8tures in the 0a<in% of
0read: 9hen6 in Se+tem0er6 se3era$ 0ar%es carryin% %rain #ere sun< 0y the 1ermans on
a<e ado%a6 a $ar%e +ro+ortion of the %rain #as reco3ered 0y di3ers and thou%h6
norma$$y6 it #ou$d ha3e 0een unfit for human consum+tion6 this mou$dy %rain #as to 0e
used as an admi8ture: As from @cto0er &"6 0read #as com+osed of )3Y rye f$our6 4Y
f$a8,ca<e6 4Y 0ran6 JY #ho$emea$6 4Y soya f$our6 1&Y ma$t f$our6 -Y mou$dy f$ourL a
fe# days $ater6 #ith the ma$t f$our reser3es runnin% out6 ne# su0stitutes 0e%an to 0e used6
such as ce$$u$ose6 after it had 0een +rocessed in a certain #ay6 and cotton ca<e: FDurin%
that hi%h$y critica$ +eriod6 these su0stitutes re+resented a sa3in% of t#enty,fi3e days'
rations:F True6 the ce$$u$ose and mou$dy f$our %a3e the 0read a mou$dy and 0itter taste6
F0ut6 in those days6 taste #as #hat +eo+$e sto++ed #orryin% a0outF:
;eed$ess to say6 oats #hich #as intended as fodder for horses6 #as consumed 0y +eo+$e6
and horsesDat $east a sma$$ num0er of #hich it #as essentia$ for the Army to <ee+D
#ere fed on tree $ea3es and the $i<e: @ther incredi0$e su0stitutes for +ro+er food #ere
de3ised: ?n the +ort of enin%rad a stoc< of &6""" tons of shee+ %uts #as disco3eredL this
#as turned into a horri0$e He$$y6 the sme$$ of #hich had to 0e neutra$ised throu%h the
admi8ture of c$o3esL at the hei%ht of the famine6 this shee+s' %ut He$$y #as often to 0e
su++$ied to ration,card,ho$ders instead of meat:
As distinct from a$$ other cities in the So3iet *nion durin% the #ar6 #here +eo+$e cou$d
0uy a fe# e8tras in the *ol*hoz mar<et6 the +o+u$ation of enin%rad #as a0so$ute$y and
so$e$y de+endent on its ration cards:
There #ere6 of course6 some 0$ac< shee+: ?n Se+tem0er and the first ha$f of @cto0er there
#ere numerous cases of fraudL many +eo+$e mana%ed to ha3e t#o or more ration cardsL
often the cards of +eo+$e #ho had died or $eft the city: There #ere a$so many cases of
for%ed cardsL since there #as scarce$y any $i%htin% in the sho+s6 the sa$es staff #ere often
una0$e to distin%uish 0et#een rea$ and for%ed cards: !articu$ar$y atrocious #ere cases
#hen ration cards #ere sto$en: The $oss of a card #as often e=ua$ to a death sentence:
An em+$oyee of the +rintin% #or<s #here ration cards #ere +rinted6 #as found in
+ossession of 1"" such cardsL she #as shot: ?t #as a$so sus+ected that some for%ed cards
had 0een dro++ed on enin%rad 0y 1erman +$anes6 to add to the confusion: ?n the midd$e
of @cto0er a Fre,re%istrationF of a$$ ration,cards ho$ders #as orderedL this sho#ed that
some 7"6""" ration cards had6 0efore that6 0een unnecessari$y honoured: !eo+$e had used
the cards of the a0sent6 the dead6 or of some #ho #ere no# in the Army:
At the hei%ht of the famine in Decem0er there #as a Fe+idemicF of $ost ration cardsL in
@cto0er -6""" ration cards had 0een %enuine$y or fraudu$ent$y $ostL in ;o3em0er the
fi%ure rose to 136"""6 in Decem0er to &46""": The usua$ story #as that the card had 0een
destroyed in an air,raid: ?t is +erha+s sur+risin% that not more +eo+$e shou$d ha3e resorted
to this su0terfu%e6 since the difference 0et#een one and t#o ration cards in Decem0er
often meant the difference 0et#een $ife and death: The authorities' refusa$ to re+$ace these
$ost ration cards6 e8ce+t #hen such $oss and destruction cou$d 0e more or $ess
satisfactori$y +ro3ed6 soon +ut an end to the Fe+idemicF:
?f6 in Se+tem0er and @cto0er6 most rations #ere sti$$ honoured6 this #as no $on%er true in
;o3em0erL the shorta%e of cerea$s6 meat and fats #as +articu$ar$y serious6 and card,
ho$ders had to acce+t su0stitutes: Some of these6 such as ) o>: of e%%,+o#der instead of &
$0: of meat6 #ere not Fe=ui3a$entsF 0y the #idest stretch: @ther meat,su0stitutes #ere the
horri0$e He$$y from shee+'s %uts6 or an e3i$,sme$$in% He$$y made out of ca$3es' s<ins6 of
#hich a stoc< had 0een disco3ered in a #arehouse: ?n ;o3em0er and es+ecia$$y
Decem0er6 there #ere +ractica$$y no fats (0utter6 oi$ or mar%arine) $eft6 nor any <inds of
su0stitutes:
Durin% the first fe# months of the 0$oc<ade the distri0ution of food #as rather chaoticL in
theory6 anyone cou$d ha3e his ration cou+on honoured any#hereL 0ut this often +roduced
=ueues of une=ua$ $en%th: ?n Decem0er6 e3ery0ody had to re%ister in a +articu$ar sho+L
the distri0ution centres #ere thus a0$e to send each sho+ a++ro8imate$y its correct share
Dnot that this meant that a$$ ration cou+ons cou$d 0e honoured:
?n ;o3em0er and Decem0er6 the #ho$e of enin%rad #as $i3in% on star3ation rationsL
e3en many +ri3i$e%ed ration ho$ders (#or<ers and technica$ and en%ineerin% staffs)D
re+resentin% 34:4Y of the +o+u$ationDdied of hun%erL sti$$ $o#er ration cards #ere he$d
0y office #or<ers (17:-Y)6 de+endants (&9:-Y) and chi$dren (1J:-Y): This system has
0een se3ere$y criticised 0y So3iet authorsDes+ecia$$y in re$ation to chi$dren's ration
cards: a chi$d of e$e3en certain$y needed more food than a chi$d of three6 and it #as
+articu$ar$y unfair to +ut chi$dren on the e3en $o#er de+endants card once they had
reached the a%e of t#e$3e:
As #e ha3e seen6 the first cut in rations #as decided on Se+tem0er &L the second #as on
Se+tem0er 1"6 the third6 on @cto0er 16 the fourth on ;o3em0er 136 and the fifth6 the a$$,
time $o#6 on ;o3em0er &": A$ready after the fourth cut6 +eo+$e 0e%an to die of hun%er:
A+art from the food shorta%e6 there #as a$so a catastro+hic fue$ shorta%e in enin%rad:
Both oi$ and coa$ su++$ies #ere 3irtua$$y e8hausted 0y the end of Se+tem0er: The on$y
ho+e #as to cut #hate3er tim0er #as sti$$ a3ai$a0$e in the 0$oc<aded territory:
@n @cto0er J6 the 5ity and !ro3incia$ 5ommittees decided to cut tim0er in the !ar%o$o3o
and Ase3o$o>hs< areas north of the city:::
The #ood,cuttin% teams consisted most$y of #omen and ado$escentsL they arri3ed in the
#oods #ithout +ro+er instruments or c$othin%6 and there #as no housin% and no trans+ort
there: The #ho$e +$an #as threatened #ith co$$a+se: C$y @cto0er &4 on$y one +er cent of
the +$an had 0een fu$fi$$ed::: in one area6 on$y &1) +eo+$e #ere #or<in%6 instead of J"" as
ori%ina$$y +$anned::: ?n the circumstances the 4omsomo$s6 most$y %ir$s6 #ere sent out to
!ar%o$o3o and Ase3o$o>hs<: 9ithout #arm c$othes and shoes6 and sometimes #earin%
on$y $i%ht shoes and o3ercoats6 and sufferin% from hun%er and co$d6 these %ir$s of the
enin%rad 4omsomo$ ne3erthe$ess did #onders: Thus the %ir$s of the Smo$ny area 0ui$t6
in forty de%rees of frost I5enti%radeK6 a narro#,%au%e $ine from the forest to the nearest
rai$#ay $ine: They 0ui$t 0arrac<s6 su++$ied them #ith rudimentary sto3es6 and so
de$i3ered su0stantia$ =uantities of tim0er to enin%rad:
I 4arase36 o+: cit:6 ++: &37,J:K
This s$i%ht$y eased the fue$ situation in enin%rad6 #ithout6 ho#e3er6 so$3in% it: By the
end of @cto0er6 the city's e$ectric,+o#er su++$y #as on$y a sma$$ fraction of #hat it had
0een: The use of e$ectric $i%ht #as +rohi0ited e3ery#here6 e8ce+t at the 1enera$ Staff6 the
Smo$ny IThe head=uarters of the enin%rad Defence 5ounci$ under Ohdano36 and of the
5ity So3iet and other centra$ or%anisations: @ri%ina$$y a famous schoo$ for youn%
%ent$e#omen6 it had 0een the head=uarters of enin and the Bo$she3i<s durin% the 1917
2e3o$ution:K6 !arty offices6 ci3i$ defence stations6 and certain other officesL 0ut ordinary
houses6 as #e$$ as most offices had to do #ithout $i%ht throu%hout the $on% #inter ni%hts:
5entra$ heatin% #as a0andoned in f$ats6 offices and houses6 and in factories centra$
heatin% #as re+$aced 0y sma$$ #ood sto3es: @#in% to the $ac< of e$ectricity6 most
factories had to c$ose do#n6 or use the most +rimiti3e methods for ma<in% the machines
turn at a$$Dsuch as 0icyc$e +eda$s: Tram,cars #ere shar+$y reduced in num0er in
@cto0er6 and in ;o3em0er they sto++ed runnin% a$to%ether: ;o food6 no $i%ht6 no heat6
and6 on to+ of it a$$6 1erman air,raids and constant she$$in%Dsuch #as the $ife of
enin%rad in the #inter of 1941,&:
C').&(+ IA THE LADO!A LIELINE
9ith enin%rad firm$y encirc$ed 0y the 1ermans 0y the 0e%innin% of Se+tem0er6
des+erate remedies had to 0e de3ised for 0rin%in% su++$ies to the city: ?t cou$d no $on%er
0e assumed that the 0$oc<ade on $and #ou$d 0e 0ro<en #ithin a short time: Therefore6 on
Se+tem0er 96 the enin%rad 9ar 5ounci$ decided to 0ui$d a har0our in the sma$$ 0ay of
@sino3ets6 on the #est 0an< of a<e ado%a near the end of a su0ur0an rai$#ay $ine6
some thirty,fi3e mi$es north,east of enin%rad: Throu%h it some ca+ita$ e=ui+ment cou$d6
it #as rec<oned6 0e e3acuated from enin%rad6 and food and other su++$ies 0rou%ht in:
The +ort #as intended to hand$e t#e$3e 3esse$s a day 0y the end of Se+tem0er: The
ado%a na3a$ f$oti$$a6 su++$ied #ith some anti,aircraft %uns6 #as su++osed to +rotect the
ne# +ort:
;eed$ess to say6 #ith the 1ermans on$y some t#enty,fi3e mi$es south of @sino3ets6 their
+$anes not on$y <e+t a constant #atch on the ne# har0our6 0ut a$so on the +rimiti3e $itt$e
har0our of ;o3aya ado%a on the south side of the $a<e throu%h #hich the su++$ies #ent6
as #e$$ as on any car%oes crossin% the $a<e 0et#een the t#o +oints: Many tu%s and 0ar%es
#ere sun< durin% the first #ee<s of the Fado%a ife$ineF6 inc$udin% se3era$ #ith #omen
and chi$dren e3acuees from enin%rad:
F
This f$imsy $ife$ine +ro3ed ine3ita0$y disa++ointin%: Durin% the first month in #hich the
ne# im+ro3ised har0our of @sino3ets #as o+en6 on$y 96J"" tons of food #ere 0rou%ht
from 0eyond a<e ado%a: This re+resented an ei%ht,days' food su++$y for enin%rad6
#hich #as thus reduced to $i3in% on its reser3es durin% the remainin% t#enty,t#o days:
This #as a$$ the more disastrous as6 0y ;o3em0er6 the ha$f,fro>en $a<e #ou$d 0e unusa0$e
for either 3esse$s or road trans+ort: Some ur%ent measures #ere therefore ta<en6 and6
0et#een @cto0er 14 and &"6 -6""" tons of food #ere 0rou%ht from ;o3aya ado%a to
@sino3etsL 0ut this #as sti$$ 3ery $itt$e: Bet#een @cto0er &" and the 0e%innin% of
;o3em0er6 1&6""" tons of f$our and 16""" tons of meat #ere rushed from inside 2ussia to
a<e ado%a6 and6 des+ite constant 1erman air attac<s6 and autumn %a$es that #ere no#
s#ee+in% the $a<e6 most of this food #as safe$y de$i3ered in enin%rad: A+art from food6
a considera0$e =uantity of munitions #as a$so trans+orted:
But 0y ;o3em0er 1-6 a<e ado%a ceased to 0e na3i%a0$e: Summin% u+ the resu$ts of
this sta%e of the ado%a $ife$ine6 !a3$o3 #rites:
T'( 2)&(+ /,0(/,$( ,$ &'( )1&1"$ #0 1941 2)- ) %+()& '(/. &# &'( 8(-,(%(5 3,&*.
B(&2(($ S(.&("8(+ 1M )$5 &'( ($5 #0 $)6,%)&,#$ #$ N#6("8(+ 15, M4,LLL &#$- #0
0/#1+ )$5 3(+()/-, 1,1@1 &#$- #0 "()& )$5 5),+* .+#513( 2(+( 5(/,6(+(5, 8(-,5(-
3#$-,5(+)8/( 91)$&,&,(- #0 "1$,&,#$- )$5 01(/. T'( M5,LLL &#$- #0 0##5 +(.+(-($&(5
#$/* ) 0+)3&,#$ #0 2')& 2)- +(91,+(5, *(& &',- ($)8/(5 L($,$%+)5 &# '#/5 #1& )$
(B&+) &2($&* 5)*-, )$5 ,$ ) 8(-,(%(5 0#+&+(-- (6(+* 5)* 3#1$&-. T'( 2#+;(+- #0 &'(
A#/;'#6 +,6(+ 0/((&, &'( -),/#+- )$5 5#3;(+- #0 L)5#%), &'( -#/5,(+- )$5 #00,3(+- 2'#
&##; .)+& ,$ &'(-( #.(+)&,#$-, ")$* #0 &'(" /#-,$% &'(,+ /,6(-, 2(+( 5(0($5,$% (6(+*
&#$ #0 0##5 )%),$-& -&#+"-, 0,+(-, ($("* ),+3+)0& )$5 /##&,$%. T'( 2#+; &'(* 5,5 ,-
1$0#+%(&&)8/(.
=!a3$o36 o+: cit:6 +: 11J:K
By ;o3em0er 1) a ne# +hase #as reached in the ordea$ of enin%rad: The city cou$d
no# 0e su++$ied on$y 0y air: A$thou%h the Batt$e of Mosco# #as at its hei%ht6 the State
Defence 5ommittee %a3e enin%rad a fe# trans+ort and fi%hter +$anes to f$y su++$ies
from ;o3aya ado%a to enin%radDa distance of a0out 1"" mi$es: Thereu+on the
1ermans +roceeded to 0om0 the ;o3aya ado%a airfie$d6 and t#o,thirds of the su++$ies
had to 0e f$o#n from airfie$ds further in$and: Moreo3er6 the air con3oys #ere constant$y
attac<ed 0y the 1ermans #hi$e f$yin% o3er the $a<e6 and a num0er of 2ussian +$anes #ere
shot do#n: ?n 3ie# of the 3ery $imited car%o s+ace6 on$y +ressed meat and other
concentrated foodstuffs #ere de$i3ered to enin%rad in this difficu$t and cost$y #ay: This
sma$$,sca$e Fair,$iftF cou$d not6 in the $on% run6 so$3e the +ro0$em of feedin% near$y three
mi$$ion +eo+$e:
@n to+ of it a$$6 there no# came some tru$y disastrous ne# mi$itary re3erses: At the
0e%innin% of ;o3em0er6 the 1ermans attem+ted to ca+ture the #ho$e southern 0an< of
a<e ado%a6 inc$udin% the rai$#ay Hunction of Ao$<ho3L 1enera$ Fedyunins<y's troo+s
Hust mana%ed to sto+ the 1ermans outside Ao$<ho3L 0ut6 further east6 the 1ermans
succeeded in cuttin% the main enin%rad,Ao$o%da rai$#ay $ine6 and6 on ;o3em0er =, they
ca+tured Ti<h3in: The $oss of Ti<h3in #as critica$: Sma$$ =uantities of food cou$d sti$$6
#ith %reat difficu$ty6 0e de$i3ered 0y air: The +ro0$em of de$i3erin% $ar%er =uantities of
food across a<e ado%a6 e3en #hen it #as #e$$ fro>en6 0ecame a$most inso$u0$e: The
Ao$<ho3 and ;o3aya,ado%a food 0ases had %one out of action #hen the 1ermans had
cut the rai$#ay to the east of them: The ne# rai$,head #as no# a sma$$ station ca$$ed
Oa0orie6 in #i$d forest country some 1"" mi$es east of Ao$<ho3 and some si8ty mi$es east
of Ti<h3in: @n$y a state of mind 0orderin% on des+air cou$d ha3e +ersuaded the
enin%rad 9ar 5ounci$ to order the 0ui$din% of a Fmotor roadF of near$y &"" mi$es6 a$on%
o$d forest +aths and throu%h 3ir%in forest6 in a #ide circ$e from Oa0orie to ;o3aya
ado%a: So$diers and +easants #ere mo0i$ised to 0ui$d this FroadF at the hei%ht of #interL
and it #as actua$$y com+$eted on Decem0er ): The #ho$e area #as a$most uninha0ited
and:
A/#$% ) /)+%( -&+(&3', &'( +#)5 2)- -# $)++#2 &')& /#++,(- "((&,$% ()3' #&'(+ 3#1/5
$#& .)--? "#+(#6(+, &'( 5((. -$#2, &'( -&((. ',//- ,$ ) 3#1$&+* 2'#//* 1$0)",/,)+ &#
&'( 5+,6(+- /(5 &# 3#$-&)$& 8+();5#2$- )$5 -&#..)%(-. #+&1$)&(/*, ,& -# ')..($(5
&')& &'+(( 5)*- )0&(+ &'( +#)5 ')5 8(($ 3#"./(&(5, &'( ",/,&)+* -,&1)&,#$ -')+./*
3')$%(5 0#+ &'( 8(&&(+, 2,&' &'( R(5 A+"*<- +(3).&1+( #0 T,;'6,$. I& ,- #86,#1- &')&
&'( $(2 +#)5 3#1/5 $#& -)6( L($,$%+)5 0#+ )$* /($%&' #0 &,"(. A 3#$6#* #0 &+13;-
2',3' /(0& G)8#+,( 0#+ N#6)*) L)5#%) &##; 0#1+&(($ 5)*- &# +(&1+$ &# ,&- 8)-(, )$5
,$ &'+(( 5)*-, 8(&2(($ N#6)*)-L)5#%) )$5 Y(+(",$) !#+) #6(+ @5L &+13;- ')5 %#&
-&13; ,$ &'( -$#2. T'(-( 3#$6#*- ')5 &+)6(//(5 )& &'( +)&( #0 &2($&* ",/(- ) 5)*.. .
I!a3$o36 o+: cit:6 +: 1--:K
By dri3in% the 1ermans out of Ti<h3in and 0eyond the Ao$<ho3 ri3er 0et#een Decem0er
9 and 1- 1enera$ Merets<o3's troo+s $itera$$y sa3ed enin%rad:
IAnother %reat ad3anta%e of the reca+ture of Ti<h3in #as that it +ut an end to the threat
of a 1erman,Finnish FHunctionF:K
The 1ermans6 #hose radio had screamed its head off a0out the imminent surrender of
enin%rad the day Ti<h3in fe$$6 said 3ery $itt$e a0out the $oss of the enin%rad F+ad$oc<F:
.ad Ti<h3in remained in 1erman hands6 it is im+ossi0$e to see ho# enin%rad cou$d
ha3e 0een su++$ied6 since the im+ro3ised &"",mi$e road #as as %ood as use$ess: And6 at
that time6 #ith the 2ussian counter,offensi3e at Mosco# at its hei%ht6 there cou$d 0e no
=uestion of +ro3idin% enin%rad #ith a sufficient num0er of trans+ort and fi%hter +$anes
for a su+er,air$ift: ;ot on$y did 1enera$ Merets<o3's troo+s dri3e the 1ermans out of
Ti<h3in6 0ut 0y the end of Decem0er the troo+s of the Ao$<ho3 Army 1rou+ had a$so
dri3en the 1ermans a considera0$e distance a#ay from Aoi0o<a$o6 ha$f,#ay 0et#een
Ao$<ho3 and M%a (the $atter sti$$ in 1erman hands): By Banuary 16 194&6 trains cou$d
tra3e$ a$$ the #ay from Mosco# and Ao$o%da to Aoi0o<a$o6 #here the su++$ies #ere
ta<en 0y $orry across the no# fro>en a<e ado%a to enin%rad: But the or%anisation of
the F2oad of ifeF across the ice of a<e ado%a is a $on% and com+$icated story6 and it
#ou$d 0e #ron% to su++ose that6 #ith the $i0eration of Ti<h3in on Decem0er 96
enin%rad's su++$y trou0$es #ere o3er:
C').&(+ A THE !REAT AMINE
A$ready in ;o3em0er6 +eo+$e in enin%rad (in the first +$ace6 e$der$y men) 0e%an to die
of hun%er6 eu+hemistica$$y descri0ed as Fa$imentary distro+hyF: ?n ;o3em0er a$one o3er
116""" +eo+$e diedL the cut in rations on ;o3em0er &"Dthe fifth since the 0e%innin% of
the B$oc<adeDenormous$y increased the death,rate:
@n +a+er6 0ut on$y on +a+er6 these a$$,time,$o# dai$y rations #ere as fo$$o#s:
9or<ers and Cn%ineerin% and technica$
staff
@ffice 9or<ers De+endants 5hi$dren
Bread 9 o>: 4:- o>: 4:- o>:
Fats ":)) o>: ":33 o>: ":&- o>:
Meat $:7- o>: 1 o>: ":- o>:
5erea$s 1:7- o>: 1:1) o>: ":7- o>:
Su%ar and
conf:
1:7- o>: 1:1) o>: 1 o>:
Tota$ 1- o>: or 16"J7 ca$ories
J:1) o>: or -J1
ca$ories
7 o>: or 4))
ca$ories
J:33 o>: or )J4
C3en these incredi0$e fi%ures for ca$ories6 re+resentin%6 es+ecia$$y for the $ast three
cate%ories6 on$y a tiny fraction of the human 0ody's re=uirements6 are an Fo+timisticF
e8a%%eration: Since the meat and fats rations #ere not honoured6 or e$se #ere re+$aced 0y
#ho$$y inade=uate su0stitutes (shee+,%uts He$$y6 etc:)6 the ca$ory content of the rations #as
e3en $o#er6 e8ce+t (it is c$aimed) in the case of chi$dren: ?n Decem0er -&6""" +eo+$e
died6 as many as norma$$y died in a yearL #hi$e in Banuary 194&6 0et#een 36-"" and
46""" +eo+$e died e3ery dayL in Decem0er and Banuary &""6""" +eo+$e died: A$thou%h6
0y Banuary6 the rations had 0een some#hat increased6 the after,effects of the famine #ere
to 0e fe$t for many months afterL a$to%ether6 accordin% to the officia$ 2ussian fi%ures
=uoted at the ;urem0er% Tria$6 )3&6""" +eo+$e died in enin%rad as a direct resu$t of the
B$oc<adeDa fi%ure #hich is undou0ted$y an under,estimate: ?n 19-9 ? #as to$d 0y
Shosta<o3ich6 #ho had 0een in enin%rad durin% the ear$y sta%es of the 0$oc<ade6 that
9""6""" +eo+$e died6 and e3en hi%her fi%ures ha3e 0een =uoted:
A+art from hun%er6 +eo+$e a$so suffered acute$y from co$d in their unheated houses:
!eo+$e #ou$d 0urn their furniture and 0oo<sD 0ut these did not $ast $on%:
T# 0,// &'(,+ (".&* -&#")3'-, &# +(513( &'( ,$&($-( -100(+,$%- 3)1-(5 8* '1$%(+,
.(#./( 2#1/5 /##; 0#+ ,$3+(5,8/( -18-&,&1&(-: &'(* 2#1/5 &+* &# 3)&3' 3+#2- #+ +##;-,
#+ )$* 3)& #+ 5#% &')& ')5 -&,// -#"('#2 -1+6,6(5? &'(* 2#1/5 %# &'+#1%' "(5,3,$(
3'(-&- ,$ -()+3' #0 3)-&#+ #,/, '),+ #,/, 6)-(/,$( #+ %/*3(+,$(? &'(* 2#1/5 ");( -#1.
#+ :(//* #1& #0 3)+.($&(+<- %/1( 4-3+).(5 #00 2)//.).(+ #+ 8+#;($-1. 01+$,&1+(7. B1&
$#& )// .(#./( ,$ &'( ($#+"#1- 3,&* ')5 -13' -1../("($&)+* -#1+3(- #0 D0##5D.
D()&' 2#1/5 #6(+&);( .(#./( ,$ )// ;,$5- #0 3,+31"-&)$3(-? 2',/( &'(* 2(+( ,$ &'(
-&+((&-, &'(* 2#1/5 0)// 5#2$ )$5 $(6(+ +,-( )%),$? #+ ,$ &'(,+ '#1-(- 2'(+( &'(*
2#1/5 0)// )-/((. )$5 $(6(+ )2);(? ,$ 0)3&#+,(-, 2'(+( &'(* 2#1/5 3#//).-( 2',/(
5#,$% ) :#8 #0 2#+;. T'(+( 2)- $# &+)$-.#+&, )$5 &'( 5()5 8#5* 2#1/5 1-1)//* 8(
.1& #$ ) ')$5--/(,%' 5+)2$ 8* &2# #+ &'+(( "("8(+- #0 &'( 5()5 ")$<- 0)",/*?
#0&($, 2'#//* (B')1-&(5 51+,$% &'( /#$% &+(; &# &'( 3("(&(+*, &'(* 2#1/5 )8)$5#$
&'( 8#5* ')/0-2)*, /()6,$% ,& &# &'( )1&'#+,&,(- &# 5()/ 2,&' ,&.
=!a3$o36 o+: cit:6 ++: 13),7:K
Accordin% to another #itness:
I& 2)- )/"#-& ,".#--,8/( &# %(& ) 3#00,$. H1$5+(5- #0 3#+.-(- 2#1/5 8( )8)$5#$(5 ,$
3("(&(+,(- #+ ,$ &'(,+ $(,%'8#1+'##5, 1-1)//* "(+(/* 2+)..(5 ,$ ) -'((&... T'(
)1&'#+,&,(- 2#1/5 81+* )// &'(-( )8)$5#$(5 3#+.-(- ,$ 3#""#$ %+)6(-? &'(-( 2(+(
")5( 8* &'( 3,6,/ 5(0($3( &()"- 2,&' &'( 1-( #0 (B./#-,6(-. P(#./( 5,5 $#& ')6( &'(
-&+($%&' &# 5,% #+5,$)+* %+)6(- ,$ &'( 0+#C($ ()+&'... O$ J)$1)+* K, 194M &'(
EB(31&,6( C#"",&&(( #0 &'( L($,$%+)5 C,&* S#6,(& $#&(5 &')& 3#+.-(- 2(+( -3)&&(+(5
)// #6(+ &'( ./)3(, )$5 2(+( 0,//,$% 1. "#+%1(- )$5 3("(&(+* )+()-? -#"( 2(+( 8(,$%
81+,(5 )$* #/5 2)*, 2,&'#1& )$* +(%)+5 0#+ &'( (/("($&)+* +1/(- #0 '*%,($(.
I4arase36 o+: cit:6 +: 1J9:K
ater6 in A+ri$6 durin% the %enera$ c$ean,u+ of the cityD#hich #as a0so$ute$y essentia$ to
+re3ent e+idemics6 once s+rin% had comeDthousands of cor+ses #ere disco3ered in
she$ters6 trenches and under the me$tin% sno#6 #here they had 0een $yin% for months: As
the Secretary of the enin%rad 4omsomo$ #rote at the time: FThe Ho0 of dis+osin% of
these cor+ses #as tru$y terrifyin%L #e #ere afraid of the effect it mi%ht ha3e on the minds
of chi$dren and 3ery youn% +eo+$e: A dry matter,of,fact communi=uN #ou$d ha3e read
somethin% $i<e this: 'The 4omsomo$ or%anisations +ut in order a$$ trenches and she$ters:'
?n rea$ity this #or< #as 0eyond descri+tion:F
I?0id:6 +: &&7:K
.os+ita$s #ere of 3ery $itt$e he$+ to the star3in%: ;ot on$y #ere the doctors and nurses
ha$f,dead #ith hun%er themse$3es6 0ut #hat the +atients needed #as not medicine6 0ut
food6 and there #as none:
?n Decem0er and Banuary the frost fro>e #ater mains and se#ers6 and the 0urst +i+es a$$
o3er the city added to the dan%er of e+idemics: 9ater had to 0e 0rou%ht in +ai$s from the
;e3a or the numerous enin%rad cana$s: This #ater #as6 moreo3er6 dirty and unsafe to
drin<6 and in Fe0ruary6 a0out one and a ha$f mi$$ion +eo+$e #ere %i3en anti,ty+hoid
inHections:
Bet#een the midd$e of ;o3em0er and the end of Decem0er6 3-6""" +eo+$e #ere
e3acuated from enin%rad6 most$y 0y airL on Decem0er ) many +eo+$e #ere a$$o#ed to
$ea3e the city across the ice of a<e ado%a6 0ut6 u+ to Banuary &&6 this e3acuation #ent
on in an unor%anised #ay: thousands sim+$y +roceeded across a<e ado%a on foot6 and
many died 0efore they e3en reached the south 0an< of the $a<e:
?t #as not ti$$ Banuary && that6 #ith the he$+ of a f$eet of 0uses tra3e$$in% a$on% the ne#
?ce 2oad6 the e3acuation across a<e ado%a started in rea$ earnest:
There is some conf$ictin% e3idence a0out the effect of the famine on +eo+$e: on the
#ho$e6 +eo+$e Hust died #ith a fee$in% of resi%nation6 #hi$e the sur3i3ors #ent on $i3in%
in ho+es: the reca+ture of Ti<h3in and the s$i%ht increase in rations on Decem0er &- had a
heartenin% effect: ;e3erthe$ess6 4arase3 ta$<s of numerous cases of F+sycho$o%ica$
traumaF +roduced 0y hun%er and co$d6 1erman 0om0in% and she$$in%6 and the death of so
many re$ati3es and friends: There are no e8act fi%ures of the num0er of chi$dren #ho died
of hun%erL 0ut the death,rate amon% these is 0e$ie3ed to ha3e 0een re$ati3e$y $o#6 if on$y
0ecause their +arents #ou$d often sacrifice their o#n mea%re rations:
Both $oca$ +atriotism and an iron disci+$ine6 +art$y enforced 0y the authorities6 account
for the 3irtua$ a0sence of any disorders or hun%er riots: That the measures ta<en a%ainst
Fanti,socia$F 0eha3iour #ere e8treme$y drastic may 0e Hud%ed from the statement 0y
4u>netso36 head of the enin%rad 5ity !arty @r%anisation6 #ho said in A+ri$: F9e used
to shoot +eo+$e for ha$f,a,+ound of 0read sto$en from the +o+u$ation:F There #ere6
ine3ita0$y6 a fe# rac<eteers here and thereL 0ut6 on the #ho$e6 the disci+$ine #as %ood:
!a3$o3 te$$s the fo$$o#in% si%nificant incident:
T'( 5+,6(+ #0 ) &+13; 2)- 5(/,6(+,$% /#)6(- #0 8+()5 &# ) 8);(+*, 2'($ ) -'(// ',& &'(
0+#$& #0 &'( &+13; )$5 ;,//(5 &'( 5+,6(+... T'( /#)6(- #0 8+()5 2(+( -3)&&(+(5 #6(+ &'(
.)6("($&. C#$5,&,#$- 2(+( 0)6#1+)8/( 0#+ /##&,$%. Y(& &'( .(#./( 2'# %)&'(+(5
+#1$5 &'( 2+(3;(5 6(',3/(, +),-(5 &'( )/)+", )$5 %1)+5(5 &'( 8+()5 &,// &'( )++,6)/
#0 )$#&'(+ &+13;. A// &'(-( .(#./( 2(+( '1$%+*, )$5 &'( &(".&)&,#$ &# %+)8 ) 0+(-'
/#)0 #0 8+()5 2(//-$,%' ,++(-,-&,8/(. A$5 *(& $#& ) -,$%/( /#)0 2)- -&#/($.
I@+ cit:6 +: 1"9:K
9hether6 on the other hand6 as !a3$o3 im+$ies6 a man #ho started screamin% at +eo+$e in
a 0read,=ueue ur%in% them to $oot the sho+ #as an enemy a%ent or sim+$y a man dri3en
ha$f,insane 0y hun%er is difficu$t to sayL many +eo+$e #ere dri3en ha$f,insane6 as is
su%%ested 0y 4arase3 and other #riters:
Mora$e6 e3en in the a++a$$in% conditions of the famine at its hei%ht6 #as <e+t u+ in a$$
<inds of #ays: there are many accounts of the theatrica$ sho#s that continued throu%hout
the #inter6 %i3en 0y actors a$most faintin% #ith hun%er6 and #earin% ($i<e the audience)
#hate3er they cou$d to <ee+ themse$3es #arm:
Much is a$so made of the ro$e +$ayed 0y the enin%rad 4omsomo$ or%anisations to he$+
+eo+$e in dire distress: The 4omsomo$ or%anised 4!tov!ie otriad! (Fe3eryday $ife teamsF)
of se3era$ thousand youn% +eo+$e:
T'(-( &()"- 3#$-,-&(5 #0 ) &#&)/ #0 1,LLL *#1$% .(#./(? "#+(#6(+, ,$ ()3' 5,-&+,3&,
-#"( 5LL #+ KLL &(".#+)+* '(/.(+- 2(+( 0+(91($&/* "#8,/,-(5. T,+(5 )$5 2#+$ #1&,
&'(-( *#1$% .(#./(, "#-&/* %,+/-, 2#1/5 '(/. &'( .#.1/)&,#$ &# #6(+3#"( &'(,+
&(++,8/( 5,00,31/&,(-. A,-,&,$% 5,+&* )$5 0+((C,$% '#1-(-, &'(* 2#1/5 1-( &'(,+ -2#//($
')$5-, 3+)3;(5 2,&' 3#/5 )$5 ')+5 2#+;, &# 3'#. 2##5, #+ /,%'& &'( /,&&/( burzhuika
-&#6(-, #+ 8+,$% .),/- #0 2)&(+ 0+#" &'( N(6), #+ 8+,$% 5,$$(+ 0+#" ) 3)$&(($, #+
2)-' &'( 0/##+ #+ 3/#&'(-, )$5 &'( .)&'(&,3 -",/( #0 ) 3#"./(&(/* (B')1-&(5
L($,$%+)5(+ 2#1/5 &'($ (B.+(-- ',- %+)&,&15( 0#+ &',- ')+5 )$5 '#$#1+)8/( 2#+;.
I$ &'( P+,"#+-;, 5,-&+,3& )/#$(, &'( "("8(+- #0 &'(-( K#"-#"#/ &()"- (B)",$(5 ,$
(8+1)+*-M)+3' 1,N1L 0/)&-, /##;(5 )0&(+ KNL -,3; .(#./( )$5, )/&#%(&'(+, '(/.(5
K,6KN .(+-#$-... T'( K#"-#"#/ &()"- 2(+( )1&'#+,-(5 &# +(-(&&/( .(#./( ,$&# "#+(
-1,&)8/( '#1-(-, ./)3( '#"(/(-- 3',/5+($ ,$ 3',/5+($<- '#"(-, )$5 )++)$%( )8#1&
(6)31)&,#$-... L)+%(/* &'+#1%' &'( '(/. #0 &'( K#"-#"#/ &()"-, #6(+ @L,LLL
#+.')$- 2(+( -(&&/(5 ,$ &'( (,%'&*-0,6( $(2 3',/5+($<- '#"(- -(& 1. 8(&2(($ J)$1)+*
)$5 M)* 194M.
=4arase36 o+: cit:6 +: 19":K
Most of these chi$dren #ere the or+hans of +arents #ho had died in the famine:
?f the ci3i$ian +o+u$ation of enin%rad had to suffer a$$ the +an%s of hun%er6 and many
had to die6 since there #as no a$ternati3e so $on% as $ar%e sca$e e3acuation #as
im+ossi0$e6 there cou$d 0e no =uestion of $ettin% the so$diers star3eL for e3erythin%
u$timate$y de+ended on them: C3en so6 the so$diers' rations had to 0e cut6 too: The 2ed
Army rations esta0$ished on Se+tem0er &"6 19416 amounted to 364-" ca$ories in the case
of front,$ine troo+s and &6)-9 ca$ories in the case of Frear +ersonne$F6 #ith t#o
intermediary cate%ories 0et#een them:
?n the conditions of enin%rad such rations cou$d not 0e maintained for $on%: Bet#een
the midd$e of ;o3em0er 1941 and Fe0ruary 194&6 the ration of front,$ine troo+s #as
reduced to &6-93 ca$ories6 and that of FrearF troo+s to 16)"- ca$oriesL from ;o3em0er &"
Dthat is6 at the hei%ht of the hun%er 0$oc<adeDfront,$ine so$diers #ere %ettin% 1 $0: of
0read and a0out 4 o>: of meat6 0esides sma$$ =uantities of other food: This6 at the hei%ht
of #inter6 #as far from satisfactory6 thou%h the <no#$ed%e of #hat #as ha++enin% in
enin%rad at the same time made the so$diers fee$ that they #ere hi%h$y +ri3i$e%ed in
com+arison #ith the ci3i$ians: 9hene3er ci3i$ians 3isited the front6 so$diers %$ad$y shared
their mea%re rations #ith them: Moreo3er6 most of the reser3es of +otatoes in enin%rad
#ere handed o3er to the Army's fie$d <itchens6 and this created an i$$usion of F0u$<FL a$so6
the army 0read #as of s$i%ht$y 0etter =ua$ity than that %i3en to ci3i$ians:
The so$diers6 ho#e3er6 suffered se3ere$y from the enin%rad to0acco shorta%e6 and a$$
<inds of admi8tures #ere de3isedDsuch as ho+s and dried ma+$e $ea3es: Des+erate
remedies #ere resorted to in order to <ee+ the troo+s #e$$ su++$ied #ith to0acco6 #hich
#as found to 0e essentia$ for mora$e: Aery fe# so$diers6 it #as found6 #ou$d a%ree to
e8chan%e their to0acco e3en for choco$ate6 #hich #as amon% the FconcentratedF foods
0rou%ht to enin%rad 0y air:
C').&(+ AI THE ICE ROAD
There #ere on$y t#o drastic remedies for the a++a$$in% famine from #hich enin%rad had
suffered6 es+ecia$$y since the end of @cto0er: one #as the e3acuation of as many +eo+$e
as +ossi0$eL the other #as the or%anisation of a re$ia0$e su++$y,$ine for food6 fue$ and ra#
materia$s: The or%anisation of an ice road across a<e ado%a had 0een in the enin%rad
authorities' minds e3er since the 0$oc<ade on $and had c$osed round enin%rad on
Se+tem0er JL the $a<e #as e8+ected to free>e in ;o3em0er or ear$y Decem0er: But
e3erythin% de+ended on the intensity of the frostL to 0ui$d a +ro+er motor road across the
ice6 it #as essentia$ that the ice shou$d 0e uniform$y t#o metres thic<: This thic<ness
cou$d 0e reached ra+id$y in on$y e8treme$y co$d #eather of at $east minus 1-V5:
By ;o3em0er 17 the ice #as on$y one metre thic<6 0ut 0y ;o3em0er &"Dthat day of the
a$$,time,$o# ration cut in enin%rad Dit reached a thic<ness of 1:J metresL horse,dra#n
3ehic$es #ere sent across the ice6 0ut the horses #ere so underfed that many of them
co$$a+sed and died: The dri3ers #ere instructed to cut u+ such horses6 and de$i3er them to
enin%rad as meat: At $ast6 on ;o3em0er &&6 the first motor trans+ort 3entured on to the
$a<eL 0ut the ice #as sti$$ so thin that on$y sma$$ $oads cou$d 0e carried 0y the t#o,ton
$orries6 and e3en so6 se3era$ of them fe$$ throu%h the ice: @n the fo$$o#in% day a system
#as ado+ted of attachin% s$ei%hs to the $orries6 and +uttin% most of the $oad on the
s$ei%hs6 so as to s+read out the +ressure on the ice more e3en$y: Bet#een ;o3em0er &3
and Decem0er 1 on$y J"" tons of f$our #ere trans+orted across the ice in these 3arious
#ays6 and6 in the +rocess6 some forty $orries #ere $ost6 some of them fa$$in% throu%h the
ice6 often to%ether #ith their dri3ers: The resu$ts of this first attem+t to use the 2oad of
ife #ere ne%$i%i0$e: ?t shou$d 0e remem0ered that6 at this time6 Ti<h3in #as in 1erman
hands6 and that most of the food trans+orted durin% that #ee< came from the mea%re
stores that had 0een accumu$ated on the south side of the $a<e 0efore the fa$$ of Ti<h3in
on ;o3em0er 9: ;e# su++$iesDif anyD#ere no# e8+ected to reach a<e ado%a a$on%
the incredi0$y $on% im+ro3ised road from Oa0orie6 far to the east of Ti<h3in: To maintain
the star3ation rations that had come into force in enin%rad on ;o3em0er &"6 it #as
essentia$ to 0rin% to the city at $east 16""" tons of food a day6 0esides ammunition and
+etro$ #hich #ere a0so$ute$y essentia$ to the troo+s of the enin%rad Front: C3en in the
0est +ossi0$e conditions6 not more than )"" tons a day cou$d 0e e8+ected from the
Oa0orie road: Thus6 the $i0eration of Ti<h3in on Decem0er 9 tru$y meant that enin%rad
had 0een sa3ed:
I!a3$o36 o+: cit:6 +: 1-):K
;ot that the reca+ture of Ti<h3in so$3ed a$$ +ro0$emsDfar from it: A$thou%h Ti<h3in6 on
the main Ao$o%da,enin%rad $ine6 had no# 0ecome the main food 0ase for enin%rad and
0ecame6 as soon as it #as reca+tured6 F$i<e a %i%antic ant,hea+F (!a3$o3)6 the tas< of
trans+ortin% food and other su++$ies from Ti<h3in to enin%rad #as sti$$ an e8treme$y
arduous one: Since the 1ermans6 in their retreat6 had 0$o#n u+ a$$ the rai$#ay 0rid%es
0et#een Ti<h3in and Ao$<ho36 there #as no a$ternati3e6 for the time 0ein%6 to
trans+ortin% the su++$ies 0y road6 name$y from Ti<h3in to a num0er of +oints on the $a<e6
such as 4a0ona or edne3o6 a matter of o3er 1"" mi$es of 3ery 0ad #inter roads: ?t #as
not ti$$ Banuary 1 that the rai$#ay 0rid%es 0et#een Ti<h3in and Ao$<ho3 #ere re0ui$tL 0y
this time6 the 1ermans had a$so 0een dri3en a $on% distance a#ay from Ao$<ho3 and
Aoi0o<a$o (rou%h$y to their ori%ina$ FM%a sa$ientF #hich they had ca+tured in
Se+tem0er)6 and it #as Aoi0o<a$o6 on the main enin%rad,Ao$o%da rai$#ay $ine6 and Hust
south of the SchRsse$0ur% Bay6 #hich 0ecame the main Ffood 0aseF: ?t #as on$y some
thirty,fi3e mi$es from @sino3ets6 on the enin%rad side of the $a<e: 9hat is more6 durin%
the fo$$o#in% #ee<s6 a 0ranch $ine #as 0ui$t6 in incredi0$e #inter conditions6 from
Aoi0o<a$o to 4a0ona6 a matter of some t#enty mi$es6 so as to 0rin% the trains ri%ht u+ to
the $a<e6 #here the food #as then +ut in $orries:
A$thou%h the food su++$ies in enin%rad #ere sti$$ #orse than +recarious at the end of
Decem0er6 the 9ar 5ounci$ decided to increase the 0read ration s$i%ht$y on Decem0er
&-: This #as not enou%h to reduce the death,rate6 0ut it had an im+ortant effect on
mora$e:
A$to%ether6 0et#een the 0e%innin% of the 0$oc<ade on Se+tem0er J and Banuary 16 some
4-6""" tons of food #ere de$i3ered to enin%rad in the fo$$o#in% #ays (in tons):
.!
:ater
.!
air
.! the ice
road
Total
1rain and F$our &36"41 743 1&6343 3)61&7
5erea$s 16"-) D 164J& &6-3J
Meat and meat +roducts 73" 16J&9 161"" 36)-9
Fats and cheese &7) 167&9 13J &6143
5ondensed mi$< 1&- &"" 1-J 4J3
C%% +o#der6 choco$ate6
etc:
D )J1 44 7&-
Tota$: &-6&&J -61J& 1-6&)- 4-6)7-
5onsiderin% that there #ere a0out t#o and a ha$f mi$$ion +eo+$e sti$$ in enin%rad6 these
=uantities #ere6 of course6 e8treme$y sma$$6 and6 #hat is more6 the =uantities de$i3ered 0y
Banuary 1 across the ice #ere #orse than disa++ointin%: ?t shou$d6 it is true6 0e added that6
a+art from food6 a certain =uantity of ammunition and +etro$ #ere a$so 0rou%ht into
enin%rad durin% this +eriod:
A$to%ether6 neither in Decem0er nor e3en in Banuary6 cou$d the ?ce 2oad 0e said to 0e
#or<in% satisfactori$y6 and at the 0e%innin% of Banuary Ohdano3 e8+ressed his e8treme
discontent at the #ay thin%s #ere %oin%: 9hat com+$icated matters sti$$ further #as the
decre+it state of the sma$$ rai$#ay $ine (in the +ast a dere$ict su0ur0an $ine6 0ui$t $on%
0efore the 2e3o$ution) 0et#een @sino3ets and enin%rad: The rai$#ay e3en $ac<ed
#ater,to#ers6 and en%ines had to 0e fi$$ed #ith #ater 0y hand6 and trees had to 0e cut on
the s+ot to su++$y them #ith dam+ and #ho$$y inade=uate fue$: The $ine #hich used to
ha3e one train a day6 #as no# e8+ected to carry si8 or se3en $ar%e %oods trains: The ha$f,
star3ed rai$#aymen #ere fi%htin% a%ainst terri0$e odds:
There #as a$so an acute shorta%e of +ac<in% materia$ in 2ussia and a hi%h +ro+ortion of
the food ta<en to enin%rad #as #asted as a resu$t: ?t #as not6 in fact6 unti$ the end of
Banuary or rather6 unti$ Fe0ruary 1"6 194&6 #hen the 0ranch,$ine from Aoi0o<a$o to
4a0ona #as com+$eted6 and not unti$ after a %ood dea$ of reor%anisation had 0een done6
that the 2oad of ife across a<e ado%a 0e%an to #or< $i<e c$oc<#or<: By this time
se3era$ #ide motor,roads had 0een 0ui$t across the ice6 and hundreds of $orries cou$d no#
de$i3er food to enin%rad6 and a$so e3acuate many thousands of its inha0itants6 many of
them ha$f,dead #ith hun%er: The 1ermans did #hat they cou$d to interfere 0oth #ith the
0ui$din% of the rai$#ay $ine to 4a0ona and #ith the ice,roads themse$3esL these roads
#ere 0oth 0om0ed and she$$ed6 0ut 2ussian fi%hter +$anes +rotected them as far as
+ossi0$e6 and traffic +o$ice #ere stationed a$on% the roads: @ne of their duties #as to $ay
$itt$e 0rid%es across any ho$es or crac<s in the ice made 0y 1erman 0om0s or she$$s:
By Banuary &46 194&6 food su++$ies had sufficient$y im+ro3ed to a$$o# a second increase
in enin%rad's rationsL #or<ers #ere no# %ettin% 14 o>: of 0read6 office #or<ers 11 o>:6
de+endants and chi$dren 9 o>:6 and front $ine troo+s &1 o>:L on Fe0ruary 116 the ration #as
increased for the third time:
@n Banuary && the State Defence 5ommittee decided to e3acuate ha$f,a,mi$$ion +eo+$e
from enin%radL +riority #as %i3en to #omen6 chi$dren6 o$d and sic< +eo+$e: ?n Banuary
116""" +eo+$e #ere e3acuated6 in Fe0ruary 1176"""6 in March &&16"""6 in A+ri$ 1)36"""L
a tota$ of -1&6""": ?n May6 after shi++in% on a<e a%oda had 0een restored6 the
e3acuation continued6 and 0et#een May and ;o3em0er 194&6 4496""" more +eo+$e #ere
e3acuated6 ma<in% a tota$6 in 194&6 of near$y a mi$$ion +eo+$e: Moreo3er6 the e3acuation
of industry6 #hich had 0een so harsh$y interru+ted in Se+tem0er 19416 #as resumed:
0et#een Banuary and A+ri$6 se3era$ thousand machine too$s6 etc:6 #ere e3acuated across
the ice to the east: 9hat is more6 a +etro$ +i+e$ine #as $aid6 0et#een A+ri$ and Bune 194&6
across the 0ottom of a<e ado%a to su++$y enin%rad #ith fue$: The 1erman attem+ts to
#rec< the +i+e$ine 0y dro++in% de+th,char%es into the $a<e fai$ed: Simi$ar$y6 #hen the
Ao$<ho3 +o#er station resumed #or< in May 194&6 an e$ectric ca0$e #as $aid across the
0ottom of a<e ado%a6 to su++$y enin%rad #ith e$ectric +o#er:
The ado%a ife ineDice in #inter6 #ater in summer6 continued to function
satisfactori$y ri%ht u+ to Banuary 1943 #hen the $and 0$oc<ade #as 0ro<en and trains
0e%an6 soon after#ards6 to run throu%h the narro# FSch$Rsse$0ur% 1a+F:
9ith the +o+u$ation enormous$y reduced6 first 0y famine6 and then 0y e3acuation6
feedin% enin%rad no $on%er +resented an insu+era0$e +ro0$em: ?ndeed after March 194&6
to ma<e u+ for #hat the city had suffered6 enin%rad rations #ere hi%her than in the rest
of the country6 and s+ecia$ canteens #ith e8tra,%ood food #ere set u+6 +articu$ar$y for
#or<ers in +oor hea$th: ;e3erthe$ess6 the #inter famine had $eft a mar< on 3ery many
+eo+$e: Durin% the summer months of 194& a hi%h +ro+ortion of #or<ers #ere too i$$ to
#or<D in one armaments +$ant mentioned 0y 4arase36 thirty,fi3e +er cent of the #or<ers
#ere too i$$ to #or< in May6 and thirty,one +er cent in Bune: @n May &36 194&6 the +oet
Aera ?n0er6 #hose hus0and #or<ed in a enin%rad hos+ita$6 noted in her diary:
O1+ '#-.,&)/ 3#".#1$5 ')- 8(($ 3/()+(5 #0 +188/(, )$5 ')- 8(3#"( )/"#-&
1$+(3#%$,-)8/(E8(&&(+ (6($ &')$ 8(0#+( &'( 2)+, I<" &#/5. I$ ./)3( #0 '().- #0
+188,-' &'(+( )+( $#2 $(2 6(%(&)8/( ./#&-. I$ &'( -&15($&-< '#-&(/ &'(* ')6( #.($(5
) D+(,$0#+3(5 $1&+,&,#$D 5,$,$% +##"? &'(+( )+( -(6(+)/ ,$ (6(+* 5,-&+,3&. W();,
.)/(, (B')1-&(5 .(#./( 4-(3#$5 5(%+(( 5,-&+#.'*7 -/#2/* 2)$5(+ )8#1&, )/"#-&
-1+.+,-(5 )& &'( &'#1%'& &')& &'(* )+( -&,// )/,6(... O0&($ &'(* -,& 5#2$ 0#+ ) +(-&, )$5
(B.#-( &'(,+ /(%- &# &'( +)*- #0 &'( -1$, 2',3' '()/- &'(,+ -31+6* 1/3(+-... B1& )"#$%
L($,$%+)5(+- &'(+( )+( )/-# -#"( 2'# 3)$ $# /#$%(+ "#6( #+ 2)/; 4&',+5 5(%+((
5,-&+#.'*7. T'(* /,( 91,(&/* ,$ &'(,+ 0+#C($ 2,$&(+ '#1-(-, ,$&# 2',3' (6($ &'( -.+,$%
-(("- 1$)8/( &# .($(&+)&(. S13' '#1-(- )+( 6,-,&(5 8* *#1$% 5#3&#+-, "(5,3)/
-&15($&- )$5 $1+-(-? &'( 2#+-& 3)-(- )+( &);($ &# '#-.,&)/? 2( ')6( .1& 1. M,LLL $(2
8(5- ,$ #1+ '#-.,&)/, ,$3/15,$% &'( ")&(+$,&* 2)+5? -# 0(2 3',/5+($ )+( 8#+$
$#2)5)*-, #$( ",%'& -)* $#$( )+( 8#+$ )& )//H
IAera ?n0er6 Pochti tri goda (;ear$y Three (ears)6 (enin%rad6 1947)6 ++: 11J,19:K
A 3ery hi%h death,rate +ersisted at $east unti$ A+ri$L and a$thou%h6 0y Bune6 +eo+$e
sto++ed dyin% of hun%er or its after,effects6 the strain of #hat they had $i3ed throu%h6 as
#e$$ as of the constant 0om0in% and she$$in% of the city6 continued to ma<e itse$f fe$t:
4arase3 s+ea<s of a #ides+read F+sychic traumatisationF6 mar<ed6 in +articu$ar6 0y hi%h
0$ood,+ressureL this condition #as four or fi3e times more fre=uent than 0efore the #ar:
;e3erthe$ess6 #ith the +o+u$ation reduced to on$y 161""6""" in A+ri$ and to some
)-"6""" 0y ;o3em0er 194&6 conditions of $ife 0ecame re$ati3e$y more norma$: 14J
schoo$s (out of some -"") #ere o+ened #ith )-6""" +u+i$s6 and the chi$dren #ere %i3en
three mea$s a day:
A$thou%h the front outside enin%rad seemed in 194& to ha3e 0een sta0i$ised6 the dan%er
of another a$$,out 1erman attem+t to ca+ture the city #as e3er,+resent6 and there #ere
se3era$ (more or $ess fa$se) a$arms: @n the other hand6 the attem+ts made 0y the 2ed
Army to 0rea< the $and 0$oc<ade fai$ed:
The ne#s throu%hout the F0$ac< summerF of 194& of the 1ermans crashin% ahead into the
5aucasus and to#ards Sta$in%rad6 had a de+ressin% effect: The fa$$ of Se0asto+o$D#hich
had so many +oints in common #ith enin%radDseemed +articu$ar$y ominous6 and there
#as a$so a fee$in% that if Sta$in%rad fe$$6 the fate of enin%rad6 too6 #ou$d 0e sea$ed:
The 2ussian counter,offensi3e at Sta$in%rad not on$y created a tremendous fee$in% of
o+timism in enin%rad6 as it did in the rest of the country6 0ut it a$so enormous$y
im+ro3ed the +ros+ects of 0rea<in% the 1erman 0$oc<ade: This #as no# achie3ed as a
resu$t of a #ee<'s hea3y fi%htin% in Banuary 19436 #hen the troo+s of the enin%rad Front
under 1enera$ 1o3oro3 and those of the Ao$<ho3 Front under 1enera$ Merets<o36 Hoined
forces6 and so hac<ed a ten,mi$e corridor throu%h the 1erman sa$ient south of a<e
ado%a: SchRsse$0ur% #as reca+tured and6 in a 3ery short time6 a rai$ $in< #as esta0$ished
#ith the Fmain$andF and a +ontoon 0rid%e 0ui$t across the ;e3aL as a resu$t6 trains cou$d
tra3e$ from Mosco# to enin%rad:
IAera ?n0er (o+: cit:6 +: 194) #rote in March 19436 Fon$y frei%ht trains cross the +ontoon
0rid%e across the ;e3a at SchRsse$0ur%: The rai$#aymen ca$$ this +$ace 'the corridor of
death': ?t is under constant 1erman she$$ fire:K
But the memory of the terri0$e #inter months of 1941,& $in%ered on6 and #hen ? #ent to
enin%rad in 19436 they #ere sti$$ the main su0Hect of con3ersation:
C').&(+ AII LENIN!RAD CLOSE-UP
9hen ? #ent to enin%rad in Se+tem0er 19436 the 1erman $ines #ere sti$$ t#o mi$es from
the 4iro3 9or<s6 on the southern outs<irts of the city:
I9ith the e8ce+tion of .enry Sha+iro of *nited !ress #ho #ent there a fe# #ee<s
ear$ier6 ? #as the on$y forei%n corres+ondent a$$o#ed to 3isit enin%rad durin% the
0$oc<ade: To me6 as a nati3e of enin%rad6 #ho had $i3ed there unti$ the a%e of se3enteen6
this #as a +articu$ar$y mo3in% e8+erience: After an a0sence of t#enty,fi3e years6 ? 3isited
a$$ the fami$iar +$aces6 inc$udin% the house #here ? had s+ent my chi$dhood and schoo$
years: Many houses in the street had 0een destroyed 0y 0om0in% and in the house #here ?
had $i3ed a $ar%e num0er of +eo+$e had died of hun%er in 1941,&: ? ha3e descri0ed my
3isit fu$$y in an ear$ier 0oo< ;(eningrad, ondon6 1944)6 0ut as it is out of +rint ? ma<e no
e8cuse for re+rintin% from it6 in this cha+ter6 a fe# accounts of 3isits and con3ersations
#hich con3ey somethin% of the s+irit of enin%rad durin% the 0$oc<ade:K
The tota$ +o+u$ation had no# 0een reduced to some )""6"""6 and the city6 thou%h as
0eautifu$ as e3er6 des+ite considera0$e dama%e caused 0y she$$s6 0om0s and fires6 had a
stran%e ha$f,deserted $oo<: ?t #as a front,$ine city6 sure enou%h6 and a hi%h +ro+ortion of
its +eo+$e #ere in uniform: There #as +ractica$$y no more 0om0in%6 0ut the she$$in% #as
fre=uent6 and often dead$y: ?t had caused %reat dama%e to houses6 es+ecia$$y in the
modern southern +arts of enin%rad6 and many +eo+$e #ou$d reca$$ horri0$e FincidentsF
#hen a she$$ had hit a =ueue at a tram,sto+ or a cro#ded tram,car: some of these had
ha++ened on$y a fe# days 0efore:
(et6 in a stran%e #ay6 $ife seemed a$most to ha3e returned to norma$: Most of the city
$oo<ed deserted and yet6 in the $ate afternoon6 #hen there #as no she$$in%6 there #ere
$ar%e cro#ds of +eo+$e #a$<in% a0out the FsafeF side of the ;e3s<y !ros+ect (the she$$s
norma$$y $anded on the other side) and e3en $itt$e $u8uries #ere so$d here6 una3ai$a0$e at
the time in Mosco#6 such as $itt$e 0ott$es of enin%rad,made scent: And the F9riters'
Boo<sho+F near the Anich<o3 Brid%e in the ;e3s<y #as doin% a roarin% trade in
secondhand 0oo<s: Mi$$ions of 0oo<s had 0een 0urned as fue$ in enin%rad durin% the
famine #interL and yet many +eo+$e had died 0efore ha3in% had time to 0urn their 0oo<s6
andDa crue$ thou%htDsome #onderfu$ 0ar%ains cou$d no# 0e %ot: Theatres and cinemas
#ere o+en6 thou%h #hene3er the she$$in% started they #ere +rom+t$y e3acuated: ?n the
Marso3o !o$e (the 5ham+s de Mars) and in the Summer 1ardenD#hose ei%hteenth,
century mar0$e statues of 1ree< %ods and %oddesses had 0een remo3ed to safetyD
3e%eta0$es #ere 0ein% %ro#n6 and a fe# +eo+$e #ere +otterin% around the ca00a%es and
+otatoes: There #ere a$so ca00a%e 0eds round the sand0a%%ed Bron>e .orseman:
A$most from the moment ? arri3ed in enin%radDafter tra3e$$in% there 0y +$ane 3ia
Ti<h3in and then6 at ni%ht6 on$y a fe# yards a0o3e the #aters of a<e ado%aD? 0e%an
to hear stories a0out the famine: For instance this con3ersation on the 3ery first ni%ht #ith
Anna Andreie3na6 the %entee$ o$d $ady #ho $oo<ed after me at the Astoria:
T'( A-&#+,) /##;- /,;( ) '#&(/ $#2, 81& *#1 -'#1/5 ')6( -(($ ,& 51+,$% &'( 0)",$(H I&
2)- &1+$(5 ,$&# ) '#-.,&)/E:1-& '(//. T'(* 1-(5 &# 8+,$% '(+( )// -#+&- #0 .(#./(,
"#-&/* ,$&(//(3&1)/-, 2'# 2(+( 5*,$% #0 '1$%(+. !)6( &'(" 6,&)",$ &)8/(&-, &+,(5 &#
.(. &'(" 1. ) 8,&. B1& ) /#& #0 &'(" 2(+( &## 0)+ %#$(, )$5 5,(5 )/"#-& &'( "#"($&
&'(* %#& '(+(. I ;$#2 2')& ,& ,- &# 8( '1$%+*. I 2)- -# 2(); I 3#1/5 ')+5/* 2)/;.
H)5 &# 1-( ) 2)/;,$% -&,3; &# -1..#+& "(. M* '#"( ,- #$/* ) ",/( )2)*, ,$ &'(
S)5#6)*)... I<5 ')6( &# -&#. )$5 -,& 5#2$ (6(+* '1$5+(5 *)+5-... T##; "( -#"(&,"(-
#6(+ )$ '#1+ &# %(& '#"(...
Y#1 5#$<& ;$#2 2')& ,& 2)- /,;(. Y#1 :1-& -&(..(5 #6(+ 3#+.-(- ,$ &'( -&+((& )$5 #$
&'( -&),+-. Y#1 -,"./* -&#..(5 &);,$% )$* $#&,3(. I& 2)- $# 1-( 2#++*,$%. T(++,8/(
&',$%- 1-(5 &# ')..($. S#"( .(#./( 2($& 91,&( ,$-)$( 2,&' '1$%(+. A$5 &'( .+)3&,3(
#0 ',5,$% &'( 5()5 -#"(2'(+( ,$ &'( '#1-( )$5 1-,$% &'(,+ +)&,#$ 3)+5- 2)- 6(+*
3#""#$ ,$5((5. T'(+( 2(+( -# ")$* .(#./( 5*,$% )// #6(+ &'( ./)3(, &'( )1&'#+,&,(-
3#1/5$<& ;((. &+)3; #0 )// &'( 5()&'-... Y#1 -'#1/5 ')6( -(($ "( ,$ (8+1)+* 194M.
O', L#+5, I /##;(5 01$$*H M* 2(,%'& ')5 5+#..(5 0+#" -(6($&* ;,/#- &# 0#+&* ;,/#-
,$ 0#1+ "#$&'-H N#2 I )" 8)3; &# -,B&*-&2#E0((/,$% 91,&( ./1"....
@n the fo$$o#in% day ? had a con3ersation at the Architects' ?nstitute6 #here they #ere
a$ready #or<in% on the future restoration of the 3arious historic 0ui$din%s6 such as the
+a$aces of !ush<in (Tsars<oye Se$o) and !eterhof that had 0een #rec<ed 0y the 1ermans:
W( 2($& #$ 2,&' &',- 8/1(.+,$& 2#+; +,%'& &'+#1%' &'( 2,$&(+ #0 1941-M... I& 2)- )
8/(--,$% 0#+ 1- )+3',&(3&-. T'( 8(-& "(5,3,$( &')& 3#1/5 ')6( 8(($ %,6($ 1- 51+,$%
&'( 0)",$(. T'( "#+)/ (00(3& ,- %+()& 2'($ ) '1$%+* ")$ ;$#2- '(<- %#& ) 1-(01/ :#8
#0 2#+; &# 5#... B1& &'(+(<- $# 5#18& )8#1& ,&: ) 2#+;(+ -&)$5- 1. 8(&&(+ &#
')+5-',.- &')$ )$ ,$&(//(3&1)/. A /#& #0 #1+ .(#./( -&#..(5 -')6,$%E&'( 0,+-& -,%$ #0
) ")$ %#,$% &# .,(3(-... M#-& #0 &'(-( .(#./( .1//(5 &'("-(/6(- &#%(&'(+ 2'($ &'(*
2(+( %,6($ 2#+;. B1& #$ &'( 2'#/( "($ 3#//).-(5 "#+( ()-,/* &')$ 2#"($, )$5 )&
0,+-& &'( 5()&'-+)&( 2)- ',%'(-& )"#$% &'( "($. H#2(6(+, &'#-( 2'# -1+6,6(5 &'(
2#+-& .(+,#5 #0 &'( 0)",$( 0,$)//* -1+6,6(5. T'( 2#"($ 0(/& &'( )0&(+-(00(3&- "#+(
-(+,#1-/* &')$ &'( "($. M)$* 5,(5 ,$ &'( -.+,$%, 2'($ &'( 2#+-& 2)- )/+()5* #6(+.
T'( 0)",$( ')5 .(31/,)+ .'*-,3)/ (00(3&- #$ .(#./(. W#"($ 2(+( -# +1$ 5#2$ &')&
&'(* -&#..(5 "($-&+1)&,$%... S# ")$* .(#./( 5,(5 &')& 2( ')5 &# 81+* &'(" 2,&'#1&
3#00,$-. P(#./( ')5 &'(,+ 0((/,$%- 8/1$&(5, )$5 $(6(+ -(("(5 &# 2((. )& &'( 81+,)/-...
I& 2)- )// 5#$( ,$ 3#"./(&( -,/($3(, 2,&'#1& )$* 5,-./)* #0 ("#&,#$. W'($ &',$%-
8(%)$ &# ,".+#6(, &'( 0,+-& -,%$- 2(+( &')& 2#"($ 8(%)$ &# .1& +#1%( )$5 /,.-&,3;
#$ &'(,+ .)/(, -;,$$* 0)3(-. Y(-, 2( /,6(5 &'+#1%' '(// +,%'& ($#1%'? 81& *#1 -'#1/5
')6( 8(($ '(+( &'( 5)* &'( 8/#3;)5( 2)- 8+#;($E.(#./( ,$ &'( -&+((& 2(.& 0#+ :#*,
)$5 -&+)$%(+- 0(// +#1$5 ()3' #&'(+-< $(3;-. N#2 /,0( ,- )/"#-& $#+")/. T'(+( ,- &',-
-'(//,$%, #0 3#1+-(, )$5 .(#./( %(& ;,//(5, 81& /,0( ')- 8(3#"( 6)/1)8/( )%),$.
A$so6 ? remem0er this con3ersation6 one day6 #ith MaHor o>a<6 a staff officer #ho
conducted me round the enin%rad Front:
I$ &'#-( 5)*- &'(+( /as -#"(&',$% ,$ ) ")$<- 0)3( 2',3' &#/5 *#1 &')& '( 2#1/5 5,(
2,&',$, &'( $(B& &2($&*-0#1+ '#1+-... I ')6( /,6(5 ,$ L($,$%+)5 )// "* /,0(, )$5 I )/-#
')6( "* .)+($&- '(+(. T'(* )+( #/5 .(#./(, )$5 51+,$% &'#-( 0)",$( "#$&'- I ')5
&# %,6( &'(" ')/0 "* -#/5,(+<- +)&,#$, #+ &'(* 2#1/5 3(+&),$/* ')6( 5,(5. A- ) -&)00
#00,3(+ I 2)- $)&1+)//*, )$5 91,&( +,%'&/*, %(&&,$% 3#$-,5(+)8/* /(-- &')$ &'( .(#./( )&
&'( 0+#$&: M5L %+)"- ) 5)* ,$-&()5 #0 @5L. I -')// )/2)*- +("("8(+ '#2 I<5 2)/;
(6(+* 5)* 0+#" "* '#1-( $()+ &'( T)1+,- !)+5($ &# "* 2#+; ,$ &'( 3($&+( #0 &'(
3,&*, ) ")&&(+ #0 &2# #+ &'+(( ;,/#"(&+(-. I<5 2)/; 0#+ ) 2',/(, )$5 &'($ -,& 5#2$ 0#+
) +(-&. M)$* ) &,"( I -)2 ) ")$ -155($/* 3#//).-( #$ &'( -$#2. T'(+( 2)- $#&',$%
#$( 3#1/5 5#. O$( :1-& 2)/;(5 #$... A$5, #$ &'( 2)* 8)3;, I 2#1/5 -(( ) 6)%1(
'1")$ 0#+" 3#6(+(5 2,&' -$#2 #$ &'( -.#& 2'(+(, ,$ &'( "#+$,$%, I ')5 -(($ ) ")$
0)// 5#2$. O$( 5,5$<& 2#++*? 2')& 2)- &'( %##5I P(#./( 5,5$<& 2)-' 0#+ 2((;-?
&'(+( 2(+( $# 8)&' '#1-(- )$5 $# 01(/. B1& )& /()-& .(#./( 2(+( 1+%(5 &# -')6(. A$5
51+,$% &')& 2,$&(+ I 5#$<& &',$; I (6(+ -)2 ) .(+-#$ -",/(. I& 2)- 0+,%'&01/. A$5 *(&,
&'(+( 2)- ) ;,$5 #0 ,$$(+ 5,-3,./,$( &')& ")5( .(#./( 3)++* #$. A $(2 3#5( #0
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From that 3isit to enin%rad ? 0rou%ht 0ac< count$ess im+ressions of human sufferin% and
human endurance: The front round enin%rad had 0y this time 0ecome sta0i$ised6 and
enin%rad6 thou%h sti$$ surrounded6 #as confident$y #atchin% the 1ermans in fu$$ retreat
a$on% most of the 2usso,1erman front6 and #aitin% for its o#n turn to 0e fina$$y
$i0erated: A$thou%h there #as no $on%er any famine6 $ife #as sti$$ des+erate$y hard for
many +eo+$e6 not $east the men and #omen of the 4iro3 9or<s6 #hich #ere a$most in the
front $ine: .ere6 as #e$$ as in another im+ortant +$ant6 ? #as not on$y sho#n #hat $ife #as
$i<e then6 0ut a$so to$d #hat it had 0een $i<e durin% the famine: .ere are t#o accounts:
First a 3isit to an im+ortant factory ma<in% o+tica$ instruments:
.ere most of the sma$$er #ooden 0ui$din%s had 0een used u+ for fue$ durin% the +re3ious
t#o #inters: ?t #as a $ar%e factory 0ui$din%6 the outer 0ric< #a$$s of #hich #ere mar<ed
0y she$$ s+$inters: 5omrade Semyono36 the director of the factory6 #ith a stron% hard
face6 and #earin% a +$ain <ha<i tunic to #hich #ere +inned the enin%rad meda$ and the
@rder of enin6 #as a ty+ica$ So3iet e8ecuti3e to $oo< at and $isten toD3ery +recise and
to the +oint: ?n his office #as a co$$ection of the 3arious thin%s the factory #as no#
ma<in%D 0ayonets6 detonators and $ar%e o+tica$ $enses6 and on the #a$$ #ere +ortraits of
Sta$in and Ohdano3::: A$to%ether6 ? had noticed in enin%rad a certain a$oofness to#ards
Mosco#6 a fee$in% that a$thou%h this #as +art of the #ho$e sho#6 it #as a$so6 in a sense6 a
se+arate sho#6 one in #hich enin%rad had sur3i3ed $ar%e$y throu%h its o#n stu+endous
efforts:
Semyono3 said that this #as the $ar%est factory in the So3iet *nion for o+tica$
instruments::: FBut durin% the first days of the #ar the 0u$< of our o+tica$ e=ui+ment #as
e3acuated east6 0ecause this #as considered one of the <ey factories for defence: @ne
cou$dn't afford to ta<e any ris<s #ith it: Car$y in 194& #e had a second e3acuation6 and
those of the s<i$$ed #or<ers #ho hadn't %one in the first e3acuation #ere sent a#ayDthat
is6 those #ho #ere sti$$ a$i3e:F
FA$ready in the first #ee<s of the #ar6 #hen most of our e=ui+ment and s<i$$ed men had
0een sent a#ay6 #e started here on an entire$y ne# 0asisD#e started #or<in%
e8c$usi3e$y for the enin%rad Front6 and #e had to ma<e thin%s for #hich #e had the
e=ui+mentD and there #asn't much of it: @ur +eo+$e had no e8+erience in this <ind of
#or<: C3en so6 #e started ma<in% thin%s our so$diers needed most: But enin%rad has a
%reat industria$ tradition6 a %reat industria$ cu$ture6 and our hand,%renades and anti,tan<,
mine detonators turned out to 0e the 0est of any made: 9e made hundreds of thousands
of these::: Throu%hout the 0$oc<ade #e ha3e a$so 0een re+airin% sma$$ arms6 rif$es and
machine,%unsL and no# #e are a$so #or<in% a%ain on o+tica$ instrumentsDamon% them
su0marine +erisco+es: For our Ba$tic F$eet isn't id$e6 as you <no#:::F
? as<ed Semyono3 to te$$ me somethin% a0out $ife at the factory durin% the hun%er
0$oc<ade: .e #as si$ent for a fe# seconds::: FFran<$y6F he said6 F? don't $i<e to ta$< a0out
it: ?t's a 3ery 0itter memory::: By the time the 0$oc<ade started ha$f our +eo+$e had 0een
e3acuated or had %one into the army6 so #e #ere $eft here #ith a0out -6""": ? must say it
#as difficu$t at first to %et used to the 0om0in%6 and if anyone says it doesn't fri%hten him6
don't you 0e$ie3e itP (et6 thou%h it fri%htened +eo+$e6 it a$so aroused their frantic an%er
a%ainst the 1ermans: 9hen they started 0om0in% us in a 0i% #ay in @cto0er 1941 our
#or<ers fou%ht for the factory more than they did for their o#n houses: @ne ni%ht #e had
to dea$ #ith 3"" incendiaries on the factory %rounds a$one: @ur +eo+$e #ere +uttin% the
fires out #ith a sort of concentrated ra%e and fury: They had rea$ised 0y then that they
#ere in the front $ineDthat #as a$$: ;o more she$ters: @n$y sma$$ chi$dren #ere ta<en to
she$ters6 and o$d %rannies: And then6 one day in Decem0er6 in t#enty de%rees of frost6 #e
had a$$ our #indo#s 0$o#n out 0y a 0om06 and ? thou%ht to myse$f: ';o6 #e rea$$y can't
%o on: ;ot ti$$ the s+rin%: 9e can't %o on in this tem+erature6 and #ithout $i%ht6 #ithout
#ater6 and a$most #ithout food:' And yet6 someho#D#e didn't sto+: A <ind of instinct
to$d us #e mustn'tDthat it #ou$d 0e #orse than suicide6 and a $itt$e $i<e treason: And sure
enou%h6 #ithin thirty,si8 hours #e #ere #or<in% a%ainD#or<in% in a$to%ether he$$ish
conditions6 #ith ei%ht de%rees of frost in the #or<sho+s6 and fourteen de%rees of frost in
this office #here you are sittin% no#: @h6 #e had sto3es of sorts6 $itt$e sto3es that
#armed the air a cou+$e of feet around them: But sti$$ our +eo+$e #or<ed: And6 mind you6
they #ere hun%ry6 terri0$y hun%ry:::F
Semyono3 +aused for a moment and there #as a fro#n on his face: F(es6F he said6 Fto
this day ? cannot =uite understand it: ? don't =uite understand ho# it #as +ossi0$e to ha3e
a$$ that #i$$,+o#er6 that stren%th of mind: Many of them6 hard$y a0$e to #a$< #ith hun%er6
#ou$d dra% themse$3es to the factory e3ery day6 ei%ht6 ten6 e3en t#e$3e <i$ometres: For
there #ere no trams: 9e used a$$ sorts of chi$dish e8+edients to <ee+ the #or< %oin%:
9hen there #ere no 0atteries6 #e used 0icyc$e +eda$s to <ee+ the $athes turnin%:F
FSomeho#6 +eo+$e <ne# #hen they #ere %oin% to die: ? remem0er one of our e$der
#or<ers sta%%erin% into this office and sayin% to me: '5omrade 5hief6 ? ha3e a re=uest to
ma<e: ? am one of your o$d #or<ers6 and you ha3e a$#ays 0een a %ood friend to me6 and ?
<no# you #i$$ not refuse: ? am not %oin% to 0other you a%ain: ? <no# that today or
tomorro# ? sha$$ die: My fami$y are in a 3ery +oor #ayD 3ery #ea<: They #on't ha3e
the stren%th to mana%e a funera$: 9i$$ you 0e a friend and ha3e a coffin made for me6 and
ha3e it sent to my fami$y6 so that they don't ha3e the e8tra #orry of tryin% to %et a coffinE
(ou <no# ho# difficu$t it is to %et one:' That ha++ened durin% the 0$ac<est days of
Decem0er or Banuary: And such thin%s ha++ened day after day: .o# many #or<ers came
into this office sayin%: '5hief6 ? sha$$ 0e dead today or tomorro#:' 9e #ou$d send them to
the factory hos+ita$6 0ut they a$#ays died: A$$ that #as +ossi0$e and im+ossi0$e to eat6
+eo+$e ate: They ate catt$e,ca<e6 and minera$ oi$sD#e used to 0oi$ them firstDand
car+enter's %$ue: !eo+$e tried to sustain themse$3es on hot #ater and yeast: @ut of the
-6""" +eo+$e #e had here6 se3era$ hundred died: Many of them died ri%ht here::: Many a
man #ou$d dra% himse$f to the factory6 sta%%er in and die::: C3ery#here there #ere
cor+ses: But some died at home6 and died to%ether #ith the rest of their fami$y and6 in the
circumstances6 it #as difficu$t to find out anythin% definite::: And since there #as no
trans+ort6 #e #eren't usua$$y a0$e to send +eo+$e round to en=uire: This #ent on ti$$ a0out
Fe0ruary 1-: After that6 rations #ere increased and the death,rate dro++ed: Today it hurts
me to ta$< a0out these thin%s:::F
@ne of the enin%rad memories that stands out most c$ear$y in my mind is the afternoon ?
s+ent in Se+tem0er 1943 at the %reat 4iro3 9or<s6 #here #or< continued e3en then
under a$most constant she$$in% from the 1erman $ines 0are$y t#o mi$es a#ay: For here6
e3en in 19436 one had a %$im+se of enin%rad's dar<est and %rimmest daysL to the 4iro3
#or<ers these #ere not a memory of the +astL they #ere continuin% to $i3e here throu%h a
+ecu$iar <ind of he$$: (et to these +eo+$e6 to 0e a 4iro3 #or<er6 and to ho$d out to the
end6 had 0ecome $i<e a tit$e of no0i$ity: The #or<ers here #ere not so$diersL si8ty,nine
+er cent #ere #omen and %ir$sDmost$y youn% %ir$s: They <ne# that this #as as 0ad as
the frontL in a #ay it #as #orse: you did not <no# the thri$$ of direct reta$iation: The
%reat re3o$utionary tradition of the !uti$o36 no# the 4iro3 9or<s6 had much to do #ith it:
The day 0efore6 in a chi$dren's rest home in 4amenny ?s$and6 ? had ta$<ed to a %ir$ ca$$ed
Tamara Turano3a:
She #as a $itt$e %ir$ of fifteen6 3ery +a$e6 thin and de$icate6 o03ious$y run do#n: @n her
$itt$e 0$ac< froc< #as +inned the %reen,ri00oned meda$ of enin%rad:
F9here did you %et thatEF ? as<ed: A faint smi$e a++eared on her +a$e $itt$e face: F? don't
<no# #hat he #as ca$$ed6F she said: FAn unc$e #ith s+ectac$es came to the #or<s one day
and %a3e me this meda$:F F9hat #or<sEF F@h6 the 4iro3 9or<s6 of course6F she said:
FDoes your father #or< there6 tooEF F;o6F she said6 Ffather died in the hun%ry year6 died
on the 7th of Banuary: ? ha3e #or<ed at the 4iro3 9or<s since ? #as fourteen6 so ?
su++ose that's #hy they %a3e me this meda$: 9e're not far a#ay from the front:F FDoesn't
it fri%hten you to #or< thereEF She scre#ed u+ her $itt$e face: F;o6 not rea$$yL one %ets
used to it: 9hen a she$$ #hist$es6 it means it's hi%h u+L it's on$y #hen it 0e%ins to si>>$e
that you <no# there's %oin% to 0e trou0$e: Accidents do ha++en6 of course6 ha++en 3ery
oftenL sometimes thin%s ha++en e3ery day: @n$y $ast #ee< #e had an accidentL a she$$
$anded in my #or<sho+ and many #ere #ounded6 and t#o Sta<hano3ite %ir$s #ere
0urned to death:F She said it #ith terri0$e sim+$icity and a$most #ith the su%%estion that it
#ou$dn't ha3e 0een such a serious matter if t#o Sta<hano3ite %ir$s hadn't $ost their $i3es:
F(ou #ou$dn't $i<e to chan%e o3er to another factoryEF ? as<ed: F;o6F she said6 sha<in%
her head: F? am a 4iro3 %ir$6 and my father #as a !uti$o3 man6 and rea$$y the #orst is
o3er no#6 so #e may as #e$$ stic< it to the end:F And one cou$d fee$ that she meant it6
thou%h it #as on$y too c$ear #hat terri0$e ner3ous strain that frai$ $itt$e 0ody of hers had
suffered: FAnd your motherEF ? as<ed: FShe died 0efore the #ar6F said the %ir$: FBut my
0i% 0rother is in the army6 on the enin%rad Front6 and he #rites to me often6 3ery often6
and three months a%o he and se3era$ of his comrades came to 3isit us at the 4iro3
9or<s:F .er $itt$e +a$e face 0ri%htened at the thou%ht of it6 and6 $oo<in% out of the
#indo# of the rest home at the %o$den autumn trees6 she said: F(ou <no#6 it's %ood to 0e
here for a $itt$e #hi$e:F
The ne8t day6 after dri3in% do#n the !eterhof 2oad throu%h the hea3i$y,0attered southern
outs<irts of enin%rad6 #ith the 1erman $ines runnin% a$on% the other side of the *rits<
in$et of the 1u$f of Fin$and6 ? arri3ed at the 4iro3 9or<s6 #here ? #as recei3ed 0y
5omrade !u>yre36 the director6 a re$ati3e$y youn% man #ith a stron%6 0ut care#orn face:::
F9e$$6F he said6 Fyou are certain$y findin% us #or<in% in unusua$ conditions: 9hat #e
ha3e here isn't #hat is norma$$y meant 0y the 4iro3 !$ant::: Before the #ar #e had o3er
3"6""" #or<ersL no# #e ha3e on$y a sma$$ fraction of these ::: and si8ty,nine +er cent of
our #or<ers are fema$e: .ard$y any #omen #or<ed here 0efore the #ar: 9e then made
tur0ines6 tan<s6 %unsL #e made tractors6 and su++$ied the %reater +art of the e=ui+ment for
0ui$din% the Mosco#,Ao$%a cana$: 9e 0ui$t =uantities of machinery for the ;a3y:::
Before this #ar started6 #e 0e%an to ma<e tan<s in a 3ery 0i% #ay6 as #e$$ as tan< and
aircraft en%ines: !ractica$$y a$$ this +roduction of e=ui+ment +ro+er has 0een mo3ed to
the east: ;o# #e re+air diese$s and tan<s6 0ut our main out+ut is ammunition6 and some
sma$$ arms::: F
!u>yre3 then s+o<e of the ear$y days of the #ar at the 4iro3 #or<s: ?t #as a story of that
lutte , outrance so ty+ica$ of the +eo+$e and #or<ers of enin%rad: i<e one man they
reacted to the 1erman in3asion6 0ut the hi%hest +itch of se$f,sacrifice #as reached as a
resu$t of the Fenin%rad in dan%erF a++ea$ made on Au%ust &1 0y Aoro,shi$o36 Ohdano3
and !o+<o3:
FThe #or<ers of the 4iro3 !$ant6F !u>yre3 said6 F#ere in reser3ed occu+ations6 and
hard$y any0ody #as su0Hect to mo0i$isation: (et no sooner had the 1ermans in3aded us
than e3ery0ody #ithout e8ce+tion 3o$unteered for the front: ?f #e had #anted to6 #e
cou$d ha3e sent &-6""" +eo+$eL #e $et on$y 96""" or 1"6""" %o:
A$ready in Bune 1941 they formed themse$3es into #hat #as to 0ecome the famous 4iro3
Di3ision: A$thou%h they had done some trainin% 0efore the #ar6 they cou$dn't 0e
considered fu$$y,trained so$diers6 0ut their dri3e6 their %uts #ere tremendous: They #ore
the uniform of the 2ed Army6 0ut they #ere in fact +art of the opol-cheni!e, e8ce+t that
they #ere rather 0etter trained than other opolcheni!e units: Se3era$ such #or<ers'
di3isions #ere formed in enin%rad::: and many tens of thousands of them #ent out from
here to meet the 1ermans6 to sto+ them at any +rice: They fou%ht at u%a6 and ;o3%orod
and !ush<in6 and fina$$y at *rits<6 #here6 after one of the %rimmest rear%uard actions of
this #ar6 our men mana%ed to sto+ the 1ermans6 Hust in the nic< of time::: The fi%ht +ut
u+ 0y our 9or<ers' Di3ision and 0y the +eo+$e of enin%rad #ho #ent out to sto+ them
#as a0so$ute$y decisi3e::: ?t is no secretDa $ar%e +ro+ortion of the 9or<ers' Di3isions
ne3er came 0ac<:::F
@ne fe$t that !u>yre3 re%retted at heart that such %ood industria$ materia$ shou$d ha3e had
to 0e sacrificed on the 0att$efie$dL 0ut6 c$ear$y6 in 19416 #hen it #as touch,and,%o for 0oth
Mosco# and enin%rad6 such fine +oints had to 0e +ut asideL he #as %$ad6 a$$ the same6
that #hen the #orst #as o3er6 many of the sur3i3ors had 0een ta<en out of the army and
+ut 0ac< into industry:
.e then s+o<e of the e3acuation of the 4iro3 !$ant: Before the 1erman rin% had c$osed6 it
had 0een +ossi0$e to e3acuate on$y one com+$ete #or<sho+D-&- machine too$s and
&6-"" +eo+$e: But nothin% more cou$d 0e sent east ti$$ the s+rin%:
F.o#e3er6 our most hi%h$y s<i$$ed #or<ers6 #ho #ere 0ad$y needed in Si0eria and the
*ra$s6 #ere e3acuated 0y air6 to%ether #ith their fami$ies: They #ere f$o#n to Ti<h3in6
0ut after the 1ermans had ta<en Ti<h3in6 #e had to f$y them to other airfie$ds6 and from
there the +eo+$e had to #a$< to the nearest rai$#ay station6 #a$< throu%h the sno#6 in the
midd$e of a 0itter #inter6 often do>ens and do>ens of <i$ometres::: A$ready in the ear$y
+art of the #inter a $ot of e=ui+ment from 4har<o36 4ie3 and other +$aces6 and a$so some
from Mosco#6 had reached the *ra$s6 and our s<i$$ed +eo+$e #ere 0ad$y needed to hand$e
the stuff and to or%anise +roduction: 5he$ia,0ins<6 for e8am+$e6 had ne3er made tan<s
0efore6 and our +eo+$e #ere needed for startin% this $ar%e,sca$e +roduction of tan<s in the
shortest +ossi0$e time::: 9e #ere then in the midd$e of that most critica$ transition +eriod
#hen industry in the #est had ceased to function6 and had not yet started u+ in the east:::
The +eo+$e #ho $eft here in @cto0er #ere a$ready #or<in% at fu$$ s+eed in their ne#
+$ace6 &6""" <i$ometres a#ay6 0y Decem0erP ::: And in #hat conditions a$$ this #as doneP
Trains carryin% the e=ui+ment #ere attac<ed from the air6 and so #ere the trans+ort
+$anes ta<in% the s<i$$ed enin%rad #or<ers and their fami$ies from enin%rad:
Fortunate$y the +ercenta%e of trans+ort +$anes shot do#n #as not hi%h: But the f$yin% had
to 0e done most$y at ni%ht6 in 3ery difficu$t conditions:::F
!u>yre3's story of the 4iro3 !$ant durin% the #orst months of the famine #as much the
same as the story to$d me 0y Semyono36 the director of the o+tica$ instruments +$ant:
FThose #ere terri0$e days6F he said: F@n Decem0er 1- e3erythin% came to a standsti$$:
There #as no fue$6 no e$ectric current6 no food6 no tram,cars6 no #ater6 nothin%:
!roduction in enin%rad +ractica$$y ceased: 9e #ere to remain in this terri0$e condition
ti$$ the 1st of A+ri$: ?t is true that food 0e%an to come in in Fe0ruary across the ado%a
?ce 2oad: But #e needed another month 0efore #e cou$d start any <ind of re%u$ar out+ut
at the 4iro3 9or<s: But e3en durin% the #orst hun%ry +eriod #e did #hat #e cou$d::: 9e
re+aired %uns6 and our foundry #as <e+t %oin%6 thou%h on$y in a sma$$ #ay: ?t fe$t as if
the mi%hty 4iro3 9or<s had 0een turned into a 3i$$a%e smithy: !eo+$e #ere terri0$y co$d
and terri0$y hun%ry: Many of our +eo+$e died durin% those days6 and it #as chief$y our
0est +eo+$e #ho diedD hi%h$y s<i$$ed #or<ers #ho had reached a certain a%e #hen the
0ody can no $on%er resist such hardshi+s:::
FAs ? said 0efore6 there #as no #ater and no e$ectric current: A$$ #e had #as a sma$$
+um+ #hich #as connected #ith the sea do#n thereL that #as a$$ the #ater su++$y #e
had: Throu%hout the #inter Dfrom Decem0er to MarchDthe #ho$e of enin%rad used
sno# for +uttin% out incendiaries::: The on$y 3ery $ar%e fire #as that of the 1ostiny D3or:
IThe famous sho++in% arcade in the ;e3s<y !ros+ect:K
.ere6 at the 4iro3 9or<s6 not a sin%$e #or<sho+ #as destroyed 0y fire:
F!eo+$e #ere so faint #ith hun%er that #e had to or%anise hoste$s6 so that they cou$d $i3e
ri%ht here: 9e authorised others #ho $i3ed at home to come on$y t#ice a #ee<::: At the
end of ;o3em0er6 #e had to ca$$ a meetin% to announce the reduction of the 0read ration
from 4"" to &-" %rams for #or<ers6 and to 1&- %rams for the others Dand 3ery $itt$e e$se:
They too< it ca$m$y6 thou%h to many it #as $i<e a death sentence::: F
And !u>yre3 then said that the so$diers on the enin%rad Front as<ed that their o#n
rations 0e reduced6 so that so drastic a reduction in the rations of the enin%rad citi>ens
cou$d 0e a3oidedL 0ut the .i%h 5ommand decided that the so$diers #ere recei3in% Hust a
0are minimum for carryin% onD#hich6 at that time6 #as 3-" %rams of 0read6 and not
much e$se:
F9e tried to <ee+ +eo+$e %oin% 0y ma<in% a sort of yeast sou+6 #ith a $itt$e soya added: ?t
#asn't much 0etter6 rea$$y than drin<in% hot #ater6 0ut it %a3e +eo+$e the i$$usion of
ha3in% 'eaten' somethin%: :: A 3ery $ar%e num0er of our +eo+$e died: So many died6 and
trans+ort #as so difficu$t6 that #e decided to ha3e our o#n %ra3eyard ri%ht here::: And
yet6 a$thou%h +eo+$e #ere dyin% of hun%er6 there #as not a sin%$e serious incident:::
Fran<$y6 ? find it hard to this day to understand ho# +eo+$e resisted the tem+tation of
attac<in% 0read 3ans or $ootin% 0a<eries: But they didn't::: sometimes +eo+$e came to me
to say %ood,0ye::: They <ne# they #ere %oin% to die a$most at once: ater6 in the summer
of 194&6 a $ot of +eo+$e #ho had sur3i3ed the famine #ere sent east to su++$ement their
comrades from 4ie36 4har<o3 and other +$aces::: F
By 19436 food #as no $on%er a maHor +ro0$em in enin%radL ne3erthe$ess6 #ith the city
under constant she$$fire6 and the 1erman $ines on$y t#o mi$es a#ay6 the 4iro3 9or<s
continued to $i3e throu%h a he$$ that #as on$y different in de%ree:
F.o#6F ? as<ed6 Fcan you carry on at a$$ #hen she$$fire is hea3yE .a3e you any
casua$tiesE And ho# do your +eo+$e stand u+ to itE F F9e$$6F he said6 Fthere is6 ? su++ose6
a sort of 4iro3 9or<s +atriotism: C8ce+t for one or t#o 3ery sic< +eo+$e6 ? ha3e ne3er
yet come across any0ody #ho #anted to =uit::: F
.e +u$$ed out a dra#er of his des< and 0rou%ht out a +i$e of forty or fifty en3e$o+es #ith
+ostmar<s: These #ere $etters from enin%rad #or<ers #ho had 0een e3acuated6 and #ho
#ere 0e%%in% to 0e a$$o#ed to return to enin%rad6 a$one or #ith their fami$ies:
FThey <no# ho# difficu$t conditions here are6F he said6 F0ut they a$so <no# that they
#ou$dn't 0e a food +ro0$em to us any $on%er: But #e can't a%ree to their return: These
s<i$$ed 4iro3 #or<ers are doin% a 3a$ua0$e Ho0 of #or< out thereL here #e ha3en't much
e=ui+ment6 and the +$ace is run as a sort of emer%ency #ar factory: ;ot un$i<e 4o$+ino6
some ten mi$es a#ay from here6 #here munitions are turned out in under%round foundries
Dri%ht in the front $ine:::F
FThe #ay to <ee+ the +$ace %oin%6F he then said6 F#as 0y ha3in% it decentra$ised: 9e
ha3e di3ided u+ the #or< into sma$$ units6 #ith on$y a corner of each #or<sho+ ta<en u+
#ith +eo+$e and machineryL and this section6 as far as +ossi0$e is +rotected a%ainst 0$ast
and s+$inters: But misfortunesDor rather6 a certain norma$ rate of casua$ties6 #i$$ occur:
This monthDand it's 0een a re$ati3e$y %ood monthD#e ha3e had forty,three casua$tiesD
thirteen <i$$ed6 t#enty,three #ounded and se3en cases of she$$,shoc<:F
F(ou as< ho# they ta<e itE 9e$$6 ? don't <no# #hether you'3e e3er 0een for any $en%th of
time under she$$fire: But if any0ody te$$s you it's not fri%htenin%6 don't you 0e$ie3e it: ?n
our e8+erience6 a direct hit has a 3ery 0ad effect for t#enty,four or forty,ei%ht hours: ?n a
#or<sho+ that's had a direct hit6 +roduction s$um+s hea3i$y durin% that time6 or sto+s
a$most com+$ete$y6 es+ecia$$y if many +eo+$e ha3e 0een <i$$ed or inHured: ?t's a horri0$e
si%ht6 a$$ the 0$ood6 and ma<es e3en our hardened #or<ers =uite i$$ for a day or t#o::: But
after that6 they %o 0ac< to #or<6 and try to ma<e u+ for the time $ost 0y #hat's ca$$ed the
'accident': But ? rea$ise a$$ the same that #or<in% here is a +er+etua$ strain6 and #hen ? see
that a man or %ir$ is %oin% to +ieces6 ? send him or her to a rest,home for a fortni%ht or a
month:::F
ater he too< me round some of the #or<sho+s: ?t ha++ened to 0e a =uiet day6 #ith
a$most no 1erman she$$in%: The enormous +$ant #as6 ? cou$d no# see6 much more
smashed u+ than the outside 3ie# from the street su%%ested: ?n a $ar%e s+ace6 #ith 0ad$y
shattered 0ui$din%s around6 stood an enormous 0$oc<house::: The concrete #a$$s #ere
t#e$3e inches thic<6 and the roof #as made of +o#erfu$ stee$ %irders: F;othin% 0ut a
direct hit from a $ar%e %un at c$ose ran%e can do anythin% to this6F said !u>yre3: F?t #as
0ui$t durin% the #orst days #hen #e thou%ht the 1ermans mi%ht 0rea< throu%h to
enin%rad: They #ou$d ha3e found the 4iro3 9or<s a tou%h +ro+osition: The #ho$e
+$ace is dotted #ith +i$$0o8es $i<e this one:::F
Then #e #ent into one of the foundries: @ne end of it #as =uite dar<6 0ut 0ehind a stron%
0ric< +artition the other ha$f of it #as $it u+ 0y f$ames inside the o+en furnaces6 #ith their
red,hot #a$$s: Dar<6 eerie shado#s of men6 0ut a%ain most$y of %ir$s6 #ere mo3in% a0out
in the red %$o#: The %ir$s6 #ith +atched cotton stoc<in%s o3er their thin $e%s6 #ere
stoo+in% under the #ei%ht of enormous c$usters of red,hot stee$ they #ere c$utchin%
0et#een a +air of ton%s6 and then you #ou$d see themDand as you sa# it6 you fe$t the
des+erate muscu$ar concentration and #i$$,+o#er it in3o$3edDyou #ou$d see them raise
their s$ender6 a$most chi$d,$i<e arms and hur$ these red,hot c$usters under a %iant stee$
hammer: ar%e red s+ar<s of meta$ #ere f$yin% and #hi>>in% throu%h the red semi,
dar<ness6 and the #ho$e foundry shoo< #ith the deafenin% din and roar of machinery: 9e
#atched this scene for a #hi$e in si$enceL then !u>yre3 said6 a$most a+o$o%etica$$y6
throu%h the din: FThis +$ace isn't #or<in% =uite ri%ht yet: 9e had a fe# she$$s in here the
other day6F and6 +ointin% at a $ar%e ho$e in the f$oor no# fi$$ed #ith sand and cement6
FThat's #here one of them $anded:F FAny casua$tiesE F F(es6 a fe#:F
9e #a$<ed throu%h the foundry and #atched more c$ose$y a$$ that the %ir$s #ere doin%:
As #e #ere %oin% out ? cau%ht a %$im+se of a #oman's face in the red %$o# of the f$ames:
.er face #as %rimy: She $oo<ed an e$der$y #oman6 a$most $i<e an o$d %i+sy ha%: And
from that %rimy face shone t#o dar< eyes: There #as somethin% tra%ic in those eyesD
there #as a %reat #eariness in them6 and a touch of anima$ terror: .o# o$d #as sheE
Fifty6 forty6 or may0e on$y t#enty,fi3eE .ad ? Hust ima%ined that $oo< of terror in her
eyesE 9as it that %rimy face and the eerie shado#s around $ea+in% u+ and do#n that had
%i3en me that ideaE ? had seen some of the other %ir$s' faces: They #ere norma$ enou%h:
@ne6 a youn% thin%6 e3en smi$ed: ;orma$ Dyes6 e8ce+t for a <ind of inner concentration
Das if they a$$ had some 0ad memories they cou$d not =uite sha<e off:::
F
Another stri<in% memory is my 3isit to a secondary schoo$ in Tam0o3 Street6 in a modern
and hea3i$y she$$ed +art of the city6 three or four mi$es from the front: ?t #as run 0y an
e$der$y man6 Ti<homiro36 a FTeacher of Merit of the *SS2F6 #ho had started as an
e$ementary teacher 0ac< in 19"7: This schoo$ #as one of the fe# that had not c$osed
do#n e3en at the hei%ht of the famine: @n four occasions it had 0een hea3i$y dama%ed 0y
1erman she$$sL 0ut the 0oys had c$eared a#ay the %$ass6 0ric<ed u+ the #a$$s that had
0een smashed6 and had +ut +$y#ood in the #indo#s: Durin% the $ast she$$in% in May6 a
#oman,teacher had 0een <i$$ed in the yard of the schoo$:
The 0oys #ere ty+ica$ enin%rad chi$drenL ei%hty,fi3e +er cent of the 0oys' fathers #ere
sti$$ at the enin%rad Front6 or had a$ready 0een <i$$ed there6 #hi$e many others had died
in the enin%rad famine6 and near$y a$$ their mothersDif sti$$ a$i3eD#ere #or<in% in
enin%rad factories6 or on trans+ort6 or on #ood,cuttin%6 or in ci3i$ defence: The 0oys a$$
had a +assionate hatred for the 1ermans6 0ut #ere fu$$y con3inced 0y no# that these
svolochi (0astards) #ou$d 0e destroyed outside enin%rad 0efore $on%: They had mi8ed
fee$in%s a0out Britain and AmericaL they <ne# ondon had 0een 0om0edL that the 2AF
#as F0om0in% the he$$ out of the Frit>esFL that the Americans #ere su++$yin% the 2ed
Army #ith a $ot of $orries6 and that they (the 0oys) #ere %ettin% American choco$ate to
eatL 0ut Fthere #as sti$$ no Second FrontF:
The headmaster6 5omrade Ti<homiro36 to$d me ho# they had Fstuc< it6 and stuc< it fair$y
#e$$: 9e had no #ood6 0ut the enin%rad So3iet %a3e us a sma$$ #ooden house not far
a#ay for demo$ition6 so #e cou$d use the tim0er for heatin%: The 0om0in% and she$$in%
#as 3ery se3ere in those days: 9e had a0out 1&" +u+i$s thenD0oys and %ir$sDand #e
had to ho$d our c$asses in the she$ter: ;ot for a day did the #or< sto+: ?t #as 3ery co$d:
The $itt$e sto3es heated the air +ro+er$y on$y a yard around them6 and in the rest of the
she$ter the tem+erature #as 0e$o# >ero: There #as no $i%htin%6 a+art from a <erosene
$am+: But #e carried on6 and the chi$dren #ere so serious and earnest that #e %ot 0etter
resu$ts than in any other year: Sur+risin%6 0ut true: 9e had mea$s for themL the army
he$+ed us to feed them: Se3era$ of the teachers died6 0ut ? am +roud to say that a$$ the
chi$dren in our care sur3i3ed: @n$y it #as +athetic to #atch them durin% those famine
months: To#ards the end of 19416 they hard$y $oo<ed $i<e chi$dren any more: They #ere
stran%e$y si$ent::: They #ou$d not #a$< a0outL they #ou$d Hust sit: But none of them diedL
and on$y some of those +u+i$s #ho had sto++ed comin% to schoo$6 and stayed at home6
died6 often to%ether #ith the rest of the fami$y::: F
Ti<homiro3 then sho#ed me an e8traordinary document6 #hich he ca$$ed Four Famine
Scra+0oo<F6 containin% co+ies of many chi$dren's essays #ritten durin% the famine6 and
much other materia$: ?t #as 0ound in +ur+$e 3e$3et6 and the mar%ins com+osed of rather
con3entiona$ chi$dren's #aterco$ours de+ictin% so$diers6 tan<s6 +$anes and the $i<eL these
surrounded $itt$e ty+e#ritten sheetsDco+ies of ty+ica$ essays #ritten durin% the famine:
@ne youn% %ir$ #rote:
U$&,/ J1$( MM (6(+*8#5* ')5 2#+; )$5 ) %##5 /,0( )--1+(5 &# ',". T')& 5)* 2( 2($&
#$ )$ (B31+-,#$ &# &'( K,+#6 I-/)$5-. A 0+(-' 2,$5 2)- 8/#2,$% 0+#" &'( !1/0,
8+,$%,$% 2,&' ,& 8,&- #0 &'( -#$% -#"( ;,5- 2(+( -,$%,$% $#& 0)+ )2)*, D!+()& )$5
%/#+,#1- ,- "* $)&,6( /)$5D. A$5 &'($ &'( ($("* 8(%)$ &# 3#"( $()+(+ )$5 $()+(+
#1+ 3,&*. W( 2($& #1& &# 5,% 8,% &+($3'(-. I& 2)- 5,00,31/&, 8(3)1-( ) /#& #0 &'( ;,5-
2(+( $#& 1-(5 &# -13' ')+5 .'*-,3)/ /)8#1+. T'( !(+")$ !($(+)/ 6#$ L((8 2)-
)/+()5* /,3;,$% ',- 3'#.- )& &'( &'#1%'& #0 &'( %)/) 5,$$(+ '( 2)- %#,$% &# %(& )& &'(
A-&#+,). N#2 2( )+( -,&&,$% ,$ &'( -'(/&(+ +#1$5 ,".+#6,-(5 -&#6(-, 2,&' #1+ 3#)&-
)$5 01+ 3).- )$5 %/#6(- #$. W( ')6( 8(($ ;$,&&,$% 2)+" &',$%- 0#+ #1+ -#/5,(+-, )$5
')6( 8(($ &);,$% +#1$5 &'(,+ /(&&(+- &# 0+,($5- )$5 +(/)&,6(-. W( ')6( )/-# 8(($
3#//(3&,$% $#$-0(++#1- "(&)/ 0#+ -)/6)%(...
Aa$entina So$o3yo3a6 an o$der %ir$ of si8teen6 #rote:
J1$( MMH H#2 "13' &')& 5)&( "()$- &# 1- $#2H B1& &'($ ,& :1-& -(("(5 )$ #+5,$)+*
-1""(+ 5)*... B(0#+( /#$%, &'( H#1-( C#"",&&(( 2)- -2)+",$% 2,&' 2#"($, %,+/-
)$5 3',/5+($, 2'# ')5 3#"( &# :#,$ &'( 3,6,/ 5(0($3( &()"-, &'( )$&,-0,+( )$5 )$&,-%)-
-91)5-... B* S(.&("8(+ &'( 3,&* 2)- ($3,+3/(5. ##5 -1../,(- 0+#" #1&-,5( ')5
-&#..(5. T'( /)-& (6)31(( &+),$- ')5 5(.)+&(5. T'( .(#./( #0 L($,$%+)5 &,%'&($(5
&'(,+ 8(/&-. T'( -&+((&- 8(%)$ &# 8+,-&/( 2,&' 8)++,3)5(- )$5 )$&,-&)$; '(5%('#%-.
D1%#1&- )$5 0,+,$% .#,$&-E) 2'#/( $(&2#+; #0 &'("E2(+( -.+,$%,$% 1. )+#1$5
&'( 3,&*.
A- ,$ 1919, -# $#2, &'( %+()& 91(-&,#$ )+#-(: DS')// L($,$%+)5 +("),$ ) S#6,(& 3,&*
#+ $#&I D L($,$%+)5 2)- ,$ 5)$%(+. B1& ,&- 2#+;(+- ')5 +,-($ /,;( #$( ")$ 0#+ ,&-
5(0($3(. T)$;- 2(+( &'1$5(+,$% 5#2$ &'( -&+((&-. E6(+*2'(+( "($ #0 &'( 3,6,/
%1)+5 2(+( :#,$,$% 1.... A 3#/5 )$5 &(++,8/( 2,$&(+ 2)- )..+#)3',$%. T#%(&'(+ 2,&'
&'(,+ 8#"8-, ($("* ./)$(- 2(+( 5+#..,$% /()0/(&-. T'(* -),5 &'(* 2#1/5 +)C(
L($,$%+)5 &# &'( %+#1$5. T'(* -),5 2( 2#1/5 )// 5,( #0 '1$%(+. T'(* &'#1%'& &'(*
2#1/5 0+,%'&($ 1-, 81& &'(* 0,//(5 1- 2,&' +($(2(5 -&+($%&'... L($,$%+)5 5,5 $#& /(&
&'( ($("* &'+#1%' ,&- %)&(-H T'( 3,&* 2)- -&)+6,$%, 81& ,& /,6(5 )$5 2#+;(5, )$5
;(.& #$ -($5,$% &# &'( 0+#$& "#+( #0 ,&- -#$- )$5 5)1%'&(+-. T'#1%' ;$#3;,$% )& &'(
;$((- 2,&' '1$%(+, #1+ 2#+;(+- 2($& &# 2#+; ,$ &'(,+ 0)3&#+,(-, 2,&' &'( ),+-+),5
-,+($- 0,//,$% &'( ),+ 2,&' &'(,+ -3+()"-...
This from another essay on ho# the schoo$,chi$dren du% trenches #hi$e the 1ermans
#ere a++roachin% enin%rad:
I$ A1%1-& 2( 2#+;(5 0#+ &2($&*-0,6( 5)*- 5,%%,$% &+($3'(-. W( 2(+( ")3',$(-
%1$$(5 )$5 -#"( #0 1- 2(+( ;,//(5, 81& 2( 3)++,(5 #$, &'#1%' 2( 2(+($<& 1-(5 &#
&',- 2#+;. A$5 &'( !(+")$- 2(+( -&#..(5 8* &'( &+($3'(- 2( ')5 51%...
Another %ir$ of si8teen6 u0a Tereshchen<o3a6 descri0ed ho# #or< continued at the
schoo$ e3en durin% the #orst time of the 0$oc<ade:
I$ J)$1)+* )$5 (8+1)+* &(++,8/( 0+#-& )/-# :#,$(5 ,$ &'( 8/#3;)5( )$5 /($& H,&/(+ )
')$5. I& 2)- $(6(+ /(-- &')$ &',+&* 5(%+((- #0 0+#-&H O1+ 3/)--(- 3#$&,$1(5 #$ &'(
DR#1$5 &'( S&#6(D .+,$3,./(. B1& &'(+( 2(+( $# +(-(+6(5 -()&-, )$5 ,0 *#1 2)$&(5 )
-()& $()+ &'( -&#6( #+ 1$5(+ &'( -&#6( .,.(, *#1 ')5 &# 3#"( ()+/*. T'( ./)3( 0)3,$%
&'( -&#6( 5##+ 2)- +(-(+6(5 0#+ &'( &()3'(+. Y#1 -)& 5#2$ )$5 2(+( -155($/* -(,C(5
8* ) 2#$5(+01/ 0((/,$% #0 2(//-8(,$%: &'( 2)+"&' .($(&+)&(5 &'+#1%' *#1+ -;,$,
+,%'& ,$&# *#1+ 8#$(-? ,& ")5( *#1 )// 2(); )$5 /)$%1,5? *#1 :1-& 2)$&(5 &# &',$; #0
$#&',$%, #$/* &# -/1"8(+ )$5 5+,$; ,$ &'( 2)+"&'. I& 2)- )%#$* &# -&)$5 1. )$5 %#
&# &'( 8/)3;8#)+5... A& &'( 8/)3;8#)+5 ,& 2)- -# 3#/5 )$5 5)+;, )$5 *#1+ ')$5,
,".+,-#$(5 ,$ ,&- '()6* %/#6(, 2($& )// $1"8 )$5 +,%,5 )$5 +(01-(5 &# #8(*. T'(
3')/; ;(.& 0)//,$% #1& #0 *#1+ ')$5, )$5 &'( /,$(- 2(+( )// 3+##;(5... B* &'( &,"( 2(
+()3'(5 &'( &',+5 /(--#$ &'(+( 2)- $# "#+( 01(/ /(0&. T'( -&#6( 2($& 3#/5 )$5 )
'#++,5 ,3* 5+)1%'& -&)+&(5 8/#2,$% 5#2$ &'( .,.(. I& 8(3)"( &(++,8/* 3#/5. I& 2)-
&'($ &')& A)-*) P1%,$, 2,&' ) .13;,-' /##; #$ ',- 0)3(, 3#1/5 8( -(($ -/,$;,$% #1&
)$5 8+,$%,$% ,$ ) 0(2 /#%- 0+#" A$$) I6)$#6$)<- ("(+%($3* +(-(+6(? )$5 ) 0(2
",$1&(- /)&(+, 2( 3#1/5 )%),$ '()+ &'( ")%,3 3+)3;/,$% #0 2##5 ,$-,5( &'( -&#6(...
D1+,$% &'( 8+(); $#8#5* 2#1/5 :1". 1. 8(3)1-( $#8#5* ')5 )$* 5(-,+( &# %# ,$&#
&'( ,3* 3#++,5#+-.
And this from another essay:
T'( 2,$&(+ 3)"(, 0,(+3( )$5 "(+3,/(--. T'( 2)&(+ .,.(- 0+#C(, )$5 &'(+( 2)- $#
(/(3&+,3 /,%'&, )$5 &'( &+)"-3)+- -&#..(5 +1$$,$%. T# %(& &# -3'##/ ,$ &,"(, I ')5 &#
%(& 1. 6(+* ()+/* (6(+* "#+$,$%, 0#+ I /,6( #1& ,$ &'( -181+8-. I& 2)- .)+&,31/)+/*
5,00,31/& &# %(& &# -3'##/ )0&(+ ) 8/,CC)+5, 2'($ )// +#)5- )$5 .)&'- )+( 3#6(+(5 2,&'
-$#25+,0&-. B1& I 0,+"/* 5(3,5(5 &# 3#"./(&( "* -3'##/ *()+... O$( 5)*, )0&(+
-&)$5,$% ,$ ) 8+()5 91(1( 0#+ -,B '#1+- 4I ')5 &# ",-- -3'##/ &')& 5)*, 0#+ I ')5
+(3(,6(5 $# 8+()5 0#+ &2# 5)*-7 I 3)1%'& ) 3#/5 )$5 0(// ,//. N(6(+ ')5 I 0(/& -#
",-(+)8/( )- 51+,$% &'#-( 5)*-. N#& 0#+ .'*-,3)/ +()-#$-, 81& 8(3)1-( I $((5(5 &'(
"#+)/ -1..#+& #0 "* -3'##/-")&(-, &'(,+ ($3#1+)%,$% :#;(-.. .
I5urious that in a$$ these u$tra,+atriotic essays there #as not a sin%$e mention of Sta$in:K
;one of the chi$dren #ho continued to %o to schoo$ died6 0ut se3era$ of the teachers did:
The $ast section of the Famine Scra+0oo<6 introduced 0y a tit$e +a%e #ith a decorati3e
funera$ urn +ainted in +ur+$e #aterco$our6 #as #ritten 0y Ti<homiro36 the headmaster: ?t
#as a series of o0ituary notes of the teachers #ho #ere either <i$$ed in the #ar or had
died of hun%er: The assistant headmaster #as F<i$$ed in actionF: Another #as F<i$$ed at
4in%ise++F6 in that terri0$e 0att$e of 4in%ise++ #here the 1ermans 0ro<e throu%h to#ards
enin%rad from Cstonia: The maths teacher Fdied of hun%erFL so did the teacher of
%eo%ra+hy: 5omrade ;emiro36 the teacher of $iterature6 F#as amon% the 3ictims of the
0$oc<adeF6 and A<imo36 the history teacher6 died of ma$nutrition and e8haustion des+ite a
$on% rest in a sanatorium to #hich he #as ta<en in Banuary: @f another teacher
Ti<homiro3 #rote: F.e #or<ed conscientious$y unti$ he rea$ised he cou$d no $on%er #a$<:
.e as<ed me for a fe# days' $ea3e in the ho+e that his stren%th #ou$d return to him: .e
stayed at home6 +re+arin% his $essons for the second term: .e #ent on readin% 0oo<s: So
he s+ent the day of Banuary J: @n Banuary 9 he =uiet$y +assed a#ay:F 9hat a human story
#as 0ehind these sim+$e #ordsP
? ha3e descri0ed conditions in enin%rad as ? found them in Se+tem0er 19436 #hen the
city #as sti$$ under fre=uent and often intense she$$,fire: This she$$in% continued for the
rest of the year6 and it #as not ti$$ Banuary 1944 that the ordea$ of enin%rad fina$$y
ended: Durin% the +re3ious #ee<s a $ar%e 2ussian armed force #as transferred under
co3er of ni%ht to the F@ranien0aum 0rid%eheadF on the south 0an< of the 1u$f of Fin$andL
and this force6 under the command of 1enera$ Fedyunins<y6 struc< out to#ards 2o+sha6
#here it #as to meet the troo+s of the enin%rad Front stri<in% to#ards the south,#est:
Durin% that first day of the 2ussian 0rea<throu%h no fe#er than -""6""" she$$s #ere used
to smash the 1erman fortifications: A0out the same time6 the Ao$<ho3 army %rou+ a$so
came into motion6 and6 #ithin a fe# days6 the 1ermans #ere on the run6 a$$ the #ay to
!s<o3 and Cstonia: @n Banuary &76 1944 the 0$oc<ade officia$$y ended:
A$$ the famous historica$ +a$aces around enin%radD!a3$o3s<6 Tsars<oie,Se$o6 !eterhof
D#ere in ruins:
C').&(+ AIII WHY LENIN!RAD DTOOK ITD
9hy did enin%rad Fta<e itFE A %$i06 easy and6 on the face of it6 =uite Hustified ar%ument
is that6 #ith a$$ road and rai$ communications cut6 the +eo+$e of enin%rad had no
a$ternati3e to stic<in% it out6 and had to 0e FheroicF6 #hether they #anted to or not: .ad
they had time to %et out6 it is a$so ar%ued6 they #ou$d ha3e 0een on the run6 Hust as the
+eo+$e of Mosco# #ere on the run on @cto0er 1)6 1941: But that is not rea$$y the +oint:
9hat is remar<a0$e6 once the city #as surrounded6 #as not the fact that the +eo+$e Ftoo<
itF6 0ut the :a! they too< it:
?n his interestin% study6 The %iege o" (eningrad, Mr eon 1oure su%%ests that a num0er
of +eo+$e in the city #ere in fa3our of surrenderin% it to the 1ermans and that6 thou%h not
a maHority6 Fthe num0er of disaffected +ersons::: a++ears to ha3e 0een far from
ne%$i%i0$eF:
Ieon 1oure6 The %iege o" (eningrad (Stanford6 19)&)6 +: 3"4:K
9hen ? #as in enin%rad ? heard =uite a fe# references to a 1erman Ffifth co$umnF
inside the city6 and this is a$so mentioned in recent So3iet studies: But the e3idence that
more than a tiny minority #anted to surrender is 3ery s$ender:
Mr 1oure himse$f reco%nises that F+atriotism6 $oca$ +ride6 %ro#in% resentment of the
1ermans and re$uctance to 0etray the so$diersF had much to do #ith the Fmaintainin% of
disci+$ineF: At the same time he +$aces6 in my 3ie#6 undue em+hasis on Fan in%rained
ha0it of o0edience to the authoritiesF6 Fno +rior e8+erience of +o$itica$ freedomF6 the
FSta$inist terrorF6 and so on6 and re$ies too much on the e3idence of certain +ost,#ar
refu%ees:
I?0id:6 ++: 3"4,): Mr .arrison Sa$is0ury6 in The 3e: 'or* Times of May 1"6 19)&6 ta<es
the 0oo< to tas< on that score6 reca$$in% .it$er's directi3es to Ferase St !eters0ur% from
the face of the earthF6 addin% that F#e are not interested in +reser3in% e3en a +art of the
+o+u$ation of this $ar%e cityFDdirecti3es on the su0stance of #hich no0ody in enin%rad
cou$d ha3e had any serious dou0ts:K
There is much stron%er e3idence to sho# that the Fenin%rad can ta<e itF s+irit #as there
from the 3ery start: There #as no one6 e8ce+t a fe# anti,communists6 #ho e3en
considered surrender to the 1ermans: At the hei%ht of the famine6 a fe# +eo+$eD#ho
#ere not necessari$y co$$a0orators or enemy a%ents (as So3iet accounts assert)6 0ut
mere$y +eo+$e dri3en ha$f,insane #ith hun%erDdid #rite to the authorities as<in% that
enin%rad 0e dec$ared an Fo+en cityFL 0ut no,one in his ri%ht mind cou$d ha3e done so:
Durin% the 1erman ad3ance on the city6 +eo+$e soon $earned #hat the enemy #ere $i<eL
ho# many youn% +eo+$e had died throu%h enemy 0om0in% and machine,%unnin% #hi$e
di%%in% those trenchesE And once the 0$oc<ade #as com+$ete the air,raids 0e%an6
to%ether #ith the sadistic $eaf$ets $i<e that dro++ed on enin%rad on ;o3em0er )6 to
Fce$e0rateF 2e3o$ution Day: FToday #e sha$$ do the 0om0in%6 tomorro# you sha$$ do the
0uryin%F:
The =uestion of dec$arin% enin%rad an o+en city cou$d ne3er arise6 as it did6 for
e8am+$e6 in !aris in 194"L this #as a #ar of e8termination6 and the 1ermans ne3er made
a secret of it: Second$y6 the $oca$ +ride of enin%rad had a =ua$ity of its o#nDit #as
com+osed of a %reat $o3e of the city itse$f6 of its historica$ +ast6 its e8traordinary $iterary
associations (this #as +articu$ar$y true of the intelligentsia7 and a$so of a %reat +ro$etarian
and re3o$utionary tradition amon%st its #or<in%,c$assL nothin% cou$d ha3e so 0$ended
these t#o %reat $o3es for enin%rad into one thin% as the threat of the annihi$ation of the
city: !erha+s e3en =uite conscious$y6 there #as a$so the o$d com+etition #ith Mosco#: if
Mosco# #ere to fa$$ in @cto0er 19416 enin%rad at $east #ou$d ho$d out $on%er6 come
#hat mayL and6 once Mosco# had 0een sa3ed6 it #as a +oint of honour for enin%rad to
do as #e$$6 and e3en 0etter: Some of the most 0itter anti,Sta$inists $i<e @$%a Ber%ho$>6
#ere a$so the most fanatica$ enin%rad +atriots: But sentiment6 ho#e3er +raise#orthy6
#as not enou%h: ;o dou0t6 the army's record6 ri%ht u+ to the moment #hen it retreated to
the outs<irts of enin%rad6 had 0een disa++ointin%L and the enin%rad authorities had6
o03ious$y6 done a %reat dea$ of 0un%$in% too durin% those first t#o and a ha$f months of
the 1erman in3asion: The #ho$e +ro0$em of e3acuation6 es+ecia$$y of chi$dren6 had 0een
%ross$y mishand$ed6 and $itt$e or nothin% had 0een done to $ay in food reser3es: But once
the 1ermans had 0een sto++ed outside enin%rad6 and once the decision had 0een ta<en
to fi%ht for e3ery house and e3ery street6 the fau$ts of the army and the ci3i$ian authorities
#ere readi$y for%ottenL for no# it #as a case of defendin% enin%rad at any +rice: ?t #as
on$y natura$ that 3ery ri%id disci+$ine and or%anisation #ere necessary inside the 0esie%ed
cityL 0ut this had $itt$e to do #ith Fan in%rained ha0it of o0edience to the authoritiesF6 or6
sti$$ $ess6 #ith Fthe Sta$inist terrorF: @03ious$y6 food had to 0e se3ere$y rationedL 0ut to
say that +eo+$e in enin%rad #or<ed and did not Fre0e$F (for #hat +ur+oseE) in order to
ha3e a ration cardD#hich6 to many6 did not e3en mean Fthe difference 0et#een $ife and
deathFDis to misunderstand the s+irit of enin%rad com+$ete$y: And there is $itt$e dou0t
that the !arty or%anisation6 after many initia$ 0$unders6 +$ayed a 3ery im+ortant ro$e in
<ee+in% enin%rad %oin%: first6 0y ma<in% rationin% as fair as #as human$y +ossi0$e in
incredi0$y difficu$t conditionsL second6 in or%anisin% ci3i$ defence inside the city on a
3ast sca$eL third6 in mo0i$isin% +eo+$e for cuttin% tim0er6 +eat6 etc:L fourth6 0y or%anisin%
the 3arious Froads of $ifeF: And there is a$so no dou0t that6 in the midst of the most
a++a$$in% hardshi+s of the #inter of 1941,&6 or%anisations $i<e the 4omsomo$ sho#ed the
%reatest se$f,sacrifice and endurance in he$+in% +eo+$e:
There can rea$$y 0e no com+arison #ith ondonL the 0$it> #as terri0$e enou%h6 thou%h it
#as not com+ara0$e to #hat 1erman cities %ot a fe# years $ater: The 0om0in% of ondon
#as rea$$y #orse than the 0om0in% or she$$in% of enin%rad6 at $east in terms of
casua$ties: But on$y if one ima%ined that e3ery0ody in ondon #as star3in% durin% the
0$it> #inter6 and ten or t#enty thousand +eo+$e #ere dyin% of hun%er in ondon e3ery
day6 #ou$d it 0e +ossi0$e to +ut an e=uation mar< 0et#een the t#o: ?n enin%rad the
choice $ay 0et#een dishonoura0$y dyin% in 1erman ca+ti3ity or honoura0$y dyin% (or6
#ith $uc<6 sur3i3in%) in one's o#n uncon=uered city: Any attem+t to differentiate
0et#een 2ussian +atriotism6 or re3o$utionary ardour6 or So3iet or%anisation6 or to as<
#hich of the three #as the more im+ortant in sa3in% enin%rad is a$so sin%u$ar$y futi$e:
a$$ three #ere 0$ended in an e8traordinari$y Fenin%radF #ay:
oca$ Fenin%radF +atriotism %a3e a s+ecia$ f$a3our to a$$ three: ?n enin%rad in 1943 ?
cou$d o0ser3e this on e3ery occasionL to the +eo+$e of enin%rad6 their city6 #ith a$$ that
it had done and endured6 #as somethin% uni=ue: They s+o<e #ith some contem+t of the
FMosco# s<edadd$eF of 1941 and many6 amon% them that 3ery remar<a0$e man6 !: S:
!o+<o36 head of the enin%rad So3iet6 fe$t that6 after #hat it had done6 enin%rad
deser3ed some s+ecia$ distinction: @ne idea6 3ery current at the time6 #as that enin%rad
shou$d 0ecome the ca+ita$ of the 2SFS26 i:e: of 2ussia +ro+er6 #hereas Mosco# #ou$d
remain the ca+ita$ of the *SS2:
This enin%rad +articu$arism #as not at a$$ to Sta$in's $i<in%: .e must ha3e <no#n that
there #ere much fe#er +ictures of him there than in any other city in the So3iet *nion6
and that enin%rad tended to $oo< u+on itse$f as 0ein% somethin% rather distinct6 0oth
mi$itari$y and +o$itica$$y6 from the Fmain$andF: ?t #as sus+ected in Mosco# that Ohdano3
(#ho had 0een a %reat chief in the days of the sie%eD=uite re%ard$ess of a$$ his +re3ious
F+ur%eF acti3ities and his su0se=uent 3anda$ism in the cu$tura$ fie$d) had 0ecome
somethin% of a enin%rad +articu$arist himse$f6 thou%h he #as not 0orn there: There is
$itt$e dou0t that6 es+ecia$$y after Ohdano3's death in 194J6 Sta$in decided to stam+ out
enin%rad's +articu$arism: A remar<a0$e museum6 ca$$ed The De"ence o" (eningrad, had
0een or%anised durin% and after the sie%eL this #as a stri<in% co$$ection of documents and
e8hi0its of e3ery <ind6 i$$ustratin% the %i%antic Fmass effortF made 0y the enin%rad
+eo+$e6 and their ci3i$ian and mi$itary $eaders: This museum #as c$osed in 1949: As
!a3$o3 #rote in 19)1:
T',- 2)- &#&)//* 1$:1-&,0,(5, )$5 "#-& +(%+(&&)8/(. I""($-(/* 6)/1)8/( 5)&) 2(+(
3#$3($&+)&(5 ,$ &',- "1-(1" +(0/(3&,$% &'( '(+#,3 -&+1%%/( #0 &'( 8(-,(%(5, &'(
3#$5,&,#$- ,$ 2',3' L($,$%+)5(+- /,6(5 51+,$% &'( 0()+01/ &,"( #0 &'( B/#3;)5(? &'(
5(0($3( "()-1+(- &);($ )%),$-& &'( ),+-+),5- )$5 )+&,//(+* 8#"8)+5"($&-? &'(
(B',8,&- 5("#$-&+)&(5 &'( ',%' 5(%+(( #0 #+%)$,-)&,#$ ,$ .+#513,$% )+")"($&- )$5
,$ 81,/5,$% 5(0($3(-, ,$ 5()/,$% 2,&' 5(/)*(5-)3&,#$ 8#"8-, )$5 -# #$. T'( "1-(1"
2)- ) +(")+;)8/( &+,81&( &# &'( ,$6($&,6($(--, -&188#+$$(-- )$5 3#1+)%( #0
#+5,$)+* .(#./(. B1& &',- "1-(1" 2)- #+%)$,-(5 ,$ &'( 5)*- #0 &'( D.(+-#$)/,&*
31/&D 2'($ &'( '(+#,3 5((5- #0 -# ")$* L($,$-%+)5(+- &($5(5 &# 8( )&&+,81&(5 &#
-,$%/( .(+-#$)/,&,(-.
?n 19-7 (!a3$o3 %oes on to say) a museum of the .istory of enin%rad #as o+enedL 0ut
this6 he says6 Fcontains on$y a fe# rooms of e8hi0its re$atin% to the #ar +eriodL this
'museum'6 =uite different from that assem0$ed durin% the #ar6 is utter$y inade=uate:F
;ot on$y #as the museum of the Defence of enin%rad destroyed in 19496 0ut there #as
a$so theDsti$$ some#hat mysteriousD Fenin%rad AffairF6 in #hich 4u>netso36 !o+<o3
and many other $eaders of the defence of enin%rad $ost their $i3es: 9as the enin%rad
!arty or%anisation too F+articu$aristF6 not sufficient$y Sta$inistE There ha3e 0een no more
than some 3a%ue references to it in Mr 4hrushche3's s+eeches6 #ith the su%%estion that
Ma$en<o3 +$ayed a +articu$ar$y sinister ro$e in this +ur%e: ?t has a$so 0een su%%ested that
0oth Sta$in and Ma$en<o3 (#ho #as an enemy of Ohdano3's) #aited ti$$ Ohdano3 #as
dead unti$ they sett$ed their scores #ith the enin%rad or%anisation6 #hich had ne3er 0een
+articu$ar$y $oud in its +raise of Sta$in6 $east of a$$ durin% the 9ar and the B$oc<ade:
C').&(+ IX A NOTE ON INLAND
@ne thin% #as 3ery stri<in% durin% the enin%rad B$oc<adeL the enemy #as 1ermany6
and Fin$and #as scarce$y e3en mentioned: (et the Finns #ere a$so at #ar #ith the So3iet
*nion6 #ere ta<in% +art in the 0$oc<ade of enin%rad6 and their troo+s #ere #ithin some
t#enty mi$es north and north,#est of the city: Further east6 they had +enetrated dee+ into
So3iet territory6 and #ere ho$din% a $ine a$on% the S3ir ri3er6 0et#een a<e ado%a and
a<e @ne%a: The $ar%e So3iet city of !etro>a3ods<6 ca+ita$ of the 4are$o,Finnish SS26
#as under Finnish occu+ation:
The +osition of the Finns in their #ar a%ainst the So3iet *nion 0et#een 1941 and 1944
#as6 ho#e3er6 3ery unusua$: They had many 0onds #ith the 1ermans6 0ut their #ar
a%ainst 2ussia #as sti$$ a Fse+arateF #ar6 and they #ere certain$y $ess su0ser3ient to the
1ermans than #ere6 for instance6 the .un%arians and 2umanians: After the #ar they #ere
to c$aim that they had not a$$o#ed 1erman troo+s to o+erate a%ainst enin%rad from
Finnish soi$ and that they had not ta<en +art in the 0om0in% or she$$in% of enin%rad:
There had6 of course6 0een ne%otiations 0et#een 1ermany and Fin$and $on% 0efore Bune
&&6 1941 on Hoint o+erations a%ainst 2ussia: There is a$so no dou0t that the Finns did6 at
one moment6 +ush 0eyond the o$d frontier6 since they ca+tured the 2ussian frontier to#n
of Be$oostro3 on$y t#enty mi$es north,#est of enin%radL here6 ho#e3er6 the 2ussians
counter,attac<ed6 and the Finns #ere thro#n out on the 3ery ne8t day6 after #hich this
+art of the front #as sta0i$ised:
The 1ermans #ere not satisfied #ith this6 and on Se+tem0er 46 Bod$ came s+ecia$$y to see
Mannerheim and ur%ed him to continue the Finnish offensi3e 0eyond the o$d 0orderDi:e:
a%ainst enin%rad: Mannerheim a++ears to ha3e refused: At the tria$ of the +ro,1erman
2yti after the #ar6 the former head of the Finnish 1o3ernment e3en ar%ued that the Finns
had rea$$y Fsa3edF enin%rad:
O$ A1%1-& M4, 1941, I 6,-,&(5 M)+-')/ M)$$(+'(,"<- '()591)+&(+-. T'( !(+")$-
')5 8(($ .+(--,$% 1- &# )56)$3( #$ L($,$%+)5, )0&(+ 3+#--,$% &'( #/5 0+#$&,(+. I -),5
&')& &'( 3#$91(-& #0 L($,$%+)5 2)- $#& #1+ #8:(3&, )$5 &')& 2( -'#1/5 $#& &);( .)+&
,$ ,&. M)$$(+'(," )$5 W)+ M,$,-&(+ W),5($ )%+((5 2,&' "(, )$5 +(:(3&(5 &'(
!(+")$ .+#.#-)/. A- ) +(-1/&, &'(+( )+#-( &'( .)+)5#B,3)/ -,&1)&,#$ ,$ 2',3' &'(
!(+")$- 2(+( 1$)8/( &# )56)$3( #$ L($,$%+)5 0+#" &'( $#+&'? ,$ &',- 2)*, &'(
,$$- 5(0($5(5 L($,$%+)5 0+#" &'( $#+&'.
=See 5: eonard undin6 Finland in the %econd $orld $ar (;e# (or<6 19-7):K
For a$$ that6 the Finns did ta<e +art in the encirc$ement of enin%radL a$so6 accordin% to
the 1erman historian 9a$ter 1Tr$it>6 the Finns :ould ha3e attac<ed enin%rad had there
0een a fina$ 1erman ons$au%ht on the city from the southL 0ut this ne3er too< +$ace:
I9a$ter 1Tr$it>6 Paulus and %talingrad (ondon6 19)3)6 +: 1&J:K
They occu+ied considera0$e stretches of So3iet territory #hich had ne3er 0e$on%ed to
them6 nota0$y east of a<e ado%a: But a$thou%h6 as is e3ident from the So3iet armistice
conditions +resented to the Finns in 19446 there #ere some 1erman troo+s stationed in
Fin$and6 there a++ears to 0e no e3idence that they #ere e3er used a%ainst enin%rad from
Finnish territory: 9hether enin%rad #as e3er she$$ed or 0om0ed from Finnish territory
is +erha+s more dou0tfu$L in 1943 ? #as sho#n one or t#o she$$,ho$es on the north side of
0ui$din%s in enin%rad6 #hich su%%ested that some she$$s had 0een fired from Finnish
territory: But e3en if these one or t#o she$$,ho$es #ere %enuine6 there #as certain$y no
re%u$ar she$$in% of enin%rad from the north: ;otices in the streets of enin%rad dec$arin%
the southern Fshe$teredF side of the streets much safer than the north side6 c$ear$y im+$ied
that the she$$in% #as a$$ assumed to come from the south6 i:e: from the 1ermans:
?t is certain that any maHor offensi3e from the Finnish side durin% the most critica$
months of the enin%rad 0$oc<ade6 and hea3y she$$in% from the north #ou$d ha3e %reat$y
added to enin%rad's trou0$es: That the Finns did not attac< at that critica$ time #as due
to a num0er of factors: a certain distaste of many Finns at 0ein% a$$ied to .it$er6 #ho had
ruth$ess$y in3aded Denmar< and ;or#ayL the fact that Britain and6 $ater6 the *nited
States6 #ere a$$ied #ith the So3iet *nionL and a +erha+s %enuine re$uctance on
Mannerheim's +art to ta<e +art in the con=uest and destruction of enin%rad:
This does not mean that the Finnish 4ourgeoisie #as not 3io$ent$y anti,2ussian6 as it had
0een e3er since 191J6 and e3en more since the 9inter 9ar of 1939,4": But %randiose
ideas of a F1reat Fin$andF stretchin%6 accordin% to some of the more a0surd 0$ue+rints6 as
far as Mosco# (Fan o$d Finnish city6 as its 3ery name indicatesF) seem to ha3e 0een
$imited to the $unatic frin%e: ;e3erthe$ess6 there #ere at $east a sma$$ num0er of se$ect
Finnish troo+s #hich too< +art in the 1erman o+erations a%ainst 2ussia +ro+er6 and6
accordin% to numerous testimonies ? heard 0oth durin% and after the #ar6 +articu$ar$y in
the Smo$ens< and Tu$a areas6 many of these Finnish so$diers 0eha3ed +articu$ar$y
0ruta$$y to the 2ussian ci3i$ian +o+u$ationDes+ecia$$y to %ir$s and #omenDF#orse e3en
than the 1ermansF:
As far as the mi$itary and +o$itica$ $eadershi+ of enin%rad #ere concerned6 there seems6
ho#e3er6 $itt$e dou0t that they #ere conscious of a certain ne%ati3e 3a$ue of the ro$e
+$ayed 0y the Finns in the tra%edy of enin%rad: 9hen6 after the So3iet,Finnish
armistice6 Ohdano3 tra3e$$ed to .e$sin<i6 he had $on% and +ointed$y courteous
con3ersations #ith Mannerheim and6 as #e <no#6 the armistice terms fina$$y a%reed to6
$ea3in% near$y the #ho$e of Fin$and unoccu+ied 0y So3iet troo+s6 #ere much mi$der than
mi%ht ha3e 0een e8+ected: 9ith an eye on future re$ations #ith the Scandina3ian
countries6 and no dou0t remem0erin% the fiasco of 4uusinen's FTeriHo<i 1o3ernmentF of
1939,4"6 the 2ussians made no attem+t6 either then or $ater6 to turn Fin$and into a
!eo+$e's Democracy:
PART OUR T'( B/)3; S1""(+ #0 194M
C').&(+ I CLOSE-UP: MOSCOW IN JUNE 194M
? returned to Cn%$and in ;o3em0er 19416 and did not %o 0ac< to 2ussia a%ain unti$ May
194&Dthis time for the durationDsai$in% for t#enty,ei%ht days from Midd$es0rou%h to
Murmans< on the i0erty shi+6 the Empire .a""in, #hich formed +art of the famous !Q,
1) con3oy: Soon after $ea3in% ?ce$and6 the con3oy #as su0Hected to si8 days' di3e,
0om0in% 0y the 1ermans6 from their 0ases in ;orthern ;or#ay: As #e <no# from
5hurchi$$'s $etters to Sta$in6 the Admira$ty e8+ected ha$f this con3oy to 0e #i+ed outL 0ut
o#in%6 a++arent$y6 to some fau$ty or%anisation on the 1ermans' +art6 on$y ei%ht shi+s
#ere sun<6 out of a tota$ of thirty,fi3e: The 1ermans #ere to ma<e u+ for it a month $ater
#ith the ne8t con3oy6 the !Q,176 three=uarters of #hose shi+s #ere destroyed:
?n The 'ear o" %talingrad ? descri0ed this e8traordinary 3oya%e of the !Q,1)6 the
mar3e$$ous s+irit sho#n 0y 0oth the British and the 2ussian seamen #ho too< +art in itL
the misera0$y +oor +rotection %i3en it 0y a cou+$e of su0marines and a fe# destroyers
and cor3ettesDthe t#o escortin% cruisers ha3in% $eft it after the first 1erman air,raid:
A0out 1)" men $ost their $i3es in that con3oy6 and many others #ere #ounded6 and #ere6
in the end6 ta<en to the terri0$y cro#ded and under,e=ui++ed hos+ita$ at Murmans<:
At the end of May 194& there #ere a0out 36""" British Fsur3i3orsF at Murmans<Dmany
of them from the cruiser Edin4urgh, #hich had 0een sun< short$y 0efore: Des+ite
fre=uent 1erman airraids6 es+ecia$$y #hen a con3oy $anded there from the #est6
Murmans< #as sti$$ more or $ess intact at the timeL and it #as not unti$ a month $ater that
most of it #as destroyed in a %reat fire,0$it>:
?n the same 0oo< ? descri0ed not on$y Murmans< in May 194&6 0ut a$so my remar<a0$e
si8,days' Hourney in a FhardFDi:e: third,c$assDcarria%e from Murmans< to Mosco#
durin% the first #ee< of Bune: 9ith the sun shinin% for near$y t#enty,four hours in that
+art of 2ussia far 0eyond the Arctic 5irc$e6 summer had come in a rush #ithin a fe#
days6 and the far north6 #ith its mi$$ions of f$o#ers6 #as e8traordinari$y 0eautifu$: @f
#onderfu$ 0eauty too6 in the midni%ht t#i$i%ht6 #ere a<e ?mandra6 in the mountainous
country of So3iet a+$and throu%h #hich #e tra3e$$ed a day after $ea3in% Murmans<6 and
then the immense forests south of the 9hite Sea and a$$ a$on% the Archan%e$,Ao$o%da
rai$#ay $ine6 #hich #e reached on the third day: @ften the train #ou$d sto+6 and +eo+$e
#ou$d Hum+ out to +ic< f$o#ers and cran0erriesD#hich had 0een +reser3ed 0y the sno#
throu%h the #inter:
The carria%e #as cro#ded #ith so$diers and ci3i$ians6 and they +resented a remar<a0$e
cross,section of 2ussian humanity: ?n The 'ear o" %talingrad ? recorded do>ens of
con3ersations #ith so$diers6 officers6 rai$#aymen and a$$ <inds of ci3i$ians6 amon% them
an e$e3en,year,o$d %ir$ ca$$ed Tamara6 an e3acuee from enin%rad6 #ho had s+ent the
#inter in a sma$$ to#n on the 9hite Sea and #as no# 0ein% ta<en 0y her mother to a
*ol*hoz, #here her %randmother $i3ed6 in the more c$ement +ro3ince of 2ia>an6 south,
east of Mosco#:
A$$ these +eo+$e had somethin% si%nificant to say: Tamara had %one to schoo$ durin% her
#inter on the 9hite SeaL she had #ith her se3era$ schoo$ 0oo<s #ith +ictures of Sta$in
and Aoroshi$o36 as #e$$ as a %ame of sna<es,and,$adders: She said she had had enou%h to
eat at the schoo$ canteen6 thou%ht that F.it$er #ou$d ha3e to 0e <i$$ed 0efore thin%s %ot
0etterF6 0ut <e+t the carria%e amused6 a$$ the same6 0y often sin%in% in a shri$$ 3oice an
o+timistic ditty she had $earned at schoo$:
H,&/(+ -)" -(8S $( +)5,
AC,T&< $( "UC'(& L($,$%+T5,
AV5,& NS6-;* , -)5W,
I $, &15W , $, -15*
N) M#-;6X .1-&V/-*) 6#+,
DT/, &)" *("X #&.U+,
P+#.T5)*1& 6-( &+15W,
I $, &15W, , $, -15W
(.it$er is cursin% his $uc<6 he can't ta<e enin%radL he can see the ;e3s<y and the
%ardens6 0ut he's %ot stuc<: Then the thief tried Mosco#6 0ut here6 too6 he %ot thro#n
0ac<L a$$ his efforts are in 3ainL he's stuc<6 he is stuc< a%ain):
A$thou%h enormous areas of 2ussia #ere sti$$ under 1erman occu+ation6 the fact that
neither Mosco# nor enin%rad had 0een $ost %a3e +eo+$e a certain amount of se$f,
confidenceL ne3erthe$ess6 mora$e amon% them 3aried a %reat dea$D+art$y de+endin% on
the amount of food they had had to eat: 5i3i$ians #ere 0ad$y underfed6 and many suffered
from scur3yL o$d #omen es+ecia$$y #ere tearfu$ and +essimistic6 and thou%ht the
1ermans #ere terri0$y stron%6 and 1od on$y <ne# #hat mi%ht yet 0e in store for 2ussia
durin% the comin% summer: 2ai$#aymen6 thou%h much 0etter fed than most other
ci3i$ians6 #ere in a %rim moodDa$$ the more so as they had had an e8treme$y hard #inter
on this Murmans< rai$#ay #hich had 0een continuous$y 0om0ed 0y the 1ermans:
!ractica$$y a$$ the rai$#ay stations had 0een destroyed 0y 0om0in%6 and6 off the $ine6 there
#as a$so much #rec<a%e of carria%es and en%ines:
Mora$e amon% so$diers and officers #as rather 0etter: some of them s+o<e hi%h$y of the
British .urricanes that #ere o+eratin% at Murmans<L others ta$<ed a0out the
FtremendousF casua$ties they had inf$icted on the 1ermans and Finns on the Murmans<
Front #ith their Fmiracu$ousF *at!usha mortars: Many of the officers came from the
5aucasus and the *<raineL a$$ s+o<e nosta$%ica$$y of their homes and fami$ies there6 0ut
o+inion seemed to 0e shar+$y di3ided 0et#een the o+timists and +essimists: some thou%ht
the 1ermans mi%ht #e$$ o3errun the rest of the *<raine and the 5aucasus6 others that
they hadn't a chance: A$$ the same6 they #ere far from under,ratin% the +o#er of the
1ermans6 and in their %ame of dominoes6 they ca$$ed the dou0$e,si8 F.it$erFDF0ecause
it's the most fri%htenin% of them a$$F: The dou0$e,fi3e #as ca$$ed F1oe00e$sF:
?n that +art of 2ussia6 enin%rad #as an o0session #ith many of the +eo+$eL they had
seen thousands of enin%rad e3acuees6 many of them ha$f,dead6 and had heard the rea$
and un3arnished truth a0out the dreadfu$ famine #inter thereL many had friends and
re$ati3es in enin%rad6 amon% them my friend Tamara6 #hose ste+,father #as a
enin%rad rai$#ayman:
5i3i$ians #ere e8treme$y short of food6 thou%h the so$diers #ere #e$$,su++$ied6 and at
rai$#ay stations it #as on$y the so$diers #ho did a $ot of tradin% #ith the +easants6
0arterin% a sma$$ +iece of soa+ or an ounce of to0acco for a do>en e%%s or e3en ha$f a
chic<en: The ci3i$ians had nothin% to trade6 and money #as as %ood as use$essL the
+easants #eren't interested: The ci3i$ians s+o<e #ith some 0itterness of the Fshame$ess
+rofiteerin%F of #hich 0oth the +easants and the so$diers #ere %ui$ty:
The attitude to the A$$ies #as e8treme$y mi8ed: Many of these +eo+$e had 0een tra3e$$in%
a$$ the #ay from Murmans<6 #here they had seen shi+s 0rin%in% tan<s and munitions and
sac<s of 5anadian f$our6 0ut6 on the #ho$e6 they tended to thin< that a$$ this #as sma$$
stuff: An o$d e$ementary schoo$,teacher6 sufferin% from scur3y6 and no# on his #ay to
Hoin his fami$y in a fishin%,3i$$a%e on the 9hite Sea #here he ho+ed to %et more
F#ho$esome foodF6 ta$<ed to me a $ot a0out Cn%$and6 sayin% that 5hurchi$$ #as6 of
course6 an o$d enemy of the So3iet *nion6 and the 2ussians shou$d6 therefore 0e %ratefu$
that he at $east #asn't on the side of the 1ermansL 0ut he dou0ted #hether there #ou$d 0e
a Second Front for a 3ery $on% time6 at $east so $on% as 5hurchi$$ #as in char%e:
There #as a moment of rea$ e8citement in the carria%e #hen some0ody 0rou%ht in the
ne#s of a British 16""",0om0er raid on 5o$o%neL sudden$y Cn%$and seemed to ha3e
0ecome #onderfu$$y +o+u$ar: But the ne8t day the mood #as much $ess cheerfu$L it had
0een $earned from some#here that the 2ussians had Hust $ost -6""" men in the Batt$e of
4har<o36 and that F7"6""" #ere missin%F: This struc< e3ery0ody as e8treme$y distur0in%
and ominous6 and the so$diers from the *<raine and the 5aucasus seemed +articu$ar$y
a$armed:
At $ast6 on the fifth day6 the train reached the %reat rai$#ay Hunction of Ao$o%da: There
#ere hundreds of e3acuees at the station Dmost$y #omen and chi$drenD#ho had #aited
$itera$$y for days for their train6 s$ee+in% on rai$#ay +$atforms or in #aitin%,rooms6 and
#ith 3ery $itt$e to eat6 0eyond the dai$y ha$f,+ound of 0read #hich #as distri0uted
re%u$ar$yDe3en thou%h $itt$e e$se #as:
.ere ? a$so sa# se3era$ trains #ith hundreds of emaciated e3acuees from enin%rad6 and
a$so a num0er of hos+ita$ trains6 #ith hundreds of #ounded from the enin%rad and
Ao$<ho3 Fronts #here there #as hea3y fi%htin% a%ain:
.a3in% missed our connection at Ao$o%da6 #e #ere stuc< there for a #ho$e day6 and it
#as not ti$$ near$y a #ee< after $ea3in% Murmans< that ? fina$$y reached Mosco#: Durin%
the $ast $a+ of the Hourney6 the carria%e #as e3en more cro#ded than 0eforeL many
so$diers had s=uee>ed in at Ao$o%da: ? +articu$ar$y remem0er one %iant of a so$dier6
$oo<in% $i<e 5ha$ia+in in his youth6 #ho de3oured a +ound of 0read and si8 hard,0oi$ed
e%%s a$$ at one %o: F(ou'3e %ot a +retty %ood a++etite6F ? remar<ed: F? shou$d say so6F he
re+$ied: F?'3e %ot to ma<e u+ for a$$ $ast #inter: 'ou0d stuff yourse$f if you'd 0een there:F
.e turned out to 0e one of the so$diers #ho had fou%ht at enin%rad ri%ht throu%h the
#inter:
@ne thin% struc< me at the time as 3ery curious: throu%hout that #ee< in the train from
Murmans< to Mosco#6 no0ody had mentioned the name of Sta$in: 9as his $eadershi+
0ein% ta<en for %ranted6 or #ere there some si$ent dou0ts a0out the %reat =ua$ity of his
$eadershi+E 9as it not 0ecause the +eo+$e of the north #ere more c$ose$y concerned #ith
the enin%rad tra%edy than #ith Mosco#6 and that it #as in Mosco#6 #hich had 0een
sa3ed in the +re3ious autumn Funder Sta$in's $eadershi+F6 that his +resti%e #as hi%hest of
a$$E Sta$in #as in Mosco#: .e 0e$on%ed to Mosco#6 as it #ere6 and had come to
sym0o$ise in +o+u$ar ima%ination the ca+ita$'s s+irit of resistance:
?n Bune 194& Mosco# #as sti$$ 3ery near the front $ine: The 1ermans #ere firm$y
entrenched at 2>he36 Aia>ma and 1>hats<6 rather $ess than ei%hty mi$es a#ay: ;o0ody
cou$d 0e =uite sure that the 1ermans #ou$d not attem+t another a$$,out attac< on the city:
The $ast 0om0s had 0een dro++ed on Mosco# in March6 and a$thou%h the anti,aircraft
defences #ere said to 0e much 0etter than in the summer of 19416 there #as no certainty
that air,raids #ou$d not 0e%in a%ain:
Mosco# had a $ean and hun%ry $oo<: ?t had $i3ed throu%h a hard and6 to many +eo+$e6
terri0$e #inter: ?t #as nothin% com+ared #ith #hat enin%rad had suffered6 0ut many
indi3idua$ stories #ere %rimDstories of under,nourishment6 of unheated houses6 #ith
tem+eratures Hust a0o3e or e3en 0e$o# free>in% +oint6 #ith #ater,+i+es 0urst6 and
$a3atories out of actionL and in these houses one s$e+t smotheredDif one had themD
under t#o o3ercoats and three or more 0$an<ets: ?n Bune 0read sti$$ so$d in the o+en
mar<et at 1-" rou0$es a <i$o (thirty shi$$in%s a +ound): There #as a$most no ca00a%e or
other 3e%eta0$es6 and a$thou%h the 0read ration 3aried from &J o>: to 14 o>: a day6 the
rations of other foodstuffs #ere often honoured in a most irre%u$ar #ay6 or not at a$$:
I?n the case of Fhea3yF #or<ers (rai$#aymen6 for instance) the rations #ere as fo$$o#s:
Bread 1:- $0: dai$y
5erea$s 4 o>: dai$y
Meat 3:- o>: dai$y
Fats ":7- o>: dai$y
Su%ar ":7- o>: dai$y
To0acco ":- o>: dai$y
Tea 1 o>: a month
Fish &:- o>: dai$y
Ae%eta0$es (ca00a%e or +otatoes) ":- $0: to 1 $0: dai$y:
?n most cases these rations #ere not fu$$y honouredL in factories most of the food #as
handed o3er to the canteen: 2ations for the three other cate%ories #ere6 of course6 much
$o#er:K
9hat reser3es of +otatoes and 3e%eta0$es there had 0een in the Mosco# +ro3ince naa
either 0een $ooted 0y the 1ermans or ta<en o3er 0y the Army: Su%ar6 fats6 mi$< and
to0acco #ere a$$ 3ery scarce: There #as a +ecu$iar form of +rofiteerin% #hich had
de3e$o+ed in Mosco# durin% the s+rin%6 #hen the o#ner of a ci%arette #ou$d char%e any
#i$$in% +assers,0y t#o rou0$es for a +uffDand there #ere +$enty of 0uyers:
I;omina$$y a0out a shi$$in%:K
!eo+$e in the Mosco# streets $oo<ed ha%%ard and +a$e6 and scur3y #as fair$y common:
5onsumer %oods #ere a$most uno0taina0$e6 e8ce+t at fantastic +rices6 or for cou+ons6 if
and #hen these #ere honoured: ?n the 0i% Mostor% de+artment store stran%e odds and
ends #ere 0ein% so$d6 such as 0arometers and cur$in%,ton%s6 0ut nothin% usefu$: ?n the
sho++in% streets $i<e the 4u>nets<y Most6 or 1or<i Street6 the sho+ #indo#s #ere most$y
sand,0a%%ed and #here they #ere not6 they often dis+$ayed crue$ card0oard hams6
cheeses and sausa%es6 a$$ co3ered #ith dust:
There #ere other de+$ora0$e shorta%es: ?n denta$ c$inicsD#ith the e8ce+tion of a fe#
+ri3i$e%ed onesDteeth #ere +u$$ed #ithout an anaesthetic: The chemists' sho+s #ere
a0out as em+ty as the rest:
A $ar%e +art of the Mosco# +ro3ince had 0een de3astatedL many 3i$$a%es had 0een
0urned do#n6 and in to#ns $i<e 4a$inin6 4$in or Ao$o<o$ams< $ife #as s$o#$y risin% from
the #rec<a%e and ru00$e:
Mosco# itse$f #as 3ery em+ty6 #ith near$y ha$f its +o+u$ation sti$$ a#ay: @n$y ha$f a
do>en theatres #ere o+en in Bune6 amon% them the Filiale of the Bo$shoi6 and tic<ets
#ere easy to o0tain: ?n the 0uffet6 a$$ they so$d6 for a fe# co++ers6 #asD%$asses of +$ain
#ater: The Bo$shoi itse$f had 0een hit 0y a ton 0om06 and #as out of action: There #as a
%ood dea$ of other 0om0 dama%e here and there6 and the s<y #as dotted #ith 0arra%e
0a$$oons:
The +anic e8odus of @cto0er 1) had remained a %rim and6 to many6 a shamefu$ memory:
.undreds of thousands #ho had $eft then had not yet returned: Many %o3ernment offices
#ere sti$$ in the eastDat 4a>an6 *$iano3s<6 Sarato36 4ui0yshe3 and other +$acesL the
*ni3ersity and the Academy of Sciences had 0een mo3ed eastL many factories had a$so
e3acuated much of their e=ui+ment and many of their #or<ers6 and #ere #or<in% on
s<e$eton staffs6 if at a$$: @n the other hand6 those #ho had stayed on in Mosco# durin%
the t#o Fdan%er monthsFDfrom @cto0er to Decem0erDno# reca$$ed #ith some +ride of
ho# they had stuc< it throu%h: Those had 0een heroic #ee<s6 and there had 0een
somethin% %reat and ins+irin% in the 3ery air of Mosco# durin% that time6 #ith 0arricades
and antitan< o0stac$es in the main streets6 es+ecia$$y on the outs<irtsL the timid had %one6
0ut the 4rem$in had not 0ud%ed: Sta$in had remained in Mosco# and6 #ith him6 the
%enera$s6 and most of the !o$it0uro: The 5ommissariat of Defence had not 0ud%ed6 nor
had the Mosco# To#n 5ounci$6 #ith !ronin at its head: Sure enou%h6 there had 0een that
+anic on @cto0er 1)6 0ut the announcement on the fo$$o#in% day that Sta$in #as in
Mosco# had had a %reat mora$ effect on 0oth the +o+u$ation6 and on the so$diers fi%htin%
their dead$y 0att$e on the outs<irts of the ca+ita$:
But 0y Fe0ruary it #as c$ear that the 1erman rout had not 0een com+$ete: The 1ermans
#ere sti$$ ho$din% a mi%hty s+rin%0oard at 1>hats<6 Aia>ma and 2>he36 and this re=uired
a $ar%e concentration of 2ussian troo+s to +rotect Mosco#: Smo$ens<6 #hich the
2ussians had ho+ed to reca+ture6 sti$$ remained far in the enemy rear: There #as a note of
disa++ointment in Sta$in's 2ed Army Day @rder of Fe0ruary &3:
And6 in Bune 194&6 there #ere many +ersistent rumours that somethin% had a$ready
serious$y %one #ron% at 4har<o36 and that the 1ermans #ere +re+arin% for an a$$,out
offensi3e in the south:
? had many o++ortunities6 durin% the ear$y summer months of 194&6 of seein% somethin%
of the de3astation the 1ermans had caused around Mosco#: @n the road to 4$in6 for
instance6 there #as a %reat dea$ of destruction6 0are$y fifteen or t#enty mi$es north,#est
of the ca+ita$D0om0ed6 0urned and she$$ed houses6 and a church #ith ha$f its dome
0$o#n a#ay 0y a she$$: This church #as at osh<i6 t#enty,ei%ht mi$es from Mosco#6 and
the to#n had 0een occu+ied 0y the 1ermans in ;o3em0er 1941: At ?stra6 three houses
had sur3i3ed out of 16"""6 and6 instead of 1)6""" +eo+$e there #ere no# on$y 3""6 most
of them $i3in% in du%outs: At 4$in o3er 16""" houses had 0een destroyed out of 1&6"""L
this6 accordin% to $ater 1erman standards of destruction6 cou$d 0e ca$$ed a$most %enerous:
?t #as on$y 0ecause they had had to +u$$ out in a hurry: *nder their three #ee<s'
occu+ation6 on$y 16-"" +eo+$e had remained in the to#n6 out of 3"6"""L no# 1-6""" #ere
0ac<: C3en if most of the to#n #as standin%6 the 1ermans had sti$$ done an enormous
amount of $ootin%L and the *ol*hozes in the nei%h0ourhood had suffered %reat $osses:
Before the 1ermans came6 36""" co#s 0e$on%in% to the *ol*hozes had 0een e3acuatedL
0ut of the 46-"" co#s 0e$on%in% to the +easants themse$3es6 36""" had 0een dri3en a#ay
0y the 1ermans: A$$ this had serious$y affected Mosco#'s food su++$ies: So3iet
+ro+a%anda at the time made much of the FdestructionF and FdesecrationF of
Tchai<o3s<y's house at 4$in6 and of To$stoy's house at (asnaya !o$yana6 near Tu$a6 0ut
the houses themse$3es #ere sti$$ standin%6 thou%h much had 0een sto$en from them or
dama%ed: The 1ermans had6 moreo3er6 0uried a $ot of their dead ri%ht round To$stoy's
so$itary %ra3e in the +ar<6 and this6 no dou0t6 #as a form of FdesecrationF: The 2ussians6
after reca+turin% (asnaya !o$yana6 thre# a$$ the 1erman 0odies out:
The $ar%e To$stoy 5entenary Schoo$6 0ui$t near (asnaya !o$yana in 19&J6 had 0een
0urned do#n 0y the 1ermans6 and here6 as in so many other +$aces they had committed
3arious atrocities: ? sha$$ mention here Hust a cou+$e of e8am+$es of #hat ? sa# and heard
durin% those months:
;ear the To$stoy Schoo$6 ? #ent into one of the cotta%es of the 3i$$a%e: .ere ? sa# a
youn% #oman #ith a sad face: .er hus0and had 0een han%ed ri%ht here6 in the 3i$$a%e:
The 1ermans had sus+ected him of ha3in% +unctured one of their tyres: They had han%ed
him a$on% #ith another man6 #hom no0ody in the 3i$$a%e <ne#: @n a 0ed6 in the dar<
corner of the room6 a chi$d #as s$ee+in%: The #oman to$d ho# she had %one a#ay to
another 3i$$a%e to see her sister a fe# days 0efore: And she then to$d the #i$d tormented
story of her home,comin% that day6 #hen she had heard the ne#s: T#ice the 1ermans
had sto++ed her on the #ay and had ordered her to +ee$ +otatoes: As she s+o<e6 the chi$d
#o<e u+6 and as #e sat there in the dar< hut6 her story #as interru+ted 0y the sma$$ %ir$'s
+ran<s and $au%hter:
Then the han%ed man's mother arri3ed: She #as a stron%er character than the #ifeL she
had seen it a$$ ha++en6 and she to$d her story firm$y and coherent$y: She to$d ho# the
2ussian troo+s retreated6 and then ho# the 1erman tan<s came into the 3i$$a%e: And6
soon after6 there #as a <noc< on the door of the hut6 and a 1erman #ith a torch said: FSi8
men #i$$ $i3e here:F
FThey came and $i3ed here6F she said: FThey #ere rou%h and coarse6 0ut the FinnsDfor
t#o of them #ere Finns and four #ere 1ermansD#ere e3en #orse: The moment they
too< him a#ay6 one of the Finns6 #ith a $eer6 to$d me they #ere %oin% to han% him: ?
+ushed him aside6 tryin% to run after my son6 0ut he <noc<ed me do#n and +ushed me
into that sma$$ store,room and $oc<ed the door: ater a 1erman came6 and un$oc<ed the
door and said: '(our 4o$ya's <a+utt:' .e and the other man remained han%in% there for
three days6 and ? cou$d not %o near them6 0ut ? cou$d see them from this #indo# s#ayin%
in the #ind: @n$y three days $ater did the 5ommandant a$$o# the 0odies to 0e ta<en
do#n: They #ere 0rou%ht into this room6 and $aid do#n6 ri%ht here: ? untied their stiff
crea<in% arms6 and6 as they 0e%an to tha#6 ? #i+ed the s#eat and dirt off their +oor faces:
And so #e 0uried them:F
Sittin% there in the dar< hut6 #ith on$y a sma$$ oi$ $am+ 0urnin% under the i<on (#ith
Sta$in's +icture torn out of some ma%a>ine 0eside it)6 the o$d #oman no# #e+t soft$y: She
said she had four other sons6 a$$ at the front6 and said that one of them F#asn't #ritin% any
moreF: And in the dar< corner of the hut the youn%er #oman #e+t6 and <issed and
s$a++ed6 and then a%ain <issed the han%ed man's unru$y $au%hin% chi$d:
? remem0er another Hourney $ater in the summerDthis time to the 2>he3 sector of the
front6 #here there had 0een some 3ery hea3y fi%htin% for #ee<s: A%ain #e +assed
throu%h ?stra #ith its forest of chimney,stac<s (that #as a$$ that #as $eft of the to#n) and
the ruins of the ;e# Berusa$em monastery #hich the 1ermans had 0$o#n u+L then #e
dro3e throu%h Ao$o<o$ams<6 #here there #as much $ess destruction6 0ut #here the
1ermans had han%ed numerous F+artisansF: And then #e sto++ed at otoshino: A
num0er of +eo+$e came u+ to our cars: There #as a $itt$e man there6 #earin% a tattered
ca+ and Hac<et6 and #ith a 0unch of s+rin% onions under his arm: .e had 0een here ri%ht
throu%h the 1erman occu+ation: The first day the 1ermans came6 he said6 they han%ed
ei%ht +eo+$e in the main street6 amon% them a hos+ita$ nurse and a teacher: The teacher's
0ody #as $eft han%in% there for ei%ht days: They had ca$$ed for the +eo+$e to attend the
e8ecution6 0ut fe# #ent: The teacher #as a !arty mem0er: The 1ermans had stayed in
the to#n for three months6 ti$$ Banuary &L a fortni%ht 0efore6 they had 0e%un to 0urn do#n
the to#n: The $ast houses #eren't 0urned do#n ti$$ the e3e of their de+arture: They
a++ointed starostas (3i$$a%e mayors) from amon% the $oca$ inha0itantsL $ater6 #hen the
2ussians cau%ht these starostas, they shot them:
As #e stood there ta$<in%6 a cro#d of 3i$$a%e <ids %athered: They #ere most$y a 0unch of
ra%amuffins in tattered c$othes6 and thou%h many of them $oo<ed underfed6 they #ere fu$$
of fun as they ta$<ed a0out the 1ermans: @ne or t#o e3en sa# a humorous side to the
teacher 0ein% strun% u+:::
@ne 0oy6 #ith a Ho$$y $au%h6 to$d ho# he once set fire to a 1erman store: FThen ? ran
a#ay and hid on to+ of the sto3e6 and #as 3ery scaredL 0ut one of the 1ermans came
a$on% and dra%%ed me do#n6 and <ic<ed me in the arse6 0ut nothin% more ha++ened: ?
su++ose they for%a3e me: 0Kleiner Partisan00 they #ou$d ca$$ me6 and %i3e me another
<ic< in the arse6 and #hen #inter came6 they <e+t on screamin% for fires and sayin%6
0Kalt, *alt, *alt@0 @r they'd <ee+ on shoutin% 0%cheisse0 #hich means::: ? said ? <ne#:
FActua$$y6F said the 0oy6 F#hat sa3ed us #as the disti$$ery: ?t <e+t them in %ood humour:
They'd fi$$ themse$3es u+ #ith 3od<a from the disti$$ery storehouse6 and then they'd sin%
1erman son%sDdon't <no# #hat the he$$ they san%L it sounded <ind of mournfu$ on
#inter ni%htsD $i<e do%s ho#$in%::: And6 of course6 they fed their facesL they de3oured
e3erythin%Dchic<en and %eese and +i%s and duc<s: They #ou$d chase the duc<s and
%eese and 0eat them to death #ith stic<s: And then they 0urned do#n the to#n: ? a3oided
them the $ast daysL they #ere in such a fou$ tem+er: And no#6F he #ent on6 F+eo+$e $i3e
here in du%outs (for a$$ the houses ha3e 0een 0urned do#n)6 or on the *ol*hoz not far
a#ay: Tomorro#Don Se+tem0er 1Dthe schoo$ #i$$ o+en6 0ut it's not our schoo$6 0ut
another one6 fi3e <i$ometres a#ayL our o$d schoo$ (he +ointed at a +atched,u+ 0ui$din%)
#as 0urned do#n6 0ut has no# 0een +atched u+ as a hos+ita$:F
Three +oints emer%e 3ery c$ear$y and indis+uta0$y from these (and many simi$ar)
accounts: first$y6 that the +u0$ic e8ecutions of communists and other Fsus+ectsFDusua$$y
0randed F+artisansFD #ere a common +ractice in to#ns and 3i$$a%es occu+ied 0y the
1ermans: Since these e8ecutions fre=uent$y too< +$ace Fon the first dayF of the
occu+ation6 they #ere a++arent$y the #or< not of any s+ecia$ detachments under
.imm$er6 0ut of mem0ers of the Army itse$f: ?t seems a$so true that the FcommunistsF
must ha3e 0een +ic<ed as a resu$t of denunciations either 0y #i$$in% co$$a0orators6 or 0y
+eo+$e fri%htened into doin% so:
IThat e8ecutions #ere carried out 0y the Army is +ersistent$y denied 0y 1erman %enera$s6
0ut6 accordin% to the 2ussian eye#itnesses ? sa# in 194&6 it #as Fordinary so$diersF #ho
did the han%in%: .o#e3er6 this is a much ar%ued +oint6 and it seems that the +ractice
3aried from +$ace to +$ace:K
Second$y6 that6 a$ready in 19416 the 1ermans #ere +ractisin% a scorched,earth +o$icy6
#ith incendiary teams 0urnin% do#n #ho$e to#ns and 3i$$a%es 0efore retreatin%Dif they
had the time to do so: Third$y6 that the 1ermans a++ointed 2ussian 0ur%omasters in the
to#ns and starostas in the 3i$$a%esD+eo+$e +ic<ed from #hat they considered Fre$ia0$eF
e$ements6 e8,0our%eois6 or e8,<u$a<s: .o# many of these #ere #i$$in% co$$a0orators6 and
ho# many had sim+$y 0een 0u$$ied into acce+tin% such Ho0s6 and #hether they deser3ed
to 0e shot once the 2ussians returned (or e3en #hether they actua$$y :ere a$#ays shot)
are =uestions on #hich 3ery $itt$e $i%ht is thro#n 0y either 2ussian or 1erman authors: ?t
is certain ho#e3er6 that many such 2ussian Fco$$a0oratorsF #ere +$ayin% a dou0$e %ame6
and that some So3iet Funder%roundF mem0ers #ere actua$$y encoura%ed to Hoin the
1erman,a++ointed $oca$,%o3ernment a%encies: As in a$$ other 2esistance mo3ements6 so
in 2ussia6 the 2esistance had its Fo#nF men and #omen Fco$onisin%F such 1erman,
a++ointed 0odies6 +ic<in% u+ information6 and maintainin% contact #ith +artisans or other
+ro,So3iet e$ements:
C').&(+ II THE AN!LO-SOAIET ALLIANCE
The 0ac<%round to the An%$o,So3iet A$$iance of May 194& is too #e$$ <no#n to need
detai$ed discussion here: ?n Decem0er 1941 Mr Cden had %one to Mosco#6 and Sta$in
and Mo$oto3 had as<ed for a reco%nition of the So3iet frontiers as they stood at the time
of the 1erman in3asion: This meant a reco%nition of the ne# frontiers #ith Fin$and and
2umania and the incor+oration of the Ba$tic States in the So3iet *nion6 as #e$$ as that of
the territory #hich 5hurchi$$ sti$$ +ersisted in ca$$in% FCastern !o$andF: But #hi$e
5hurchi$$ #as +re+ared to %i3e #ay on these =uestions6 inc$udin% that of the Ba$tic States6
he met #ith o++osition from 9ashin%ton6 #here such an incor+oration #as re%arded as
0ein% contrary to the +rinci+$es of the At$antic 5harter: The So3iet 1o3ernment6 no dou0t
#ith some menta$ reser3ations6 had su0scri0ed to Fthe %enera$ +rinci+$es and aimsF of the
At$antic 5harter: !ri3ate$y6 the 2ussians often said that if they had some Fmenta$
reser3ationsF6 5hurchi$$ had many more sti$$: *$timate$y6 on May &36 durin% Mo$oto3's
3isit to ondon6 Cden +ro+osed to su0stitute for a territoria$ a%reement a %enera$ and
+u0$ic Treaty of A$$iance for t#enty years6 omittin% a$$ references to frontiers6 and a
treaty on this 0asis #as si%ned on May &):
As for the =uestion of the Second Front6 this had first 0een raised 0y Sta$in in a $etter to
5hurchi$$ in the summer of 1941 and the 2ussians had continued to +ress it on 0oth the
British and the Americans:
American +ro+osa$s made in the s+rin% of 194&6 +articu$ar$y 1enera$ Marsha$$'s +ro+osa$
Fthat #e shou$d attem+t to sei>e Brest and 5her0our% ::: durin% the ear$y autumn of 194&F
#ere not to 5hurchi$$'s $i<in% at a$$6 e3en thou%h he Fdid not reHect the idea from the
outset:F
I 5hurchi$$6 o+: cit:6 3o$: 46 ++: &JJ,9:K
Both in 1941 and durin% +art of 194& 5hurchi$$ too< the 3ie# that 2ussia #as an
Fe8+enda0$eF a$$y6 and #as at times hi%h$y +essimistic a0out her chances of sur3i3a$:
Thus6 as #e ha3e seen6 he too< a much more disma$ 3ie# of the Bea3er0roo< Mission to
Mosco# at the end of Se+tem0er 1941 than seemed #arranted 0y Bea3er0roo<'s o#n
attitude: To Bea3er0roo< the So3iet *nion #as an a$$y of immense 3a$ue6 and he #as
an8ious to 0ac< it at a$most any +rice: C3en after the 2ussians had re+e$$ed the first
1erman ons$au%ht on Mosco#6 5hurchi$$ thou%ht that 2ussia's ear$y defeat #as not at a$$
un$i<e$y6 and he fe$t #ith some 0itternessDand +erha+s a touch of ma$iceDthat they had
F0rou%ht it u+on themse$3esF: ?n a $etter to Sir Stafford 5ri++s6 no# e3acuated to
4ui0yshe36 of @cto0er &J6 19416 he #rote:
I 01//* -*".)&',-( 2,&' *#1 ,$ *#1+ 5,00,31/& .#-,&,#$, )$5 )/-# 2,&' R1--,) ,$ '(+
)%#$*. T'(* 3(+&),$/* ')6( $# +,%'& &# +(.+#)3' 1-. T'(* 8+#1%'& &'(,+ #2$ 0)&(
1.#$ &'("-(/6(- 2'($ ... &'(* /(& H,&/(+ /##-( #$ P#/)$5. T'(* 31& &'("-(/6(- #00
0+#" )$ (00(3&,6( S(3#$5 +#$& 2'($ &'(* /(& &'( +($3' A+"* 8( 5(-&+#*(5... I0 2(
')5 8(($ ,$6)5(5 )$5 5(-&+#*(5 ,$ J1/* #+ A1%1-& 194L... &'(* 2#1/5 ')6( +("),$(5
1&&(+/* ,$5,00(+($&.
I5hurchi$$6 o+: cit:6 3o$: 36 +: 4&":K
#+ one thin%6 5hurchi$$ #as <een$y a#are that6 at that sta%e6 Britain #ou$d ha3e to 0ear
the 0runt of any Second Front o+eration: So he +referred other ideasDa $andin% in
French ;orth Africa6 or FBu+iterFDthe $i0eration of ;orthern ;or#ay6 #hich #ou$d
Fre+resent direct aid to 2ussiaF6 and he re%arded 1943 as the ear$iest date for $andin%s in
France:
I$ ./)$$,$% &'( %,%)$&,3 ($&(+.+,-( #0 194@ ,& 2)- $#& .#--,8/( 0#+ 1- &# /)* )-,5( )//
#&'(+ 51&,(-. O1+ 0,+-& I".(+,)/ 51&* 2)- &# 5(0($5 I$5,)... T# )//#2 &'( !(+")$-
)$5 J).)$(-( &# :#,$ ')$5- ,$ I$5,) #+ &'( M,55/( E)-& ,$6#/6(5 ) "()-1+(/(--
5,-)-&(+ &# &'( )//,(5 3)1-(. I& +)$;(5 ,$ "* ",$5 )/"#-& )- &'( (91)/ #0 &'(
+(&,+("($& #0 S#6,(& R1--,) 8(',$5 &'( U+)/-, #+ (6($ #0 &'(,+ ");,$% ) -(.)+)&(
.()3( 2,&' !(+")$*. A& &',- 5)&( =-.+,$% 194M> I 5,5 $#& 5((" (,&'(+ #0 &'(-(
3#$&,$%($3,(- /,;(/*, =81&> #1+ I$5,)$ E".,+(... ",%'& 0)// )$ ()-* .+(*... H,&/(+<-
-18:1%)&,#$ #0 S#6,(& R1--,) 2#1/5 8( ) "13' /#$%(+ )$5, &# ',", "#+( 3#-&/* &)-;.
B(0#+( ,& 2)- )33#"./,-'(5 &'( A$%/#-A"(+,3)$ 3#"")$5 #0 &'( ),+ 2#1/5 ')6(
8(($ (-&)8/,-'(5 8(*#$5 3')//($%(. E6($ ,0 )// (/-( 0),/(5 &',- 2#1/5 8( 0,$)//*
5(3,-,6(...
= 5hurchi$$6 o+: cit:6 3o$: 46 +: &JJ:K
2oose3e$t #as e8treme$y sce+tica$ a0out Fany Hunction 0et#een Ba+anese and 1ermansF
and #as6 $i<e 1enera$ Marsha$$6 more fa3oura0$e than 5hurchi$$ to an attem+t to o+en a
Second Front in France in 194&:
That #as certain$y the im+ression that Mo$oto3 0rou%ht 0ac< from his 3isits to
9ashin%ton and ondon in May,Bune 194&6 and the +resent,day So3iet Histor! ma<es
the most of the fact that 2oose3e$t t#ice assured Mo$oto3 that the Second Front #ou$d 0e
o+ened in 194&6 and that 1enera$ Marsha$$ to$d him that the *SA had e3ery +ossi0i$ity of
o+enin% such a front: Accordin% to .o+<ins6 ho#e3er6 #hat 2oose3e$t had t#ice to$d
Mo$oto3 #as that he e2pected a Second Front to 0e o+ened in 194&: .o+<ins a$so records
that FMarsha$$ fe$t that the sentence a0out the Second Front I#hich Mo$oto3 had drafted
for the communi=uNK #as too stron%6 and ur%ed that there 0e no reference to 194&F6
addin%: F? ca$$ed this +articu$ar$y to the !resident's attention 0ut he6 ne3erthe$ess6 #ished
to ha3e it inc$udedF:
The +u0$ic statement issued on Bune 11 therefore inc$uded the sentence:
DI$ &'( 3#1+-( #0 &'( 3#$6(+-)&,#$- 01// 1$5(+-&)$5,$% 2)- +()3'(5 2,&' +(%)+5 &#
&'( 1+%($& &)-; #0 3+()&,$% ) S(3#$5 +#$& ,$ E1+#.( ,$ 194M.D
;o# the fat #as in the fire: A$thou%h 5hurchi$$ discreet$y omits to mention 2oose3e$t's
res+onsi0i$ity for this statement6 and fe$t forced to su0scri0e to it on Mo$oto3's return
from 9ashin%ton to ondon6 he insisted on handin% to Mo$oto3 the no# #e$$,<no#n
aide-memoire sayin%6 inter alia:
I& ,- ,".#--,8/( &# -)* ,$ )56)$3( 2'(&'(+ &'( -,&1)&,#$ 2,// 8( -13' )- &# ");( &',-
#.(+)&,#$ 0()-,8/( 2'($ &'( &,"( 3#"(-. W( 3)$ &'(+(0#+( %,6( $# .+#",-( ,$ &'(
")&&(+, 81&, .+#6,5(5 &')& ,& )..()+- -#1$5 )$5 -($-,8/(, 2( -')// $#& '(-,&)&( &# .1&
#1+ ./)$- ,$&# (00(3&.
=Sher#ood6 o+: cit:6 +: -J&6 and 5hurchi$$6 o+: cit:6 3o$: 46 +: 3"-: 5hurchi$$ under$ines the
#ords F9e can therefore %i3e no +romise in the matterFK
The +$an in =uestion6 as #e <no#6 concerned Fa $andin% on the 5ontinent in Au%ust or
Se+tem0er 194&F6 and Mo$oto3's %reat ho+e #as that Fat $east forty 1erman di3isionsF
#ou$d 0e dra#n off from the 2ussian front:
At the ceremony in ondon on May &) at #hich the An%$o,So3iet Treaty #as si%ned 3ery
#arm s+eeches #ere made 0y Mo$oto3 and Cden6 0oth of #hom stressed the %reat
im+ortance of the a$$iance6 not on$y durin% the #ar6 0ut a$so after the #ar: For a$$ that6
5hurchi$$'s attitude continued to 0e some#hat reser3ed: Accordin% to 0oth the 2ussians
and Americans6 re$ations 0et#een Mo$oto3 and 2oose3e$t #ere much more friend$y than
0et#een Mo$oto3 and 5hurchi$$:
IMany anecdotes #ere to$d 0oth then and $ater a0out Mo$oto3's #ee<,end at 5he=uers:
@ne di+$omat to$d me it had a$$ 0een Frather $i<e a Mar8 Brothers' fi$m:F Mo$oto3's
Cn%$ish #as $imited to three #ords: F(esF6 FnoF6 and Fsecond frontF: At dinner one ni%ht6
Mo$oto3 remar<ed on the e8traordinary +atriotic fer3our of the 2ussian +eo+$e as
dis+$ayed in this #arDa fer3our the de+th of #hich had e3en sur+rised the %o3ernment:
FThe @$d Adam comin% out6 #hatEF 5hurchi$$ %ro#$ed: Mo$oto3 too< some trou0$e to
e8+$ain that this #as not on$y 2ussian +atriotism6 0ut a$so So3iet +atriotism6 not =uite the
same thin%: There #as a$so this record of Mo$oto3's first im+ression of 5hurchi$$: FA 3ery
stron% manD3ery stron%:F Then6 as an afterthou%ht: F*nfortunate$y6 he'$$ ne3er ma<e a
%ood communist:F But the 0est stories a0out Mo$oto3 demandin% his 0edroom <ey6 and
the 2ussian search for 0om0s under his 0ed6 the re3o$3er on his 0edside ta0$e6 and the
s+ecia$ #ay of ma<in% his 0ed6 so that he cou$d Hum+ out in a hurry in case of anythin%6
are to$d 0y 5hurchi$$ himse$f: (@+: cit:6 3o$: 46 +: &"1:)K
As .o+<ins #rote to 9inant after Mo$oto3's 3isit #as o3er:
M#/#&#6<- 6,-,& 2($& (B&+("(/* 2(//. H( )$5 &'( P+(-,5($& %#& )/#$% 0)"#1-/* )$5 I
)" -1+( &')& 2( )& /()-& 8+,5%(5 #$( "#+( %). 8(&2(($ #1+-(/6(- )$5 R1--,). T'(+(
,- -&,// ) /#$% 2)* &# %#, 81& ,& "1-& 8( 5#$( ,0 &'(+( ,- (6(+ &# 8( )$* +()/ .()3( ,$
&'( 2#+/5. W( -,"./* 3)$$#& #+%)$,-( &'( 2#+/5 8(&2(($ &'( B+,&,-' )$5 #1+-(/6(-
2,&'#1& 8+,$%,$% ,$ &'( R1--,)$- )- (91)/ .)+&$(+-. =A- 0#+ &'( S(3#$5 +#$&> I ')6(
) 0((/,$% &')& -#"( #0 &'( B+,&,-' )+( '#/5,$% 8)3; ) 8,&, 81& )// ,$ )// ,& ,- "#6,$% )-
2(// )- 3#1/5 8( (B.(3&(5.
=Sher#ood6 o+: cit:6 ++: -J&,3:K
?t #as $ar%e$y as a resu$t of the Mo$oto3 3isit to 9ashin%ton that a ne# end,ease
a%reementDor rather6 a #ider a%reement on #hat #as ca$$ed the F+rinci+$es of mutua$
aid a%ainst a%%ressionFD#as si%ned 0y 5orde$$ .u$$ and it3ino36 the So3iet
Am0assador6 on Bune 11:
?n Mosco# it #as decided to ma<e immense +o$itica$ ca+ita$ out of Mo$oto3's 3isits to
ondon and 9ashin%ton: A s+ecia$ meetin% of the Su+reme So3iet at the 4rem$in #as
ca$$ed on Bune 1J to ratify the An%$o,So3iet A$$iance: But for fu$$y a #ee< 0efore that the
So3iet +ress had 0ui$t u+ the Mo$oto3 3isits to the 9est as an e3ent of the most far,
reachin% im+ortance:
Mo$oto36 f$yin% in a fast British 0om0er hi%h o3er Scandina3ia6 returned from ondon on
Bune 13L 0ut a$ready on Bune 11 the So3iet +ress had +u0$ished the fu$$ te8t of the An%$o,
So3iet a%reement6 as #e$$ as the famous FSecond FrontF communi=uN: @n the 13th6 it
+u0$ished the te8t of the So3iet,American a%reement: The +a+ers that day #ere6 0y
2ussian standards6 s+ectacu$ar: @3er the front +a%e of Pravda #as s+$ashed a +hoto%ra+h
sho#in% Cden and Mo$oto3 si%nin% the a$$iance6 #ith a +ussy,face Mais<y on one side
and a ci%ar,che#in% 5hurchi$$ on the other: .ere a$so #ere the te8t of the So3iet,
American a%reement6 the te8t of #arm 0read,and,0utter $etters from Mo$oto3 to
5hurchi$$6 Cden6 2oose3e$t and 5orde$$ .u$$L the te8t of 2oose3e$t's ca0$e to Sta$in
than<in% him for ha3in% sent Mo$oto3 to 9ashin%ton on his Fmost satisfactoryF 3isit6 and
Sta$in's ca0$e of than<s to 2oose3e$t6 and so on: ?n his ca0$es to 0oth 5hurchi$$ and
2oose3e$t6 Mo$oto3 s+ecifica$$y referred to the FSecond Front in 194&F: !a%e t#o of
Pravda +rominent$y announced the decision of the So3iet *nion and 5anada to e8chan%e
di+$omatic re+resentati3es: Such a dis+$ay #as enou%h to ma<e any So3iet citi>en
e8treme$y a$$y,conscious: ?n its editoria$ Pravda #rote that day:
A& 3#1$&/(-- "((&,$%- &'+#1%'#1& &'( 3#1$&+* &'( 2#+;(+-, kolkhoz7niki,
,$&(//(3&1)/-, -#/5,(+-, #00,3(+- )$5 .#/,&,3)/ 2#+;(+- #0 &'( R(5 A+"* )+( (B.+(--,$%
&'( %+()&(-& 3#$6,3&,#$ &')& &'( -&+($%&'($,$% #0 &'(-( 8#$5- =8(&2(($ &'( B,%
T'+((> 2,// ')-&($ 0,$)/ 6,3&#+*... 194M "1-& 8(3#"( &'( *()+ #0 &'( ($("*<- 0,$)/
+#1&. O1+ S#6,(& .(#./( ')6( +()3&(5 2,&' %+()& -)&,-0)3&,#$ &# &'( 3#"./(&(
1$5(+-&)$5,$% 3#$3(+$,$% &'( 1+%($& &)-;- 0#+ &'( 3+()&,#$ #0 ) S(3#$5 +#$& ,$
194M.
Durin% the days that fo$$o#ed the +ress <e+t u+ this o+timistic Second Front 0arra%e:
The s+$endours of the Su+reme So3iet meetin%Dthe first since the 0e%innin% of the #ar
Dcontrasted stran%e$y #ith Mosco#'s do#n,at,hee$ a++earance: ?n the 4rem$in6
di+$omats (many of #hom had s+ecia$$y come from 4ui0yshe3) and mem0ers of the
%o3ernment #ere dri3in% u+ in their $imousines: @utside the main entrance of the +a$ace ?
noticed a car f$yin% a $itt$e Ba+anese f$a%: ?n the former Throne 2oom6 com+$ete$y re0ui$t
since the 2e3o$ution6 enin stood in his f$ood$it niche a0o3e the rostrum: The !residium
of the Su+reme So3iet sat on the $eft6 and the mem0ers of the %o3ernment on the ri%ht:
@n the +$atform 0ehind the s+ea<er sat mem0ers of the !o$it0uro and other $eadin%
de+uties: @n the f$oor of the ha$$ there #as room for some 16&"" de+uties of the t#o
.ouses sittin% Hoint$yD the 5ham0er of the *nion and the 5ham0er of ;ationa$ities: A
$ar%e num0er of these had 0een f$o#n from distant +arts of the country6 and there #ere
many co$ourfu$ orienta$ costumes and dresses in the front ha$f of the f$oor: Many of the
#omen #ore 0ri%ht scar3es and sari,$i<e dresses6 and many men #ore em0roidered
co$oured ca+s6 and many of the faces #ere Mon%o$6 and others a$most ?ndian,$i<e:
Amon% the mem0ers of 0oth .ouses #ere many so$diers in uniform6 some #earin% #ar
decorationsL 0ut many seats #ere em+ty6 +art$y o#in% to the difficu$ty of reachin%
Mosco# at short notice6 0ut chief$y 0ecause many de+uties #ere at the front6 #hi$e others
had a$ready 0een <i$$ed:
Then sudden$y the #ho$e 0ui$din% shoo< #ith a++$ause as the State Defence 5ounci$6
#ith Sta$in incons+icuous$y amon% them6 too< their seats on the +$atform: For se3era$
minutes the de+uties stood u+ and cheered6 and shouted Sta$in's name: Sta$in and the
others on the +$atform a$so rose6 and Sta$in himse$f c$a++ed6 in ac<no#$ed%ment of the
o3ation he #as recei3in%: Fina$$y e3ery0ody sat do#n: Sta$in #as #earin% a #e$$,cut
+a$e,<ha<i summer tunicD +$ain6 #ithout any decorations: .is hair #as much %reyer and
his 0ui$d much sma$$er than ? had ima%ined it to 0e6 ? had ne3er seen Sta$in 0efore: There
#as a +$easant casua$ness in his manner as6 in the course of the meetin%6 he ta$<ed
informa$$y to his nei%h0ours6 or as he turned round to e8chan%e remar<s #ith +eo+$e
0ehind him6 or as he stood u+ #ith the rest and c$a++ed some#hat $a>i$y #hen6 time after
time6 his name #as 0ein% acc$aimed 0y the Assem0$y:
Mo$oto3 #as the first to s+ea<6 and for a $on% time he s+o<e a0out the +rinci+a$ e+isodes
in the +rocess of the rapprochement 0et#een Britain and the So3iet *nionDthe 5ri++s,
Mo$oto3 a%reement of Bu$y 1&6 19416 the .o+<ins6 Bea3er0roo< and Cden 3isitsL then he
out$ined the main +oints of the a%reement no# si%ned in ondon: the first +art #as6 in the
main6 a re+etition of the Bu$y 1941 a%reement6 no# em0odied in a re%u$ar treatyL the
second +art6 on +ost,#ar co,o+eration #as Fin a%reement #ith the main theses of the
At$antic 5harter to #hich the So3iet *nion had a$ready su0scri0ed in the +astF: .e then
=uoted Sta$in in confirmation of his further remar< that the So3iet *nion had no
territoria$ am0itions any#here6 and said that6 in terms of the Treaty6 Britain and the
So3iet *nion #ou$d stri3e to Frender im+ossi0$e any future a%%ression 0y 1ermany6 or
any other State $in<ed #ith her in her acts of a%%ression in Curo+eF: (The 2ussians #ere
at that time sti$$ 3ery carefu$ not to say anythin% that mi%ht concei3a0$y offend Ba+an:)
The Treaty6 he said6 #as for t#enty years6 and su0Hect to rene#a$6 and he added:
I 3)$$#& 81& )--#3,)&( "*-(/0 2,&' &'( 2#+5- #0 M+ E5($: DN(6(+ ,$ &'( ',-&#+* #0
#1+ &2# 3#1$&+,(- ')- #1+ )--#3,)&,#$ 8(($ -# 3/#-(. N(6(+ ')6( #1+ #8/,%)&,#$- ,$
+(-.(3& #0 &'( 01&1+( 8(($ "#+( .(+0(3&.D T',- ,- 1$91(-&,#$)8/* ) ')..* #"($...
T'( T+()&* ')- "(& 2,&' &'( "#-& 0)6#1+)8/( +(-.#$-( ,$ 8#&' B+,&),$ )$5 &'(
S#6,(& U$,#$, 2',/( ,$ &'( ($("* 3)". ,& ')- 3)1-(5 3#$01-,#$ )$5 )$%+* ',--,$%.
As the s+eech #ent on6 one 0ecame a#are of a fee$in% of im+atience in the ha$$: 9hat
a0out the Second FrontE At $ast Mo$oto3 came to that:
N)&1+)//*, -(+,#1- )&&($&,#$ 2)- %,6($ &# &'( .+#8/("- #0 &'( S(3#$5 +#$&, 8#&' ,$
L#$5#$ )$5 W)-',$%&#$. T'( +(-1/&- #0 &'(-( &)/;- 3)$ 8( -(($ 0+#" &'( ,5($&,3)/
A$%/#-S#6,(& )$5 A"(+,3)$-S#6,(& 3#""1$,91S-. .. T',- ,- #0 %+()& ,".#+&)$3( &#
&'( .(#./(- #0 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$, 8(3)1-( &'( (-&)8/,-'"($& #0 ) S(3#$5 +#$& ,$
E1+#.( 2#1/5 3+()&( ,$-1.(+)8/( 5,00,31/&,(- 0#+ &'( H,&/(+,&( )+",(- )& #1+ 0+#$&.
L(& 1- '#.( &')& #1+ 3#""#$ ($("* 2,// -##$ 0((/ #$ ',- #2$ 8)3; &'( +(-1/&- #0 &'(
(6(+-%+#2,$% ",/,&)+* 3#-#.(+)&,#$ 8(&2(($ &'( &'+(( !+()& P#2(+-.
There #as6 accordin% to ne8t day's Pravda, Fstormy6 $en%thy a++$auseF at this +ointL in
rea$ity6 ? noticed that the a++$ause mi%ht ha3e 0een %reater than it actua$$y #as: it seems
o03ious that the F$et,us,ho+eF had had a some#hat dam+in% effectD#hich #as to 0e
ref$ected in some of the $ater s+eeches:
Mo$oto3 then said that the resu$ts of his 3isit to 9ashin%ton had 0een $ess definite than
those of his 3isits to ondon6 0ut he stressed that the So3iet,American a%reement on
+resent and future coo+eration #as on$y F+re$iminaryF6 addin%6 ho#e3er6 that %enera$
+ro0$ems of #ar and +eace had 0een $en%thi$y discussed 0y him and Mr 2oose3e$t6 and
that 0oth the !resident of the *nited States and Mr 5hurchi$$ had 0een 3ery <ind:
?n conc$usion6 Mo$oto3 said:
O1+ -&+($%&' ,- %+#2,$%, #1+ 3(+&),$&* #0 6,3&#+* ,- -&+#$%(+ &')$ ,& ')- (6(+ 8(($.
U$5(+ &'( %+()& 8)$$(+ #0 L($,$ )$5 S&)/,$ 2( -')// 2)%( &',- -&+1%%/( &,// 3#"./(&(
6,3&#+*, &,// &'( 3#"./(&( &+,1".' #0 #1+ 3)1-( )$5 &')& #0 )// 0+((5#"-/#6,$%
$)&,#$-.
A+art from discussin% the British a$$iance6 many of the other s+ea<ers too< the
o++ortunity to s+ea< of their o#n constituencies: Shcher0a<o36 re+resentin% Mosco#6
reca$$ed the stru%%$e for Mosco# and said6 amid a storm of tru$y emotiona$ a++$ause:
FAnd no#6 5omrades De+uties6 you can see your 5a+ita$ intactP F
There #as a$so a touch of emotion in the a++$ause that %reeted : 2: 4orniets6 a
re+resentati3e of the no# a$most com+$ete$y occu+ied *<raine: 4orniets6 #ith his hea3y
droo+in% F*<rainianF moustache did not mince his #ords: F9e ho+e6F he said6 Fthat from
a%reements and #ords6 the %reat 9estern !o#ers #i$$ +roceed to action:F
Ohdano36 re+resentin% enin%rad6 #ho recei3ed an o3ation a$most as %reat as that %i3en
to Sta$in6 said:
T'( 6)/1( #0 &'( T+()&* ,- 1$91(-&,#$)8/* ($')$3(5 8* &'( 0)3& &')& 3#"./(&(
)%+(("($& 2)- +()3'(5 ,$ L#$5#$ )$5 W)-',$%&#$ ,$ +(-.(3& #0 &'( 1+%($& &)-;-
0#+ &'( 3+()&,#$ #0 ) S(3#$5 +#$& ,$ E1+#.( ,$ 194M...
.e =uoted a #or<er of the 4iro3 !$ant (ri%ht in the front $ine) as sayin%:
DI& -&+($%&'($- #1+ 3#$6,3&,#$ &')& H,&/(+ )$5 ',- 8/##5* 3/,91( 2,// 8( 3+1-'(5 ,$
194M. L(& 1- 2#+; 2,&' 5#18/( )$5 &+(8/( ($(+%* ,$ '(/.,$% &'( R(5 A+"* &# 3)++*
#1& ,&- '(+#,3 ",--,#$.D
(: : !a$ets<is6 the ithuanian re+resentati3e6 said he #as con3inced that there #ou$d not
0e Fthe s$i%htest de$ayF in +re+arin% the Second Front in Curo+e in 194&6 as this #as a$so
in Britain's and America's interestsL and the at3ian6 Cstonian6 1eor%ian6 *>0e< and other
re+resentati3es s+o<e more or $ess on the same $ines:
After three and a ha$f hours of s+eeches6 the Treaty #as unanimous$y ratified: ?n Pravda
on the fo$$o#in% day Chren0ur% #rote a heartfe$t cou+$e of co$umns on FThe .eart of
Cn%$andF6 in #hich he %re# $yrica$ a0out ondon6 its o$d stones6 its soot and its F+aste$
s<iesF: The raids on 5o$o%ne and the 2uhr #ere Fon$y a 0e%innin%F:
A/+()5* &'( -")// 3',/5+($ #0 +)$3(, /##;,$% )3+#-- &'( ",-&* -(), )+( 2',-.(+,$%:
DT'(+(<- ) -',. #6(+ &'(+(.D A$5 &'( $)"( #0 &'( -',. ,- &'( S(3#$5 +#$&.
The meetin% of the Su+reme So3iet #as fo$$o#ed 0y a 0rief6 one mi%ht say 3ery 0rief6
An%$o,2ussian honeymoon: A fe# #ee<s $ater the shar+ 0ic<erin% o3er the Second Front
0e%an: ?t shou$d 0e noted that at no time #as the British aide-memoire mentioned on the
So3iet side6 or e3en hinted atDe8ce+t +erha+s for that F$et us ho+eF in Mo$oto3's s+eech:
There continued much sus+icion on 0oth sidesDri%ht u+ to Sta$in's s+eech on ;o3em0er
)6 and the $andin% in ;orth Africa a fe# days $ater: Much of the 0ad humour and6 0efore
$on%6 an%er on the 2ussian side #as s+ontaneous6 and $ar%e$y caused 0y the +retty
des+erate out$oo< at the frontL thou%h6 for a fe# #ee<s 0efore the ;orth Africa $andin%6
some of the an%ry comments in the +ress may ha3e +art$y 0een ca$cu$ated to decei3e the
1ermans:
C').&(+ III THREE RUSSIAN DEEATS: KERCH, KHARKOA
AND SEBASTOPOL
A$$ the6 admitted$y su+erficia$6 reHoicin% o3er the An%$o,So3iet A$$iance in fact coincided
#ith one of the hardest +eriods of the #ar in 2ussiaL for in May the 2ussians had suffered
disasters at 4erch and 4har<o36 and it #as a$so o03ious that the days of Se0asto+o$'s
resistance #ere num0ered:
After the 2ussians had 0een dri3en out of the 5rimea in the autumn of 19416 #ith the
e8ce+tion of Se0asto+o$ #hich continued to 0e he$d 0y a stron% %arrison6 they undertoo<
a com0ined o+eration from the 5aucasus in an endea3our to reca+ture the 4erch
!eninsu$a6 at the eastern e8tremity of the 5rimea6 and thus esta0$ish a stron% 0rid%ehead
from #hich e3entua$$y the #ho$e 5rimea cou$d 0e $i0erated and Se0asto+o$ re$ie3ed: This
#as one of the $ar%est com0ined $and,and,sea o+erations underta<en 0y the 2ussians
durin% the #ar: ?n the $ast #ee< of Decem0er 19416 des+ite hi%h$y unfa3oura0$e #eather
conditions and some hea3y $osses6 they succeeded in $andin% some 4"6""" troo+s6
occu+yin% the #ho$e 4erch +eninsu$a6 and a$so (for a fe# days) the im+ortant city of
Feodosia on the 5rimean Fmain$andF:
?t #as at 4erch6 incidenta$$y6 that the 2ussians recei3ed their first e3idence of $ar%e,sca$e
1erman atrocities: soon after the 1erman occu+ation of 4erch in 19416 se3era$ thousand
Be#s had 0een e8terminated 0y one of .imm$er's Einsatzgruppen and 0uried in hu%e
trenches outside the to#n: ;eed$ess to say6 Fie$d,Marsha$ 3on Manstein6 #ho #as in
command of the 1erman 11th Army in the 5rimea6 $ater denied a$$ <no#$ed%e of this:
The immediate resu$t of the successfu$ $andin% at 4erch #as to reduce the 1erman
+ressure on Se0asto+o$6 and Manstein #as $ater to admit that the 2ussian $andin% had
created an immense dan%er to the 1erman forces in the 5rimea:
IC: 3: Manstein6 1erlorene %iege (ost Aictories)6 Bonn6 19--6 +: &4):K
But o#in% to shorta%e of trained men6 or e=ui+ment6 or 0oth6 or 0ecause of some 3ery
serious misca$cu$ation on the +art of the 2ussian .i%h 5ommand6 the successfu$ 4erch
$andin% #as not fo$$o#ed u+ e8ce+t 0y a fe# a0orti3e sorties6 and on May J 3on
Manstein $aunched an a$$,out offensi3e a%ainst the 2ussian forces in the Castern 5rimea:
This o+ened #ith a concentrated air attac< on the 2ussians6 #ho suffered hea3y casua$ties
and #ere forced to retreat to a fortified $ine <no#n as the Tur<ish 9a$$: But the 1erman
ons$au%ht #as much too stron%:
@ur forces +ro3ed themse$3es inca+a0$e of ho$din% the Tur<ish 9a$$6 and retreated to
4erch: The $oca$ command had sho#n itse$f inca+a0$e of usin% the air force effecti3e$y6
and our troo+s retreated under constant 1erman air attac<s::: By the 14th the 1ermans
0ro<e into the southern and #estern outs<irts of 4erch6 and 0et#een the 1-th and &"th
our rear%uard units fou%ht des+erate$y to ena0$e our main forces to cross the 4erch Straits
to the Taman !eninsu$a Ion the 5aucasus side of the fi3e,mi$e,#ide straitsK: C3en so6 it
+ro3ed im+ossi0$e to carry out the e3acuation in an or%anised manner: The enemy
ca+tured +ractica$$y a$$ our mi$itary e=ui+ment6 #hich #as then used a%ainst the
defenders of Se0asto+o$:
I?A@ASS6 3o$: &6 +: 4"-:K
?t #as in these $aconic #ords that the recent So3iet Histor! descri0ed the first of the %reat
disasters suffered 0y the 2ussians in the 5rimea:
This disaster is attri0uted 0y the Histor! to a fau$ty or%anisation of defence6 the Fsha$$o#
o+erationa$ dis+osition of the troo+sF and the $ac< of essentia$ reser3es: @ther reasons
#ere Fthe thou%ht$essness of the army head=uarters6 the a0sence of camouf$a%e at the
command +osts6 #hich had fai$ed6 moreo3er6 to mo3e from +$ace to +$ace6 #ith the resu$t
that in their 3ery first raids6 the uft#affe smashed u+ these command +osts6 thus
#rec<in% a$$ communications: The different head=uarters #ere6 moreo3er6 unaccustomed
to the use of radio:F t: 1en: 4o>$o36 the commander of the 4erch Army 1rou+6 and his
to+ commissar6 Me<h$is6 as #e$$ as numerous other officers and commissars6 #ere
demoted6 and Me<h$is6 #ho #as at that time 0oth Aice,5ommissar of Defence and one of
the heads of the !o$itica$ Administration of the 2ed Army #as rehe3ed of 0oth these
+osts and demoted to the ran< of cor+s commissar: Me<h$is and the officers of the 4erch
%rou+ #ere accused of ha3in% F#asted hours ar%uin% a0out the situation at fruit$ess
sessions of the 9ar 5ounci$F6 instead of actin%: ?n +articu$ar6 they had 0een too s$o# in
#ithdra#in% the troo+s to the Tur<ish 9a$$6 and this had 0een fata$ to the #ho$e
defensi3e o+eration:
I?0id:6 +: 4"):K
A$thou%h some +u0$icity #as %i3en at the time to the dis%race of Me<h$is6 one of the
3i$$ains of the Army !ur%e in 1937,J6 $itt$e6 if anythin%6 #as said a0out the ho$ocaust
amon% the other officers res+onsi0$e for the 4erch disaster: ?t seems o03ious that the
demotion of Me<h$is #as at $east +art$y intended as a +o$itica$ o+eration (he #as dee+$y
detested 0y the Fyoun%erF %enera$s)L 0ut ho# far he (and the other officers) #ere used as
sca+e%oats for a +erha+s ine3ita0$e fai$ure (for 1erman air su+eriority at 4erch #as
o3er#he$min%) is any0ody's %uess: 9hat is certain6 ho#e3er6 is that the 4erch disaster
+a3ed the #ay for an e3en %reater disaster: that of Se0asto+o$: After the $i=uidation of the
F4erch frontF6 3on Manstein #as free to concentrate a$$ his forces in the 5rimea a%ainst
Se0asto+o$ #hich had he$d out e3er since @cto0er::: Se0asto+o$ #as6 ho#e3er6 a Fno0$eF6
not a Fshamefu$F disaster:
i<e the Batt$e of 4ie3 in 19416 the so,ca$$ed Batt$e of 4har<o3 in May 194& #as to
0ecome the su0Hect of some of 4hrushche3's an%ry +osthumous recriminations a%ainst
Sta$in:
Accordin% to the +resent,day So3iet Histor!, the So3iet Su+reme 5ommand had made
numerous mista<es in its +$annin% of the s+rin% o+erations: First6 0ecause of the
concentration of enemy forces in that area6 it had e8+ected the main 1erman 0$o# to fa$$
on Mosco#:
I$-&()5 #0 3#$3($&+)&,$% /)+%( 0#+3(- #$ &'( -#1&'-2(-&(+$ )$5 -#1&'(+$ 0+#$&, )$5
3+()&,$% )$ ,$-1.(+)8/( 5(0($3( ,$ 5(.&' ,$ &'(-( )+()-, &'( Siavka 3#$&,$1(5 &#
-&+($%&'($ &'( B+,)$-; 0+#$&, 2'#-( "),$ 0#+3(- 2(+( .+#&(3&,$% &'( T1/)-M#-3#2
)B,-.
Second$y6 the So3iet Su+reme 5ommand sim+$y o3er,rated its o#n stren%th and under,
rated that of the 1ermans:
I$ ./)$$,$% /)+%( #00($-,6( #.(+)&,#$- ,$ &'( -1""(+ #0 194M 2',3' 2#1/5 3/()+ &'(
,$6)5(+- #1& #0 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$, )$5 -# /,8(+)&( ",//,#$- #0 .(#./( 0+#" &'( !(+")$
*#;(, &'( S#6,(& S1.+("( C#"")$5 #6(+-+)&(5 &'( -133(--(- #0 #1+ 2,$&(+
#00($-,6(, )$5 ')5 $#& &);($ -100,3,($& $#&,3( #0 &'( 0)3& &')&, )0&(+ &'( 5(0()&- ,& ')5
-100(+(5, &'( !(+")$ )+"* ')5 +(-&#+(5 ,&- 8)&&/(-2#+&',$(--, )$5 2)- -&,// 01// #0
#00($-,6( .#--,8,/,&,(-.
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: &6 +: 4"4:K
The 2ussian rout at 4har<o3 in May 194& #as more hea3i$y concea$ed from the +u0$ic
than a$most any other 2ussian defeatL +erha+s the %reat rapprochement then in +ro%ress
#ith Britain and the *nited States had much to do #ith it6 or +erha+s a$so the fact that
Sta$in himse$fDat $east accordin% to +resent,day accountsD had +$ayed a $eadin% ro$e in
concei3in% and6 #orse sti$$6 in +ersistin% in6 this disastrous o+eration:
?n March 194& the Su+reme 5ommand had considered a +$an for a $ar%e offensi3e in the
*<raine #hich #ou$d carry the 2ed Army a$$ the #ay to a $ine runnin%6 north,to,south6
from 1ome$ to 4ie36 and then6 rou%h$y a$on% the ri%ht 0an< of the Dnie+er6 throu%h
5her<assy6 and on to ;i<o$ae3 on the B$ac< Sea: @#in% to shorta%e of reser3es6 this +$an
#as a0andoned in fa3our of a more modest offensi3e6 the main o0Hect of #hich #as the
$i0eration of 4har<o3: @ne 2ussian 0$o# #as to 0e struc< from the north of 4har<o36 the
other from the southDfrom the so,ca$$ed Bar3en<o3o sa$ient #hich the 2ussians had
reca+tured durin% the #inter:
?t so ha++ened that the 1ermans #ere +$annin% an offensi3e in the same area6 0ut the
2ussians %ot in their 0$o# first #hen they started their offensi3e to#ards 4har<o3 on
May 1&: The rea$ trou0$e #as that 2ussian su+eriority in the area #as far from
o3er#he$min% and6 #orse sti$$ (as e3ents #ere soon to sho#) the 1ermans had +o#erfu$
mo0i$e reser3es in the nei%h0ourhood6 and the 2ussians had not: The So3iet historian6
Te$+u<ho3s<y sums u+ this 0att$e as fo$$o#s:
T# -")-' #1+ #00($-,6(, 2',3' ')5 8(%1$ #$ M)* 1M, ) -&+#$% 0#+")&,#$ #0 !(+")$
&+##.-, -1..#+&(5 8* /)+%( $1"8(+- #0 &)$;- )$5 ),+3+)0&, -&+13; ) .#2(+01/ 8/#2 )&
#1+ 9&' A+"* ,$ &'( S/)6,)$-; )$5 B)+6($;#6# )+()- #$ M)* 1K. O1+ &+##.- ')5 &#
2,&'5+)2 &# &'( /(0& 8)$; #0 &'( D#$(&-, &'1- (B.#-,$% &'( 0/)$; #0 &'( S#6,(& -'#3;
&+##.- )56)$3,$% #$ K')+;#6. B* 31&&,$% &'( 3#""1$,3)&,#$- #0 #1+ &+##.-
)56)$3,$% #$ K')+;#6, &'( !(+")$- ./)3(5 &'(-( ,$ )$ (B&+("(/* 5,00,31/& .#-,&,#$,
)$5 &'(* 2(+( 0#+3(5, 2,&' 6(+* '()6* 0,%'&,$%, &# 2,&'5+)2 &# &'( ()-&, -100(+,$%
-(+,#1- 3)-1)/&,(- ,$ &'( .+#3(--.
ITe$+u<ho3s<y6 o+: cit:6 +: 119:K
The more recent Histor! is much more e8+$icit a0out this e+isode: it says that the
ad3ance on 4har<o3 #as +ersisted in at the demand of Sta$in6 and des+ite the +rotests of
4hrushche36 #ho sa# that these troo+s #ere #a$<in% into a tra+: Further6 it te$$s ho# the
2ussian tan< reser3es #ere thro#n in too $ate to sa3e the situation: Fina$$y6 it admits that
a $ar%e num0er of 2ussian troo+s #ere encirc$ed6 and that in the hard,fou%ht attem+ts to
0rea< out Fmany 0ra3e menF died6 inc$udin% the de+uty commander of the South,9est
Front6 t: 1en: 4osten<o6 the commander of the )th Army6 t: 1en: 1orodnyans<y6 the
commander of the -7th Army6 t: 1en: !od$as and many other hi%h,ran<in% officers:
A$thou%h many of the troo+s 0ro<e out 0y esca+in% across the Donets6 others continued
to fi%ht in the encirc$ement unti$ May 3":
T'( #00($-,6( )%),$-& K')+;#6 2',3' ')5 8(%1$ -# -133(--01//*, &'1- ($5(5 ,$ &'(
+#1& #0 &'+(( )+",(- #0 &'( S#1&'-W(-&(+$ )$5 S#1&'(+$ +#$&.
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: &6 +: 41-:K
The Histor! a$so mentions the fact that6 as a mem0er of the 9ar 5ounci$ of the South,
9estern Front6 4hrushche3 ur%ed Sta$in to sto+ the ad3ance on 4har<o3 and to
concentrate the 2ussian forces on smashin% the 1erman counter,offensi3e: But Sta$in
insisted on the 2ussians continuin% their ad3ance on 4har<o3DF#hich6F says the
Histor!, Fcom+$icated the situation sti$$ further:F
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: &6 +: 414:K
9hether this is strict$y true or not (and one must remem0er that the Histor! #as #ritten
after the GGth 5on%ress6 and %oes out of its #ay to ma%nify 4hrushche3's ro$e in the #ar
at Sta$in's e8+ense)6 it is interestin% to note that this +articu$ar e+isode #as dea$t #ith at
considera0$e $en%th in 4hrushche3's FSecret 2e+ortF at the GGth 5on%ress in Fe0ruary
19-): The main +oints he made #ere these:
W'($ )$ (B3(.&,#$)//* -(+,#1- -,&1)&,#$ 5(6(/#.(5 ,$ &'( K')+;#6 )+(), 2(
3#++(3&/* 5(3,5(5 &# 5+#. &'( #.(+)&,#$ 2'#-( #8:(3&,6( 2)- &# ($3,+3/( K')+;#6...
W( ,$0#+"(5 S&)/,$ &')& &'( -,&1)&,#$ 5(")$5(5 3')$%(- ,$ &'( #.(+)&,#$)/ ./)$-...
C#$&+)+* &# 3#""#$ -($-(, S&)/,$ +(:(3&(5 #1+ -1%%(-&,#$ )$5 #+5(+(5 &')& &'(
K')+;#6 #.(+)&,#$ 8( 3#$&,$1(5, )/&'#1%' 8* &',- &,"( ")$* #0 #1+ )+"* 1$,&-
2(+( &'("-(/6(- &'+()&($(5 2,&' ($3,+3/("($& )$5 (B&(+",$)&,#$...
I &(/(.'#$(5 A)--,/(6-;* 4&'( C',(0 #0 S&)007 )$5 8(%%(5 '," &# (B./),$ &'( -,&1)&,#$
&# C#"+)5( S&)/,$. A)--,/(6-;* +(./,(5, '#2(6(+, &')& C#"+)5( S&)/,$ 5,5 $#& 2,-'
&# '()+ )$* "#+( )8#1& &',- #.(+)&,#$... I &'($ &(/(.'#$(5 S&)/,$ )& ',- 6,//).
M)/($;#6 )$-2(+(5 &'( .'#$(. I -),5 I 2)$&(5 &# -.(); &# S&)/,$ .(+-#$)//*. S&)/,$
,$0#+"(5 "( &'+#1%' M)/($;#6 &')& I -'#1/5 -.(); 2,&' M)/($;#6... I )-;(5 )%),$
&# -.(); &# S&)/,$ ',"-(/0. B1& S&)/,$ -&,// -),5 $#, &'#1%' '( 2)- #$/* ) 0(2 -&(.-
0+#" &'( &(/(.'#$(. A0&(+ D/,-&($,$%D ,$ &',- ")$$(+ &# #1+ ./(), S&)/,$ -),5: DL(&
(6(+*&',$% +("),$ )- ,& ,-.D
A$5 2')& 2)- &'( +(-1/&I T'( 2#+-& &')& 3#1/5 8( (B.(3&(5. T'( !(+")$-
-1++#1$5(5 #1+ )+",(- )$5 2( /#-& '1$5+(5- #0 &'#1-)$5- #0 #1+ -#/5,(+-.
I The Dethronement o" %talin: Full Te2t o" the Khrushchev %peech ;-anchester
#uardian re+rint6 19-))6 +: &1: ? ha3e s$i%ht$y a0rid%ed the te8t6 and made a fe#
corrections in the rather c$umsy trans$ation of this 3ersion of the FSecret 2e+ortF:K
9hether in rea$ity the 2ussians $ost6 as 4hrushche3 c$aimed6 Fhundreds of thousands of
our so$diersF6 the 1ermans6 at any rate6 c$aimed &""6""" +risoners:
?n any case6 the facts a0out the FBatt$e of 4har<o3F #ere <e+t e8treme$y dar< at the time6
e8ce+t for a stran%e communi=uN at the end of May #hich +ut the So3iet $osses at F-6"""
<i$$ed and 7"6""" missin%F6 in its o#n #ay an admission that somethin% had %one
serious$y #ron%: ?t caused considera0$e consternation: There #as e3en a c$umsy attem+t
to re+resent the FBatt$e of 4har<o3F as a 2ussian 3ictory: ear$y in Bune6 the forei%n +ress
#ere s+ecia$$y ta<en to a 1erman #ar +risoners' cam+ near 1or<iL the )"" or 7""
+risoners #e #ere sho#n had6 indeed6 0een ca+tured durin% the "irst sta%e of the 4har<o3
Batt$eDi:e: durin% the 2ussian offensi3e of May 1&,17: Most of them6 #hi$e de+$orin%
their Pech, their F0ad $uc<F6 #ere e8treme$y coc<y for a$$ thatL they c$aimed to 0e
con3inced that 1ermany #ou$d smash 2ussia in 194&6 and they did not 0e$ie3e for a
moment in any Second Front materia$isin% in time:
IA 3isit to this cam+6 a former monastery6 in #hich the 1ermans #ere fair$y comforta0$y
housed and 0etter fed than most 2ussian ci3i$ians6 and many con3ersations #ith the
1ermans there6 are descri0ed in The 'ear o" %talingrad, ++: J7,J9: Most stri<in% #as the
1ermans' Herrenvol* attitude to their 2umanian fe$$o#,+risoners6 of #hom there #ere
ha$f a do>en in the cam+:K
The third %reat defeat suffered 0y the 2ussians in the summer of 194& #as at Se0asto+o$L
0ut6 un$i<e 4erch and 4har<o36 Se0asto+o$ #as one of the most %$orious defeats of the
So3iet,1erman #ar: ?n many #ays6 e8ce+t for its tra%ic end6 the nine,months' sie%e of
Se0asto+o$ had the same =ua$ity of human endurance and so$idarity as the sie%e of
enin%rad: oca$ +atriotism6 0ased on the historic memories of the other sie%e of
Se0asto+o$ in 1J-3,46 com+$ete #ith F%reat ancestorsF $i<e Admira$s ;a<himo3 and
4orni$o36 0esides the +ecu$iar re3o$utionary and +atriotic traditions of the B$ac< Sea
;a3y6 had a decisi3e$y im+ortant effect on the mora$e of 0oth so$diers and ci3i$ians:
?m+ortant6 too6 #ere the 3ery stron% and efficient $oca$ +arty and 4omsomo$
or%anisations: To#ards the end6 the $ast,ditch resistance #as a$so encoura%ed 0y the
sim+$e and tra%ic fact that6 #ith the e8ce+tion of a 3ery6 3ery fe# to+,ran<in% +ersonne$6
#ho %ot a#ay dan%erous$y 0y su0marine6 there #as no a$ternati3e to im+risonment 0y the
1ermans 0ut a fi%ht to the $ast round:
As #e ha3e seen6 the 1ermans had o3errun the #ho$e of the 5rimea in @cto0er 1941D
#ith the e8ce+tion of Se0asto+o$: The sie%e of the %reat na3a$ 0ase 0e%an on @cto0er 3"6
and the first attem+t 0y the 1erman 11th Army under 3on Manstein to 0rea< throu%h to
Se0asto+o$6 defended on $and 0y a semi,circ$e of three more or $ess #e$$,fortified fines6
$asted from @cto0er 3" to ;o3em0er &1: A 3ery im+ortant +art in re+e$$in% this first %reat
1erman ons$au%ht #as +$ayed 0y the %uns of the B$ac< Sea ;a3y6 and 0y the na3a$
marines fi%htin% on $andL these6 $i<e the men of the Ba$tic F$eet at enin%rad6 #ere
amon% the tou%hest 2ussian troo+s: The most famous case of suicida$ resistance 0y the
2ussians durin% that first 1erman attac< #as that of the fi3e B$ac< Sea sai$ors6 #ith
politru* (+o$itica$ instructor) Fi$chen<o3 at their head #ho6 ha3in% run out of
ammunition6 thre# themse$3es #ith their $ast remainin% hand,%renades under the
ad3ancin% 1erman tan<s6 and so +re3ented a 0rea<,throu%h to Se0asto+o$ from the north,
east: This heroic deed of the Ffi3e sai$ors of Se0asto+o$F #as to 0ecome the su0Hect of
many son%s and +oems6 amon% them a 3ery 0eautifu$ son% 0y Aictor Be$yi:
A$thou%h the 1ermans and 2umanians a$ready had a %reat su+eriority in man+o#er6 as
#e$$ as 3ast su+eriority in aircraft and tan<s6 Se0asto+o$ #as +rotected on $and 0y %ood
natura$ defences6 and the na3y6 #ith its +o#erfu$ %uns6 #as of considera0$e he$+: ?n
;o3em0er 1941 the 2ussians had o3er -"6""" com0at troo+s in Se0asto+o$6 inc$udin%
&16""" marines: The 1ermans and 2umanians6 accordin% to 2ussian sources6 had at $east
t#ice as many:
The first 1erman attac<6 #hich continued for three #ee<s6 0are$y dented the first of the
three defence $ines here and there6 the on$y im+ortant 1erman %ain 0ein% the ca+ture of
the Ba$ac$a3a .i$$s6 east of Ba$ac$a3aD#hich itse$f remained in 2ussian hands: 2ather
more successfu$ #as the second 1erman,2umanian attac< 0et#een Decem0er 17 and 316
#hen the enemy +ushed the 2ussians 0ac< to a $ine a0out fi3e mi$es to the north of
Se0asto+o$6 and a$so made minor ad3ances due east of the cityL 0ut this a$so came to a
ha$t on Decem0er 316 +art$y as a resu$t of the successfu$ 2ussian $andin% on the 4erch
+eninsu$a6 #hich as #e ha3e seen di3erted many 1erman troo+s from Se0asto+o$: The
most famous 2ussian e8+$oit durin% that second 1erman offensi3e a%ainst Se0asto+o$
#as that of a handfu$ of B$ac< Sea sai$ors #ho6 for three days6 defended Firin% !oint ;o:
11 in a 3i$$a%e ca$$ed 4amysh$y ti$$ they #ere a$$ dead or dyin%: 9hen the firin% +oint
#as reca+tured 0y the 2ussians6 they found a note #ritten 0y one of the men:
R1--,), "* 3#1$&+*, "* $)&,6( /)$5H D()+ C#"+)5( S&)/,$H I, ) B/)3; S() -),/#+, )$5
) -#$ #0 L($,$<- K#"-#"#/, 0#1%'& )- "* '()+& &#/5 "( &# 0,%'&. I -/(2 &'( 8()-&- )-
/#$% )- "* '()+& 8()& ,$ "* 8+()-&. N#2 I )" 5*,$%, 81& I ;$#2 2( -')// 2,$.
S),/#+- #0 &'( B/)3; S() N)6*H ,%'& ')+5(+ -&,//, ;,// &'( ")5 )-3,-& 5#%-H I ')6(
8(($ 0),&'01/ &# "* -#/5,(+<- #)&'.EK)/*1C'$*,.
I?n a$$ +ost,Sta$in 0oo<s6 inc$udin% the officia$ Histor!, mentionin% this e+isode6 the
#ords Fdear 5omrade Sta$inF are re+$aced 0y dots6 or omitted a$to%ether:K
A remar<a0$e story of ho# Se0asto+o$ $i3ed throu%h the nine months of the sie%e #as
to$d after the #ar 0y B: A: Boriso3 #ho #as Secretary of the Se0asto+o$ !arty committee
and 5hairman of the city's Defence 5ommittee for the #ho$e +eriod: .e te$$s of the
Se0asto+o$ airmen6 such as (a<o3 ?3ano36 #ho rammed enemy +$anes usua$$y at the cost
of their o#n $i3esL of the #ay in #hich +ractica$$y the entire +o+u$ation of Se0asto+o$ had
to 0e mo3ed into she$ters6 ce$$ars and6 es+ecia$$y6 ca3es durin% the first t#o 1erman
offensi3es6 so fierce and continuous #as the 0om0in% of the cityL of the 3ast ca3e near the
;orthern Bay in #hich a %iant #or<sho+D (FS+ets<om0inat ;o: 1F) #as set u+D#here
the +eo+$e manufactured mortars6 mines and hand,%renades6 and another6
(FS+ets<om0inat ;o: &F)6 near ?n<erman6 #here c$othin% and foot#ear #ere made on a
$ar%e sca$e in under%round ce$$ars +re3ious$y used for storin% 5rimean cham+a%ne: .e
te$$s of the under%round schoo$s that #ere or%anised for the chi$dren in Se0asto+o$ itse$f6
of the numerous reinforcements that came to Se0asto+o$ 0y sea6 first after the fa$$ of
@dessa6 and $ater6 from the 5aucasus: Most +athetic of a$$ +erha+s #as the e8traordinary
e$ation and o+timism that s#e+t Se0asto+o$ in Banuary and Fe0ruary6 after the fai$ure of
the second 1erman offensi3e a%ainst the city6 and after the successfu$ 2ussian $andin% at
4erch: ?t #as then thou%ht that if 0oth 4erch and Se0asto+o$ he$d6 the #ho$e 5rimea
#ou$d soon 0e $i0erated: !eo+$e mo3ed out of their she$ters and ca3es 0ac< into their
0attered houses6 and the youn% +eo+$e made a s+ecia$ effort to re+air as many houses as
+ossi0$e: C3en tram,cars 0e%an to run a$on% the streets of Se0asto+o$6 thou%h the
1ermans #ere on$y fi3e mi$es to the north: @n May Day6 #hich #as a$most e8act$y si8
months after the sie%e had 0e%un6 there #ere numerous meetin%s and ce$e0rations6
des+ite se3era$ air,raids and 1erman she$$in%:
B1& &')& 5)* #1+ &+##.- 2(+( .+(.)+,$% &# '(/. #1+ &+##.- #$ &'( K(+3' .($,$-1/)?
0#+ &'(-( 2(+( (B.(3&(5 &# -&)+& &'(,+ #00($-,6( )& )$* "#"($&. B#&' )& S(8)-&#.#/
)$5 )& &'( 0+#$& (6(+*8#5* 2)- &)/;,$% )8#1& &'( C+,"() 8(,$% /,8(+)&(5 )$5 &'(
-,(%( #0 S(8)-&#.#/ /,0&(5. E6(+*8#5* 2)- ,$ )$ (B)/&(5 '#/,5)* "##5.
I B: Boriso3: %evastopolts! ne sda!uts!a (Men of Se0asto+o$ Do ;ot Surrender):
(Simfero+o$6 19)1)6 +: 13":K
Then came the tra%ic ne#s of the $oss of 4erch6 and Se0asto+o$ no# had to +re+are for
the #orst: A some#hat disorder$y e3acuation of chi$dren and o$d +eo+$e #as started: The
sea communications #ith the main$and had a$ready 0ecome hi%h$y +recarious: .a$f the
4omsomo$s in Se0asto+o$ (amon% them many %ir$s) 3o$unteered for the Army6 and the
others remained in the city to #or< dou0$e shifts6 in the Se0asto+o$ armaments #or<s:
@nce more +eo+$e had to 0e mo3ed from their houses 0ac< to she$ters and ca3es:
And no# the $ast ordea$ 0e%an: A0out May &" it #as $earned from reconnaissance6 and
from messa%es recei3ed from the +artisans in the 5rimean mountains6 that 3ast num0ers
of 1erman troo+s #ere con3er%in% on Se0asto+o$: @n Bune & the 1ermans 0e%an to 0om0
Se0asto+o$ #ith hundreds of +$anes6 and e3ery day hundreds of hea3y she$$s #ou$d
e8+$ode in the city: ?n si8 days the 1ermans dro++ed -"6""" hi%h,e8+$osi3e and
incendiary 0om0s on Se0asto+o$6 0esides thousands of she$$sL the destruction #as terri0$e6
and the casua$ties 3ery hi%h: The 1ermans #ere usin% a %iant sie%e %un ca$$ed Dora6
#hich had ori%ina$$y 0een 0ui$t to smash the hea3iest fortifications of the Ma%inot ine:
Then6 on Bune 76 the fina$ 1erman,2umanian offensi3e a%ainst Se0asto+o$ #as $aunched:
Because of %reat 1erman air su+eriority6 the 2ussian airfie$ds around Se0asto+o$ #ere
no# a$most com+$ete$y out of action6 and sea communications 0et#een Se0asto+o$ and
the 5aucasus had 3irtua$$y 0een cut 0y the uft#affe: Such sma$$ =uantities of food6
arms6 ra# materia$s and +etro$ as sti$$ reached Se0asto+o$ from the main$and #ere no#
usua$$y 0rou%ht 0y su0marines or sma$$ craft: Su0marines #ere a$so used for e3acuatin%
the #ounded: ?t is o03ious that they cou$d ta<e 3ery fe# and that most of the #ounded
remained in the 0$a>in% inferno of Se0asto+o$: The $oca$ Farmaments industryF cou$d no
$on%er co+e #ith the ur%ent needs of the troo+s6 and the constant 0om0in% and she$$in%
made the distri0ution of food and #ater to the cro#ded ca3es and other she$ters a$most
im+ossi0$e:
After three #ee<s' 3ery hea3y fi%htin%6 #hich then continued for a cou+$e of days in the
streets of Se0asto+o$6 the 1ermans occu+ied #hat #as $eft of the city: ?n the Bu$y heat6 the
stench from the count$ess un0uried 0odies #as such that the $ast defenders fou%ht
#earin% their %asmas<s: Meantime6 an e3acuation of sorts #as attem+ted from 5a+e
5hersonese6 some ei%ht mi$es #est of Se0asto+o$: .ere6 at ni%ht6 one +$ane #as a0$e to
$and6 and ta<e a#ay a fe# of the #oundedL a$so a su0marine +ic<ed u+ Admira$
@<tia0rs<y6 1enera$ !etro36 1enera$ 4ry$o3 and other to+,ran<in% Army and !arty
+ersonne$:
?n the course of his narrati3e Boriso3 dra#s some remar<a0$e +ortraits of the $eadin%
ma$e and fema$e mem0ers of the Se0asto+o$ 4omsomo$Da$$ of them youn% +eo+$e of
infinite +atriotism6 endurance and de3otion to dutyD#ho #ere either <i$$ed in the
fi%htin% round Se0asto+o$6 or #ere <i$$ed or ta<en +risoner after the 1ermans had entered
the city: .e d#e$$s6 in +articu$ar6 on the tra%ic fate of t#o $eadin% 4omsomo$ mem0ers6 a
man and a #omanDSasha Ba%rii and ;adya 4raye3aya: i<e so many others6 they had
#aited in 3ain at 5a+e 5hersonese for either a +$ane or a shi+L one +$ane did $and in the
midd$e of the ni%ht6 0ut cou$d on$y ta<e a#ay a fe# #ounded and a fe# FseniorsF: 9hen
da#n came6 the she$$in% of the airfie$d #as resumed6 and no more +$anes cou$d 0e
e8+ected: ;or cou$d any shi+s reach 5hersonese: ;oticin% a $ar%e accumu$ation of
so$diers and ci3i$ians near 5a+e 5hersonese6 the 1ermans started she$$in% them:
B)%+,, )$5 N)5*) &'($ :#,$(5 #$( #0 &'( +()+%1)+5 1$,&-... T);,$% +,0/(- )$5
3)+&+,5%(- 0+#" 5()5 -),/#+-, &'(* &+,(5 2,&' &'( #&'(+- &# 8+(); &'+#1%' &# &'(
C+,"()$ ',//- &# :#,$ &'( .)+&,-)$-. B1& ,$ &'( -'(//,$% ')/0 &'( 8+)6( .(#./( 2(+(
;,//(5... A -(3#$5 )&&(".& &# 8+(); &'+#1%' 2)- $# "#+( -133(--01/, )$5 )- &'(
!(+")$- -&)+&(5 &'(,+ 0,$)/ )&&)3;, &'( -'#&- 0+#" &'( R1--,)$- 8(3)"( 0(2(+ )$5
0(2(+... M#-& #0 &'( -1+6,6#+- $#2 3#1$&(+-)&&)3;(5 2,&' $#&',$% 81& &'(,+ 8)*#$(&-.
N)5*) 2)- ;,//(5. T'( /)-& &')& 2)- '()+5 #0 S)-') B)%+,, 2)- &',-: '( 2)- -(($,
-3)+3(/* )8/( &# "#6(, ,$ ) 3#/1"$ #0 .+,-#$(+-. T'($ '( 2)- -(($, ')/0-5()5 )$5
-.,&&,$% 8/##5 0,+-& )& B);'3',-)+), )$5 &'($ )& S,"0(+#.#/. A$5 '(+( &'(+( 2(+(
&+),&#+- 2'# 5($#1$3(5 '," &# &'( !(+")$-. A$5 &'( !(+")$- 5,5 $#& 0#+%,6( )//
&')& '( ')5 5#$( 0#+ ',- 3#1$&+* )$5 0#+ S(8)-&#.#/...
I Boriso36 o+: cit:6 +: 17):K
? #as to see Se0asto+o$ in May 19446 after it had 0een reca+tured 0y the 2ussiansL ? #as
then to hear many more harro#in% stories of those $ast a%onisin% days of Se0asto+o$ in
Bune and Bu$y 194&: A$$ that #as <no#n in Mosco# in Bu$y 194& #as that 3ery fe# of the
defenders of Se0asto+o$ had %ot a#ay: T#enty,si8 thousand 2ussian #ounded #ere said
to ha3e fa$$en into 1erman hands6 0esides an uns+ecified num0er of other so$diers: The
1ermans c$aimed to ha3e ca+tured 9"6""":
IThis fi%ure is not necessari$y e8a%%erated: Accordin% to the +ost#ar So3iet Histor!,
there #ere 1")6""" 2ussian troo+s6 inc$udin% J&6""" com0at troo+s6 at Se3asto+o$6 #hen
the fina$ 1erman ons$au%ht 0e%an6 as a%ainst &"36""" 1erman and 2umanian troo+s6
inc$udin% 17-6""" com0at troo+s: The 3ast 1erman,2umanian su+eriority in e=ui+ment
#as %reater sti$$6 e8ce+t in %unsD
1erman,
2umanian
So3iet
1uns of a$$
<inds
7J" )")
Tan<s 4-" 3J
Aircraft )"" 1"9
K
?n Mosco# one thin% had 0een c$ear: after the 1erman 3ictory at 4erch in May6 the fate
of Se0asto+o$ #as sea$edL the on$y =uestion #as ho# $on% it #ou$d ho$d out: ?t he$d out
$on%er than cou$d reasona0$y ha3e 0een e8+ected6 and this heroic defence #as contrasted6
not #ithout some sarcasm6 es+ecia$$y 0y Chren0ur%6 #ith the F%ut$essF surrender of
To0ru< on$y a #ee< ear$ier:
The ne#s of the imminent fa$$ of Se0asto+o$ had 0een 0ro<en as %ent$y as +ossi0$e to the
2ussian +eo+$eL 0ut the 2ussian reader had $earned to read 0et#een the $ines: Cach
communi=uN adHecti3e #as6 as it #ere6 a code #ord #hich meant somethin% =uite
definite: Thus6 Ffierce fi%htin%F 6ozhestochenn!ie 4oi7, Fstu00orn fi%htin%F 6uporn!ie 4oi7
and Fhea3y fi%htin%F 6t!azhel!ie 4oi7 meant three different thin%sL Fhea3y fi%htin%F meant
that thin%s #ere %oin% 3ery 0ad$yL this +hrase #as more and more fre=uent$y used in the
communi=uNs on Se0asto+o$ durin% the $ast fortni%ht the city he$d: @n Bune &-
Se0asto+o$ #as Fho$din% out a%ainst su+erior enemy forcesFL on Bune &J6 Pravda a$ready
s+o<e of the Fimmorta$ fame of Se0asto+o$FL on Bune 3"6 Chren0ur% #rote in Bed %tarD
T'( !(+")$- 8#)-&(5: DW( -')// 5+,$; 3')".)%$( #$ J1$( 15 #$ &'( !+)0-;*
E"8)$;"($&D... EB.(+&- 0#+(&#/5: DI&<- ) ")&&(+ #0 &'+(( 5)*-, .(+').- ) 2((;.D
W( ;$(2 '#2 ")$* ./)$(- &'(* ')5, )$5 &'(* ;$(2 '#2 ')+5 ,& 2)- &# 5(0($5 )
3,&* 2,&' )// ,&- +#)5- 31&. B1& &'(* 0#+%#& #$( &',$%: S(8)-&#.#/ ,- $#& "(+(/* ) 3,&*.
I& ,- &'( %/#+* #0 R1--,), &'( .+,5( #0 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$. W( ')6( -(($ &'( 3).,&1/)&,#$
#0 &#2$-, #0 3(/(8+)&(5 0#+&+(--(-, #0 S&)&(-. B1& S(8)-&#.#/ ,- $#& -1++($5(+,$%. O1+
-#/5,(+- 5# $#& ./)* )& 2)+. T'(* 0,%'& ) /,0(-)$5-5()&' -&+1%%/(. T'(* 5# $#& -)* DI
-1++($5(+D 2'($ &'(* -(( &2# #+ &'+(( "#+( ($("* "($ #$ &'( 3'(--8#)+5.
This #as c$ear$y a crac< at To0ru<: .o#e3er6 the end of Se0asto+o$ #as no# c$ear$y in
si%ht: @n Bu$y 1 the communi=uN said:
H1$5+(5- #0 ($("* ./)$(- )+( 5+#..,$% 8#"8- #$ #1+ 0+#$& /,$(- )$5 #$ &'( 3,&*.
T'(* )+( ");,$% "#+( &')$ 1,LLL -#+&,(- ) 5)*. E6(+* 5(0($5(+ #0 S(8)-&#.#/ ,-
($5()6#1+,$% &# ;,// )- ")$* !(+")$- )- .#--,8/(.
And6 on Bu$y 36 the communi=uN said that6 after a sie%e of &-" days6 the So3iet troo+s had
a0andoned Se0asto+o$ on the order of the .i%h 5ommand:
Three days $ater Admira$ @<tia0rs<y #ho had esca+ed from Se0asto+o$ 0y su0marine
#ith other to+ mi$itary $eaders6 +u0$ished in Pravda a detai$ed account of the 0att$e of
Se0asto+o$6 turnin% a mi$itary defeat into a %reat mora$ 3ictory: .e %a3e some
un0e$ie3a0$y hi%h fi%ures of the 1erman and 2umanian $osses (3""6""" <i$$ed and
#ounded) durin% the &-" days' sie%e6 0ut a3oided a$$ reference to the num0er of 2ussians
$eft 0ehind6 inc$udin% the &)6""" #ounded $eft in the ruined to#n or on the 0eachesD
#ithout a shi+ to ta<e them a#ay:::
The men and #omen of Se0asto+o$ had rendered a %reat ser3ice to the rest of the 2ussian
forces 0y tyin% do#n 3on Manstein's 11th Army for so $on% and +re3entin% it from
o+eratin% on the FmainF front:
C').&(+ IA THE RENEWAL O THE !ERMAN ADAANCE
Thou%h Se0asto+o$ did not fina$$y fa$$ unti$ the 0e%innin% of Bu$y6 its fate #as a$ready
sea$ed at the time of the meetin% of the Su+reme So3iet on Bune 1J to ratify the An%$o,
So3iet A$$iance: There had6 too6 0een the disasters at 4erch and 4har<o3 in May: And yet
on Bune &1 the Army +a+er Bed %tar #rote:
T'( !(+")$ A+"* ,- -&,// -&188#+$ ,$ 5(0($3(. B1& ,& ')- 8(($ 5(.+,6(5 #0 &')&
#00($-,6( 5+,6( ,& ')5 8(0#+(... B1& &'#1%' &'( ($("* ,- -&,// -&+#$%, #$( &',$% ,-
3/()+. T'(+( 3)$$#& 8( ) !(+")$ #00($-,6( /,;( /)-& -1""(+<-. T'( 91(-&,#$ 0)3,$%
!(+")$* $#2 ,- $#& &# 3#$91(+ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$, 81& &# ')$% #$, &# /)-& #1&
-#"('#2. N#& &')& ,& 2,// -&,3; &# 5(0($-,6( 2)+0)+( &'+#1%'#1&... B1& ,&- #00($-,6(
#.(+)&,#$- 3)$$#& %# 8(*#$5 &'( 0+)"(2#+; #0 /,",&(5 #8:(3&,6(-.
C=ua$$y sur+risin%6 in the $i%ht of the rea$ situation6 #as the +u0$ication 0y
So3inform0ureau on Bune && of / Bevie: o" The First 'ear o" the $ar %i3in% the
fo$$o#in% fi%ures for casua$ties in su++ort of the statement that the 2ed Army had sha<en
the 1erman #ar machine so 0ad$y that the %round had 0een +re+ared for the smashin% of
the 1erman Army in 194&:
1ermany *SS2
4i$$ed6 #ounded and +risoners
a0out
1"6"""6""" 46-""6"""
1uns $ost o3er 3"6-"" &&6"""
Tan<s $ost o3er &46""" 1-6"""
!$anes $ost o3er &"6""" 96"""
These fi%ures for 1erman casua$ties #ere6 to say the $east6 im+ro0a0$e and ha3e not 0een
re+roduced in +ost,#ar So3iet histories: At the time e3en the most credu$ous readers too<
them #ith a $ar%e +inch of sa$t: Much more +$ausi0$e are the fi%ures %i3en in 1enera$
.aider's diary for 1erman casua$ties (e8c$udin% the sic<):
U. &# 15.M.4ME 946,LLL
U. &# 1L.5.4ME1,1N@,LLL
U. &# ML.5.4ME1,M15,LLL
U. &# 1L.6.4ME1,M6N,LLL
U. &# @L.6.4ME1,@@M,LLL
U. &# 1L.K.4ME1,@6M,LLL
U. &# ML.K.4ME1,@91,LLL
U. &# @1.K.4ME1,4MN,LLL
U. &# 1L.N.4ME1,4KM,LLL
U. &# ML.N.4ME1,5MN,LLL
U. &# @1.N.4ME1,5N9,LLL
U. &# 1L.9.4ME1,6@K,LLL
This means that6 0y the end of the #inter cam+ai%n6 the 1ermans had suffered near$y a
mi$$ion casua$tiesL then6 after a re$ati3e $u$$6 0et#een Fe0ruary and May (#hich had6
ho#e3er6 sti$$ cost them some &""6""" casua$ties)6 the 1ermans had ha$f,a,mi$$ion
casua$ties 0et#een the 0e%innin% of the May o+erations and the 4eginning of the
Sta$in%rad Batt$e: So e3en the +re,Sta$in%rad +hase of the 194& cam+ai%n #as 3ery far
from ha3in% 0een a #a$<o3er for the 1ermans:
The fi%ure in the 2ussian Beport of Bune && for So3iet casua$ties is $ess fantastic6 and is if
anythin% an under,estimate: And thou%h the 1erman $osses in hea3y e=ui+ment are
%ross$y e8a%%erated6 the 2ussian $osses6 curious$y enou%h6 may also ha3e 0een
e8a%%erated6 considerin% the %reat shorta%e of +$anes and tan<s from #hich the 2ussian
armies had suffered a$most from the outset6 and the 3ery s$o# rate at #hich these #ere
0ein% +roduced6 es+ecia$$y 0et#een @cto0er 1941 and March 194&:
The stu+endous $osses of e=ui+ment %i3en in the ta0$e may ha3e 0een ca$cu$ated to
im+ress u+on So3iet industry the %i%antic si>e of reinforcements and re+$acements
re=uired from it6 and u+on the 9estern A$$ies the #ho$$y inade=uate he$+ they had 0een
sendin% u+ ti$$ then:
N)&1+)//* =&'( S#6,$0#+"81+()1 -&)&("($& 2($& #$> #$ ) 0+#$& )- /#$% )- &',- &'(
!(+")$ H,%' C#"")$5 3)$ 3#$3($&+)&( '(+( )$5 &'(+( ) -100,3,($& $1"8(+ #0
0#+3(-... ,$ #+5(+ &# )3',(6( 3(+&),$ -133(--(-. T')& ,- 2')& ')..($(5, #$ &'( K(+3'
.($,$-1/)... B1& -13' /#3)/ -133(--(- 3)$$#& 5(3,5( &'( #1&3#"( #0 &'( 2)+. T'(
!(+")$ A+"* #0 194M ,- $#& 2')& ,& 2)- ) *()+ )%#. -he picked German troops have,
in the main, been destroyed... -he German army cannot carry out o**ensive operations
on a scale similar to last year8s. =E".')-,- )55(5.>
But e3en if this o+timistic +ro+a%anda #as 0e$ie3ed for a short #hi$e it #as 3ery soon to
0e dis+ro3ed 0y e3ents and as the 1erman offensi3e +ro%ressed throu%hout the summer
of 194&6 the fee$in% that 2ussiaD.o$y 2ussiaD#as a%ain in morta$ dan%er %re# from
day to day: True6 there #as not the same fee$in% of 0e#i$derment as in the ear$y days of
the in3asion in 19416 and the 1erman fai$ure to sei>e either Mosco# or enin%rad had
created an undercurrent of ho+eDand +erha+s e3en the con3ictionDthat Fsomethin%F
%ood #ou$d ha++en a%ain: C3en so6 #hereas the communi=uNs in May and the %reater
+art of Bune #ere 3a%ue 0ut reasona0$y o+timistic6 those that fo$$o#ed #ere to s+read
a$most undi$uted %$oom throu%hout the country:
.it$er's Directi3e ;o: 416 dra#n u+ in the s+rin% of 194& out$ined the main aims of the
1erman summer cam+ai%nL 0ut certain im+ortant chan%es #ere then made in the course
of the cam+ai%n itse$f: Brief$y6 .it$er's +$an 0oi$ed do#n to this: first6 $i=uidation of the
2ussians in the 5rimea (4erch and Se0asto+o$)L second6 the ca+ture of Aorone>h6 #hich
#ou$d +resent the dou0$e ad3anta%e of constitutin% a serious 1erman threat 0oth to
5entra$ 2ussia south,east of Mosco# (Tam0o3,Sarato3 area)6 as #e$$ as to Sta$in%radL
third6 the encirc$ement and $i=uidation of the main 2ussian forces inside the Don 0end6
#ith one 1erman +incer stri<in% south,east from Aorone>h6 and the other north,east from
Ta%anro%L fourth6 after thus c$earin% the #ay to Sta$in%rad6 either ca+ture the city on the
Ao$%a6 or at any rate destroy it com+$ete$y 0y 0om0in%6 and then turn due south to#ards
the 5aucasus6 and ca+ture the oi$ areas of Mai<o+6 1ro>ny and Ba<u6 and fina$$y reach
the southern frontier of the So3iet *nion6 #hich #ou$d +ro0a0$y 0rin% Tur<ey into the
#ar on the side of the A8is !o#ers: The +$an a$so +ro3ided6 amon% other thin%s6 for
another attem+t to ca+ture enin%rad:
But once the cam+ai%n had started6 a num0er of maHor and6 as it +ro3ed6 fata$6 chan%es
#ere made in this +$an: First the 2ussians sto++ed the 1ermans at Aorone>h and
second$y6 they did not a$$o# themse$3es to 0e tra++edDat $east not in $ar%e num0ersD
inside the Don Bend: These6 and a fe# other factors (such as the easy 1erman ca+ture of
2osto3) made .it$er chan%e his ori%ina$ +$an: As 5hui<o3 #as to comment $ater:
T',- /#%,3)/ )$5 3#'(+($& ./)$ 2)- )8)$5#$(5? )$5 -#, ,$-&()5 #0 5#,$% ',- 1&"#-&
,$ 1-,$% &'( 81/; #0 ',- 0#+3(- &# 3).&1+( S&)/,$%+)5 51+,$% &'( &',+5 .')-( #0 &'(
3)".),%$, )$5 &'($ .+#3((5 &# 3).&1+( &'( #,/ )+()- ,$ &'( C)13)-1-, H,&/(+ 5(3,5(5
&# 3)++* #1& &2# #.(+)&,#$- simultaneously4 3).&1+( S&)/,$%+)5 and ,$6)5( &'(
C)13)-1-.
=A: ?: 5hui<o36 3achalo puti (The Be%innin% of the 2oad): (Mosco#6 19-9)6 +: 1J:K
The 0i% 1erman offensi3e #hich 0e%an o3er a #ide front on Bune &JDi:e: a fe# days
0efore the fa$$ of Se0asto+o$6 #hich #as 0y no# a fore%one conc$usionDassumed at first
a$$ the o$d characteristics of the 4litz*rieg5 Te$+u<ho3s<y's semi,officia$ history of the
#ar6 +u0$ished in 19-9 0rief$y sums u+ the situation in Bune,Bu$y as fo$$o#s:
O1+ 0#+3(5 )8)$5#$"($& #0 &'( C+,"() )$5 #1+ 5(0()& )& K')+;#6 -18-&)$&,)//*
3')$%(5 &'( -,&1)&,#$ )/#$% &'( 2'#/( -#1&'(+$ .)+& #0 &'( 0+#$& ,$ &'( !(+")$-<
0)6#1+. O$3( "#+( &'( ($("* 2)- )8/( &# &);( &'( ,$,&,)&,6(... O$ J1$( 1L &'(
!(+")$- -&)+&(5 #00($-,6( #.(+)&,#$- ,$ &'( K')+;#6 -(3&#+, )$5 #$ J1$( MN &'(*
/)1$3'(5 ) "):#+ #00($-,6( ,$ &'( K1+-;-A#+#$(C' -(3&#+... T'(* 8+#;( &'+#1%' #1+
5(0($3(- -#1&' #0 K1+-; )$5 #$ J1/* N 3)"( 6(+* 3/#-( &# A#+#$(C'. H#2(6(+, &'(
-&188#+$ +(-,-&)$3( )$5 &'( 3#1$&(+-)&&)3;- #0 &'( S#6,(& &+##.- #0 &'( $(2/*-
0#+"(5 A#+#$(C' +#$& -&#..(5 &'( !(+")$ )56)$3(, )$5 &'( N)C, ',%' 3#"")$5
&'(+(0#+( &1+$(5 .)+& #0 &'(-( &+##.- &#2)+5- &'( -#1&', )/#$% &'( +,%'& 8)$; #0 &'(
D#$-#$ &'( 2)* &# S&)/,$%+)5.... T'( S#6,(& &+##.-, +(&+()&,$% 1$5(+ &'( .+(--1+( #0
-1.(+,#+ ($("* 0#+3(-, $(6(+&'(/(-- +(-,-&(5 '(+#,3)//*, )$5 &'1- %),$(5 6)/1)8/(
&,"(, 2',3' 2)- 1-(5 0#+ &'+#2,$% ,$ +(-(+6(- )$5 -&+($%&'($,$% &'( 5(0($-,6(
3).)3,&* #0 S&)/,$%+)5... B1& 2,&' 1,MLL ./)$(- ,$ &',- )+() #0 &'( 0+#$&, &'( ($("*
')5 %+()& -1.(+,#+,&* ,$ ),+3+)0&, )- 2(// )- ,$ %1$- )$5 &)$;-.
I Te$+u<ho3s<y6 o+: cit:6 ++: 119,&":K
9ithin a short time the +arts of the Don0as sti$$ in 2ussian hands #ere o3errun6 the
im+ortant industria$ city of Aoroshi$o3%rad (u%ans<) fa$$in% on Bu$y 19: More ra+id sti$$
#as the 1erman ad3ance further north into the Don countryL and on$y at Aorone>h6
further north sti$$6 #ere the 1ermans sto++ed: .ere the 2ussians succeeded in a3ertin%
the dan%er of a 1erman 0rea<throu%h to the Tam0o3,Sarato3 areaD#hich #ou$d ha3e
meant that Mosco#'s main communications #ith the east #ou$d 0e cut 0efore $on%: ?t is
sti$$ not c$ear6 des+ite much discussion 0y historians of 0oth sides6 #hether such an
ad3ance on Tam0o3,Sarato3 e3er entered the 1erman +$ansL 0ut the +ossi0i$ity #as
c$ear$y en3isa%ed on the 2ussian side6 and 3ery stron% 2ussian forces #ere concentrated
for that reason in the Aorone>h area:
5ommunications #ith the east and south,east had a$ready 0ecome hi%h$y +recariousL the
5as+ian,Ao$%a #ater#ay6 #ith its shi+s and tan<er,f$eet #as one of the +rinci+a$ 2ussian
su++$y,$ines6 the e=ui3a$ent of ten rai$#ays: !ractica$$y a$$ the 5aucasus oi$ came a$on%
the Ao$%a route: After the ice had me$ted in the s+rin% of 194& enormous =uantities of
5aucasian oi$ had 0een shi++ed to Mosco# and centra$ 2ussiaDthe e=ui3a$ent of a0out a
year's reser3eL 0ut #ith the 0e%innin% of the summer cam+ai%n 1erman 0om0in% of the
Ao$%a $ine made it more and more ha>ardous: 2ussia's a$ternati3e oi$ su++$ies from the
east de+ended on the rai$#ays runnin% throu%h the Sarato3,Tam0o3 area6 #hich #as one
reason for the 2ussian determination to sto+ the 1ermans at Aorone>h at any +rice: The
%ra3e dan%er of a critica$ oi$ shorta%e #as em+hasised in Mosco# in Bu$y 194&6 #hen the
most drastic cuts #ere made in +etro$ rations6 e3en for some of the most +ri3i$e%ed
cate%ories of users:
C8ce+t for the 3ery im+ortant 1erman fai$ure to 0rea< throu%h at Aorone>h6 the %enera$
out$oo< #as 3ery serious indeed:
I?n Mosco# at the time some mi$itary o0ser3ers6 e:%: 1enera$ !etit6 the French mi$itary
attachN6 #ho had c$ose contacts #ith 2ussian to+ 0rass6 attached the utmost im+ortance to
thisL had the 1ermans 0ro<en throu%h at Aorone>h6 Mosco# mi%ht ha3e 0een encirc$edL
0y s+readin% south6 the 1ermans #ere much $ess dan%erous6 and #ere $ess $i<e$y to
achie3e any =uic< and decisi3e resu$ts:K
The 0rea<throu%h into the #ide o+en s+aces of the Don country #as 0ad enou%hL 0ut the
rea$ shoc< to the 2ussian +eo+$e came #ith the announcement on Bu$y &J that
;o3ocher<ass< and 2osto3 had 0een $ost: This meant that the 1ermans #ere no# %oin%
to in3ade the 4u0an and the 5aucasus: At the same time6 they #ere a$ready far inside the
Don country6 and #ere 0usy forcin% the Don on the southern side of the 0end at
Tsym$ians<aya6 on the #ay to Sta$in%rad:
9hat ha++ened at 2osto3E Many dar< hints #ere dro++ed at the time 0oth in the +ress
and in +ri3ate con3ersations: The %ist of it a$$ #as that certain 2ed Army units had
+anic<ed and f$ed6 and that officers and %enera$s had $ost their heads under the fierceness
of the 1erman ons$au%ht: This time the 1ermans had attac<ed 2osto3 from the north and
north,east6 and not from the #est6 as in 1941L east and north,east 2osto3 had no defences
to s+ea< of: ?t #as made c$ear in the +ress that no orders had 0een %i3en to a0andon the
city6 and that here #as a c$ear case of diso0edience: Many #ere shot and demoted:
%enera$s6 officers and ordinary so$diers: There is no dou0t that a cry of F!u$$ yourse$3es
to%etherPF #ent throu%h the countryL and this cry #as $oud$y echoed in the +ress: ?t ta$<ed
more and more in the days that fo$$o#ed of the Firon disci+$ineF that had 0een introduced6
and the fa$$ of 2osto3 #as o+en$y attri0uted to Fco#ards and +anic,stric<en creaturesF
#ho had fai$ed in their duty to defend the city: There are some rather +u>>$in% as+ects
a0out the #ho$e F2osto3 affairF: Mi$itari$y6 it is e8treme$y dou0tfu$ #hether6 in the
circumstances of Bu$y 194&6 it cou$d ha3e 0een he$d for any $en%th of time6 and it has
e3en 0een su%%ested (+erha+s #ith some hindsi%ht) that any attem+t to ma<e of 2osto3
another FSe0asto+o$F cou$d on$y ha3e ended in encirc$ement #hich6 in turn6 #ou$d ha3e
entai$ed the use$ess $oss of many thousands of 3a$ua0$e troo+s: ?t seems c$ear that6 on the
+rete8t that 2osto3 had 0een a0andoned #ithout orders6 the %o3ernment #as %oin% to use
the tremendous shoc< caused in the country 0y the fa$$ of the city for a 3ast
+sycho$o%ica$6 as #e$$ as or%anisationa$ o+eration:
ISee ++: 414 ff:K
Anyone #ho #as in 2ussia at the time <no#s that the %reat an8iety that had 0een
mountin% throu%hout Bu$y reached somethin% 3ery $i<e +anic the day the fa$$ of 2osto3
#as announced: oo<in% 0ac< on this +eriod there is no dou0t that the +sycho$o%ica$
o+eration underta<en as a resu$t of the fa$$ of 2osto3 #as hi%h$y sa$utaryL throu%hout
Au%ust6 the mood in the country continued to 0e %rim6 0ut no $on%er +anic<y6 and 0y
some curious instinct6 +eo+$e #ere e8+ectin% a chan%e for the 0etter as the 1ermans
a++roached Sta$in%rad:
?t #as after the fa$$ of 2osto3 that the 2ussian command ca$$ed a ha$t #ith Sta$in's Fnot a
ste+ 0ac<F order6 read to the troo+s on Bu$y 3"6 and a$thou%h this #as 3ery far from 0ein%
$itera$$y carried outDfor the retreat continued ra+id$y in the ;orthern 5aucasus and
(more s$o#$y) in the Don country6 on the #ay to Sta$in%rad6 something, as #e sha$$ see6
had chan%ed in com+arison #ith the ear$ier +art of the summer cam+ai%n:
More 3a$ua0$e contri0utions to our understandin% of this +eriod than the officia$ histories
are the reminiscences 0y a num0er of 2ussian %enera$s #ho +$ayed an acti3e +art in the
o+erations6 such as Marsha$ (eremen<o's and Marsha$ 5hui<o3's: ;o dou0t6 $i<e %enera$s
the #or$d o3er6 they ha3e a8es to %rind a0out some of their co$$ea%uesL 0ut #hat emer%es
most c$ear$y from their reminiscences (and this #as not a$to%ether c$ear at the time) is not
on$y that some 2ussians %enera$s #ere %ood6 and others =uite use$ess6 0ut that the mora$e
and efficiency of some of the troo+s #as hi%h6 #hi$e other 2ussian troo+s retreatin% to
Sta$in%rad #ere a$most com+$ete$y demora$ised:
An e3en more 3i3id +icture of #hat #as %oin% on in the south is %i3en in certain no3e$s
#ritten after the #ar6 such as Fadeye3's 'oung #uard, or in fi$ms $i<e the much more
recent .allad o" a %oldierD#ith a$$ the roads teemin% #ith refu%ees #ho #ere 0ein%
attac<ed from the airL trains that #ere 0ein% #rec<ed 0y 1erman 0om0ersL troo+s in more
or $ess disorder$y retreatDscenes of horror reminiscent of the #orst days of 1941 0ut
#ith the difference that in 194& there #as +ractica$$y no#here further to retreat to: @r
more +recise$y6 the $imits #ere Sta$in%rad and the 5aucasus foothi$$s: There #as a frantic
fee$in% in the country that if the 1ermans #ere not to 0e sto++ed there6 then the #ar
#ou$d 0e as %ood as $ost:
The mi$itary situation at the end of Bu$y and the 0e%innin% of Au%ust #as certain$y
$oo<in% serious for the 2ussians: There #as 3ery hea3y fi%htin% inside the Don Bend6 and
the 1ermans had a$ready crossed the ri3er at Tsym$ians<aya: They #ere c$ear$y on their
#ay to Sta$in%rad: Mean#hi$e6 the 2ussians #ere in fu$$ retreat in the 4u0an: By Au%ust
3 the 1ermans6 ad3ancin% from their Tsym$ians<aya 0rid%ehead6 had reached
4ote$ni<o3o6 and they then continued their ad3ance6 more s$o#$y6 to#ards Sta$in%rad
unti$ Au%ust 1J: The on$y redeemin% feature #as the 2ussian success in firm$y ho$din%
the country north of the Don Bend as #e$$ as a num0er of 0rid%eheads #ithin the 0end
itse$f6 nota0$y at 4$ets<aya: They a$so $ater ca+tured a 0rid%ehead at Serafimo3ich6
#hich6 as #e sha$$ see6 #as to +$ay an im+ortant +art in the 2ussian counter,offensi3e at
Sta$in%rad in ;o3em0er:
?n the 5aucasus the 1erman ad3ance #as much more ra+id: By Au%ust 11 the fi%htin%
had s+read in the #est to the oi$ to#n of Mai<o+6 and to 4rasnodar and the 1ermans #ere
+enetratin% the mountains on their #ay to the B$ac< Sea coast: ?n their southern thrust6
they had6 0y the &1st6 occu+ied the famous #aterin% +$aces6 !iati%ors<6 Cssentu<i and
4is$o3ods< in the 5aucasus foothi$$s6 and soon after#ards +$anted the ;a>i f$a% on the
to+ of Mount C$0rus: ?n their south,eastern dri3e they #ere crashin% ahead to#ards the
3ita$ oi$ areas of 1ro>ny and Ba<u:
C').&(+ A 'A-)9,7,37"A3G,) AND THE POST-ROSTOA
REORMS
?t is often assumed that #hat #as +u0$ished in 2ussia durin% the #ar #as FHust
+ro+a%andaF6 as indeed it often #as6 and that the rea$ truth is to$d in the +resent +ost,
Sta$in histories6 #hich it often is not:
To anyone #ho6 $i<e myse$f6 #as in 2ussia at the time6 +resent,day So3iet histories de+ict
the #ho$e +eriod in o3er,sim+$e terms:
? noted in my Mosco# diary6 #hich ? =uote in The 'ear o" %talingrad, the e8traordinari$y
emotiona$ atmos+here that summer6 for instance e3en at any routine Tchai<o3s<y concert
Das thou%h a$$ 2ussian ci3i$isation #ere no# in dead$y dan%er: ? remem0er the count$ess
tears +roduced on one of the #orst days in Bu$y 194& 0y the famous $o3e theme in
Tchai<o3s<y's Bomeo and Uuliet @3erture: ?rrationa$ no dou0t6 0ut trueP
Si%nificant of the sense of dead$y dan%er #as a$so the +oem ca$$ed )ourage that Anna
A<hmato3a #rote durin% that summer (thou%h it #as not to 0e +u0$ished unti$ a year
$ater):
W( ;$#2 2')& &#5)* /,(- ,$ &'( -3)/(-
A$5 2')& ,- ')..($,$% $#2.
T'( '#1+ #0 3#1+)%( ')- -&+13; #$ &'( 3/#3;
A$5 3#1+)%( 2,// $#& 5(-(+& 1-.
I& ,- $#& 0+,%'&($,$% &# 0)// 5()5 1$5(+ ($("* 81//(&-
I& ,- $#& 8,&&(+ &# +("),$ '#"(/(--.
B1& 2( -')// .+(-(+6( *#1, #1+ R1--,)$ -.((3',
O1+ %+()& R1--,)$ 2#+5.
W( -')// 3)++* *#1 &# &'( ($5, 0+(( )$5 .1+(,
A$5 %,6( *#1 &# #1+ %+)$53',/5+($ )$5 -)6( *#1 0+#" 8#$5)%(,
#+ (6(+.
?t #as durin% that summer that Shosta<o3ich's famous (eningrad %!mphon! #as first
+erformed in Mosco#: The im+act of the first mo3ement de+ictin% the 1erman in3asion
D#hich #as no# continuin%D#as tru$y o3er#he$min%:
These emotiona$ undertones6 #ith the frantic patrie-en-danger mood6 and in +articu$ar
the +sycho$o%ica$ shoc< de$i0erate$y +ro3o<ed after the fa$$ of 2osto3 (and the chan%es it
+a3ed the #ay for) are scarce$y mentioned at a$$ in the So3iet histories: 5urious$y6 a
0etter +icture of the mood of the +eo+$e can 0e %ained from the $iterature and indeed from
the +ro+a%anda artic$es in the +ress at the time:
So far t#o fee$in%s had characterised the $iterature and +ro+a%anda of that summer of
194&: @ne #as the same $o3e of 2ussia that had 0een so ty+ica$ of a$$ the #ritin% at the
hei%ht of the Batt$e of Mosco#Don$y it #as no# a $o3e that had e3en %reater #armth
and %reater tenderness: ?t #as6 too6 s+ecifica$$y a $o3e of 2ussia +ro+er6 to #hichDa+art
from the 5aucasusDthe 1erman ad3ances had 0y no# reduced the Curo+ean +art of the
*:S:S:2: The other #as hateD hate6 no $on%er min%$ed #ith ridicu$e6 or scarce$y so
(e8ce+t for the F9inter Frit>F #ho sti$$ $oomed $ar%e at the Mosco# 5ircus): ?t %re#
durin% those summer months ti$$ it reached a +aro8ysm of fren>y durin% the 0$ac<est days
of Au%ust: F4i$$ the 1ermanF 0ecame $i<e 2ussia's Ten 5ommandments a$$ in one:
Sho$o<ho3's The %chool o" Hate, the story of a 2ussian +risoner #ho had suffered he$$ at
the hands of humorous$y,sadistic 1ermans6 +u0$ished in se3era$ +a+ers on Bune &3 had a
+rofound effect: !oi%nant and con3incin%6 it set the tone of much of the hate +ro+a%anda
durin% the #ee<s that fo$$o#ed:
Chren0ur%6 too6 #as a 3ery im+ortant factor in the %reat 0att$e for 2ussian mora$e in the
summer of 194&L e3ery so$dier in the Army read Chren0ur%L and +artisans in the enemy
rear are <no#n to ha3e readi$y s#o++ed any s+are tommy %un for a 0und$e of Chren0ur%
c$i++in%s: @ne may $i<e or dis$i<e Chren0ur% as a #riter6 0ut durin% those tra%ic #ee<s he
certain$y sho#ed a %enius for +uttin% into 0itin%6 ins+irin% +rose the 0urnin% hatred
2ussia fe$t for the 1ermansL this man6 #ith his cosmo+o$itan 0ac<%round and his French
cu$ture6 had %ras+ed 0y intuition #hat the ordinary 2ussian rea$$y fe$t: ?deo$o%ica$$y6 it
#as unorthodo86 0ut tactica$$y6 in the circumstances6 it #as thou%ht ri%ht to %i3e him a
free hand: 2ead $ater in 0oo< form6 his artic$es no $on%er ma<e the same im+ressionL 0ut
one must ima%ine onese$f in the +osition of a 2ussian in the summer of 194& #ho #as
#atchin% the ma+ and seein% one to#n %oin% after another6 one +ro3ince %oin% after
anotherL one must +ut onese$f in the +osition of a 2ussian so$dier retreatin% to Sta$in%rad
or ;a$chi<6 sayin% to himse$f: .o# much farther are #e %oin% to retreatE .o# much
farther can #e retreatE The Chren0ur% artic$es he$+ed such a man to +u$$ hime$f to%ether:
?t #asn't Chren0ur% on$yL 0ut Chren0ur% certain$y ho$ds a centra$ +$ace in the 0att$e for
2ed Army mora$e: .is artic$es #ere +rinted chief$y in Bed %tar, the army +a+er6 and
re+rinted in hundreds of Front sheets: Some of the #ritin%s of A$e8ei To$stoy6 Simono36
Sur<o3 and many others6 a$so had an im+ortant effect on mora$e:
Simono3's +$ay6 The Bussian People, +rinted in fu$$ in Pravda in Bu$y and +erformed in
hundreds of theatres throu%hout the country6 #as ty+ica$ of the Fa$$ 2ussians are united F
motif: here6 in a seaside to#n6 a sort of miniature Se0asto+o$6 a handfu$ of 2ussians6 an
o$d e8,Tsarist officer amon% them6 fi%ht the 1ermans ti$$ near$y a$$ are <i$$edL they are
touchin%$y frai$ human creatures fi%htin% a%ainst a terri0$e inhuman machine: The
emotiona$ a++ea$ of the +$ay #as o3er#he$min% in the conditions of 194&L ? remem0er
ho#6 at the Fi$ia$e of the Mosco# Art Theatre6 there #as com+$ete si$ence for at $east ten
seconds after the curtain had fa$$en at the end of the third actL for the $ast #ords had 0een:
FSee ho# 2ussian +eo+$e are %oin% to their deathF: Many #omen in the audience #ere
#ee+in%: ;eed$ess to say6 there #as a ha++y endin%L in the $ast act the to#n #as
reca+tured 0y the 2ed Army: ?t cou$d not ha3e 0een other#ise in those days: for a
Uourne!0s End dri3en to the 3ery end6 #ou$d ha3e 0een too de+ressin%: The fee$in% of
hate for the 1ermans6 a$ready 3ery stron% in The Bussian People (si%nificant that it
shou$d ha3e 0een ca$$ed Bussian, rather than FSo3iet !eo+$eF) %re# in intensity durin%
the summer and cu$minated in Simono3's famous Kill Him@ +oem:
I?t #as $ater6 0ut on$y $ater6 #hen the dan%er #as o3er6 that Simono3 #as rather shar+$y
criticised in retros+ect for ha3in% made his characters $oo< such Famateur +artisansF6
%uided no dou0t 0y the finest +atriotic moti3es6 0ut sti$$ $ac<in% a$$ the or%anisationa$
+recision of the 5ommunist !arty: Their resistance #as mar<ed6 as it #ere6 0y
partisanshchina in the 0ad sense6 i:e: a s+ontaneous act of se$f,sacrifice6 #ithout +ro+er
or%anisation 0ehind it: This criticism #as 3ery simi$ar to that #hich6 in 194J6 condemned
Fadeye3's famous no3e$6 The 'oung #uard, +u0$ished t#o years 0efore: .ere a$so the
youn% heroes of a 2esistance %rou+ in the minin% to#n of 4rasnodon #ere char%ed6 in
retros+ect6 #ith partisanshchina5 9orse sti$$6 Fadeye36 the officia$ criticism said6 had
fai$ed to +oint out that Fin rea$ityF a$$ the 2esistance Mo3ement in the occu+ied territories
had 0een directed 0y the !arty6 i:e: more or $ess direct$y from Mosco# and 0y its
re+resentati3es in 1erman,occu+ied areas: Fadeye3 #as made to re#rite the no3e$:K
Another #riter of considera0$e im+ortance as a mora$e,0ui$der #as A$e8ei Sur<o36 the
Fso$dier's +oetF6 as distinct from Simono36 more the Fofficer's +oetF6 0esides many others
$i<e Semyon 4irsano36 Do$mato3s<y6 etc: Sur<o3's +oem I Hate #as +u0$ished in Bed
%tar of Au%ust 1& and conc$uded #ith the *nes:
M* '()+& ,- )- ')+5 )- -&#$(,
M* %+,(6)$3(- )$5 "("#+,(- )+( 3#1$&/(--,
W,&' &'(-( ')$5- #0 ",$(
I ')6( /,0&(5 &'( 3#+.-(- #0 /,&&/( 3',/5+($...
I ')&( &'(" 5((./*
#+ &'#-( '#1+- #0 -/((./(-- %/##".
I ')&( &'(" 8(3)1-( ,$ #$( *()+
M* &("./(- ')6( %+#2$ 2',&(.
M* '#1-( ')- 8(($ 5(0,/(5 8* &'( P+1--,)$-,
T'(,+ 5+1$;($ /)1%'&(+ 5,"- "* +()-#$.
A$5 2,&' &'(-( ')$5- #0 ",$(
I 2)$& &# -&+)$%/( (6(+* #$( #0 &'(".
And here #as Chren0ur% at the hei%ht of the 2ussian retreat in the ;orthern 5aucasus6
and #ith the 1ermans 0rea<in% throu%h to Sta$in%rad:
. . . . O$( 3)$ 8()+ )$*&',$%: &'( ./)%1(, )$5 '1$%(+ )$5 5()&'. B1& #$( 3)$$#& 8()+
&'( !(+")$-. O$( 3)$$#& 8()+ &'(-( 0,-'-(*(5 #)0- 3#$&(".&1#1-/* -$#+&,$% )&
(6(+*&',$% R1--,)$ ... W( 3)$$#& /,6( )- /#$% )- &'(-( %+(*-%+(($ -/1%- )+( )/,6(.
T#5)* &'(+( )+( $# 8##;-? &#5)* &'(+( )+( $# -&)+- ,$ &'( -;*? &#5)* &'(+( ,- #$/*
#$( &'#1%'&: K,// &'( !(+")$-. K,// &'(" )// )$5 5,% &'(" ,$&# &'( ()+&'. T'($ 2(
3)$ %# &# -/((.. T'($ 2( 3)$ &',$; )%),$ #0 /,0(, )$5 8##;-, )$5 %,+/-, )$5 ')..,$(--.
... L(& 1- $#& +(/* #$ +,6(+- )$5 "#1$&),$-. W( 3)$ #$/* +(/* #$ #1+-(/6(-.
T'(+"#.*/)( 5,5 $# -&#. &'(". N#+ 5,5 &'( S() #0 C+(&(. M($ -&#..(5 &'(", $#& ,$
&'( "#1$&),$-, 81& ,$ &'( -181+8)$ )//#&"($&- #0 M#-3#2. W( -')// ;,// &'(" )//.
B1& 2( "1-& 5# ,& 91,3;/*? #+ &'(* 2,// 5(-(3+)&( &'( 2'#/( #0 R1--,) )$5 &#+&1+( &#
5()&' ",//,#$- "#+( .(#./(.
IBed %tar, Au%ust 136 194&:K
And on another day he #rote:
W( )+( +("("8(+,$% (6(+*&',$%. N#2 2( ;$#2. T'( !(+")$- )+( $#& '1")$. N#2
&'( 2#+5 D!(+")$D ')- 8(3#"( &'( "#-& &(++,8/( -2()+-2#+5. L(& 1- $#& -.();. L(&
1- $#& 8( ,$5,%$)$&. L(& 1- ;,//. I0 *#1 5# $#& ;,// &'( !(+")$, &'( !(+")$ 2,// ;,//
*#1. H( 2,// 3)++* )2)* *#1+ 0)",/*, )$5 &#+&1+( &'(" ,$ ',- 5)"$(5 !(+")$*... I0
*#1 ')6( ;,//(5 #$( !(+")$, ;,// )$#&'(+. T'(+( ,- $#&',$% :#//,(+ &')$ !(+")$
3#+.-(-.
These t#o +ro+a%anda themes #ere to continue6 0oth 0efore and after the fa$$ of 2osto3:
But after its fa$$6 a ne# note #as a$so soundedD+art$y in su++ort of the or%anisationa$
chan%es 0ein% introduced into the 2ed Army: Se$f,+ity and hatred of the 1ermans #ere
no $on%er enou%h: !art$y no dou0t to e8+$ain to an acute$y an8ious country the disasters
that had 0efa$$en the 2ed Army since May6 the ne# $ine no# ta<en #as that the Army
itse$f #as $ar%e$y to 0$ame for #hat #as ha++enin%Dand not the 1o3ernmentDor Sta$in:
?n retros+ect the 3io$ent criticisms of the 2ed Army that #ere made at this time seem
unfair: They i%nored the fact that in the summer of 194& the 2ussians #ere sti$$ serious$y
short of hea3y e=ui+ment6 and that a$on% most of the front in the south the 1ermans had a
%reat su+eriority in tan<s and6 es+ecia$$y6 in aircraft:
After the fa$$ of 2osto3 there #as a ruth$ess ti%htenin% u+ of disci+$ine in the armyD
ruth$ess to the +oint of summary e8ecutions6 a$$ do#n the sca$e6 for diso0eyin% orders or
dis+$ayin% co#ardice: Then too there #as a +ro+a%anda dri3e in #hich the so$dier's and
the officer's +ersona$ honour and $oya$ty to his re%iment #ere constant$y in3o<ed: @ne
o3er,enthusiastic +ro+a%andist +ointed out that e3en #hen a re%iment recei3ed orders to
retreat6 it #as sti$$ a 0$ot on the re%iment's re+utation: More im+ortant sti$$6 it #as
im+ressed u+on the so$diers that the country #as dis%runt$ed and disa++ointed in its o#n
army: !o$itica$ commissars #ere ca$$ed u+on to circu$ate amon% the troo+s +$ainti3e and
contem+tuous $etters recei3ed from so$diers' re$ati3es:
Fina$$y the +ost,2osto3 chan%es mar<ed the 0e%innin% of a rise in the status of officers in
the 2ed Army: There #as for instance the creation of ne# mi$itary decorations "or
o""icers onl!: the @rders of Su3oro36 4utu>o3 and A$e8ander ;e3s<yDsi%nificant$y
named after the F1reat AncestorsF:
IThere had a$ready 0een an A$e8ander ;e3s<y @rder under ;icho$as ?? #ho had
conferred it in 191& on !oincarN6 then French !rime Minister: Su3oro3 #as 5atherine ??'s
most famous %enera$6 and 4utu>o3 #as the 3ictor of ;a+o$eon in 1J1&:K
This #as +art of the dri3e6 #hich #as to ta<e on s+ectacu$ar +ro+ortions soon after#ards6
to create somethin% $i<e a ne# officer caste #hich #ou$d 0e thorou%h$y com+etent and6 at
the same time6 smart and decorati3e: The Fo$d #arhorseF6 s$o3en$y in his attire and
easy%oin% in his so$dierin%6 #as more and more discredited in the +ost,2osto3
+ro+a%anda dri3e: Before $on%6 the dua$ command of officer,and,commissar #as to 0e
scra++ed once a%ain in fa3our of the officer's Fso$e commandF:
?t #as not unti$ the hei%ht of the Sta$in%rad 0att$e that e+au$ettes and a $ot of %o$d 0raid
#ere added to officers' uniformsDe+au$ettes $i<e those #hich an%ry so$diers had torn off
their officers' shou$ders 0ac< in 1917: @ut of the fire and smo<e of Sta$in%rad the %o$d,
0raided officers emer%edL in this %o$d 0raid the fires of Sta$in%rad #ere ref$ected6 as it
#ere: ?t #as that #hich made those %o$d,0raided e+au$ettes so +o+u$ar and acce+ta0$e:
IMuch of this %o$d 0raid #as im+orted from Cn%$and6 and the 2ussian re=uest for 3ast
=uantities of it at first struc< the British (as an Cm0assy officia$ to$d me at the time) as
Fa0surd$y fri3o$ousF: They did not %ras+ the fu$$ si%nificance of these e8+orts unti$ $ater:K
Their introduction #as $i<e a co$$ecti3e re#ard to the #ho$e officer c$ass of the So3iet
*nion: The %o$d 0raid a$so em+hasi>ed the pro"essionalism of the 2ed Army: ?t #as no
$on%er a re3o$utionary army of sans-culottes+ the time #as dra#in% c$ose #hen the 2ed
Army #ou$d ha3e its #ord to say as the %reatest nationa$ army in Curo+eL it #as on$y
ri%ht that its officers shou$d 0e as smart$y dressed as the British and American officersD
not to mention the 1erman officers: ?t #as +sycho$o%ica$$y 3ery sound that the %o$d 0raid
shou$d ha3e made its a++earance durin% Sta$in%rad6 and not 0eforeL fine uniforms #ou$d
ha3e $oo<ed a$$ #ron% in retreat: ;e3erthe$ess6 the +rocess of smartenin% u+ the So3iet
officer6 0oth in#ard$y and out#ard$y6 #as 0e%un in the F+sycho$o%ica$ o+erationF that
fo$$o#ed the 2osto3 disaster:
Since the 2ussian +eo+$e had no sources of information e8ce+t the So3iet radio and the
+ress6 the ne#s and +ro+a%anda that these +roduced #ere6 of course6 of the utmost
im+ortance: C3ery0ody6 es+ecia$$y durin% those an8ious days6 #aited frantica$$y for the
ni%ht$y communi=uN6 and most +eo+$e had $earned to read 0et#een the $ines6 and to
deci+her the adHecti3es: !ro+a%anda artic$es #ere read #ith enormous interest 0y tens of
mi$$ions of +eo+$e: Chren0ur%6 Sho$o,<ho3 and A$e8ei To$stoy (+ro0a0$y in this order)
#ere immense$y +o+u$ar6 as #e ha3e seen: So #ere some of the #ar corres+ondents'
artic$es #hich6 #ithout necessari$y te$$in% a$$ the truth6 #ere <no#n to te$$ at $east some of
the truth: 2ussia is +ro0a0$y a$so the on$y country #here +oetry is read 0y mi$$ions of
+eo+$e6 and durin% the #ar6 +oets $i<e Simono3 and Sur<o3 #ere read 0y e3ery0ody:
?t is therefore interestin% to see ho# the +ress hand$ed the %rim situation 0oth 0efore and
after 2osto3:
Durin% the first #ee< of Bu$y6 the em+hasis #as on the heroic stru%%$e of the men and
#omen of Se0asto+o$ #hich had Hust ended: Then6 #ith the 1erman offensi3e de3e$o+in%
a$$ o3er the south6 the em+hasis #as6 more and more6 on F.o$y 2ussiaF and on hatred of
the enemy: F.atred of the CnemyF #as the tit$e of the Pravda editoria$ of Bu$y 11: The
tone #as sti$$ a++ea$in%6 rather than threatenin%6 as it #as to 0ecome after 2osto3:
O1+ 3#1$&+* ,- /,6,$% &'+#1%' -(+,#1- 5)*-. T'( N)C, 5#%- )+( 0+)$&,3)//* &+*,$% &#
8+(); &'+#1%' &# &'( 6,&)/ 3($&+(- #0 #1+ 3#1$&+*...T'( 2,5( -&(..(- #0 &'( D#$ )+(
-.+()5,$% 8(0#+( &'(,+ %+((5* (*(-. D()+ 3#"+)5(- )& &'( +#$&H Y#1+ 3#1$&+*
8(/,(6(- ,$ *#1. I& ;$#2- &')& &'( -)"( 8/##5 0/#2- ,$ *#1+ 6(,$- )- ,$ &'#-( #0 &'(
'(+#(- #0 S(8)-&#.#/... M)* '#/* ')&+(5 8(3#"( #1+ 3',(0, #1+ #$/* 0((/,$%. T',-
')&+(5 3#"8,$(- ) 81+$,$% /#6( #0 *#1+ 3#1$&+*, )$B,(&* 0#+ *#1+ 0)",/* )$5
3',/5+($, )$5 )$ 1$-');)8/( 2,// 0#+ 6,3&#+*... W( ')6( (6(+* 3')$3( &# 2,$. T'(
($("* ,- ,$ ) '1++*? '( 2)$&- &# )3',(6( +(-1/&- 2',3' 2#1/5 0#+(-&)// &'( S(3#$5
+#$&. B1& '( 2,// $#& (-3).( &',- 5)$%(+. T'( -&188#+$$(-- #0 &'( S#6,(& .(#./( ')-
5(-&+#*(5 "#+( &')$ #$( ($("* ./)$ 8(0#+( $#2...
.ere #as a #arnin% not to e8+ect too much from the A$$ies6 and to de+end on 2ussia's
o#n #i$$ to sa3e herse$f: A hi%her +itch of emotiona$ +atriotism6 com0ined #ith the
hatred motif6 #as reached 0y Simono3's +oem6 F4i$$ .imPF +u0$ished in Pravda the day
Aoroshi$o3%rad fe$$D
I0 *#1+ '#"( ,- 5()+ &# *#1 2'(+( *#1+ R1--,)$ "#&'(+ $1+-(5 *#1?
I0 *#1+ "#&'(+ ,- 5()+ &# *#1, )$5 *#1 3)$$#& 8()+ &'( &'#1%'& #0 &'( !(+")$
-/)..,$% '(+ 2+,$;/(5 0)3(?
I0 *#1 5# $#& 2)$& &'( !(+")$ &# &()+ 5#2$ )$5 &+)"./( #$ *#1+ 0)&'(+<- .,3&1+(,
2,&' &'( C+#--(- '( ()+$(5 ,$ &'( /)-& 2)+?
I0 *#1 5# $#& 2)$& *#1+ #/5 &()3'(+ &# 8( ')$%(5 #1&-,5( &'( #/5 -3'##/-'#1-(?
I0 *#1 5# $#& 2)$& '(+, 2'#" 0#+ -# /#$% *#1 5,5 $#& 5)+( (6($ ;,--,
&# 8( -&+(&3'(5 #1& $);(5 #$ &'( 0/##+, -# &')& )",5 ')&+(5, 3+,(- )$5 &()+-,
&'+(( !(+")$ 31+- -'#1/5 &);( 2')& 8(/#$%- &# *#1+ ")$/* /#6(?
I0 *#1 5#$<& 2)$& &# %,6( )2)* )// &')& 2',3' *#1 3)// *#1+ C#1$&+*,
T'($ ;,// ) !(+")$, ;,// ) !(+")$ (6(+* &,"( *#1 -(( #$(...
And so on6 and so on:
The youn% 5ommunists' +a+er6 Komsomols*a! a Pravda tended rather more than Pravda
to in3o<e the memory of enin6 as #e$$ as memories of the 5i3i$ 9ar: @n the #ho$e6 it
#ent in for F+e+ ta$<sF rather than $amentations of the Chren0ur% 3ariety: @n Bu$y &46
foreshado#in%6 as it #ere6 the more determined tone of the +ost,2osto3 +eriod6 it reca$$ed
the heroic 0att$es of the 5i3i$ 9ar Funder the 0anners of Sta$in and 4iro36 Aoroshi$o3
and @rdHoni<id>eFD
Y(-, 2( +("("8(+ '#2 S&)/,$ -)6(5 &'( -#1&' ,$ ,$3#".)+)8/* "#+( 5,00,31/&
3#$5,&,#$- &')$ &'( .+(-($& #$(-. DW( ')5 $# /,$( #0 +(&+()& /(0&,D A#+#-',/#6 /)&(+
+(/)&(5, D81& 3#"+)5( S&)/,$ 5,5 $#& 2#++* )8#1& &')&. H,- #$( &'#1%'& 2)- &#
-")-' &'( ($("*, &# 2,$ )& )$* .+,3(...D S# ,& 2)- )& T-)+,&-*$ ,$ &'( )1&1"$ #0
191N. S# ,& 2,// 8( )%),$ $#2. O1+ )+"* ,- 3#$6,$3(5 #0 ,&. O1+ ($&,+( .(#./( )+(
3#$6,$3(5 #0 ,&... S# /(& 1- 3/#-( #1+ +)$;-, *#1$% 0+,($5-, "#+( 6,%#+#1-/*, )$5
-")-' &'( ')&(5 ,$6)5(+-...
I ?t is curious that the +a+er shou$d ha3e then +ro+hesied that the 1ermans #ou$d 0e
sto++ed at Sta$in%rad (the former Tsaritsyn):K
The first +ress reactions to the fa$$ of 2osto3 #ere sti$$ fair$y mi$d6 and the Pravda
editoria$ of Bu$y &J tended to 0$ame the a0sence of the Second Front for #hat had
ha++ened6 enumeratin% the nine infantry and t#o armoured di3isions that had arri3ed
Ffrom France and .o$$and F in the $ast fe# #ee<s: But somethin% c$ear$y ha++ened on
Bu$y &9 at the hi%hest 1o3ernment and !arty $e3e$L for6 on Bu$y 3"6 (the day of Sta$in's
F;ot a ste+ 0ac<F order) Pravda set a ne# tone a$to%ether:
I+#$ 5,-3,./,$( )$5 ) -&()5* $(+6( )+( &'( 3#$5,&,#$- #0 #1+ 6,3&#+*. DS#6,(& -#/5,(+-H
N#& ) -&(. 8)3;HDES13' ,- &'( 3)// #0 *#1+ 3#1$&+*. .. O1+ S#6,(& 3#1$&+* ,- /)+%(
)$5 +,3', 81& &'(+( ,- $#&',$% 2#+-( &')$ &# ,")%,$( &')& *#1 3)$, 2,&'#1& ");,$% )
")B,"1" (00#+&, *,(/5 (6($ )$ ,$3' #0 %+#1$5, #+ )8)$5#$ &',- #+ &')& &#2$ 2,&'#1&
0,%'&,$% &# &'( /)-& 5+#. #0 8/##5. T'( ($("* ,- $#& )- -&+#$% )- -#"( &(++,0,(5 .)$,3-
"#$%(+- ,")%,$(.
9hat fo$$o#ed #as e3en stron%er meat:
E6(+* -#/5,(+ "1-& 8( +()5* &# 5,( &'( 5()&' #0 ) '(+# +)&'(+ &')$ $(%/(3& ',- 51&*
&# ',- 3#1$&+*.
Four times in the editoria$ the +hrase Firon disci+$ineF #as used:
D1+,$% &'( C,6,/ W)+ L($,$ 1-(5 &# -)*: DH( 2'# 5#(- $#& '(/. &'( R(5 A+"*
2'#/('()+&(5/*, )$5 5#(- $#& #8-(+6( ,&- #+5(+ )$5 ,+#$ 5,-3,./,$( ,- ) &+),&#+D...
A$5 )& &'( N&' C#$%+(-- #0 &'( P)+&*, S&)/,$ -),5: DE,&'(+ 2( -')// ')6( ) -&+,3&/*
5,-3,./,$(5 )+"*, #+ 2( -')// .(+,-'.D T#5)* &'( #00,3(+<- #+5(+ ,- )$ ,+#$ /)2.
Bed %tar that day #as e3en more e8+$icit: ?t %a3e the same =uotation from enin #ith this
addition from the same s+eech: F.e #ho does not o0ser3e order and disci+$ine is a
traitor6 and must 4e mercilessl! destro!ed5"
N#2 ,- $#& &'( &,"( 2'($ ) 3#2)+5 #+ &+),&#+ 3)$ +(/* #$ "(+3*. E6(+* #00,3(+ )$5
.#/,&,3)/ 2#+;(+ 3)$, 2,&' &'( .#2(+- %,6($ '," 8* &'( S&)&(, -(( &# ,& &')& &'( 6(+*
,5() #0 +(&+()&,$% 2,&'#1& #+5(+- 8(3#"(- ,".#--,8/(... N#& ) -&(. 8)3;: -13' ,- &'(
3#1$&+*<- #+5(+, &'( #+5(+ #0 #1+ /()5(+ )$5 %($(+)/, C#"+)5( S&)/,$.
The F+o#erF %i3en to the officer and commissar mentioned here #as nothin% $ess than
the ri%ht to shoot or to order the summary e8ecution of traitors or co#ards:
@n Au%ust 1 Bed %tar added a maca0re (and so far un+u0$icised) detai$ to the fami$iar
story of the &J !anfi$o3 men #ho had died in the 0att$e of Mosco#6 fi%htin% a%ainst
1erman tan<s to the $ast man:
T'(* 5()/& 2,&' #$( 3#$&(".&,8/( 3#2)+5. W,&'#1& )$* .+(/,",$)+* 5,-31--,#$ )//
&'( P)$0,/#6 "($ 0,+(5 )& &'( &+),&#+? &')& -)3+(5 6#//(* -*"8#/,C(5 &'(,+
5(&(+",$)&,#$ $#& &# +(&+()& )$#&'(+ -&(., )$5 &# 0,%'& &# &'( 8,&&(+ ($5.
?t a$so reca$$ed Shchors6 the 5i3i$ 9ar hero6 one of #hose ru$es #as: FA so$dier #ho has
$eft the 0att$efie$d #ithout officer's orders is shot $i<e a traitor:F
There is %ood reason to 0e$ie3e that6 on the stren%th of these ne# Firon disci+$ineF ru$es
a0out FtraitorsF and Fco#ardsF6 certain commissars in the 2ed Army #ent too far durin%
the #ee< that fo$$o#ed: ;othin% e$se #ou$d e8+$ain the e8traordinary editoria$ of Bed
%tar on Au%ust 96 #hich said that one must6 after a$$6 discriminate 0et#een incorri%i0$e
co#ards and men #ho had momentari$y $ost their ner3e:
T'( W)+ C#"",--)+ 4-)*- &'( S&)&1&( #0 &'( P+(-,5,1" #0 &'( S1.+("( S#6,(&7 ,- &'(
+(.+(-($&)&,6( #0 &'( P)+&* )$5 &'( !#6(+$"($& ,$ &'( R(5 A+"* )$5, &#%(&'(+ 2,&'
&'( #00,3(+, '( 8()+- 01// +(-.#$-,8,/,&* 0#+ &'( .(+0#+")$3( #0 ",/,&)+* &)-;- )$5...
0#+ &'( 5(&(+",$)&,#$ &# 0,%'& &# &'( /)-& 5+#. #0 8/##5... I0 *#1 -(( &')& *#1 ')6(
8(0#+( *#1 )$ #86,#1- ($("* #+ 5(0()&,-&, ) 3#2)+5 #+ .)$,3-"#$%(+... &'($ ,& ,- $#
1-( 2)-&,$% )$* .+#.)%)$5) #+ .(+-1)-,#$ #$ ',". Y#1 "1-& 5()/ 2,&' ) &+),&#+
2,&' )$ ,+#$ ')$5. B1& -#"(&,"(- *#1 3#"( )3+#-- .(#./( 2'# $((5 *#1+ &(".#+)+*
-1..#+&? )0&(+ &')& &'(* 2,// 0,+"/* &);( &'("-(/6(- ,$ ')$5...
This #as6 c$ear$y6 a #arnin% to tri%%er,ha++y commissars ready to <i$$ off a$$ Fco#ardsF:
The second +art of the same editoria$ a$ready foreshado#ed the comin% a0o$ition of the
commissars in their +resent rZ$e:
I& ,- ) %+()& ",-&);( &# ,")%,$(, )- -#"( 3#"+)5(- 5#, &')& ,$ 8)&&/( &'( .#/,&,3)/
3#"",--)+ "1-& )3& ,$ .+(3,-(/* &'( -)"( 2)* )- &'( #00,3(+, #$ &'( %+#1$5 &')&, ,$
&'( ",5-& #0 ) 8)&&/(, &'(+( ,- $# &,"( &# )+%1(? &')& &'( #$/* &',$% &# 5# ,- &# %,6(
#+5(+-, )$5 &# .1$,-' ,0 &'(-( #+5(+- )+( $#& #8(*(5. N)&1+)//*, (6(+* -#/5,(+ 8()+-
&'( %+)6(-& +(-.#$-,8,/,&* 0#+ &'( $#$-01/0,/"($& #0 ',- -1.(+,#+<- #+5(+- #$ &'(
8)&&/(0,(/5. %ut the commissar8s task is, *irst and *oremost, to eliminate the possibility
o* such things happening. And his chie* /eapon is political agitation, the %olshevik
persuasion o* men. =E".')-,- )55(5.>
Thus this tru$y historica$ artic$e in the 2ed Army's +a+er not on$y sounded the a$arm o3er
the e8cessi3e$y ruth$ess and +erha+s irres+onsi0$e a++$ication of the ne# Firon disci+$ineF
ru$es6 0ut a$so 0rou%ht to the surface the chronic conf$ict that had 0een 0re#in% for a $on%
time 0et#een the officer and the commissar: ?n a++$yin% the ne# ru$es6 the commissars
(%enera$$y harder and more ri%id +eo+$e than the officers) had a++arent$y %one to
e8tremes #hich the officers in many cases resented: Bed %tar c$ear$y su%%ested no# that
the metin% out of +unishment #as not the commissar's +rimary Ho06 and that in fact6 it
#asn't his Ho0 at a$$6 0ut the officer'sL the commissar's +rimary Ho0 #as Fa%itation and
Bo$she3i< +ersuasionF: This #as a 3ery c$ear indication that the t#o functions #ou$d
soon 0e shar+$y di3ided: After this Bed %tar +rotest a%ainst the indiscriminate shootin% of
Fco#ardsF the ferocious artic$es in the +ress sto++ed a$most com+$ete$y:
Another theme that <e+t on recurrin% in So3iet +ro+a%anda #as FDon't e3er surrender:
5a+ti3ity in 1ermany is #orse than death:F Pravda of Au%ust 136 =uoted #ith
a++ro+riate comments6 numerous $etters from 1ermany6 inc$udin% one from a 1erman
#oman ca$$ed 1ertrude 2enn6 and dated Fe0ruary &61941:
I& ,- 6(+* 3#/5, $()+/* )- 3#/5 )- ,$ R1--,). A /#& #0 .#&)&#(- &',- 2,$&(+ %#& 0+#C($.
T'(-( )+( %,6($ &# &'( R1--,)$- 2'# 5(6#1+ &'(" +)2. A& )//,$%8#-&(// MLL #+ @LL
R1--,)$- 5,( (6(+* 2((;, 0+#" '1$%(+ #+ 3#/5. A0&(+ )//, &'(* 5#$<& 5(-(+6( )$*&',$%
(/-(.
9hether %enuine or not6 this $etter certain$y sounds +erfect$y +$ausi0$e in the $i%ht of
#hat one $earned then or $ater a0out 2ussian #ar,+risoners in 1ermany: For a$$ that6
es+ecia$$y in 194&6 a 0$ac< mar< #as a$most automatica$$y +$aced a%ainst the name of any
2ussian so$dier #ho had fa$$en into 1erman hands6 #hi$e 2ussians #ho esca+ed from
1erman ca+ti3ity (or e3en 0ro<e out of a 1erman encirc$ement) #ere6 as a ru$e6 treated as
Fsus+ectsF: Some #ere c$earedL others +ut in F+uniti3e 0atta$ionsF6 others sti$$6 as #e
<no# from certain recent +u0$ications6 #ere sent to 2ussian F$a0ourF cam+s:
? reca$$ a %rim con3ersation ? had #ith a 2ussian co$one$ short$y 0efore the fa$$ of
Se0asto+o$6 #here many thousands of 2ussians #ere to fa$$ into 1erman hands:
9hat #as it6 the 5o$one$ said6 that made Se0asto+o$ so different from To0ru< or
Sin%a+oreE F?sn't it 0ecause of the 2ussian's more intense hatred of the enemy6 and
0ecause of the British tem+tation to surrender #hen a$$ ho+e of ho$din% out is $ostE ?s not
the %ood treatment of British #ar +risoners 0y the 1ermans +art of a definite +o$icyD
aimin% at sto++in% the British from fi%htin% to the $ast manEF
FDo you then su%%est6F ? said6 Fthat if the 1ermans treated 2ussian #ar +risoners 0etter6
Se0asto+o$ #ou$d ha3e fa$$en $on% a%oEF F;o6F he said rather an%ri$y6 F0ecause such
ca$cu$ations don't enter the head of a 2ussian so$dier6 sti$$ $ess a So3iet sai$or: These
+eo+$e $oathe the %uts of e3ery 1erman: Besides6 they <no# that 0y fi%htin% this ho+e$ess
0att$e of Se0asto+o$ ti$$ the 3ery end6 they are tyin% u+ 3ery $ar%e 1erman and 2umanian
forces6 and are so he$+in% the rest of the Front: .ere is heroismD0ut heroism +$us
definite orders:F
? then 0rou%ht u+ the =uestion of the ?nternationa$ 2ed 5ross6 the 1ene3a 5on3ention6
and so on: 9ou$d it not 0e 0etter if 2ussian #ar +risoners #ere %i3en some ?nternationa$
2ed 5ross +rotection6 for instance6 as Mo$oto3 had indeed su%%estedE The co$one$ said to
this: F? am not so sure a0out that: The damned 1ermans are %oin% to tric< the
?nternationa$ 2ed 5ross6 any#ay6 at $east as far as our +risoners are concerned: 9e treat
the 1erman #ar +risoners reasona0$y #e$$ IThis #as6 of course6 much too s#ee+in% a
statementK 0ecause6 in the $on% run6 it's a +o$icy that #i$$ +ayDnot that #e $i<e doin% it:
These s#ine are 0etter fed than mi$$ions of our ci3i$iansDand that's a %a$$in% thou%ht:
But #ou$d a con3ention #ith the 1ermans on #ar +risoners 0e a %ood thin%E @ur troo+s
ha3e %one throu%h he$$6 and #i$$ %o throu%h many more he$$s 0efore #e are finished #ith
this #ar: And in such a he$$D? am ready to admit itDthe thou%ht that a comforta0$e 0ed
and 0rea<fastDthe <ind of thin% British +risoners %etDmay 0e secured 0y the sim+$e
%esture of surrenderin% to the 1ermans mi%ht 0e 0ad for mora$e: ;ot e3ery man in our
army has the ma<in%s of a hero: So $et him die6 rather than surrender::: isten6 this is a
terri0$e #ar6 more terri0$e than anythin% you'3e e3er seen: ?t's an a%onisin% thou%ht that
our +risoners are star3ed to death in 1erman cam+s: But6 +o$itica$$y6 the 1ermans are
ma<in% a co$ossa$ 0$under: ?f the 1ermans treated our +risoners #e$$6 it #ou$d soon 0e
<no#n: ?t's a horri0$e thin% to sayL 0ut 0y i$$,treatin% and star3in% our +risoners to death6
the 1ermans are helping us:F
The interestin% thin% is that the 1ermans used 3ery much the same <ind of reasonin%L
1erman +ro+a%anda aimed at im+ressin% u+on e3ery so$dier that fa$$in% into 2ussian
hands #as e=ua$ to suicide: either he #ou$d 0e immediate$y shot6 or die a s$o# a%onisin%
death Fin Si0eriaF: This #as6 rou%h$y6 the story of e3ery 1erman +risoner #hom ? #as to
see $ater in the Don country6 at Sta$in%rad and in numerous 0att$es after Sta$in%rad6 #hen
the fear of encirc$ement 0ecame a <ind of o0session #ith the 1erman army6 and e3en $ed
to some une8+ected #ithdra#a$s: A$so6 rather than surrender6 many SS,men committed
suicide:
?t #i$$ 0e con3enient here to $oo< a $itt$e 0eyond the +re,Sta$in%rad +hase of the #ar6 and
dea$ #ith the ne8t sta%es in the +rocess #hich 0e%an immediate$y after the fa$$ of 2osto3:
These ne8t ste+s may 0e said to fa$$ under three headin%s: the FinnerF smartenin%,u+ of
the officer cor+s throu%h the +romotion of many youn% officers #ho had sho#n a hi%h
de%ree of technica$ com+etence durin% the #ar6 and the demotion or she$3in% of the Fo$d
#ar,horsesF6 a +rocess #hich had a$ready had its +recedent in 1941 #ith the remo3a$
from <ey +ositions in the Army of men $i<e Aoroshi$o3 and Budienny: This she$3in% of
the Fo$d #ar horsesF ser3ed to di3ert +o+u$ar annoyance a0out the mi$itary defeats from
the !arty (inc$udin% Sta$in) to FcertainF Army $eaders: Second$y6 there #as the FouterF
smartenin%,u+ of the So3iet officer throu%h the introduction of smarter uniforms6
com+$ete #ith e+au$ettes and %o$d 0raid: Third$y6 the +rocess 0e%un soon after 2osto3 of
dra#in% a c$ear $ine 0et#een the officer's and the commissar's res+ecti3e ro$es (see the
Bed %tar editoria$ of Au%ust 9 =uoted a0o3e) #as 0rou%ht to its $o%ica$ conc$usion on
@cto0er 96 #hen the officer's Fso$e commandF #as at $ast restored:
The contrast 0et#een the o$d and ne# ty+es of officer #as 3i3id$y 0rou%ht out in
4orneichu<'s +$ay The Front #hich is #orth e8aminin%6 if on$y 0ecause of the enormous
+u0$icity %i3en to it:
I4orneichu< to$d me soon after#ards that the F%enera$ ideaF of the +$ay had 0een %i3en to
him 0y Sta$in himse$f:K
The main theme of the +$ay #as the conf$ict 0et#een Army,1enera$ 1or$o36 5ommander
of a Front (i:e: army %rou+) and his su0ordinate6 MaHor,1enera$ @%ne36 in command of
one of the armies: 1or$o3 is an amia0$e man6 0ra3e6 #ith a fine 5i3i$ 9ar record6 0ut
#ho$$y unsuita0$e for modern #arfare:
.e +o<es more or $ess %ood,natured fun at the Fs+ecia$istsF6 and +roud$y c$aims: F? ha3e
ne3er %one throu%h any of your academies or uni3ersitiesL ? am not one of your theorist
cha+s: ?'m an o$d #ar,horse:F !ersona$ 0ra3ery6 to him6 is the secret of mi$itary success:
F9e'$$ smash any enemy6F he says6 Fnot #ith #ire$ess o+erators6 0ut #ith heroism and
3a$our:F .e is surrounded 0y toadyin% nonentities #ho f$atter himL they are men #ith
none of 1or$o3's fundamenta$ honesty: Amon% them are his inte$$i%ence chief6 the editor
of the Front ne#s+a+er6 a #ar corres+ondent6 and his $iaison officer: A$$ of them are
dra#n in a hi%h$y satirica$ 3ein:
The centra$ fi%ure in the o++osite cam+ is @%ne36 a youn% %enera$ #ith a mastery of
modern #arfare: .e is su++orted 0y 1or$o3's 0rother6 director of a $ar%e aircraft factory6
and #orshi++ed 0y 1or$o3's o#n son: The atmos+here in 1or$o3's head=uarters is
thorou%h$y easy,%oin%6 #ith fre=uent su++er +arties6 toasts and smu% s+eeches: @%ne3 is
dis%usted 0y a$$ this6 and 1or$o3's 0rother6 #ho has come on a tour of ins+ection from
Mosco# (#here he had discussed aircraft +roduction #ith Sta$in himse$f) is ta<en a0ac<
0y a$$ this and then re+orts to Mosco# on the 3ery unsatisfactory Ho0 his 0rother is doin%:
The centra$ e+isode is one #here the t#o schoo$s of thou%ht c$ash in a mi$itary o+eration
#hich 1or$o3 com+$ete$y 0un%$esL then the situation is sa3ed6 at hea3y cost6 0y @%ne3's
much c$earer 3ision of the 1ermans' intentions and 0y his far 0etter or%anisation:
?n the 3ery first scene the fo$$o#in% ty+ica$ con3ersation occurs:
General Gorlov (to 5divitelny, the 9ntelligence :hie*)4 H#2 ")$* !(+")$ &)$;- )+(
&'(+( )& K#/#;#/ -&)&,#$I
5divitelny4 ,0&*, 3#"+)5( 3#"")$5(+.
Gorlov4 N#& "#+(I
5divitelny4 M)*8( &'(*<6( 8+#1%'& 1. ) 0(2 "#+( ,$ &'( /)-& 0,6( 5)*-, 81& I
-'#1/5$<& &',$; -#.
Gorlov4 B1& O%$(6 -)*- &'(*<6( %#& &'+(( '1$5+(5.
5divitelny4 B1& '#2<- &')& .#--,8/(, 3#"+)5( 3#"")$5(+I I 5#$<& ,")%,$( &'(*<6(
%#& "#+( &')$ 0,6( '1$5+(5 )/#$% &'( 2'#/( +#$&.
Gorlov (to ;gnev)4 T'(+( *#1 )+(H
;gnev4 W'* &'($ )+( &'(* 8+,$%,$% 1. .(&+#/ )& -13' ) +)&( &# K#/#;#/I
5divitelny4 I 3#1/5$<& -)*. I -1..#-( &'(* )+( .+(.)+,$% 0#+ &'( $(B& #00($-,6(.
T'(*<6( %#& -&#+(- &'(+(, )$*2)*.
;gnev4 W'# ,- ,$ 3#"")$5 #0 &'( !(+")$- '(+(I
5divitelny4 I +()//* 5#$<& ;$#2. B(0#+(, &'(* ')5 &')&E2')& 5<*#1 3)// ',"? 5,00,31/&
-#+& #0 $)"(? 3)$<& +("("8(+? M):#+-!($(+)/ 6#$ -#"(&',$%-#+-#&'(+. H( 2)-
+(./)3(5. W'# &'( .+(-($& A#$ ,- I 3#1/5$<& -)*.
;gnev4 W')& 0,+( .#2(+ ')6( &'(* %#&I
5divitelny4 W(//, &'( 1-1)/ 0#1+ 5,6,-,#$-E2,&' ) -(6($&* .(+ 3($& 3#"./("($&?
3#1/5$<& &(// *#1 (B)3&/*.
;gnev4 H)6( &'(* %#& )$* -;, +(%,"($&-I
5divitelny4 I 5#$<& -1..#-( -#. M)*8( ) 0(2 -")// %+#1.-. W'*, &'( !(+")$-
2(+($<& .+(.)+,$% 0#+ 2,$&(+.
;gnev (yelling)4 !#5 5)"$ *#1H W')& &'( '(// 5# I 3)+( 2')& you &',$;I W')& I
2)$& &# ;$#2 ,- 2')& &'( !(+")$- ')6( )3&1)//* %#&. A$-2(+ "(: 5# *#1 ;$#2, #+
5#$<& *#1 ;$#2I
Kolos (commander o* the cavalry group)4 A#/#5*), ./()-(...
Gorlov4 W'* *(// /,;( &',-? &',- ,-$<& ) 8)C))+.
;gnev4 Y#1 )-; '," 2'* '( ,- /*,$% /,;( ) 3)+.(&-6($5#+ )& ) 8)C))+. W')& &'( '(//
5#(- '( "()$ 8* D")*8(D )$5 DI -1..#-( -#D, DT')&<- .#--,8/(D, )$5 DI 5#$<&
,")%,$( -#D. H#2 3)$ *#1 ,--1( #+5(+- ,0 &')&<- )// *#1+ I$&(//,%($3( .+#513(-I W')&
5)&) ')6( *#1I W,&' &'( -$#2--&#+" +)%,$% 0#+ 0,6( 5)*-, 2')& ;,$5 #0 5)&) 3#1/5
*#1 ')6( %#& 0+#" *#1+ ),+ +(3#$$),--)$3(I W')& (/-( 5# *#1 ;$#2I N#&',$%. A$5
,$ &'(-( 0,6( 5)*- &'( !(+")$- ",%'& ')6( 5#$( )$* 5)"$(5 &',$%.
.ere #as the officia$ condemnation 0y the !arty of 2ussia's +ecu$iar 0rand of B$im+sL
these6 in Se+tem0er 194&6 #ere +roduced as an ans#er to the 0e#i$dered =uestions #hy
the 1ermans #ere a%ain6 for the second year in succession6 o3errunnin% 3ast areas of
2ussian territory:
?n the $ast act6 after a hard 3ictory has 0een #on6 and disaster a3erted 0y @%ne36 des+ite
1or$o3's ori%ina$ orders6 1or$o3 is dismissed from his +ost: .e is 0e#i$dered6 0ut 0e%ins
to understand6 and acce+ts his remo3a$ #ith %ood %race: ?n the course of the action6 his
son6 one of @%ne3's most de3oted admirers6 is <i$$ed: 1or$o3 is not treated 3icious$y in
the +$ay6 and #hoe3er has seen The Front at the Mosco# Art Theatre #i$$ remem0er the
+athetic6 a$most 5he<ho3ian fi%ure 1or$o3 cuts in the $ast act #hen +$ayed 0y the %reat
Mos<3in:
But the +$ay is intended to con3ey an o+timistic messa%e: ?n the end6 not on$y 1or$o36 0ut
his #ho$e entourage disa++earL and they are re+$aced 0y other men $i<e @%ne36 #ho ha3e
0een 0rou%ht to the surface 0y the #ar itse$f6 and #ho6 in addition to their FacademicF
trainin%6 ha3e a$so $earned a %reat dea$ from direct mi$itary e8+erience: @%ne3 is 3ery
much the ne: ty+e of the So3iet officer and6 in a sense6 the +u0$ication of the +$ay in
Se+tem0er 194& constitutes an im+ortant $in< 0et#een the immediate F+ost,2osto3F
reforms and their $o%ica$ se=ue$6 the hei%htenin% of the officer's ro$e in the 2ed Army6 his
F%$amourisationF throu%h the introduction of ne# uniforms6 and a0o3e a$$6 the a0o$ition
of the commissars and the restoration of Fso$e commandF:
That many F@%ne3sF had 0een e8i$ed and e3en shot in the 1937,J !ur%e is6 need$ess to
say6 not e3en a$$uded to in 4orneichu<'s +$ay: 2o<osso3s<y6 for one6 #as #e$$ a#are of
itL and that may 0e #hy he (and many other officers) did not care for the +$ay: They fe$t6
moreo3er6 that it +roduced some a#<#ard discussions amon% the troo+s themse$3es6 and
caused some disres+ectfu$ =uestions to 0e as<ed: !arado8ica$$y6 the +$ay #as6 on the one
hand6 a !arty,3ersus,Army demonstration6 0ut6 on the other6 an e8a$tation of the
+rofessiona$ so$dier at the e8+ense of the o$d ci3i$ #ar hac< #ith his more Fre3o$utionaryF
tradition:
The fu$$ restoration of the officer's Fsin%$e commandF #as contained in the u*ase of the
!residium of the Su+reme So3iet of @cto0er 96 #hich a0o$ished the ?nstitute of the
!o$itica$ 5ommissars in the 2ed Army: The u*ase, a$$udin% to the friction that often used
to arise inside an army unit 0et#een the officer and the commissar6 es+ecia$$y durin% the
hard #ee<s of the retreat6 e8+$ained that there #as no# no further need for +o$itica$
commissars in the o$d senseL they had ori%ina$$y 0een introduced durin% the 5i3i$ 9ar to
<ee+ an eye on the officers6 many of #hom had 0e$on%ed to the o$d Tsarist Army and
F#ho did not 0e$ie3e in the stren%th of the So3iet re%ime and #ere e3en a$ien to it:F
9ithout as much as a$$udin% to the reduced rZ$e of the commissars under Tu<hache3s<y6
and the F+o$itisationF of the Army after the +ur%es6 the a0o$ition of Fdua$ commandF in
194"6 at Timo,shen<o's insistence6 and its reintroduction once more at the 0e%innin% of
the 1erman in3asion in 19416 the u*ase mere$y said that6 since the 5i3i$ 9ar6 a $ar%e
num0er of officers had 0een trained under So3iet conditions6 and that6 durin% the +resent
#ar6 Fan enormous num0er of ne# and e8+erienced officers ha3e emer%edL they ha3e
ac=uired the %reatest e8+erience6 ha3e +ro3ed their de3otion to their country6 and ha3e
%ro#n in stature 0oth mi$itari$y and +o$itica$$y:F
O$ &'( #&'(+ ')$5 &'( 3#"",--)+- )$5 .#/,&,3)/ 2#+;(+- ')6( %+()&/* ,$3+()-(5
&'(,+ ",/,&)+* ;$#2/(5%(? -#"( #0 &'(" ')6( )/+()5* 8(($ %,6($ 3#"")$5,$%
.#-&- ... 2',/( #&'(+- ")* 8( ("./#*(5 )- #00,3(+- +,%'& )2)*, #+ )0&(+ ) 3(+&),$
.(+,#5 #0 ",/,&)+* &+),$,$%... I$ &'( 3,+31"-&)$3(-, &'(+( ,- $# /#$%(+ )$* +()-#$ 0#+
')6,$% .#/,&,3)/ 3#"",--)+- ,$ &'( R(5 A+"*. W')& ,- "#+(, &'( .(+.(&1)&,#$ #0 &'(
I$-&,&1&( #0 P#/,&,3)/ C#"",--)+- ")* )3& )- )$ #8-&)3/( ,$ )3',(6,$% &'( 8(-& +(-1/&-
,$ &'( 3#"")$5 #0 &'( &+##.-? &',-, ,$ ,&-(/0, 2#1/5 .1& &'( 3#"",--)+- ,$ ) 0)/-( )$5
)2;2)+5 .#-,&,#$. T'( &,"( ')- &'(+(0#+( 3#"( 0#+ (-&)8/,-',$% 3#"./(&( S,$%/(
C#"")$5, )$5 0#+ ./)3,$% 1.#$ &'( #00,3(+ &'( -#/( +(-.#$-,8,/,&* 0#+ ",/,&)+*
5(3,-,#$-..,
Thus dua$ contro$ #as a0o$ishedL the commissar #as turned into the officer's Fde+uty in
the +o$itica$ fie$dFL he #as a$so an officer6 0ut usua$$y of Hunior ran< and #as6 a0o3e a$$6
in char%e of +o$itica$ education6 +ro+a%anda6 #e$fare6 etc: The im+ortant thin% #as that
he cou$d no $on%er interfere #ith the officer's decisions6 $east of a$$ #ith his o+erationa$
decisions:
Another %reat +ractica$ ad3anta%e of this reform6 after the terri0$e $osses suffered since
Bune 19416 #as the %reat increase6 #ithin a short time6 in officer cadres dra#n from the
ran<s of e8,commissars6 most of #hom had had first,hand e8+erience of the #ar:
The u*ase re+$aced the FinstituteF of +o$itica$ commissars and +o$itica$ instructors (the
o++osite num0ers of the n:c:o:'s) 0y an FinstituteF of Fde+uty,commanders in the +o$itica$
fie$d in army units6 staffs6 su0,units6 mi$itary schoo$s6 and in the centra$::: offices of the
!eo+$e's 5ommissariat for Defence:::F
The Bed %tar editoria$ of @cto0er 11 +ointed out that numerous commissars had had a
%a$$ant #ar recordL there had 0een many cases #hen an officer #as <i$$ed or #ounded6
and the commissar too< o3er his duties: Many such commissars had a$ready 0een %i3en
officers' +osts: The artic$e em+hasised that the $atest u*ase #as6 in effect6 the $ast +hase of
a +rocess that had %one on for a $on% time: Distortin% history +retty merci$ess$y 0y
omittin% a$$ that had ha++ened in the $ate 193"'s and a$so since the #ar6 it set out to sho#
that the $atest reform6 #as in effect6 mere$y an a++$ication of the army reform Frun>e had
ad3ocated 0ac< in the ear$y 't#enties: Tu<hache3s<y6 that o++onent of Fdua$ commandF
#as6 of course6 not mentioned:
.a3in% e8to$$ed the merits of Fsin%$e commandF6 Bed %tar ne3erthe$ess #ent on to say
that the ne# reform did not mean any $o#erin% in the standard of +o$itica$ education and
Bo$she3i< a%itation in the army:
T'( #00,3(+-< 5(.1&,(- ,$ &'( .#/,&,3)/ 0,(/5 "1-& 3#$&,$1( &',- .+#.)%)$5) ... T'(*
"1-& %# #$ 0#+%,$% "($ #0 ,+#$, 3).)8/( #0 &'( %+()&(-& 0()+/(--$(--, #0 &'( %+()&(-&
-.,+,& #0 -(/0--)3+,0,3( ,$ &',- 8)&&/( )%),$-& &'( ')&(5 H,&/(+,&(-.
?n conc$usion it said that the 2ed Army #ou$d 3ery short$y 0e endo#ed #ith &"" ne#
re%imenta$ commanders and )"" ne# 0atta$ion commanders dra#n from the ran<s of the
e8,commissars:
A$$ this #as6 in a sense6 a c$ear 3ictory of the FArmyF o3er the F!artyF:
To%ether #ith this reform came the introduction of the ne# uniforms: A $itt$e $ater6 in
19436 in addition to ne# uniforms6 a #ho$e code of manners #as introduced for officersL
a0o3e a certain ran<6 for instance6 they cou$d not tra3e$ 0y +u0$ic trans+ort6 and #ere not
a$$o#ed to Fcarry +a+er +arce$sF: A$to%ether a num0er of +oints from the eti=uette of the
o$d Tsarist Army #ere re3i3ed:
C').&(+ AI STALIN ROPES IN THE CHURCH
The esta0$ishment of correct and e3en seemin%$y cordia$ re$ations 0et#een 5hurch and
State had 0een one of the im+erati3es of So3iet 1o3ernment +o$icy e3er since the
0e%innin% of the #ar: C3en 0efore the #ar6 es+ecia$$y since the +u0$ication of the FSta$inF
5onstitution of 193) #hich %uaranteed freedom of re$i%ious 0e$iefs6 the cruder forms of
anti,re$i%ious +ro+a%anda had 0een $ar%e$y a0andoned: As #e ha3e seen6 one of the most
comic e+isodes in this +rocess had 0een the decease6 a fortni%ht after the 1erman
in3asion6 of Cme$ian (aros$a3s<y's famous Fanti,1odF #ee<$y6 .ez4ozhni*5
The aim of the So3iet 1o3ernment #as to create a0so$ute nationa$ unityL and6 #ith a 3ery
hi%h +ro+ortion of so$diers in the Army comin% from +easant fami$ies6 amon% #hom
re$i%ious traditions #ere sti$$ stron%6 it #as im+ortant to do nothin% that #ou$d offend
their re$i%ious F+reHudicesF: 9ith %o3ernment +ro+a%anda 0ecomin% more and more
+atriotic and nationa$ist6 com+$ete #ith in3ocations of the %reat nationa$ heroes of the
+ast6 inc$udin% a saint of the @rthodo8 5hurchDSt: A$e8ander ;e3s<yDit #as
im+ossi0$e to treat the 5hurch as a hosti$e e$ement in #hat soon came to 0e <no#n as
Fthe 1reat !atriotic 9arF: ?t #as6 indeed6 essentia$ to secure the utmost co,o+eration from
the 5hurch6 and to induce the c$er%y to do +atriotic +ro+a%anda amon% the faithfu$6 and
su++ort the So3iet re%ime6 rather than $oo< for sa$3ation to the 1ermans #ho6 des+ite a$$
the monstrosities of their occu+ation +o$icy6 sti$$ %a3e some encoura%ement to the
@rthodo8 5hurch #hich they re%arded (not unreasona0$y) as an e$ement #ith serious
%rie3ances a%ainst the So3iet system: To the So3iet 1o3ernment the 5hurch #as6 in
effect6 a +otentia$ Fifth 5o$umn6 #hich it #as im+erati3e to #in o3er:
Some of the @rthodo8 c$er%y in the occu+ied areas certain$y co$$a0orated #ith the
1ermans6 or +retended toD+articu$ar$y durin% the ear$ier sta%es of the #arD#hi$e some
mem0ers of the *<rainian church hierarchy #ere #ho$$y su0ser3ient to Ber$in to the end:
?n 1941 and 194& there #ere many instances of the 1ermans +osin% as $i0erators of the
5hristian faith in the occu+ied areas: 1enera$ 1uderian mentions6 for e8am+$e6 the to#n
of 1$u<ho36 near Brians<6 #here Fthe +o+u$ation as<ed our +ermission to use their church
as a +$ace of #orshi+ once a%ain: 9e #i$$in%$y handed it o3er to them:F
I1uderian6 o+ cit:6 +: &&J:K
?n their radio +ro+a%anda the 1ermans made much of this Fre3i3a$F of re$i%ion in the
areas they had occu+ied6 and the fact that some +riests #ere said to ha3e Hoined the
+artisans #as insufficient to cance$ out these 1erman c$aims entire$y: Mosco# #as
+articu$ar$y sensiti3e6 in 194&6 to hosti$e +ro+a%anda6 es+ecia$$y in the *nited States6 on
the %round that there #as no Ffreedom of re$i%ionF in 2ussia:
A curious $andmar< in the story of the 2ussian church durin% the #ar #as the +u0$ication
0y the Mosco# !atriarchate6 in Au%ust 194&6 of a sum+tuous$y,0ound and admira0$y
+rinted and i$$ustrated 3o$ume ca$$ed The Truth a4out Beligion in Bussia5 ?ts f$y$eaf
c$aimed that -"6""" co+ies had 0een +rinted: The 5entra$ 5ommittee itse$f had not
+roduced such a ty+o%ra+hica$ master+iece for yearsL there #as o03ious$y a %reat dea$
0ehind this +u0$ication: ?t #as certain$y intended +art$y for forei%n consum+tion:
Much of the 0oo< had 0een #ritten (or +ur+orted to ha3e 0een #ritten) 0y Father Ser%ius6
Metro+o$itan of Mosco# and 4o$omna6 and locum tenens of the !atriarcha$ Throne since
the death of the !atriarch Ti<hon in 19&-: A$thou%h Ti<hon's anti,So3iet attitude #as
#e$$ <no#n6 Ser%ius ne3erthe$ess reca$$ed that6 accordin% to Ti<hon6 the FSo3iet order
means the ru$e of the +eo+$e::: and is6 therefore6 firm and unsha<a0$eF: Ser%ius further
reca$$ed (a rather +i=uant touch) that Ti<hon had Fe8+$icit$y condemnedF the schism in
the @rthodo8 5hurch6 0rou%ht a0out 0y the 4ar$o3ite sect6 #ho for years had #a%ed #ar
a%ainst the Metro+o$itan C3$o%i of !aris6 the head of the FtrueF 2ussian church in
9estern Curo+e:
I;amed after 4ar$o3ac in (u%os$a3ia6 a centre of 3io$ent$y anti,Mosco# re$i%ious
acti3ity amon% the 9hite,2ussian Nmi%rNs: See 9: 4o$ar>6 Beligion in the %oviet &nion,
+: 41 (ondon 19)1):K
The 4ar$o3ites #ere AmigrA e8tremists #ho $ater identified themse$3es #ith the teachin%s
of .it$er: The @rthodo8 5hurch6 as re+resented 0y Ser%ius6 #as the o$d 2ussian 5hurch6
0ut de+ri3ed of the financia$ and other earth$y +ri3i$e%es it had enHoyed under the Tsars:
?n the o$d days the Tsar himse$f had 0een head of the 5hurchL 0ut the se+aration of
5hurch and State #as6 in Ser%ius's o+inion6 a$$ to the %ood:
This attac< on the F4ar$o3itesF #as in fact a dis%uised attac< on Father A3edens<y's
Fi3in% 5hurchF #hich had created a schism6 not amon% the Nmi%rNs6 0ut in 2ussia itse$f:
This i3in% 5hurch had 0een encoura%ed 0y unachars<y and other mem0ers of the
So3iet %o3ernment in the ear$y years of the 2e3o$ution: This attac< on FschismsF in 194&
c$ear$y sho#ed that the So3iet 1o3ernment #as #i$$in% to thro# A3edens<y and his
Fi3in% 5hurchF o3er0oardL it had6 indeed6 0een a fai$ureL +eo+$e #ent to a A3edens<y
church on$y #hen there #as no Frea$F church in the nei%h0ourhood: The Fi3in% 5hurchF
#as6 indeed6 to 0e dis0anded in 1943: ?t #ent6 as it #ere6 into 3o$untary $i=uidation6 #ith
A3edens<y recantin%6 and its +riests and 0isho+s su0mittin% to the authority of Ser%ius6
#ho #as e$ected !atriarch in 1943:
The disa++earance of the A3edens<y 5hurch #as in the $o%ic of thin%s: it #as im+ortant
to the So3iet 1o3ernment that there shou$d 0e on$y one 2ussian 5hurch:
?n The Truth a4out Beligion in Bussia Ser%ius #rote that the $oss 0y the 5hurch and the
monasteries of $and and other +ro+erty did not denote +ersecution6 0ut Fa return to
A+osto$ic times #hen +riests +ursued their +rofession::: more in accordance #ith the
teachin%s of 5hrist:F The se+aration of 5hurch and State had had a +urifyin% effect on the
5hurchL no# on$y true 0e$ie3ers #ent to church6 and nomina$ 5hristians had dro++ed out:
;o dou0t he re%retted that communists shou$d Fadhere to the anti,re$i%ious stand+ointF: ?t
#as certain6 ho#e3er6 that anti,re$i%ious +ro+a%anda had 0een in dec$ine for se3era$ years
+ast6 and had disa++eared com+$ete$y since the 0e%innin% of the #ar:
Since the 0e%innin% of the #ar6 Ser%ius #ent on6 the attitude of the 5hurch had 0een
c$earer than e3er: ?t reHected a0so$ute$y .it$er's FcrusadeF for its $i0eration: A$thou%h no
+riests #ere attached to the 2ed Army6 the 5hurch constant$y +rayed for this Army6 and
a$so said innumera0$e +rayers for indi3idua$ so$diers at their fami$ies' re=uest: ?n their
sermons 2ussian churchmen no# constant$y referred to the ;a>is as the successors of
Fthe fou$ houndsFDthe Teutonic 4ni%hts6 #hom St A$e8ander ;e3s<y6 the +atron saint
of enin%rad6 had routed in 1&4& on the ice of a<e !ei+us:
Ser%ius #ent on to say that he had recent$y addressed an C+ist$e to the @rthodo8 faithfu$
in occu+ied territories6 te$$in% them that they must ne3er for%et that they #ere 2ussians
and that they must do nothin%6 #ittin%$y or un#ittin%$y6 #hi$e under the 1erman yo<e6
#hich #ou$d 0e a 0etraya$ of their home$and:
.e a$so said that the 5hurch had +ro3ed its +atriotic fer3our not on$y in #ords6 0ut a$so in
deedsL it #as he$+in% the 2ed Army not on$y #ith +rayers6 0ut a$so #ith %ifts and
co$$ections: Thus the .o$y Trinity 5hurch at 1or<i had recent$y co$$ected a mi$$ion
rou0$es for the Defence Fund:
The 0oo< a$so de3oted much s+ace to the FchaosF in the @rthodo8 5hurch a0road: Those
#ho sa# eye to eye #ith the 2ussian 5hurch6 it said6 #ere dismissed or +ersecuted 0y the
1ermans: this #as true of 1a0rie$6 !atriarch of Ser0ia6 of 5hrysanthos6 Metro+o$itan of
Athens6 and Stefan6 the Bu$%arian Metro+o$itan6 F#ho 0ecause of his %reat sym+athy for
the +atriotism of the 2ussian @rthodo8 5hurch6F had fa$$en into disfa3our #ith the
1ermans and #as Ffre=uent$y attac<ed in the +ro,;a>i +ress:F
!+()& -*".)&'* 0#+ &'( .)&+,#&,-" #0 &'( R1--,)$ C'1+3' ')- )/-# 8(($ -'#2$ 8*
&'( N()+-E)-&(+$ P)&+,)+3'- #0 A/(B)$5+,), A$&,#3' )$5 J(+1-)/(", )- 2(// )- 8*
B($:)",$ (53',;#6, M(&+#.#/,&)$ #0 &'( A/(1&,)$- )$5 N#+&' A"(+,3) =2'#
+(.+(-($&(5 &'( M#-3#2 P)&+,)+3')&( 1$5(+ &')& .,3&1+(-91( &,&/( ,$ &'( U$,&(5
S&)&(->. H( ')- 2#+;(5 -&()5,/* ,$ 0)6#1+ #0 A"(+,3)$ ),5 &# R1--,), 5(-.,&( &'(
T'(#.',/,&(-, )$ O+&'#5#B -(3&, 2'# ')6( 8(($ ($%)%(5 ,$ )$&,-S#6,(& .+#.)%)$5),
)$5 ')6( 8(($ 1+%,$% P+(-,5($& R##-(6(/& &# -($5 )$ 1/&,")&1" &# &'( S#6,(&
!#6(+$"($& 5(")$5,$% %1)+)$&((- #0 D+(/,%,#1- 0+((5#"D ,$ R1--,) )0&(+ &'( 2)+.
The 0oo< further contained a shar+ attac< on certain Fchurch =uis$in%sF6 nota0$y in the
*<raine6 #ho6 after acce+tin% the authority of the Mosco# !atriarchate6 #ere no#
ser3in% .it$er in fosterin% *<rainian Fnationa$ismF: ?n an C+ist$e addressed to the
*<rainian faithfu$6 Ser%ius stated that Bisho+ Si<ors<y had +resented himse$f to the
1erman authorities as the FArch0isho+ of uc< and 4o3e$ and .ead of the *<rainian
@rthodo8 5hurch:F This im+oster Fhad +romised his faithfu$ co,o+eration to the
1ermans6 #hom he had addressed as the $i0erators of the *<rainian !eo+$e' F:
The true @rthodo8 5hurch in the *<raine6 said Ser%ius6 #as the 5hurch #hich #as
Fsharin% a$$ the hardshi+s and sorro#s of the 2ussian +eo+$e:F
The second +art of the 0oo< to$d of the 1erman destruction of numerous 3a$ua0$e
churches (nota0$y the ;e# Berusa$em Monastery at ?stra and the ;o3%orod churches)6
and of the fearfu$ atrocities committed 0y the enemy in occu+ied areas: 5onscious of the
sufferin%s inf$icted 0y the 1ermans on the 2ussian +eo+$e6 the 0oo< said6 the +riests had
near$y e3ery#here FsicG refused to fraternise #ith the 1erman F$i0eratorsF:
For a$$ that6 in 194&6 the 5hurch #as sti$$ 3ery do#n,at,hee$6 and it #as not ti$$ $ater that
ste+s #ere ta<en to restore church 0ui$din%sD 0ui$din%s of Fhistoric 3a$ueFDand that the
!atriarch and the ne#$y formed Synod #ere %i3en decent =uarters in Mosco#: These
measures6 and others of a financia$ nature #ere ta<en after the esta0$ishment of a s+ecia$
De+artment for 5hurch Affairs at the 5ounci$ of !eo+$e's 5ommissars6 #ith a Mr 4ar+o3
at its headDa comrade #ho had 0een a +o$ice officia$ in char%e of church matters and
#ho #as no# sometimes Ho<in%$y referred to in Mosco# as F;ar<om0o%F or
F;ar<omo+F6 i:e: !eo+$e's 5ommissar for 1od6 or !eo+$e's 5ommissar for @+ium (for the
+eo+$e):
But in the summer of 194&6 churches in Mosco#Dand e3en FMosco# 5athedra$F6 #hich
had ne3er 0een more than a 3ery $ar%e and u%$y and re$ati3e$y modern su0ur0an churchD
#ere sti$$ a disma$ and de+ressin% si%ht: The cathedra$ remained one of the fe# Mosco#
centres of or%ani>ed6 +rofessiona$ and com+$ete$y unashamed 0e%%in%6 e3en thou%h the
rou0$e notes and t#enty,<o+e< +ieces they #ere %i3en can hard$y ha3e 0een of any 3a$ue
to the #retched tattered o$d #omen: The con%re%ation consisted chief$y of e$der$y +eo+$e6
thou%h there #ere a$so some youn% #omenDmany of them #ith chi$dren: They <e+t
+assin% on to the a$tar s$i+s of +a+er #ith the names of those they #ished inc$uded in the
+rayers: Then there #ere co$$ections Ffor the +oorF and Ffor the restoration of the
churchFD#hich it certain$y 0ad$y needed: @n$y 3ery fe# so$diers cou$d 0e seen amon%
the con%re%ation: The +riests' ro0es #ere on the sha00y side6 thou%h the ro0es and cro#n
of the Metro+o$itan ;icho$as $oo<ed im+ressi3e enou%hL 0ut there seemed a shorta%e of
0oth incense and cand$es6 and the sin%in% #as +oor and unins+ired: The #ho$e scene #as
dra0 and misera0$e:
By 1943 there #as a$ready a %reat im+ro3ement: The church attendance6 es+ecia$$y on
Caster ni%ht6 #as e8traordinari$y hi%hL #ho$e streets adHoinin% the t#enty,fi3e or thirty
churches in Mosco# #ere cro#ded #ith +eo+$e #ho cou$d find no room inside: A !arty
mem0er to$d me: FThe !arty and the 4omsomo$ ha3e 0een much im+ressed 0y the
num0er of +eo+$e #ho #ent to church this CasterD much more e3en than usua$:F @ne
e8+$anation #as that +eo+$e <ne# that the 5hurch #as no $on%er fro#ned u+on 0y the
authorities: Si%nificant$y6 there #ere many more so$diers in the churches in 1943 than
there had 0een in +re3ious years:
The esta0$ishment of more FcorrectF re$ations #ith the 5hurch in 194&,3 #as +art of 0oth
a short,term and a $on%,term +o$icy: ?t #as certain$y +art of that dri3e for Fcom+$ete
nationa$ unityF6 #hich the %rim situation of 194& demanded: The 5hurch deri3ed
considera0$e 0enefits from it and6 in return6 0ecame increasin%$y 3oca$ in its $oya$ty to the
re%ime6 e3en to the +oint of sayin% s+ecia$ +rayers for Sta$in6 and treatin% him as an
Fanointed of the ordF6 thou%h no dou0t in on$y a fi%urati3e #ay:
?nternationa$$y the Freconci$iationF #ith the 5hurch ser3ed a %reat 3ariety of +ur+oses: it
made a %ood im+ression on the A$$ies6 +articu$ar$y the *nited StatesL it made the Mosco#
!atriarchate +$ay the ro$e of a sort of 1ree<,@rthodo8 Aatican6 into$erant of any sus+ect
FsectsF: eaders of the 2ussian @rthodo8 5hurch #ere a$so encoura%ed to fraternise for
instance #ith $eaders of the An%$ican 5hurch6 and #ere +rominent in such or%anisations
as the A$$,S$a3 5ommittee6 and #ere e3en used to add the #ei%ht of their authority to
more du0ious 0odies such as the 5ommittee of ?n=uiry into the 4atyn Murders: After the
#ar the Metro+o$itan ;icho$as6 in his %o$den ro0es a$so added $ustre to internationa$
!eace 5on%resses #here he s+o<e a$on%side other $eadin% So3iet +ersona$ities $i<e
4orneichu< and Chren0ur%:
oo<in% 0eyond 194&6 #e may 0rief$y summarise the story of State,5hurch re$ations
durin% and Hust after the 9ar: As 9a$ter 4o$ar> #as to #rite $ater in his e8ce$$ent
Beligion in the %oviet &nion,
T'( ,5(#/#%,3)/ 3#$&($& #0 S#6,(& 3#""1$,-" ,$ 1941 #+ 194@ 2)- ,$0,$,&(/* "#+(
.)&+,#&,3 &')$ ,& 2)- ,$ &'( &2($&,(- #+ ()+/* &',+&,(-. A// -#+&- #0 $)&,#$)/,-&
3#$&+)8)$5 ')5 ,$0,/&+)&(5 ,$&# &'( #00,3,)/ 3#""1$,-& ,5(#/#%* ... T'( C'1+3'
0#1$5 S&)/,$<- +(6,-(5 3#""1$,-" )&&+)3&,6( &# ,&- &+)5,&,#$)/ 2)* #0 &',$;,$%.
I4o$ar>6 o+6 cit:6 +: 49:K
4o$ar> a$so reca$$s ho# in 1941,3 the church $eaders assisted the #ar effort not on$y in
#ords 0ut a$so in deeds: 9hen a tan< co$umn christened FDimitri Dons<oiF IThe 3a$iant
2ussian !rince #ho routed the Tartars on the Fie$d of
4u$i<o3o in 13J": An oratorio in his honour 0y (uri Sha+orin had
0een %i3en a Sta$in !ri>e in 1941 Hust 0efore the #ar:K +aid for out of funds co$$ected 0y
the 5hurch #as handed o3er to the Army6 the Metro+o$itan ;icho$as s+o<e of 2ussia's
Fsacred hatred of the fascist ro00ersF and referred to Sta$in as Four common Father6
Bose+h Aissariono3ichF:
?n Se+tem0er 1943 a sort of FconcordatF #as conc$uded 0et#een the 5hurch and the
State6 after Sta$in had himse$f recei3ed a$$ the three Metro+o$itans (Ser%ius6 A$e8is and
;icho$as)6 at the 4rem$in: As a resu$t of this meetin% the 5hurch #as a$$o#ed to e$ect its
!atriarch and to re,esta0$ish a +ro+er ecc$esiastica$ %o3ernment6 the .o$y Synod: The
2ussian @rthodo8 5hurch #as a$$o#ed to resume +u0$ication of the Uournal o" the
-osco: Patriarchate #hich had 0een sus+ended in 193)6 and to o+en a $imited num0er
of theo$o%ica$ seminaries and academies: The 5hurch #as a$so reco%nised as a FHuridica$
+ersonF entit$ed to o#n +ro+erty:
The officia$ reco%nition of the !atriarcha$ 5hurch as the so$e $e%a$ re+resentati3e of the
@rthodo8 5hristians 0ecame fu$$y o+erati3e in @cto0er 1943 #ith the a++ointment of the
F5ounci$ for the affairs of the 2ussian @rthodo8 5hurchF under the a0o3e mentioned
4ar+o36 #hich #as to act as the %o,0et#een 0et#een the !atriarchate and the So3iet
1o3ernment: ?t issued $icences for the o+enin% and restoration of churchesL and another
of its duties #as to $oo< after the materia$ interests and e3en +ersona$ comfort of the
!atriarch and his c$oser co$$a0orators:
The !atriarchate 0ecame6 as it #ere6 +art of the So3iet Csta0$ishment: ?t not on$y made a
%reat sho# of the 5hurch's $oya$ty to the re%ime6 and of a s+ecia$ de3otion to Sta$in
+ersona$$y6 0ut it a$so 0ecame a +o$itica$ instrument of considera0$e internationa$
im+ortance:
Ser%ius6 the first #ar,time !atriarch6 died in May 19446 and #as succeeded 0y A$e8is6 the
Metro+o$itan of enin%rad and ;o3%orod: By the time A$e8is #as e$ected6 the 2ussians
had +ractica$$y #on the #arL 0ut this did not mean that the 5hurch had out$i3ed its
usefu$ness from Sta$in's +oint of 3ie#:
C'1+3' -1..#+& 2)- -&,// $((5(5 &# ($')$3( &'( +(-.(3&)8,/,&* #0 &'( S#6,(&
!#6(+$"($&... )$5 2)- .)+&,31/)+/* (--($&,)/ ,$ &'( 0,%'& )%),$-& 3($&+,01%)/ 0#+3(-
,$ &'( 8#+5(+/)$5-YYYO1&-,5( &'( $(2 S#6,(& 8#+5(+- &'(+( 2)- (6($ "#+( 0#+ &'(
C'1+3' &# 5# )- )$ )//* #0 &'( S#6,(& S&)&(. T'( R(5 A+"* 2)- $#2 #.(+)&,$% ,$
3#1$&+,(- 2,&' )$ O+&'#5#B .#.1/)&,#$ER1")$,), B1/%)+,) )$5 S(+8,)E)$5 &'(
R1--,)$ O+&'#5#B C'1+3' 3#1/5 )--,-& ,$ .+#"#&,$%... 0+,($5-',. )"#$% &'(
O+&'#5#B .(#./(- #0 &'( B)/;)$-.
I 4o$ar>6 o+: cit:6 +: -):K
The uns+ectacu$ar e$ection of Ser%ius as !atriarch in 1943 0y a handfu$ of metro+o$itans
and 0isho+s contrasted stri<in%$y #ith the sum+tuous e$ection of A$e8is in Fe0ruary 194-
attended 0y &"4 ecc$esiastica$ di%nitaries and $aymen: Amon% the %uests #ere the
!atriarchs of Antioch and A$e8andria and the re+resentati3es of other Ba$<an and ;ear,
Cast !atriarchs: Metro+o$itan BenHamin of ;orth America #as a$so +resent6 and a$$uded
a++ro3in%$y to the o$d messianic traditions of the 2ussian @rthodo8 5hurch 0y sayin%
that Mosco# mi%ht yet 0ecome FThe Third 2omeF:
Sta$in #as a$$ in fa3our of Mosco#'s 0ecomin% a sort of FAaticanF of the @rthodo8
5hurch6 and A$e8is #as %i3en e3ery encoura%ement to e8tend his forei%n contacts and to
c$aim for himse$f and his 5hurch a $eadin% +osition in the re$i%ious #or$d: @n A+ri$ 1"6
194- Sta$in had another meetin% #ith the !atriarch A$e8is and the Metro+o$itan ;icho$as6
and %a3e the !atriarch e3ery encoura%ement for his forthcomin% Hourney to the ;ear and
Midd$e CastDa Hourney #hich $asted four #ee<s: A s+ecia$ +$ane6 +i$oted 0y a .ero of
the So3iet *nion6 #as +$aced at the !atriarch's dis+osa$: The +o$itica$ im+$ications of a$$
these contacts #ere o03ious enou%hL and6 as a$ready said6 the 5hurch hierarchy6 and in
+articu$ar the Metro+o$itan ;icho$as #ere to $end s+ecia$ res+ecta0i$ity to a 3ariety of
committees of in=uiry6 as #e$$ as to the !eace Mo3ement in its 3arious internationa$
manifestations6 such as the famous con%ress of the !artisans of !eace at the Sa$$e !$eye$
in !aris in 1949:
There #as much ta$< in Mosco#6 es+ecia$$y to#ards the end of the #ar6 a0out Sta$in6 the
e8,seminarist6 ha3in% a soft s+ot for the 5hurch6 #hich #as thou%ht to 0e someho#
associated in his mind #ith the Musco3ite State and #ith his FforerunnersF6 the Mosco#
Tsars:
The internationa$ +ur+ose ser3ed 0y the 5hurch #as a$so on$y too o03ious: ?t did its 0est
to esta0$ish a friend$y contact #ith certain other 5hurchesL a %reat fuss #as made o3er the
3isit to Mosco# of the Arch0isho+ of (or< #hose on$y com+$aint #as that the 0earded
o$d %ent$emen #ou$d insist on <issin% him on e3ery +ossi0$e occasionL he thou%ht this
Fconstant di3in% into their #his<ersF #as 0ein% a 0it o3erdone: Sir Archi0a$d 5$ar< 4err
($ater ord ?n3ercha+e$)6 the British Am0assador to$d me6 at the end of 19446 a0out a
meetin% he had #ith Sta$in6 at #hich the Marsha$ assured him that Fin his o#n #ay6 he
a$so 0e$ie3ed in 1od:F F? dare say6F 5$ar< 4err commented6 Fhe had his ton%ue in his
chee< #hen he said soL 0ut it is sure$y interestin% that he shou$d ha3e thou%ht it +o$itic to
ma<e such a remar< to mePF
The modus vivendi esta0$ished 0et#een the 5hurch and the State durin% the #ar #as of
considera0$e mutua$ 0enefit6 thou%h no dou0t it made many diehard communists s=uirm
at timesL it #as a$$ 3ery Fun,eninistF: Sta$in's a++arent #ish that the 2ussian @rthodo8
5hurch shou$d 0ecome a sort of FAaticanF for a$$ @rthodo8 5hristians throu%hout the
#or$d6 met #ith a considera0$e measure of success6 thou%h not com+$ete success: The
resistance to the #ho$e conce+t de3e$o+ed after the #ar6 to%ether #th the intensification
of co$d,#ar currents:
?t is true that6 e3en at the hei%ht of the Sta$in,!atriarch honeymoon6 0oth the !arty and the
4omsomo$ continued to discoura%e re$i%ious +ractices amon% their mem0ers6 and no
cha+$ains #ere e3er attached to the 2ed Army: But acti3e anti,re$i%ious +ro+a%anda in
2ussia #as not to 0e resumed on a $ar%e sca$e unti$ after Sta$in's death:
The 2ussian @rthodo8 5hurch #as traditiona$$y anti,5atho$icL ne3erthe$ess #ith the
esta0$ishment of a !o$ish Army in 2ussia in 1943 and the su0se=uent $i0eration of !o$and
0y the 2ed Army6 Sta$in #as 3ery an8ious6 at one sta%e6 to norma$ise re$ations #ith the
5atho$ic 5hurch as #e$$: ?n this he #as much $ess successfu$: And6 on one famous
occasion6 he e3en had a 0i% +ractica$ Ho<e +$ayed on him 0y an o0scure American +arish
+riest:
PART IAE S&)/,$%+)5
C').&(+ 1 STALIN!RAD: THE CHUIKOA STORY
Broad$y s+ea<in%6 the Batt$e of Sta$in%rad may 0e di3ided into the fo$$o#in% sta%es:
(1) Bu$y 17 to Au%ust 46 #hen the main fi%htin% #as sti$$ inside the Don Bend: .ere the
2ussians attem+ted6 on the stren%th of the Fnot,a,ste+,0ac<F s$o%an at $east to s$o# do#n
the 1erman ad3ance: @n the north side of the Bend6 the 2ussians fou%ht stu00orn$y in
order to +reser3e at $east a fe# 0rid%eheads: ?t #as a$so ho+ed that6 0y s$o#in% do#n the
1erman ad3ance6 time #ou$d 0e %ained for stren%thenin% the FdefencesF of Sta$in%rad6
#hich #ere 0ein% 0ui$t 0y thousands of +eo+$e in a fe3erish hurry 0ut6 as time #as to
sho#6 #ithout much effect:
I(eremen<o admits that on$y a =uarter of these defences had 0een com+$eted 0y Au%ust6
and 0ad$y at that: ((eremen<o6 o+: cit:6 +: 7):) Moreo3er6 these rudimentary defences
#ere neither +ro+er$y manned nor armed:K
;e3erthe$ess6 authorities such as 1enera$ (eremen<o c$aim that the fi%htin% outside the
Don Bend #as 3ery 3a$ua0$e in s$o#in% do#n the 1erman ad3ance6 and in +re3entin%
them from either tra++in% $ar%e num0ers of 2ussian troo+s inside the 0end6 or ca+turin%
Sta$in%rad at one fe$$ s#oo+:
(&) Au%ust - to Au%ust 1J: .a3in% +re3ious$y forced the south side of the Don at
Tsym$ians<aya6 $ar%e +ortions of the 1erman )th Army6 su++orted 0y 1enera$ .oth's
+an>er army6 #ere no# tryin% to outf$an< the 2ussians 0y stri<in% to#ards Sta$in%rad 3ia
4ote$ni<o3o6 A0%anero3o and !$odo3itoye6 south,east of the city: By Au%ust 14 near$y
the #ho$e of the country inside the Don Bend (e8ce+t for a fe# 2ussian,he$d 0rid%eheads
in the north) had 0een o3errun 0y the 1ermans: Besides attac<in% Sta$in%rad from the
south6 the 1ermans #ere a$so ad3ancin% on the city from the #est and the north,#est:
(3) Au%ust 19 to Se+tem0er 3: The fi%htin% in the country 0et#een Don and Ao$%a no#
reached its hei%ht: A$thou%h6 south,east of the city6 the enemy #as he$d for some days
a$on% the A8ai and then the Mysh<o3a ri3ers6 the 1ermans 0ro<e throu%h to the Ao$%a
north of Sta$in%rad6 formin% there a fi3e,mi$e,#ide sa$ient: This ha++ened on Au%ust &36
a day #hich #as a$so mar<ed 0y a )"",0om0er raid on Sta$in%rad: Des+ite the seemin%$y
chaotic conditions created in the city 0y this su+er,air,raid6 in #hich 4"6""" #ere <i$$ed6
neither the mi$itary nor the ci3i$ian authorities =uite $ost their headsL to a3oid
encirc$ement and a$so to sto+ the 1ermans from stri<in% south from their Ao$%a sa$ient
north of Sta$in%rad6 the 2ussians hastened to retreat to the city: The 1erman 2yno<,
(er>o3<a sa$ient north of Sta$in%rad #as Fsta0i$isedF:
(4) Bet#een Se+tem0er 4 and 13 the fi%htin% #as concentrated on the Fouts<irtsF of
Sta$in%rad6 0ut #ith the 1ermans 0rea<in% throu%h to the Ao$%a south of Sta$in%rad as
#e$$6 the 2ussian )&nd Army found itse$f iso$ated from the rest of the 2ussian forces: @n
Se+tem0er 1& 1enera$ 5hui<o3 #as a++ointed commander of the )&nd Army:
(-) The +eriod from Se+tem0er 13 to ;o3em0er 1J #as mar<ed 0y the historic 0att$e
inside Sta$in%rad: By the midd$e of @cto0er6 the 2ussians #ere ho$din% on$y three sma$$
0rid%eheadsL 0ut sti$$ the 1ermans #ere una0$e to dis$od%e them6 des+ite a Ffina$F
offensi3e in the first ha$f of ;o3em0er: The 0u$< of the 2ussian arti$$ery #as on the other
side of the Ao$%a and so re$ati3e$y in3u$nera0$e6 des+ite %reat 1erman air su+eriority:
Then came the 2ussian counter,offensi3e:
(1) ;o3em0er 19 to Decem0er 116 durin% #hich +eriod the 2ussians succeeded in fina$$y
encirc$in% the 1ermans and 2umanians at Sta$in%rad:
(&) Decem0er 1& to Banuary 16 #hich #as chief$y mar<ed 0y the .oth,Manstein attem+t
to 0rea< throu%h to the encirc$ed Sta$in%rad troo+s6 0y its fai$ure6 a further #idenin% of
the 2ussian rin% round Sta$in%rad and the com+$ete rout of the ?ta$ians on the Don:
(3) Banuary 1" to Fe0ruary &6 1943 mar<ed 0y the fina$ $i=uidation of the 1erman and
2umanian forces inside the Sta$in%rad Fcau$dronF:
?n considerin% the defensi3e sta%e of the Sta$in%rad 0att$e6 the most im+ortant +iece of
e3idence a3ai$a0$e6 0oth on the mi$itary as+ects and on 2ussian mora$e6 is the remar<a0$e
0oo< The .eginning o" the Boad 0y 1enera$ (no# Marsha$) 5hui<o36 #ho #as the
5ommander of the )&nd Army throu%hout the Sta$in%rad sie%e: !u0$ished in 19-96 it is
the 0est account of this com+$icated 0att$e: ?t is a$so one of the most candid 0oo<s
+u0$ished 0y any 2ussian 1enera$:
I An Cn%$ish 3ersion of the e8+ur%ated 19)1 edition #as +u0$ished in ondon in 19)3:K
5hui<o36 #ho unti$ the 0e%innin% of 194& had 0een So3iet Mi$itary AttachN at
5hun%<in%6 #as sent to the Sta$in%rad front at the 0e%innin% of Bu$y6 #hen the 1ermans
#ere ad3ancin% across the Don country: ?n his account of the retreat to Sta$in%rad he
%i3es a 3ery fran< +icture of the une3en mora$e of 0oth troo+s and officers6 inc$udin%
senior officers:
T'1- )& &'( +),/2)* -&)&,#$ #0 +#/#6# =2(-& #0 S&)/,$%+)5> I +)$ ,$&# &'(
'()591)+&(+- #0 &'( M1-& A+"*. T'( H.R. 2)- #$ 2'((/-. E6(+*&',$%, ,$3/15,$%
A+"* C#"")$5(+ !#+5#6<- -/((.,$% #1&0,&, 2)- #$ &'( "#6(E,$ 3)+- )$5 /#++,(-. I
5,5 $#& /,;( -13' (B3(--,6( "#8,/,&*. O$( 3#1/5 0((/ ) /)3; #0 -&)8,/,&*, )$5 ) /)3; #0
5(&(+",$)&,#$. T'(* /##;(5 )- &'#1%' &'(* 2(+( &+*,$% &# %(& )2)* 0+#" &'(,+
.1+-1(+-E(6(+*8#5*, ,$3/15,$% &'( A+"* C#"")$5(+.
A fe# days $ater6 tra3e$$in% #est to#ards the Don6 he a$so sa# e3idence of 3ery $o#
mora$e:
I -)2 '#2 &'(-( .(#./( 2(+( "#6,$% )/#$% &'( 2)&(+/(-- S&)/,$%+)5 -&(..( 0+#"
2(-& &# ()-&, ()&,$% 1. &'(,+ /)-& +(-(+6(- #0 0##5, )$5 #6(+3#"( 8* &'( -&,0/,$% '()&.
W'($ I )-;(5 &'(": DW'(+( )+( *#1 %#,$%I W'# )+( *#1 /##;,$% 0#+ID &'(* %)6(
-($-(/(-- )$-2(+-: &'(* )// -(("(5 &# 8( /##;,$% 0#+ -#"(8#5* #$ &'( #&'(+ -,5( #0
&'( A#/%), #+ ,$ &'( S)+)&#6 +(%,#$... I$ &'( -&(..(, I "(& &'( -&)00- #0 &2# 5,6,-,#$-
2'# 3/),"(5 &# 8( /##;,$% 0#+ &'( H.R. #0 &'( 9&' A+"*. T'(-( -&)00- 3#$-,-&(5 #0 )
0(2 #00,3(+- -,&&,$% ,$ &'+(( #+ 0#1+- 3)+-, /#)5(5 &# &'( 8+," 2,&' .(&+#/ &,$-. I$
+(./* &# "* 91(-&,#$-: DW'(+( )+( &'( !(+")$-I W'(+( )+( #1+ 1$,&-I W'(+( )+(
*#1 %#,$%ID &'(* 5,5$<& ;$#2 2')& &# -)*. I& 2)-, 3/()+/*, $#& %#,$% &# 8( ()-* &#
+(-&#+( &'( "#+)/( #0 &'(-( .(#./( )$5 &'( 0,%'&,$% -.,+,& #0 &'( &+##.- ,$ +(&+()&...
Some of the %enera$s #ere no 0etter: 1enera$ 1ordo36 #ho had 0een commander of the
&1st Army6 #as a++ointed commander of the )4th Army6 #ith 5hui<o3 as his De+uty:
O$ &'( $,%'& #0 J1/* 19 2( "(& )& &'( H.R. #0 &'( 64&' A+"*... I ')5 $(6(+ "(& ',"
8(0#+(. H( 2)- ) %($(+)/ 2,&' %+(*,$% '),+ )$5 2,&' &,+(5 %+(* (*(- 2',3' -(("(5 &#
-(( $#&',$%, )$5 2'#-( 3#/5 (B.+(--,#$ -(("(5 &# -)*: DD#$<& &(// "( )8#1& &'(
-,&1)&,#$, I ;$#2 )// )8#1& ,&. T'(+(<- $#&',$% I 3)$ 5# )8#1& ,&, -,$3( -13' ,- "*
0)&(.D
Bein% in a defeatist mood6 1ordo3 ordered that on$y +art of his Army shou$d ho$d
+ositions inside the Don Bend6 and that the reser3es 0e $eft on the east side of the Don:
5hui<o3 #as critica$ of this decision6 0ut adds that F1enera$ 1ordo3 #as not a man #ho
to$erated any contradiction from his inferiors:F
;e3erthe$ess6 on$y a fe# days $ater6 1ordo3 #as summoned to Mosco# and #as
a++ointed to the e3en hi%her +ost of commander of the Sta$in%rad Front (i:e: Army
1rou+): Meantime6 5hui<o3 #as $eft as actin% commander of the )4th Army: @n Bu$y &-
the troo+s under his command made contact #ith the 1ermans at ;i>hne,5hirs<aya6 in
the south,east corner of the Don Bend: After descri0in% a ferocious t#o,day 0att$e6 in the
course of #hich many 1erman tan<s #ere destroyed6 and the 1ermans a$so suffered
hea3y casua$ties from the 2ussian *at!usha mortars6 5hui<o3 then re$ates ho# the
1ermans ne3erthe$ess succeeded in 0rea<in% throu%h the 2ussian $ines inside the Don
Bend:
W( ')5 $# &)$;- /(0&, 81& I -($& )/#$% -(6(+)/ 8)&&)/,#$- #0 ")+,$(- &# 0,// ,$ &'(
%).... I& -(("(5 &')& 2( 2#1/5 ")$)%(, ,$ &'( ($5, &# 3/#-( &'( 8+()3'. B1& '(+(,
1$0#+&1$)&(/*, ) .)$,3 -&)+&(5. I& 5,5 $#& -&)+& ,$ &'( 0+#$& /,$(, 81& ,$ &'( +()+. I&
-&)+&(5 )"#$% &'( "(5,3)/ .(+-#$$(/, ,$ &'( )+&,//(+* .)+; )$5 #1+ &+)$-.#+& 1$,&-,
)// #0 &'(" #$ &'( +,%'& 8)$; #0 &'( +,6(+. T'(* ')5 '()+5 0+#" -#"(2'(+( &')& &'(
!(+")$ &)$;- 2(+( 2,&',$ ) 3#1./( #0 ",/(-. I$ &'#-( 5)*- -13' ) .,(3( #0 $(2- 2)-
-100,3,($& &# 5+,6( )// &'(-( .(#./( ,$ 5,-#+5(+ &# &'( +,6(+ 3+#--,$%. T'+#1%'
3')$$(/- 1$;$#2$ &# "( &',- .)$,3 -.+()5 &# &'( 0+#$& /,$( &+##.-.
T# -&#. &',- ")-- #0 .(#./( )$5 6(',3/(- 0+#" +1-',$% &#2)+5- &'( D#$, I -($&
-(6(+)/ "("8(+- #0 "* -&)00 )$5 "* )+&,//(+* 3',(0, M):#+-!($(+)/ B+#1&, &# &'(
3+#--,$%. I& 2)- )// &## /)&( )$5 ,$ 6),$. E$("* ),+3+)0& -.#&&(5 &',- /)+%(
3#$3($&+)&,#$ #0 .(#./( )$5 3)+- )& &'( +,6(+ 3+#--,$%, )$5 .+#3((5(5 &# 8#"8 ,&. I$
&'( 3#1+-( #0 &',- 8#"8,$% !($(+)/ B+#1&... )$5 -(6(+)/ #&'(+ #00,3(+- #0 &'( A+"*
H.R. 2(+( ;,//(5.
By ni%htfa$$ the 1ermans had destroyed the 0rid%e6 0ut one infantry di3ision and some
other sma$$ units #ere sti$$ inside the Don Bend: 9hat ha++ened ne8t #as on$y too
ty+ica$ of the $ac< of coordination at the to+ on the 2ussian side: ?n 5hui<o3's a0sence6
the 5hief of Staff of the )4th Army %a3e orders to these troo+s to retire 0eyond the Don:
Arri3in% 0ac< at head=uarters6 5hui<o3 #as a++a$$ed 0y this ne#s6 and +rom+t$y
countermanded the order #hich mi%ht ha3e $ed to another stam+ede and +anic6
+articu$ar$y in the a0sence of any crossin% in that area: The troo+s successfu$$y du% in
inside the Don Bend6 and so fi$$ed the 0reach at the end of three days' hea3y fi%htin%:
1enera$s the #or$d o3er ha3e a8es to %rind6 and 5hui<o3 is no e8ce+tion: Throu%hout
this narrati3e he contrasts %ood troo+s #ith 0ad troo+s6 %ood $eadershi+ #ith 0ad
$eadershi+: Thus6 #hen he $earned6 at the hei%ht of the fi%htin% inside the Don Bend6 that
1enera$ 4o$+a<chi had 0een re$ie3ed of his command of the )&nd Army6 and had 0een
re+$aced 0y ieutenant,1enera$ o+atin6 he #as far from +$eased:
A 3)6)/+* ")$ ,$ &'( .)-&, !($(+)/ L#.)&,$ ')5 /)&(/* 8(($ ,$ 3')+%( #0 )$ )+"*
2',3', 51+,$% &'( 0,%'&,$% #$ &'( D#$, ')5 8(3#"( -# -3)&&(+(5 )3+#-- &'( -&(..(-
&')& ,& 2)- (B&+("(/* 5,00,31/& &# )--("8/( ,& )%),$.
P/1". )$5 0),+ )$5 #1&2)+5/* 6(+* 3)/", L#.)&,$ &+()&(5 "( &# )$ (B3(//($& /1$3'
)& ',- 3#"")$5 .#-&, 81& ,$0#+"(5 "( &')&, ,$ &'( )8-($3( #0 "1$,&,#$-, &'( 6M$5
A+"* 3#1/5 $#& 3)++* #1& &'( #+5(+- #0 &'( A+"* !+#1.<- 3',(0 #0 -&)00... I )& #$3(
0(/& '( /)3;(5 -(/0-3#$0,5($3(, )$5 5#18&(5 2'(&'(+ '( 3#1/5 '#/5 &'( +,%'& 0/)$; #$
&'( D#$, -,$3( ',- &+##.- 2(+( ')/0-($3,+3/(5.
I(eremen<o in his 0oo< ;%talingrad7 defends o+atin 0y sayin% that6 since he #as
commander of the )&nd Army in Bu$y,Au%ust6 he deser3es a $itt$e share of its fame: To
5hui<o3 he #as a +erson to 0e %ot rid of as =uic<$y as +ossi0$e:K
*nder constant air attac<6 5hui<o3 s+ent the rest of the day circ$in% a0out the Don
ste++es6 $oo<in% for o+atin's F$ost di3isionsF Mean#hi$e6 1enera$ Shumi$o3 had 0een
a++ointed commander of the )4th Army6 and 5hui<o3 #as ordered to re+ort to 1ordo3 at
Sta$in%rad:
A& S&)/,$%+)5 #$ A1%1-& I, I 0#1$5 !#+5#6 4-# 5#2$3)-& #$/* ) 0(2 5)*- 8(0#+(7 ,$ )
%)*, )/"#-& :#31/)+ "##5. I$ &)/;,$% &# ),+-0#+3( !($(+)/ K'+1;,$, '( -#1$5(5
($&,+(/* -(/0-3#$0,5($&, )- &'#1%' &'( N)C,- 2(+( #$ &'( .#,$& #0 8(,$% 2,.(5 #1& )&
)$* "#"($&. DT'( !(+")$-,D '( -),5, D')6( %#& 8#%%(5 5#2$ ,$ #1+ 5(0($3(-, )$5
2,&' #$( 8/#2 2( 3)$ 5(-&+#* &'( 2'#/( /#&.D R("("8(+,$% "* 6),$ -()+3' ,$ &'(
-&(..( 0#+ &'( /#-& 5,6,-,#$-, 2',3' ')5 :1-& 6)$,-'(5, I 3)"( &# &'( 3#$3/1-,#$ &')&
&'( C#"")$5(+ #0 &'( S&)/,$%+)5 +#$& -,"./* 5,5 $#& ;$#2 2')& 2)- %#,$% #$. H(
2)- 01// #0 2,-'01/ &',$;,$%, )$5 5,5 $#& (6($ ;$#2 &')&, ')6,$% 8+#;($ )3+#-- &'(
D#$ )& T-*"/,)$-;)*) )$5 .1-',$%, )- &'(* 2(+(, &#2)+5- K#&(/$,;#6#, &'(
!(+")$- 2(+( .+(.)+,$% &# -&+,;( ) ",%'&* $(2 8/#2, &',- &,"( )& S&)/,$%+)5 ,&-(/0.
H( 2#1/5 -3)+3(/* /,-&($ &# "* (B./)$)&,#$-, )$5 31& "( -'#+& 8* -)*,$%: DI ;$#2
)8#1& &'( %($(+)/ -,&1)&,#$ )- 2(// )- *#1 5#.D
Fu$$ of fore0odin%6 5hui<o3 returned to the frontL 0ut #as no $on%er a0$e to cross the
DonL +ractica$$y a$$ the country inside the Bend had no# 0een o3errun 0y the 1ermans:
As an e8am+$e of the chaotic $ac< of $iaison 0et#een 2ussian units fi%htin% inside the
Bend6 5hui<o3 te$$s ho#6 #hi$e the 33rd 1uards Di3ision of the )&nd Army he$d u+ the
1ermans a$on% a narro# sector of the front for se3era$ days6 destroyin% or +uttin% out of
action no fe#er than fifty 1erman tan<s and fi%htin% a$most $itera$$y to the $ast man6 the
troo+s on either side of them #ere doin% nothin%6 Fsim+$y #aitin% for somethin% to
ha++enFL 0efore $on%6 they #ere attac<ed 0y stron% 1erman forces #hich 0ro<e throu%h
their $ines:
The heroic stand of the 33rd 1uards Di3ision6 had thus 0een a$most in 3ain:
(et as $ate as Bu$y &) 1enera$ o+atin #as sendin% o+timistic re+orts to head=uarters
a0out im+ortant 1erman forces 0ein% on the +oint of 0ein% encirc$ed: F?t #as $i<e the
story of the man6F 5hui<o3 commented6 F#ho said he had cau%ht a 0ear: '9e$$6 0rin% him
a$on%:' '? can't6 the 0ear #on't $et me:' F
By the time the )&nd Army had retreated 0eyond the Don6 it had 0een decimated6 and
needed stron% reinforcement:
@n returnin% to the Front on Au%ust &6 5hui<o3 found that the situation had 0ad$y
deteriorated: ar%e 1erman forces6 outf$an<in% the main 2ussian forces6 had forced the
Don at Tsym$ians<aya6 and after ca+turin% 4ote$ni<o3o6 #ere ad3ancin% north to#ards
Sta$in%rad in a #ide semi,circ$e throu%h !$odo3itoye and Tin%uta in the 4a$mu< ste++es:
?n many +$aces6 the 2ussians #ere 0ein% smashed 0y hea3y air and tan< concentrations:
Thus6 t#o days $ater 5hui<o3 $earned that a troo+ train un$oadin% fresh Si0erian troo+s at
4ote$ni<o3o station had 0een attac<ed 0y 1erman aircraft and tan<s and the $osses had
0een so a++a$$in% that the co$one$ in command of these troo+s no# retreatin% in disorder
to#ards Sta$in%rad6 #as found in a state of com+$ete ner3ous co$$a+se:
I +("("8(+ ',- .)/( 0)3( )$5 ',- &+("8/,$% 6#,3(. H( 2)- ,$ ) 8)5 -&)&(... DC#"+)5(
!($(+)/,D '( -),5, DI )" ) S#6,(& #00,3(+, )$5 I 3)$$#& -1+6,6( &'( 5()&' #0 ) /)+%(
.)+& #0 "* 5,6,-,#$. I& ,- ')+5 0#+ "( &# )--("8/( &'( -1+6,6#+-, 2'# )+( 3#"./(&(/*
5("#+)/,-(5. I 3)$$#& &'(+(0#+( 3#$&,$1( &# 3#"")$5 &'( 5,6,-,#$.D
I 3#1/5 $#& /()6( &',- 2,&'#1& 5#,$% -#"(&',$% )8#1& ,&... A 0(2 '#1+- /)&(+ 2'($
C#/#$(/ A#-;#8#,$,;#6 3)"( &# ',"-(/0, I 3)//(5 ,$ &# -(( ',", &'( 3',(0 #0 -&)00 )$5
&'( '()5 #0 &'( 5,6,-,#$<- .#/,&,3)/ 5(.)+&"($&. I #+5(+(5 )// &'+(( &# (-&)8/,-'
3#$&)3& 2,&' &'( &+##.- -3)&&(+(5 8(&2(($ G'1&#6# )$5 A8%)$(+#6#, )$5 &# &);( 1.
0,+" 5(0($-,6( .#-,&,#$- #$ &'( $#+&' -,5( #0 &'( AB), +,6(+.
Des+ite hea3y $osses amon% the 2ussian troo+s6 5hui<o3 succeeded in or%anisin% a
defence $ine on the A8ai ri3er6 and6 on Au%ust )6 $aunched some successfu$ counter,
attac<s a%ainst the 1ermans and 2umanians:
A- ) +(-1/& #0 &',- 8)&&/( #0 A1%1-& 6, &'( ($("* -100(+(5 '()6* /#--(-. W( 3).&1+(5
(,%'& %1$- )$5 ")$* -")// )+"-. I 0#1$5 &')& &'( -3)&&(+(5 &+##.- I ')5 )--("8/(5
51+,$% &'( +(&+()&, ')5 $#& /#-& &'(,+ 0,%'&,$% -.,+,&, )$5 0#1%'& 2(//. T'(* 8#/5/*
2($& ,$&# )&&)3;, )$5 5,5 $#& .)$,3 2'($ &'( ($("* 3#1$&(+-)&&)3;(5. T')& 2)- &'(
"),$ &',$%.
Farther east6 at A0%anero3o and Tunduto3o6 #here other units of the )4th Army #ere
no# concentrated6 the 1ermans had a$so fai$ed to 0rea< throu%h: @n that day6 5hui<o3
#as a$so %$ad to $earn that 1ordo3 had 0een re+$aced 0y (eremen<o as commander of the
Sta$in%rad FrontDthou%h $ater he #as not to remain on the 0est of terms #ith him:
The 1erman ad3ance on Sta$in%rad from the south and south,#est #as 0ein% s$o#ed
do#nL 0ut other difficu$ties #ere sti$$ in store: A $ar%e ammunition dum+ south of
Sta$in%rad had 0een destroyed 0y the 1erman 0om0ers6 and the troo+s #ere6 0efore $on%6
to e8+erience a serious shorta%e of ammunition: C3en so6 5hui<o36 assisted 0y udni<o3
and other future heroes of the defence of Sta$in%rad6 he$d the A8ai $ine for o3er a #ee<L
0ut #ith the 1ermans outf$an<in% a$$ these troo+s from the east6 they #ere ordered to
#ithdra# north to the ne8t natura$ defence $ine6 the Mysh<o3a ri3er6 some forty mi$es
south of Sta$in%rad: Durin% this fi%htin% in the country 0et#een Don and Ao$%a6 3irtua$$y
on the outs<irts of Sta$in%rad6 des+ite a$$ the set0ac<s suffered inside the Don Bend6 the
2ussians 0e%an to fi%ht as se$dom 0efore: 5hui<o3 %i3es many e8am+$es of suicida$
resistance #hen 2ussian so$diers6 #ith %renades tied round them6 #ou$d thro#
themse$3es under enemy tan<s: Many of the fresh troo+s that had on$y recent$y 0een
incor+orated in the )&nd and )4th Army #ere Fac=uirin% ne# e8+erience e3ery day6 and
#ere ra+id$y turnin% into mature and hardened troo+sF: The 1erman +$anDto 0rea<
throu%h to the Ao$%a and at the same time to encirc$e 0oth the )&nd and )4th ArmyD
fai$ed: These t#o armies #ere to 0ear the 0runt of the Sta$in%rad fi%htin%6 the former
inside Sta$in%rad6 the $atter south of it:
.it$er had ordered that Sta$in%rad 0e ta<en on Au%ust &-: @n the tra%ic day of Au%ust &3
the 1ermans 0ro<e throu%h to the Ao$%a north of Sta$in%rad6 on a fi3e,mi$e frontL on the
same day6 )"" +$anes attac<ed the city6 <i$$in% some 4"6""" ci3i$ians:
T'( ($#+"#1- 3,&*, -&+(&3',$% 0#+ &',+&* ",/(- )/#$% &'( A#/%), 2)- ($6(/#.(5 ,$
0/)"(-. E6(+*&',$% )+#1$5 2)- 81+$,$% )$5 3#//).-,$%. S#++#2 )$5 5()&' ($&(+(5
,$&# &'#1-)$5- #0 S&)/,$%+)5 '#"(-.
Many thousands of ci3i$ians f$ed across the Ao$%aL 0ut 5hui<o3 stresses the
determination sho#n 0y 0oth the army and the ci3i$ian authorities to sa3e Sta$in%rad at
any +rice: ;orth of the city6 the 1ermans fai$ed to #iden their fi3e,mi$e sa$ient6 #hi$e6 in
the south6 the )4th Army #as sti$$ +re3entin% them6 at that sta%e6 from 0rea<in% throu%h
to the Ao$%a:
But6 durin% the days that fo$$o#ed6 the 1erman +ressure %re# #orse and #orse:
T'( &+##.- #0 &'( 6M$5 )$5 64&' )+",(- 2(+( +(&+()&,$% &#2)+5- &'(,+ 0,$)/
.#-,&,#$-, ,$-,5( S&)/,$%+)5. T'( +#)5- 2(+( 3+#25(5 2,&' +(01%((-. P()-)$&- 0+#"
3#//(3&,6( )$5 -&)&( 0)+"- 2(+( ",%+)&,$%, 2,&' &'(,+ 0)",/,(- )$5 &'(,+ /,6(-&#3;,
")$* )/-# &);,$% &'(,+ )%+,31/&1+)/ ,"./("($&- 2,&' &'(", )$5 3#$6(+%,$% #$ &'(
A#/%) 0(++,(-.
5hui<o36 returnin% from a 3isit to the east side of the Ao$%a a fe# days $ater6 descri0es
the scene at one of the ferries:
+#" &,"( &# &,"( ) !(+")$ -'(// 2#1/5 81+-& ,$ &'( +,6(+, 81& &',- ,$5,-3+,",$)&(
-'(//,$% 2)- $#& 5)$%(+#1-... +#" ) 5,-&)$3( 2( 3#1/5 -(( &')& &'( .,(+ 2)-
3+#25(5 2,&' .(#./(. A- 2( 5+(2 3/#-(+ ")$* 2#1$5(5 2(+( 8(,$% 3)++,(5 #1& #0
&+($3'(-, 8#"8-3+)&(+- )$5 -'(/&(+-. T'(+( 2(+( )/-# ")$* .(#./( 2,&' 81$5/(- )$5
-1,&3)-(- 2'# ')5 8(($ ',5,$% 0+#" !(+")$ 8#"8- )$5 -'(//-. W'($ &'(* -)2 &'(
0(++* )++,6,$% &'(* +1-'(5 &# &'( .,(+, 2,&' &'( #$( 5(-,+( #0 %(&&,$% )2)* &# &'(
#&'(+ -,5( #0 &'( +,6(+, )2)* 0+#" &'(,+ 2+(3;(5 '#1-(-, )2)* 0+#" ) 3,&* &')& ')5
8(3#"( ) '(//. T'(,+ (*(- 2(+( %+," )$5 &'(+( 2(+( &+,3;/(- #0 &()+- +1$$,$%
&'+#1%' &'( 51-& )$5 -##& #$ &'(,+ %+,"* 0)3(-. T'( 3',/5+($, -100(+,$% 0+#" &',+-&
)$5 '1$%(+, 2(+( $#& 3+*,$%, 81& -,"./* 2',$,$%, )$5 -&+(&3',$% #1& &'(,+ /,&&/(
)+"- &# &'( 2)&(+ #0 &'( A#/%).
Durin% the $ast #ee< of Au%ust and the first ten days of Se+tem0er6 the 1ermans #ere
ad3ancin% on Sta$in%rad from a$$ directions6 des+ite stiff 2ussian resistanceL they had
%reat su+eriority in #ea+ons6 a0o3e a$$ in aircraft: By Se+tem0er 1" they 0ro<e throu%h to
the Ao$%a south of Sta$in%rad6 near 4u+orosnoye6 cuttin% the )&nd Army from the )4th:
As a resu$t the )&nd Army #as iso$ated #ithin an irre%u$ar 1erman Fhorse,shoeF of
#hich the northern ti+ reached the Ao$%a at 2yno< and the southern ti+ at 4u+orosnoye6
a0out t#enty mi$es do#nstream: At the time6 the 1erman air force did as many as 36"""
sorties a dayL the 2ussians 0are$y did more than 3"": ;or did the 2ussians ha3e any tan<s
to s+ea< of:
T'( ($("* ')5 3#"./(&( ),+ -1.(+,#+,&*. T',- ')5 ) .)+&,31/)+/* 5(.+(--,$% (00(3&
#$ #1+ &+##.-? )$5 2( 2(+( 0(6(+,-'/* &+*,$% &# &',$; 1. -#"( -#/1&,#$... A .)+& #0
#1+ )$&,-),+3+)0& 5(0($3(- ')5 8(($ 3#"./(&(/* -")-'(5, )$5 "#-& #0 &'( +(-& 2(+(
"#6(5 &# &'( /(0& 8)$; #0 &'( A#/%). H(+( &'( %1$- 3#1/5 0,+( )& !(+")$ ./)$(-
'#6(+,$% #6(+ &'( +,6(+ )$5 #6(+ ) $)++#2 -&+(&3' #0 &'( +,%'& 8)$;? &',-, '#2(6(+,
5,5 $#& .+(6($& !(+")$ ./)$(- 0+#" 8(,$% -1-.($5(5 #6(+ &'( 3,&* )$5 &'( +,6(+
0+#" 5)2$ &# 51-;...
By Se+tem0er 1"6 mora$e amon% the troo+s #as sti$$ 3ery $o#:
T'( '()6* 3)-1)/&,(-, &'( 3#$-&)$& +(&+()&, &'( -'#+&)%( #0 0##5 )$5 "1$,&,#$-, &'(
5,00,31/&* #0 +(3(,6,$% +(,$0#+3("($&- ... E)// &',- ')5 ) 6(+* 8)5 (00(3& #$ "#+)/(.
M)$* /#$%(5 &# %(& )3+#-- &'( A#/%), &# (-3).( &'( '(// #0 S&)/,$%+)5... O$
S(.&("8(+ 14 I "(& &'( 0#+"(+ 3#"")$5(+ #0 &'( 6M$5 A+"* =L#.)&,$>? I 2)-
-&+13; 8* ',- "##5 #0 5(-.),+, 8* ',- 0((/,$% &')& ,& 2)- ,".#--,8/( )$5 .#,$&/(-- &#
0,%'& 0#+ S&)/,$%+)5... A- .#/,&(/* )- .#--,8/(, I -1%%(-&(5 '( +(.#+& &# &'( W)+
C#1$3,/ =#$ &'( #&'(+ -,5( #0 &'( A#/%)>E,$ #&'(+ 2#+5- /()6( S&)/,$%+)5 )/&#%(&'(+.
T',- 5(.+(--(5 "##5 #0 &'( 0#+"(+ 3#"")$5(+ #0 &'( )+"* 2)- 3#$&)%,#1-... T'+((
#0 "* ),5(-, &'( "($ ,$ 3')+%( #0 &)$;-, )+&,//(+* )$5 &'( ($%,$((+,$% &+##.-, )//
3/),",$% &# 8( ,//, ')-&($(5 &# %# 8(*#$5 &'( A#/%)... A// &',- 2)- 8(%,$$,$% &# )00(3&
&'( #+5,$)+* &+##.-...
5hui<o36 aided 0y Di3isiona$ 5ommissar 1uro36 1enera$ 4ry$o36 and others +roceeded
to %i3e a num0er of +e+,ta$<s to the troo+sL a0out the same time6 the 9ar 5ounci$ of the
Sta$in%rad Front issued its famous order: FThe enemy must 0e smashed at Sta$in%rad:F
This had an e$ectrifyin% effect on a$$ the officers6 so$diers and +o$itica$ +ersonne$ of the
)&nd Army:
The 1erman Fhorse,shoeF 3aried in de+thL a+art from a 2ussian sa$ient at @r$o3<a in the
north6 the #estern e8tremity of #hich #as a0out e$e3en mi$es from the Ao$%a6 the rest of
the )&nd Army's 0rid%ehead #as6 on an a3era%e6 a0out fi3e mi$es dee+ on Se+tem0er 136
0efore the first of the %reat 1erman offensi3es a%ainst Sta$in%rad +ro+er: The +rinci+a$
$andmar<s6 from north to south6 #ere 2yno< (to the north of #hich the 1ermans had
crashed throu%h to the Ao$%a on Au%ust &3)6 S+arta<o3<a 1arden 5ity6 then the
Sta$in%rad Tractor !$ant 1arden 5ity6 #ith the Tractor +$ant itse$f nearer the Ao$%aL then6
the Barricades 1arden 5ity6 and the Barricades !$ant6 to the east of it6 a$so on the ri3er
0an<L south of that6 a$so on the ri3er6 #as the 2ed @cto0er !$ant6 and s$i%ht$y to the
south,#est6 the 2ed @cto0er 1arden 5ity6 south of #hich #as the famous Mamai .i$$6
the hi%hest +oint in Sta$in%rad6 for #hich ferocious fi%htin% #as to %o on for months:
Mamai .i$$ mar<ed6 as it #ere6 the 0order 0et#een the industria$ north of Sta$in%rad and
the 0usiness6 administrati3e and residentia$ south of the city6 #ith its t#o rai$#ay stations6
its 2ed Army .ouse6 its *ni3erma% (de+artment store)6 and other 0ui$din%s that #ere to
0ecome famous durin% the $ater sta%es of the 0att$e:
?t #as on Se+tem0er 1&6 t#o days after the )&nd Army had 0een iso$ated from the rest of
the So3iet troo+s that 5hui<o3 #as a++ointed commander of the )&nd Army: The %$oomy
o+atin had 0een re$ie3ed of his command6 and his chief of staff6 1enera$ 4ry$o36 #ho
had had a fine record at @dessa and Se0asto+o$6 had 0een tem+orari$y in char%e: .a3in%
0een a++ointed commander of the )&nd Army 0y the 9ar 5ounci$ of the Sta$in%rad
Front6 F#ith 5omrade Sta$in's a++ro3a$F6 5hui<o3 dec$ared to 4hrushche3 and (ere,
men<o: F9e sha$$ either ho$d the city or die there:F 4hrushche3 assured him that a$$
+ossi0$e he$+ #ou$d 0e %i3en to Sta$in%rad's defenders: 5hui<o3 <e+t on 4ry$o3 as his
chief of staff:
The 0i% 1erman offensi3e started on Se+tem0er 13: ?ts main aim #as to ca+ture Mamai
.i$$6 the centra$ +art of Sta$in%rad6 and so 0rea< throu%h to the Ao$%a: 5hui<o3's
command +ost #as at first ri%ht on to+ of Mamai .i$$6 0ut:
T'( 3#$-&)$& 8#"8,$% )$5 -'(//,$% #0 &'( ',// 3#$&,$1#1-/* -")-'(5 #1+
3#""1$,3)&,#$-, 2',3' ")5( ,& ,".#--,8/( &# 5,+(3& &'( &+##.-... S# 2( "#6(5 &# &'(
T-)+,&-) +)6,$(, /()6,$% #$/* )$ #8-(+6)&,#$ .#-& #$ &#. #0 &'( ',//... D1+,$% &')&
2'#/( 5)* #0 &'( 1@&', $#$( #0 1-, (,&'(+ #00,3(+ #+ -#/5,(+, ')5 ')5 )$*&',$% &# ()&.
O1+ /1$3' 2)- 8(,$% 3##;(5 ,$ ) -")// '#1-( #$ &'( -,5( #0 &'( ',//, 81& )$ ($("*
8#"8 5(-&+#*(5 8#&' &'( ;,&3'($ )$5 #1+ /1$3'. O1+ 3##; &+,(5 &# 3##; #1+ 5,$$(+
,$ ) 0,(/5 ;,&3'($, 81& &',- 2)- )/-# -")-'(5 8* ) 5,+(3& ',&. O1+ 3##; 2)-$<& %#,$%
&# 2)-&( )$* "#+( 0##5 #$ 1-, -# 2( -&)*(5 '1$%+* )// 5)*. !/,$;), #1+ 3##;, )$5
T)-*), #1+ 2),&+(--, 2(+( 5(/,%'&(5 2'($ 2( &+)$-0(++(5 &'(" &# &'( $(2 3#"")$5
.#-&.
This #as a $ar%e6 roomy and #e$$,+rotected du%out6 near the Ao$%a6 and 0et#een the t#o
rai$#ay stations6 #hich had ear$ier 0een the .:Q: of the Sta$in%rad Front:
5hui<o3 descri0es ho#6 after their initia$ successes on the 13th6 the 1ermans6 no# fu$$ of
confidence6 +roceeded to occu+y the centra$ +art of Sta$in%rad:
O1+ 3#1$&(+-)&&)3;- 8(0#+( 5)*8+(); 2(+( $#& 1$-133(--01/ )& 0,+-&? 81& #$3( &'(
-1$ ')5 +,-($ !(+")$ ./)$(-, ,$ %+#1.- #0 0,0&* #+ -,B&*, .+#3((5(5 &# 8#"8 #1+
3#1$&(+-)&&)3;,$% 0#+3(- $#$--&#.... O1+ 3#1$&(+-)&&)3; 0),/(5. B* $##$, &'( ($("*
8+#1%'& ,$&# )3&,#$ $1"(+#1- &)$;- )$5 "#&#+,-(5 ,$0)$&+*... T'( "),$ 8/#2 2)-
),"(5 )& &'( C($&+)/ S&)&,#$. T',- 2)- )$ )&&)3; #0 (B3(.&,#$)/ -&+($%&'. D(-.,&(
($#+"#1- /#--(-, &'( !(+")$- 2(+( $#2 3+)-',$% )'()5. W'#/( 3#/1"$- #0 &)$;-
)$5 "#&#+,-(5 ,$0)$&+* 2(+( 8+();,$% ,$&# &'( 3($&+( #0 &'( 3,&*. T'( N)C,- 2(+(
$#2 )..)+($&/* 3#$6,$3(5 &')& &'( 0)&( #0 S&)/,$%+)5 2)- -()/(5, )$5 &'(* '1++,(5
&#2)+5- &'( A#/%)... O1+ -#/5,(+-E-$,.(+-, )$&,-&)$; %1$$(+-, )+&,//(+*-"($, /*,$%
,$ 2),& ,$ '#1-(-, 3(//)+- )$5 0,+,$%-.#,$&-, 3#1/5 2)&3' &'( 5+1$;($ N)C,- :1".,$%
#00 &'( &+13;-, ./)*,$% "#1&' #+%)$-, 8(//#2,$% )$5 5)$3,$% #$ &'( .)6("($&-.
.undreds of them #ere <i$$ed6 0ut more and more 1erman troo+s #ere f$oodin% the
centre of Sta$in%rad: The fi%htin% #as no# #ithin J"" yards of the )&nd Army's
command +ost: That ni%ht6 5hui<o3 thre# in his sma$$ reser3e of nineteen tan<s6 to sto+
the 1ermans from 0rea<in% throu%h to the Ao$%a and to the Army .:Q:
?t #as durin% the critica$ ni%ht of Se+tem0er 14,1- that the famous 2odimtse3 Di3ision6
1"6""" stron%6 0e%an to arri3e across the Ao$%a:
C8ce+t for anti,tan<s %uns6 the 0u$< of the di3ision's arti$$ery #as to stay on the $eft 0an<:
T#o infantry re%iments of the 2odimtse3 di3ision #ere ordered to Fc$ear the centre of
Sta$in%rad F of the 1ermans6 and another #as ordered to occu+y Mamai .i$$ and di% in
there: Throu%hout the 1-th6 the fi%htin% #as e8treme$y hea3yL the 5entra$ 2ai$#ay
Station chan%ed hands se3era$ times6 and6 0y the end of the day Fit #as hard to decide
#ho #as in +ossession of Mamai .i$$F: .o#e3er6 on the mornin% of the 1)th6 Mamai .i$$
#as reca+tured 0y the 2ussians6 and the fi%htin% for the .i$$ #as to continue a$most
uninterru+ted$y unti$ the end of Banuary:
?t #as at the hei%ht of this fi%htin% that the troo+s of the Sta$in%rad Front attem+ted to
0rea< throu%h the 1erman F2yno<F sa$ient from the north: 5hui<o3 te$$s #ith some irony
ho# this offensi3e6 conducted 0y (eremen<o and his de+uty6 the same o$d 1ordo36 came
to nothin%: For a fe# hours on Se+tem0er 1J the Sta$in%rad s<y #as c$ear of 1erman
aircraftL they had %one to dea$ #ith the attem+ted (eremen<o 0rea<throu%hL soon
after#ards they #ere 0ac< o3er Sta$in%rad:
Durin% that day the fi%htin% #as chief$y on Mamai .i$$ and around the 5entra$ Station:
The to+ of Mamai .i$$ #as a%ain reca+tured F0y the remnants of So$o%u0's di3isionF and
5o$one$ (e$in's re%iment6 #hich had ad3anced 0et#een 1"" and 1-" yards that day: @n
the other hand6 the 5entra$ Station #as $ost to the 1ermans that ni%ht6 after fi3e days'
0$oody6 often hand,to,hand fi%htin%:
B* &',- &,"( =C'1,;#6 +(/)&(-> 2( ')5 $#&',$% /(0& 2,&' 2',3' &# 3#1$&(+-)&&)3;.
!($(+)/ R#5,"&-(6<- 1@&' D,6,-,#$ ')5 8(($ 8/(5 2',&(. I& ')5 ($&(+(5 &'( 0+)*
0+#" &'( "#"($& ,& 3+#--(5 &'( A#/%), )$5 ')5 8#+$( &'( 8+1$& #0 &'( '()6,(-&
!(+")$ 8/#2-... T'(* ')5 ')5 &# )8)$5#$ -(6(+)/ 8/#3;- #0 '#1-(- ,$-,5( 3($&+)/
S&)/,$%+)5, 81& &',- 3#1/5 $#& 8( 5(-3+,8(5 )- ) 2,&'5+)2)/ #+ ) +(&+()&. T'(+( 2)-
$#8#5* /(0& &# +(&+()&. R#5,"&-(6<- %1)+5-"($ -&##5 0,+" &# &'( /)-& (B&+(",&*, )$5
#$/* &'( '()6,/*-2#1$5(5 3+)2/(5 )2)*... +#" 2')& &'(-( 2#1$5(5 &#/5 1-, ,&
&+)$-.,+(5 &')& &'( N)C,-, ')6,$% 3).&1+(5 &'( -&)&,#$, 3#$&,$1(5 &# -100(+ '()6*
/#--(-. O1+ -#/5,(+-, ')6,$% 8(($ 31& #00 0+#" &'( "),$ 0#+3(- #0 &'( 5,6,-,#$, ')5
($&+($3'(5 &'("-(/6(- ,$ 6)+,#1- 81,/5,$%- )+#1$5 &'( -&)&,#$, #+ 1$5(+ +),/2)*
3)++,)%(-E 1-1)//* ,$ %+#1.- #0 &2# #+ &'+(( "($E)$5 0+#" &'(+( &'(* 3#$&,$1(5
&# ')+)-- &'( !(+")$- $,%'& )$5 5)*...
There is no dou0t6 as 5hui<o3 himse$f admits6 that it #as the men of the 2odimtse3
Di3ision #ho sa3ed Sta$in%rad durin% the second ha$f of Se+tem0er: But he +ays this
tri0ute a $itt$e re$uctant$y: the reason 0ein% that6 for months after#ards6 the 2odimtse3
Di3ision continued to recei3e incom+ara0$y more +u0$icity in the So3iet +ress (and6
conse=uent$y6 throu%hout the #or$d) than any other: ?n rea$ity6 it had suffered such
a++a$$in% $osses that6 after the end of Se+tem0er6 it +$ayed on$y a minor +art in the
Sta$in%rad fi%htin% and occu+ied a re$ati3e$y =uiet sector:
Su++$ies for the )&nd Army inside Sta$in%rad had a$$ to come from across the Ao$%aL and
the ri3er6 #hich is o3er a mi$e #ide at Sta$in%rad6 #as under constant 0om0in% durin% the
day6 and arti$$ery and mortar fire durin% the ni%ht:
U$,&- 2',3' ')5 -133((5(5 ,$ 3+#--,$% &'( A#/%) 51+,$% &'( $,%'&, ')5 &# 8( .1& ,$
.#-,&,#$ )&. #$3(, 8(0#+( 5)2$, )$5 )// -1../,(- ')5 &# 8( ,""(5,)&(/* 5,-&+,81&(5
)"#$% &'( &+##.-, -,$3( &'(* 2#1/5 #&'(+2,-( ')6( 8(($ 5(-&+#*(5 8* 8#"8,$%...
W( ')5 $(,&'(+ '#+-(- $#+ 3)+- ... (6(+*&',$% &')& 2)- 8+#1%'& )3+#-- &'( A#/%) ')5
&# 8( 3)++,(5 &# &'( 0,+,$% /,$( 8* &'( -#/5,(+- &'("-(/6(-E&'#-( 6(+* -#/5,(+- 2'#,
51+,$% &'( 5)*, ')5 &# +(.(/ 0,(+3( ($("* )&&)3;- )$5 2'# )& $,%'&, 2,&'#1& -/((. #+
+(-.,&(, ')5 &# 3)++* )""1$,&,#$-, 0##5 )$5 ($%,$((+,$% (91,."($& &# &'( 0+#$&
/,$(-. T',- 2)- &(++,8/* (B')1-&,$%, )$5 ,$(6,&)8/* /#2(+(5 &'(,+ 0,%'&,$% 3).)3,&*?
)$5 *(&, &')& ,- '#2 ,& 2($& #$ ,$ S&)/,$%+)5, 5)* )0&(+ 5)*, )$5 2((; )0&(+ 2((;, )-
/#$% )- &'( B)&&/( #0 S&)/,$%+)5 3#$&,$1(5.
Another a0so$ute$y 3ita$ factor of the Sta$in%rad fi%htin% (0ut one to #hich 5hui<o3
refers as $itt$e as +ossi0$e) #as that +ractica$$y a$$ the arti$$ery6 *at!usha mortars6 etc:D
#ere on the other side of the Ao$%a6 and these re+resented a formida0$e force: Aictor
;e<raso36 the future no3e$ist6 #ho s+ent 3irtua$$y the #ho$e of the Sta$in%rad 0att$e as a
$ieutenant of the Batyu< Di3ision6 in the Mamai .i$$ sector6 to$d me:
E-.(3,)//* &#2)+5- &'( ($5 #0 O3&#8(+, 2'($ 2( ')5 $#&',$% 81& ) 0(2 -")//
8+,5%('()5- /(0& #$ &'( +,%'& 8)$; #0 &'( +,6(+, &'( $1"8(+ #0 &+##.- &'(+( 2)-
(B&+("(/* -")//. P(+').- ML,LLL ,$ )//.
IA $eadin% So3iet mi$itary e8+ert6 1enera$ Ta$ens<y6 in s+ea<in% to me a0out Sta$in%rad
in 194-6 +ut the fi%ure rather hi%her: a0out 4"6""": There #as6 he said6 +hysica$$y no
+ossi0i$ity of ha3in% more +eo+$e on the 0rid%eheads6K
B1&, #$ &'( #&'(+ ')$5, &'( #&'(+ -,5( #0 &'( A#/%) 2)- ) +()/ )$&-'().. I& 2)- &'(+(
&')& )// &'( -1../* -(+6,3(-, &'( )+&,//(+*, ),+-0#+3(, (&3. 2(+( 3#$3($&+)&(5. A$5 ,&
2)- they 2'# ")5( ,& '(// 0#+ &'( !(+")$-.
C8act$y the same +oint is made 0y 4onstantin Simono3 in his ne# no3e$6 -en /re 3ot
.orn %oldiers, an im+ortant correcti3e to the 5hui<o3 story:
<e could certainly not have held Stalingrad had /e not been supported by artillery and
;)&*1-')- on the other bank all the time. I 3)$ ')+5/* 5(-3+,8( &'( -#/5,(+-< /#6( 0#+
&'("... A$5 )- &,"( 2($& #$, &'(+( 2(+( "#+( )$5 "#+( )$5 "#+( #0 &'(", )$5 2(
3#1/5 0((/ ,&. I& 2)- ')+5 &# ,")%,$( )& &'( &,"( &')& &'(+( 2)- such ) 3#$3($&+)&,#$
#0 %1$- 0,+,$% &'(,+ -'(//- )& &'( !(+")$-, "#+$,$%, $##$ )$5 $,%'&, #6(+ #1+
'()5- H
IOnamia6 ;o: 116 19)36 +: 7:K
C3en so6 to the 2ussians on the 0rid%eheads6 Sta$in%rad continued to 0e a +ecu$iar <ind of
he$$: Thus6 of the reinforcements that came from across the ri3er ;e<raso3 to$d me:
T'(+( 2(+( &,"(- 2'($ &'(-( +(,$0#+3("($&- 2(+( +()//* .)&'(&,3. T'(*<5 8+,$%
)3+#-- &'( +,6(+E2,&' %+()& 5,00,31/&*E-)*, &2($&* $(2 -#/5,(+-: (,&'(+ #/5 3').- #0
0,0&* #+ 0,0&*-0,6(, #+ *#1$%-&(+- #0 (,%'&(($ #+ $,$(&(($. T'(* 2#1/5 -&)$5 &'(+( #$
&'( -'#+(, -',6(+,$% 2,&' 3#/5 )$5 0()+. T'(*<5 8( %,6($ 2)+" 3/#&',$% )$5 &'($
&);($ &# &'( 0+#$& /,$(. B* &'( &,"( &'(-( $(23#"(+- +()3'(5 &',- /,$(, 0,6( #+ &($ #1&
#0 &2($&* ')5 )/+()5* 8(($ ;,//(5 8* !(+")$ -'(//-? 0#+ 2,&' &'#-( !(+")$ 0/)+(-
#6(+ &'( A#/%) )$5 #1+ 0+#$& /,$(-, &'(+( 2)- $(6(+ 3#"./(&( 5)+;$(--. B1& &'(
.(31/,)+ &',$% )8#1& &'(-( 3').- 2)- &')& &'#-( )"#$% &'(" 2'# +()3'(5 &'( 0+#$&
/,$( 6(+* 91,3;/* 8(3)"( 2#$5(+01//* ')+5($(5 -#/5,(+-. R()/ *rontoviks.
?n his account 5hui<o3 refers to se3era$ Fcritica$F days at Sta$in%rad6 0et#een Se+tem0er
1&6 #hen he too< o3er the command of the )&nd Army and the midd$e of ;o3em0er6
#hen the $ast 1erman offensi3e fai$ed: ?n fact6 e3ery day #as Fcritica$F6 e8ce+t that some
days #ere e3en more so than others: Thus6 Se+tem0er &1 and &&D i:e: a #ee< after the
2odimtse3 Di3ision had Hoined in the fi%htin%D #ere s+ecia$$y Fcritica$F: ?t #as then that
the 1ermans occu+ied a $ar%e +art of the F0usiness =uarterF of Sta$in%rad and s+$it the
)&nd Army in t#o 0y 0rea<in% throu%h to the 5entra$ !ier on the Ao$%a:
@ne of the %rimmest stories of 2ussian endurance that 5hui<o3 te$$s is that of the 1st
0atta$ion of 5o$one$ (e$in's re%imentL this 0atta$ion had6 for days6 0een fi%htin% for the
rai$#ay stationL #hen the 1ermans ca+tured this6 the 2ussian sur3i3ors entrenched
themse$3es in a stone 0ui$din% in the nei%h0ourhood6 and fina$$y on$y si8 sur3i3ors6 a$$
more or $ess serious$y #ounded6 made their #ay to the Ao$%a6 and e3en so not unti$ they
had com+$ete$y run out of ammunition: .ere they im+ro3ised a raft of sorts6 and drifted
do#nstream6 and #ere fina$$y +ic<ed u+ 0y a 2ussian anti,aircraft cre# and sent to
hos+ita$: They had eaten nothin% for three days: The dead and the hea3i$y #ounded had
0een $eft 0ehind in their $ast stron%ho$d inside centra$ Sta$in%rad6 no# in the hands of the
1ermans:
The $oss of the 5entra$ !ier re=uired a reor%anisation of the communication $ines across
the Ao$%a: The Ao$%a ri3er f$oti$$a continued to function6 des+ite hea3y $osses6 0oth north
and south of the 5entra$ !ierL moreo3er6 a foot,0rid%e6 restin% on em+ty iron 0arre$s6 #as
0ui$t across the ri3er6 farther to the north:
IThe officia$ ma+ (in 9@ASS6 3o$: &6 +: 44") sho#s that south of the 5entra$ !ier the
2ussians sti$$ he$d a sma$$ 0rid%ehead in centra$ Sta$in%rad6 0are$y ha$f a mi$e #ide and a
fe# hundred yards dee+6 on Se+tem0er &)L it #as $ater a0andoned6 0ut it is not c$ear
e8act$y #hen:K
To stren%then the ra+id$y d#ind$in% 2odimtse3 di3ision6 a num0er of other famous
di3isions #ere trans+orted to Sta$in%rad at the end of Se+tem0erDBatyu<'s ($ar%e$y
com+osed of Si0erians) and 1orishnyi's: 2odimtse3 #as reinforced 0y &6""" ne# men:
IThe term Fdi3isionF is in the case of Sta$in%rad mis$eadin%6 since many of these
Fdi3isionsF #ere on$y &6""" or 36""" stron% and often e3en sma$$er:K
Both sides had suffered sta%%erin% $osses in the fi%htin% in centra$ Sta$in%rad: But6
accordin% to 5hui<o36 the 1ermans' 0rea<throu%h to the Ao$%a at the 5entra$ !ier #as
on$y a F+artia$ successF6 since their attem+t to outf$an< the 2ussians to the north of them
a$on% the ri3er fai$ed com+$ete$y: .ere the 1ermans came u+ a%ainst the stu00orn
resistance of the 2odimtse36 Batyu< and 1orishnyi di3isions6 the Batra,<o3 Bri%ade6 and
other troo+s: ?n this attem+t6 the 1ermans $ost Fdo>ens of tan<s and thousands of menF:
By Se+tem0er &4 the 1ermans had occu+ied most of centra$ Sta$in%rad6 and no# aimed
their main 0$o#s at the industria$ area in the north: 5hui<o3 =uotes #ith much
satisfaction a 1erman o0ser3er6 1enera$ .ans DTrr6 #ho descri0ed the #ar in north
Sta$in%rad as fo$$o#s:
T'(-( 8)&&/(- 2(+( ,$ &'( $)&1+( #0 ) .#-,&,#$)/ #+ D0#+&+(--D 2)+. T'( &,"( 0#+ 8,%
#.(+)&,#$- 2)- #6(+... W( $#2 ')5 &# 0,%'& #$ &'( A#/%) '(,%'&- 31& 8* +)6,$(-? &',-
,$51-&+,)/ )+() #0 S&)/,$%+)5, 81,/& #$ (B&+("(/* 1$(6($ %+#1$5, )$5 3#".#-(5 #0
81,/5,$%- 81,/& #0 -&#$(, ,+#$ )$5 3#$3+(&(, .+(-($&(5 $(2 5,00,31/&,(-. A- ) "()-1+(
#0 /($%&', ) "(&+( $#2 +(./)3(5 ) ;,/#"(&+(. ,(+3( )3&,#$- ')5 &# 8( 0#1%'& 0#+
(6(+* '#1-(, 2#+;-'#., 2)&(+-&#2(+, +),-(5 +),/2)* &+)3;, 2)// #+ 3(//)+, )$5 (6($
0#+ (6(+* '(). #0 +188/(. T'(+( 2)- $#&',$%, (6($ ,$ W#+/5 W)+ I, &# (91)/ &'(
($#+"#1- (B.($5,&1+( #0 )""1$,&,#$. T'( $#-")$<- /)$5 8(&2(($ 1- )$5 &'(
R1--,)$- 2)- +(513(5 &# )$ )8-#/1&( ",$,"1", )$5, 5(-.,&( &'( ,$&($-,6( )3&,6,&* #0
#1+ 8#"8(+- )$5 #1+ )+&,//(+*, &'(+( 2)- $# "()$- #0 2,5($,$% &',- D3/#-( 3#"8)&D
%).. T'( R1--,)$- 2(+( 8(&&(+ &')$ &'( !(+")$- )& 3)"#10/)%(, )$5 "#+(
(B.(+,($3(5 ,$ 8)++,3)5( 0,%'&,$% 0#+ -(.)+)&( '#1-(-? &'(,+ 5(0($3( /,$(- 2(+( 6(+*
-&+#$%... T'( 3)&)-&+#.'( &')& /)&(+ 0#//#2(5 ')- (3/,.-(5 &'(-( 2((;- #0 D-,(%(D. B1&
,& ,- &'( -&#+* #0 '(+#,3 5((5- 8* -")// 1$,&-, -&#+" %+#1.- )$5 ")$* $)"(/(--
!(+")$ -#/5,(+-...D
?f the 1ermans had reason to con%ratu$ate themse$3es on the heroism of their so$diers6 the
2ussians had e3en more reason to do so6 es+ecia$$y as 1erman su+eriority in tan<s and
aircraft continued to 0e 3ery %reat: By and $ar%e6 the 1ermans6 su++orted 0y aircraft and
tan<s6 attac<ed durin% the day: For the 2ussians6 as 5hui<o3 says6 Fthe ni%ht #as their
e$ementF: The effecti3eness of the 1erman tan<s and aircraft #as6 ho#e3er6 $imited 0y
t#o factors: o0ser3in% that the 1ermans #ere not %ood at +recision 0om0in%6 5hui<o3
had de3ised a tactic of Fc$ose com0atF6 #here0y the no,man's $and ne3er e8ceeded Fthe
distance of a hand,%renade thro#F: this <e+t the 2ussian front $ines more or $ess immune
from air attac<L as for the tan<s6 these found it more and more difficu$t to o+erate as the
mountains of ru00$e accumu$ated in the streets of Sta$in%rad: .i%h$y fa3oura0$e to the
2ussians6 too6 #as the +o#erfu$ fire of the %uns and *at!usha mortars from the other side
of the ri3erL these caused ha3oc amon% any 1erman troo+ concentrations6 and in the
1erman +ositions6 #hich #ere usua$$y more e8+osed6 and $ess #e$$ camouf$a%ed than the
2ussians':
@n Se+tem0er &76 the 1ermans 0e%an their first 0i% offensi3e a%ainst the industria$ area
of Sta$in%rad: F.undreds of di3e,0om0ersF attac<ed the 2ussians6 and the 1ermans6
thou%h sufferin% hea3y $osses6 crossed the 2ussian minefie$ds and ad3anced 0et#een
&6""" and 36""" yards: 1orishnyi's troo+s $ost the to+ of Mamai .i$$ and #hat #as $eft of
them entrenched themse$3es on its north,east s$o+e: F@ne more such day6F 5hui<o3
commented6 Fand #e #ou$d ha3e 0een thro#n into the Ao$%a:F
5hui<o3 sent an S@S to the 9ar 5ounci$ as<in% for reinforcements6 es+ecia$$y in the air:
ITo Mr: 4hrushche3 +ersona$$y6 accordin% to his 19-9 0oo<:K
T#o infantry re%iments6 under 1enera$ Sme<hot3oro3 crossed the Ao$%a that ni%ht and
#ere +rom+t$y sent to reinforce the troo+s in the 2ed @cto0er 1arden 5ity: The remnants
of 1orishnyi's and Batyu<'s troo+s counter,attac<ed on Mamai .i$$: @n the mornin% of
Se+tem0er &J the 1ermans resumed the attac<6 their +$anes concentratin% not on$y on the
2ussian troo+s6 0ut a$so on the Ao$%a shi++in%: @f the si8 car%o shi+s on the Ao$%a6 fi3e
#ere +ut out of action that day: Some oi$ tan<s in the nei%h0ourhood of 5hui<o3's
command,+ost #ere set on fire 0y 1erman 0om0in%:
T'( -&)00 )& "* 3#"")$5 .#-& 2(+( 3'#;,$% 2,&' &'( '()& )$5 -"#;(. T'( 0,+( #0
&'( 0/)",$% #,/ &)$;- 2)- 3+)2/,$% 5#2$ &# #1+ 51%#1&-. E6(+* 5,6(-8#"8(+ )&&)3;
2)- ;,//,$% .(#./( )$5 .1&&,$% #1+ 2,+(/(-- -(&- #1& #0 )3&,#$. E6($ !/,$;), #1+ 3##;,
2'# ')5 -(& 1. ',- 0,(/5 ;,&3'($ ,$ ) 8#"8 3+)&(+, 2)- 2#1$5(5.
And yet6 the 1erman attac<s $ac<ed the coherence and se$f,assurance of the +re3ious day:
S1..#+&(5 8* &)$;-, ($&,+( 8)&&)/,#$- 2#1/5 '1+/ &'("-(/6(- ,$&# &'( )&&)3;-, )$5
&',- ($)8/(5 1- &# 3#$3($&+)&( #1+ )+&,//(+* 0,+( #$ &'("...I &'($ )..()/(5 0#+ '(/. &#
!($(+)/ K'+1;,$, 3#"")$5(+ #0 #1+ ),+ 0#+3(, )$5 '( &'+(2 ,$ )// '( ')5. I& 2)-
51+,$% &',- 8,% R1--,)$ ),+-+),5 &')& B)&*1;<- )$5 !#+,-'$*,<- &+##.- )%),$
)&&)3;(5 M)"), H,//? &'(* ")5( )$ )..+(3,)8/( )56)$3(, &'#1%' &'(* 0),/(5 &# -(,C(
&'( -1"",&, 2',3' +("),$(5 ) $#-")$<- /)$5, )$5 3#$&,$1(5 &# 8( -'(//(5 8* 8#&'
-,5(-. T')& 5)*, &'( !(+")$- /#-& 1,5LL "($ ,$ 5()5 )/#$(, )$5 -#"( 0,0&* &)$;-. O$
M)"), H,// )/#$(, &'(+( 2(+( 5LL !(+")$ 3#+.-(-.
5hui<o3 admits6 of course6 that the 2ussian $osses #ere 3ery hea3y too:
O1+ &)$; 1$,&- ')5 6M6 3)-1)/&,(- 45()5 )$5 2#1$5(57, B)&*1; /#-& @LL "($ )$5 &'(
!#+,-'$*, D,6,-,#$, &'#1%' 3#$&,$1,$% &# 0,%'&, 2)- 8/(5 2',&(. M)$* '1$5+(5- #0
R1--,)$ 2#1$5(5 2(+( $#2 #$ &'( +,6(+ 8)$;, 2),&,$% &# 8( (6)31)&(5? 2,&' &'(
-',..,$% /#--(- &')& 5)* &',- 2)- $# ()-* &)-;. T'( 5(/,6(+* #0 )""1$,&,#$- ')5 )/-#
8(3#"( (B&+("(/* 5,00,31/&. A$5, "()$&,"(, +(3#$$),--)$3( +(.#+&(5 &')& &'(
!(+")$- 2(+( .+(.)+,$% &# /)1$3' )$#&'(+ "):#+ )&&)3; )%),$-& &'( R(5 O3&#8(+
./)$&. T'( +()/ 8)&&/( 0#+ ,$51-&+,)/ S&)/,$%+)5 2)- #$/* 8(%,$$,$%.
@n Se+tem0er &96 the 1ermans +roceeded to F$i=uidateF the e$e3en,mi$e,dee+ and three,
mi$e,#ide F@r$o3<aF sa$ient to the north#est of the industria$ area of Sta$in%rad: .ere
a%ain #e find in 5hui<o3's 0oo< some an%ry +o$emics a%ainst the command of the
Sta$in%rad Front (no# ca$$ed the Don Front) 0eyond the 1erman F2yno<F sa$ient to the
north of Sta$in%rad:
I The chan%es in name6 and in command6 of the FfrontsF to the north and south of
Sta$in%rad ha3e $ed to a $ot of confusion: ?n ear$y Au%ust (eremen<o #as in command of
the army %rou+s 0oth north (the FSta$in%rad FrontF) and south of the city6 #ith 1o$i<o3 as
his de+uty in the south (the FSouth Cast FrontF)Dand a$so of the troo+s inside the city:
Then on Se+tem0er &J (i:e: 0efore the @r$o3<a 0att$e)6 accordin% to 0oth (eremen<o and
the officia$ history '?A@ASS6 3o$: &6 +: 444) the army %rou+ to the north6 +re3ious$y the
Sta$in%rad Front6 #as renamed the FDon FrontF6 and +$aced under 1enera$ 2o<osso3s<y6
and that to the south #as no# ca$$ed the FSta$in%rad FrontF and #as under (eremen<o
Fas 0eforeF: 5hui<o3's troo+s in the city came under command of the Fne#F Sta$in%rad
front and #ere therefore sti$$ under (eremen<o: So #hen 5hui<o3 criticises the
FSta$in%rad FrontF for not he$+in% in the @r$o3<a 0att$e from the north6 he must rea$$y
mean #hat had then 0ecome the Don Front: .e is therefore in fact criticisin%
2o<osso3s<y and not6 as #ou$d a++ear6 (eremen<o:K
T#ice 0efore (eremen<o (and his de+uty6 1ordo36 5hui<o3's 4Vte noire7 had fai$ed to
0rea< throu%h the 1erman sa$ient and come to the rescue of the )&nd Army:
5hui<o3 ar%ues that the e8istence of the @r$o3<a 0u$%e %a3e the troo+s in the north a
#onderfu$ o++ortunity to cut throu%h the 1erman F2yno<F sa$ient6 #hich #as on$y fi3e
mi$es #ideL 0ut once a%ain6 #hen the 1erman attac< on the @r$o3<a sa$ient #as serious6
the o++ortunity to he$+ the )&nd Army #as missed:
The sma$$ num0er of troo+s under Andrusen<o6 Sme<hot3oro3 and So$o%u0 defendin%
the @r$o3<a 0u$%e6 had a$ready suffered 3ery hea3y $osses in the first t#o days of the
1erman attac<: Some6 under Andrusen<o6 #ere then encirc$ed6 and fou%ht on for near$y
another #ee<: Then6 ha3in% run out of ammunition6 1&" men 0ro<e out of the
encirc$ement on the ni%ht of @cto0er JL the remainin% 3J" #ere $eft 0ehind6 dead or
se3ere$y #ounded:
A 0(2 5)*- 8(0#+(, &'( 3#"")$5 #0 &'( S&)/,$%+)5 =D#$> +#$& )-;(5 "( 2')&
"()-1+(- I 2)- &);,$% &# '#/5 &'( O+/#6;) 81/%(... W')& 3#1/5 I +(./*I T'( 8(-&
)$-2(+ 2#1/5 ')6( 8(($ &')& &'( S&)/,$%+)5 =D#$> +#$& -'#1/5 -&+,;( #1& 0+#" &'(
$#+&' )& &'( +()+ #0 &'( !(+")$ 5,6,-,#$- )&&)3;,$% O+/#6;). B1& $# #$( 2)-
./)$$,$% -13' ) 8/#2. #+ "* #2$ .)+&, I ')5 $# +(-(+6(-. W,&' &'( !(+")$-
&'+()&($,$% &# -&+,;( ) .#2(+01/ 8/#2 )& &'( S&)/,$%+)5 T+)3&#+ P/)$& )$5 &'(
B)++,3)5(- P/)$&, I 3#1/5 $#& )00#+5 &# '(/. &'#-( ,$ &'( O+/#6;) 81/%(.
Marsha$ (eremen<o6 in his 0oo<6 %talingrad, +u0$ished in 19)16 i:e: t#o years after
5hui<o3's 0oo<6 treats the $i=uidation of the @r$o3<a 0u$%e as an ine3ita0$e #ar casua$ty6
and ma<es no attem+t to ans#er 5hui<o3's 3ery serious char%es of a+athy and inacti3ity
on the +art of the commanders of the army,%rou+ to the north: ?t may #e$$ 0e that6 #ith
an eye on the comin% 2ussian counter,offensi3e6 the commanders of the FSta$in%radF or
FDonF Front +referred to remain inacti3e6 trustin% that 5hui<o3 #ou$d someho# succeed
in ho$din% his Sta$in%rad 0rid%eheads: ?f so6 it #as a dan%erous %am0$e6 since on @cto0er
146 as #e sha$$ see6 and a%ain in ;o3em0er6 the )&nd Army #as 3ery near$y #i+ed out:
F
For the 2ussians6 @cto0er #as the crue$$est month in Sta$in%rad: @n @cto0er ?6 MaHor,
1enera$ 1urie3's 39th 1uards Di3ision arri3ed in Sta$in%rad6 #here it #as to defend the
2ed @cto0er !$ant for many critica$ days: (Some of its sur3i3ors #ere $ater to fi%ht a$$ the
#ay to Ber$in): @n the same day6 another famous di3ision crossed the Ao$%a Dthat of
5o$one$ 1urtie3: These men6 many of them Si0erians6 #ere to 0ear the 0runt of some of
the hea3iest fi%htin% in the northern +art of Sta$in%rad durin% @cto0er:
I1urtie3 himse$f #as to 0e <i$$ed at @re$ in the summer of 1943:K
E91)//* &#1%' $(2 &+##.- 2(+( &'( %1)+5-"($ 1$5(+ !($(+)/ G'#/15(6. T'(-( 2(+(
+()//* %1)+5-"($. A// #0 &'(" 2(+( *#1$% )$5 &)//, )$5 '()/&'*, ")$* #0 &'(" ,$
.)+)&+##. 1$,0#+", 2,&' ;$,6(- )$5 5)%%(+- &13;(5 ,$&# &'(,+ 8(/&-. T'(* 2($& ,$
0#+ 8)*#$(& 3')+%(-, )$5 2#1/5 &'+#2 ) 5()5 N)C, #6(+ &'(,+ -'#1/5(+ /,;( ) -)3; #0
-&+)2. #+ '#1-(-&#-'#1-( 0,%'&,$%, &'(+( 2)- $# #$( 91,&( /,;( &'(". T'(* 2#1/5
)&&)3; ,$ -")// %+#1.-, )$5, 8+();,$% ,$&# '#1-(- )$5 3(//)+-, &'(* 2#1/5 1-( &'(,+
;$,6(- )$5 5)%%(+-. E6($ 2'($ ($3,+3/(5, &'(* 2($& #$ 0,%'&,$%, )$5 2#1/5 5,(
3+*,$%: D#+ 3#1$&+* )$5 S&)/,$H B1& 2( -')// $(6(+ -1++($5(+.D
I ?n the second (19)1) edition of 5hui<o3's 0oo< the mention of Sta$in is de$etedD0oth
here and +ractica$$y e3ery#here e$se:K
For 5hui<o3 himse$f6 @cto0er started +articu$ar$y 0ad$y: .is .:Q: near the Barricades
!$ant a%ain ha++ened to 0e c$ose to some oi$ tan<sL these #ere set af$ame 0y 1erman
0om0ers6 and the 0urnin% oi$ +oured across the .:Q:'s du%outs to#ards the Ao$%a6 and
en3e$o+ed them in a sea of f$ame:
A& 0,+-& 2( )/"#-& /#-& #1+ '()5-. W')& 2(+( 2( &# 5#I T'($ "* 3',(0 #0 -&)00,
!($(+)/ K+*/#6, %)6( &'( #+5(+: DS,& &,%'&. S&)* ,$ &'( 1$5)")%(5 51%#1&- )$5 ;((.
1. +)5,# 3#""1$,3)&,#$- 2,&' &'( &+##.-HD T'($ '( -),5 &# "( ,$ ) 2',-.(+: DD#
*#1 &',$; 2( 3)$ '#/5 #1&ID DY(-,D I -),5. DA& ) .,$3', 2(<6( %#& #1+ +(6#/6(+-.D
DA// +,%'&,D '( -),5. W( 1$5(+-&##5 ()3' #&'(+ .(+0(3&/*.
I "1-& )5",& &')& 2'($ I 0,+-& /##;(5 #1& #0 &'( 51%#1&, I 2)- 5)CC/(5 8* &'( 0/)"(-
)$5 #6(+2'(/"(5. B1& K+*/#6<- #+5(+ 8+#1%'& "( &# "* -($-(-... T'#1%' ($3,+3/(5
8* 0/)"(-, 2( 3#$&,$1(5 &# 2#+;, )$5 &# 5,+(3& &'( &+##.-.
T'( 0,+( 2($& #$ 0#+ -(6(+)/ 5)*-, )$5 2( ')5 $# #&'(+ H.R. ,$ +(-(+6(. A// #1+
&+##.-, ,$3/15,$% #1+ ($%,$((+-, 2(+( 0,%'&,$% &'( !(+")$-. S# 2( ')5 &# 3)++* #$
)- 8(-& 2( 3#1/5E,$ &'( -1+6,6,$% 51%#1&-, ,$ '#/(- )$5 &+($3'(-, #0&($ 1$5(+
($("* 0,+(. W( 5,5 $#& -/((. 0#+ -(6(+)/ 5)*- )$5 $,%'&-.
?n these conditions6 5hui<o3 #as e8as+erated 0y the fre=uent +hone ca$$s from 1enera$
Oa<haro36 (eremen<o's chief of staff6 ostensi0$y as<in% for a$$ <inds of detai$s (#hich6 in
the circumstances6 5hui<o3 #as una0$e to su++$y) 0ut6 in fact6 an8ious to ma<e sure that
5hui<o3's .:Q: sti$$ e8isted:
I& 2)- $(,&'(+ 01$$* $#+ ()-* &# -.(// #1& 3#5( 2#+5- #6(+ &'( 2,+(/(-- 2,&' 8#"8-
)$5 -'(//- /)$5,$% )// +#1$5 1-. T'(-( 1$$(3(--)+* &)/;- #0&($ +(-1/&(5 ,$ &'( +)5,#
#.(+)&#+- 8(,$% ;,//(5, 2,&' &'( ",3+#.'#$(- ,$ &'(,+ ')$5-.
.ere6 as e$se#here in the 0oo<6 the "rontovi*0s contem+t for the staff officer $i3in% in
re$ati3e$y norma$ surroundin%s on the FsafeF side of the Ao$%a comes out stron%$y:
9orse sti$$6 after the f$ames had a0ated three days $ater6 the 1ermans 0e%an to she$$ and
0om0 the Army .:Q: ;um0ers of men at the .:Q: #ere <i$$ed or #ounded: 9ith %reat
difficu$ty6 the .:Q: #as mo3ed at ni%ht some -"" yards farther north6 to the .:Q: of
1enera$ Saraye3's di3ision6 #hich had 0een +ractica$$y #i+ed out6 and #as no# 0ein%
reconstituted on the other side of the Ao$%a:
Durin% a$$ that first #ee< of @cto0er6 there had 0een hea3y fi%htin% in the industria$ area
of Sta$in%rad: By @cto0er 76 the 1ermans ca+tured +art of the Tractor !$ant 1arden 5ity:
@ften the 2ussians had some %ood $uc<6 thou%h: A *at!usha hit at ) +:m: that day #i+ed
out a #ho$e 0atta$ion of ad3ancin% 1erman troo+s: Sme<hot3oro3's troo+s #ere6
meantime6 fi%htin% a stiff 0att$e in the 2ed @cto0er 1arden 5ity: @ne 0ui$din% there
chan%ed hands fi3e times durin% the day:
B* O3&#8(+ N ,& 2)- 3/()+ &')& &'( !(+")$- 2(+( .+(.)+,$% 0#+ )$ )//-#1& #00($-,6(.
H,&/(+ ')5 .+#",-(5 ',- 6)--)/- &# 3).&1+( S&)/,$%+)5 2,&',$ &'( $(B& 0(2 5)*-. T'(
!(+")$ -#/5,(+- 2#1/5 -'#1& 0+#" &'(,+ &+($3'(-: 1)uss, skoro bul7bul u #olga.1
4DY#1<// -##$ 8( 8/#2,$% 8188/(- ,$ &'( A#/%). D7 T'( !(+")$ ./)$(- 2(+(
-'#2(+,$% /()0/(&- #$ &'( 3,&*... T'(-( -'#2(5 1- -1++#1$5(5 #$ )// -,5(- 8* &)$;-
)$5 %1$-, )$5 )/-# "#3;,$%/* +(",$5(5 1- #0 &'( DS&)/,$%+)5 +#$&<-D 0),/1+( &#
8+(); &'+#1%' &# 1- 0+#" &'( $#+&'.
For four daysD0et#een the 9th and the 13th of @cto0erDthere #as a re$ati3e $u$$6 and
then6 on @cto0er 146 a$$ he$$ 0ro<e $oose: Before this Ffina$F 1erman offensi3e6 the de+th
of the main 0rid%ehead he$d 0y the )&nd ArmyDi:e: the distance 0et#een the Ao$%a and
the front $ine #as a0out t#o mi$es: ?f6 5hui<o3 ar%ues6 the 1ermans had or%anised their
attac< +ro+er$y6 they cou$d ha3e 0ro<en throu%h in one and a ha$f or t#o hours: But the
+recautions ta<en 0y the 2ussians and the incredi0$e stu00ornness of their troo+s
+re3ented catastro+he: ;e3erthe$ess6 it #as touch,and,%o:
.ere is 5hui<o3's descri+tion of this Funfor%etta0$eF day:
T'( 14&' #0 O3&#8(+ ")+;(5 &'( 8(%,$$,$% #0 ) 8)&&/( 1$(91)//(5 ,$ ,&- 3+1(/&* )$5
0(+#3,&* &'+#1%'#1& &'( 2'#/( #0 &'( S&)/,$%+)5 0,%'&,$%. T'+(( ,$0)$&+* )$5 &2#
.)$C(+ 5,6,-,#$- 2(+( '1+/(5 )%),$-& 1- )/#$% ) 0,6(-;". 0+#$&... T'(+( 2(+( &'+((
&'#1-)$5 !(+")$ ),+ -#+&,(- &')& 5)*. T'(* 8#"8(5 )$5 -&#+"(5 #1+ &+##.-
2,&'#1& ) "#"($&<- +(-.,&(. T'( !(+")$ %1$- )$5 "#+&)+- -'#2(+(5 #$ 1- -'(//-
)$5 8#"8- 0+#" "#+$,$% &,// $,%'&. I& 2)- ) -1$$* 5)*, 81& #2,$% &# &'( -"#;( )$5
-##&, 6,-,8,/,&* 2)- +(513(5 &# 1LL *)+5-. O1+ 51%#1&- 2(+( -');,$% )$5 3+1"8/,$%
1. /,;( ) '#1-( #0 3)+5-... T'( "),$ 8/#2 2)- 5(/,6(+(5 )%),$-& !#+,-'$*,<-,
G'#/15(6<- )$5 !1+&,(6<- &+##.-, )$5 &'( N4&' &)$; 8+,%)5(E)// ,$ &'( %($(+)/
5,+(3&,#$ #0 &'( S&)/,$%+)5 T+)3&#+ P/)$& )$5 &'( B)++,3)5(- P/)$&. B* 11.@L ).".
1NL !(+")$ &)$;- 8+#;( &'+#1%' G'#/15(6<- .#-,&,#$- &# &'( -&)5,1" #0 &'( T+)3&#+
P/)$&... B* 4 ..". S#/#%18<-, G'#/15(6<- )$5 !1+&,(6<- &+##.-... 2(+( ($3,+3/(5 81&
-&,// 0,%'&,$%.
T'( +(.#+&- 0+#" &'( 6)+,#1- 1$,&- 2(+( 8(3#",$% "#+( )$5 "#+( 3#$01-,$%... T'(
3#"")$5 )$5 #8-(+6)&,#$ .#-&- #0 +(%,"($&- )$5 5,6,-,#$- 2(+( 8(,$% -")-'(5 8*
-'(//- )$5 8#"8-. A& "* A+"*<- 3#"")$5 .#-& &',+&* .(#./( 2(+( ;,//(5. T'(
%1)+5- -3)+3(/* ')5 &,"( &# 5,% &'( #00,3(+- #1& #0 &'( -")-'(5 51%#1&- #0 &'( A+"*
H.R. T'( &+##.- ')5 &# 8( 5,+(3&(5 8* +)5,#? &+)$-",&&(+- ')5 8(($ -(& 1. #$ &'(
#&'(+ -,5( #0 &'( A#/%), )$5 2( 3#""1$,3)&(5 2,&' &'(", )$5 &'(* &'($ .)--(5 #$
#1+ #+5(+- &# &'( 0,%'&,$% 1$,&- #$ &',- -,5( #0 &'( +,6(+.
... B* ",5$,%'& ,& 2)- 3/()+ &')& &'( ,$6)5(+- ')5 -1++#1$5(5 &'( S&)/,$%+)5 T+)3&#+
P/)$&, )$5 &')& 0,%'&,$% 2)- %#,$% #$ ,$ &'( 2#+;-'#.-. W( +(3;#$(5 &')& &'(
!(+")$- ')5 /#-& 0#+&* &)$;- 51+,$% &'( 5)*, )$5 )+#1$5 &'( T+)3&#+ P/)$& &'(+(
2(+( @,LLL !(+")$ 5()5. W( )/-# -100(+(5 6(+* '()6* /#--(- &')& 5)*. D1+,$% &'(
$,%'& @,5LL 2#1$5(5 -#/5,(+- )$5 #00,3(+- 2(+( &);($ )3+#-- &'( A#/%)? &',- 2)- )
+(3#+5 0,%1+(.
The 1ermans had mana%ed to ad3ance t#o <i$ometres (o3er a mi$e and a =uarter) durin%
the dayL they had ca+tured the Tractor !$ant and had6 indeed6 cut the 2ussian forces in
t#o: To the north of the Tractor !$ant there #as no# on$y a sma$$ area in 2ussian hands:
the sma$$ num0er of troo+s there #ere under the command of 5o$one$ 1oro<ho3:
@n the 1-th the 1ermans continued to attac< stron%$yL a%ain thousands of 0om0s #ere
sho#ered on the 2ussians6 and the 1erman tommy,%unners #ere tryin% to 0rea< throu%h
to 5hui<o3's Army .:Q:
B1& 6#$ P)1/1- =-)*- C'1,;#6> 2)- -'#+& #0 &')& #$( 8)&&)/,#$ 2',3' ",%'& ')6(
3).&1+(5 &'( A+"* '()591)+&(+-, #$/* @LL *)+5- )2)*. A$5 *(& 2( 5(3,5(5 $#& &#
"#6(, )$5 &# 0,%'& #$.
;e3erthe$ess6 5hui<o3 does not hesitate to descri0e the situation as Fdes+erateFL o#in% to
constant 1erman air attac<s6 radio #as #or<in% intermittent$y6 not on$y on the ri%ht 0an<
of the ri3er6 0ut a$so on the $eft 0an<6 #here an emer%ency command +ost had 0een set
u+: This #as +articu$ar$y serious since most of the 2ussian arti$$ery #as on the $eft 0an<6
and communications #ere6 for a time6 as %ood as +ara$ysed:
The 2ussian $osses #ere mountin% u+ at a disastrous rate: ?n t#o days' fi%htin%
Oho$ude3's and 1orishnyi's troo+s had $ost se3enty,fi3e +er cent of their effecti3e: @n the
ni%ht of @cto0er 1-,1) a re%iment under 5o$one$ udni<o3 crossed the Ao$%a and
entered the fray to the north of the Barricades !$ant: But6 as 5hui<o3 says6 this re%iment6
and the misera0$e remnants of the 1orishnyi and Oho$ude3 di3isions #ou$d ha3e 0een
he$+$ess a%ainst o3er#he$min% 1erman stren%th 0ut for the 2ussian arti$$ery on the other
side of the ri3er6 the %uns of the Ao$%a f$oti$$a and the stormovi* +$anes #hich6 #ith
hea3y $osses6 #ere 0rea<in% throu%h the c$ouds of 1erman +$anes and attac<in% the
ad3ancin% 1erman troo+s: @n the ni%ht of @cto0er 17,1J t#o more re%iments of the
udni<o3 di3ision crossed the Ao$%a: That #as a$so the ni%ht on #hich 5hui<o3 #as to
recei3e a 3isit from 1enera$ (eremen<o:
I 2($& &# "((& '," )& &'( .,(+. S'(//- 2(+( (B./#5,$% )// #6(+ &'( ./)3(, )$5 &'(
!(+")$- 2(+( -'(//,$% &'( A#/%) 2,&' &'(,+ -,B-8)++(/ "#+&)+-. H1$5+(5- #0
2#1$5(5 -#/5,(+- 2(+( 3+)2/,$% &# &'( .,(+. O0&($ 2( ')5 &# -&(. #6(+ 5()5 8#5,(-.
The meetin% #ith (eremen<o #as not a 3ery ha++y one: 5hui<o3 c$amoured6 a0o3e a$$6
for ammunition6 and #hen6 on the fo$$o#in% day6 he heard #hat #as to 0e sent6 he #as
furious: ?nstead of a month's su++$y6 he #as no# +romised a day's su++$y: .e +rotested
stron%$y6 and the fi%ure #as Fs$i%ht$y re3isedF:
I (eremen<o %i3es a rather more dramatic account of his 3isit ;%talingrad, ++: &33,4):
F?n ta$<in% on @cto0er 1- on the +hone to 5hui<o36 ? fe$t that the Army 5ommander's
s+irit had some#hat deteriorated: So ? decided6 #ithout de$ay6 to 3isit the )&nd Army:
The situation that had de3e$o+ed there #as6 indeed6 a$armin%: Mamai .i$$ and (the
adHoinin%) hei%ht 1"7,- ::: #ere in enemy hands6 and the 1ermans #ere dominatin% the
city and <ee+in% our ri3er crossin%s under intensi3e fire6 and so +ara$ysin% them:::
(5hui<o3) rather stron%$y +rotested a%ainst my 3isit6 since it meant crossin% the Ao$%a
under intensi3e she$$in%6 and then #a$<in% fi3e mi$es a$on% the shore under rif$e6
machine,%un and mortar fire::: .o#e3er6 #e #ere used to that <ind of thin%L #e had
e8+erienced such fire hundreds of timesL in Au%ust and Se+tem0er the .:Q: of the 9ar
5ounci$ of the Front6 0ein% situated in the centre of Sta$in%rad6 had 0een under constant
0om0in% and she$$in%:F
.e then descri0es ho# he sai$ed for ten <m: u+ the ri3er6 des+ite constant she$$in%6 and
$anded near the 2ed @cto0er !$ant: @#in% to the constant 1erman f$ares it #as $i%ht a$$
the time: A$thou%h a$$ a$on% the em0an<ment mountains of #rec<a%e #ere +i$ed u+ and
the #ho$e area #as ridd$ed #ith she$$,ho$es and 0om0,craters6 there #as an
Fe8traordinary animationF a$on% this em0an<ment: reinforcements and su++$ies #ere
arri3in% a$$ the time in a continuous stream6 and the #ounded #ere 0ein% e3acuatedDand
a$$ under constant she$$,fire: Before (eremen<o had reached 5hui<o3's .:Q: near the
Barricades !$ant6 Fa num0er of the comrades accom+anyin% me had 0een <i$$ed or
#ounded 0y 0om0 or she$$ s+$inters F: (eremen<o a$so te$$s ho#6 #hi$e at 5hui<o3's
.:Q:6 he ta$<ed to the commanders of
some of the famous Sta$in%rad di3isions: !articu$ar$y +athetic #as his ta$< #ith 5o$one$
Oho$ude36 #ho had $ost +ractica$$y a$$ his men in the $ast 1erman offensi3e: F@3er a
thousand 1erman +$anes attac<ed us6 and then #e #ere attac<ed 0y 1-" 1erman tan<s6
fo$$o#ed 0y #a3es of infantry: And yet no0ody a0andoned his +ost:F Oho$ude3 s+o<e to
(erernen<o #ith tears in his eyes:::
?t a++ears from his account that #hi$e the 9ar 5ounci$ of the Front #as no# stationed on
the other side of the Ao$%a6 some ten <m: south of the main fi%htin%6 it had 0een in
centra$ Sta$in%rad durin% Au%ust and +art of Se+tem0er: This is a++arent$y a$so #here
4hrushche3 (and Ma$en<o3E) #ere stationed at the time:
?n his story6 (erernen<o does not mention any disa%reement #ith 5hui<o3:K
A$to%ether6 5hui<o3 does not seem to ha3e cared for 3isitors: he 3etoed a 3isit to
Sta$in%rad 0y Manui$s<y on 0eha$f of the 5entra$ 5ommittee: .e dec$ared that the
Sta$in%rad troo+s did not need any +e+ ta$<s from Manui$s<y and it #ou$d on$y annoy
5omrade Sta$in if Manui$s<y %ot <i$$edD #hich #as =uite +ossi0$e in the circumstances:
9ith the 1ermans increasin%$y acti3e on the 0an< of the Ao$%a near the Tractor !$ant6
5hui<o3 found it necessary to mo3e his head=uarters farther south6 to a ra3ine near
Mamai .i$$: These du%outs #ere to remain the Army .:Q: ti$$ the end of the Sta$in%rad
Batt$e: This .:Q:6 inside the Ao$%a c$iffs #as Hust o3er 16""" yards from Mamai .i$$Dfor
that #as no# the ma8imum de+th of the main Sta$in%rad 0rid%ehead sti$$ in 2ussian
hands:
@n @cto0er 19 and &" the 1ermans continued their attac<s6 chief$y in the Barricades and
2ed @cto0er areas6 0ut they a$ready seemed to $ac< their former +unch: Bud%in% from the
+risoners' statements6 mora$e amon% the 1erman troo+s6 es+ecia$$y the ne#comers6 #as
$o#: The 2ussians #ere6 ho#e3er6 a$so 3ery short of troo+s6 and 5hui<o3 had to scra+e
the 0ottom of the 0arre$ 0y dra#in% on a$$ <inds of +eo+$e in the Army's rear ser3icesD
shoema<ers6 tai$ors6 and men in char%e of horses6 stores6 etc:
T'(-( .##+/* &+),$(5 #+ 2'#//* 1$&+),$(5 .(#./( 8(3)"( D-.(3,)/,-&-D ,$ -&+((&
0,%'&,$%, )- -##$ )- &'(* -&(..(5 #$ &# &'( %+#1$5 #0 S&)/,$%+)5. DI& 2)- .+(&&*
&(++,0*,$%,D &'(* 2#1/5 -)*, D&# 3+#-- #6(+ &# S&)/,$%+)5, 81& #$3( 2( %#& &'(+( 2(
0(/& 8(&&(+. W( ;$(2 &')&, 8(*#$5 &'( A#/%) &'(+( 2)- $#&',$%, )$5 &')& ,0 2( 2(+(
&# +("),$ )/,6(, 2( ')5 &# 5(-&+#* &'( ,$6)5(+-.D
?t shou$d 0e added that6 0y this time6 the F+resti%e 3a$ueF of ha3in% fou%ht at Sta$in%rad
#as enormous:
Summin% u+ the resu$ts of the fierce ten,days' fi%htin% 0et#een @cto0er 14 and &36
5hui<o3 says:
B#&' &'( !(+")$-< -&+($%&' )$5 #1+ -&+($%&' 2(+( #$ &'( 2)$(. I$ &'(-( /)-& &($
5)*-, &'( !(+")$- ')5 #$3( )%),$ 31& #1+ )+"* ,$ &2#, )$5 ')5 ,$0/,3&(5 #$ 1- 6(+*
-(+,#1- /#--(-. T'(* ')5 3).&1+(5 &'( T+)3&#+ P/)$&, 81& ')5 0),/(5 &# 5(-&+#* (,&'(+
&'( $#+&'(+$ %+#1. =1$5(+ !#+#;'#6> #+ &'( A+"*<- "),$ 0#+3(- -#1&' #0 ,&. Y(& &'(
!(+")$- -&,// ')5 +(-(+6(-, )- 2( ;$(2 0+#" #1+ +(3#$$),--)$3(... B1& #1+ 0#+3(-
')5 8(($ 5(3,")&(5? &'( @K&', MLN&' )$5 19@+5 5,6,-,#$- 2(+( /,&&/( "#+( &')$
$1"8(+-. A// &'(* +(.+(-($&(5 2)- ) 0(2 '1$5+(5 +,0/(-.
The 1ermans rene#ed their attac<s in the Barricades and 2ed @cto0er sectors6 and
0et#een the t#o factories they #ere no# #ithin 4"" yards of the Ao$%a: The $ast 2ussian
Ao$%a crossin% #as then in ran%e of machine,%un fire: Stone #a$$s had to 0e erected
across the ra3ines to sto+ these machine,%un 0u$$etsDno easy tas< in the circumstances:
@n @cto0er &76 +arts of a ne# di3ision under 1enera$ So<o$o3 0e%an to arri3e at
Sta$in%radL 0ut the crossin% of the Ao$%a met #ith %reat difficu$ties: Meantime6 the
1ermans had struc< another 3io$ent 0$o# at the 2ed @cto0er !$ant6 and ca+tured the
north,#est +art of the factory's territory: ?t #as here that one of the most famous and
dead$y 0att$es #as to 0e fou%ht for #ee<s after#ards:
!endin% the arri3a$ of reinforcements6 5hui<o3 #as reduced to a$$ <inds of
F+sycho$o%ica$F e8+edients:
O$( 5)* 2( ')5 &'( %##5 /13; #0 5,-3#6(+,$% #$ &'( 8)&&/(0,(/5 &'+(( ')/0-2+(3;(5
&)$;-, ,$3/15,$% #$( 0/)"(-&'+#2,$% &)$;. W( 91,3;/* ')5 &'(" +(.),+(5, )$5
C#/#$(/ W),$+18, "* &)$; 3#"")$5(+, 5(3,5(5 &# &'+#2 ,$ &'(-( &)$;- )/#$%
S)")+;)$5 S&+((&, 2'(+( &'( !(+")$- ')5 $()+/* 8+#;($ &'+#1%' &# &'( A#/%)...
T'( )&&)3; -&)+&(5 ()+/* ,$ &'( "#+$,$%, #$ O3&#8(+ MN, 8(0#+( 5)*8+();. T'( )&&)3;
2)- -1..#+&(5 8* )+&,//(+* )$5 katyusha 0,+(. W( 0),/(5 &# 3).&1+( ) /)+%( )+(), 81&
&'( (00(3& 2)- 6(+* ,".+(--,6( )// &'( -)"(. T'( 0/)"(-&'+#2,$% &)$; 5(-&+#*(5
&'+(( ($("* &)$;-, )$5 &'( #&'(+ &2# ;,//(5 #00 &'( !(+")$- ,$ &2# &+($3'(-, 2',3'
2(+( .+#".&/* &);($ #6(+ 8* #1+ "($... T'( N)C, +)5,# -&)+&(5 -3+()",$% )8#1&
DR1--,)$ &)$;-D, )- &'#1%' &+*,$% &# :1-&,0* P)1/1-<- 0),/1+( &# 0,$,-' 1- #00.
I This story of the three tan<s is reminiscent of another +iece of 2ussian F0$uffF at
Sta$in%rad6 as descri0ed in one of ;e<raso3's storiesDthat of a so$dier #ho6 #ith one
machine,%un6 +retended to ha3e a #ho$e trenchfu$ of so$diers #ith himDa story #hich6
he assured me6 #as 0ased on fact:K
After t#o more days of hea3y 1erman attac<s a%ainst udni<o3's6 1urtie3's and Batyu<'s
men6 there came a $u$$:
B* O3&#8(+ @L 2( 8(%)$ &# 0((/ &')& 2( 2(+( 2,$$,$% &'( 8)&&/(. I& 2)- 3/()+ &')&
P)1/1- 2)- $# /#$%(+ )8/( &# +(.()& ',- O3&#8(+ 14 #00($-,6( 2',3' 8+#1%'& 1- &# &'(
8+,$; #0 3)&)-&+#.'(.
But it #as not o3er yet: The 0rid%eheads he$d 0y the 2ussians #ere on$y a fe# hundred
yards dee+ in some +$aces6 and durin% the first ten days of ;o3em0er6 the 2ussians made
many attac<s6 most$y at ni%ht6 in a 3ain attem+t to en$ar%e them6 if on$y s$i%ht$y:
@n ;o3em0er 116 the 1ermans $aunched their $ast maHor attac< on the defenders of
Sta$in%rad: Ad3ancin% a$on% a three,mi$e front6 fi3e 1erman di3isions6 su++orted 0y
tan<s and aircraft6 tried to crash throu%h to the Ao$%a at one fe$$ s#oo+: But the 2ussians
#ere so #e$$ entrenched that the 1ermans made on$y $itt$e +ro%ress: The fi%htin% #ent
on6 in 5hui<o3's #ords6 Ffor e3ery 0ric< and stone6 for e3ery yard of the Sta$in%rad
earthF:
A& M)"), H,// B)&*1;<- &+##.- 0#1%'& 5(-.(+)&(/* )%),$-& )56)$3,$% ($("* 0#+3(-.
)3&#+* 3',"$(*- 2(+( 3+)-',$% 5#2$ 1$5(+ &'( 8/#2 #0 -'(//- )$5 8#"8-. T'(
'()6,(-& 8/#2- 2(+( -&+13; )& L15$,;#6<- )$5 !#+,-'$*,<- "($. B* $##$, #1& #0 &'(
M5L -#/5,(+- #0 &'( 11N&' !1)+5- +(%,"($&, #$/* -,B "($ 2(+( /(0&. T'( 3#/#$(/ #0 &'(
+(%,"($& 2)- -(6(+(/* 2#1$5(5. T'+#2,$% ,$ +(-(+6(-, &'( !(+")$- &'($ 8+#;(
&'+#1%' &# &'( A#/%) )/#$% ) 5LL-*)+5 -&+(&3'? &'1-, 0#+ &'( &',+5 &,"(, &'( 6M$5
A+"* 2)- 31& ,$ &2#, )$5 L15$,;#6<- 5,6,-,#$ 2)- 31& #00 0+#" &'( +(-&. B1&
$#2'(+( (/-( 5,5 &'( !(+")$- ");( )$* )..+(3,)8/( .+#%+(--. H()6* 0,%'&,$%
3#$&,$1(5, )- 8(0#+(, )& &'( R(5 O3&#8(+ )$5 B)++,3)5(-, )$5 +#1$5 M)"), H,//...
The )&nd Army had recei3ed some reinforcements durin% the +re3ious daysL in +articu$ar
a $ar%e num0er of sai$ors of the !acific F$eet had 0een drafted into 1orishnyi's di3ision:
These Si0erians #ere tou%h fi%hters:
The 1erman attac<s continued on the fo$$o#in% day6 #ithout much effect6 and6 0y the
midd$e of ;o3em0er 1& the offensi3e had +etered out: ;e3erthe$ess6 the 1ermans had
%ained a $itt$e %round and had reduced the area in 2ussian hands sti$$ further: ?n some
+$aces6 the distance 0et#een the 1erman $ines and the Ao$%a6 no# co3ered #ith ice,f$oes6
#as 0are$y 1"" yards #ide: A$so6 the udni,<o3 di3ision #as no# iso$ated from the rest
of the )&nd Army on a sma$$ 0rid%ehead south of the Barricades6 no# in 1erman hands:
Most of the 2ed @cto0er !$ant had a$so 0een ca+tured 0y the 1ermans: Durin% the days
that fo$$o#ed6 the 2ussian attem+t to 0rea< throu%h the -"" yard 1erman sa$ient on the
Ao$%a di3idin% them from udni<o3's men6 fai$ed: These had to 0e su++$ied 0y sma$$ !@,
& reconnaissance +$anes at ni%ht6 and it #as not unti$ se3era$ days $ater that a fe# sma$$
FarmouredF IAccordin% to (eremen<o6 any 0u$$et cou$d ha3e +ierced this FarmourFK
cutters) of the Ao$%a F$oti$$a reached the udni<o3 0rid%ehead throu%h the ice,f$oes and
e3acuated 1-" #ounded men:
But udni<o3's men had to fi%ht on for more than another month 0efore 0rea<in% out of
their 3irtua$ encirc$ement:
?t #as on$y a #ee< after the 1ermans' $ast a$$,out attem+t to dis$od%e the 2ussians from
the remainin% Sta$in%rad 0rid%eheads that the %reat counter,offensi3e started6 the 2ussian
troo+s of the Don and ;orth,9est Fronts stri<in% out from the north6 and those of the
Sta$in%rad Front from the south6 and the t#o c$osin% the rin% at 4a$ach6 at the eastern end
of the Don Bend on$y four days $ater:
The ne#s of the counter,offensi3e ISee ++: 493 ff:KD#hich had 0een e8+ected for some
timeD#as recei3ed #ith immense Hoy and re$ief 0y the men of the )&nd Army: Sta$in's
forecast of ;o3em0er 7 that Fthere #ou$d soon 0e a ho$iday in our streetF #as comin%
true:
For a$$ that6 the +osition of the )&nd Army at Sta$in%rad continued to 0e a hi%h$y
uncomforta0$e one: ?n the north6 there #as the sma$$ 0rid%ehead he$d 0y 1oro<ho3's men:
Then6 near the Barricades6 there #as another sma$$ 0rid%ehead of ha$f a s=uare mi$e he$d
0y 5o$one$ udni<o3's men: The main 0rid%ehead6 a0out fi3e mi$es $on%6 #as6 in
5hui<o3's #ords6 Fa narro# stri+ of ruinsF:
The $eft f$an< of the main 0rid%ehead6 he$d 0y 2odimtse3's men6 #as a stri+ of $and on$y
a fe# hundred yards #ide: The ma8imum de+th of the 0rid%ehead6 east of Mamai .i$$6
#as on$y a $itt$e o3er a mi$e: 5hui<o3's .:Q: #as inside the Ao$%a c$iffs6 east of Mamai
.i$$L he a$so had an o0ser3ation +ost 0et#een the t#o6 on the rai$#ay em0an<ment: A$$
the 2ussian +ositions #ere under 1erman she$$,fire6 and most of them #ere e3en e8+osed
to machine,%un fire: 9ith the 1ermans ho$din% +art of the Mamai hei%hts6 they #ere a0$e
to su0Hect the 2ussian Ao$%a crossin%s to +recision she$$in%: So 5hui<o3's t#o immediate
tar%ets #ere to Hoin u+ #ith udni<o3's men and to reca+ture the Mamai hei%hts6 #hich
#ou$d in effect dou0$e the de+th of the 0rid%ehead there:
By ;o3em0er &" the Ao$%a6 co3ered #ith ice,f$oes6 #as no $on%er na3i%a0$e6 and6 #ith
the %reat counter,offensi3e ha3in% 0e%un6 the )&nd Army cou$d no $on%er e8+ect any
reinforcements in either men or e=ui+ment6 any#ay: @n$y sma$$ =uantities of food and
ammunition cou$d 0e f$o#n o3er 0y !@,& reconnaissance +$anes: ?t #as not ti$$ Decem0er
1) that the Ao$%a fro>e6 and indi3idua$ so$diers cou$d no# 0rin% ammunition o3er the ice
in sma$$ s$ei%hs:
The +ro0$em of dis$od%in% the 1ermans from their Barricades sa$ient on the Ao$%a #as
no easy one: They had entrenched themse$3es in the ruins of factory 0ui$din%s6 and t#o
days of hea3y she$$in% from the other side of the Ao$%a did not ma<e them %i3e u+: ?t
too< se3era$ days of often hand,to,hand fi%htin%6 #ith udni<o3's men attac<in% from the
north6 and 1orishnyi's men from the south6 0efore the sa$ient #as e$iminated6 #ith hea3y
casua$ties on 0oth sides: The Hunction #as not made ti$$ Decem0er &3:
@n Decem0er &- 1urie3's men stormed the +arts of the 2ed @cto0er !$ant in 1erman
handsL here it a$so came to hand,to,hand fi%htin% for e3ery room and #or<sho+: The
1ermans had turned the main office of the 2ed @cto0er !$ant into a +o#erfu$ firin%,
+ointL and their resistance ended on$y #hen the #ho$e 0ui$din% #as smashed 0y arti$$ery
fire at c$ose ran%e: This <ind of house,to,house fi%htin% #as to continue a$most to the
end: As 5hui<o3 says:
T'( -&+((&- )$5 -91)+(- #0 S&)/,$%+)5 3#$&,$1(5 &# 8( 5(-(+&(5.
N(,&'(+ 2( $#+ &'( !(+")$- 3#1/5 )3& #.($/*. W'#(6(+ -&13; ',- '()5 #1& #+ +)$
)3+#-- &'( -&+((& 2)- ,$(6,&)8/* -'#& 8* ) -$,.(+ #+ &#""*-%1$$(+.
5hui<o3 says that6 e3en after they <ne# they #ere encirc$ed6 the 1erman troo+s
continued to fi%ht #e$$6 and remained confident that Manstein's tan< army #ou$d 0rea<
throu%h to re$ie3e them:
U. &# &'( ($5 #0 D(3("8(+ &'(* 3#$&,$1(5 &# /,6( ,$ '#.(- )$5 .1& 1. ) 5(-.(+)&(
+(-,-&)$3(, #0&($ /,&(+)//* &# &'( /)-& 3)+&+,5%(. W( .+)3&,3)//* &##; $# .+,-#$(+-,
-,$3( &'( N)C,- :1-& 2#1/5$<& -1++($5(+. N#& &,// )0&(+ M)$-&(,$<- 0),/1+( &# 8+();
&'+#1%' 5,5 "#+)/( )"#$% &'( !(+")$ &+##.- 8(%,$ &# 5(3/,$( 6(+* $#&,3()8/*.
The %ro#in% shorta%e of 0oth food and ammunition 0e%an to te$$: ;e3erthe$ess6 in
numerous +$aces in Sta$in%rad6 e3en after Banuary 1"6 #hen the fina$ $i=uidation of the
Fcau$dronF had 0e%un6 the stiff resistance of the 1ermans continued6 nota0$y in the
Mamai .i$$ area6 #hich they #ere determined to ho$d to the $ast: .ere they continued to
resist and e3en to counter,attac< u+ to Banuary &-6 i:e: a #ee< 0efore the fina$ surrender
of the 1erman Sta$in%rad forces:
C').&(+ II THE DSTALIN!RADD MONTHS IN MOSCOWET'(
C'1+3',// A,-,& )$5 A0&(+.
*n$i<e the ear$y months of the ?n3asion6 #hen the communi=uNs #ere ca%ey in the
e8treme6 the #ar communi=uNs in the summer and autumn of 194& #ere6 on the #ho$e6
remar<a0$y candid: The $oss of this or that to#n #as sometimes on$y admitted after a fe#
days' de$ay and the communi=uNs often used eu+hemisms such as Fthe a++roaches of
Sta$in%radF #hen in rea$ity the fi%htin% #as a$ready inside the cityL 0ut the %enera$
+icture #as a$most +erfect$y c$ear throu%hout: From the 0e%innin% of Au%ust (after the
+ost,2osto3 reforms) to Au%ust &-D#hich started6 as it #ere6 a ne# +hase in the fi%htin%
Dthe communi=uNs #ere a$most ca$cu$ated$y crue$ in their candour: As ear$y as Au%ust
J6 the communi=uN s+o<e of fi%htin% Fnorth of 4ote$ni<o3oF6 #hich meant that the
1ermans had crossed the Don in stren%th and #ere no# ad3ancin% on Sta$in%rad from the
south: More de+ressin% sti$$ #ere the +arts of the communi=uNs dea$in% #ith the 1erman
$i%htnin% ad3ance into the 4u0an and the 5aucasus: ?n =uic< succession the $osses of
4rasnodar6 the ca+ita$ of the 4u0an6 of the oi$ city6 Mai<o+6 of Minera$nyie Aody6
!iati%ors<6 Cssentu<i and 4is$o3ods<6 the famous #aterin%,+$aces in the foothi$$s of the
5aucasus #ere announced: ?t #as a$so admitted that the 1ermans #ere 0rea<in% throu%h
the mountains on their #ay to ;o3orossis< and the B$ac< Sea 5oast6 and that6 in the
Castern 5aucasus6 they #ere +ushin% on to#ards the oi$ city of 1ro>ny and the 5as+ian6
#ith Ba<u as their tar%et:
;o dou0t6 there #ere stories of outstandin% heroic deeds +erformed 0y indi3idua$ units6
and on Au%ust 196 So3inform0ureau +u0$ished some more than im+ro0a0$e fi%ures of
1erman $osses: @n the same day6 the Bed %tar found some so$ace in the thou%ht that the
1ermans #ere attac<in% on a much sma$$er front than in 19416 and #ith $ess Fsureness of
touchF than e3en in Bu$y 194&L more and more6 the 1erman offensi3e #as #or<in% Fin
fits and startsF6 and the 2ussian resistance in the Don Bend had a$ready u+set .it$er's
time,ta0$e:
The s#ift 1erman ad3ances into the 4u0an and the 5aucasus had a 3ery de+ressin%
effect in Mosco#6 thou%h some e8+erts #ere sayin% that the rea$ test #ou$d come once
the 1ermans had reached the mountains: ;e3erthe$ess6 the $oss of the 4u0an country6 one
of the richest a%ricu$tura$ areas of 2ussia6 #as <een$y fe$t: C3en more #as the thou%ht
that mi$$ions more 2ussians #ou$d no# 0e under 1erman occu+ation: But as the
1ermans a++roached Sta$in%rad6 there #as a curious fee$in% from the start that here it
#ou$d come to a rea$ sho#do#n: The 3ery name %talingrad, #ith a$$ the $e%ends #o3en
round it since the 5i3i$ 9ar6 su%%ested that the +$ace had a sort of sym0o$ic (therefore
+o$itica$) si%nificance6 and that Sta$in's o#n +resti%e #as direct$y in3o$3ed: ?t is hard to
say 0y #hat su0t$e +ro+a%anda this idea #as +ut across6 0ut the %erms of the FSta$in%rad
$e%endF #ere there e3en 0efore the 0att$e had started:
I ? find that in my Diary ? #rote as ear$y as Bu$y 13: FB$ac< as thin%s are6 ? someho# fee$
that Sta$in%rad is %oin% to +ro3ide somethin% 3ery 0i%: Sta$in's o#n +resti%e is in3o$3ed:F
(Quoted in The 'ear o" %talingrad, +: 14"):K
(et it #ou$d 0e a0surd to say that the +ossi0i$ity of the $oss of Sta$in%rad #as e8c$udedL
on the contrary6 0et#een the end of Au%ust and6 rou%h$y6 the $ast #ee< of @cto0er6
e3ery0ody #as e8treme$y conscious that the situation at Sta$in%rad #as hi%h$y critica$:
?t #as #hi$e the mi$itary situation in 2ussia $oo<ed +articu$ar$y des+erate that 5hurchi$$
arri3ed in Mosco# on Au%ust 1&: The 2ussians #ere in fu$$ retieat in the ;orth
5aucasus6 and the 1ermans #ere a++roachin% Sta$in%rad6 and a0out to 0rea< throu%h to
the Ao$%a north of the city:
Since the 0rief An%$o,So3iet honeymoon6 #hich had cu$minated in the meetin% of the
Su+reme So3iet of Bune 1J6 re$ations had 0een ra+id$y deterioratin%: The corres+ondence
0et#een 5hurchi$$ and Sta$in6 es+ecia$$y in Bu$y and the 0e%innin% of Au%ust6 +oints to
%ro#in% e8as+eration on 0oth sides: The three main +oints #ere the Second Front6 the
sendin% of con3oys to ;orthern 2ussia and the !o$es:
5hurchi$$ had 0ecome increasin%$y dou0tfu$ a0out the +ossi0i$ity of runnin% con3oys to
Murmans< and Archan%e$: As ear$y as May &" he #rote that the !Q 1) con3oy of thirty,
fi3e shi+s had $eft for 2ussia6 0ut that Fun$ess the #eather is a%ain fa3oura0$e enou%h to
ham+er 1erman air o+erations6 #e shou$d e8+ect the %reater +art of the shi+s and the #ar
materia$s they carry to 0e $ost:F .e +ro+osed therefore that the 2ussians try to 0om0
1erman air 0ases in ;orthern ;or#ay: Sta$in re+$ied that the 2ussians #ou$d %i3e the
con3oy #hat air co3er they cou$d6 0ut did not ans#er 5hurchi$$'s su%%estion a0out the
0om0in% of ;or#e%ian airfie$dsL the 2ussians6 o03ious$y had no 0om0ers a3ai$a0$e for
the +ur+ose:
As it ha++ened6 t#enty,se3en out of the thirty,fi3e shi+s of the !Q 1) (the one on #hich ?
sai$ed) %ot throu%h to Murmans<L 0ut the ne8t con3oy6 the !Q 17 ended in disaster:
5hurchi$$ #rote Sta$in a $on% $etter on Bu$y 1J: .e reca$$ed that Britain had started
runnin% sma$$ con3oys to 2ussia as ear$y as Au%ust 19416 and that these #ere not
interfered #ith unti$ Decem0er: The +ro0$em had 0ecome much more difficu$t after that:
?n Fe0ruary 194& the 1ermans had mo3ed Fa considera0$e force of *,0oats and a $ar%e
num0er of aircraftF to ;orthern ;or#ayL ne3erthe$ess6 the con3oys F%ot throu%h #ith
3aryin%6 0ut not +rohi0iti3e $ossesF: ;ot satisfied #ith these resu$ts6 the 1ermans then
sent their surface forces to the north:
B(0#+( &'( M)* 3#$6#* 4PR 167 2)- -($& #00, &'( A5",+)/&* 2)+$(5 1- &')& &'(
/#--(- 2#1/5 8( 6(+* -(6(+( ,0, )- 2)- (B.(3&(5 &'( !(+")$- 1-(5 &'(,+ -1+0)3(
0#+3(- &# &'( ()-& #0 B()+ I-/)$5. W( 5(3,5(5 &# -),/ &'( 3#$6#*. T'( )&&)3; 8*
-1+0)3( 0#+3(- 5,5 $#& ")&(+,)/,-(, )$5 &'( 3#$6#* %#& &'+#1%' 2,&' ) /#-- #0 #$(-
-,B&', 3',(0/* 0+#" ),+ )&&)3;. B1& ,$ &'( 3)-( #0 &'( PR 1K 3#$6#* &'( !(+")$- )&
/)-& 1-(5 &'(,+ 0#+3(- ,$ &'( ")$$(+ 2( ')5 )/2)*- 0()+(5... A& &'( "#"($& #$/* 0#1+
-',.- ')6( )++,6(5 )& A+3')$%(/, 81& -,B #&'(+- )+( ,$ N#6)*) G("/*) ')+8#1+-.
T'(-( ")*, '#2(6(+, 8( )&&)3;(5 0+#" &'( ),+ -(.)+)&(/*.
?n short6 5hurchi$$ announced his decision to discontinue the Arctic con3oys unti$ further
notice:
W( 5# $#& &',$; ,& +,%'& &# +,-; #1+ H#"( /((& ()-&2)+5 #0 B()+ I-/)$5... I0 #$( #+
&2# #0 #1+ "#-& .#2(+01/ &*.(- 2(+( &# 8( /#-& #+ (6($ -(+,#1-/* 5)")%(5 2',/( &'(
T,+.,&C )$5 '(+ 3#$-#+&-... +("),$(5 ,$ )3&,#$, &'( 2'#/( 3#"")$5 #0 &'( A&/)$&,3
2#1/5 8( /#-&.
Food su++$ies 0y #hich Britain $i3ed #ou$d 0e affectedL and her #ho$e #ar effort #ou$d
0e cri++$ed:
A8#6( )//, &'( %+()& 3#$6#*- #0 A"(+,3)$ &+##.- )3+#-- &'( #3()$, +,-,$% .+(-($&/* &#
)- ")$* )- NL,LLL ) "#$&', 2#1/5 8( .+(6($&(5... )$5 ) +()//* -&+#$% S(3#$5 +#$&
,$ 194@ +($5(+(5 ,".#--,8/(.
5hurchi$$ had decided to cance$ the !Q 1J con3oy6 0ut +ro+osed to send Fsome of the
shi+sF to the !ersian 1u$f instead: The same $etter a$so mentioned the Fthree di3isions of
!o$esF #ho #ere an8ious to %et out of 2ussia6 to%ether #ith their #omen and chi$dren:
Sta$in had a%reed to their de+arture6 0ut no# 5hurchi$$ #as an8ious:
I '#.( &',- .+#:(3& #0 *#1+-, 2',3' 2( %+()&/* 6)/1(, 2,// $#& 0)// &# &'( %+#1$5 #$
)33#1$& #0 &'( P#/(- 2)$&,$% &# 8+,$% 2,&' &'( &+##.- ) 3#$-,5(+)8/( $1"8(+ #0
2#"($ )$5 3',/5+($. T'( 0((5,$% #0 &'(-( 5(.($5)$&- 2,// 8( ) 3#$-,5(+)8/( 81+5($
&# 1-. B1& 2( &',$; ,& 2(// 2#+&' 2',/( 8()+,$% &')& 81+5($ 0#+ &'( -);( #0 0#+",$%
&',- P#/,-' )+"* 2',3' 2,// 8( 1-(5 0),&'01//* 0#+ #1+ 3#""#$ )56)$&)%(.
These !o$es #ere to mo3e to ?ran and !a$estine6 and 5hurchi$$ #as o03ious$y in a hurry
to %et them a$$ out of 2ussia: @n Bu$y &3 Sta$in sent a furious re+$y to this messa%e:
I %)&'(+, 0,+-&, &')& &'( B+,&,-' !#6(+$"($& +(01-(- &# %# #$ -1../*,$% &'( S#6,(&
U$,#$ 2,&' 2)+ ")&(+,)/- 8* &'( $#+&'(+$ +#1&(, )$5 -(3#$5/*,... ,- .1&&,$% #00 &'(
4S(3#$5 +#$&7 #.(+)&,#$ &,// 194@... D(/,6(+,(- 6,) P(+-,)$ .#+&- 3)$ ,$ $# 2)* ");(
1. 0#+ &'( /#--... I$ 6,(2 #0 &'( -,&1)&,#$ #$ &'( S#6,(&-!(+")$ +#$&, I -&)&( "#-&
(".')&,3)//* &')& &'( S#6,(& !#6(+$"($& 3)$$#& &#/(+)&( &'( S(3#$5 +#$& ,$
E1+#.( 8(,$% .#-&.#$(5 &,// 194@.
Sta$in a$so 3io$ent$y criticised the Admira$ty for mishand$in% the !Q 17 con3oy6 its dread
of $osin% any #arshi+s6 and its 3irtua$ decision to a0andon the su++$y shi+s to their fate:
O0 3#1+-(, I 5# $#& &',$; &')& -&()5* 5(/,6(+,(- &# $#+&'(+$ S#6,(& .#+&- )+( .#--,8/(
2,&'#1& +,-; #+ /#--. B1& &'($ $# "):#+ &)-; 3)$ 8( 3)++,(5 #1& ,$ 2)+&,"( 2,&'#1&
+,-; #+ /#--(-... T'( S#6,(& U$,#$ ,- -100(+,$% 0)+ %+()&(+ /#--(-, )$5 I $(6(+ ,")%,$(5
&')& &'( B+,&,-' !#6(+$"($& 2#1/5 5($* 1- 5(/,6(+* #0 2)+ ")&(+,)/- .+(3,-(/* $#2,
2'($ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ ,- 8)5/* ,$ $((5 #0 &'(".
5hurchi$$ #as6 c$ear$y6 thorou%h$y nett$ed 0y this o03ious char%e of %ut$essness and 0ad
faith6 and in his 3ery ne8t messa%e offered to meet Sta$in at Astra<han or in the 5aucasus:
.e said that another effort #ou$d 0e made to run a con3oy to Archan%e$ in Se+tem0er:
Sta$in re+$ied on Bu$y 31 in3itin% 5hurchi$$ to Mosco#: FThe mem0ers of the
1o3ernment6 the 1enera$ Staff and myse$f cannot 0e a#ay at this moment of 0itter
fi%htin% a%ainst the 1ermans:F
5hurchi$$ +rom+t$y acce+ted to %o to Mosco#:
5hurchi$$'s story of that famous 3isit to Mosco# is too #e$$,<no#n to need reca$$in% here
in any detai$: But a fe# +oints shou$d 0e mentioned: The 3isit #as6 o03ious$y6 distastefu$
to him: The tas< of te$$in% Sta$in that there #ou$d 0e no Second Front in 194& F#as $i<e
carryin% a $ar%e $um+ of ice to the ;orth !o$e:F The con3ersations ran%ed from e8treme
un+$easantness to a su+erficia$ mateynessL 0ut there is $itt$e dou0t that there #as much
a0out Sta$in that im+ressed 5hurchi$$:
I "(& 0#+ &'( 0,+-& &,"( &'( %+()& R(6#/1&,#$)+* C',(0 )$5 .+#0#1$5 R1--,)$
-&)&(-")$ )$5 2)++,#+ 2,&' 2'#" 0#+ &'( $(B& &'+(( *()+- I 2)- &# 8( ,$ ,$&,")&(,
+,%#+#1-, 81& )/2)*- (B3,&,$%, )$5 )& &,"(- (6($ %($,)/ )--#3,)&,#$.
Durin% his first meetin% he %a3e him a$$ the %ood reasons for not o+enin% a Second Front
in Curo+e in 194&6 0ut then to$d him of o+eration FTorchF (the $andin% in ;orth Africa):
Sta$in F0ecame intense$y interestedF6 and fina$$y said: FMay 1od +ros+er this
underta<in%:F Sta$in had =uic<$y %ras+ed the strate%ic ad3anta%es of FTorchF:
H( +(3#1$&(5 0#1+ "),$ +()-#$- 0#+ ,&: ,& 2#1/5 ',& R#""(/ ,$ &'( 8)3;... ,& 2#1/5
#6(+)2( S.),$? ,& 2#1/5 .+#513( 0,%'&,$% 8(&2(($ !(+")$- )$5 +($3'"($ ,$
+)$3(? ,& 2#1/5 (B.#-( I&)/* &# &'( 2'#/( 8+1$& #0 2)+.
I 2)- 5((./* ,".+(--(5 2,&' &',- +(")+;)8/( -&)&("($&. I& -'#2(5 &'( R1--,)$
5,3&)&#+<- -2,0& )$5 3#"./(&( ")-&(+* #0 ) .+#8/(" ',&'(+&# $#6(/ &# ',".
Accordin% to 5hurchi$$ this first meetin% #ent off remar<a0$y #e$$6 0ut the ne8t meetin%
#as much $ess +$easant6 and 5hurchi$$ thou%ht that6 in the inter3a$6 Sta$in had 0een
inf$uenced 0y the 5ounci$ of 5ommissars6 F#ho had not ta<en the ne#s ? had 0rou%ht as
#e$$ as he did:F ?n an aide-mAmoire Sta$in handed 5hurchi$$ durin% this second meetin%
he 3io$ent$y +rotested a%ainst the British decision not to ha3e a Second Front in Curo+e in
194&: Further ;otes #ere e8chan%ed6 to no %reat +ur+ose:
?n retros+ect6 the most interestin% +art of 5hurchi$$'s story is Sta$in's assessment of the
mi$itary situation in 2ussia: he said a) that6 #ith t#enty,fi3e di3isions defendin% the
5aucasus6 the 1ermans #ou$d not cross the mountain ran%e6 and #ou$d not 0rea< throu%h
either to Ba<u or to Batum and6 in t#o months6 sno# #ou$d ma<e the mountains
im+assa0$e6 and 0) that he had other so$id reasons for his confidence6 including a
counter-o""ensive on a great scale5
M* #2$ 0((/,$% 4C'1+3',// 2+#&( &# A&&/(( )$5 R##-(6(/&7 ,- &')& ,& ,- )$ (6($ 3')$3(
&'(* 2,// '#/5, 81& CI!S 2,// $#& %# )- 0)+ )- &',-.
I5hurchi$$6 The %econd $orld $ar, 3o$: ?A6 ++: 4&-,J:K)
There #as a$so some inconc$usi3e ta$< of a Hoint So3iet,British o+eration in ;orthern
;or#ay:
5hurchi$$ records no ta$<s #ith Sta$in on the su0Hect of the !o$esL a$$ he says is that6 on
his $ast ni%ht in Mosco#6 he had a meetin% #ith 1enera$ Anders: @f this he %i3es no
detai$s:
@n his $ast ni%ht (0efore seein% Anders) 5hurchi$$ had %one to Sta$in's +ri3ate f$at in the
4rem$in to ha3e dinner:
M#/#&#6 2)- )/-# -1""#$(5. S&)/,$ ,$&+#513(5 "( &# ',- 5)1%'&(+, ) $,3( %,+/, 2'#
;,--(5 '," -'*/*, 81& 2)- $#& )//#2(5 &# 5,$(... T'( %+()&(-& %##52,// .+(6),/(5, )$5
0#+ &'( 0,+-& &,"( 2( %#& #$ &# ()-* )$5 0+,($5/* &(+"-. I 0((/ I ')6( (-&)8/,-'(5 )
.(+-#$)/ +(/)&,#$-',. 2',3' 2,// 8( '(/.01/...H( 2#1/5 +)&'(+ ')6( /#++,(- &')$
&)$;-, #0 2',3' '( ,- ");,$% M,LLL ) "#$&'. A/-#, '( 2)$&- )/1",$,1". O$ &'(
2'#/(, I )" ($3#1+)%(5 8* "* 6,-,& &# M#-3#2... N#2 &'(* ;$#2 &'( 2#+-& )$5,
')6,$% ")5( &'(,+ .+#&(-&, &'(* )+( ($&,+(/* 0+,($5/*, )$5 &',- ,$ -.,&( #0 &'( 0)3& &')&
&',- ,- &'(,+ "#-& )$B,#1- )$5 )%#$,-,$% &,"(. M#+(#6(+, S&)/,$ ,- ($&,+(/* 3#$6,$3(5
#0 &'( %+()& )56)$&)%(- #0 DT#+3'D...
I?0id:6 ++: 4-",1:K)
Such is the %ist of 5hurchi$$'s story of his 3isit to Mosco# in Au%ust 194&: The attitude to
the 5hurchi$$ 3isit6 and to the 9estern A$$ies %enera$$y6 on the +art of the Mosco#
+o+u$ation is a rather different story: ;ot on$y had the FSecond Front communi=uNF of
Bune 11 0een +$ayed u+ to a fantastic de%ree 0y the So3iet +ress6 0ut it #as a$so $in<ed in
the +u0$ic mind #ith Sta$in's some#hat i$$,considered May,Day @rder a0out Fdri3in% the
Fascist in3aders out of the So3iet *nion in 194&:F ?t #as assumed that Sta$in #ou$d ha3e
ne3er issued such an order #ithout 0ein% as %ood as certain that there #ou$d 0e a Second
Front in the 9est:
;ot on$y #as the 2ussian +o+u$ation sufferin% 3ery serious hardshi+s (the #inter had
0een terri0$e6 and the s+rin% and summer #ere not much 0etter)6 0ut6 #hen the mi$itary
situation 0e%an to $oo< tru$y catastro+hic in Bu$y and Au%ust6 the =uestion of a Second
Front in the immediate future 0ecame to many 2ussians a$most a matter of $ife and death:
?t shou$d a$so 0e remem0ered that near$y e3ery 2ussian one met had a father or 0rother6
or sonDor se3era$ 0rothers or sonsDin the army6 or e$se dead6 #ounded or missin%: ?n
the 3i$$a%es there #ere hard$y any men $eft at a$$ e8ce+t youn%sters or 3ery o$d +eo+$e:
C3en at the hei%ht of the FhoneymoonF there had 0een distrust of the Americans and
es+ecia$$y of the British: The ratification of the An%$o,So3iet A$$iance had 0een mar<ed
0y a dis+$ay of a $ot of So3iet f$a%s on +u0$ic 0ui$din%s6 0ut no British f$a%s: As #e ha3e
seen6 in3idious com+arisons #ere made 0et#een the des+erate resistance at Se0asto+o$
and the F%ut$essF surrender at To0ru<: ? remem0er an educated,$oo<in% o$d #oman in a
tramcar sayin%:
F(ou can't +ossi0$y trust the British: (oun% +eo+$e are not educated enou%h to <no#L 0ut
? <no# a$$ a0out Dis,ra,e$iF (she uttered the four,sy$$a0$e name #ith a snar$)L others #ere
3ery distrustfu$ of 5hurchi$$6 #hose attitude to 2ussia #as often contrasted #ith that of
2oose3e$t6 #ho #as assumed to 0e much friend$ier: Durin% Bune6 Bu$y and Au%ust6 ?
3isited a 3ariety of schoo$s and ta$<ed to many youn% +eo+$e: They #ere friend$yL 0ut
there #as on$y one thin% they rea$$y #anted to <no#6 and that #as #hether there #as
%oin% to 0e a Second Front6 and if so6 #hen:
There #as $itt$e +ro+a%anda to +o+u$arise the British and American A$$ies: ?n Bune there
#ere a fe# +ostersDone of three darts of $i%htnin%6 #ith the So3iet6 the American and
the British f$a%s stri<in% do#n a toad,$i<e .it$er6 %reen #ith fear: C8ce+t for some
ne#sree$s of the Mo$oto3 3isit to the *SA and Cn%$and6 nothin% much #as made of the
a$$iance in either cinemas or theatresL and the on$y F+ro,A$$iedF sho# ? remem0er #as a
3ariety sho# at the Mosco# Crmita%eD#hich ended6 some#hat fatuous$y6 #ith an
e8otic,$oo<in% youn% #oman +$ayin% Tipperar! on an accordion6 and sin%in% in a
mi8ture of 0ro<en Cn%$ish and 2ussian6 after #hich the #ho$e com+any 0urst into #hat
#as meant to 0e a sort of An%$o,So3iet,American dance6 in the settin% of a %reat dis+$ay
of a$$ied f$a%s: The audience sho#ed 3ery $itt$e enthusiasm: This #as at the 0e%innin% of
Bu$yL the sho# #as sto++ed soon after6 and the three darts,of,$i%htnin% +osters a$so
disa++eared6 as #e$$ as the dis+$ays of the FAictory in 194&F s$o%an:
@ne of the minor accom+animents of the An%$o,So3iet A$$iance and the American,So3iet
A%reement #as the formation in Bune of an An%$o,American !ress AssociationL 0esides
0ein% a %esture of s+ecia$ %ood#i$$ on the +art of the 2ussians #ho had authorised this
+ure$y An%$o,American association to 0e set u+6 it %a3e them an o++ortunity to
concentrate their +ro+a%anda efforts on the British and American +ress:
As time #ent on6 the e8as+eration a0out the $ac< of a Second Front %re#: Stories #ent
round Mosco# of 1erman $eaf$ets sho#ered on the 2ussians6 sayin% F9here are the
Cn%$ishEF IThese #ere a$most e8act$y $i<e those dro++ed on French troo+s in 1939 and
194":K or FThe 2umanians and .un%arians are 0etter a$$ies to us than the Cn%$ish are to
you:F
?n this atmos+here6 the ne#s of 5hurchi$$'s 3isit #as recei3ed #ith rather mi8ed fee$in%s:
The first %uess made 0y +eo+$e $i<e Chren0ur% #as6 rou%h$y6 the correct one: that
5hurchi$$ had come to F+$ead #ith Sta$in and to #ithdra# the Second Front
communi=uNF: A+art from that the 2ussians #ere com+$ete$y si$entL and the t#o other
sources of information6 or rather6 sources of hints6 seemed una0$e to a%ree: The British
Cm0assy <e+t hintin% that Sta$in and 5hurchi$$ #ere F%ettin% on $i<e a house on fireF and6
on the $ast day6 Sir Archi0a$d 5$ar<,4err descri0ed the meetin% as Fan e+och,ma<in%
e3entFD#hich #as %oin% to create a $ot of confusion soon after#ards: Mr: .arriman and
the Americans6 on the other hand6 <e+t on su%%estin% that the meetin%s had not %one #e$$
at a$$6 and that if the 2ussians #ere to e8+ect any immediate resu$ts from these 0ad,
tem+ered meetin%s6 they #ere %oin% to 0e disa++ointed: ?t #as a$so $earned that the
British had as<ed for air 0ases in the 5aucasus6 a +ro+osa$ the 2ussians had reHected:
.o#e3er6 e3en the Americans admitted that the atmos+here had im+ro3ed some#hat
to#ards the end6 and #as Fa$most Ho3ia$F at the 4rem$in 0an=uet: ?t #as said that
5hurchi$$ had com+$imented Sta$in on the Fs+$endid 2ussian so$diersF to #hich Sta$in had
re+$ied FDon't e8a%%erate: They aren't a$$ that hot: ?n fact they are +retty 0ad sti$$: But
they are $earnin% and im+ro3in% e3ery dayL and they'$$ 0e a$$ ri%ht 0efore $on%:F
The 2ussian +u0$ic sa# nothin% of 5hurchi$$L he did not %o to any theatre sho#L there
#as no em0assy rece+tion of any <ind6 and he e3en decided not to see the British and
American +ress6 #ho #ere seen instead 0y the Am0assador #ho then uttered that i$$,
considered +hrase a0out the Fe+och,ma<in% e3entF:
.o#e3er6 the ne#sree$ men #ere <e+t 0usy6 and on his arri3a$ at the airfie$d6 5hurchi$$'s
A,si%n #as inter+reted 0y some 2ussians #ho sa# it on the screen as meanin% FSecond
FrontF: (?n a cinema ? heard a youn% %ir$6 #hen the 0and +$ayed F1od Sa3e the 4in%F6
as<in% her %ir$ friend #hat the tune #as6 and recei3in% the re+$y: FDon't you <no#E That's
the '?nternationa$e' in Cn%$ish:F)
The communi=uN +u0$ished at the end of the 5hurchi$$ 3isit and the editoria$s in the
2ussian +ress s+o<e of the c$ose 0onds 0et#een Britain and the So3iet *nion6 0ut #ere
not 3ery i$$uminatin%6 and did not su%%est any immediate resu$ts: Si%nificant$y6 the Army
+a+er6 Bed %tar, did not +u0$ish an editoria$ of its o#n6 0ut mere$y re+rinted the Pravda
editoria$: A$so6 on the day of 5hurchi$$'s de+arture6 #hen6 in his fina$ statement6 he said
that he had Fs+o<en his mindF to Sta$in6 Pravda +rinted an an%ry (efimo3 cartoon
ridicu$in% the 1erman card0oard defences on the 5hanne$Da theory Die++e #as6
unfortunate$y6 %oin% to dis+ro3e a fe# days $ater: ;ot that the 2ussians thou%ht that
Die++e had +ro3ed anythin%6 e8ce+t +erha+s a desire on the +art of the British to sho#
that the Second Front #as Fim+ossi0$eF:
The 2ussians a$so dis$i<ed 5hurchi$$'s Fho0no00in%F #ith 1enera$ Anders durin% his
Mosco# 3isit6 e3en thou%h he a++ears to ha3e had on$y one short meetin% #ith him: ?t
#as (+ro0a0$y correct$y) assumed that the stories 5hurchi$$ #as to$d a0out the
FimminentF defeat of the 2ed Army (#hether he 0e$ie3ed them or not) emanated in the
first +$ace from Anders6 #ho6 as the 2ussians <ne# on$y too #e$$6 #as in a %reat hurry to
+u$$ the %reatest +ossi0$e num0er of !o$es out of 2ussia: The story #ide$y current in
Mosco# that 5hurchi$$ had encoura%ed the !o$es to $ea3e the Fsin<in% shi+F added to
2ussian annoyance:
These stories did not a++ear in the +ress6 0ut it shou$d 0e remem0ered that the !arty #ent
in for a %ood dea$ of 3er0a$ +ro+a%anda6 and <e+t u+ a fair$y hea3y 0arra%e in this #ay
a%ainst 0oth the Fsa0oteurs of the Second FrontF and6 more +articu$ar$y6 a%ainst the !o$es:
?n ideo$o%ica$ terms6 there #ere many Fc$ass enemiesF6 and 5hurchi$$ and certain$y the
Anders' !o$es #ere amon%st them: The fact that these !o$es had some hi%h$y
understanda0$e %rie3ances a%ainst the 2ussians #as6 of course6 o3er$oo<ed:
@n Au%ust &3 Sta$in%rad #as 0om0ed 0y )"" +$anes and to the north of the city the
1ermans 0ro<e throu%h to the Ao$%aL this #as not announced at the time: For the ne8t
#ee< the communi=uNs rather 3a%ue$y (0ut ominous$y) s+o<e of Fintensi3eF fi%htin%
northeast and north,#est of Sta$in%rad6 #ith occasiona$ mentions of some $oca$ success:
Durin% the first fortni%ht of Se+tem0er6 the #ho$e tone of the +ress #as distinct$y ner3ous
in its comments on Sta$in%radL and it #as not ti$$ Se+tem0er &" (fi3e days after the arri3a$
of the 2odimtse3 di3ision) that it 0e%an to s+ea< of Fheroic Sta$in%radF:
Durin% the %reater +art of Se+tem0er6 the +ress 0$e# hot and co$d: #hi$e admittin% that
the situation at Sta$in%rad #as 3ery serious6 it %a3e some %enera$ reasons for 0ein%
reasona0$y confident: Thus6 much #as made of the enormous +ro%ress made 0y the #ar
industries6 of the su++$ies that #ere no# reachin% the army6 and of the %ro#in%
discoura%ement amon% the 1ermans: ?n +articu$ar6 much as he may ha3e dis$i<ed doin%
it6 Chren0ur% fre=uent$y =uoted des+erate $etters to 1erman so$diers at the 2ussian front
a0out the terror and horror of FBritish thousand,0om0er raidsF: There #as no Second
Front6 0ut the 2AF #as6 a$$ the same6 ha3in% its uses:
T#o thin%s 0e%an to characterise the So3iet +ress co3era%e of Sta$in%rad durin% the $ast
ten days of Se+tem0er: the detai$ed descri+tion of the +ecu$iar nature of the fi%htin% there
(a0o3e a$$6 the house,to,house fi%htin%) and the 0irth of the Sta$in%rad e%end: Thus6 on
Se+tem0er &&6 Bed %tar +u0$ished an e8treme$y detai$ed artic$e on the techni=ue of
house,to,house (and e3en f$oor,to,f$oor and room,to,room) fi%htin%:
ISee The 'ear o" %talingrad, ++: &1J,9:K
As for the e%end6 the +ress #as no $on%er as reticent as it had 0een durin% the first ha$f
of Se+tem0er: F.eroic Sta$in%radF and the Fheroic defenders of Sta$in%radF no# 0ecame
dai$y +hrases in the +ress: Simono36 1rossman6 4rie%er6 and many other So3iet #riters
and Hourna$ists de+icted the +athos6 the %rim and heroic atmos+here of the Sta$in%rad
Batt$e: ?t #as not unti$ $ater that anyone =uestioned #hether these artic$es #ere first,hand:
After the #ar6 1enera$ 5hui<o36 in +articu$ar6 de0un<ed some of this re+ortin%: But this
#as not a$#ays fair: Many So3iet re+orters and6 es+ecia$$y6 +hoto%ra+hers and cinema
o+erators $ost their $i3es at Sta$in%rad and in other 0att$es:
Car$y in Se+tem0er the 2ussian +ress had a++$ied the #ord FAerdunF to Sta$in%rad6 and
this #ord #as sei>ed on 0y the #or$d +ress: But 0y the end of Se+tem0er6 the So3iet +ress
dismissed the +ara$$e$ as a0surd: Thus (erusa$ims<y #rote in Bed %tar of Se+tem0er &7
that Sta$in%rad F0y far e8ceeded AerdunF6 and +ointed out that FAerdun #as a first,c$ass
fortressL Sta$in%rad is not: A$so6 the 2ussian offensi3e in the east in 191) di3erted %reat
1erman forces from AerdunL::: no# the o++osite is true:F
@cto0er 194& #as6 as Sta$in #as to say a year $ater6 the month in #hich the So3iet *nion
#as in e3en %reater dan%er than she had 0een at the time of the Batt$e of Mosco#: The
Batt$e of Sta$in%rad #as %oin% 0ad$y and on @cto0er 14 the city #as 3ery near$y $ost:
There #as a$so an acute deterioration in An%$o,So3iet re$ations: 9i$d accusations #ere
hur$ed at Britain for +$ayin% a dou0$e %ameD #hich #ere not unre$ated #ith the
e8treme$y critica$ +osition at Sta$in%rad a0out the midd$e of the month:
The intensification of the Anti,British cam+ai%n (#hich had some#hat a0ated at the time
of the 5hurchi$$ 3isit and the Die++e fiasco) had started some time 0eforeDto 0e +recise6
at the time of 9ende$$ 9i$$<ie's 3isit to Mosco# a0out Se+tem0er &": 9i$$<ie had come
as !resident 2oose3e$t's +ersona$ re+resentati3e6 and #as made a %reat fuss of: .is #ho$e
attitude to 2ussia contrasted6 in 2ussian eyes6 3ery fa3oura0$y #ith 5hurchi$$'s:
!hoto%ra+hs of him in the com+any of Sta$in and Mo$oto3 a++eared in e3ery +a+er6 and
the most #as made of his +u0$ic utterances: .e #as sho#n a num0er of #ar factories and
#as ta<en on a tri+ to the 2>he3 sector of the front #est of Mosco#6 #here the 2ussians
#ere fi%htin% a +articu$ar$y fierce and heart0rea<in% Fdi3ersionistF action a%ainst the
1ermans6 and sufferin% hea3y $osses #ith 3ery $itt$e to sho# for it:
Se3era$ times 9i$$<ie c$ear$y su%%ested that 2oose3e$t #as a$$ in fa3our of the Second
Front that year6 0ut he had met #ith o++osition from the British %enera$s6 and from
5hurchi$$ himse$f:
? +articu$ar$y remem0er the mornin% of Se+tem0er &)6 Hust after his return from the
2>he3 sector of the front6 #hen he in3ited me to 0rea<fast at the So3iet 1uest .ouse in
@stro3s<y ane: .e #as #earin% a smart 0$ue si$< dressin% %o#n #ith #hite s+ots6 and
#as the +icture of hea$th and 3i%our: .e $oo<ed $i<e a man #ho #ou$d $i3e to 0e ninety:
.o# %reat his +ersona$ charm #as e3ery0ody <no#s: The 2ussians #ere doin% him
+roudL there #as ca3iare for 0rea<fast6 and e3en %ra+es6 the first ? had seen that year:
DI&<- ) 6(+* &+,3;* .+#8/(" I<" 1. )%),$-&,D '( -),5. DH#2 ,- #$( &# (B./),$ &# &'(
A"(+,3)$ .18/,3 &')& &'( R1--,)$- )+( ,$ ) 6(+* %+)6( -,&1)&,#$ 81& &')& &'(,+
"#+)/( ,- 0,+-&-+)&( 0#+ )// &')&I... I ;$#2 &'( 3#1$&+* ,- 01// #0 &'( "#-& )..)//,$%
.(+-#$)/ &+)%(5,(- 81&, )& &'( -)"( &,"(, ,0 I 2(+( &# +(.()& )// &'( 2,/5 &)/; I '()+5
)& 5,$$(+ *(-&(+5)* 0+#" S,"#$#6, E'+($81+% )$5 A#,&(;'#6, 2,&' )// &'(,+ )81-(
#0 &'( A//,(-, I &',$; ,& 2#1/5 ");( ) 6(+* 8)5 ,".+(--,#$ ,$ &'( S&)&(-...
There fo$$o#ed this stri<in% i$$ustration of the %ra3e dou0ts that e8isted in 9ashin%ton in
the summer of 194& a0out 2ussia's +o#er of sur3i3a$:
DA0&(+ )//D, -),5 W,//;,(, D&',$%- )+( $#& )- 5(-.(+)&( )- #$( &'#1%'& &'(* ",%'& 8(
8* $#2. E%*.& ,- #;)*? &'( R1--,)$- )+( '#/5,$% #1&, )$5 (6($ S&)/,$%+)5 ,- -&,// ,$
&'(,+ ')$5-. I 5#$<& ",$5 &(//,$% *#1 &')& 2'($ I 2)- /()6,$% W)-',$%&#$ 0,6( 2((;-
)%#, &'( P+(-,5($& &#/5 "(: <.... I :1-& 2)$& &# 2)+$ *#1. I ;$#2 *#1<6( %#& %1&-, 81&
*#1 ")* %(& &# C),+# :1-& )- C),+# ,- 0)//,$%, )$5 *#1 ")* %(& &# R1--,) )& &'( &,"(
#0 ) R1--,)$ 3#//).-(<.D
? su%%ested to 9i$$<ie that the !resident #as not +erha+s 0ein% as com+etent$y informed
from Mosco# as he mi%ht 0e (? had in mind the +essimists at the *S Cm0assy6
+articu$ar$y 1enera$ Miche$a and 5o$one$ !ar<)6 to #hich 9i$$<ie nodded: S+ea<in% of
the Second Front6 he thou%ht it #as ta<in% a terri0$e ris< to +ost+one it ti$$ 1943L for #hat
if 2ussian offensi3e ca+acity #as meantime reduced to nothin%E (This6 incidenta$$y6
sho#ed that if the 2ussians to$d 5hurchi$$ somethin% a0out their +$anned counter,
offensi3e6 they hadn't to$d 9i$$<ie anythin% a0out itD#hy s+oi$ his Second Front
fer3ourE):
The same day he made a statement to the An%$o,American +ress in #hich he s+o<e #ith
rea$ emotion of the %reat 2ussian s+irit of se$f,sacrifice he had o0ser3ed e3ery#hereL and
then he uttered the famous +hrase #hich #as %oin% to cause a $ot of trou0$e:
P(+-#$)//* I )" $#2 3#$6,$3(5 &')& 2( 3)$ '(/. &'(" 8* (-&)8/,-',$% ) +()/ S(3#$5
+#$& ,$ E1+#.( 2,&' !+()& B+,&),$ )& &'( ()+/,(-& .#--,8/( "#"($& #1+ ",/,&)+*
/()5(+- 2,// )..+#6(. A$5 .(+').- -#"( #0 &'(" 2,// $((5 -#"( .18/,3 .+#55,$%.
The 2ussians too< him at his #ord6 and stic<,in,the,mud British B$im+s (mode$$ed on
o#) 0e%an to a++ear in 2ussian cartoons: 5hurchi$$ #as furious6 since 9i$$<ie's
statement had6 in his 3ie#6 undone much of the %ood of his o#n 3isit a month 0efore6
#hen he thou%ht he had con3inced the 2ussians that the Second Front in the near future
#as im+ossi0$e: And a$thou%h Sta$in <ne# a0out FTorchF (#hich 9i$$<ie +erha+s did
not) the 2ussian +ress em0ar<ed on a sa3a%e anti,British cam+ai%n durin% @cto0er6 #hen
the situation at Sta$in%rad $oo<ed +articu$ar$y des+erate:
@n @cto0er )6 0are$y a #ee< after the 9i$$<ie statement6 (efimo3 +u0$ished in Pravda a
3icious cartoon of a num0er of 0a$d,headed and #a$rus,moustached B$im+s sittin% round
a ta0$e and facin% t#o dashin% youn% so$diers in American uniform: These t#o #ere
$a0e$$ed F1enera$ 1utsF and F1enera$ DecisionF6 #hi$e the B$im+s #ere ca$$ed F1enera$
9hat,if,they,$ic<,usF6 F1enera$ 9hat's,the,hurryF6 F1enera$ 9hy,ta<e,ris<sF6 and so on:
@n the same day Sta$in ans#ered the three,+oint =uestionnaire sent him 0y .enry
5assidy6 the A:!: corres+ondent: ?n his ans#er he said that the Second Front Foccu+ied a
+$ace of first,rate im+ortance in the current situationFL that Fthe aid of the A$$ies to the
So3iet *nion has so far 0een $itt$e effecti3eF6 and that it #as essentia$ that the A$$ies
Ffu$fi$ their o0$i%ations fu$$y and on timeFL and6 fina$$y6 in re+$y to 5assidy's =uestion:
F9hat remains of the So3iet ca+acity for resistanceEF Sta$in said:
I &',$; &')& &'( S#6,(& 3).)3,&* #0 +(-,-&,$% &'( !(+")$ 8+,%)$5- ,- ,$ -&+($%&' $#&
/(--, ,0 $#& %+()&(+, &')$ &'( 3).)3,&* #0 )-3,-& !(+")$*, #+ #0 )$* #&'(+ )%%+(--,6(
.#2(+, &# -(31+( 0#+ ,&-(/0 2#+/5 5#",$)&,#$.
Mo$oto3 added fue$ to the f$ames 0y resortin% to a curious tric<: For nine months there
had 0een $yin% in his fo$ders a ;ote on #ar,crimes from the 5>ech 1o3ernment and the
French ;ationa$ 5ommittee and endorsed 0y 1o3ernments of other ;a>i,occu+ied
countries: .e no# re+$ied to this ;ote and6 in the $ast +ara%ra+h he said:
T'( S#6,(& !#6(+$"($& 3#$-,5(+- ,& (--($&,)/ &')& )$* #0 &'( /()5(+- #0 N)C,
!(+")$* 2'# ')..($- &# 8( ,$ &'( ')$5- #0 S&)&(- 0,%'&,$% )%),$-& H,&/(+ !(+")$*
8( &+,(5 2,&'#1& 5(/)* 8* ) -.(3,)/ P(#./(<- 3#1+&, 2,&' )// &'( +,%#1+ #0 &'( 3+,",$)/
/)2.
This ;ote #as +u0$ished on @cto0er 1- (one of the %rimmest days in the Sta$in%rad
fi%htin%): ?ts meanin% #as ru00ed in four days $ater #hen Pravda +u0$ished a 3io$ent
editoria$ on 2udo$f .ess:
S# ,& $#2 )..()+- &')& R15#/0 H(-- )++,6(5 ,$ E$%/)$5 5+(--(5 )- ) !(+")$
),+")$? &'(+(0#+(, '( ,- $#& 8(,$% &+()&(5 )- #$( #0 &'( 3',(0 2)+ 3+,",$)/-, 81& ,-,
,$-&()5, 8(,$% &+()&(5 )- ) "(+( D2)+ .+,-#$(+D. S# ,& 2)- ($#1%' 0#+ &',- $#&#+,#1-
2)+ 3+,",$)/ &# 5+(-- 1.... ,$ #+5(+ &# (6)5( ',- +(-.#$-,8,/,&* 0#+ ',- 3#1$&/(--
3+,"(-, )$5 &'1- to turn ,ngland into a sanctuary *or gangsters.
;ot to treat .ess as a #ar crimina$6 Pravda #ent on6 #as to treat him as Fthe
re+resentati3e of another State6 as .it$er's en3oy:F And then came the story of F.ess's
#ifeF:
I& ,- $#& )33,5($&)/ &')& H(--<- 2,0( -'#1/5 ')6( )..()/(5 &# 3(+&),$ B+,&,-'
+(.+(-($&)&,6(- &# 8( )//#2(5 &# :#,$ '(+ '1-8)$5. I& 2#1/5 -((" 0+#" &',- &')& +)1
H(-- 5#(- $#& 3#$-,5(+ '," ) .+,-#$(+-#0-2)+. I& ,- &,"( 2( 0#1$5 #1& 2'(&'(+ H(--
,- ) 3+,",$)/.. .or the plenipotentiary representative o* the 3azi Government in
,ngland, /ith all the privileges o* immunity.
May0e the story of .ess's #ife #as a +ure in3entionL or may0e it had 0een +$anted on the
2ussians 0y some di+$omatic ti+ster: The +ur+ose of this 3io$ent anti,British cam+ai%n is
sti$$ not c$ear6 and there are se3era$ +ossi0$e e8+$anations: the most +$easant is that Sta$in
<ne# a0out FTorchF6 and #as tryin% to mis$ead the 1ermans Dto ma<e them thin< that
there #as nothin% to #orry a0out in the #est: 5ertain$y6 the 1erman +ress had an or%y of
hee,ha#in% o3er the An%$o,So3iet =uarre$ o3er .ess: But there are a$so other +ossi0$e
e8+$anations: thin%s at Sta$in%rad #ere %oin% 0ad$y6 and a sca+e%oat #as necessary6 and6
in any case6 many So3iet $eaders had a 0ee in their 0onnet a0out Fady AstorF6 the
F5$i3eden SetF and other a$$e%ed British su++orters of a dea$ #ith .it$er at 2ussia's
e8+ense: A$thou%h these #ere mentioned occasiona$$y6 the .ess artic$e #as the most
3icious anti,British attac< throu%hout the #ar6 and it certain$y stirred u+ a %reat dea$ of
anti,British fee$in% in 2ussia: The day the artic$e a++eared6 ? remem0er seein% a !o$ish
officer standin% in a =ueue outside one of the 1astronome sho+s in Mosco#L +eo+$e
started shoutin% at him6 F?nstead of =ueuin% u+ for de$icacies6 you Cn%$ish had 0etter do a
$itt$e fi%htin%:F 9hen he e8+$ained that he #as a !o$e6 they $eft him a$one:
The on$y comic re$ief #as +ro3ided 0y the British Ministry of ?nformation +a+er
+u0$ished in Mosco#6 the .ritans*! %o!uzni*5 A day or t#o after the Pravda editoria$ on
.ess6 amon%st a $ot of notes on cu$ture in Cn%$and #as a +hoto of FMadame .essF %i3in%
a $unch,time +iano recita$ at the ondon 2oya$ C8chan%e: ?t #as6 actua$$y6 Dame Myra
.ess6 0ut ho# #ere the 2ussians to <no# that this #as not .ess's #ife +$ayin% to ondon
0an<ers and stoc<0ro<ersE
The British reaction to the Fsanctuary for %an%stersF editoria$ #ere so shar+ that the
2ussians decided not to +ersist in their cam+ai%n6 thou%h the 0ad humour +ersisted: At a
+u0$ic $ecture %i3en 0y !rofessor (udin6 one of the !arty's %reat ideo$o%ists6 on @cto0er
&J6 he ar%ued that the reasons for the a0sence of the Second Front #ere entirel! political:
that unfortunate$y there #ere 3ery stron% Munichite inf$uences inside the British
1o3ernment: .e a$most su%%ested that the +ur+ose of the .ess artic$e had 0een to stir u+
British +u0$ic o+inion6 so that it shou$d insist that the FMunichitesF 0e thro#n out of the
British 1o3ernment: As<ed #hy the British 1o3ernment #as inca+a0$e of 0rea<in% this
resistance6 he said: F? am not su%%estin% that 5hurchi$$ cannot 0rea< it6 0utDF: .e
shru%%ed his shou$ders:
At the same time6 ho#e3er6 (udin #as 3ery o+timistic a0out the out$oo< at the frontL
than<s to the resistance of Sta$in%rad6 the 1ermans had a$ready $ost their summer
cam+ai%n6 and he #as confident that neither the Ba+s nor the Tur<s #ou$d 0ud%e no#: .e
a$ready dec$ared that Sta$in%rad #ou$d +ro3e the %reat turnin%,+oint in this #ar:
.e e3en a$$uded to some +eace,fee$ers the 1ermans had +ut out via Ba+an6 0ut said that it
no $on%er de+ended on 1ermany #hen the #ar #ou$d endL #hether or not there #as
%oin% to 0e a Second Front6 the So3iet *nion #ou$d fi%ht on ti$$ the fina$ defeat of
1ermany:
At the end of @cto0er the #ho$e tone of the 2ussian +ress 0ecame6 indeed6 much more
o+timistic: The communi=uNs and the +ress re+orts in the midd$e of the month had d#e$t
on the e8treme seriousness of the situationL 0ut 0y the end of @cto0er the #orst seemed to
0e o3er: @n @cto0er &J A$e8andro3 #rote in Pravda:
T'( 5(0($3( #0 S&)/,$%+)5 ')- '(/5 1. &'( !(+")$- 0#+ &'+(( "#$&'-. T',- "()$-
&')& )& S&)/,$%+)5 &'(* /#-& &'( "#-& .+(3,#1- &,"( &'(* ')5 &',- *()+ 0#+ #00($-,6(
#.(+)&,#$-.
?n other #ords6 the terri0$e dan%er that the country had fe$t in Bu$y and Au%ust had
a$ready 0een a3erted: ;ot that Sta$in%rad itse$f #as necessari$y out of dan%er yet6 and
near$y the #ho$e of the ;orthern 5aucasus #as in 1erman hands: A$thou%h they had
0een he$d u+ at Mo>do< on the #ay to Ba<u and had not ad3anced much 0eyond
;o3orossis< on the B$ac< Sea6 the 1ermans sudden$y scored a maHor success on
;o3em0er & 0y 0rea<in% throu%h to ;a$chi< on the #ay to A$adi<a3<a>6 the northern
terminus of the 1eor%ian Mi$itary .i%h#ayDthe %ate into Transcaucasia:
C3en so6 the #ho$e atmos+here in Mosco# on the e3e of the &-th anni3ersary of the
@cto0er 2e3o$ution #as distinct$y o+timistic: Somethin% had c$ear$y chan%ed since the
%rim months of Bu$y and Au%ust: The 0i%%est front,+a%e +u0$icity #as %i3en6 on
;o3em0er )6 to the F@ath of the Defenders of Sta$in%radF addressed to Sta$in:
... T'( ($("*<- )," 2)- &# 31& #1+ A#/%) 2)&(+2)* )$5 &'($, 8* &1+$,$% -#1&' &# &'(
C)-.,)$, &# 31& #00 #1+ 3#1$&+* 0+#" ,&- "),$ #,/ -1../,(-... I0 &'( ($("* -133((5-, '(
3)$ &'($ &1+$ )// ',- -&+($%&' )%),$-& M#-3#2 )$5 L($,$%+)5...
C3en at that sta%e6 Sta$in%rad sti$$ said Fif he succeedsF6 and not Fif he had succeededF:
A+art from this reser3ation6 the tone #as confident throu%hout: After enumeratin% a$$ that
the defenders of Sta$in%rad had achie3ed and the $osses the 1ermans had suffered there6
they reca$$ed Sta$in's ro$e in the defence of Tsaritsyn (the o$d name of Sta$in%rad) durin%
the 5i3i$ 9ar6 and they dec$ared themse$3es firm$y con3inced that6 Ffi%htin% as #e are
under your direct %uidance::: #e sha$$ stri<e another smashin% 0$o# at the enemy and
dri3e him a#ay from Sta$in%rad:F
The @ath to Fdear Bose+h Aissariono3ichF did not %o so far as to say that Sta$in%rad
:ould 0e he$dL 0ut the #ay in #hich they associated the city #ith the name and +resti%e
of Sta$in made fai$ure e8treme$y un$i<e$y:
I$ -($5,$% *#1 &',- /(&&(+ 0+#" &'( &+($3'(-, 2( -2()+ &# *#1, 5()+ J#-(.'
A,--)+,#$#6,3', &')& &# &'( /)-& 5+#. #0 8/##5, &# &'( /)-& 8+()&', &# &'( /)-& '()+&-
8()&, 2( -')// 5(0($5 S&)/,$%+)5... W( -2()+ &')& 2( -')// $#& 5,-%+)3( &'( %/#+* #0
R1--,)$ )+"- )$5 -')// 0,%'& &# &'( ($5. U$5(+ *#1+ /()5(+-',. #1+ 0)&'(+- 2#$ &'(
B)&&/( #0 T-)+,&-*$. U$5(+ *#1+ /()5(+-',. 2( -')// 2,$ &'( %+()& B)&&/( #0
S&)/,$%+)5.
The #ho$e tone of the @ath #as so confident that there #as no#6 if anythin%6 a tendency
to underrate the dan%ers Sta$in%rad #as sti$$ facin%L ne3erthe$ess6 +eo+$e sti$$ fe$t
instincti3e$y that the #orst #as o3er6 and this instinct +ro3ed ri%ht: The $etters +eo+$e
#ere %ettin% from so$diers in Sta$in%rad %reat$y contri0uted to the o+timism: These #ere
not officia$ missi3es $i<e the F@athF6 each #ord of #hich had no dou0t 0een carefu$$y
3etted 0y the +o$itica$ 0i%,shots on the s+ot6 0ut +ri3ate $ettersL and in these it #as c$ear
that6 des+ite the fearfu$ menta$ and 0odi$y strain6 2ussian so$diers #ere 0ecomin%
immense$y +roud of 4eing in Sta$in%rad: To the 1ermans6 on the other hand6 the idea of
0ein% sent to Sta$in%rad #as 0ecomin% increasin%$y terrifyin%:
;ot on$y had the So3iet +ress 0een conductin% an anti,British cam+ai%n in @cto0er6 0ut
the 5hurchi$$,Sta$in corres+ondence durin% this +eriod #as far from cordia$: Sta$in
ac<no#$ed%ed the arri3a$ of the !Q 1J con3oy at Archan%e$ rather curt$yL he a$so
dismissed 5hurchi$$'s estimate of 1erman aircraft +roduction as inaccurateL and in re+$y
to 5hurchi$$'s $on% $etter of @cto0er 9 +ressin% him to acce+t an An%$o,American air
force in the 5aucasus (0ut a$so informin% him that the Arctic con3oys #ou$d ha3e to 0e
cut do#n) Sta$in mere$y said: F(our messa%e of @cto0er 9 recei3ed: Than< you: B:
Sta$in:F
.o#e3er6 #ith the situation in the 5aucasus deterioratin% (;a$chi< had 0een ca+tured 0y
the 1ermans on ;o3em0er &) Sta$in6 in his $etter of ;o3em0er J sho#ed rene#ed interest
in the offer of t#enty An%$o,American s=uadrons for the 5aucasus:
?n 3ie# of a$$ the un+$easantness6 es+ecia$$y in @cto0er6 0et#een the So3iet and British
1o3ernments (5hurchi$$ #as +articu$ar$y furious a0out the .ess out0urst) Sta$in's
;o3em0er ) 0roadcast came as a +$easant sur+rise to the 9estern A$$ies: ;o dou0t he
<ne# 0y this time that @+eration FTorchF had a$ready started and that 2omme$ #as in
retreat in the 9estern Desert: .e re+eated$y stressed the im+ortance of the An%$o,
American,So3iet a$$iance6 thou%h he sounded ironica$ a0out the British in i0ya6 #here
they #ere fi%htin% Fon$y fourDyes6 fourD1erman and e$e3en ?ta$ian di3isions:F .e a$so
said that6 if on$y there #ere a Second Front6 the 1ermans #ou$d 0y no# ha3e 0een dri3en
0ac< to !s<o36 Mins< and @dessa: .e s+o<e #ith satisfaction of the %reat im+ro3ement in
the 2ussian fi%htin%6 and of the enormous +ro%ress made 0y the So3iet industries in the
east: .e a$so ar%ued that the 1ermans had fai$ed in their main o0Hecti3e #hich #as not
the occu+ation of the 5aucasus (this #as on$y their FsecondaryF o0Hecti3e) 0ut the
encirc$ement of Mosco# from the east6 after the fa$$ of Sta$in%rad:
.is @rder of the Day on ;o3em0er 7 fo$$o#ed much the same $ineL #ithout a$$udin%
either to FTorchF or to the comin% 2ussian offensi3e6 it used6 ho#e3er6 a +hrase #hich
enormous$y cheeredD and intri%uedDthe 2ussians: FThere #i$$ 0e a ho$iday in our
street6 too6F meanin% Fit #i$$ soon 0e our turn to reHoiceF:
The ne#s of the ;orth African $andin% t#o days $ater created a 0i% im+ression in
Mosco#: 9ithout understandin% the enormous or%anisationa$ com+$e8ity of the $andin%6
+eo+$e had the +$easant fee$in% that thin%s in the #est #ere at $ast on the mo3eDnot that
this #as =uite the same as the FSecond FrontF they had ho+ed for: ater6 in Sta$in%rad6 ?
#as to$d that the ne#s of the ;orth,African $andin% #as f$ashed to a$$ the army units and
had a 3ery %ood effect: ?n his second $etter to 5assidy6 dated ;o3em0er 136 Sta$in
e8+ressed %reat satisfaction o3er the successfu$ +ro%ress of the ;orth,African cam+ai%n:
F?t o+ens the +ros+ect of the disinte%ration of the ?ta$o,1erman coa$ition in the nearest
futureF6 he #rote6 addin% that the o+eration c$ear$y sho#ed that the An%$o,American
$eaders F#ere ca+a0$e of or%anisin% a serious #ar cam+ai%nF and that6 in the 9estern
Desert Fthe enemy troo+s had 0een smashed #ith %reat mastery:F .e +redicted that ?ta$y
#ou$d soon dro+ out of the #ar: A$thou%h it #as too ear$y to say to #hat e8tent the
;orth,African cam+ai%n #ou$d re$ie3e the +ressure on the So3iet *nion6 he thou%ht the
effect #ou$d 0e Fa++recia0$eF:
Sta$in a$so said that the cam+ai%n Fcreated the +rere=uisites for esta0$ishin% a Second
Front in Curo+e6 nearer to 1ermany's 3ita$ centresF6 and #ou$d Fsha<e France out of her
$ethar%yF:
A$thou%h many 2ussians #ere scanda$ised 0y the American dea$ #ith Dar$an6 #e no#
<no# that Sta$in himse$f too< a com+$ete$y cynica$ or Frea$isticF 3ie# of the #ho$e thin%
D#hich is scarce$y sur+risin% #hen one $oo<s 0ac< on 1939: ?n his $etter to 5hurchi$$ of
;o3em0er &7 he #rote:
A- 0#+ D)+/)$, I &',$; &'( A"(+,3)$- ')6( ")5( -;,/01/ 1-( #0 '," &# 0)3,/,&)&( &'(
#331.)&,#$ #0 N#+&' )$5 W(-& A0+,3). M,/,&)+* 5,./#")3* -'#1/5 ;$#2 '#2 &# 1-(
0#+ &'( 2)+ ),"- $#& #$/* &'( D)+/)$-, 81& (6($ &'( 5(6,/ )$5 ',- %+)$5"#&'(+.
A$to%ether6 after the ;orth,African $andin%6 there #as a 3ery mar<ed im+ro3ement in
inter,a$$ied re$ations: As 5$ar<,4err6 the British Am0assador remar<ed to me a fe# days
$ater: FThe 4rem$in is no# sendin% out #arm rays:F
C').&(+ III RUSSIANS ENCIRCLE THE !ERMANS AT
STALIN!RAD
There #as on$y a $a+se of thirteen days 0et#een the F@ath 0y the Defenders of
Sta$in%radF and the 0e%innin% of the %reat 2ussian counter,offensi3e #hich ended in the
Sta$in%rad 3ictory t#o and a ha$f months $ater: But in the course of these thirteen days the
1ermans $aunched one more des+erate offensi3e a%ainst 5hui<o3's )&nd Army #hose
+osition had 0een rendered e3en more difficu$t than 0efore 0y the icef$oes on the Ao$%a:
These had +ractica$$y sto++ed a$$ communications across the ri3er6 and had made it
a$most im+ossi0$e e3en to e3acuate the #ounded: And yet6 once this $ast 1erman
offensi3e #as smashed6 the mora$e of the defenders of Sta$in%rad #as hi%her than e3er6
a$$ the more so as they had an in<$in% that somethin% 3ery im+ortant #as a0out to ha++en:
ater6 Sta$in%rad so$diers to$d me #ith #hat frantic Hoy6 ho+e and e8citement they heard
the sound of distant 0ut intensi3e %un,fire on ;o3em0er 196 0et#een ) and 7 a:m:6 that
most si$ent hour of the day in Sta$in%rad: They <ne# #hat that %un,fire meant: ?t meant
that they #ou$d not ha3e to %o on defendin% Sta$in%rad throu%h the #inter: Throu%h the
dar<ness6 #ith scarce$y a %$immer of $i%htDfor it #as a dim6 dam+6 fo%%y da#nDthey
$istened6 as they +ut their heads out of their du%outs:
;either on ;o3em0er 196 #hen the Don Army 1rou+ under 2o<osso3s<y and the South,
9est Army 1rou+ under Aatutin struc< out south#ard to#ards 4a$ach6 nor on the &"th6
#hen the Sta$in%rad Army 1rou+ under (eremen<o struc< north,#est from the area
south of Sta$in%rad to meet them #as anythin% officia$$y announced: ;or #as there
anythin% in the communi=uN of ;o3em0er &1: 9ith unconscious irony6 Pravda de3oted
its editoria$ that day to FThe Session of the Academy of Sciences at S3erd$o3s<:F
?t #as not ti$$ the ni%ht of ;o3em0er && that a s+ecia$ communi=uN announced the
tremendous ne#s that 2ussian troo+s had struc< out Fa fe# days a%oF from 0oth north,
#est and south of Sta$in%rad6 that they had ca+tured 4a$ach and had cut the t#o rai$#ay
$ines su++$yin% the 1ermans in Sta$in%rad6 at 4ri3omu>%ins<aya and at A0%anero3o: ?t
#as not yet e8+$icit$y stated that the rin% around the 1ermans in Sta$in%rad had 0een
c$osed6 0ut the communi=uN s+o<e of 3ery hea3y $osses inf$icted on the enemy6 of 146"""
enemy dead6 136""" +risoners6 et cetera:
The e8citement in Mosco# #as tremendous6 and on e3ery0ody's $i+s there #as this one
#ord: "nachalos@"DFit's startedF: Some instinct su%%ested to e3ery0ody that somethin%
3ery 0i% cou$d 0e e8+ected from this offensi3e:
I ?t is interestin% to note that6 a fe# days $ater6 5o$one$ C8ham6 the British mi$itary
attachN6 rec<oned that this offensi3e F#ou$d ta<e the 2ussians a$$ the #ay to 4har<o3F
0efore the end of the #inter6 #hereas 1enera$ Miche$a and 5o$one$ !ar< of the *S
Cm0assy #ere sayin% that it #as Fdarned smart of the 1ermans to %et themse$3es
encirc$ed at Sta$in%rad6 and to tie u+ enormous 2ussian forces in this #ayD#hich #ou$d
cause the 2ussians no end of em0arrassments:FK
The main +oints a0out this second and decisi3e +hase of the Sta$in%rad 0att$e are:
1) The three 2ussian FFrontsF to%ether had 16"-"6""" men a%ainst an a$most e=ua$
num0er of enemy troo+sL a0out 9"" tan<s a%ainst 7""L 136""" %uns a%ainst 1"6"""L and
161"" +$anes a%ainst 16&"":
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: 36 +: &): C$se#here the Histor! c$aims that the 2ussians had 16&"" tan<s6
most of them modern6 #hereas at Mosco# they had on$y scra+ed to%ether 7-"6 main$y
o0so$ete:K
@n the other hand6 in the Fmain 0$o#F sectors6 2ussian su+eriority #as o3er#he$min%
#hich6 accordin% to the Histor!, had ne3er 0efore 0een achie3ed in this #ar: a three,fo$d
su+eriority in men and a four,fo$d su+eriority in e=ui+ment6 es+ecia$$y in arti$$ery and
mortars:
!ractica$$y a$$ this e=ui+ment had 0een made 0y So3iet industry durin% the summer and
ear$y autumn months6 and on$y a sma$$ num0er of 9estern tan<s6 $orries and Hee+s #ere
used: *+ to Fe0ruary 19436 7&6""" 9estern $orries had 0een de$i3ered to 2ussia6 0ut on$y
a 3ery sma$$ +ro+ortion of these #ere a3ai$a0$e 0y the time the 2ussian Sta$in%rad
offensi3e 0e%an:
&) Mora$e amon% the troo+s #as e8treme$y %ood:
3) The +$an for the counter,offensi3e had 0een #or<ed out Fco$$ecti3e$yF since Au%ust6
chief$y 0y Sta$in6 Ohu<o3 and Aassi$e3s<y6 in consu$tation #ith the commanders of the
$oca$ Army 1rou+sDAatutin6 2o<osso3s<y and (eremen<o:
IOhu<o36 in order to ma<e the Ffina$ arran%ementF6 3isited Aatutin's .:Q: on ;o3em0er -
and that of (eremen<o on ;o3em0er 1": (?A@ASS6 3o$: 36 +: &)): But the idea that he
#as +ro0a0$y the rea$ 0rain 0ehind the o+eration is minimised in recent histories:K
?n @cto0er and ;o3em0er Aassi$e3s<y and Ohu<o3 3isited the areas of the comin%
o+erations:
4) The +re+arations for the offensi3e #ere an enormous feat of or%anisation and had
0een conducted #ith the %reatest secrecyL thus6 for se3era$ #ee<s 0efore the offensi3e a$$
mai$ #as sto++ed 0et#een the so$diers of the three Army 1rou+s and their fami$ies:
A$thou%h they 0om0ed the rai$#ays $eadin% to the area north of the Don6 the 1ermans
ne3er %ot a c$ear idea of ho# much e=ui+ment and ho# many troo+s #ere 0ein% 0rou%ht
(main$y at ni%ht) to the area north of the Don and to the t#o main 2ussian 0rid%eheads
inside the Don BendL and the 1ermans ne3er thou%ht that the 2ussian counter,offensi3e
(if any) cou$d assume such 3ast +ro+ortions: More difficu$t sti$$ #as the tas< of
trans+ortin% 3ast num0ers of troo+s and enormous =uantities of e=ui+ment to the
Sta$in%rad Front6 in the south: The hea3i$y,0om0ed rai$#ay $ine east of the Ao$%a had to
0e used6 and +ontoons and ferries had to 0e or%anised across the Ao$%a6 a$most ri%ht
under the 1ermans' noses: *n$i<e the country north of the Don6 #here there #ere some
forests6 camouf$a%e in the 0arren ste++es south of Sta$in%rad #as +articu$ar$y difficu$t:
C3en so6 the 1ermans sti$$ had no idea of the #ei%ht of the comin% 2ussian ons$au%ht:
-) The 1erman command6 and .it$er in +articu$ar6 #ere so o0sessed #ith the +resti%e
+ro0$em of ca+turin% Sta$in%rad that they did not %i3e sufficient attention to conso$idatin%
the t#o f$an<s of #hat can con3enient$y 0e ca$$ed the Sta$in%rad sa$ient: Strict$y
s+ea<in%6 it #as not a sa$ient: there #as a c$ear FfrontF on its north side6 0ut in the south
there #as a sort of 3ast no,man's,$and runnin% throu%h the 4a$mu< ste++es a$$ the #ay to
the northern 5aucasus6 #ith a fe# thin $ines he$d here and there6 most$y 0y 2umanian
troo+s: ?n the north6 too6 some of the sectors of the front #ere he$d 0y 2umanians: The
2umanian troo+s had fou%ht #e$$ round @dessa and in the 5rimea6 0ut at the 0e%innin%
of #inter in the Don ste++es their mora$e #as $o#: .ere they #ere c$ear$y not fi%htin%
2umania's 0att$e6 0ut .it$er's6 and their re$ations #ith the 1ermans #ere far from
satisfactory at any $e3e$: Further #est on the Don6 there #ere ?ta$ian troo+s6 #hose
mora$e #as a$so far from %ood: The 2ussians #ere fu$$y a#are of this6 and ri%ht$y
re%arded the sectors he$d 0y 2umanians and ?ta$ians as the #ea<est:
The offensi3e started a$on% a #ide front to the north of the sa$ient at ):3" a:m: on
;o3em0er 19 #ith an arti$$ery and *at!usha 0arra%eL and 2ussian infantry and tan<s
0e%an their ad3ance t#o hours $ater: @#in% to 0ad #eather6 $itt$e aircraft #as used: ?n
three days Aatutin's troo+s ad3anced some se3enty,fi3e mi$es6 routin% in the +rocess the
2umanian 3rd Army and a num0er of 1erman units that #ere hasti$y sent to the rescue of
their a$$ies: Des+ite stron% resistance from the 1ermans and a$so some 2umanian units6
Aatutin's troo+s of the South,9est Front reached 4a$ach on the &&nd6 meetin% there
(eremen<o's forces #hich had 0ro<en throu%h from the south6 #ith rather $ess resistance
from the enemy:
?n the fi%htin%6 four 2umanian di3isions #ere encirc$ed6 and soon after#ards surrendered6
#ith 1enera$ ascar at their head: The same fate 0efe$$ another encirc$ed 2umanian
%rou+ commanded 0y 1enera$ Stenescu: The routin% of the 2umanian 3rd Army6 as a
resu$t of #hich the 2ussians too< some 3"6""" +risoners6 had a far,reachin% +o$itica$
effect on .it$er's re$ations #ith his a$$ies: For one thin%6 after that 2umanian troo+s #ere
+$aced under much stricter and more direct 1erman su+er3ision:
(eremen<o's Sta$in%rad Army 1rou+6 startin% their attac< one day $ater6 ad3anced e3en
more ra+id$y to#ards 4a$ach #hich it reached #ithin $ess than three days6 thus
foresta$$in% the ;orth#estern Army 1rou+ and ta<in% 76""" 2umanian +risoners: The
ri%ht f$an< of Army 1rou+ Don6 under 1enera$ 2o<osso3s<y had a$so struc< out to:the
south on ;o3em0er 196 one of its +ron%s 0rea<in% throu%h to 1enera$ 1oro<ho3's
0rid%ehead on the Ao$%a north of Sta$in%rad:
9ithin four and a ha$f days the encirc$ement of the 1ermans in Sta$in%rad #as
com+$eted: The Frin%F #as neither 3ery thic<Dit 3aried from t#enty to forty mi$esDnor
3ery so$id6 and the o03ious ne8t tas< #as to stren%then and #iden it: Durin% the $ast days
of ;o3em0er the 1ermans made an attem+t to 0rea< throu%h the 'rin%F from the #est6 0ut
they fai$ed des+ite a fe# initia$ successes: 9hat the 2ussians feared most #as that
!au$us's )th Army and units of the 4th !an>er Army inside Sta$in%rad #ou$d attem+t to
0rea< out and a0andon Sta$in%radL 0ut there #as no si%n of this ha++enin% and6
+arado8ica$$y6 durin% the 2ussian 0rea<throu%h on the Don many 1ermans f$ed to
Sta$in%rad Ffor safetyF:
Some interestin% detai$s on the scene of this %reat 0att$e #ere %i3en me 0y .enry
Sha+iro6 the *nited !ress 5orres+ondent in Mosco#6 #ho #as a$$o#ed to 3isit it a fe#
days after the Frin%F had c$osed: .e #ent 0y train to a +oint some hundred mi$es north,
#est of Sta$in%rad6 and tra3e$$ed from there 0y car to Serafimo3ich6 on that 0rid%ehead on
the Don #hich the 2ussians had ca+tured in hea3y fi%htin% in @cto0er6 and #hence
Aatutin hur$ed his troo+s to#ards 4a$ach on ;o3em0er 19:
T'( +),/2)* /,$( $()+(+ &'( 0+#$& ')5 8(($ '()6,/* 8#"8(5 8* &'( !(+")$-? )//
-&)&,#$- 2(+( 5(-&+#*(5, )$5 &'( ",/,&)+* 3#"")$5)$&- )$5 +),/2)* .(+-#$$(/
#.(+)&(5 &'( +),/2)* &+)00,3 0+#" 51%#1&- )$5 +1,$(5 81,/5,$%-. A// )/#$% &'(
+),/2)* &#2)+5- &'( 0+#$& &'(+( 2)- ) &+("($5#1- 3#$&,$1#1- 0/#2 #0 )+")"($&-:
katyushas, %1$-, &)$;-, )""1$,&,#$E)$5 "($. T'( &+)00,3 3#$&,$1(5 5)* )$5 $,%'&,
)$5 ,& 2)- &'( -)"( #$ &'( +#)5-. I& 2)- .)+&,31/)+/* ,$&($-( )& $,%'&. T'(+( 2)-
6(+* /,&&/( B+,&,-' #+ A"(+,3)$ (91,."($& &# 8( -(($, (B3(.& )$ #33)-,#$)/ :((. #+
&)$;? )8#1& $,$(&*-$,$( .(+ 3($& #0 &'( -&100 2)- R1--,)$-")5(. A 0),+/* ',%'
.+#.#+&,#$ #0 &'( 0##5 2)-, '#2(6(+, A"(+,3)$E(-.(3,)//* /)+5, -1%)+ )$5 -.)".
B* &'( &,"( I %#& &# S(+)0,"#6,3', &'( R1--,)$- 2(+( $#& #$/* 3#$-#/,5)&,$% &'(
D+,$%D +#1$5 S&)/,$%+)5, 81& 2(+( $#2 ");,$% ) D-(3#$5 +,$%D? ,& 2)- 3/()+ 0+#"
&'( "). &')& &'( !(+")$- )& S&)/,$%+)5 2(+( 3#"./(&(/* &+)..(5, )$5 3#1/5$<& %(&
#1&... I 0#1$5 )"#$% 8#&' -#/5,(+- )$5 #00,3(+- a *eeling o* sel*7con*idence, the like o*
/hich 9 had never seen in the )ed Army be*ore. 9n the %attle o* Mosco/ there /as
nothing like it. 4E".')-,- )55(5.7
W(// 8(',$5 &'( 0,%'&,$%-/,$( &'(+( 2(+( $#2 &'#1-)$5- #0 R1")$,)$- 2)$5(+,$%
)8#1& &'( -&(..(-, 31+-,$% &'( !(+")$- )$5 5(-.(+)&(/* /##;,$% 0#+ R1--,)$
0((5,$%-.#,$&-, )$5 )$B,#1- &# 8( 0#+")//* &);($ #6(+ )- 2)+ .+,-#$(+-. S#"(
,$5,6,51)/ -&+)%%/(+- 2#1/5 &'+#2 &'("-(/6(- #$ &'( "(+3* #0 &'( /#3)/ .()-)$&-,
2'# &+()&(5 &'(" 3')+,&)8/*, ,0 #$/* 8(3)1-( &'(* 2(+( $#& !(+")$-. T'( R1--,)$-
&'#1%'& &'(* 2(+( D:1-& .##+ .()-)$&- /,;( #1+-(/6(-D.
EB3(.& 0#+ -")// %+#1.- #0 I+#$-!1)+5 "($ 2'#, '(+( )$5 &'(+(, .1& 1. ) -&,00 0,%'&,
&'( R1")$,)$ -#/5,(+- 2(+( -,3; )$5 &,+(5 #0 &'( 2)+? &'( .+,-#$(+- I -)2 )// -),5
+#1%'/* &'( -)"( &',$%E&')& &',- 2)- H,&/(+<- 2)+, )$5 &')& &'( R1")$,)$- ')5
$#&',$% &# 5# #$ &'( D#$.
T'( 3/#-(+ I "#6(5 &# S&)/,$%+)5, &'( "#+( $1"(+#1- 2(+( &'( !(+")$ .+,-#$(+-...
T'( -&(..( 2)- ) 0)$&)-&,3 -,%'&? ,& 2)- 01// #0 5()5 '#+-(-, 2',/( -#"( '#+-(- 2(+(
#$/* ')/0-5()5, -&)$5,$% #$ &'+(( 0+#C($ /(%-, )$5 -');,$% &'( +("),$,$% 8+#;($
#$(. I& 2)- .)&'(&,3. 1L,LLL '#+-(- ')5 8(($ ;,//(5 51+,$% &'( R1--,)$
8+();&'+#1%'. T'( 2'#/( -&(..( 2)- -&+(2$ 2,&' &'(-( 5()5 '#+-(- )$5 2+(3;(5
%1$-3)++,)%(- )$5 &)$;- )$5 %1$-E!(+")$-, +($3', CC(3', (6($ B+,&,-' 4$#
5#18& 3).&1+(5 )& D1$;,+;7..., )$5 $# ($5 #0 3#+.-(-, R1")$,)$ )$5 !(+")$. T'(
R1--,)$ 8#5,(- 2(+( &'( 0,+-& &# 8( 81+,(5. C,6,/,)$- 2(+( 3#",$% 8)3; &# &'(
6,//)%(-, "#-& #0 &'(" 2+(3;(5... K)/)3' 2)- ) -')"8/(-: #$/* #$( '#1-( 2)-
-&)$5,$%...
!($(+)/ C',-&,);#6, 2'#-( H.R. I 0,$)//* /#3)&(5 ,$ ) 6,//)%( -#1&' #0 K)/)3'E&'(
6,//)%( 2)- 1$5(+ -.#+)5,3 -'(//-0,+(E-),5 &')&, #$/* ) 0(2 5)*- 8(0#+(, &'(
!(+")$- 3#1/5 -&,// 0),+/* ()-,/* ')6( 8+#;($ #1& #0 S&)/,$%+)5, 81& H,&/(+ ')5
0#+8,55($ ,&. N#2 &'(* ')5 ",--(5 &'(,+ 3')$3(. H( 2)- 3(+&),$ &')& S&)/,$%+)5
2#1/5 8( &);($ 8* &'( ($5 #0 D(3("8(+.
IThe Manstein offensi3e he$+ed to u+set this 2ussian time,ta0$eL if Sta$in%rad had fa$$en
in Decem0er6 the 2ussians mi%ht6 indeed6 ha3e reached the Dnie+er durin% their #inter
cam+ai%n6 and mi%ht not ha3e $ost 4har<o36 as they did in March 1943:K
!(+")$ &+)$-.#+& ./)$(-, C',-&,);#6 -),5, 2(+( 8(,$% -'#& 5#2$ 8* &'( 5#C($, )$5
&'( !(+")$- ,$-,5( &'( S&)/,$%+)5 .#3;(& 2(+( )/+()5* -'#+& #0 0##5, )$5 2(+(
()&,$% 1. &'( '#+-(-.
T'( !(+")$ .+,-#$(+- I -)2 2(+( "#-&/* *#1$% 0(//#2-, )$5 6(+* ",-(+)8/(. I 5,5
$#& -(( )$* #00,3(+-. I$ &',+&* 5(%+((- #0 0+#-& &'(* 2#+( #+5,$)+* 3#)&-, )$5 ')5
8/)$;(&- &,(5 +#1$5 &'(,+ $(3;-. T'(* ')5 ')+5/* )$* 2,$&(+ 3/#&',$% )& )//. T'(
R1--,)$-, #$ &'( #&'(+ ')$5, 2(+( 6(+* 2(//-(91,..(5E2,&' valenki, -'((.-;,$
3#)&-, 2)+" %/#6(-, (& 3(&(+). M#+)//*, &'( !(+")$- -(("(5 3#"./(&(/* -&1$$(5,
1$)8/( &# 1$5(+-&)$5 2')& &'( 5(6,/ ')5 ')..($(5.
O$ "* +(&1+$ :#1+$(* I -)2 !($(+)/ A)&1&,$ ,$ ) 5,/).,5)&(5 -3'##/-'#1-( )&
S(+)0,"#6,3' 0#+ ) 0(2 ",$1&(- )& 0#1+ ,$ &'( "#+$,$%... H( 2)- &(++,8/* &,+(5? '(
')5 $#& ')5 ) .+#.(+ -/((. 0#+ )& /()-& ) 0#+&$,%'&, )$5 ;(.& +188,$% ',- (*(- )$5
5#C,$% #00. #+ )// &')&, '( /##;(5 6(+* &#1%' )$5 5(&(+",$(5, )$5 2)- ',%'/*
#.&,",-&,3. H( -'#2(5 "( ) "). #$ 2',3' &'( $(2 R1--,)$ -2((. ,$&# &'( 2(-&(+$
.)+& #0 &'( D#$ 3#1$&+* 2)- 3/()+/* ")+;(5.
M* ,".+(--,#$ 2)- &')& 2',/( &'( 3).&1+( #0 S(+)0,"#6,3' ,$ O3&#8(+ ')5 3#-& &'(
R1--,)$- '()6* 3)-1)/&,(-, &'(,+ /#--(- ,$ &',- 2(//-./)$$(5 8+();&'+#1%' 2(+(
,$3#".)+)8/* -")//(+ &')$ &'#-( #0 &'( R1")$,)$- )$5 !(+")$-.
At this time6 the 1ermans and their a$$ies #ere sti$$ occu+yin% 3ast territories of south,
east 2ussia: The #ho$e of the 4u0an country and +arts of the ;orthern 5aucasus #ere in
their handsL they #ere sti$$ at Mo>do< on the road to 1ro>ny6 and at ;o3orossis< on the
B$ac< Sea: @n ;o3em0er & they had ca+tured ;a$chi< and had near$y ca+tured
A$adi<a3<a>6 at the northern end of the 1eor%ian Mi$itary .i%h#ay6 thou%h here the
2ussians scored a maHor success on ;o3em0er 19 0y thro#in% in a stron% force and
hur$in% the 1ermans 0ac< to the outs<irts of ;a$chi<: At Mo>do<6 the 1ermans had fai$ed
to ma<e any a++recia0$e ad3ance since the end of Au%ust: For months no# Mo>do<6 $i<e
Sta$in%rad6 had continued to fi%ure in the communi=uNs: By aimin% to dri3e the 1ermans
out of the #ho$e Don country #est of Sta*n%rad6 ri%ht u+ to 2osto3 and the sea of A>o3
(to 0e%in #ith)6 the 2ussians ri%ht$y rec<oned that if they succeeded in this they #ou$d
a$most automatica$$y force the 1ermans to +u$$ out of the 5aucasus and the 4u0an:
The e3en more am0itious 2ussian F!$an SaturnF6 ado+ted 0y the Su+reme 5ommand on
Decem0er 36 a fortni%ht after the counter,offensi3e had started #as6 first6 to $i=uidate the
1erman forces tra++ed at Sta$in%rad and then ca+ture the country inside the Don Bend6
inc$udin% 2osto36 and to cut off the 1erman forces in the 5aucasus: Accordin% to the
Histor! Sta$in te$e+honed Aassi$e3s<y6 the 5hief of Staff6 then in the Sta$in%rad area6 on
;o3em0er &7 demandin% to+ +riority for the $i=uidation of the 1erman Sta$in%rad forces6
$ea3in% the rest of F!$an SaturnF to the troo+s of Aatutin's South,9est Front:
I?A@ASS6 3o$: 36 +: 43: K
I$ &'( 0,+-& 5)*- #0 D(3("8(+ &'( &+##.- #0 &'( D#$ )$5 S&)/,$%+)5 +#$&- 8(%)$
&'(,+ #00($-,6( )%),$-& &'( ($("* 0#+3(- &+)..(5 ,$ S&)/,$%+)5. B1& $# -18-&)$&,)/
+(-1/&- 2(+( )3',(6(5. T')& 2)- 2'* &'( S#6,(& C#"")$5 5(3,5(5 &# -&+($%&'($ &'(
S#6,(& 0#+3(- ,$ &',- )+() 6(+* 3#$-,5(+)8/*, )$5 &# ");( "#+( &'#+#1%'
.+(.)+)&,#$- 0#+ &'( #.(+)&,#$. N(2 1$,&- 0+#" &'( Stavka R(-(+6( 2(+( 8(,$%
&'+#2$ ,$, ,$3/15,$% &'( M$5 !1)+5- A+"* 1$5(+ &'( 3#"")$5 #0 L,(1&-!($.
M)/,$#6-;*.
I?0id:6 +: 43:K
The 1ermans had made a first attem+t to 0rea< throu%h to Sta$in%rad from the #est at the
end of ;o3em0er6 0ut had fai$ed: After that the 1ermans reor%anised their forces 0y
formin% a ne#$y,named Army 1rou+ ca$$ed FDonF6 the +ur+ose of #hich #as a) to sto+
the 2ussian ad3ance into the Don country and 0) to 0rea< the rin% round Sta$in%rad: This
Army 1rou+ inc$uded a$$ the 1erman and a$$ied troo+s 0et#een the Midd$e Don and the
Astra<han ste++es6 and its t#o 0i% stri<in% forces #ere to 0e concentrated at Tormasin
inside the Don Bend and at 4ote$ni<o3o6 south of the Don Bend and some ninety mi$es
south,#est of the Sta$in%rad +oc<et: Fie$d,Marsha$ 3on Manstein6 the F3ictor of the
5rimeaF6 #hose +resti%e #as hi%h in the 1erman army6 #as +$aced in char%e of these
o+erations:
But the formation of the %reat stri<in% force6 es+ecia$$y at Tormasin6 met #ith
considera0$e de$ays due to enormous trans+ort difficu$ties: Accordin% to the 2ussians6
these #ere $ar%e$y due to constant +artisan attac<s on the rai$#ays6 so that reinforcements
cou$d on$y 0e 0rou%ht to the Don country from the #est in a$$ <inds of rounda0out #ays:
As time #as short6 Manstein decided to attac< #ith the 4ote$ni<o3o stri<in% force on$y:
ater he e8+$ained:
I& 2)- 3/#-(+ &# S&)/,$%+)5, )$5 ,& 5,5 $#& ')6( &# 0#+3( &'( D#$ #$ ,&- 2)* &'(+(.
T'(+( 2)- ) %##5 '#.( &')& &'( ($("* 2#1/5 $#& (B.(3& ) 8,% #00($-,6( ,$ &',-
-(3&#+... )3,$% &'( K#&(/$,;#6# %+#1. &'(+( 2(+(, ,$5((5, )& 0,+-&, #$/* 0,6( R1--,)$
5,6,-,#$-, )- )%),$-& 0,0&(($ 0)3,$% &'( T#+")-,$ %+#1..
I3on Manstein6 o+: cit:6 +: 3-3:K
@n Decem0er 1& Manstein's 4ote$ni<o3o forces6 inc$udin% se3era$ hundred tan<s6 struc<
out on a narro# front to#ards Sta$in%rad a$on% the rai$#ay from the 5aucasus:
I The 1ermans say a0out &-"6 the 2ussians )"":K
?n three days it ad3anced thirty mi$es6 des+ite stron% 2ussian resistance: @n Decem0er 1-
the 1ermans succeeded in forcin% the A8ai ri3er6 0ut to the north of it the 2ussians had
ta<en u+ defensi3e +ositions6 and #ere recei3in% considera0$e reinforcements: The
1erman ad3ance #as s$o#ed do#nL 0ut 0y Decem0er 196 #ith hundreds of 0om0ers
su++ortin% them6 they reached the Mysh<o3a ri3er6 the $ast natura$ 0arrier 0et#een them
and Sta$in%rad: They forced this ri3er6 too6 and then6 in 3on Manstein's #ords6 the
1ermans Fcou$d a$ready see the %$o# in the Sta$in%rad s<y:F That %$o# #as a$$ that 3on
Manstein #as to see of Sta$in%rad: !ost+onin% the F@+eration SaturnF +$ans to F$i=uidate
the Sta$in%rad 0a%F6 the 2ussian .i%h 5ommand %a3e first +riority to smashin%
Manstein's Army 1rou+ ad3ancin% from 4ote$ni<o3o6 and a$so his forces in the Tormasin
area:
To dea$ #ith the former6 2ussian reinforcements #ere rushed to the Mysh<o3a ri3er6
0are$y t#enty,fi3e mi$es from the Sta$in%rad F0a%F6 in +articu$ar$y difficu$t conditions:
Ma$ino3s<y's &nd 1uards Army had to tra3e$ o3er 1&- mi$es from 0eyond the Ao$%a to
reach its destinationL it #as a forced march of t#enty,fi3e to thirty mi$es a day throu%h
the sno#,co3ered ste++e and in a ho#$in% 0$i>>ard: By the time Ma$ino3s<y's men
reached the Mysh<o3a ri3er6 #hich the 1ermans had a$ready forced in se3era$ +$aces6
they #ere 3ery short of +etro$6 and re+$enishments #ere de$ayed 0y the #eather and the
state of the roads: The 2ussians had to fi%ht for se3era$ days #ith infantry and arti$$ery
a$one6 and it #as not ti$$ Decem0er &4 that their tan<s #ere a0$e to enter the fray: But the
1ermans #ere he$d6 and then on the &4th the 2ussians struc< out #ith 0oth tan<s and
aircraft6 and hur$ed them 0ac< to the A8ai 2i3er #here they #ere determined to ma<e a
standL 0ut no# the 2ussian forces #ere stri<in% hea3ier and hea3ier 0$o#s6 and the
1ermans #ere dri3en 0ac< to 4ote$ni<o3o: This they a0andoned on Decem0er &96 and
the remnants of Manstein's troo+s hasti$y retreated to Oimo3ni<i and thence 0eyond the
ri3er Manych on the #ay to the ;orthern 5aucasus: This ri3er #as fu$$y si8ty mi$es
south,#est of 4ote$ni<o3o6 #here the Manstein offensi3e had started on Decem0er 1&:
?n this attem+t to 0rea< throu%h to Sta$in%rad the 1ermans had $ost (accordin% to 2ussian
c$aims) 1)6""" dead a$one6 and a hi%h +ro+ortion of their tan<s6 %uns and 3ehic$es: A fe#
days after it #as a$$ o3er ? #as to see the scene of this e8traordinary 1erman retreat6 a$$
the #ay from the Mysh<o3a ri3er to Oimo3ni<i:
A =uestion that +u>>$ed the 2ussians at the time6 and for a $on% time after#ards6 #as #hy
!au$us6 #ith the rescue force on$y some t#enty,fi3e mi$es from the Sta$in%rad cau$dron6
did not attem+t to 0rea< out to meet it6 or at $east ma<e its ad3ance to Sta$in%rad easier 0y
a counter,attac< #hich #ou$d at $east ha3e dra#n off some of the 2ussian forces:
Since the #ar6 a %reat dea$ has 0een #ritten on this hi%h$y contro3ersia$ o+erationD0y
3on Manstein himse$f6 0y 9a$ter 1oer$it>6 0y !hi$i++i and .eim and others: First of a$$6 it
sti$$ remains somethin% of a +u>>$e #hat 3on Manstein (or F1ru++e .othF6 as the
1ermans usua$$y ca$$ it) ho+ed to achie3e6 short of %ettin% the #ho$e of the 1erman
forces at Sta$in%rad to 0rea< outL for it is 3ery hard to see ho# 1ru++e .oth cou$d ha3e
ho+ed to ho$d a narro# corridor to Sta$in%rad for any $en%th of time6 #ithout the 2ussians
cuttin% it: ?t seems c$ear that 3on Manstein undertoo< this o+eration #ith the Fmenta$
reser3ationF that6 ha3in% 0ro<en throu%h to Sta$in%rad6 or %ot sufficient$y near it6 he cou$d
either +ersuade .it$er to %i3e !au$us the order to +u$$ his forces out of the Sta$in%rad
cau$dron6 or confront .it$er #ith a "ait accompli 0ased on the "orce ma8eure ar%ument
that there #as no other #ay:
There #ere four days6 0et#een Decem0er 19 and &36 #hi$e 1ru++e .oth #as ho$din% the
0rid%eheads6 north of the Mysh<o3a ri3er6 #hen !au$us cou$d ha3e attem+ted a 0rea<out
#ith some chance of success: Manstein had t#o different o+erations in mind: first6
@+eration $interge:itter #hich aimed at esta0$ishin% a $in< 0et#een 1ru++e .oth and
!au$us's forces6 $ar%e$y for the +ur+ose of rushin% su++$ies 0y $and to Sta$in%rad6 since
the air$ift to Sta$in%rad had as %ood as 0ro<en do#nL and6 second$y6 @+eration
Donnerschlag, meanin% the 0rea<out from the cau$dron of the #ho$e Sta$in%rad force:
!au$us ar%ued that he needed se3era$ days for +re+arin% either o+erationL the troo+s #ere
in 3ery +oor +hysica$ condition6 and needed food and other su++$ies (Fat $east ten day's
rations for &7"6""" menF)6 and there #as a$so a des+erate shorta%e of +etro$L a$so J6"""
#ounded #ou$d first ha3e to 0e e3acuated: ?n the $ast ana$ysis6 it seems a++arent that6
#hether there #as a %ood chance or not for the Sta$in%rad forces to 0rea< out6 4oth
Paulus and von -anstein dithered during those "our crucial da!s o" Decem4er <= to C>,
since no permission had 4een received "rom Hitler to a4andon %talingrad5 ;either6 it
seems6 #as +re+ared to act #ithout .it$er's e8+ress +ermission6 since such a maHor act of
diso0edience to the FRhrer #ou$d set u+ a dan%erous Fre3o$utionaryF +recedent #hich
mi%ht ha3e a disastrous effect on the disci+$ine of the 9ehrmacht %enera$$y: Moreo3er6
.it$er6 they thou%ht6 mi%ht countermand any order that he had not himse$f %i3en:
9hat a$so made !au$us hesitate (un$i<e at $east one of his %enera$s6 3on Seyd$it>6 #ho
fa3oured a 0rea<out) #ere the e8tra3a%ant +romises sho#ered on him 0y .it$er: 1oerin%
had F%uaranteedF that the troo+s at Sta$in%rad cou$d 0e ade=uate$y su++$ied 0y air6 and so
cou$d easi$y ho$d out ti$$ the s+rin% of 19436 0y #hich time the #ho$e of the Don country
#ou$d +resuma0$y 0e recon=uered 0y the 1ermans: After the fai$ure of Manstein's
attem+t to 0rea< throu%h to Sta$in%rad6 !au$us (and Manstein6 for that matter) conso$ed
themse$3es #ith the thou%ht that6 des+ite the fai$ure of the air$ift6 the 1erman forces in
the Sta$in%rad cau$dron #ere sti$$ ser3in% a usefu$ +ur+ose in tyin% do#n $ar%e 2ussian
forces6 #hi$e Manstein #as no# a0$e to de3ote himse$f to an e3en more 3ita$ tas< than
sa3in% the )th ArmyDname$y6 to <ee+ the 2osto3,Taman 1a+ o+en6 and so ena0$e the
much $ar%er 1erman forces in the 5aucasus and 4u0an to +u$$ out #ith the minimum of
$oss:
Accordin% to 9a$ter 1oer$it>6 !au$us had6 for many years6 0een a .it$er enthusiast6 and
therefore mee<$y acce+ted .it$er's order to c$in% to Sta$in%rad #hate3er the sacrifice: ?t
#as not ti$$ after the attem+t on .it$er's $ife of Bu$y &"6 1944 that he #as +re3ai$ed u+on to
Hoin hundreds of other 1erman officers and %enera$s in their a++ea$ to the 1erman army
and +eo+$e to o3erthro# .it$er: 1oer$it> thus tends to demo$ish the $e%end6 +art$y 0ui$t u+
0y the 2ussians6 that F3on !au$usF (as they in3aria0$y ca$$ed him) #as a rather no0$e anti,
;a>i fi%ure: ?t is true that he $ater sett$ed in Castern 1ermany and ad3ocated6 ri%ht u+ to
the time of his death in 19-76 the c$osest co,o+eration 0et#een 1ermany and the So3iet
*nion: (9hich does not +re3ent him from ha3in% 0een one of .it$er's most #ho$ehearted
+$anners of 0oth the #ar in !o$and and the in3asion of 2ussia in 1941):
2ecent$y6 there ha3e 0een some 1erman #riters to ta<e the 3ie# that a$$ the contro3ersy
of #hat Manstein and !au$us shou$d ha3e done 0et#een Decem0er 19 and &3 e3ades the
main issue6 #hich #as sim+$y that the Manstein offensi3e had 0een 0ad$y +$anned and
that !au$us cou$d not ha3e 0ro<en out: As !hi$i++i and .eim say:
T'(+( ,- +()//* $#&',$% &# -'#2 &')& ,$ &'#-( /)&( D(3("8(+ 5)*- ) 8+();-#1& #0
&'#-( 5#2$-)&-'((/ &+##.- 2)- -&,// .#--,8/(, (6($ 2'($ #$( 3#$-,5(+- &')& &'(
.+#-.(3& #0 8+();,$% &'+#1%' &# 0+((5#" 2#1/5 ($3#1+)%( &'(" &# .(+0#+"
-1.(+'1")$ 5((5- #0 6)/#1+. W'($, #$ D(3("8(+ M1, &'( OAK6 4,.(. &'( 3#"")$5
#0 &'( 6&' A+"*7 5(-3+,8(5 &'( .+#.#-(5 8+();#1& )- ) Katastrophenl$sung... ,& 2)-
+,%'& ,$ &'( -($-( &')& &',- 3#1/5 #$/* )"#1$& &# ) %(-&1+( #0 5(-.),+ 8* ) /)+%( ")--
#0 .(#./( ,$ 6(+* .##+ .'*-,3)/ 3#$5,&,#$ &+*,$% &# 0,%'& &'(,+ 2)* &# &'( M*-';#6),
)3+#-- 0,0&* ;". #0 -$#28#1$5 -&(..(- )$5 )%),$-& ) .(+0(3&/* 0+(-', ,$&)3& )$5
'()6,/*-)+"(5 ($("*. T'( 3#$5,&,#$- 0#+ "onnerschlag )$5 <interge/itter 2(+(
(91)//* 1$0)6#1+)8/(.
I !hi$i++i and .eim6 o+: cit:6 +: 19-:K
9hether this is correct or not #i$$ no dou0t remain a matter of contro3ersy amon%
mi$itary historiansL Hud%in% from the 1ermans ? sa# in Sta$in%rad o3er si8 #ee<s $ater6
they must sti$$ ha3e 0een in reasona0$y %ood condition around Decem0er &"L they had 0y
then 0een encirc$ed for $ess than a month6 and #ere not yet any#here near rea$ star3ation:
They a$so said that they #ere sti$$ Ffu$$ of fi%htF at the thou%ht of 3on Manstein a0out to
0rea< throu%h to Sta$in%rad: C3en in Banuary6 those sti$$ in reasona0$y %ood condition
fou%ht #ith the %reatest stu00ornness durin% the 2ussian $i=uidation of the cau$dron:
9hi$e the &nd 1uards Army under Ma$ino3s<y #as a0out to hur$ 0ac< the 1ermans from
the Mysh<o3a 2i3er6 the Aatutin,1o$i<o3 ad3ance into the Don country from the north
#as successfu$$y continuin%:
Ad3ancin% ra+id$y 0oth into the Midd$e Don and further #est6 this time #ith considera0$e
air su++ort (46""" sorties in the first fe# days of the offensi3e)6 they routed the remnants
of the 2umanian 3rd Army6 the ?ta$ian Jth Army and dis$ocated that 1erman FTormasinF
stri<in% force #hich #as +$annin% to attem+t a 0rea<throu%h to Sta$in%radDto coincide
#ith the F4ote$ni<o3oF thrust: An area of some 1-6""" s=uare mi$es #as $i0erated: To
=uote the Histor!,
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: 36 +: -":K
A -")-',$% 5(0()& 2)- ,$0/,3&(5 #$ &'( I&)/,)$ N&' A+"* )$5 #$ &'( /(0& 0/)$; #0
A+"* !+#1. DD#$D. ,6( I&)/,)$ 5,6,-,#$- 2(+( -")-'(5... )$5 #$( 8+,%)5( #0
B/)3;-',+&-. I$ &'( )1&1"$ #0 194M &',- )+"* ')5 )8#1& M5L,LLL "($ )$5 $#2 /#-&
)8#1& #$( ')/0 #0 ,&- (00(3&,6(-. H()6* /#--(- 2(+( )/-# ,$0/,3&(5 #$ #.(+)&,#$)/ %+#1.
DH#//,5&D, 8(/#$%,$% &# &'( /(0& 0/)$; #0 M)$-&(,$<- A+"* !+#1. DD#$D. ,6( #0 ,&-
,$0)$&+* 5,6,-,#$- )$5 #$( &)$; 5,6,-,#$ 2(+( -")-'(5...
IAfter =uotin% an ?ta$ian eye#itness account (1iusto To$$oy6 )on l0armata italiana in
Bussia, Torino6 1947) on the encirc$ement of $ar%e ?ta$ian forces south of Bo%uchar and
the +anic caused amon% the ?ta$ian officers and so$diers6 the Histor! +rotests a%ainst
certain ?ta$ian a$$e%ations that many thousands of ?ta$ian #ar +risoners
fai$ed to return after the #ar: ?t ar%ues that many of those #hom the ?ta$ians counted as
#ar +risoners had6 in fact6 found their death in 0att$e Fand found their %ra3e in the ste++es
of the Don:F ?t =uotes 4hrushche3's s+eech at Tirana (A$0ania) in 19-9 sayin% that #ar
#as F$i<e a fireDeasy to Hum+ in6 0ut not so easy to Hum+ out: 9e$$6 the ?ta$ians Hust %ot
0urned in the 9ar:F ?t adds6 ho#e3er6 that a $ar%e num0er of ?ta$ians #ho had sur3i3ed
the Don Batt$e #ere murdered 0y the 1ermans6 +articu$ar$y at #o# in 19436 after they
had refusedDthis #as after the fa$$ of Musso$iniDto s#ear a$$e%iance to .it$er:
There is6 in rea$ity6 another e8+$anation for the fai$ure of many of the ?ta$ians in 2ussia to
return to ?ta$y after the #arL and there #as a %reat dea$ of ta$< a0out this in Mosco#
to#ards the end of the #ar: a$thou%h the $eaf$ets dro++ed on ?ta$ian troo+s ur%in% them to
surrender to the 2ussians +romised that they #ou$d 0e sent to a F#arm c$imateF6 many
thousands of ?ta$ian #ar +risoners #ere actua$$y sent to cam+s in northern and centra$
2ussia6 #here $ar%e num0ers died of +neumonia6 tu0ercu$osis6 et cetera:K
After the fai$ure of the .oth,Manstein %rou+ to 0rea< throu%h to Sta$in%rad6 and its
retreat to 4ote$ni<o3o and 0eyond6 Ma$ino3s<y's troo+s +ursued them 0eyond the
Manych 2i3er6 and #ere +$annin% to 0rea< throu%h to 2osto3 from the south,east: But
there is no dou0t that the 2ussian offensi3e6 #hich had achie3ed such s+ectacu$ar resu$ts
since ;o3em0er 196 and ri%ht throu%h the rest of ;o3em0er and Decem0er in the Don
country6 #as no#6 0y the 0e%innin% of the ;e# (ear6 to meet #ith much suffer 1erman
resistance: ?t #as essentia$ for the 1ermans to <ee+ the F2osto3 1a+F o+en as $on% as
+ossi0$e6 for this remained the main esca+e route for the 1erman forces #hich #ere no#
Dat the 0e%innin% of BanuaryDhasti$y 0e%innin% to +u$$ out of the 5aucasus and the
4u0an: Than<s to Sta$in%rad6 .it$er's attem+t to con=uer the 5aucasus had 0een a
com+$ete fai$ure:
C').&(+ IA STALIN!RAD CLOSE-UPS
)lose-&p I: The %talingrad (i"eline5
By Banuary 16 19436 the 1ermans inside the Sta$in%rad !oc<etDan o3a$ measurin% a0out
forty,four mi$es from #est to east and fourteen mi$es from north to southDhad 0een
iso$ated from the outer #or$d6 e8ce+t for some trans+ort +$anes6 for o3er si8 #ee<s: By
Decem0er &4 a$$ ho+e of 0ein% rescued 0y 3on Manstein's F1ru++e .othF had 3anished:
?t #as durin% the first fortni%ht of Banuary that6 #ith a sma$$ %rou+ of other
corres+ondents6 ? #as a0$e to tra3e$ a$on% that fantastic rai$#ay east of the Ao$%a #hich
had 0een for months the on$y $ife$ine for the 2ussian troo+s defendin% Sta$in%rad: ?t #as
a$on% this $ine6 too6 that troo+s6 e=ui+ment and su++$ies had 0een ta<en in @cto0er and
;o3em0er to the area south of Sta$in%rad6 #hence (eremen<o had struc< out on
;o3em0er &":
ea3in% Mosco# on the mornin% of Monday6 Banuary 36 19436 #e tra3e$$ed in an o$d,
fashioned6 +re,re3o$ution s$ee+in% car attached to the Mosco#,Sarato3 e8+ress: The
cand$estic<s #ere sti$$ inscri0ed F5om+a%nie ?nternationa$e de 9a%on,itsF6 and the
#ashstand had 0eside it a 0rass +$ate sayin%6 first in +re,re3o$utionary 2ussian s+e$$in%6
and then in French: "%ous le lava4o se trouve un vase"5 ;ot that6 in tra3e$$in% in such
re$ati3e $u8ury #e #ere %ettin% anythin% unheard of in the So3iet *nion e3en in 194&,3L
there #ere other +eo+$e in the s$ee+in% carDhi%her officia$s6 Finte$$ectua$sF on some
s+ecia$ mission6 officers from the ran< of co$one$ u+6 et cetera:
There #as6 of course6 no dinin% car6 and #e had to do #ith FdryF rations6 su++$emented
0y the tea +ro3ided 0y the amia0$e o$d provodni*0s samo3ar: The other carria%es of the
train #ere6 ho#e3er6 FhardF third,c$ass carria%es6 +ac<ed most$y #ith so$diers6 and6 #ith
a$$ the #indo#s shut6 e8treme$y hot6 stuffy and sme$$y #ith that characteristica$$y 2ussian
0$end of sme$$s6 $eather 0oots6 0$ac< 0read6 ca00a%e fumes and ma*hor*a to0acco:
?t #as fo%%y and tha#in% the day #e $eft Mosco#6 and icic$es #ere dri++in% outside the
carria%e #indo#: 9e +assed 4ashira6 #ith its 0urned,out houses6 remnants of the
1erman ad3ance on Mosco# a year 0eforeD%rim days #hich no# seemed 3ery far
a#ay: Since the Sta$in%rad encirc$ement one no# fe$t that nothin% $i<e that cou$d e3er
ha++en a%ain:::
The ne8t mornin% #e reached Tam0o3 and in the afternoon6 4irsano3: The station
+$atform #as cro#ded: Bust outside it #as a 0i% o+en,air *ol*hoz mar<et: ?t #or<ed
most$y on a 0arter 0asis: Butter cost here a third of the Mosco# +rice6 0ut most of the
e%%s and 0utter #ere 0ou%ht #ith to0acco or soa+::: There #ere cro#ds of youn% so$diers
on the +$atform6 some carryin% #ho$e 0und$es of 0rand,ne# rif$es: Many #ere a0out
ei%hteen6 and seemed to 0e $ea3in% home for the first timeL on the +$atform #ere a$so
cro#ds of e$der$y and o$d #omen6 many of them cryin%6 and a fe# ma<in% the si%n of the
5ross as they <issed the 0oys %ood,0ye: The 0oys +retended to 0e =uite un+ertur0ed6 and
ar%ued 3i%orous$y #ith the #oman %uard in the ne8t carria%e #ho c$aimed 3ociferous$y
that it #as fu$$ u+: They s=uee>ed in a$$ the same:::
At Sarato3 the ne8t mornin% it #as sunny and 3ery co$d6 minus &- V5: and #ith dee+
sno#: Sarato36 #ith its handsome #ide a3enues6 $oo<ed unusua$$y +ros+erous: ;umerous
$eadin% educationa$ esta0$ishments had 0een e3acuated here from Mosco#6 enin%rad
and other +$aces6 and the city had 0een nic<named F!rofessarato3F::: Theatres (inc$udin%
an o+era house) and se3era$ cinemas #ere %oin% stron%: 9e had a $ar%e mea$ at the
2ai$#aymen's 5$u0:::
That ni%ht our carria%e #as Hoined on to a %oods train: ?t had %ro#n dar< 0y no#6 and
there #as Hust enou%h $i%ht to see an immense num0er of trains of e3ery <ind at and
around Sarato3 Station6 and to rea$ise its im+ortance as a rai$#ay Hunction::: 9e crossed
the %reat 0rid%e across the Ao$%a6 and then tra3e$$ed throu%h #hat the ma+s ca$$ed
FAutonomous 1erman Ao$%a ASS2F6 and it seemed c$ear no# #hy the So3iet
1o3ernment did not #ish to ta<e any chances #ith the Ao$%a 1ermans: They #ere
de+orted6 a #ho$e ha$f,mi$$ion of themDto 4a>a<hstan in Au%ust 1941: There had
a$ready 0een some cases of rai$#ay sa0ota%e in the FAutonomous 1erman Ao$%a
2e+u0$icF (#ith FCn%e$sF as its ca+ita$P) at the 3ery 0e%innin% of the #ar6 and a$so stories
of 1erman airmen 0rou%ht do#n o3er the area6 0ein% %i3en she$ter 0y the $oca$ 1ermans:
@n 9ednesday mornin%6 Mosco# seemed 3ery far a#ay: A$$ ni%ht the train had tra3e$$ed
at %ood s+eed6 and #e #ere no# in the end$ess #ater$ess ste++es of the Trans,Ao$%a
country: There #as 3ery $itt$e sno#6 and throu%h it rose tufts of untidy 0ro#n %rass: 9e
had Hust +assed se3era$ #rec<ed rai$#ay,carria%es6 and 0eside the sidin% $ay another
rai$#ay #a%on6 its #hee$s in the air: ?t had a$ready %one rusty: At the sma$$ station ?
ta$<ed to a %rou+ of rai$#aymen: Amon% them #as an e$der$y man from Toms<6 a dour
Si0erian #ith a $on% %reyish moustache and a #rin<$ed face: FSta$in%rad6F he said6 Fyes6
it's o3er thereDnot 3ery far a#ay6 a0out a hundred <i$ometres from here: @h yes6 in
@cto0er #e #ere ri%ht in the thic< of it: 5an't te$$ you ho# many times #e #ere 0om0ed
D0ut it #as a he$$ of a $ot of times: See thatEF he said6 +ointin% at the o3erturned #a%on:
F? dro3e that train: The! #ere $uc<y that day: Three direct hits on my train: Bust #ent u+
in the air: @n$y the en%ine and the front carria%e ro$$ed on6 a$$ the rest #as torn a#ay and
#rec<ed:F ? $oo<ed do#n the $ine: there #as the #rec<a%e of many more #a%ons and a$so
of se3era$ $orries and armoured cars #hich must ha3e 0een +art of the train's car%o:
F9ere many <i$$edEF FThirty,fi3e6F said the Toms< man: FThirty,fi3e rai$#aymen and
three so$diers: Their %ra3es are o3er there6F he said +ointin% to the east6 a $itt$e #ay off
the $ine: And it #as stran%e ho#6 in sayin% it6 this tou%h Si0erian said not mogil!, 0ut the
affectionate diminuti3e mogil*i, $itt$e %ra3es:
A youn% rai$#ayman Hoined in: .e #as fair and 0$ue,eyed6 and s+o<e #ith a soft southern
accent: F?'3e 0een #or<in% on this $ine ri%ht throu%h the Sta$in%rad 0usiness6F he said:
F9e rai$#aymen are rea$$y the same as so$diers: A$$ the su++$ies to Sta$in%rad came a$on%
this $ine6 so you can ima%ine the attention the Frit>es +aid it: A$$ around here has 0een
0om0ed to 0$a>es6 e8ce+t one sma$$ hut:F ;ot far a#ay from the rai$#ay $ine #ere more
craters and +i$es of t#isted meta$6 0ut a$so $ar%e num0ers of ne# rai$s6 stac<ed u+: F9e'3e
%ot these s+are rai$s a$$ do#n the $ine6F he said: FAnd the rai$#ay #as ne3er +ut out of
action6 e8ce+t occasiona$$y for a cou+$e of hours: 9hen you thin< of the amount of traffic
a$on% this $ine these $ast fi3e months6 they didn't rea$$y hit many trains:F FThat's true6F
said the Toms< man6 F0ut they %a3e us a $ot of trou0$e dro++in% the 0om0s Hust 0eside the
rai$#ay6 and #rec<in% a$$ the te$e+hone and te$e%ra+h #ires:F The youn% rai$#ayman
smi$ed: F9e$$6 it's a %reat comfort to <no# it #asn't in 3ain: The Frit>es are runnin% $i<e
ra00its no#: (es6 there #ere some fearfu$ moments6 0ut do#n here #e ne3er thou%ht
they'd %et a#ay #ith it: 9e used to see a $ot of +eo+$e strai%ht from Sta$in%rad6 and the!
ne3er $ost ho+e::: F .e #as from Bessara0ia: F ? %ot a#ay 0y the s<in of my teeth #hen
the 2umanians surrounded our 3i$$a%e: Fo$$o#ed the 2ed Army across the !ruth: ? <no#
?'$$ soon 0e 0ac< in Bessara0ia6 drin<in% %ood Bessara0ia #ine: ?t's a 0etter country than
this6 ? can te$$ you6F he said6 $oo<in% at the deso$ate ste++e:
Another rai$#ayman Hoined in6 and a$so thou%ht he #ou$d soon 0e F0ac< home at
4u+ians<6 in the *<raine6 near 4har<o3F: .e #as our en%ine,dri3erL his face #as %rimy
#ith coa$,dust6 0ut his #hite teeth and +in< %ums #ere 0ri%ht and moist as he smi$ed6 and
he had $au%hin% *<rainian eyes: ? <ne# the name of 4u+ians< on$y too #e$$L it #as the
im+ortant rai$#ay Hunction #hich #as amon% the first +$aces the 1ermans had sei>ed at
the 0e%innin% of their summer offensi3e:::
.e ta$<ed a0out the chaos of the e3acuation from the *<raine in Bune 194&: F? #as
$uc<y6F he said: F9e recei3ed the order to e3acuate the ro$$in% stoc<: There #as no time
to $oo< for my fami$y6 #ho #ere in a 3i$$a%e near0y: At a$$ the stations there #ere mo0s
of +eo+$e ho+in%Doften a%ainst ho+eDto 0e e3acuated to the east: And then6 #ou$d you
0e$ie3e it6 at the third rai$#ay sto+6 ri%ht there on the station +$atform6 #ere my #ife and
my $itt$e dau%hter: ? sho3ed them =uic<$y into one of the %oods truc<s6 and so #e a$$ %ot
a#ay: ?ncredi0$e $uc<6 don't you thin<E F .is #ife and chi$d #ere at Sarato3 no#:
At $en%th the train mo3ed: For a $on% time #e tra3e$$ed throu%h the ste++e6 #ithout any
si%n of human $ife6 e8ce+t occasiona$ haystac<s: Then #e +assed some $o# ,sha+ed
mud,huts6 the same co$our as the earth: These #ere 4ir%hi> huts: There #as a +a$e,0$ue
s<y o3er this ocean of +erfect$y f$at ste++eDit #as $i<e the first shots of !udo3<in's
%torm over /sia5 ?n fact6 this :as AsiaL accordin% to the ma+6 the rai$#ay t#ice crossed
throu%h stretches of country #hich 0e$on%ed administrati3e$y to 4a>a<hstan: .o# c$ear$y
one rea$ised no# #hy the men fi%htin% at Sta$in%rad fe$t that 0eyond Sta$in%rad Fthere
#as nothin%F: Thousands had tra3e$$ed to Sta$in%rad a$on% this $ine:
Another station #ith ,sha+ed mud,huts6 #ith t#o $ar%e sha%%y came$s outside one of
them6 the same co$our as the huts and the earth6 a$so some horses6 and an o$d 4ir%hi>
#oman6 a +erfect Asiatic #ith a $on% +added coat and a #hite c$oth round her head6
0e$o# the fur ca+ #ith earf$a+s: .er face #as #rin<$ed6 dar<,0ro#n6 #ith narro# eyes:
.ere a$so #ere se3era$ so$diers6 most of them Mon%o$s: A youn% 2ussian so$dier6 #ith
#eather,0eaten face and red eyes6 came u+6 as<ed for ne#s+a+er to ro$$ some ci%arettes
and said he had heard that Tsym$ians<aya on the Don and ;a$chi< in the 5aucasus had
0een $i0erated from the 1ermans: .e had Hust come from Sta$in%rad6 a$on% the rai$#ay
from enins<: .e had 0een in Sta$in%rad for t#o months: F;o# the Frit>es are tra++ed
$i<e rats6F he said: FBut the svolochi are sti$$ coc<y6 shoutin% 0Buss, sdavais@0 (2ussian6
surrenderP): But thin%s are %oin% fine: They sti$$ ha3e those trans+ort +$anes to dro+ them
food durin% the ni%htL 0ut #hen they try to %et there durin% the day6 #e shoot e3ery
damned one of them do#n:F C8ce+t for the redness of his eyes6 due to chronic $ac< of
s$ee+6 he seemed none the #orse for his t#o months at Sta$in%radD thou%h these $ast t#o
months had6 of course6 0een nothin% $i<e the terri0$e months of Se+tem0er and @cto0er:::
A train comin% the other #ay +assed usL it had anti,aircraft %uns on 0oard6 many #rec<ed
2ussian +$anes6 and a$so a $on% strin% of oi$ tan<s6 comin% from #hereDBa<u +erha+sE
For this #as the on$y remainin% $ine $in<in% northern 2ussia #ith the 5aucasus:
enins<6 near the end of the 0ranch $ine runnin% from Bas<uncha<6 #as as far as #e
cou$d %o 0y rai$: ?t #as some thirty mi$es from Sta$in%rad on the other side of the Ao$%a6
#as the +rinci+a$ su++$y 0ase for Sta$in%rad itse$f6 and a$so for the Sta$in%rad Front:::
!ractica$$y a$$ the troo+s and e=ui+ment for the Fsouthern +incerF had come throu%h here:
?t #as a$so to enins< that the #ounded from Sta$in%rad #ere norma$$y e3acuated: ?t had
3ery stron% antiaircraft defences6 and #as re$ati3e$y undama%ed: ?t sti$$ had the
a++earance of an o$d,time district to#n: The #ide main street #as com+osed of sha00y
$itt$e 0ric< houses6 #hi$e in the side,streets there #as nothin% 0ut #ooden cotta%es6 many
#ith 3ery 0eautifu$ #ood car3in%s around the #indo#s: The o$d,time atmos+here of this
+ro3incia$ 0ac<#ater contrasted stran%e$y #ith the modern s$o%ans +ainted on e3ery #a$$:
FMen of the 2ed Army6 remem0er at Sta$in%rad your res+onsi0i$ity to your countryPF
FDri3e the 1erman rats from the #a$$s of Sta$in%radPF F1$ory to the men of Sta$in%radPF
and so on: ?n the sma$$ +u0$ic +ar< #as a statue of enin6 and on the airfie$d Hust outside
the to#n #ere numerous Faero,s$ei%hsF6 #ith 2ed 5ross mar<in%s6 for the trans+ort of the
#ounded:
9e had a mea$ at the officers' mess6 and met t#o sur%eons from enins< .os+ita$: @ne of
them6 a sma$$ and da++er man6 had %one throu%h the #ho$e of the Sta$in%rad 0att$e at this
transit hos+ita$: F@ne of the #orst features of this #ar6F he said6 Fis that the +ro+ortion of
the se3ere$y #ounded is much hi%her than it #as in any other #ar: ?t used to 0e ei%hty +er
cent $i%ht cases6 and t#enty +er cent se3ere casesL no# the se3ere cases are around forty
+er cent: .ead inHuries are much more fre=uent than in the $ast #ar6 o#in% to mortar
she$$s and 0om0s: ?t's the same on the 1erman sideL #e <no# it from 1erman army
doctors #e ha3e ta<en +risoner:F .e said that most of the 1erman and 2umanian
+risoners suffered from frost0ite: They #ere sim+$y un+re+ared for this #inter #eather6
and rea$$y seemed to ima%ine they #ere %oin% to ta<e Sta$in%rad in Se+tem0er and end
the #arP The 2umanians ha3e those hi%h fur hats6 #hich $oo< 3ery decorati3e 0ut don't
+rotect the $o#er ha$f of the face6 or e3en the $o#er ha$f of the ears: And instead of fe$t
valen*i the 1ermans no# ha3e some ridicu$ous ersat> valen*i made of stra#6 and #ith
#ooden so$esL the thin%s are so c$umsy that they can't e3en #a$< in them:F
The atmos+here in the officers' mess #as Ho3ia$6 and there #as $itt$e ta$< of a$$ that this
corner of 2ussia had %one throu%h in the $ast months: A fe# toasts #ere drun< to Four
%a$$ant A$$iesFDnot #ithout a $itt$e touch of irony:
@ne of the %ir$s #ho #as ser3in% us had a 0anda%e tied round her chee<: ? as<ed if she
had 0een #ounded: ;e8t to me sat a +om+ous stout maHor: FAh6 yes6F he said6 Fshe #as
#ounded: @ur +eo+$e are #onderfu$L #hen they are $i%ht$y #ounded6 they Hust %o on #ith
their #or<6 #ou$dn't dream of sto++in%:F F;onsense6F said the o$der sur%eon6 Fshe's Hust
%ot a %um0oi$:F
My heart #armed to the maHorL here #as 1o%o$'s immorta$ 0$o#,hard ;o>dre3 0ac<
a%ain6 and in the 2ed Army at that6 and thirty mi$es from Sta$in%radP
9e had to #ait for our 0us in a room 0eside an em+ty hos+ita$ #ard6 #ith t#o youn%
nurses as our hostesses: The hos+ita$ #as em+ty no#6 thou%h the 0eds #ere a$$ made6
ready to recei3e any sudden arri3a$s: But for se3era$ days no# there had 0een no
#ounded from Sta$in%radL the 1ermans in the F0a%F #ere +erha+s runnin% out of
ammunition one of the %ir$s su%%ested:
The %ir$s #ere ca$$ed Aa$ya and ;adya: Aa$ya #as $i3e$y6 red,chee<ed and f$irtatious in a
coy #ay: She #as t#enty,one and married6 #ith her hus0and in the Army: She #as in
uniform6 and #hen the #ar 0ro<e out had 0een studyin% 0iochemistry at the uni3ersity:
The other %ir$ had one of those fu$$ 0ut +a$e 2ussian faces #ith $ar%e %rey eyes6 #ith
+erfect $ar%e #hite teeth and $i+s that #ere fu$$ #ithout 0ein% sensuous:
From time to time they #ou$d +ut on a #e$$,#orn record on their +orta0$e %ramo+honeD
0its from $erther or -anon of a$$ thin%s: 9hen the %ramo+hone +$ayed6 they #ere si$ent:
;adya #ore a red #oo$$en Hum+er #hich stressed the +a$eness of her 0eautifu$ face: F? am
not a nurse6F she said6 F? am a medica$ statistician6 attached to this hos+ita$ 0ase:F "%ome
statistics you must ha3e had to do here throu%h the autumn6F ? remar<ed: F(es6F she said6
"some statistics:F .er home #as in Sta$in%rad6 and her address #as &4 Frun>e Street: ?t
seemed odd that anyone shou$d ha3e an address at Sta$in%radP F(ou shou$d %o to
Sta$in%rad after the #ar6F she said6 #ith a faint smi$e: F;ot that you #i$$ find my house
there any more: ?t #as destroyed $i<e the rest of the city: And #hat a +ityP 9e had those
$o3e$y 0ou$e3ards6 and so many fine ne# 0ui$din%s6 and +u0$ic +ar<s6 and the ne# Ao$%a
Cm0an<mentL and6 on Sundays6 there #ere $ots of youn% +eo+$e e3ery#here6 and $ots of
trees and f$o#ers6 and a$$ those steamer and sai$in%,0oats and motor,0oats on the Ao$%a:
?t #as a %ay to#n: ? #as in my $ast year at schoo$ #hen the #ar started6 and ? Hoined u+ as
a medica$ #or<er6 after a short trainin%:F
A co+y of Simono3's +oems #as $yin% on the ta0$e: ? as<ed Aa$ya if she $i<ed Simono3:
F(es6 3ery muchL #e a$$ do:F F9hat6 $ait "or me" F(es6 that6 and much e$se:F FDear
Simono36F said Aa$ya sentimenta$$y: ;adya said: F9e'$$ ha3e a %$orious $ife after the #ar:
Sta$in%rad #i$$ 0e 3ery 0eautifu$ a%ain: 9e sha$$ a%ain %o for ho$idays to the 5aucasus6 as
#e did 0efore the #ar:F
?t #as confirmed that day that the 1ermans had 0e%un to +u$$ out of the 5aucasusL
;adya's daydreamin% #asn't so fantastic6 after a$$:
9e set out that afternoon from enins< to 2ai%orod across the de$ta,$and of the Ao$%a6
0et#een the narro# A<htu0a ri3er and the Ao$%a +ro+erL f$at #ooded country #ith
se3era$ roads runnin% to the Ao$%a crossin%s o++osite Sta$in%rad or south of it: There #as
a $ot of traffic that afternoon6 most$y army $orries6 and an occasiona$ +easant s$ei%hL and
once #e +assed a s$ei%h dra#n 0y a came$: Most of the $ife here seemed concentrated in
the fishin% 3i$$a%es on the Ao$%a itse$f: Most stri<in% a$on% these roads throu%h the de$ta,
$and #ere not on$y the numerous 0oards #ith Sta$in%rad s$o%ans on them6 0ut a$so notices
$i<e FTrenchF and F9armin% StationF: These #ere +art of the or%anisation of the
F$ife$ineFL the #armin% stations #ere du%outs6 #ith a heated sto3e6 off the road6 #here
so$diers cou$d sto+ to %et #armL #hi$e the trenches #ere refu%es durin% 1erman air
attac<s: Many dead horses #ere $yin% a0out6 most of them ha$f,decayed6 0ut no# fro>en:
@ur dri3er #as a youn%ish man6 #ho had 0een in @dessa durin% the sie%e6 and had 0een
e3acuated 0y sea at the $ast momentL it #as a fearfu$ 0usiness6 he said6 as the shi+s #ere
attac<ed 0y di3e,0om0ers a$$ the time6 and many #ere sun<:
F? <no# these roads on$y too #e$$6F he said: FThey used to 0e constant$y attac<ed from
the air: ?t #as a$on% these roads that #e carried men and su++$ies to Sta$in%rad: Machine,
%unnin% #as the Frit>es' fa3ourite s+ortL they <i$$ed $ots of +eo+$e and horsesL 0ut6
es+ecia$$y after Au%ust6 #e had fi%hters in the air6 and hundreds of $orries %ot throu%h
dai$y: My #orst e8+erience #as on Au%ust &36 durin% the 0i% raid on Sta$in%rad: (ou
can't ima%ine #hat it #as $i<e: The #ho$e city #as 0urnin% $i<e a %iant 0onfire: There
#as the a#fu$ crash of masonry: ?'d dri3e a$on% a street 0et#een 0urnin% houses6 and
do>ens of +$anes #ere in the airL and sudden$y a $ar%e house #ou$d co$$a+se Hust in front
of you6 and #ith a$$ the dust you cou$d hard$y see #here you #ere %oin%L and there #ere
a $ot of dead +eo+$e $yin% around: But ? %ot a#ay6 and my $orry didn't ha3e as much as a
scratch: 2i%ht o3er the +ontoon 0rid%e6 #ith stuff dro++in% into the #ater a$$ round: The
0rid%e didn't $ast $on%6 ? can te$$ you::: F And6 after that6 day after day6 he #ent on ta<in%
munitions to Sta$in%radDFthis side of the ri3er6 of courseFDand e3acuatin% the
#ounded: F?t #as a difficu$t time6F he summed u+ in a ty+ica$ understatement: FBut it's
%oin% to 0e a$$ ri%ht no#:F
9e #ere not a$$o#ed to %o to Sta$in%rad as yet6 0ut 0y no# #e #ere on$y a fe# mi$es
a#ay and at ni%htfa$$ that e3enin% #e cou$d see in the #est a %$o# in the s<y6 and hear a
%un firin% e3ery minute or so: ?t #as re$ati3e$y =uiet at Sta$in%rad that ni%htL 0ut it #as
the e3e of 2o<osso3s<y's u$timatum to !au$us6 and t#o days $ater the fina$ $i=uidation of
the 1erman )th Army #as %oin% to 0e%in:
At $ast #e reached the Ao$%a crossin% some fifteen mi$es south of Sta$in%rad: A fe# faint
$i%hts #ere f$ic<erin% in the dar<: The thud of s+oradic %unfire had %ro#n much fainter:
9e dro3e smooth$y o3er a #ide +ontoon 0rid%e6 $yin% f$at on the ice: ?n the s<y6 on the
ri%ht6 #as sti$$ that dim %$o#6 that faint ha$o o3er Sta$in%rad: F?t used to $oo< different6F
the dri3er remar<ed6 F#hen the #ho$e to#n #as 0urnin% for #ee<s: At enins< the #ho$e
s<y used to 0e $it u+ at ni%ht:F The 0rid%e must ha3e 0een near$y a mi$e $on%6 thou%h6 in
the dar<6 it #as hard to say e8act$y: The 0an< on the other side #as much stee+er6 and
then #e dro3e throu%h a dar<ened 3i$$a%e and then6 throu%h ten or fifteen mi$es of ste++e6
on to 2ai%orod:
9e #ere 0i$$etted in a $ar%e hut re=uisitioned 0y the Army6 and #ere %i3en a mea$D
0orshch and some #onderfu$$y coo<ed mutton D0y a +$um+ *<rainian %ir$ from
4har<o3 and an e$der$y man #ith a hoo<ed +ur+$e nose and a $itt$e tooth0rush moustacheL
he #as a Be# #ho had 0een a miner in the Don0as: .e #as ta$<ati3e6 0ut 3ery %$oomy6
since his fami$y had 0een $eft 0ehind: As he +$ainti3e$y +$eaded for the Second Front6 one
fe$t he #as +$eadin% for his #ife and chi$dren:
After su++er #e recei3ed a 3isit from MaHor,1enera$ !o+o36 our first contact #ith the
command of the Sta$in%rad Front: .e had a ty+ica$ Ao$%a,2ussian face6 #ith hi%h chee<,
0ones6 $i3e$y dar< eyes and a 0ris< 0usiness,$i<e manner: .e #as one of the men #ho had
or%anised the trans+ort across the Ao$%a of a $ar%e +art of (ere,men<o's army #hich had
struc< out from here to#ards 4a$ach on ;o3em0er &": FThese 0rid%es +$ayed a %reat +art
in our offensi3e6 thou%h not at the 3ery 0e%innin%L for6 0efore the ri3er fro>e6 most of the
stuff had to 0e ta<en across in 0oats: ?n fact6 our most difficu$t +ro0$em #as to su++$y
Sta$in%rad itse$f: ?t cou$dn't 0e done from hereL it had to 0e done direct from the o++osite
0an<L for t#o #ee<s6 0efore the Ao$%a #as +ro+er$y ice0ound6 hundreds of so$diers
#ou$d cra#$ on their 0e$$ies across the thin $ayer of ice6 dra%%in% 0ehind them $itt$e
s$ei%hs #ith a cou+$e of ammunition 0o8esDas much as the ice #as $i<e$y to ho$d: The
1ermans continued to she$$ the ri3er: A$$ the same6 most of them %ot across: ;o# the ice
on the Ao$%a is thic< enou%h to 0e used for $orries and horse 3ehic$es6 thou%h not stron%
enou%h for tan<sL 0ut #e'3e %ot +$enty of 0rid%es no#:F
1enera$ !o+o3 said it too< three to fi3e days to $ay a +ontoon 0rid%e: ?n s+ite of a$$ their
0om0in% raids and reconnaissance f$i%hts the 1ermans had no idea unti$ it #as too $ate
#hat a $ar%e num0er of troo+s had 0een 0rou%ht o3er: Most of the #or< #as done at
ni%ht6 and durin% the day the troo+s #ere scattered in sma$$ %rou+s o3er $ar%e areas: The
2ussians6 he said6 no# had some American Dod%es and Hee+s6 0ut not manyL they a$so
used many Ftro+hyF truc<s made in +ractica$$y e3ery country in Curo+eL the French
2enau$t truc<s #ere +articu$ar$y numerous: .e ho+ed the +roduction of these had 0een
%reat$y reduced since the %reat 2AF raids on the !aris #or<s:::
)lose-&p II: The %cene o" the -anstein Bout5D/ )ossac* To:n &nder the #ermans5D
-eeting #eneral -alinovs*!5
The ne8t dayDBanuary 76 19436 #e tra3e$$ed in a 0$i>>ard across the com+$ete$y f$at and
uninha0ited 4a$mu< ste++es: Thou%h it sno#ed hea3i$y6 it #as not 3ery co$dD0et#een
minus -V and minus 1"V centi%rade: 9e #ere no $on%er in cars6 0ut in a di$a+idated o$d
0us6 used unti$ recent$y as an am0u$ance for ta<in% the #ounded to enins<: ?n the
midd$e stood a sma$$ meta$ sto3eDa 4urzhui*aD#hich #as 0ein% conscientious$y sto<ed
#ith sma$$ 0its of #ood 0y 1a3ri$a6 an e$der$y north,2ussian muzhi* #ith a <ind$y rou%h,
he#n face and a stu00$y chin: .e $oo<ed $i<e a %ood,natured 0ear: @ccasiona$$y the
4urzhui*a smo<ed ferocious$y and the smo<e min%$ed #ith the fumes of the e8haust +i+e
see+in% into the 0us throu%h the ha$f,0ro<en 0ac< door: This stran%e,$oo<in% dismant$ed
am0u$ance #as ty+ica$6 in a #ay6 of the shorta%e of +ro+er motor trans+ort from #hich
the 2ed Army #as sti$$ sufferin%:
1a3ri$a had t#o sons in the army and had no ne#s of one of them a$most since the
0e%innin% of the #ar: Durin% the #ho$e Sta$in%rad 0att$e he had 0een a stretcher,0earer
attached to this am0u$ance: F?t #as no fun for the #ounded6F he said6 Fto tra3e$ in this
0one,ratt$er: But our men can stand a $ot: ?t's true that 0efore 0ein% sent off on their
Hourney they a$#ays %ot a shot of mor+hine:::F
?t #as a0out a hundred mi$es from 2ai%orod to A0%anero3o on the Sta$in%rad,5aucasus
rai$#ay6 and another si8ty from there to 4ote$ni<o3o:
;ot 3ery far #est of 2ai%orod #as a strin% of $a<es in the 4a$mu< ste++es #hich had
0een the first $ine of defences +rotectin% the ri%ht f$an< of the 1ermans' Sta$in%rad
sa$ient: From a distance6 throu%h the hea3i$y fa$$in% sno#6 one cou$d see a +atch of the
0$ac< #ater of one of the sa$t $a<es6 and a $itt$e farther a$on% #e sto++ed to $oo< at an
enormous dum+ of #rec<ed 1erman tan<s and armoured cars: A$$ this #rec<a%e had
0een co$$ected o3er a fair$y $ar%e area around the $a<esD#here the 2ussians had crashed
throu%h the $ines he$d 0y the 2umanians: Thousands of 2umanians had surrendered here
on ;o3em0er &" and &1: There #as no si%n of them no# e8ce+t for a fe# tin hats6 ha$f,
fi$$ed #ith sno#: They had a $ar%e F5F in front and the 2oya$ cro#n of 2umaniaL F5F
stood for 5aro$6 e3en thou%h 5aro$ #as no $on%er <in%:
As #e dro3e throu%h the ste++es the sno# #as comin% do#n so hea3i$y that our
conductin% officer6 5o$one$ Tarantse36 #ondered #hether #e'd ma<e it: .o#e3er6 0y the
afternoon the #eather c$eared and the ste++e #as da>>$in%,#hite in the sun as #e
a++roached the Sta$in%rad rai$#ay: At one +oint #e crossed the A8ai 2i3erL here a$so
2umanian he$mets #ere $yin% a0out6 ha$f,0uried in the sno#6 and a $ot of #rec<ed
3ehic$es6 0ut no 1erman he$mets: ?t had 0een further #est that the 1ermans had crossed
the A8ai in their $ast +ush6 and it #as not unti$ #e reached A0%anero3o and Ohuto3o on
the Sta$in%rad,5aucasus rai$#ay $ine that #e first sa# the traces of the Manstein
offensi3e of on$y a fe# days 0efore: A0%anero3o had 0een com+$ete$y #rec<ed 0y
0om0in% durin% the 1erman summer offensi3e6 0ut there #as a $ot of ro$$in%,stoc< on the
rai$#ay: Ohuto3o #as some ten mi$es do#n the $ine6 #hich ran +ara$$e$ to the road: A
num0er of %oods trains steamed +astL the 2ussians had a$ready +ut the $ine 0ac< to the
0road 2ussian %au%e:
Ohuto3o $oo<ed a +$easant enou%h 3i$$a%e6 #ith %ardens and orchards and sma$$ 2ussian
cotta%es: A cro#d of youn%sters %athered round us6 and a$so t#o youn% #omen #ith
0a0ies in their arms: The #omen to$d the usua$ story of ho# they had hidden in ce$$ars
durin% the $ast 1erman occu+ation: FThan< 1od6F one of them said6 Four +eo+$e came
0ac< soon6 and the 1ermans hadn't e3en time to 0urn do#n our houses:F There #ere t#o
$itt$e 0oys thereK6 a%ed a0out ten: @ne #ore an enormous hi%h shee+s<in hat #hich came
ri%ht do#n o3er his earsL the other #ore a +air of army 0oots6 a0out si8 si>es too $ar%e for
him: F9here did you %et a$$ thisEF ? as<ed: F1ot my hat off a dead 2umanian6F ;um0er
@ne said +roud$y: FAnd these 0ootsEF F@h6 that's off the dead Frit>6 o3er there in the
orchard: 9ou$d you $i<e to see himE F ? fo$$o#ed the t#o 0oys a$on% a narro# +ath: .ere6
amon% the a++$e,trees6 $ay the dead 1erman: .is face #as co3ered #ith sno#6 0ut his
feet6 +ur+$e and %$ossy $i<e those of a #a8 fi%ure6 #ere 0are: .e had no o3ercoat6 on$y an
ordinary tunic #ith an ea%$e and s#asti<a: F9hy don't they ta<e him a#ayEF ? as<ed:
FThe so$diers #i$$ ta<e him a#ay some time6 ? su++ose6F said the o#ner of the 0ootsL
Fthey'3e %ot other Frit>es to co$$ect round here: .e's no 0other in the co$d #eather:F
9as the $itt$e fe$$o# ca$$ousE ? don't <no#::: The 1ermans had 0rou%ht #ar so dee+$y
into his $ife6 had made him $i3e so intimate$y in the com+any of death6 that one cou$d
hard$y 0$ame him: 5or+ses had 0ecome +art of his dai$y routine6 and to him there #ere
on$y %ood cor+ses and 0ad cor+ses: A fe# days $ater ? heard of a 3i$$a%e on the Don
#here the <ids used a fro>en 1erman as a s$ei%h for s$idin% do#n a hi$$::: ? don't <no# if
this story #as true:
4ote$ni<o3o6 #hich #as to 0e our 0ase for a0out a #ee<6 #as a $ar%e to#n of some
&-6""" +eo+$e6 and it had 0een occu+ied 0y the 1ermans and 2umanians 0et#een Au%ust
& and Decem0er &96 #hen 3on Manstein's troo+s #ere dri3en out after their a0orti3e
attem+t to 0rea< throu%h to Sta$in%rad6 and ? soon heard #hat it had 0een $i<e under the
1erman occu+ation: 4ote$ni<o3o had 0een in the o+erationa$ >one throu%hout the
occu+ation6 and the 1erman Army seemed to ha3e 0een in fu$$ authority thereL moreo3er6
it #as considered 5ossac< country6 and the 1ermans refrained here from $ar%e,sca$e
sa3a%ery: Cd%ar Sno# and ? #ere 0i$$eted in a sma$$ #ooden cotta%e 0e$on%in% to an
e$ementary teacher6 #ho #as $i3in% there #ith her 3ery decre+it o$d mother and her on$y
chi$d6 a fifteen,year,o$d 0oy ca$$ed 1ai: .er hus0and #as a rai$#ayman6 0ut had not 0een
heard of since $ast Bune:
4ote$ni<o3o #as not a story of %reat 1erman atrocities: ?t #as sim+$y a story of 1erman
contem+t and of 2ussian 0itterness and humi$iation6 as to$d 0y the forty,year,o$d 2ussian
schoo$,teacher and her fifteen,year,o$d son: Bust thatDnothin% more: But =uite enou%h:
?t #as a s+ra#$in% to#n6 #ith an administrati3e and sho++in% centre6 and an im+ortant
rai$#ay de+otL the rest of the to#n consisted of many $on% streets of #ooden cotta%es and
%ardensL a$$ round #as the f$at ste++e of the trans,Don country: @ur house had t#o sma$$
roomsDthe <itchen and the 0edroom: Bet#een the t#o #as a $ar%e 2ussian sto3e6 and it
#as 3ery #arm: C$ena ;i<o$ae3na #as e8u0erant6 +$um+6 #ith fat arms and t#o %o$den
front teeth that %$ittered in the $i%ht of her one and on$y <erosene $am+: After +resentin%
us to 4a4ush*a, a tiny shri3e$$ed creature #ho sat hudd$ed in a corner of the <itchen6 near
the 0$ac<ed,out #indo#6 she too< the <erosene $am+ and sho#ed us into the 0edroom6
$ea3in% 4a4ush*a in the dar<: FBa0ush<a #i$$ 0e a$$ ri%ht6F she said6 Fshe is used to
+ee$in% +otatoes in the dar<:F ?n the 0edroom #ere t#o $ar%e 0eds6 a ta0$e and a 0oo<,
case: F9hat a $ife #e'3e had these $ast fi3e monthsPF she e8c$aimed: FFirst #e had some
2umanians here6 and then the 1ermansDa tan< cre# of fi3e men: 2ou%h6 hard +eo+$eL
0ut then6 ? su++ose6 they $oo<ed u+on us as enemies: Don't <no# #hat they #ou$d ha3e
0een $i<e in +eace,time:::F
A +$ane #as >oomin% o3erhead: FThat's a 1erman +$aneL ? <no# it 0y the sound: Ma<es
me a 0it ner3ous #hen they f$y a0out at ni%ht: ?t's these trans+ort +$anes that sti$$ try to
ta<e food to the 1ermans encirc$ed at Sta$in%rad:F Sudden$y #e heard a stic< of 0om0s
%o off #ith a #hine and some#here6 a $on% distance a#ay6 there #as the sound of t#o not
3ery $oud e8+$osions:
At the end of Bu$y the Secretary of the Bai*om to$d C$ena ;i<o$ae3na that she and her
fami$y #ou$d 0e e3acuatedL 0ut the 1ermans 0om0ed the rai$#ay station to 0$a>es6 and
occu+ied the to#n on Au%ust &6 0efore anythin% cou$d 0e done: So a$$ the teachers #ere
$eft 0ehind: @ne of them #ent to see the 1erman commandant to as< #hen the schoo$s
#ou$d o+en6 0ut #as to$d Fnot yetF: So the teachers #ere $eft #ithout any Ho0s: The
+o+u$ation #ere summoned to a meetin% to e$ect a starosta, or mayor6 0ut the first t#o
#ere in3a$idated 0y the 1ermans6 and in the end they 3irtua$$y a++ointed a rai$#ayman
ca$$ed !a$eye3 to 0e starosta5 .e seemed a %ood manL 0ut $ater he must ha3e so$d himse$f
to the 1ermans: There #ere a$so some rai$#aymen #ho formed the $oca$ +o$iceL they
#ou$d 0u$$y the $oca$ +eo+$e6 ma<e them carry 0ric<s6 and di%6 and 0ui$d fortifications for
the 1ermans:
FBut ho# did you $i3eEF
F@ne can hard$y ca$$ it $i3in%: 9e #ere 3ery short of foodDnine ounces of f$our a day
+er +erson6 and nothin% e$se: ? used to do some #or< for the 2umanian officer #hen he
$i3ed hereL 0ut a$$ he #ou$d %i3e me for a #ho$e day's #ashin% #as ha$f a $oaf: ?t #as a
shame: But then6 ? su++ose6 the 2umanians didn't ha3e much: Some of the so$diers6 far
from %i3in% us anythin%6 as<ed for foodL ?'d %i3e them a s$ice of 0read6 it #as 0etter that
#ayL they #ou$d ha3e ta<en it any#ay: The 1ermans are a +roud +eo+$e6 3ery different
from the 2umanians: @ccasiona$$y they'd %i3e me somethin%Da tin of fish or a fe#
ci%arettes: A$$ the time they #ere here they %a3e me t#o tins of fishL it #asn't much6 #as
itE ? used to #ash and scru0 for them a$$ day6 and they'd send me out for #ater to the
#e$$: ?t #as a s$a3e's $ife: And 1ai6 my 0oy and 4a4ush*a and ? had to $i3e in the $itt$e
<itchen6 a$$ hudd$ed to%ether6 and the fi3e 1ermans $i3ed here6 in this roomL some
s$ee+in% on the 0ed6 and the others on the f$oor: They had a $ot of drin< and food6 and
thou%ht at first they #ere stayin% here indefinite$y: ?n the mornin% they'd shout 0-at*a,
$asser zum :aschen@0 They used to ca$$ e3ery0ody -at*a, damned chee<P ?n the midd$e
of Decem0er one of the man said: 0Buss nicht zurMc*, #e'3e chased them fifty mi$es
a#ay': ?t's =uite true6 the firin% cou$d no $on%er 0e heard: But on Decem0er &J one of the
men said: 0Buss *ommt zurMc*05 (ou see6 one #ants to $i3e6 es+ecia$$y #hen you'3e %ot a
youn% 0oy to $oo< after6 so ? e8+ressed no Hoy: Four of them #ent a#ay #ithout a #ord6
on$y the fifth one said: 0/u" :iedersehen, -at*a05 They #ere 3ery %$oomy: They #eren't
so 0ad6 those fi3e 1ermans6 0ut they thou%ht #e #ere Hust their s$a3es: ?n other houses
they 0eha3ed much #orse6 and the 2umanians #ere terri0$eD#ou$dn't $ea3e the #omen
a$one: There #as a $ot of ra+e in the to#n: ? didn't hear of any0ody 0ein% shotL 0ut thirty6
or may0e fifty +eo+$e #ere ta<en a#ay 0y the 1ermans: @r +erha+s they fo$$o#ed them
3o$untari$y6 +eo+$e $i<e the polizei5 They #ere %oin% to mo0i$ise a$$ the youn% +eo+$e for
#or< in 1ermany6 and they sent out $eaf$ets6 0ut ? don't thin< they had time to do
anythin% much:::F
And then she descri0ed ho#6 on the $ast ni%ht6 the 1ermans set fire to a$$ the +u0$ic
0ui$din%s in 4ote$ni<o3oL 0ut they hadn't time to 0urn do#n the #ho$e to#nL there #as
much firin% %oin% on6 and6 in the midd$e of the ni%ht the streets #ere em+ty: the 1ermans
had %one and the 2ussians had not yet come in:
So this #as the room #here the 1erman tan< cre# had $i3ed: The house #as intactL +art$y
no dou0t 0ecause it #as hard$y #orth $ootin%: .ere #as a 0oo<,case #ith schoo$,te8ts of
+hysics and chemistry and 2ussian $iterature6 and a $ot of fami$y +hoto%ra+hs on the #a$$L
and the 1ermans had $eft 0ehindDho# odd to find it here6 in the #i$ds of the trans,Don
ste++esPDa ma+ and inde8 of the !aris Metro6 and a co+y of the $ittgensteiner Oeitung
of Decem0er 4 #ith an editoria$: F-":#e4urtstag Francos: der Erretter %paniens"5
The ne8t mornin% #e met 1ai6 C$ena ;i<o$ae3na's fifteen,year,o$d son: .e #as fair$y
ta$$6 0ut e8traordinari$y thin: .e had a 0ri%ht6 inte$$i%ent6 s$i%ht$y mon<ey,$i<e face6 and
s+o<e 0eautifu$ 2ussian in a c$ear6 si$3ery 3oice: F?s that #hat the 1ermans ha3e reduced
you toEF ? said: F;o6 ? #as a$#ays rather thinL 0ut it #as6 of course6 u+settin% to $i3e
under the 1ermansL they %ot on one's ner3esL and a$so6 #e didn't ha3e enou%h food: But
#hen ? #ent #ith mother $ast year to Sta$in%rad to see a #e$$,<no#n s+ecia$ist6 he said ?
#as =uite a$$,ri%ht6 Hust a $itt$e anaemic::: ? am sorry ? #asn't here $ast ni%ht6 0ut #hen the
1ermans #ere here ? ne3er #ent out at ni%ht6 and 3ery se$dom e3en durin% the dayDone
Hust didn't fee$ $i<e it: ;o# ? %o out to see my comradesDthe ones ? used to %o to schoo$
#ith:F F(es6 it's a 0$essin%6F said C$ena ;i<o$ae3na6 F1ai #i$$ no# 0e a0$e to %o to schoo$
a%ain: .e is the c$e3erest 0oy in his formDfu$$ mar<s in e3ery su0Hect: .e has read a$$
the c$assics6 0ut his chief interest is science6 and he #ants to %o into the ;a3y::: F
? #as to ha3e many other ta$<s #ith 1ai after that: .e #ou$d ta$< a0out anythin%Da0out
himse$f6 and his future career6 and the 1ermans6 and the fi$ms he had seen: F? $i<e
American fi$ms6F he said: F.ere in 4ote$ni<o3o %ong o" (ove and The #reat $altz and
5ha+$in's )it! (ights #ere a %reat success: Before the #ar #e had a 3ery %ood time6 you
<no#: ? #as a !ioneer myse$f6 and #ou$d 0e in the 4omsomo$ 0y no#6 0ut for the
1erman occu+ation: A$$ our youn% +eo+$e #ere +re+arin% to 0e en%ineers6 or doctors6 or
scientists: ? #ant to enter the ;a3a$ Academy: ?f the 1ermans had stayed6 the %ir$s #ou$d
ha3e 0een e8+ected to #ash f$oors and the 0oys to $oo< after the catt$e: They didn't re%ard
us as human 0ein%s at a$$::: That's Hust ho# it #as under the 1ermans:F FDid they <ic<
you a0outEF F;o6 they sim+$y too< no notice of me: Sometimes they'd as<: '9hat form
are you inE' or '9here's your fatherE' ?'d say he #as in the 2ed Army: They #ou$d $oo<
cross6 0ut say nothin%:F FDid they e3er say #hat sort of %o3ernment they #ere %oin% to
set u+ hereEF F(es6 they #ou$d say: 'C3ery0ody #i$$ #or< for himse$fL no more *ol*hozes
and no more communism: 9e aren't %oin% to stay hereL #e ha3e on$y come to $i0erate
you from the Be#s and the Bo$she3i<s': They +ut u+ +ictures of .it$er on the #a$$sL they
#ere ca$$ed '.it$er the i0erator': .e hard$y $oo<ed human: 5om+$ete$y 0east$y face: i<e
a sa3a%e from the Ma$ayan Hun%$e: Terrifyin%: They o+ened the churchL first they had a
2umanian +riest6 $ater a 2ussian: ? once #ent #hen the 2umanian #as sti$$ there: ?nside
#ere cro#ds of 2umanian so$diers: At one +oint they'd a$$ %o do#n +$un< on their <nees:
Then they #ou$d carry round a dish6 and the 2umanians #ou$d +ut money on itDrou0$es6
or mar<s or $ei: :: ?t didn't ma<e much difference: A$$ money #as +retty use$ess: The mar<
#as #orth ten rou0$es6 0ut the mar<s they had here #ere occu+ation mar<s6 #ithout a
#ater,mar<6 and #ere as %ood as use$ess::: The 1ermans had a +assion for destroyin%
thin%s: They tore u+ a$$ the 3e%eta0$es in our a$$otment: And they 0urned do#n the +u0$ic
$i0rary the $ast ni%ht they #ere here6 and they #ou$dn't e3en $ea3e my $itt$e $i0rary a$one6F
said 1ai6 +ointin% at the 0oo<case: FThey tore u+ the 2ussian ma%a>ines6 and tore out of
the 0oo<s a$$ the Sta$in and enin +ictures: So si$$y6 don't you thin<E ?t #as those tan<
men: Queer cha+s: (ou shou$d ha3e seen them at 5hristmas: They #ent a$$ s$o++y: They
had %ot a $ot of +arce$s from 1ermany: They $it a tiny +a+er 5hristmas tree6 and
un#ra++ed enormous ca<es6 and o+ened tins6 and #ine0ott$es6 and %ot drun<6 and san%
sentimenta$ son%s a0out somethin% or other:F F9here #ere you at that timeEF FBust #here
#e a$#ays #ere6 ne8t door in the <itchen:F FDid they not offer you any #ine or ca<eEF
F@f course notL #ou$dn't e3en occur to them: They didn't $oo< u+on us as people5"
F9eren't you hun%ryEF F@f course ? #as6 0ut ? #ou$d ha3e hated to ta<e +art in their
festi3ities:F .e +roduced a $i%hter from his +oc<et: FThey $eft it here 0y mista<e: ? found
it under one of the 0eds: 9e ha3e no matches6 so it's a usefu$ %ad%et to ha3e: But ? don't
$i<e ha3in% anythin% from those +eo+$e::: (es6 ? $ost a $ot of #ei%ht: The 0om0s %ot on
my ner3es6 ? su++ose6 and a$so the fee$in% that ? #as no $on%er a human 0ein%: They
ne3er sto++ed ru00in% that in: They had no res+ect for any0odyDthey'd Hust undress in
front of #omenL #e #ere Hust a $ot of s$a3es: And there #as a$so no foodL no *ol*hoz
mar<et6 and it's 3ery 0ad for your system if you %et no fats6F he conc$uded #ith a
scientific air:
C$ena ;i<o$ae3na #ou$d ta$< a $ot a0out herse$f and a0out 4a4ush*a, her mother: She #as
the $ast sur3i3or of a 5ossac< fami$y6 ruined durin% the 5i3i$ 9ar: .er father had 0een a
sma$$ farmer in a 5ossac< stanitsa on the DonL 0ut he hadn't much of a 0usiness head6
and the farm had %one to +ot durin% the 5i3i$ 9ar6 so he so$d his farm to a *ula* for ten
sac<s of f$our: They mo3ed to ;o3ocher<ass<6 0ut in the ty+hus e+idemic 0oth her father
and her 0rother died: F? #as on$y ei%hteen then6 and ? entered the 4omsomo$6 and %ot a
sma$$ scho$arshi+ for the ;o3ocher<ass< music schoo$6 #here ? #as tau%ht sin%in%FL 0ut
she cou$dn't ma<e much of a $i3in% #ith that6 and it #as not enou%h to su++ort her mother
as #e$$6 so #hen her future hus0and6 a rai$#ayman6 as<ed her to marry him6 she a%reed:
F.e's a %ood man6 my hus0and6 thou%h he hadn't much education: But he is in the ri%ht
Bo$she3i< traditionsL his father a$so had 0een a rai$#ayman for forty years6 and had
recei3ed an inscri0ed %o$d #atch from 4a%ano3ich himse$f:F ater6 after sett$in% do#n in
4ote$ni<o3o in her hus0and's $itt$e house6 she too< a corres+ondence course in
e$ementary teachin%: ?t #as durin% the days #hen thousands of schoo$s #ere o+enin%
throu%hout the So3iet *nion6 and C$ena ;i<o$ae3na #as as %ood as any0ody for this
sim+$e Ho0: This co=uette of thirty,ei%ht or so no dou0t dreamed of a$$ she mi%ht ha3e
0een 0ut for the 5i3i$ 9ar: F? used to $oo< +retty %ood and *ulturno" she said6 F#hen ?
#as youn%er6 #ith my hair #a3ed and #ith a nice summer froc<:F And she descri0ed ho#
she had her t#o +erfect$y %ood front teeth cro#ned in %o$d6 0ecause it #as Ffashiona0$eF
at the time:
And 4a4ush*a sat in the corner6 and #ou$d say ho# a#fu$ it #as #ith those 1ermans in
the house6 and F? #ou$d cry and cry6 thin<in% ? #ou$d soon die6 and ho# a#fu$ it #as to
$ea3e my dear ones in a$$ this misery::: But no# that our o#n dear +eo+$e are 0ac< ? thin<
?'$$ $i3e to a hundred6F she said as her $itt$e face scre#ed u+ into a tooth$ess smi$e::: And
she'd %o on6 ta$<in% a$most to herse$f: F? used to <no# Cn%$ish and American %ent$emen:
My hus0and used to 0e an izvoshchi*, had a fine +haeton on s+rin%sL he used to dri3e
Cn%$ish and American %ent$emen across the DonL they #ere en%ineers: That #as a $on%
time a%o6 sti$$ under the Tsar:::F
And C$ena ;i<o$ae3na's hus0and6 the rai$#aymanE They had $ast heard of him in Bune
194&: .e #as at Aorone>h then: ;o# that the +osta$ ser3ice had 0een restored at
4ote$ni<o3o6 they mi%ht hear from him soon: They mi%htDor they mi%ht not:::
F(ou can say #hat you $i<e6F C$ena ;i<o$ae3na said one day (not that any0ody had said
anythin%)6 F0ut our So3iet rN%ime is a %ood rN%ime: C3en 4a4ush*a, to #hom it #as a$$
3ery stran%e at first6 has no# 0ecome 3ery fond of it: And $oo< at this $itt$e house of ours:
Fi3e rou0$es rent a month is a$$ ? +ayL you #ou$dn't %et a house so chea+ in any other
country:F .ere #as6 indeed6 a stran%e$y mi8ed fami$y: the %randmother sti$$ thin<in% of
the %ood o$d days under the Tsar6 the mother #ith her 5ossac< 0ac<%round and her petit
4ourgeois instinctsL the father a rea$ So3iet +ro$etarianL and the 0oy #ho cou$d on$y see a
ha++y future for himse$f under the So3iet system #ith its stress on educationDto a$$ these
+eo+$e the 1ermans #ere uns+ea<a0$y odious:
This #as not =uite %enera$ in a to#n $i<e 4ote$ni<o3oL ? sa# a $ar%e 5ossac< fami$y on
#hom a num0er of 1ermans had a$so 0een 0i$$etedL they had 0een a$$o#ed to <ee+ a co#
and do>ens of chic<ens6 and a sort of modus vivendi had 0een esta0$ished 0et#een
themse$3es and the 1ermans6 F#ho #ere 3ery fond of e%%s and mi$<F:
@ne of the mem0ers of this fami$y #or<ed on a near,0y *ol*hoz, and contri0uted #hat
she cou$d to the F%ood $i3in%F of 0oth her fami$y in 4ote$ni<o3o and of their 1erman
%uests: The *ol*hozes in the area had not 0een dis0anded6 thou%h the 1ermans <e+t
+romisin% that they #ou$d 0e under the ;e# @rder:
The 1erman ca+ture of 4ote$ni<o3o on Au%ust & had 0een so sudden that on$y a0out
one,third of the +o+u$ation cou$d 0e e3acuatedDand in terri0$e conditions at that: Many
had 0een 0om0ed on the rai$#ay or machine,%unned on the roads6 and much of the catt$e
that #as 0ein% e3acuated to the Astra<han ste++es had a$so 0een <i$$ed in air,raids 0efore
it reached its destination: Accordin% to 5omrade Tere<ho36 chairman of the $oca$
e8ecuti3e committee #ho had ta<en u+ his duties a%ain the day after the to#n #as
$i0erated6 four +eo+$e #ere shot 0y the 1ermans for har0ourin% a So3iet officerL and
some 3""Dmost$y youn% +eo+$eDhad 0een ta<en a#ay to 1ermany as s$a3e $a0ourL
many more #ou$d ha3e 0een ta<en6 and the #ho$e to#n #ou$d ha3e 0een destroyed if the
1ermans had had time to do so: Some6 he said6 had co$$a0orated 3o$untari$y #ith the
1ermans6 and had $eft #ith themL others6 inc$udin% se3era$ rai$#aymen6 had 0een forci0$y
drafted into the polizei, and6 thou%h they had to %o throu%h Fcertain motionsF6 they had
remained $oya$ to the So3iets: 5ertain cases of Fe8cessi3e matey,ness F #ith the 1ermans
#ere %oin% to 0e $oo<ed into:::
@utside 4ote$ni<o3o the 2ussians had ca+tured an enormous ammunition dum+6 t#o
Fo<<e,9u$f 1J9's6 com+$ete$y intact6 and a num0er of other 1erman aircraft: The
2ussian air force ser%eant to #hom ? ta$<ed said he didn't care for the idea of usin%
1erman +$anes: F?t's a tric<y 0usiness: @ur anti,aircraft %unners are too shar+ for that: At
Sta$in%rad #e %ot fi3e Me:$"9's in +erfect condition6 and #e thou%ht #e'd use them: A$$
fi3e #ere shot do#n 0y our o#n %uns the 3ery first day: Damned if ?'d %o u+ in a 1erman
+$ane: Si%na$$in% is a$$ 3ery #e$$6 0ut the cha+ on the %round thin<s the Frit> is cheatin%6
and he Hust #on't miss a chance of ha3in% a crac< at a Messerschmidt:::F .e said these
+$anes here had %ot stuc< for $ac< of #ater: ?t often ha++ened on these im+ro3ised
airfie$ds in the ste++e:
There #as sti$$ a %ood dea$ of air acti3ityL from increasin%$y distant airfie$dsDtheir
c$osest 0ase #as no# at Sa$s<6 1&- mi$es from 4ote$,ni<o3o and &&" mi$es from
Sta$in%radDthe 1ermans #ere sti$$ tryin% to send their trans+ort +$anes to !au$us's
tra++ed army: They #ere 0ein% shot do#n 0y the do>en6 and 3ery fe# #ere no# %ettin%
throu%h: 1oerin%'s +romise to .it$er to carry -"" tons of su++$ies a day to Sta$in%rad had
+ro3ed a com+$ete myth: The many ca+tured 1erman airmen #e sa# durin% those days
#ere o03ious$y disheartened 0y the Fnear,suicideF Ho0 they had to do6 and dou0ted
#hether Sta$in%rad cou$d ho$d out6 thou%h se3era$ ar%ued that6 in the s+rin%6 there #ou$d
0e a ne# 1erman offensi3e6 and that Sta$in%rad #ou$d 0e ta<en: 2osto3 #ou$d
Fcertain$yF not 0e a0andoned: The ca+tured infantry,menDmany of #hom had #andered
a0out the ste++e for a #ee< tryin% to catch u+ #ith the ra+id$y retreatin% 1ermans and
#ere 3ery hun%ryD#ere e3en more demora$ised: The fanatica$ ;a>is6 es+ecia$$y amon%
the 1oerin% 0oys6 sti$$ thou%ht a defeat of 1ermany =uite im+ossi0$e6 0ut thou%ht the #ar
mi%ht end in a dra#: Sta$in%rad #as a$ready ha3in% that effect on them:
The nearest #e %ot to the front #as at Oimo3ni<i some si8ty mi$es do#n the Sta$in%rad,
5aucasus $ine: The 1ermans had c$eared out of the to#n on$y t#o days 0efore6 and #ere
no# fi%htin% a stiff rear%uard action some fi3e mi$es south of it: There #as intense air
acti3ity: As #e a++roached Oimo3ni<i across mi$es and mi$es of com+$ete$y f$at sno#,
co3ered ste++e (#e +assed another enormous ammunition dum+ the 1ermans had
a0andoned in a hurry) 2ussian fi%hters >oomed o3erhead e3ery minuteL do%fi%hts #ere
%oin% on not far a#ay6 and the fi%hters #ere a$so +ursuin% the retreatin% 1ermans: But
they #ere no# retreatin% more s$o#$y: the remnants of their t#o tan< di3isions #hich had
tried to 0rea< throu%h to Sta$in%rad had 0een reinforced 0y the SS Ai<in% Di3ision6
0rou%ht u+ from the 5aucasus: 1unfire cou$d 0e heard 3ery c$ear$y6 and once a she$$
$anded a short distance a#ay6 a c$oud of ye$$o# smo<e risin% from it: ;o# and then there
came from the south a $oud 0oomin% noiseL that #as the famous 2ussian *at!usha mortar
in action: The +$easant $itt$e to#n had 0een 0ad$y dama%ed 0y she$$in%6 and a %rain
e$e3ator #as sti$$ 0urnin%L the $oca$ inha0itants to$d much the same story as in other
$i0erated to#nsL durin% the four days' fi%htin% at Oimo3ni<i they had hidden in ce$$ars6
#ith 3ery $itt$e food6 and on$y sno# to suc<6 instead of #ater:
The street si%ns #ere sti$$ in 2umanian or 1erman6 and on the +edesta$ of the enin
statue there #as on$y ha$f a $e% sti$$ standin%: The 0i% c$u0house had 0een used as a
0arrac<s 0y the 1ermans: The #ho$e f$oor #as co3ered #ith 0und$es of stra# on #hich
they had s$e+t: The rostrum #as sti$$ decorated #ith fir,0ranches and the ta0$es and the
hea+s of stra# #ere $ittered #ith #hat $oo<ed $i<e the remains of a 5hristmas +artyD
do>ens of em+ty #ine and 0randy 0ott$es6 most$y French6 em+ty tins and 1erman
ci%arette and 0iscuit cartons: .ere a$so $ay a +i$e of ma%a>ines6 one of them sho#in%
1erman so$diers 0as<in% in dec<,chairs on a 3erandah o3er$oo<in% the B$ac< SeaD#as
this Ana+aEDand carryin% a touristy artic$e on "Der herrliche Kau*asus und die
%ch:arzsee*Mste"5 So they had a$ready 0een ma<in% themse$3es at home in the 5aucasus:
The ma%a>ine #as on$y three #ee<s o$dL no# they #ere 0eatin% it from the 5aucasus as
fast as their $e%s #ou$d carry them:::
Much %rimmer #as the si%ht in the $itt$e +ar< 0ehind the c$u0house: 2ussian so$diers
#ere di%%in% a common %ra3e for the 2ussians #ho had 0een <i$$ed at Oimo3ni<i on$y
t#o or three days 0efore: There6 in the +ar<6 se3enty or ei%hty 2ussian cor+ses #ere
+$aced in ro#s6 in horri0$e fro>en attitudes6 some sittin% u+6 some #ith their arms #ide
a+art6 some #ith their heads 0$o#n offL a$so6 some e$der$y 0earded men6 and youn% 0oys
of ei%hteen or nineteen #ith o+en eyes::: .o# many common %ra3es $i<e this #ere 0ein%
du% e3ery day a$on% the &6""" mi$e frontE :::
Marsha$ Ma$ino3s<y6 Mr 4hrushche3's Minister of Defence6 no# 3ery hea3y6 stout and
seemin%$y humour$ess6 and #e$$ o3er si8ty6 #as a 3ery different man in 1943: .e #as
then a da++er youn% ieutenant,1enera$ of forty,four6 a 3ery fine s+ecimen of mi$itary
manhood6 admira0$y %roomed in his smart uniform6 ta$$6 handsome #ith $on% dar< hair
0rushed 0ac<6 and #ith a round sun0urned face6 #hich did not sho# the s$i%htest si%n of
fati%ue after se3era$ #ee<s of continuous cam+ai%nin%: .e $oo<ed much $ess than forty,
four: .e #as then sti$$ in command of that &nd 1uards Army #hich had +$ayed a $eadin%
+art in smashin% Manstein's 4ote$ni<o3o offensi3e: Before $on% he #as %oin% to succeed
(eremen<o as commander of the Sta$in%rad Front (to 0e renamed the FSouthern FrontF)
and #as %oin% to reca+ture 2osto3 in Fe0ruary 1943:
.e recei3ed us on Banuary 11 at his .:Q: in the $ar%e schoo$,house in a 0i% 3i$$a%e on the
Don: After te$$in% us of his e8+eriences as a so$dier of the 2ussian C8+editionary Force in
France in 9or$d 9ar ?6
IAt that time he to$d the story as mi$d$y and as Ftactfu$$yF as +ossi0$e: As a mem0er of
the C8+editionary 5or+s of &"6""" men he had6 to%ether #ith the others6 sai$ed from
A$adi3osto< to Marsei$$es 3ia Sin%a+ore and the Sue> 5ana$L he had fou%ht at aon and
ArrasL he had seen British and An>ac troo+s in action6 as #e$$ as French poilus,
Ma$%aches and Sene%a$ese: At Amiens the 2ussians had fou%ht side,0y,side #ith the
British: 9ith a si%nificant $itt$e smi$e Ma$ino3s<y said: F? $i<ed those Cn%$ish and
Scottish troo+sL they are s$o#6 0ut they are re$ia0$e: ? $i<ed the #ay they sha3ed e3ery
mornin% and #ent into action smo<in% their +i+es:F ater6 the 2e3o$ution 0ro<e out in
2ussia and Fthere #as some trou0$e #ith the 2ussian troo+s in France:F They did not fee$
any $on%er $i<e Ffi%htin% for FranceFL they #ere +ut in a cam+ at 5ourtineL here there #as
more trou0$e6 and the French shot three or four hundred of them: .o#e3er6 the 0u$< of
the 2ussians #ere sent home in the end6 e8ce+t for some #ho had stayed in France6
usua$$y 0ecause of some French #oman: 9hen he returned to 2ussia6 he Hoined the 2eds
in the 5i3i$ 9ar: ater6 the story of the massacre of the 2ussians at 5ourtine #as to 0e
to$d in 2ussian 0oo<s (and6 indeed6 0y Ma$ino3s<y himse$f) in much stron%er terms:K
Ma$ino3s<y out$ined the first sta%e of the Sta$in%rad 0att$e6 #hich ended #ith the
encirc$ement of the 1erman forces and the 2ussian #est#ard dri3e into the Don country:
The second sta%e #as to ha3e 0e%un on Decem0er 1)6 0ut the 2ussians #ere foresta$$ed
0y 3on Manstein's thrust to#ards Sta$in%rad on the 1&th:
.e said that this stri<in% force #as com+osed of three infantry and three tan< di3isions6
one 0rou%ht from the 5aucasus and another from France: They had a0out )"" tan<s and
#ere #e$$ su++orted from the air:
IAccordin% to the 1ermans a0out &-" (tan<s):K
After descri0in% the 2ussian rear%uard action 0et#een Decem0er 1& and 1)6 the
Fdefensi3e 0att$esF fou%ht for the ne8t #ee< on the A8ai and the Mysh<o3a ri3ers6 the
2ussian counter,offensi3e #hich had hur$ed the 1ermans 0eyond Oimo3ni<i6 and the
other offensi3e #hich had smashed the 1erman FTormasin 1rou+F in the Midd$e Don6
Ma$ino3s<y made a num0er of si%nificant +oints:
#+ &'( 0,+-& &,"( &'( !(+")$- )+( -'#2,$% -,%$- #0 %+()& 8(2,/5(+"($&. T+*,$% &#
0,// ,$ %).-, &'(* )+( &'+#2,$% &'(,+ &+##.- )8#1& 0+#" #$( ./)3( &# )$#&'(+E2',3'
-'#2- &')& &'(* )+( -'#+& #0 +(-(+6(-. M)$* #0 &'(,+ &+##.- )+( +(&+()&,$% 2(-& ,$ )
5,-#+5(+/* 2)*, )$5 )8)$5#$,$% ($#+"#1- ")--(- #0 (91,."($&. S13' &+##.- )+( )$
()-* &)+%(& 0#+ #1+ ),+3+)0&. M#-& #0 &'( -)&(//,&( &+##.- ')6( 8(($ ;$#3;(5 #1&
)/&#%(&'(+.
T'( !(+")$ #00,3(+- 2( ')6( 3).&1+(5 )+( (B&+("(/* 5,-)..#,$&(5 ,$ &'(,+ ',%'
3#"")$5 )$5 ,$ &'( Z'+(+ ',"-(/0. T'(* ')6( $#$( #0 &'( -(/0-)--1+)$3( &'(* ')5
/)-& -1""(+.
W( ')6( 3#$-,5(+)8/( 5,00,31/&,(- )+,-,$% 0+#" #1+ /#$% /,$(- #0 3#""1$,3)&,#$, 81&
2( )+( #6(+3#",$% &'(" 0),+/* -133(--01//*. A$5 &'( R(5 A+"* ')- 3(+&),$/*
3')$%(5 )$5 (6#/6(5. T'(+( 2(+( -#"( &+1/* +(6#/1&,#$)+* 3')$%(- ,$ &'( R(5
A+"* #+%)$,-)&,#$ ,$ &'( -1""(+ #0 194M.
=This #as a c$ear a$$usion to those F+ost,2osto3F reforms descri0ed in an ear$ier cha+ter:K
S(3#$5/*, &'(+( ,- 0)+ "#+( 5+,6( )$5 .1$3' ,$ #1+ &+##.- &')$ &'(+( 1-(5 &# 8(? #1+
2,$&(+ #00($-,6( #0 194M-@ ,- #$ ) "13' /)+%(+ -3)/( &')$ &')& #0 &'( 2,$&(+ #0 1941-
M. O1+ "($ ')6( 0)+ %+()&(+ (B.(+,($3(, )$5 )$ ,$&($-( ')&+(5 #0 &'( !(+")$-. A$5
&'(* 3)$ $#2 0)3( -,&1)&,#$- 2',3' &'(* 3#1/5 $#& 0)3( ) *()+ )%#E0#+ (B)"./( )$
#$-/)1%'& 8* 15L ($("* &)$;-. W(//-)+"(5 2,&' )$&,-&)$; 2().#$-, #1+ &+##.-
-133(--01//* 0)3(5 -13' )&&)3;- ,$ &',- /)-& M)$-&(,$ #00($-,6(.
@n the Sta$in%rad encirc$ement he said:
S&)/,$%+)5 ,- )$ A+"(5 P+,-#$(+-< C)"., )$5 ,&- .#-,&,#$ ,- '#.(/(--. T'(
/,91,5)&,#$ #0 &'( D3)1/5+#$D ')- 8(%1$, )$5 &'( ($#+"#1- /#--(- &'( !(+")$- 2,//
')6( -100(+(5 ,$ S&)/,$%+)5 2,// ')6( ) 5(3,-,6( (00(3& #$ &'( 2)+. T'(,+ )&&(".&- &#
-1../* S&)/,$%+)5 0+#" &'( ),+ $#2 &')& ,& ,- #1&-,5( &'( +()3' #0 &'(,+ 0,%'&(+- ')6(
8(($ ) 3#"./(&( 0),/1+(.
.e thou%ht the 1ermans #ere sti$$ stron% in the air6 for a$$ that6 and a$so sti$$ had a 3ery
%reat num0er of tan<s: The 9affen,SS #ere ferocious fi%htersL 0ut the =ua$ity of the
other 1erman troo+s 3aried %reat$y:
.e #as cautious in his forecast for 1943: he #as +retty sure that 2osto3 #ou$d 0e
$i0erated6 0ut #ou$d not commit himse$f to more Ffor the +resentF: .e thou%ht $imited
1erman counter,offensi3es sti$$ +ossi0$e6 0ut none of any decisi3e im+ortance: But he
stressed that the 2ussians #ere sti$$ %oin% to ha3e a 3ery hard time6 that their sacrifices
#ere Fun+recedented in historyF6 and he a++ea$ed for a much %reater effort in the #est:
;orth Africa6 he su%%ested6 #as on$y a sma$$ 0e%innin%6 #ith $itt$e direct effect on
1erman +ressure in the east: .e said that no a$$ied e=ui+ment had yet 0een used on this
front6 e8ce+t some American $orries:
Ma$ino3s<y treated us to a %enerous $unch (#ith Ftro+hyF French 0randy and 1erman
ci%ars to conc$ude)6 and ta$<ed #itti$y and informa$$y6 a%ain reca$$in% some of his
e8+eriences in France in 9or$d 9ar ?: .is toast #as uttered #ith %reat #armth and
friend$iness:
A,3&#+* 4'( -),57 ,- &'( -2((&(-& "#"($& ,$ &'( /,0( #0 (6(+* -#/5,(+, )$5 I )" -.)+,$%
$# (00#+& &# )3',(6( ,&. W( S#6,(& .(#./( +()/,-( &'( &(3'$,3)/ 5,00,31/&,(- #0 ) S(3#$5
+#$& ,$ E1+#.(? 2( )+(, 0#+ &'( .+(-($&, 0,%'&,$% 2,&'#1& ,&, 81& 2( 0,+"/* 8(/,(6( ,&
2,// 3#"( 6(+* -##$. S'#2 *#1+ .(#./( '#2 .1+( )$5 3/()+ #1+ ),"- )$5 "#&,6(-
)+(. W( 2)$& 0+((5#"E)$5 /(& 1- $#& 91,88/( #6(+ 3(+&),$ 5,00(+($3(- ,$ #1+
3#$3(.&,#$ #0 0+((5#"? &'(-( )+( ) -(3#$5)+* ")&&(+E)$5 2( 2)$& 6,3&#+* -# &')&
&'(+( ")* 8( $# 2)+ )%),$.
That e3enin%6 after seein% some more 1erman airmen #ho had Hust 0een 0rou%ht do#nD
#e tra3e$$ed throu%h a 0$i>>ard 0ac< to our 4ote$ni<o3o F0aseF:
There #ere many hea3y sno#fa$$s throu%hout the first ha$f of Banuary6 0ut the #eather
#as re$ati3e$y mi$dDusua$$y 0et#een minus -V and minus 1"V centi%rade: ?t #as not ti$$
to#ards the end of the Sta$in%rad mo++in%,u+6 i:e: the second ha$f of Banuary and the
ear$y days of Fe0ruary that the frost 0ecame tru$y ferocious: minus 3"V and minus 4"V
centi%rade: ? #as6 indeed6 %oin% to find this out for myse$fL for a fortni%ht $ater ? #as to
return to the Sta$in%rad area: And this time to Sta$in%rad itse$f:
C').&(+ A STALIN!RAD: THE A!ONY
@n Banuary 16 So3inform0ureau +u0$ished a 3ery $on% s+ecia$ communi=uN on the resu$ts
of the first si8 #ee<s of the 2ussian offensi3e in the Sta$in%rad and Don areas: ;ot on$y6
it said6 had t#enty,t#o enemy di3isions 0een surrounded6 0ut thirty,si8 had 0een
smashed in the si8 #ee<s' fi%htin%: 9e need not =uote here the fi%ures of the enemy
tan<s6 +$anes6 %uns6 et cetera6 ca+tured or destroyedL they #ere o03ious$y e8a%%eratedD
for instance 36&-" tan<s and 16J"" aircraft:
I ?n an inter3ie# on the t#entieth anni3ersary of the Batt$e of Sta$in%rad6 +u0$ished in
Pravda on Fe0ruary 1"619)36 Marsha$ Ma$ino3s<y %a3e the fo$$o#in% fi%ures for
1erman $osses inc$udin% a$$ that #as fina$$y ca+tured or destroyed in the Sta$in%rad F0a%F
durin% that 0att$e6 i:e: u+ to Fe0ruary &: &6""" tan<s6 &6""" +$anes6 o3er 1"6""" %uns and
mortars and 7"6""" motor 3ehic$es: C8ce+t for the $ast6 these fi%ures are $ess than the
So3inform0ureau statement c$aimed on Banuary 16 1943Da statement #hich did not
co3er #hat #as to 0e ca+tured $ater in the Fcau$dronF:K
9hat #as interestin%6 in the $i%ht of su0se=uent attem+ts to minimise Ohu<o3's ro$e in the
+$annin% and e8ecution of the Batt$e of Sta$in%rad6 #as the conc$udin% statement:
T'(-( #.(+)&,#$- &##; ./)3( 1$5(+ &'( 3#"")$5 #0 C#/#$(/-!($(+)/ A)&1&,$,
C#"")$5(+ #0 &'( S#1&'-W(-& +#$&? C#/#$(/-!($(+)/ Y(+(-"($;#, C#"")$5(+
#0 &'( S&)/,$%+)5 +#$&? L,(1&.-!($(+)/ R#;#--#6-;*, C#"")$5(+ #0 &'( D#$
+#$&? L,(1&.-!($(+)/ !#/,;#6, C#"")$5(+ #0 &'( A#+#$(C' +#$&, )$5 1$5(+ &'(
%($(+)/ /()5(+-',. #0 A+"* !($(+)/ G'1;#6, C#/#$(/-!($(+)/ A)--,/(6-;* )$5
C#/#$(/-!($(+)/ #0 A+&,//(+* A#+#$#6.
There no# remained the Ho0 of $i=uidatin% the 1erman Sta$in%rad 5au$dron: The tra++ed
1ermans had nothin% more to ho+e for: ;ot that the troo+s in the Sta$in%rad tra+ #ere yet
fu$$y a#are of the #ho$e %hast$y truth: The officers <e+t te$$in% them not to 0e undu$y
distur0ed 0y the ra+id$y diminishin% food rationsL the FRhrer #ou$d see to it that
e3erythin% turned out a$$ ri%ht6 des+ite 3on Manstein's fai$ure to 0rea< throu%h: And in
any case6 they #ere to$d6 their +resence in Sta$in%rad #as a %reat em0arrassment to the
2ussians and6 in the %enera$ scheme of thin%s6 a %reat ser3ice to the FRhrer and the
Father$and:
!au$us's forces had 0een encirc$ed since ;o3em0er &3 and their su++$ies #ere runnin%
do#n: 1oerin%'s +romises to f$y -"" tons of food6 fue$ and ammunition a day to
Sta$in%rad had +ro3ed a mira%e: Before $on% the uft#affe #as on$y 0rin%in% in 1"" tons
a day and6 to#ards the end of Decem0er6 e3en $ess: The num0er of +$anes $ost #as
%ro#in% dai$y: By the midd$e of Decem0er the troo+s 0e%an to eat #hat #as $eft of the
2umanian ca3a$ry di3ision's horses:
The 1ermans' %ro#in% shorta%e of ammunition made an enormous difference to the
troo+s of the 2ussian )&nd Army sti$$ ho$din% the Sta$in%rad 0rid%eheads: ?t #as no#
a$most safe to carry $ar%e dishes of hot food to the front,$ine troo+s in 0road day$i%ht6
0are$y forty yards a#ay from the 1erman $ines: ?t #as e=ua$$y safeD accordin% to
Sta$in%rad standards of safetyDfor #ho$e con3oys of horse,s$ei%hs to cross the Ao$%a
durin% the day:
At the end of Decem0er 1rossman #rote in Bed %tar5
T'#-( !(+")$- 2'#, ,$ S(.&("8(+, 8+#;( ,$&# '#1-(- )$5 5)$3(5 &# &'( /#15 "1-,3
#0 "#1&'-#+%)$-, )$5 2'# 5+#6( )8#1& )& $,%'& 2,&' &'(,+ '()5/,%'&- 01// #$ )$5
2'#, ,$ 8+#)5 5)*/,%'&, 2#1/5 8+,$% 1. &'(,+ -'(//- ,$ /#++,(-E&'(-( !(+")$- )+(
$#2 ',5,$% )"#$% &'( -&#$( +1,$-... N#2 &'(+( ,- $# -1$ 0#+ &'(". T'(* )+( +)&,#$(5
&# &2($&*-0,6( #+ &',+&* +#1$5- ) 5)*, )$5 &'(* )+( &# 0,+( #$/* 2'($ )&&)3;(5. T'(,+
0##5 +)&,#$ ,- 0#1+ #1$3(- #0 8+()5 )$5 ) /,&&/( '#+-(-0/(-'.
T'(+(, /,;( -)6)%(- %+#2$ #6(+ 2,&' 2##/, &'(* -,& ,$ &'(,+ -&#$( 3)6(-, %$)2,$% )& )
'#+-(<- 8#$(... ()+01/ 5)*- )$5 $,%'&- ')6( 3#"( &# &'(". H(+(, ,$ &'( 5)+; 3#/5
+1,$- #0 &'( 3,&* &'(* ')6( 5(-&+#*(5 &'(* 2,// "((& 2,&' 6($%()$3(? &'(* 2,// "((& ,&
1$5(+ &'( 3+1(/ -&)+- #0 &'( R1--,)$ 2,$&(+ $,%'&.
Such #as the out$oo< inside Sta$in%rad itse$fL it #as no 0etter in the o+en ste++es6 nearer
the centre of the Frin%F6 at 1umra<6 or that airfie$d of !itomni< #hich so fe# of the
Bun<er -&'s #ere no# succeedin% in reachin%: The 1ermans in the #est had 0een dri3en
far a#ayDinto the Sa$s< ste++es and 0eyond the Donets6 and the 1ermans at Sta$in%rad
#ere ho+e$ess$y iso$ated:
Durin% the first #ee< of Banuary the troo+s of the Don Front under 2o<osso3s<y and
Aorono3 #ere +re+arin%6 in the ste++es 0et#een the Don and the Ao$%a6 for the fina$
ons$au%ht: 4no#in%6 ho#e3er6 that the 1ermans sti$$ had much e=ui+ment inside the rin%6
and in order to a3oid Funnecessary 0$oodshedF6 1enera$ Aorono36 Fre+resentati3e of the
%enera$ head=uarters of the Su+reme 5ommand of the 2ed ArmyF6 and 1enera$
2o<osso3s<y6 commander of the Don Front6 sent an u$timatum to 5o$one$,1enera$
!au$us6 on Banuary J:
T'( !(+")$ 6&' A+"*, 0#+")&,#$- #0 &'( 4&' P)$C(+ A+"* )$5 1$,&- -($& &# &'("
)- +(,$0#+3("($&- ')6( 8(($ 3#"./(&(/* -1++#1$5(5 -,$3( N#6("8(+ M@... T'(
!(+")$ &+##.- +1-'(5 &# *#1+ )--,-&)$3( ')6( 8(($ +#1&(5, )$5 &'(,+ +("$)$&- )+(
$#2 +(&+()&,$% &#2)+5- R#-&#6... T'( !(+")$ ),+ &+)$-.#+& 0#+3( 2',3' ;(.& *#1
-1../,(5 2,&' -&)+6)&,#$ +)&,#$- #0 0##5, )""1$,&,#$ )$5 01(/, ,- 0+(91($&/*
3#".(//(5 &# -',0& ,&- 8)-(- )$5 &# 0/* /#$% 5,-&)$3(- &# +()3' *#1... I& ,- -100(+,$%
&+("($5#1- /#--(- ,$ ./)$(- )$5 3+(2- )$5 ,&- '(/. ,- 8(3#",$% ,$(00(3&,6(...
Y#1+ &+##.- )+( -100(+,$% 0+#" '1$%(+, 5,-()-( )$5 3#/5. T'( -(6(+( R1--,)$ 2,$&(+
,- #$/* 8(%,$$,$%... Y#1 ')6( $# 3')$3( #0 8+();,$% &'+#1%' &'( +,$% -1++#1$5,$%
*#1. Y#1+ .#-,&,#$ ,- '#.(/(-- )$5 01+&'(+ +(-,-&)$3( ,- 1-(/(--.
Aorono3 and 2o<osso3s<y therefore offered a termination of hosti$ities and a ca+itu$ation
on the usua$ terms:
A+"-, (91,."($& )$5 "1$,&,#$- &# 8( &1+$(5 #6(+ &# &'( R1--,)$- ,$ )$ #+%)$,-(5
")$$(+ )$5 ,$ %##5 3#$5,&,#$? L,0( )$5 -)0(&* %1)+)$&((5 &# )// -#/5,(+- )$5
#00,3(+- 2'# 3()-( '#-&,/,&,(-? )$5 1.#$ &'( &(+",$)&,#$ #0 &'( 2)+ &'(,+ +(&1+$ &#
!(+")$* #+ &# )$* 3#1$&+* &'( .+,-#$(+- #0 2)+ ")* 3'##-(.
A// .+,-#$(+- ")* +(&),$ &'(,+ 1$,0#+"-, ,$-,%$,), 5(3#+)&,#$- )$5 .(+-#$)/
8(/#$%,$%- )$5, ,$ &'( 3)-( #0 ',%' #00,3(+-, &'(,+ -,5(-)+"-. A// .+,-#$(+- 2,// 8(
.+#6,5(5 2,&' $#+")/ 0##5, )$5 )// ,$ $((5 #0 "(5,3)/ &+()&"($& 2,// 8( %,6($ ,&.
The u$timatum fina$$y stated #here !au$us's re+resentati3e6 tra3e$$in% in a +assen%er car
f$yin% a #hite f$a%6 #as to a++ear at 1" a:m: on the fo$$o#in% mornin%6 Banuary 9: The
u$timatum ended #ith the #arnin% that if it #as reHected6 Fthe 2ed Army and Air Force
#i$$ 0e com+e$$ed to #i+e out the surrounded 1erman troo+sF and that Fyou #i$$ 0e
res+onsi0$e for their annihi$ationF:
The u$timatum #as reHected: But not =uite off,hand: The 1erman %enera$s must ha3e
ta<en time to consu$t .it$er and to thin< it o3er: After#ards6 2ussian officers at
Sta$in%rad to$d me that6 after the +resentation of the u$timatum there #as a short uncanny
truce6 #hen no %uns #ere fired on either side: ;ot on$y the officia$ 2ussian en3oys 0ut
a$so some other 2ussians (inc$udin% a staff officer ? <ne#) 3entured ri%ht across the no,
man's,$and and actua$$y ta$<ed to some 1ermans ur%in% them to $ay do#n their arms: But
.it$er #ou$d not hear of any ca+itu$ation6 and 3on Manstein6 too6 no# thou%ht it in his
o#n interests to sacrifice the 1erman and 2umanian troo+s in the Sta$in%rad FBa%F6 and
fai$ed to inform !au$us of the rea$ situation6 thus $ea3in% him to %ro+e in the dar<:
I.: M: 9aasen: $as geschah in %talingrad $o sind die %chuldigen (9hat ha++ened at
Sta$in%radE 9here are the %ui$ty menE): (Sa$>0ur%6 19-")6 +: )9:K
At J a:m: on Banuary 1"6 the 2ussian attac< #as 0e%un #ith a 0arra%e from 76""" %uns
and mortars a$on% the southern and #estern side of the +oc<et6 the density of the 0arra%e
reachin% in some +$aces 17" %uns or mortars +er <i$ometre: 2ussian +$anes #ere
meantime 0om0in% the 1erman +ositions farther in$and: After an hour6 2ussian tan<s and
infantry #ere thro#n in: Des+ite some des+erate resistance from the 1ermans6 #ho had
stron%$y fortified the #ho$e area6 the 2ussians ad3anced in some +$aces durin% the first
day 0et#een three and fi3e mi$es: As a 2ussian #riter #rote:
T'( ($("* -100(+(5 ($#+"#1- 3)-1)/&,(- 0+#" #1+ 8)++)%(. O1+ ,$0)$&+* -2,0&/*
)56)$3(5 &'+#1%' &'( ($("* 0+#$& /,$(-. A& (6(+* -&(. &'(+( 2(+( 8/)3;($(5
!(+")$ 8#5,(-, 2+(3;(5 ($("* %1$- )$5 "#+&)+-, -')&&(+(5 51%#1&- )$5 .,//8#B(-.
T'( 3#1$&+*, 2',&( &'( 5)* 8(0#+(, 2)- $#2 %+(* 2,&' -##& )$5 -"#;( )$5 5#&&(5
2,&' &'#1-)$5- #0 8/)3; -'(//-'#/(-... A$5 *(& &'( !(+")$-, 0+,%'&($(5 8* DR1--,)$
)&+#3,&*D -&#+,(-, 3#$&,$1(5 &# +(-,-& /,;( '#1$5(5 2#/6(-.
=Oamiatin6 %talingrads*a!a .itva (The Batt$e of Sta$in%rad) (Mosco#6 194))6 +: -):K
?t too< three days of hea3y fi%htin% to sni+ off the #estern e8tremity of the +oc<etDsome
&-" s=uare mi$es: Durin% the fo$$o#in% days the ad3ance #as much more ra+idL the
2ussians ca+tured the #ho$e midd$e +art of the +oc<et6 inc$udin% !itomni<6 #ith the
1ermans' $ar%est airfie$d:
@n Banuary 176 the 2ussian command sent !au$us another ca+itu$ation offer6 and
a$thou%h at $east t#o 1erman %enera$sD3on Seyd$it> and Sch$TmmerD#ere in fa3our of
acce+tin% it6 !au$us sti$$ had no authority to do so: By this time the 2ussians had
reca+tured near$y ha$f the cau$dronL 0ut 1erman resistance #as sti$$ stiffL the #estern +art
of the cau$dron #as studded #ith hundreds of +i$$0o8es and other firin% +ointsL
So3inform0ureau's interim re+ort of Banuary 17 s+o<e of 16&)" +i$$0o8es and fortified
du%outs6 7- fortified o0ser3ation +osts and 317 %un or mortar 0atteries that had 0een
ca+tured or destroyed durin% the first #ee<'s fi%htin%L it a$so %a3e a $on% $ist of
e=ui+ment ca+tured or destroyed6 inc$udin% 4"" +$anes6 )"" tan<s and 1)6""" truc<s6
most of #hich had6 ho#e3er6 0een out of action throu%h $ac< of +etro$: The 1ermans
<i$$ed durin% that first #ee< #ere +ut at &-6"""6 0ut6 si%nificant$y6 the num0er of
+risoners ta<enD$ess than 76"""D#as sti$$ 3ery $o#6 and e3en many of these a++ear to
ha3e 0een 2umanians:
@n Banuary && the 2ussians started on their fina$ ons$au%ht: The 1ermans #ere no#
retreatin% in disorder to Sta$in%rad6 and 0y the &4th6 the 2ussians had reached that $ine of
Sta$in%rad's Fouter defencesF #hich they had themse$3es he$d ti$$ Se+tem0er 13: FThe
1erman troo+s6 sufferin% incredi0$e hardshi+s6F a 2ussian mi$itary e8+ert6 5o$one$
Oamiatin6 #rote6 Fno# 0e%an to rea$ise more fu$$y the com+$ete ho+e$essness of their
+osition6 and 0e%an to surrender in %rou+s:F At the same time6 some of the sic< and
#ounded in the area the 1ermans #ere a0andonin%6 #ere 0ein% <i$$ed off rather than
0ein% $eft to the 2ussians:
But .it$er and Manstein #ere sti$$ insistin% that the 1ermans in the Sta$in%rad +oc<et
continue their resistance: !au$us #as +romoted to the ran< of Fie$d,Marsha$6 e3en thou%h
he continued to inform Manstein of the ho+e$essness of resistin% any $on%er: Accordin%
to some 1erman accounts the demora$isation amon% 0oth so$diers and officers #as no#
ra+id$y %ro#in%6 and there #ere u%$y scram0$es at 1umra<6 the $ast 1erman airfie$d6
#here officers +aid $ar%e 0ri0es to airmen for a seat on the $ast de+artin% +$anes:
I.ein> SchrTter: %talingrad555 =uoted 0y ?A@ASS6 3o$: 36 +: )":K
@n Banuary &) the 2ussian troo+s 0oth from the north and the #est 0ro<e into Sta$in%rad
itse$f6 and at $ast6 at Mamai .i$$6 Hoined #ith units of 5hui<o3's )&nd Army #hich6
throu%hout Decem0er and Banuary6 had continued to harass the 1ermans6 es+ecia$$y in
the Mamai .i$$6 Barricades and 2ed @cto0er areas:
IDurin% the 0i% 2ussian counter,offensi3e in ;o3em0er6 troo+s of the Don Front 0ro<e
throu%h to 5o$one$ 1oro<ho3's $itt$e 0rid%ehead north of Sta$in%rad6 in the 2yno< areaL
0ut had fai$ed to reach 5hui<o3's main 0rid%ehead: As a resu$t6 for t#o more months6 the
0u$< of the )&nd Army #as sti$$ iso$ated from the rest of the 2ussian forces: A$thou%h6
durin% these t#o months6 the 1ermans #ere una0$e to attac< the )&nd Army in force6
5hui<o3 s+ea<s #ith some 0itterness in his 0oo< of the Fothers'F fai$ure to 0rea< throu%h
to Sta$in%rad from the north in ;o3em0er6 #hen the conditions for doin% so had %reat$y
im+ro3ed:K
A$thou%h the 1ermans and es+ecia$$y the 2umanians (inc$udin% 1enera$ Dimitriu) #ere
no# surrenderin% in much $ar%er num0ersD the 2umanians a++ear6 for one thin%6 to
ha3e 0een de+ri3ed e3en of their star3ation rations since Banuary &"Dsome hea3y
fi%htin% sti$$ continued in the streets of Sta$in%rad for the ne8t fi3e days6 and it #as not
ti$$ Banuary 31 that Fie$d,Marsha$ !au$us surrendered at his .:Q: in the 0asement of the
*ni3erma% de+artment store:
ater6 #hen ? %ot to Sta$in%rad6 ? heard the story from the man #ho had ca+tured !au$us:
a youn%ster #ith a turned,u+ nose6 fair hair and a $au%hin% face6 ieutenant Fyodor
Mi<hai$o3ich (e$,chen<o6 #hom one cou$d not ima%ine 0ein% ca$$ed anythin% 0ut
FFedyaF: .e #as 0u00$in% o3er #ith e8u0erance as he to$d his storyDthe $ieutenant #ho
had ca+tured the Fie$d,Marsha$:
@n Banuary 31Dthe day after the tenth anni3ersary of the .it$er rN%ime6 a day on #hich
the FRhrer had fai$ed to s+ea<Dthe 2ussians #ere c$osin% in on centra$ Sta$in%rad from
a$$ directions: The 1ermans #ere fro>en6 star3in%6 0ut sti$$ fi%htin%: First6 after a hea3y
arti$$ery and mortar 0arra%e6 the #ho$e s=uare in front of the *ni3erma% #as ca+tured 0y
the 2ussians6 #ho then 0e%an to surround the 0ui$din%: From time to time6 f$ame,
thro#ers a$so came into action: (e$chen<o said that6 in the course of the day6 he had
$earned from three ca+tured 1erman officers that !au$us #as in the *ni3erma% 0ui$din%:
F9e then 0e%an to she$$ the 0ui$din% (my unit #as occu+yin% the other side of the street6
Hust o++osite the side entrance of the *ni3erma%)6 and as the she$$s 0e%an to hit it6 a
re+resentati3e of MaHor,1enera$ 2as<e +o++ed out of the door and #a3ed at me: ?t #as
ta<in% a 0i% ris<6 0ut ? crossed the street and #ent u+ to him: The 1erman officer then
ca$$ed for an inter+reter6 and he said to me: '@ur 0i% chief #ants to ta$< to your 0i% chief:
So ? said to him: 'oo< here6 our 0i% chief has other thin%s to do: .e isn't a3ai$a0$e: (ou'$$
Hust ha3e to dea$ #ith me:' A$$ this #as %oin% on #hi$e6 from the other side of the s=uare6
they #ere sti$$ sendin% she$$s into the 0ui$din%: ? ca$$ed for some of my men6 and they
Hoined meDt#e$3e men and t#o other officers: They #ere a$$ armed6 of course6 and the
1erman officer said: ';o6 our chief as<s that on$y one or t#o of you come in:' So ? said:
';uts to that: ? am not %oin% 0y myse$f:' .o#e3er6 in the end6 #e a%reed on three: So the
three of us #ent into the 0asement: ?t is em+ty no#6 0ut you shou$d ha3e seen it then: ?t
#as +ac<ed #ith so$diersDhundreds of them: 9orse than any tramcar: They #ere dirty
and hun%ry and they stan<: And did they $oo<ed scaredP They a$$ f$ed do#n here to %et
a#ay from the mortar fire outside:F
(e$chen<o and the t#o other men #ere ushered into the +resence of MaHor,1enera$
2as<e and ieut:,1enera$ Schmidt6 !au$us's chief of staff: 2as<e said that they #ere
%oin% to ne%otiate the surrender on !au$us's 0eha$f6 since !au$us Fno $on%er ans#ered for
anythin% since yesterdayF: ?t #as a$$ a 0it mysterious6 (e$chen<o saidL he cou$dn't =uite
fi%ure out #ho #as in char%e: .ad !au$us +assed his authority on to 2as<e6 or #as he
sim+$y a3oidin% a +ersona$ surrender6 or had there 0een some disa%reement 0et#een
!au$us and the othersE !ro0a0$y not6 for 2as<e and Schmidt <e+t %oin% into !au$us's
room6 a++arent$y consu$tin% him on the comin% ca+itu$ation: !erha+s !au$us #as mere$y
un#i$$in% to ne%otiate #ith the $itt$e 2ussian $ieutenant direct: .o#e3er6 (e$chen<o #as6
in the end6 sho#n into !au$us's room: F.e #as $yin% on his iron 0ed6F said (e$chen<o6
F#earin% his uniform: .e $oo<ed unsha3ed6 and you #ou$dn't say he fe$t Ho$$y: '9e$$6 that
finishes it6' ? remar<ed to him: .e %a3e me a sort of misera0$e $oo< and nodded: And
then6 in the other roomDthe corridor6 mind you6 #as sti$$ +ac<ed #ith so$diersD 2as<e
said: 'There's one re=uest ? ha3e to ma<e: (ou must ha3e him ta<en a#ay in a decent car6
under +ro+er %uard6 so the 2ed Army so$diers don't <i$$ him6 as thou%h he #ere some
3a%a0ond:'F (e$chen<o $au%hed: F? said '@<ay'F: !au$us had a car du$y sent for him6 and
#as ta<en to 1enera$ 2o<osso3s<y's +$ace: 9hat ha++ened after that ? don't <no#: But
for t#o days after#ards #e #ere %atherin% in +risoners a$$ o3er the +$ace: And the other
fe$$o#s6 on the north side6 a$so surrendered three days $ater: But e3en in this +art of
Sta$in%rad there #as sti$$ some fi%htin% for a fe# hours after !au$us had 0een cau%htL
ho#e3er6 #hen they $earned #hat had ha++ened6 they 0e%an to surrender #ithout any
further trou0$e:F
I?t is amusin% to note that there shou$d 0e no mention in the officia$ Histor! of ieutenant
(e$chen<o6 or of his uncon3entiona$ and +resuma0$y Fundi%nifiedF story of ho# the
1erman 5: in 5: at Sta$in%rad surrendered: ?nstead6 it mere$y says that the *ni3erma%
#as surrounded6 and that #hi$e the firin% #as continuin%6 !au$us's A:D:5: Fcame out of
the 0asement and e8+ressed his #i$$in%ness to ne%otiate: Soon after#ards re+resentati3es
of the So3iet 5ommand arri3ed on the s+ot and +resented an u$timatum #hich #as
acce+ted 0y the 1erman command: After a$$ forma$ities had 0een com+$eted6 Fie$d,
Marsha$ !au$us6 his 5hief of Staff ieut,1enera$ Schmidt6 and his A:D:5: 5o$one$ Adam6
to%ether #ith a %rou+ of staff officers6 #ere de$i3ered to the .:Q: of the )4th Army:F
(?A@ASS6 3o$: 36 +: )1:)K
@ne of the su$<in% ones in the 0ac<%round then said somethin% a0out hun%er and co$d:
9hen some0ody su%%ested that the 2ussian Army #as +erha+s 0etter than the 1erman
Army and certain$y 0etter $ed6 3on Arnim snorted and #ent a$most +ur+$e #ith ra%e: ?
then as<ed ho# he #as 0ein% treated: A%ain he snorted: FThe officers6F he said
re$uctant$y6 Fare correct: But the 2ussian so$diersD das sind Die4e, das sind Halun*en5
%o eine %ch:einerei@" .e fumed: F?m+udent thie3esP They sto$e a$$ my thin%s: Eine
%ch:einerei@" 1ier Ko""er@ Four suitcases6 and they sto$e them a$$: The so$diers6 ? mean6F
he added as a concession: F;ot the 2ussian officers: Die H""iziere sind ganz *orre*t,"
These +eo+$e had $ooted the #ho$e of Curo+eL 0ut #hat #as that com+ared #ith his four
suitcasesE 9hen a 5hinese corres+ondent as<ed a0out Ba+an6 he said stiff$y6 #ith another
de3astatin% %$are: F9e immense$y admire our %a$$ant Ba+anese a$$ies for their 0ri$$iant
3ictories o3er the Cn%$ish and the Americans6 and #ish them many more 3ictories:F Then
he #as as<ed #hat a$$ those crosses and mante$+iece ornaments #ere6 and he ratt$ed them
off one after anotherDthe %o$den frame #ith the 0$ac< s+ider of a s#asti<a #as6 he said6
the Deutsche Kreuz in #old, and the FRhrer himse$f had desi%ned it: F@ne #ou$d ha3e
thou%ht that you'd ha3e a s$i%ht %rud%e a%ainst the FRhrer6F some0ody su%%ested: .e
%$ared and mere$y said: FThe FRhrer is a 3ery %reat man6 and if you ha3e any dou0ts6 you
#i$$ soon ha3e occasion to +ut them aside:F The man #as one of the fe# 1erman %enera$s
#ho #as to <ee+ com+$ete$y a$oof6 durin% the rest of the #ar6 from the Free 1erman
5ommittee:
@ne thin% #as astonishin% a0out these %enera$s: They had 0een ca+tured on$y a cou+$e of
days 0eforeDand yet they $oo<ed hea$thy and not at a$$ undernourished: 5$ear$y6
throu%hout the a%ony of Sta$in%rad6 #hen their so$diers #ere dyin% of hun%er6 they had
continued to ha3e more or $ess re%u$ar mea$s: There cou$d 0e no other e8+$anation for
their norma$6 or a$most norma$6 #ei%ht and a++earance:
The on$y man #ho $oo<ed in a +oor sha+e #as !au$us himse$f: 9e #eren't a$$o#ed to
s+ea< to him I ? $ater $earned that he had firm$y refused to ma<e any statement:KL he #as
on$y sho#n to us so that #e cou$d testify that he #as a$i3e and had not committed
suicide: .e ste++ed out of a $ar%e cotta%eDit #as more $i<e a 3i$$aD %a3e us one $oo<6
then stared at the hori>on6 and stood on the ste+s for a minute or t#o6 in a rather a#<#ard
si$ence6 #ith t#o other officers6 one of #hom #as 1enera$ Schmidt6 his chief of staff:
!au$us $oo<ed +a$e and sic<6 and had a ner3ous t#itch in his $eft chee<: .e had a more
natura$ di%nity than the others6 and #ore on$y one or t#o decorations: The cameras
c$ic<ed and a 2ussian officer +o$ite$y dismissed him6 and he #ent 0ac< into the cotta%e:
The others fo$$o#ed and the door c$osed 0ehind him: ?t #as o3er:
?n the 3i$$a%e the so$diers #ere Ho<in% a0out some of the 1erman %enera$s: FThey're damn
$uc<y:6F one of them said6 F$i3in% in decent nouses6 and %ettin% three 0i% mea$s a day:
And some of them ha3e sti$$ %ot +$enty of chee<: ? must te$$ you a funny story: ?t's a fact:
They ha3e a %ir$ 0ar0erDa 2ussian Army %ir$Dto %o and sha3e them e3ery mornin%:
@ne of them %ot fresh #ith her the 3ery first day6 and +inched her 0ottom: She resented it
and s$a++ed his face: .e's no# so scared of ha3in% his throat cut that he #on't sha3e any
more6 and is %ro#in% a 0eardP F
9e #ere dri3en to another 3i$$a%e #here #e #ere recei3ed 0y 1enera$ Ma$inin6 1enera$
2o<osso3s<y's chief of staff: Ma$inin had a stron%6 ty+ica$$y ;orth,2ussian faceL he #as
a nati3e of (aros$a3$6 and #as no# forty,three: .e had fou%ht in the 5i3i$ 9ar6 and had
attended the Mi$itary Academy for t#o years in 1931,3L he fou%ht in Fin$and6 and had
0een #ith 2o<osso3s<y durin% the Batt$e of Mosco#: ater6 he #as to 0ecome Ohu<o3's
chief of staff and6 in that ca+acity6 too< +art in the ca+ture of Ber$in:
For the $ast t#o or three days F5annaeF had sudden$y 0ecome a catch#ord #ith the 2ed
ArmyL the +a+ers #ere fu$$ of it and Sta$in%rad #as 0ein% descri0ed as an idea$ F5annaeF
o+eration6 the most +erfect since .anni0a$'s: Ma$inin a$so ta$<ed a0out itL it seemed
a$most as odd to hear this former (aros$a3$ +easant $ad ta$< of 5annae6 here in the midd$e
of the Don ste++es6 as if he had sudden$y started recitin% the Aeneid::: .e then +aid a
tri0ute to Sta$in6 under #hose direction this o+eration had 0een carried out and then s+o<e
#ith o03ious fee$in% of the ordinary 2ussian so$diers:
T'( $(&2#+; #0 +#)5- )$5 +),/2)*- 4'( -),57, 2)- 6(+* 2();? )$5 *(& &'(+( 2)-
$(6(+ ) -'#+&)%( #0 0##5, "1$,&,#$- #+ .(&+#/. E6(+* -#/5,(+, (6(+* 5+,6(+, (6(+*
+),/2)*")$ 1$5(+-&##5 &'( &+("($5#1- )," 8(0#+( 1-. T'( +),/2)*"($ +)$ "#+(
&+),$- &')$ -(("- '1")$/* 3#$3(,6)8/(. T'( /#++*-5+,6(+- 2'#, $#+")//*, -'#1/5
$#& 2#+; "#+( &')$ &($ '#1+- ) 5)* ,$ 2,$&(+, #0&($ 2($& #$ 2#+;,$% #$ #1+
&+)$-.#+& 3#/1"$- 0#+ &2($&*-0#1+ '#1+- #$ ($5.
.e #as certain that the 1ermans cou$d ha3e 0ro<en out of Sta$in%rad at the ear$y sta%es
of the encirc$ement6 if .it$er had a$$o#ed it:
As<ed a0out a$$ied e=ui+ment and su++$ies6 Ma$inin said that there #ere Fa certain
amount of American foodF6 a fe# Dod%e $orries6 and a fe# 5hurchi$$ tan<sDthey #ere
%ood6 0ut there #ere on$y 3ery fe# of them:
As #e no# <no# from 1erman sources6 one of the immediate conse=uences of the
encirc$ement of the 1erman forces at Sta$in%rad in ;o3em0er #as an e8treme shorta%e of
#inter c$othin% there: ?n ;o3em0er6 se3enty,si8 rai$#ay #a%ons of #inter c$othin% had
%ot stuc< at (asino3ataya rai$#ay station6 se3enteen at 4har<o36 forty,one at 4ie36 and
nineteen at #o#: The 1erman .i%h 5ommand6 not #antin% to %i3e the Sta$in%rad
troo+s the idea that they #ou$d not #in the 0att$e 0efore #inter6 had 0een in no hurry to
send them #inter c$othin%: The com0ination of co$d and 3ery $o# rationsD to#ards the
end6 these #ere reduced to t#o ounces of 0read a day and scra+s of horse,f$esh (#ith the
%enera$s recei3in%6 in theory6 fi3e ounces of 0read)Denormous$y increased the death,rate
amon% the 1ermans es+ecia$$y in Banuary: ;ot that the co$d #as uniform$y intense: ?t #as
3ery co$d (minus &"V to minus &-V centi%rade) in the second ha$f of Decem0erL it #as
much mi$der durin% the first ha$f of Banuary (usua$$y 0et#een -V and 1"V 0e$o#)6 0ut
0ecame e8treme$y co$d after that6 the tem+erature fa$$in% at times to minus &- W, 3"V and
4"V: And e3en 4-V:
@n the ni%ht of Fe0ruary 4 ? $earned #hat 44V of frost means in +ractice6 and #hat it must
ha3e meant to the 1ermans at Sta$in%radDand to the 2ussians for that matterL for it
#ou$d 0e a %reat mista<e to ima%ine that a 2ussianDno matter ho# #e$$ c$adDli*es 44V
of frost:::
9e set out at 3 +:m: on our fifty mi$e tre< from 1enera$ Ma$inin's head=uarters to
Sta$in%rad: @ur Army dri3er said #e #ou$d ma<e it in four to fi3e hoursL it too< us nearer
thirteen:
There #ere ha$f,a,do>en of us in a #retched 3an6 #ithout any seats or 0enches6 sittin% or
ha$f,$yin% on 0a%s or +ieces of $u%%a%e: C3ery hour it 0ecame co$der and co$der: To add
to our misery the 0ac< door of the 3an had no %$ass in itL it #as a$most as co$d as dri3in%
in an o+en car:
?t #as a +ity not to tra3e$ throu%h this 0att$e area durin% the day6 0ut it cou$dn't 0e he$+ed:
C3en so6 ? remem0er that ni%ht as one of my stran%est e8+eriences durin% the #ho$e #ar:
For one thin%6 ? had ne3er <no#n such co$d in a$$ my $ife:
?n the mornin% it had 0een on$y minus &"V6 and then it #as minus 3"V6 then minus 3-V6
then minus 4"V and fina$$y minus 44V: @ne has to e8+erience 44V of frost to <no# #hat it
means: (our 0reath catches: ?f you 0reathe on your %$o3e6 a thin fi$m of ice immediate$y
forms on it: 9e cou$dn't eat anythin%6 0ecause a$$ our foodD0read6 sausa%e and e%%sD
had turned into stone: C3en #earin% valen*i and t#o +airs of #oo$$en soc<s6 you had to
mo3e your toes a$$ the time to <ee+ the circu$ation %oin%: 9ithout valen*i frost0ite #ou$d
ha3e 0een certain6 and the 1ermans had no valen*i5 To <ee+ your hands in %ood
condition6 you had to c$a+ them ha$f the time or +$ay ima%inary sca$es: @nce ? too< out a
+enci$ to #rite do#n a fe# #ords: the first #ord #as a$$ ri%ht6 the second #as #ritten 0y
a drun<6 the $ast t#o #ere the scra#$ of a +ara$yticL =uic<$y ? 0$e# on my +ur+$e fin%ers
and +ut them 0ac< in the fur,$ined %$o3e:
And as you sit there in the 3an a$$ hudd$ed u+ and fee$in% fair$y comforta0$e6 you cannot
0ear to mo3e6 e8ce+t your fin%ers and toes6 and %i3e your nose an occasiona$ ru0L a <ind
of menta$ and +hysica$ inertia comes o3er youL you fee$ a$most do+ed: And yet you ha3e
to 0e on the a$ert a$$ the time: For instance6 ? sudden$y found the frost ni00$in% at my
<nees: it had %ot the ri%ht idea of attac<in% the tiny area 0et#een the end of my additiona$
under#ear and the 0e%innin% of the valen*i@555 (our on$y rea$ a$$y6 a+art from c$othes6 on
such occasions is the 3od<a 0ott$e: And6 0$ess it6 it didn't free>e6 and e3en a fre=uent
sma$$ si+ made a 0i% difference: @ne cou$d see #hat it must 0e $i<e to fi%ht in such
conditions: For the $ast sta%e of the Batt$e of Sta$in%rad had 0een fou%ht in #eather on$y a
$itt$e mi$der than it #as on that Fe0ruary ni%ht:
The nearer #e %ot to Sta$in%rad6 the more 0e#i$derin% #as the traffic on the sno#,0ound
road: This area6 in #hich the 0att$e had ra%ed on$y so 3ery recent$y6 #as no# hundreds of
mi$es from the front6 and a$$ the forces in Sta$in%rad #ere no# 0ein% mo3edD to#ards
2osto3 and the Donets: A0out midni%ht #e %ot stuc< in a traffic Ham: And #hat a
s+ectac$e that road +resentedDif one cou$d sti$$ ca$$ it a roadP For #hat #as the ori%ina$
road and #hat #as +art of the adHoinin% ste++e that had 0een ta<en in 0y this trafficD
most of it mo3in% #est6 0ut a$so some mo3in% eastD#as not easy to determine: Bet#een
the t#o streams of traffic6 there #as no# an irre%u$ar #a$$ of sno# that had 0een thro#n
u+ there 0y #hee$s and hoofs: 9eird,$oo<in% fi%ures #ere re%u$atin% the trafficDso$diers
in $on% #hite camouf$a%e c$oa<s and +ointed #hite hoodsL horses6 horses and sti$$ more
horses6 0$o#in% steam and #ith ice round their nostri$s6 #ere #adin% throu%h the dee+
sno#6 +u$$in% %uns and %un,carria%es and $ar%e co3ered #a%onsL and hundreds of $orries
#ith their head$i%hts fu$$ on: To the side of the road an enormous 0onfire #as 0urnin%6
fi$$in% the air #ith c$ouds of 0$ac< smo<e that ate into your eyesL and shado#,$i<e fi%ures
danced round the 0onfire #armin% themse$3esL then others #ou$d $i%ht a +$an< at the
0onfire6 and start a $itt$e 0onfire of their o#n6 ti$$ the #ho$e ed%e of the road #as a series
of sma$$ 0onfires: FireP .o# ha++y it made +eo+$e on a ni%ht $i<e thisP So$diers Hum+ed
off their $orries to %et a fe# seconds of #armth6 and ha3e the dirty 0$ac< smo<e 0$o# in
their facesL then they #ou$d run after their $orry and Hum+ on a%ain:
Such #as the end$ess +rocession comin% out of Sta$in%rad: $orries6 and horse s$ei%hs and
%uns6 and co3ered #a%ons6 and e3en came$s +u$$in% s$ei%hsDse3era$ of them ste++in%
sedate$y throu%h the dee+ sno# as thou%h it #ere sand: C3ery concei3a0$e means of
trans+ort #as 0ein% used: Thousands of so$diers #ere marchin%6 or rather #a$<in% in
$ar%e irre%u$ar cro#ds6 to the #est6 throu%h this co$d dead$y ni%ht: But they #ere cheerfu$
and stran%e$y ha++y6 and they <e+t shoutin% a0out Sta$in%rad and the Ho0 they had done:
9est#ard6 #est#ardP .o# many6 one #ondered6 #ou$d reach the end of the roadE But
they <ne# that the direction #as the ri%ht oneL +erha+s fe# #ere yet thin<in% of Ber$in6
0ut many must ha3e 0een thin<in% of their homes in the *<raine: ?n their valen*i, and
+added Hac<ets6 and fur ca+s #ith the earf$a+s han%in% do#n6 carryin% tommy,%uns6 #ith
#aterin% eyes6 and hoarfrost on their $i+s6 they #ere %oin% #est: .o# much 0etter it fe$t
than %oin% eastP (et from the #est others #ere comin%Dthese #ere mere$y a tric<$e: But
they a$so had their story to te$$Dthese +easants in horse,s$ei%hs and horse,carts6 and these
citi>ens of Sta$in%rad #a$<in% or dri3in% home throu%h the ni%htDdri3in% home into the
ruins: And around a$$ this 0ust$e of truc<s6 and horse,s$ei%hs6 and co3ered #a%ons6 and
came$s6 and so$diers shoutin%6 and so$diers s#earin%6 and so$diers $au%hin% and dancin%
Hoyfu$$y round the 0onfires fi$$in% the air #ith acrid smo<e6 $ay the si$ent sno#,co3ered
ste++eL and6 as the head$i%hts shone on the ste++e6 and you $oo<ed6 you sa# dead horses
in the sno#6 and dead men6 and the shattered en%ines of #ar: 9e #ere no# in the
F+oc<etF: And6 ahead of us6 the search$i%hts #ere s+annin% the s<y Dthe s<y of
Sta$in%rad:
?t #as not ti$$ 4 a:m: that #e reached Sta$in%rad: ?t #as terri0$y co$d6 and the ni%ht #as
+itch,0$ac<6 e8ce+t for a fe# dim $i%hts here and there: Da>ed #ith co$d6 #e ste++ed out
of our 3an: Some0ody shouted a fe# yards a#ayL some0ody e$se #a3ed a $antern: FT#o
here6F the man #ith the $antern said6 Ft#o more farther a$on%:F .e $it u+ a ho$e in the
%round: F1o do#n there6 and %et #arm:F The ho$e #as $itt$e #ider than a man's 0ody:
S$idin% on the s$i++ery 0oards6 and c$utchin% at the ice,co3ered sides of the tunne$6 #e
s$ithered do#n into the du%out6 a dro+ of t#enty or t#enty,fi3e feet: 9armthP .o# cosy
the misera0$e ho$e $oo<ed6 and ho# s#eet the fumes of the ma*hor*a sme$$edP There
#ere four men do#n thereD t#o of them s$ee+in% on 0un<s6 the other t#o crouchin% 0y
the sma$$ iron sto3e: Both of these #ere youn% fe$$o#sDone a$most a 0oy6 #ith a $itt$e
fair do#n on his chin: The other one6 ;i<o$ai6 #as a tou%her so$dier6 thou%h scarce$y
more than t#enty,three: The other t#o ya#ned and fe$$ as$ee+ a%ain: 9e #ere offered
t#o of the 0un<s6 co3ered #ith thic< 0ro#n army 0$an<etsL 0ut the du%out6 $it 0y a
<erosene $am+ made of a she$$case6 #ith its to+ f$attened to catch the #ic<6 #as cro#ded6
and #e sat u+ most of the time: ;i<o$ai treated us to hot tea out of o$d cans and6 once #e
had tha#ed6 #e 3a%ue$y 0e%an to ta<e thin%s in: These men 0e$on%ed to one of the %uards
re%iments that had Hust com+$eted the $i=uidation of the 1erman )th Army6 and #ere no#
ha3in% a fe# =uiet days 0efore 0ein% sent on to the front: F9hen it %ets $i%ht6F said
;i<o$ai6 Fyou'$$ 0e a0$e to see the Barricades and the Tractor !$ant o3er thereL it $oo<s as
if they #ere standin%6 0ut they're %one: There's nothin% $eft of Sta$in%radL not a thin%: ?f ?
had any say in the matter6 ?'d re0ui$d Sta$in%rad some#here e$seL it #ou$d sa3e a $ot of
trou0$e: And ?'d $ea3e this +$ace as a museum:F
F?t's funny6F said the youn%er 0oy6 Fto thin< ho# =uiet it is no#: @n$y three days a%o
there #as sti$$ fi%htin% %oin% on: This is a $ousy du%outL it's one our +eo+$e 0ui$t: The
1erman du%outs are much 0etter: ?n these $ast #ee<s6 they hated comin% into the o+enL
they can't stand the co$d::: Fi$thy6 dirtyL you #ou$dn't 0e$ie3e in #hat fi$th they $i3ed
there: Scared of the co$d6 and scared of our sni+ers6 and of *at!usha, of course:F The $ad
shoo< his head and %a3e a 0oyish %i%%$e: FFunny 0$o<es6 rea$$y: 5omin% to con=uer
Sta$in%rad6 #earin% +atent,$eather shoes: Thou%ht it #ou$d 0e a Hoy,ride: Bust %o and ha3e
a $oo< at them at !itomni<: !arasitesPF he conc$uded #ith that fa3ourite 2ed Army man's
#ord6 a #ord coined 0ac< in '41:
"Kat!usha", said ;i<o$ai6 Fhas done a #onderfu$ Ho0: 9e %ot an enormous cro#d of them
encirc$ed at 1umra<6 and they #ou$dn't surrender: So #e %ot fifty or si8ty *at!ushas
round them6 and $et f$y::: My 1od6 you shou$d ha3e seen the resu$tP @r e$se #e %unners
#ou$d %o u+ to their +i$$0o8es and smash them u+ at thirty yards: ?t #as rea$$y the %uns
that did the main Ho0 in this $i=uidationL #e had com+$ete su+eriority in arti$$ery: But they
can 0e tou%h6 for a$$ that: ;o6 they don't $i<e surrenderin%6 not theyP @n the $ast day #e
%ot to a house #here there #ere fifty officersL they <e+t firin% and firin%: ?t #as on$y
#hen four of our tan<s came ri%ht u+ to the house that they +ut u+ their arms: Ah6 #e$$6F
he said6 si++in% hot tea out of the can6 FHust one more Sta$in%rad6 and they'$$ 0e finishedPF
FThey #ere in a 0ad #ay a$$ ri%ht6F said the third man6 #ho no# #o<e u+Da dar<
Armenian #ith a hoo<ed nose6 dar< 0eady eyes and a funny accent: FDo#n at 4ar+o3<a6
the 1ermans #ere eatin% cats: They #ere hun%ry and 3ery co$d6 and many died of the
co$d: The $oca$ +eo+$e someho# mana%ed to sur3i3e: they had hidden chun<s of fro>en
horse,f$eshL and had to mana%e on that: ?t #as 0etter than cats6 any#ay: An o$d #oman
#ho $i3ed in a du%out there said the 1ermans too< her do% a#ay and ate it: (et the
1erman 5ommandant <e+t a co#6 and he #ou$dn't a$$o# it to 0e s$au%hteredL it made the
Frit>es 3ery an%ry: ?n the end he had to %i3e #ay6 thou%h: There #as a$so an o$d +riest
there6 and 0ac< in Au%ust the 1ermans o+ened a church for him: .e used to +ray for the
3ictory of the 5hrist,0e$o3ed .ostsD#hich mi%ht ha3e meant anythin%: Some of the
+eo+$e thou%ht it #as a %reat Ho<e:F
The so$diers $au%hed: F;e3er mind6F said ;i<o$ai: F?t may no# soon 0e o3er: ? am a
factory #or<er and #hen #e reca+ture 4har<o36 ? ho+e ? %et my o$d Ho0 0ac<: A$$ 3ery
#e$$ sittin% in trenches and du%outs: But ?'3e 0een at it since 194": ?t's 0een a $on% road to
Sta$in%rad6 seein% ? started this #ar at #o#: ? #as stationed there 0efore the #ar: Queer
$ot6 the !o$es: Before the #ar6 #e had to de+ort the more unre$ia0$e e$ementsDa$$ sorts of
+eo+$e: They <e+t sayin%: '9e don't #ant to 0e either 1erman or So3iet': That's
understanda0$e: But then #hy6 ? as< you6 #hen the 1ermans #ere comin% in at one end
of the city6 and #e #ere $ea3in% from the other end6 did the !o$esDyoun%sters most$y6
0oys and e3en %ir$s of fifteenD<ee+ firin% at us from e3ery #indo#E @f course6 there are
different <inds of !o$esL some #ere 3ery friend$y and hos+ita0$eL it's a =uestion of class, ?
su++ose::: F
?t #as odd to hear a%ain a0out this o$d6 o$d 2usso,!o$ish enmity6 e3en here6 in a du%out in
the ruins of Sta$in%rad:::
?n the end6 #e snatched a cou+$e of hours' s$ee+6 and a0out J a:m: cra#$ed u+ the s$i++ery
tunne$: .ere #as Sta$in%rad:
F
?t #asn't =uite #hat ? had e8+ected: For a moment6 ? #as da>>$ed 0y the sun shinin% on
the sno#: 9e #ere in one of those 1arden 5ities #hich the 2ussians had $ost in
Se+tem0er: Most of the cotta%es and trees had 0een com+$ete$y smashed: To the ri%ht6 in
the distance6 there #ere $ar%e im+osin%,$oo<in% 0$oc<s of fi3e or si8,storey 0ui$din%sL
they #ere6 in rea$ity6 the she$$s of the 0ui$din%s of centra$ Sta$in%rad: @n the $eft6 a cou+$e
of mi$es a#ay6 there rose a $ar%e num0er of enormous$y hi%h factory chimneysL one had
the im+ression that there #as6 o3er there6 a $i3e industria$ to#nL 0ut under the chimneys
there #as nothin% 0ut the ruins of the Tractor !$ant: 5himneys are hard to hit6 and these
#ere standin%6 seemin%$y untouched: ?t #as sti$$ 3ery co$d6 thou%h a $itt$e $ess so than
durin% the ni%ht:
At $en%th #e dro3e off6 do#n to#ards the Ao$%a6 throu%h the #rec<a%e of the 1arden
5ity and +ast some smashed #arehouses and rai$#ay 0ui$din%s: The #ind from across the
Ao$%a had s#e+t much of the country 0are6 and the earth #as dead$y,fro>en #ith +atches
of sno# here and there6 and a +a$e,0$ue s<y a0o3e: A fe# fro>en dead 1ermans #ere sti$$
$yin% 0y the roadside: 9e crossed the rai$#ay,$ine: .ere #ere rai$#ay carria%es and
en%ines +i$ed on to+ of each other6 in an ine8trica0$e tan%$e of meta$: .i%h cy$indrica$ oi$
tan<s standin% a$on%side the 0attered rai$#ay,$ine #ere crum+$ed u+ $i<e discarded o$d
cartons and ridd$ed #ith she$$,ho$es6 and some had fa$$en do#n com+$ete$y: @n the other
side of the road #as a honeycom0 of trenches and du%outs and she$$,ho$es and 0om0,
cratersL and then6 0eyond the rai$#ay6 the road made a shar+ hair+in 0end6 and 0efore us
#as the #hite ice0ound Ao$%a6 #ith the misty 0are trees of the de$ta,$and on the other
side6 and6 0eyond it6 the #hite ste++es stretchin% far into Asia:
The Ao$%aP .ere #as the scene of one of the %rimmest e+isodes of the #ar: the Sta$in%rad
$ife$ine: The remnants of it #ere sti$$ there: those 0ar%es and steamers6 most of them
smashed6 fro>en into the ice: ;o# a thin tric<$e of traffic #as ca$m$y dri3in% across the
ice: cars and horse,s$ei%hs6 and some so$diers on foot: The Ao$%a #as fro>en o3er6 0ut not
entire$yDnot e3en after the fierce frost of the +ast fortni%ht: There #ere sti$$ a fe#
shinin% 0$ue +atches of #ater6 from #hich #omen #ere carryin% +ai$s: 9e dro3e do#n
from the c$iffs to the Ao$%a 0each6 cro#ded #ith hundreds of 1erman Ftro+hyF cars and
$orries6 and #ere no# on 2ussian soi$ that the enemy had ne3er ta<en:
That ni%ht #e sa# 1enera$ 5hui<o36 a tou%h6 thic<,set ty+e of 2ed Army officer6 0ut
#ith a %ood dea$ of 4onhomie, a sense of humour and a $oud $au%h: .e had a %o$den
smi$e: a$$ his teeth #ere cro#ned in %o$d6 and they %$ittered in the $i%ht of the e$ectric
$am+s: For there :as e$ectric $i%ht in this $ar%e du%out 0ui$t into the c$iff facin% the
Ao$%a6 #hich had 0een his head=uarters durin% the $atter sta%es of the 0att$e: 9ith him
#as 1enera$ 4ry$o36 his chief of staff6 #ho had a$so sur3i3ed the sie%e of Se0asto+o$:
5hui<o3 %a3e us his #ho$e e3enin% and ta$<ed so$id$y for at $east an hour and a ha$f
descri0in% the #ho$e +ro%ress of the Batt$e of Sta$in%rad: Since then he has +u0$ished a
fu$$ account of the 0att$e6 from #hich ? ha3e =uoted in an ear$ier cha+terL so ? sha$$
mention here on$y a fe# s+ecia$$y characteristic +oints of his story6 as to$d immediate$y
after the 1erman ca+itu$ation: The story he to$d us then #as6 in essence6 the same as that
in the 0oo<6 thou%h then he did not a$$o# himse$f 3arious indiscretions6 +articu$ar$y a0out
his fe$$o#,%enera$s and a0out the 3ery une3en mora$e in the 2ed Army durin% the ear$ier
sta%es of the 194& cam+ai%n6 #hich do a++ear in the 0oo<: There #as6 ho#e3er6 one
sma$$ 0ut si%nificant detai$: 9hen as<ed #hether Sta$in had 3isited the city durin% the
sie%e6 as rumour had it6 5hui<o3 then re+$ied: F;o: But 4hrushche3 and Ma$en<o3 #ere
0oth here6 +ractica$$y a$$ the time 0et#een Se+tem0er 1& and Decem0er &": Sta$in6
meantime6 #as #or<in% on the %i%antic offensi3e o+eration of #hich you can no# see the
first resu$ts:
I Ma$en<o3's +resence is not mentioned either in the officia$ history or any other recent$y
+u0$ished accounts: Thou%h not yet a !o$it0uro mem0er6 he #as6 as mem0er of the 14@6
e3en more im+ortant:K
.e s+o<e of the im+ortant ro$e +$ayed 0y the )&nd Army in s$o#in% do#n the 1erman
ad3ance throu%h the Don country in Bu$y and Au%ust6 then of the %reat 1erman ons$au%ht
on Sta$in%rad on Se+tem0er 146 and of 3arious sta%es of the 0att$e:
Then he came to the story of the 14th of @cto0er:
?t #as the 0$oodiest and most ferocious day in the #ho$e 0att$e: A$on% a front of four to
fi3e <i$ometres6 they thre# in fi3e 0rand,ne# infantry di3isions and t#o tan< di3isions6
su++orted 0y masses of infantry and +$anes::: That mornin% you cou$d not hear the
se+arate shots or e8+$osionsL the #ho$e thin% mer%ed into one continuous deafenin%
roar::: ?n a du%out the 3i0ration #as such that a tum0$er #ou$d f$y into a thousand +ieces:
That day si8ty,one men in my head=uarters #ere <i$$ed: After four or fi3e hours of this
stunnin% 0arra%e6 the 1ermans ad3anced one and a ha$f <i$ometres6 and fina$$y 0ro<e
throu%h at the Tractor !$ant: @ur men did not retreat a ste+ here6 and if the 1ermans sti$$
ad3anced6 it #as o3er the dead 0odies of our men: But the 1erman $osses #ere so %reat
that they cou$d not <ee+ u+ the +o#er of their 0$o#6 and #ere not a0$e to #iden their
sa$ient a$on% the Ao$%a:
.e +aid tri0utes to se3era$ of the Sta$in%rad di3isionsDto Oho$ude3's #hich had
defended the Tractor !$ant a$most to the $ast man6 to udni<o3's6 to 2odimtse3's6 and
many others6 addin% rather +ointed$y that a$thou%h 2odimtse3's di3ision had +$ayed an
enormous +art in Fsa3in%F Sta$in%rad in Se+tem0er6 Fthere #as no di3ision #hich had not
a$so Fsa3edF Sta$in%rad at one time or another:
IThen6 as $ater6 5hui<o3 fe$t that 2odimste3 had 0een %i3en a dis+ro+ortionate$y $ar%e
share in the +ress accounts of the Batt$e of Sta$in%radDat the e8+ense of others #hose
mi$itary record #as at $east as remar<a0$e: ?n his 0oo< he e8+$ains ho# this ha++ened: at
the hei%ht of the fi%htin% in @cto0er and ;o3em0er6 So3iet corres+ondents #ere not
a$$o#ed to enter the most dan%erous areas in Sta$in%rad6 and had to stay in the more =uiet
southern +art of the city6 then he$d 0y the remnants of the 2odimtse3 Di3ision: They had
+$enty of time to ta$< to 2odimtse3Dand to #rite him u+:K
5hui<o3 a$so said that after the %reat counter,offensi3e had started to the north and south6
thin%s inside Sta$in%rad 0ecame much easierL a$$ the same6 the )&nd Army had 0een
ordered to Facti3iseF its front #ith constant attac<s on the 1ermans no# encirc$ed in the
Sta$in%rad F+oc<etF: 5hui<o3 s+o<e of his men #ith a note of father$y affection: .e #as
a$so +o+u$ar #ith the so$diersL many Sta$in%rad so$diers $ater to$d me that they admired
him immense$y for his e8traordinary +ersona$ 0ra3ery6 and for his se$f,contro$D FThere
isn't another man in a thousand #ho #ou$dn't ha3e $ost his head on that 14th of @cto0er:F
? #as not to see 5hui<o3 a%ain unti$ Bune 194-L 0y then he #as one of the con=uerors of
Ber$in: The +ros+erous a0andoned ;a>i 3i$$as #ith their rose and Hasmine 0ushes and the
motor 0oats on the 9annsee seemed a mi$$ion mi$es a#ay from the dead fro>en #inter
soi$ of that ni%ht at Sta$in%rad6 from that ice0ound Ao$%a6 into #hich the #rec<a%e of
0ar%es and steamers #as fro>en:
F?t's 0een a $on% and a hard #ay6F said 5hui<o3 that day in Ber$in: FBut mind you6F he
added6 f$ashin% his %o$d teeth6 Fs+ea<in% of those 0ar%es and steamers6 it #asn't as 0ad as
you thin<: ?t #as a de3i$ of a Ho0 %ettin% the stuff to Sta$in%rad6 0ut #e %ot ninety +er cent
across for a$$ thatP F
The mornin% after our e3enin% #ith 5hui<o3 ? c$im0ed u+ to the $itt$e #ar memoria$ they
#ere +uttin% u+ on to+ of the c$iff: A 2ussian so$dier and t#o 1erman +risoners #ere
#or<in% on it: @ne had a %ro#th of 0$ac< 0eard6 the other of reddish 0eard: A $itt$e
Bash<ir so$dier #ith a stron% humorous Mon%o$ face and dee+ $au%hin% s$antin% eyes
came u+ to me and started te$$in% me in 0ro<en 2ussian ho# he had fou%ht at the 2ed
@cto0er !$ant durin% the #orst of the Sta$in%rad Batt$e: Then he said6 +ointin% at the t#o
Frit>es di%%in% the fro>en earth round the memoria$: F5an you ta$< their $an%ua%eEF
F(es:F FThen come and ta$< to them:F "3a, :ie geht0s" 5heerfu$$y6 #ith a $oo< of
sur+rise6 0ut em+hatica$$y the dar< 1erman said: "#anz gut50" FSo you ha3en't 0een
murdered 0y the 2ussians after a$$EF F;o6F he said6 cheerfu$$y a%ain: ? trans$ated to the
Bash<ir: FTo thin< #hat they'3e done: Durin% the e3acuation they san< a steamer on the
Ao$%a6 #ith three thousand #omen and <ids: ;ear$y a$$ <i$$ed or dro#ned6F he said6 Fand
no# they're #earin% our valen*i5" True enou%h6 0oth of them #ere #earin% valen*i5 @ne
#as #earin% a dirty 1erman %rey,%reen o3ercoat6 0ut 0e$o# it #ere a$$ sorts of 0its of
c$othin%6 and the other #ore a +added 2ussian army Hac<et6 and they 0oth had fur ca+s of
sorts: F(es6F said B$ac< Stu00$e6 Fthe 2ussians %a3e us these valen*i5 Die sind prima@"
They #ere 0oth from Ber$inL ? as<ed if they sti$$ thou%ht .it$er the %reatest man in the
#or$d: They +rotested 3i%orous$yL 2ed Stu00$e said he had once 0een a (oun%
5ommunist6 and B$ac< Stu00$e said he had 0een a Socia$ Democrat: "/ch, a$$ the misery
that .it$er has 0rou%ht to the #or$d and to 1ermany6F 2ed Stu00$e said sen tenuous$y:
FSta$in%radDyes6 0ut in 1ermany it's Hust as 0ad: 5o$o%ne and DRsse$dorf and +arts of
Ber$in6 and it's %oin% from 0ad to #orse:F They #ere 0oth on the s<inny side6 0ut $oo<ed
reasona0$y fit6 and said they #ere %ettin% +$enty of food no#6 and #ere sur+rised at 0ein%
so #e$$ treated: The 2ussian ser%eant #ho #as in char%e of the t#o 1ermans had 0een
$istenin% to our con3ersation #ith a touch of to$erant amusement: ;o# he ca$$ed them
0ac< to %et on #ith the Ho0: F.o# are theyEF ? said to him: FThey're a$$ ri%ht6 nichevo5
(udi *a* ludi5 (i<e any other +eo+$e)F:
?n and around the 2ed @cto0er !$ant fi%htin% had %one on for #ee<s: Trenches ran
throu%h the factory yards and throu%h the #or<sho+s themse$3esL and no# at the 0ottom
of the trenches there sti$$ $ay fro>en %reen 1ermans and fro>en %rey 2ussians and fro>en
fra%ments of human sha+esL and there #ere he$mets6 2ussian and 1erman6 $yin% amon%
the 0ric< de0ris6 and no# ha$f,fi$$ed #ith sno#: There #as 0ar0ed #ire here6 and ha$f,
unco3ered mines6 and she$$ cases6 and tortuous tan%$es of t#isted stee$ %irders: .o#
anyone cou$d ha3e sur3i3ed here #as hard to ima%ineL and some0ody +ointed to a #a$$6
#ith some names #ritten on it6 #here one of the units had died to the $ast man: But no#
e3erythin% #as si$ent and dead in this fossi$ised he$$6 as thou%h a ra3in% $unatic had
sudden$y died of heart fai$ure:
?t #as sti$$ 3"V 0e$o# >ero: That afternoon #e a$so #ent u+ the dead$y s$o+es of Mamai
.i$$ a$on% a narro# +ath a0out 1"" yards $on%: A$ready on the summit the 2ussians had
erected a rou%h #ooden o0e$is< +ainted 0ri%ht,0$ue6 #ith a red star on to+: Amon% the
fractured stum+s of fruit,trees $ay more he$mets6 and she$$,cases6 and she$$ s+$inters and
other meta$ Hun<: There #ere +atches of sno# on the +$ou%hed,u+ fro>en %round6 0ut no
dead e8ce+t for a so$itary $ar%e head6 com+$ete$y 0$ac<ened #ith time6 and its #hite teeth
%rinnin%L had he 0een a 2ussian or a 1ermanE A maHor said that the 2ussians had 0een
0uried6 0ut that 16-"" 1ermans #ere sti$$ stac<ed u+ on the other side of the hi$$: .o#
many thousands of she$$s had +ierced this %round #here on$y si8 months 0efore the
#ater,me$ons #ere ri+enin%E A 2ussian tan< #as standin% there6 ha$f,#ay u+ the hi$$6
facin% the summit6 and 0urned,out:
? remem0er6 #e then dro3e into centra$ Sta$in%rad6 a$on% a $on%6 $on% a3enue #ith
shattered trees on either side6 runnin% +ara$$e$ to the Ao$%a: 9e +assed tramcarsDmany
of them6 a$$ 0$asted6 smashed and 0urned outL had they 0een standin% here since the %reat
0om0in% of Au%ust &3E ::: @ne cou$d see it no#: Sta$in%rad #as one of the modern cities
of 2ussiaL its entire centre6 $i<e its factories6 had 0een 0ui$t in the $ast ten or t#e$3e years:
.ere #ere $ar%e 0$oc<s of f$ats6 a$$ 0urned out6 of course6 and +u0$ic 0ui$din%s in the main
s=uare6 #ith the #rec<ed rai$#ay station at one end: This6 too6 had chan%ed hands se3era$
times in dead$y fi%htin% in Se+tem0er::: ?n the centre of the s=uare there #as a fro>en
fountain #ith the ha$f,shattered statues of chi$dren sti$$ dancin% round it:
9e %ot out here: There #as an enormous hea+ of $itter +i$ed u+ in one corner of the
s=uareD$etters6 and ma+s and 0oo<s6 and sna+shots of 1erman chi$dren6 and of 1erman
midd$e,a%ed #omen #ith smir<in% se$f,contented faces standin% on #hat $oo<ed $i<e a
0rid%e o3er the 2hine6 and a %reen 5atho$ic +rayer 0oo< ca$$ed %piritual /rmour "or
%oldiers, and a $etter from a chi$d ca$$ed 2udi #ritin% that Fno# that you ha3e ta<en die
grosse Festung %e:astopol the #ar #i$$ soon 0e ended a%ainst die ver"luchten
.olsche:i*en, die Erz"einde Deutschlands5"
9e #a$<ed do#n the main a3enue runnin% south6 0et#een enormous 0$oc<s of 0urned,
out houses6 to#ards the other s=uare: ?n the midd$e of the +a3ement $ay a dead 1erman:
.e must ha3e 0een runnin% #hen a she$$ hit him: .is $e%s sti$$ seemed to 0e runnin%6
thou%h one #as no# cut off a0o3e the an<$e 0y a she$$6 and6 #ith the s+$intered #hite
0one stic<in% out of the fro>en red f$esh6 it $oo<ed $i<e somethin% harm$ess$y fami$iar
from a 0utcher's #indo#: .is face #as a 0$oody fro>en mess6 and 0eside it #as a fro>en
+oo$ of 0$ood:
?n the other 0i% s=uare some houses had 0een #rec<ed6 0ut t#o #ere standin% there6
s=uat and so$id6 thou%h 0urned,out: the 2ed Army .ouse and the *ni3erma% De+artment
Store:
After 3isitin% the scene of !au$us's surrender and ta$<in% to ieutenant (e$chen<o #ho
had ca+tured the Fie$d,Marsha$6 #e #ent out into the street a%ain: C3erythin% around #as
stran%e$y si$ent: The dead 1erman #ith his $e% 0$o#n off #as sti$$ $yin% some distance
a#ay: 9e crossed the s=uare and #ent into the yard of the $ar%e 0urned,out 0ui$din% of
the 2ed Army .ouseL and here one rea$ised +articu$ar$y c$ear$y #hat the $ast days of
Sta$in%rad had 0een to so many of the 1ermans: ?n the +orch $ay the s<e$eton of a horse6
#ith on$y a fe# scra+s of meat sti$$ c$in%in% to its ri0s: Then #e came into the yard: .ere
$ay more horses' s<e$etons and6 to the ri%ht6 there #as an enormous horri0$e cess+oo$D
fortunate$y fro>en so$id: And then6 sudden$y6 at the far end of the yard ? cau%ht si%ht of a
human fi%ure: .e had 0een crouchin% o3er another cess+oo$6 and no#6 noticin% us6 he
#as hasti$y +u$$in% u+ his +ants6 and then he s$un< a#ay into the door of a 0asement: But
as he +assed6 ? cau%ht a %$im+se of the #retch's faceD#ith its mi8ture of sufferin% and
idiot,$i<e incom+rehension: For a moment6 ? #ished the #ho$e of 1ermany #ere there to
see it: The man #as +erha+s a$ready dyin%: ?n that 0asement into #hich he s$un< there
#ere sti$$ t#o hundred 1ermansDdyin% of hun%er and frost0ite: F9e ha3en't had time to
dea$ #ith them yet6F one of the 2ussians said: FThey'$$ 0e ta<en a#ay tomorro#6 ?
su++ose:F And6 at the far end of the yard6 0eside the other cess+oo$6 0ehind a $o# stone
#a$$6 the ye$$o# cor+ses of s<inny 1ermans #ere +i$ed u+Dmen #ho had died in that
0asementDa0out a do>en #a8,$i<e dummies: 9e did not %o into the 0asement itse$fD
#hat #as the %oodE There #as nothin% #e cou$d do for them:
This scene of fi$th and sufferin% in that yard of the 2ed Army .ouse #as my $ast %$im+se
of Sta$in%rad: ? remem0ered the $on% an8ious days of the summer of 194&6 and the ni%hts
of the ondon 0$it>6 and the +hoto%ra+hs of .it$er6 smir<in% as he stood on the ste+s of
the Made$eine in !aris6 and the #eary days of '3J and '39 #hen a Hittery Curo+e #ou$d
tune in to Ber$in and hear .it$er's ye$$s accom+anied 0y the canni0a$ roar of the 1erman
mo0: And there seemed a rou%h 0ut di3ine Hustice in those fro>en cess+oo$s #ith their
diarrhoea6 and those horses' 0ones6 and those star3ed ye$$o# cor+ses in the yard of the
2ed Army .ouse at Sta$in%rad:
C').&(+ AII DCAUCASUS ROUND TRIPD
"Kau*asusDhin und zurMc*"D5aucasus round tri+: that's #hat 1erman so$diers used to
say #ith a touch of irony and some 0itterness #hen it #as a$$ o3er: The 1erman in3asion
of the 5aucasus had $asted si8 monthsL in Au%ust 194& they o3erran 3ast territories there
as =uic<$y as they #ere to e3acuate them a%ain in Banuary,Fe0ruary 1943:
Their hurried e3acuation of the 5aucasus #as6 of course6 a direct resu$t of the
encirc$ement of the 1ermans at Sta$in%rad and the su0se=uent reca+ture of the Don
country 0y the 2ussians: ?f the 2ussians had succeeded in Banuary 1943 in c$osin% the
F2osto3 0ott$enec<F and6 0etter sti$$6 in a$so occu+yin% the Taman !eninsu$a6 that
1ermany esca+e route to the 5rimea across the 4erch Straits6 a$$ the 1erman forces in the
5aucasus #ou$d ha3e 0een tra++ed:
?n the $ast fi3e months of 194&6 #ith attention focused on Sta$in%rad6 the So3iet +ress
%a3e re$ati3e$y $itt$e s+ace to the fi%htin% in the 5aucasus6 and6 for many years
after#ards6 3ery $itt$e #as #ritten a0out the 5aucasus cam+ai%n: 5omin% on to+ of the
$oss of 2osto3 at the end of Bu$y 194&6 its first +hase #as one of the 2ussians' 0itterest
and most humi$iatin% memories: Des+ite Sta$in's F;ot a ste+ 0ac<F order f$ashed to e3ery
unit of the 2ed Army at the end of Bu$y6 the 2ussians #ere on the run6 throu%hout Au%ust6
in the 4u0an and the ;orthern 5aucasus as they had not 0een since some of the #orst
days of 1941: The communi=uNs durin% Au%ust #ere uns+ea<a0$y de+ressin%: it #as
c$ear that the 4u0an countryDthe richest remainin% a%ricu$tura$ area this side of the
*ra$sD#as 0ein% a0andoned Funder the +ressure of su+erior enemy forcesF: By Au%ust
&" an enormous territory had 0een o3errun 0y 3on 4$eist's .eeres%ru++e AL the #ho$e of
the 4u0an country #as no# in 1erman hands6 and the 1ermans #ere +enetratin% into the
5aucasus +ro+er and dri3in% on6 in the #est6 to the B$ac< Sea coast6 after ca+turin%
4rasnodar6 the ca+ita$ of the 4u0an6 and Mai<o+6 the third most im+ortant oi$ centre in
the 5aucasus: ?n the east6 they #ere on their #ay to the t#o %reat oi$ centres6 1ro>ny and
Ba<u:
9hen the 2ussians had fai$ed to sto+ the 1ermans on the Don at the 0e%innin% of
Au%ust6 the 1erman ad3ance throu%h the 4u0an had assumed a$$ the characteristics of the
4litz*rieg5 The 1ermans had o3er#he$min% su+eriority in tan<s and aircraft6 and on$y
here and there6 +articu$ar$y a$on% the ri3ers6 did the 2ussians fi%ht a rear%uard action of
sorts6 0ut #ithout much effect: Accordin% to 2ussian accounts6 the roads #ere cro#ded
#ith thousands of refu%ees6 tryin% to esca+e6 #ith their catt$e6 to the mountainsL others
stormed trains at e3ery rai$#ay stationL 0ut6 in rea$ity6 the 1erman ad3ance #as so ra+id
that +ro0a0$y not 3ery many ci3i$ians actua$$y %ot a#ay:
IAccordin% to 1enera$ Tyu$ene36 many thousands %ot a#ay a$$ the same6 0ut in the #orst
+ossi0$e conditions: FC3en the sma$$est rai$#ay stations #ere c$uttered #ith thousands of
refu%ees: Des+ite intensi3e 1erman 0om0in%6 and thou%h ha3in% e8hausted their mea%re
food su++$ies6 a$$ these +eo+$e #ere tryin% to %et a#ay from the 1erman a3a$anche:F
There #as6 he further re$ates6 such an inf$u8 of refu%eesD#ee+in% #omen and chi$dren
Dinto the 5as+ian +orts $i<e Ma<hach,4a$a and Ba<u6 #here they #ere des+erate$y
ho+in% to 0e ta<en across the 5as+ian6 that a serious dan%er of e+idemics aroseL the $oca$
!arty or%anisations made a frantic effort to house a $ar%e num0er of these refu%ees in
$oca$ *ol*hozes and to shi+ the rest to 4rasn3ods<6 on the other side of the 5as+ian6 and
0eyond: (?: A: Tyu$ene36 )herez Tri 1oin! (Throu%h Three 9ars) (Mosco#6 19)")6 +:
17):)K
For the same reason it #as +ractica$$y im+ossi0$e to e3acuate any of the industries and
the most the 2ussians cou$d do in Mai<o+ #as to 0$o# u+ the derric<s and other
insta$$ations and destroy #hat oi$ reser3es #ere sti$$ thereL the 1erman oi$ en%ineers #ho
arri3ed soon after#ards found that it #ou$d ta<e a 3ery $on% time 0efore Mai<o+ cou$d
+roduce any oi$ a%ain:
To the 2ussians6 the a0andonment of the 4u0an and the northern frin%es of the 5aucasus
+ro+er #ere6 sentimenta$$y6 a +articu$ar$y +ainfu$ and shamefu$ memoryL and yet6 a$most
a$$ 1erman #riters on the 5aucasus cam+ai%n are a%reed that the 2ussians did the on$y
sensi0$e thin% they cou$d do in the circumstances6 #hich #as not to a$$o# themse$3es to
0e tra++ed 0y the hi%h$y mo0i$e ad3ancin% 1erman forces6 and to esca+e to the re$ati3e
safety of the mountains:
As it turned out6 the 1erman +$an for the con=uest of the 5aucasus #as o3er,am0itious: ?t
#as one of .it$er's $ess ha++y 0rain#a3es: .is ori%ina$ +$an6 as #e ha3e seen6 had 0een to
ca+ture Sta$in%rad first6 #ith far $ar%er forces than #ere u$timate$y sent there6 and then to
o3errun the 5aucasus6 chief$y from the 5as+ian side6 to 0e%in #ith6 #ith 1ro>ny and
Ba<u as ;o: 1 tar%et: After the easy ca+ture of 2osto36 .it$er ima%ined that the 2ussians
#ere so #ea< that he cou$d di3ide his forces in t#o6 one to ca+ture Sta$in%rad and the
other to con=uer the 5aucasus: .e had $on% had his eye on the 5aucasian oi$ and thou%ht
that6 0y cuttin% the Ao$%a su++$y route and a$so ca+turin% the three 5aucasian oi$ cities6
he cou$d <noc< out 2ussia economica$$y in a 3ery short time: The ca+ture of Ba<u #as
schedu$ed for the midd$e or end of Au%ust:
There is no dou0t that the 1ermans a%ain underrated the 2ussian ca+acity of resistanceL
in the 5aucasus6 as e$se#here6 they tried to do too many thin%s a$$ at once: a) in the east6
0rea< throu%h to 1ro>ny and then6 a$on% the 5as+ian6 to Ba<uL 0) in the midd$e6 0rea<
throu%h to A$adi<a3<a> (@rHoni<id>e) and cross the %reat 5aucasus mountain ran%e a$on%
the 1eor%ian Mi$itary .i%h#ay into Transcaucasia and6 +erha+s simu$taneous$y6 a$on%
the +ara$$e$ @ssetin Mi$itary .i%h#ay6 as #e$$ as further #est across the mountain +asses
of 4$u<hor6 Maru<h and SancharoDa strai%ht cut to the B$ac< Sea coast 0et#een Sochi
and Su<humi6 #hence the 1ermans cou$d then o3errun Transcaucasia from the #est and
reach the Tur<ish 0orderL c) in the #est6 to 0rea< throu%h to the B$ac< Sea at ;o3orossis<
and6 farther southD#hich #as much more im+ortantDat Tua+se6 #hence they cou$d
fo$$o# the B$ac< Sea coast a$$ the #ay to Batumi:
1enera$ Tyu$ene36 the 5ommander of the Transcaucasian Front6 has since then #ritten
that if6 instead of tryin% to do too many thin%s a$$ at once6 the 1ermans had concentrated
the 0u$< of their forces in the east6 they mi%ht ha3e 0ro<en throu%h to 1ro>ny and e3en to
Ba<u: ?nstead6 Tyu$ene3 ar%ues6 they #ere determined to %ra0 the B$ac< Sea coast as
#e$$6 +art$y in order to e$iminate the 2ussian B$ac< Sea ;a3y6 #hich #ou$d ha3e had to
scutt$e itse$f6 and +art$y in order to %et Tur<ey into the #ar on the 1erman side: Tyu$ene3
actua$$y refers to certain units in the 1erman armies in3adin% the 5aucasus #hich #ere
he$d in reser3e for Fo+erations in the Midd$e Cast and for Hoinin% u+ #ith 2omme$'s
forces in C%y+tPF ?t is scarce$y sur+risin% that 5hurchi$$ #as e8treme$y #orried a0out the
1erman ad3ance into the 5aucasus and offered Sta$in a $ar%e An%$o,American air force
#hich #ou$d Fdefend the 5aucasusF: And6 as #e ha3e seen6 Sta$in did not reHect the
+ro+osa$ off,hand:
The 2ussian command o03ious$y fe$t that the dan%er of a 1erman 0rea<throu%h to
1ro>ny and Ba<u #as 3ery rea$: Throu%hout Au%ust and Se+tem0er 9"6""" ci3i$ians
#ere mo0i$ised for day,and,ni%ht #or< on fortifications6 %un em+$acements6 anti,tan<
ditches6 et cetera6 at 1ro>ny6 Ma<hach,4a$a and the FDe0rent 1ateF on the 5as+ian6 as
#e$$ as at Ba<u itse$f6 round #hich ten defence $ines #ere 0ui$t: ?n fact6 ho#e3er6 the
1ermans #ere sto++ed at Mo>do<6 a0out si8ty,fi3e mi$es #est of 1ro>ny6 and #ere
+re3ented6 durin% #ee<s and months of intense fi%htin%6 from en$ar%in% the 0rid%ehead
they had sei>ed on the south side of the Tere< ri3er6 and so dri3in% on to 1ro>ny: ?t came
as a com+$ete sur+rise to the 1ermans that the 2ussians had6 in addition to the armies that
had esca+ed them6 sufficient reser3es in the 5aucasus to sto+ them at Mo>do<Da +$ace,
name #hich6 $i<e Sta$in%rad6 first a++eared in the communi=uN on Au%ust &-6 and
continued to fi%ure in su0se=uent communi=uNs ri%ht u+ to Banuary:
The 2ussian troo+s at Mo>do< 0e$on%ed to the so,ca$$ed ;orthern 1rou+ of 1enera$
Tyu$ene3's FTranscaucasian FrontF: The troo+s that had retreated from north to south
0e$on%ed to t#o FFrontsF6 the FSouthern FrontF under the $uc<$ess Marsha$ Budienny6 and
the F;orth,5aucasian FrontF under 1enera$ Ma$ino3s<y: Ma$ino3,s<y #as to +$ay a 3ery
acti3e +art in the su0se=uent 5aucasus fi%htin%6 0ut Budienny a++ears a%ain to ha3e soon
faded out of the +icture6 since the troo+s of the FSouthern FrontF #ere mer%ed on Au%ust
11 #ith Ma$ino3s<y's armies or #ith the FB$ac< Sea 1rou+F under 1enera$ !etro3 (of
Se0asto+o$ fame) #hich formed +art of the FTranscaucasian FrontF: This FB$ac< Sea
1rou+F he$d the coast and the adHoinin% mountains 0et#een ;o3orossis< and Sochi:
;ot on$y did the 2ussians ha3e considera0$e reser3es in the 5aucasus6 #hich sto++ed the
1ermans at the most crucia$ +oints,after e3erythin%6 or near$y e3erythin%6 that #as
strate%ica$$y e8+enda0$e had 0een e8+endedD0ut6 from Se+tem0er ri%ht on to the end of
the cam+ai%n6 they succeeded in 0rin%in% 3ery su0stantia$ reinforcements to the
5aucasus6 des+ite enormous trans+ort difficu$ties: Men and a %reat dea$ of hea3y
e=ui+ment (%uns6 tan<s6 et cetera) came across the 5as+ian from 4rasno3ods< to Ba<u6
and thence 0y train or roadL the 2ussian troo+s in the #est #ere su++$ied6 0road$y6 the
same #ay: Mortars6 sma$$ arms6 ammunition and much e$se came from more or $ess
im+ro3ised factories and #or<sho+s in Transcaucasia: Transcaucasia a$so +ro3ided the
2ussian armies of the 5aucasus front #ith much of their food: Both men and su++$ies
#ere a$so 0rou%ht 0y sea from Batumi to Tua+se:
;o dou0t the 1erman ad3ance had 0een s+ectacu$ar throu%hout Au%ust6 and in
Se+tem0er the 1ermans scored a further success in the north,#est 0y ca+turin% the #ho$e
Taman !eninsu$a6 as #e$$ as the na3a$ 0ase of ;o3orossis<: ;ot that they cou$d use the
+ort effecti3e$y6 since the o++osite side of the 0ay #as sti$$ he$d 0y the 2ussians6 #ho
<e+t it under she$$,fire: But the 1ermans' des+erate attem+ts to 0rea< throu%h to Tua+se6
farther south6 #hich #as the rea$ <ey to the B$ac< Sea coast a$$ the #ay to the Tur<ish
0order6 fai$ed com+$ete$y: This fai$ure is attri0uted 0y 1enera$ Tyu$ene3 to se3era$
factorsL the e8treme tou%hness of the 2ussian troo+s and sai$ors6 the natura$ o0stac$es on
the #ay to Tua+se (mountains and forests)6 0ut a0o3e a$$6 +erha+s6 the stu+endous amount
of +$ain s+ade,#or< done 0y 0oth so$diers and ci3i$ians in 0ui$din% %un em+$acements6
di%%in% anti,trench ditches6 and in some cases6 fe$$in% century,o$d trees o3er threatened
roads: This #or< #as done not on$y on the road to Tua+se6 0ut a$on% mountain +asses6 on
the road to Ba<u6 and a$$ a$on% the 1eor%ian and @ssetin Mi$itary .i%h#ays crossin% the
main mountain ran%e:
9ithin a fe# #ee<s the entire 5aucasian theatre of #ar 0ecame a net#or< of defences:
!eo+$e #or<ed ti$$ they near$y co$$a+sed6 #ith 0$oody ra%s round their 0$istered hands:
Sometimes they had $itt$e or nothin% to eat for days6 0ut they sti$$ #ent on #ith the #or<
e3en at ni%ht6 and des+ite enemy air,raids::: By the 0e%innin% of autumn a0out 1""6"""
defence #or<s #ere 0ui$t6 inc$udin% 7"6""" +i$$0o8es and other firin%,+oints: @3er -""
mi$es of anti,tan< ditches #ere du%6 &"" mi$es of anti,infantry o0stac$es #ere 0ui$t6 as
#e$$ as 16""" mi$es of trenches: 961-"6""" #or<in% days #ere e8+ended on this #or<:
I Tyu$ene36 o+: cit:6 +: 1JJ:K
Tyu$ene3 +ays a s+ecia$ tri0ute to 1enera$ Ba0in6 head of the en%ineerin% troo+s of the
Transcaucasian Front #ho succeeded in Fsea$in% u+ the 5aucasus a%ainst the enemy's
infantry and tan<sF: .e succeeded in this des+ite the e8treme$y difficu$t conditions
arisin% from the shorta%e of im+$ements and e8+$osi3es:
I9hen in 194) ? tra3e$$ed a$on% the 1eor%ian Mi$itary .i%h#ay6 in an army truc< from
A$adi<a3<a> to T0i$isi6 ? #as indeed ama>ed at the num0er of +i$$0o8es that had 0een du%
into the mountainside6 0ac< in 194&:K
Thus the 1ermans fai$ed to 0rea< throu%h 0oth to 1ro>ny in the east and to Tua+se in the
#est: ?n the Fmidd$eF6 they tried to cross the 5aucasus ran%e a$on% three famous
mountain +asses6 0ut a$thou%h6 from the to+ of these 96""",foot hi%h mountains they
cou$d see the B$ac< Sea in the distance6 they #ere he$d u+ there6 too: Tyu$ene3 descri0es
some +articu$ar$y ferocious fi%htin% hi%h u+ in the mountains throu%hout Se+tem0er6 and
the enormous difficu$ties of 0rin%in% u+ su++$ies to the troo+s there #ith $itt$e *& +$anes
or #ith mu$es and don<eys: A sti$$ more difficu$t +ro0$em #as e3acuatin% the #ounded:
The 0$i>>ards that 0e%an to s#ee+ the mountains at the 0e%innin% of @cto0er forced the
1ermans to a0andon their attem+t to 0rea< throu%h to the B$ac< Sea across the hi%h
mountain +asses:
At the 0e%innin% of ;o3em0er the 1ermans made one fina$ 0id to 0rea< throu%h to 0oth
1ro>ny and T0i$isi 0y another route6 and to outf$an< the 2ussian forces at Mo>do< from
the south: @n ;o3em0er & they ca+tured ;a$chi<6 the ca+ita$ of 4a0arda6 and +ushed on
to A$adi<a3<a> (@rHoni<id>e)6 the ca+ita$ of ;orthern @ssetia at the northern end of the
1eor%ian Mi$itary .i%h#ay6 and a$so on the #ay to 1ro>ny from the south,#est: But the
2ussians had time to re%rou+6 and on$y a fe# mi$es to the #est of A$adi<a3<a> they
de$i3ered a smashin% 0$o# at the ad3ancin% 1erman armoured co$umns6 and fina$$y
hur$ed them 0ac< to ;a$chi<: Three #e$$,manned defence $ines had 0een 0ui$t outside
A$adi<a3<a>6 and 2ussian tan<s and arti$$ery6 o+eratin% from here6 inf$icted a hea3y
defeat on the 1ermans: The 2ussians +ut the 1erman $osses durin% the fi3e days' fi%htin%
at 14" tan<s6 &6-"" motor 3ehic$es and much other e=ui+ment6 and the 1erman casua$ties
at -6""" dead:
?n any case6 the 1ermans undertoo< no further offensi3es after that and #ent o3er to the
defensi3e at 0oth Mo>do< and ;a$chi<: They #ere ho+in% to resume their con=uest of the
5aucasus #ith rene#ed stren%th in the s+rin%Dif a$$ #ent #e$$ at Sta$in%rad:
As #e ha3e seen6 it did not: By the 0e%innin% of Banuary6 the troo+s of the FSta$in%rad
FrontF6 short$y to 0e renamed FSouthern FrontF and to 0e +$aced under the command of
Ma$ino3s<y6 instead of (eremen<o6 #ere ad3ancin% 0eyond 4ote$ni<o3o to#ards Sa$s<
and Ti<horets<6 #ith the u$timate o0Hect of ca+turin% 2osto3 and of c$osin% the F2osto3
1a+F to the 1erman forces in the 5aucasus: 1enera$ !etro3's tas< #as to stri<e east from
the B$ac< Sea coast to#ards 4rasnodar and Ti<horets<6 and Hoin u+ there #ith the troo+s
of the FSouthern FrontF6 thus not on$y c$osin% the 2osto3 1a+ 0ut a$so cuttin% off the
1erman forces in the 5aucasus from the Taman !eninsu$a6 their esca+e route to the
5rimea: For a $ar%e num0er of reasons this 2ussian +$an fai$ed: The 1ermans6 ra+id$y
transferred stron% armoured forces from the 5aucasus to the Oimo3ni<i,Sa$s<,Ti<horets<
area to s$o# do#n the 2ussian ad3ance on 0oth 2osto3 and Ti<horets<: After their hea3y
fi%htin% since the 0e%innin% of Manstein's 4ote$ni<o3o offensi3e6 the 2ussian troo+s of
the FSouthern FrontF #ere short of tan<s and other e=ui+ment6 and the ne# tan<s they
#ere as<in% for #ere s$o# in arri3in%:
9ith the Sta$in%rad rai$#ay Hunction sti$$ inside the FSta$in%rad Ba%F6 there #as no
rai$#ay $in< #ith centra$ 2ussia6 and the road communications #ere s$o# and 3ery $on%
(a0out &&" mi$es from the nearest rai$head): As for 1enera$ !etro3's FB$ac< Sea 1rou+F6
it #as a$so faced #ith su++$y difficu$tiesL the %a$es on the B$ac< Sea had rendered its
chief su++$y $ines +recarious and6 moreo3er6 hea3y rains and f$oods serious$y s$o#ed
do#n its +ro%ress to#ards 4rasnodar: This #as not $i0erated 0y the 2ussians unti$
Fe0ruary 1&6 i:e: o3er a month after the offensi3e had 0e%un:
There is much disa%reement 0et#een 1erman and 2ussian commentators on the 1erman
#ithdra#a$ from the 5aucasusL accordin% to the 1ermans6 it #as a F+$annedF #ithdra#a$L
accordin% to the 2ussians it #as a Fdisorder$y retreatF: ?n +articu$ar6 the 2ussians ma<e
much of the com+$ete demora$isation amon% the 2umanian and S$o3a< troo+s #hich too<
+art in the 1erman con=uest of the 5aucasus6 and +oint to the $ar%e =uantities of
e=ui+ment the 1ermans a0andoned in a hurry at certain rai$#ay Hunctions $i<e
Minera$nyie Aody6 #here the 2ussians ca+tured 16-"" #a%on $oads of e=ui+ment: But
there is6 in fact6 $itt$e to sho# that6 in their +ursuit of the retreatin% 1ermans6 the 2ussian
troo+s of the F;orthern 1rou+F of the FTranscaucasian FrontF (amon% them those #ho
had fou%ht for months at Mo>do<) succeeded in either ca+turin% or destroyin% many:
Most of the 1erman troo+s in the 5aucasus %ot a#ay6 either throu%h the 2osto3 1a+6 or
to the Taman !eninsu$a: Accordin% to 1erman commentators6 it #as .it$er's +et idea to
ho$d this +eninsu$a #ith the stron%est +ossi0$e forces as a s+rin%0oard for a future
recon=uest of the 5aucasus: This is today considered as a cardina$ mista<e on .it$er's
+artL instead of stayin% id$e in the Taman !eninsu$a6 these 4""6""" troo+s cou$d ha3e
made a$$ the difference to the 1erman's chances in the su0se=uent fi%htin% on the Don
and the Castern *<raine:
I 5f: !m$i++i and .eim6 o+: cit:6 +: &"3:K
The 1erman #ithdra#a$ from the 5aucasus #as ra+id6 0ut sti$$ not ra+id enou%h to
+re3ent the a++$ication of Fscorched earthF methods on a 3ery considera0$e sca$e: ?n their
retreat6 the 1ermans destroyed or ha$f,destroyed a 3ery $ar%e num0er of to#ns and
3i$$a%es: Car$ier on durin% their occu+ation of the 4u0an they had confiscated or
F0ou%htF from the +o+u$ation $ar%e =uantities of food and $i3estoc<:
?n in3adin% the 5aucasus6 the 1ermans had $aid %reat store on the FdisaffectionF to#ards
Mosco# on the +art of the 3arious 5aucasian nationa$ities6 and indeed the 2ussians
themse$3es #ere far from certain a0out the $oya$ty of these +eo+$e6 and some e3en had
dou0ts a0out the 5ossac<s of the 4u0anDthat FAendNeF of the 2ussian 5i3i$ 9ar #here6
moreo3er6 the So3iets had had some +articu$ar$y serious trou0$e at the time of the
5o$$ecti3isation dri3e:
? remem0er a si%nificant con3ersation on the su0Hect #ith 4onstantin @umans<y on Bu$y
&46 i:e: on one of the 0$ac<est days of the B$ac< Summer of 194&:
I "1-& -)* I )" ) /,&&/( 2#++,(5 )8#1& &'( C)13)-1-. E6($ 2'($ ) R1--,)$ #+ )$
U;+),$,)$ ,- $#& .)+&,31/)+/* .+#-S#6,(&, '( -&,// +("),$- .)&+,#&,3? '( 2,// 0,%'& 0#+ )
U$,&(5 R1--,), #+ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$, #+ 2')&(6(+ *#1 /,;( &# 3)// ,&. B1& &'( T)+&)+- ,$
&'( C+,"() )+(, &# ) /)+%( (B&($&, 5,-/#*)/. T'(* 2(+( (3#$#",3)//* .+,6,/(%(5 8* &'(
2()/&'* &#1+,-& &+)00,3 8(0#+( &'( R(6#/1&,#$, )$5 $#2 &'(* ')6( $#& 8(($ -# 2(//-
#00. B1& &'(* $(6(+ /,;(5 1-. I& ,- 2(//-;$#2$ &')& 51+,$% &'( C+,"()$ W)+ &'(*
%/)5/* D3#//)8#+)&(5D, )- 2(<5 $#2 -)*, 2,&' &'( E$%/,-' )$5 &'( +($3'. A$5,
)8#6( )//, &'(+( )+( +(/,%,#1- 0)3&#+- 2',3' &'( !(+")$- ')6( $#& 0),/(5 &# (B./#,&.
N#+ 5# I &+1-& &'( "#1$&),$ .(#./(- #0 &'( C)13)-1-. L,;( &'( C+,"()$ T)+&)+-,
&'(* )+( M#-/("-, )$5 &'(* -&,// +("("8(+ &'( R1--,)$ 3#$91(-& #0 &'( C)13)-1-
2',3' ($5(5 $#& -# 6(+* /#$% )%#E,$ 1N6@. T'( #$/* 01//* .+#-S#6,(& )$5 .+#-
R1--,)$ $)&,#$ ,$ &'( C)13)-1- )+(E0#+ #86,#1- ',-&#+,3)/ +()-#$-E&'(
A+"($,)$-. T'( !(#+%,)$- )+( $#& -# '#&.
DW')&, (6($ 2,&' S&)/,$ ) !(#+%,)$ID
Y(-, 8(3)1-( ) /#& #0 !(#+%,)$-E2(//, *#1 ;$#2 *#1+-(/0 2')& ;,$5 #0 .(#./( &'(*
)+(. S#1&'(+$(+-, /,;( I&)/,)$-, ) /)C*, 2,$(-5+,$;,$%, ./()-1+(-/#6,$% 81$3'. N#
5#18& 2( ')6( -(6(+)/ (B3(//($& !(#+%,)$ %($(+)/- ,$ &'( R(5 A+"*, )$5 -#"( 0,$(
!(#+%,)$ -#/5,(+-, 81& &'(* )+( $#& )/&#%(&'(+ &*.,3)/ #0 &'( !(#+%,)$- )- ) 2'#/(...
DA$5 &'( C#--)3;-ID
T'(* ')6( &'(,+ %+,(6)$3(- )%),$-& 1-. B1& &'(* )+( R1--,)$, -# &'(*<// 8( )// +,%'&.
M)*8( ) 0(2 2,// +)& #$ 1-, 81& 3(+&),$/* $#& ")$*.
The So3iet authorities #ere6 indeed6 rather #orried a0out the 5aucasus and6 +articu$ar$y6
a0out the Mos$em nationa$ities there: This uneasiness e8tended6 to some e8tent6 a$so to
certain Mos$em nations of 5entra$ Asia6 +articu$ar$y the *>0e<s6 thou%h not to the
4a>a<hs #ho had much #ea<er historica$ and re$i%ious traditions of their o#n than the
*>0e<s6 and had +ro3ed the most Fassimi$a0$eF of the 5entra$ Asian +eo+$es6 and had
+ro3ided some of the tou%hest so$diers to the 2ed Army: A$to%ether6 the 4a>a<h's
mi$itary record throu%hout the #ar #as to +ro3e outstandin%$y %ood6 and in Sta$in%rad
itse$f some of the finest so$diers #ere 5entra$ AsiansDBash<irs6 4ir%hi>es and6 a0o3e
a$$6 4a>a<hs: The TartarsD i:e: the Ao$%a Tartars6 not the 5rimean TartarsDa$so had an
e8ce$$ent record:
IDurin% the first year of the #ar6 mi$itary decorations #ere distri0uted much $ess $a3ish$y
than $ater: *+ to @cto0er -6 194&6 1J-6""" +ersons had 0een decorated: By nationa$ities6
the $ist #as headed 0y 2ussians (1&J6""")6 fo$$o#ed 0y *<rainians (336""")6
Be$orussians (-64"")6 Be#s (-61"")6 Tartars (&69"")6 Mord3inians (161"")6 4a>a<hs
(16""")6 1eor%ians and Armenians (9"" each)6 at3ians6 *>0e<s6 Bash<irs6 4are$ians
(4"" each)6 @ssetins6 A>er0aiHanis6 5hu3ashs (3"" each): There fo$$o#ed a dust of
3arious sma$$ or tiny nationa$ities of Si0eria6 the 5aucasus and 5entra$ Asia6 0esides 14
1y+sies6 7 Assyrians6 &3" !o$es6 9J 1ree<s6 37 Bu$%ars6 1" 5>echs and 9 S+aniards:
(Ta0$e from C: (aros$a3s<y's T:ent!-"ive 'ears o" the %oviet BAgime, Mosco#6 194&:)K
Since the ra+id $oss6 durin% the first #ee<s of the in3asion in 19416 of non,2ussian areas
$i<e the Ba$tic 2e+u0$ics6 the #ar had 0een fou%ht on 2ussian and *<rainian territory
#hose +o+u$ations cou$d (e8ce+t in the 9estern *<raine) 0e considered #ho$$y6 or
a$most #ho$$y6 $oya$: But #ith the 1ermans 0rea<in% into the 5aucasus and a++roachin%
the 0orders of Asia6 the So3iet authorities #ere faced #ith a num0er of ne# +ro0$ems:
Their e8+erience of the 5rimean Tartars had 0een an unha++y one6 and the =uestion arose
ho# the 5aucasus #ou$d 0eha3e: There a$so seemed6 at this sta%e6 some need to +reach
$oya$ty to the *>0e<s6 amon% #hom Mos$em traditions #ere sti$$ stron%: The +ro+a%anda
amon% the *>0e<s too< on some e8tra3a%ant formsL thus6 on @cto0er 316 194&6 the #ho$e
second +a%e of Pravda #as +rinted in *>0e<6 #ith a 2ussian trans$ation o++osite: This
missi3e FFrom the *>0e< !eo+$e to the *>0e< So$diersF and si%ned 0y $eadin%
+ersona$ities in *>0e<istan Fon 0eha$f of o3er t#o mi$$ion *>0e<sF6 #as an e8traordinary
+iece of f$orid orienta$ +rose:
B(/#6(5 -#$- #0 &'( .(#./(, 3',/5+($ #0 #1+ '()+&H... R("("8(+, *#1+ )$3(-&#+-
.+(0(++(5 &# %$)2 &'+#1%' &'( 3'),$- 2,&' &'(,+ &((&', +)&'(+ &')$ /,6( )- -/)6(-...
R("("8(+, H,&/(+ ,- $#& #$/* &'( -2#+$ ($("* #0 )// &'( E1+#.()$ $)&,#$- )$5,
)8#6( )//, &'( S/)6 $)&,#$-, 81& '( ,- )/-# &'( -2#+$ ($("* #0 &'( .(#./(- #0 &'( ()-&.
B('#/5 &'( 0)&( #0 &'( M#-/(" .(#./(- #0 &'( C+,"() )$5 &'( C)13)-1-? &'(,+
.()3(01/ 6,//)%(- )+( 8(,$% 81+$(5 )$5 /##&(5 8* &'( !(+")$-. R1,3;/* 5(-&+#* &'(
($("*, #+ &'(-( 8()-&- 2,// -/)* *#1+ %+(*-'),+(5 %+)$50)&'(+-, )$5 *#1+ 0)&'(+- )$5
"#&'(+-, )$5 6,#/)&( *#1+ 2,6(- )$5 8+,5(-, )$5 3+1-' *#1+ ,$$#3($& 8)8(-
1$5(+0##&, )$5 5(-&+#* *#1+ 3)$)/-, )$5 &1+$ 0/#1+,-',$% UC8(;,-&)$ ,$&# ) -1$-
-3#+3'(5 5(-(+&...
?t #ent on and on for four co$umns6 reca$$in% a$$ the nationa$ heroes of the *>0e< +eo+$e
#ho had 3a$iant$y fou%ht a%ainst the Mon%o$ con=uerors6 and the %reat #riters and +oets
of the *>0e< +eo+$e6 #ho had $i3ed in the ancient cities of Samar<and and Fer%hana and
Bo<hara6 a$$ of #hich .it$er no# intended to destroy: But the main +oint of this
Fmissi3eF #as that .it$er #as the dead$y enemy of the Mos$em +eo+$es as cou$d 0e seen
from the atrocities he #as committin% a%ainst the Mos$ems in the 5rimea and the
5aucasus:
.ad some 1erman +ro+a%anda6 one cou$d on$y #onder6 reached *>0e<istan to sho# that
the 1ermans #ere fa3ourin% the Mos$ems in 0oth the 5rimea and the 5aucasusE
;eed$ess to say6 this <ind of So3iet +ro+a%anda amon% the +eo+$es of the 5aucasus had
started e3en ear$ier6 immediate$y after the 1erman in3asion of the 4u0an: A$$ o3er the
5aucasus Fanti,FascistF meetin%s #ere 0ein% or%anised: 1reat +u0$icity #as %i3en to the
enthusiasm #ith #hich a$$ the 5aucasian +eo+$es had su++orted these meetin%sL
+articu$ar +rominence #as %i3en in the So3iet +ress to a 3ast Fanti,FascistF ra$$y at
A$adi<a3<a> at the end of Bu$y: There #as a curious$y a++ea$in%6 not to say crin%in%6 note
in the f$attery that #as no# addressed to the +eo+$es of the 5aucasus: Thus6 on
Se+tem0er 16 Pravda +u0$ished this a++ea$ in enormous $etters:
M#1$&),$ .(#./(- #0 &'( N#+&'(+$ C)13)-1-, C#--)3;- #0 &'( 91,(& D#$, -2,0&
K18)$ )$5 -&#+"* T(+(;? .(#./(- #0 K)/"1;,) )$5 S&)6+#.#/H R,-( 0#+ &'( /,0(-)$5-
5()&' -&+1%%/( )%),$-& &'( !(+")$ ,$6)5(+-H M)* &'( ./),$- #0 &'( N#+&'(+$
C)13)-1- )$5 &'( C)13)-1- 0##&',//- 8(3#"( &'( %+)6( #0 &'( H,&/(+,&( +#88(+-H
@n Se+tem0er 36 in an artic$e entit$ed FThe !eo+$es of the 5aucasus and the Sta$in
5onstitutionF6 Pravda #rote:
I$ &'( #/5 5)*-, &')& :(2(/ )"#$% &'( $)&,#$-E&'( C)13)-1-E-'#$( 81& 5,"/*.
N#2 ,& %/,&&(+- ,$ &'( 3#$-&(//)&,#$ #0 S#6,(& 31/&1+(-.
@n Se+tem0er )6 in connection #ith another Fanti,FascistF ra$$y6 this time in
Transcaucasia6 it #rote:
P(#./(- #0 T+)$-3)13)-,)H T# &'( !(+")$- *#1 )+( "(+(/* D$)&,6(-D. T'( !(+")$
"#$-&(+ 2)$&- &# 31& &'( C)13)-1- )+",(- 0+#" &'( +(-& #0 &'( R(5 A+"*, )$5 &# 31&
#00 &'( C)13)-,)$ $)&,#$- 0+#" &'( +(-& #0 &'( S#6,(& 0)",/* #0 $)&,#$-.
There #as a c$ear su%%estion in a$$ this that the So3iet authorities #ere ner3ous a0out
1erman +o$icy in the 5aucasus6 not on$y 3is,[,3is the Mos$ems6 0ut a$so the 1eor%ians6
Armenians6 A>er0aiHanisD and e3en the 5ossac<s:
This an8iety6 as it turned out6 #as $ar%e$y unHustified6 a$$ the more so as the 1ermans
stayed on$y a short time in 0oth the 4u0an and the ;orthern 5aucasus6 and their +o$icy
#as6 to say the $east6 a confused and contradictory one: ;e3erthe$ess the an8iety #as not
entire$y %round$ess:
9e need not dea$ here #ith the 3arious %randiose 1erman FschemesF for the 5aucasus6
#hether 2osen0er%'s or the others6 a$$ of #hich #ere to remain mere +a+er theories: A$$
the same6 some rather incoherent attem+ts #ere made to e8+$oit the 5ossac<s' Fanti,
re3o$utionary +astF: Sa3a%e$y anti,Bo$she3i< 5ossac< %enera$s of the 5i3i$ 9ar days $i<e
1enera$ 4rasno3 and 1enera$ Sh<uro #ere 0rou%ht to the 4u0an6 and #ere e8+ected to
he$+ in con3ertin% the 5ossac<s to Fco$$a0orationF: 9hereas 2osen0er% had e8+ressed the
3ie# that the 5ossac<s #ere essentia$$y 2ussians6 and shou$d6 therefore6 0e treated more
harsh$y than the *<rainians (#hom6 un$i<e Crich 4och6 the 2eichs<ommissar for the
*<raine6 he chose not to re%ard as &ntermenschen7, the 1erman Army ado+ted the +o$icy
that the 5ossac<s #ere +otentia$ 'friendsF6 #ho shou$d 0e e8em+ted from the
&ntermensch status: 5ossac<s #ere6 as far as +ossi0$e6 to 0e drafted into the 1erman
Army: As #e ha3e seen6 for instance in 4ote$ni<o3o6 #hich #as considered a 5ossac< or
semi,5ossac< to#n6 the 1ermans refrained from committin% any maHor atrocities6 thou%h
they did6 in fact6 nothin% to endear themse$3es to the +o+u$ationD#hich they treated #ith
much disdain: As re%ards FreformsF6 $i<e a0o$ishin% the *ol*hozes, they did not %o
0eyond 3a%ue +romises:
?t #as6 rou%h$y6 the same in the 4u0an country6 e8ce+t that here certain 1erman officers
esta0$ished an e8+erimenta$ F5ossac< DistrictF #ith a +o+u$ation of a0out 1)"6""": A$$
<inds of +romises #ere made6 inc$udin% that of an ear$y disso$ution of the *ol*hozes5
A$thou%h 2osen0er%'s Ministry6 as #e$$ as the SS o0Hected to the e8+eriment at first6 the
Army +ursued it unti$ the day in Banuary 1943 #hen the 1ermans had to +u$$ out of the
4u0an:
A /#3)/ .#/,3( 0#+3( 2)- +(3+1,&(5. B* J)$1)+* 194@ &'( D,-&+,3&<- 8#+5(+- 2(+( &# 8(
(B.)$5(5, )$5 ) C#--)3; A+"* 3#"")$5(+ 2)- &# 8( )..#,$&(5... )+-+()3',$%
+(0#+"- 2(+( 3#$&("./)&(5 ,$ )%+,31/&1+(, &'#1%', ,$ .+)3&,3(, /,&&/( 2)- )3',(6(5.
O&'(+ ./)$- 3)//(5 0#+ &'( +(3+1,&"($& #0 M5,LLL C#--)3; 6#/1$&((+- &# 0,%'& 2,&' &'(
!(+")$ A+"*, 81& )%),$ &'(+( 2)- $# &,"( &# ,"./("($& &'(".
IA$e8ander Da$$in6 #erman Bule in Bussia (ondon6 19-7)6 +: 3"":K
The +ur+ose of this Frea$isticF Army +o$icy6 #as6 as A$e8ander Da$$in says6 to secure as
much cannon,fodder for the 1erman Army as +ossi0$e: .e a$so ar%ues that the
e8+eriment #as intended to sho# that once Fthe So3iet +o+u$ation #as %i3en a chance to
#or< out its o#n +ro0$ems::: it #as %enera$$y inc$ined to #or< more #ho$ehearted$y #ith
the 1ermans:F .e a$so notes that:
W'($ K/(,-&<- )+"* 2,&'5+(2 0+#" &'( K18)$ 3#$-,5(+)8/( $1"8(+- #0 C#--)3;
+(01%((- :#,$(5 ,$ &'( (B#51-, )$5 8* /)&( 194@ "#+( &')$ ML,LLL C#--)3;-E#+
+)&'(+ "($ 3/),",$% &# 8( C#--)3;-E2(+( 0,%'&,$% ,$ 6)+,#1- !(+")$--.#$-#+(5
0#+")&,#$-.
C3en so6 it is fair$y c$ear from Mr Da$$in's account that the %reat maHority of the 5ossac<
+o+u$ation on the Don6 4u0an and Tere< did not co$$a0orate6 and that many6 indeed6
offered +assi3e and often acti3e resistance to the 1ermans: 5ossac< +artisan units #ere
o+eratin% in many areas6 and some too< an acti3e +art in the $i0eration of 4rasnodar in
Fe0ruary: And e3en if the 1ermans succeeded in co$$ectin% &"6""" 5ossac<sDor +seudo,
5ossac<sDin a 3ast area of a fe# mi$$ion +eo+$e6 the Fachie3ementF can on$y 0e re%arded
as a re$ati3e fai$ure: The 3ery fact that many of these F5ossac<sF on$y Fc$aimed to 0e
5ossac<sF su%%ests that the num0er of rea$ 5ossac<s of the Don6 4u0an and Tere< #ho
Hoined the 1ermans #as not $ar%e:
@3er 1""6""" 5ossac<s had 0een in the 2ed Army since the 0e%innin% of the #ar and
some6 $i<e the famous Do3ator 5or+s6 #hich had harassed the 1ermans for #ee<s in the
Batt$e of Mosco#6 had ac=uired a$most $e%endary fame: Many thousandsDamon% them
most of the Do3ator 5or+sDhad died fi%htin% the 1ermans: ;o dou0t many 5ossac<s
had menta$ reser3ations a0out the So3iet rN%ime6 0ut in the +atriotic atmos+here of 194&
it #ou$d ha3e 0een a0surd of the 1ermans to e8+ect much co,o+eration from the
5ossac<s6 #ith their nationa$ist 2ussian traditions:
To e8+ect a sinister Nmi%rN ad3enturer $i<e 1enera$ 4rasno36 head of the F5entra$
5ossac< @fficeF in Ber$in to #in o3er the 5ossac<s andDin the #ords of another
5ossac< ad3enturer in 1erman +ay6 Aasi$i 1$a><o3DFto reco%nise the FRhrer Ado$f
.it$er as the su+reme dictator of the 5ossac< ;ation F #as nai3e6 to say the $east:
The fe# F5ossac<F 0ands the 1ermans did scra+e to%ether for the 1erman army #ere
$ater to 0ecome notorious6 es+ecia$$y in the *<raine6 for their acts of 0anditry: 9hich6 in
itse$f6 #as not6 of course6 entire$y a$ien to certain 5ossac< traditions either:
The 1erman courtin% of the Mos$ems in the 5aucasus #as +art of .it$er's $unatic
schemes for 0rin%in% Tur<ey into the #ar and for ad3ancin% from the 5aucasus into the
Midd$e CastL Mos$em fi%htin% units #ere to 0e formed in the 5aucasus and these #ere to
ta<e +art in 0rin%in% the #ho$e Midd$e Cast into the 1erman or0it: @n the other hand6
.it$er a++ears to ha3e treated #ith %reat sce+ticism 2osen0er%'s ideas a0out a FBer$in,
T0i$isi A8isF: ?n Decem0er 194& he said:
I 5#$<& ;$#2 )8#1& &'( !(#+%,)$-. T'(* 5# $#& 8(/#$% &# &'( T1+;,3 .(#./(-. 9
consider only the Moslems to be reliable... I 3#$-,5(+ &'( 0#+")&,#$ #0 &'(-( 8)&&)/,#$-
#0 .1+(/* C)13)-,)$ .(#./(- )- 6(+* +,-;*, 81& I -(( $# 5)$%(+ ,$ &'( (-&)8/,-'"($&
#0 .1+(/* M#-/(" 1$,&-... I$ -.,&( #0 &'( 5(3/)+)&,#$- #0 R#-($8(+% )$5 &'( ",/,&)+*,
I 5#$<& &+1-& &'( A+"($,)$- (,&'(+.
IQuoted 0y Da$$in6 o+: cit:6 +: &-1:K
The =uestion #hether the 1eor%ians6 Armenians and A>er0aiHanis #ou$d ha3e co,
o+erated #ith theL 1ermans ne3er came to the testL a$$ #e <no# is that se3era$ di3isions
com+osed of these nationa$ities #ere formed in the autumn of 194& to fi%ht on the
Bussian side6 thou%h there #ere6 of course6 a num0er of Nmi%rNsDmost$y 1eor%iansD
#ho had come to the 5aucasus #ith the 1erman Army and #ere #aitin% for the entry of
the 1erman troo+s into Ba<u6 T0i$isi and Cre3an:
But the 1ermans did ma<e contact #ith some of the Mos$em nationa$ities in the ;orthern
5aucasus6 as #e$$ as #ith the more,or,$ess Buddhist 4a$mu<s to the east of the 4u0an:
Their ca+ita$ of C$ista in the s+arse$y inha0ited 4a$mu< ste++es #as occu+ied 0y the
1ermans for a0out fi3e months6 and Nmi%rNs $i<e the notorious !rince Tunduto3 #ere
0usy <noc<in% to%ether 4a$mu< mi$itary units of sorts for the 1erman Army: To#ards
the +redominant$y Mos$em mountaineers of the ;orthern 5aucasusDthe 5hechens6
?n%ushi6 4arachai and Ba$<ariansDthe 1erman Army ado+ted a F$i0era$F +o$icy:
!romises #ere made for the a0o$ition of the *ol*hozes+ mos=ues and churches #ere to 0e
reo+enedL re=uisitioned %oods #ere to 0e +aid forL and the confidence of the +eo+$e #as
to 0e #on 0y Fmode$ conductF6 es+ecia$$y in res+ect of #omen: ?n the 4arachai re%ion a
F4arachai ;ationa$ 5ommitteeF #as set u+: The same ha++ened in the 4a0ardin,Ba$<ar
area6 thou%h the Mos$em Ba$<ars #ere more outs+o<en$y +ro,1erman than the most$y
non,Mos$em 4a0ardinians: A$thou%h the 1ermans did not +enetrate far into the 5hechen,
?n%ush ASS2 (south of 1ro>ny)6 these t#o +eo+$es a++ear to ha3e made no secret of their
sym+athy for the 1ermans: They #ere to suffer for it $ater6 $i<e the +eo+$es #ho had
actua$$y co$$a0orated:
T'( ',%' .#,$& #0 !(+")$-K)+)3'), 3#//)8#+)&,#$ 2)- &'( 3(/(8+)&,#$ #0 B),+)",
&'( M#-/(" '#/,5)*, ,$ K,-/#6#5-; #$ O3&#8(+ 11... H,%' !(+")$ #00,3,)/- 2(+(
.+(-($&(5 2,&' .+(3,#1- %,0&- 8* &'( /#3)/ 3#"",&&((. T'( !(+")$- ... ./(5%(5 &'(
()+/* 5,--#/1&,#$ #0 &'( 3#//(3&,6( 0)+"- )$5 )$$#1$3(5 &'( 0#+")&,#$ #0 ) K)+)3'),
6#/1$&((+ -91)5+#$ #0 '#+-("($ &# 0,%'& 2,&' &'( !(+")$ A+"*.
Simi$ar$y6 on Decem0er 1J:
T'( K1+")$ 3(+("#$,(- 2(+( '(/5 )& N)/3',;, &'( -()& #0 &'( /#3)/ )5",$,-&+)&,#$ #0
&'( K)8)+5,$#-B)/;)+ )+(). A%),$ %,0&- 2(+( (B3')$%(5, 2,&' &'( /#3)/ #00,3,)/-
%,6,$% &'( !(+")$- ")%$,0,3($& -&((5- )$5 +(3(,6,$% ,$ +(&1+$ K#+)$- )$5 3).&1+(5
2().#$-. B+P1&,%)" 4#0 &'( R#-($8(+% M,$,-&+*7 ")5( ) .18/,3 )55+(-- )8#1& &'(
/)-&,$% 8#$5- #0 !(+")$ 0+,($5-',. 2,&' &'( .(#./(- #0 &'( C)13)-1-.
I Dahin6 o+: cit:6 ++: &4),7:K
C8act$y a fortni%ht after this mo3in% ceremony6 the 1ermans a0andoned ;a$chi< and
#ere on the run:
The 1ermans a++arent$y amassed on$y a 3ery sma$$ num0er of so$diers from amon%st
their Mos$em friends in the 5aucasus6 and the most acti3e co$$a0orators natura$$y
fo$$o#ed the 1erman Army in its retreat to the north: The %randiose scheme for the
con=uest of the Midd$e Cast #ith the he$+ of the 5aucasus mountaineers #as off:
The Mos$em nationa$ities #hose re+resentati3es had fraternised #ith the 1ermans #ere
to suffer for it: The F$i=uidationF of the Mos$em areas #as decreed 0y the Su+reme So3iet
on Fe0ruary 116 1944: 9hen ? 3isited 4is$o3ods<6 ;a$chi<6 A$adi<a3<a> and other to#ns
in the ;orthern 5aucasus in 194)6 +eo+$e #ere sti$$ ta$<in% of the F$i=uidationF of the
5hechens6 ?n%ushi6 4arachais and Ba$<ars: ?n a fe# days the ;4AD had herded e3eryone
of these nationa$ities into rai$#ay carria%es and +ac<ed them off Fto the eastF: As a
fri%htened and em0ittered 4a0ardinian to$d me at ;a$chi<: F?t #as a terri0$e 0usiness
seein% them a$$Dmen6 #omen and chi$drenD 0ein% sent off $i<e thisL 0ut you can say it
#as a tremendous$y efficient +iece of or%anisationDyes6 terrifyin%$y efficient:F FAnd
#hat a0out the 4a0ardiniansEF ? as<ed: F9e$$6F he said6 F#e %ot a#ay #ith a fe# 0um+s
and 0ruises: Some of our +eo+$e a$so did a fe# foo$ish thin%s: @ne 4a0ardinian +rince6
#ho $i3ed hi%h u+ in the mountains6 cou$d thin< of not$iin% 0etter than to send a su+er0
#hite char%er to .it$er +ersona$$y:F
?n his FsecretF re+ort at the GGth 5on%ress6 4hrushche3 #as to refer to these mass
de+ortations in the fo$$o#in% terms:
A& &'( ($5 #0 194@ ... ) 5(3,-,#$ 2)- &);($ &# 5(.#+& )// &'( K)+)3'),... T'( -)"( /#&
8(0(//, ,$ D(3("8(+ 194@, &'( .#.1/)&,#$ #0 &'( A1&#$#"#1- K)/"1; R(.18/,3. I$
M)+3' 1944 )// &'( C'(3'($ )$5 I$%1-', .(#./( 2(+( 5(.#+&(5 )$5 &'(,+
A1&#$#"#1- R(.18/,3 /,91,5)&(5. I$ A.+,/ 1944 )// B)/;)+- 2(+( 5(.#+&(5 &#
0)+)2)* ./)3(- )$5 &'( K)8)+5,$#-B)/;)+ R(.18/,3 2)- +($)"(5 K)8)+5,$,)$
R(.18/,3. T'( U;+),$,)$- )6#,5(5 &',- 0)&( #$/* 8(3)1-( &'(+( 2(+( &## ")$* #0
&'("... O&'(+2,-( '( 4S&)/,$7 2#1/5 ')6( 5(.#+&(5 &'(" )/-#.
N#& #$/* $# M)+B,-&-L($,$,-&, 81& )/-# $# ")$ #0 3#""#$ -($-( 3)$ %+)-. '#2 #$(
3)$ ");( 2'#/( $)&,#$- +(-.#$-,8/(, ,$3/15,$% 2#"($, 3',/5+($, #/5 .(#./(,
C#""1$,-&- )$5 K#"-#"#/-, )$5 (B.#-( &'(" &# ",-(+* )$5 -100(+,$% 0#+ &'(
'#-&,/( )3&- #0 ,$5,6,51)/ .(+-#$- #+ %+#1.- #0 .(+-#$-.
IThe Dethronement o" %talin 6-anchester #uardian re+rint6 19-))6 +: &3:K
These fi3e nationa$itiesDor #hat #as $eft of themD#ere6 indeed6 a$$o#ed to return to
their homes after Sta$in's death: 4hrushche3's indi%nation #ou$d +erha+s ha3e 0een more
con3incin% if he had e8tended it to the fate of t#o other nationa$ities6 the 5rimean Tartars
and the Ao$%a 1ermansL for these #ere not a$$o#ed to return to their homes6 either then
or $ater:
I!erha+s there is somethin% in the ar%ument that the 1erman 0oasts6 in 19436 of ha3in%
$eft a Ffifth co$umnF 0ehind in the 5aucasus in the sha+e of 1ermany's Mos$em friends
con3inced the 4rem$in that somethin% drastic shou$d 0e done a0out the Fdis$oya$F
nationa$ities: A +articu$ar$y 0oastfu$ artic$e a0out 1ermany's Fa$$iesF in the 5aucasus
a++eared in 1oe00e$s's +a+er Das Beich of Fe0ruary &16 1943 (cf: Dahin6 o+: cit:6 +:
&-1:)K
PART SIX 194@: Y()+ #0 H)+5 A,3&#+,(-E &'(
P#/,-' T)$%/(
C').&(+ I ATER STALIN!RAD.ETHE BIRTH O DSTALIN<S
MILITARY !ENIUSD
9ith the 3ictory of Sta$in%rad the So3iet *nion had #on her Batt$e of Sur3i3a$6 and no#
the #ar entered an entire$y ne# +hase: An8iety o3er the u$timate outcome of the #ar
3anished a$most com+$ete$yL and there #ere e3en moments of e8cessi3e o+timism and
o3er,confidence6 such as those after the 2ussian $i0eration of 4har<o3 in Fe0ruary: ess
than a month $ater6 4har<o3 #as a%ain to 0e $ost:
This set0ac< acted as a reminder that6 des+ite Sta$in%rad6 the 1ermans #ere sti$$ far from
finished6 and that there #as +erha+s some Hustification6 after a$$6 for 5hurchi$$'s forecast6
made at the time of the Sta$in%rad 3ictory6 that the #ar mi%ht $ast ti$$ 194-Da forecast
#hich %reat$y annoyed the 2ussians at the time: ;e3erthe$ess6 no0ody in 2ussia dou0ted
any $on%er that u$timate 3ictory #as no# a fore%one conc$usionL the on$y =uestion #as:
F.o# $on% #i$$ it ta<eE F And this #as ine3ita0$y $in<ed #ith the other =uestion of #hat
Britain and the *nited States #ere %oin% to do:
There #ere moments of o+timism6 after Sta$in%rad6 #hen so$diers #ou$d say that the 2ed
Army cou$d smash the 1ermans sin%$e,handed6 and that 2ussia #ou$d therefore not need
to Fshare the fruits of 3ictoryF #ith any0ody: This $ine #as to 0e discoura%ed 0y Sta$in
himse$f6 #ho6 on one occasion in 19436 0$unt$y dec$ared that 2ussia cou$d not #in the
#ar 0y herse$f:
?n 19436 the officia$ 2ussian attitude to Britain and America #as much 0etter than it had
0een in 194&6 #hen ner3ousness o3er the u$timate outcome of the Batt$e of Sta$in%rad
tended to +roduce out0ursts of 0ad tem+er $i<e the #ho$e .ess affair: ?n 19436 3ictoryD
thou%h sti$$ distantD#as a$ready in si%ht6 and it #as im+ortant to start ma<in% +$ans #ith
Britain and America for a +eace sett$ement: Discussions #hich #ere6 in the end6 to $ead to
the Teheran 5onference6 had a$ready 0e%un: The A$$ied 3ictories in ;orth Africa #ere
0ein% %i3en considera0$e +u0$icity in the So3iet +ress: A$thou%h this #as Fnot the Second
Front yetF6 it #as 3ery far from ne%$i%i0$e6 es+ecia$$y as it #as certain$y dra#in% a#ay
from the 2ussian front at $east +art of the uft#affe6 as #as a$so the 0om0in% of
1ermany: But there #ere sti$$ to 0e many u+s and do#ns in the 2ussian a++reciation of
the 9estern #ar effortL the $andin% on Fthe is$and of Sici$yF #as de$i0erate$y to 0e +$ayed
do#n6 thou%h6 $ater in the year6 ma8imum +u0$icity #as to 0e %i3en to the fa$$ of
Musso$ini:
Another factor #hich %reat$y contri0uted to a more friend$y attitude to the A$$ies #as the
3ery considera0$e increase6 in the course of 19436 of $end,$ease su++$ies: ?f there #as sti$$
3ery $itt$e a$$ied e=ui+ment in the 2ed Army at the time of Sta$in%rad6 this #as no $on%er
true: ;ot on$y #ere there many 9estern 0om0er and fi%hter +$anes in the 2ussian air
force6 0ut e3ery#here in the 2ed Army there #ere no# hundreds of Dod%es and
Stude0a<ers and Hee+s6 and a considera0$e +ro+ortion of army rations #as American food:
?t %a3e rise to some #isecrac<s: thus6 s+am #as in3aria0$y referred to as FSecond FrontF6
and e%%,+o#der used to 0e ca$$ed F2oose3e$t's e%%sF 6!aitsa 0ein% the 2ussian #ord 0oth
for Fe%%sF and Ftestic$esF): But they #ere +$eased to ha3e it6 a$$ the same:
After Sta$in%rad6 too6 So3iet forei%n +o$icy 0ecame much more acti3e than it had 0een: ?n
194&6 e8ce+t for the FSecond FrontF and F.essF cam+ai%ns6 the So3iet 1o3ernment had
a3oided any maHor un+$easantness #ith the #or$d at $ar%e: There #ere occasiona$
criticisms of Tur<ey and S#eden6 0ut these ne3er assumed the +ro+ortions of a
Fcam+ai%nFL the hand$in% of Ba+an6 then at #ar #ith Britain and the *nited States6 #as
e8ceedin%$y tactfu$ and cautious6 as at $east u+ to @cto0er the +ossi0i$ity of a Ba+anese
sta0,in,the,0ac< cou$d not 0e entire$y ru$ed out: Much more remar<a0$e #as the %reat
reticence6 throu%hout 194&6 in res+ect of the !o$ish 1o3ernment in ondon6 and a$most
no +u0$icity #as %i3en to the de+arture from 2ussia of the Anders Army:
ISee !art A?6 5ha+ter ):K
But6 soon after Sta$in%rad6 attitudes to forei%n %o3ernments 0e%an to 0e more se$ecti3e:
A+art from Ba+an6 to #hich the 2ussians remained forma$ 0ut +o$ite6 a shar+ $ine 0e%an to
0e dra#n 0et#een %ood and 0ad %o3ernments: The !o$ish 1o3ernment in ondon soon
0ecame the 0$ac<est shee+ of a$$6 and the cam+ai%n a%ainst it 0e%an in rea$ earnest in
Fe0ruary 19436 and soon $ed to the 0rea<in% off (or rather6 Fsus+ensionF) of di+$omatic
re$ations: This #as fo$$o#ed 0y the formation of a !o$ish Army on 2ussian soi$
inde+endent of the ondon 1o3ernment: That this trou0$e #ith the !o$es #as %oin% to
create considera0$e com+$ications #ith Britain and America cou$d6 of course6 0e
foreseenL 0ut the 2ussians triedDnot unsuccessfu$$yDto F$oca$iseF the =uarre$6 at $east
for a time: At Teheran6 indeed6 the !o$ish !ro0$em #as %oin% to 0e as %ood as she$3ed:
@n the other hand6 the rea$ friends of 2ussia #ere +roc$aimed to 0e the 5>echs6 the
(u%os$a3s andDthe French: A$$ three #ere re+resented 0y fi%htin% units on the 2ussian
Front6 and the French ;ormandie S=uadron #as %i3en +articu$ar$y #ide +u0$icity: The
5>ech and (u%os$a3 to<en forces fitted #e$$ into the %enera$ +attern of the FA$$,S$a3
so$idarityF +ro+a%andaL as for the French s=uadron6 #hich fou%ht %a$$ant$y throu%hout
19436 and #as to suffer 3ery hea3y casua$ties6 it sym0o$ised6 as it #ere6 the so$idarity
0et#een the So3iet *nion and a$$ the nations of occu+ied Curo+eDnot on$y the S$a3
nations:
After Sta$in%rad the 2ussian attitude to 1ermany's sate$$ites a$so chan%ed shar+$y: The
rout of the 2umanians and ?ta$ians in the Don country 0et#een ;o3em0er and Banuary6
and the terri0$e $osses inf$icted on the .un%arians at 4astornoye a $itt$e $ater6 had struc< a
fearfu$ 0$o# at .it$er's 1rand 5oa$ition: A$thou%h6 in 19416 o>o3s<y at his +ress
conferences6 as #e$$ as the 2ussian +ress6 used to ridicu$e .it$er's attem+ts to Fma<e these
+eo+$e fi%ht for himF6 it #as #e$$ <no#n that6 numerica$$y6 at any rate6 they re+resented a
considera0$e contri0ution to 1ermany's armed stren%th6 and there #ere times #hen 0oth
the .un%arians and the 2umanians had fou%ht 3ery #e$$ indeed: At @dessa6 at
Se0asto+o$6 and in the 5aucasus6 the 2umanian troo+s had 0een of considera0$e he$+ to
the 1ermans:
;o#6 in a mi$itary sense6 .it$er's 1rand 5oa$ition had as %ood as ceased to e8ist: There
#ere sti$$ some hardened .un%arian troo+s6 and the FinnsL 0ut the $atter #ere a rather
s+ecia$ case6 since they #ere fi%htin% their Fo#nF6 Finde+endentF #ar: ?n any case6 as
Mathias 2a<osi6 the .un%arian 5ommunist $eader6 #rote in Pravda in Fe0ruary 19436
t#o,thirds of the .un%arian forces in the So3iet *nion had 0een #i+ed outL there #as a
+o$itica$ crisis in .un%aryL and the 1o3ernment #as a$ready tryin% to F%et out of the
#arF: The 2ussians 0e%an to +ay more and more attention to si%ns of re0e$$ion a%ainst the
1ermans in the sate$$ite countries:
?n short6 after Sta$in%rad the sta%e #as set for a 0i% 2ussian internationa$ %ame:
Si%nificant$y6 it #as in 19436 on$y a fe# months after Sta$in%rad6 that the 5omintern6
dormant for at $east t#o years6 #as ca$$ed u+on to disso$3e itse$f: This #as an essentia$
+re$iminary to the internationa$ +o$icies on #hich Sta$in and Mo$oto3 #ere no#
em0ar<in%:
The Sta$in%rad 3ictory 0rou%ht a0out a num0er of other chan%es: 9hereas in 1941 and
194& the #ho$e em+hasis in So3iet +ro+a%anda #as on Bussia, on the %reat Bussian
nationa$ herita%e that #as in dan%er6 and so forth6 after Sta$in%rad6 the #ord %oviet came
into its o#n a%ain: More and more #as made of the fact that a 3ictory $i<e Sta$in%rad #as
not Hust a =uestion of "Bussian %utsFL these F%utsF #ou$d ha3e 0een =uite he$+$essDas the
1914,1J #ar had sho#nD 0ut for the stu+endous %oviet or%anisation 0ehind them: And
#ho #as the rea$ 0ac<0one of this or%anisation 0ut the Part!@
Another de3e$o+ment after Sta$in%rad #as the systematic 0ui$d,u+ of Sta$in as a mi$itary
%enius: After Sta$in%rad6 4ut not 4e"ore5
9e may here usefu$$y $oo< 0ac< a $itt$e: 2ussia6 in terms of +ersona$ security and ha4eas
corpus, had ne3er 0een a comforta0$e +$ace to $i3e in6 either under enin or under Sta$in:
The ruth$ess co$$ecti3i>ation dri3e had 0rou%ht a0out fearfu$ hardshi+s6 0ut 0y 193)Dthe
year of the FSta$in 5onstitutionFDzhit0 stalo legche, zhit0 stalo veselei: $ife had 0ecome
Feasier and more cheerfu$F: Sta$in #as ta<in% the credit for it6 and the 3ast +ro+a%anda
machine of the !arty had 0y no# em0ar<ed on the F+ersona$ity cu$tF in earnest: And there
:as a Fi3e,(ear !$an mysti=ue in the country:
Then came the !ur%es: in the !arty6 in the Army6 amon% the inte$$i%entsia: There #ere
hundreds of thousands6 +erha+s mi$$ions6 #ho #ere direct$y affected (Fmany thousandsF
of officers in the 2ed Army a$one6 4hrushche3 said)6 and mi$$ions more #ho had $ost
re$ati3es and friends in the !ur%es: FThirty,se3enFDthe hei%ht of the !ur%esD0ecame a
fearfu$ memory: And yet Sta$in's +ersona$ +resti%e had 0een sur+risin%$y $itt$e affected:
There #as a <ind of o0session #ith Fca+ita$ist encirc$ementF and6 a0o3e a$$6 #ith ;a>i
1ermany6 and it seems that count$ess +eo+$e 0e$ie3ed6 or ha$f,0e$ie3ed that there cou$d 0e
no smo<e #ithout fire6 and that there must ha3e 0een FsomeF reason for the %reat +u0$ic
+ur%e tria$s of 4amene36 Oino3ie36 2y<o36 !iata<o36 Bu<harin6 2ade< and the rest: ?n
many minds6 Trots<y had 0een 0ui$t u+ into a dia0o$ica$ fi%ure #ith count$ess
accom+$ices inside 2ussia: There #ere a$so manyDinc$udin% many of those arrestedD
#ho #ere %enuine$y con3inced that much inHustice #as 0ein% done #ithout Sta$in's
<no#$ed%e6 and that it #as the fau$t first of (a%oda and then of (e>ho3: 9hen the !ur%es
more or $ess came to an end6 and (e>ho3 3anished in 19396 to 0e re+$aced 0y Beria6 the
story #as +ut a0out 0y !arty +ro+a%andists6 that Sta$in himse$f had sto++ed the !ur%es:
I?n rea$ity the +ur%es continued6 thou%h on a sma$$er sca$e6 e3en in 1939: 4osare36 for
e8am+$e6 head of the 4omsomo$ for se3era$ years6 #as shot on Sta$in's instructions6 in
March 19396 for ha3in% more or $ess o+en$y +rotested a0out the ear$ier +ur%es: This #as
re3ea$ed in Pravda in Decem0er 19)3:K
The %$orification of Sta$inDhe$+ed 0y 0etter economic conditions6 a sense of %reat
industria$ achie3ement and the fee$in% that 2ussia had 0ecome Fin3inci0$eFDreached
=uite fantastic +ro+ortions in 1939: For Sta$in's )"th 0irthday6 !ro<ofie3 #rote an
e8=uisite +iece of music6 ca$$ed Hde to %talin, #ith incredi0$e #ords $i<e these:
N(6(+ ')6( #1+ 0(+&,/( 0,(/5- -13' ) ')+6(-& -'#2$,
N(6(+ ')6( #1+ 6,//)%(+- -13' 3#$&($&"($& ;$#2$.
N(6(+ /,0( ')- 8(($ -# 0),+, -.,+,&- 8(($ -# ',%',
N(6(+ &# &'( .+(-($& 5)* %+(2 -# %+(($ &'( +*(.
O<(+ &'( ()+&' &'( +,-,$% -1$ -'(5- ) 2)+"(+ /,%'&,
S,$3( ,& /##;(5 #$ S&)/,$<- 0)3( ,& ')- %+#2$ "#+( 8+,%'&
I )" -,$%,$% &# "* 8)8* -/((.,$% ,$ "* )+",
!+#2 /,;( 0/#2(+- ,$ &'( "()5#2 0+(( 0+#" )// )/)+".
O$ *#1+ /,.- &'( $)"( #0 S&)/,$ 2,// .+#&(3& 0+#" ')+".
Y#1 2,// /()+$ &'( -#1+3( #0 -1$-',$( 8)&',$% )// #1+ /)$5.
Y#1 2,// 3#.* S&)/,$<- .#+&+),& 2,&' *#1+ &,$* ')$5.
=S: !ro<ofie3: Odravitsa ;Hde to %talin75 For )horus and Hrchestra5 State Music
!u0$ishers6 Mosco# (194) re+rints of 0oth orchestra$ score and +iano score): ?t is not
stated #ho #as res+onsi0$e for the Cn%$ish trans$ation of the Ffo$< te8tsF6 descri0ed as
0ein% of 2ussian6 *<rainian6 4urdish6 Be$orussian6 Mariis< and Mord3a ori%in: The rest
of the $i0retto is at $east as adu$atory of Sta$in as this short =uotation:K
;o dou0t !ro<ofie3 #rote the music to this #ith his ton%ue in his chee<6 ma<in% the
ra+turous *ol*hozni*s sin% some of their #ords in a 5,maHor sca$e %oin% u+ and do#n
and u+ and do#n a%ainL 0ut he #rote it a$$ the same:
!ro+a%anda had a$so drummed into the +eo+$e that the So3iet,1erman !act had 0een an
act of #isdomDor at any rate the $east of a$$ e3i$s6 and6 for a time6 there #as undou0ted$y
some satisfaction at the thou%ht that6 #ith the occu+ation of 9estern !o$and6 the Ba$tic
States and Bessara0ia6 2ussia had 3irtua$$y re%ained her o$d frontiers: At the same time6
there #as un=uestiona0$y a %ro#in% fee$in% of an8iety6 es+ecia$$y after the ra+id co$$a+se
of France and6 e3en more6 after the 1erman in3asion of (u%os$a3ia and 1reece: (et there
#as sti$$ the #ides+read fee$in% that Sta$inDthe 0oss6 the *hoziainD<ne# #hat he #as
doin%:
Then came the ?n3asion #hich seemed at first $i<e an a+oca$y+tic <ind of disaster:
Mi$$ions #ondered ho# F1reatF6 F9iseF Sta$in had a$$o#ed a$$ this to ha++en: .ad there
not 0een some fearfu$ misca$cu$ations some#hereE ?t is said that Sta$in $ost his head at
first6 and e3en uttered in a moment of des+air thatD+erha+s %enuine D+hrase a0out Fthe
#ho$e #or< of enin 0ein% destroyed:F But if he fe$t des+erate6 he certain$y did not sho#
itDe8ce+t once in a $etter to 5hurchi$$ in Au%ust 1941: .is 0roadcast of Bu$y 36 for a$$ its
a$armin% undertones6 had a reassurin% effect on the country: The %enera$ fee$in% amon%
the +eo+$e seems to ha3e 0een that6 for 0etter or for #orse6 Sta$in #as :ith them, that he6
$i<e the country6 had 0een $et do#n6 and that he #as no# as<in% for the country's
confidence: And6 since there #as no#here e$se to turn to6 the +eo+$e Facce+tedF Sta$in's
$eadershi+:
?n the first fe# months of the #arDri%ht u+ to the Mosco# AictoryDthe references to
Sta$in in the +ress 0ecame much fe#er and the +ictures of him #ere no# fe# and far
0et#een: But after the Mosco# 3ictory his +resti%e #as a%ain $ar%e$y restoredDthou%h
there #ere sti$$ a %reat many menta$ reser3ations a0out him6 a0o3e a$$ in enin%rad: T#o
+oints undou0ted$y counted in his fa3our: first6 that he had not $ost his ner3e on @cto0er
1)6 and had not f$ed from Mosco#L and the idea that FSta$in had stayed #ith usF had a
3ery im+ortant +sycho$o%ica$ effect on 0oth the Mosco# +o+u$ation and on the Army:
Second$y6 there #as that 2ed S=uare +arade on ;o3em0er 7 at #hich his 2ussian
nationa$ist s+eech made a tremendous im+ression:
I See ++: &47,9:K
To the Army6 Sta$in 0ecame6 more than 0efore6 somethin% of a father,fi%ure: And the
so$diers did %o into 0att$e cryin% "za rodinu, za %talina"5 Aictor ;e<raso36 the no3e$ist6
#ho did not $i<e Sta$inDfor he had $ost many of his friends in the !ur%es Dto$d me in
19)3 that he6 too6 had $ed his men into 0att$e #ith that cry: Sta$in6 as he +ut it6 had
0un%$ed thin%s terri0$y at the 0e%innin% of the #arL and yet6 $ater6 +eo+$e instincti3e$y fe$t
that here #as a man #ith ner3es of stee$6 #ho6 #hen thin%s $oo<ed 0$ac<est of a$$6 had
+u$$ed himse$f to%ether and had not $ost his head:
After the Batt$e of Mosco# Sta$in's stoc< #ent u+ and the +oets 0e%an to sin% his +raises
a%ain: But 0y that time Sta$in #as #i$$in% to share the credit for the 3ictory of Mosco#
#ith others6 +articu$ar$y #ith %enera$s $i<e Ohu<o3 and 2o<osso3s<y:
Then came the B$ac< Summer of 194&: ?n a sense6 Sta$in's +osition #as e3en more
difficu$t then than it had 0een in 1941: .is %reat ar%ument in 1941 had 0een that a
+o#erfu$ army $aunchin% a sur+rise attac< on a country6 ho#e3er stron%6 had an immense
initia$ ad3anta%e: But no#6 in 194&6 this ar%ument no $on%er he$d %ood6 e8ce+t that
2ussia #as sti$$ sufferin% economica$$y from the Fsur+rise attac<F: So #hen the 0$ac<
days cameDfirst #ith 4erch6 4har<o3 and Se0asto+o$6 and then #ith the 1erman
ad3ance on Sta$in%rad and the 0rea<throu%h to the 5aucasusDe8+$anations #ere needed:
As #e ha3e seen6 sca+e%oats #ere found: first6 the A$$ies #ho had not started the Second
Front6 and second$y6 the Army itse$f: 9hat #as ha++enin% #as not the fau$t of the !arty6
sti$$ $ess of Sta$in6 0ut #as due to $ac< of disci+$ine in the Army6 0ad $eadershi+6 and so
on:
There may #e$$ 0e 3ery %ood reasons to su++ose that the +ost,2osto3 army reforms6
#hich 0e%an to #or< #onders6 #ere in rea$ity much more the #or< of Ohu<o3 and
Aassi$e3s<y than of Sta$in6 and that thin%s had come to such a +ass that he had to a%ree to
them #hether he $i<ed them or not: But the credit for them #as %i3en to Sta$in: This6 #ith
his Fnot a ste+ 0ac<F order6 #as 0ui$t u+ into the idea that a$$ #ou$d 0e #e$$ no# that
Sta$in had ta<en thin%s in hand:
?n 3ie# of 4hrushche3's a$$e%ations in his FSecret 2e+ortF to the GGth 5on%ress that
Sta$in #as a mi$itary i%noramus6 and of the comments of forei%n o0ser3ers that thou%h he
#as +o$ite to forei%ners he #as e8treme$y rude to 2ussians of #hate3er ran<6 it is
interestin% to ha3e Marsha$ (eremen<o's account of a Defence 5ommittee meetin% in the
first #ee< of Au%ust 194&6 Hust 0efore Sta$in%rad: (eremen<o had 0een in hos+ita$6
reco3erin% from a $e% #ound6 #hen he #as summoned to the 4rem$in:
L()6,$% "* -&,3; ,$ &'( ')//, I 3)+(01//* 81& 8+,-;/* ($&(+(5 &'( -&15* #0 &'(
C#"")$5(+-,$-C',(0 )$5 H()5 #0 &'( S&)&( D(0($3( C#"",&&((. .. S&)$5,$% )& ',-
5(-;, J#-(.' A,--)+,#$#6,3' ')5 :1-& 0,$,-'(5 ) &(/(.'#$( 3#$6(+-)&,#$. S(6(+)/
#&'(+ "("8(+- #0 &'( D(0($3( C#"",&&(( 2(+( ,$ &'( +##".
... J. A. S&)/,$ 3)"( 1. &# "(, -'##; ')$5-, )$5 3/#-(/* /##;,$% )& "( -),5: DS# *#1
3#$-,5(+ *#1 )+( 0,& )%),$ID DY(-, I ')6( 01//* +(3#6(+(5,D I +(./,(5.
O$( #0 &'#-( .+(-($& &'($ -),5: DL##;- )- ,0 ',- 2#1$5 2)- -&,// 8#&'(+,$% ',"? '(<-
/,".,$% 8)5/*.D DP/()-( 5#$<& 2#++*,D I -),5, DI )" 91,&( )// +,%'&.D
DT')&<- 0,$(,D -),5 S&)/,$, DL(&<- 3#$-,5(+ &')& C#"+)5( Y(+("($;# ')- 01//*
+(3#6(+(5, )$5 /(&<- %(& 5#2$ &# 81-,$(--. W( $((5 *#1 6(+* 8)5/*.D
... T'( D(0($3( C#"",&&(( 2)- 2#+;,$% #$ &'( "()-1+(- &# 8( &);($ 0#+
-&+),%'&($,$% &',$%- #1& ,$ &'( S&)/,$%+)5 )+(). T'( .+#8/(" 1$5(+ 5,-31--,#$ 2)-
&'( )..#,$&"($& #0 &'( 3#"")$5(+ &# ) $(2 +#$&.
S1"",$% 1. &'( 5,-31--,#$-, J. A. S&)/,$ &1+$(5 &# "(: DT'( -,&1)&,#$ )& S&)/,$%+)5
3)//- 0#+ 1+%($& "()-1+(-... T'( D(0($3( C#"",&&(( ')- 5(3,5(5 &# 5,6,5( &'(
S&)/,$%+)5 +#$& ,$&# &2# 5,-&,$3& 0+#$&-, )$5 &# )..#,$& *#1 3#"")$5(+ #0 #$( #0
&'(".D
(eremen<o acce+ted the +ost6 and Sta$in then to$d him to %o to the 1enera$ Staff and
study there a$$ the necessary o+erationa$ and or%anisationa$ detai$s6 and to return in the
e3enin% #ith Aassi$e3s<y6 the 5hief of Staff: The fina$ decisions #ou$d 0e ta<en then:
S)*,$% %##5-8*(, S&)/,$ &'($ -),5: DW,// *#1 2#+; #1& ) -3'(51/(, -# )- &# 8( )8/( &#
/()6( 0#+ S&)/,$%+)5 &'( 5)* )0&(+ &#"#++#2.D
(eremen<o then re$ates ho# he s+ent the day at the 1enera$ Staff and #hat he $earned
there a0out the 3ery threatenin% out$oo< in the Sta$in%rad area:
I$ &'( (6($,$% I +(&1+$(5 &# &'( C#"")$5(+-,$-C',(0. H(+( 2(+( )/-# &'( C',(0 #0
S&)00, !($(+)/ A)--,/(6-;*, M):#+-!($(+)/ I6)$#6, )/-# #0 &'( !($(+)/ S&)00, )$5
!($(+)/ !#/,;#6... A0&(+ &'( 1-1)/ 2(/3#"(, J. A. S&)/,$ #+5(+(5 C#"+)5(
A)--,/(6-;* &# +(.#+& #$ &'( 5+)0& 5(3,-,#$ )8#1& &'( $(2 +(-)++)$%("($& #0 &'(
)+"* %+#1.-.
W',/( C#"+)5(- A)--,/(6-;* )$5 I6)$#6 2(+( -.+()5,$% #1& &'( ").-, J. A. S&)/,$
3)"( 1. &# "( )$5 0((/,$% &'( &2# %#/5 2#1$5 -&+,.(- #$ "* &1$,3, +(")+;(5: DI&
2)- 91,&( +,%'& &# ,$&+#513( &'(-( 2#1$5 -&+,.(-. P(#./( -'#1/5 ;$#2 &'#-( 2'#
')6( 8(($ -'(55,$% &'(,+ 8/##5 0,%'&,$% 0#+ &'( 3#1$&+*...D
After Aassi$e3s<y's c$ear and $aconic re+ort6 there #as a $on% discussion6 in the course of
#hich (eremen<o ar%ued a%ainst the s+$ittin% of the Sta$in%rad Front in t#o6 since the
0order 0et#een t#o fronts a$#ays tended to 0e 3u$nera0$e:
H)6,$% -),5 "* .,(3(, I -&#..(5, 2),&,$% 0#+ #8-(+6)&,#$-, ,0 )$*. R)&'(+ &# "*
-1+.+,-(, )$5 )..)+($&/* &# &')& #0 &'( #&'(+-, S&)/,$ +()3&(5 +)&'(+ $(+6#1-/* &# "*
-1%%(-&,#$. T',- $(+6#1-$(-- ")* 2(// ')6( 8(($ 3)1-(5 8* &'( &(/(.'#$(
3#$6(+-)&,#$- '( ')5 :1-& ')5, ,$ #1+ .+(-($3(, 2,&' ) $1"8(+ #0 0+#$&-... W( 3#1/5
0((/ &')& '( 2)- 8(,$% %,6($ 8)5 $(2-, )$5 &')& &'(* 2(+( )// )-;,$% 0#+ '(/.. T'(
-,&1)&,#$ 2)-, ,$5((5, 6(+* &($-(. O1+ &+##.- 2(+( 3#$&,$1,$% &# +(&+()&. A& &')&
"#"($& I 3#1/5 $#& '(/. &',$;,$% #0 &'( %+()& +(-.#$-,8,/,&* 0#+ &'( 01&1+( #0 #1+
3#1$&+*, #0 &'( 0()+01/ 81+5($ &')& ')5 8(($ ./)3(5 #$ &'( -'#1/5(+- #0 J#-(.'
A,--)+,#$#6,3', 2'# 2)- 8#&' '()5 #0 &'( !#6(+$"($& )$5 C#"")$5(+-,$-C',(0.
A0&(+ ) 0(2 ",$1&(-, S&)/,$ -),5 &# A)-,/(6-;*, 2,&' ) &#13' #0 ,++,&)&,#$:
DL(& 1- -&,3; &# #1+ 5(3,-,#$. C1& &'( S&)/,$%+)5 +#$& ,$ &2#, 2,&' &'( +,6(+
T-)+,&-) ... )- &'( 8#+5(+-/,$(.D
There fo$$o#ed a discussion on ho# the ne# fronts #ere to 0e namedL and #hen
(eremen<o a%ain as<ed for +ermission to s+ea<6 Sta$in smi$ed6 and no# said 3ery
ca$m$y: F1o ahead:F (eremen<o then as<ed that he 0e a++ointed to the command of the
South,Cast Front6 i:e: to the ri%ht f$an< of the t#o army %rou+s at Sta$in%rad6 since it #as
from this area that the main 0$o# cou$d 0e struc< at the 1ermans:
I )55(5 &')& "* D-#/5,(+<- '()+&D 2)- "#+( )&&1$(5 &# #00($-,6( &')$ (6($ &# &'(
"#-& +(-.#$-,8/( 5(0($-,6( #.(+)&,#$-.
A// &'#-( .+(-($& 3)+(01//* /,-&($(5 &# "(. H)6,$% -&)/;(5 1. )$5 5#2$ &'( +##",
S&)/,$ &'($ -),5: DY#1+ .+#.#-)/ 5(-(+6(- -(+,#1- )&&($&,#$? 81& ,&<- ) ")&&(+ 0#+ &'(
01&1+(. O1+ .+(-($& :#8 ,- &# -&#. &'( !(+")$-.D
,//,$% ',- .,.(, '( .)1-(5. I &##; )56)$&)%( #0 &',- )$5 -),5: DI "()$ &'( 01&1+(,
)$5 I )%+(( &')& $#2 2( "1-& -&#. &'( !(+")$- )& )$* .+,3(.D
DY#1 1$5(+-&)$5 &'( .#-,&,#$ 3#++(3&/*,D -),5 S&)/,$. DT')& ,- 2'* 2( 5(3,5(5 &#
-($5 *#1 &# &'( S#1&'-E)-& +#$&, 2'(+( &'(* )+( )56)$3,$% 0+#" K#&(/$,;#6# &#
S&)/,$%+)5. T'( $(2 0+#$& "1-& 8( 81,/& 1. 91,3;/* )$5 )/#$% $(2 /,$(-. Y#1 ')6(
&'( $(3(--)+* (B.(+,($3(? *#1 5,5 ,& 2,&' &'( B+,)$-; +#$&. S# %# #00, #+ +)&'(+ 0/*
#00, &# S&)/,$%+)5 &#"#++#2... D I$ 3#$3/15,$%, S&)/,$ -&+(--(5, )- '( &1+$(5 &# "(,
&')& ,& 2)- (--($&,)/ &# +(,$0#+3( 5,-3,./,$( )"#$% &'( &+##.-, )$5 &# &);( &'( "#-&
5+)-&,3 "()-1+(-.
A& @ ).". )// 91(-&,#$- 2(+( -(&&/(5, )$5 S&)/,$ 2,-'(5 "( ",/,&)+* -133(--... W( )//
/(0& 0,//(5 2,&' &'#1%'&- #0 #1+ ,""($-( +(-.#$-,8,/,&*. . .
IA: ?: (eremen<o: %talingrad (Mosco#6 19-9)6 ++: 33,39:K
A$thou%h $ater6 in 19)36 (eremen<o Hoined in the fashiona0$e %ame of criticisin% Sta$in
as a #ar $eader6 and made much of his FerroneousF decision to s+$it the FSta$in%rad FrontF
in t#o (a decision #hich6 as #e ha3e seen6 #as to 0e re3ersed a fe# #ee<s $ater)6 se3era$
im+ortant +oints emer%e from (eremen<o's 19-9 descri+tion of his meetin% #ith Sta$in:
First6 that the Defence 5ommittee #as doin% im+ortant team #or<6 and that the
FerroneousF decision a0out the Sta$in%rad Front may ha3e 0een ta<en 0y others6 and on$y
endorsed 0y Sta$inL second6 that he had a %ood %ras+ of mi$itary affairs (an im+ression
0orne out 0y 5hurchi$$6 .o+<ins6 Deane and many others)L third$y6 that he and his team
#ere in direct communication #ith the entire Front and had to ta<e 3ita$$y im+ortant
decisions e3ery dayL fina$$y6 that6 des+ite moments of Fner3ousnessF and FirritationF6
understanda0$e in the hi%h$y critica$ atmos+here of Au%ust 194&6 Sta$in cou$d 0e a %ood
$istener #hen his %enera$s had anythin% to say: ;or does the (eremen<o story su%%est
that in the %rim days of 194& Sta$in #as either arro%ant or o3er0earin%L on the contrary6
he cou$d 0e 0oth friend$y and considerate: .is c$osest associates in 194& #ere6 as #e
<no#6 Ohu<o3 and Aassi$e3s<y6 and it #as they6 in fact6 #ho +$anned the Sta$in%rad
counter,offensi3eD#ith Sta$in's 0$essin%:
This #as made +erfect$y c$ear in the officia$ announcements on the Sta$in%rad o+erationsL
and it #as not ti$$ Fe0ruary 1943 that ne# +hrases $i<e FSta$inist strate%yF6 the FSta$inist
mi$itary schoo$ of thou%htF and e3en Fthe mi$itary %enius of Sta$inF first made their
a++earance in the So3iet +ress6 and not $east in the Bed %tar5 9hat the mi$itary artisans of
the 3ictory of Sta$in%radDmen $i<e Ohu<o36 Aassi$e3s<y6 Aorono3 and 2o<osso3s<yD
thou%ht of this in +ri3ate is any0ody's %uess: But these 3ery first +hrases in the So3iet
+ress6 soon after Sta$in%rad6 a0out FSta$in's mi$itary %eniusF started a ne# +rocess #hich
#as to $ead to some curious and6 in the end6 some hi%h$y +ernicious resu$ts:
The destruction of the 1erman )th Army at Sta$in%rad #as +art of a 3ast mi$itary +$an6
the Fidea$F aim of #hich #as to carry the 2ed Army a$on% a #ide front a$$ the #ay to the
Dnie+er 0efore the s+rin%: on% 0efore the 1ermans had ca+itu$ated at Sta$in%rad6 the
2ussians #ere mo3in% #est#ards in a num0er of +$aces: But 1erman resistance in the
Don country and east of 2osto3 had stiffened 3ery considera0$y since the 0e%innin% of
Banuary6 and the +$an for c$osin% the F2osto3 1a+F had fai$ed: The 2ussians did not
ca+ture 2osto3 unti$ the midd$e of Fe0ruaryL and 0y this time the 1erman forces in the
5aucasus had either entrenched themse$3es on the Taman !eninsu$a6 or had s$i++ed
throu%h the 2osto3 1a+:
ISee ++: -7" ff:K
Much more successfu$ for the 2ussiansDat $east unti$ the 1erman counter,offensi3e
0e%anD#ere their o+erations in the *++er Don and Cast,*<rainian areas: @n Banuary &)6
Aorone>h (no# a hea+ of ruins) #as $i0erated 0y troo+s of 1enera$ 1o$i<o3's Aorone>h
Front6 and the first ha$f of Fe0ruary #as mar<ed 0y a =uic< succession of 2ussian
3ictories: After their $i0eration of Aorone>h6 they inf$icted a maHor rout on the .un%arian
&nd Army at 4astornoye6 #est of Aorone>hD#here6 accordin% to the 2ussians6 o3er
1""6""" .un%arians #ere <i$$ed or ta<en +risonerL 1erman commentators do not deny
that the .un%arians #ere 3irtua$$y e$iminated from the Castern Front 0y the 4astornoye
rout: A$thou%h in the south (i:e: north of the Sea of A>o3) the 1ermans firm$y he$d the
Mius ine defendin% the southern +art of the Don0as6 the 2ussians #ere no# on the
mo3e a$on% a #ide front in the north6 0et#een Aorone>h and Bo%uchar6 o3errunnin% the
4urs< +ro3ince and +enetratin% into the ;orth,Castern *<raine and the northern Don0as
from the east and north,east: Aa$ui<i6 isychans<6 ?>yum and the %reat en%ineerin% centre
of 4ramators< (thou%h no# reduced to another hea+ of ruins) #ere reca+tured durin% the
first #ee< of Fe0ruary6 and6 a fe# days $ater6 Ao$chans<6 5hu%uye3 and o>o3aya: @n
the 1)th6 after hea3y fi%htin%6 1o$i<o3's troo+s entered 4har<o36 the fourth,$ar%est city in
the So3iet *nion: Meantime6 farther south6 Aatutin's troo+s of the South,9est Front
$i0erated the %reat industria$ centre of Aoroshi$o3%rad6 #hi$e ;o3ocher<ass< and 2osto3
#ere h0erated 0y the troo+s of the Southern Front under Ma$ino3s<y:
After the ca+ture of 4har<o36 1o$i<o3's and Aatutin's troo+s continued their ad3ance6
and6 #ith the ca+ture of !a3$o%rad on the 17th6 the 2ussians #ere a$most in si%ht of the
Dnie+er ine6 0are$y t#enty mi$es to the #est: ?t #as at this sta%e that the 1ermans 0e%an
+re+arin% their counter,offensi3e6 their Fre3en%e for Sta$in%radF: ?n March6 cau%ht on the
ho+6 the 2ussians #ere6 indeed6 %oin% to $ose some of the territory %ained in the #inter
offensi3e6 inc$udin% 4har<o3:
Bet#een Sta$in%rad and the first indications of the comin% 1erman counter,offensi3e the
mood in 2ussia #as e8u0erant6 and it #as durin% this +eriod that +hrases $i<e FSta$in's
mi$itary %eniusF 0e%an to 0e used in the +ress: The +ros+ect of reca+turin% the #ho$e of
the Don0as and reachin% the Dnie+er ine 0efore the s+rin% #as a$$urin%6 and the ca+ture
of 4urs< and 4har<o3 seemed to e8ceed e3en the rosiest ho+es: The So3iet +ress #as fu$$
of artic$es on the im+ortance of reca+turin% the Don0asD#hich meant coa$ and stee$: The
tone of the +ress 0ecame e3en more e8u0erant after the $i0eration of 4har<o3L Bed %tar
#rote on Fe0ruary 1):
T'( 3).&1+( #0 K')+;#6 ,-... )$#&'(+ &+,1".' #0 &')& S&)/,$,-& -&+)&(%* 2',3' ')-
)/+()5* )3',(6(5 -# "13' 51+,$% &'( .)-& 2,$&(+. +)$&,3)//* &'( ($("* 3/1$% #$ &#
K')+;#6... T'( !(+")$- &+,(5 &# '#/5 1- #$ &'( D#$(&- +,6(+... 81& )// &'( 0#+&,0,(5
1$(- 2(+( 8+#;($, #$( )0&(+ )$#&'(+... ,$)//*, &'( 8)&&/( 3#$&,$1(5 ,$-,5( K')+;#6
,&-(/0, 81& '(+( )/-# &'#-( 5,6,-,#$- 2,&' )++#%)$& $)"(- /,;( !+#--5(1&-3'/)$5,
R(,3' )$5 A5#/0 H,&/(+ 2(+( -")-'(5... A$5 $#2 ,& ,- 2(, )$5 $#& &'( !(+")$-, 2'#
)+( %#,$% &# ./)$ &'( 01&1+( 3#1+-( #0 &'( 2)+.
T#o days $ater6 the same +a+er e8a$ted the s<i$$ of the 2ed Army: not on$y had it
$i0erated immense territories6 0ut in doin% so it had 0een constant$y encirc$in% and
destroyin% the enemyL thus6 the ?ta$ians had 0een encirc$ed and routed at Mi$$ero3o and
the .un%arians at 4astornoye6 not to mention the 1ermans at Sta$in%rad: And a%ain it
referred to 5annae6 F#here .anni0a$6 #ith his -"6""" 5artha%inians had routed 7"6"""
2omans:F F5annaeF had 0ecome +art of the 2ed Army's strate%y: Bed %tar #ent on to say
that a$$ that had ha++ened in the $ast months had fina$$y sho#n that Fthe 3aunted
su+eriority of 1erman mi$itary thou%htF had +ro3ed a myth6 e3en thou%h it #as a myth
that had e3en sur3i3ed the 1914D1J #ar: ;o# FSta$inist strate%yF #as trium+hant: ?t is
si%nificant that it #as soon after the ca+ture of 4har<o3 that Sta$in assumed the ran< and
tit$e of Marsha$ of the So3iet *nion:
Durin% these e8u0erant #ee<s of Fe0ruary 1943 more credit 0e%an to 0e %i3en to the
5ommunist !arty than e3er 0efore: .ere #ere the first si%ns of a rene#a$ of the o$d
tensions 0et#een F!artyF and FArmyF6 a$thou%h6 ri%ht to the end of the #ar the t#o
continued to 0e identified #ith each other6 rather than contrasted: The !arty #as6 as it
#ere6 no# $i3in% in the ref$ected %$ory of the Army6 or #as it vice versa, since the officia$
+ro+a%anda no# #ent out of its #ay to +oint out that a$$ that #as 0est in the Army #as
F!artyFE
Thus6 at the hei%ht of the reHoicin% o3er 4har<o36 Bed %tar #rote on Fe0ruary 19:
T'( P)+&* ')- &'+#2$ ,&- 8(-& -#$- ,$&# &'( 0+)*. H#2 ")$* &,"(- ,$ "#"($&- #0
3+,-,-, 8#&' )& M#-3#2 ,$ 1941 )$5 )& S&)/,$%+)5 ,$ 194M, 5,5 &'( 3#1+)%( )$5
&#1%'$(-- #0 C#""1$,-&- -)6( &'( -,&1)&,#$H T'( P)+&* #+%)$,-)&,#$ ,- &'( +()/
8)3;8#$( #0 &'( A+"*. A// &'( ")%$,0,3($& )3',(6("($&- #0 #1+ A+"* )+( 51( &# &'(
0)3& &')& &'( R(5 A+"*<- ",/,&)+* 5#3&+,$( ,- 8)-(5 #$ &'( 2(//-&(-&(5 .+,$3,./(- #0
&'( 2,-(-& 5#3&+,$( ,$ &'( 2#+/5E&')& #0 M)+B, E$%(/-, L($,$ )$5 S&)/,$.
?n short6 Finnate 2ussian 3irtuesF #ere indis+ensa0$e6 0ut they #ere mere$y the ra#
materia$ #ith #hich the rN%ime #as for%in% 3ictory: More and more6 as the #ar
a++roached a 3ictorious conc$usion6 did the conce+t of FSo3iet +atriotismF ta<e the +$ace
of F2ussian +atriotismF of the dar< days of 1941,&: And Sta$in #as increasin%$y 0ui$t u+
into the sym0o$ of this So3iet +atriotism:
?t is6 ho#e3er6 si%nificant that Sta$in ne3er =uite for%ot the fearfu$ days of 1941 and 194&6
#hen he had to de+end a$most e8c$usi3e$y on s+ecifica$$y Bussian nationa$ism to sa3e the
situationL and6 at the end of the #ar6 he sin%$ed out the Bussian +eo+$e as those #hose
determination to #in the #ar and defend the So3iet State had 0een %reatest of a$$:
C').&(+ II THE !ERMANS AND THE UKRAINE
;o# that the 2ed Army had 0e%un to dri3e the 1ermans out of the So3iet *nion and6 in
+articu$ar6 out of the *<raine6 #e must $oo< at 1erman +o$icy in the occu+ied areasDif it
can 0e ca$$ed a +o$icy: For6 in rea$ity6 this +o$icy #as a story of a$most unre$ie3ed
0estia$ity6 occasiona$$y mi8ed u+ #ith the more farcica$ as+ects of ;a>i ideo$o%y:
Thus6 as ear$y as 1) Bu$y6 19416 .it$er had a$ready decided that the 5rimea #as to
0ecome a +ure$y 1erman co$ony6 from #hich a$$ Fforei%nersF #ere to 0e de+orted or
e3acuated: ?t #as to 0ecome the F1erman 1i0ra$tarF in the B$ac< Sea: To 2o0ert ey6
5hief of the 1erman a0our Front and the Stren%th Throu%h Boy mo3ement6 it #as to
0ecome a %i%antic s+a6 a fa3ourite +$ay%round for 1erman youth: ater6 .it$er a$so
+$ayed #ith the idea of sett$in% the South,Tyro$ean +ro0$em #ith Musso$ini 0y resett$in%
in the 5rimea the 1erman,s+ea<in% inha0itants of the ?ta$ian +art of the Tyro$:
After the fa$$ of Se0asto+o$ in Bu$y 194&6 Manstein6 Fthe .ero of the 5rimeaF6 #as to 0e
+resented #ith one of the former ?m+eria$ +a$aces on the 5rimean F2i3ieraF: @ne of
2osen0er%'s more $unatic disco3eries #as that the 5rimea #as6 F%eo,+o$itica$$yF6 +art of
the 1ermanic herita%e6 since it #as in the 5rimea that the $ast 1oths had sur3i3ed as $ate
as the 1)th century: ?n Decem0er 1941 he had +ro+osed to .it$er that the 5rimea 0e
renamed F1oten$andF:
I &#/5 '," &')& I ')5 )/-# 2#++,(5 )8#1& &'( +($)",$% #0 &'( 3,&,(-. I &'#1%'& #0
+($)",$% S,"0(+#.#/ !#&($8(+%, )$5 S(8)-&#.#/ T'(#5#+,3'')0($...
I Da$$in6 o+: cit:6 ++: &-4,-:K
?n rea$ity6 #hate3er .it$er's +ost,#ar +$ans #ere6 it #as a#<#ard6 #hi$e the #ar #as sti$$
on6 to +roceed #ith a tota$ e3acuation of a$$ Fforei%nersF (i:e: non,1ermans) from the
5rimea6 es+ecia$$y as the 5rimean Tartars #ere not on$y %$ad$y co$$a0oratin% #ith the
1ermans6 0ut #ere actua$$y su++$yin% the 9ehrmacht #ith a certain num0er of so$diers:
But the 5rimea #as sti$$ a minor sidesho#6 com+ared #ith the *<raine: This #as an
immense territory #ith near$y forty mi$$ion inha0itants 0efore the #ar6 a +ro3er0ia$
F0read,0as<etF6 and a source of coa$6 iron ore and stee$:
?t #ou$d 0e id$e to dea$ here in detai$ #ith a$$ the conf$ictin% +o$icies that e8isted amon%st
the ;a>i hierarchy in res+ect of the *<raine: 2osen0er% c$ear$y tried to distin%uish at first
0et#een the Fe3i$F 1reat,2ussians and the *<rainians #ho cou$d 0e used as a 0u$#ar<
a%ainst the 2ussians: Car$y in 1941 2osen0er% ar%ued6 in his usua$ insane #ay6 that 4ie3
had 0een the centre of the Aaran%ian State6 #hich accounted for the stron%$y ;ordic and
su+erior racia$ features of the *<rainian +eo+$e:
Then6 in May6 he drafted instructions for the future 1erman ru$e in the *<raine:
2etreatin% s$i%ht$y from his %oa$ of immediate statehood6 he no# en3isa%ed t#o sta%es:
durin% the #ar6 the *<raine #as to +ro3ide the 2eich #ith %oods and ra# materia$sL after
that Fa free *<rainian state in c$osest a$$iance #ith the 1erman 2eichF #ou$d assure
1erman inf$uence in the east:
T# )&&),$ &'(-( %#)/-, #$( .+#8/("... "1-& 8( )&&)3;(5 )- +).,5/* )- .#--,8/(:
U;+),$,)$ 2+,&(+-, -3'#/)+- )$5 .#/,&,3,)$- "1-& 8( .1& &# 2#+; &# +(6,6( )$
U;+),$,)$ ',-&#+,3)/ 3#$-3,#1-$(--, -# )- &# #6(+3#"( 2')& B#/-'(6,;-J(2,-'
.+(--1+( ')- 5(-&+#*(5 ,$ U;+),$,)$ #olkstum ,$ &'(-( *()+-.
A ne# F%reat *ni3ersityF in 4ie36 technica$ academies6 e8tensi3e 1erman $ecture tours6
the e$imination of the 2ussian $an%ua%e and the intensi3e +ro+a%ation of 1erman
$an%ua%e and cu$ture #ere inte%ra$ +arts of this +ro%ramme: .e s+o<e in terms of
e8tendin% the future F*<rainian StateF a$$ the #ay from #o# to Sarato3 on the Ao$%a:
IDa$$in6 o+: cit:6 ++: 1"J,9:K
This seemin%$y F$i0era$F 2osen0er% !$an6 as #e$$ as a$$ its su0se=uent 3ariants6 met #ith
no fa3our from .it$er6 1oerin%6 .imm$er or6 for that matter6 Crich 4och6
2eichs<ommissar for the *<raine6 #ho +ointed$y set u+ his head=uarters in the +ro3incia$
to#n of 2o3no6 and not in 4ie36 #hich #as not to 0e %i3en e3en the sem0$ance of a
Fca+ita$F: The 3arious Nmi%rNs6 #ho had 0een han%in% round 2osen0er% for years6 such as
the seni$e S<oro+ads<y6 #ho had 0een the 1erman,a++ointed .erman of the *<raine
0ac< in 191J6 #ere not ta<en serious$y 0y any of the to+ ;a>isDe8ce+t 0y 2osen0er%
himse$f: C3en Bandera6 the ferocious$y anti,!o$ish and anti,Be#ish *<rainian
Fnationa$istF $eader in the 9estern *<raine6 #as arrested 0y the 1ermans at the 0e%innin%
of the #ar6 and sent to Ber$in6 #here he #as interned ti$$ 1944 #hen the hard,+ressed
1ermans decided that he mi%ht sti$$ ha3e his uses: Meantime 1a$icia (i:e: the 9estern
*<raine) #as sim+$y incor+orated in the 1erman,ru$ed 1o3ernment,1enera$ of !o$and:
Me$ni<6 another *<rainian nationa$ist $eader6 #as no $uc<ier than Bandera:
To .it$er6 to 1oerin%6 to .imm$er and to Crich 4och the *<rainians #ere
&ntermenschen, Hust $i<e the 2ussians: 1oerin% is =uoted as ha3in% said: FThe 0est thin%
#ou$d 0e to <i$$ a$$ men in the *<raine ::: and then to send in the SS sta$$ions:
IDa$$in6 o+: cit:6 +: 1&3:K
.e a$so cheerfu$$y en3isa%ed the +ossi0i$ity in 1941 of t#enty or thirty mi$$ion +eo+$e
dyin% of hun%er in 2ussia durin% the fo$$o#in% year: 4och6 a re+resentati3e of the most
e8treme &ntermensch schoo$ of thou%ht6 #as a++ointed o3er$ord of the *<raine at
1oerin%'s insistence:
For a short time after the 1erman occu+ation of the *<raine a sma$$ num0er of *<rainian
Fnationa$istsF sti$$ tried to ma<e their 3oice heard6 es+ecia$$y in +arts of the *<raine6 such
as 4har<o36 sti$$ nomina$$y under the Hurisdiction of the Army and not of 4och: But they
recei3ed no serious encoura%ement from any0ody:
The *<raine #as6 to the 1ermans6 first and foremost a source of foodL second$y6 of coa$6
iron and other minera$sL and third$y6 of s$a3e $a0our:
(et6 the a%ricu$tura$ de$i3eries from the *<raine turned out much sma$$er than the
1ermans had 0ud%eted for6 #hi$e the 1erman attem+ts to re3i3e the Don0as6 4ri3oi 2o%
and other industria$ areas6 #as to +ro3e a com+$ete fai$ureL the 1ermans actua$$y had to
send coa$ to the *<raine from 1ermanyP Both in a%ricu$ture and industry they met #ith
%reat +assi3e resistanceL moreo3er6 a%ricu$ture #as short of machinery6 and the 1ermans
had to e8+ort certain =uantities of such machinery to the *<raineL the industria$ +$ants
had $ar%e$y 0een e3acuated to the east6 and in those coa$ and iron ore mines #hich had
not 0een +ut out of action 0y the retreatin% 2ussians6 there #as 0oth a shorta%e of s<i$$ed
$a0our (many of the miners ha3in% 0een e3acuated) and 3arious <inds of +assi3e
resistance from the miners #ho #ere sti$$ there:
Accordin% to 1erman statistics6 non,a%ricu$tura$ de$i3eries from the east (i:e: from all the
occu+ied So3iet territories6 and not Hust the *<raine) tota$$ed 7&- m: mar<s' #orthL these
#ere offset 0y an e8+ort of -3- m: mar<s' #orth of e=ui+ment and coa$ to the east6 thus
$ea3in% a net +rofit of 19" m: mar<sP To this shou$d 0e added 3arious $oca$ de$i3eries to
the 1erman Army6 estimated at -"" m: mar<sL 0ut e3en so6 the tota$ 0a$ance remains
unim+ressi3e: Accordin% to Da$$in's ca$cu$ations6 0ased on the a3ai$a0$e 1erman
statistics6 and e3en inc$udin% the east's a%ricu$tura$ de$i3eries6 Fthe contri0utions of the
occu+ied east to the 2eich ::: amounted to on$y one,se3enth of #hat the 2eich o0tained
durin% the #ar from FranceP F
IDa$$in6 o+: cit:6 +: 4"7:K
C3en if the %reater +art of #hat the 1ermans %ot out of the occu+ied So3iet territories
came from the *<raine6 that enormous and #ea$thy country cannot ha3e su++$ied to the
2eich more than one,tenth of #hat the 1ermans had +um+ed out of France: The desire
for e3en +$ain economic co$$a0oration #as $ac<in%:
For t#o thin%s characterised the 1erman occu+ation of the *<raine: the massacre of the
Be#s6 and the de+ortation of mi$$ions of youn% *<rainians to 1ermany as s$a3e $a0our:
C3en assumin% that industria$ +roduction in the Don0as6 4ri3oi 2o% and Oa+oro>hie
cou$d 0e made to #or< (and the F+ro$etariatF6 or #hat #as $eft of it #as e3en more anti,
1erman than the rest of the *<rainian +o+u$ation) any such +ossi0i$ity #as made e3en
more remote 0y Sauc<e$'s +o$icy of drainin% a$$ industry in the east of its man+o#er and
de+ortin% it to 1ermany:
The de+ortation of s$a3e $a0our from the *<raine 0e%an in a 0i% #ay as ear$y as Fe0ruary
194&:
9e sha$$ ha3e to return to the to+ic of 1erman occu+ation +o$icy and methods in So3iet
territories6 and in the *<raine in +articu$ar: But here is a sam+$e of #hat they $oo<ed $i<e
in +ure$y human terms: ?t is an account of my 3isit to the %reat city of 4har<o3 after its
firstDand on$y 0riefD$i0eration 0y the 2ussians in Fe0ruary 19436 at the hei%ht of the
+ost,Sta$in%rad offensi3e:
C').&(+ III KHARKOA UNDER THE !ERMANS
There #as some ar%ument 0efore the #ar #hether 4har<o3 #as the third,$ar%est or on$y
the fourth,$ar%est city in the So3iet *nionL accordin% to some fi%ures6 it had Hust a fe#
thousand more inha0itants than 4ie3: But 0e that as it may6 4har<o3 #as6 in Fe0ruary
19436 the first city #ith a +o+u$ation of near$y a mi$$ion to 0e $i0erated from the 1ermans6
and this6 in itse$f6 #as e8traordinari$y interestin%: .o# had such a city $i3ed under the
1ermans for a year and a ha$fE
Before the #ar6 it had 0een a %reat industria$ city6 0ut +ractica$$y a$$ its hea3y industry
had 0een e3acuated in the autumn of 1941L ethnica$$y6 it #as +redominant$y *<rainian6
0ut near$y a third of the +o+u$ation #ere 2ussians:
9hen ? #ent there in Fe0ruary 1943 the 2ussian $i0eration of 4har<o3 #as sti$$ hi%h$y
+recariousL the 2ed Army's communication $ines #ere $on% and 3ery 0ad6 and the dan%er
of a 1erman counter,offensi3e cou$d not 0e ru$ed out: The hi%h s+irits amon% the 2ussian
so$diers noticea0$y dec$ined e3en durin% the three days ? #as there:
The 1erman occu+ation of 4har<o3 (#hich #as in the Mi$itary Oone6 and not under the
authority of Crich 4och) #as mar<ed 0y the fo$$o#in% features:
Acute hun%er amon% ci3i$ians6 es+ecia$$y durin% the first #inter of the occu+ationL
Terror6 es+ecia$$y a%ainst sus+ected So3iet sym+athisersL
C8termination of the Be#sL
The to$eration of a B$ac< Mar<et6 in #hich the 1erman so$diers +$ayed a 3ery acti3e +artL
;o encoura%ement %i3en 0y the 1erman authorities to any *<rainian nationa$ist
mo3ements6 0ut6 at the same time6 a readiness to so# discord 0et#een *<rainians and
2ussiansL
The stam+in% out of 2ussian and *<rainian cu$tura$ $ife6 and the a0o$ition of a$$
education6 e8ce+t some e$ementary schoo$sL
A certain encoura%ement to the artisans and to sho+<ee+ers6 0ut on$y the most ha$f,
hearted attem+t6 0y 1erman Bi% Business6 to re3i3e 4har<o3 as a %reat industria$ centreL
A readiness on the +art of some of the *<rainian petite 4ourgeoisie (artisan and
sho+<ee+er ty+es) to ada+t themse$3es as 0est they cou$d to a difficu$t situation6 and6
a0o3e a$$6 to sur3i3eL
Acute resentment a%ainst the 1ermans 0ecause of the de+ortation of so many of the
youn%er +eo+$e as s$a3e $a0our to 1ermanyL
The e8istence of a So3iet under%round6 and a #ides+read anti,1erman fee$in% in the city6
a0o3e a$$ amon% chi$dren and ado$escents de+ri3ed of their educationL
9hat F$oca$ %o3ernmentF there #asDthe *<rainian Bur%omaster and his to#n counci$D
#as com+$ete$y under the thum0 of the 1erman mi$itary authorities: The Bur%omaster6
A$e8ander Sem\nen<o6 #ho fo$$o#ed the 1ermans #hen they $eft6 and then returned #ith
them in March 19436 #as $ater6 in 19446 to +$ay a minor +art in Ber$in in the 3arious
attem+ts to set u+ an *<rainian ;ationa$ 5ommittee:
That e3enin%6 a fe# days after the 2ussians had entered 4har<o36 the front #as sti$$ on$y
a 3ery short distance a#ayL and for ha$f,an,hour 0efore $andin% our +$ane had 0een f$yin%
under fi%hter escort: ?t #as tha#in%: The $ar%e 0$oc<s of houses near the airfie$d had a$$
0een 0urned out: A #rec<ed .ein<e$ #as $yin% on the airfie$dL 0ut here a$so #ere ha$f,a,
do>en 2ussian fi%hter +$anesDnot #rec<ed6 0ut 3ery much a$i3e: T#o of them had Hust
escorted us here: But the airfie$d #as in a messL a$$ han%ars %one6 and a$$ the other
0ui$din%s %one: A youn% air force ser%eant6 sha<in% his head6 remar<ed:
F9e're in a rea$ Ham here: 9ith this tha#6 communications ha3e %one to he$$6 and #e
e3en ha3e to f$y the +etro$ here::: Before $ea3in%6 they #rec<ed e3erythin% at this airfie$d:
They a$so caused %reat dama%e to 4har<o3 #ith their air,raid the day after they #ere
thro#n out:::F
?t #as a $on% #ay from the airfie$d to 4har<o3: Most of the $ar%er 0ui$din%s on the #ay
had 0een 0urned out6 thou%h the sma$$ cotta%es #ith their 3e%eta0$e %ardens #ere
standin%: 9e sto++ed at one of these cotta%es #hich had 0een turned into an air force
officers' mess: @ur host #as a handsome air force co$one$ #ith a fair 0eard6 ;eomte3ich
0y name6 #ho had distin%uished himse$f in many 0att$es6 and had started fi%htin% 0ac< in
19416 in Be$orussia:
F9hat a #o$$o+ #e %ot from the 1ermans thenPF he remar<ed: FThey #ere rea$$y
e8+ectin% us to %i3e u+ the %hostL and6 ? can te$$ you: it :as a Ho0 <ee+in% the sho#
%oin%: ;o# #e are doin% #e$$6 0ut not near$y as #e$$ as #e shou$d $i<e to: ?t's a$$ 3ery
#e$$ ta$<in% a0out '4ie3 ne8t month': ;oL #e'3e %ot to re%rou+: @ur communications are
a0surd$y $on%6 and 3ery 0ad indeed: @ur nearest rai$#ay that's functionin% is o3er si8ty,
fi3e mi$es a#ay: The 1ermans ha3e certain$y 0u%%ered u+ the rai$#ayL and you shou$d
see #hat they'3e done to 4har<o3 rai$#ay stationDa mountain of #rec<a%e #hich #i$$
ta<e #ee<s to c$ear::: F
.e #as not at a$$ o+timistic a0out the immediate +ros+ects of the 2ussian offensi3eL he
thou%ht it had come near the end of its tether6 and after three months' continuous fi%htin%
the 2ussian so$diers #ere +hysica$$y e8hausted: FAs it is6F he said6 F#e are $i3in% most$y
on 'tro+hy' foodL #ith so fe# roads6 our su++$ies ha3e %one to +ot: ;ot that this se$ection
is 0ad6F he added6 +ointin% at the ta0$e and +ourin% me out a %$ass of reasona0$y %ood
mousseu25 The #ine #as French or .un%arian6 the sardines !ortu%ueseL there #ere
choco$ates from Aienna and +ic<$ed $emons6 +ro0a0$y from ?ta$y: FAt Aa$ui<i6F he said6
F#e ca+tured an enormous food dum+: My men and ? Hust stac<ed a cou+$e of tons into
+$anes6 and 0rou%ht it here:F
FThe *<rainian 1o3ernment6F he said6 Farri3ed in 4har<o3 yesterday: They intend to set
u+ the *<rainian ca+ita$ here6 ti$$ 4ie3 is $i0erated:F Then he made a face: FDon't <no#
that it's a %ood idea6F he added: FMay0e they're in too %reat a hurry:::F
After sam+$in% some of this +roduce of .it$er's ;e# @rder6 #e dro3e on: 4har<o3
seemed end$essL #e dro3e for mi$es throu%h su0ur0an and to#n areas 0efore #e reached
the centre of the city6 mar<ed 0y the hi%h to#er of an onion,domed church6 and6 further
to the $eft6 hi%h u+ on the hi$$6 0y an a%%$omeration of fourteen, or si8teen,storey
s<yscra+ers 0ui$t durin% a 0rief constructi3ist +eriod in the $ate '&"'s: These #ere the
s<yscra+ers of D>er>hins<y S=uare: But6 as #e #ere to disco3er the ne8t day6 most of
them had 0een 0urned out 0y the 1ermans 0efore they $eft6 and on$y t#oD#hich had
housed some of the centra$ industria$ administration of the *<raineD#ere sti$$ intact6
e8ce+t that the 1ermans had mined them 0efore $ea3in%:
9e #ere +ut u+ in a sma$$ #e$$,0ui$t house in the residentia$ and a$most undama%ed +art
of Sums<aya Street6 the main street of 4har<o3: The house #as %uarded 0y ha$f,a,do>en
tou%h so$diers #ith +isto$s and tommy%uns: 4har<o3 #as sti$$ considered far from safe as
there mi%ht 0e many 1erman s+ies and a%ents around: These so$diers 0e$on%ed to
1enera$ Oaitse3's di3ision6 #hich had 0een the first to 0rea< into 4har<o36 and #ere 3ery
+$eased #ith themse$3es: The house6 $i<e most houses in 4har<o36 had neither e$ectricity
nor #ater: 9e had to $i3e 0y cand$e,$i%ht6 and #ater #as 0rou%ht from some#here in
+ai$s:
There had 0een 9""6""" +eo+$e in 4har<o3 0efore the #ar6 0ut #hen the #ar s+read to
the *<raine6 and the refu%ees started +ourin% in from the #est6 this fi%ure s#e$$ed to
16&""6""" or 163""6""": ater6 in @cto0er 19416 #ith the 1ermans a++roachin%6 the
e3acuation of 4har<o3 0e%an in rea$ earnest: Most of the $ar%er +$ants #ere more or $ess
successfu$$y e3acuated6 amon% them the %reat Tractor !$ant6 #ith near$y a$$ its #or<ers:
By the time the 1ermans came6 some 7""6""" +eo+$e #ere $eft in the city: ;o# there
#ere on$y 3-"6""": 9hat had ha++ened to the restE
Accordin% to the 2ussian authorities6 the disa++earance of ha$f the +o+u$ation of @cto0er
1941 is accounted for as fo$$o#s: it has 0een esta0$ished that 1&"6""" +eo+$e6 most$y
youn% +eo+$e6 had 0een de+orted as s$a3es to 1ermanyL some 7"6""" or J"6""" had died
of hun%er6 co$d and +ri3ation6 es+ecia$$y durin% the terri0$e #inter of 1941,&L some
3"6""" had 0een <i$$ed 0y the 1ermans6 amon% them some 1)6""" Be#s (men6 #omen
and chi$dren) #ho had remained 0ehind in 4har<o3L the rest had f$ed to the 3i$$a%es:
Aarious chec<s ? made in the ne8t fe# days su%%ested that the fi%ure for deaths from
hun%er6 et cetera6 #as s$i%ht$y6 0ut not %reat$y6 e8a%%eratedL so too #as that for non,Be#s
shot6 0ut the fi%ure for the Be#s #as correct: @n the other hand6 the fi%ure for s$a3e,
$a0our de+ortations #as6 if anythin%6 an under,estimate:
The ne8t day the $ime,trees and +o+$ars in Sums<aya Street #ere #hite #ith hoar,frost:
!o+$arsP This #as the *<raine6 the south6 t#o,thirds of the #ay from Mosco# to the sea:
C3ery#here there #ere sti$$ 1erman notice,0oards: Par*en 1er4oten, and this ver4oten
and that ver4oten5 The street si%ns #ere in 1erman6 too6 and on one house #as the
ominous notice,0oard "/r4eits4ehIrde )har*o:"5 This #as #here they mo0i$ised +eo+$e
to 0e sent to 1ermany:
?n D>er>hins<y S=uare6 #ith its enormous 0urned,out or mined s<yscra+ers6 there #ere
$ar%e cro#ds of +eo+$eL most of them #ere sha00y6 undernourished6 ha%%ard6 and #ith a
$oo< of %reat ner3ous strain: @n$y the cro#ds of youn% 0oys $oo<ed norma$L and they
#ere $i3e$y and ta$<ati3e: But6 $oo<in% at the adu$ts6 one cou$d readi$y 0e$ie3e that many
thousands had died of undernourishmentDe3en here6 in this rich +art of the *<raine:
These +eo+$e in the streets of 4har<o3 #ere enormous$y ta$<ati3eL one fe$t that a$$ of
them #anted to te$$ some story: ? remem0er6 for instance6 a missha+en6 3ery sic<,$oo<in%
$itt$e man: .e said he #as arrested soon after the 1ermans cameL they <e+t him $oc<ed u+
at the ?nternationa$ .ote$ (no# 0urned out) in this 3ery s=uare6 and they <e+t him there6
a$most #ithout food6 for a fortni%ht: Then he #as re$eased: But it had 0een a harro#in%
e8+erienceL 0ecause e3ery ni%ht he cou$d hear +eo+$e 0ein% ta<en a#ay to 0e shotL many
of them #ere communists #ho had 0een denounced to the 1ermans: .e had 0een an
o+tician 0efore the #arL in the end6 he %ot a Ho0 from the 1ermans in the 0i% 4har<o3
e$ectrica$ +$ant6 #hich a 0i% 1erman concern had ta<en o3erL 0ut since the 2ussians had
e3acuated a$$ the machinery6 the 1ermans had had to 0rin% their o#n6 and ne3er
em+$oyed more than &6-"" #or<ers there6 as a%ainst &-6""" 0efore the #ar: @nce a day
there #as a hot mea$6 and the 0read ration #as 11 ounces: FThe +ay:F he said6 F#as
su++osed to 0e one rou0$e se3enty <o+e<s an hour6 0ut at the end of a fortni%ht ? #ent to
co$$ect my #a%es6 and the 1erman c$er< handed me se3enty,fi3e rou0$es: 9hen ?
o0Hected6 the 1erman said: 'There #ere ta8es to deduct6 and you can ta<e it or $ea3e itL
and another #ord from you6 and you'$$ %et your face <noc<ed in:' Fina$$y ? cou$dn't stand
it any $on%er6 and the 1ermans $et me %o6 0ecause ? #as a sic< man:F ater he made a
mea%re $i3in% 0y se$$in% s+ectac$es in the mar<et:
?t #as c$ear that thousands of +eo+$e had mana%ed to <ee+ 0ody and sou$ to%ether 0y
se$$in% and 0uyin% in the 0$ac< mar<etL +eo+$e #ith Ho0s6 +eo+$e #ithout Ho0sDa$$ had to
do it: F?f you had money6F one #oman said6 Fyou cou$d 0uy anythin% you #anted from
the 1erman so$diers: They had #rist,#atches 0y the do>en: They'd ta<e them off +eo+$e
in the street6 and then se$$ them in the mar<et:F FAnd not on$y #rist,#atches6F another
#oman Hoined in6 F?n 0road day$i%ht my dau%hter #as sto++ed 0y a 1erman so$dierL he
had ta<en a fancy to her shoes6 and ordered her to ta<e them off: .e so$d them in the
mar<et6 or sent them home:F F(our dau%hter #as $uc<y6F said the $itt$e man6 For e$se she
must 0e 3ery u%$y: They #ou$d often com+e$ %ir$s to fo$$o# them:F Many of those
standin% around shouted that that #as true6 and6 #orse sti$$6 many %ir$s #ere forced into
army 0rothe$sL they'd Hust %o and +ic< u+ the %ood,$oo<in% ones in a =ueue at the
/r4eitsamt5 And6 of course6 there #as no# a $ot of 3:d: in the city:::
Then +eo+$e ta$<ed a0out the han%in%s: !u0$ic han%in%s: ?t #as that #hich seemed to
ha3e $eft the dee+est im+ression of a$$: At the corner of Sums<aya and D>er>hins<y
S=uare there #as a $ar%e 0urned,out 0ui$din% #hich had 0een the 1esta+o head=uarters:
;o# se3era$ #omen to$d e8cited$y ho# in ;o3em0er 1941 the +o+u$ation #as
summoned to the s=uare to hear a 1erman announcementL and #hen a cro#d had
%athered6 se3era$ +eo+$e inside the 1esta+o 0ui$din% #ere thro#n o3er the 0a$conies6 #ith
ro+es tied round their nec<s6 and the other end tied to the 0a$cony rai$: That day many
+eo+$e #ere han%ed in many +arts of 4har<o3: There #ere =uite a $ot of traitors6 #ho had
denounced these 2eds to the 1ermans:::
T#o or three other #omen ta$<ed a0out ho# the chi$dren had 0ecome undisci+$ined and
demora$ised: The schoo$s had 0een c$osed6 and $itt$e 0oys had to 0e% in the street6 or e$se
they'd ha3e $itt$e handcarts and carry the 1erman so$diers' <it6 and $u%%a%e6 and 0$ac<,
mar<et +ac<a%es6 and earn a fe# rou0$es that #ay: F.a$f the +eo+$e6F one +a$e,faced
#oman said6 Fe8+ected their sma$$ chi$dren to #or< for themse$3es::: Sma$$ chi$dren6
hun%ry6 ha3in% to fend for themse$3esL ha3e you heard anythin% $i<e itE *nder Sta$in
chi$dren %et the 0est of e3erythin%6 0ut not under these 1erman s#ine: And no# a $ot of
them #i$$ 0e %ood,for,nothin%s6 thie3es and $itt$e hoo$i%ans: But then ho# cou$d you he$+
it6 #ith 0read costin% 1-" rou0$es a <i$o in the 0$ac< mar<etEF
? then %ot into con3ersation #ith a man ca$$ed 5here+a<hin6 a #or<in%,c$ass ty+e #ho
c$aimed to ha3e 0een in the 5ommunist under%round durin% the occu+ation6 and to$d
many harro#in% stories a0out the 1esta+o: F?t may 0e un,Mar8ist to say so6F he said6 F0ut
the 1ermans are a 0ad $otD+ractica$$y e3ery one of them: ?f there are e8ce+tions6 ?
ha3en't come across any:F But he had met some ?ta$ians in 4har<o36 and they #ere rea$$y
=uite different from the 1ermans: They hated the 1ermans6 and he #as sure the ?ta$ians
#ou$d soon %et out of the #ar: FA $ot of these ?ta$ians #ere rea$$y decent cha+s6F he said:
F? mana%ed to %et a set of %uitar strin%s for one of them6 and he as<ed me6 on the =uiet6 to
the house #here he and a num0er of other ?ta$ians #ere $i3in%L and there they #ou$d
curse .it$er6 and +$ay the %uitar and sin%: They had $itt$e to eat6 0ut they %a3e me some
nice #ine from a stra#,co3ered 0ott$e: 1ood cha+s: But they #ere misera0$e6 and they
hadn't e3en any +ro+er shoes6 and suffered from the co$d: ? a$so ta$<ed to a $ot of
.un%ariansL and a$thou%h a $ot of them are thie3es and 0$ac<,mar<eteers6 most of them
#ere %ood fe$$o#s at heart6 and hated the 1ermans:
FThere #as no $o3e $ost 0et#een the 1ermans and their a$$ies6F 5here+a<hin said: F@n$y
1ermans #ere admitted into the +rinci+a$ restaurants in 4har<o3Dnot their so,ca$$ed
A$$ies:F
.e then to$d me ho# the 1ermans discriminated 0et#een the 2ussians and the
*<rainiansL many *<rainians ser3ed in the $oca$ +o$iceDmany of them #ere more or $ess
forced into it: Someho#6 the 1ermans +referred *<rainians to 2ussians6 thou%h6 in
rea$ity6 most of the *<rainians hated them as much as the 2ussians didL e3en the
*<rainian nationa$ists6 #ho thou%ht they'd ha3e a #onderfu$ time under the 1ermans6
#ere soon %oin% to 0e disa++ointed:
? ha++ened to ta$< to one of them in the street that day: .e #as an e$der$y man #ith a
sma$$ red nose6 and round face6 and #ore a sha00y coat and frayed %rey f$anne$ trousers6
and shoes that #ere s+$it on the sides: .e said he had ta<en a Ho0 on the to#n counci$6 0ut
had found it didn't +ay: The 1ermans +aid him on$y 4"" rou0$es a month6 and he had a
#ife and chi$d to <ee+6 and he cou$dn't $i3e on that: So he too< to 0$ac<,mar<etin%6 too:
.e #ou$d tra3e$ 0eyond !o$ta3a6 and 0rin% 0a%s of f$our to 4har<o3: As #e +assed a ne#
+icture of Sta$in and another of Aoroshi$o3 stuc< u+ on a 0om0ed #a$$6 he %a3e a faint
shru%: FThe 1ermans certain$y made a mess of thin%s6F he said: FThey +romised us a
;e# Curo+e6 0ut then e3erythin% #ent #ron%:F May0e6 he said6 the 1ermans #ou$d
come 0ac<6 0ut that #ou$d no $on%er do any %ood to any0ody: They'd missed their
chance: C3en this $itt$e co$$a0orator had recei3ed mi%hty $itt$e satisfaction from the
1ermans::: .e had #anted one of his 0rothers in France and another in (u%os$a3ia to
Fcome homeF to 4har<o36 0ut no# it #as use$ess:
@f course6 there #ere +eo+$e6 es+ecia$$y of the artisan and sho+<ee+er c$ass #ho6 #ithout
0ein% Fun+atrioticF6 had tried to ada+t themse$3es as 0est they cou$d to the 1erman
occu+ation:
@ne such citi>en #as the $ady 0ar0er #ho used to come in the mornin%s to sha3e us and
the 2ed Army officers $i3in% in the same house: 9ith her came her FassistantF6 a +retty
0oy of fifteen #ith 0$ue eyes and $on% eye$ashes: .e #as much more anti,1erman than
she #as: .e to$d the fami$iar story of ho# the 1ermans used to han% +eo+$e from
0a$coniesL and one day he sa#Dthis #as ear$y in the @ccu+ationDho# they marched
fifteen 2ed ;a3y sai$ors throu%h the streets: .it$er had said6 the 0oy dec$ared6 that
Bo$she3i< sai$ors #ere not to 0e shot6 0ut dro#ned: They #ere manac$ed6 and as they
#ere 0ein% $ed a$on%6 there #ere cro#ds of +eo+$e on either side of the street6 #ee+in%:
The sai$ors san% the son% of the B$ac< Sea F$eet6 Bas*inulos0 more shiro*o5 And sti$$
#ee+in%6 +eo+$e Hoined in the son%: FThe 1ermans6F the 0oy said6 Ftoo< them handcuffed
to the ri3er6 and there they dro#ned them: ? didn't see it myse$f6 0ut others to$d me::: F
FThe <ids in 4har<o36F the 0oy #ent on6 Fused to sin% a son%6 and the 1ermans %ot
furious #hene3er they heard itD
D#/#, &-(+;#6, 5#/#, ;'+)",
D#/#, H,&/(+) &+,-&) %+)",
D)6), ;/18* , ;,$#
D)6), -&)/,$-;#*( ;,/#.
ITo he$$ #ith the church6
To he$$ #ith the cathedra$6
To he$$ #ith .it$er's 3"" %rammesL
et's ha3e #or<ers' c$u0s and cinemas6
And Sta$in's <i$o%ram (of 0read):K
.e a$so to$d me ho# they too< 1)6""" Be#s6 <ids and %randmothers and a$$6 to the 0ric<,
#or<s outside the to#n and there after a fortni%ht in a cam+6 they <i$$ed the $otL they a$so
sent thousands and thousands of +eo+$e to 1ermanyD+ushed them into rai$#ay carria%es
$i<e a $ot of catt$e:
The 0u8om youn% $ady 0ar0er6 #ith rou%e6 $i+stic<6 manicure and +erm6 and no# #earin%
a red 0eret and a #hite o3era$$6 admitted that she had $i3ed 0etter than most +eo+$e under
the @ccu+ation: She had #or<ed in a 0ar0er's sho+ near the main rai$#ay station6 +ayin%
fifty +er cent of the ta<in%s to her *<rainian 0oss: ?t #as a sma$$ +$ace6 0ut 3ery 0usy:
The 0oss #as a %ood manL she didn't <no# #hat he #as doin% no#: The 0ar0er's sho+
had 0een destroyed the #ee< 0efore6 a$on% #ith the rai$#ay station and a$$ the
surroundin% 0ui$din%s: She #as as ta$<ati3e as 0ar0ers are: F1ermans or no 1ermans6F
she said6 Fone's %ot to $i3e: 9ith a ration of 11 ounces of 0read6 you Hust cou$dn't do it:
?'3e %ot a chi$d of four6 and my hus0and has 0een a#ay for o3er three years: And the
+rices in the mar<et #ere Hust a#fu$D13" or 1-" rou0$es a <i$o of 0read: (ou shou$d
ha3e seen ho# ha++y +eo+$e #ere $ast May6 #hen they thou%ht the 2ed Army #as
returnin%: But it didn't6 and ? had to %o on #ith my Ho0 in the 0ar0er's sho+: A $ot of the
1ermans6 ? must say6 #ere =uite nice +eo+$e: There #as a maHor #ho6 for a $on% time6
used to come in for a sha3e e3ery day6 and once or t#ice ? cut him s$i%ht$y6 and ?'d say:
0/ch, entschuldigen sie 4itte, Herr -a8or@0 and he'd $au%h and say: 0/ch, das tut nichts50
And the 1erman officers certain$y ti++ed 3ery #e$$: The face,cream6 the eau de 5o$o%ne
and the +o#der #e'd 0uy from 1erman so$diers in the 0$ac< mar<et::: @f course6 a#fu$
thin%s used to ha++en: A$$ those han%in%sL made one i$$ for days::: And it #as a#fu$ a0out
the Be#s6 too: They'd dri3e them in an end$ess +rocession throu%h the streets6 many of
them +ushin% #hee$0arro#s or +rams #ith 0a0ies inside6 and they'd a$$ #ee+ and #ai$: ?
cou$d understand their #antin% to send the Be#s a#ay some#hereD0ut to <i$$ them a$$ in
this a#fu$ #ay6 that #as %oin% a 0it far6 don't you thin<EF Then she said: F(es6 the
1ermans can 0e 3ery crue$ +eo+$e: But some #ere nice: And some of the officers #ere
=uite cra>y a0out our #omenL +ositi3e$y sentimenta$: :: But then our #omen are so much
more attracti3e than 1erman #omen: And these 1erman #omen #ere certain$y 0itches:
They 0eha3ed as if the +$ace 0e$on%ed to them: There #ere hundreds of them here: The
0est f$ats #ere commandeered for 1erman fami$ies6 and they and some *<rainians #ou$d
o+en sho+s and restaurants::: ?f any 2ussian had a decent f$at6 he #as sure to 0e thro#n
out:::F
? a$so heard somethin% of the tra%i,comedy of the *<rainian nationa$ists: 9hen the
1ermans first came to 4har<o36 a 0unch of *<rainian nationa$ists started a ne#s+a+er
ca$$ed 3ova &*raina5 @n the face of it6 there #asn't a sin%$e <no#n +erson amon% the
contri0utorsL they #rote under +seudonyms: The +rinci+a$ #riter si%ned F!etro
Sa%aidashnyFDthe name of an o$d *<rainian hero: .e #as head of a se$f,a++ointed
*<rainian !ro+a%anda De+artment6 and6 for a short time6 the 1ermans +atronised these
+eo+$e: But t#o months $ater6 se3era$ of the rin%$eaders #ere shot 0y the 1ermans
themse$3es: To the sur3i3ors the 1ermans made it =uite c$ear that the! #ere the 0osses:
This #as ru00ed in in a thousand different #ays: for e8am+$e6 a$$ si%n,+osts and street,
names #ere #ritten in 1erman first and on$y then (and not a$#ays) in *<rainian:
A$thou%h an *<rainian o+eretta #as +erformed at the theatre the +ro%rammes #ere
+rinted in 1erman on$y:
A +rofessor of the 4har<o3 Technica$ ?nstitute6 4ramaren<o6 #ho 0ecame 0ur%omaster
of one of the 4har<o3 districts6 at first conducted a stron% +ro,1erman cam+ai%nL he
made s+eeches in fa3our of de3e$o+in% a F*<rainian nationa$ consciousnessF: Then6 #hen
he and his friends rea$ised that the 1ermans #ere not interested in *<rainian
inde+endence or autonomy6 they re0e$$edL 4ramaren<o #as dismissed from his +ost and
shot soon after#ards:
u0chen<o and other *<rainian inte$$ectua$s #ho ran the 3ova &*raina +a+er a$so soon
rea$ised that they #ere <iddin% themse$3esL it #as the $ast stra# #hen6 in March 194&6 the
1ermans ordered them to remo3e from the front +a%e of the +a+er the .erman's Trident6
a to<en of *<rainian autonomy or inde+endence: For e3en if 2osen0er%'s Hstministerium
#as sym+athetic to such *<rainian am0itions6 it had 3ery $itt$e inf$uence either #ith the
mi$itary authorities in the Castern *<raine6 or #ith Crich 4och in the 9estern and
5entra$ *<raineL since the 0e%innin% of 194&6 #hen the *<raine 0e%an to 0e treated first
and foremost as a reser3oir of s$a3e $a0our6 there cou$d no $on%er 0e any dou0t a0out
dominant 1erman attitude to the *<raine:
The fact that6 in some of the sur3i3in% e$ementary schoo$s +ictures #ere dis+$ayed not
on$y of .it$er 0ut a$so of F.etmanF !et$ura6 #ho had 0een assassinated 0y a Be# in !aris
in 19&J6 cou$d 0e considered no more than a +iece of +rimiti3e anti,semitic +ro+a%anda:
?t did not im+$y any +romise of *<rainian autonomy or inde+endence:
To the 1erman Army6 the *<raine #as co$onia$ territory in #hich the +osition of
*<rainian ado$escents6 #ho e<ed out a mea%re $i3in% 0y carryin% the 1ermans' $u%%a%e6
#as rather $i<e that of youn% Ara0s in A$%iers in the heyday of French co$onia$ism: The
3ery youn%6 #ho had 0enefited most from the So3iet rN%ime6 #ere amon% the most
fanatica$ anti,1ermans6 and there #as a$so no %ettin% a#ay from the fact that mi$$ions of
*<rainians #ere on the FotherF sideD fi%htin% in the 2ed Army6 or #or<in% in the So3iet
#ar industries:
But to the 1erman so$diery 4har<o3 #as somethin% of a metro+o$is6 and here many of
them #ere ha3in% a %ood time: The theatres #ere +atronised chief$y 0y 1ermans and the
+ro%rammes #ere arran%ed accordin%$y: They had Aiennese o+erettas6 %rand o+era 6/ida
and Don Xui2ote7 and6 fre=uent$y6 a #rosses $agner Konzert5 Most of the +erformers
#ere 1erman or Austrian: There #ere many restaurants6 cafNs and 0rothe$sL and #ho$e
1erman fami$ies had come here to o+en 0usinesses: Some $oca$ inha0itants a$so mana%ed
to %et $icences for sma$$ sho+s and 0ooths6 and a num0er of Armenians had o+ened
restaurants and ni%ht,c$u0s in 3arious +arts of the city: The occu+ation6 c$ear$y6 had its
+rofiteersDand they #ere not a$$ 1ermans:
?t #as +art of the 1erman +o$icy in the *<raine to #i+e out the inte$$ectua$s: The
*<rainian nationa$ists #ere treated 0ad$y enou%hL 0ut e3en #orse #as the fate of those
#hom the 1ermans thou%ht +ro,So3iet: ? sa# se3era$ +rofessors and teachers of 4har<o3
*ni3ersity and of some of the thirty,fi3e technica$ and other co$$e%es that had e8isted
here under the So3iets: These rnen had sur3i3ed the occu+ationL 0ut many of their
co$$ea%ues had died: Some had 0een shot6 either 0ecause they #ere Be#s or #ere !arty
mem0ers6 or sus+ected of 0ein% !arty mem0ersL some had committed suicide: @thers had
died of star3ation6 es+ecia$$y in the #inter of 1941,&: Se3era$ uni3ersity 0ui$din%s #ere
destroyed 0y the 1ermans 0efore they $eftL 0ut e3en #hi$e they #ere here6 they had
$ooted the $i0raries and the $a0oratories: The teachers #ho had sur3i3ed had $i3ed from
hand to mouth6 ma<in% home,made matches or soa+6 and se$$in% them in the 0$ac<
mar<et: C8ce+t for a fe# sma$$ $a0oratories6 a$$ hi%her education had 0een c$osed do#nL
so had a$$ the 137 secondary schoo$s of 4har<o3L on$y t#enty,three e$ementary schoo$s
had 0een a$$o#ed to o+en under the 1ermans: .os+ita$s had either 0een ta<en o3er 0y the
1erman army6 or had come a$most com+$ete$y to a standsti$$ o#in% to $ac< of food and
medica$ su++$ies: @ne storyDhard to 3erifyD#as that there #as one f$ourishin% schoo$6
in #hich the 1ermans trained ado$escents as s+iesDnot on$y *<rainians6 0ut e3en some
Be#ish chi$dren6 #ho #ere to act as agents provocateurs5
There #as no constructi3e +$annin% to s+ea< of: C3erythin% in the *<raine #as 0ein%
more or $ess destroyed and disso$3ed6 #ith nothin% to ta<e its +$ace: oca$ administration
#as run 0y 1ermans6 or *<rainian ad3enturers6 or a fe# 9hite Nmi%rNs6 usua$$y #ith no
understandin% or e8+erience: The *<raine #as nothin% 0ut a source of food6 ra#
materia$s and s$a3e $a0our6 and the ra# materia$s and food #ere not +roduced in the
=uantities the 1ermans had ho+ed for: The So3iet scorched earth +o$icy in the industria$
areas had created immense difficu$ties for the 1ermans from the outsetL $a0our #i$$in% to
#or< for them #as short6 and6 in the Don0as in 1943 they #ere reduced to turnin% tens of
thousands of So3iet #ar +risoners into im+ro3ised miners:
;or #as the return of the 2ussians an occasion for unanimous reHoicin% in 4har<o3: ?
sa# t#o $ar%e $etter,0o8es mar<ed *:;:4:A:D:Dthe *<rainian Security !o$iceDinto
#hich +eo+$e #ere in3ited to dro+ denunciations and other re$e3ant information: .ere
#as sco+e for some u%$y 3endettas: And at the former 1esta+o +rison6 no# 0urned out6 ?
cou$d see ci3i$ian +risoners 0ein% escorted into the 0asement for =uestionin% 0y the
;4AD: Scared re$ati3es #ere han%in% a0out the +rison6 some of them #ith +arce$s of
food:
The atmos+here in 4har<o3 #as 0ecomin% more and more de+ressin% durin% those three
days: There #as no further mention of the *<rainian 1o3ernment 0ein% there: .ad they
a$ready $eftE For there #ere more and more rumours of a %reat 1erman counter,offensi3e
ha3in% startedDand this #as soon to 0e officia$$y confirmed: The rai$#ay to 4har<o3 had
not 0een restored and an ear$y tha# had set in6 #hich made the 2ussian so$diers sha<e
their heads: 4har<o3 #as as %ood as cut off from the 2ussian rear:
True6 the 2ussians #ere re,o+enin% schoo$s and hos+ita$s in a sma$$ #ay6 and tearin%
do#n 1erman street si%nsL 0ut6 #ith e3ery hour6 the fee$in% of uneasiness %re#:
F
?t #as a harro#in% e8+erience to %o to the main mar<et on my third afternoon: Most of
the tradin% #as o3er: But at one sta$$ they #ere sti$$ se$$in% $itt$e %$asses of mi$$et or
sunf$o#er seed6 and6 at another6 0attered tu0es of 1erman tooth+aste or tins of shoe,
+o$ish6 and +rimiti3e $i%hters made of a$uminium scra+6 and se$$in% at si8ty rou0$es
a+iece: A$$ the same there #ere sti$$ $ar%e cro#ds in the mar<et6 disma$$y eyein% this
Hun<: Amon% them #ere many so$diers: The #omen 0ehind the sta$$s $oo<ed sha00y:6
#orried6 underfed:
Then ? noticed t#o #eird %host,$i<e fi%ures in terri0$e ra%s: ? remem0er one of them
+articu$ar$y: he had a $on% face that #as nothin% 0ut 0one and a dirty,#hite s<in6 and $on%
red stu00$e %re# from his chinL his eyes #ere 0$ue and enormous and in them #as a $oo<
of he$+$ess sufferin%L his $i+s #ere +arched and crac<ed6 and his 0reath sme$$ed of death:
The ra%s he #as #earin% #ere the remains of a discarded ?ta$ian uniform: .e #as a
Smo$ens< +easant6 and had 0een ca+tured 0y the 1ermans at Mi$$ero3o in the summer of
194&: .e and the other man had come from a #ar +risoners' cam+ in a +$ace ca$$ed
So0achi !itomni<6 or Do% Farm: For months they had $i3ed there on star3ation rations6
and most of their +a$s had died: ;o# #hen the 2ussians had come6 they had 0een $et out6
0ut had to %o 0ac< to the cam+ e3ery ni%ht: ;o0ody #as ta<in% care of them6 and they
had #andered a0out 4har<o36 $oo<in% for food: ;o one in the mar<et had %i3en them
anythin%6 and the mi$itary #ere treatin% them #ith sus+icion:
This #ides+read ca$$ousness #as another +roduct of the 1erman occu+ation6 +$us the
;4AD: For to the 2ussian authorities6 they had surrendered to the 1ermans6 and cou$d
not 0e treated as deser3in% cases 0efore c$oser in3esti%ation: @ne 2ussian so$dier
remar<ed: FDon't you %et het u+ a0out them: For a$$ #e <no#6 they may ha3e 0een $eft
here 0y the 1ermans as s+ies or di3ersionists:F FThey don't $oo< $i<e it6 do theyEF FMay0e
not6F he re+$ied6 FBut one can't 0e too carefu$ these days: The ;4AD had 0etter find out
#ho they are: And any#ay6F he added6 Fthere are +$enty of other thin%s to #orry a0out:::F
These 2ussian #ar +risoners cou$d sti$$ ha3e 0een sa3ed 0y their o#n +eo+$eL 0ut they
#eren't: ;o dou0t6 conditions in 4har<o3 that afternoon #ere e8ce+tiona$6 0ut sti$$ the
harro#in% e+isode made one thin< of the #ho$e %hast$y tra%edy of 2ussian #ar +risoners:
The so$diers in our house that ni%ht #ere no $on%er as cheerfu$ as they had 0een: The
1ermans6 they said6 #ere attac<in% stron%$y at 4ramators< and e$se#here #est of
4har<o36 and $ar%e num0ers of #ounded had started +ourin% into the to#n: These
#ounded #ere sayin% that the SS !an>er di3isions #ere attac<in% in %reat stren%th:
9e $eft 4har<o3 the ne8t day6 #ith a fee$in% of fore0odin%: The 1ermans returned6 not at
once 0ut o3er a fortni%ht $ater6 on March 1-: @ne of the first thin%s the SS did #as to
0utcher &"" #ounded in a hos+ita$6 and set fire to the 0ui$din%:
This reca+ture of 4har<o3 #as their Fre3en%e for Sta$in%radFL 0ut it #as on$y a re$ati3e$y
sma$$ re3en%e: The ear$y tha#6 #hich had cau%ht the 2ussians on the ho+6 and had forced
the So3iet .i%h 5ommand to a0andon 4har<o36 #as no# 0e%innin% to #or< in the
2ussians' fa3our: The ice on the Donets had 0ecome so thin that the 1erman tan<s cou$d
no $on%er cross it6 and the 2ussians had 0y no# du% in a$on% the Donets fine: .ere the
front 0ecame more or $ess sta0i$ised ti$$ Bu$y:
C').&(+ IA THE ECONOMIC EORT O 194M-@E THE RED
ARMY<S NEW LOOK-LEND-LEASE
The 2ed Army of 1943 #as 3ery un$i<e the 2ed Army of 1941 or e3en 194&: 9e ha3e
a$ready descri0ed the +ost,2osto3 reforms to smarten u+ the officer cor+s6 to increase its
authority throu%h the a0o$ition of dua$ command6 and to hei%hten the disci+$ine amon%
the troo+s: ?n 194&6 there had 0een many heroic e+isodes in the 2ed Army6 0ut a$so many
cases of demora$isation and e3en +anicL Chren0ur% in his -emoirs reca$$s a co$one$6 in
the summer of 194&6 sayin% 0itter$y to him: FThere has ne3er 0een such a s<edadd$e yet:F
I3ov!i -ir, Banuary 19)36 +: J7:K
After Sta$in%rad6 the o3era$$ mora$e of the 2ed Army #as incom+ara0$y 0etter than it had
0een either in 1941 or in 194&L there #ere many des+erate$y difficu$t moments sti$$6 and
some serious set0ac<s6 such as the $oss of 4har<o3 in March 1943L 0ut the u$timate defeat
of the 1ermans #as no $on%er in dou0t: Second$y6 the Pualit! of the troo+s #as far 0etter
than it had 0een in 1941 and 194&L as Sta$in said to 5hurchi$$ in Au%ust 194&: FThey are
not so hot yet6 0ut they are $earnin%6 and they'$$ ma<e a first,c$ass army 0efore $on%:F ?t
#as6 indeed6 durin% 194& that the ty+e of the hardened so$dier6 the "rontovi*, %radua$$y
de3e$o+ed:
But this %enera$ im+ro3ement in the =ua$ity of the 2ed Army #as not on$y due to
+sycho$o%ica$ causes: ?n 1941 and 194& the 2ussian troo+s had had the dee+$y de+ressin%
fee$in% of ha3in% to fi%ht a%ainst a stronger enemyL heroism6 %uts6 se$f,sacrifice #ere a$$
3ery #e$$6 0ut #hat cou$d they do a%ainst an enemy #hose infantry6 #ith its 3ariety of
automatic #ea+ons6 had far %reater fire,+o#er than themse$3es6 and #ho had far more
tan<s and +$anesE
Today it is admitted that So3iet armaments +roduction did not reach a satisfactory $e3e$
unti$ the autumn of 194&: The e3acuation of hundreds of +$ants from #est to east in the
autumn and #inter of 1941 had resu$ted in an a$most catastro+hic dro+ in arms
+roduction6 #hich $ar%e$y accounted for the disa++ointin% resu$ts of the 2ussian Mosco#
counter,offensi3e in the #inter of 1941,& and for the disasters of the summer of 194&:
After the $oss of the 4ri3oi 2o% iron ore6 the Don0as coa$6 and the *<rainian e$ectric
+o#er,stations6 there #as a serious shorta%e in the east (#here most of the armaments
industry #as no# concentrated) of 0oth +o#er and meta$s: The tota$ fue$ resources #ere
on$y ha$f of #hat they had 0een 0efore the #ar: The en%ineerin% #or<s of Si0eria and the
*ra$s cou$d not #or< at fu$$ ca+acity6 and6 durin% most of 194& the out+ut of tan<s6
+$anes6 %uns and ammunition #as #e$$ 0e$o# the 2ed Army's re=uirements: Draconian
measures had to 0e ta<en to increase out+ut: ;e# coa$,mines had to 0e s+eedi$y sun<L
ne# +o#er,+$ants had to 0e 0ui$tL the !eo+$e's 5ommissariat for 5oa$ had some &""6"""
more or $ess Fim+ro3isedF ne# miners +$aced at its dis+osa$6 and a s+ecia$ food reser3e
had to 0e constituted to <ee+ them %oin%: Tens of thousands of ne# miners #ere sent
from 3arious +arts of the country to the 4ara%anda coa$ area in 4a>a<hstanDnear$y a$$ of
them #omen and 3ery youn% +eo+$e6 #ho had to 0e trained in the shortest +ossi0$e time:
The mora$e of the 2ussian #omen6 conscious of #or<in% for their hus0ands or sons or
0rothers in the Army #as +articu$ar$y admira0$e: Thou%h $ess s+ectacu$ar than the Batt$e
of Sta$in%rad6 the stu+endous mass,effort made 0y the #omen of 2ussia durin% the #ar6
#hether in industry or a%ricu$ture6 had nothin% to e=ua$ it:
Des+ite these efforts6 the shorta%e of coa$6 meta$s and e$ectric +o#er #as sti$$ serious
e3en in 1943: Thou%h coa$ +roduction in the east increased su0stantia$$y in 1943 the tota$
+roduced #as sti$$ no#here near the 1)) mi$$ion tons +roduced in 1941:
I?n 19436 the +rinci+a$ coa$ areas in the east +roduced the fo$$o#in% amounts: 4ara%anda6
9:7 m: tons (an increase 0y &:- m: tons o3er 194&)L 4u>0as6 &- m: tons (4 m: tons more
than in 194&)L *ra$s6 &1 m: tons (- m: more than in 194& and 9 m: more than in 194"):
Fina$$y6 the FMosco# coa$ 0asinF6 #ith its 3ery inferior coa$6 +roduced in 1943 14 m:
tons: After the $i0eration of the Don0as its 0ad$y,#rec<ed mines #ere +roducin% on$y
3-6""" tons a day at the end of 1943Di:e: at the rate of 11 mi$$ion tons a year:K
?n 1943 oi$ resources #ere 3ery $o#6 tooL Mai<o+ had 0een +ut out of action 0y the
retreatin% 2ussiansL 1ro>ny6 #ith its refineries6 had suffered se3ere$y from 1erman
0om0in%L and durin% the tem+orary 0rea<do#n of communications6 in the Sta$in%rad
+eriod6 many of the Ba<u #e$$s had to 0e tem+orari$y c$osed do#n: ?nstead6 a s+ecia$
effort #as made to de3e$o+ the FSecond Ba<uF in the east at to+ s+eed:
The coa$ shorta%e had to 0e met (+articu$ar$y for trans+ort and ur0an needs) 0y the
su0stitution of +eat and tim0erL in Mosco#6 thousands of students6 office and factory
#or<ers #ere made to s+end their summer ho$idays in im+ro3ised tim0er cam+s:
;e# industria$ F%iantsF had to 0e s+eedi$y 0ui$tDthus an enormous ne# +o#er station
#as 0ui$t in 194& at 5he$ia0ins< to su++$y do>ens of armaments #or<s o3er a $ar%e area6
and a %i%antic ne# 0$ast furnace (the famous F;o: )F) #as com+$eted durin% the year at
the Ma%nito%ors< Meta$$ur%ica$ 5om0ine: A$to%ether6 a$thou%h the So3iet en%ineerin%
industry had $ost ha$f its +otentia$ throu%h the 1erman occu+ation of the *<raine and
other areas6 it had6 in the main6 o3ercome its difficu$ties 0y 1943:
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ???6 +: 1)1:K
A$$ this had a decisi3e effect on So3iet arms +roduction: A tremendous effort #as +ut into
creatin% an air force su+erior to the uft#affeL %one #ere the %rim days of 1941 #hen
most of the 2ussian +$anes #ere suicida$$y o0so$ete: The +rinci+a$ +$anes that 0e%an to 0e
+roduced in =uantity in 194& #ere the ?$,& stormo3i< ($o#,f$yin% attac< +$ane)6 and the
!e,& o+erationa$ di3e,0om0erL and the a,- fi%hter6 #hich #as 0etter than the
Messerschmidt 1"96 0ut not as %ood as the Messerschmidt 1"9F or 1"91: ?n 1943 the a,
-,F;6 #hich +ro3ed 0etter than any 1erman fi%hter6 inc$udin% the Fo<<e,9u$f 19"6 #ent
into mass,+roduction6 and6 in May6 so did the (a<,96 #ith a 37 mm: %un6 #hich #as
su+erior to 1erman fi%hters #ith their &" mm: %uns: The Tu,& di3e,0om0er #ent into
mass,+roduction in Se+tem0er6 and the ?$,& stormo3i< #as steadi$y im+ro3ed and #as
de3e$o+ed 0y the end of the year into a t#o,seater +$ane6 #ith increased fire +o#er: The
a3era%e month$y +roduction of +$anes rose from &61"" in 194& to &69"" in 19436 of #hich
&6-"" #ere com0at +$anes: A$to%ether6 in 19436 3-6""" +$anes #ere +roduced6 thirty,
se3en +er cent more than in 194&6 and inc$udin% ei%hty,si8 +er cent of com0at +$anes:
The +ro+ortion of stormo3i<s and fi%hters #as +articu$ar$y hi%h: At the hei%ht of the
summer 0att$es of 1943 more than 16""" ?$,&'s #ere +roduced e3ery monthDo3er one,
third of the tota$ of aircraft +roduced:
A $itt$e %rud%in%$y the +resent,day Histor! adds that there #ere a$so some 9estern +$anes
in the 2ed ArmyL 0ut the .urricanes and Tomaha#<s #ere o0so$ete6 and much inferior to
0oth 2ussian and 1erman fi%htersL the Airoco0ras and 4ittyha#<s #hich 0e%an to 0e
used on the 2ussian front in the autumn of 19436 #ere e8ce$$ent6 F0ut there #eren't
enou%h of them:F
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ?$$6 +: &1):K
The out+ut of tan<s had a$so 0een serious$y s$o#ed do#n 0y the e3acuation of industry to
the eastL ne3erthe$ess6 %reat +ro%ress #as made in tan< construction throu%hout 194&:
T#o,thirds of a$$ So3iet tan<s #ere made 0y three F%iant +$antsF in the eastDthe *ra$,
mash>a3od6 the 4iro3 !$ant at 5he$ia0ins<6 and !$ant ;o: 1J3: Some s+ectacu$ar
im+ro3ements #ere made in 194& for s+eedin% u+ the +roduction of tan<sL thus the
turrets of the T,34 medium tan< #ere stam+ed instead of 0ein% cast: The T,34 #as6
a$to%ether the 0est medium tan< of 9or$d 9ar ??Das many 1erman e8+erts #ere to
a%reeDand it continued6 throu%hout 19436 to under%o 3arious further im+ro3ements: ?n
Se+tem0er 19436 to meet the cha$$en%e of the ne# 1erman Ti%er tan<6 the 2ussians
0e%an mass,+roducin% the hea3y BS (FSta$inF) tan<6 #ith armour one,and,a,ha$f times
thic<er than that of the Ti%er6 and descri0ed in the So3iet Histor! as Fthe 0est hea3y tan<
in the #or$d:F
The a3era%e month$y out+ut of So3iet tan<s in 1943 #as o3er &6"""6 #hich #as a $itt$e
$ess than in 194&L 0ut in 1943 the +roduction of $i%ht tan<s #as a$most discontinued6
#hereas6 at the 0e%innin% of 194&6 these sti$$ accounted for ha$f the tota$: A$to%ether6 in
19436 1)6""" hea3y and medium tan<s #ere madeL 46""" mo0i$e %uns and 36-"" $i%ht
tan<s: This tota$ #as ei%ht,and,a,ha$f times more than in 194" and near$y four times more
than in 1941:
A su0stantia$ num0er of tan<s #as recei3ed from Britain and the *SA in 194& and 19436
0ut So3iet historians are e3en more critica$ a0out them than a0out the British +$anes:
Fifty,fi3e +er cent of the tan<s recei3ed in 194& #ere $i%ht tan<sL in 1943 the +ro+ortion
of $i%ht tan<s #as e3en hi%herDse3enty +er cent: The =uantities recei3ed #ere descri0ed
as FmediocreF6 and the =ua$ity $eft much to 0e desired:
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ?$$6 +: &14: The Histor! adds that A$$ied authorities6 e:%: idde$$ .art6
no# readi$y admit that Fthe tan<s the 2ussians used #ere a$most entire$y home,made:F
Some of the tan<s the 2ussians had recei3ed in 1941,&6 +articu$ar$y the Mati$das6 had
+ro3ed to 0e +articu$ar$y 0ad6 and Fas inf$amma0$e as a 0o8 of matchesF6 as a dis%runt$ed
co$one$ to$d me at the 2>he3 front in the summer of 194&:K
The out+ut of %uns and mortars #as a$so %reat$y increased 0y 19436 that of %uns of
different ca$i0res amountin% that year to no $ess than 13"6"""L a$to%ether6 as D: F:
*stino36 the Minister of Armaments #rote in 1943: FA %reat density of fire for e3ery
<i$ometre of front is no# the usua$ thin%:F From the 0e%innin% of 19436 there #as a$so a
3ast im+ro3ement in the fire +o#er of the infantry: in 1943 the num0er of su0machine,
%uns #as three times6 and of $i%ht and hea3y machine,%uns t#o,and,a,ha$f times6 that of
194&: The 3ast su+eriority in fire,+o#er of the 1erman infantry of 1941 #as no# a thin%
of the +ast: @ne can #e$$ ima%ine the difference this made to 2ussian mora$e: The
1erman avtomatchi* #as no $on%er6 as he #as in 19416 an o0Hect of terror or des+airL
+ractica$$y e3ery 2ussian so$dier #as no# an avtomatchi* himse$f:
F
Food +roduction +resented another maHor +ro0$em: Many of the So3iet +easants may
ha3e remained fundamenta$$y hosti$e to the *ol*hoz systemL 0ut there is no dou0t that6 0y
and $ar%e6 they #ere as dee+$y affected as the #or<in%,c$ass 0y the patrie-en-danger
mysti=ue of 1941,&: A$most a$$ a0$e,0odied men from the 3i$$a%es #ere drafted into the
Army in the course of the #ar6 and 3ery many tractors and horses #ere re=uisitioned 0y
the Army: (et the remainin% 3i$$a%e +o+u$ation6 consistin% a$most entire$y of #omen6
ado$escents and o$d +eo+$e6 #or<ed heroica$$y6 often in the most a++a$$in% conditions6 to
+roduce food: 5o#s #ere often used as drau%ht anima$s6 and some cases are e3en <no#n
of #omen dra#in% +$ou%hs themse$3es: C3en more than in the factories #as there a dee+
consciousness of #or<in% FforF the sons and hus0ands and 0rothers #ho had %one to fi%ht
the 1ermans:
The sca$e of the food +ro0$em can 0e seen from the fact that6 in 194&6 on$y fifty,ei%ht +er
cent of the +re,#ar area under cu$ti3ation #as in So3iet handsL the rest had 0een occu+ied
0y the 1ermans: 9ith the reco3ery of the ;orthern 5aucasus and other areas6 the
+ro+ortion #as si8ty,three +er cent in 1943L 0ut the num0er of catt$e #as si8ty,t#o +er
cent of the $o# +re,#ar tota$L that of horses6 thirty,se3en +er centL that of +i%s6 t#enty +er
cent: The +roduction of artificia$ ferti$isers #as do#n to 3ery $itt$e6 and there #as often
no +etro$ for the remainin% tractors: ?t is one of the #onders of 2ussian character +$us
2ussian or%anisation that a sti$$ #orse food shorta%e shou$d ha3e 0een a3oided: A$thou%h
food su++$ies continued to 0e 3ery +oor in the cities6 es+ecia$$y for Fde+endentsF #ith
their misera0$e rations6 the fact remains that the Army #as reasona0$y #e$$ fed6
es+ecia$$y from 1943 on#ards6 and so too #ere most of the s<i$$ed industria$ #or<ers:
?t is =uite o03ious that $end,$ease su++$ies +$ayed an im+ortant +art in im+ro3in% the
Army's diet6 es+ecia$$y from the 0e%innin% of 1943: @f 3ery %reat im+ortance to the 2ed
Army6 too6 #ere the %ro#in% num0ers of Stude0a<ers6 Dod%es and 9i$$ys Hee+sD
common$y <no#n in the 2ed Army as villisesD#hich so %reat$y increased its mo0i$ity:
They #ere sti$$ not in %reat e3idence at the time of Sta$in%rad6 0ut6 as ? <no# from my
o#n e8+erience6 they 0ecame an inte%ra$ +art of the 2ussian mi$itary $andsca+e after
a0out March 1943: These $orries and Hee+s certain$y contri0uted to the Fne# $oo<F and to
the tremendous and constant$y,%ro#in% fi%htin% +o#er of the 2ed Army after Sta$in%rad:
This =uestion of American6 British and 5anadian he$+ to the So3iet *nion had 0oth
+o$itica$ and +sycho$o%ica$ as+ects:
?n 194&6 A$$ied aid #as certain$y not ta<en 3ery serious$yL in 1941,&6 American
shi+ments sti$$ amounted to on$y 1:& m: tons and British shi+ments to -3&6""" tons: Some
of the hea3y e=ui+ment sent that year (.urricanes6 Mati$da tan<s6 etc:) #as
unsatisfactory: ?n 1943 British shi+ments remained sta0$e 0ut American shi+ments #ere
enormous$y ste++ed u+6 risin% to 4:1 m: tons (and o3er ) m: tons if one inc$udes the first
four months of 1944): This inc$uded o3er & m: tons of food: Besides this6 the *:S:A: sent
the So3iet *nion 0et#een && Bune 1941 and 3" A+ri$ 1944:
)643" +$anes
36734 tan<s
1" mines#ee+ers
1& %un0oats
J& sma$$er craft
&1"6""" automo0i$es
36""" anti,aircraft %uns
16111 oer$i<ons
&3 m: yards of army c$oth
& m: tyres
47)6""" tons of hi%h octane +etro$
996""" tons of a$uminium and dura$uminium
1J46""" tons of co++er and co++er +roducts
4&6""" tons of >inc
)6-"" tons of nic<e$
1:& m: tons of stee$ and stee$ +roducts
&"6""" machine,too$s
176""" motor,cyc$es
991 m: cartrid%es
&& m: she$$s
JJ6""" tons of %un+o#der
13"6""" tons of T;T
1:& m: <m: of te$e+hone #ire
&4-6""" fie$d te$e+hones
-:- m: +airs of army 0oots
@ther industria$ e=ui+ment: ]&-7 m: #orth (inc$udin% oi$ refinery e=ui+ment6 e$ectrica$
e=ui+ment6 e8ca3ators6 cranes6 $ocomoti3es6 et cetera)
Bet#een Bune &&6 19416 and A+ri$ 3"6 19446 Britain dis+atched 161-"6""" tons6 of #hich
16"416""" tons arri3ed: This inc$uded:
-6J"" +$anes
336""" tons of co++er
46&9& tan<s
1& mines#ee+ers
1"36""" tons of ru00er
3-6""" tons of a$uminium
&96""" tons of tin
4J6""" tons of $ead
936""" tons of Hute
0esides re$ati3e$y sma$$ =uantities of other ra# materia$s6 e8+$osi3es6 she$$s and other
army e=ui+ment6 as #e$$ as o3er )6""" machine too$s and X14 m: #orth of other industria$
e=ui+ment: The tota$ 3a$ue of 5anadian de$i3eries for the same +eriod #as a0out 3-- m:
do$$ars6 and inc$uded 161JJ tan<s6 J4& armoured cars6 near$y a mi$$ion she$$s6 3)6""" tons
of a$uminium and &"J6""" tons of #heat and f$our6 0esides a num0er of sma$$er items:
I5ommissariat for Forei%n Trade Statement +u0$ished in Pravda in Bune6 19446 a fe#
days after the ;ormandy andin%:K
By the end of the #ar the fi%ures #ere hi%her sti$$: Accordin% to 1enera$ Deane6 o3er
fifteen mi$$ion tons #ere shi++ed to 2ussia 0et#een @cto0er 1941 and the end of the #ar:
?n his 3ie# the most im+ortant items #ere:
1) 4&76""" truc<s6 136""" Fcom0at 3ehic$esF6 o3er &6""" @rdnance 3ehic$es and 3-6"""
motor,cyc$esL
&) !etro$eum +roducts (&6)7"6""" tons)L
3) Food (4647J6""" tons)6 inc$udin% f$our: FAssumin% that the 2ed Army had an a3era%e
stren%th of 1& m: men6 this meant a ha$f +ound of fair$y concentrated food for each +er
dayFL
4) 2ai$#ays e=ui+ment:
A$to%ether6 he says6 inc$udin% a 3ast num0er of other items (medica$ su++$ies6 c$othin%6
0oots6 et cetera)6 Four su++$ies and ser3ices amounted to a0out e$e3en 0i$$ion do$$ars:
They may not ha3e #on the #ar6 0ut they must ha3e 0een comfortin% to the 2ussians:F
I Bohn 2: Deane: The %trange /lliance (ondon 1947)6 ++: 93,9-:K
These fi%ures are6 in their o#n #ay6 hi%h$y im+ressi3eL for instance those sho#in% that a
hi%h +ro+ortion of the 0oots and c$othin%,materia$ of the 2ed Army #as American,made6
and that America and Britain a$so de$i3ered im+ortant =uantities of strate%ic ra#
materia$s6 a3iation +etro$6 and much e$se: The +$anes and tan<s6 thou%h of une3en 3a$ue6
#ere not to 0e snee>ed at either: But they sti$$ constituted a re$ati3e$y sma$$ +ro+ortion of
a$$ the +$anes and tan<s used 0y the 2ed Army: Accordin% to Sta$in's e$ection s+eech in
194)6 the So3iet *nion +roduced a0out 1""6""" tan<s6 1&"6""" +$anes6 3)"6""" %uns6
o3er 1:& m: machine,%uns6 ) m: tommy%uns6 9 m: rif$es6 3""6""" mortars6 some 7"" m:
she$$s6 some &" 0i$$ion cartrid%es6 etc:6 durin% the $ast three years of the #ar:
Assumin% that Sta$in's fi%ures are correct6 they #ou$d su%%est that the A$$ied hea3y
e=ui+ment (tan<s and +$anes) amounted to 0et#een ten and fifteen +er cent of the tota$:
;: Ao>nesens<y6 the head of the 1os+$an6 ar%ues in his 0oo<6 The $ar Econom! o" the
%oviet &nion, +u0$ished in 194J6 that the A$$ied de$i3eries in 19416 194& and 1943
amounted to on$y four +er cent of the So3iet *nion's tota$ +roduction: This +ure$y
=uantitati3e statement #as mis$eadin%6 since 1941 cou$d not 0e considered a F$end,$easeF
year at a$$6 and 19446 a +ea< year in a$$ied de$i3eries6 #as omitted a$to%ether:
From my +ersona$ o0ser3ation ? can say that6 from 1943 on6 the 2ed Army
un=uestiona0$y a++reciated the he$+ from the 9estD #hether in the form of Airoco0ras6
4ittyha#<s6 Dod%es6 Hee+s6 s+am6 army 0oots6 or medicines: The motor 3ehic$es #ere
+articu$ar$y admired and 3a$ued: And the fact remains that the A$$ied ra# materia$s
enormous$y he$+ed the So3iet #ar industries: But this sti$$ does not dis+ose of the
+rofound emotiona$ +ro0$em created 0y the sim+$e fact that the 2ussians #ere $osin%
mi$$ions of men6 #hi$e the British and Americans #ere $osin% much fe#er +eo+$e:
I An im+ortant e8ce+tion #ere the 2ussian airmen #ho #arm$y a++reciated the A$$ied
0om0in%s of 1ermany6 and the fact that many 1erman fi%hter +$anes #ere immo0i$ised
in 1ermany:K
?t #as +art$y 0ecause of this fee$in% in the country that the So3iet 1o3ernment $i<ed to
say as $itt$e as +ossi0$e a0out 9estern de$i3eriesL nor did it +ro0a0$y +articu$ar$y $i<e to
ad3ertise its de+endence on the ca+ita$ist 9est for certain forms of e=ui+ment: This
attitude #as6 understanda0$y6 resented in the 9est6 and the first maHor incident o3er
2ussian Fin%ratitudeF occurred in March 1943 #hen the *S Am0assador6 Admira$
Stand$ey6 com+$ained at a +ress conference of the Fun%raciousF So3iet attitude to 0oth
+ri3ate Aid,to,2ussia donations and American he$+ %enera$$y:
The 2ussians #ere e8treme$y annoyed 0y this +rotestL ne3erthe$ess6 a fe# days $ater6 the
+ress +u0$ished a 3ery fu$$ account of a statement 0y Stettinius sho#in% Hust ho# much
had 0een sent to the So3iet *nion since the 0e%innin% of the #ar: For one thin%6 as
Stand$ey had +ointed out6 it #as essentia$ to a++ease 5on%ress6 #here much #as 0ein%
made of these char%es of 2ussian in%ratitude:
I ?n my Diary entry for March 96 19436 ? find the fo$$o#in%: FThe 2ussian censorshi+6
after fi3e hours' hi%h,+o#er te$e+honin%6 +assed the te8t of the Stand$ey statement: The
+eo+$e at the +ress de+artment $oo<ed furious: 4o>hemia<o6 the chief censor6 #as #hite
#ith ra%e as he +ut his name to the ca0$e: .is mother had died of star3ation in
enin%rad::: Another 2ussian remar<ed toni%ht: F9e'3e $ost mi$$ions of +eo+$e6 and they
#ant us to cra#$ on our <nees 0ecause they send us s+am: And has the '#armhearted'
5on%ress e3er done anythin% that #asn't in its interestsE Don't te$$ me that end,ease is
charit!@"G
But this sudden %enerous ac<no#$ed%ement of 9estern aid in the So3iet +ress in March
19436 thou%h +ro3o<ed 0y the Stand$ey incident6 had a $on%,term +ur+ose as #e$$: ?n a
sense6 Sta$in #as a$ready on his #ay to Teheran #ith a Bi%,Three +eace at the 0ac< of his
mind: A+art from the e8treme$y un+$easant Fs+ecia$F +ro0$em of !o$and #hich #as on
the +oint of 0$o#in% u+6 the So3iet 1o3ernment #as much more F+ro,9esternF
throu%hout 1943 than it had e3er 0een: !arado8ica$$y6 it #as in its officia$ utterances
more +ro,9estern durin% that year than #ere the So3iet +eo+$e as a #ho$e:
C').&(+ A BEORE THE SPRIN! LULL O 194@E STALIN<S
WARNIN!ETHE !ERMANS< DDESERT POLICYD
The %reat 2ussian dri3e in the #inter cam+ai%n of 194&,3 from Sta$in%rad to 4har<o3
and 0eyond6 and the 1ermans' forced #ithdra#a$ from the 5aucasus #ere not the on$y
maHor 2ussian successes durin% that +eriod: After a$$ the $osses the 1ermans and their
a$$ies had suffered in the south6 they #ere 3isi0$y more and more short of trained
man+o#er: This $ar%e$y accounts for their decision6 in March 19436 to a0andon the
1>hats<,Aia>ma,2>he3 s+rin%0oard6 that Fda%%er +ointin% at Mosco#F6 to #hich they
had c$un% so des+erate$y e3er since their first set0ac<s in 2ussia in the #inter of 1941,&:
?t #i$$ 0e remem0ered that a$thou%h the 2ussians had dri3en the 1ermans 0ac< from
Mosco# a$on% a #ide front6 they had fai$ed to dis$od%e them from their 1>hats<,Aia>ma,
2>he3 s+rin%0oard 0are$y 1"" mi$es from the ca+ita$:
Throu%hout the B$ac< Summer of 194& this remained a +otentia$ threat to Mosco#L 0ut
the 2ussians' main concern #as $ess an attac< on the ca+ita$ than a 1erman attem+t to
ho$d the Fs+rin%0oardF #ith the minimum num0er of men6 and to transfer the rest to the
southDto Sta$in%rad and the 5aucasus: So6 throu%hout the summer and autumn of 194&
the 2ussians did their utmost to tie u+ as many 1erman troo+s as +ossi0$e #est of
Mosco# 0y constant$y attac<in% and harassin% them: Those 0att$es outside 2>he3 #ere
amon% the most heart0rea<in% the 2ussians e3er had to fi%ht: They #ere attac<in% 3ery
stron% 1erman +ositionsL 2ussian $osses #ere much hi%her than the 1ermans6 and so
0itter #as the fi%htin% that 3ery fe# +risoners #ere ta<en:
? 3isited the 2>he3 sector durin% the rainy autumn of 194& after the 2ussians had
reca+tured a fe# 3i$$a%es at fearfu$ cost6 0ut had each time 0een re+e$$ed from the
outs<irts of 2>he3: ? #as struc< 0y the intense 0itterness #ith #hich the officers and men
s+o<e of their than<$ess tas<:
The roads that autumn #ere $i<e ri3ers of mud6 and count$ess am0u$ances had to tra3e$
o3er a Fcar+etF of fe$$ed tree,trun<s co3erin% the road6 an a%onisin% 0one,ratt$in% and
#ound,tearin% e8+erience for the #ounded:
That autumn ? sa# somethin% of the 1erman FdesertF +o$icy in a fe# of the 3i$$a%es
reca+tured 0y the 2ed Army: Thus6 in the 3i$$a%e of !o%ore$oye 1orodishche6 a $ar%e +art
of the +o+u$ation had died of hun%erL many had 0een shotL others had 0een de+orted as
s$a3e $a0our6 and the 3i$$a%e had 0een a$most com+$ete$y destroyed:
;o#6 in March 19436 fearin% to 0e outf$an<ed 0y the 2ussians from the south (and6
e3entua$$y6 of 0ein% tra++ed in that %reat Ft#i8t,Mosco#,and,Smo$ens<F encirc$ement
#hich the 2ussians had fai$ed to carry throu%h in Fe0ruary 194&) the 1ermans sim+$y
+u$$ed out of the FMosco# s+rin%0oardF6 thou%h #ith some hea3y rear%uard actions6
nota0$y at Aia>ma6 and destroyin% as much as time #ou$d +ermit them:
The officia$ So3iet re+ort6 +u0$ished on A+ri$ 76 19436 on the effects of the Fdesert
+o$icyF the 1ermans had systematica$$y carried out in the ne#$y,$i0erated areas #est of
Mosco# #as a harro#in% cata$o%ue of mass shootin%s6 murders and han%in%s6 ra+e6 the
<i$$in% or star3in% to death of 2ussian #ar +risoners6 and the de+ortation of thousands as
s$a3e $a0our to 1ermany: 4har<o3 #as a$most mi$d in com+arison: The re+ort noted that
most of the shootin%s of ci3i$ians had 0een done 0y the 1erman army6 not 0y the 1esta+o
or the SD: The to#ns #ere a$most tota$$y o0$iteratedDas ? cou$d indeed see for myse$f
soon after#ards: At Aia>ma6 out of -6-"" 0ui$din%s6 on$y fifty,one sma$$ houses had
sur3i3edL at 1>hats<6 3"" out of 16)""L in the ancient city of 2>he36 49- out of -6443: A$$
the famous churches had 0een destroyed: The +o+u$ation #as 0ein% de$i0erate$y star3ed:
1-6""" +eo+$e had 0een de+orted from these three to#ns a$one: The rura$ areas #ere not
much 0etter off: in the Syche3<a area6 137 3i$$a%es out of &4J had 0een 0urned do#n 0y
the 1ermans: The $ist of #ar crimina$s a++ended to the 2e+ort #as headed 0y 5o$:,1en:
Mode$6 commander of the 1erman 9th Army and other army $eaders #ho had F+ersona$$y
ordered a$$ thisF: The re+ort noted that the destruction #as Fnot accidenta$6 0ut +art of a
de$i0erate e8termination +o$icy6F #hich #as 0ein% carried out e3en more thorou%h$y in
these +ure$y,2ussian areas than e$se#here:
?t is scarce$y sur+risin% that6 as the 2ed Army mo3ed farther and farther #est6 it 0ecame
increasin%$y an%ry at the si%ht of a$$ this 0estia$ity and destruction:
The 2ussians scored t#o other im+ortant mi$itary successes at the 0e%innin% of 1943:
they ca+tured the strate%ica$$y im+ortant Demians< sa$ient north of Smo$ens< and6 more
s+ectacu$ar6 after se3era$ days' e8treme$y hea3y fi%htin%D#ith the troo+s of the
enin%rad Front stri<in% east and those of the Ao$<ho3 Front stri<in% #est across the
1erman a<e ado%a sa$ientDthe 2ussians cut a se3en,mi$e,#ide %a+ in the enin%rad
$and 0$oc<ade: ?t #as throu%h this %a+6 #hich inc$uded the to#n of Sch$Rsse$0ur%6 that a
rai$#ay $ine #as 0ui$t #ithin a fe# #ee<s6 and so $in<ed enin%rad #ith the FMain$andF:
The trains had to tra3e$ throu%h a corridor constant$y e8+osed to 1erman she$$,fire6 and
the Hourney ca$$ed for the %reatest 0ra3ery on the +art of the rai$#aymen: But thou%h
fre=uent$y she$$ed6 this rai$#ay throu%h #hat came to 0e <no#n as Fthe corridor of deathF
carried on6 and the thou%ht of no $on%er 0ein% entire$y cut off 0y $and from the
Fmain$andF had a 3ery heartenin% effect on the )""6""" +eo+$e sti$$ $i3in% in enin%rad:
The city #as6 ne3erthe$ess6 to remain under 1erman she$$,fire for another year:
ISee !art ???:K
A$$ this #as satisfactory: ;e3erthe$ess6 the 3io$ent 1erman counter,offensi3e #hich
started at the end of Fe0ruary and $ed to the 2ussian $oss of 4har<o36 Be$%orod and a
$ar%e +art of the northern Don0as #as a disa++ointin% conc$usion to the %$orious F9inter
of Sta$in%radF:
?n his 2ed Army Day order of Fe0ruary &3 Sta$in s+o<e in %$o#in% terms of the #inter
offensi3e6 sayin% that Fthe mass e8+u$sion of the enemy from the So3iet *nion had
0e%un:F But he #arned the army and the country a%ainst e8cessi3e o+timismDno dou0t
foreseein% some maHor set0ac<s:
The fi%ures he %a3e for tota$ enemy $osses #ere6 as usua$6 im+ro0a0$y hi%h: ?n three
months6 he said6 the 1ermans and their a$$ies had $ost 76""" tan<s6 46""" +$anes and
176""" %unsL 7""6""" enemy so$diers had 0een <i$$ed and 3""6""" ta<en +risoner: Since
the 0e%innin% of the #ar6 the enemy casua$ties had amounted to nine mi$$ion men6 amon%
them four mi$$ion <i$$ed: ?n the So3iet *nion thin%s #ere %oin% much 0etter6 0oth in the
army and in industry6 #hose out+ut of armaments had Fenormous$y increasedF:
?f6 Sta$in said6 the 1erman army #as more e8+erienced at first than the 2ed Army6 the
o++osite #as no# true: The 2ed Army had no# 0ecome a cadres army6 and the =ua$ity
and s<i$$ of the So3iet so$dier had %reat$y increased: The 1erman $osses6 on the other
hand6 #ere com+e$$in% the 1erman .i%h 5ommand to dra# $o#,=ua$ity so$diers into the
army: A$so6 2ussian officers and %enera$s #ere no# su+erior to their 1erman o++osite
num0ers: The 1ermans' tactics #ere 0ana$ and #hen the situation no $on%er corres+onded
to one out$ined in his Fie$d 2e%u$ations6 the 1erman officer $ost his head:
(et this did not mean that the 1erman Army #as finished:
T'( !(+")$ A+"* ')- -100(+(5 ) 5(0()&, 81& ,& ')- $#& *(& 8(($ -")-'(5. I& ,- $#2
%#,$% &'+#1%' ) 3+,-,-, 81& ,& 5#(- $#& 0#//#2 &')& ,& 3)$$#& .1// ,&-(/0 &#%(&'(+... T'(
+()/ -&+1%%/( ,- #$/* 8(%,$$,$%... I& 2#1/5 8( -&1.,5 &# ,")%,$( &')& &'( !(+")$- 2,//
)8)$5#$ (6($ #$( ;,/#"(&+( #0 #1+ 3#1$&+* 2,&'#1& ) 0,%'&.
Sta$in's statement #as remar<a0$e in t#o res+ects: it #as a #arnin% to the 2ed Army that
3ery hea3y fi%htin% #as sti$$ in storeL and6 as e3ents #ere to +ro3e 0efore $on%6 the
1ermans #ere a$ready on the +oint of $aunchin% their counter,offensi3e: 2ussian
reconnaissance must ha3e sho#n 0y Fe0ruary &3 that it #as comin%:
Second$y6 of a$$ Sta$in's #ar,time statements6 this one #as 0y far the $east +ro,A$$y:
9ithout mentionin% ;orth AfricaD#here the A$$ies' +ro%ress #as admitted$y s$o# at the
timeDSta$in said that the So3iet *nion #as F0earin% the #ho$e 0runt of the #ar:F The
com+$iments he had +aid the A$$ies in ;o3em0er 194& on their ;orth Africa $andin%
#ere not fo$$o#ed u+: 9hat they #ere doin% #as sma$$ stuff com+ared #ith Sta$in%rad
and the rest:
9hat nett$ed the British and Americans e3en more #as that6 after +ayin% a #arm tri0ute
to So3iet industry6 Sta$in shou$d ha3e made no mention at a$$ of end,ease and other
9estern su++$ies #hich #ere no# 0e%innin% to arri3e in 3ery su0stantia$ =uantities6
+art$y a$on% the ne#$y,reor%anised !ersian route: ?t #as this Sta$in @rder of Fe0ruary &3
#hich #as rea$$y at the root of the FStand$ey incidentF descri0ed in the $ast cha+ter:
A stran%e dua$ +henomenon #as to characterise So3iet forei%n +o$icy durin% the rest of
1943: an a$most constant$y %ro#in% cordia$ity to#ards the *nited States and Britain (a$$6
as it #ere6 in +re+aration for Teheran at the end of the year) 0ut6 at the same time6 an
e8treme$y Fanti,9esternF stand on the !o$ish issue: ?t a$ready $oo<ed as thou%h Sta$in6
#hi$e an8ious to cu$ti3ate the 0est +ossi0$e re$ations #ith the 9estern A$$ies6 had made
u+ his mind that !o$and #as an issue #hich the So3iet *nion #as %oin% to sett$e her o#n
#ay: ?t #as the 0i%%est test,case of a$$L and one6 as de 1au$$e #as to o0ser3e durin% his
3isit to Mosco# at the end of 19446 #hich #as Fthe +rinci+a$ o0Hect of his (Sta$in's)
+assion6 and the centre of his +o$icyF:
I5: de 1au$$e6 %alvation, <=JJ-R (;e# (or<6 19-))6 +: 74:K
From the end of March unti$ ear$y Bu$y there #as a re$ati3e $u$$ on the So3iet,1erman
FrontDin fact the $on%est $u$$ from then unti$ the end of the #ar: But 0oth sides #ere
+re+arin% fe3erish$y for the summer cam+ai%n #hich #as to 0e%in on Bu$y - #ith the
stu+endous Batt$e of 4urs<6 the $ast maHor 0att$e that most (thou%h not a$$) 1ermans #ere
sti$$ confident$y e8+ectin% to #inDthan<s $ar%e$y to their ne# !anther and Ti%er tan<s
and Ferdinand mo0i$e %uns: (et #ithin fi3e days the 1ermans had $ost the 0att$e6 and the
2ussians then #ere a0$e to fi%ht their #ay to the Dnie+er and 0eyond:
But this $on% three,months' $u$$ #as mar<ed 0y +o$itica$ e3ents of far,reachin%
im+ortance6 amon% them a further rapprochement #ith Britain and the *nited States6
characterised 0y such F%estures of %ood#i$$F as the disso$ution of the 5omintern and6 on
the other hand6 the 0reach #ith the !o$ish 1o3ernment in ondon and the $ayin% of the
foundations for an entire$y ne# !o$ish rN%ime:
C').&(+ AI THE TECHNIRUE O BUILDIN! A NEW POLAND
The .reach :ith the (ondon Poles
!o$and occu+ies the centra$ +$ace in the di+$omatic 0att$e 0et#een 2ussia and her
9estern A$$iesDa 0att$e #hich 0e%an $on% 0efore the #ar #as o3er: Des+ite a$$ officia$
attem+ts to +$ay it do#n or to $oca$ise it6 it #as the +ro0$em #hich had6 since the ear$y
+art of 1943 (and e3en 0efore) tended to +oison Cast,9est re$ations:
Throu%hout the So3iet *nion's Batt$e of Sur3i3a$ of 1941,&6 from the in3asion to the
Sta$in%rad 3ictory6 the So3iet 1o3ernment had 0een on its 0est 0eha3iourDat $east most
of the timeDin its re$ations #ith the outside #or$d: There had 0een a strident outcry6
$ar%e$y for home consum+tion6 for a Second Front durin% the a%onisin% summer of 194&6
0ut a+art from that and the snar$in% a0out .ess6 the So3iet *nion #as6 in the main6 0ein%
thorou%h$y conci$iatory in her re$ations #ith the 9est:
The on$y a$$ied and Ffriend$yF country #ith #hose %o3ernment re$ations #ere
continuous$y strained #as !o$and: This #as6 indeed6 a 3ery s+ecia$ case: The trou0$e
ine3ita0$y #ent 0ac< to the fact that 1ermany and 2ussia had F+artitionedF !o$and in
19396 and that se3era$ hundred thousand !o$es had 0een ta<en +risoner or de+orted 0y the
2ussiansL there #ere !o$es scattered a$$ o3er the So3iet *nionL and amon% these !o$es
there #ere numerous #ar +risoners6 inc$udin% some t#e$3e to fifteen thousand officers
and ;:5:@:'s:
Accordin% to the !o$ish 1o3ernment6 the officers had 0een in three $ar%e cam+sDat
4o>e$s<6 Staro0e$s< and @stash<o3 unti$ the s+rin% of 194"L 0ut 0y the end of 19416
des+ite +ressin% in=uiries6 no trace cou$d 0e found of any of them6 e8ce+t for some 4""
#ho had 0een transferred from one of these cam+s in the s+rin% of 194" to the cam+ of
1ria>o3et>6 near Ao$o%da:
The fate of these missin% officers #as to 0ecome a maHor 0one of contention 0et#een the
2ussians and the FondonF !o$es: ?t #as a$so to +ro3ide the 0asis for one of the master,
stro<es of 1oe00e$s's +ro+a%anda machineDthe story of the mass,%ra3es in 4atyn forest6
near Smo$ens<6 #hich #e sha$$ discuss $ater in this cha+ter:
*nder the terms of the Si<ors<i,Mais<y A%reement of Bu$y 3"6 19416 conc$uded in
ondon6 di+$omatic re$ations 0et#een the t#o 1o3ernments #ere restored6 and a !o$ish
Army #as to 0e or%anised in 2ussia Funder the orders of a chief a++ointed 0y the !o$ish
1o3ernment6 0ut a++ro3ed 0y the So3iet 1o3ernmentF: ?t #ou$d 0e under the Su+reme
So3iet 5ommand6 0ut this #ou$d inc$ude a !o$ish re+resentati3e:
The A%reement further said that6 after the restoration of di+$omatic re$ations6 the *SS2
#ou$d F%rant an amnesty to a$$ !o$ish citi>ens im+risoned in So3iet territory #hether as
#ar +risoners or for any other reason:F The 3ery #ord FamnestyF in this conte8t #as6 of
course6 more than distastefu$ to the !o$ish 1o3ernment6 0ut conditions #ere too serious
for =ui00$in%:
1enera$ Si<ors<i #ent to Mosco# in Decem0er6 1941D#ith the 1ermans sti$$ on$y a fe#
mi$es from the So3iet ca+ita$Dand confirmed the !o$ish +romise to set u+ a !o$ish Army
on So3iet territory6 #hich #ou$d fi%ht the 1ermans 0eside the So3iet Army: C3en #ith
2ussia in a hi%h$y +recarious mi$itary +osition6 Sta$in #ou$d not a%ree durin% the meetin%
#ith Si<ors<i to the restoration of !o$and #ithin her +re,Se+tem0er 1939 frontiers6 and
the !o$ish territoria$ c$aims continued to 0e a chronic su0Hect of dis+ute 0et#een the
2ussian and !o$ish Fa$$iesF: But a more serious and immediate +ro0$em #as the !o$ish
Army in the So3iet *nion:
F
This army 0e%an to 0e formed in 1941 0y 1enera$ Anders6 #ho had himse$f 0een a
+risoner of the 2ussians6 and #as understanda0$y anti,2ussian at heart:
ater6 after the 0reach #ith the ondon !o$es6 Ayshins<y made a sa3a%e indictment
a%ainst Anders and the !o$ish %o3ernment in ondon: .e 0e%an 0y reca$$in% that the
!o$ish,So3iet a%reements of 1941 +ro3ided for:
A P#/,-' A+"* &# 8( 0#+"(5 #$ S#6,(& -#,/, &'( $1"8(+ 8(,$% 0,B(5 )& @L,LLL "($.
!($(+)/ A$5(+- ',"-(/0 ')5 .+#.#-(5 &')& D2'($ ) 5,6,-,#$ 2)- +()5* 0#+ )3&,#$, ,&
-'#1/5 8( ,""(5,)&(/* -($& &# &'( 0+#$&.D
T'( -1../,(- %,6($ &# &'( P#/,-' A+"* 2(+( &'( -)"( )- &'#-( %,6($ &# S#6,(& A+"*
1$,&- ,$ .+#3(-- #0 0#+")&,#$. M#+(#6(+ &'( S#6,(& !#6(+$"($& ')5 %+)$&(5 &'(
P#/,-' !#6(+$"($& )$ ,$&(+(-&-0+(( /#)$ #0 -,B&*-0,6( ",//,#$ +#18/(-, 2',3', #$
J)$1)+* 1, 194M, 2)- ,$3+()-(5 &# @LL ",//,#$-, ./1- ) 0+(( %,0& #0 (91,."($& &#
P#/,-' #00,3(+-, )"#1$&,$% &# 0,0&(($ ",//,#$-.
A*-',$-;* -),5 &')&, 8* O3&#8(+ M5, 1941, &'( P#/,-' A+"* )/+()5* 3#1$&(5 41,561
"($, ,$3/15,$% M,6@L #00,3(+-. I$ D(3("8(+ S,;#+-;, .+#.#-(5 &')& &',- 0,%1+( 8(
,$3+()-(5 &# 96,LLL "($, +(.+(-($&,$% -,B 5,6,-,#$-.
Des+ite %reat difficu$ties6 there #ere a$ready di3isions #ith 73641- men in the !o$ish
Army in Decem0er 1941:
But at this +oint6 accordin% to Ayshins<y6 it 0e%an to 0e increasin%$y c$ear that the !o$es
#ere dou0$e,crossin% the 2ussiansL that they had no intention of $ettin% their men: 0e
<i$$ed at the 2ussian front6 and #ere ma<in% one e8cuse after another for not $ettin% them
fi%ht:
S#"( #0 &'( &+##.- 4A*-',$-;* 3/),"(57 2(+( &# 8( +()5* 0#+ )3&,#$ 8* O3&#8(+ 1,
1941? 81& &'(* 2(+( $#&. W',/( &'( S#6,(& !#6(+$"($& 5,5 $#& 2,-' &# '1++* &'(
P#/(-, ,& 8(%)$, )0&(+ 0,6( "#$&'- ')5 (/).-(5 -,$3( &'( 8(%,$$,$% #0 &'( A+"*<-
0#+")&,#$, &# )-; 91(-&,#$-, ,$ 6,+&1( #0 &'( A%+(("($& #0 A1%1-& 14, 1941. T',- ')5
-),5 &')& &'( P#/,-' A+"* 1$,&- 2#1/5 8( -($& &# &'( 0+#$& )- -##$ )- &'(* 2(+( 01//*
+()5* 0#+ )3&,#$. A- ) +1/(, &'(* 2#1/5 $#& %# ,$&# )3&,#$ ,$ /(-- &')$ #$( 5,6,-,#$,
)$5 2#1/5 8( 1-(5 ,$ )33#+5)$3( 2,&' &'( S#6,(& C#"")$5<- #.(+)&,#$)/ ./)$-.
L)&(+, '#2(6(+, A$5(+- 5(3/)+(5 &')& '( 3#$-,5(+(5 &'( 1-( #0 -,$%/( 5,6,-,#$-
1$5(-,+)8/(, (6($ &'#1%' 4A*-',$-;* )55(57 -,$%/( 8+,%)5(- 2(+( 1-(5 )& #&'(+
0+#$&-.
T'($ A$5(+- .+#",-(5 &')& &'( 2'#/( P#/,-' A+"* 2#1/5 8( +()5* 0#+ )3&,#$ #$
J1$( 1, 194M? '#2(6(+, 8(0#+( /#$%, &'( P#/,-' !#6(+$"($& 0,$)//* +(01-(5 &# -($5
)$* P#/,-' &+##.- &# &'( S#6,(& 0+#$&.
?t is +erha+s scarce$y sur+risin% that the !o$ish Army under Anders had no desire to fi%ht
on the 2ussian front after a$$ that had ha++ened since 1939: They had some 3ery %rim
memories of the ;:4:A:D: cam+s and a$so %ra3e mis%i3in%s a0out the fate of the missin%
!o$ish officers6 a crucia$ +oint Ayshins<y dod%ed:
?n Chren0ur%'s -emoirsDthou%h he a$so dod%es this =uestionD there is this stri<in%
+assa%e on the ear$y sta%es of !o$ish,2ussian Ffriendshi+F:
A& &'( 8(%,$$,$% #0 D(3("8(+ 419417 I ')..($(5 &# )&&($5 $()+ S)+)&#6 ) .)+)5( #0
!($(+)/ A$5(+-<- )+"*, 3#".#-(5 #0 P#/,-' (B-2)+-.+,-#$(+-. !($(+)/ S,;#+-;,
)++,6(5, )33#".)$,(5 8* A*-',$-;*. I 5#$<& ;$#2 2'* A*-',$-;*, #0 )// .(#./(,
-'#1/5 ')6( 8(($ 3'#-($ 0#+ &',- 3(+("#$*. P(+').- 8(3)1-( '( 2)- #0 P#/,-'
5(-3($&I I 3#1/5 $#& '(/. +("("8(+,$% '," ,$ &'( +[/( #0 P18/,3 P+#-(31&#+ ,$ &'(
P1+%( &+,)/-... H( 3/,3;(5 %/)--(- 2,&' S,;#+-;, )$5 &'(+( 2)- ) -1%)+* -",/( #$ ',-
0)3(. A"#$% &'( P#/(- &'(+( 2(+( ")$* %/##"* "($, 5((./* ("8,&&(+(5 8* 2')&
&'(* ')5 /,6(5 &'+#1%'? ")$* #0 &'(" 3#1/5 $#& +(-&+),$ &'("-(/6(- )$5 #.($/*
)5",&&(5 &')& &'(* ')&(5 1-. I 0(/& &')& &'(-( "($ 3#1/5 $#& /(& 8*%#$(- 8( 8*%#$(-.
S,;#+-;, )$5 A*-',$-;* +(0(++(5 &# ()3' #&'(+ )- D)//,(-D, 81& 8(',$5 &'(-( ./()-)$&
2#+5- #$( 3#1/5 0((/ 5((. )$,"#-,&*.
I3ov!i -ir, 19)36 ;o: 16 +: 73:K
The FAnders' !o$esF had certain$y had a more than ra# dea$ in 2ussia since 1939D
thou%h it #as +erha+s tact$ess and un%racious of them to com+$ain so fre=uent$y after the
out0rea< of the So3iet,1erman #ar of their misera0$e $i3in% and food conditions: after
a$$6 the 2ussian +eo+$e as a #ho$e #ere a$so sufferin% terri0$e hardshi+s durin% that
#inter:
;or is it sur+risin% that the 2ussians #ere not es+ecia$$y an8ious to ha3e on 2ussian soi$
a FreactionaryF !o$ish army6 commanded 0y 3iru$ent$y anti,2ussian officersD
+articu$ar$y if it #as 0ein% of no he$+ in fi%htin% the 1ermansDand that Sta$in a%reed to
5hurchi$$'s +ro+osa$ that the Anders' !o$es shou$d $ea3e 2ussia 3ia ?ran: Many 2ussians
re%arded their de+arture as a %ood riddance:6 0ut it so ha++ened that the Anders' army $eft
2ussia on the e3e of the Batt$e of Sta$in%rad: To the 2ussian +eo+$e this $oo<ed $i<e rats
$ea3in% a shi+ they thou%ht #as sin<in%: A$$ this #as 3ery unfairL 0ut it #as a$$ +art of
that tra%ic conf$ict #hich #ent 0ac< to 1939:
?n any case6 the !o$es he$d rather a s+ecia$ +$ace in the 2ussians' scheme of thin%sL many
2ussian so$diers had ta<en +art in the !o$ish cam+ai%n of 19396 and they had 0een struc<
0y the a$most %enera$ hosti$ity of the !o$esL simi$ar$y6 there #ere 2ussian so$diers #ho6
#hen a0andonin% cities $i<e #o# in 19416 c$aimed to ha3e 0een fired on 0y !o$es #hi$e
the 1ermans #ere enterin% the city from the other end:
?t is +erha+s si%nificant that on 1enera$ 1undoro3's FA$$ S$a3 5ommitteeF #hich #as
+articu$ar$y acti3e in 194&6 and #as mar<ed 0y a s+ecia$ 2ussian affection for (u%os$a3s6
5>echs and +ro,So3iet Bu$%arians6 the !o$es +$ayed 3ery $itt$e +art: This #as a curious
mo3ement #ith sentimenta$ F!an,S$a3F and e3en @rthodo8 5hurch undertones:
?n short6 the 2ussians had many menta$ reser3ations in res+ect of the !o$esDand no
dou0t a 3ery 0ad conscience as a resu$t of the 1939 de+ortations: And amon% the to+,
ran<in% 2ussians there #as %reat uneasiness a0out the Fmissin% officersF a0out #hom the
ondon 1o3ernment ne3er ceased as<in% =uestions:
But in any case Sta$in had some definite ideas a0out the future of !o$and: .e #as not
%oin% to su0scri0e to the F2i%a frontiersF of 19&1: ;or #as he %oin% to to$erate a !o$and
run 0y anti,2ussian e$ements: @f one thin% he #as +rofound$y con3incedD and that #as
the dee+,seated hosti$ity e8istin% 0et#een !o$es and 2ussians: C3en in $ater years6 $on%
after the #ar6 he continued to 0e hi%h$y sce+tica$ a0out any assurances that the !o$es and
2ussians #ere F%ettin% on s+$endid$yFDhe used to say that it #ou$d6 +erha+s6 ta<e t#o
%enerations or more to o3ercome the innate +reHudices e8istin% on 0oth sides:
Sta$in's !o$ish +o$icy had 0een +$anned in ad3ance6 thou%h it is dou0tfu$ #hether he cou$d
ha3e antici+ated 1oe00e$s's 4atyn 0om0she$$: But this 0om0she$$6 in fact6 on$y
+reci+itated the +rocess Sta$in had +$anned: The a$$,out cam+ai%n a%ainst the Si<ors<i
1o3ernment's territoria$ c$aims had started a$most immediate$y after Sta$in%rad6 and
4e"ore the 4atyn 0$o#,u+: ?t #as indeed6 after Sta$in%rad (and not 0efore) that the
di+$omatic acti3ity of the 2ussians 0ecame 3ery intensi3e6 com+$ete #ith the +roduction
of (as yet secret) 0$ue,+rints for the future of Castern Curo+e:
The trou0$e o3er !o$and6 #hich had 0een simmerin% for a $on% time6 0e%an to 0oi$ o3er in
Fe0ruary6 1943:
The 2ussian +ost,Sta$in%rad #inter offensi3e #as sti$$ at its hei%ht and the 2ed Army #as
continuin% its ad3ance #est of 4har<o3: The *<rainian 1o3ernment arri3ed in 4har<o3
(on$y to $ea3e a%ain a fe# days $ater6 it is true)6 and in the officia$ *<rainian 1o3ernment
ne#s+a+er Bad!ans*a &*raina (So3iet *<raine) +rinted in 4har<o3 on Fe0ruary 196
there a++eared an artic$e 0y A$e8ander 4orneichu<6 the #e$$,<no#n *<rainian
+$ay#ri%htD#ho had #ritten The Front in 194&Dand in this artic$e6 re+rinted on the
fo$$o#in% day in Pravda, the So3iet,*<rainian +oint of 3ie# #as c$ear$y stated: For6 a+art
from 0ein% a +ro0$em concernin% the So3iet *nion as a #ho$e6 !o$and #as a$so treated
then6 as $ater6 as a +ro0$em s+ecifica$$y affectin% the *<rainian S:S:2:
Short$y after#ards6 4orneichu< #as6 some#hat sym0o$ica$$y6 a++ointed So3iet Aice,
5ommissar for Forei%n Affairs Fin char%e of S$a3 countriesF: .e did not ho$d the Ho0 for
3ery $on% thou%h6 +art$y +erha+s 0ecause di+$omacy #as not =uite in his $ine and +art$y
+erha+s 0ecause the forei%n +ress tended to ma<e the most of the fact that he #as married
to 9anda 9assi$e#s<a6 a !o$ish 5ommunist #riter #ho had 0een a So3iet citi>en since
19396 and #as e3en a mem0er of the Su+reme So3iet:
C3er since the rene#a$ of di+$omatic re$ations 0et#een !o$and and the So3iet *nion in
the summer of 1941 the frontiers had 0een a 0one of contention 0et#een the t#o
1o3ernments: Si<ors<i himse$f6 thou%h #i$$in%6 at heart6 to ta<e a rea$istic 3ie# of the
situation6 had ne3er officia$$y a0andoned !o$and's c$aims to the 1939 frontiers: .e #as
a$#ays considerin% his o#n diehardsL thou%h the indications are that he #as +re+ared6
e3entua$$y6 to com+romise6 and his FminimumF #as the +reser3ation 0y !o$and of #o#:
ater it #as ar%ued that6 if on$y Si<ors<i had remained a$i3e6 re$ations 0et#een the So3iet
1o3ernment and the !o$ish 1o3ernment in ondon #ou$d not ha3e deteriorated as much
as they didL 0ut this is dou0tfu$: Si<ors<i #as sti$$ a$i3e #hen the So3iet 1o3ernment
Fsus+endedF di+$omatic re$ationsL Si<ors<i #as sti$$ a$i3e #hen the *nion of !o$ish
!atriotsDthat first nuc$eus of a +ro,So3iet 1o3ernment in !o$andD#as set u+ and the
decision #as ta<en to form the ne# !o$ish Army in 2ussia:
There are6 ho#e3er6 indications that the 2ussians did not ho$d Si<ors<i +ersona$$y
res+onsi0$e for the F4atyn Scanda$F6 0ut some of the diehards in and around his
1o3ernment6 es+ecia$$y their 4Vte noire 1enera$ Sosn<o#s<i6 the 5hief of StaffL and it is
a$so true that at no moment after the sus+ension of re$ations #ith the !o$ish 1o3ernment
in A+ri$ 1943 did the 2ussian +ress attac< Si<ors<i +ersona$$y: But6 $oo<in% 0ac< on it
no#6 it is dou0tfu$ #hether Si<ors<i #ou$d ha3e 0een a0$e to +$ay a +art much %reater
than that to 0e +$ayed $ater 0y Mi<o$aHc>y<:
The main $ines of 2ussia's !o$ish +o$icy may 0e said to ha3e 0een $aid do#n in the ear$y
+art of 1943: The 4atyn scanda$ on$y +reci+itated an ine3ita0$e 0reach:
The eastern frontier #as to 0e6 rou%h$y6 the 5ur>on $ine6 and !o$and #as to e8+and
#est#ards instead6 thou%h no e8act 0order$ine #as yet mentioned:
The !o$ish 1o3ernment #as to 0e a Ffriend$y 1o3ernmentF:
A $astin% sett$ement of !o$and's frontiers #as to 0e achie3ed6 and a$thou%h the 2ussians
at first refrained from indicatin% officia$$y #hat !o$and's frontiers in the #est #ou$d 0e6 a
ne# !o$ish +a+er +u0$ished in Mosco#6 $olna Pols*a (Free !o$and) o+en$y raised the
=uestion in March 1943: Some0ody ca$$ed Andr>ei Mare< #rote that !o$and shou$d 0e
%i3en the essentia$ +arts of Si$esia and6 natura$$y6 the mouth of the Aistu$a6 F#ith #ide
access to the seaF: The coast$ine from Dan>i% to Meme$6 he said6 shou$d 0e !o$ish and
Cast !russia shou$d Fcease to 0e an e3er$astin% s+rin%0oard for 1erman a%%ression
a%ainst the !o$es6 2ussians6 and the Ba$tic +eo+$es: ?t shou$d 0e !o$and's 0rid%e to the
sea6 and not the 0arrier 0et#een her and the seaF: These sti$$ re$ati3e$y modest c$aims
#ere to 0e %reat$y e8ceeded $ater 0y the @der,;eisse frontier:
The !o$es6 in short6 #ere e8+ected to sin< their +ast differences #ith the 2ussians and
*<rainians6 to 0ecome F%ood S$a3sF6 and sto+ thin<in% a0out cordons sanitaires and
other !i$suds<ian heresies:
As a$ready said6 4orneichu< o+ened the de0ate on Fe0ruary 19:
I& 2#1/5 -((" 4'( 2+#&(7, &')& ,$ &'( ')+5 &,"(- &'+#1%' 2',3' &'( P#/,-' .(#./( )+(
/,6,$% )// /)*(+- #0 P#/,-' -#3,(&* 2#1/5 8( 1$,&(5 8* &'( -)"( $)&,#$)/ 0((/,$%, )$5
8* &'( -)"( -)3+(5 &'#1%'&? &# 5+,6( #1& &'( !(+")$-... B1& $#, &'(+( )+( /)+%(
%+#1.- #0 P#/(- ,$ L#$5#$ 2'# )+( 5#,$% &'(,+ 8(-& &# -')&&(+ &'( 1$,&(5 0+#$& #0
H,&/(+<- ($(",(-. A P#/,-' $(2-.).(+, .+,$&(5 #$ %##5 E$%/,-' $(2-.+,$&, +(3($&/*
5,-",--(5 &'( #1&3+* 0#+ &'( S(3#$5 +#$& )- D3'(). 5(")%#%*D. A$5 )& ) +(3($&
"((&,$% ,$ E5,$81+%' P+#0(--#+ W. W,(/'#+-;, -),5: DE6(+* P#/( "1-& 3#$-,5(+ ,&
',- 51&* &# 0,%'& 0#+ &'( ,$6,#/)8,/,&* #0 #1+ ()-&(+$ )+()-.D
T'( P#/,-' szlachta =/)$5(5 %($&+*> ')6( /()+$(5 $#&',$%. T'(* ')6( $(6(+
+(3#%$,-(5 &'( U;+),$,)$ .(#./(...
4orneichu< then %a3e a $on% $ist of the 0enefits that the 9estern *<raine had deri3ed
durin% its incor+oration in the So3iet *nion6 0et#een 1939 and 1941Dthe creation of
schoo$s and hos+ita$s6 $and reform6 stru%%$e a%ainst i$$iteracy6 unem+$oyment and
+rostitution:
@n March & a Tass communi=uN dec$ared that this !o$ish attem+t to deny the *<rainians
and the Be$orussians their ri%hts #as Fcontrary to the At$antic 5harter::: C3en ord
5ur>on6 hosti$e thou%h he #as to the So3iet *nion6 understood that !o$and cou$d not
c$aim *<rainian and Be$orussian territories:F
Then it sounded the motif that the !o$ish 1o3ernment in ondon #as not representative
o" the Polish people5
?t #as a$$ #e$$ orchestrated:
$olna Pols*a made its first a++earance a fe# days $ater: ?t dec$ared itse$f to 0e the or%an
of the *nion of !o$ish !atriots6 and aimed at Funitin% a$$ !o$ish +atriots $i3in% in the
*SS26 re%ard$ess of their +ast6 their 3ie#s and their con3ictions6 in the Hoint tas< of
#a%in% an uncom+risin% stru%%$e a%ainst the 1erman in3aders::: F The aim6 the +a+er
said6 #as to Fre%ain for !o$and e3ery inch of !o$ish %round6 0ut not to c$aim an inch of
other +eo+$e's $and:F
@ther artic$es #ere +u0$ished 0y 9ands 9asse$e#s<a6 9i<tor 1ros> and others6 ca$$in%
for friendshi+ #ith the So3iet *nion and denouncin% 0oth the ondon 1o3ernment and
3arious !o$ish F=uis$in%sF:
Many #ondered at first #ho these +eo+$e of the *nion of !o$ish !atriots #ere: @n$y one6
its !resident6 9anda 9assi$e#s<a6 #as #e$$ <no#n: But she #as in a some#hat
am0i%uous +osition6 0ein%6 at the time6 a mem0er of the Su+reme So3iet of the *SS26
and moreo3er6 the third #ife of 4orneichu<6 the ne#$y a++ointed Aice,5ommissar for
Forei%n Affairs: Then there #as 5o$one$ Ber$in%6 one of the 3ery fe# officers #ho had
refused to fo$$o# Anders's Army to ?ran: There #ere some other !o$esDBoreHs>a6 the
editor of $olna Pols*a, and Aictor 1ros>6 Bedrieho#s<i6 and Mod>e$e#s<iDmost$y
youn% and un<no#n +eo+$e #hom the co$$a+se of !o$and had6 in one #ay or another6
0rou%ht to the So3iet *nion: Many of them #ere Be#s: 9ho #ere the +u0$ic to #hom the
*nion of !o$ish !atriots in the *SS2 #ere a++ea$in%E
?n March6 this sti$$ seemed 3ery 3a%ue: There #ere hundreds of thousands of !o$es and
!o$ish Be#s scattered o3er $ar%e +arts of the So3iet *nionDmost$y +eo+$e #ho had 0een
de+orted 0y the 2ussians in 1939,4" from 9estern *<raine and Be$orussia6 inc$udin%
some e8,#ar,+risoners #ho had not had time to 0e incor+orated in the Anders Army:
There #ere others #ho had come 3o$untari$y6 to esca+e from the 1ermans in 19416 0ut
ho# many of these cou$d 0e ca$$ed rea$ !o$esDrather than *<rainians6 Be$orussians or
Be#sD #as in some dou0tL and6 a$to%ether6 it seemed dou0tfu$ #hether many of these
+eo+$e #ere F!o$ish !atriotsF in the Mosco# sense: C3en a #e$$,<no#n 2ussian said to
me6 #hen he heard of the decision to form a !o$ish di3ision on 2ussian soi$6 that he did
not =uite see ho# it cou$d 0e done6 for it #as not much use +uttin% nothin% 0ut
*<rainians or Be#s into the F!o$ish Di3isionF6 and as for rea$ !o$es6 the on$y ones #ho
#ou$d 0e #i$$in% to enter such a di3ision #ou$d 0e !o$ish 5ommunistsL and these #ere a
rara avis5
(et neither the *nion of !o$ish !atriots6 nor6 sti$$ $ess6 the !o$ish Di3ision ($ater fo$$o#ed
0y three more di3isions formed on So3iet soi$) turned out to 0e a Ho<e6 as not on$y the
enemies of the #ho$e scheme6 0ut a$so many friend$y sce+tics seemed to e8+ect at the
time: ?t #as not unti$ the 4oscius><o Di3ision made its a++earance in Bu$y 1943 that most
of the sce+tics reco%nised that the 2ussians had6 someho#6 +u$$ed it off: As for the *nion
of !o$ish !atriots6 nondescri+t thou%h it may out#ard$y ha3e 0een6 it had created the
ideo$o%ica$ 0asis for that ;e# !o$and6 of #hich the 4oscius><o Di3ision #as to 0e the
first im+ortant manifestation:
?t #as certain$y not accidenta$ that throu%hout A+ri$ a$$ the $oya$ friends of the So3iet
*nion shou$d ha3e 0een 0ui$t u+ in the So3iet +ress: ?t #as as if their acti3ities #ere
0ein% com+ared #ith the Fre+rehensi0$e and shortsi%htedF conduct of the ondon !o$es:
Thus6 %reat +u0$icity #as %i3en to the 5>echos$o3a< unit that fou%ht its first %reat action
Da 3ery cost$y 0ut successfu$ actionDon the So3iet front: 1reat +rominence #as a$so
%i3en to the resistance mo3ements in France6 Be$%ium6 and ;or#ay6 and more
+articu$ar$y to the French ;ormandie S=uadron a$ready fi%htin% on the 2ussian front on
de 1au$$e's initiati3e:
The 5>echos$o3a< unit fi%htin% on the 2ussian front #on the %reatest fame of a$$ durin%
those days: ?t #as not a $ar%e unitD &6""" or 36""" men under the command of 5o$one$
S3o0oda6 #ho #as $ater to 0ecome Minister of 9ar in the 5>echos$o3a< 1o3ernment in
!ra%ue: ?n March it #ent into action and on A+ri$ &6 the 2ussian communi=uN to$d the
story of its first %reat en%a%ement: T#o thin%s #ere6 +o$itica$$y6 of the %reatest
im+ortanceL first6 that6 un$i<e the Anders Army6 the 5>echos$o3a< unit #as fi%htin% on
the So3iet frontL second$y6 that it #as doin% so #ith the 0$essin% of the 5>echos$o3a<
5ommander,in,5hief6 !resident Benes6 and of the 5>echos$o3a< 1o3ernment in ondon:
The unit #as6 of course6 under the o+erationa$ command of the 2ussians:
@n A+ri$ J6 A$e8ander Fadeye3 #rote a %$o#in% account of the 5>echs' heroism and6 t#o
days $ater6 #arm con%ratu$ations #ere sent to 5o$one$ S3o0oda 0y !resident Benes6 0y
the Minister of Defence (a$so in ondon)6 and 0y the 5>echos$o3a< 5ommunist de+uties
#ho #ere then in Mosco#6 1ott#a$d6 4o+ec<y and others: 5a+tain Baros #ho #as in
command of one of the com+anies durin% the hea3y fi%htin% in the 4har<o3 area6 and had
0een fata$$y #ounded6 #as +osthumous$y a#arded the tit$e of .ero of the So3iet *nion:
S3o0oda recei3ed the @rder of enin6 and ei%hty,t#o other men of the 5>echos$o3a< unit
#ere decorated 0y the 2ussians:
Such re$ations #ith the 5>echs contrasted stran%e$y #ith the first,c$ass ro# #ith the
ondon !o$es #hich #as on the +oint of reachin% its c$ima8:
From the 0e%innin% the !o$ish 1o3ernment's +rinci+a$ #orry had 0een the fate of the
!o$ish officers #ho had 0een in the So3iet *nion since the de0ac$e in 1939: 9here #ere
theyE ?n their many con3ersations #ith Sta$in6 Mo$oto3 and Ayshins<y durin% the #inter
of 1941,&6 1enera$ Si<ors<i6 1enera$ Anders (#ho had himse$f 0een in 2ussian +risons
for many months)6 Am0assador 4ot6 and other !o$ish re+resentati3es <e+t on raisin% this
=uestion: The 2ussians (accordin% to the !o$es) ne3er %a3e a definite ans#er6 sayin% that
these +risoners #ou$d e3entua$$y turn u+ or that they had +erha+s esca+ed to !o$and6 or
2umania6 or Manchuria or6 fina$$y (a 3ery 0e$ated afterthou%ht of Sta$in's) that some of
them mi%ht ha3e 0een tra++ed 0y the 1ermans durin% the in3asion of the So3iet *nion:
The announcement 0y 1oe00e$s's +ro+a%anda machine in the midd$e of A+ri$6 19436 that
the 1ermans had found se3era$ mass %ra3es in the 4atyn Forest near Smo$ens<
containin% the 0odies of thousands of !o$ish officers6 #as therefore #e$$ timed to
e8acer0ate further the strained re$ations 0et#een Mosco# and the ondon !o$es:
The 1ermans had set u+ a much +u0$icised 5ommittee of ?n=uiry #hich had F+ro3edF
that these !o$ish officers had 0een shot 0y the 2ussians in 194":
The ne#s #as s+run% on a start$ed 2ussian +u0$ic in an officia$ communi=uN on A+ri$ 1):
D!#(88(/-<- %)$% #0 /,)+- ')6(, ,$ &'( /)-& &2# #+ &'+(( 5)*- 8(($ -.+()5,$%
+(6#/&,$% )$5 -/)$5(+#1- 0)8+,3)&,#$- )8#1& &'( )//(%(5 ")-- -'##&,$%- 8* S#6,(&
#+%)$- #0 )1&'#+,&* ,$ &'( S"#/($-; )+(), ,$ &'( -.+,$% #0 194L. T'( !(+")$
-&)&("($& /()6(- $# 5#18& )8#1& &'( &+)%,3 0)&( #0 &'( 0#+"(+ P#/,-' 2)+ .+,-#$(+-
2'#, ,$ 1941, 2(+( ,$ )+()- 2(-& #0 S"#/($-;, ($%)%(5 #$ 81,/5,$%, )$5 2'#,
&#%(&'(+ 2,&' ")$* S#6,(& .(#./(, ,$')8,&)$&- #0 &'( S"#/($-; P+#6,$3(, 0(// ,$&# &'(
')$5- #0 &'( !(+")$ ')$%"($, )0&(+ &'( 2,&'5+)2)/ #0 S#6,(& &+##.- 0+#"
S"#/($-;... I$ &',- 3/1"-* 0)8+,3)&,#$ )8#1& $1"(+#1- %+)6(- 2',3' &'( !(+")$-
)+( -1..#-(5 &# ')6( 5,-3#6(+(5 $()+ S"#/($-;, !#(88(/-<- /,)+- "($&,#$ &'( 6,//)%(
#0 !$(C5#6)*)? 81& &'(* 5(/,8(+)&(/* #",& &# "($&,#$ &'( 0)3& &')& ,& 2)- .+(3,-(/*
'(+(, $()+ !$(C5#6)*), &')& )+3')(#/#%,3)/ (B3)6)&,#$- 2(+( ,$ .+#%+(-- #$ &'( -#-
3)//(5 !$(C5#6-;* T1"1/1-... W,&' &',- 0);,$% #0 0)3&-, )$5 &'(-( -&#+,(- #0 S#6,(&
)&+#3,&,(- ,$ &'( -.+,$% #0 194L, &'( !(+")$- ... )+( &+*,$% &# -',0& #$ &# &'( R1--,)$-
&'( 8/)"( 0#+ &'(,+ #2$ "#$-&+#1- 3+,"(...
DT'(-( .+#0(--,#$)/ !(+")$ "1+5(+(+-, 2'# ')6( 81&3'(+(5 '1$5+(5- #0
&'#1-)$5- #0 P#/,-' 3,&,C($- ,$ P#/)$5, 2,// 5(3(,6( $# #$( 2,&' -13' /,(- )$5
-/)$5(+...D
A$$ this #as a $itt$e mystifyin%L for it seemed to su%%est that6 a$thou%h the !o$es had no
dou0t 0een murdered6 the 1ermans had in3ented the story a0out the mass %ra3es at
Smo$ens<: ?t #as not at a$$ c$ear #hat the 1ne>do3s<y Tumu$us had to do #ith it a$$:
The +osition 0ecame a $itt$e c$earer a fe# days $aterL or6 at $east6 one thin% no# 0ecame
+erfect$y c$earDand that #as that 1oe00e$s had en%ineered a first,c$ass di+$omatic ro#:
@n the 19th6 the Pravda editoria$ indi%nant$y #rote:
!#(88(/-<- 0)8+,3)&,#$ ')- 8(($ &);($ 1. $#& #$/* 8* ',- !(+")$ -3+,8(-, 81&, &#
(6(+*8#5*<- )")C("($&, 8* &'( ",$,-&(+,)/ 3,+3/(- #0 !($(+)/ S,;#+-;,... T'( P#/,-'
M,$,-&+* #0 I$0#+")&,#$ ;$#2- .(+0(3&/* 2(// &'( .1+.#-( #0 &',- !(+")$
.+#6#3)&,#$, 0#+ ,& -)*- ,&-(/0: DW( )+( 1-(5 &# &'( /,(- #0 !(+")$ .+#.)%)$5), )$5
3)$ 1$5(+-&)$5 &'( .1+.#-( #0 ,&- /)&(-& +(6(/)&,#$-.D Y(&, ,$ -.,&( #0 &',-, &'(
M,$,-&+* #0 I$0#+")&,#$ 3)$ &',$; #0 $#&',$% 8(&&(+ &')$ &# )..()/ &# &'(
I$&(+$)&,#$)/ R(5 C+#-- 2,&' &'( +(91(-& &# D,$6(-&,%)&(D -#"(&',$% &')& $(6(+
(B,-&(5, #+, +)&'(+, ')5 8(($ 0)8+,3)&(5 8* &'( ')$%"($ #0 B(+/,$, 2'# )+( $#2
&+*,$% &# )&&+,81&( &'(,+ 3+,"( &# &'( S#6,(& #+%)$- =,.(., &'( NKAD>. T'(* ')6( 8(($
3)1%'& 8* &',- !(+")$ 8),&. I& ,- $#& -1+.+,-,$% &')& H,&/(+ -'#1/5 )/-# ')6(
)..()/(5 &# &'( I$&(+$)&,#$)/ R(5 C+#--. Y(& &',- ,- $#& &'( 0,+-& 3)-( #0 ,&- ;,$5:
)/+()5* ,$ L2#2 ,$ 1941 &'(* -&)%(5 DT'( 6,3&,"- #0 B#/-'(6,; T(++#+D.
H1$5+(5- #0 2,&$(--(- &'($ -'#2(5 1. &'( !(+")$ /,)+-. =T'( )+&,3/( &'($ +(0(++(5
&# S#6,$0#+"81+()1<- -&)&("($& #$ &'( -18:(3& #0 A1%1-& N, 1941.>
((/,$% &'( ,$5,%$)&,#$ #0 &'( 2'#/( #0 .+#%+(--,6( '1")$,&* #6(+ &'(,+ ")--)3+(- #0
.()3(01/ 3,&,C($-, )$5 .)+&,31/)+/* #0 J(2-, &'( !(+")$- )+( $#2 &+*,$% &# +#1-( &'(
)$%(+ #0 %1//,8/( .(#./( )%),$-& &'( J(2-: 0#+ &',- +()-#$ &'(* ,$6($&(5 ) 2'#/(
3#//(3&,#$ #0 "*&',3)/ DJ(2,-' C#"",--)+-D 2'#, &'(* -)*, &##; .)+& ,$ &'( "1+5(+
#0 &'( 1L,LLL P#/,-' #00,3(+-. #+ -13' (B.(+,($3(5 0);(+- ,& 2)- $#& 5,00,31/& &#
,$6($& ) 0(2 $)"(- #0 .(#./( 2'# $(6(+ (B,-&(5EL(6 R*8);, A6+))" B#+,-#6,3',
P)1/ B+#5$,$-;*, C')," ,$8(+%. N# -13' .(+-#$- (6(+ (B,-&(5 (,&'(+ ,$ &'(
DS"#/($-; S(3&,#$ #0 &'( O!PUD, #+ ,$ )$* #&'(+ 5(.)+&"($& #0 &'( NKAD. I$ &'(
/,%'& #0 &'(-( 0)3&-, &'( +(91(-& ")5( 8* &'( P#/,-' M,$,-&+* #0 N)&,#$)/ D(0($3( &#
&'( I$&(+$)&,#$)/ R(5 C+#-- 3)$ 8( +(%)+5(5 #$/* )- ) 5("#$-&+)&,#$ #0 &'(,+ 5(-,+(
&# %,6( 5,+(3& ),5 &# H,&/(+<- 0#+%(+- )$5 provocateurs.
And then6 t#o days $ater6 a Tass statement said that this Pravda editoria$ Ffu$$y ref$ects
the attitude of So3iet $eadin% circ$esF:
T'( -&)&("($& ")5( 8* &'( S,;#+-;, !#6(+$"($& #$ A.+,/ 1N ");(- ")&&(+- 2#+-(,
-,$3( ,& ,5($&,0,(- ,&-(/0 2,&' &'( .+#6#3)&,6( -&)&("($& #0 &'( P#/,-' M,$,-&+* #0
D(0($3(... T'( 0)3& &')& &'( )$&,-S#6,(& 3)".),%$ -&)+&(5 -,"1/&)$(#1-/* ,$ &'(
!(+")$ )$5 &'( P#/,-' .+(--, )$5 ,- 8(,$% 3#$513&(5 #$ &'( -)"( ./)$(E&',-
)")C,$% 0)3& )//#2- #$( &# -1..#-( &')& &',- 3)".),%$ ,- 8(,$% 3#$513&(5 )- ) +(-1/&
#0 )$ )%+(("($& 8(&2(($ &'( !(+")$ #331.)$&- ,$ P#/)$5 )$5 &'( .+#-H,&/(+,&(
(/("($&- #0 &'( ",$,-&(+,)/ 3,+3/(- #0 M+ S,;#+-;,. T'( P#/,-' !#6(+$"($&<-
-&)&("($& -'#2- &')& &'( .+#-H,&/(+,&( (/("($&- ')6( %+()& ,$0/1($3( ,$ &'( P#/,-'
!#6(+$"($& )$5 &')& &'(* )+( &);,$% $(2 -&(.- &# 2#+-($ +(/)&,#$- 8(&2(($ P#/)$5
)$5 &'( USSR.
The So3iet case #as not at a$$ #e$$ +resented: Detai$ed facts and fi%ures #ere missin%:
Somethin% of the secreti3eness that had surrounded the #ho$e affair of the Fmissin%
!o$ish officersF #as sti$$ maintained: To the 2ussians6 the a$$e%ations #ere F0eneath
contem+tF: They #ou$d say #hat there #as to say once the 2ed Army %ot to Smo$ens<:
;o# there #as on$y one thin% to do: dra# the +o$itica$ conc$usions:
@n the e3enin% of A+ri$ &7 it #as announced that the So3iet 1o3ernment had sus+ended
di+$omatic re$ations #ith the !o$ish 1o3ernment: The announcement #as contained in a
$etter from Mo$oto3 to 2omer6 the !o$ish Am0assador in the *SS2:
The #ord used #as "prervat" (sus+end)6 not "porvat" (0rea< off)6 and those #ho 0e$ie3ed
that the 0reach #as on$y tem+orary6 at first attached some im+ortance to this fine +oint of
2ussian %rammar:
The !o$ish Am0assador himse$f su%%ested at first that the =uarre$ mi%ht 0e +atched u+6
and that he F#ou$d soon 0e 0ac< in Mosco#F: .e #as c$ear$y u+set at #hat had
ha++ened6 0ut made a +oint of 0ein% 3ery FcorrectF a0out the 2ussians at the +ress
conference he %a3e to the British and American corres+ondents the ni%ht the
Fsus+ensionF #as announced: .e said he had refused to acce+t the 2ussian ;ote6 0ecause
the moti3es #ere Funacce+ta0$eF: .e ar%ued that an artic$e in the officia$ !o$ish +a+er in
ondon6 the Dzienni* Pols*i had6 on A+ri$ 1-6 reHected the 1erman +ro+osa$ to a++ea$ to
the ?nternationa$ 2ed 5rossL 0ut he did not <no# #hen and ho# e8act$y this a++ea$ had
fina$$y 0een made6 and on #hose authority: ?nstead6 s+ea<in% studious$y more in sorro#
than in an%er6 he made a fe# %enera$ com+$aints a0out the 2ussians: Accordin% to the
$ists of the !o$ish Cm0assy6 he said6 there had 0een 4""6""" !o$es in the So3iet *nion:
Since then 9-6""" so$diers and 4"6""" ci3i$ians had %one to the Midd$e Cast: The !o$ish
so$diers had 0een demo0i$ised in 19396 0ut the officers and ;:5:@:'s #ere <e+t in cam+s:
The !o$ish 1o3ernment had as<ed the 2ussians in 3ain to %i3e them $ists of these officers
and ;:5:@:'sL and6 un$i<e 4o>ie$s<6 the camps o" %taro4els* and &stash*ovo had not
4een occupied 4! the #ermans5 ?f the !o$ish officers and ;:5:@:'s had 0een transferred to
Smo$ens<6 the !o$ish 1o3ernment had not heard of it unti$ no#: ?t #as a++arent that if the
2ussians had $eft the !o$es 0ehind to fa$$ into 1erman hands6 the 2ussians did not #ish to
admit it6 and #ere6 therefore6 hummin% and ha#in%: ?t #as most unfortunate6 and had
+$ayed into the hands of 1erman +ro+a%anda: "Ue ne crois pas au crime russeD ? don't
0e$ie3e in a 2ussian crimeF6 he said6 Fon$y #hy cou$d they not 0e fran<er #ith usE F .e
said the three cam+s in =uestion had 0een c$osed 0et#een A+ri$ and Bune 194"6 and it had
0een 0e$ie3ed that the officers had 0een scattered throu%h the So3iet *nion in sma$$
%rou+s: The ne#s that they had 0een $eft 0ehind near Smo$ens< #as somethin% =uite ne#:
I$ &'(-( 3)".- 4'( -),57, &'(+( ')5 8(($ 1M,5LL #00,3(+- )$5 N.CO.<- )$5 2'($ &'(
P#/,-' A+"* 8(%)$ &# 8( 0#+"(5, ,& 2)- 0#1$5 &')& #$/* ) ')$501/ #0 #00,3(+- 2(+(
)6),/)8/(.
.e then ta$<ed a0out the -7" chi$dren's homes6 schoo$s6 canteens6 o$d +eo+$e's homes6 and
other !o$ish institutions #hich had 0een set u+ in the So3iet *nion6 and had most$y 0een
run on $end,$ease stuff 0y 4&" personnes de con"iance a++ointed 0y the !o$ish Cm0assy
at 4ui0yshe36 0ut had $atter$y 0een ta<en o3er 0y the 2ussians: After that6 a$$ these
centres had $ost contact #ith the Cm0assy: .e had heard of Madame 9assi$e#s<a 0ut did
not <no# #hat she #as doin% or #as +ro+osin% to do:
A$5 &'($, #$ J)$1)+* 16, &'( S#6,(& !#6(+$"($& 2($& 8)3; #$ ,&- 0#+"(+ 5(3,-,#$
&# )//#2 3(+&),$ 3)&(%#+,(- #0 .(#./( 0+#" E)-&(+$ P#/)$5 &# +)$; )- P#/,-' 3,&,C($-.
I 4R#"(+7 ')5 8(($ 5,-31--,$% &',- 91(-&,#$ 2,&' &'( R1--,)$- 0#+ -#"( &,"(, )$5 ,&
,- "#-& 5,-)..#,$&,$% &# "( &')& &'(-( $(%#&,)&,#$- -'#1/5 $#2 ')6( ')5 &# 8(
-1-.($5(5.
.e ended6 ho#e3er6 on a note of confidence6 sayin% he thou%ht the =uarre$ #ou$d yet 0e
+atched u+:
? ha3e =uoted 2omer's statement 0ecause6 a fe# days $ater6 Ayshins<y #as to ans#er
him6 thou%h not on the crucia$ +oint of the Fmissin% officers:F 2omer's su%%estion that it
#ou$d F0$o# o3erF #as not Hustified: The 2ussians6 ha3in% in effect 0ro<en off re$ations
#ith the ondon 1o3ernment6 #ere no# %oin% to %et tou%h:
2omer #as not to foresta$$ Ayshins<y: From the 2ussian +oint of 3ie# he #as no $on%er
Am0assador6 and6 therefore6 had no 0usiness to %i3e inter3ie#s: ;one of his statements
#as +assed 0y the censorshi+6 not even the statement that he did not 4elieve the Bussians
had committed the Kat!n crime@
FAfter reca+turin% the 4atyn area the 2ussians tried to +ro3e that the !o$ish officers had
0een shot 0y the 1ermans: See ++: ))1 ff:K
@n the 3ery ne8t day6 #hi$e Pravda #as fumin% a%ainst the F!o$ish ?m+eria$istsF and
F1erman a%entsF6 9anda 9assi$e#s<a came out #ith an artic$e in Izvestia #hich #as a
$andmar< in the history of !o$ish,2ussian re$ations: After ma<in% the usua$ char%es
a%ainst the ondon 1o3ernment of +re3entin% acti3e resistance to the 1ermans in
!o$and6 and of ha%%$in%6 instead6 o3er !o$and's eastern frontiers6 she said that this
1o3ernment had Fdone e3erythin% to si$ence +ro%ressi3e !o$es a0roadF and to
Fundermine the !o$es' confidence in their natura$ a$$y6 the So3iet *nion:F
DY(& (6(+* '#$(-& P#/( ;$#2- &')& -13' )$ )//,)$3( ,- ) ")&&(+ #0 /,0( )$5 5()&' &#
',- 3#1$&+*, (-.(3,)//* $#2 2'($ E1+#.(<- )$5 P#/)$5<- 0)&( ,- 8(,$% -(&&/(5 #$ &',-
0+#$&.D
And then she came to her main +oint: she said that another Polish /rm! might shortl! 4e
constituted on %oviet soil, #hich #ou$d fi%ht side 0y side #ith the 2ed Army6 as the
5>echos$o3a< troo+s and the French airmen #ere a$ready doin%: This Polish /rm! :ould
not 4e under the 8urisdiction o" the Polish #overnment in (ondon5
9hat this meant #as that a ne# !o$ish Army6 dra#n from !o$ish citi>ens in the So3iet
*nion6 and former !o$ish citi>ens (thou%h 9assi$e#s<a did not mention this +oint) #ou$d
short$y 0e formed on So3iet soi$: ?t no# seemed $i<e$y that the +oint a0out !o$ish
nationa$ity #hich the 2ussians had6 for a short time6 stretched in fa3our of the Anders
Army6 mi%ht no# 0e stretched a%ain for the 0enefit of the ne# !o$ish Army6 and6 indeed6
stretched much farther:
The =uestion as to #ho #ou$d re+$ace the ondon 1o3ernment from the +oint of 3ie# of
authority #as $eft 3a%ueL 0ut6 for the +resent6 the ne# !o$ish Army #ou$d6 in fact6 o#e its
a$$e%iance to the So3iet 1o3ernment +endin% the formation of a real !o$ish 1o3ernment:
Many sce+tics #ron%$y thou%ht that #hat #as contem+$ated #as mere$y a Fto<en forceF6
or e3en on$y a F%estureF:
From no# on6 So3iet +o$icy had t#o o0Hecti3esDto denounce and de0un< the !o$ish
1o3ernment in ondon as Funre+resentati3eF6 and to +roc$aim its intention of su++ortin%
those #ishin% to 0ui$d a Ffree6 stron%6 and democratic !o$andF: @n May )6 Sta$in
ans#ered the =uestions of 2a$+h !ar<er6 the Times corres+ondent6 as fo$$o#s:
R. D#(- &'( !#6(+$"($& #0 &'( USSR 5(-,+( &# -(( ) -&+#$% ,$5(.($5($& P#/)$5
)0&(+ &'( 5(0()& #0 N)C, !(+")$*I
A. U$91(-&,#$)8/*.
R. W')&, ,$ *#1+ 6,(2, -'#1/5 8( &'( 8)-,- 0#+ +(/)&,#$- 8(&2(($ P#/)$5 )$5 &'(
USSR )0&(+ &'( 2)+I
A. S#1$5 %##5-$(,%'8#1+/* +(/)&,#$- )$5 "1&1)/ +(-.(3&, #+, ,0 &'( P#/,-' .(#./(
5(-,+( ,&, ) 8)-,- #0 "1&1)/ ),5 )%),$-& &'( !(+")$-, &'( .+,$3,.)/ ($(",(- #0 8#&'
&'( S#6,(& U$,#$ )$5 P#/)$5.
@n the same day6 Ayshins<y ca$$ed a +ress conference and +roduced his $on% indictment
a%ainst the ondon 1o3ernment: .e s+o<e in a +articu$ar$y harsh and snar$in% manner6
reminiscent of his manner as !u0$ic !rosecutor in the notorious +ur%e tria$s of 193),J:
.e 0e%an 0y %i3in% his account6 =uoted a0o3e6 of the formation of the Anders army6 and
then #ent on to dea$ #ith the char%es that it had 0een undernourished:
.e ar%ued that6 o#in% to the !acific 9ar and other causes6 there #as a food shorta%e in
2ussia in 194&: ;on,com0at troo+s cou$d6 c$ear$y6 not 0e as #e$$ fed as com0at troo+s:
As the !o$ish 5ommand +ersisted in not #ishin% them to fi%ht6 they had to 0e re%arded as
such: Fina$$y6 on A+ri$ 16 it #as decided that the rations #ou$d 0e cut do#n to 446"""6
and that those o3er and a0o3e that fi%ure cou$d $ea3e the So3iet *nion:
?n March 194&6 3164JJ so$diers and 1&64-- mem0ers of their fami$ies #ere e3acuated:
But #hi$e refusin% to fi%ht6 said Ayshins<y6 the Polish #overnment desired to go on
mo4ilising ne: units+ ho#e3er6 in re+$y to the !o$ish ;ote of Bune 1"6194&6 on the
su0Hect6 the 2ussians refused to a$$o# any further mo0i$isations: It :as then that the
Puestion o" total evacuation :as raised, and in /ugust 194& a "urther 446""" soldiers
and &"6""" to &-6""" dependents le"t the countr!5
Thus6 a$ready in 194&6 7-6491 so$diers and 3767-) mem0ers of their fami$ies $eft the
So3iet *nion:
A$$ the assertions6 he said6 that the So3iet authorities +re3ented !o$ish citi>ens in the
So3iet *nion (#ho #ere Fnot numerousF) or mem0ers of !o$ish so$diers' fami$ies6 from
$ea3in% the country6 #ere a $ie:
.ere6 of course6 #as a stic<y +oint: There #ere 0e$ie3ed to 0e some 3""6""" or 4""6"""
!o$ish citi>ens6 inc$udin% Be#s6 sti$$ in the So3iet *nion: But (a) had they e8+ressed the
#ish to $ea3e for ?ran6 rather than #ait for !o$and to Fo+enF and6 (0) e3en if they did6 and
there #as no means of trans+ort6 cou$d it 0e said that they had 0een F+re3ented F from
$ea3in%E Further6 3ery many of those #hom the !o$ish 1o3ernment considered !o$ish
citi>ens6 #ere no $on%er !o$ish citi>ens in the eyes of the 2ussians: At $east6 not as far as
Hoinin% the Anders Army #as concernedDthou%h +oints #ere6 in fact %oin% $ater to 0e
stretched in the case of the 4oscius><o and other 2ussian,formed di3isions:
Ayshins<y +art$y e8+$ained the +ro0$em #hen he said that6 in the ear$y sta%es of !o$ish,
So3iet re$ations in 19416 it #as a%reed 0y the 2ussians that !o$ish nationa$ity cou$d 0e
re%ained 0y the Poles of 9estern *<raine and Be$orussiaDthis #ith a 3ie# to their
Hoinin% the Anders Army:
The !o$ish 1o3ernment did not6 ho#e3er6 consider itse$f satisfied6 and +ressed for the
cance$$ation of So3iet nationa$ity for other inha0itants of 9estern *<raine and
Be$orussia:
Far from satisfyin% this c$aim6 the 2ussians decided6 once the Anders Army had $eft6 that
there #as no $on%er any +ur+ose in ma<in% an e8ce+tion for the !o$es6 and a$$ former
!o$ish su0Hects in 9estern *<raine and Be$orussia6 again 0ecame So3iet citi>ens6 in
terms of the ori%ina$ So3iet u*ase of ;o3em0er &96 1939: This decision #as ta<en on
Banuary 1)6 1943:
This #as the su0Hect that had 0een Am0assador 2omer's chief concern #hen di+$omatic
re$ations 0et#een !o$and and the So3iet *nion #ere 0ro<en off:
The second +art of Ayshins<y's statement dea$t #ith the $ar%e net#or< of !o$ish #e$fare
or%anisations6 to #hich 2omer had referred in the statement =uoted a0o3e:
After referrin% to the t#enty Fa%enciesF the !o$ish Cm0assy had set u+ in the So3iet
*nion6 ostensi0$y for the +ur+ose of dea$in% #ith these #e$fare or%anisations6 and
=uotin% numerous cases of more than FincorrectF !o$ish 0eha3iour6 Ayshins<y said that
the !o$ish Cm0assy +eo+$e6 inc$udin% Am0assador 4ot6 instead of 0usyin% themse$3es
#ith the #e$fare of their fe$$o#,citi>ens #ere6 in rea$ity6 en%a%ed in es+iona%e: Many6 he
said6 #ere arrested6 some e8+e$$ed from the So3iet *nion6 and others sentenced to a
num0er of years' im+risonment: (?t a$$ sa3oured a 0it of 1937P)
Soon after#ards it #as $earned that the *nion of !o$ish !atriots had $ar%e$y 0een +ut in
char%e of these schoo$s6 hos+ita$s6 et cetera:
Decision to "orm Polish /rm! in the %oviet &nion
@n May 96 it #as officia$$y announced that the 5ounci$ of !eo+$e's 5ommissars had
a%reed to the re=uest of the *nion of !o$ish !atriots in the *SS2 concernin% the
formation on So3iet soi$ of the Tadeus> 4oscius><o Di3ision #hich #ou$d fi%ht a%ainst
the 1erman in3aders6 a$on%side the 2ed Army: The statement added: FThe formation of
this di3ision has a$ready 0e%un:F
That same day6 there #as a %reat A$$,S$a3 meetin% in Mosco#: 1reetin%s #ere sent to
Sta$in6 5hurchi$$6 2oose3e$t and Benes: 2e+resentati3es from a$$ the S$a3 countries #ere
there6 amon% them 5o$one$ S3o0oda6 the 5ommander of the 5>echos$o3a< unit #hich
had distin%uished itse$f so #e$$ on the 2ussian front at the end of MarchL the
Metro+o$itan ;icho$as #as there in his ro0es and tiaraL a %ir$ #ho had esca+ed from
Dachau a$so s+o<e6 and the introductory s+eech #as made 0y Fadeye36 !resident of the
9riters' *nion6 #ho said:
T'( R1--,)$ .(#./( )+( &#&)//* #..#-(5 &# &'( &'#+#1%'/* +()3&,#$)+* ,5() #0 P)$-
S/)6,-", 2',3' R1--,)$ T-)+,-" &+,(5 &# 1-( ,$ ,&- ,".(+,)/,-& )"8,&,#$-. T'(
R1--,)$ .(#./( )+( 1$,&(5 2,&' &'( #&'(+ S/)6 .(#./(- ,$ &'(,+ -&+1%%/( )%),$-& &'(
3#""#$ 0#( #$ ) 8)-,- #0 (91)/,&* )$5 #0 .+#0#1$5 +(-.(3& 0#+ &'(,+ 0+((5#", )$5
&'(,+ $)&,#$)/ '#$#1+ )$5 5,%$,&*.
But the rea$ clou of the meetin% #as the +resence of 9anda 9assi$e#s<a and 5o$one$
Ber$in%: 9assi$e#s<a6 ta$$6 dar<6 more hi%h$y strun% than e3er6 e8c$aimed:
+#" '(+(, 0+#" &'( E)-&(+$ +#$& 2( -')// 8+(); &'+#1%' &# P#/)$5, ) %+()& -&+#$%
)$5 :1-& P#/)$5. P#/,-' 8+(&'+($H L,-&($ &# &'( -'#&- 0,+(5 #$ &'( E)-&(+$ +#$&H...
A$5 -')"( #$ &'#-( 2'# )+( 1+%,$% *#1 &# 0#//#2 ) .#/,3* #0 5,-)-&+#1- ,$)3&,6,&*H
5o$one$ Ber$in%6 an u%$y6 0ur$y man #ith cro++ed hair6 and $oo<in% o$der than his a%e6
said:
T'( +#)5 &# #1+ '#"(/)$5 /,(- )3+#-- &'( 8)&&/(0,(/5, )$5 2(, P#/(- ,$ &'( S#6,(&
U$,#$, )+( $#2 &);,$% &',- +#)5.
?n the ne8t t#o months there #ere to 0e many more discussions around the !o$ish
+ro0$emL 3io$ent editoria$s a0out the ondon !o$es6 meetin%s 0y the *nion of !o$ish
!atriots6 etc: $olna Pols*a +u0$ished more re3e$ations a0out the hi%h officers of the
Anders Army and a0out Anders himse$f #ho6 accordin% to Oy%munt Ber$in%6 no#
5ommander of the 4oscius><o Di3ision6 had said that he #as %$ad the !o$ish Army #as
0ein% trained on the Midd$e Ao$%a6 0ecause6 #ith the co$$a+se of the 2ed Army6 the !o$es
cou$d %et a#ay to ?ran a$on% the 5as+ian6 and then Fthey cou$d do #hat they $i<edF:
Ber$in% a$so said: F9hat an o++ortunity Anders missed #hen he cou$d ha3e thro#n one
!o$ish Di3ision into the Batt$e of Mosco#6 and fai$ed to do soP F .e a$so referred to
1enera$ @<u$ic<i6 Anders's chief of staff (and $ater6 in 194-6 the chief defendant in the
Mosco# tria$ of the !o$ish 2i%ht,#in% *nder%round) #ho
2)- -)8#&)%,$% &'( -1../* 8)-( #$ &'( C)-.,)$ &'+#1%' 2',3' B+,&,-' )+"- )$5
0##5 2(+( &# 3#"( &# &'( A$5(+- A+"* 0+#" I+)$... T'( P#/,-' 2)+('#1-(- )&
T('(+)$ 2(+( 81+-&,$% 2,&' -&100 ,$ 194ME-&100 &')& &'( B+,&,-' ')5 8(($ -($5,$%E
)$5 0##5 2)- %#,$% +#&&($. B1& &'( A$5(+- C#"")$5 2#1/5 $#& )//#2 ) -,$%/(
B+,&,-' +,0/(, &)$; #+ 3)-( #0 0##5 &# 8( -($& &# R1--,), )$5 &'( -1../* 8)-( 2)- &# 8(
1-(5 0#+ #$( &',$% #$/*E&'( (6)31)&,#$ #0 &'( P#/,-' &+##.- 0+#" R1--,).
But a$$ this recrimination #as 0ecomin% ancient history (not6 ho#e3er6 ancient history of
no conse=uence)6 and #hat #as of immediate interest no# #as the de3e$o+ment of
2ussian !o$icy to#ards the FotherF !o$and6 and6 in the first +$ace6 the +ro%ress of the ne#
!o$ish Di3ision: ? #as to see the 4oscius><o Di3ision on Bu$y 1-6 and it #as somethin% of
a re3e$ation:
The cam+ of the !o$ish Di3ision #as in a 0eautifu$ +ine forest6 on the stee+ 0an<s of the
@<a ri3er6 a0out t#o,thirds of the #ay from Mosco# to 2ia>an: ?n the surroundin%
3i$$a%es6 in that heart of hearts of 1reat,2ussia6 it #as odd to see so$diers in !o$ish
uniform #earin% s=uare con"ederat*a ca+s6 ta$<in% to the $oca$ inha0itants: ;o !o$ish
so$diers had e3er 0een any#here near these +arts since 1)1&6 in the days of ?3an SusaninP
.o#e3er6 these #ere in <ha<i6 and not in the da>>$in% costumes they #ore in 1)1&6 if one
is to 0e$ie3e the costume desi%ners of the Bo$shoi TheatreP
?t #as a $ar%e cam+6 #ith #e$$,0ui$t #ooden 0arrac<s and e3ery#here there #ere !o$ish
inscri+tions6 s$o%ans and sym0o$s: The #ho$e forest #as teemin% #ith #hite !o$ish
ea%$es: 9e arri3ed there on the ni%ht of the 14th6 and the 1-th #as 1rRn#a$d Day6 #hen
the 4oscius><o Di3ision #as to ta<e the oath on the $ar%e +arade %round: 1rRn#a$d #as a
0att$e in the Midd$e A%es #hich the com0ined forces of S$a3domD!o$es6 2ussians and
a$so ithuanians Dhad fou%ht a%ainst the Teutonic 4ni%hts6 and 0y #hich they had
de$ayed the 1ermanic e8+ansion to the east: To the !o$es it #as #hat the Batt$e of the
?ce6 fou%ht on a<e !ei+us 0y A$e8ander ;e3s<y in 1&4&6 #as to the 2ussians: ?t #as
a$so a %reat sym0o$ of S$a3 unity:
@n that ni%ht of the 14th6 there #ere many %uests seated round the su++er ta0$e in a $ar%e
army hut: some 2ussian %enera$s6 5ommandant Mir$/s6 re+resentin% the French airmen in
France6 5>ech officersDin short6 re+resentati3es of a$$ the nations fi%htin% on the So3iet,
1erman Front: For reasons of eti=uette6 or rather for fear of 0ein% snu00ed6 the !o$es had
not in3ited any officia$ British or American re+resentati3es: A 2ussian %enera$ ca$$ed
Ohu<o3D on$y a namesa<e of the Marsha$'s6 and6 accordin% to the ondon !o$es6 an
;4AD %enera$D#as the +rinci+a$ 2ussian attached to the !o$ish di3ision6 and had
+$ayed a $eadin% +art in its trainin%6 or%anisation and e=ui+ment:
Many !o$es #ho #ere $ater to 0ecome fami$iar fi%ures ? sa# there for the first time:
MaHor 1ros>D$ater 1enera$ 1ros> #ho #as to 0ecome one of the chief +o$itica$ ad3isers
of the !o$ish 1enera$ StaffL 5a+tain Mod>e$e#s<i6 a seemin%$y modest and =uiet $itt$e
man6 #ho #as $ater to 0ecome !o$ish Am0assador to Mosco# and then Forei%n MinisterL
5a+tain BoroHs>a6 #ho #as $ater to 0ecome FdictatorF of the !o$ish !ress:
And there #as a +riest there6 Father 4u+s>6 #ho #as said to ha3e 0een a !o$ish +artisan6
and #ho had recent$y smu%%$ed himse$f into 2ussia: Father 4u+s> #as a youn% man #ith
mousey hair and 3ery ca%ey:
The +roceedin%s on the ni%ht of the 14th #ere +resided o3er 0y 9anda 9assi$e#s<a6 and
0y 5o$one$ Bedin%:
The ne8t day started #ith an o+en,air mass: This #as tota$$y un$i<e the 2ed Army: An
o+en,air 5atho$ic a$tar had 0een erected in an o+en s+ace in the forest6 and Father 4u+s>
officiated: The a$tar #as decorated #ith three $ar%e +ane$s6 one #ith a sym0o$ic +icture of
the 5hristian Faith +rotected 0y a !o$ish so$dier6 the midd$e +ane$ sho#ed a !o$ish ea%$e6
and6 0e$o# it6 a cro#n of thorns surroundin% the fi%ures 19396 194"6 19416 194& and
19436 and #ith enou%h room $eft for one6 or6 at most6 t#o more datesL the third +ane$
re+resented a scene of the ;a>i terror in !o$and: The a$tar #as decorated #ith f$o#ers and
fir,0ranches and an orchestra of t#o 3io$ins and se3era$ 0rass instruments too< the +$ace
of the or%an: .undreds of so$diers #ere <nee$in% do#n as they +rayed6 and $ater many of
them6 and scores of au8i$iary ser3ice %ir$s in <ha<i6 recei3ed the ho$y sacrament: A$$ this
in the midd$e of the +ine,forest made a memora0$e +icture:
The most im+ortant e3ent of the day #as the $on% march,+ast of the 4oscius><o Di3ision6
+receded 0y their ta<in% the oath6 and the +resentation to the Di3ision of its 0anner #ith
the #hite !o$ish ea%$e on a red,and,#hite 0ac<%round6 inscri0ed FFor 5ountry and
.onourF on one side6 and a +ortrait of 4oscius><o on the other: C3ery#here6 there #as a
%reat dis+$ay of !o$ish nationa$ sym0o$s6 and no su%%estion that this #as in any #ay a
2ussian sho#De8ce+t that the !o$ish s+o<esmen continuous$y em+hasised their
%ratitude to the So3iet *nion and the 2ed Army: ?n the oath6 #hich6 +hrase after +hrase6
thousands of !o$ish so$diers re+eated in chorus6 standin% there on the +arade %round6 they
s#ore not on$y that they #ou$d fi%ht to the $ast dro+ of 0$ood to $i0erate !o$and from the
1ermans6 0ut they a$so s#ore fide$ity to their 2ussian a$$ies F#ho had +ut the #ea+ons of
#ar into their handsF: And then the march,+ast 0e%an:
?t #ent on for near$y t#o hours: @n the %randstand decorated #ith !o$ish6 2ussian6
British6 American6 5>ech and French f$a%s6 stood 9anda 9assi$e#s<a6 Ber$in% and other
!o$ish and 2ussian officers6 and A$$ied re+resentati3es: The men #ere most$y 0et#een
t#enty,fi3e and thirty,fi3e and #ere in %ood trimL the officers #ore s+ruce <ha<i
uniforms and s=uare ca+s #ith the !o$ish ea%$eL the so$diers #ore dar< <ha<i summer
tunics as they marched +ast6 the 0and +$ayin% mi$itary marches: The formation of the
di3ision had started in A+ri$6 0ut the intensi3e trainin% had not 0e%un ti$$ ear$y Bune: They
#ere not a fu$$y trained di3ision yet6 0ut #hat had 0een done #as descri0ed 0y French
and other A$$ied re+resentati3es as 3ery remar<a0$e: ;o secret #as made of the fact that
the di3ision had 0een trained a$most e8c$usi3e$y 0y 2ussian officers: But the most
nota0$e feature #as the e=ui+ment: Ci%hty +er cent of the e=ui+ment #as automatic or
semi,automaticL se3era$ of the com+anies a$so had $on% Fsto3e,+i+eF anti,tan< rif$esL
there #ere se3era$ machine,%un units and arti$$ery units6 a num0er of mortar units6 and
fina$$y some thirty T 34 tan<s: A$$ the e=ui+ment6 e8ce+t for a fe# American truc<s and
Hee+s6 #as 2ussian:
This e=ui+ment #as +articu$ar$y interestin% to see6 as it #as the e=ui3a$ent of that of a
re%u$ar 2ussian 1uards infantry di3ision6 and the #ea$th of anti,tan< #ea+ons made one
rea$ise #hy6 in the +re3ious ten days' fi%htin%6 the 1ermans had fai$ed so com+$ete$y in
their 4urs< offensi3e: A !o$ish officer remar<ed (and this #as $ater confirmed 0y 1enera$
Ohu<o3) that the fire +o#er of this di3ision #as se3en times %reater than that of a re%u$ar
di3ision of the !o$ish Army in 1939: ?t #as stated that 0y @cto0er the 4oscius><o
Di3ision #ou$d 0e ready for action: This #as to +ro3e correct6 and the Di3ision fou%ht
#ith distinction and hea3y casua$ties in its 3ery first en%a%ements:
9hat of the human materia$E
;o +recise fi%ure cou$d 0e o0tained6 0ut the %reat maHority of the near$y 1-6""" officers
and men a++eared to 0e !o$esD0ut !o$es from +arts of !o$and ta<en o3er 0y the
2ussians in 1939: 9hat 2ussian ? did hear s+o<en in the di3isionDand near$y e3ery0ody
#as s+ea<in% !o$ishD#as s+o<en #ith a !o$ish accent: A considera0$e num0er of the
officersDin fact near$y a$$ of themDhad ser3ed in the 2ed ArmyL and many of them
#ere decorated: @ne had the Sta$in%rad meda$: But he #as unmista<a0$y a !o$e6 a nati3e
of #o#6 #ho had 0een mo0i$ised into the 2ed Army at the 0e%innin% of the #ar: The
+ro0$em of Fnationa$ityF #as no# so$3ed in a curious and Fnon,committa$F #ay: the
+rinci+$e on #hich +eo+$e #ere drafted into the !o$ish di3ision #as #hether they Ffe$tF
!o$ish: Anyone from the 9estern *<raine or Be$orussia #ho Ffe$tF !o$ish cou$d enter the
di3ision: ?n fact6 ? ta$<ed to a fe# so$diers #ho6 #hi$e ca$$in% themse$3es !o$es6 said that
Fin a #ayF they #ere sorry to ha3e mo3ed from the 2ed Army into this !o$ish di3ision:
Aery fe# of the officers and men had ser3ed in the Anders Army 0ut there #ere many
#ho had 0een Fa0out to HoinF it #hen it $eft for ?ran: The so$diers #ere to$d that those
#hose nationa$ity #as in dou0t cou$d $ater o+t for !o$ish or So3iet citi>enshi+: This
a++$ied to 0oth !o$es and +ersons ho$din% So3iet +ass+orts no#: There #ere said to 0e si8
+er cent of Be#s6 t#o +er cent of *<rainians and three +er cent of Be$orussians in the
di3ision: Many of the men #ere e8,!o$ish #ar,+risoners #ho had come from stran%e and
remote +$aces in the So3iet *nion6 to #hich many had 0een de+orted as $on% a%o as 1939:
@thers #ere de+orted ci3i$ians: ?n the course of the day ? sa# a cro#d of these: They
$oo<ed ra%%ed6 3erminous and demora$isedL they had $i3ed in shoc<in% conditions for a
$on% time6 and had a$so had a 3ery hard and $on% Hourney from Si0eria or 5entra$ Asia:
@ne officer remar<ed6 as ? #as ta$<in% to them: FA $ot of our so$diers $oo<ed Hust $i<e that
#hen they first arri3edDand no# $oo< ho# s+ic< and s+an they are:F ?t #as true enou%h6
and #hi$e no one cou$d deny that many of the !o$es in the east had had a 3ery ra# dea$6
this di3ision at $ast +ro3ided a so$ution for them6 and most of them a++arent$y #e$comed
it: ?t did mean6 if nothin% e$se6 that un$ess <i$$ed en route, they #ou$d 0e amon% the first
to re,enter !o$andL and no#6 after the tremendous 2ussian 3ictory at 4urs<6 the +ros+ect
#as no $on%er a remote one:
Amon% those ra%%ed 3erminous ne# arri3a$s6 there #as6 ho#e3er6 one man in a ha$f,
demented hysterica$ state: .e #as a dar< $itt$e man #ho shrie<ed a #i$d incoherent story
in 3ery %ood FrenchD a story of ho# he had #or<ed 0efore the #ar on (e Peuple, the
Socia$ist +a+er in Brusse$s6 of ho# he then f$ed from Ai$na to S#eden #ith a Ftem+oraryF
British +ass+ort Hust 0efore the 2ed Army arri3ed6 of ho# he then %ot to Brusse$s a%ain in
194": And then the 1ermans came6 and he #as +ut in a concentration cam+6 0ut $ater he
#as re$eased and #ent to ithuania6 and here he fe$$ into 2ussian hands6 and then6 he
cried hysterica$$y6 "depuis trois ans 8e ne suis plus parmi les vivants@" .e did not seem to
re$ish his FresurrectionF 0y means of the 4oscius><o Di3ision6 nor the c$arification of his
nationa$ status:
More refreshin% #as a %rou+ of !o$ish youn%sters #ho had 0een mendin% roads for the
1erman Army near 4a$inin6 0ut had Hoined a 2ussian +artisan unit and had fina$$y %ot
across the 1erman $ines:
As re%ards the trained so$diers6 the im+ression one had #as that a$thou%h they #ere a
3ery mi8ed $ot6 the +atriotic +ro+a%anda #as ha3in% the desired effect: They #ere #e$$,
disci+$ined6 #e$$,fed6 #e$$,c$othed and the idea of 0ein% Fthe first !o$es to enter !o$andF
had its attractions: There #as a stron% e$ement of f$attery in the +ro+a%anda and many of
these +eo+$e #ho had 0een at a $oose end #ere made to fee$ im+ortant no#: Many of
them #ere6 in fact6 !o$es #hom Anders #ou$d ha3e mo0i$ised (and ta<en a#ay to ?ran)6 if
he had 0een %i3en time to do so:
A +ress conference #as %i3en 0y Ber$in% and 9assi$e#s<a: Ber$in% said he #as 0orn
near 5raco# in 1J9) and had ser3ed in !i$suds<i's !o$ish e%ion in the $ast #ar: (;o0ody
#as tact$ess enou%h to as< a%ainst #hom they had fou%ht then:) .e #as on the %enera$
staff of the Anders Army 0ut disa%reed #ith Anders's +o$itica$ $ine: .e said that the
+rinci+a$ criterion in se$ectin% and mo0i$isin% +eo+$e into the 4oscius><o Di3ision #as
the man's o#n conscienceL if he considered himse$f a !o$e6 he #as acce+ted: @ther +oints
he made #ere:
I& ,- $#& 3(+&),$ 2'(&'(+ 2( -')// )33(.& P#/(- 2'# -(+6(5 ,$ &'( !(+")$ A+"*. W(
")* &);( &'#-( 2'# 5(/,8(+)&(/* 3)"( #6(+ &# &'( R(5 A+"*? 81& -')// 8( "13'
"#+( 3)+(01/ 2,&' &'#-( -,"./* &);($ .+,-#$(+.
W( ')6( 6LL 2#"($ 5#,$% "#-&/* )1B,/,)+* 2#+; ,$ #1+ 5,6,-,#$, )/-# $1+-(-...
N# .#/,&,3)/ 2#+; ,- 5#$( ,$ &'( 5,6,-,#$. B1& 3)+( ,- &);($ #0 31/&1+)/ )3&,6,&,(- )$5 )
8,% (00#+& ,- 8(,$% ")5( &# -&)". #1& ,//,&(+)3*.
M#-& #0 &'( .(#./( ')6( 8(($ ,$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ -,$3( 1941, #+ ()+/,(+ (sic)= ")$*
/(0& &'(,+ '#"(- )- 3,6,/,)$ +(01%((- (sic). S#"( ')6( &'(,+ 0)",/,(- ,$ &'( S#6,(&
U$,#$, )$5 &'( U$,#$ #0 P#/,-' P)&+,#&- ,- &);,$% 3)+( #0 &'(".
)&'(+ K1.-C ')- 8(($ '(+( #$/* ) -'#+& &,"(, 81& :15%,$% 0+#" &'( $1"8(+ 2'#
)&&($5(5 ")-- &',- "#+$,$%, ) ',%' .+#.#+&,#$ #0 #1+ -#/5,(+- 0((/ &'( $((5 0#+
+(/,%,#1- -(+6,3(-.
9anda 9assi$e#s<a6 in a some#hat +u%nacious mood said that the di3ision c$ear$y
sho#ed that a$$ forei%n su%%estions that it #ou$d 0e mere$y a to<en force #ere utter
nonsense: She said she #as 0orn in 5raco# in 19"-6 had %raduated at the *ni3ersity of
5raco#6 #as a mem0er of the ;ationa$ 5ommittee of the !o$ish Socia$ist !arty unti$ the
co$$a+se of !o$and: She had 0een a Hourna$ist6 and6 since 19346 an author: She came to the
So3iet *nion in Se+tem0er6 1939: (She did not mention the fact that she #as a mem0er of
the Su+reme So3iet:)
T'( U$,#$ #0 P#/,-' P)&+,#&- 4-'( -),57 2)- (-&)8/,-'(5 ,$ A.+,/, 194@. T'( U$,#$
')5 5,+(3&/* )..()/(5 &# M)+-')/ S&)/,$ 0#+ )--,-&)$3(? )$5 ')5 #00(+(5 &# .+#6,5(
&'( .(#./( 2'# 2#1/5 5# &'( U$,#$<- 2#+;. T'( U$,#$ #0 P#/,-' P)&+,#&- ')5 &'+((
#8:(3&-: 417 -&,"1/)&( &'( 0#+")&,#$ #0 P#/,-' )+"(5 0#+3(- ,$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$? 4M7
-)&,-0* &'( 31/&1+)/ $((5- #0 &'( P#/(- ,$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$? )$5 4@7 81,/5 ) $(&2#+; #0
P#/,-' -3'##/- )$5 &);( 3)+( #0 &'( 3',/5+($.
T'(+( 2)- $# 01// +(3#+5 #0 )// &'( P#/(- ,$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$. T'( )+()- #6(+ 2',3'
&'(* 2(+( -3)&&(+(5 2(+( -# ($#+"#1- &')& ,& ')5 $#& 8(($ .#--,8/( &# %(& ,$ &#13'
2,&' (6(+*8#5*.
T'( P#/,-' #+%)$,-)&,#$-E-3'##/-, '#-.,&)/-, (& 3(&(+), +1$ 8* &'( P#/,-' E"8)--* )&
K1,8*-'(6 2(+( 91,&( 1$-)&,-0)3&#+*? &'( U$,#$ #0 P#/,-' P)&+,#&- ')5 &);($ &'(
2'#/( &',$% #6(+. B* S(.&("8(+ 1, &'(+( 2#1/5 8( ($#1%' -3'##/- 0#+ )// P#/,-'
3',/5+($ ,$ &'( S#6,(& U$,#$.
I& 2)- 5,00,31/& &# -)* 2'(&'(+ )$* rapprochement 2,&' &'( P#/,-' !#6(+$"($& ,$
L#$5#$ 2)- .#--,8/(.
T'( U$,#$ #0 P#/,-' P)&+,#&- "(+(/* 5()/& 2,&' P#/(- ,$ &'( USSR? ,& ')5 $#
.+(&($-,#$ #0 8(,$% )$ ersatz P#/,-' !#6(+$"($&.
B1& ,& -&+#$%/* 0(/& &')& &'( 01&1+( !#6(+$"($& #0 P#/)$5 "1-& 3#"( 0+#" &'(
.(#./(, $#& 0+#" &'( S",%+S-. P#/)$5 "1-& 8( 5("#3+)&,3, $#& 0(15)/.
S,;#+-;, =2'# -'#+&/* 8(0#+( ')5 8(($ ;,//(5 ,$ ) ./)$( 3+)-'> 2)- ) %##5, '#$(-&
")$, 81& '( 2)- &## 2();, )$5 '( 2)- 1$)8/( &# +(-,-& &'( .+(--1+( #0 &'(
+()3&,#$)+,(-.
T'( U$,#$ #0 P#/,-' P)&+,#&- 2)- $#& 3#$513&,$% )$* .+#.)%)$5) ,$-,5( P#/)$5,
81&, &'( 6(+* (B,-&($3( #0 ) K#-3,1-C;# D,6,-,#$ '(+( 2#1/5 3(+&),$/* ");( &'(
-&+#$%(-& ,".+(--,#$ #$ &'( P#/,-' .(#./(E (-.(3,)//* #$3( ,& -&)+&(5, &#%(&'(+ 2,&'
&'( R(5 A+"*, 5+,6,$% &'( !(+")$- #1& #0 P#/)$5.
5$ear$y6 the #ho$e thin% #as of far,reachin% +o$itica$ im+ortance6 and this is not a$tered
0y the fact that 0oth 9assi$e#s<a and Ber$in% #ereDfor different reasonsDto disa++ear
as $eaders of the mo3ement 0efore 3ery $on%: @ther6 and stron%er6 +eo+$e #ere to ta<e
their +$aces:
Kat!n
?n Se+tem0er6 19436 the 2ussian Army reca+tured Smo$ens< from the 1ermans6 and soon
+eo+$e in Mosco# #ere as<in% #hen $i%ht #ou$d at $ast 0e%in to 0e thro#n on the 4atyn
murders: But for a $on% time nothin% ha++ened6 and it #as not ti$$ Banuary6 19446 that the
2ussians +u0$ished their findin%s6 and a$so in3ited the 9estern +ress in Mosco# to 3isit
the mass %ra3es:
@n Banuary 1- a $ar%e %rou+ of 9estern corres+ondents6 accom+anied 0y 4athie
.arriman6 the dau%hter of A3ere$$ .arriman6 the *nited States Am0assador6 #ent on
their %ruesome Hourney to $oo< at the hundreds of 0odies in !o$ish uniforms #hich had
0een du% u+ at 4atyn Forest 0y the 2ussian authorities: ?t #as said that some 1"6""" had
0een 0uried there6 0ut actua$$y on$y a fe# hundred Fsam+$esF had 0een unearthed and
#ere fi$$in% e3en the co$d #inter air #ith an unfor%etta0$e stench:
IThe ondon !o$es a$$e%ed that on$y 46""" #ere 0uried at 4atyn and that there #ere t#o
other F4atynsF inside 2ussia #hich had not 0een disco3ered:K
The 2ussian 5ommittee of ?n=uiry6 #hich had 0een set u+6 and #as +residin% o3er the
+roceedin%s6 consisted of forensic medicine men6 such as Academician Burden<o6 and a
num0er of F+ersona$itiesF #hose 3ery +resence #as to %i3e the #ho$e in=uiry an air of
%reat res+ecta0i$ity and authorityL amon% them #ere the Metro+o$itan ;icho$as of
Mosco#6 the famous #riter A$e8ei To$stoy6 Mr !otem<in6 the Minister of Cducation6 and
others: 9hat =ua$ifications these F+ersona$itiesF had for Hud%in% the FfreshnessF or
Fanti=uityF of unearthed cor+ses #as not =uite c$ear: (et the #ho$e ar%ument turned
+recise$y on this 3ery +oint: had the !o$es 0een 0uried 0y the 2ussians in the s+rin% of
194"6 or 0y the 1ermans in the $ate summer or autumn of 1941E !rofessor Burden<o6
#earin% a %reen frontier %uard ca+6 #as 0usy dissectin% cor+ses6 and6 #a3in% a 0it of
%reenish stin<in% $i3er at the ti+ of his sca$+e$ #ou$d say Foo< ho# $o3e$y and fresh it
$oo<s:F
.undreds of +a%es ha3e 0een #ritten a0out the findin%s of the 5ommittee of ?n=uiry set
u+ in A+ri$6 19436 0y the 1ermans and of the 2ussian 5ommittee of ?n=uiry of Banuary6
1944: Both cases ha3e 0een 3ery fu$$y summarised in a num0er of 0oo<s6 +articu$ar$y in
1enera$ Anders's Kat!n5 Anders's conc$usion6 of course6 is that6 ho#e3er many mi$$ions
of +eo+$e the 1ermans had murdered e$se#here6 there #as not the s$i%htest dou0t that in
this case the 2ussians #ere %ui$ty:
9hi$e this is more than +ro0a0$e6 if not a4solutel! certain6 it must 0e said that the
2ussians conducted their +u0$icity round the case (inc$udin% the 3isit of the 9estern
+ress to 4atyn) #ith the utmost c$umsiness and crudeness: The +ress #as a$$o#ed to
attend on$y one of the meetin%s of the 2ussian 5ommittee of ?n=uiry6 #hich =uestioned
se3era$ #itnesses: Amon% them #ere a !rofessor Ba>i$e3s<y6 an astronomer6 a doddery
$itt$e man #hom the 1ermans #ere said to ha3e +ersuaded or com+e$$ed to 0ecome the
assistant 0ur%omaster of Smo$ens<L he dec$ared that his chief6 a =uis$in% #ho had since
f$ed #ith the 1ermans6 had to$d him that the !o$ish officers #ere to 0e $i=uidatedL a
note0oo< said to 0e$on% to this e8,0ur%omaster #as +roduced #ith this si%nificant6 if
some#hat cry+tic6 entry: FAre +eo+$e in Smo$ens< ta$<in% a0out the shootin% of the
!o$esE F
Amon% other #itnesses #as a %ir$ #ho had 0een a ser3ant at the former ;4AD 3i$$a
ta<en o3er 0y the 1esta+o6 #here the 1erman <i$$ers $i3ed:
I9hy :as there such a 3i$$a near 4atyn ForestE @ne mi%ht #e$$ ha3e #ondered:K
She re$ated ho# $orries used to dri3e into the forest and ho#6 soon after#ards6 #ith her
em+$oyers a0sent from the 3i$$a6 she cou$d hear shots 0ein% fired some distance a#ay:
There #as a$so a rai$#ayman #ho e8+$ained ho# it #as im+ossi0$e to e3acuate the !o$es
from the cam+s near Smo$ens< in Bu$y 1941 durin% the 1erman ad3ance: The rai$#ays
#ere in a state of %ra3e disor%anisation6 #ith the 2ed Army in fu$$ retreat:
Another #itness dec$ared that on the roads $eadin% to 4atyn Forest he had met $ar%e
$orries co3ered #ith tar+au$ins from #hich came a terri0$e stench of cor+sesDthe
inference 0ein% that not a$$ the <i$$in% had 0een done at 4atyn6 and that many 0odies had
0een 0rou%ht 0y the 1ermans from e$se#hereDindeed o$d6 194" cor+ses6 #hich #ou$d
he$+ to confirm their story a0out these !o$es ha3in% 0een <i$$ed in 194": @ne 3ery scared
+easant admitted that he had 0een 0u$$ied 0y the 1ermans into testifyin% as they #anted
him to6 durin% their in=uiry into the 4atyn murders: A$$ this #as 3ery thin:
@ne stran%e +ecu$iarity of the one and on$y session of the 5ommittee of ?n=uiry #hich
the forei%n +ress #as a$$o#ed to attend #as that it #as not +ermitted to +ut any =uestions
to the #itnesses: The #ho$e +recedure had a distinct$y +refa0ricated a++earance:
A$to%ether6 the 2ussian startin%,+oint in this #ho$e in=uiry #as that the 3ery su%%estion
that the 2ussians mi%ht ha3e murdered the !o$es had to 0e ru$ed out ri%ht a#ayL the
#ho$e idea #as insu$tin% and outra%eous6 and there #as6 therefore6 no need to d#e$$ on
any facts #hich mi%ht ha3e $ed to the 2ussians' Fac=uitta$F: ?t #as essentia$ to accuse the
1ermansL to acPuit the 2ussians #as #ho$$y irre$e3ant:
The circumstances of the ca+ti3ity and the e8act num0er and #herea0outs of the !o$ish
officers and ;:5:@:'s6 in fact6 continued to 0e treated as a FState secretF #hich concerned
the 2ussian authorities on$y: ;o outsider #as e3er sho#n the three cam+s Fnear
Smo$ens<F at #hich the !o$es #ere su++osed to ha3e 0een tra++ed 0y the 1ermans:
?t must 0e said that the 2ussians did not do much to destroy the Fondon,!o$ishF
ar%uments for dis0e$ie3in% the 2ussian 3ersion: For one thin%6 they did not e3en trou0$e
to dea$ #ith the circumstantia$ e3idence #hich6 on the face of it6 #as fa3oura0$e to them:
First6 #hate3er the 1ermans said to the contrary6 the techni=ue of these mass murders
#as 1erman6 rather than 2ussianL in count$ess other +$aces e8act$y the same techni=ue
had 0een used 0y the 1esta+o in their mass murders: The record of the ;4AD6 on the
other hand6 rather su%%ested that +eo+$e in their care did fre=uent$y die in $ar%e num0ers
D0ut throu%h ne%$ect6 o3er#or<6 0ad food and e8+osure to co$d6 rather than in any <ind
of mass murders: Second$y6 #hy <i$$ them in 194" #hen 2ussia #as at +eace6 and there
cou$d 0e no ur%ency for e8terminatin% e3en these Fc$ass enemiesFE
Then there #as the =uestion of the 0u$$etsL the !o$es had 0een murdered #ith #erman
0u$$ets6 a fact #hichDHud%in% from his Diar!Dhad %reat$y +ertur0ed 1oe00e$s: Anders
=uotes a #itness as su%%estin% that these F1ecoF 0u$$ets had 0een so$d in $ar%e num0ers
0y 1ermany to the Ba$tic States6 and that the 2ussians had he$+ed themse$3es to them
there: But this ar%ument is not +erfect: the 2ussians #ere su++osed to ha3e murdered the
!o$es in March6 194"6 and they did not fu$$y occu+y the Ba$tic States unti$ three months
$ater:
9e no# <no# the ondon,!o$ish story a0out the +ro+osed 2usso,1erman e8chan%e of
these officers for 3"6""" *<rainians he$d 0y the 1ermans6 the su0se=uent refusa$ of the
1ermans to Facce+tF them6 and the Fmista<eF made 0y the ;4AD in misinter+retin%
Sta$in's a$$e%ed order to F$i=uidateF the cam+s: But this story sti$$ needs a $ot of
c$arification:
A not #ho$$y con3incin% +ro,2ussian ar%ument #as that 4atyn Forest used to 0e the
fa3ourite e8cursion +$ace for the +eo+$e of Smo$ens<6 #hich had not 0een surrounded 0y
0ar0ed #ire unti$ after the 1ermans had come in Bu$y 1941: ?t #as 3ery hard to say
#hether this #as true or not: The 2ussian ar%ument #as that there had 0een no 0ar0ed
#ire round 4atyn Forest 0efore the 1erman in3asion6 and that6 in the circumstances6 it
#as ridicu$ous to su%%est that +eo+$e #ou$d ha3e 0een a$$o#ed to +icnic on fresh mass,
%ra3esP
Fina$$y6 the 1ermans had 0een in Smo$ens< since Bu$y 1941L #as it concei3a0$e that they
#ou$d not ha3e heard a0out the shootin% of the !o$es unti$ t#o years $aterE But a$$ this6
too6 #as 3ery thin:
@n the other hand6 #as it not +ossi0$e that the 1ermans had murdered the !o$es in 1941
D#ith a 3ie# to F+$antin%F them on the 2ussians t#o years $aterE Since there mi%ht #e$$
ha3e 0een serious dou0ts a0out the e8act Fa%eF of the cor+ses6 this #as Hust concei3a0$e6
e8ce+t for the e8treme o0scurity surroundin% the three cam+s Fnear Smo$ens<F at #hich
the !o$es #ere su++osed to ha3e 0een <e+t after 0ein% transferred there from the three
ori%ina$ cam+s:
Then6 there #as another 3ersion #hich #as +ut for#ard 0y some mem0ers of the British
Cm0assy in Mosco# at the timeDand that is that the 2ussians did not murder the !o$es
in 194"6 F#hich made no senseF6 0ut in 19416 durin% their stam+ede6 #hen they $ost their
heads and decided that it #as im+ossi0$e to e3acuate the !o$es6 0ut a$so most undesira0$e
to $ea3e this F0unch of FascistsF in 1erman hands:
, ?f this had ha++ened6 that #ou$d e8+$ain #hy the 2ussians #ere so inferna$$y ca%ey
#hene3er Si<ors<i or Anders <e+t as<in% a0out the missin% officers: But it #ou$d sti$$ not
e8+$ain #hy not a sin%$e messa%e had 0een recei3ed in !o$and from any of themDe8ce+t
the $uc<y 4"" near Ao$o%daDafter the three ori%ina$ cam+s had 0een dis0anded:
The material e3idence +roduced 0y the 2ussians that the !o$es had 0een murdered in
1941 and not in 194" #as 3ery s$ender6 one must say: 5orres+ondents #ho $oo<ed at it
#ere not im+ressed: ne#s+a+ers and $etters dated 4oth 194" and 1941 (a$$ of them in 3ery
sma$$ num0ers) #ere6 to%ether #ith other undated o0Hects6 such as to0acco +ouches6
meda$s and a fifty,do$$ar 0i$$6 dis+$ayed in sho# cases:
Sce+tics ine3ita0$y #ondered #hether those fe# 1941 ne#s+a+ers or one or t#o
unmai$ed +ostcards cou$d not ha3e 0een s$i++ed into the dead men's +oc<ets at some time
0et#een Se+tem0er 1943 and Banuary 1944: ?n 1943 the 1ermans had certain$y +ut on
sho# many thousands of F 194"F o0Hects su++osed$y found on dead !o$es:
The 2ussians6 in +resentin% their case to the outside #or$d6 had certain$y ta<en no notice
at a$$ of #hat #ou$d6 in 9estern terms6 0e re%arded as evidence5 The idea that forei%n
e8+erts shou$d ha3e 0een in3ited to ta<e +art in the in=uiry #as dismissed 0y the
2ussians as Finsu$tin%F: The ans#er to such a su%%estion #ou$d ha3e 0een: FAre you
su%%estin% that !rofessor Burden<o or A$e8ei To$stoy6 or the Metro+o$itan ;icho$as
cou$d te$$ a $ieEF True6 e3en a 0ene3o$ent forei%ner mi%ht say: F9e$$6 if he thin<s it in the
interests of his country that he shou$d te$$ a $ie6 #ou$dn't To$stoy or the Metro+o$itan do
itEF But then such an ar%ument #ou$d a$so ha3e 0een dismissed 0y the 2ussians as
Fhosti$eF: A$so6 there #as the +erennia$ e$ement of distrust: e3en if the 2ussians #ere one
hundred +er cent sure of their case6 #hat certainty #as there that a forei%n e8+ert mi%ht
not +ro3e either i%norant or ma$e3o$ent6 in e8+ressin% the 3ie# that the cor+ses6 for a$$
their FfreshnessF #ere three,and,a,ha$f and not t#o,and,a,ha$f years o$d:
IThe FfreshnessF of the cor+ses is attri0uted 0y Anders to the fact that the 2ussians made
a 0ad mista<e in 0uryin% them in sandy soi$6 in #hich they tended to 0ecome
FmummifiedF: ?n dam+ soi$ nothin% 0ut unidentifia0$e s<e$etons #ou$d ha3e 0een found
0y the 1ermans:K
There #as a$#ays a ris< of F9estern 0ad faithF:
The 9estern corres+ondents #ho had 0een a$$o#ed to 3isit 4atyn in such +ecu$iar
circumstances #ere +ut in an e8treme$y difficu$tD indeed im+ossi0$eD+ositionL they
cou$d do $itt$e more than say #hat they had 0een sho#nL and e3en any im+$ied criticism
of the 2ussian hand$in% of the #ho$e case6 ho#e3er mi$d6 #as de$eted 0y the So3iet
censorshi+: A$so6 to su%%est that the 2ussian case #as as 0ad as 1oe00e$s's case6 or e3en
#orse6 #as somethin% one cou$dn't do in #artimeL it #as im+erati3e not to +$ay into the
1erman's hands: Mi%ht it not a$so ha3e 0een this consideration #hich +rom+ted Miss
.arriman to state in Banuary 1944 that she #as FsatisfiedF that the 2ussian 3ersion #as
correctE
oo<in% 0ac< on it no#6 #ith a$$ the e3idence accumu$ated 0y the Fondon !o$esF6 #hich
0road$y ta$$ies #ith the 1erman 3ersion6 one can on$y #ish the 2ussians #ou$d o+en u+
their secret archi3es on the #ho$e 4atyn case: They must <no# far more than cou$d 0e
re3ea$ed in the days #hen Beria #as head of the ;4AD: ?t #as sure$y a$so Beria #ho
#as 5u$+rit ;o: 1 in either caseD#hether the !o$es #ere murdered in 194" or #hether
they #ere $eft 0ehind in 19416 for the 1ermans to murder: But it #ou$d6 e3en no#6 no
dou0t 0e too much to e8+ect Mosco# to ma<e a c$ean 0reast of it mere$y for the sa<e of
historica$ truth: 4atyn6 to the 2ussians6 as #e$$ as to the !o$es6 is sti$$ so e8+$osi3e a #ord
that there is a <ind of tacit a%reement to say nothin% a0out it: To the 2ussians it has6 one
fee$s6 remained an em0arrassin% su0Hect6 #hate3er their true 0e$iefs as to #hat rea$$y
ha++ened:
A$$ the same6 the 2ussians mi%ht he$+ to c$ear u+ the mystery in their o#n fa3our if on$y
they #ou$d +roduce documentary e3idence to sho# that the murdered !o$es had rea$$y
0een in F5am+s ;o: 1 @;6 ;o: & @;6 and ;o: 3 @;6 &- to 4- <m: #est of Smo$ens<F in
the summer of 1941: There must 0e something a0out it in the archi3es of the ;4ADDif
the !o$es rea$$y #ere in these cam+s at that time: .ut :ere the! ?n !o$and6 to this day6
3ery6 3ery fe#Dif anyD0e$ie3e in the ;4AD's innocence:
And it is6 of course6 #e$$ <no#n that at the ;urem0er% Tria$6 #here the same o$d
Ba>i$e3s<y re+eated the same o$d story6 the Tri0una$ found the e3idence on 4atyn much
too thin to ta<e account of it in the fina$ indictment of the 1ermans:
ITM1956 3o$: 176 ++: 3--,)&:K
For years 4atyn Forest #as %oin% to cast a shado# on 2usso,!o$ish re$ations: ?t a$most
seemed as if there #as a <ind of curse on the re$ations 0et#een the t#o S$a3 +eo+$es: For
e3en if6 des+ite 4atyn6 the 2ed Army6 enterin% !o$and6 to%ether #ith the Mosco#,made
!o$ish Army6 #as at first #e$comed 0y the !o$ish +o+u$ation6 more 0itter fee$in% #as6
0efore $on%6 to 0e created 0y #hat came to 0e <no#n in ondon as Fthe monstrous crime
a%ainst 9arsa#F: But in rea$ity6 as #e sha$$ see6 the t#o cases are not identica$6 or e3en
com+ara0$e:
C').&(+ AII THE DISSOLUTION O THE COMINTERN AND
OTHER CURIOUS EAENTS IN THE SPRIN! O 194@
i3in% and #or<in% conditions #ere sti$$ 3ery hard for most of the ci3i$ian +o+u$ation in
1943: ?n essentia$ industries +eo+$e #or<ed o3ertimeDe$e3en6 t#e$3e hours: The $a0our
shorta%e #as such that6 for sim+$er o+erations6 chi$dren #ere em+$oyed in some +$ants for
+eriods ran%in% from four to si8 hours a day:
IChren0ur%6 (udi, #od!, Ohizn (!eo+$e6 (ears6 a ifetime)6 3ov!i -ir, ;o: 36 19)3:K
2ations6 es+ecia$$y for de+endents and non,#or<in% chi$dren6 #ere misera0$y +oorL
e3erythin% in the *ol*hoz mar<ets #as scarce and 3ery e8+ensi3e: ?n the cities6 there #as
a 0$ac< mar<et of sorts6 #ith su%ar6 for instance6 fetchin% as much as 36""" rou0$es a <i$o:
(A0out X3" +er $0:)
?n 19436 a Fdee+ #arF6 in Chren0ur%'s +hrase6 had set inL +eace had 0ecome a distant
memory and 3ictory #as sti$$ a $on% #ay ahead6 in a dim future: There #as sti$$ no Frea$F
second front6 and thou%h 0et#een March and Bune there #as an e8traordinary dis+$ay of
officia$ cordia$ity to#ards the 9estern a$$ies6 this contrasted stran%e$y #ith the much
more morose attitude to#ards them on the +art of the %enera$ +u0$ic: The fee$in% that the
A$$ies #ere not +u$$in% their #ei%ht6 des+ite ;orth Africa and the 0om0in% of 1ermany6
#as 3ery #ides+read: ?t is usua$$y assumed that Fthe %ood 2ussian +eo+$eF are much
more +ro,9estern than their %o3ernmentL at this time the o++osite #as the case: The
officia$ cordia$ity #as no dou0t tactica$6 rather than %enuine:
First of a$$6 soon after the uncom+$imentary Sta$in @rder of Fe0ruary &36 the So3iet
authorities6 s#a$$o#in% their +ride6 hastened to react to the Stand$ey incident in a manner
most a%reea0$e to 2oose3e$t: Then there #as the 0reach #ith the ondon !o$esD #hich
#as $i<e$y to %enerate stron% anti,So3iet sentiment in Britain and the *nited States6 and it
#as essentia$6 therefore6 for the 2ussians to try to F$oca$iseF the !o$ish +ro0$em6 and not
a$$o# it to affect So3iet,An%$o,American re$ations undu$y: .ence +erha+s the record
#armth vis-a-vis Britain and America in May and Bune 1943:
A$thou%h the $oss of 4har<o3 #as <een$y fe$t6 the #inter cam+ai%n had sti$$6 on 0a$ance6
0een a ma%nificent success: 9hether6 as the 2ussians said6 the 1ermans and their a$$ies
had $ost J""6""" men6 or on$y the 47"6""" #hich the 1ermans admitted6 the re+$acement
of e3en this $o#er fi%ure in time for the summer offensi3e #as #e$$,ni%h im+ossi0$e6 a$$
the more so since the Sate$$ites had not the ca+acity6 and sti$$ $ess the desire6 to #aste
more of their men on F.it$er's #arF #hich #as no# more than un$i<e$y to 0e #on: ?n
s+ite of this6 the 2ussians a#aited the summer cam+ai%n #ith a touch of ner3ousness6 for
the memories of the terri0$e $ast t#o summersD1941 and 194&D#ere sti$$ fresh:
@n the e3e of this decisi3e mi$itary sho#do#n of Bu$y 1943 rumours 0ecame more
fre=uent than at any other time in the #ar of se+arate +eace offers 0y the 1ermans to 0oth
2ussia and the 9est: ?n his May Day @rder Sta$in actua$$y referred to these +eace,
fee$ersL and it is reasona0$e to su++ose that the %reat dis+$ay of officia$ 2ussian cordia$ity
to#ards the 9est #as at $east +art$y determined 0y ner3ousness at the +ossi0i$ity of a
dea$ 0et#een 1ermany and the 9estern !o#ers: Simi$ar sus+icions e8isted on the other
side tooL for #e <no# that A$$ied so$diers in the Mediterranean area #ere to$d that the
#ar there #ou$d ha3e to 0e +ursued #ith the %reatest +ossi0$e 3i%our Fin case the
2ussians +ac<ed u+F: Some sus+icion #as a$so aroused in the 9est 0y the curious and
une8+ected 2ussian mo3e of settin% u+ a FFree 1erman 5ommitteeF6 #ith the 9i$he$,
mian 0$ac<,#hite,red as its co$ours6 #hich #ere sti$$ 0e$ie3ed to 0e cherished 0y a %reat
+art of the officer cor+s:
ISee ++: 733 ff:K
*n$i<e his 2ed Army Day @rder of Fe0ruary &36 Sta$in's May Day @rder of 1943 #as
fu$$ of friend$y #ords for the 9estern A$$ies: After descri0in% the %reat #inter cam+ai%n
in 2ussia6 and after referrin% to the 1erman counter,offensi3e at 4har<o3 #hich had 0een
carried out than<s to the thirty di3isions 0rou%ht from the #est (the on$y 0ar0ed Fsecond
frontF reference in the #ho$e statement) 0ut #hich had6 ne3erthe$ess6 fai$ed to 0ecome a
F1erman Sta$in%radF6 Sta$in then s+o<e in %$o#in% terms of Four 3ictorious A$$ies in
Tri+o$itania6 i0ya and TunisiaF6 and of Fthe 3a$iant An%$o,American airmenF #ho #ere
Fde$i3erin% smashin% 0$o#s on 0oth 1ermany and ?ta$y6 thus foreshado#in% the
esta0$ishment of a second front in Curo+eF: The 1ermans and their a$$ies6 he said6 #ere in
an increasin%$y 0ad mess6 and there #as more and more ta$< in the forei%n +ress of
1erman +eace,fee$ers aimed at s+$ittin% the An%$o,American,So3iet a$$iance: The
1erman im+eria$ists6 Sta$in said6 #ere treacherous +eo+$e6 and $i<ed to Hud%e others 0y
their o#n standards: ;o0ody #ou$d fa$$ for that <ind of 0ait6 and +eace #ou$d 0e attained
on$y throu%h the com+$ete rout of .it$er's armies6 and the unconditional surrender of
;a>i 1ermany:
B1& &'#1%' 3)&)-&+#.'( 2)- -&)+,$% !(+")$* )$5 I&)/* ,$ &'( 0)3(, &',- -&,// 5,5 $#&
"()$ &')& &'( 2)+ 2)- )- %##5 )- 2#$. S#"( 6(+* ')+5 8)&&/(- 2(+( -&,// 0)3,$% &'(
S#6,(& U$,#$ )$5 &'( W(-&(+$ )//,(-, 81& &'( &,"( 2)- )..+#)3',$% 2'($, together
/ith the armies o* its allies, the )ed Army /ould break the back o* the >ascist %east.
Durin% the days that fo$$o#ed6 the So3iet +ress #as more +ro,A$$y than e3er 0efore: @n
May 96 Sta$in #arm$y con%ratu$ated 2oose3e$t and 5hurchi$$ on Fthe %reat 3ictory in
;orth AfricaF6 and a$$ o3er the country co$oured +osters #ere dis+$ayed of three e=ua$,
si>ed 0o$ts of $i%htnin%6 0earin% the British6 American and 2ussian co$ours6 0rea<in% the
Beast's 0ac<: ?t #as a man%y6 hyena$i<e 0east #ith a .it$er head:
The end of the Tunisian cam+ai%n had raised hi%h ho+esD +erha+s e8cessi3e$y hi%h
ho+esDin 2ussia:
?n any case6 the s+ace a$$otted in Pravda to the A$$ies #as unusua$$y $ar%e: The fo$$o#in%
$on% artic$es 6podvals, the e=ui3a$ent of the Times Fturno3erF) a++eared in Pravda in May
and Bune:
-a! Uune
1ermany 1 C
1ermany's Sate$$ites 1 &
Britain and *SA 4 )
@ccu+ied S$a3
5ountries
7 &
France and Be$%ium 1 &
;eutra$s 1 ,
The artic$es on the A$$ies concerned the 0$o#s a%ainst ?ta$y6 the su0marine #ar6 the
British ;a3y6 the 2AF and American #ar industries: Moreo3er6 the +rinci+a$ 9estern
statesmen #ere %enerous$y re+ortedD
May &16 5hurchi$$ - 5o$umns
May &&6 Cden 1 5o$umns
May &)6 Stettinius & 5o$umns
May &J6 2oose3e$t 3 5o$umns
Bune &6 Sumner 9e$$es 1:- 5o$umns
Bune J6 5hurchi$$ 4 5o$umns
Bune J6 Cden 1 5o$umns
Bune &&6 5ri++s 1 5o$umns
9hat im+ressed So3iet mi$itary commentators most #as that6 in Tunisia6 the Cn%$ish and
Americans had #on their first maHor $and 0att$e: This #as re+resented as the +re$ude to
much 0i%%er $and o+erations in Curo+e: The air forces #ere +re+arin% the #ay for them:
@n May &&D$ar%e$y as a %esture to im+ress Britain and AmericaD the disso$ution of the
5omintern #as announced: This too< the form of a 2eso$ution 0y the !residium of the
C8ecuti3e 5ommittee of the 5ommunist ?nternationa$: ?t dec$ared the #ho$e or%anisation
to 0e Fout of dateF6 and that it #as e3en F0ecomin% an o0stac$e in the #ay of the further
stren%thenin% of the nationa$ #or<in% +arties:F ?t then e8+$ained that the #ar had
demonstrated a 3ery im+ortant fact:
W'(+()- ,$ &'( AB,- 3#1$&+,(- ,& ,- ,".#+&)$& 0#+ &'( 2#+;,$% 3/)-- &# -&+,6( &#
#6(+&'+#2 &'( %#6(+$"($&, ,$ &'( U$,&(5 N)&,#$- 3#1$&+,(- ,& ,-, #$ &'( 3#$&+)+*, &'(
51&* #0 &'( 2#+;,$% 3/)-- &# -1..#+& &'( %#6(+$"($&-< 2)+ (00#+&.
This stran%e document conc$uded: FThe C8ecuti3e 5ommittee ca$$s u+on its su++orters to
concentrate on the smashin% of 1erman fascism and its 3assa$s:F
?t #as si%ned 0y the fo$$o#in% mem0ers of the !residium: 1ott,#a$d6 Dimitro36 Ohdano36
4o$aro36 4o+$eni%6 4uusinen6 Manui$s<y6 Marty6 !iec<6 Thore>6 F$orin6 Crco$i (i:e:
To%$iatti)6 and a$so the fo$$o#in% re+resentati3es of the Sections: Biano (?ta$y)6 D:
?0arruri (S+ain)6 echtinen (Fin$and)6 Anna !au<er (2umania)6 M: 2a<osi (.un%ary):
A fe# days $ater6 in a statement to .aro$d 4in% of 2euters6 Sta$in dec$ared the disso$ution
to 0e Fri%ht and time$yF:
I& -'#2(5 1. &'( N)C, /,( &')& DM#-3#2D ,$&($5(5 &# ,$&(+0(+( 2,&' &'( /,6(- #0 #&'(+
-&)&(-, #+ &# D8#/-'(6,-(D &'("... I& )/-# 0)3,/,&)&(5 &'( 2#+; #0 )// .)&+,#&- 0#+
1$,&,$% )// &'( .+#%+(--,6( 0#+3(-, +(%)+5/(-- #0 .)+&* )//(%,)$3( )$5 .#/,&,3)/
8(/,(0-... I& 2)- .)+&,31/)+/* &,"(/* :1-& 2'($ &'( )-3,-& 8()-& 2)- (B(+&,$% ',- /)-&
+(-(+6(- #0 -&+($%&' &')& &'( 0+((5#"-/#6,$% $)&,#$- -'#1/5 #+%)$,-( ) 3#""#$
#$-/)1%'& #$ ',", )$5 -# -)6( )// $)&,#$- 0+#" &'( )-3,-& *#;(...
?t #as #e$$,<no#n that 0oth 5hurchi$$ and 2oose3e$t had +ressed for this ste+: Sta$in had
a$#ays re+$ied that the 5omintern #as mori0und6 and did not matter: 9hat he did not
say6 ho#e3er6 #as that this Fmori0undFDand no# deadD0ody com+rised many future
$eaders of the Fne# democracyF in Curo+eDThore>6 To%$iatti6 1ott#a$d6 4o+ec<y6
Dimitro36 !au<er6 2a<osi6 et cetera: They $ed at the time a 3ery retirin% e8istence either at
*fa or in Mosco#6 #here most of them $i3ed in the %ru00y .ote$ u8 in 1or<i Street6
on$y 3ery occasiona$$y #rote in the So3iet +ress6 and #ere se$dom seen in +u0$ic6 e8ce+t
at the 3ery end of the #ar: But they #ere <e+t in reser3e: C3en so6 many #ondered
#hether Sta$in had not a %enuine %rud%e a%ainst the 5omintern $eaders: .ad not Dimitro3
o3erdone his Fim+eria$ist #arF stuff in 1939,4": And :ho had thou%ht u+ the F4uusinen
%o3ernmentFE
?n my Diary notes durin% the fe# #ee<s 0efore the Batt$e of 4urs< ? find a record of a
num0er of con3ersations #ith 2ussians on the disso$ution of the 5omintern: @ne said that
Fit must ha3e 0een a 3ery hard decision for Sta$in to ta<eL after a$$6 he had s#orn on
enin's tom0 ne3er to a0andon the cause of the #or$d re3o$ution: But Hust $i<e his
'socia$ism in one country' this decision #as another si%n of Sta$in's %reatness that he
cou$d ada+t himse$f to chan%ed conditionsF: Another 2ussian descri0ed it Ho<in%$y as
Four ;C! in forei%n +o$icyFL and sti$$ another said that FSta$in had 0een a 0it fed,u+ #ith
the 5omintern for some time6 es+ecia$$y for their screamin% a0out the 'im+eria$ist #ar' in
1939,4"F: This had caused no end of dama%e in a country $i<e France6 and had a$so
%ross$y mis$ed the So3iet 1o3ernment on a num0er of occasions:
Then there #as the rather s+ectacu$ar 3isit on May 3" of e8,Am0assador Bose+h Da3ies6
of -ission to -osco: fame6 #ho had done his utmost to e8+$ain the !ur%e Tria$s in a
manner most fa3oura0$e to the So3iet 1o3ernment: @n arri3in% in Mosco#6 he %ot the
2ussians to +aint FMission to Mosco#F in #hite +aint on the fuse$a%e of his +$ane: .e
#ent to see6 as he ca$$ed them6 Fhis o$d friendsF Mi<oyan6 Ayshins<y and Bud%e *$rich:
The fi$m of his -ission to -osco: #as fu$$ of a0surditiesDAyshins<y #ith a %reat 0$ac<
0eard6 Mrs Mo$oto3 s+ea<in% +id%in 2ussian6 and so on: They sho#ed it at the 4rem$in
the ni%ht he #as there6 and the 0i% 2ussian 0osses $au%hed themse$3es near$y sic<6 0ut
a%reed that the fi$m #as friend$y6 and usefu$ in de0un<in% the 2ed 0o%ey idea6 sti$$6
accordin% to Da3ies6 3ery stron% in the *SA: The British Cm0assy #ere +retty mad #ith
Da3ies a0out the monoc$ed si$$y,ass #ho #as su++osed to re+resent ord 5hi$ston6 the
British Am0assador6 scared to death of @1!* micro+hones6 and so on: The *S Cm0assy
and the American +ress #ere uniform$y hosti$e to Da3ies6 +art$y 0ecause of his +ecu$iar
sho#manshi+6 and +art$y 0ecause of his e8cessi3e dis+$ay of +ro,So3iet sentiment6 not to
say sentimenta$ity: Da3ies6 for his +art6 #as 3ery +$eased #ith the disso$ution of the
5omintern and remar<ed that #hen he #as Am0assador in Mosco#6 he used to say to
it3ino3 that the 5ominternDthe stic< #ith #hich e3ery0ody 0eat the So3iet *nionD
#as the rea$ source of a$$ the trou0$e:
F
Sand#iched 0et#een the Disso$ution of the 5omintern and Sta$in's statement on it #ere
the ce$e0rations of the first anni3ersary of the An%$o,So3iet A$$iance #hich too< the form
of enthusiastic artic$es in the +ress6 messa%es from 4a$inin to 1eor%e A?6 and so on: @n
Bune 96 the anni3ersary of the So3iet,American A%reement6 the +a+ers #ere fu$$ of
com+$iments to the *SA6 com+$ete #ith e8+ressions of %ratitude for $end,$ease
shi+ments: Said Pravda: FThe So3iet +eo+$e not on$y <no# a0out them6 0ut they hi%h$y
3a$ue the su++ort comin% from the %reat 2e+u0$ic 0eyond the ocean:F The most im+ortant
thin% no#6 Pravda said6 #as not to %i3e .it$er any res+ite:
This constant 0oost of the A$$ies in May and Bune6 and the %reat ideo$o%ica$ concessions
the 2ussians #ere ma<in% to the 9est #ere not6 of course6 #ithout reference to the
mi$itary situation: A +eriod of e8treme$y hard fi%htin% #as imminent6 and the 2ussians
#ere ho+in% that a tremendous ne# effort (no# that ;orth Africa #as a c$osed cha+ter)
#ou$d 0e made 0y the A$$ies in the near future:
?n its FSecond Anni3ersary of the 9arF statement on Bune &&6 19436 So3inform0ureau
#ent so far as to say that ":ithout a second "ront victor! over #erman! is impossi4le5"
The main theme of the statement #as that than<s to the 2ed Army6 #hich #as tyin% u+
&"" 1erman and thirty sate$$ite di3isions6 the 9estern A$$ies had 0een %i3en enou%h time
to +re+are themse$3es for an a$$,out attac< on the A8is on the continent of Curo+e:
IThis statement said that6 in t#o years6 1ermany and her a$$ies had $ost ):4 m: men in
<i$$ed and +risoners6 -)6""" %uns6 4&6""" tan<s6 436""" +$anes: The So3iet *nion had $ost
4:& mi$$ion men in <i$$ed and missin% (i:e: inc$udin% +risoners)6 3"6""" %uns6 3"6"""
tan<s6 &36""" +$anes: ?t then dea$t #ith the !artisan mo3ement #hich it credited #ith
ha3in% <i$$ed 3""6""" 1ermans6 #rec<ed 36""" trains and o3er 36""" 0rid%es6 destroyed
Fhundreds of tan<sF6 et cetera6 a$$ of #hich is hi%h$y im+ro0a0$e6 since the !artisan
mo3ement did not assume maHor +ro+ortions unti$ the second ha$f of 1943:K
9as the So3inform0ureau statement mere$y another tactica$ mo3e to 0utter u+ the a$$ies6
or #as it a si%n of %enuine ner3ousness on the e3e of the %reat summer 0att$esE
For Bune 1943 #as certain$y an an8ious month: C3ery0ody fe$t that the storm mi%ht 0rea<
at any moment: Many #ere sur+rised that the 1ermans had not attac<ed yet: There #as
intense air acti3ity on 0oth sides: @n se3era$ ni%hts the 1ermans raided 1or<i6 causin%
much dama%e to its industria$ areas6 es+ecia$$y to a $ar%e tan<,assem0$y +$ant: There #ere
a$so raids on 4urs<6 Sarato36 (aros$a3$6 Astra<han6 et cetera6 and the 1ermans a$so
dro++ed mines on the o#er Ao$%a: The 2ussians raided @re$ and other +$aces:
A$to%ether6 it #as c$ear that the 4urs<,@re$ area #ou$d 0e the main 0att$e%roundL and
#hen the 1erman offensi3e 0e%an6 it com+$ete$y $ac<ed a$$ e$ements of sur+rise: C3en
their famous ne# #ea+ons6 the Ti%er and !anther tan<s #ere no secret: A num0er of
them had 0een ca+tured near enin%rad6 and t#o #ere e3en inc$uded in the Tro+hies
C8hi0ition in Mosco# durin% Bune: They had under%one a$$ the necessary 2ussian
e8+eriments for <noc<in% them out:
@n Bune 11 ? recorded a con3ersation #ith a 2ussian corres+ondent #ho had Hust 0een to
4urs<: .e said the 2ussian e=ui+ment there #as tru$y stu+endousL he had ne3er seen
anythin% $i<e it: 9hat #as a$so %oin% to ma<e a 0i% difference this summer #as the
enormous num0er of American truc<sL these #ere %oin% to increase 2ussian mo0i$ity to a
fantastic de%ree: The 2ussian so$diers #ere findin% them e8ce$$ent:
@n the same day ? a$so #rote:
M#/#&#6 &#5)* %)6( ) /1$3' &# 3(/(8+)&( &'( )$$,6(+-)+* #0 &'( S#6,(&-A"(+,3)$
)%+(("($&. H( 2)- (B&+("(/* 0+,($5/*, )$5 ;(.& &)/;,$% )8#1& $#& #$/* 2)+&,"(, 81&
)/-# .#-&-2)+ 3#-#.(+)&,#$ 8(&2(($ &'( B,% T'+((. A// &'( &#)-&- 5()/& ,$5((5 2,&'
&',- &+,.)+&,&( )--#3,)&,#$ 3#$&,$1,$% )0&(+ &'( 2)+. C/)+; K(++ -),5 '( 2)- %/)5 &'(
A$%/#-S#6,(& )//,)$3( ')5 &1+$(5 #1& -13' ) -&1+5* 3',/5? ,& ')5 /##;(5 ) 8,& 8)$5*-
/(%%(5 )& 0,+-&. A5",+)/ S&)$5/(* 52(/& #$ L($5-L()-( 5(/,6(+,(-, 2',3' ')5 8(($ )
8,& -/#2 )& 0,+-&, 81& 2(+( 6(+* -)&,-0)3&#+* $#2, 2,&' ) /#& #0 -&100 )// #6(+ &'( ./)3(,
2,&' O(+/,;#$- #$ R1--,)$ ,3(-8+();(+- )$5 B+,&,-' %1$- #$ &'( R(5 O3&#8(+
8)&&/(-',.. .. T'( R1--,)$- )+( &',$;,$% 4#+ &)/;,$%7 "#+( )$5 "#+( ,$ &(+"- #0 )
B,%-T'+(( .()3( )0&(+ &'( 2)+...
Durin% the second ha$f of Bune there had 0een t#o air,raid #arnin%s in Mosco#: ?n fact6
on Bune 96 some stuff had 0een dro++ed on the outs<irts6 thou%h not on Mosco# itse$f:
The +$anes #ere on their #ay to 1or<i: C3en so6 instructions #ere %i3en to the ci3i$
defence +eo+$e in Mosco# to 0e on the a$ert:
@n Bune 19 Chren0ur% +u0$ished a rather a$armist artic$e a0out future air,raids on
Mosco#: FDon't for%et that they are sti$$ at @re$L for%et that they are no $on%er at Aia>ma:
They #i$$ not ta<e Mosco#6 0ut they hate Mosco#6 the sym0o$ of their fai$uresL and they
#i$$ try to cri++$e and disfi%ure it:F
?n Bune ? sa# a %reat dea$ of the airmen of the French ;ormandie S=uadron6 a mi8ed
0unch ran%in% from !aris communist #or<ers ta$<in% #ith a de$i%htfu$ "au4ourg accent to
the %in%er,haired Aicomte de a !oy+e: The 2ussians #ere astonished that a vicomte
shou$d #ant to fi%ht on the side of the Bo$she3i<s: But the most im+ressi3e amon%st this
mar3e$$ous %rou+ of fe$$o#s #as the commander of the S=uadron6 5ommandant Tu$asne6
sma$$6 handsome6 #ith somethin% of the finesse of A$fred de Ai%ny's officers:
The s=uadron #as formed in Syria in 194&: For +o$itica$ reasons6 de 1au$$e had decided
to send this sma$$ French force to 2ussia: They had 0een here since the end of 194&6 had
a$ready 0een in action6 and6 0y Bune6 the s=uadron had shot do#n fifteen 1erman +$anes6
for the $oss of three: ;o#6 in Bune 19436 they #ere +re+arin% for those 0i% 0att$es in
#hich so many of them #ere %oin% to $ose their $i3es: They %ot on #e$$ #ith the 2ussian
mechanics at the air,0ase6 and a$so had +$enty of fun #ith the %ir$s in the near,0y 3i$$a%e:
They f$e# (a<,1's6 #hich they said they $i<ed:
Tu$asne6 #hom ? met at $unch on Bune 17 at 1enera$ !etit's (the French Mi$itary AttachN)6
said that thin%s #ere sti$$ 3ery =uiet in the Brians< sector (#here the French had their
0ase)6 0ut that FitF mi%ht start at any moment: The 2ussians #ere 0usy raidin% 1erman
communications #ith &"" 0om0ers and &"" fi%hters at a timeL they #ere usin% 2ussian
0om0ers durin% the day6 and American 0om0ers at ni%htL the 1ermans had hard$y any
ni%ht fi%hters here6 so 0usy #ere they o3er 1ermany:
The French6 he said6 #ere eatin% the same food as the 2ussians6 and had %ot to $i<e *asha
and ca00a%e sou+L 0ut they se$dom %ot fresh meat6 and usua$$y American s+am or
%a$antine6 #hich #as a 0ore: The more recent French arri3a$s #ere findin% $i3in%
conditions rather +rimiti3e6 0ut #ere =uite ha++y other#ise: The 3i$$a%e %ir$s #ere F3ery
friend$yF:
The story of the ;ormandie S=uadron #as to 0ecome one of the +roudest French e8+$oits
durin% 9or$d 9ar ??6 and one of the most tra%ic: ?n the 0att$es of the 4urs<,@re$ area in
the summer of 1943 a0out t:o-thirds of the first 0atch of the ;ormandie S=uadron #ere
<i$$ed6 amon% them efe3re and Tu$asne: ater6 others came to ta<e their +$ace6 and their
$ast 0att$es #ere to 0e fou%ht in Cast !russia #here6 su++$ied #ith the 0est 2ussian
fi%hters6 the (a<,36 they #rou%ht terri0$e ha3oc on the no# totterin% uft#affe6 once
0rin%in% do#n near$y 1"" in three days: The vicomte #as 0orn under a $uc<y star6 and6
to%ether #ith three others6 #as a#arded the tit$e of .ero of the So3iet *nion6 and
u$timate$y safe$y returned to France: But Tu$asne #as the man #hom the 3eterans of the
;ormandie S=uadron remem0ered 0est:
The fearfu$ $osses in the ;ormandie S=uadron %i3e one some idea of the $osses suffered
0y the 2ussian air force %enera$$y:
!art$y 0ecause of the %ro#in% 1reat,2ussian nationa$ism6 and +art$y +erha+s to im+ress
the 9estern A$$ies (#ho had 0een so +$eased #ith the disso$ution of the 5omintern)
Sta$in decided in Bune 1943 in fa3our of a ne# ;ationa$ Anthem to re+$ace the
International5 At the end of the month6 mem0ers of the 5entra$ 5ommittee $istened to
some of the first attem+ts6 0ut #ere not satisfiedL it #as not ti$$ the 0e%innin% of 1944 that
the !arty anthem (#ith ne# Fnationa$istF #ords) #as ado+ted as the nationa$ anthem6 and
the International 0ecame the +arty anthemP
These manifestations of friend$iness to the A$$iesDa$$ #ith an eye on a Bi%,Three +eace
D#ere +art$y offset 0y an inno3ation of a different order: To sho#6 as it #ere6 that
Mar8ist consciousness #as sti$$ a$i3e6 and that there #as no Fideo$o%ica$ ;C!F6 there
a++eared in Bune6 ostensi0$y under the aus+ices of Trud and the So3iet trade unions6 a
ne# Hourna$ ca$$ed $ar and the $or*ing )lass5 This dec$ared in its 3ery first issue that its
main o0Hect #as to sho# u+ cry+to,Fascist e$ements a0road6 #ho #ere unfa3oura0$e to
the So3iet conce+t of a Bi%,Three !eace: F?t #ou$d 0e ridicu$ous to deny6F it said6 Fthat
certain difficu$ties e8ist in the re$ations 0et#een the different mem0ers of the anti,.it$er
coa$ition6F and it #ent hammer,and,ton%s for the American iso$ationists6 for the Cn%$ish
F5$i3eden SetF and other FMunichitesF: These Fsemi,a$$ies of .it$erF tended no#adays to
do their dirty #or< throu%h the medium of Fcertain !o$ish circ$es #ho had $earned
nothin%F: ?t then s+o<e fa3oura0$y of a FDirectorate of the +rinci+a$ +o#ersF #hich #ou$d
Frender accountF to the #ider internationa$ or%anisation of a$$ the nations: The 2ussian
conce+tion of a *nited ;ations @r%anisation FdirectedF 0y the 1reat !o#ersD or rather6
0y the Bi% ThreeD#as 0e%innin% to ta<e sha+e:
9hat #ith air,raids on 1or<i and air,raid #arnin%s in Mosco#6 there #as a distinct
fee$in% of ner3ousness in Mosco# durin% Bune and the 0e%innin% of Bu$y: The fee$in% that
more $oss of $ife #as in store #as nice$y ref$ected in this %enuine story a 2ussian to$d me
a0out the char#oman in his office: @n hearin% some0ody say that the Second Front #as
a0so$ute$y necessary6 she e8c$aimed: F1od for0idP As if one Front #asn't enou%hP F She
had t#o sons in the Army:
@n Bu$y ) it #as officia$$y announced that the 1erman offensi3e had started in a 3ery 0i%
#ay Hust #here it had 0een e8+ectedDin the 4urs< sa$ient6 0et#een Be$%orod and the
@re$ Bu$%e:
C').&(+ AIII KURSK: HITLER LOSES HIS LAST CHANCE O
TURNIN! THE TIDE
A$ready in Fe0ruary6 after Sta$in%rad6 .it$er had dec$ared that it #as essentia$ for the
1erman Army Fto ma<e u+ in summer #hat had 0een $ost in #inter:F This #as not easy
since the 1ermans and their a$$ies had $ost #e$$ o3er ha$f a mi$$ion men6 +erha+s as many
as 7""6""": Des+ite the Ftota$ mo0i$isationF introduced in 1ermany6 on$y a0out ha$f the
$osses cou$d 0e re+$aced 0y the 0e%innin% of the summer fi%htin%6 accordin% to 1erman
sources: .it$er's +resti%e had suffered se3ere$y from Sta$in%rad6 and the reca+ture of
4har<o3 had not made u+ for it: The rout of the 1ermans in ;orth Africa and the
+ros+ect of an ear$y in3asion of ?ta$y6 #ith un+redicta0$e (or +erha+s a$$,too,+redicta0$e)
+o$itica$ conse=uences6 had added to .it$er's discomfiture: The #ar in 2ussia cou$d
scarce$y 0e #on any $on%er6 0ut #hat .it$er 0ad$y needed #as a s+ectacu$ar 3ictoryD
somethin% simi$ar to the 2ussian 3ictory at Sta$in%rad: The F4urs< sa$ientF 0et#een @re$
in the north and Be$%orod in the south (a sa$ient #hich the 2ussians had ca+tured in the
+re3ious #inter) seemed the most o03ious +$ace for inf$ictin% a sensationa$ defeat on the
2ussians:
The 2ussians $oo<ed u+on the 4urs< sa$ient as their s+rin%0oard for the recon=uest of the
@re$ and Brians< country to the north,#est6 and of the *<raine to the south,#est6 and
there #ere enormous 2ussian troo+ concentrations in it: C3er since March the 2ussians
had 0een fortifyin% the sa$ient #ith thousands of mi$es of trenches6 thousands of %un
em+$acements6 et cetera6 and the defence in de+th a$on% the north6 #est and south sides of
the sa$ient e8tended as much as si8ty,fi3e mi$es:
?n the s+rin% of 19436 accordin% to 1erman sources6 .it$er #as determined for 0oth
+o$itica$ and economic reasons to ho$d a front runnin% from the 1u$f of Fin$and do#n to
the Sea of A>o36 and to inf$ict a resoundin% defeat on the 2ussians #ith his F@+eration
5itade$F in the 4urs< sa$ient: To tra+ 3ast num0ers of 2ussians there #ou$d %reat$y
chan%e the #ho$e strate%ic +osition in the 1ermans' fa3our6 and mi%ht e3en ma<e a ne#
offensi3e a%ainst Mosco# +ossi0$e:
As the 1ermans no# te$$ the story:
T'( K1+-; -)/,($& -(("(5 .)+&,31/)+/* 0)6#1+)8/( 0#+ -13' )$ )&&)3;. A
-,"1/&)$(#1- !(+")$ #00($-,6( 0+#" $#+&' )$5 -#1&' 2#1/5 &+). .#2(+01/ R1--,)$
0#+3(-. I& 2)- )/-# &# 8( '#.(5 &')& &'( #.(+)&,#$)/ +(-(+6(- &'( ($("* 2#1/5 &'+#2
,$&# &'( 0+)* 3#1/5 8( -")-'(5. M#+(#6(+, &'( /,91,5)&,#$ #0 &',- -)/,($& 2#1/5
%+()&/* -'#+&($ &'( 0+#$&... T+1(, &'(+( 2(+( -#"( 2'# )+%1(5 (6($ &'($ &')& &'(
($("* 2#1/5 (B.(3& &'( !(+")$ )&&)3; .+(3,-(/* ,$ this )+() )$5... &')& &'(+( 2)-
&'(+(0#+( &'( 5)$%(+ #0 /#-,$% "#+( !(+")$ 0#+3(- &')$ 5(-&+#*,$% R1--,)$ 0#+3(-...
B1& H,&/(+ 2#1/5 $#& 8( 3#$6,$3(5, )$5 &'#1%'& O.(+)&,#$ C,&)5(/ 2#1/5 -133((5,
.+#6,5(5 ,& 2)- 1$5(+&);($ soon.
=!hi$i++i and .eim6 o+: cit:6 ++: &"9,1":K
But the o+eration #as de$ayed o#in% to unfa3oura0$e terrain conditions and a$so to the
s$o#ness #ith #hich the 1erman di3isions #ere 0ein% re+$enished: ?n the circumstances
1enera$ Mode$6 commandin% the 1erman troo+s north of the sa$ient dec$ared that the
o+eration cou$d not succeed #ithout stron% reinforcements 0y hea3y modern tan<s6
su+erior to anythin% the 2ussians had: The attac< #as therefore +ost+oned once a%ain ti$$
the midd$e of Bune6 and meantime numerous ne# Ti%er and !anther tan<s and Ferdinand
mo0i$e %uns #ere rushed from armaments #or<s in 1ermany strai%ht to the front: But
there #ere further hesitations and de$ays caused6 amon% other thin%s6 0y .it$er's fear that
?ta$y #as on the +oint of dro++in% out of the #ar: 9hen he had satisfied himse$f that
Musso$ini #as not %i3in% u+6 .it$er decided to stic< to his ori%ina$ +$an:
The 4urs< 3ictory6 he dec$ared6 #ou$d fire the ima%ination of the #or$d:
Mean#hi$e the 2ussians under Ohu<o3 and Aasi$e3s<y had not #asted their time6 and
nothin% suited them 0etter than that the 1ermans shou$d attac< them #here they #ere
stron%est of a$$: The e8tent of the 2ussian concentration of armaments in the main 0att$e
area may 0e Hud%ed from the fact that6 in $ess than three months6 some -""6""" rai$#ay
#a%ons $oaded #ith e3ery <ind of e=ui+ment had 0een 0rou%ht from inside 2ussia to the
4urs< sa$ient:
The 1ermans had accumu$ated &6""" tan<s round the sa$ient (accordin% to the 2ussians6
o3er 36""")6 more than ha$f of them in the southern sector commanded 0y 1enera$ .oth6
and near$y &6""" +$anes:
To =uote !hi$i++i and .eim:
W,&' -13' '()6* !(+")$ 3#$3($&+)&,#$-, H,&/(+ /##;(5 0#+2)+5 &# &'( 8)&&/( 2,&'
%+()& 3#$0,5($3(. H( 2)- -1+( &')& &'( $#+&'(+$ )$5 -#1&'(+$ -&+,;,$% 0#+3( 2#1/5
8+(); &'+#1%' )$5 3/#-( &'( +,$% ()-& #0 K1+-;. B1&, 3#$&+)+* &# (B.(3&)&,#$-, ,&
&##; #$/* ) 6(+* -'#+& &,"( &# +()/,-( &')& &'( #00($-,6( 2)- ) 0),/1+(, (6($ &'#1%'
#1+ &+##.- (B(+&(5 &'("-(/6(- &# &'( 1&"#-&. O1+ )&&)3;,$% 0#+3(-, &'#1%'
.($(&+)&,$% ,$&# &'( 5((. R1--,)$ 5(0($3(-, 2(+( -100(+,$% 6(+* -(6(+( /#--(-, )$5 #$
J1/* K &'( R1--,)$- &'+(2 ,$ ,$3+()-,$%/* '()6* &)$; 0#+3(-. T'( !(+")$ 4&'
P)$C(+ A+"* ')5 &# 0,%'& .)+&,31/)+/* '()6* &)$; 8)&&/(-, ,$ 2',3' &'( "#-& ,& 3#1/5
'#.( &# 5# 2)- $#& &# 8( 5+,6($ 8)3;. S(+,#1- 5#18&- %+(2 )- &# &'( -133(-- #0
O.(+)&,#$ C,&)5(/. H,&/(+ $(6(+&'(/(-- #+5(+(5 #$ J1/* 1L &'( #00($-,6( &# 3#$&,$1(.
T')& 2)- &'( 5)* #$ 2',3' &'( W(-&(+$ A//,(- /)$5(5 ,$ S,3,/*, )$5 '( $((5(5 ',-
DK1+-; 6,3&#+*D "#+( &')$ (6(+.
I$ +()/,&*, )0&(+ &'( ,$,&,)/ &)3&,3)/ -133(--(-, &'( B)&&/( #0 K1+-; ')5 /#$% 8(0#+(
3#"( &# ) -&)$5-&,//, )$5 #$ J1/* 1M &'( R1--,)$ 3#"")$5 -155($/* -&+13; #1&
&#2)+5- O+(/, ,$ &'( +()+ #0 &'( !(+")$ 9&' A+"* =)& &'( $#+&' -,5( #0 &'( K1+-;
-)/,($&>... O$ J1/* 1@ H,&/(+ +(/13&)$&/* #+5(+(5 O.(+)&,#$ C,&)5(/ &# 8(
5,-3#$&,$1(5. T',- 5(3,-,#$ 2)- 01+&'(+ .+#".&(5 8* &'( I&)/,)$-< 0),/1+( &# 5(0($5
S,3,/*, )$5 &'( .#--,8,/,&* #0 ')6,$% &# -($5 !(+")$ +(,$0#+3("($&- &# I&)/*.
I?0id:6 +: &1&:K
?n four days the 1ermans succeeded in no more than dentin% the 4urs< sa$ientD0y some
ten mi$es a$on% a front of a0out t#e$3e mi$es in the north6 and 0y some thirty mi$es a$on%
a thirty mi$e front in the south: A0out 1"" mi$es sti$$ se+arated the t#o 1erman forces
#hen the 0att$e came to a standsti$$:
;ear$y the entire 1erman +an>er force had 0een used u+ to an irre+$acea0$e e8tent6 and
the initiati3e #as fina$$y $ost 0y the 1ermans and ta<en o3er 0y the 2ed Army: Des+ite
3ery hea3y $osses they had a$so suffered in the Batt$e of 4urs<6 the 2ussian command
#as no# sti$$ a0$e to $aunch its summer offensi3e a$on% a 3ery 0road front6 #ith su+erior
forces:
There #as tremendous tension in Mosco# #hen it #as first $earned that the 1erman
offensi3e had 0e%un: The ne#s #as contained in an artic$e6 redo$ent of nationa$ism6 in
Bed %tar5
O1+ 0)&'(+- )$5 #1+ 0#+(8()+- ")5( (6(+* -)3+,0,3( &# -)6( &'(,+ R1--,), &'(,+
'#"(/)$5. O1+ .(#./( 2,// $(6(+ 0#+%(& M,$,$ )$5 P#C')+-;*, S16#+#6 )$5
K1&1C#6, )$5 &'( R1--,)$ P)+&,-)$- #0 1N1M. W( )+( .+#15 &# &',$; &')& &'( 8/##5 #0
#1+ %/#+,#1- )$3(-&#+- ,- 0/#2,$% ,$ #1+ 6(,$-, )$5 2( -')// 8( 2#+&'* #0 &'("...
9hat #as 0ein% fou%ht in the 3ery heart of 2ussia6 in Tur%enie3 country6 #as a modern
<ind of Batt$e of 4u$i<o3o on the outcome of #hich so much de+ended:
I ?n #hich !rince Dimitri Dons<oi routed the Tartars in 13J":K
@n the 3ery first day of the 0att$e t#o thin%s #ere c$ear: that 1ermany had thro#n
tremendous forces into the 0att$e and that they #ere sufferin% $osses on an un+recedented
sca$e6 and #ere not %ettin% much in return: The communi=uN of the first day's fi%htin%
read:
S,$3( &',- "#+$,$% #1+ &+##.- ')6( 8(($ 0,%'&,$% -&188#+$ 8)&&/(- )%),$-& &'( /)+%(
)56)$3,$% 0#+3(- #0 ($("* ,$0)$&+* )$5 &)$;- ,$ &'( O+(/, K1+-; )$5 B(/%#+#5
-(3&#+-. T'( ($("* 0#+3(- )+( -1..#+&(5 8* /)+%( $1"8(+- #0 ),+3+)0&. A// &'(
)&&)3;- 2(+( +(.(//(5 2,&' '()6* /#--(- &# &'( ($("*, )$5 #$/* ,$ -#"( ./)3(- 5,5
-")// !(+")$ 1$,&- -133((5 ,$ .($(&+)&,$% -/,%'&/* ,$&# #1+ 5(0($3( /,$(-.
P+(/,",$)+* +(.#+&- -'#2 &')& #1+ &+##.- ... ')6( 3+,../(5 #+ 5(-&+#*(5 5N6 ($("*
&)$;-... ML@ ($("* ./)$(- ')6( 8(($ -'#& 5#2$. T'( 0,%'&,$% ,- 3#$&,$1,$%.
?t #as the -J) tan<s #hich ca+tured the country's ima%inationL there had ne3er 0een
anythin% $i<e it in one day: The fee$in% it +roduced #as $i<e that in ondon at the hei%ht
of the Batt$e of Britain #hen it #as announced that &J" 1erman +$anes had 0een shot
do#n in one day:
@n Bu$y ) the communi=uN a%ain s+o<e of a s$i%ht 2ussian #ithdra#a$6 and the num0er
of tan<s #as no# 4336 and of +$anes6 111: @n the 7th6 it #as -&" tan<s and a%ain 111
+$anes: @n the Jth6 the 2ussians #ere a$ready counter,attac<in%6 and the 1erman $osses
for the day #ere +ut at 3"4 tan<s and 1)1 +$anes:
By the 9th6 the four days of an8iety came to an endL not that the an8iety #as e3er acute
after those first -J) tan<s: FThe Ti%ers are Burnin%F #as the tit$e of a re+ort from the
front6 and there a++eared statements 0y 0e#i$dered 1erman +risoners on Fthe carna%e
amon% the 1erman troo+s6 the $i<e of #hich they had ne3er seenF:
F@ur medica$ staff #ere una0$e to co+e #ith a$$ the #ounded: @ne medica$ order$y to$d
me that the dressin% station #as $i<e a s$au%hterhouse to $oo< atF6 a 1erman cor+ora$ in
the Be$%orod area #as =uoted as sayin%:
@n Bu$y 1- the 2ussian communi=uN announced that the 2ussian counter,offensi3e
a%ainst @re$ had 0e%un6 and that6 in three days since the 0rea<,throu%h in se3era$ +arts of
the @re$ sa$ient6 the So3iet troo+s had ad3anced 0et#een fifteen and thirty mi$es:
@n the &4th there #as a Sta$in @rder to 1enera$s 2o<osso3s<y6 Aatutin and !o+o3
announcin% the Ffina$ $i=uidation of the 1erman summer offensi3eF and the reca+ture of
a$$ the territory the 1ermans had %ained since Bu$y -: ?t reca$$ed that in the @re$,4urs<
and the Be$%orod areas the 1ermans had concentrated a tota$ of thirty,se3en di3isionsD
se3enteen tan<6 t#o motorised and ei%hteen infantryD 0ut they had not ta<en the
2ussians 0y sur+rise and had fai$ed com+$ete$y in their desi%n to cut throu%h to 4urs<:
The $e%end that in summer the 1ermans a$#ays ad3anced had 0een dis+e$$ed once and
for a$$: The 1erman $osses #ere +ut at 7"6""" <i$$ed6 &69"" tan<s6 19- mo0i$e %uns6 J44
fie$d %uns6 1639& +$anes and o3er -6""" motor 3ehic$es:
9hat #as 0ein% em+hasised in a$$ front re+orts #as the e8traordinary sureness of touch
the 2ussians had sho#n in this 0att$e: ;o dou0t some of these fi%ures #ere e8a%%erated6
0ut e3en if the 1ermans $ost &6""" and not 36""" tan<s (and after the #ar they admitted
that their tan< forces at 4urs< had 0een 3irtua$$y frittered a#ay)6 it #as %ood enou%h: But
it #as easy to ima%ine that if 7"6""" 1ermans #ere <i$$ed in the 4urs< fi%htin%6 the
2ussian $osses must ha3e 0een 3ery hi%h6 too: C8am+$es of e8traordinary coura%e and
endurance 0y the 2ussians #ere re+ortedDfor instance of so$diers stayin% +ut in their
trenches #hi$e the hea3y 1erman tan<s #ere s#ee+in% across them6 and then firin% at
them from 0ehind:
A$to%ether6 it #as rec<oned that some )6""" tan<s and 46""" +$anes #ere in3o$3ed in the
Batt$e of 4urs< on the t#o sides: ?t #as a concentrated carna%e #ithin a sma$$ area more
terri0$e than had yet 0een seen: 9hen6 a fe# #ee<s $ater6 ? tra3e$$ed throu%h the fair
*<rainian countryside from Ao$chans< to Aa$ui<i and then to Be$%orod and 4har<o36 ?
cou$d see ho# the area to the north of Be$%orod (#here the 1ermans had +enetrated some
thirty mi$es into the 4urs< sa$ient) had 0een turned into a hideous desert6 in #hich e3en
e3ery tree and 0ush had 0een smashed 0y she$$,fire: .undreds of 0urned,out tan<s and
#rec<ed +$anes #ere sti$$ $itterin% the 0att$efie$d6 and e3en se3era$ mi$es a#ay from it the
air #as fi$$ed #ith the stench of thousands of on$y ha$f,0uried 2ussian and 1erman
cor+ses:
But for those #ho sur3i3ed these #ere %reat days in 2ussia: 9hat mi%ht 0e ca$$ed the era
of the Aictory Sa$utes o+ened on Au%ust -6 19436 fo$$o#in% the s+ecia$ Sta$in
announcement that @re$ and Be$%orod had 0een $i0erated:
The dee+ 3oice of e3itan6 Mosco# 2adio's star announcer6 no# uttered for the first time
+hrases #hich #ere to 0ecome $i<e s#eet and fami$iar music durin% the ne8t t#o years:
O+5(+ 8* &'( S1.+("( C#"")$5(+-,$-C',(0 &# C#/.-!($. P#.#6, C#/.-!($.
S#;#/#6-;*, A+"* !($(+)/ R#;#--#6-;*, A+"* !($(+)/ A)&1&,$, C#/.-!($. K#$(6...
T#5)*, A1%1-& 5, &'( &+##.- #0 &'( B+,)$-; +#$&, ,$ 3#-#.(+)&,#$ 2,&' &'( &+##.- #0
&'( W(-&(+$ )$5 C($&+)/ +#$&- 3).&1+(5, )- ) +(-1/& #0 8,&&(+ 0,%'&,$%, &'( 3,&* #0
O+(/.
T#5)* )/-# &'( &+##.- #0 &'( S&(..( )$5 A#+#$(C' +#$&- 8+#;( &'( ($("*<-
+(-,-&)$3( )$5 3).&1+(5 &'( &#2$ #0 B(/%#+#5.
After namin% the units #hich #ere the first to 0rea< into these t#o cities6 and sayin% that
they #ou$d no# 0e named F@re$ re%imentsF and FBe$%orod re%imentsF6 there came6 for
the first time6 an announcement $i<e this:
T#$,%'& )& &2($&*-0#1+ #<3/#3;, #$ A1%1-& 5, &'( 3).,&)/ #0 #1+ 3#1$&+*, M#-3#2,
2,// -)/1&( &'( 6)/,)$& &+##.- &')& /,8(+)&(5 O+(/ )$5 B(/%#+#5 2,&' &2(/6( )+&,//(+*
-)/6#(- 0+#" 1ML %1$-. I (B.+(-- "* &')$;- &# )// &'( &+##.- &')& &##; .)+& ,$ &'(
#00($-,6(... E&(+$)/ %/#+* &# &'( '(+#(- 2'# 0(// ,$ &'( -&+1%%/( 0#+ &'( 0+((5#" #0 #1+
3#1$&+*.
D()&' &# &'( !(+")$ ,$6)5(+-.
T'( S1.+("( C#"")$5(+-,$-C',(0,
M)+-')/ #0 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$,
STALIN.
9ith on$y some s$i%ht 3ariations in the #ordin% this #as to 0ecome the consecrated te8t
#hich 2ussia #as to hear o3er the radio more than three hundred times 0efore the fina$
3ictory o3er 1ermany and Ba+an:
(es6 the era of the Aictory Sa$utes had 0e%un:
@n the ne8t day6 Au%ust )6 the communi=uN said that the troo+s that had ca+tured @re$
#ere +ursuin% the enemy to the #est and had ca+tured 4romy and se3enty other
$oca$ities6 #hi$e6 in the south6 a $ar%e,sca$e offensi3e #as successfu$$y de3e$o+in%
to#ards 4har<o3:
There #as nothin% fortuitous or ar0itrary in the 2ussian decision to ce$e0rate the 3ictory
of 4urs< #ith those first 3ictory sa$3oes and fire#or<s: The 2ussian command <ne# that
0y #innin% the Batt$e of 4urs< 2ussia had6 in effect #on the #ar:
This is a$so the 3ie# ta<en 0y +ost,#ar 1erman historians: Thus6 in the o+inion of 9a$ter
1oer$it>6 Sta$in%rad #as the +o$itico,+sycho$o%ica$ turnin%,+oint of the #ho$e #ar in the
east6 0ut the 1erman defeat at 4urs< and Be$%orod #as its mi$itary turnin%,+oint:
I9a$ter 1oer$it>: Paulus and %talingrad, +: &JJ: (ondon6 +: &JJ):K
C').&(+ IX OREL: CLOSE-UP O A PURELY RUSSIAN CITY
UNDER THE !ERMANS
The reca+ture of the ancient 2ussian city of @re$ and the com+$ete $i=uidation of the @re$
Sa$ient #hich6 for t#o years6 had constituted a threat to Mosco#6 #ere a direct se=ue$ of
the 1erman rout at 4urs<:
@re$ #as6 in 19436 amon% the first of the $ar%er +ure$y 2ussian cities to 0e $i0eratedL it
#as6 moreo3er6 one #here (as distinct from the Don country and the 4u0an) the 1ermans
had 0een for near$y t#o yearsDsince @cto0er 1941:
?n the second #ee< of Au%ust ? #as a0$e to tra3e$ 0y car from Mosco# to Tu$a6 and then
to @re$: The fo$$o#in% account6 0ased on notes #ritten at the time6 descri0es #hat the
ed%e of the @re$ Sa$ient $oo<ed $i<e6 and #hat ? found inside the Sa$ient6 +articu$ar$y at
@re$ itse$f:
The thist$es #ere as ta$$ as a manL the thist$es and the #eeds formed a thic< Hun%$e6
ma<in% a 0e$t some t#o mi$es #ide6 and stretchin% #est and east6 and then south6 near$y
a$$ the #ay round the @re$ Sa$ient: ?n this Hun%$e6 throu%h #hich the dusty road from Tu$a
no# ran6 there #as death at e3ery footste+: "-inen" in 1erman6 "-in!" in 2ussian6 o$d
and ne# notice,0oards #ere sayin%L and6 in the distance6 u+ on the hi$$6 under the hard
0$ue summer s<y6 #ere distorted sha+es of ruined churches and fra%ments of houses6 and
chimney,stac<s: These mi$es of #eeds and thist$es had 0een a no,man's,$and for near$y
t#o years: Those ruins on the hi$$ #ere the ruins of Mtsens<L t#o o$d #omen and four
cats #ere the on$y $i3in% creatures the 2ussians had found there #hen the 1ermans +u$$ed
out on Bu$y &": Before de+artin% they had 0$o#n u+ or set fire to e3erythin%Dchurches
and houses and +easant cotta%es and a$$: ?n the midd$e of $ast century es<o3'sDand
Shosta<o3ich'sDFady Mac0ethF had $i3ed in this to#nL it #as stran%e to thin< that this
drama of 0$ood and +assion shou$d ha3e ta<en +$ace in a to#n no# sme$$in% of 0$ood
shed for such different reasons:
9e dro3e throu%h the Hun%$e u+ to Mtsens<: ;o6 one sma$$ 0ric< house had someho#
sur3i3ed: FFeedin% !ointF6 a notice outside said: F.ere you can recei3e your dry ration6
0rea<fast6 $unch and dinner:F And6 0eside it6 #as another notice: FThe enemy has
destroyed and $ooted this to#n6 and dri3en a#ay its inha0itantsL they are cryin% for
re3en%e:F
/chtung, -inen5 /chtung, -inen555 FThey're the de3i$6F said the co$one$ #ho met us at
Mtsens<: FA$on% on$y 1"" yards Hust off this road #e du% u+ )-": There #as 3ery tou%h
fi%htin% round here: 1erman UaegerDtou%h troo+s6 3ery %ood troo+s6 can't deny them
that: But the mines are 0ad6 3ery 0ad: C3ery damned day somethin% ha++ens: (esterday a
co$one$ came do#n this road on horse0ac<L the horse <ic<ed an anti,+ersonne$ mineDand
there you are: horse and co$one$ 0oth +hut:F .e ta$<ed of ne# de$ayed,action mines found
in 1erman du%outs: 5ontra+tions in #hich the acid eats throu%h the meta$L some ta<e t#o
months to 0$o# u+: And there #ere a$so 0oo0y,tra+s6 +$enty of them: These mines and
0oo0y,tra+s had 0ecome one of the 1ermans' most im+ortant #ea+ons in 1943: and #ere
the 2ussian so$diers' %reatest #orry and chief to+ic of con3ersation:
IMany minesD0oth 2ussian and 1ermanDmade in 19436 #ere cased in #ood and so
#ere +articu$ar$y hard to detect:K
Mines had caused terri0$e casua$ties to the 2ussians in the @re$ fi%htin%6 and #ere %oin%
to cause many more at 4har<o3 and e$se#here: As #e ta$<ed to the co$one$6 a horse,cart
dro3e +ast and in it #ere t#o moanin% so$diers6 #ith 0$ood streamin% from their headsL
they had Hust 0een 0$o#n u+ on a mine:::
?n the $ast fe# days6 on$y a0out &"" +eo+$e had come 0ac< to Mtsens<6 out of its ori%ina$
+o+u$ation of &"6""": These t#o hundred had 0een hidin% some#here in the countryside:
A$on% the road to @re$6 #ith fie$ds and 0eautifu$ #oods on either side6 there #ere no
3i$$a%es any#here6 and on$y notice,0oards amon% the ru00$e %i3in% the name the 3i$$a%e
had had: The 1erman Fdesert >oneF had no# s+read a$$ the #ay from 2>he3 and Aia>ma
to @re$:
@re$6 not so $on% a%o a +$easant +ro3incia$ 0ac<#ater6 sti$$ fu$$ of Tur%enie3 memories
and associations6 #as 0ad$y shattered: More than ha$f the to#n #as destroyed6 and some
of the ruins #ere sti$$ smo<in%: The 0rid%es o3er the @<a had 0een 0$o#n u+6 0ut a
tem+orary #ooden 0rid%e had a$ready 0een 0ui$t6 and army $orries #ere dri3in% #est6 and
am0u$ances #ere comin% in from 4arache3D thirty mi$es further #estD#here there #as
hea3y fi%htin%:
.o# had @re$ $i3ed throu%h near$y t#o years of 1erman occu+ationE @f 1146""" +eo+$e
no# on$y 3"6""" #ere there: Many had 0een murderedL many had 0een han%ed in the
+u0$ic s=uareDthat 3ery s=uare #here there #ere no# ne# %ra3es of the first 2ussian
tan< cre# that had 0ro<en into @re$6 and a$so of 1enera$ 1urtie36 of Sta$in%rad fame6 #ho
#as <i$$ed here the mornin% the 2ussians fou%ht their #ay into the city: A$to%ether6
1&6""" +eo+$e #ere said to ha3e 0een murdered6 and a0out t#ice as many de+orted to
1ermany: But there #ere a$so many thousands #ho had Hoined the +artisans in the forests
round @re$ and Brians<Dfor this (es+ecia$$y the Brians< area) #as acti3e +artisan
country:
The 1ermans had a++ointed a 2ussian 0ur%omaster6 #ho had no# f$ed #ith themL and
they had 0rou%ht to the @re$ countryside some former 2ussian $ando#ners or $ando#ners'
sonsD9hite 1uardists they ca$$ed them: But #hether they %ot their former estates 0ac<
#as not =uite c$ear: ?n most +$aces6 the *ol*hozes had not 0een disso$3ed: A $itt$e +ri3ate
enter+rise #as encoura%edD0ut %oods #ere so short that it ne3er came to anythin%: True6
? found in a +i$e of Hun< in a street a 0ro<en 0ott$e6 and on it a $a0e$ sayin% first in 2ussian
and then in 1erman: FFrucht#asser,Fa0ri<6 ;@S,D2*;@9 *;D 5o:6 @re$6 Mos<auer
Str: ):F ?t #ou$d ha3e 0een interestin% to ta$< to ;osdruno#6 the Mr Sch#e++es of
1erman @re$L 0ut he #as not to 0e found:
The #inter of 1941,& had 0een the hardest of a$$: !eo+$e had died 0y the hundred of
star3ation: ater6 they 0e%an to recei3e 7 ounces of 0read a day if they #or<ed for the
1ermans in one #ay or another: And then there #as a$$ the horror of the 2ussian #ar
+risoners' cam+L and here ? first $earned at first hand of the 1erman +o$icy to#ards
2ussian #ar +risoners6 as it chan%ed after Sta$in%rad: *nti$ then6 they #ere a$$o#ed to die
$i<e f$iesL after that they #ere 0ein% 0$ac<mai$ed or f$attered into Hoinin% the A$aso3
Army:
Stiff6 +o+,eyed6 0$ue,eyed 1enera$ So0enni<o36 no# chief of the 1arrison of @re$6 had
ta<en +art in the %reat Bu$y offensi3e and no# ta$<ed a0out it: By Bu$y 1-6 after three days'
hea3y fi%htin%6 the 2ussians had 0ro<en throu%h the main $ines of the 1erman defences
round the @re$ sa$ient: There had ne3er 0een6 he said6 such a hea3y concentration of
2ussian %uns as a%ainst these defencesL in many +$aces the fire,+o#er #as ten times
hea3ier than at Aerdun: The 1erman minefie$ds #ere so thic< and #ides+read that as
many mines as +ossi0$e had to 0e 0$o#n u+ 0y the su+er,0arra%e6 in order to reduce
2ussian casua$ties in the su0se=uent 0rea<,throu%h: By Bu$y &"6 the 1ermans tried to sto+
the 2ussian ad3ance 0y thro#in% in hundreds of +$anesL and it #as a Ho0 for the 2ussian
anti,aircraft %uns and fi%hters to dea$ #ith them: ?n the count$ess air,0att$es there #ere
3ery hea3y casua$ties on 0oth sides: Many French airmen #ere <i$$ed6 too6 durin% those
days:
.o# im+ortant it #as for the 1ermans to ho$d @re$6 he said6 cou$d 0e seen from the order
of 1enera$ 3on Schmidt (since re+$aced 0y 1enera$ Mode$) sayin% that @re$ must 0e he$d
to the 0itter end:
FAnd it certain$y #as6F said the 1enera$: FThe 1erman troo+s #ere tou%hL near$y a$$ he$d
out and on$y 3ery fe# surrendered: ;one of the +risoners #e too< #ere o$der than thirty
D+ic<ed troo+s6 hea$thy6 %ood troo+sL #hen 5omrade Chren0ur% no# ta$<s a0out the
1erman army 0ein% com+osed of %outy o$d men sufferin% from +i$es6 he is ta$<in%
throu%h his hat: (es6 %ood troo+s6 thou%h mora$$y dama%ed6 a$$ the same: 4urs< and the
rest has had a demora$isin% effect on them: !risoners a$so to$d us that the fa$$ of
Musso$ini had made a dee+ im+ression on the 1erman so$diersDthou%h some continued
to 0e$ie3e their officers' stories that Musso$ini #as a 3ery sic< man:F
Then he to$d the com+$icated story of ho# @re$ has 0een a$most com+$ete$y surrounded
0y Au%ust 36 and ho#6 fina$$y6 in the ear$y hours of Au%ust -6 the 2ussians 0ro<e into
@re$:
O1+ 8+#)53)-&,$% )+"#1+(5 3)+, ./)*,$% &'( 9nternational )$5 -he !oly <ar )$5
-he ittle %lue Scar*, 2)- )"#$% &'( 0,+-& &# 8+(); ,$&# &'( 3,&*? ,& ')5 ) &+("($5#1-
(00(3& #$ &'( .#.1/)&,#$, 2'# .#1+(5 ,$&# &'( -&+((&-, (6($ &'#1%' &'( 0,%'&,$% 2)-
-&,// %#,$% #$. T'( !(+")$- 2(+( -&,// 1-,$% "#8,/( %1$- )$5 &)$;- )%),$-& 1-, )$5
&'(,+ &#""*-%1$$(+- ,$ &'( )&&,3- )/-# 8#&'(+(5 1- ) %+()& 5()/. !($(+)/ !1+&,(6
2)- ;,//(5 8* #$( #0 &'(". D(/)*(5 )3&,#$ ",$(- 2(+( -&,// (B./#5,$%, )$5 ,$ &'(
",5-& #0 )// &',- 5,$, &'( /#15--.();(+ 2)- 8(//#2,$% ,&- .)&+,#&,3 -#$%-. I& 2)- $#& &,//
&'( $(B& 5)* &')& &'( &#""*%1$$(+- 2(+( )// 2,.(5 #1&, &'#1%' ) 0(2 ")* -&,// 8( ,$
',5,$%. A$5 &'(+( ")* -&,// 8( '1$5+(5- #0 5(/)*(5-)3&,#$ ",$(- )& O+(/, &'#1%'
2(<6( )/+()5* .,3;(5 1. NL,LLL ,$ &'( )+(). T')&<- 2'* $# &+##.- )+( -&)&,#$(5 ,$
O+(/ *(&...
Y(-, I 5+#6( ,$&# O+(/ #$ &'( "#+$,$% #0 &'( 5&'. Y#1 3)$ ,")%,$( &'( 5)2$, )$5 &'(
'#1-(- )+#1$5 -&,// 8/)C,$%, )$5 #1+ %1$- )$5 &)$;- 5+,6,$% ,$&# &#2$, 3#6(+(5 2,&'
0/#2(+-, )$5 &'( /#15--.();(+ 8(//#2,$% -he !oly <ar, )$5 #/5 2#"($ )$5 3',/5+($
+1$$,$% )"#$% &'( -#/5,(+-, )$5 .+(--,$% 0/#2(+- ,$&# &'(,+ ')$5- )$5 ;,--,$% &'(".
T'(+( 2)- -&,// -#"( 0,+,$% %#,$% #$. B1& I +("("8(+ '#2 )$ #/5 2#")$ -&##5 )&
&'( 3#+$(+ #0 P1-';,$ S&+((&, )$5 -'( 2)- ");,$% &'( -,%$ #0 &'( C+#--, )$5 &()+-
2(+( +#//,$% 5#2$ '(+ 2+,$;/(5 0)3(. A$5 )$#&'(+ (/5(+/* 2#")$, 2(//-(513)&(5
:15%,$% 8* '(+ -.((3', +)$ &#2)+5- "( )$5 %)6( "( 0/#2(+-, )$5 &'+(2 '(+ )+"-
+#1$5 "* $(3;, )$5 &)/;(5, )$5 &)/;(5 )$5 &)/;(5? &'+#1%' &'( 5,$ I 3#1/5$<& '()+
2')& -'( 2)- -)*,$%, (B3(.& &')& ,& 2)- )8#1& '(+ -#$ 2'# 2)- ,$ &'( R(5 A+"*.
N#2 &'(+(<- '()6* 0,%'&,$% %#,$% #$ )& K)+)3'(6. W( ')6( -#"( B+,&,-' )$5
A"(+,3)$ &)$;- &'(+(, 81& $#& ")$*. T'( !(+")$ ),+ 0#+3( ,- )%),$ 6(+* )3&,6(,
");,$% ) &'#1-)$5 -#+&,(- ) 5)*. W')& &'(* )+( 0,%'&,$% ,- "13' "#+( &')$ )
+()+%1)+5 )3&,#$, $#2 &')& 2( )+( .1-',$% #$ &# &'( D$,(.(+.
W
@re$ had 0een $i0erated on$y fi3e days 0efore6 0ut a$ready the So3iet authorities #ere
fu$$y esta0$ished here: Most +u0$ic 0ui$din%s had 0een destroyed6 0ut in a sma$$ house in
a side street6 5omrade M: !: 2omasho36 !artisan chief of the area6 and .ero of the So3iet
*nion6 #as insta$$ed as +resident of the !ro3incia$ C8ecuti3e 5ommittee: .e had many
stories to te$$ of +artisan #arfare6 of 0att$es #ith +uniti3e e8+editions6 and of +artisan
raids on co$umns of ci3i$ians #ho #ere 0ein% dri3en #est: The +artisans #ou$d <i$$ the
1erman escort6 and the ci3i$ians #ou$d then scatter throu%h the forests:
A chec<,u+ #as %oin% on amon% ci3i$ians at @re$6 and +arty mem0ers es+ecia$$y had to
account for their 0eha3iour durin% the t#enty months of occu+ation: @re$ had 0een
ca+tured on @cto0er &6 1941 0y 1uderian's tan<s #ith such suddenness that many +eo+$e
had 0een tra++ed: @n 2omasho3's des< ? sa# a note6 #ritten in an i$$iterate hand 0y a
#oman #ho said that sheDa mem0er of the 5ommunist !artyDand her t#o chi$dren had
0een tra++ed here on @cto0er &6 and that6 to <ee+ herse$f and her chi$dren a$i3e6 she had
had to ta<e a Ho0 as a c$eaner at a 1erman office:
They $oo<ed6 from a distance6 $i<e soft %reenish,0ro#n ra% do$$s $yin% o3er the +ara+et of
a trench from #hich they had 0een e8humed: T#o 2ussian officia$s #ere sortin% out
s<u$$s6 some #ith 0u$$et,ho$es at the 0ac<6 others #ithout: From the trench came a
+un%ent mou$dy stench: The ra% do$$s #ere 0odies du% from trenches outside the $ar%e
0ric< 0ui$din% of @re$ !rison: T#o hundred had 0een e8humed6 0ut6 Hud%in% from the
$en%th and de+th of the trenches6 there #ere at $east -6""" more: Some of these Fsam+$esF
#ere #omen6 0ut most #ere menL ha$f of them #ere 2ussian #ar +risoners #ho had died
of star3ation or 3arious diseasesL the rest #ere so$diers and ci3i$ians #ho had 0een shot
throu%h the 0ac< of the s<u$$: Many of them had 0een <i$$ed at 1" a:m: on Tuesdays or at
1" a:m: on FridaysL methodica$$y6 the 1esta+o firin% s=uads #ou$d 3isit the +rison t#ice a
#ee<: Besides these6 many others had 0een murdered at @re$L some had 0een +u0$ic$y
han%ed as F+artisansF in the main s=uare:
F
@ne day at @re$ ? #ent to a charmin% o$d,time house6 #ith c$assica$ +i$$ars and an
o3er%ro#n %arden6 #hich had once 0e$on%ed to a re$ati3e of Tur%enie3's: Tur%enie3
himse$f had often $i3ed here6 and this #as o03ious$y6 in his mind6 the scene of The 3est
o" #entle"ol*5 The +$ace cou$d ha3e scarce$y chan%ed since the 1J4"'s6 #hen the %ood and
saint$y i>a decided6 in this 3ery house6 to retire to a con3ent since ha++iness in this
#or$d had 0een denied her:
The house had 0een the Tur%enie3 Museum6 and ? ta$<ed to the o$d man #ho #as sti$$ in
char%e: .e had 0een in the 1esta+o +rison for three months6 and had heard the 3o$$eys on
those Tuesday and Friday mornin%s: Both his assistants at the Museum had 0een shot as
Fcommunist sus+ectsF:
The o$d manD#hose name #as FominDs+o<e of the fearfu$ famine in @re$: For a $on%
time no food at a$$6 not e3en the tiny ration of 0read6 had 0een %i3en to the +eo+$e: As you
#ent a$on% the streets in the #inter of 1941,&6 you #ou$d stum0$e o3er +eo+$e #ho had
co$$a+sed and died: That #inter6 #ith %reat difficu$ty6 he and his #ife had 0artered #hat
+ossessions they had for some +otatoes and 0eetroot: 9hat $ater he$+ed +eo+$e to sur3i3e
#as their 3e%eta0$e %ardens:
Ten thousand 0oo<s of the Tur%enie3 i0rary6 he said6 had 0een ta<en a#ay 0y the
1ermans and many other e8hi0itsDTur%enie3's o#n shot%un6 for instanceDhad sim+$y
0een $ooted: .o#e3er6 he said6 than< 1od6 the house had sur3i3ed: Tur%enie3's country
house6 at S+as uto3ino6 0et#een @re$ and Mtsens<6 had 0een 0urned do#n:
@ne ni%ht at the gorsoviet (to#n so3iet)6 #ith a starry s<y outside and a red %$o# of
0urnin% 3i$$a%es in the #est6 4arache3 #ay6 ? met a stran%e$y assorted +airDa $oca$
doctor and a $oca$ +riest:
Dr !roto+o+o3 #ho6 #ith his $itt$e 0eard and +ince,ne>6 $oo<ed $i<e somethin% out of
5he<ho36 to$d ho# in s+ite of e3erythin%6 the 1ermans a$$o#ed him to attend to the sic<
and #ounded 2ussian #ar +risoners: ?t #as a ni%htmarish story of star3ation and ne%$ect6
#hich on$y he and a fe# de3oted assistants had tried to remedy in a sma$$ #ay6 0y
co$$ectin% food from the $oca$ +o+u$ationDe3en thou%h they had $ess than nothin% to
s+areDand 0y smu%%$in% it into the hos+ita$: Some of the se3ere$y i$$ +risoners6 #ere
mo3ed 0y the 1ermans in horse,s$ei%hs6 at the hei%ht of #inter6 to another hos+ita$6 many
mi$es a#ay: The 2ussian staff had +rotested in 3ain6 and had #ra++ed as many of the
men as +ossi0$e in 0$an<ets: But near$y ha$f of them died durin% the Hourney: That other
Fhos+ita$F6 from #hat he had heard6 #as $itt$e 0etter than a death,cam+6 any#ay:
The +riest #as a %ru00y o$d man of se3enty,t#o6 3ery deaf6 #ith a #hite 0eard and a
si$3er chain and cross6 #ho said that if many 2ussians #or<ed for the 1ermans6 it #as
on$y 0ecause they #ou$d ha3e died of hun%er other#ise: .e #as a$$o#ed to 3isit the
2ussian #ar +risonersL they #ere 0ein% star3edL on some days6 t#enty or thirty or forty
#ou$d die: But after Sta$in%rad the 1ermans had 0e%un to feed them a $itt$e 0etterL and
then started ur%in% them to Hoin the 2ussian i0eration Army:
.e said that6 u+ to a +oint6 the 1ermans had encoura%ed the churches: it #as +art of their
anti,communist +o$icy: But in rea$ity it #as the churches #hich had unofficia$$y
or%anised 2ussian Fmutua$ aid circ$esF to he$+ the +oorest +eo+$e and a$so to do #hat
they cou$d for the #ar +risoners: Father ?3an said that Fin 3ie# of the circumstancesF6 he
had ceased to 0e a 3i$$a%e +riest in 19&96 and #hen the 1ermans came he thou%ht he
cou$d he$+ the 2ussian cause 0y ser3in% in a church a%ain: FAround me6F he said6 Fthere
%athered a nuc$eus of 0e$ie3ers6 and #e #ere %i3en a church: ? must say that6 under the
1ermans6 the churches f$ourished in @re$L and they 0ecameDthat's #hat the 1ermans
didn't e8+ectDacti3e centres of 2ussian nationa$ consciousness:F But the man #ho
su+er3ised the churches for the 1erman command #as not6 as one #ou$d ha3e e8+ected6
a 0isho+6 0ut a ci3i$ian functionary ca$$ed 4onstantino36 a F#hiteF 2ussianL the churches
#ere thus de+ri3ed of a$$ autonomy6 and e3en the ru00er stam+ of each church #as
$oc<ed u+ in 4onstantino3's des<Da fact Father ?3an thou%ht +articu$ar$y outra%eous: .is
immediate senior #as Father 4ute+o36 #ho had a much $ar%er churchL and Father
4ute+o3 to$d him ne3er to mention the Metro+o$itan Ser%ius of Mosco#6 and to +ray for
Metro+o$itan Serafim6 #ho #as in Ber$in and #as a++ro3ed 0y the 1ermans:
F? didn't $i<e that6F said Father ?3an6 Fand ? a3oided mentionin% either: (es6 the churches
#ere cro#dedDand there #ere fi3e of them at @re$: Sometimes 1erman so$diersDfi3e
or ten at a timeD#ou$d come to our ser3ice6 and they 0eha3ed 3ery #e$$6 ? must say:F
Then the o$d man to$d the stran%e story of ho# on Caster ;i%ht in 194& and a%ain in 1943
a fe# hundred #ar +risoners #ere a$$o#ed to come to church:
F9hen our +eo+$e #ere to$d that the #ar +risoners #ou$d attend ser3ice6 there #as %reat
reHoicin%6 and they s#armed to the church 0rin%in% the +risoners %ifts::: ?t #as so
#onderfu$ to see our +oor #ar +risoners come to church on .o$y Caster ;i%ht: They #ere
3ery sad6 0ut there #as %reat ha++iness shinin% in their eyes as they sa# a$$ the $o3e and
affection the +eo+$e of @re$ #ere sho#in% them:F
The doctor6 #ho had 0een $istenin% to the o$d +riest6 #as 0ecomin% more and more
irritated: F?f they #ere a$$ that ha++y6F he said6 Fho# #as it that thousands of them died of
star3ationE 9asn't it a case of a$$o#in% a fe# +risoners6 s+ecia$$y +ic<ed ones6 to %o to
your Caster ser3iceE Bust for effect: And your dates are a$$ #ron%: ? can s#ear to it that no
+risoners #ere a$$o#ed to %o to church in 194&: ?t #as on$y after#ards6 after Sta$in%rad
that the 1ermans started on a$$ those tric<s to %et the sur3i3in% #ar +risoners to Hoin the
A$aso3 Army:F
The +riest had6 of course6 0een ta<en in 0y the 1ermans6 es+ecia$$y 0y the fact that they
#ere o+enin% churches that had 0een c$osed for fifteen years or more: But #hat #as the
+ur+ose of this 1erman church +o$icy amon%st +eo+$e #hom they #ere determined to
star3e out any#ayE 9as it not a case of tryin% to create as much menta$ confusion as
+ossi0$e amon% the 2ussiansE The curious thin% #as that the churches did 0ecome
centres of F2ussianismF6 des+ite the c$ear anti,So3iet stand ta<enDat $east at firstD0y
some of the +riests6 and des+ite the 1ermans' e8+ectation that the churches #ou$d 0e
centres of anti,So3iet +ro+a%anda:
ISome ;a>i officia$s had serious sus+icions from the start a0out the churches e8ercisin%
an undesira0$e Fnationa$istF inf$uence on the &ntermenschen5 @n the other hand6 certain
1erman %enera$s6 e:%: 1uderian6 $ater s+o<e se$fri%hteous$y of the satisfaction they had in
a$$o#in% the 2ussians in occu+ied to#ns to o+en their churches: 1uderian is6 ho#e3er6
carefu$ not to say a #ord a0out the death from star3ation that thousands of #ar +risoners
and a$so thousands of ci3i$ians suffered in to#ns $i<e @re$ #hich6 in 1941,&6 #ere under
the direct Hurisdiction of his (1uderian's) o#n troo+s:K
Some other stran%e characters had 0een acti3e in @re$ durin% the t#o years of the
1erman occu+ation: The schoo$s (e8ce+t a sma$$ num0er of e$ementary schoo$s and a
schoo$ for Hu3eni$e s+iesD$i<e the one ? had a$ready heard of in 4har<o3) #ere c$osed:
The 0itterness amon% ado$escents6 #ho had 0een +am+ered under the So3iets6 #as
+articu$ar$y acute: The teachersDe3en of the schoo$s that had 0een c$osedD#ere ordered
to attend the $ectures of an indi3idua$ #ho s+o<e 2ussian #ith a =ueer accent6 and ca$$ed
himse$f @<tan: .is $ectures #ere ca$$ed a Fcourse in +eda%o%ica$ re,educationF: @<tan
a$so edited a 2ussian,$an%ua%e +a+er in @re$ ca$$ed Bech, in #hich the %ist of his
F$ecturesF #as +u0$ished: ?ts su0Hects #ere FThe 2ussian is uncreati3e 0y nature and is
destined to o0ey ordersFL FThe re3ision of the 2ussian historica$ +astFL F9hat an Aryan
must 0e $i<eF: ?n the +a+er he +reached a Ftota$ re3a$uation of cu$tura$ 3a$uesFL To$stoy
#as dec$ared to 0e a #orth$ess #riterL 2ussian music #as de+recated6 and 9a%ner
dec$ared the %reatest musica$ %enius of a$$ time: ;eed$ess to say6 not a$$ teachers #ere
Fin3itedF to @<tan's $ecturesL many had 0een arrested6 #hi$e others had f$ed:
The %enera$ im+ression #as that in the 3ictorious days of 1941,&6 the 1ermans had a
num0er of nondescri+t 2ussian ad3enturers and han%ers,on #ho #ere +re+arin% to +$ay
some sti$$ undefined +art in the 1ermanisation of a +ure$y,2ussian area $i<e @re$:
There #ere a$so other $unatic ha++enin%s: There #ere some +eo+$e of 1erman descent
#ho had $i3ed at @re$ for %enerations: They #ere sent to od> to ha3e 0$ood,tests ta<en
to see if they #ere rea$ Aryans:
Another memora0$e im+ression of @re$ #as the condition of the rai$#ays: ? had ne3er
seen such thorou%h destruction 0efore: ?n the Sta$in%rad area6 on$y si8 months 0efore6 the
destruction #as sti$$ +rimiti3e6 and cou$d 0e easi$y re+aired: But here6 in the @re$ area6 the
1ermans had used a s+ecia$ en%ine #hich6 as it #ent a$on%6 destroyed 0oth rai$s and
s$ee+ers: To use any rai$#ays in these ne#$y,$i0erated territories6 the 2ussians had to
re0ui$d them +ractica$$y from scratch:
@n Se+tem0er 1 ? a$so #ent to 4har<o36 #hich the 2ussians had reca+tured in their
s#ee+ to#ards the Dnie+er: This #as a hideous e8+erienceL for6 as #e tra3e$$ed at ni%ht
in a num0er of Hee+s from Aa$ui<i to 4har<o36 one of them struc< a mine and three of our
tra3e$$in%,com+anions #ere <i$$edD4o>hemia<o and Aase3 of the Forei%n @ffice +ress
de+artment6 and a youn% ca+tain6 Ao$<o36 #hom ? had a$ready met at Sta$in%rad: @n$y
the army dri3er6 thou%h s$i%ht$y inHured and a$most insane #ith shoc<6 sur3i3ed:
4o>hemia<o had had 0oth $e%s 0$o#n off and died #ithin an hour #ithout re%ainin%
consciousness:
IAase3 #as a #e$$,meanin% 0ut du$$ $itt$e man6 0ut 4o>hemia<o6 an e8ce+tiona$$y
handsome youn% enin%rad man6 had6 des+ite a 0asic hardness of the FSta$initeF officia$6
a charmin% manner and a %reat sense of humour: .e s+o<e +erfect Cn%$ish6 thou%h he had
ne3er 0een a0road: .ad he $i3ed he #ou$d a$most certain$y ha3e ra+id$y c$im0ed to the
to+ of the di+$omatic $adder:K
At da#n6 after the other t#o 0odies had 0een foundDone of them had 0een hur$ed fifteen
yards off the roadD#e continued our %rim Hourney: ?t #as then that #e crossed the
fearfu$$y de3astated country north of Be$%orod #here some of the fiercest fi%htin% in the
Batt$e of 4urs< had ta<en +$ace in Bu$y: F;ot a $i3e s+otF6 as the 2ussians say6 #as to 0e
seen for mi$es around6 and the air #as fi$$ed #ith the stench of ha$f,0uried cor+ses:
Be$%orod had suffered $ess from she$$in% than one #ou$d ha3e e8+ected6 and there #ere
many +eo+$e around: The rich farm country 0et#een Be$%orod and 4har<o3 #as6
ho#e3er6 cu$ti3ated on$y to the e8tent of a0out forty +er centD#hich #as different from
the 9estern *<raine: But in 1943 this area #as a$ready 3ery near the front $ine6 and the
1ermans didn't 0other:
4har<o3 had suffered some additiona$ dama%e since ? #as $ast there in Fe0ruary6 0ut6
a+art from the massacre of &"" or 3"" 2ussian #ounded in a hos+ita$ 0y SS,men #hen
they reca+tured 4har<o3 in March6 the 1ermans had 0eha3ed #ith %reater restraint than
durin% the first occu+ation: They #ere ner3ous6 and #hat shootin%s #ere done #ere done
in secretDno more +u0$ic e8ecutions: But +eo+$e #ere sti$$ rounded u+ in the street and
sent to 1ermany: From May on#ards6 the 1erman manner had softened considera0$y6
and the *<rainian +a+ers +u0$ished on May & an officia$ @rder on the 0etter treatment of
2ussian #ar +risonersL here too6 it #as +art of the +o$icy of %ettin% them to Hoin the
A$aso3 Army:
IThere is an account of A$aso3 himse$f in the Memoirs of ?$ya Chren0ur% 63ov!i -ir,
Banuary 19)3) #ho met him in the s+rin% of 194&6 short$y 0efore he #as ta<en +risoner
0y the 1ermans: A$aso3 #as a man of 0ound$ess +ersona$ am0ition and one of Sta$in's
fa3ourite %enera$s: .e #as ra+id$y risin% to the to+ of the 2ed Army hierarchy6 #hen the
1ermans ca+tured him: .is da>>$in% mi$itary career in 2ussia #as at an end and
Chren0ur% 0e$ie3es that A$aso3 #as sufficient$y am0itious and cynica$ to see a %reat
future for himse$f on$y in the e3ent of a 1erman 3ictory: The 1ermans formed an Army6
#hich he commanded6 of F3o$unteersF from amon% the So3iet so$diers they had ca+tured:
?t is certain that a hi%h +ro+ortion of these #ere 3irtua$$y conscri+ted 0y the FHoin or
star3e techni=ueF: After the #ar6 A$aso3 #as ca+tured 0y the Americans6 handed o3er to
the 2ussians and han%ed: Many A$aso3ites remained in 9estern Curo+e6 0ut those #ho
#ere handed o3er to the 2ussians or cau%ht 0y them #ere in most cases sent to cam+s
and not amnestied unti$ after Sta$in's death: A num0er of s+ecia$ studies of the
FA$aso3itesF ha3e 0een #ritten in the *SA6 nota0$y %oviet Hpposition to %talin 0y
1eor%e Fischer (.ar3ard *:!:6 19-&) and se3era$ cha+ters in #erman Bule in Bussia 0y
A$e8ander Da$$in (ondon6 19-7):K
Durin% the A+ri$,to,Bune $u$$ the *<rainian +a+ers under 1erman contro$ s+o<e hi%h,
minded$y of FT#o 1reat ;ations !re+arin%F: Some 1erman so$diers #ere 0e%innin% to
s+ea< #ith re%ret of 1ermans and 2ussians 0$eedin% each other #hite for the u$timate
0enefit of the British and Americans: .o#e3er6 durin% the first three days of the Batt$e of
4urs<6 the 1erman,run +a+ers sounded trium+hantL 0ut their tone soon chan%ed:
C').&(+ X A SHORT CHAPTER ON A AAST SUBJECT:
!ERMAN CRIMES IN THE SOAIET UNION
@re$ #as the scene of numerous 1erman crimes6 and the #ooded @re$ and Brians< areas
#ere notorious for their !artisan acti3ity: ?t therefore seems time$y and a++ro+riate at this
+oint to dea$ 0rief$y #ith these t#o as+ects of the #ar in 2ussia: (a) 1erman crimes and
(0) the !artisans:
?n a 0oo< on the So3iet,1erman #ar of 1941,- the crimes and atrocities that the 1ermans
committed in the 3ast areas they occu+ied 0et#een 1941 and 1944 shou$d6 on the face of
it6 ho$d a 3ery im+ortant +$ace: But if one dea$t #ith them in %reat detai$ the 0oo< #ou$d
0e in dan%er of assumin% a$to%ether im+ossi0$e +ro+ortions: The su0Hect is6 indeed6 3ast:
At the ;urem0er% Tria$6 in +articu$ar6 se$ected crimes and atrocities #ere discussed rather
re+etiti3e$y6 0ut 0y no means e8hausti3e$yL and e3en these Fse$ectedF crimes committed
0y the 1ermans in the So3iet *nion occu+y a $ar%e +ro+ortion of the t#enty,t#o 3o$umes
of the tria$ record: There can 0e no =uestion of tryin% to summarise here the findin%s of
the ;urem0er% Tria$ e3en 0rief$yD$et a$one a$$ the other tria$s of #ar crimina$s: ?f the
main as+ects of 1erman misdeeds are enumerated here6 it is6 a0o3e a$$6 as 0ac<%round to
the numerous e8am+$es cited in the course of the narrati3e of 1erman 0eha3iour in
2ussiaDand in !o$and6 for that matter: ?nsofar as these crimes can 0e c$assified at a$$6 #e
find that6 at ;urem0er%6 they fe$$ rou%h$y into the fo$$o#in% cate%ories:
(1) There #as the %enera$ &ntermensch F+hi$oso+hyF #hich under$ay the 1erman
attitude to the 2ussians6 a F+hi$oso+hyF i$$ustrated 0y Fie$d,Marsha$ 3on 2eichenau's
instructions for the Army's conduct in 1941 on 2ussian territory6 or 0y .imm$er 's
famous !o>nan s+eech in #hich he said6 F? am not interested in the s$i%htest if 1"6"""
2ussian fema$es die of e8haustion di%%in% an anti,tan< ditch for us6 +ro3ided the ditch is
du%F: @r e$se6 there are the Frea$isticF utterances 0y .it$er6 1oerin% and others to the
effect that for a$$ 1ermany cares6 thirty mi$$ion 2ussians may die of star3ation in a 3ery
short time6 and that it is not the 0usiness of the 1ermans to feed either the ci3i$ian
+o+u$ation or the #ar +risoners: Mi$$ions of #ar +risoners and +ro0a0$y mi$$ions of
ci3i$ians died as a resu$t of this +o$icy6 es+ecia$$y in the first t#o years of the #ar:
A$thou%h some ;a>is $i<e 2osen0er% dre# a distinction 0et#een the 2ussiansD#ho
#ere the arch,enemyDand the *<rainians and other nationa$itiesD#ho #ere to 0ecome
some sort of +rotN%Ns of the 2eichDmen $i<e Crich 4och6 the 2eich 5ommissioner for
the *<raine6 had no use #hatsoe3er for any such fine distinctions6 and his administration
of the *<raine #as dictated 0y the usua$ ;a>i &ntermensch a++roach:
(&) There #ere s+ecia$ orders6 such as the F5ommissar @rderF under #hich commissars
(or6 in +ractice6 any reco%nisa0$e communist6 Be# or other sus+ect6 for that matter) #ere
not to 0e treated as #ar +risoners6 0ut sim+$y shot: Se3era$ %enera$s tried after the #ar to
e8+$ain that this order #as $ar%e$y Ftheoretica$F6 since it #as not a++$ied 0y the 1erman
Army: This is a %ross o3erstatement6 or a =ui00$e6 since the FcommissarsF #ere6 as a ru$e6
ta<en o3er 0y .imm$er's SD 0efore the other +risoners #ere sent to cam+s under Army
Hurisdiction: Another order6 ca$$ed F4u%e$F (i:e: Bu$$et)6 #hich #as ri%orous$y a++$ied to
the 2ussians6 +ro3ided for the shootin% of any #ar +risoners #ho had attem+ted to
esca+e6 or #ere sus+ected of any <ind of c$andestine acti3ity in cam+s:
(3) There #as the de+ortation to 1ermany of near$y three mi$$ion 2ussians6 Be$orussians
and es+ecia$$y *<rainians as s$a3e $a0our: The treatment of these #as much #orse than
that of the forced $a0our from most other countries:
(4) There #ere the indiscriminate shootin% of hosta%es and Fsus+ectsF in occu+ied
territories6 +eo+$e #ho mi%ht in any #ay 0e connected #ith the +artisan mo3ement or the
So3iet under%roundL +articu$ar$y in 2ussia and Be$orussia numerous 3i$$a%es #ere not
on$y 0urned do#n6 0ut their inha0itants6 inc$udin% #omen and chi$dren6 sim+$y
e8terminated: As has often 0een o0ser3ed6 there #as6 in the So3iet *nion6 not one
@radour6 or one idice6 0ut hundreds: ?n e3ery So3iet to#n and city there #ere 1esta+o
head=uarters6 #here 3arious atrocities and tortures too< +$ace6 and e3ery#here there #ere
cro#ded +risonsL 0efore the 1ermans $eft the +risoners #ere usua$$y indiscriminate$y
murdered:
(-) There #as the s+ecific 1erman +ractice of e8terminatin% the entire Be#ish
+o+u$ationL these massacres #ere chief$y the #or< of s+ecia$ Einsatz*ommandos under
.imm$er's authority6 and +ractica$$y a$$ the %enera$s c$aimed after the #ar Fne3er to ha3e
heardF of these massacres6 thou%h they often too< +$ace under their 3ery noses: The
massacres of Be#s #ere carried out on a 3ast sca$eL thus6 at Ba0yi (ar6 near 4ie36 a0out
1""6""" Be#sDmen6 #omen and chi$drenD#ere massacred6 not to mention count$ess
other cities6 a$$ the #ay from 4rasnodar in the south6 #ith its %as #a%on #hich <i$$ed
76""" +eo+$e6 or 4erch in the 5rimea (#here the 2ussians first disco3ered hundreds of
0odies of 0oth Be#s and #ar +risoners) to Ta$$inn6 in Cstonia6 in the north: To ta<e the
e8am+$e of Ta$$inn6 #hich ? sa# myse$f: there6 in a +$ace near0y ca$$ed 4$oo%a6 ? sa# the
charred remains of some &6""" Be#s6 0rou%ht from Ai$no and other +$aces6 #ho had 0een
shot and then 0urned on %reat 0onfires they themse$3es had 0een ordered to 0ui$d and
$i%ht: 9ith the 2ed Army a++roachin%6 a sma$$ num0er of Be#s had esca+ed this SD
massacre6 and #ere there to te$$ the fu$$ story: ? +articu$ar$y remem0er the story to$d 0y
one of the sur3i3ors: a F<ind$yF SD man6 tryin% to comfort a #ee+in% chi$d6 said to it:
"/4er Kleiner, :eine doch nicht+ 4ald *ommt der Tod5"
IFMy $itt$e one6 don't cry $i<e thisL death #i$$ soon comeF: A 3ery fu$$ and +oi%nant
account of this harro#in% 4$oo%a affair #as %i3en 0y Bohn .ersey in (i"e Ma%a>ine in
@cto0er 1944:K
And this is #ithout mentionin% the 3ast e8termination cam+s $i<e Ausch#it>6 Maidane<
and many other #here Be#s (inc$udin% many 2ussian Be#s) #ere %assed6 shot and
other#ise <i$$ed 0y the mi$$ion:
IAccordin% to the uns+ea<a0$e @h$endorf6 one of the Einsatz*ommando $eaders in 2ussia6
%i3in% e3idence at ;urem0er%6 %as #a%ons had $ar%e$y to 0e discontinued6 since they
caused Fs+iritua$ shoc<F to the <i$$ersDnot 0ecause they #ere fu$$ of cor+ses6 0ut 0ecause
the cor+ses #ere mi8ed u+ #ith a $ot of e8crement6 +roduced 0y the 3ictims in their death
a%ony: This +articu$ar commando had murdered 9"6""" +eo+$e in a $itt$e o3er a year:K
()) ;e8t to the Be#s in Curo+e6 si8 mi$$ions of #hom +erished at the hands of the
1ermans (and it too< rather more than a handfu$ of F0adF 1ermans to carry out a$$ this
F#or<F)6 the 0i%%est sin%$e 1erman crime #as undou0ted$y the e8termination 0y hun%er6
e8+osure and in other #ays of +erha+s as many as three mi$$ion 2ussian #ar +risoners:
Many #ere shot6 many died in concentration cam+s durin% the $ater sta%es of the #ar
(es+ecia$$y at Mauthausen)6 some #ere e3en used for 3i3isectionist and other FscientificF
e8+eriments: The e3idence is so 3ast and o3er#he$min% that one can on$y +ic< at some of
it at random:
Thus6 at the 0e%innin% of 194&6 2osen0er%6 #ritin% to 4eite$6 thou%ht it scanda$ous that
out of the 36)""6""" 2ussian +risoners6 on$y a fe# hundred thousand #ere sti$$ fit for
#or<6 so a++a$$in% #ere the conditions in #hich they had 0een <e+t: 1oerin% a0out the
same time com+$ained to 5iano of the canni0a$ism amon% 2ussian #ar +risoners6 addin%6
as a %reat Ho<e6 that it #as no# %oin% a 0it far: they had e3en eaten a 1erman sentryP
.it$er's +o$icy durin% the +re,Sta$in%rad +eriod #as6 c$ear$y6 to demonstrate the
&ntermensch nature of the 2ussians6 +recise$y 0y reducin% them to canni0a$ism:
9e ha3e echoes of this contem+t for the Fsu0humanF 2ussian #ar +risoners e3en in
recent 1erman #ritin%6 e:%: in that odious $itt$e no3e$6 The Boad to %talingrad 0y Benno
Oieser:
IBa$$antine Boo<s6 ;e# (or<6 19-76 ++: &9,3&:K
T'( R1-;,(- 2(+( 3#"./(&(/* 5(8,/,&)&(5. T'(* 3#1/5 ')+5/* ;((. #$ &'(,+ 0((&, /(&
)/#$( .(+0#+" &'( .'*-,3)/ (00#+& +(91,+(5 #0 &'("... A"#$% &'(" 2(+( "(+( ;,5-,
)- 2(// )- 8()+5(5 #/5 "($ 2'# 3#1/5 ')6( 8(($ &'(,+ %+)$50)&'(+-. W,&'#1&
(B3(.&,#$, &'(* )// 8(%%(5 0#+ ) -3+). #0 0##5 #+ ) 3,%)+(&&(. T'(* 2',$(5 )$5
%+#6(//(5 8(0#+( 1-... T'(-( 2(+( '1")$ 8(,$%- ,$ 2'#" &'(+( 2)- $# /#$%(+ ) &+)3(
#0 )$*&',$% '1")$...
And thenD
W'($ 2( =&'+(2 &'(" ) 5()5 5#%> &'(+( 0#//#2(5 ) -.(3&)3/( &')& 3#1/5 ");( ) ")$
.1;(. Y(//,$% /,;( ")5, &'( R1--,)$- 2#1/5 0)// #$ &'( )$,")/ )$5 &()+ ,& &# .,(3(-
2,&' &'(,+ 8)+( ')$5-... T'( ,$&(-&,$(- &'(*<5 -&100 ,$ &'(,+ .#3;(&-E) -#+& #0 ,+#$
+)&,#$.
And so on: A$most too nauseatin% to =uote: And #e <no# from count$ess other +ieces of
e3idence that this is +recise$y the <ind of thin% that ha++ened to hundreds of thousands6
indeed mi$$ions6 of 2ussian #ar +risoners6 es+ecia$$y 0efore Sta$in%rad:
Thus6 a .un%arian tan< officer #rote soon after the #ar:
W( 2(+( -&)&,#$(5 )& R#6$#. I 2#;( 1. #$( "#+$,$% )$5 '()+5 &'#1-)$5- #0 5#%-
'#2/,$% ,$ &'( 5,-&)$3(... I 3)//(5 "* #+5(+/* )$5 -),5: DS)$5#+, 2')& ,- )// &',-
"#)$,$% )$5 '#2/,$%ID DN#& 0)+ 0+#" '(+(,D '( -),5, D&'(+(<- ) '1%( ")-- #0
R1--,)$ .+,-#$(+- ,$ &'( #.($ ),+. T'(+( "1-& 8( NL,LLL #0 &'(". T'(*<+( "#)$,$%
8(3)1-( &'(* )+( -&)+6,$%.D
I 2($& &# ')6( ) /##;. B(',$5 2,+( &'(+( 2(+( &($- #0 &'#1-)$5- #0 R1--,)$
.+,-#$(+-. M)$* 2(+( #$ &'( .#,$& #0 (B.,+,$%. (2 3#1/5 -&)$5 #$ &'(,+ 0((&. T'(,+
0)3(- 2(+( 5+,(5 1. )$5 &'(,+ (*(- -1$; 5((. ,$ &'(,+ -#3;(&-. H1$5+(5- 2(+( 5*,$%
(6(+* 5)*, )$5 &'#-( 2'# ')5 )$* -&+($%&' /(0& 51".(5 &'(" ,$ ) 6)-& .,&.
=Dr Su$yo<: Deu2 nuits sans 8our (T#o ;i%hts 9ithout Day)6 +: JJ (Ourich6 194J):K
A+art from the de$i0erate star3in% of 2ussian #ar +risoners6 there #ere a$so the
massacres: Some si%nificant e3idence on this score #as +roduced at ;urem0er%6 for
instance 0y Crich ahousen6 of Admira$ 5anaris's /4:ehr5 .e s+o<e6 in +articu$ar6 of t#o
s+ecia$$y charmin% characters #ith #hom he had conferred at the 0e%innin% of the #ar in
2ussia: @ne #as 1enera$ 2einec<e6 <no#n as "der *leine Keitel"+ he #as 5hief of the
1enera$ Army @ffice 0e$on%in% to the @49L the other #as @0er%ru++enfRhrer
F1esta+oF MR$$er6 a di3ision chief of the 5entra$ Board of 2eich Security (2S.A): The
$atter #as Fres+onsi0$e for the measures re%ardin% the treatment of 2ussian #ar
+risoners6F i:e: e8ecutions:
I1M956 3o$: ?6 ++: &7J ffK
ahousen4 T'( .1+.#-( #0 &'( 3#$0(+($3( 2)- &# (B)",$( &'( #+5(+- +(3(,6(5 #$ &'(
&+()&"($& #0 &'(-( .+,-#$(+-... T'( -18-&)$3( #0 &'(-( #+5(+- 5()/& 2,&' &2# %+#1.-
#0 "()-1+(-. ,+-& 2)- &'( ;,//,$% #0 R1--,)$ 3#"",--)+-. S(3#$5 2)- &'( ;,//,$% #0
&'#-( (/("($&- 2'#, )33#+5,$% &# &'( -.(3,)/ -(%+(%)&,#$ 8* &'( SD, 3#1/5 8(
,5($&,0,(5 )- B#/-'(6,-&- #+ )- )3&,6( +(.+(-($&)&,6(- #0 &'( B#/-'(6,-& )&&,&15( &#
/,0(... !($(+)/ R(,$(3;( (B./),$(5 &')& &'( 2)+ 8(&2(($ !(+")$* )$5 R1--,) 2)-
1$/,;( )$* #&'(+ 2)+. T'( R(5 A+"* -#/5,(+... 2)- $#& ) -#/5,(+ ,$ &'( #+5,$)+*
-($-(, 81& )$ ,5(#/#%,3)/ ($("*. A$ ($("* &# &'( 5()&' #0 N)&,#$)/-S#3,)/,-", )$5
'( ')5 &# 8( &+()&(5 )33#+5,$%/*.
ahousen then said that 2einec<e6 a %ood ;a>i6 #as not satisfied #ith the Fice a%eF
menta$ity of some of the officer cor+s: @n 0eha$f of 5anaris he (ahousen) +rotested
a%ainst these e8ecutions6 and +articu$ar$y a%ainst their ta<in% +$ace +u0$ic$y: They had a
terri0$e and de3astatin% effect on the mora$e and disci+$ine of the 1erman troo+s:
Moreo3er6 this <ind of thin% cou$d on$y increase the 2ussians' resistance to the utmost:
MZ//(+ +(:(3&(5 "* )+%1"($&-. T'( -#/( 3#$3(--,#$ '( ")5( 2)- &')& &'(
(B(31&,#$- ... -'#1/5 $#& &);( ./)3( ,$ &'( -,%'& #0 &'( &+##.-, 81& ,$ ) -(3+(& ./)3(...
T'( SD ,insatzkommandos 2(+( ,$ 3')+%( #0 -,$%/,$% #1& .(+-#$- ,$ 3)".- )$5 ,$
..#.2. )--("8/* 3($&+(-, )$5 #0 3)++*,$% #1& &'( (B(31&,#$-... T'( -#+&,$% #1& 2)-
5#$( ,$ &'( "#-& )+8,&+)+* 2)*: J(2,-' #+ J(2,-'-/##;,$% #+ #&'(+ +)3,)//*-,$0(+,#+
&*.(- 2(+( .,3;(5 0#+ (B(31&,#$, #+ (/-( &'(* 2(+( .,3;(5 )33#+5,$% &# &'(,+
D,$&(//,%($3(D.
R(,$(3;( '(/5 &')& &'( R1--,)$- 2(+( 5,00(+($& 0+#" #&'(+-, )$5 -'#1/5 8( &+()&(5
5,00(+($&/* 0+#" W(-&(+$ ..#.2.<-. T'( 3)". %1)+5- -'#1/5 ')6( 2',.-, )$5 -'#1/5
')6( &'( +,%'& &# +(-#+& &# 0,+()+"- ,0 $(3(--)+*.
ahousen then said:
T'( %+()&(+ $1"8(+ #0 .+,-#$(+- +("),$(5 ,$ &'( &'()&+( #0 #.(+)&,#$-, 2,&'#1&
.+#.(+ 3)+(... M)$* #0 &'(" 5,(5 #$ &'( 8)+( %+#1$5. E.,5(",3- 8+#;( #1& )$5
3)$$,8)/,-" ")$,0(-&(5 ,&-(/0.
?n the circumstances6 he said6 .it$er ordered that no 2ussian #ar +risoners #ere to 0e
0rou%ht to 1ermany:
As<ed to #hat e8tent the 9ehrmacht #as res+onsi0$e for the i$$,treatment of 2ussian #ar
+risoners6 ahousen said:
T'( W('+")3'& 2)- ,$6#/6(5 ,$ )// ")&&(+- 2',3' +(0(++(5 &# &'( 2)+ .+,-#$(+-,
(B3(.& &'( (B(31&,#$-, 2',3' 2(+( 3)++,(5 #1& 8* &'( 3#"")$5#- #0 &'( SD )$5 &'(
RSHA. T'( 6,3&,"- 2(+( -(/(3&(5 8(0#+( &'( +(-& 2(+( &);($ &# A+"* 3)".-.
C8ce+t that some %enera$s at ;urem0er% tried to ar%ue that it #as difficu$t une8+ected$y
to ha3e to feed so many +:o:#:'s6 there is nothin% to sho# that the Army did anythin% to
o++ose the +o$icy of e8termination of the 2ussian #ar +risoners6 at $east durin% the first
t#e$3e or ei%hteen months of the #ar:
More than that: some of these F%ent$eman$yF 1erman %enera$s #ere conscious$y star3in%
the 2ussian #ar +risoners: At the ;urem0er% Tria$6 a+art from the famous 2eichenau
order issued at the 0e%innin% of the 2ussian cam+ai%n6 there #as a$so an order from
Fie$d,Marsha$ 3on Manstein6 containin% the fo$$o#in%:
T'( J(2,-'-B#/-'(6,-& -*-&(" "1-& 8( (B&(+",$)&(5... T'( !(+")$ -#/5,(+ 3#"(- )-
&'( 8()+(+ #0 ) +)3,)/ 3#$3(.&. =H(> "1-& )..+(3,)&( &'( $(3(--,&* 0#+ &'( ')+-'
.1$,-'"($& #0 J(2+*... T'( 0##5 -,&1)&,#$ )& '#"( ");(- ,& (--($&,)/ &')& &'( &+##.-
-'#1/5 8( 0(5 #00 &'( /)$5, )$5 &')& &'( /)+%(-& .#--,8/( -&#3;- -'#1/5 8( ./)3(5 )&
&'( 5,-.#-)/ #0 &'( '#"(/)$5. 9n enemy cities, a large part o* the population /ill have
to go hungry. 3othing, out o* a misguided sense o* humanity, may be given to
prisoners7o*7/ar or to the population, 1$/(-- &'(* )+( ,$ &'( -(+6,3( #0 &'( !(+")$
W('+")3'&.
I T1M956 3o$: &16 +: 7&: Cm+hasis addedK
?t is these <ind of %ent$eman$y orders6 not from .imm$er6 or .it$er6 0ut a$so "rom the
generals #hich are res+onsi0$e for the star3in% to death of +ro0a0$y o3er t#o mi$$ion #ar
+risoners durin% the first year of the #ar:
A$thou%h6 in the end6 Manstein had to admit at ;urem0er% that he had si%ned the order6
he 0e%an 0y sayin% that it had Fesca+ed his memory entire$y F:
I?0id:6 +: 73:K
;o dou0t much e$se had esca+ed hisDand his fe$$o#,%enera$s'Dmemory Fentire$yF6
inc$udin% the Army's fre=uent and 3ery c$ose co,o+eration #ith the Einsatz*ommandos
and other +rofessiona$ <i$$ers:
?t #as not ti$$ #e$$ into 194& that the sur3i3in% 2ussian #ar +risoners 0e%an to 0e $oo<ed
u+on as a source of s$a3e $a0our: Thus6 Fie$d,Marsha$ Mi$ch thou%ht it F3ery amusin%F
that 3"6""" 2ussians shou$d ha3e to man the 1erman anti,aircraft %uns a%ainst British
and American +$anes:
?t #as to#ards the end of 194&6 a$so6 that the 1ermans started a form of 0$ac<mai$ a%ainst
the sur3i3in% 2ussian #ar,+risoners: either %o into the A$aso3 Army or star3e:
But there #ere many #ho #ou$d not ser3e A$aso3L and many of these6 inc$udin% hi%h,
ran<in% So3iet officers6 #ere to 0e found to#ards the end of the #ar at Dachau and
Mauthausen6 a$i3e or deadDmost$y dead: ?t #as a$so 2ussian +risoners #ho6 more than
any other nationa$ity6 #ere %i3en the +ri3i$e%e of /*tion Kugel5
T',- 2)- #$( #0 &'( $1"(+#1- "(&'#5- #0 5()/,$% 2,&' D1$5(-,+)8/(-D. A DKD 4,.(.
K1%(/7 .+,-#$(+ 2)- &);($ )& M)1&')1-($ &# &'( D8)&'+##"D. T',- 8)&'+##" ,$ &'(
3(//)+- #0 &'( .+,-#$ 81,/5,$% $()+ &'( 3+(")&#+,1" 2)- -.(3,)//* 5(-,%$(5 0#+ 8#&'
-'##&,$% )$5 %)--,$%. T'( -'##&,$% &##; ./)3( 8* "()$- #0 ) "()-1+,$% )..)+)&1-,
&'( .+,-#$(+- 8(,$% 8)3;(5 &#2)+5- ) "(&+,3)/ "()-1+( 2,&' )$ )1&#")&,3
3#$&+).&,#$ +(/()-,$% ) 81//(& ,$ &'( $(3; )- -##$ )- &'( "#6,$% ./)$; 5(&(+",$,$%
',- '(,%'& &#13'(5 &'( &#. #0 ',- '()5. I0 &'( &+)$-.#+& 3#$-,-&(5 #0 &## ")$* Kugel
.+,-#$(+-, $# &,"( 2)- 2)-&(5 #$ "()-1+("($&- )$5 &'(* 2(+( (B&(+",$)&(5 8* %)-
/),5 #$ ,$ &'( D8)&'+##"D ,$-&()5 #0 2)&(+.
IT1M956 3o$: 36 +: &"7:K
2ussian +risoners #ere a$so used for free>in% e8+eriments and a 3ariety of other
entertainments de3ised 0y .imm$er and some of the FscientistsF of the Third 2eich:
The #ho$e story of the 2ussian #ar,+risonersDsecond on$y6 in the num0er of +eo+$e
in3o$3ed6 to that of the Be#sDis so horri0$e that it is a$most difficu$t to 0e$ie3e: The
2ussians themse$3es ha3e ne3er =uoted any c$ear fi%ures on the num0er of So3iet
so$diers ca+tured 0y the 1ermansL 0ut #hen one considers that the tota$ $oss in human $ife
has 0een +ut at t#enty mi$$ions6 the $oss of some three or four mi$$ion men #ho died in
1erman ca+ti3ity does not sound im+ro0a0$e: The fo$$o#in% ta0$e com+i$ed 0y
A$e8ander Da$$in on the stren%th of an @49 document for May 1944 is +ro0a0$y =uite
correct:
In HKH custod! in occupied %oviet
territor!
In HK$ custod! in #erman! and
Tota$ num0er of ca+tured
@f these6 transferred from @4. to @49 area 3611"6"""
2emainin% under @4. contro$ &6"-"6"""
2ecorded deaths in +:o:#: cam+s and
com+ounds
J4-6""" 1613)6"""
2e$eased to #or<er's or mi$itary status -3-6"""
Csca+es
49-6"""
C8terminations
;ot accounted for
Death and disa++earance in transit
Sur3i3in% as +:o:#:'s 17-6"""
This #ou$d mean that6 e8ce+t for the J""6""" Fre$easedF and the one mi$$ion sti$$ a$i3e6
+ractica$$y a$$ the rest must 0e dead6 i:e: o3er three mi$$ions:
@n the stren%th of other 1erman sources6 Da$$in +uts the fi%ure 0y the end of the #ar
e3en hi%her: The tota$ of So3iet #ar +risoners is +ut at -67-46"""6 of #hom 3633-6"""
#ere ca+tured in 19416 16)-36""" in 194&6 -)-6""" in 19436 1476""" in 1944 and 346"""
in 194-: These $ast four6 and es+ecia$$y $ast three fi%ures seem rather $ess +ro0a0$e:
9here6 in 19436 #ou$d the 1ermans ha3e ca+tured o3er ha$f,a,mi$$ion +risoners6 not to
mention the fi%ures for 19446 $et a$one 194-E
W
9hat added to the tra%edy of the 2ussian #ar +risoners #as a$so that those #ho had
Hoined the A$aso3 armyDmost$y sim+$y to sa3e themse$3es from a s$o# death 0y
star3ationD#ere to 0e 0ro<en in mind and s+irit e3en #hi$e the #ar #as sti$$ in +ro%ress:
Many 0ecame mere$y cynics and 0andits6 and #hen they returned to 2ussia6 they #ere
treated as crimina$s or near,crimina$s: But e3en the homecomin% of those #ho had ne3er
Hoined A$aso3 #as far from a$#ays 0ein% an occasion for reHoicin%: As ?$ya Chren0ur%
#rote in his -emoirsD
?n March 194- my dau%hter ?rina #ent to @dessa on 0eha$f of the Bed %tar5 British6
French6 Be$%ian #ar +risoners $i0erated 0y the 2ed Army #ere 0ein% re+atriated from
there: There she a$so sa# a troo+ trans+ort arri3in% from Marsei$$es #ith our o#n #ar
+risoners on 0oard6 amon% them some #ho had esca+ed from 1erman cam+s and some
#ho had fou%ht to%ether #ith the French ma=uis: ?rina to$d me that they #ere met $i<e
crimina$s6 that they #ere iso$ated6 that there #as much ta$< of their 0ein% sent to
cam+s:: :F
I3ov!i -ir, 19)36 ;o: 36 +: 13J:K
But that is a different story: .ere #e are concerned #ith 1erman crimes in the So3iet
*nion: ?n addition to the innumera0$e 1erman crimes a%ainst +ersons6 there #ere a$so the
1erman crimes a%ainst So3iet +ri3ate and +u0$ic +ro+erty: the 1ermans had $aid #aste
3ast areasL in three years they had destroyed hundreds of to#ns and thousands of 3i$$a%es:
?f some 3i$$a%es and some cities $i<e 4har<o36 @dessa or 4ie3 #ere on$y +artia$$y6 0ut
not com+$ete$y destroyed6 it #as on$y 0ecause their retreatin% armies had not had enou%h
time to com+$ete the #or< of destruction: ?n other cities6 $i<e 2osto36 Aorone>h or
Se0asto+o$ (as #e$$ as 9arsa#)Dto mention on$y a fe# of those ? ha3e seen myse$fDthe
destruction #as 3ery near$y 1"" +er cent:
C').&(+ XI THE PARTISANS IN THE SOAIET-!ERMAN WAR
?n the summer of 194& they used to se$$ in Mosco# a +oc<et,si>e 0oo< of 43" +a%es
ca$$ed The Partisan0s #uide5 -"6""" co+ies6 it said6 had 0een +rinted: ?t +ur+orted to dea$
#ith a$$ the +ro0$ems 0esettin% a !artisan's $ife: .ere #ere +recise instructions6 often #ith
e8+$anatory dra#in%s6 on the chief Ftactica$ ru$es of +artisan #arfareFL on the use of
firearms ca+tured from the enemyL on the destruction of enemy tan<s and +$anesL on the
0est #ays of #rec<in% enemy troo+,trains and motor trans+ort6 of <i$$in% enemy
motorcyc$ists 0y stretchin% a #ire across a roadL on reconnaissance #or<L on cam+in%
and camouf$a%e: An interestin%6 and6 in a #ay6 hi%h$y +athetic cha+ter #as on
Femer%enciesFDfor instance on the <ind of moss and 0ar< that can 0e eaten #hen there is
nothin% e$se to eat: There #as a$so ad3ice on first,aid6 hand,to,hand fi%htin%6 and on
Fho# to $i3e in the sno#F:
The a++endi8 consisted of a 2ussian,1erman +hrase 0oo<: "Halt@ $a""en hinlegen@"
"Ergie4 dich@" "Baus aus dem $agen@" ".ei Fluchtversuch :ird geschossen@"
And then: "%ie lMgen@" "$o 4e"inden sich deutsche Truppen" "$o noch" "$o sind
-inen gelegt"
IF.a$tP ay do#n your armsPF FSurrenderPF F1et out of the carPF FAnyone #ho tries to
esca+e #i$$ 0e shot:F F(ou are $yin%:F F 9here are the 1erman troo+sEF F9here e$seEF
F9here are the mines $aidE FK
The su+erficia$ im+ression the 0oo< made on the uninitiated reader #as that the 2ussian
!artisan #as a sort of %$orified 0oy,scout6 and that a$thou%h it must 0e difficu$t to F$i3e in
the sno#F and not 3ery satisfactory to eat moss and 0ar< in emer%encies6 the !artisan's
$ife #as a #onderfu$ $ife a$$ the same:
!artisan (i:e: %uerri$$a) #arfare in 1erman,occu+ied territory he$d an im+ortant +$ace in
0oth %o3ernment +ro+a%anda and actua$ mi$itary +$annin% a$most from the 0e%innin% of
the #ar in 1941: Sta$in6 in his famous 0roadcast of Bu$y 36 19416 ca$$ed for a 3ast +artisan
mo3ement in the enemy rear6 and on Bu$y 1J the 5entra$ 5ommittee of the 5!S* issued a
decree 6postanovleni!e7 on FThe @r%anisation of the Stru%%$e in the Cnemy 2earF #hich
e8+$ained that it #as essentia$ Fto create into$era0$e conditions for the in3aders6 to
disor%anise their communications6 trans+ortF6 etc:6 and ca$$in% on FSo3iet c$andestine
or%anisationsF in occu+ied territories to e8ert their utmost ener%ies to that end: ?n +o+u$ar
+ro+a%anda much #as made of historic +recedentsDthe +easant 0ands in 1J1& #ho
harassed ;a+o$eon's #rande /rmAe, and the numerous So3iet %uerri$$a 0ands #ho +$ayed
so im+ortant a ro$e in the 5i3i$ 9ar,in Si0eria6 the *<raine6 and so on: A certain romantic
ha$o #as made to surround the +artisan $eader and his men6 and in the %rim summer and
autumn of 1941 +ress6 radio6 theatre and cinema tried (rather fee0$y) to cheer u+ So3iet
citi>ens #ith stories of more or $ess un0e$ie3a0$e +artisan e8+$oits in Be$orussia and other
occu+ied territories: ?n Decem0er 19416 at the hei%ht of the Batt$e of Mosco#6 Ooya
4osmodemians<aya6 #ho 0ecame a partizan*a 0ehind the enemy $ines and #as +u0$ic$y
han%ed 0y the 1ermans in the 3i$$a%e of !etrishche3o near Mosco#6 #as 0ui$t u+ into a
nationa$ heroine and a sym0o$: But Ooya6 $i<e many others6 had 0een sent 0ehind the
enemy $ines for some immediate Fdi3ersionistF +ur+ose6 and so #as not ty+ica$ of the
+ro3er0ia$ +artisan #ho6 under 1erman occu+ation6 s+ontaneous$y rose on the spot
a%ainst the o++ressors of his country:
.istorica$$y6 the 2ussian +artisan mo3ement of 1941,4 is one of the most com+$icated
and $east thorou%h$y e8+$ored as+ects of the So3iet,1erman #ar: To a $ar%e e8tent it is
not on$y une8+$ored6 0ut #i$$ remain6 $i<e the resistance mo3ements in (u%os$a3ia6
France and other countries6 a$so $ar%e$y une2plora4le for the sim+$e reason that a$$ the
+artici+ants of many +artisan o+erations died6 and there is no0ody $eft to te$$ the story:
Much misinter+retation a$so arose from the o3er,%$amourisation and o3er,ma%nification
of the +artisan mo3ement 0y So3iet +ro+a%anda durin% the ear$y sta%es of the #ar: This
e8a%%erated inter+retation has its 1erman counter+art: accordin% to the current 1erman
3ersion6 +art$y su++orted 0y certain Americans6 there #as no +artisan mo3ement in the
So3iet *nion at first6 since 0oth in Be$orussia and the *<raine the +o+u$ation #as
thorou%h$y #e$$,dis+osed to#ards the 1ermans6 and it #as on$y after#ards6 0ecause of
1erman Fmista<esF6 that an anti,1erman +artisan mo3ement de3e$o+ed at a$$:
This is6 of course6 a$so a %ross o3er,sim+$ification: The truth is that in the %rim months of
19416 fo$$o#in% the in3asion6 e3erythin% in the 3ast ne#$y,occu+ied territories #as in a
state of f$u8 and chaos6 and 3ery $itt$e6 if anythin%6 had 0een done to or%anise a +artisan
mo3ement in these +arts of the country in advance5 ?n So3iet Har%on6 no Fmateria$ 0aseF
had 0een $aid for itDno secret arms dum+s6 food stores6 medica$ stores6 etc:6 #hich
#ou$d ha3e constituted such a 0ase:
There #ere6 es+ecia$$y in Be$orussia6 a considera0$e num0er of 2ussian officers and
so$diers #ho had 0een ori%ina$$y encirc$ed 0y the 1ermans6 and #ere then hidin% in the
#oods6 sti$$ ho+in% to find their #ay to the 2ussian Front6 $i3in% as far as +ossi0$e on the
he$+ of the $oca$ +easantry6 and fina$$y formin% themse$3es into +artisan 0ands:
The #oods #ere a$so a +$ace of esca+e for certain +arty and So3iet officia$s in
Be$orussian cities6 for #hom it #as difficu$t to concea$ their identity6 for rai$#aymen and
others #ho6 ha3in% 0een cau%ht 0y the 1ermans doin% sa0ota%e (or 0ein% sus+ected of
such sa0ota%e) had $itt$e a$ternati3e to FHoinin% the +artisansF: But6 for a $on% time6 a$$ this
#as s+oradic and unor%anised6 and the So3iet authorities in Mosco#6 thou%h $i<in% to
ta$< a0out the +artisans and the ro$e they #ere +$ayin% in the enemy rear6 had much more
immediate +ro0$ems on their hands 0et#een the time of the ?n3asion and the Batt$e of
Mosco#:
?n 19416 the +artisans cou$d #ait: They re=uired a considera0$e economic and
or%anisationa$ effort on the +art of Mosco# if they #ere to 0ecome effecti3e at a$$:
And a$thou%h6 in 194&6 the +artisan mo3ement in the *<raine6 in the enin%rad +ro3ince6
in Be$orussia6 as #e$$ as in certain 2ussian areas $i<e Smo$ens< and Brians<6 0e%an to 0e
ta<en much more serious$y than 0efore6 there is sti$$ $itt$e dou0t that in the B$ac< Summer
of 194& the +artisans #ere a%ain a $on% #ay do#n the So3iet +arty and mi$itary
authorities' $ist of +riorities:
This is not to say that there #as not a +artisan mo3ement of some im+ortance in 194&6 0ut
it had not yet 0ecome the 0road mass mo3ement into #hich it #as to de3e$o+ in 1943:
The contrast #as6 indeed6 ama>in%6 as many +artisans ha3e since #ritten6 0et#een 19416
#hen they had nothin% e8ce+t some rif$es and a fe# hand %renades6 and 19436 #hen they
had mortars and e3en some arti$$ery: The $ac< of arms6 much more than any %ood#i$$
to#ards the 1ermans6 e8+$ains #hy there #as no maHor +artisan mo3ement in 1941:
!resent,day So3iet historians distin%uish 0et#een the more,or,$ess s+oradic and sti$$
$ar%e$y unor%anised +artisan mo3ement in 1941,& and the (most$y) hi%h$y,or%anised
+artisan mo3ement of 1943:
Thus6 in his #e$$,<no#n history of the #ar6 B: S: Te$+u<ho3s<y ma<es no 0i% c$aims for
the +artisans in 1941:
A/+()5* )& &'( ($5 #0 J1/* 1941 &'(+( 2(+( MLL .)+&,-)$ 5(&)3'"($&- #+ %+#1.- ,$
&'( L($,$%+)5 .+#6,$3(. I$ S(.&("8(+ 1941 &'(+( 2(+( 0,0&*-0#1+ -13' .)+&,-)$
5(&)3'"($&- ,$ &'( O+(/ .+#6,$3( )$5 &',+&*-&2# ,$ &'( K1+-; .+#6,$3(.
But he does not s+ecify ho# $ar%e these F%rou+sF and FdetachmentsF #ereL they often
consisted of on$y a fe# do>en men6 or e3en fe#er: .e then says: FDurin% the first +eriod
of the #ar the +artisans chief$y destroyed sma$$ enemy %arrisons6 re%imenta$
head=uarters6 motorised co$umns6 etc:F6 #hich su%%ests that their main acti3ity #as in the
nature of smash,and,%ra0 raids:
True6 durin% the Batt$e of Mosco#6 and often as a resu$t of su0stantia$ units ha3in% 0een
sent 0ehind the enemy $ines6 +artisan acti3ity reached 0i%%er +ro+ortionsL thus6 #ith
1"6""" +artisans o+eratin% in the enemy rear in the Mosco#6 Tu$a and 4a$inin +ro3inces6
the attac<s on 1erman trains and motorised co$umns assumed a certain immediate
im+ortance:
There #ere then some +artisan $eaders6 such as M: 1uriano36 #hose men <i$$ed a0out )""
1ermans6 0ut #ho himse$f #as ca+tured and han%ed 0y the 1ermans and +osthumous$y
a#arded the tit$e of .ero of the So3iet *nion: Another +artisan $eader6 So$ntse36 #as
+u0$ic$y han%ed at 2u>a6 in the Mosco# +ro3ince6 on Decem0er &16 1941:
A$to%ether6 in the #inter of 1941,&6 the 1"6""" +artisans ta<in% +art (in their o#n #ay) in
the Batt$e of Mosco#6 are credited #ith ha3in% destroyed 1J6""" 1ermans:
?t #as not ti$$ May 3"6 194& that6 on the initiati3e of the 5entra$ 5ommittee6 the %tav*a
created in Mosco# a F5entra$ Staff of the !artisan Mo3ementF and6 $ater in the year6
simi$ar s+ecia$ F5entra$ StaffsF for the +artisans of the *<raine and Be$orussia: The
+artisan mo3ement certain$y %re# in 194&6 thou%h it had not yet 0ecome the mass
mo3ement it #as to 0e in 1943: The s$o#ness of the de3e$o+ment #as at $east +art$y
attri0uta0$e to the shorta%e of arms: The +ersonne$ and su++$ies that Mosco# cou$d send
the +artisans 0y air in 194& #ere sti$$ 3ery $imited6 and many +artisan units had to 0e $eft
entire$y6 or a$most entire$y6 to their o#n de3ices6 $i<e raidin% 1erman arms dum+s and
de+endin% on the more or $ess 3o$untary he$+ of the +easantry:
Te$+u<ho3s<y readi$y admits that 1erman +o$icy in the occu+ied areas enormous$y
stimu$ated the +artisan mo3ement6 nota0$y in suita0$e F+artisan countryF $i<e many +arts
of Be$orussia or the @re$,Brians< forest >one: The rN%ime of terror in the cities6 the mass
de+ortation of youn% +eo+$e to 1ermany6 #hich 0e%an as ear$y as March 194&6 dee+$y
affected the ci3i$ian +o+u$ation:
@03ious +ara$$e$s for this can 0e found e$se#hereL thus6 in France6 the 0i%%est factor that
s#e$$ed the ran<s of the maPuis #as the introduction of forced $a0our in 1ermany: ?n
2ussia6 the &ntermensch treatment meted out to the +o+u$ation acted as an additiona$
incenti3e to fi%ht the 1ermans 0y Hoinin% the +artisans: But6 as in France6 the num0er of
effecti3e +artisans #as ine3ita0$y $imited for a time 0y the shorta%e of arms:
?t #ou$d 0e id$e to s+ecu$ate a0out #hat moti3es #ere the most im+ortant in +ersuadin%
+eo+$e to ta<e the des+erate$y dan%erous ste+ of Hoinin% the +artisansD+ure disinterested
+atriotismE inHured nationa$ +rideE a desire to %et a#ay from the 1ermans and their
o++ression and de+ortationsE an attachment to the So3iet rN%ime and to Sta$in6 no#
identified more than e3er #ith the idea of F2ussiaFE A$$ these moti3es mattered6 0ut their
order of im+ortance o03ious$y 3aried from +$ace to +$ace: Much is made in +resent,day
So3iet histories of the $eadin% ro$e +$ayed in all +artisan acti3ity 0y the Part!Da$$ the
#ay from the 5entra$ 5ommittee in Mosco# to the c$andestine +arty o4*oms and
rai*oms (+ro3incia$ and district committees) sti$$ o+eratin% in the 1erman,occu+ied areas
and to +arty mem0ers #ho #ere commanders of the 3arious +artisan units:
At the same time6 there is a tendency to minimise the ro$e +$ayed in the +artisan
mo3ement6 es+ecia$$y in Be$orussia6 0y the officers #ho6 thou%h encirc$ed 0y the
1ermans in 19416 had e3aded ca+ture and #ent on fi%htin% as +artisans instead:
9e sha$$ $ater dea$ #ith some s+ecific cases of +artisan acti3ity in 19416 194& and 1943L
0ut Te$+u<ho3s<y c$aims that as ear$y as the summer of 194& the +artisans tied u+
Fenormous num0ersF of 1erman troo+s and +o$ice (either 1erman6 a$$ied6 or mercenary)L
that in the Brians< area a$one 3"6""" .un%arian troo+s #ere used for fi%htin% the
+artisans and that in the summer and autumn of 194&6 the +artisans in 3arious +arts of the
So3iet *nion had #rec<ed as many as 36""" 1erman trains: This sounds $i<e an
e8a%%eration:
?n Se+tem0er 194&6 #hen thin%s $oo<ed 0$ac<est in the south and south,east6 Sta$in issued
a s+ecia$ order to the +artisans sayin%6 that6 #ith 1erman rai$ and road communications
no# $on%er and more 3u$nera0$e than e3er6 it #as immense$y im+ortant to start 0$o#in%
u+ rai$#ays6 0rid%es and trainsL it is +ro0a0$e6 therefore6 that these 0i% #rec<in% acti3ities
0e%an to#ards the end of 194&6 rather than in the summer:
194& sa# the de3e$o+ment of F+artisan re%ionsFDpartizans*ie *ra!aD#here there #ere
no 1ermans and #here the +artisans had6 in most cases6 re,introduced the So3iet rN%ime:
Such F+artisan re%ionsF #ere to 0e found in the northern (#ooded) +arts of the *<raine6
in $ar%e +arts of Be$orussia6 in the Brians< forests6 in the @re$ +ro3ince #here 1J6"""
+artisans (0e$on%in% to fifty,four detachments) contro$$ed an area com+risin% 49"
3i$$a%esL in the enin%rad +ro3ince and south of it6 such as the famous F+artisan re%ionF
round !or<ho3: Su0stantia$ areas in the Smo$ens< +ro3ince #ere a$so contro$$ed 0y
&&6""" +artisans 0e$on%in% to se3enty,t#o detachments: ?n the #inter of 194&,36
accordin% to Te$+u<ho3s<y6 the F+artisan re%ionsF accounted for as much as se3enty,
three +er cent of the #ho$e area of Be$orussia (a +ro+ortion reduced to si8ty +er cent 0y
the officia$ Histor!57
@fficia$$y6 the F+artisan re%ionsF #ere the Fsu++$y 0asesF for the +artisan troo+s6 and6 0y
the midd$e of 194&6 run#ays 0e%an to 0e 0ui$t in these and #ere soon used 0y +$anes
0rin%in% su++$ies from the Fmain$andF and e3acuatin% #ounded +artisans and other
+ersons: Su++$ies #ere a$so amassed $oca$$yL thus6 on Banuary 16 19436 in the Baturins<
district in the Smo$ens< +ro3ince there #ere su++$y dum+s amountin% to &"7 tons of rye6
7"" tons of +otatoes and 16""" head of catt$e:
There is no dou0t that 0y the autumn and #inter of 194& the +artisans +$ayed an
im+ortant +art in #rec<in% the $on% $ines of 1erman communication to the Sta$in%rad
areaL #e <no#6 for instance6 that the Manstein offensi3e of Decem0er 1& had 0een
de$ayed 0y the s$o#nessDcaused 0y +artisan actionD#ith #hich mi$itary su++$ies #ere
reachin% the Don country:
;e3erthe$ess6 the +artisans did not 0ecome an enormous mass mo3ement unti$ a"ter
Sta$in%rad: There #as no# an additiona$ incenti3e to Hoinin% the +artisans: the near
certainty of fi%htin% on the #innin% side and of not dyin% in 3ain: This #as a moti3e
#hich some +artisans of o$der standin% #ere $ater to treat #ith some 0itterness: There
#as a$so the sim+$e fact that in 1943 most of the +artisan units #ere #e$$,su++$ied 0y
Mosco#L they no# had mortars and e3en hea3y %uns6 inc$udin% s+ecia$ anti,tan< %uns for
destroyin% $ocomoti3es6 more ade=uate food su++$ies and6 3ery im+ortant6 medica$
su++$ies: @ne of the horrors of the ear$y days of the +artisan mo3ement #as the a$most
tota$ $ac< of medica$ su++$ies6 #hich condemned many of the e3en $i%ht$y,#ounded to
death:
Accordin% to Te$+u<ho3s<y6 Fthe +artisan mo3ement 0e%an to e8+and enormous$y after
the 2ed Army had 0e%un its Sta$in%rad counter,offensi3eF: ?n this conne8ion he =uotes
the fo$$o#in% si%nificant fi%ures for the $ar%est +artisan area6 Be$orussia:
(8+1)+* 194@, 65,LLL )+"(5 .)+&,-)$-
J1$( 194@, 1LL,LLL )+"(5 .)+&,-)$-
O3&#8(+ 194@, M45,LLL )+"(5 .)+&,-)$-
D(3("8(+ 194@ @6L,LLL )+"(5 .)+&,-)$-
?n the *<raine6 0y the end of 19436 there #ere &&"6""" armed +artisans6 and Fmany tens
of thousandsF in the +arts of the 2SFS2 (i:e: 2ussia +ro+er) sti$$ in 1erman hands: @ften6
he says6 #ho$e fami$ies6 or e3en entire 3i$$a%es #ou$d Hoin the +artisans6 if on$y to e3ade
ruth$ess 1erman +uniti3e e8+editions:
@n Bu$y 146 19436 the So3iet Su+reme 5ommand ordered the +artisans to start an a$$,out
2ai$ 9ar: !re+arations for this had o03ious$y a$ready 0een made6 for on Bu$y &",&1 %reat
co,ordinated 0$o#s #ere struc< at the rai$#ays in the Brians<6 @re$ and 1ome$ areas6 to
coincide #ith the 2ussian offensi3e a%ainst @re$ and Brians< fo$$o#in% the 4urs<
3ictory: Durin% that ni%ht a$one -6J"" rai$s #ere 0$o#n u+: A$to%ether6 0et#een Bu$y &1
and Se+tem0er &76 the @re$ and Brians< +artisans 0$e# u+ o3er 176""" rai$s:
?n Be$orussia the +artisans did e3en 0etter: Bet#een Banuary and May6 e3en 0efore the
officia$ 2ai$ 9ar had 0e%un6 they had derai$ed )34 trains: @n Au%ust 36 the +artisans
started another %reat #rec<in% o+eration on the Be$orussian rai$#ays6 t#o,thirds of #hich
#ere +ut out of action6 sometimes for #ee<s on end: Thus6 the Mo$odechno,Mins<
rai$#ay #as 0$oc<ed for ten days: A$to%ether6 0et#een Au%ust and ;o3em0er6 19436 in
Be$orussia:
MLL,LLL +),/- 2(+( 8/#2$ 1.?
1,L14 &+),$- 2(+( 2+(3;(5 #+ 5(+),/(5?
N14 /#3#"#&,6(- 2(+( 2+(3;(5 #+ 5)")%(5?
KM +),/2)* 8+,5%(- 2(+( 5(-&+#*(5 #+ 5)")%(5.
The 1ermans 0ecame increasin%$y a$armed 0y these de3e$o+ments: @n ;o3em0er 76
19436 Bod$ admitted that in Bu$y6 Au%ust6 and Se+tem0er that year there had 0een 16-)"6
&61&1 and &6""" rai$#ay,$ine e8+$osions 6%trec*ensprengungen7 res+ecti3e$yL and these6
he said6 had had a %reat effect on mi$itary o+erations and the #ithdra#a$ of troo+s
6BQumungstransporte75
Te$+u<ho3s<y's semi,officia$ .istory c$aims that in three years (1941,4) the +artisans in
Be$orussia <i$$ed -""6""" 1ermans6 inc$udin% forty,se3en %enera$s and .it$er's .i%h,
5ommissioner 9i$he$m 4u0e (#ho6 as #e <no# from 1erman sourcesDthou%h the
2ussians for some reason don't mention thisDhad a +artisan time,0om0 +ut under his 0ed
0y his $o3e$y Be$orussian %ir$,friend):
?n the *<raine6 accordin% to the same #riter6 the +artisans <i$$ed 4)"6""" 1ermans6
#rec<ed or dama%ed -6""" $ocomoti3es6 -"6""" rai$#ay #a%ons6 1-6""" automo0i$es6
etc: Some of these fi%ures6 es+ecia$$y the tota$ of near$y one mi$$ion 1ermans <i$$ed 0y
the Be$orussian and *<rainian +artisans6 sound distinct$y e8a%%erated:
Accordin% to Te$+u<ho3s<y and other officia$ and semi,officia$ So3iet histories6 Fa$$ the
main #or< of the +artisansF #as directed 0y the !arty: ?n the +arts of Be$orussia sti$$
occu+ied 0y the 1ermans in ear$y 19446 there #ere 16113 +rimary +arty or%anisations in
+artisan detachments and 0ri%ades6 1J4 c$andestine territoria$ +arty or%anisations6
inc$udin% nine o4*oms (+ro3incia$ committees)6 and 147 to#n and district committees
6gor*oms and rai*oms75 The mem0ershi+ of a$$ these had risen durin% the #ar from J6"""
to &-6""": The num0er of +arty mem0ers amon% the *<rainian +artisans in 1943 #as
146"""6 and there #ere &)6""" <omsomo$sDi:e: on$y a0out fifteen +ercent of the tota$
num0er of +artisansL the +ro+ortion of +arty and <omsomo$ mem0ers amon% the
Be$orussian +artisans #as e3en $o#er6 if anythin%: Amon% the Be$orussian +artisans6 #e
are a$so to$d6 there #ere 16-"" !o$es6 1"7 (u%os$a3s6 &3J 5>echs and S$o3a<s6 and some
2umanians and ?ta$ians6 and e3en Fmany 1ermansF:
The officia$ So3iet thesis is that6 es+ecia$$y since the autumn of 194&6 there #as the
strictest co,ordination 0et#een Mosco# and the Army 5ommand on the one hand6 and
the +artisans on the other: The $atter #rec<ed trains6 0$e# u+ rai$#ays6 <i$$ed 1erman
%arrisons6 etc:6 as +art of a %enera$ +$an6 the main $ines of #hich #ere $aid do#n 0y
Mosco#:
*+ to a +oint6 this is true: The mi$itary effecti3eness of the +artisans %re# enormous$y
once they 0e%an to recei3e su++$ies6 officers6 etc:6 from the Fmain$andF: But this 3ersion
of the +artisan story6 ma<in% the +artisans out to 0e a sort of Second 2ed Army fi%htin%
in the enemy rear6 %ross$y o3er,sim+$ifies the human as+ects of the !artisan Drama: For it
#as drama: The +artisans #ere not $i<e an army that #as methodica$$y su++$ied #ith
food6 medica$ care and arms6 and #hich had an enemy in front of it6 and no#here e$se:
There are t#o recent 0oo<s6 one on the 4a$u%a and Brians< +artisans6 3arodn!ie mstiteli
DFThe !eo+$e's A3en%ersFD0y A: 1$u<ho3 (4a$u%a6 19)")6 and another6 much 0i%%er
0oo< +u0$ished 0y the Be$orussian Academy of Sciences at Mins< in 19)16 ca$$ed Iz
Istorii partizans*ogo dvizheni!a 3 .elorussii, <=J<-J (FFrom the .istory of the !artisan
Mo3ement in Be$orussiaF)6 the $atter consistin% of forty,fi3e FmemoirsF #ritten 0y
$eadin% +artici+ants of the +artisan #ar in Be$orussia:
IThere are6 of course6 count$ess other 0oo<s on the +artisans6 startin% #ith Aershi%ora's
famous People :ith a )lear )onscience on the *<rainian +artisans6 +u0$ished in 194J6
and ?3an 4o>$o3's 0oo< on the +artisans and the communist under%round in the 5rimea
61 Kr!ms*om Podpoli!e, 19-")6 0ut many of themL are more romanticised than these t#o
recent 0oo<s:K
Both 0oo<s are 3ery 0ad$y #ritten and +ut to%etherL they are hideous$y re+etiti3e6 and
some of the e8+$oits descri0ed are a$most #orthy of the Baron 3on MRnchhausenL and
yet6 the 3ery re+etiti3e,ness of the themes6 and a 3ariety of sma$$ detai$s e8+$ain more
fu$$y than the much smoother officia$ histories the constant ner3ous strain6 the he$+$ess
sufferin% and the fre=uent horrors of +artisan #arfare: @ne of the main o0sessions of the
+artisans #as somethin% scarce$y <no#n to the re%u$ar 2ed Army: the constant $oo<,out
for traitors and the +hysica$ and +sycho$o%ica$ need to <i$$ themDsuch as starostas,
0ur%omasters and +o$icemen a++ointed 0y the 1ermans: There are se3era$ accounts in
1$u<ho3's 0oo< of the han%in% of traitors and of raids on the +o$ice stations of the
1erman,recruited Polizei5
Another constant #orry #as the attitude of the +easantry #ho <e+t them6 more or $ess
#i$$in%$y6 su++$ied #ith food and #ho6 in doin% so6 #ere e8+osin% themse$3es and their
fami$ies to the most sa3a%e re+risa$s 0y the 1ermansDre%u$ar troo+s6 SS6 SD6 etc:Dor
their under$in%sDA$aso3ites6 5ossac<s6 1erman,hired +o$ice6 and so on: For if6 as
a$ready said6 there #as one @radour in France and one idice in 5>echos$o3a<ia6 there
#ere hundreds in the So3iet *nion:
i3in% conditions amon% the +artisans #ere near$y a$#ays terri0$e6 at $east unti$ the
0e%innin% of 19436 #hen they 0e%an to recei3e considera0$e su++$ies from the
Fmain$andF: More terrifyin% e3en than the shorta%e of arms and food #as the $ac< of
medica$ su++$ies: There is a reference to this in the reminiscences of F: 1: Mar<o36
commander of the Ai$eya !artisan *nit6 #ho #as one of the first +artisan $eaders in
Be$orussia: .e 0e%an to fi%ht as a +artisan in Au%ust6 1941:
I -'#1/5 /,;( &# ");( ) 8+,(0 81& )00(3&,#$)&( "($&,#$ #0 &'#-( '1"8/( )$5 "#5(-&
5#3&#+- 2'#, ,$ ,$3+(5,8/* 5,00,31/& 3#$5,&,#$-, /ithout any instruments or medical
supplies or even bandages, -&,// ")$)%(5 &# -)6( &'( /,6(- #0 '1$5+(5- #0 .)+&,-)$-. I
.)+&,31/)+/* 2)$& &# "($&,#$ D+ P#5-(5/#6-;*, D+ M#,-(, !#+5#$ )$5 ',- 2,0(,
N#(") B#+,-#6$) !#+5#$, D+ !. D. M#%,/(63',;, D+ I. A. A#//#;' )$5 #&'(+-.
IIz istorii partiz5 dvizh5 3: .elorussii, +: &J&:K
This =uotation is a$so interestin% in another res+ect: most of the +artisan doctors
mentioned a++ear to 0e Be#s6 #hich is in stri<in% contrast #ith the 3irtua$ $ac< of any
reference to Be#s ta<in% +art in the +artisan #arDdes+ite the 3ery $ar%e Be#ish
+o+u$ation in Be$o,russian to#ns $i<e Mins<6 1ome$6 !ins<6 Aite0s<6 etc:
I@ne of the fe# references to Be#ish +artisans is to 0e found in Chren0ur%'s Memoirs: .e
met in ithuania6 in 19446 a +artisan 0and of -"" youn% Be#s (men and #omen) #ho had
esca+ed from the Ai$no %hetto: 63ov!i -ir, ;o: 36 19)3):K
Did most of the Be#s not e3en try to esca+e their fate6 or did the +artisans not #ant themE
@r #ere theyDa+art from these fe# doctorsDa$ready #ho$$y iso$atedDor deadD0y the
time the +artisan mo3ement %ot into its strideE
The first +artisan units #ere formed in the occu+ied +arts of the 2SFS2 and in Be$orussia
in 1941 in a 3ariety of #ays: Thus6 one of the first +artisan units formed at !o$otniany
Oa3od near 4a$u%a $asted from @cto0er 116 19416 to Banuary 196 194&: ?t #as first
com+osed of an anti,+aratroo+ FdestroyerF 0atta$ionL then it #as Hoined 0y esca+ed
2ussian #ar +risonersL durin% the three months of the Batt$e of Mosco#6 it attac<ed
1erman road co$umns: Fina$$y6 0etrayed to the 1ermans 0y a traitor6 it #as more or $ess
e8terminated:
;o dou0t some of the +artisan stories in the 1$u<ho3 0oo< read rather too much $i<e
5o#0oys,and,2ed,?ndians stuff: ?t #as a$$ 3ery #e$$ for the +artisans to attac< a 1erman
head=uarters and 0rea< u+ their 5hristmas +arty #ith a fe# hand %renadesL 0ut it #as
often the 3i$$a%ers #ho suffered most from such esca+ades:
O$ J)$1)+* 1K, 194M, ,$ &'( 6,//)%( #0 A(-$,$*, &'(+( 2)- ) +#1%' ($%)%("($&
8(&2(($ .)+&,-)$- )$5 !(+")$-. T'( !(+")$- /#-& ) 0(2 5#C($ "($, ;,//(5 #+
2#1$5(5. B1& &'(* &'($ -&)+&(5 ($3,+3/,$% &'( 6,//)%(. T'( .)+&,-)$-, ')6,$% +1$ #1&
#0 )""1$,&,#$, .1//(5 #1&. T'( !(+")$- &'($ &##; &'(,+ +(6($%(. I$ &2# 5)*- MLL
.(#./(, "#-&/* 2#"($ )$5 3',/5+($, 2(+( -'#&.
I1$u<ho36 o+: cit:6 +: 3JK
Simi$ar$y6 other 3i$$a%es sus+ected of +artisan sym+athies #ere dea$t #ith #ith s+ecia$
sa3a%ery: At 2asseta 37& +eo+$e #ere <i$$edL at Do$ina6 4)96 a%ain most$y #omen and
chi$dren:
I?0id:6 +: J7:K
The de+ortation of 3i$$a%ers and the shootin% of 3i$$a%ers 0y the 1ermans6 ostensi0$y for
F+artisan sym+athiesF is an e3er,recurrin% theme: ?n the 4a$u%a +ro3ince a$one6 &"6"""
ci3i$ians #ere shot6 accordin% to this 0oo<: ;ear Brians<6 in the udino3o and Dyat<o3o
districts the 1ermans (and .un%arians) <i$$ed6 u+ to ;o3em0er 194&6 &6""" ci3i$ians and
0urned do#n -"" houses: -6""" ci3i$ians #ere de+orted as s$a3e $a0our: @#in% to this
Fscorched earthF +o$icy6 the Brians< +artisans had a +articu$ar$y hard #inter in 194&,3:
But #ith su++$ies comin% from the Fmain$andF in the s+rin% of 19436 thin%s 0e%an to $oo<
u+ for them6 and6 in the fo$$o#in% summer6 the Brians< +artisans #ere +re+arin% for their
a$$,out 2ai$ 9ar: As the 2ed Army #as a++roachin% @re$6 they a$so issued F$ast
#arnin%sF to FtraitorsF (there are facsimi$es of the $eaf$ets in 1$u<ho3's 0oo<)Dthe
starostas, 0ur%omasters6 2ussian +o$icemen and F$e%ionariesF (a++arent$y A$aso3ites)6
%i3in% them a $ast chance to turn their #ea+ons a%ainst the 1ermans 0y Hoinin% the
+artisans: Some6 0ut not 3ery many6 did: (Many6 not unnatura$$y6 sus+ected a tra+:)
More harro#in% e3en than the numerous F@radoursF and FidicesF in the 4a$u%a,@re$,
Brians< +ro3inces6 descri0ed in 1$u<ho3's 0oo<6 are those destroyed in the @s3eia and
2ossony districts in northern Be$orussia in March 1943: This #as +artisan countryL and
a$thou%h the 1erman +uniti3e e8+edition fai$ed to tra+ the +artisans6 they occu+ied for a
time the @s3eia district: 9hen6 after forty days' fi%htin%6 the +artisans returned to their
0ase6 they found that the 1ermans had 0urned do#n 1-J 3i$$a%es: A$$ a0$e,0odied men
had 0een de+orted as s$a3es and a$$ the #omen6 chi$dren and o$d +eo+$e murdered:
W'($ &'( .)+&,-)$- +(&1+$(5, &'(+( 2(+( 3#+.-(- (6(+*2'(+(. O$/* &'#-( 2'# ')5
0#//#2(5 &'( .)+&,-)$- ')5 -1+6,6(5. M)$* &'#1-)$5- ')5 8(($ "1+5(+(5.
I Iz istorii partiz5 dvizh5 v .elorussii, +: 4):K
The troo+s of the +uniti3e e8+editions #ere usua$$y com+osed of 1erman re%u$ars6 or SD
and SS troo+s6 sometimes #ith an admi8ture of 5ossac<s6 1erman,a++ointed +o$icemen6
and e3en S$o3a<s: Some of these6 as #e$$ as some 5ossac<s6 #ent o3er to the +artisans in
a fe# cases:
The atrocities committed a%ainst 0oth ca+tured +artisans and a$$e%ed$y +ro,+artisan
+easants and their fami$ies must ran< amon% the #orst atrocities committed 0y the
1ermans and their stoo%es6 and that is sayin% somethin%:
Fe# of these !artisan stories are #e$$,#ritten6 and the themes are near$y a$#ays the same:
And yet the %enera$ +icture that emer%es is harro#in% enou%h: ?t is not on$y one of %reat
0ra3ery and enter+rise Dfor it ta<es a 0ra3e man to Hoin the +artisansD0ut a$so one of a
#or$d in #hich human $ife is terri0$y chea+: There are many 0oasts of FhundredsF of
1ermans 0ein% <i$$ed e3en in some re$ati3e$y sma$$ +artisan en%a%ement6 and of do>ens
of trains 0ein% #rec<edL there are $amentations o3er the e8termination of thousands of
#omen and chi$dren in the F+artisan areas'F 0y Einsatz*ommandos and other +uniti3e
troo+sL there are fe#er references to the $osses suffered 0y the +artisansL 0ut these must
ha3e 0een e8treme$y hea3y6 es+ecia$$y at the 0e%innin%6 #hen sma$$ im+ro3ised %rou+s
#ere either #i+ed out 0y the 1ermans6 or died of co$d and hun%er and i$$nesses and
#ounds in the forest cam+s: These ear$y units had most$y 0een im+ro3ised 0y 2ussian
so$diers $eft 0ehind the enemy $ines6 and 0y $oca$ communists:
A %$im+se into the 1erman methods of dea$in% #ith +artisans and F+artisan re%ionsF is
a$so +ro3ided 0y a num0er of 1erman documents: Thus6 at the ;urem0er% Tria$ a re+ort
#as read from the (1erman) 1enera$ 5ommission for Be$orussia6 dated Bune -6 19436 on
the resu$ts of an anti,+artisan o+eration ca$$ed F5ott0usF: The fi%ures %i3en #ere: enemy
dead6 46-""L dead sus+ected of 0e$on%in% to 0ands6 -6"""L 1erman dead6 -9:
T'(-( 0,%1+(- 4&'( +(.#+& 2($& #$7 ,$5,3)&( )%),$ ) '()6* 5(-&+13&,#$ #0 &'(
.#.1/)&,#$... I0 #$/* 49M +,0/(- )+( &);($ 0+#" 4,5LL ($("* 5()5, &',- -'#2- &')&
)"#$% &'(" 2(+( $1"(+#1- .()-)$&- 0+#" &'( 3#1$&+*. T'( D,+/(2)$%(+ B)&&)/,#$
(-.(3,)//* ')- &'( +(.1&)&,#$ 0#+ 5(-&+#*,$% ")$* '1")$ /,6(-. A"#$% &'( 5,LLL
.(#./( -1-.(3&(5 #0 8(/#$%,$% &# 8)$5-, &'(+( )+( $1"(+#1- 2#"($ )$5 3',/5+($.
B* #+5(+ #0 &'( 3',(0 #0 &'( )$&,-.)+&,-)$ 1$,&-, SS O8(+%+1..($0Z'+(+ 6#$ 5("
B)3'-G(/(2-;,, 1$,&- #0 &'( A+"(5 #+3(- ')6( )/-# .)+&,3,.)&(5 ,$ &'( #.(+)&,#$.
IT1M956 3o$: 36 +: 174:K
Aon dem Bach6 a .imm$er nominee in char%e of the anti,+artisan o+erations in the So3iet
*nion6 #ho #as $ater to distin%uish himse$f as ;o: 1 <i$$er in the 1erman re+ression of
the 9arsa# risin% in 19446 %i3in% e3idence at ;urem0er%6 e8+$ained that the anti,
+artisan o+erations #ere main$y carried out 0y re%u$ar 9ehrmacht formations6 and that
the hi%h mi$itary $eaders had ordered the %reatest se3erity in dea$in% #ith +artisans:
:ol. -el*ord -aylor 25.S. 'rosecution)4 D,5 &'(-( "()-1+(- +(-1/& ,$ &'( ;,//,$% #0 )$
1$$(3(--)+,/* /)+%( $1"8(+ #0 3,6,/,)$-I
#on dem %ach4 Y(-...
-aylor. W)- )$ #+5(+ ,--1(5 8* &'( ',%'(-& )1&'#+,&,(- &')& &'( !(+")$ -#/5,(+- 2'#
')5 3#"",&&(5 #00($3(- )%),$-& &'( 3,6,/,)$ .#.1/)&,#$ 2(+( $#& &# 8( .1$,-'(5 ,$ )
",/,&)+* 3#1+&I
#on dem %ach4 Y(-, &'(+( 2)- -13' )$ #+5(+... T'( D,+/(2)$%(+ B+,%)5( 3#$-,-&(5
0#+ &'( %+()&(+ .)+& #0 .+(6,#1-/* 3#$6,3&(5 3+,",$)/-, )"#$% &'(" "1+5(+(+- )$5
81+%/)+-. T'(-( 2(+( ,$&+#513(5 ,$&# &'( )$&,-.)+&,-)$ 1$,&- .)+&/* )- ) +(-1/& #0
H,""/(+<- 5,+(3&,6(- 2',3' -),5 &')& )"#$% &'( .1+.#-(- #0 &'( R1--,)$ 3)".),%$
2)- &'( +(513&,#$ #0 &'( S/)6 .#.1/)&,#$ 8* &',+&* ",//,#$-.
IT1M956 3o$: 46 ++: &) ff:K
.ence the destruction of hundreds of 3i$$a%es and the massacre of thousands of ci3i$ians6
inc$udin% #omen and chi$dren6 in the F+artisan re%ionsF: Amon% the Fenemy <i$$edF6 as
the a0o3e re+ort sho#s6 there #ere thousands of unarmed +easants in this one o+eration
on$y: And there #ere 3ery many more: And most of this Fanti,+artisan acti3ityF6 as Bach,
Oe$e#s<i stressed #as Fmain$y underta<en 0y 9ehrmach formationsF6 the F+rinci+a$ tas<
of the Einsatzgruppen of the SDF 0ein% Fthe annihi$ation of the Be#s6 1y+sies and
+o$itica$ commissars:F
I ?0id:6 +: &):K
?n a .it$er order6 dated Decem0er 1)6 194&6 and si%ned 0y 4eite$6 there is a$so the
fo$$o#in%:
I0 &'( +(.+(--,#$ #0 8)$5,&- ,$ &'( ()-&, )- 2(// )- ,$ &'( B)/;)$-, ,- $#& .1+-1(5 8*
&'( "#-& 8+1&)/ "()$-, &'( 0#+3(- )& #1+ 5,-.#-)/ 2,//, 8(0#+( /#$%, 8( ,$-100,3,($& &#
(B&(+",$)&( &',- ./)%1(. T'( &+##.-, &'(+(0#+(, ')6( &'( +,%'& )$5 &'( 51&* &# 1-(
)$* "()$-, (6($ )%),$-& 2#"($ )$5 3',/5+($, .+#6,5(5 &'(* )+( 3#$513,6( &#
-133(--. S3+1./(- #0 )$* -#+& )+( ) 3+,"( )%),$-& &'( !(+")$ .(#./( )$5 )%),$-& &'(
!(+")$ -#/5,(+-... N# !(+")$ .)+&,3,.)&,$% ,$ )3&,#$ )%),$-& 8)$5,&- )$5 &'(,+
)--#3,)&(- ,- &# 8( '(/5 +(-.#$-,8/( 0#+ )3&- #0 6,#/($3( (,&'(+ 0+#" ) 5,-3,./,$)+* #+ )
:15,3,)/ .#,$& #0 6,(2.
ITM1956 3o$: 76 +: -9:K
This directi3e #as issued at the time of the Sta$in%rad encirc$ement and as the +artisan
mo3ement #as %ettin% into its stride:
1erman sa3a%ery did not sto+ the de3e$o+ment of the +artisan mo3ement #hich #ent
from stren%th to stren%th in 1943 and 1944: So numerous did the +artisans 0ecome that
the 1ermans e3en made some fee0$e 0e$ated attem+ts at #innin% them o3er #ith Fanti,
communistF +ro+a%anda:
9ith the 2ed Army a++roachin%6 the +artisans sometimes occu+ied entire to#ns a day or
t#o in ad3ance6 thus +re+arin% the #ay for the re%u$ar 2ussian forces: 9hen these
arri3ed the +artisans #ere a$most automatica$$y drafted into the 2ed Army: ?t #as fair$y
easy in the case of those youn% +eo+$e #ho had Hoined the +artisans at the $ater and
FsaferF sta%eL the o$d %ueri$$a fi%hters6 #ith a menta$ity of their o#n6 sometimes #ith an
anarchist and e3en a F0anditF strea<6 inherited from the o$d 2ussian partizanshchina
tradition6 did not a$#ays find themse$3es at home in the re%u$ar army: ?t #as not
a$to%ether un$i<e the +ro0$em de 1au$$e had in France in draftin% the .ome 2esistance
(the Francs-Tireurs-Partisans and other FF? formations) into the re%u$ar army: The 0i%
difference #as that the FF? had no %reat res+ect for the re%u$ar French army6 $ar%e$y
com+osed of e8,AichyitesL the 2ussian6 Be$orussian and *<rainian +artisansDe3en
thou%h they may ha3e fe$t some 0itterness at ha3in% 0een ne%$ected 0y Mosco# for so
$on%D#ere +roud6 a$$ the same6 in 1943 and 19446 to Hoin the 2ed Army6 #ith its
Sta$in%rad record 0ehind it: @nce in the 2ed Army6 they #ere fre=uent$y used for
reconnaissance and other +ecu$iar$y F+artisanF Ho0s:
Before 0ein% drafted into the 2ed Army6 the +artisans a$$ had to under%o a medica$ testL
not sur+risin%$y6 some t#enty +ercent of themDmany sufferin% from tu0ercu$osisD#ere
unfit for mi$itary ser3ice after a$$ the +hysica$ and menta$ strain they had %one throu%h in
the $ast one6 t#o6 or e3en three years:
These are Hust a fe# of the e$ements of a human drama formin% +art of the e3en 3aster
drama of the So3iet +eo+$e 0et#een 1941 and 194-: The romantic fi%ure of the +artisan6
as he had e8isted and had 0een 0ui$t u+ in +o+u$ar ima%ination6 durin% the ci3i$ #ar #as
somethin% of an anachronism in the conte8t of 9or$d 9ar ??: FBoinin% the +artisansF
cou$d6 in 19416 0e a F+ersona$ so$utionF to many +eo+$e #ith their 0ac<s to the #a$$L 0ut
as an effecti3e fi%htin% force6 #ith a direct 0earin% on the +ro%ress of the #ar6 the
+artisan mo3ement did not 0ecome tru$y effecti3e unti$ $ate 194&6 or rather6 the s+rin% of
1943:
The +artisans #ere acti3e in a %reat num0er of +$acesDa$$ the #ay from the enin%rad
+ro3ince to the 5rimeaL 0ut the most im+ortant +artisan acti3ity ine3ita0$y too< +$ace in
the %eo%ra+hica$$y most suita0$e areasDthe 2ussian forest country (enin%rad6 !or<ho36
Brians<)6 Be$orussia6 and some northern sections of the *<raine:
IThe +artisans certain$y succeeded in 194&6 and es+ecia$$y 19436 in creatin% amon% the
1ermans a fee$in% of acute insecurity6 +articu$ar$y on roads and rai$#ays: Fernand de
Brinon6 the French =uis$in% #ho #as ta<en on a 3isit to 2ussia in 19436 descri0es the
dread of +artisans he o0ser3ed amon% the 1erman so$diers and officia$s #ho too< him on
his tour: ;-Amoires, !aris6 194J6 ++: 141 ff:)K
?n addition to these Frura$F +artisans6 #ith their traditiona$ forest cam+s6 there #ere the
Fur0anF +artisans #ho are6 ho#e3er6 often hard to distin%uish from the So3iet
Funder%roundF +ro+er #hich6 in 3aryin% de%rees6 e8isted in a$$ to#ns under the
occu+ation: The ris<s ta<en 0y these +eo+$e #ere6 in a #ay6 e3en %reater than those ta<en
0y the +artisans +ro+er:
The most famous case of ur0an resistance #as that of the (oun% 1uard in the minin%
to#n of 4rasnodon in the Don0asL 0ut this act of co$$ecti3e +atriotism and martyrdom
#as 0y no means uni=ue6 any more than #as that of Ooya #ho #as han%ed 0y the
1ermans in a 3i$$a%e outside Mosco#6 in Decem0er 19416 and 0ecame6 $i<e the
4rasnodon .eroes6 a nationa$ sym0o$: The 0ui$d,u+ of nationa$ heroes and martyrs #as
3ery much of a $otteryL many fou%ht and died6 and ne3er 0ecame famous:
At the hei%ht of the +artisan mo3ement6 in 1943D46 there #ere at $east ha$f,a,mi$$ion
armed +artisans in the So3iet *nion: .o# many +artisans and ho# many +ersons
FassociatedF #ith them $ost their $i3es in com0at6 or as a resu$t of the 1erman +uniti3e
e8+editions is 3ery hard to sayL 0ut in Be$orussia a$one a0out a mi$$ion +ersons are
estimated to ha3e 0een <i$$ed in the course of the +artisan #ar:
I For further detai$s see Bohn A: Armstron% (ed:) %oviet Partisans in $orld $ar II5 (*ni3:
of 9isconsin !ress6 Madison6 19)4:)K
C').&(+ XII PARADOXES O SOAIET OREI!N POLICY IN
194@ETHE ALL O MUSSOLINI ETHE DREE !ERMAN
COMMITTEED
@n @cto0er 1943 the forei%n ministers of the Bi% ThreeDMo$oto36 5orde$$ .u$$ and
CdenDmet in Mosco#L this meetin% #as6 amon% other thin%s6 intended to +re+are the
%round for the FSummitF at Teheran a month $ater: But durin% a %reat +art of 19436 0efore
c$ear decisions had 0een ta<en to ho$d these t#o conferences6 the So3iet attitude to the
9estern A$$ies remained +u>>$in% and fu$$ of a++arent contradictions: This attitude #as
+art$y6 at any rate6 determined 0y #hat #as ha++enin% at the time on the 2ussian Front:
At the time of Sta$in%rad6 Sta$in had 0een fu$$ of +raise for the An%$o,American $andin%
in ;orth AfricaL in Fe0ruary6 #ith the 1ermans a0out to start their 4har<o3 counter,
offensi3e6 he 0e%an com+$ainin% a%ain of the a0sence of a Second Front: Then6 in March6
+art$y in res+onse to Admira$ Stand0y's com+$aint a0out 2ussian in%ratitude6 the So3iet
+ress started +$ayin% u+ 9estern aid6 and the 0reach #ith the ondon !o$es #as fo$$o#ed6
as #e ha3e seen6 0y ra+turous accounts of the A$$ied achie3ements in ;orth Africa: Soon
after#ards came the disso$ution of the 5omintern6 a %esture intended to im+ress 9estern
o+inion:
@ne cannot6 ho#e3er6 esca+e the im+ression that this %reat cordia$ity sho#n to the A$$ies
had somethin% to do #ith the situation on the Castern Front: on the e3e of the ;a>i
offensi3e at 4urs<6 the So3iet +u0$ic #ere 3ery an8ious6 and6 for once6 it #as a++arent$y
thou%ht e8+edient to ma%nify6 rather than minimise6 the 9estern #ar effort:
But6 as #e <no# from the Sta$in,5hurchi$$ corres+ondence durin% that +eriod6 re$ations
#ere in rea$ity far from cordia$: 5hurchi$$ tried to cheer Sta$in #ith stories of 4"",0om0er
raids on Cssen (March 13)L 0ut6 #hi$e not denyin% the 3a$ue of such raids6 Sta$in #as not
satisfied: @n March 1- he com+$ained of maHor o+erations in ;orth Africa a%ain 0ein%
+ost+oned6 and said that F.us<yF6 the +$anned $andin% in Sici$y6 Fcan't +ossi0$y re+$ace
the second front in France:F
T'( S#6,(& &+##.- ='( 2+#&(> 0#1%'& -&+($1#1-/* )// 2,$&(+. H,&/(+ ,- &);,$% )//
"()-1+(- &# +(')8,/,&)&( )$5 +(,$0#+3( ',- )+"* 0#+ &'( -.+,$% )$5 -1""(+. A %+()&
8/#2 0+#" &'( 2(-& ,- (--($&,)/. T'(+( ,- %+)6( 5)$%(+ ,$ 5(/)*,$% &'( S(3#$5 +#$&
,$ +)$3(.
5hurchi$$ #ent on sendin% him messa%es a0out F16"-" tons of 0om0s #e'3e f$un% on
Ber$inF (March &J):
Sta$in than<ed him for the information and then %racious$y added (or #as he 0ein%
hea3i$y ironica$E):
L)-& $,%'& 2,&' "* 3#//()%1(- I -)2 "esert #ictory. I& -./($5,5/* -'#2- '#2 B+,&),$
,- 0,%'&,$%, )$5 -;,/01//* (B.#-(- &'#-( -3#1$5+(/-E 2( ')6( &'(" ,$ #1+ 3#1$&+* &##
E2'# )//(%( &')& B+,&),$ ,- $#& 0,%'&,$% 81& "(+(/* /##;- #$. "esert #ictory 2,// 8(
-'#2$ &# )// #1+ )+",(- )& &'( 0+#$&.
But a fe# days $ater he 0$e# u+6 after 5hurchi$$ had to$d him that there #ou$d6 for the
+resent6 0e no more Arctic con3oys6 #ith the Tir+it>6 Scharnhorst and Rt>o# around: F?
consider the ste+ as catastro+hic6F Sta$in #rote on A+ri$ &: FThe !acific and the Southern
I?ranK routes can't ma<e u+ for it:F
A%ain 5hurchi$$ #rote (A+ri$ )) of 34J aircraft o3er CssenL Sta$in #e$comed the
intensified 0om0in% of 1ermany: F?t e3o<es the most $i3e$y echo in the hearts of many
mi$$ions in our country:F @n A+ri$ 1"6 5hurchi$$ re+orted that -"& aircraft had attac<ed
Fran<fort6 and +romised to send fi$ms of 0om0ed 1ermany F#hich mi%ht +$ease your
so$diers #ho had 0een in many 2ussian to#ns in ruins FL he a$so assured Sta$in that the
37- .urricanes and &J- Airoco0ras and 4ittyha#<s #hich #ere to ha3e 0een de$i3ered
0y the Arctic route6 #ere 0ein% sent as =uic<$y as +ossi0$e throu%h the Mediterranean:
This stran%e 0$end of +$easantness and un+$easantness #as fo$$o#ed 0y the 2ussian
0reach #ith the ondon !o$es6 #ith 5hurchi$$ frantica$$y +$eadin% #ith Sta$in not to ma<e
the 0reach fina$: Si<ors<i #as a %ood man6 he ar%ued6 and anyone re+$acin% him #ou$d 0e
#orse: .e a$so dec$ared that6 accordin% to 1oe00e$s6 the 2ussians #ere no# settin% u+ a
ne# !o$ish 1o3ernmentDa story that Sta$in hastened to deny as Fa fa0ricationF (May 4):
@n Bune 1"6 #ith the 1erman offensi3e in the offin%6 Sta$in %re# furious #ith 5hurchi$$
a%ain: 9ritin% to 2oose3e$t that day6 he dec$ared: F;o# in May 1943 you and 5hurchi$$
ha3e decided to +ost+one the An%$o,American in3asion of 9estern Curo+e ti$$ the s+rin%
of 1944: ;o# a%ain #e'3e %ot to %o on fi%htin% a$most sin%$e,handed6F and6 on the &4th6
in his $etter to 5hurchi$$6 he 0ecame rea$$y 3io$ent:
T'( S#6,(& !#6(+$"($& 3#1/5 $#& ')6( ,")%,$(5 &')& &'( B+,&,-' )$5 US
!#6(+$"($&- 2#1/5 +(6,-( &'( 5(3,-,#$ &# ,$6)5( W(-&(+$ E1+#.( 2',3' &'(* ')5
)5#.&(5 ()+/,(+ &',- *()+... W( 2(+( $#& 3#$-1/&(5. -he preservation o* our
con*idence in the Allies is being sub?ected to a severe stress.
@n Bune &7 5hurchi$$ an%ri$y re+$ied that Sta$in's re+roaches $eft him Funmo3edF6
reca$$ed that Cn%$and had to fi%ht 1ermany sin%$e,handed ti$$ Bune 19416 and that6
any#ay Fyou may not e3en 0e hea3i$y attac<ed 0y the 1ermans this summer: That #ou$d
3indicate decisi3e$y #hat you once ca$$ed the 'mi$itary correctness' of our Mediterranean
strate%y:F
@n$y a #ee< $ater6 the 1ermans struc< out at 4urs<:
Sta$in's an%er and recrimination may +art$y 0e due to the ner3ousness he fe$t a0out the
outcome of the 0att$eL once this had 0een #on6 he no $on%er #orried too much a0out the
Second Front: .is $ine no# #as that it #ou$d come #hen it cameL that 2ussia6 thou%h
$osin% a terri0$e num0er of men6 shou$d 0e than<fu$ for #hate3er the 9est contri0utedD
$end,$ease6 or the fa$$ of Musso$iniDand that she shou$d meantime ma<e +re+aration for a
0i% Tri+artite 5onference: ?n 3ie# of the de$ays in the Second Front6 Sta$in #as more
determined than e3er not to %i3e #ay on a =uestion $i<e !o$and: At the same time he fe$t
that6 on the 1erman =uestion6 he mi%ht ta<e certain +ure$y uni$atera$ +recautions:
?t #as #hi$e the successfu$ 2ussian offensi3e6 fo$$o#in% the rout of the 1ermans at
4urs<6 #as in fu$$ s#in% that Musso$ini fe$$ from +o#er:
*nti$ then6 the 2ussian +ress had treated the ?ta$ian cam+ai%n #ith a de$i0erate sho# of
disdain: The in3asion of Sici$y #as 0ein% +ointed$y and in3aria0$y referred to as
Fo+erations in the island of Sici$yF: But the fa$$ of Musso$ini6 on the other hand6 sudden$y
con3inced the 2ussians that the ?ta$ian cam+ai%n6 Fmisera0$eF thou%h it #as in +ure$y
mi$itary terms6 cou$d 0e e8treme$y im+ortant +o$itica$$y: The effect on 1ermany and on
her sate$$ites of Musso$ini's fa$$ #as not somethin% that cou$d 0e i%nored:
@n Bu$y &7 Bed %tar commented on Musso$ini's fa$$ in the fo$$o#in% +un%ent +iece
containin% some +hrases direct$y 0orro#ed from 5hurchi$$ ($i<e Fthe Hac<a$F)6
handsome$y +uttin% the im+ortance of Musso$ini's fa$$ side,0y,side #ith the 3ictorious
2ussian summer cam+ai%n:
... &',- :)3;)/, ,$ J1$( 194L, -&)88(5 8/((5,$% +)$3( ,$ &'( 8)3;... I&)/* 2)- '#.(/(--
(6($ ,$ '(+ 0,%'& )%),$-& /,&&/( !+((3(. T'( 0,%'&,$% ,$ A0+,3) 5,5 $#& 8+,$% M1--#/,$,
)$* /)1+(/- (,&'(+... T'( B+,&,-' #00($-,6( -")-'(5 &'( I&)/#-!(+")$ )+"*... T'(
",/,&)+* -,&1)&,#$ #0 )-3,-& I&)/* 8(3)"( )/&#%(&'(+ '#.(/(-- 2'($, /,;( ) 0##/,
M1--#/,$, &'+(2 ',"-(/0 ,$&# &'( )56($&1+( #0 3#$91(+,$% R1--,), 8* H,&/(+<- -,5(...
T'( 8(-& I&)/,)$ 5,6,-,#$- 2(+( -($& &'(+(: C(/(+(, S0#+C(-3), !,1/,), )$5 #&'(+-? 81&
&'(* 0#1$5 &'(,+ %+)6(- ,$ &'( D#$ )$5 A#+#$(C' -&(..(-. I$ R1--,) &'(* /#-&
1LL,LLL "($ ,$ ;,//(5 )$5 .+,-#$(+-. T'($ 3)"( T1$,-...
A$5 $#2... &'( B+,&,-' )$5 A"(+,3)$- ')6(, ,$ ) -'#+& &,"(, #6(++1$ &'( %+()&(+
.)+& #0 S,3,/*. T'( :)3;)/ ')5 8#1$5/(-- %+((5, 81& ',- &((&' 2(+( +#&&($... A$5 $#2
'( ')- 8(($ 0#+3(5 &# )8)$5#$ ',- .#-& #0 D,3&)&#+... T'(-( &2($&*-#$( *()+- #0
M1--#/,$,<- 5,3&)&#+-',. )+( &'( %/##",(-& .(+,#5 ,$ &'( 2'#/( #0 I&)/*<- ',-&#+*...
M1--#/,$, -#/5 I&)/* &# H,&/(+.
And the artic$e a$ready foreshado#ed a $enient 2ussian attitude to the ?ta$ian +eo+$e:
T'( !(+")$-, &'(-( -2#+$ )$5 &,"(-'#$#1+(5 ($(",(- #0 &'( I&)/,)$ .(#./(, 8(3)"(
")-&(+- #0 I&)/* &'+#1%' &'( -(+6,3(- #0 &'(,+ 0/1$;(*, M1--#/,$,. M1--#/,$,, &'(
&+),&#+ &# I&)/*<- ,$&(+(-&-, 2,// )- -13' %# 5#2$ &# ',- %+)6(... T'( /,91,5)&,#$ #0 &'(
!(+")$ #00($-,6( ,$ &'( -)-& ,$ &'( -1""(+ #0 194@ 2)- ) ",%'&* 8/#2 )& H,&/(+.
T'( 3#//).-( #0 ',- )//*, M1--#/,$,, ,- )$#&'(+ ",%'&* 8/#2.
;ot that that #as =uite enou%h: The theme of much of the comment a0out that time #as
that6 s+$endid thou%h the +o$itica$ achie3ements of the A$$ies #ere in ?ta$y6 there #as a
%ro#in% dan%er of the 1ermans no# tryin% to dra% out the #arL therefore it #as
necessary to stri<e at 1ermany herse$fL i:e: $and in France:
?t is dou0tfu$6 ho#e3er6 #hether the 2ussians had any serious i$$usions $eft on the
+ossi0i$ity of such a $andin% in 1943:
T#o de3e$o+ments of the summer of 19436 after the 3ictory of 4urs<6 concerned 2ussian
+o$icy vis-,-vis 1ermany: First6 #ith the $i0eration of $ar%e areas of the So3iet *nion6
some terri0$e 1erman atrocities had come to $i%htL and these ca$$ed for a definite +o$icy
of ruth$ess +unishmentL on the other hand6 +endin% an a%reed An%$o,American,So3iet
+o$icy on 1ermany6 it #as fe$t that certain +o$itica$ +recautions #ere ca$$ed for6 no# that
.it$er's $ast ho+e of defeatin% the 2ussians had 0een smashed at 4urs<:
So on$y a fe# days after this 3ictory6 there #ere these t#o seemin%$y contradictory
manifestations of the So3iet attitude to 1ermany: @ne #as the 4rasnodar tria$6 #here a
handfu$ of 2ussian traitors #ere sentenced to death for co$$a0oratin% #ith the 1esta+o in
e8terminatin% 76""" Be#ish and other So3iet citi>ens6 chief$y 0y means of the
dushegu4*a, the #ord for Fsou$<i$$erF6 #hich #as a++$ied to the %as #a%on #hich the
1esta+o had used to e8terminate its 3ictimsDmen6 #omen and chi$dren: ?t #as the first
+u0$ic tria$ in 2ussia in #hich 1esta+o horrors #ere re3ea$ed to the #or$d #ith a mass of
detai$s #hich at that time #ere sti$$ com+$ete$y ne#: ?n the $i%ht of $ater disco3eriesD
such as Maidane< and Ausch#it>Dthe 4rasnodar re3e$ations #ere sma$$ stuffL 0ut they
#ere a$most the first concrete e8am+$e of their <ind6 and made a dee+ im+ression on
so$diers and ci3i$ians a$i<e: The tria$ #as fu$$y re+orted for days at the 0e%innin% of the
2ussian @re$ offensi3e: As Fhate +ro+a%andaF it #as first,rate6 0ut a$$ these detai$s of ho#
screamin% chi$dren #ere +ushed into the %as #a%on #ere so horrifyin% that not on$y did
the +ress a0road tend to +$ay do#n the 4rasnodar tria$6 0ut e3en in 2ussia some sce+tics
#ondered #hether the #ho$e thin% hadn't 0een some#hat touched u+ for +ro+a%anda
+ur+osesD$itt$e <no#in% that 4rasnodar6 #ith Fon$yF 76""" 3ictims6 #as mere$y a minor
e+isode in the 1esta+o's and the SD's acti3ities throu%hout Curo+e:
And then another start$in% de3e$o+ment too< +$ace: @n the 3ery day after the 4rasnodar
3erdict the 2ussian +ress came out #ith a s+ectacu$ar dis+$ay of the fact that a Free
1erman 5ommittee6 com+osed of anti,;a>i #ar +risoners and a fe# 1erman Nmi%rNs in
2ussia6 had 0een formed: ?n 2ussia it at first caused some menta$ confusionL for it #as
certain$y a curious de3e$o+ment comin%6 as it did6 on to+ of the 4rasnodar tria$6 at that
time the hi%h,#ater mar< of anti,1erman F0estia$ityF +ro+a%anda: A0road6 it aroused
acute sus+icion in many =uarters: ?t #as #his+ered that the 2ussians #ere +re+arin% for a
se+arate +eace #ith 1ermany6 +erha+s e3en #ith .it$er::: Mo$oto3 assured the British
Am0assador that the #ho$e thin% #as nothin% 0ut +ro+a%anda intended to create
confusion in the minds of the 1erman army and +eo+$e6 and so $o#er their resistance6
#hich FAansittartiteF and FChren0ur%F +ro+a%anda #as o03ious$y not doin%L 0ut the fact
that the decision to form this Free 1erman 5ommittee had 0een ta<en uni$atera$$y6
#ithout any consu$tation #ith the A$$ies6 $eft6 at $east for some time6 many dou0ts in the
minds of Fi$$,dis+osedF +eo+$e a0road: There can6 indeed6 0e $itt$e dou0t that6 at $east unti$
Teheran at the end of 19436 there #as some fear6 not $east on the British,American side6
of a Fdirty dea$F: ?t is +erha+s characteristic that durin% the fi%htin% in ?ta$y6 #here6
es+ecia$$y durin% the autumn and #inter6 there #ere many hard and heart,0rea<in%
moments6 #ith $itt$e +ros+ect of any ear$y +ro%ress6 the British troo+s at Monte 5assino
and Monte 5amino shou$d (as #e <no#) ha3e 0een re+eated$y to$d: F9e'3e %ot to stic< it6
0ecause if #e ha3e no footho$d in Curo+e at a$$ (and there #on't 0e anythin% in France ti$$
ne8t year) the 2ussians6 tired of $osin% so many men6 may +ac< u+:F
@n the 3ery day of the o+enin% of the 4rasnodar tria$6 the 2ussian +ress +u0$ished #ith
%reat +rominence a #ritten statement 0y a 1erman officer6 H4erleutnant of tan<s
Fran<enfe$d #ho said that6 ti$$ the end6 he had fou%ht #ith distinction6 0ut that he
considered 1ermany's +ersistence in continuin% the #ar as sense$ess and suicida$:
... O$ J1/* N ,& 8(3)"( 3/()+ &# 1- &')& &'( #00($-,6( ')5 0),/(5 )$5 &')& &'( 2'#/(
*()+<- 3)".),%$ 2)- /#-&. N#2, "13' )- ,& '1+&- "(, I )" )8-#/1&(/* 3#$6,$3(5 #0
&'( ,$(6,&)8/( 5(0()& #0 !(+")$*: &'( #$/* 91(-&,#$- )+(: '#2 -##$IE,$ &2# #+ -,B
"#$&'-IE)$5 2'(+(IE ,$ &'( ()-& #+ ,$ &'( 2(-&I
W')& 2)- I &# 5#I D,( ,$ &'( $(B& 5)*- #+ "#$&'-, 2,&'#1& 5#,$% &'( !(+")$ .(#./(
)$* %##5I .. . )$5 ;$#2,$% &')& &'( 3#$&,$1)&,#$ #0 &'( 2)+ 2#1/5 /()5 #$/* &# &'(
-($-(/(-- 1-( #0 %)- )$5 (6($ "#+( 0()+01/ 3)-1)/&,(-I T'( 01&1+( #0 &'( !(+")$
.(#./( ,- 2'#//* ,$ &'( ')$5- #0 &'( 6,3&#+-.
Ta<in% a $on% 3ie# of it6 he decided to Fhasten 1ermany's defeatF:
But this #as on$y a sma$$ +re$ude to #hat #as to come fi3e days $ater #hen6 under
enormous head$ines6 the formation of the Free 1erman 5ommittee #as announced: The
announcement too< a +ecu$iar form: the re+roduction6 in the 2ussian +ress6 of the first
num0er of Freies Deutschland, FFree 1ermanyF6 or%an of the ;ationa$ 5ommittee: This
+a+er e8+$ained that on Bu$y 1& and 13 (that is at the 3ery time the 2ussian @re$ offensi3e
had 0e%un) a conference had ta<en +$ace in Mosco# amon% 1erman officers and
so$diers6 to%ether #ith 3arious anti,;a>i 2eichsta% de+uties and #riters #ho had 0een in
Mosco# since 0efore the #ar:
The de$e%ates6 the So3iet +ress said6 came from a$$ the 1erman #ar,+risoners' cam+s in
the So3iet *nion6 men of different socia$ c$asses and of different +o$itica$ and re$i%ious
3ie#s: The 5ommittee #as e$ected unanimous$y: The !resident #as Crich 9einert6 #e$$,
<no#n 1erman communist #riter6 and the 3ice,+residents6 MaHor 5ar$ .et>6 and
ieutenant 1raf 3on Cinsiede$: (The $atter e8+$ained6 at the time of his ca+ture6 that he
#as a %randson of Bismarc<'s and said he re%retted that .it$er had i%nored Bismarc<'s
%o$den ru$e not to attac< 2ussia and the 9est at the same time:)
The 5ommittee said that 1ermany #as no# in dead$y dan%er6 and in fact used many of
the ar%uments that #ere to 0e used a year $ater 0y those #ho attem+ted to assassinate
.it$er in Bu$y 1944:
H,&/(+ ,- 5+)%%,$% !(+")$* 5#2$ &'( )8*--... L##; 2')& ,- ')..($,$% )& &'( 0+#$&-?
,$ &'( /)-& -(6($ "#$&'- !(+")$*<- 5(0()&- )+( 1$.)+)//(/(5 ,$ ',-&#+*: S&)/,$%+)5,
&'( D#$, &'( C)13)-1-, L,8*), T1$,-. H,&/(+, 2'# ,- +(-.#$-,8/( 0#+ )// &',- -&,//
-&)$5- )& &'( '()5 #0 #1+ S&)&( )$5 #1+ A+"*... B+,&,-' )$5 A"(+,3)$ &+##.- )+( #$
&'( &'+(-'#/5 #0 E1+#.(.
L##; 2')& ,- ')..($,$% )& '#"(: &'+#1%' &'( )//,(5 8#"8,$%-, !(+")$* ')-
)/+()5* 8(3#"( ) &'()&+( #0 2)+... )3&- )+( ,$(B#+)8/(: &'( 2)+ ,- /#-&. B1& &'(
)&&(".& &# 5+)% #1& &'( 2)+ )& ) 0()+01/ .+,3( 3)$ #$/* /()5 &# &'( 3)&)-&+#.'( #0 &'(
$)&,#$. %ut Germany must not die.
I0 &'( !(+")$ .(#./( 3#$&,$1( ,$(+&/* &# 0#//#2 H,&/(+, &'($ '( 3)$ 8( #6(+&'+#2$
#$/* 8* &'( )+",(- #0 &'( C#)/,&,#$. B1& &')& 2#1/5 "()$ &'( ($5 #0 #1+ $)&,#$)/
,$5(.($5($3( )$5 &'( .)+&,&,#$ #0 #1+ 3#1$&+*.
I0 &'( !(+")$ .(#./( ')6( &'( 3#1+)%( &# 0+(( !(+")$* #0 H,&/(+... &'($ !(+")$*
2,// ')6( 2#$ &'( +,%'& &# 5(3,5( '(+ #2$ 0)&(, )$5 #&'(+ $)&,#$- 2,// +(-.(3& '(+...
B1& $# #$( 2,// ");( .()3( 2,&' H,&/(+? &'(+(0#+( &'( 0#+")&,#$ #0 ) %($1,$(
N)&,#$)/ !#6(+$"($& ,- )$ 1+%($& &)-;... S13' ) %#6(+$"($& 3)$ 8( 0#+"(5 #$/* 8*
"($ 2'# ')6( +,-($ )%),$-& H,&/(+ )$5 )+( +(-#/6(5 &# +($5(+ ')+"/(-- &'( ($(",(-
#0 &'( .(#./(EH,&/(+, ',- .)&+#$- )$5 3#".)$,#$-.
S13' ) !#6(+$"($& 2,// +(3)// &'( &+##.- &# &'( !(+")$ 0+#$&,(+. O$/* 1$5(+ -13' )
%#6(+$"($& 3)$ !(+")$*, )- ) -#6(+(,%$ -&)&(, 5,-31-- &'( 3#$5,&,#$- #0 .()3(.
T'( 0#+3(- ,$ &'( A+"*, &+1( &# &'(,+ )&'(+/)$5, "1-& ./)* ) 5(3,-,6( .)+& ,$ &',-.
O1+ )," ,- ) +(( !(+")$*, ,.(. ) -&+#$% 5("#3+)&,3 .#2(+ &#&)//* 1$/,;( &'(
,".#&($& W(,")+ R(.18/,3...
The +ro%ramme inc$uded the a0ro%ation of anti,minority and racia$ $a#s6 the restoration
of trade unions6 freedom of trade (i:e: no F0o$she3isationF)6 the $i0eration of the 3ictims
of ;a>i terrorL the Hust and merci$ess tria$ of #ar crimina$s and #ar cu$+rits:
!(+")$ -#/5,(+- )$5 #00,3(+- 4,& 3#$3/15(57, *#1 ')6( &'( 2().#$- ,$ *#1+ ')$5-.
!(+")$ .(#./(H #+%)$,-( +(-,-&)$3( 1$,&- ,$-,5( &'( 3#1$&+*H #+ P(#./( )$5
)&'(+/)$5H #+ ,""(5,)&( P()3(H #+ &'( S)/6)&,#$ #0 &'( !(+")$ P(#./(H #+ )
+(( I$5(.($5($& !(+")$*H
The document #as si%ned 0y MaHor 4ar$ .et>6 MaHor .einrich .omann6 MaHor Stess$ein6
se3era$ ca+tains and $ieutenants6 do>ens of ;5@'s and +ri3atesL Anton Ac<ermann6 a
5hemnit> trade union officia$L Martha Arendsee6 2eichsta% De+utyL Bohannes Becher6
#riter6 9i$$i Brede$6 #riter6 9i$he$m F$orin6 9i$he$m !iec<6 9a$ter *$0richt6 a$$
2eichsta% de+utiesL 1usta3 So0ott<a6 trade union $eader of 2uhr minersL and t#o more
#riters6 Crich 9einert and Friedrich 9o$f: (9einert had Hust #ritten a 0oo< of anti,;a>i
+oems6 ca$$ed Dan* "Mr %talingrad, #hich #as +u0$ished in Mosco#L much cf it #as
emotiona$ 1erman 3erse6 #ith the then6 in 2ussian eyes6 some#hat unfashiona0$e theme:
FMy 0e$o3ed 1erman +eo+$e6 ho# $a# ha3e you fa$$enP F)
;atura$$y6 a$$ this #as not6 strict$y s+ea<in%6 committin% the So3iet 1o3ernment in any
#ay: ?t #as the Free 1erman 5ommittee6 #ithout any authority6 and not the So3iet
1o3ernment that #as +romisin% the 1ermans Fso3erei%ntyF if an anti,;a>i F;ationa$
1o3ernmentF #ere set u+: @03ious$y6 the So3iet 1o3ernment cou$d ma<e no such
+romises to 1ermany #ithout consu$tation #ith the A$$ies:
;e3erthe$ess it #as6 0oth interna$$y and internationa$$y6 a curious ste+ to ta<e6 and durin%
the +eriod that fo$$o#ed6 some odd reactions to it cou$d 0e o0ser3ed 0oth in 2ussia and
a0road:
The truth is that the Free 1erman 5ommittee had 0y this time 0ecome an im+ortant 0asis
for 2ussian +ro+a%anda in 1ermany6 and es+ecia$$y amon% the 1erman army: S+ea<ers
from the Free 1erman 5ommittee ta$<ed dai$y and ni%ht$y to 1ermany from Mosco#
radio: .undreds of thousands of co+ies of Freies Deutschland #ere +rinted #ee<$y and
sho#ered o3er the 1erman $ines: ?t #as a $ar%e6 e8treme$y #e$$ +rinted and #e$$ +roduced
+a+er6 #ith a mass of %ood readin% matter: 0ut in this +a+er the So3iet *nion's
0ene3o$ence to the 1erman +eo+$e seemed to 0e so %reat that e3ery +ossi0$e +recaution
#as ta<en to <ee+ co+ies of Freies Deutschland out of the hands of forei%ners6 es+ecia$$y
of forei%n di+$omats and corres+ondents in 2ussia: For6 #ithout the fu$$ acce+tance 0y
such readers of the 3ie# that this #as +ro+a%anda6 and nothin% 0ut +ro+a%anda6
ca$cu$ated to undermine 1erman mora$e6 it mi%ht ha3e %i3en rise to a$$ sorts of
undesira0$e comments6 es+ecia$$y in the American +ress hosti$e to 2ussia: ;or #ere
2ussians a$$o#ed to read it6 e8ce+t for that first num0er: The thin% #as intended for
1ermany6 and for 1ermany on$y:
9hether6 in settin% u+ this Free 1erman 5ommittee and in +rintin% this FFree 1ermanF
+a+er (#hose 9i$he$mian 0$ac<,#hite,and,red 0order +articu$ar$y scanda$ised so many
F5ominternF 1ermans in 2ussia)6 the So3iet 1o3ernment #as a$so thin<in% in terms of
FHust in caseF #i$$ +erha+s ne3er 0e definite$y esta0$ished: But it is certain$y =uite
concei3a0$e that there #as an e$ement of FinsuranceF in a$$ thisDfor6 su++osin% there
:as a +a$ace re3o$ution in 1ermany6 and the 1enera$s too< o3er from .it$er6 and
attem+ted to ne%otiate a %enera$ +eace6 or a se+arate +eace #ith the 9est6 the Free
1erman 5ommittee and its $ater 0y,+roduct6 the .und Deutscher H""iziere, #ith se3era$
of the Sta$in%rad %enera$s amon% them6 #ho #ere no# ca$$in% for the o3erthro# of .it$er6
mi%ht ha3e 0ecome a usefu$ di+$omatic #ea+on in the hands of the 2ussians: A$$ <inds of
+ossi0i$ities can6 indeed6 0e en3isa%ed if the +$ot a%ainst .it$er in Bu$y 1944 had
succeededL and if that had ha++ened6 the Free 1erman 5ommittee mi%ht ha3e 0een of
some 3a$ue to the So3iet %o3ernment: A$so6 one ne3er cou$d te$$Dit mi%ht come in usefu$
e3en after the com+$ete defeat of 1ermanyL for there #as not sufficient reason to su++ose
that com+$ete unanimity #ou$d rei%n fore3er amon% the occu+yin% +o#ers: A$so6 from
the stand+oint of 1erman interna$ +ro+a%anda6 it #as im+ortant to 0e a0$e to im+ress
u+on the 1erman +eo+$e6 if necessary6 that the 2ussians #ere the "irst to ha3e set u+ a
Free 1erman 5ommittee6 and that Sta$in's 0ene3o$ence #as of more $astin% conse=uence
than a$$ Chren0ur%'s 0$oodcurd$in% threats: As it ha++ened6 the Free 1erman 5ommittee
+ro3ed to 0e of on$y sma$$ +ractica$ im+ortanceL 0ut in Bu$y 1943 there #ere sti$$ a$$ <inds
of +ossi0i$ities in the future6 and +erha+s the 2ussians thou%ht they had 0etter 0e
+re+ared for them: ?t shou$d a$so 0e remem0ered that this #as 4e"ore Teheran: and
sus+icions of a +ossi0$e dou0$e,cross 0y the Fother fe$$o#F e8istedDthou%h on$y faint$y
Don 0oth sides:
!erha+s the 2ussians a$so thou%ht that the 1erman defeat at 4urs< mi%ht ha3e %reater
immediate re+ercussions inside 1ermany than it actua$$y had:
?f the Free 1erman 5ommittee #as not to +$ay any +o$itica$ +art #hatsoe3er6 it #as
0ecause the ;a>is <e+t contro$ of 1ermany and the 1erman +eo+$e ti$$ the 3ery end:
ater6 after 1ermany's surrender6 some of the o$d 1erman communists6 #ho had 0een in
2ussia since 0efore the #ar6 #ere sent to 1ermany to do some For%anisationa$F #or<L the
so$diers on the Free 1erman 5ommittee6 and on the .und Deutscher H""iziere #ere not
%oin% to +$ay any a++recia0$e +art in this se=ue$:
I ?t is nota0$e6 a$$ the same6 that Fie$d,Marsha$ !au$us6 1enera$ 4orfes (a$so of
Sta$in%rad)6 and some others sett$ed in Cast 1ermany and ado+ted a +ro,2ussian $ine:K
?t #as indeed6 o03ious from the start that at $east a %reat +art of the Free 1erman
5ommitteeD#hich actua$$y inc$uded amon% its ran<,and,fi$e mem0ers some SS menPD
#as ne3er intended to 0e anythin% 0ut a too$ of 2ussian +ro+a%anda: Barrin%6 of course6
an FaccidentF to .it$er:
I ?n )hild o" the Bevolution, 9o$f%an% eonhard6 #ho #as one of the contri0utors to the
Free 1erman +a+er in 1943,46 descri0es the consternation some as+ects of the FFree
1ermanF mo3e caused amon% the 1erman communists then in the So3iet *nion6
es+ecia$$y the 9i$he$mian 0$ac<,#hite,red co$ours #hich6 more than the F9eimarF
co$ours6 #ere e8+ected to a++ea$ to 1erman so$diers and officers:K
C').&(+ XIII STALIN<S LITTLE NATIONALIST OR!Y ATER
KURSK
9ith the %reat 3ictory of 4urs< in Bu$y 1943 and the su0se=uent ra+id ad3ance of the 2ed
Army a$on% a 3ast front to#ards the Dnie+er and 0eyond6 the con3iction %re# in the
country that the #ar had 0een as %ood as #on6 thou%h fina$ 3ictory #as sti$$ 3ery far
ahead6 and #ou$d sti$$ cost another mi$$ion $i3es or more:
enin%rad #as sti$$ under 1erman she$$fire6 0ut Mosco#6 #ith its fre=uent 3ictory sa$3oes
and fire#or<s6 #as no# com+$ete$y out of dan%erL sym0o$ica$$y6 in Au%ust 19436 the
#ho$e di+$omatic cor+s #as a$$o#ed to return to Mosco# from 4ui0yshe3DBa+s6
Bu$%arians and a$$:
@n Au%ust &&6 a +ro%ramme of ur%ent reconstruction measures #as +u0$ished: The
+ur+ose of this +ro%ramme #as6 as far as +ossi0$e6 to +ut the $i0erated areas on their feet
a%ain6 so that they shou$d not 0e a $astin% 0urden to the rest of the country: ?t +ro3ided6
amon% other thin%s6 for the su++$y of seeds for autumn so#in%6 for the return of the catt$e
and tractors that had 0een e3acuated 0efore the retreat6 for the emer%ency reconstruction
of rai$#ays6 rai$#ay 0ui$din%s and for the 0ui$din% of rudimentary d#e$$in%s for rai$#ay,
men:
From no# on6 to the end of the #ar6 there #as a curious c$ash of t#o conf$ictin%
tendencies6 0oth of them characteristic of the +ersona$ity of Sta$in: The Marsha$
com0ined in a stran%e #ay an ur%e to return to a sem0$ance of Feninist +urityF #ith a
strea< of the most Hin%oist 1reat,2ussian nationa$ism: ?n his -emoirs ?$ya Chren0ur%
says that it #as in 19436 after Sta$in%rad and es+ecia$$y after 4urs<6 that this 1reat,
2ussian Hin%oism manifested itse$f #ith +articu$ar 3i%our6 and made a #riter $i<e ydia
Seifu$$ina s=uirm: F? a$#ays considered myse$f a 2ussianL 0ut since my father #as a
Tartar6 ? sha$$ damn #e$$ ca$$ myse$f a Tartar from no# on: ? don't $i<e this 2ussian u$tra,
nationa$ism6F she said:
The 2ussian u$tra,nationa$ism too< on +ecu$iar forms in 1943 and made some forei%n
o0ser3ers %o so far as to ta$< a0out a Freturn to TsarismF: And not on$y forei%n o0ser3ers6
0ut some start$ed 2ussians too: A ty+ica$ 1943 fi$m #as Cisenstein 's Ivan the Terri4le,
s+ecia$$y made on Sta$in's orders6 and de+ictin% the crue$ 0ut #ise State,Bui$der of
Musco3y as the o03ious forerunner of Sta$in: The most stri<in% e8am+$e of the ne#
measures #as the decision to set u+ nine FSu3oro3 Schoo$sF in the $i0erated areasDi:e:
5adet schoo$s c$ose$y mode$$ed on the +re,2e3o$ution 5adet 5or+s: The Fcu$t of the
uniformF6 #hich had 0e%un at the time of Sta$in%rad6 #as no# in fu$$ s#in%: More than
that: the Su3oro3 Schoo$s (nine of -"" +u+i$s each) #ere c$ear$y intended to create
somethin% of an Fofficer casteF:
There #as certain$y somethin% FTsaristF a0out these Su3oro3 Schoo$s: ?n a statement to
Bed %tar on Au%ust &-6 19436 ieut:,1en: Moro>o36 head of the Mi$itary Cducation
Csta0$ishments6 said:
T'( S16#+#6 M,/,&)+* S3'##/- )+( (-&)8/,-'(5, )- ,- ,$5,3)&(5 8* &'( ,$-&+13&,#$- #0
&'( C#1$3,/ #0 P(#./(<- C#"",--)+- )$5 #0 &'( C($&+)/ C#"",&&(( #0 &'( P)+&*,
)0&(+ &'( ")$$(+ #0 &'( #/5 C)5(& S3'##/-. T',- "()$- &')& &'( .1.,/- 2,// +(3(,6(
'(+( $#& #$/* ) 3#"./(&( -(3#$5)+* (513)&,#$ 81& )/-# )$ (/("($&)+* ;$#2/(5%( #0
",/,&)+* .+#8/("-. H)6,$% 3#"./(&(5 ',- (513)&,#$ ,$ ) S16#+#6 S3'##/, -13' ) 8#*
2,// 8(3#"( ) 2#+&'* S#6,(& #00,3(+. T'( 2'#/( -*-&(" #0 &',- (513)&,#$ ,- 8)-(5 #$
&'( ,5() &')& &'( military consciousness should penetrate into the pupils8 *lesh and
blood at an early age. A& &'( ($5 #0 ',- -&15,(-, &'( *#1$% S#6,(& #00,3(+ "1-& 8( )
"#5(/ #0 .)&+,#&,-", 31/&1+(, )$5 ) ',%' -&)$5)+5 #0 ",/,&)+* ;$#2/(5%(... T'(
31++,31/1" 2,// 8( "#+( (B&($-,6( &')$ ,$ )$ #+5,$)+* -(3#$5)+* -3'##/. A/+()5* )&
(,%'& '( 2,// -&)+& /()+$,$% ) 0#+(,%$ /)$%1)%(. O$ ")$* +#1&,$( 5(&),/- /e are
consulting old o**icers /ho received their education in the old :adet schools... T'(
8#*- 2,// 8( 3'#-($ 0+#" )"#$% &'( -#$- #0 -#/5,(+- )$5 .)+&,-)$-, )$5 )/-# 0+#"
)"#$% 3',/5+($ 2'#-( .)+($&- 2(+( ;,//(5 8* &'( !(+")$-... T'( 1$,0#+"- )+(
"#5(//(5 #$ R(5 A+"* 1$,0#+"-, 2,&' (.)1/(&&(- )$5 #&'(+ ")+;,$%-? -# &')& *rom
childhood the boys should develop a *eeling o* love and respect *or the uni*orm... <e
have already received many applications, *or an o**icer considers it an honour that his
son should carry on his military traditions. 4E".')-,- )55(5.7
For some #ee<s after#ards the +ress6 +articu$ar$y the mi$itary +ress6 #ent on +u0$ishin%
artic$es 0y o$d %enera$s6 nota0$y 0y ieut,1en: Shi$o3s<y6 %i3in% an attracti3e account of
their days in the o$d 5adet Schoo$ under the o$d rN%ime:
A year $ater6 #hen ? 3isited the Su3oro3 Schoo$ at 4a$inin6 ? found that6 amon% the
su0Hects the 0uddin% $itt$e officers #ere tau%ht #ere Cn%$ish6 fine manners and o$d,time
0a$$room dances (the #a$t>6 the ma>ur<a6 the +as,de,=uatre6 etc:): @n the #a$$s6 there
#ere $ar%e +ictures of Su3oro36 0ut a$so e=ua$$y $ar%e ones of Sta$in and of numerous 2ed
Army %enera$s:
A$$ this #ent to%ether #ith the re3i3a$ of the 5hurch in 2ussia6 a$ready descri0ed:
Se+tem0er 1943 sa# the cro#nin% of the !atriarch of Mosco#6 and the 3isit of the
Arch0isho+ of (or<:
;o dou0t a$$ this #as +art$y intended for forei%n consum+tionL it #as usefu$ to +ut
5hurchi$$ and 2oose3e$t in a %ood mood6 and to %et the 3e: 'or* Times to ta$< a0out a
Freturn to TsarismF and e3en +erha+s to ca+ita$ism: But it #as more than that: the
disso$ution of the 5omintern6 the esta0$ishment of the Su3oro3 Schoo$s6 1enera$
4ri3it><y's artic$es6 in @cto0er 19436 on Fthe %$orious traditions of 1enera$ Brusi$o3F
IThe most successfu$ 2ussian %enera$ of 9or$d 9ar ?K6 the e$ection of the !atriarch6 and
the or%y of %o$d 0raid and ne# uniformsDuniforms for di+$omats6 uniforms for
rai$#aymen (Fand #hy not6F Chren0ur% $ater said6 Ffor +oets6 #ith one6 t#o or three $yres
on their e+au$ettesE F)Da$$ this #as stran%e$y si%nificant of the Sta$inist 1reat,2ussian
u$tra,nationa$ism of 1943D a year that contrasted so stri<in%$y #ith the annAe terri4le
on$y t#o years 0efore6 or e3en #ith one year 0efore:
W
;ot that the FSocia$istF side of thin%s #as 0ein% entire$y ne%$ected: a$on%side #ith the
Su3oro3 Schoo$s for a ne# officer caste a $ar%e net#or< of Trade Schoo$s for meta$
#or<ers and others #as to 0e set u+ in nine of the $i0erated areasL and there #as nothin%
FTsaristF a0out theseL and6 in 19446 as #e sha$$ see6 there #as a return6 in some res+ects6
to Feninist !urityF and a dri3e for %reater FSo3iet,consciousnessFL 0ut this #as6
someho#6 $ess stri<in% than the manifestations of 1reat,2ussian u$tra,nationa$ism of
1943:
?t a$$ had a certain 0earin% on Sta$in's re$ations #ith Britain and America: ?t seems
si%nificant6 for instance6 that in the ;o3em0er 76 19436 s$o%ans the 3ery mention of
capitalism shou$d ha3e 0een a3oided:
The first of the s$o%ans said: F.ai$ the &)th Anni3ersary of the 1reat @cto0er Socia$ist
2e3o$ution #hich o3erthre# the +o#er of the Imperialists in our country6 and +roc$aimed
+eace amon% a$$ the nations of the #or$dPF
And the other s$o%ans #ere Fon% $i3e the 3ictory of the An%$o,So3iet,American
5oa$itionP F Fon% $i3e the 3a$iant An%$o,American troo+s in ?ta$yPF F1reetin%s to the
3a$iant British and American airmen stri<in% at the 3ita$ centres of 1ermanyP F6 etc:6 etc:L
and this #as #hen the British Am0assador6 Sir Archi0a$d 5$ar< 4err6 to$d me that Sta$in
had assured him that Fin a #ay6 he6 too6 0e$ie3ed in 1od:F
.o# dee+ this re%ard for the A$$ies #as in !arty and 4omsomo$ circ$es may6 ho#e3er6 0e
=uestioned: @n @cto0er &76 at a meetin% ce$e0ratin% the &-th anni3ersary of the
4omsomo$Dthat #as the time of the Forei%n Ministers' 5onference in Mosco#6 and the
F;o3em0er s$o%ansF had a$ready 0een +u0$ishedD;: A: Mi<hai$o36 Secretary of the
5entra$ 5ommittee of the 4omsomo$6 +aid tri0utes to enin6 Sta$in6 the Army6 and the
!arty6 0ut did not mention the A$$ies at a$$:
There #as 0e$o# the surface somethin% of a conf$ict at that time 0et#een F.o$y 2ussiaF
and the FSo3iet *nionF: Sometimes com+romises #ere reached 0et#een the t#o: Thus6
on the =uestion of the ne# State Anthem a curious com+romise #as reached at the end of
1943: ;o ne# Anthem 0y Shosta<o3ich or !ro<ofie3 #as a++ro3edL 0ut the ne#
nationa$ist and Sta$inist #ords #ere +inned to the old !arty anthem6 #hich 0ecame the
State Anthem of the So3iet *nion6 #hi$e the Internationale 0ecame officia$$y the anthem
of the !artyP There had 0een tremendous com+etition in the #ritin% of the ne# anthem6
and on Banuary -6 19446 it #as announced that o3er &"" a$so,ransD17& +oets and
se3enty,si8 com+osersDhad 0een +aid Fconso$ation +ri>esF of 0et#een 46""" and J6"""
rou0$es eachP
MeantimeDi:e: 0et#een Bu$y and ;o3em0er 1943Dthe 2ed Army #as ma<in% a
s+ectacu$ar ad3ance in the *<raine and e$se#here:
4har<o3 #as ca+tured 0y 1enera$ 4one3 (Ste++e Front)6 #ith the aid of 1enera$ Aatutin
(Aorone>h Front) and 1enera$ Ma$ino3s<y (South,9est Front) on Au%ust &3:
The ne8t %reat 3ictory #as 1enera$ To$0u<hin's in the far south #hen6 after 0rea<in%
throu%h from the Aoroshi$o3%rad area to the Sea of A>o36 his troo+s ca+tured Ta%anro%6
#hich the 1ermans had he$d e3er since the autumn of 1941: -6""" 1erman +risoners
#ere ta<en:
@n Au%ust 316 2o<osso3s<y (5entra$ Front) ca+tured 1$u<ho3 and +enetrated dee+ into
the northern *<raine:
Farther south6 the Don0as #as 0ein% ra+id$y o3errun6 the 1ermans fearin% encirc$ement
and +u$$in% out6 after #rec<in% factories and coa$mines:
@n Se+tem0er J6 a Sta$in @rder co3erin% the #ho$e front +a%e of e3ery ne#s+a+er6 and
addressed to To$0u<hin and Ma$ino3s<y6 dec$ared that in si8 days' s<i$fu$ and ra+id
o+erations6 the #ho$e of the Don0as had no# 0een $i0erated:
@n Se+tem0er 1"6 #ith the aid of a na3a$ $andin% #est of the city6 To$0u<hin and
Ma$ino3s<y ca+tured Mariu+o$ on the Sea of A>o3:
?n the far south the $ast t#o 1erman stron%ho$ds in the 5aucasus #ere 0ein% mo++ed u+:
After fi3e days' hea3y fi%htin% the troo+s of 1enera$ !etro3 and the na3a$ units under
Aice,Admira$ A$adimirs<y ca+tured ;o3orossis< on Se+tem0er 1)Dor rather the ruins of
that im+ortant na3a$ 0ase: The Taman +eninsu$a #as c$eared 0y @cto0er 76 most of the
1ermans esca+in% to the 5rimea across the straits of 4erch:
@n the &1st6 2o<osso3s<y too< the ancient city of 5herni%o36 a$ready reduced to ruins 0y
1erman mass 0om0in%s in the summer of '41L and6 on the &3rd6 4one3 too< !o$ta3a (a$so
a$most com+$ete$y destroyed 0y the retreatin% 1ermans)L on the &9th6 0rea<in% throu%h to
the Dnie+er6 4one3 too< 4remenchu%:
@n the &-th6 So<o$o3s<y (9estern Front) too< Smo$ens<:
By the end of the month6 as #as officia$$y stated6 the 2ed Army #as ad3ancin% on 4ie36
in the *<raine6 and on Aite0s<6 1ome$ and Mo%i$e3 in Be$orussia:
?f Se+tem0er #as mar<ed 0y a s+ectacu$ar amount of territory $i0erated6 @cto0er #as
mar<ed 0y somethin% e3en more im+ortantD the forcin% of the Dnie+er: The 1erman
ho+e of Fho$din% the Dnie+er $ineF #as smashed:
The %reat o+timism after the forcin% of the Dnie+er may 0e %au%ed from a +oem 0y
Sur<o3 +rinted on @cto0er J:
... A6($%,$% R1--,) ,- )56)$3,$%?
U;+),$( )$5 B(/#+1--,), 2),& )$5 '#.(?
T'( !(+")$- ')6( $#& /#$% /(0& &# &#+"($& *#1,
T'( (6,/ 5)*- #0 *#1+ 8#$5)%( )+( $1"8(+(5,
+#" &'( ',%' 8)$;- #0 &'( D$,(.(+
W( -(( &'( 2)&(+- #0 &'( P+1&' )$5 &'( N,S"($.
2usso,*<rainian *nity #as the su0Hect of many artic$es6 and #as sym0o$ised in the
esta0$ishment of a ne# hi%h decoration6 the @rder of Bo%dan 4hme$nits<y:
I For some reason6 the 4hme$nits<y order #as not #ide$y a#arded6 and ne3er 0ecame
+o+u$ar in the armyL it seemed an unnecessary ri3a$ to the Su3oro36 4utu>o3 and ;e3s<y
orders #hich had the +resti%e of Sta$in%rad attached to them: Moreo3er6 it caused some
em0arrassment #hen a num0er of 2ussian officers of Be#ish race refused the
4hme$nits<y order on the %round that the %$orious .etman had 0een %ui$ty of a
considera0$e num0er of +o%roms: (Simi$ar$y se3era$ !o$es refused the Su3oro3 @rder6
Su3oro3 ha3in% 0een one of the #orst o++ressors of the !o$ish +eo+$e:)K
;o dou0t6 in ear$ier So3iet inter+retations6 the ce$e0rated 17th century .etman #as not
=uite as %reat a man as he #as no# made out to 0eL in fact6 he #as descri0ed in the 1931
edition of the So3iet Cncyc$o+aedia as a dou0$e,crosser of the #orst sort6 and indeed
somethin% of an a%ent of the !o$ish szlachta+ 0ut no# a different 3ie# #as ta<en:
A K$,%'& #0 &'( O+5(+ #0 B#%5)$ K'"(/$,&-;*E&')& ,- ) .+#15 &,&/(, 42+#&( )ed
Star). T'( /,0( #0 B#%5)$ K'"(/$,&-;* ,- )$ (B)"./( #0 &'( 5(3,-,6( -&+1%%/( 0#+ &'(
8+#&'(+/* 1$,#$ #0 &'( U;+),$,)$ .(#./( )$5 ,&- (/5(+ 8+#&'(+, &'( R1--,)$ .(#./(.
K'"(/$,&-;* 3/()+/* +()/,-(5 &')& &'( 0+(( )$5 .+#-.(+#1- 5(6(/#."($& #0 &'(
U;+),$( 2)- .#--,8/( #$/* ,$ &'( 3/#-(-& 1$,#$ 2,&' R1--,). T'( S#6,(& .(#./( 2'#
0,$)//* 3#"./(&(5 &'( 1$,#$ #0 )// U;+),$,)$ /)$5- ,$&# #$( ",%'&* -&)&( IMeanin% the
incor+oration of +arts of the 9estern *<raine former$y ru$ed 0y Austria,.un%ary and6
after 9or$d 9ar ?6 0y !o$and6 2umania and 5>echos$o3a<ia:K,1$5(+ &'( R(5 B)$$(+ #0
&'( S#6,(&-, .)+&,31/)+/* 6)/1( B#%5)$ K'"(/$,&-;*<- ,""#+&)/ 5((5.
@n @cto0er 146 Ma$ino3s<y ca+tured Oa+oro>hie6 and6 on the &3rd6 To$0u<hin ca+tured
Me$ito+o$: The 5rimea #as no# a0out to 0e cut off from the main$and: The actua$
+enetration of the 2ussians into the 5rimea did not6 ho#e3er6 succeed6 and had to 0e
+ost+oned ti$$ the s+rin% of '44: A +articu$ar$y 0ri$$iant stro<e #as Ma$ino3s<y's sur+rise
attac< on Dnie+ro+etro3s<6 on the $o#er Dnie+er6 #hich #as ca+tured on @cto0er &-:
The 1erman FDnie+er ineF #as crac<in% from to+ to 0ottom:
C').&(+ XIA THE SPIRIT O TEHERAN
?t is unnecessary to %o once a%ain o3er the %round of the Forei%n Ministers' 5onference
in Mosco# in @cto0er 19436 or of the Teheran 5onference a month $ater6 0oth of #hich
ha3e 0een descri0ed in some detai$ 0y 5hurchi$$6 in the .o+<ins !a+ers6 in 1enera$ Bohn
Deane's %trange /lliance, and e$se#here: 9hat #e are chief$y concerned #ith here are
the So3iet reactions to these t#o momentous e3ents6 #hich are6 of course6 maHor
$andmar<s in So3iet,9estern re$ations durin% the #ar:
?t may seem sur+risin% that the #ar in 2ussia had %one on for o3er t#o years6 and that it
#as not ti$$ the end of 1943 that these first t#o fu$$,dress meetin%s amon% the Bi% Three
$eaders shou$d ha3e ta<en +$ace: ?n 19416 it is true6 .o+<ins6 Bea3er0roo<6 .arri,man and
Cden had a$$ 3isited Mosco#L in May 194& Mo$oto3 had tra3e$$ed to 9ashin%ton and
ondon6 and 5hurchi$$ had come to Mosco# on his disma$ 3isit in Au%ust 194&6 in the
course of #hich he had not found Sta$in or the other So3iet $eaders in a +articu$ar$y ha++y
or rece+ti3e mood: Sta$in%rad #as6 Hust then6 on the e3e of its %rimmest ordea$6 and the
1ermans #ere #e$$ inside the 5aucasus:
?n @cto0er 19436 the 2ussians #ere #innin% one 3ictory after another6 day after day: ?f6
0efore 4urs<D#hich in Bu$y 1943 had started an uninterru+ted succession of 2ussian
3ictoriesDthe 2ussians #ere #orried and on ed%e6 and #ere c$amourin% for 3i%orous
action in the #est6 #hich #ou$d dra# some forty or fifty 1erman di3isions from the
So3iet FrontDin @cto0er 19436 the So3iet 1o3ernment6 and indeed So3iet o+inion6 #ere
ta<in% thin%s much more ca$m$y: The 2ussians #ere $osin% thousands of men e3ery day6
0ut the Second Front #as no $on%er6 to them6 a matter of $ife or death: ?t no# 0e%an to 0e
ta<en for %ranted that the #ar #ou$d 0e #on any#ayDand that the 9estern A$$ies #ere
=uite +re+ared to fi%ht the #ar to a 3ictorious finish6 0ut #ith a ma8imum $oss of $ife to
the 2ussians6 and a minimum $oss of $ife to themse$3es: This #as no# acce+ted #ith a
<ind of 0itter resi%nation:
C3en so6 the A$$ies had their usesL they #ere su++$yin% su0stantia$ =uantities of $end,$ease
e=ui+ment to 2ussiaL and6 as Sta$in said to Cden in @cto0er 19436 he did not i%nore the
fact that the threat of a Second Front in ;orthern France had6 in the summer of 19436
+inned do#n some t#enty,fi3e 1erman di3isions in the #est6 0eside the ten or t#e$3e
1erman di3isions that #ere tied u+ in ?ta$y: For the time 0ein% Sta$in #as reasona0$y
satisfiedL thou%h he had not sto++ed #orryin% a0out F@3er$ordFDthe cross,5hanne$
$andin% in ;orthern FranceDa%ain +erha+s 0ein% undu$y de$ayed: ?t #as the common
0e$ief in Mosco# (a 0e$ief fed 0y American indiscretions) that 5hurchi$$ #as sti$$ an8ious
to e8tend o+erations in the Mediterranean6 0ut #as continuin% to surround F@3er$ordF
#ith a$$ <inds of conditions and reser3ations:
This #as the ;um0er @ne =uestion #hich6 in the 2ussian 3ie#6 needed c$earin% u+ at the
Forei%n Ministers' 5onference that met in Mosco# on @cto0er 196 1943:
There had6 as a$ready said6 0een 3ery fe# to+,$e3e$ 1o3ernment contacts 0et#een the
2ussians and the An%$o,Americans6 and the Mosco# 5onference #as the first Bi%,Three
meetin% of its <ind: ?t came at a %ood moment6 after three months of uninterru+ted
2ussian 3ictories:
That this 5onference too< +$ace in Mosco#6 and not e$se#here6 #as 0ecause Sta$in6 too
0usy #ith his o#n #ar6 #ou$d not %o a0road6 and #ou$d not e3en $et Mo$oto3 %oDfor
instance6 to 5asa0$anca: ?t #as not mere$y a technica$ matterL Sta$in's $ine #as that the
So3iet *nion #as 0earin% the 0runt of this #ar6 and that it #as for the FothersF to tra3e$
to Mosco#: C3en if 5orde$$ .u$$ #as an o$d man and a sic< man6 it cou$dn't 0e he$+ed:
For the Summit Meetin% #ith 2oose3e$t and 5hurchi$$6 Sta$in #as #i$$in% to stretch a
+oint and %o to Teheran6 c$ose to the So3iet 0order6 0ut he #ou$d not %o to .a0anniya or
Basra6 $et a$one 5airo: ?t #as not on$y that Sta$in as 5ommander,in,5hief cou$d not
a0sent himse$f for more than a fe# daysL nor #as it +rimari$y a =uestion of securityL it
#as a0o3e a$$6 a =uestion of +resti%e: F9e aren't %oin% hat,in,hand to the 9estL $et the
9est come to us:F ?t made in the So3iet *nion Hust the <ind of im+ression Sta$in meant it
to ma<e:
As $on% as the 9estern A$$ies #ere not doin% any 3ery serious fi%htin% any#ay6 and had
made it am+$y c$ear that no Frea$F Second Front #as to 0e e8+ected in the near future6 and
since the 2ed Army sti$$ seemed to ha3e a 3ery $on% #ay ahead of it6 there #as6 to the
2ussians6 no ur%ent need for a Bi%,Three 5onference:
But 0y @cto0er 1943 the situation had chan%ed: There #as room for Hoint mi$itary
+$annin%L #ithin a fe# months6 the 2ed Army mi%ht #e$$ 0e across the So3iet 0orders6
and the defeat of 1ermany #as 0ecomin%6 more and moire6 a tan%i0$e rea$ity: The 0i%
=uestion no# #as ho: long the #ar #as to $ast: Since the month 0efore 4urs<6 #hen the
2ussians officia$$y stated that the So3iet *nion cou$d not #in the #ar sin%$e,handed6
there had 0een a certain de+arture from this +osition:
The statement #as sti$$ true6 0ut no $on%er in such a0so$ute terms:
!arado8ica$$y6 one o+inion e8+ressed to me in a moment of indiscretion at the time of the
Mosco# 5onference 0y A$e8ander 4orneichu<6 #ho #as then one of the Forei%n Aice,
5ommissars6 #as: FThin%s are %oin% so #e$$ on our front that it mi%ht e3en 0e 0etter not
to ha3e the Second Front ti$$ ne8t s+rin%: ?f there #ere a Second Front ri%ht no#6 the
1ermans mi%ht a$$o# 1ermany to 0e occu+ied 0y the An%$o,Americans: ?t #ou$d ma<e
us $oo< +retty si$$y: Better to %o on 0om0in% them for another #interL and a$so $et their
army free>e another #inter in 2ussiaL then %et the 2ed Army right up to 1ermany6 and
then start the Second Front:F Quite o03ious$y a man $i<e 4orneichu< #as an8ious that the
2ussians shou$d occu+y !o$and 4e"ore the co$$a+se of 1ermany or a de "acto surrender to
the 9est:
The Mosco# 5onference #ent on for no $ess than t#e$3e days6 and #as mar<ed 0y an
e8traordinary round of sum+tuous $unches6 0a$$et sho#s6 em0assy rece+tions and a su+er,
0an=uet at the 4rem$in descri0ed in $urid detai$ 0y 1enera$ Deane6 the head of the ne#$y,
a++ointed *S Mi$itary Mission to the So3iet *nion: There had ne3er 0een anythin% $i<e it
in #artime Mosco#6 no# dee+ in the 2ussian rear:
Cden had se3era$ meetin%s #ith Sta$in and found him6 on the #ho$e6 in %ood humour6
thou%h sti$$ ironica$ a0out the 9estern #ar effortDa+art from the 0om0in% of 1ermany6
#hich +$eased him %reat$y: F.it the svolochi hard6 the harder the 0etterPF he said6
thum+in% the ta0$e #ith his fist: .is chief concern #as the date of F@3er$ordFDand in
this he #as %$ad to recei3e fu$$ su++ort from the Americans: The Americans6 for their
+art6 #ere an8ious to o0tain a +romise of 2ussian +artici+ation in the #ar a%ainst Ba+an:
Both =uestions #ere discussed at the Mosco# 5onference6 thou%h no c$ear decisions
#ere to 0e ta<en unti$ Teheran:
Sta$in6 for his +art6 #as satisfied #ith the Americans' su++ort of F@3er$ordF: As 1enera$
Deane #rote a $itt$e $ater6 at the time of Teheran: FIMost ofK the Americans at the
5onference met Sta$in for the first time: They #ere a$$ considera0$y and fa3oura0$y
im+ressed 0y him6 +erha+s 0ecause he ad3ocated the American +oint of 3ie# in our
difference #ith the British: 2e%ard$ess of this6 one cou$d not he$+ 0ut reco%nise =ua$ities
of %reatness in the man::: F To #hich6 on a technica$ +$ane6 he added:
S&)/,$ ,- ) ")-&(+ #0 5(&),/... )$5 ')- )$ )")C,$% ;$#2/(5%( #0 -13' ")&&(+- )-
3')+)3&(+,-&,3- #0 2().#$-, &'( -&+13&1+)/ 0()&1+(- #0 ),+3+)0&, )$5 S#6,(& "(&'#5- ,$
(6($ ",$#+ &)3&,3-.
I Bohn 2: Deane6 The %trange /lliance (ondon6 1947)6 ++: 47 and 1-&:K
?n a sense6 the Mosco# 5onference #as a rehearsa$ for TeheranL 0ut it a$so achie3ed
some F+ositi3eF resu$ts of its o#nDthe settin% u+ of a Curo+ean Ad3isory 5ommission6 a
5ommission for ?ta$y (#hich #ou$d inc$ude British6 American6 French6 1ree< and
(u%os$a3 re+resentati3es6 #hi$e Ayshins<y #as %oin% to re+resent the So3iet *nion)L
there had 0een Fsincere and e8hausti3e discussionsF on the measures to 0e ta<en to hasten
the end of the #ar a%ainst 1ermany and her sate$$ites6 and on the settin% u+ of Fc$ose
mi$itary co,o+eration 0et#een the three !o#ers in futureFL it #as a$so a%reed that the
Fc$osest co,o+erationF must continue 0et#een the three !o#ers after the #ar: A Four,
!o#er Dec$aration (the #or< chief$y of 5orde$$ .u$$) #as si%ned on the unconditiona$
ca+itu$ation of the A$$ies' Fres+ecti3eF enemiesL in addition to the Bi% Three6 the 5hinese
Am0assador in Mosco# a$so si%ned this document on his country's 0eha$f: (The 2ussians
#ere no $on%er much scared of +ro3o<in% the Ba+anese and #ere an8ious to +$ease .u$$
#ho had set %reat store on this Dec$aration6 #hich %a3e 5hina a 1reat,!o#er status:)
Another of the statements foreshado#ed the constitution of a *nited ;ations
@r%anisation: The 5onference a$so +u0$ished a statement on Austria6 in effect #arnin%
the Austrians not to coo+erate #ith 1ermany to the 0itter end6 and ur%in% them to
contri0ute to their o#n $i0erationDa +rinci+$e of #hich much #as $ater to 0e made in
2umania6 Bu$%aria6 etc: Fina$$y the 5onference +u0$ished a 2oose3e$t,5hurchi$$,Sta$in
dec$aration on #ar crimina$s: They esta0$ished the +rinci+$e that these crimina$s #ou$d 0e
returned for tria$ to the country #here the a$$e%ed crimes had 0een committed:
Cden and 5orde$$ .u$$ #ere o+timistic 0oth durin% and after the 5onference: Durin% an
inter3a$ at the Bo$shoi (they #ere +$ayin% the ine3ita0$e %:an (a*e7 ? remem0er Cden
te$$in% me: FThis is a %ood conferenceD0etter $ate than ne3er: But the =uestion of
tra3e$$in% to Mosco# is inferna$$y com+$icated: .ere #e'3e %ot to set u+ the ri%ht <ind of
machineryD#e #ant it6 and the 2ussians #ant it6 too: ?f the machine is functionin%6 #e'$$
find it much easier to dea$ #ith a +ro0$em $i<e !o$and: 9hat #e are stri3in% for is to %et
the machinery set u+6 and to set as many thin%s as +ossi0$e do#n on +a+er:F
.e %ot this FmachineryF in the form of the Curo+ean Ad3isory 5ommission6 0ut it #as
=uite c$ear that 0oth at the Mosco# 5onference and6 $ater6 at Teheran6 !o$and #as amon%
the +ro0$ems that #ere ine3ita0$y she$3ed: At the Mosco# 5onference there #as much
ta$< of %ettin% 0oth Tur<ey and S#eden into the #ar6 0ut this $ed to nothin%: @n direct
So3iet,9estern mi$itary co,o+eration the 2ussians #ere sti$$ reser3ed6 and did not
res+ond 3ery fa3oura0$y at first to the American +ro+osa$ for shutt$e 0om0in%6 #ith the
settin%,u+ of *S air 0ases in So3iet territory: ;othin% #as %oin% to 0e decided a0out this
unti$ Fe0ruary 1944:
5orde$$ .u$$6 thou%h 3ery tired at the end of the 5onference6 recei3ed the !ress at the *S
Cm0assy and sounded 3ery +$eased:
W'($ I -&)+&(5 #1& #6(+ '(+(, 4'( -),57 "#-& .(#./( &'#1%'& &')& $#&',$% 2#1/5
3#"( #0 &',- "((&,$%, since )ussia /as liable to go the isolationist /ay.
= ?t is amusin% to thin< that6 Hust as .u$$ dreaded 2ussian iso$ationism so6 0y 194-6 the
2ussians dreaded American iso$ationismDone reason6 0y the #ay6 #hy they insisted on
*; ha3in% its head=uarters in the *SA:K
Y(& 2( (B3')$%(5 )& /($%&' #1+ 6,(2-, )$5 2(+( &+("($5#1-/* %+)&,0,(5 &# 0,$5 &')&
&'( S#6,(& -&)&(-"($ 2(+( "#+( )$5 "#+( 5,-.#-(5 &#2)+5- &'( 6,(2 &')&
,-#/)&,#$,-" 2)- 8)5... N#2 &'( -.,+,& #0 3#-#.(+)&,#$ ')- 8(($ 8#+$, )$5 2( 3)$
8(%,$ &# 81,/5. N#2, ,$5((5, 2)- &'( &,"( &# %(& &#%(&'(+. T'( 0#1$5)&,#$- ')6( 8(($
/),5. S#"( .+#8/("- )+( 5(/,3)&( )$5 3#"./,3)&(5, 81& 2,&' &'( -.,+,& #0 ')+"#$*
(B,-&,$% 8(&2(($ 1-, $#&',$% 3)$ 8+,$% (-&+)$%("($&.D
.e then hinted that the three heads of %o3ernments #ou$d meet short$y6 and sounded
+articu$ar$y +$eased #ith the Four,!o#er Dec$aration #hich inc$uded 5hina: There #as6
ho#e3er6 sti$$ a .ercu$ean tas< ahead of the A$$iesD+ro0$ems $i<e the future of !o$and
and 1ermany had not yet 0een sett$ed6 0ut consu$tation on 0oth =uestions #ere in
+ro%ress:
.e a$so said that AM1@T (A$$ied Mi$itary 1o3ernment in @ccu+ied Territories) #ou$d
%radua$$y disa++ear and that the CA5 #ou$d ha3e an e3er,%ro#in% num0er of +ro0$ems
to dea$ #ith: And then:
S&)/,$ ,- ) +(")+;)8/( .(+-#$ -'#2,$% )& #$3( 1$1-1)/ )8,/,&* )$5 :15%"($& )$5 )
%+)-. #0 .+)3&,3)/ .+#8/("-. H( ,- #$( #0 &'( /()5(+- 2'#, &#%(&'(+ 2,&' R##-(6(/&
)$5 C'1+3',//, ')- ) +(-.#$-,8,/,&* 2',3' $# #&'(+ ")$ ")* ')6( ,$ &'( $(B& 5LL
*()+-... T'(+( ,- $# ')+5 0((/,$% )"#$% &'( R1--,)$- )8#1& &'( S(3#$5 +#$&, )- 0)+
)- I ;$#2... I 5# $#& ;$#2 #0 &2# $)&,#$- 2,&' 0(2(+ )$&)%#$,-&,3 ,$&(+(-&- )$5 "#+(
3#""#$ ,$&(+(-&- &')$ &'( USA )$5 R1--,)...
Cden a$so #as 3ery +$eased #ith the 5onference:
W'($ 2( 0,+-& )++,6(5 '(+(, 2( &'#1%'& &'( .+#-.(3&- 2(+( 6(+* 8/();, )$5 &')& )//
&'( R1--,)$- 2#1/5 5# 2#1/5 8( &# -3+()" 0#+ &'( S(3#$5 +#$&. I -'#1/5 8(
-1+.+,-(5 ,0 &'(* -&)+&(5 -3+()",$% $#2, 0#+ &'(* $#2 ;$#2 ,& is 3#",$%. I$-&()5,
&',- C#$0(+($3( 2)- 6(+* 8,% -&100, &'( 8(%,$$,$% #0 ) $(2 0#+" #0 3#-#.(+)&,#$
8(&2(($ 1-. T'( &()"2#+; 2)- )5",+)8/(. T#5)* I 5,-31--(5 ",/,&)+* .+#8/("-
2,&' M#/#&#6 0#+ &2# '#1+-. P#/)$5I Y(-, ,& 2,// 8( 5,-31--(5 &'+#1%' 5,./#")&,3
3')$$(/-...
@n @cto0er 3"6 as !resident of the An%$o,American !ress Association ? +resided at the
$unch #e %a3e to Cden and 5orde$$ .u$$ (re+resented 0y .arriman) at the .ote$ ;ationa$:
9e did not thin< Mo$oto3 and the other to+ 2ussians #ou$d come6 0ut much to our
sur+rise the !rotoco$ De+artment ran% u+ and hinted that in3itations #ou$d 0e #e$comed:
.ere #as rea$ cordia$ityP True6 Mo$oto3 did not come6 0ut Ayshins<y and it3ino3 did:
?n my s+eech of #e$come ? referred6 amon% other thin%s6 to Cden's and it3ino3's %a$$ant
stand at 1ene3a and at ;yon6 and made a crac< or t#o at 5ham0er$ainD #ithout namin%
himD#hich #ent do#n 3ery #e$$: Cden sat to my ri%ht6 and the terri0$e Ayshins<y (no#
#ith a su%ary smi$e) to my $eft6 and the #ho$e atmos+here #as 3ery matey indeed:
Quotin% 5hurchi$$'s remar<6 ear$ier in the year6 a0out the Fautumn $ea3esF6 Ayshins<y
said: F9e$$6 it is customary for the autumn $ea3es to fa$$ in autumn6 0ut if they fa$$ in
s+rin%D#e$$6 ? su++ose that's o<ay6 as $on% as they do fa$$:F (.e #as no# c$ear$y
resi%ned to the Second Front in 1944): it3ino3 said the ea%ue of ;ations had
unfortunate$y turned out to 0e a To#er of Ba0e$6 not a so$id !yramidL the nations of the
#or$d must do 0etter ne8t time:
.arriman #as in a s$i%ht$y trucu$ent mood and +ointed$y ta$<ed a0out the #ar in the
!acific6 sayin% that if it hadn't 0een so successfu$ there #ou$dn't 0e much +ros+ect of
America he$+in% #ith the Second Front in Curo+e:
At the e8tra3a%ant 4rem$in Ban=uet that cro#ned the 5onference6 Sta$in seemed in an
e8u0erant mood: Des+ite a$$ the ear$ier un+$easantness o3er the ;orthern con3oys6 he
no# +aid a tri0ute to the British ;a3y and the Merchant F$eet: F9e don't ta$< much a0out
them6 0ut #e do <no# #hat they do:F The ne# head of the British Mi$itary Mission6
1enera$ 1iffard Marte$ ra+turous$y con%ratu$ated Sta$in on the forcin% of the Dnie+er
on$y short$y 0efore: F;o other Army in the #or$d cou$d ha3e +erformed such a featPF The
short era of mutua$ com+$iments and con%ratu$ations had set in:
The t#o chief American mi$itary re+resentati3es in the So3iet *nion6 the anti,So3iet
1enera$ Miche$a6 and 1enera$ Faymon3i$$e #ho #as notorious for the o+timistic ana$yses
of the mi$itary situation in 2ussia he had 0een sendin% 2oose3e$t e3er since 19416 often
to the dis%ust of the State De+artmentD#ere 0oth #ithdra#n and re+$aced 0y a re%u$ar
Mi$itary Mission #ith 1enera$ Bohn 2: Deane at its head: The 2ussians #ere soon to find
him a 3ery tou%h ne%otiator6 #ho #as +articu$ar$y stic<y in or%anisin% $end,$ease
de$i3eries6 a$#ays first as<in% the 2ussians for fu$$ e8+$anations as to #hether they reall!
needed the stuff for mi$itary +ur+oses6 or mere$y for +ost#ar reconstruction:
The So3iet +ress #as 3ery +$eased #ith the Forei%n Ministers' 5onference: The
2e3o$ution,Day Festi3ities on ;o3em0er ) and 76 #hich #ere mar<ed 0y tremendous
fire#or<s in honour of the $i0eration of 4ie3 0y Aatutin's troo+s6 too< +$ace in an
e8u0erant$y cheerfu$ atmos+here:
Sta$in's s+eech re3ie#in% the e3ents of 1943DFthe year of the %reat turnin%,+ointFDin
#hich he +aid the #armest tri0utes 0oth to the 2ed Army and to the 2ussian #ar effort6
#as a$so +articu$ar$y cordia$ in its comments on the An%$o,American A$$ies:
T);,$% &#%(&'(+ &'( 8/#2- -&+13; )& &'( !(+")$- )$5 &'(,+ )//,(- ,$ N#+&' A0+,3)
)$5 S#1&'(+$ I&)/*, &'( ,$&($-,6( 8#"8,$% #0 !(+")$* ... )$5 &'( +(%1/)+ -1../,(- #0
)+")"($&- )$5 +)2 ")&(+,)/- &')& 2( )+( +(3(,6,$% 0+#" #1+ A//,(-, 2( "1-& -)*
&')& )// &',- ')- %+()&/* '(/.(5 1- ,$ #1+ -1""(+ 3)".),%$... T'( 0,%'&,$% ,$
S#1&'(+$ E1+#.( ,- $#& &'( S(3#$5 +#$&, 81&, )// &'( -)"(, ,& ,- -#"(&',$% /,;( &'(
S(3#$5 +#$&... N)&1+)//*, #$/* ) +()/ S(3#$5 +#$&E2',3' ,- $#2 $#& -# 0)+ )2)*
E2,// %+()&/* -.((5 1. 6,3&#+* #6(+ N)C, !(+")$*, 3#$-#/,5)&( -&,// 01+&'(+ &'(
3#"+)5(-',.-,$-)+"- #0 &'( A//,(5 S&)&(-.
.e #as +articu$ar$y +$eased #ith ?ta$y dro++in% out of the #ar6 thou%ht that 1ermany's
other sate$$ites6 <no#in% that Fon$y 0um+s and 0ruises #ere no# in store for them6F #ere
frantica$$y $oo<in% for #ays and means of %ettin% out of .it$er's c$utches: .e su%%ested
that6 in 19446 1ermany #ou$d $ose a$$ her a$$ies: She #as no# c$ear$y Ffacin%
catastro+heF:
@n the ni%ht of the 7th Mo$oto3 %a3e his 0i%%est #ar,time +arty: The #ho$e di+$omatic
cor+s #ere no# 0ac< in Mosco#6 and it #as an e8treme$y sum+tuous and e8ceedin%$y
drun<en affair: Mo$oto3 #as %oin% round the %uests6 +ro+osin% innumera0$e toasts6 and6
to#ards the end of the e3enin%6 had to 0e su++orted on 0oth sides in his further +ro%ress
throu%h the cro#ded rooms of the S+iridono3<a: .e #as Ho3ia$ and $oo<ed $i<e a man
#ho #as re$a8in%Dcertain$y for the first time in more than t#o years: But he carried his
$i=uor much 0etter than others: The first to $ea3e #ere the Ba+anese di+$omats #ho had
0een recei3ed #ith mar<ed coo$nessL 0ut not 3ery $on% after6 they #ere fo$$o#ed 0y a
+rocession of C8ce$$encies #ho #ere sim+$y carried out6 feet first: The British
Am0assador had fa$$en f$at on his face on to a ta0$e co3ered #ith 0ott$es and #ine,
%$asses6 and had e3en s$i%ht$y cut himse$f: There #as a$so somethin% of a ro# 0et#een
Mo$oto3 and the S#edish Minister6 #hom Mo$oto3 u+0raided for the +ecu$iar
Fneutra$ityF S#eden had 0een +ursuin%: The said Minister #as soon after#ards reca$$ed
0y his 1o3ernment: The #ho$e +arty s+ar<$ed #ith He#e$s6 furs6 %o$d 0raid6 and
ce$e0rities: The %o$d 0raid on the ne# 2ussian +ear$,%rey di+$omatic uniforms ri3a$$ed
that of the %enera$s and marsha$s: Shosta<o3ich #as there in fu$$ e3enin% dressD$oo<in%
$i<e a co$$e%e 0oy #ho had +ut it on for the first timeDand there #ere do>ens of other
stars of the $iterary6 musica$6 artistic6 scientific and theatrica$ firmaments: The +arty had
somethin% of that #i$d and irres+onsi0$e e8tra3a%ance #hich one usua$$y associates #ith
+re,2e3o$ution Mosco#: There ne3er #as to 0e another +arty =uite $i<e it in su0se=uent
years: But Mo$oto3 must ha3e enHoyed it: There #as somethin% s+$endid$y Musco3ite in
this entertainment of #atchin% Am0assadors in a$$ their re%a$ia fa$$in% f$at on their faces
and 0ein% carried out 0y 2ussian under$in%s #hose chuc<$es <e+t 0rea<in% throu%h their
e8+ression of dee+ concern:
9e need not recount here the fami$iar story of the Teheran 5onference6 e8ce+t to say that
the 2ussians #ere satisfied #ith itDas far as it #ent: A firm decision had at $ast 0een
ta<en to $aunch F@3er$ordF in May6 an o+eration that #ou$d 0e su++orted 0y a %reat
2ussian offensi3e: A$so increased he$+ #as to 0e %i3en to Tito's !artisans:
Some of the remainin% Fmi$itaryF decisionsDe:%: concernin% the e3entua$ entry of
Tur<ey into the #ar on the side of the Bi% ThreeD #ere to remain a dead $etter:
The !artition of 1ermany #as discussed6 0ut no definite decisions #ere ta<enL an
a%reement of sorts #as reached on the a++ro8imate future frontiers of !o$and6 thou%h the
=uestion of the ;eisse frontier #as $eft unsett$ed and the =uestion of the !o$ish
1o3ernment #as she$3ed:
5hurchi$$ had +$eaded in fa3our of a $enient 2ussian treatment of Fin$and6 and had
recei3ed some ha$f,assurances from Sta$in on that score: ?n the end6 Fin$and #as to 0e $et
off fair$y $i%ht$y 0y the 2ussians6 $ess 0ecause of any ha$f,+romises made to 5hurchi$$6
than in 3irtue of 2ussia's o#n +ecu$iar FScandina3ianF +o$icy6 #ith S#edish neutra$ity as
its centre:
Sta$in +romised to ta<e +art in the #ar a%ainst Ba+an after the ca+itu$ation of 1ermany6
0ut on terms sti$$ to 0e sett$ed:
;one of this #as +u0$ic$y disc$osed at the timeL #hat #as announced in the fina$
communi=uN #as that:
W( ')6( 3#$3(+&(5 #1+ ./)$- 0#+ &'( 5(-&+13&,#$ #0 !(+")$ 0#+3(-. W( ')6(
+()3'(5 3#"./(&( )%+(("($& )- &# &'( -3#.( )$5 &,",$% #0 &'( #.(+)&,#$- 2',3' 2,//
8( 1$5(+&);($ 0+#" &'( ()-&, 2(-& )$5 -#1&'. O1+ #00($-,6( 2,// 8( "(+3,/(-- )$5
31"1/)&,6(.
The 2ussians #ere %oin% to %et their real Second Front at $ast: ?t #as on this noteD
#hich caused immense satisfaction in 2ussiaD that the 3ictorious 0ut 3ery hard year of
1943 ended for her: A year that had carried the 2ed Army a$$ the #ay from Sta$in%rad
and the 5aucasus to 4ie3 and 0eyond: @3er t#o,thirds of the 1erman,occu+ied territory
had 0een $i0erated: But it #as sti$$ a $on% #ay to Ber$in:
!erha+s Sta$in #as not 0$uffin% #hen he said at Teheran that the 2ed Army #as %ro#in%
#ar,#eary6 and that it needed somethin% to encoura%e it: The Teheran communi=uN did
it:
?t came as a shoc< to many #hen6 $ess than t#o months after Teheran6 Pravda +u0$ished
its famous F5airo 2umourF story a0out secret se+arate +eace ne%otiations %oin% on
0et#een Britain and 1ermany Fsome#here in the ?0erian !eninsu$aF: 9as this ca$cu$ated
to discoura%e that e8cessi3e +ost,Teheran eu+horia that had de3e$o+ed in 2ussia6 or #as
it a ref$ection of Sta$in's irritation #ith 5hurchi$$ #ho had 0een much more Fdifficu$tF at
Teheran than 2oose3e$t had 0eenE Si%nificant$y:6 the Americans did not fi%ure in the
F5airo 2umourF storyL 2oose3e$t #as treated throu%hout as a 3ery $oya$ friend and a$$y of
the So3iet *nion:
This is not a$tered 0y the fact that 2oose3e$t fai$ed to %i3e any serious thou%ht to the
tentati3e 2ussian su%%estionsD0oth in 1943 and in 1944Dfor $ar%e,sca$e economic co,
o+eration 0et#een 2ussia and America after the #ar6 com+$ete #ith a se3en,0i$$ion,do$$ar
$oan for 2ussian reconstruction: Such Fco,o+erationF #as <no#n to 0e fa3oured 0y
certain im+ortant American 0usiness interests6 0ut fro#ned u+on 0y others6 amon%
#hom6 it #as 0e$ie3ed6 #as Am0assador A3ere$$ .arriman:
PART SEAEN 1944: R1--,) E$&(+- E)-&(+$
E1+#.(
C').&(+ I SOME CHARACTERISTICS O 1944
1943 #as6 in the 2ussian +hrase6 the perelom yearDthe year of the %reat turnin% +oint:
Since Sta$in%rad and es+ecia$$y since 4urs< the 2ed Army had 0een s#ee+in% #est
a$most #ithout a 0rea<: T#o,thirds of the 3ast territory occu+ied 0y the 1ermans in
1941,& had 0een $i0erated 0y the end of 19436 and a$thou%h the 1ermans sti$$ he$d most
of the 9estern *<raine and of Be$orussia and the #ho$e Ba$tic area6 and #ere sti$$
she$$in% enin%rad6 the 2ussians #ere +re+arin% for the fina$ e8+u$sion of the 1ermans
from the So3iet *nion in 1944: 9hat is more6 the 2ed Army6 on its #ay to 1ermany6 #as
%oin% to find itse$f in non,2ussian territory a$$ the #ay from the Ba$<ans to !o$and6 and
this #as %oin% to create a num0er of ne# +o$itica$6 di+$omatic and +sycho$o%ica$
+ro0$ems: Since Sta$in%rad and es+ecia$$y since the fa$$ of Musso$ini6 1ermany's sate$$ites
(Fin$and6 2umania6 Bu$%aria6 .un%ary6 S$o3a<ia) #ere $oo<in% for #ays and means of
%ettin% out of F.it$er's #arF #ith the minimum dama%e to themse$3es: A$ready 3ery ear$y
in 1944 the first +eace,fee$ers #ere +ut out 0y Fin$and6 .un%ary and 2umania: The
Teheran 5onference had fina$$y con3inced these countries that the fi%htin% a$$iance of the
2ussians and An%$o,Americans #as a much more so$id enter+rise than 1erman
+ro+a%anda had tried to ma<e out: The more conser3ati3e e$ements in these countries
#ere ho+in% to soften the ri%ours of a 2ussian occu+ation 0y an acti3e +artici+ation of
Britain and the *nited States in any <ind of +eace sett$ement: Thus6 Admira$ .orthy6 in
his first +eace,fee$er6 #as ready to 0rea< #ith .it$er +ro3ided .un%ary #as Hoint$y
occu+ied 0y So3iet and An%$o,American troo+s:
!o$and continued to 0e the centra$ +ro0$em in Cast,9est re$ations6 and #as to $ead to
many ne# com+$ications in the course of 1944L not that it #as6 in essence6 a +ro0$em 3ery
different from say6 2umania6 Bu$%aria or e3en 5>echos$o3a<iaL 0ut it turned out to 0e the
test,case on #hich a seemin%$y uncom+romisin% stand #as ta<en 0y 0oth the 2ussians
and the 9estern !o#ers: ?n the case of 5>echos$o3a<ia6 for instance6 there #as some
friction and un+$easantness 0et#een Benes and the ondon 1o3ernment,in,e8i$e on the
one hand6 and 1ott#a$d6 4o+ec<y and the other FMosco# 5>echsF on the other6 0ut it did
not come to an o+en conf$ict unti$ $on% after the #ar:
I 1ott#a$d6 for e8am+$e6 criticised the 5>echos$o3a< 1o3ernment in ondon (in some
artic$es in Pravda and e$se#here) for not encoura%in% a more 3i%orous resistance to the
1ermans inside 5>echos$o3a<ia:K
The 2ussians maintained reasona0$y correct re$ations #ith the 5>echos$o3a< Fondon
1o3ernmentF6 and ne3er attem+ted to set u+ a ri3a$ +ro,5ommunist 5>echos$o3a<
1o3ernment either in Mosco# or in the $i0erated +art of 5>echos$o3a<ia: 9hether the
2ussians had any $on%,term +$ans for the future or not6 they seemed #i$$in% to try out the
5>echos$o3a< e8+eriment of an Cast,9est 5o,e8istence Sho+#indo#:
@n the face of it6 !resident Benes's 3isit to Mosco# in Decem0er 19436 a$most
immediate$y after Teheran6 and the si%nin% of a So3iet,5>echos$o3a< !act of Friendshi+6
Mutua$ Assistance and !ost,9ar 5o,o+eration6 #ere a %reat success6 e3en thou%h the
atmos+here surroundin% the 3isit #as not free from a$$ <inds of menta$ reser3ations Dnot
$east in the re$ations 0et#een Benes and Odene< Fier$in%er6 the 5>echos$o3a<
Am0assador6 #ho #as #or<in% hand,in,%$o3e #ith 1ott#a$d and 4o+ec<y6 and #as to 0e
one of the 3i$$ains of the !ra%ue coup of 194J: But much #as made of the 0$essin% %i3en
0y Benes to the 5>echos$o3a< Army units fi%htin% on the So3iet Front6 and to their
5ommander6 5o$one$ S3o0oda: @n Decem0er 1J Sta$in had a meetin% #ith Benes6 in the
+resence of Mo$oto3 and Fier$in%er6 and some sur+rise #as caused 0y the a0sence of any
+hrase $i<e Fcordia$ atmos+hereF in the officia$ statement that such a meetin% had ta<en
+$ace: ?t #as <no#n that6 #ith Sta$in's 0$essin%6 the 5>ech 5ommunists had 0een
accusin% Benes for some time of not encoura%in% a more acti3e 2esistance mo3ement in
5>echos$o3a<iaL ? %athered from BenesD#hom ? sa# a fe# days $aterDthat Sta$in had
raised this =uestion6 too: *n$i<e the !o$es6 the 5>echs in ondon #ere a F%oodF ondon
1o3ernment6 0ut they #ere a (ondon 1o3ernment for a$$ thatL and Sta$in's tentati3e
su%%estion that they mo3e to Mosco# met #ith no res+onse from Benes:
;e3erthe$ess6 Benes's fare#e$$ s+eech on Decem0er &3 #as mar<ed 0y e8treme
cordia$ity6 e8ce+t that the 2ussians #ere not +erha+s a$to%ether +$eased #ith his reference
to the ne# So3iet,5>echos$o3a< !act as one o" the most im+ortant +i$$ars on #hich the
future +o$icy of 5>echos$o3a<ia #ou$d 0e 0ui$t:
oo<in% 0ac< on 19436 2ussia had e3ery reason to 0e in an o+timistic mood6 thou%h6 to
indi3idua$ 2ussians6 the #ar6 #ith its fearfu$ casua$ties6 continued to 0e a 3ery %rim
rea$ity: More and more youn% men #ere 0ein% drafted dai$y into the 2ed Army6 and it
#as on$y too common to meet e$der$y men and #omen #ho had a$ready $ost se3era$ or a$$
of their sons in the #ar: Accordin% to officia$ fi%ures +u0$ished after the #ar6 there #ere
a0out se3en mi$$ion men in the Army at the 0e%innin% of 19446 and since at $east fi3e
mi$$ion men had6 0y then6 0een $ost in t#o,and,a,ha$f years' fi%htin%6 (not to mention the
#ounded)6 it is easy to ima%ine ho# dee+$y the #ar had affected +ractica$$y e3ery fami$y
in the country:
IThe e8act num0er of troo+s in the 2ed Army6 ;a3y and Air Force are not easy to
ascertainL 1enera$ Deane6 head of the *S mi$itary mission in Mosco# since 1943 thou%ht
there #ere Fon the a3era%eF t#e$3e mi$$ion men6 0ut these6 of course6 a$so inc$uded non,
com0at troo+s:K
9or< in the #ar industries6 $ar%e$y run 0y #omen6 ado$escents and e$der$y men6 #as
des+erate$y hard6 #ith o3ertime6 com+u$sory su0scri+tions to State $oans6 3arious
Fcom+etitionsF6 +ractica$$y no ho$idays and often 3ery $itt$e food: Ci%hty to ninety +ercent
of the most$y mea%re rations #ere handed o3er to the factory canteens: The podso4n!ie
*hoziaistva (au8i$iary farms)6 usua$$y no more than 3e%eta0$e +$ots6 attached to each
factory6 +roduced some e8tra 3e%eta0$es6 0ut food su++$ies #ere sti$$ far from %ood: To
the ordinary #or<er6 the *ol*hoz mar<ets #ere of $itt$e he$+ 0ecause of the sti$$ e8or0itant
+rices:
Doctors6 sur%eons and teachers #ere a$$ hideous$y o3er#or<ed: There #ere not near$y
enou%h sur%eons to dea$ ade=uate$y #ith a$$ the #ounded durin% maHor mi$itary
o+erations6 and many $i3es #ere $ost as a resu$t:
The conditions in someDthou%h not a$$Dof the secondary schoo$s of Mosco# in 1944
may 0e i$$ustrated 0y the comments made to me 0y an e$e3en,year,o$d 0oy a0out that
time: There #ere thirty,fi3e +u+i$s in his form6 and one fearfu$$y o3er#or<ed #oman,
teacher for all su0Hects: history6 %eo%ra+hy6 arithmetic6 natura$ science and 2ussian: A$$
the food the chi$dren %ot at schoo$ #as a s$ice of 0read #ith some Fnasty 0itter HamD
American stuff made of oran%esFL some of the <ids thre# this drisn!a (diarrhoea) out of
the #indo#: Amon% the 0oys6 this youn%ster to$d me6 there #as a %ood dea$ of
$a#$essness6 Fhoo$i%anismF and thie3in%L in a short time three +enho$ders6 a ca+ and a
+air of %$o3es had 0een sto$en from him: Most of their fathers #ere in the Army (or
dead)6 and most of their mothers #ere #or<in% end$ess$y $on% hours in a factory: Amon%
these youn%sters there #ere c$ear si%ns of esca+ism: they no $on%er san% the usua$
+atriotic son%s6 0ut an Fesca+istF son% from a recent fi$m a0out 4ostya6 a s#a%%erin%
0eau in the doc<s of @dessa6 or6 #orse sti$$6 a Fhoo$i%anF (i:e: o0scene) 3ersion of the
same son%: The #ar #as6 c$ear$y ha3in% a 0ad effect on secondary education6 and may
#e$$ account for the e8tensi3e #a3e of Hu3eni$e crime that #as to mar< the immediate
+ost,#ar years in 2ussia:
There #as a serious shorta%e of teachin% staff in 19446 and 0oth the e$ementary and
secondary schoo$s suffered most from it: A$so6 in Mosco#Dno# dee+ in the rearDthe
3ery youn% #ere $ess conscious of the immediate #ar tension as $ife #as returnin% to
Fnorma$F6 e8ce+t for the shorta%e of e3erythin%: @n the other hand6 3ocationa$ and trade
schoo$s6 #hose +ur+ose #as to create $ar%e industria$ $a0our reser3es6 #ere %i3en +riorityL
simi$ar$y6 to+ +riority #as %i3en to the trainin% of more and more ne# so$diers:
F
The s+irit of the 2ussian #or<in% c$ass #as sti$$ %ood6 des+ite un=uestiona0$e si%ns of
+hysica$ fati%ue: ?t #as 0etter sti$$ in the Army: ;ot on$y #as there a fee$in% of %reat
e$ation amon% the so$diers6 as e3ery day 0rou%ht ne# 3ictories6 0ut there #as a %reat
nationa$ +ride6 a sense of achie3ement6 and a #e$$,cu$ti3ated desire for more and more
distinctions6 meda$s and decorations: These meda$s and decorations ran into many
mi$$ions6 and acted as a %reat incenti3e to e3ery so$dier: There #ere a$ready FSta$in%rad
meda$sF and Fenin%rad meda$sF and FSe0asto+o$ meda$sF and FMosco# meda$sF and the
end of the #ar #as to see ne# meda$s Ffor the ca+ture of BucharestF6 Ffor the $i0eration
of 9arsa#FDas #e$$ as Be$%rade6 Buda+est6 Aienna6 !ra%ue and Ber$in meda$s6 0esides
a #ho$e ran%e of ne# decorations:
?n the Army 0oth Sta$in and the %enera$s #ere +o+u$ar: ? remem0er the tra%ic6 0ut ty+ica$
case of a nineteen,year,o$d 0oy ? <ne#6 Mitya 4h$udo3: .e 0e$on%ed to a #e$$,<no#n
Mosco# merchant fami$y6 #hose sur3i3ors had ine3ita0$y had a difficu$t time durin% the
ear$y years of the 2e3o$ution: .e #as in an arti$$ery unit durin% the Batt$e of Be$orussia
in the summer of 1944: .e #rote me a $etter6 in #hich he said: F? am +roud to te$$ you
that my 0attery has done #onders in <noc<in% the he$$ out of the Frit>es: A$so6 for our
$ast en%a%ement6 ? ha3e 0een +ro+osed for the !atriotic 9ar @rder6 and6 0etter sti$$6 ?
ha3e 0een acce+ted into the !arty: (es6 ? <no#6 my father and my mother #ere 4urzhuis,
0ut #hat the he$$P ? am a 2ussian6 a hundred +ercent 2ussian6 and ? am +roud of it6 and
our +eo+$e ha3e made this 3ictory +ossi0$e6 after a$$ the terror and humi$iation of 1941L
and ? am ready to %i3e my $ife for my country and for Sta$inL ? am +roud to 0e in the
!arty6 to 0e one of Sta$in's 3ictorious so$diers: ?f ?'m $uc<y enou%h ?'$$ 0e in Ber$in yet:
9e'$$ %et thereDand #e deser3e to %et thereD0efore our 9estern A$$ies do: ?f you see
Chren0ur%6 %i3e him my re%ards: Te$$ him #e a$$ ha3e 0een readin% his stuff::: Te$$ him
#e rea$$y hate the 1ermans after seein% so many horrors they ha3e committed here in
Be$orussia: ;ot to mention a$$ the destruction they'3e caused: They'3e +retty #e$$ turned
this country into a desert:F
Ten days $ater Mitya's sister had another $etter from him6 this time from a hos+ita$: .e
had 0een #ounded6 0ut said he #as fee$in% 0etter and #ou$d soon 0e 0ac< #ith his
0attery: .e %a3e no detai$s of his inHury: But a fe# days $ater he died: 9e $earned $ater
that he had died in one of those terri0$y o3ercro#ded fie$d hos+ita$s in #hich it #as
+hysica$$y im+ossi0$e to %i3e the #ounded a$$ the indi3idua$ attention and care that they
needed:
Mitya's enthusiastic fee$in% of 0ein% Fone of Sta$in's so$diersF #as not the on$y reaction:
But this nationa$ist mood #ith its ea%erness for meda$s and distinctions6 and its hatred of
the ;a>is #ho had Fhumi$iatedF 2ussia6 #as +ro0a0$y the most #ides+read of a$$6 and
#as shared 0y most of the +easant $ads in the Army: Such moods #ere6 of course6
encoura%ed 0y the politotdels, the Army's +ro+a%anda ser3ices: @thers #ere conscious of
0e$on%in% to a $ost and condemned %eneration #hich #as destined to 0e sacrificedDa
mood ref$ected in that +athetic $itt$e $iterary master+iece 0y Cmmanue$ 4a>a<e3ich6 The
%tar, the story of a reconnaissance raid6 #ritten to#ards the end of the #ar: The
consciousness of $i3in% c$ose to death runs throu%h most of the So3iet #ritin% durin% the
#arD #hether in Sur<o3's +oetry6 or Simino3's +oetry and +$ays6 or 1rossman's and
4a>a<e3ich's stories and no3e$s: ?n the +oems of Simeon 1ud>en<o6 a remar<a0$e +oet
(disco3ered durin% the #ar 0y Chren,0ur%) there #as a s$i%ht$y different "rontovi*
menta$ityL #ar to such men is a des+erate6 0ut sti$$ fearfu$$y e8citin% %am0$e6 and6 after
the #ar6 such men fe$t a nosta$%ia for it: .e6 $i<e so many others6 a$so ho+ed it #ou$d 0e a
0etter and freer 2ussia after the #ar:
1944 #as to 0e <no#n as the year of the Ten Aictories:
1: ?n Banuary the enin%rad B$oc<ade #as fina$$y 0ro<en: After a tremendous arti$$ery
0arra%e from the @ranien0aum Brid%ehead6 the 2ussians 0ro<e throu%h the +o#erfu$
1erman rin% of concrete and armoured +i$$0o8es and minefie$ds and Hoined #ith other
2ussian forces stri<in% from the eastL $osses #ere 3ery hea3y on 0oth sides6 0ut #ithin a
#ee< the 1ermans #ere on the run6 and did not sto+ unti$ they reached !s<o3 and the
0orders of Cstonia: There #as immense reHoicin% amon% the )""6""" +eo+$e #ho #ere
sti$$ $i3in% in enin%rad after the fearfu$ thirty,months' sie%e: ?n retreatin%6 the 1ermans
had destroyed many historic 0ui$din%s6 amon% them the +a$aces of !ush<in (Tsars<oie
Se$o) and !a3$o3s<6 south of enin%rad:
&: ?n Fe0ruary and March the troo+s of the &nd *<rainian Front under 4one3 (assisted
0y those of the 1st *<rainian Front under Aatutin) first encirc$ed se3era$ 1erman
di3isions in the 4orsun Sa$ient on the Dnie+er6 and then6 in their famous FMud
@ffensi3eF6 crashed ri%ht throu%h into 2umania6 after forcin% the Bu%6 the Dniester and
the !ruth: They #ere then he$d u+ for a fe# months outside Bassy in ;orthern 2umania:
3: ?n A+ri$ @dessa #as $i0erated6 and in May the 5rimea #as com+$ete$y c$eared:
4: ?n Bune Fin$and #as <noc<ed out 0y the 2ussian 0rea<throu%h to Ai0or% (Aii+uri)
across the 4are$ian ?sthmus: Then6 ha3in% reached the 194" Finnish 0order6 the 2ed
Army sto++ed of its o#n accord6 #ithout +ursuin% its ad3ance on .e$sin<i:
-: ;o $ess s+ectacu$ar than 4one3's offensi3e across the *<raine into 2umania in March
#as the $i0eration of Be$orussia6 after the 2ussians had 0ro<en throu%h the +o#erfu$
1erman Bo0ruis<,Mo%i$e3,Aite0s< fine: ;ear$y thirty 1erman di3isions #ere tra++ed6
chief$y around Mins<6 and the 2ussians ad3anced a$most as far as 9arsa#6 #here the
ArmiHa 4raHo#a insurrection had 0y then 0e%un:
I The ArmiHa 4raHo#a (or A:4:) #as the !o$ish under%round resistance mo3ement
directed from ondon:K
?n the course of this offensi3e the 2ed Army $i0erated a $ar%e +art of Castern !o$and
(inc$udin% the ne# +ro3isiona$ ca+ita$ of u0$in)6 near$y the #ho$e of ithuania6 and6
after forcin% the ;iNmen6 reached the frontiers of Cast !russia:
): ?n Bu$y6 in a +ara$$e$ offensi3e6 the 2ed Army $i0erated the 9estern *<raine6 inc$udin%
#o#6 forced the Aistu$a and6 after an a0orti3e attem+t to 0rea< throu%h to 5raco#6
esta0$ished the im+ortant 0rid%ehead of Sandomier> on the #est 0an< of the Aistu$a6
south of 9arsa#: But after its fai$ure to ta<e 9arsa#6 the 2ed Army did not +ursue its
tas< of 0rea<in% throu%h to 1ermany at any +rice: .ere6 in !o$and6 the concentration of
1erman forces #as6 indeed6 hea3ier than any#here e$se:
7: ?nstead6 in Au%ust6 the 2ed Army struc< out in the southDin Mo$da3ia and 2umania
Dand6 after tra++in% fifteen or si8teen 1erman di3isions as #e$$ as se3era$ 2umanian
di3isions in the Bassy,4ishene3 F+oc<etsF6 s#e+t into 2umania6 +reci+itated 2umania's
surrender6 o3erran Bu$%aria6 reached the 0orders of .un%ary6 and esta0$ished contact #ith
the (u%os$a3s:
J: ?n Se+tem0er Cstonia and most of at3ia #ere freed of the 1ermans: Thirty 1erman
di3isions remained6 ho#e3er6 in 4ur$and +eninsu$a6 and remained there6 as a FnuisanceF
force6 ti$$ the ca+itu$ation of 1ermany in May 194-:
9: ?n @cto0er6 the 2ed Army 0ro<e into .un%ary and Castern 5>echos$o3a<ia6 Hoined u+
#ith the (u%os$a3s and too< +art in the $i0eration of Be$%rade: ?n .un%ary the fi%htin%
#as e8ce+tiona$$y fierce6 and the fi%ht for Buda+est at the end of the year $asted se3era$
months: The city #as not ca+tured unti$ the fo$$o#in% Fe0ruary:
1": ?n @cto0er a$so6 the 2ed Army attac<ed in the e8treme north6 thre# the 1ermans out
of !etsamo6 in the Finnish sa$ient runnin% to the Arctic6 and 0ro<e into ;orthern ;or#ay:
The 3ictories of 1944 #ere s+ectacu$ar6 0ut 3ery fe# of them #ere easy 3ictories: The
1ermans fou%ht #ith e8treme stu00ornness in !o$and (es+ecia$$y in Au%ust6 #hen the
2ussians #ere sto++ed outside 9arsa#)6 at Terno+o$ in the 9estern *<raine (#hich6
#ith its three #ee<s' intensi3e street fi%htin%6 #as reminiscent of Sta$in%rad)L and6 $ater6
in .un%ary and S$o3a<ia: 1erman resistance #as a$so +articu$ar$y fierce in a$$ areas on
the direct road to 1ermany6 nota0$y in the areas adHoinin% Cast !russia and6 $ater6 in Cast
!russia itse$f:
The 1ermans #ere6 at $ast6 o03ious$y outnum0ered: The A$$ies had 0een ad3ancin% in the
#est since Bune6 and 0y Se+tem0er 1ermany had $ost a$$ her a$$ies6 e8ce+t for a fe#
.un%arian di3isions:
(et the 1erman tendency to resist the 2ussians at an! +rice6 and to resist the 9estern
A$$ies $ess stron%$y6 0ecame more and more +ronounced as the #ar #as mo3in% to its
c$ose: The Aistu$a $ine o++osite 9arsa#L Buda+estL Cast !russiaL and6 $ater6 the @der
ine6 #ere defended more des+erate$y 0y the 1ermans than any $ine or +osition in the
#est: A+art from the s#ee+ across the southern *<raine in March6 and the s#ee+ across
2umania in Au%ust (0oth fo$$o#in% an encirc$ement of $ar%e 1erman forces)6 and the
minor o+eration in northern ;or#ay6 none of the 2ussian offensi3es in 1944 #ere in the
nature of a #a$<o3er6 and the nearer the 2ussians %ot to 1ermany6 the more des+erate
0ecame 1erman resistance:
?f6 in 1941 and e3en in 194&6 the 1erman so$dier seemed to so many 2ussians a sou$$ess6
0ut formida0$y efficient ro0ot6 the 2ussian attitude to the 1ermans chan%ed 3ery
+erce+ti0$y durin% 1943 and 1944D0ut in t#o different directions: There #ere sti$$ some
formida0$e 1erman so$diers6 +articu$ar$y the 9affen,SS6 ready to fi%ht to the $ast round6
and e3en <no#n to commit suicide rather than surrender: But the ordinary 1erman #ar
+risoner #as no $on%er the arro%ant indi3idua$ he used to 0e in 1941 and 194&: ;o# more
and more 1erman +risoners tended to #hine6 and tried to $oo< +athetic6 and s+o<e of
F.it$er <a+uttFL the 1941 and 194& desire to 0eat u+ and e3en <i$$ 1erman +risoners had
no# $ar%e$y disa++earedL after a short time the 2ussian so$diers' an%er coo$ed do#n6 and
they #ou$d e3en %i3e ne#$y,ca+tured 1ermans food6 sayin%: F%o on6 stuff yourse$3es6
you 0astards:F
But there #as another side to the F1erman +ro0$emF: ;ear$y e3ery $i0erated to#n and
3i$$a%e in 2ussia6 Be$orussia or in the *<raine had somethin% terri0$e to te$$:
?n Be$orussia6 hundreds of 3i$$a%es in a$$e%ed F!artisan countryF had 0een 0urned do#n6
and their inha0itants either murdered or de+orted: C3ery#here $ar%e cities had 0een
systematica$$y destroyedL in the *<raine6 #here there #as re$ati3e$y $itt$e sco+e for
+artisan #arfare6 the 1ermans had de+orted a 3ery hi%h +ro+ortion of the youn% +eo+$eL
e3ery#here6 in the to#ns6 the 1esta+o had 0een acti3e6 and +eo+$e had 0een shot or
han%ed: The Einsatz*ommandos and other troo+s had 0een 0usy e8terminatin% +artisans
or a$$e%ed Faccom+$icesF of +artisansDoften #ho$e 3i$$a%es6 inc$udin% #omen and
chi$dren: ?n hundreds of to#ns there had 0een the systematic massacre of Be#s: ?n 4ie36
for e8am+$e6 tens of thousands of Be#s had 0een e8terminated in a %u$$y outside the city
ca$$ed Ba0yi (ar: C3ery *<rainian and Be$orussian city had its o#n horror story: As the
2ed Army ad3anced to the #est6 it heard these dai$y stories of terror6 and humi$iations
and de+ortationL it sa# the destroyed citiesL it sa# the mass,%ra3es of 2ussian #ar
+risoners6 murdered or star3ed to deathL it sa# Ba0yi (ar #ith its count$ess cor+ses6
amon% them the cor+ses of sma$$ chi$drenL and6 in the 2ussian so$diers' mind6 the rea$
truth on ;a>i 1ermany6 #ith its .it$er and .imm$er and its &ntermensch +hi$oso+hy and
its uns+ea<a0$e sadism 0ecame hideous$y tan%i0$e: A$$ that A$e8ei To$stoy and
Sho$o<ho3 and Chren0ur% had #ritten a0out the 1ermans #as mi$d com+ared #ith #hat
the 2ussian so$dier #as to hear #ith his o#n ears and see #ith his o#n eyes and sme$$
#ith his o#n nose: For #here3er the 1ermans had +assed6 there #as a stench of decayin%
cor+ses: But Ba0yi (ar #as sma$$ amateur stuff com+ared #ith MaHdane<6 the
e8termination cam+ near u0$in #here one and a ha$f mi$$ion +eo+$e had 0een +ut to
death in a cou+$e of years6 and #hich the 2ussians ca+tured a$most intact in Au%ust 1944:
ISee ++: JJ9 ffK
?t #as #ith the #hiff of MaHdane< in their nostri$s that thousands of 2ussian so$diers
#ere to fi%ht their #ay into Cast !russia::: There #as the Fordinary Frit>F of 19446 and
there #ere the thousands of .imm$er's +rofessiona$ murderersL 0ut #as there a c$ear
di3idin% $ine 0et#een the t#oE For had not Fordinary Frit>esF6 too6 ta<en +art in the
e8termination of F+artisan 3i$$a%esFE And did not the Fordinary Frit>F6 in any case6
a++ro3e of #hat his SS and 1esta+o co$$ea%ues #ere doin%E @r didn't he a++ro3eE .ere
#as 0oth a +sycho$o%ica$ and +o$itica$ +ro0$em #hich #as to %i3e the So3iet %o3ernment
and the 2ed Army command a %ood dea$ of trou0$e6 es+ecia$$y in 1944 and 194-:
The Teheran communi=uN had created in 2ussia a fee$in% of eu+horia: 0ut for a num0er
of reasons this did not entire$y suit Sta$in and the !arty: Sta$in had a++arent$y 0een
irritated 0y 5hurchi$$'s ha$f,hearted attitude to F@3er$ordF6 and a$so 0y his re+eated
%rum0$in% a0out Fthe !o$ish !ro0$emF6 on #hich Sta$in he$d stron% 3ie#s: So in Banuary
1944 Pravda $aunched6 as a$ready said6 its F5airo 2umourF a0out se+arate +eace ta$<s
F0et#een t#o $eadin% British +ersona$ities and 2i00entro+ in a coasta$ to#n of the
?0erian !eninsu$aFDa story #hich #as $ater im+$icit$y re+udiated 0y Sta$in himse$f in the
2ed Army @rder of Fe0ruary &3: This story #as fo$$o#ed 0y a +articu$ar$y sa3a%e attac<
0y Oas$a3s<y in Pravda on 9ende$$ 9i$$<ie (of a$$ +eo+$e) #ho had raised some
=uestionsDin a 3ery mi$d formDa0out #hat the 2ussians #ere %oin% to do a0out !o$and6
the Ba$tic States6 the Ba$<ans and Fin$and:
9i$$<ie6 said Oas$a3s<y6 #as usin% the +hraseo$o%y of the Fenemy cam+FL and then he
#ent off the dee+ end:
I& ,- ',%' &,"( ,& 2)- 1$5(+-&##5 &')& &'( 91(-&,#$ #0 &'( B)/&,3 S&)&(- ,- )$ ,$&(+$)/
S#6,(& ")&&(+ 2',3' ,- $#$( #0 M+ W,//;,(<- 81-,$(--. A$*#$( ,$&(+(-&(5 ,$ -13'
91(-&,#$- -'#1/5 &);( &'( &+#18/( &# 8(3#"( )391),$&(5 2,&' &'( S#6,(& C#$-&,&1&,#$
)$5 2,&' &')& 5("#3+)&,3 ./(8,-3,&( 2',3' &##; ./)3( ,$ &'(-( R(.18/,3-? )$5 /(& ',"
)/-# +("("8(+ &')& 2( ;$#2 '#2 &# 5(0($5 #1+ C#$-&,&1&,#$.
A- 0#+ ,$/)$5 )$5 P#/)$5, $#& &# "($&,#$ &'( B)/;)$ 3#1$&+,(-, &'( S#6,(& U$,#$
2,// ")$)%( &# &'+)-' &',$%- #1& 2,&' &'(", 2,&'#1& )$* )--,-&)$3( 0+#" M+ W,//;,(.
Oas$a3s<y indeed thou%ht it Fmost +ecu$iarF and hi%h$y sus+ect that 9i$$<ie shou$d dare
su%%est that a FcrisisF amon% the *nited ;ations mi%ht 0e a++roachin% o3er this =uestion
of 2ussia's sma$$ nei%h0ours:
A++earin% in Pravda a month after Teheran6 this strident cry of F.ands off Castern
Curo+eF6 #ith its su%%estion of a definite 2ussian Fs+here of inf$uenceF #as much more
indicati3e of comin% disa%reements than 9i$$<ie's artic$e to #hich Oas$a3s<y had so
3io$ent$y o0Hected:
A$$ <inds of $itt$e +in+ric<s continued in the So3iet !ress6 +articu$ar$y a%ainst the BritishL
thus6 in March6 Pravda +u0$icised a story of 1erman #ar +risonersDno# re,ta<en 0y the
2ussiansD#ho had a$$e%ed$y 0een e8chan%ed for British #ar +risoners in ;orth Africa
on the understandin% that they #ou$d not fi%ht the .ritish a%ain6 0ut #ere6 ho#e3er6 free
to %o and fi%ht the 2ussians:
A0o3e a$$6 there continued to 0e a chronic irritation o3er the !o$ish !ro0$em: The 2ussian
offer to amend the 5ur>on ine in !o$and's fa3our 0y %i3in% her Bia$ysto< and a $ar%e
area around it fai$ed to meet #ith any fa3oura0$e res+onse from the !o$ish ondon
1o3ernment: This #as a$so he$d res+onsi0$e for a$$e%ed anti,2ussian acti3ities 0y the
ArmiHa 4raHo#a in !o$and #ho #rote in their c$andestine +ress that there #as Fnothin% to
choose 0et#een .it$er and Sta$inF6 and #ho (the 2ussians a$$e%ed) e3en direct$y
co$$a0orated #ith the 1ermans 0y denouncin% to them certain Be$orussian under%round
$eaders as 5ommunists: ?t #as a$so re+orted in the 2ussian +ress that 1enera$ Anders had
arrested fifty !o$ish officers in Teheran for #antin% to Hoin the !o$ish Army in the So3iet
*nion: Then6 in Banuary 19446 the 2ussians #ere %reat$y annoyed 0y the reser3ations and
innuendos in the British and American +ress concernin% the So3iet methods of
conductin% the in3esti%ation into the #ho$e $urid 0usiness of the 4atyn murders:
.o#e3er6 #ith the Second Front in ;ormandy a++roachin%6 the 2ussian attitude to the
9est %re# considera0$y more cordia$6 thou%h the !o$ish !ro0$em sti$$ continued to
+oison Cast,9est re$ations6 #hich 0ecame +articu$ar$y strained at the time of the 9arsa#
risin% in Au%ust: But6 0y @cto0er6 the atmos+here a%ain chan%ed for the 0etter6 and
An%$o,So3iet re$ations ne3er seemed as o3er#he$min%$y %ood as durin% the 5hurchi$$,
Cden 3isit to Mosco# that month: C3en the most sce+tica$ 0ecame con3inced that6 0y that
time6 0oth Sta$in and 5hurchi$$ thou%ht it e8+edient to remain on the 0est of terms6 at
$east so $on% as the #ar #ith 1ermany #as sti$$ %oin% on: ?t #as6 indeed6 not ti$$ some
#ee<s after (a$ta in Fe0ruary 194- and 3ery near the end of the #ar in Curo+e that the
!o$ish !ro0$em 0ecame acute a%ain6 on$y to %o from 0ad to #orse once the #ar #as o3er:
?n 19446 #ith the end of the #ar in si%ht6 a %reat dea$ of stoc<,ta<in% 0e%an to 0e done 0y
Sta$in and the !arty: The reconstruction and +o+u$ation +ro0$ems in 2ussia re=uired some
$on%,term decisionsL a$so6 the ideo$o%ica$ Fde3iationsF and the 2ussian,nationa$ist
de+artures from Feninist +urityF durin% the #arDand6 indeed6 for some time 0efore the
#arDre=uired some serious adHustments: Fina$$y6 the 3ery fact that mi$$ions of 2ussian
so$diers #ere no# fi%htin% in F0our%eoisF countries in Castern and 5entra$ Curo+e raised
a num0er of a$to%ether ne# +sycho$o%ica$ +ro0$ems: @ne of these #as to 0e created 0y
the 2ussian so$diers' first contact #ith the de+artment stores of Bucharest:
C').&(+ II CLOSE-UP I: UKRAINIAN MICROCOSM
/ "(ittle %talingrad" on the Dnieper
;i<o+o$ #ith its man%anese6 4ri3oi 2o% #ith its iron ore6 and the #ho$e of 2i%ht,Ban<
*<raine (i:e: the *<raine #est of the Dnie+er) Dthat %reat co$onia$ domain of Crich
4och and that future (if not +resent) ;o: 1 %ranary of the %reedy Herrenvol*Dit #as not
easy for .it$er to say %ood0ye to a$$ these: 9ithout them6 #rMne -appe I1Trin%'s Bune
1941 FDirecti3es for the 5ontro$ of Cconomy in the @ccu+ied Castern Territories F:K and
the rest of his su+erman 0$ue+rints #ere on$y fit for the #aste,+a+er 0as<et:
At the end of 1943 the 2ussians had a$ready eaten some distance into 2i%ht,Ban<
*<raine: At the end of Se+tem0er and the 0e%innin% of @cto0er they had +erformed one
of their most astonishin% feats in the #ar: under co3er of ni%ht6 many thousands of men
had forced the mi%hty 0arrier of the Dnie+er at many +oints: They had done it s0*hodu,
that is6 Fon the marchF: ;o sooner had they reached the Dnie+er than thousands ro#ed or
+add$ed across in sma$$ craft6 on im+ro3ised rafts6 on a fe# 0arre$s strun% to%ether6 or
e3en 0y c$in%in% on to +$an<s or %arden 0enches: The 1ermans6 #ho had 0oasted of their
im+re%na0$e Hst:all on the ri%ht 0an< of the Dnie+er6 #ere ta<en com+$ete$y 0y sur+rise:
Their a$$e%ed$y +o#erfu$ fortifications a$on% the #ho$e $en%th of the Dnie+er had6 in fact6
not 0een 0ui$t6 and #hat fortifications there #ere had certain$y not 0een manned in time:
?f any serious resistance came from the 1ermans any#here6 it #as dea$t #ith 0y the
2ussian arti$$ery on the east 0an< of the ri3er: ?n one +$ace as many as si8ty tan<s6 #ith
a$$ o+enin%s +uttied u+6 actua$$y ad3anced under #ater and forded the ri3er: Cnou%h
2ussians crossed the ri3er to form a num0er of 0rid%eheads on the other side: Aatutin's
troo+s esta0$ished se3era$ in the nei%h0ourhood of 4ie36 and6 further south6 4one3's set
u+ no fe#er than ei%hteenL and thou%h6 in the ne8t fe# days6 se3en #ere $ost #ith 3ery
hea3y casua$ties6 the remainin% e$e3en mer%ed into one: As soon as the 0i% 0rid%eheads
had 0een firm$y esta0$ished6 the 2ussians $aid +ontoons across the ri3er6 and 1erman air
attac<s on these #ere usua$$y successfu$$y re+e$$ed than<s to the +o#erfu$ concentration
of 2ussian fi%hters: The 2ussians a$so used t#o 0ri%ades of +aratroo+ers to set u+ the
0rid%eheads: At the 4rem$in 0an=uet durin% the Forei%n Ministers' 5onference in
Mosco# in @cto0er 19436 1enera$ 1iffard Marte$6 head of the British Mi$itary Mission6
said that no army in the #or$d cou$d ha3e +erformed the feat of crossin% the Dnie+er as
the 2ed Army had done:
@n the face of it6 it $oo<ed $i<e a rec<$ess im+ro3isation6 0ut in rea$ity the #ho$e
o+erationD0arre$s6 %arden 0enches and a$$Dhad 0een carefu$$y +$anned in ad3ance6 and
hi%h decorations had 0een +romised to those #ho +articu$ar$y distin%uished themse$3es in
forcin% the Dnie+er: o3er &6""" #ere6 indeed6 decorated after#ards: The 1ermans'
FMa%inot ineF on the Dnie+er +ro3ed 3ery $ar%e$y a +iece of 0$uff6 and once the
+ontoons and ferries #ere com+$eted6 3ast =uantities of hea3y 2ussian e=ui+ment #ere
ta<en across the ri3er6 and6 on ;o3em0er ) the 2ussians $i0erated 4ie36 the ca+ita$ of the
*<raine: Des+ite 3arious u+s and do#ns (such as Aatutin's tem+orary $oss of Ohitomir6
#est of 4ie36 $ater in ;o3em0er) the 1st and &nd *<rainian Fronts had6 0y Banuary6
ca+tured su0stantia$ territories on the ri%ht 0an< of the Dnie+er6 Aatutin's 1st *<rainian
Front I The former Aorone>h Front:K ha3in% ad3anced a$on% a #ide front some 1&- mi$es
#est of the ri3er6 and 4one3's &nd *<rainian Front some ninety mi$es: Sti$$ farther south
there #ere Ma$ino3s<y's 3rd *<rainian Front and To$0u<hin's 4th *<rainian Front: These
four Fronts #ere to $i0erate near$y the #ho$e of 2i%ht,Ban< *<raine 0et#een Banuary and
the 0e%innin% of May 1944:
@03ious$y o3er,ratin% their o#n stren%th6 and under,ratin% the dri3e and s<i$$ of the 2ed
Army6 the 1ermans #ere sti$$ determined Dor at $east .it$er #asDas $ate as Banuary
1944 to c$ear the 2ussians out of the #ho$e of 2i%ht,Ban< *<raineDto 0e%in #ith: 9ith
that end in 3ie#6 they c$un% $i<e %rim death to their 4orsun,She3chen<o3o sa$ient on the
Dnie+er6 a0out fifty mi$es south of 4ie36 and stretchin% some thirty mi$es a$on% the #est
0an< of the ri3er: ;orth of this re$ati3e$y narro# sa$ient #ere Aatutin's troo+s I@n March
1619446 1enera$ Aatutin #as fata$$y #ounded 0y a 0and of *<rainian nationa$ists and
Marsha$ Ohu<o3 too< o3er the command of the 1st *<rainian Front on the fo$$o#in%
day:KL
south of it 4one3's troo+s of the &nd *<rainian Front (former$y FSte++e FrontF): .it$er's
+$an #as to attac< the 2ussians from this sa$ient 0oth north and south of it6 and so to
reco3er the #ho$e of 2i%ht,Ban< *<raine for 1ermanyDa +$an as unrea$istic as so many
other .it$er +$ans durin% the $ater sta%es of the #ar:
The 2ussian command thou%ht different$y: .ere6 it seemed to them6 #as a %o$den
o++ortunity of inf$ictin% a Fsecond Sta$in%radF on the 1ermansDthou%h admitted$y6 on a
sma$$er sca$e:
The simi$arities 0et#een the t#o o+erations #ere6 indeed6 stri<in% enou%h: ?t #as a case
of encirc$in% the 1erman forces 0y the 2ussian northern (Aatutin) and southern (4one3)
+incers Hoinin% some#here #est of the F0a%F6 and of +re3entin% the 1ermans outside it
from 0rea<in% throu%h to their encirc$ed comrades: ?n this case6 the rZ$e of Manstein #as
+$ayed 0y the 1erman Jth Army under 1enera$ .u0eL the most im+ortant difference
0et#een the Sta$in%rad and the 4orsun situation #as that the 1ermans tra++ed at 4orsun
did try to 0rea< out6 #ith the resu$t that the 2ussians had to fi%ht on Ft#o frontsF6 as it
#ere6 on either side of the circ$e they had made round the F4orsunF 1ermans:
@n Fe0ruary 3rd the %reat ne#s #as announced that6 after three days' hea3y fi%htin% the
troo+s of the 1st and &nd *<rainian Fronts6 one stri<in% south,east from Be$aya Tser<o36
the other6 stri<in% north,#est from 4iro3o%rad6 had effected their Hunction near
O3eni%orod<a6 and had thus cut off the $ar%e 1erman F4orsunF sa$ient: The 1erman
di3isions had 0een encirc$ed6 and the si8teen,day 0att$e to $i=uidate them 0e%an: @n
Fe0ruary 96 1orodishche6 inside the 4orsun F0a%F6 #as ca+turedL on the 14th6 4orsun
itse$f #as ta<en6 and a$thou%h that day the 1erman forces6 tryin% to 0rea< throu%h the
rin% from outside6 made some s$i%ht ad3ance6 on the 1-th their further attem+ts to 0rea<
throu%h #ere a$ready Fsuccessfu$$y re+e$$edF: @n the 1Jth6 the 1ermans #ere #i+ed out
in the #ho$e 4orsun Frin%F: The 2ussians c$aimed --6""" 1erman dead and 1J6"""
+risoners6 -"" tan<s6 o3er 3"" +$anes and much e$se:
?t #as in Fe0ruary and the 0e%innin% of March that a$$ the four *<rainian Fronts came
into 3io$ent motion: After $i=uidatin% the 1ermans in the 4orsun Sa$ient6 4one3's &nd
*<rainian Front s#e+t a$$ the #ay into northern 2umania #ithin a fe# #ee<sL north of it6
1enera$ Ohu<o3's 1st *<rainian Front6 meetin% #ith much suffer resistance (it #as
%ettin% nearer 1ermany than any other) sti$$ ad3anced a$on% a #ide front as far as the
5ar+athians and a$most as far as #o#6 ca+turin% 2o3no6 Crich 4och's *<rainian
Fca+ita$F in the +rocess: To the south of the &nd *<rainian Front6 Ma$ino3,s<y's 3rd
*<rainian Front +ushed on6 in a s+ectacu$ar s#ee+6 to 4herson6 ;i<o$ae3 and @dessa6
#hich they ca+tured at the 0e%innin% of A+ri$L and To$0u<hin's 4th *<rainian Front6 after
fina$$y dis$od%in% the 1ermans in Fe0ruary from the ;i<o+o$ 0rid%ehead on the $eft 0an<
of the Dnie+er6 undertoo< its s+ectacu$ar recon=uest of the 5rimea:
9hi$e Ohu<o3 #as crashin% ahead in the northern *<raine and Ma$ino3s<y a$on% the
B$ac< Sea coast6 on March - 4one3 $aunched his %reat offensi3e a%ainst the 1erman Jth
Army under 1enera$ .u0eDthe FMansteinF #ho had fai$ed to rescue the 1ermans
tra++ed at 4orsun: After a #ee<'s hea3y fi%htin% in incredi0$y difficu$t conditions (an
ear$y tha# had set in) 4one3 ca+tured the to#n of *man6 .u0e's +rinci+a$ 0aseL after
#hich the troo+s of the &nd *<rainian Front dro3e on to the Bu% and 0eyond6 not to sto+
unti$ they had in3aded 2umania the $ast #ee< in March: They had co3ered a distance of
o3er &-" mi$es in $ess than a month:
?t #as soon after the $i=uidation of the 4orsun F0a%F and on the day after 4one3's ca+ture
of *man that ? had the %ood fortune of 0ein% the on$y 9estern forei%n corres+ondent
authorised to 3isit the &nd *<rainian Front6 #here ? s+ent one of the most i$$uminatin%
#ee<s of a$$ my #ar years in the So3iet *nion: My +rinci+a$ com+anion #as MaHor
4am+o36 an officer of 1enera$ 4one3's I.e #as to 0e +romoted to the ran< of Marsha$
$ater in 1944:K staff6 #ho #as to remain a $ife,$on% friend6 and #ho #as to 0ecome
famous after the #ar as the no3e$ist FBoris !o$e3oiF:
@n March 1& ? #as f$o#n in an army +$ane from Mosco# across the Dnie+er and o3er
5her<assy to a +$ace ca$$ed 2otmistro3<a #hich had 0een6 unti$ Fe0ruary6 in the northern
+art of the 4orsun sa$ient: @n the fo$$o#in% day ? #as to f$y in a tiny *,& +$ane to *man6
#hich had Hust 0een reca+tured 0y 4one3's troo+s:
?t #as at 2otmistro3<a that ? first met MaHor 4am+o3: .e $oo<ed +a$e and +hysica$$yD,
thou%h not menta$$yDtiredL his uniform #as %ru00y6 and the mud #as s+$ashed ri%ht u+
his army 0oots: For three years he had 0een at itL in the %rim autumn of 1941 he had
0ro<en out of an encirc$ement in the 4a$inin !ro3ince after $osin% most of his menL he
had ta<en +art under 4one3 in the heart0rea<in% 2>he3 offensi3e in 194&L 0ut no# he
had ei%ht months of continuous 3ictories 0ehind him: .e #as s$im6 dar<6 and had %rey
$au%hin% eyes #ith a =uiet$y humorous e8+ression: Ma8im 1or<i6 in his youth6 must ha3e
$oo<ed a $itt$e $i<e him (e8ce+t that one of his eyes #as ha$f c$osed as a resu$t of she$$,
shoc<):
F(ou cou$dn't ha3e come at a 0etter moment6F he said6 Fdo you <no# #hat ha++ened
todayE @ur troo+s ha3e a$ready crossed the Bu%:F This #as %reat ne#s: The Bu%6 on the
#ay to @dessa and 2umania6 #as said to 0e one of the most hea3i$y fortified 1erman
$ines: (?n +ractice6 as ? $ater $earned6 it #as nothin% of the <ind6 since 0efore reachin% the
Bu% the 1ermans had $ost a$$ their hea3y e=ui+ment):
The FMud @ffensi3eF #as in fu$$ s#in%: ?t #as one of the most e8traordinary thin%s that
had ha++enedL it #as contrary to a$$ ru$es of #arfare: Bare$y three #ee<s after the
$i=uidation of the 1erman troo+s tra++ed at 4orsun6 4one3 had struc< out at a time #hen
the 1ermans had $east e8+ected it: So dee+ and im+assa0$e #as the *<rainian mud:
Durin% that #ee< in the *<raine ? #as to hearDand6 indeed seeD a %reat dea$ of the
Fitt$e Sta$in%radF of 4orsun: Since then ? ha3e read 0oth 2ussian and 1erman accounts
of the o+eration6 and #hereas6 0y and $ar%e6 the 2ussian and 1erman 3ersions of #hat
ha++ened at Sta$in%rad coincide6 there are some maHor differences in the t#o 3ersions on
4orsun:
Accordin% to the officia$ 2ussian Histor!, the 1erman troo+s sti$$ in the 0a% after a
fortni%ht's hea3y fi%htin%6 and after the fai$ure of the 1ermans to 0rea< throu%h from
outside6 made a fina$ 0id to 0rea< out of the encirc$ement on the ni%ht of Fe0ruary 1),17:
Des+ite a 3io$ent 0$i>>ard6 they #ere hea3i$y attac<ed6 first 0y arti$$ery and mortar fire
and 0y F$i%ht 0om0er +$anesF6 and then 0y machine,%un fire6 and 2ussian tan<s and
ca3a$ry:
O$/* ) -")// %+#1. #0 ($("* &)$;- )$5 )+"#1+(5 3)+-, 3)++*,$% &'( %($(+)/- )$5
-($,#+ #00,3(+-, -133((5(5, &')$;- &# &'( 8/,CC)+5, ,$ 8+();,$% #1& #0 &'(
($3,+3/("($& ,$ &'( L,-*)$;) )+(), /()6,$% &'(,+ &+##.- &# &'(,+ 0)&(. B(0#+( &')&,
&'(* ')5 -133((5(5 ,$ (6)31)&,$% M,LLL &# @,LLL #00,3(+- )$5 -#/5,(+- 8* ),+. T'(
2'#/( #.(+)&,#$ ($5(5 ,$ &'( /,91,5)&,#$ #0 &($ ($("* 5,6,-,#$- )$5 #$( 8+,%)5(.
55,LLL N)C, #00,3(+- )$5 -#/5,(+- 2(+( ;,//(5 #+ 2#1$5(5, )$5 1N,LLL &);($ .+,-#$(+.
T'( ($("* )/-# /#-& )// ',- (91,."($&, )// #0 2',3' ')5 ) ',%'/* 5("#+)/,-,$% (00(3&
#$ #&'(+ 1$,&- #0 &'( !(+")$ A+"* ,$ &'( U;+),$(.
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?A6 +: )J:K
1erman #riters6 on the other hand6 ha3e tried to minimise the disaster: Accordin% to
Manstein I@+: cit:6 +: -J-: There is a$so a detai$ed account of this 0att$e in
Me$$enthin's Panzer .attles5G on$y si8 di3isions and one 0ri%ade #ere encirc$ed6 tota$$in%
-46""" menDa fi%ure #hich the 2ussians cha$$en%e on the stren%th of 1erman army
documents ca+tured at the time: @ther 1erman historians6 such as !hi$i++i and .eim6
#hi$e (as usua$) +uttin% the #ho$e 0$ame on .it$er for tryin% to han% on to the Futter$y
use$essF 4orsun sa$ient at a$$6 c$aim that #hen the -"6""" encirc$ed troo+s sti$$ $eft there
attem+ted their des+erate 0rea<throu%h on Fe0ruary 176 3"6""" %ot out6 and some &"6"""
F#ere $ostF6 0esides the entire e=ui+ment of a$$ the di3isions that had 0een encirc$ed:
IThe 0i% mar%in 0et#een the 1erman admission of a $oss of &"6""" men and the 2ussian
c$aim of J"6""" 1erman dead6 #ounded or +risoners6 is +erha+s due to the 1ermans
referrin% on$y to the F fina$F 0rea<throu%h attem+t #ithout ta<in% account of the
e8treme$y hea3y fi%htin% that had %one on for a fortni%ht for the $i=uidation of the F0a%F:
9hen the casua$ties the 1ermans suffered durin% this +eriod are added to the &"6""" men
$ost on Fe0ruary 176 the 2ussian fi%ure of J"6""" 0ecomes much $ess im+ro0a0$e:K
9hat is certain is that the 0rea<throu%h of Fe0ruary 17Dunsuccessfu$ accordin% to the
2ussians6 +art$y successfu$ accordin% to the 1ermansD#as 3ery cost$y for the 1ermans:
?n 3ie# of the conf$ictin% +ost,#ar 3ersions6 it may 0e interestin% to =uote MaHor
4am+o3's 3ery dramatic eye,#itness account %i3en me at the time:
After descri0in% ho# the Aatutin and 4one3 troo+s had formed their rin% round the
sa$ient on Fe0ruary 36 4am+o3 said:
F.a3in% 0ro<en throu%h #ith our tan<s and %uns and mo0i$e infantry6 #e no# had to face
4oth :a!s in the 'rin%'Dand6 for a time6 this #as 3ery hard: 9e #ere she$$ed from 0oth
sides6 and #e had to attac< unceasin%$y to #iden our 'rin%'D#hich6 at first6 #as often
on$y some t#o mi$es #ide: @f course6 #e suffered 3ery hea3y $osses: C3en so6 after si8
days6 #e had mana%ed to #iden the rin% to near$y t#enty mi$es at its narro#est +oint:
FAt the 0e%innin% of the encirc$ement the area of the '0a%' #as a$most &4" s=uare mi$es6
and for a $on% time #e had to fi%ht not on$y the troo+s inside6 0ut a$so those outsideDand
these amounted to no fe#er than ei%ht !an>er di3isions:
ISe3en6 accordin% to !hi$i++i and .eim:K
They #ere under the command of 1enera$ .u0e: ?nside the rin% there #ere ten di3isions6
inc$udin% a tan< di3ision6 +$us the Be$%ian SS 9a$$onia Bri%ade: De%re$$e6 the Be$%ian
to+ ;a>i6 #as amon% them 0ut6 a$on% #ith se3era$ 1erman %enera$s6 he esca+ed 0y +$ane:
!ityL it #ou$d ha3e 0een interestin% to 'inter3ie#' him: The Be$%ian SS #ere a$$
under#or$d thu%s and ad3enturers of the #orst <ind:
F9e had 3ery stron% forces in our 'rin%' and .u0e's troo+s did not ma<e much +ro%ress:
As for the '0a%'6 our +o$icy #as to s$ice it into 0its6 and dea$ #ith each 0it se+arate$y: ?n
this #ay #e #i+ed out 3i$$a%e after 3i$$a%e in #hich the 1ermans had entrenched
themse$3es Dit #as 0$oody murder: ?'m afraid some of our o#n 3i$$a%ers +erished6 too6 in
the +rocess: that's one of the crue$$est as+ects of this <ind of #ar:
FAny#ay6 four or fi3e days 0efore the end6 the 1ermans had on$y an area of a0out si8
mi$es 0y se3en and a ha$f6 #ith 4orsun and Shandero3<a as its main +oints: By this time
the #ho$e 1erman '0a%' #as under she$$,fire6 0ut they sti$$ he$d out6 0ecause they #ere
ho+in% for the mirac$e to ha++enDthe mirac$e of .u0e's 0rea<throu%h from outside: But
a$$ these 1erman hi%h ho+es ra+id$y 0e%an to fade out: And then 4orsun fe$$6 and a tiny
area round Shandero3<a #as a$$ that #as $eft:
F? remem0er that $ast fatefu$ ni%ht of the 17th of Fe0ruary: A terri0$e 0$i>>ard #as
0$o#in%: 4one3 himse$f #as tra3e$$in% in a tan< throu%h the she$$,0attered 'corridor': ?
rode on horse0ac< from one +oint in the corridor to another6 #ith a dis+atch from the
1enera$L it #as so dar< that ? cou$d not see the horse's ears: ? mention this dar<ness and
this 0$i>>ard 0ecause they are an im+ortant factor in #hat ha++ened:::
F?t #as durin% that ni%ht6 or the e3enin% 0efore6 that the encirc$ed 1ermans6 ha3in%
a0andoned a$$ ho+e of e3er 0ein% rescued 0y .u0e6 decided to ma<e a $ast des+erate
effort to 0rea< out:
FShandero3<a is a $ar%e *<rainian 3i$$a%e of a0out -"" houses6 and here Stemmermann's
troo+sDhe #as the $ast %enera$ $eft in the '0a%'6 the others ha3in% f$edDdecided to s+end
their $ast ni%ht and to ha3e a %ood ni%ht's rest: 4one3 $earned a0out those +$ans6 and he
#as determined to +re3ent them at any +rice from ha3in% a rest6 and effectin% an
or%anised esca+eDor any <ind of esca+eDthe ne8t mornin%: '? <no# this is a he$$ of a
ni%ht6 #ith this 0$i>>ard 0$o#in%6 0ut #e must %et ni%ht 0om0ers to dea$ #ith the
situation6' he said: .e #as to$d that6 in #eather $i<e this6 it #as +ractica$$y im+ossi0$e to
do anythin% #ith 0om0ers6 es+ecia$$y #ith so sma$$ a tar%et as Shandero3<a: But 4one3
said: 'This is im+ortant6 and ? cannot acce+t these o0Hections as fina$: ? do not #ant to
%i3e any orders to the airmen6 0ut %et ho$d of a 4omsomo$ air unit6 and say ? #ant
3o$unteers for the Ho0': 9e %ot a unit com+osed most$y of 4omsomo$sL a$$ #ithout
e8ce+tion 3o$unteered: And this is ho# it #as done: The *,& +$ayed an immense$y
im+ortant +art in this: Aisi0i$ity #as so 0ad that nothin% 0ut a s$o# $o#,f$yin% +$ane $i<e
the *,& cou$d ha3e achie3ed anythin% at first: The *,&s $ocated Shandero3<a in s+ite of
the 0$i>>ard and the dar<ness: ;ot for a moment did the 1ermans e8+ect them: They f$e#
do#n the #ho$e $en%th of Shandero3<a and dro++ed incendiaries: Many fires #ere
started: The tar%et #as no# c$ear$y 3isi0$e: Aery soon after#ardsDit #as Hust after & a:m:
Dthe 0om0ers came o3er and the +$ace #as 0om0ed and 0$asted for the ne8t hour: @ur
arti$$ery6 #hich #as on$y three mi$es a#ay no#6 a$so concentrated its fire on
Shandero3<a: 9hat made it +articu$ar$y +$easant for us #as our <no#$ed%e that the
1ermans had chased e3ery inha0itant out of Shandero3<a into the ste++e: They had
#anted the +$ace a$$ to themse$3es for their sound ni%ht's rest: A$$ the 0om0in% and
she$$in% com+e$$ed the 1ermans to a0andon their #arm huts6 and to c$ear out:
FA$$ that e3enin% the 1ermans had 0een in a <ind of hysterica$ condition: The fe#
remainin% co#s in the 3i$$a%e #ere s$au%htered and eaten #ith a sort of canni0a$ fren>y:
9hen a 0arre$ of +ic<$ed ca00a%e #as disco3ered in one hut6 it $ed to #i$d scram0$es:
A$to%ether they had 0een 3ery short of food e3er since the encirc$ementL #ith the 1erman
army in constant retreat6 they didn't ha3e $ar%e stores any#here near the front $ine: So
these troo+s at 4orsun had 0een $i3in% most$y 0y $ootin% the $oca$ +o+u$ationL they had
done so e3en 0efore the encirc$ement:
FThey had a$so had a $ot to drin< that ni%ht6 0ut the fires started 0y the *,&s6 and then the
0om0in% and the she$$in% so0ered them u+: Dri3en out of their #arm huts they had to
a0andon Shandero3<a: They f$oc<ed into the ra3ines near the 3i$$a%e6 and then too< the
des+erate decision to 0rea< throu%h ear$y in the mornin%: They had a$most no tan<s $eftD
they had a$$ 0een $ost and a0andoned durin% the +re3ious days' fi%htin%6 and #hat fe#
tan<s they sti$$ had no# had no +etro$: ?n the $ast fe# days the area #here they #ere
concentrated #as so sma$$ that trans+ort +$anes cou$d no $on%er 0rin% them anythin%:
C3en 0efore6 fe# of the trans+ort +$anes reached them6 and sometimes the car%oes of
food and +etro$ and munitions #ere dro++ed on our $ines:
FSo that mornin% they formed themse$3es into t#o marchin% co$umns of a0out 146"""
each6 and they marched in this #ay to ysian<a #here the t#o ra3ines met: ysian<a #as
0eyond our front,$ine6 inside the 'corridor': The 1erman di3isions on the other side #ere
tryin% to 0atter their #ay east#ard6 0ut no# the 'corridor' #as so #ide that they hadn't
much chance:
FThey #ere a stran%e si%ht6 these t#o 1erman co$umns that tried to 0rea< out of the
encirc$ement: Cach of them #as $i<e an enormous mo0: The s+earhead and the f$an<s
#ere formed 0y the SS men of the 9a$$onia Bri%ade and the Ai<in% Di3ision in their
+ear$,%rey uniforms: They #ere in a re$ati3e$y %ood state of +hysi=ue: Then6 inside the
trian%$e marched the ra00$e of the ordinary 1erman infantry6 3ery much more do#n,at,
hee$: 2i%ht in the midd$e of this6 a sma$$ se$ect nuc$eus #as formed 0y the officers: These
a$so $oo<ed re$ati3e$y #e$$ fed: So they mo3ed #est#ard a$on% t#o +ara$$e$ ra3ines: They
had started out soon after 4 a:m:6 #hi$e it #as sti$$ com+$ete$y dar<: 9e <ne# the
direction from #hich they #ere comin%: 9e had +re+ared fi3e $inesDt#o $ines of
infantry6 then a $ine of arti$$ery6 and then t#o more $ines #here the tan<s and ca3a$ry $ay
in #ait::: 9e $et them +ass throu%h the first three $ines #ithout firin% a shot: The
1ermans6 0e$ie3in% that they had dod%ed us and had no# 0ro<en throu%h a$$ our
defences6 0urst into frantic Hu0i$ant screamin%6 firin% their +isto$s and tommy,%uns into
the air as they marched on: They had no# emer%ed from the ra3ines and reached o+en
country:
FThen it ha++ened: ?t #as a0out si8 o'c$oc< in the mornin%: @ur tan<s and our ca3a$ry
sudden$y a++eared and rushed strai%ht into the thic< of the t#o co$umns: 9hat ha++ened
then is hard to descri0e: The 1ermans ran in a$$ directions: And for the ne8t four hours
our tan<s raced u+ and do#n the +$ain crushin% them 0y the hundred: @ur ca3a$ry6
com+etin% #ith the tan<s6 chased them throu%h the ra3ines #here it #as hard for tan<s to
+ursue them:
IThis a++ears to 0e one of the fe# o+erations so $ate in the #ar in #hich ca3a$ry +$ayed
any su0stantia$ ro$e: 5ertain ca3a$ry units6 such as the famous 5ossac< 5or+s under
1enera$ Do3ator (#ho #as <i$$ed on Decem0er 196 1941) had +$ayed a +art in the Batt$e
of Mosco# and in the su0se=uent 2ussian counter,offensi3e6 0ut their $osses had 0een
e8treme$y hea3y at the time: 9hi$e +ro+a%anda %reat$y e8a%%erated the mi$itary
im+ortance of the Do3ator 5or+s6 1enera$ Ma$ino3s<y6 #hom ? sa# on the Don at the
time of Sta$in%rad6 referred to ca3a$ry as F3ery 0eautifu$ and +ictures=ue6 0ut +retty
ineffecti3e in this <ind of #arD#hat can a horse do a%ainst a 1erman tommy,%unEFK
Most of the time the tan<s #ere not usin% their %uns $est they hit their o#n ca3a$ry:
.undreds and hundreds of ca3a$ry #ere hac<in% at them #ith their sa0res6 and massacred
the Frit>es as no one had e3er 0een massacred 0y ca3a$ry 0efore: There #as no time to
ta<e +risoners: ?t #as a <ind of carna%e that nothin% cou$d sto+ ti$$ it #as a$$ o3er: ?n a
sma$$ area o3er &"6""" 1ermans #ere <i$$ed: ? had 0een in Sta$in%radL 0ut ne3er had ?
seen such concentrated s$au%hter as in the fie$ds and ra3ines of that sma$$ 0it of country:
By 9 a:m: it #as a$$ o3er: J6""" +risoners surrendered that day and durin% the ne8t fe#
days: ;ear$y a$$ of them had run a $on% distance a#ay from the main scene of the
s$au%hterL they had 0een hidin% in #oods and ra3ines: FThree days $ater at DHur>hantsy
#e found the 0ody of 1enera$ Stemmermann: Soon after#ards 1enera$ 4one3 had a
%ood $au%h #hen the 1erman radio announced6 #ith a$$ sorts of detai$s6 ho# .it$er had
+ersona$$y handed him a hi%h decoration: For 1enera$ Stemmermann #as dead6 ri%ht
enou%h: ? sa# his 0ody as it $ay there: @ur +eo+$e had $aid him out on a rou%h #ooden
ta0$e in a 0arn: There he $ay6 com+$ete #ith his orders and meda$s: .e #as a $itt$e o$d
man6 #ith %rey hairL he must ha3e 0een a )orpsstudent IMem0er of a 1erman students'
due$$in% association:K in his youn% days6 Hud%in% from the 0i% sa0re scar on one chee<:
For a moment #e #ondered #hether it #asn't a$$ a: fa<eL +erha+s an ordinary so$dier had
0een dressed u+ in a %enera$'s uniform: But a$$ Stemmermann's +a+ers #ere found on the
0ody: They mi%ht ha3e fa<ed a$$ the o03ious +a+ers6 0ut they cou$d scarce$y ha3e had the
idea of for%in% a B$ac< Forest %un $icence6 com+$ete #ith the man's +icture6 and issued in
1939::: 9e 0uried him decent$y: 9e can afford to 0ury a %enera$ decent$y: The rest #ere
dum+ed in ho$es in the %roundL if #e started ma<in% indi3idua$ %ra3esD#e don't do that
e3en for our o#n +eo+$eD#e #ou$d ha3e needed an army of %ra3e,di%%ers at 4orsun:::
And there #as no time to #aste: The %enera$ is 3ery +articu$ar a0out cor+sesDthey must
0e c$eared a#ay in t#o days in summer6 in three days in #inter::: But dead %enera$s aren't
a$$ that fre=uent6 so #e cou$d %i3e him a +ro+er 0uria$: Any#ay6 he #as the on$y %enera$
there #ith any %uts: A$$ the rest of them had 0eat it 0y +$ane:
F.ad he committed suicideEF ? as<ed:
F;o6 a she$$ s+$inter %ot him in the 0ac<D0ut many of the SS,men did commit suicide6
thou%h hard$y any of the others:
FA$to%ether6 the 1ermans $ost o3er 7"6""" of their 0est troo+s in their attem+t to ho$d the
4orsun sa$ient6 --6""" dead and 1J6""" +risoners:F
F9hat had they done #ith their #oundedE ?s it true that they <i$$ed them offEF
F(es: And that no dou0t contri0uted to the hysteria that mar<ed their $ast ni%ht at
Shandero3<a: The order to <i$$ the #ounded #as strict$y carried out: They not on$y shot
hundreds of themDshot them as they usua$$y shoot 2ussians and Be#s6 throu%h the 0ac<
of the head6 0ut in many cases they set fire to the am0u$ance 3ans6 #ith the dead inside:
@ne of the oddest si%hts #ere the charred s<e$etons in those 0urned,out 3ans #ith #ide
0race$ets of +$aster,of,!aris round their arms or $e%s: For +$aster,of,!aris doesn't 0urn:::
FThe 4orsun de0ac$e +re+ared the %round for our +resent s+rin% offensi3e: ?t #as
+sycho$o%ica$$y immense$y im+ortant: To some e8tent the 1ermans had for%otten
Sta$in%radL at any rate6 the effect of Sta$in%rad had +art$y #orn off: ?t #as im+ortant to
remind them: ?t's %oin% to hei%hten enormous$y their fear of encirc$ement in future:F
? find it hard to say #hether 4am+o3's fi%ures are any more correct than +ost,#ar
2ussian or 1erman fi%uresL and #hether it is true6 as a++ears from his account6 that no
1ermans 0ro<e out at a$$L +ro0a0$y some didD+articu$ar$y the %enera$s: @r +erha+s they
$eft 0y air a fe# days 0efore: But6 un$i<e the du$$ Ftechnica$F tone of most of the +ost,#ar
mi$itary $iterature6 4am+o3's accountDe3en a$$o#in% for a $itt$e romancin%6 es+ecia$$y
a0out the ca3a$ryDseems to %i3e a stri<in% and truthfu$ +icture of 0oth the hysterica$ and
des+erate mood of the hardened ;a>i troo+s as they found themse$3es tra++ed6 and of a
rea$ ruth$essnessDFno time to ta<e +risonersFDamon% the 2ussian troo+s at the end of a
fortni%ht's e8treme$y cost$y fi%htin% a%ainst 0oth sides of the Frin%F:
Konev0s .litz*rieg through the -ud
The *<rainian mud in s+rin% has to 0e seen to 0e 0e$ie3ed: The #ho$e country is
s#am+ed6 and the roads are $i<e ri3ers of mud6 often t#o feet dee+6 #ith dee+ ho$es to
add to the difficu$ty of dri3in% any <ind of 3ehic$e6 e8ce+t a 2ussian T,34 tan<: Most of
the 1erman tan<s cou$d not co+e #ith it:
1enera$ .u0e's Jth Army6 ha3in% fai$ed to 0rea< throu%h to the 4orsun 0a%6 and ha3in%
suffered 3ery hea3y $osses in the +rocess6 decided6 in s+ite of it a$$6 to ho$d its +art of the
$ine runnin% from 4iro3o%rad in the south to Ainnitsa in the north6 name$y the $ine south
of the 4orsun F0a%F6 no# in 2ussian hands6 and some forty mi$es north of the to#n of
*man: The 1ermans assumed that #hi$e the %chlammperiodeS,the dee+,mud +eriodD
continued6 there #as nothin% to fear6 and6 mo0i$isin% thousands of *<rainian ci3i$ians6
they #ere 0usy fortifyin% their ne# $ine north of *man:
?t #as on March -6 #ith the mud and Froad$essnessF at their #orst6 that 4one3 started his
fantastic FB$it><rie% throu%h the MudF: ?t started #ith a %i%antic arti$$ery 0arra%e a%ainst
the 1erman $inesL #ithin si8 days6 the 1ermans #ere dri3en forty mi$es 0ac<6 and chased
out of *man: The mud #as such that they a0andoned hundreds of tan<s and truc<s and
%uns6 and f$edDmost$y on footD to *man and 0eyond: At one rai$#ay station the
2ussians ca+tured a ne#$y,arri3ed train #ith &4" 0rand,ne# tan<s: *sua$$y6 ho#e3er6 the
1ermans 0urned or 0$e# u+ 0oth $orries and tan<s:
A$thou%h 2ussian tan<s #ere a0$e to ad3ance throu%h the mud6 the arti$$ery $a%%ed
0ehindL and it #as 3ery often a case of 2ussian infantry6 sometimes su++orted 0y tan<s6
0ut sometimes not6 +ursuin% 1erman infantry: 4one3's Mud @ffensi3e #as Fa%ainst a$$
the ru$esF6 and the 1ermans had certain$y not e8+ected it: The 2ussian infantry and tan<s
ra+id$y ad3ancin% to the Bu% and 0eyondDand6 0efore $on%6 to#ards 2umaniaD#ere
0ein% su++$ied #ith food6 munitions and +etro$ 0y a $ar%e num0er of 2ussian +$anes:
These a$so did some strafin% of 1erman troo+s6 and #ou$d ha3e done more 0ut for the
#eather: The on$y 3ehic$es6 a+art from T,34 tan<s6 that ad3anced fair$y successfu$$y
throu%h the mud #ere the Stude0a<er truc<s6 for #hich the 2ussian so$diers #ere fu$$ of
+raise:
Aery stri<in%6 as ? #as to disco3er in the ne8t fe# days6 #as the hi%h mora$e of the
2ussians and the +oor mora$e of the 1ermans6 #ho had 0een unner3ed 0y the 4orsun
disaster6 0y the suddenness of 4one3's March - offensi3e and 0y the $oss of +ractica$$y
a$$ then,hea3y e=ui+ment:
9ith the +ermission of 1enera$ 4one36 the MaHor and ? f$e# in t#o tiny *,& +$anes from
2otmistro3<a to *man the ne8t day: F$yin% in a *,& is #hat6 in chi$dhood6 one ima%ined
f$yin% to 0e $i<e: Stuffy6 c$osed +assen%er +$anes are nothin% $i<e it: Sittin% in the o+en
seat 0ehind the +i$ot ? someho# fe$t that ? #as rea$$y f$yin% for the first time: At no more
than si8ty mi$es an hour #e f$e# o3er the houseto+s of 2otmistro3<aL chi$dren in %ardens
and +eo+$e on the roads #a3ed6 and #e #a3ed 0ac<: 9e f$e# most$y at t#enty or thirty
yards a0o3e the %round: At first the co$d #ind hurt my eyes6 0ut #hen the +i$ot +assed me
a +air of %o%%$es it #as +erfect: i<e a 0ird6 the +$ane di3ed do#n 3a$$eys and ra3ines6
then darted u+ o3er hi$$s and #oods6 and circ$ed o3er to#ns and 3i$$a%es #hich #ere of
s+ecia$ interest: The sno# had disa++eared6 and there #as s+rin% in the air: The earth #as
dar<,0ro#n and a$most 0$ac<6 and the trees #ere sti$$ 0are6 0ut one a$ready ima%ined the
har3est risin% from the rich #et earth: 9e circ$ed a$$ o3er the F4orsun sa$ientF: Some
3i$$a%es #ere intact6 0ut 3ery fe# +eo+$e #ere to 0e seen6 and hard$y any catt$e: But other
3i$$a%es6 es+ecia$$y Shandero3<a6 #here the 1ermans had s+ent their $ast ni%ht6 #ere
nothin% 0ut a hea+ of ru00$e6 thou%h many cherry and a++$e trees #ere sti$$ standin%
amon% the ruins: From Shander,o3<a6 throu%h the hi$$y country to the #est6 there ran t#o
roads6 $i<e t#o %$ossy 0ro#n ri00ons6 a$on% #hich6 on that Fe0ruary 176 the 1ermans had
%one to their death:
Then #e circ$ed o3er a +$ain: hundreds of 1erman he$mets sti$$ $ay a0out6 0ut a$$ 0odies
had 0een 0uriedL and soon the %rass #ou$d %ro# o3er the many thousand 1ermans #ho
had 0een s$au%htered here:
;e8t came se3era$ $ines of trenchesDthese had 0een 1erman trenches ti$$ March -:
.a3in% crossed these shattered 1erman $ines6 #e f$e# for many mi$es o3er roads that
+resented the stran%est s+ectac$e: They #ere c$uttered u+ #ith thousands of 0urned,out
$orries6 and hundreds of tan<s and %uns #hich the 1ermans had a0andoned in their
+anic<y retreat throu%h the mud: And this stran%e6 static +rocession of 0urned,out
3ehic$es stretched a$$ the #ay to *man:
After a0out t#o hours in the *,& #e $anded on *man airfie$d: .ere #ere se3era$ #rec<ed
1erman +$anes6 and6 at the far end of the fie$d6 the enormous stee$ s<e$eton of a 0urned,
out 1erman trans+ort +$ane6 a Bun<ers 3&3:
The MaHor ta$<ed a0out his 0oss6 1enera$ 4one3: F4one3F6 he said6 Fis an o$d so$dier: .e
fou%ht in Si0eria durin% the 5i3i$ 9ar: There he or%anised +artisan 0ands6 then 0ri%ades6
fina$$y di3isionsL he #as +o$itica$ commissar of one of the +artisan di3isions and
commanded an armoured train #hich fou%ht a%ainst the Ba+s: ater6 armed #ith a rif$e6
he too< +art in the stormin% of 4ronstadt durin% the 2e0e$$ion there in '&1: Both in
Si0eria6 and in 4ronstadt6 he had Fadeye36 the #riter6 #ith himL they ha3e remained o$d
friends e3er since:
FThey ca$$ him 'the %enera$ #ho ne3er retreated': That is6 of course6 untrueL #e a$$
retreated in '416 0ut 4one3 $ess than most6 and he #as one of the first to counter,attac<D
at (e$nia in Au%ust '416 and it #as a$so he #ho ad3anced further than anyone e$se in the
#inter counter,offensi3e of '41,4&:
F(ou'3e ne3er met himE .e is 4J6 a$most 0a$d and %rey,haired: .e is 0road,shou$dered6
and can 0e 3ery stern: But usua$$y there is a %ay t#in<$e in his eyes: *sua$$y he #ears
%$asses and is a %reat reader: .e carries a $i0rary #ith himL he $i<es to read i3y6 and a$so
our c$assics6 #hom he $o3es to =uote in con3ersationDsomethin% from 1o%o$6 or
!ush<in6 or $ar and Peace5 .e $i3es in a sim+$e +easant hut6 and #hen he tra3e$s a$on%
the front he #ears a c$oa< so as not to em0arrass the so$diers 0y his +resence: .e is 3ery
austere in his ha0itsL doesn't drin<6 and o0Hects to others %ettin% drun<: .e is 3ery
e8actin% 0oth to himse$f and others: @f his +eace,time ho00ies the one he misses most is
+artrid%e shootin%L he is a %reat shot: 9hat e$se can ? say a0out himE .e has a smatterin%
of Cn%$ish and can read it fair$y easi$y: .e admires Sta$in 0oth as a $eader and as a #riter6
and is a stron% !arty man: ? ha3e seen him readin% a Sta$in @rder6 and ha3e heard him
say: 'That's rea$$y first,c$ass: That's the #ay to #rite: C3erythin% fits: There is thought
0ehind e3ery #ord:'F A ty+ica$ 1944 comment on 4one3Dand Sta$inP
?n the ne8t fe# days ? #as to$d 0y the mi$itary authorities at *man that the tota$ $osses the
1ermans had suffered in the #ee< since 4one3's March - offensi3e #ere: o3er )"" tan<s
(&-" of them in %ood condition)6 1&6""" $orries (most of them destroyed)6 )-" %uns and
fifty ammunition and su++$y stores: ?n a #ee< the 1ermans had $ost a0out &"6""" dead6
0ut on$y &-6""" +risonersL they #ere sti$$ des+erate$y a3oidin% 0ein% ta<en +risoner: The
2ussian $osses a$so had 0een hea3y durin% the 0rea<throu%h attem+t6 0ut 3ery $i%ht since
then6 #ith the 1ermans on the run:
? a$so remem0er a 3ery re3ea$in% ta$< ? had #ith an air force co$one$ durin% that #ee< at
*manDre3ea$in%6 0ecause his attitude to the 9estern A$$iesDno# in March 1944D#as
so much #armer than #hat one had found in the 2ed Army 0efore: .e ta$<ed of the #ay
the air force #as su++$yin% the army6 as it #as ad3ancin% Fto#ards 2umaniaF (the #ords
F2umaniaF and FMama$y%aF #ere on e3ery so$dier's ton%ue in that +art of the #or$d)
IMama$y%a is mai>e +orrid%e6 the sta+$e diet amon% +oorer 2umaniansL these #ere
condescendin%$y referred to as mamal!zh-ni*i5 i:e: mama$y%a,eaters:K 6#ith food6
ammunition and +etro$L and then he said:
FThe 1erman air force is much #ea<er no# than it used to 0e: Aery occasiona$$y they
send fifty 0om0ers o3er6 0ut usua$$y they don't use more than t#enty: There's no dou0t
that a$$ this 0om0in% of 1ermany has made a $ot of difference to the 1erman e=ui+ment6
0oth in the air and on $and: @ur so$diers rea$ise the im+ortance of the A$$ied 0om0in%sL
the British and Americans6 they ca$$ them 0nashi0Dthat is 0our0 +eo+$e::: A $ot of the
1erman fi%hters no# ha3e to o+erate in the #est and #e can do a $ot of strafin% of
1erman troo+s6 sometimes e3en #ithout much air o++osition:F And he added: FThose
4ittyha#<s and Airoco0ras are damned %oodDnot $i<e $ast year's Tomaha#<s and
.urricanesD#hich #ere +retty use$ess: But here #e most$y use So3iet +$anes6 es+ecia$$y
$o#,f$yin% stormovi*s #hich scare the +ants off the 1ermans:::F
The Tur4ulent To:n o" &manDDostoevs*ian .ishop and other odd characters
?n a #ay6 the sma$$ to#n of *man #as a microcosm of the #ho$e *<raine: ?ts +o+u$ation
had dro++ed from 436""" to 176""": To $i3e here for a #ee< #as to see somethin% of
near$y e3ery as+ect of *<rainian $ife under the 1erman occu+ationDe8ce+t hea3y
industry of #hich there #as none for many mi$es around: *man #as the centre of a $ar%e
rura$ area6 one of the richest in the *<raine6 noted for its #heat6 su%ar,0eet6 mai>e6 fruit
and 3e%eta0$es: i<e many other to#ns in the *<raine6 its +o+u$ation 0efore the #ar had
0een a0out one,=uarter Be#ishL no# you did not see a sin%$e Be#ish face in the streets:
.a$f the Be#s had esca+ed to the east in 19416 0ut the -6""" #ho had stayedDchi$dren
and a$$D#ere herded one ni%ht into a 0i% #arehouse: a$$ the #indo#s and doors #ere
0oarded u+ and hermetica$$y sea$ed6 and a$$ of them died of suffocation #ithin a cou+$e of
days: The *<rainians in the to#n did not ta$< much a0out it: they seemed to $oo< u+on it
as rather a routine matter under the 1ermans: There #ere no# +artisans in the to#n6 and
there had 0een a So3iet under%round durin% the occu+ation: There had a$so 0een 3arious
<inds of co$$a0orators6 and *<rainian nationa$ists6 and6 stran%e$y6 the 2ed Army #as sti$$
often referred to as Fthe Bo$she3i<sF or Fthe 2edsF6 as thou%h they #ere somethin%
e8traneous to this tur0u$ent +art of the *<raine6 #ith its o$d !et$ura and Ma<hno
traditions:
I!et$ura6 head of an e+hemera$ *<rainian nationa$ist F1o3ernmentF in 191J6 and
Ma<hno6 head of a +easant anarchist mo3ement durin% the 5i3i$ 9ar6 #ere 0oth
notorious for their 0anditry and anti,Semitic +o%roms: !et$ura #as assassinated 0y a Be#
in !aris in 19&J:K
But the 0i%%est o0session #as de+ortation: ;ear$y 1"6""" youn% +eo+$e from *man had
0een de+orted as s$a3e $a0our: @n$y fe# had esca+ed 0y Hoinin% the +artisans6 not stron%
in this +art of the *<raine:
The day #e arri3ed *man +resented a fantastic si%ht: @ne $ar%e 0ui$din% in the centre of
the to#n #as sti$$ smou$derin%: The streets #ere crammed #ith 0urned,out 1erman
3ehic$es6 and #ere $ittered #ith thousands of +a+ers6 trodden into the mud: office records6
+ri3ate documents and $etters6 +hoto%ra+hs6 and a$so #ho$e 0und$es of #e$$,+rinted
co$oured $eaf$ets in *<rainian e8a$tin% the F1erman,*<rainian A$$ianceF: @ne said
FDo#n #ith Bo$she3ismF and sho#ed a man$y hand in a %reen s$ee3e tearin% do#n a red
f$a% #ith the hammer,and,sic<$eL another sho#ed a 1erman so$dier sha<in% hands #ith
another +erson in an unreco%nisa0$e +ear$,%rey uniform: F@ur a$$iance #i$$ %i3e
ha++iness to a$$ the nations of Curo+eFL sti$$ another ca$$ed F@ath to the Father$andF
sho#ed a cro#d of %a$$ant horsemen raisin% their arms to hea3en and s#earin%: F;one
#i$$ $ay do#n his arms #hi$e our *<raine is ens$a3ed 0y the Bo$she3i<s F
I These $eaf$ets #ere a++arent$y +art of one of the ha$f,0a<ed attem+ts to set u+ an anti,
2ussian and +ro,;a>i F*<rainian ArmyF a$on% A$aso3 $ines: These attem+ts came to
$itt$e6 and it #as not ti$$ the end of 19446 #hen Bandera6 Me$ni< and other *<rainian
Fnation,
a$istsF #ere $i0erated 0y the 1ermans6 that they encoura%ed somethin% of an anti,So3iet
%uerri$$a #ar in the 9estern *<raine6 #hich #as to $ast ti$$ 1947: There had6 of course6
0een iso$ated anti,So3iet %uerri$$a 0ands 0efore that6 some inde+endent of the 1ermans: ?t
#as one such 0and that assassinated 1enera$ Aatutin near 4ie3 in March 1944: At the
end of the #ar6 a num0er of SS officers too< +art in this *<rainian %uerri$$a #ar a%ainst
the So3iets: Bandera #as re$eased 0y the 1ermans in Se+tem0er 1944 and Me$ni< a
month $ater: (See Dahin6 o+: cit:6 +: )&4:)K
Amon% a$$ this ru00$e6 in a 3acant s+ace 0et#een t#o houses6 $ay a dead 1erman so$dier
Da youn% $ad6 of not more than ei%hteen6 #ith the face of a s$ee+in% chi$d: But his 0e$$y
had 0een crushedD +ro0a0$y 0y some 3ehic$e in the mad stam+ede #hich had
accom+anied the 1ermans' +anic<y f$i%ht from *man:
A standin% Ho<e #as one of a 1erman %enera$ dri3in% out of *man on a ric<ety o$d farm
tractor #ith a came$,$i<e mo3ement6 one of the fe# 3ehic$es a0$e to co+e #ith the dee+
mud:
There #ere 3ery fe# +eo+$e in the streets of *man that dayL they sti$$ seemed fri%htened
to come out after a$$ the firin% durin% the +re3ious days6 and there #ere no mi$itia in the
streets6 0ut6 instead6 #eird fi%ures on foot or on horse0ac<Dmen #ith hi%h fur ca+s6 #ith
red ri00ons attached: Many #ere #earin% 1erman army o3ercoats: These #ere +artisans
from the nei%h0ourhood: ? ta$<ed to some of them: @ne6 a youn% fe$$o# in a 0$ood,
stained 1erman o3ercoat6 to$d a $on% story of ho# he had 0een arrested and tortured 0y
the SDL ho# he had then esca+ed to the +artisans6 ho# the 1ermans had then murdered
his #ife6 #ho had stayed at *man: .e said this #ith an uncanny ca$m: FThere #ere $ots
of traitors in this to#n6F he saidL Fand the #orst #as the chief han%man of the SD6 a
0astard ca$$ed Aoro+aye3L 0ut no# the ;4AD ha3e %ot him under $oc< and <ey: 9e'$$
see that he %ets han%ed a$$ ri%ht:F
Another of the +artisans #as a fat man6 c$ean,sha3en #ith a %reasy ca+ on the 0ac< of his
head: he mi%ht #e$$ ha3e come strai%ht out of a +u0 in eeds or Manchester: .e had
#or<ed at the rai$#ay de+ot at *man as the chief $iaison man #ith the +artisansDF9e
are he$+in% the So3iet authorities6F he said6 Fto catch a$$ the s+ies and traitorsF:
F
MaHor 4am+o3 and ? stayed at an im+ro3ised 2ussian officers' hoste$6 and sa# a
#onderfu$ 3ariety of +eo+$e at *man durin% that #ee<: The house had 0een inha0ited 0y
1erman officers unti$ a fe# days 0efore6 and a %ood search had 0een made for mines and
0oo0y,tra+sL one had 0een found inside the tinny o$d +ianoL if anyone had struc< one of
the <eys6 it #ou$d ha3e +o++ed off:
The ne8t day there #ere not on$y many so$diers6 0ut a$so rather more ci3i$ians than 0efore
in the streets of *man6 #ith its sma$$6 nondescri+t6 most$y e8,Be#ish houses in the centre6
and its more +$easant *<rainian thatched cotta%es #ith %ardens on the outs<irts: ? mi8ed
#ith a $ar%e cro#d of ci3i$ians #ho had come to the main s=uare for the mi$itary funera$
of a 2ussian tan<,cre#: A$most the so$e su0Hect of con3ersation #as de+ortation to
1ermany: !ractica$$y a$$ the youn% +eo+$e in the to#n had 0een de+orted: The techni=ue
of de+ortation 3aried from time to timeL in some +$aces6 the 1ermans had started 0y
offerin% tem+tin% $a0our contractsL once a fe# do>en +eo+$e had fa$$en for the offer6 the
rest #ere mo0i$ised com+u$sori$y: But there #ere #ays of dod%in% de+ortationDif one
#as $uc<y and #ea$thy enou%h to 0e a0$e to 0ri0e a 1erman doctor or a 1erman officia$:
There #as much corru+tion amon% the 1ermans: Se$f,muti$ation #as a$so fair$y
common$y +ractised to a3oid de+ortation:
? a$so heard stories of 2ussian 5ossac<s ser3in% under the 1ermans: They #ere a 0ad $ot:
A fe# days 0efore the 1ermans e3acuated *man6 some of these 5ossac<sDso the story
#entD#ere $et $oose6 and $ooted +art of the to#n6 and ra+ed se3era$ %ir$sL they #ere said
to ha3e 0een #earin% 2ed Army uniforms and the 1ermans said they #ere a 2ussian
ad3ance unit: @ne theory #as that the 1ermans #anted the +o+u$ation to 0e terrorised at
the thou%ht of the 2ussians' comin%6 and to f$ee to the #est:
The 1esta+o and SD had 0een 3ery acti3e in *man: The Be#s had a$$ 0een murderedL 0ut
the 1esta+o had a$so 0een acti3e amon% non,Be#ish ci3i$iansL $ater6 ? #ent to see the fie$d
outside the +rison6 and here #ere the fresh 0odies of some se3enty or ei%hty ci3i$ians
#hom the 1ermans had shot 0efore $ea3in% *man: Amon% them #ere a $ot of ordinary
+easants and +easant #omen6 sus+ected of6 and im+risoned for6 F+artisanF acti3ityL
amon% the dead 0odies ? a$so sa# a $itt$e %ir$ of si86 sti$$ #ith a chea+ $itt$e rin% on her
fin%er: She must ha3e 0een shot so that she #ou$dn't te$$: ? a$so sa# the 1esta+o .:Q:
#ith hideous instrumentsDsuch as a hard,#ood truncheon #ith #hich +risoners' hands
#ere smashed durin% interro%ation:
9e s+ent one e3enin% at the To#n So3iet: 9hat a stran%e assem0$y of +eo+$e #ere round
the su++er ta0$eP MayorDi:e: 5hairman of the 5ity So3ietDOa<haro36 a sma$$ +a$efaced
man6 #ith dar< hair 0rushed 0ac<6 had 0een one of the chief +artisan $eaders of the
*<raine: .e had 0een #ounded three timesL here a$so #as the former Bisho+ of
Ta%anro%L and a doctor6 a ty+ica$ o$d,time inte$$ectua$6 #ith a $itt$e 0eard and %$asses6
$oo<in% rather $i<e 5he<ho3L and an e$der$y #oman teacher6 and a stout c$ean,sha3en
man in a semi,mi$itary tunic6 #ho $oo<ed a ty+ica$ !arty man6 0ut #ho dec$ared himse$f
to 0e a 0an<er: FA 0an<erPF ? said6 Fho# do you meanEF (es6 he #as a 0an<er a$$ ri%htL he
#as the head of the Mo$da3ian 0ranch of the So3iet State Ban<L and no# that the 2ed
Army #as 0eyond the Bu% and #ou$d soon 0e in Bessara0ia6 he #as e8+ectin% soon to
ta<e u+ his former duties a%ain:
The Mayor #as not an *<rainian6 0ut a 2ussian: .e had 0een a++ointed Mayor 0y the
mi$itaryDFsu0Hect to the +o+u$ation's su0se=uent a++ro3a$:F ?t made me #onder #hether
the Army did not +refer to see rea$ 2ussians in res+onsi0$e administrati3e Ho0s in $ar%e
*<rainian to#ns6 immediate$y they reca+tured them6 rather than *<rainiansD#ho mi%ht
0e more to$erant of the frai$ties of *<rainian human nature: 9as it a coincidence that in
*man6 and 0efore that in 4har<o36 and after that6 in @dessa:6 the Mayor shou$d ha3e 0een
a 2ussianE (et6 in the +ure$y 2ussian to#n of Aorone>h6 the Mayor #as an *<rainian:
?n the *<raine6 #ith on$y sma$$ forests6 the Mayor said6 the +artisans cou$d o+erate on$y
in sma$$ %rou+sL the $ar%est of the fi3e %rou+s he had or%anised #ere t#o of &"" to 3""
men each6 o+eratin% in the Ainnitsa forests: They had their #ire$ess recei3in% sets6 and
they mu$ti%ra+hed $eaf$ets #ith So3iet #ar ne#s for distri0ution in the to#ns and
3i$$a%es: They #ere short of arms6 and as a %enera$ ru$e they acce+ted no one #ithout
armsL 3o$unteers #ere to$d to Hoin the *<rainian +o$ice force6 o0tain as many arms and as
much ammunition as +ossi0$e6 and then come 0ac<: The Ainnitsa +artisans had had many
0$oody 0att$es #ith 0oth 1erman +uniti3e e8+editions and 5ossac<s6 and6 com+ared #ith
Be$orussia and other more #ooded +arts of the country6 their casua$ties #ere 3ery hea3y:
9or<in% round *man #as +articu$ar$y difficu$t6 0ecause there #ere hard$y any forests
around here: ;e3erthe$ess6 the fi3e units had succeeded in derai$in% forty,three trains
#ith mi$itary e=ui+ment in 1943 a$one6 and had other darin% e8+$oits to their credit:
Bein% #ounded in Bu$y 19416 Oa<haro3 said6 he had 0een una0$e to fo$$o# the 2ed Army6
and had 0een ta<en +risoner 0y the 1ermans: But he esca+ed and came to *man6 #hich
#as a$ready under 1erman occu+ationL he had arri3ed in @cto0er 19416 and6 since then6
he had 0een F#or<in% for the %ood of his country:F ?n 194& he #as arrested 0y the
1esta+o and sa3a%e$y 0eaten and inHured in the s+ineL Fso ? <no# ho# the 1esta+o
=uestion +eo+$eF: .e #as $ater re$eased6 and disa++eared for a #hi$e6 a++earin%
after#ards at Ainnitsa6 com+$ete #ith a 0eard and +riest$y ro0es: For $on% inter3a$s he
#ou$d 3anish to the #oods #here the +artisans <ne# him as F*nc$e MityaF:
F?t #as a hard and %rim $ifeF6 he said6 Fthey #ere merci$ess and so #ere #e: And #e sha$$
0e merci$ess #ith the traitors no#:F .e s+o<e in a soft6 rather tired 3oice: F?t's no use
cryin% in #artime6F he remar<ed: FThou%h there #ere not many of us6 #e sti$$ mana%ed to
#orry the 1ermans a $otL in the sma$$er to#ns and the 3i$$a%es round Ainnitsa6 #e #ou$d
+ut u+ notices at ni%ht sayin%: '(ou are the 0osses from 7 a:m: to 7 +:m:L #e are the
0osses from 7 +:m: to 7 a:m:6 and you are for0idden to come out of your houses:' And6 0y
hea3en6 they usua$$y o0eyed the orderL and #hen they didn't they #ere often sorry:::F
As for $ife in the to#n of *man durin% the occu+ation it #as6 on a sma$$ sca$e6 much #hat
? had a$ready seen in 4har<o3Dthe 3irtua$ a0o$ition of schoo$s6 and a %reat deterioration
in the hea$th ser3icesL the num0er of c$inics #as cut do#n 0y three,=uarters: Most of the
sma$$ #or<sho+s had disa++eared #ith the <i$$in% of the Be#s: The one im+ortant industry
of the to#n6 the $ar%e su%ar refinery6 had 0een destroyed 0y the 1ermans: ?t #as ur%ent to
restore it: ?n one res+ect thou%h6 it #as 3ery different from 4har<o3L in this rich
a%ricu$tura$ area6 there #as a$#ays sufficient food to <ee+ +eo+$e more or $ess a$i3e:
? as<ed Oa<haro3 a0out the a%ricu$tura$ +o$icy and administration:
I The 0est and most detai$ed account #e ha3e on the 1erman a%ricu$tura$ +o$icy in the
*<raine #i$$ 0e found in A$e8ander Da$$in's #erman Bule in Bussia5 This sho#s that the
under$yin% +o$icy #as e8+$oitation +ure and sim+$e6 and that the attem+t to de+art from
the *ol*hoz system and ma<e other concessions to the +easants so that they shou$d
+roduce more #ere either 3ery ha$f,hearted or #ere sa0ota%ed 0y &ntermensch maniacs
$i<e Crich 4och6 the 1erman o3er$ord of the *<raine: 9hat #ith future +$ans for
co$onisin% the *<raine #ith 1ermans6 the *<rainian +easants' distrust of the 1ermans
#as com+$ete:K
@n the #ho$e6 the 1ermans considered this +art of the *<raine 3ery much their %ranary6
and they had done a$$ they cou$d to <ee+ a%ricu$ture %oin%: They had not s+$it u+ the
farmsL or rather6 for +ro+a%anda +ur+oses6 they had6 in some +arts6 distri0uted the $and
amon% the +easants on one co$$ecti3e farm in a hundred6 #ith the im+$ication that this
#ou$d a$so 0e done on the other farms sooner or $ater: They had made 3arious other
+romises6 0ut no one trusted them6 and meantime they stuc< to the *ol*hoz or%anisation
as 0ein% the easiest to hand$e: The cu$ti3ation in the main had not 0een as thorou%h as
0efore the #ar6 0ecause there #eren't enou%h tractors6 e3en #ith those the 1ermans had
im+ortedL the +easants often had to +$ou%h the fie$ds #ith horses and e3en co#sL 0ut t#o
thin%s had assured a %ood so#in% of #inter #heat: the ru00er truncheon of the 1erman
officia$s6 and much more so6 the so$id 0e$ief that the 2ussians6 and not the 1ermans6
#ou$d rea+ the har3est in 1944::: 2e3o$tin% conditions e8isted in many 3i$$a%es: The
starosta #as a++ointed 0y the 1ermansDhe mi%ht ha3e 0een a %ood man6 or a 0ad man6
or sim+$y a #ea< manL 0ut a0o3e him there #as a$#ays an SS chief: FThere's one 3i$$a%e
? <no#6F said Oa<haro36 Fand it's not the on$y one of its <indD#here the SS man #ou$d
order the starosta to su++$y him #ith %ir$s e3ery ni%ht6 inc$udin% youn% %ir$s of thirteen
or fourteen:F
F.ere at *man #e had three #e4iets*ommissars in succession: the #e4iets*ommissar
#as the 5hief for the ci3i$ian +o+u$ation: .e #as assisted 0y a num0er of SS officers:
Then there #as the Mi$itary Kommandatur+ then there #as the a%ricu$tura$ chief for the
area6 the (and:irtscha"ts"Mhrer, a 0rute ca$$ed Bot<e6 #ho on his day off #ou$d %o to the
+rison to #atch6 and ta<e +art in6 the e8amination and torture of +risonersL he #as a rea$
sadist: The Bur%omaster of *man #as a 1ol*sdeutscher F1erman,s+ea<in% and of
1erman descent6 thou%h not of 1erman nationa$ity:K ca$$ed 1ensch6 and he had an
*<rainian assistant ca$$ed 4#iat<i#s<i: The +o$ice #ere com+osed of the 1esta+o6 the
S:D:6 and an au8i$iary *<rainian +o$ice force: ?nto this they sim+$y mo0i$ised +eo+$eL
some of the *<rainian +o$ice immediate$y esca+ed and Hoined the +artisans6 #ith the
firearms they had recei3ed6 or had mana%ed to ta<e: The *<rainian +o$icemen #ho ha3e
stayed 0ehindDthou%h the 1ermans tried to %et most of them a#ay6 #hether they #anted
to or notD#i$$ 0e indi3idua$$y e8amined: Some of them undou0ted$y #or<ed for their
country6 thou%h in 1erman ser3iceL 0ut those #ho #ere traitors sha$$ 0e treated
accordin%$yF:
FThere seems to ha3e 0een a $ot of contradictory orders as re%ards 2i%ht Ban< *<raine6F
the Mayor said: F? <no# of three orders: the first #as 'don't destroy'Dit came from .it$er
himse$f at a time #hen the 1ermans #ere sti$$ confident they #ou$d reco3er a$$ the
%round $ost on the 2i%ht Ban<L then there #as a second order6 from one of the %enera$s of
the Jth Army6 #hich said 'destroy'L and since then6 there has 0een a third one6 a%ain
sayin% 'Don't': ? don't <no# #ho is res+onsi0$e for this one: So they may sti$$ ha3e a fe#
i$$usions $eftL 0ut they can't $ast $on% no#P ?n the to#ns6 ho#e3er6 they ha3e a$#ays tried
to destroy at $east the main 0ui$din%sL you'$$ ha3e seen somethin% of that here in *manL
they #ere in a de3i$ of a hurry here6 so most of the dama%e is $imited to the 0i% 0ui$din%s
on the outs<irts6 es+ecia$$y near the airfie$d: And6 of course6 there's a$so the +o#er,station
#hich near$y e3ery#here is amon% the first thin%s to %o::: F
By far the most co$ourfu$ of the Mayor's %uests that ni%ht #as the +riest6 the Archierei6
i:e: the Bisho+ of Ta%anro%6 a 0isho+ of the F0$ac<F or monastic c$er%y: .e #as a
handsome man6 #ith a #himsica$ $oo< in his eyes6 rosy chee<s and a 0$ond6 si$<y 0eard:
.e #as certain$y a 0it of a ro%ue:
.e dran< 3od<a $i<e a .ero of the So3iet *nion on $ea3e6 0ut carried it remar<a0$y #e$$6
e8ce+t that his humour %re# more #himsica$ and cra>y as the e3enin% #ent on: .ea3en
<no#s #hat he rea$$y thou%ht at the 0ac< of his mind as he sat there6 the %uest of honour
at the Bo$she3i< Mayor's su++er ta0$e: .e must ha3e chuc<$ed to himse$f at the thou%ht
of itL in fact6 his #ho$e con3ersation #as $i<e one unceasin% chuc<$e: FAh6F he said6 Fthe
mornin% the 2ed Army #a$<ed into *man6 and some of the dear 0oys came into my
house6 and em0raced me and as<ed me for a drin<6 ? 0rou%ht out a 0ott$e of 3od<a6 and6
0e$ie3e it or not6 ? dran< to Bose+h Aissariono3ich Sta$inP Dran< to him for the first time
in my #ic<ed $ifeP That's #hat the 1ermans did to mePF he chuc<$ed %ai$y: FThey made
me face death three timesL ? s+ent si8ty,si8 days in Hai$ 0ecause ? #ou$dn't <nuc<$e under
themL not ?P But they're terri0$e +eo+$e6 and if you don't #ish to +erish6 you ha3e to <ee+
your #its a0out you: ;o# $oo< at this6F he said6 +ointin% at his enormous diamond cross6
Fdo you thin< they #ou$d ha3e $et me <ee+ this if they had seen itE ;ot theyDnot the
thie3es and ro00ers that they are: 9hy6 it's #orth6 ? am to$d6 #e$$ o3er a hundred
thousand rou0$es: ? recei3ed it fi3e years a%o from the !atriarch Ser%ei himse$f: ? hid it in
a nice cosy safe +$ace as soon as the 1ermans cameL ? #asn't %oin% to ta<e any chances
#ith this +recious cross Ser%ei had %i3en me as a to<en of his esteem:F
F? had a $ot of trou0$e #ith the 1ermans6 ? can te$$ you6F he said6 F? rea$$y suffered for my
country: .o# ? adore the 2ed ArmyPF he cried6 and6 0endin% o3er the shou$der of the
maHor sittin% 0eside him6 he <issed the e+au$ette #ith a $oud 3o$u+tuous smac<: F(ou
don't mind6 5omrade MaHor6 do youE et me <iss it a%ainPF (1osh6 ? thou%ht to myse$f6
the o$d 0uffoon6 Father 4arama>o3 come to $ife a%ainP) ? a$so thou%ht for a moment the
MaHor #ou$d resent this +iece of 0uffoonery6 0ut he too< it $i<e a man6 and mere$y
$au%hed: F@h6 ? <no#F6 the .i%h !riest #ent on6 Fthe 1ermans +retended they #ere %reat
5hristiansL they o+ened fi3e churches in this to#n of *manD0ut #hat forE For 1erman
+ro+a%anda6 for un,5hristian6 heathen +ro+a%anda: And #hen they sa# that it had no
effect6 they turned a%ainst the church: The men of the Kommandatur #ou$d 0rea< into the
church durin% Di3ine Ser3ice6 and they carried ru00er truncheons: They #ere afraid of
our 2ussian nationa$ism: 9hat =uarre$s6 #hat ar%uments #e had #ith themP They
e8+ected us to reco%nise the Metro+o$itan Serafim of Ber$inDa ;a>i6 ? te$$ you: But they
said he #as the rea$ head of the 2ussian 5hurch and dec$ared that that ho$y man the
!atriarch Ser%ei #asD? hard$y can re+eat itDan im+ostor6 #ho had 0een a++ointed 0y
Sta$in: ';o'6 ? said6 'he has not 0een a++ointed 0y Sta$in6 0ut 0y the Metro+o$itans: ::' '@h'6
they said6 'they're Hust a sma$$ %rou+ of im+ostors6 a 0unch of 4rem$in stoo%es::: ' ? said6
';o6 the !atriarch of Mosco# is the on$y .ead ? can reco%nise': But these ar%uments
rea$$y started $ater: At first6 ? must say that6 to my eterna$ shame6 ? thou%ht ? cou$d ta<e
ad3anta%e of the 1ermans' arri3a$6 and o+en a fe# churches at Ta%anro%Dfor at that time
? #as sti$$ at Ta%anro%: They sounded encoura%in% at firstDno use denyin% it: @n$y6 my
trou0$es soon started: ? #as to$d that ? #as e8+ected to ma<e a s+eech to the faithfu$6
denouncin% the Mosco# !atriarch and acce+tin% the authority of their Ber$in
Metro+o$itan: They e3en said ? shou$d say +rayers for a 1erman 3ictory: ? fai$ed to do
either6 and #as6 of course6 du$y re+orted6 and ordered to %o to 2osto36 #here ? #as hau$ed
o3er the coa$s 0y a 0i% 1erman chief6 #ho said: 'oo< here6 (our Cminence6 if you thin<
the 1erman Army needs your +rayers6 you are =uite #ron%: But don't ma<e any mista<e
a0out itL #e %i3e %ood mar<s to those #ho do +ray for us6 and 0ad mar<s to those #ho do
not: And6 he added6 'the 0ad mar<s can 0e 3ery 0ad indeed': 9hat a nasty6 horrid man he
#asP F
For a $on% time there #as no serious trou0$e6 0ut then6 sudden$y6 he #as ordered to $ea3e
Ta%anro% for 4a<ho3<a6 in the *<raine6 #here the 1ermans a%ain 0rou%ht +ressure to
0ear on him6 this time in rea$ earnest: They #anted him as Fan *<rainian Bisho+F to ma<e
a +u0$ic denunciation of the !atriarch Ser%ei6 and to #rite a $on% artic$e #hich the +a+ers
throu%hout the *<raine #ou$d +u0$ish: A%ain he chuc<$ed into his 0$ond si$<y 0eard: F?
#rote them an artic$eDit made their hair stand on endP So they sim+$y $oc<ed me u+D
they $oc<ed me u+ in a dar< ce$$ #ithout a #indo#L and they star3ed me6 and often $eft
me for a #ho$e day #ithout #ater: ? stayed in that ce$$ for si8ty,si8 days and ni%hts::: And
as ? sat there in the dar<6 hun%ry and thirsty6 ? <e+t sayin% to myse$f: '? am doin% the ri%ht
thin%: .o# can ? not reco%nise the !atriarch #ho %a3e me my diamond crossE .o# can ?
not reco%nise Sta$inE .e %a3e me my +ass+ort:' And ? said to myse$f: ';o6 ? sha$$ not
#or< for the enemies of my +eo+$e6 e3en if it costs me my $ife':F
?t #as not =uite c$ear ho# and #hy he #as $et out in the endL 0ut it seems that he #as
de+ri3ed of his $ar%e church6 and %i3en on$y a sma$$ church at *man: .e had one more
ar%ument #ith the 1ermans6 thou%h6 and =uite recent$y: F@ne day the #e4iets*ommissar
ca$$ed for me6 and said: ';o# #hat do you ma<e of thisE The Arch0isho+ of (or< has
3isited Mosco#:' (The 1erman +a+ers #ere6 indeed6 fu$$ of it:) '9hat do you ma<e of the
An%$o,Sa8ons and the Bo$she3i<s con=uerin% Curo+eE ' ? said ? did not ma<e anythin% of
it: ? tried to sound as sim+$e as ? cou$d6 and ? said: '9hate3er ha++ens6 it #i$$ 0e the #i$$
of 1od': The #e4iets*ommissar %ot 3ery an%ry and said: '? am not as<in% for any
emotiona$ utterances from you::: ? #ant you to thin< in a rationa$ s+irit:' ? said he cou$d
not e8+ect me to 0e too rationa$L ? #as a !riest6 and therefore #hate3er 1od the Father
and .is Son6 Besus 5hrist6 decided6 #as %ood enou%h for me:' And ? =uoted to him the
ord's !rayerD'Thy #i$$ 0e done:' .e didn't $i<e it6 and to$d me to %o to he$$:F And6 #ith
a chuc<$e6 he added: FFancy te$$in% a Bisho+ to %o to .e$$PF
? as<ed #hat he #as %oin% to do no#: F;o#F6 he cried6 Fno# ? sha$$ 0e ha++y::: .a++y
and fri%htened:::F F9hy fri%htenedEF F@ohP ? am fri%htened6 fri%htened of the !atriarchF6
he s=uea$ed6 0ecomin% more and more Dostoye3s<ian in his 0uffoonery: F@ohP .e is
such a %reat man: Such a +o#erfu$ mind: Do you <no# that his s<u$$ is si8ty,three
centimetres in circumferenceE A %reat 0rain: After a$$F6 he e8+$ained in a dramatic
#his+er6 F? did #or< #ith the 1ermansL oh6 on$y a teeny,#eeny 0it6 0ut ? #or<ed #ith
them a$$ the same::: ?t's true6 ? refused to +ray for a .it$er 3ictoryL nor did ? #rite the
artic$e that they demanded from me denouncin% the Mosco# !atriarch::: But sti$$ ? am
fri%htened: Ser%eiDhe is such a disci+$inarianP But ? am not fri%htened of Bose+h
Aissariono3ich6 #ho <no#s ? am $oya$: .e6 in Ms infinite #isdom <no#s that ? am not
$i<e the Bisho+ of Ainnitsa: .e esca+ed to 1ermany 0y +$aneL they e3en too< some catt$e
a#ay 0y +$ane: They too< shee+ and 0isho+s a#ay 0y airPF .e %i%%$ed6 and re+eated
FShee+ and Bisho+sPF And6 turnin% to the Mayor6 he said: F? <no# you'$$ a%ree #ith me
that Bose+h Aissariono3ich #i$$ not 0e an%ry #ith me::: But Ser%ei6 oh ? am fri%htened of
that %reat6 %rand o$d manP But +erha+s his %reat heart #i$$ soften #hen he $earns that ?
had to $i3e in hidin% the $ast three #ee<s the 1ermans #ere here: And ? a$so #ant to #rite
a $itt$e 0oo< #hich #i$$ 0e a de3astatin% ans#er to the fou$ and $i0e$$ous 0oo< that #as
#ritten 0y a 1ol*sdeutscher ca$$ed A$0recht6 a0out our @rthodo8 5hurch6 and ? #ant to
+rint on the co3er a $ar%e 0$ac< ser+ent #ith a s#asti<a on its tai$::: But ? sha$$ atone for
my sins: ? sha$$ ser3e my country6 %reat Mother 2ussia6 and her %reat So3iet 1o3ernment6
and +ray for them as $on% as ? $i3e::: And so6 for the second time in my sinfu$ $ife6 $et me
drin< #ith you a$$ to our %reat $eader Sta$inP F
9e dran< to Sta$in: @ur host and the others $istened to a$$ this #ith to$erant amusement:
The Archierei #as a ty+ica$ case6 an a3era%e case: .e #as no hero6 0ut he had not
Fco$$a0oratedF #ho$ehearted$yL that6 at $east6 #as fair$y c$ear: C3ery0ody understood that6
in the +ast6 he cou$d ha3e had 0ut $itt$e $o3e for the So3iet re%ime6 and one had to ma<e
a$$o#ances for this: .e had6 for a short time6 ta<en ad3anta%e of the 1ermans' a++arent
desire to encoura%e the re3i3a$ of the @rthodo8 5hurch6 0ut had soon rea$ised that they
#ere on$y out for their o#n ends:
The roads continued to 0e ri3ers of mud6 0ut one mornin% the MaHor #an%$ed a
Stude0a<er in #hich #e dro3e to the Bu%6 #est of *man: Thou%h the 2ed Army #as #e$$
0eyond the Bu%6 on its #ay to 2umania6 there #ere many +eo+$e on the road: so$diers
#ho #ere #adin% throu%h the mud to#ards the Bu%6 and they #ere Ho3ia$ and in hi%h
s+iritsL and ne# $a0our 0atta$ions of +easants #ho #ere 0ein% sent to re+air the rai$#ay6
and #ho #ere not $oo<in% too +$eased to 0e dra%%ed a#ay from their farmsL and6 $ast$y6
ne# army recruits6 #ho #ere %oin% to *man to re+ort for ser3ice in the 2ed ArmyDno#
that6 #ith the $i0eration of this +art of the *<raine6 they had 0ecome a3ai$a0$e: Some of
these $oo<ed sin%u$ar$y unenthusiasticL Fho#e3er6F said the MaHor6 Fthey'$$ soon %et used
to the idea #hen they see so many of their fe$$o#,*<rainians6 #ith hi%h decorations6 in
the 2ed Army:F There #as no dou0t6 he said6 that the 1erman occu+ation had
demora$ised many +eo+$e in this +art of the country6 and #hi$e they hated the 1ermans6
they had a$so $ost much of their Fso3iet,consciousnessF and had 0ecome +arochia$ in their
out$oo<:
9e sto++ed in one or t#o 3i$$a%esL they had not suffered much from the #arL nor had
more than t#o 1ermans e3er 0een stationed thereL ne3erthe$ess the 1erman officia$s
re%u$ar$y came on a #ee<$y ins+ection6 and s$ac<ness and a0senteeism #ere se3ere$y
dea$t #ithL a 1erman sur3eyor #ith a #hi+ tra3e$$ed around the fie$ds in a 4rich*a and
thre# his #ei%ht a0out: ?n case of any trou0$e the +o$ice #ere ca$$ed for: Sus+ected
s$ac<ers #ere 0eaten u+: !ro+ortionate$y6 there #ere much fe#er de+ortations to
1ermany from these 3i$$a%es than from the to#nsL the food de$i3eries #ere ri%orous$y
e8acted6 and the +easants said that in fact the #ho$e out+ut of the *ol*hoz #as ta<en 0y
the 1ermans6 and they themse$3es had to $i3e on #hate3er their Findi3idua$F +$ots
yie$dedL ho#e3er6 in summer6 most of the +erisha0$e fruit and 3e%eta0$es #ere $eft to
them6 too6 as the 1ermans did not ha3e enou%h trans+ort to ta<e them a#ay: The
1ermans had made 3a%ue +romises of s+$ittin% u+ the $and amon% the +easants after the
#ar6 0ut there #ere fe# i$$usions on that score:
This +art of the *<raine had 0een treated as an im+ortant source of food for 1ermany:
C3en so6 the area under cu$ti3ation #as on$y ei%hty +ercent of +re,#arL 0ut e3en this #as
0etter than the country round 4har<o36 #here ? had 0een in the +re3ious summer6 and
#here on$y forty +ercent of the $and had 0een cu$ti3ated: A0out t#o months 0efore the
1ermans $eft6 they started ta<in% much of the $i3estoc< to 1ermany: This6 of course6
created much anti,1erman fee$in%: C3en so6 and e3en des+ite the de+ortations6 many
+easants #ere a$oof and seemed indifferent to #hat #as ha++enin%L it #as c$ear that the
So3ietsDor Fthe 2edsF6 as the +easants here ca$$ed themD#ou$d ha3e a Ho0 to de3e$o+ a
+ro+er Fso3iet,consciousnessF amon% these +eo+$e: As 4am+o3 said: FThey $i3ed
reasona0$y #e$$ under the occu+ationL for the s$y *<rainian +easant is the %reatest
3irtuoso in the #or$d at hidin% food: .e a$#ays hid it from usL you can ima%ine ho#
much 0etter sti$$ he hid it from the 1ermansP And no# that the 1ermans ha3e
disa++ointed them6 they ho+e that may0e :e sha$$ scra+ the *ol*hozes5 But #e #on't::: F
&*rainian Deportees
;ear$y four mi$$ion Hstar4eiter from the So3iet *nionDmost of them from the *<raine
D#ere de+orted as s$a3e $a0our to 1ermanyL and6 in the *<raine6 this #as ;o: 1
%rie3ance a%ainst the 1ermans: ;ot on$y the de+ortations themse$3es 0ut6 e3en more so
+erha+s6 the #ay in #hich they #ere carried out:
?n *man6 ? had $on% ta$<s #ith t#o $oca$ %ir$s6 Aa$ya and 1a$ina6 #ho had mana%ed to
return from de+ortation: Aa$ya6 a dar< $itt$e %ir$ of t#enty6 must ha3e 0een +retty on$y
t#o years 0efore6 0ut no# #as 0ro<en6 and $oo<ed $i<e a fri%htened $itt$e anima$: To %et
a#ay from 1ermany she had +ut her hand under a f$a8,cuttin% machine and had a$$ four
fin%ers cut off:
F@n Fe0ruary 1&6 194&6 at t#o in the mornin%6 the *<rainian +o$ice came6 fo$$o#ed 0y
some 1erman %endarmes in %reen uniform6 and ? #as ta<en a#ay under escort to Schoo$
;o: 4: From there6 to%ether #ith a $ot of other %ir$s6 #e #ere ta<en at - a:m: to the
rai$#ay station6 and +ac<ed into %oods #a%onsDse3enty of us:::
FAfter a 3ery $on% Hourney #e %ot to some to#n6 #here #e #ere +ut in a cam+6 a$$ the
#omen #ere made to stri+ and #ere sent to 0e de$oused: Then6 0efore reachin% Munich6
#e #ere ta<en to a 3i$$a%e ca$$ed o%o#: There #e $i3ed in a cam+6 unti$ a manufacturer
arri3ed6 and he too< us a$$ to a f$a8,com0in% factory: 9e $i3ed there in a 0arrac<s
attached to the factoryDit #as rea$$y a sort of cam+ too: A $itt$e farther a#ay6 $i3ed some
French and Be$%ian #ar +risonersL and in another +art of the cam+ #ere some !o$ish and
Be#ish %ir$s: ? stayed in this +$ace se3en and a ha$f months: 9e %ot u+ at fi3e in the
mornin%6 and6 #ithout food6 #e #ent on #or<in% ti$$ t#o in the afternoon: Then #e
#ou$d %et t#o s+oonfu$s of 0oi$ed turni+ and a s$ice of 0read6 #hich inc$uded sa#dust
and other su0stitutes: After that another shift came on6 and it #or<ed unti$ e$e3en or
t#e$3e o'c$oc<: For an e3enin% mea$ #e recei3ed three or four sma$$ 0a<ed +otatoes and a
cu+ of ersat> coffeeL that #as a$$ the food #e e3er %ot:
FThe 1ermans in the factory #ere 3ery 0ruta$: ? #as once 0eaten 0y a 1erman #oman: ?t
#as #hen ? to$d her that the machine #as out of order: She s$a++ed my face and +unched
me6 as if it #as my fau$t: Another time #hen the machine #ent #ron%6 the foreman a$so
hit me6 sayin% ? #as a 0verdammte .olshevi*05 .e hit and hit me a%ain6 and ? cried:
FThere #as so much f$a8,dust in the +$ace6 they had to <ee+ the e$ectric $i%ht on a$$ day: ?t
#as a terri0$y de+ressin% +$ace: 9e recei3ed no money at a$$: ? #as so sic< of a$$ this6 of
the dust6 and the 0ad food6 and the 0eatin%s6 and my c$othes that #ere a$$ %oin% to +ieces6
0ecause they #ou$d not %i3e us any #or< c$othes6 and a$$ the insu$ts6 and a$$ the
0verdammte .olshevi*0 and that co$d6 contem+tuous air #ith #hich the 1ermans ta$<ed to
us and $oo<ed at us6 as thou%h #e #eren't rea$ +eo+$e6 that my ner3es 0e%an to %o to
+ieces: There #as some #i$d %ar$ic %ro#in% outside6 and #e used to +ic< it6 and ru0 our
%ums #ith it6 0ecause #e #ere a$$ de3e$o+in% scur3y6 and our teeth #ere 0e%innin% to fa$$
outL 0ut the Director once arri3ed and said it #as ver4oten to che# %ar$ic 0ecause he
cou$d not stand the stin<: At the rai$#ay station one dayD#e #ere made to un$oad coa$
once a #ee<Dthere #as another ro# o3er the %ar$icL one of the foremen6 seein% me
che#in% %ar$ic6 <ic<ed me in the shins6 and hit me o3er the faceL 0ut the other %ir$s 0e%an
to scream at himL so he sto++ed: ? #as so sic< at heart6 ? #anted to thro# myse$f under
the train that dayL 0ut ? remem0ered my +arents6 and ? fe$t sorry for them: ? sometimes
thou%ht ? mi%ht %et one of the Be$%ians or Frenchmen to ma<e me +re%nant6 0ecause
sometimes they sent +re%nant %ir$s home: But the 3ery thou%ht of it re3o$ted meL #as ? an
anima$ to ha3e a chi$d from a stran%erE ? #as a 3ir%in6 and #hat #ou$d my +arents say if ?
came home to them in that conditionE
F? did not thro# myse$f under a trainL and yet6 as the days #ent on6 ? %re# more and more
des+erate: ? <ne# that if ? did not do somethin%6 ? shou$d die a s$o# death: And then6 one
mornin%6 #ithout +remeditation6 ? did it: ?t Hust occurred to me in a f$ash: ? #as #or<in%
on a machine6 #ith a %reat <nife %oin% u+ and do#n and cuttin% the f$a8 threads: And6
a$most #ithout thin<in%6 ? sudden$y +ut my hand under the <nife: ? did not $ose
consciousnessL ? #as sti$$ =uite tou%h thenL ? on$y shut my eyes6 and then6 #hen it
ha++ened6 ? #as fri%htened to $oo<: Then ? ca$$ed for the 1erman #oman #or<in% ne8t to
meL and she screamed and ran for the foremanL he #as a fat fair,haired man6 a0out thirty,
ei%ht and 3ery deaf6 and she too< some time to e8+$ain #hat had ha++ened: .e came
rushin% a$on%6 and ? #as ta<en off to the infirmary6 #here they made me a tourni=uet and
0anda%ed me u+: The foreman #as 3ery #orriedL some <ind of commission #as e8+ected
that day to come and ins+ect the +$ace6 and he thou%ht he mi%ht %et into trou0$e: Some
Frenchmen and Be$%ians then $ed me to our 0arrac<sL ? #as near$y unconscious 0y the
time #e %ot there: The Director had sti$$ not 0een informed: The foreman #ent to him to
re+ortL and the Director ordered that an am0u$ance 0e sent for #hich #ou$d ta<e me to
the hos+ita$ in Munich6 a0out ten mi$es a#ay: ?t #as a$most a +$easure to 0e in the
hos+ita$: My hand hurt meL 0ut ? #as +ut in a c$ean 0ed6 #ith #hite 0ed,$inen: They did
not %i3e me much food6 0ut #hat ? %ot #as nice and tasty: ? stayed there a0out a monthL
then the Director as<ed that ? 0e sent 0ac< to the factory: .e ur%ed me to stay onL said
that he #ou$d a++oint me one of the mana%ers of the cam+L ? don't <no# e8act$y #hat he
#as u+ to6 ? thin< he #anted to a3oid +ayin% my fare to the *<raine: For four months he
<e+t me there:
Fina$$y6 ? #as sent home 0y the Munich /r4eitsamt (a0our @ffice): ?t #as 0y +ure
accident that this ha++ened: @ne day #hen ? #as %oin% to Munich for a dressin%6 ? ta$<ed
to a 1erman #oman #ho ad3ised me to %o to the /r4eitsamt5 She #as a <ind #oman6 and
e3en +aid my fare6 and to$d me e8act$y #here to %o: There6 at the /r4eitsamt, they %a3e
me a +a+er6 and the +o$ice too< me off to the station the ne8t day and +ut me in a %oods
carria%e a$on% #ith se3era$ other *<rainians: At the factory6 the ni%ht 0efore ? $eft6 the
Director seemed much annoyed6 0ut said nothin%: ? #as %i3en a +ai$fu$ of 0oi$ed turni+s6
and a $oaf of 0read6 and the +eo+$e in the cam+ %a3e me their day's ration6 and a fe# odds
and ends they had sa3ed u+: But durin% many days6 on that $on% Hourney6 ? had nothin% to
eat:
;o# that ? thin< of it6 ? rea$ise that for t#o months they had not +aid me anythin%L and
$ater they +aid me se3enty +fenni%s a #ee<: And #hen #e said to the foreman #ho #as
+ayin% out the money: '9hy so $itt$eE' he #ou$d shout 'Buhig05 ('Be =uietP')::: 1od6 ho#
they tormented usF6 Aa$ya said6 a$most #ith a shudder: F?t #as so 0itter$y insu$tin%6 the
#ay these +eo+$e 0eha3ed to us: They $oo<ed at us #ith such contem+t: 9hyE ? as< you6
9hyE 9as that the <ind of $ife ? #as +re+arin% forE ? #as %ro#n% u+ ha++i$y6 in our
*<raine: 9hy shou$d my $ife ha3e 0een 0ro<en $i<e thisEF And then6 as an afterthou%ht:
FThere #as another %ir$ in the factory6 and she decided to fo$$o# my e8am+$e: But the
1ermans %uessed this time that it had 0een done de$i0erate$yL and she #as not a$$o#ed to
%o home: So she $ost her hand for nothin%:F
1a$ina ?3ano3na's e8+erience #as 3ery simi$ar to Aa$ya'sDyet she #as6 tem+eramenta$$y6
an entire$y different #oman6 and6 in a #ay6 more ty+ica$$y *<rainian #ith her sarcastic
humour6 and her sin%u$ar contem+t for the 1ermans F#ho did not <no# #hat %ood food
#as unti$ they %ot to the *<raine:F
She #as sma$$ and +er<y and fair6 #ith the +erfect comedian's face6 #ith $i3e$y 0$ue eyes
and a $itt$e turned,u+ nose: She $au%hed a %reat dea$6 0ut it #as not a <ind$y $au%hL she
#as a mimic and satirist: She #ore a +a$e,0$ue dress and a coc<y $itt$e hat #ith a feather:
She #as a0out thirty6 and +hysica$$y s$i%ht$y faded6 #hich #as not sur+risin% after a$$ she
had %one throu%h: She had 0een an actress 0efore the #ar in the First 4o$<ho> Theatre in
4ie36 #here she +$ayed sma$$ +arts in *<rainian +easant comedies: She =uoted a fe# 0its
from her +arts6 0ut ne3er %ot 3ery far #ith them::: F@h dear6 ?'3e Hust for%otten
e3erythin%F6 she said6 F?t seems such a%es a%o since ? #as an actress in 4ie3::: An
actressF6 she re+eated #ith a 0itter $itt$e $au%h: FBein% a putz"rau (char#oman) is no#
more in my $ine of 0usiness: My hus0and used to 0e one of the sta%e mana%ers at the
theatre: ;o# he's some#here in the 2ed Army: ? ha3en't heard from him for years::: .e's
from *man:F
1a$ina ?3ano3na had 0een in 1ermany6 and her story is the story of mi$$ions of Curo+eans
D#ith 3ariations: FThe rea$ trou0$eF6 she 0e%an6 Fstarted here in *man #hen a 1erman
ca$$ed 1raf S+retti arri3ed here in Fe0ruary '4& to recruit $a0our:
I.e is mentioned in the ;urem0er% Tria$ as one of Sauc<e$'s recruitin% officers:K
The 1ermans announced a 0i% meetin% at the 5inema: A $ot of us #ent there6 Hust to see
#hat it #as a$$ a0out: So S+retti said: '? #ant you +eo+$e of *man to %o 3o$untari$y to
1ermany to he$+ the 1erman army:' And he +romised us the moon: But #e had a fair idea
of ho# much such +romises #ere #orth6 so #e said: 'But #hat if #e don't #ant to %oE '
Then 1raf S+retti %a3e us a dirty $oo< and said: Tn that case you #i$$ 0e +o$ite$y
re=uested to %o a$$ the same:' That #as on Fe0ruary 1" and t#o days $ater they started
roundin% u+ +eo+$e in a house,to,house searchDthe +o$ice6 armed #ith rif$es6 #ou$d %o
from one house to the other and co$$ect the youn%er +eo+$e: 9e #ere ta<en to a 0i%
schoo$6 and at fi3e o'c$oc< in the mornin% #e #ere ta<en to the rai$#ay stationL #e #ere
+ut in rai$#ay carria%es6 and these #ere $oc<ed u+: Some of the +eo+$e had some food
#ith them6 and it #as shared: 9e #ere to$d that #e'd 0e fed at #o#6 0ut #hen #e %ot
there6 #e #ere %i3en nothin% at a$$6 not e3en #ater:
F9e sto++ed there at the rai$#ay station for a #ho$e ni%ht6 and then #e #ent on to
!r>emys$: At !r>emys$ the 1ermans un$oc<ed the carria%es6 and started e8aminin% our
$u%%a%e:F
F9hat <ind of carria%es #ere theyEF ? as<ed:
F9hat <indEF she said6 a$most sur+rised at my =uestion: FBust ordinary %oods carria%esL
#e a$$ sat or $ay on the f$oorL there #ere no 0enches: There #ere a0out si8ty or se3enty
+eo+$e to a carria%e: Any#ay6 as ? #as sayin%6 they came to e8amine our $u%%a%e at
!r>emys$: '9hat do you #ant a$$ this $u%%a%e forE' the 1ermans said: 'There's any amount
of stuff you can 0uy in 1ermanyDfancy ta<in% a$$ these fi$thy c$othes to 1ermany:' So
they too< a#ay near$y a$$ the c$othes #e had6 and a$$ the hea3ier $u%%a%e6 and $eft us #ith
Hust sma$$ 0und$es::: F
The #ho$e Hourney6 #hich $asted a month6 #as a ni%htmare: ?n a cam+ near !r>emys$6
#here they #ere <e+t for a fortni%ht6 they #ere %i3en hard$y any food: Se3era$ of the %ir$s
fe$$ i$$6 and a fe# died: Then6 in 9estern 1ermany6 they #ere ta<en to another cam+L here
at $east there #ere some BritisLh and French +risoners #ho #ou$d thro# them some food
o3er the fence:
FThe friend$iness of the Cn%$ish and FrenchF6 1a$ina said6 Fcheered us u+ a $itt$e 0it: They
#ou$d thro# us 0its of choco$ate and some <ind of #afersD3ery nice they #ere6 #ith
s#eet $itt$e seeds inside them: 9e a$#ays thou%ht the Cn%$ish6 French and 2ussians #ere
a$$ 3ery different +eo+$e6 0ut it turned out that #e are a$$ much the same: @n$y the
1ermans are different:
FAnd then6 #omen and factory mana%ers6 and a$$ sorts of +eo+$e arri3ed one day at the
cam+: 9e #ere $ined u+ in the sno#Dfour ro#s of usDand these +eo+$e <e+t #a$<in%
u+ and do#n and ins+ectin% us: So t#o hundred of us #ere +ic<ed 0y one of the factory
mana%ers6 and #e #ere ta<en 0y train to a 0arrac<s6 #ith 0arred #indo#sDthe +$ace #as
inside the factory %rounds in a sma$$ to#n near *$m: 9e #ere recei3ed there 0y a 0unch
of %endarmes6 #ho said: 0/ha, Kommunisten0': This +$ace #as much #orse than the other
cam+: Before %oin% to #or< #e stayed in the 0arrac<s for three days6 #ith on$y ra#
turni+s and ra# +otatoes to eat6 and one on$y ni00$ed at it6 it #as no use tryin% to eat a $ot
of the stuff::: But at $east there #ere 0un<s of sort to s$ee+ onDhard and fi$thy6 0ut sti$$
0un<s:::
Fater6 they 0e%an to heat the sto3e6 so #e #ere at $east a0$e to coo< #hat $itt$e food there
#as: @n the fourth day #e #ere ta<en to #or<: ?t used to 0e a hat factoryL no# they made
he$met $inin%s6 or rather the sort of ca+s #orn under the he$met: They made them of
ra00it s<ins: 9e #ere %i3en no %$o3es and our shoes a$so #ere fa$$in% to +ieces: @ur
hands %ot into a terri0$e condition #ith hand$in% those ra00it s<ins and treatin% them in
some <ind of acid:F 1a$ina ?3ano3na sho#ed her handsL they #ere sma$$ and #e$$,sha+ed6
0ut they $oo<ed scarred and the f$esh round the nai$s seemed to ha3e 0een eaten a#ay:
F(es6F she #ent on6 F? $i3ed in that factory 0arrac<s for ei%ht months and t#enty daysL
and to %i3e you an idea of the condition in #hich #e %ir$s #ere6 ?'$$ say somethin% #hich
may seem inde$icateD0ut ? ho+e you'$$ understand: 1J" %ir$s #ere #or<in% there6 and
most of them didn't ha3e #hat %ir$s ha3e e3ery monthL the 0arrac<s #ere thirty yards
a#ay from the factory6 and #e ne3er %ot outside the factory %rounds6 e8ce+t on our 'day
off': 9e #ere under constant %uard:
F9e #or<ed ten or t#e$3e hours a day6 and on our 'day off' #e #ere a$#ays ta<en to the
%oods station to un$oad rai$#ay truc<s: 9e #ere made to #ear an '@st' 0ad%eDa 0$ue
0ad%e #ith #hite $etterin%D0ut #ere ne3er a$$o#ed to %o into to#n: They actua$$y
char%ed us fifty +fenni%s for the 0ad%e: For se3en days' #or< #e recei3ed one mar<
t#enty +fenni%s6 and for fifty +fenni%s #e 0ou%ht S+rude$Dsoda #aterDthere #as
nothin% e$se #e cou$d 0uy: ? remem0ered no# ho# 1raf S+retti had to$d us that #e'd
#ear si$< stoc<in%s6 and ha3e 1"" mar<s a #ee<: At first #hen #e arri3ed6 #e #ere
+romised ne# c$othes and 0$an<etsL a$$ #e %ot #as one 0$an<et each6 and once a fortni%ht
they'd %i3e us a tiny 0it of soa+ #ith #hich to #ash ourse$3es and #ash our c$othes: ?n
our +art of the 0arrac<s there #ere 1J" %ir$s6 0ut in the other +arts of the 0ui$din% there
#ere &"" more #omen6 a$$ *<rainians6 or from 4urs<6 and &"" $ads6 from fifteen to
t#enty,three: 9hat they %a3e us to eat #as 0$ue ca00a%e6 turni+s and sometimes some
s+inach6 and 1"" %rammes +er day of mar%arine to coo< the stuff inD1"" %rammes for
1"" +eo+$e6 that is6 one %ramme +er day: 2ea$$y nourishin%6 #hatP ?n other 0ui$din%s
there #ere 5>echs and !o$es and 1ree<s6 and Be$%ians6 and Frenchmen: 9e #eren't
a$$o#ed to s+ea< to themD 0ut #e did a$$ the same:
FThe !o$es and the French #ere 0etter off than #e #ere: They recei3ed t#enty,fi3e to
thirty,fi3e mar<s a #ee<: The !o$es had to #ear a 0ad%e #ith a ye$$o# '!'6 the Be$%ians
and the French #ere not e8+ected to #ear any 0ad%e: ;o difference #as made 0et#een
*<rainians and 2ussiansD0oth #ere treated the same: The Be$%ians and the 5>echs6 the
Frenchmen and the ?ta$ians #ere a$$ 3ery decent to us6 and %a3e us thin%s: The !o$es #ere
more a$oof: The ?ta$ians s+o<e $on%in%$y of macaroni:
F9e used to meet the other %ir$s in the $a3atory6 and there #e'd ta$<Dta$< in 0ad 1erman:
@ne day one of the ?ta$ian %ir$s said to me: '(ou are e3en un$uc<ier than #e are: They say
you are 0ein% treated $i<e this 0ecause you are 5ommunists: But6 0e$ie3e me6 #e are far
more 5ommunist than you are: 5ome on6 $et's sin% the International5 And there6 in the
$adies' $a3atory6 the t#o of us soft$y san% the International, each to her o#n #ords:
F9e once e3en threatened a hun%er stri<e #hen the food had 0ecome a$to%ether
im+ossi0$e6 and #e #ere de3e$o+in% scur3y so that our hands and arms s#e$$ed and our
eye0ro#s started fa$$in% out6 and the hair on our heads %ot a$$ 0ritt$e:::
FDurin% air raids #e #ere a$$ dri3en into a 0i% 0asement co3ered o3er #ith cement6 and
the door #as $oc<ed from outside: The 1ermans #ent to their o#n she$ter: 9hen the air,
raid #arnin% started6 the che"s, as they #ere ca$$ed6 came rushin% in6 0randishin% #hi+s6
and dro3e us into the ce$$ar: ? $i3ed throu%h se3en or ei%ht 0i% raids: @ne 0i% 0om0 fe$$
near the cathedra$ of *$m6 and #rec<ed the 2athaus6 and demo$ished a sma$$ factory
#here they made some <ind of meta$ tu0in%L 1&" of our *<rainians #ho #ere #or<in%
there6 #ere <i$$ed:::F
FBut #hat #ere the 1ermans $i<e #ith #hom you had to #or<EF ? as<ed:
1a$ina ?3ano3na mere$y scre#ed u+ her face: FThere #as one fat 1erman in our factory:
.e once came into our 0arrac<s6 and said: 'Ah6 *<rainian %ir$s6' and said he $i<ed
*<rainian son%s6 and #ou$d #e sin% to him: So #e said: 'A$ri%ht6 on$y #e don't %et much
to eat6 and #i$$ you %i3e us somethin% if #e sin%:' So he said yes: So #e san%6 in the dar<
misera0$e 0arrac<s6 and as #e san% the tears tric<$ed do#n our faces: 9hen #e had
finished6 he said: 'That #as 3ery nice:' And he +u$$ed out a fi3e mar< note and as<ed for
three mar<s chan%e:F 1a$ina $au%hed an%ri$y: FAs if he didn't <no# #e had nothin%: Sti$$6
he insisted6 so #e scra+ed to%ether #hat +fenni%s #e had6 and it came to t#o mar<s
thirty: .e seemed annoyed it #asn't more6 0ut too< the chan%e and #ent a#ay: FAnd
then6F she #ent on6 Fthere #as a foreman #ho #or<ed in our #or<sho+: .e had a tiny 0it
of %round near our 0arrac<s6 #here he %re# 3e%eta0$es: .e #as a fat man #ith a sha3ed
head and a concertina nec<: 9hat a fuss he made of his +$otP .e mana%ed to %ro# a
sunf$o#er6 and in case the s+arro#s +ic<ed at it6 he +ut a +air of o$d +ants o3er itL honest
to 1od6 he did: So ? said to him one day: '?n our country #e %ro# sunf$o#ers 0y the mi$e6
ho# many +airs of o$d +ants do you thin< #e'd need if #e used your a%ricu$tura$
methodsE There #ou$dn't 0e enou%h +ants in the #ho$e of 1ermany::: ' .e $oo<ed <ind of
shee+ish:F
FBahF6 said 1a$ina6 Fthese 1ermansDthey're rea$$y un$i<e a$$ other +eo+$e: ;o# the
FrenchDthey're =uite different: 9e used to see them on Sundays at the %oods station: 9e
used to ta$< to them: And some of our %ir$s #ent further than ta$<in%: The +oint is that if a
*<rainian %ir$ %ets +re%nant6 she is sent home: There #as a dar< shed 0ehind one of the
$ar%e +i$es of coa$6 and there some of our %ir$s #ou$d %o in the e3enin% and ma<e $o3e
#ith the French: 1od <no#s6 they #ere so hun%ry and #orn,out6 they didn't rea$$y #ant
to ma<e $o3e6 0ut they ho+ed they mi%ht %et +re%nant: And the French #ere friend$yD
rea$ comrades: There #as one Frenchman ? <ne#6 #ho mana%ed to esca+e from the
factory: The ni%ht 0efore he esca+ed6 he said to me: 'There's a $itt$e corner near the sto3e
in the #or<sho+6 and ?'$$ $ea3e you a noteDtry to +ic< it u+ tomorro# mornin%:' ? #ent
and $oo<ed for the note6 and ? found it6 and #ith it #ere three 0ars of choco$ate: The note
said: 'This is a$$ ?'3e %ot: 1ood $uc< to you: ? ha3e run a#ay: ? ho+e they don't catch me:'
They didn't catch him6 thou%h they sent the +o$ice a$$ o3er the +$ace: ;one of us said #e
<ne# anythin%: There #as this stran%e so$idarity amon% a$$ of us non,1ermansL a rea$
fe$$o#,fee$in%6 a common hatred of the Frit>::: And that fee$in% that #e #ere not a$one
<e+t us %oin% for a time6 in s+ite of e3erythin%::: But my hea$th #as 0ecomin% so 0ad that
? fe$t that if ? stayed on much $on%er6 ? shou$d fa$$ i$$ and die: And ? did not #ant to die:
There #as an Austrian there ca$$ed .ans6 #ho #or<ed in our #or<sho+: .e sho#ed me a
+am+h$et a0out Thae$,mann and said: 'A$thou%h Thae$mann is a 1erman6 he is a %ood
man:' ? said ? dou0ted #hether any 1erman cou$d 0e a %ood man: .e %a3e me a =ueer
$oo< and for a moment ? #ondered if he #asn't a +ro3ocateur: Then ? said: '@h 1od6 #hat
do ? care6 any#ayE ? #ant to %o a#ay6 0ac< home6 and if ? don't6 ?'$$ Hust vergi"t myse$f6
+oison myse$f:::' Then .ans said: '(ou #on't 0etray me6 #i$$ youE .ere are si8
ci%arettes'Dand he s$i++ed them into my handD'Boi$ them6 and $et the infusion #ait for
an hour6 and then drin< it: ?t #i$$ %i3e you a 0ad heart6 and they may send you home: But
don't %i3e me a#ay:' ? did as he to$d me6 0ut ? #as in such +oor hea$th that my stomach
cou$dn't ta<e it6 and ? #as sic<: ? to$d him #hat had ha++ened and he %a3e me si8 more
ci%arettes6 te$$in% me to try a%ain: This time it #as successfu$: ?t %a3e me terri0$e
+a$+itations6 and ? #as in a state of com+$ete +hysica$ co$$a+se: There #ere moments
#hen ? thou%ht ?'d die: ? #as ta<en to hos+ita$: They 8,rayed me three times6 and decided
my heart #as so 0ad ? #ou$d either soon die or 0e a cri++$e for $ife6 so they %a3e me a
certificate a$$o#in% me to %o 0ac< to the *<raine: But 0efore that ha++ened6 ? stayed in
hos+ita$ for t#o months and fi3e days: They +atched u+ my hands6 #hich #ere in a
terri0$e state6 and ? had many 3isitorsDthere #as a 1ree< %ir$ #ho came to see me6 and
t#o Ser0ian %ir$sL these #ere amon% the 0est: A$to%ether the Ser0ians and the 5>echs
#ere the 0est +eo+$e of a$$L the French a$so #ere %ood6 for instance .enri6 #ho esca+ed
and $eft me those three 0ars of choco$ateL he #as a rea$ 5ommunist: @n the #ho$e6 a$$ the
forei%ners in 1ermany #ere terri0$y decent +eo+$e6 and #e had #ith them a common
$an%ua%e as #e ne3er had #ith any 1ermans::: 9e$$6 that's not +erha+s =uite trueL there
#ere t#o decent 1ermans ? <ne# durin% a$$ those months: @ne #as a %ir$ ca$$ed Frieda:
She <ne# much more a0out #hat #as ha++enin% in the #or$d than ? did: ? <ne# nothin%
De8ce+t from her: ?t #as she #ho #ou$d te$$ me a0out the #ar in 2ussiaD#here the 2ed
Army #as: She %ot 3ery e8cited at the time the 1ermans #ere sto++ed at Sta$in%rad: My
fee$in% #as that she #as a dou0$e a%ent: She +retended to #or< for the ;a>is6 0ut she #as
a$so an a%ent of the !o+u$ar Front: She often ta$<ed to me6 and #arned me6 and to$d me to
#arn the other %ir$s that any *<rainian %ir$ #ho #as intimate #ith a Frenchman or any
other forei%ner #as $ia0$e to 0e shot: Frieda #as a damn %ood %ir$: There #as a$so
another %ir$ ca$$ed Ama$iaD? didn't <no# her so #e$$: But ? $ater $earned that 0oth Frieda
and Ama$ia had 0een shot 0y the 1esta+o: But6 in %enera$ the 1ermans are a #ic<ed and
cra>y +eo+$e:F
Fina$$y 1a$ina returned to *man6 after another harro#in% t#o months' Hourney: She #as a
+hysica$ #rec< 0y then6 and s+ent three months in 0ed at the house of some +eo+$e #ho
had 0efriended her: After that she too< a Ho0 as a putz"rauDa c$eanerDat a hote$
occu+ied 0y 1erman officers: But her trou0$es #ere not yet o3er:
She #as no# faced #ith a com+$icated fami$y situationDstran%e$y reminiscent of the
tur0u$ent years of the ci3i$ #ar in the *<raine6 #hen so many fami$ies #ere di3ided
a%ainst themse$3es: .er 0rother 4iri$ had 0een a machine,%unner in the 2ed ArmyL he
#as ta<en +risoner 0y the 1ermans 0ut esca+ed6 and $ater turned u+ as a ci3i$ian in his
nati3e 3i$$a%e #here he set u+ sho+ a%ain as a #atchma<er: .e had a #ife #ho6 0efore the
#ar6 #as an acti3e mem0er of the 4omsomo$: FThree months a%o she #as arrested and
ta<en a#ay6 and rumour had it she #as shotF6 1a$ina said: FThe stran%e thin% #as that the
starosta had denounced her to the 1ermans6 and #hen they came6 they <ne# e8act$y
#here to find herL for she had 0een hidin% in a ce$$ar for the $ast month: And from #hat ?
ha3e heard from my 0rother 4iri$ and a$so from my mother6 there's $itt$e dou0t that the
starosta had $earned from my other 0rother6 Fedor6 #here 4iri$'s #ife #as in hidin%: For
Fedor6 thou%h my 0rother6 is a thorou%h$y 0ad $ot: .e #as a mem0er of the *<rainian
polizai, and he must ha3e to$d the starosta5 This 0ad 0rother is +ro0a0$y sti$$ in hidin% in
our 3i$$a%eL and6 if it hasn't 0een done a$ready6 ? sha$$ denounce him myse$f to the 2ed
5ommandant::: F
()) The $ail o" the #erman stomach
The 1erman +risoners ? sa# near *man #ere a 3ery mi8ed 0unch: A$$ of them #ere
0itter$y disa++ointed at ha3in% 0een cau%ht6 #hen most of the 1ermans had %ot a#ay
0eyond the Bu%: The Austrians #ere a$ready c$aimin% to 0e F=uite different from the
1ermansF6 thou%h one ? sa# had o03ious$y 0een 0rou%ht u+ in the 0est ;a>i tradition:
Then there #as one 1erman o+timist6 a deserter6 #ho had a *<rainian %ir$ friend #ho had
hidden him durin% the 1erman #ithdra#a$ from *man: .e #as no# ho+efu$$y
#onderin% #hether the 2ussians #ou$dn't a$$o# him to sett$e here in the *<raine6 #hich
he thou%ht a $o3e$y country6 and he #as a$so most de3oted to his Freundin5 Such thin%s
do ha++en e3en in the 0est of re%iments: But de+ressed and 0e#i$dered thou%h they #ere
0y their defeats in the *<raine6 and6 of course6 +ersona$$y u+set at 0ein% ta<en +risoner 0y
the 2ussians6 #ith on$y the remotest +ros+ect of seein% 1ermany a%ain soon6 there #as
sti$$ much fi%htin% s+irit $eft in many of the 1erman so$diers ? sa#: They #ere ho+in% for
somethin%Dthey did not =uite <no# #hat: Those from the 2hine$and #ere more +recise
than the others: The a$$ied 0om0in% had made them an%ry6 rather than do#nhearted: ?
remem0er a ser%eant6 9i$$i Berscha%en6 from 2emscheid on the 2hine: The to#n had
0een 0om0ed to 0$a>es6 and yet his #ife and +arents #ere sti$$ $i3in% there amon% the
ruins: .is #ife had a Ho0 in a stee$ mi$$6 and had no intention of %oin% a#ay to any other
+art of 1ermany: F?t'$$ 0e the same e3ery#here6 so ? mi%ht as #e$$ stay here6F she had
#ritten recent$y:
And the %reat ho+e of this #oman6 and of 9i$$i himse$f6 and of other +eo+$e of 9estern
1ermany #asD1ergeltung5 The FRhrer had +romised this re3en%e on Cn%$andL 0ut they
#ere %ro#in% im+atient6 and the +eo+$e in 9estern 1ermany #ere no# sayin%: F9hat
a0out these #ea+onsEF The A,1's o3er ondon #ere6 indeed6 not to start unti$ a $itt$e $ater:
As the 1ermans #ere 0ein% +ushed out of the *<raine the son%s the 9ehrmacht san%
0e%an to ha3e a mournfu$ note: These ditties #ere 3ery simi$ar6 thou%h e3ery re%iment
seemed to ha3e its o#n 3ariant: They #ent $i<e this:D
N(") ;1+;), $(") *),;),
D#-6,5)$,) ;'#C*),;)? #+
N(") .,6#, $(") 6,$#,
D#-6,5)$,) U;+),$)? #+
N(") ;1+;), $(") 8+#&,
D#-6,5)$,) B(/%#+#5? #+
N(") ;1+;), $(") -#1.,
D#-6,5)$,) K+("($3'1%,
#hich6 in this mi8ture of 1erman6 +id%in 2ussian and +id%in *<rainian6 meansDF;o
more chic<en6 no more e%%s6 %ood,0ye6 $and$adyL ;o more 0eer and no more #ine6 %ood,
0ye6 *<raineL ;o more chic<en6 no more 0read6 %ood,0ye6 Be$%orodL ;o more chic<en6
no more sou+6 %ood,0ye 4remcnchu%F: And many more on the same $ines: And6 more
%enera$$y6 the 0itter disa++ointment and disi$$usionment #as e8+ressed in these $ines6
<no#n to e3ery 1erman so$dier:
DE- ,-& )//(- 6#+1(8(+, (- ,-& )//(- 6#+8(,,
D+(, J)'+( ,$ R1--/)$5 1$5 $,B .#$,"),D,E
F?t is a$$ o3er6 it is a$$ %oneL three years in 2ussia6 and can't understand anythin%F:
C').&(+ III CLOSE-UP II: ODESSA, CAPITAL O RUMANIAN
TRANSNIESTRIA
A+ri$ and May 1944 sa# the fina$ e8+u$sion of the 1ermans from the southern +arts of
the *<raine: The troo+s of 4one3's &nd *<rainian Front s#e+t a$$ the #ay into northern
2umania6 and it #as not ti$$ they had reached a $ine some t#e$3e mi$es east of Bassy that
the front 0ecame tem+orari$y sta0i$ised: @n A+ri$ & Mo$oto36 announcin% the in3asion of
2umania6 hastened to dec$are that the So3iet *nion did not aim at a$terin% the Fsocia$
orderF (i:e: ca+ita$ism) in that country: The troo+s of Ma$ino3s<y's 3rd *<rainian Front
had meantime ad3anced a$on% the B$ac< Sea coast6 $i0eratin% 4herson6 ;i<o$ae3 and
@dessa6 and6 on A+ri$ 116 the 0e%innin% of the 2ussian in3asion of the 5rimea6 .it$er's
$ast stron%ho$d on the B$ac< Sea6 #as announced: 9ithin a month6 the 5rimea #as
c$eared:
The %reat +ecu$iarity of @dessa6 Fthe 2ussian Marsei$$esF #as that6 e8ce+t for the $ast fe#
#ee<s #hen the 1ermans too< o3er6 it had not 0een under 1erman ru$e: As a re#ard for
2umania's +artici+ation in the #ar a%ainst the So3iet *nion6 .it$er had %i3en her a $ar%e
and rich territory in the southern *<raine stretchin% a$$ the #ay from Bessara0ia to the
Bu%L this inc$uded the %reat B$ac< Sea +ort of @dessa6 and the #ho$e area #as
incor+orated into F%reater 2umaniaF as a ne# +ro3ince under the name of Trans,niestria
(i:e: the $and 0eyond the Dniester):
Ma$ino3s<y $i0erated @dessa on A+ri$ 1"6 and the 1ermans6 fearin% encirc$ement6 had
$eft in a frantic hurry6 some 0y sea6 under a$most constant 2ussian 0om0in% and she$$,
fire6 others 0y the $ast remainin% road 0et#een @dessa and the Dniester estuary6 #here a
ferry too< them across to the +arts of Bessara0ia and 2umania #hich the 2ussians had
not yet occu+ied: By the time @dessa fe$$6 this road #as $ittered #ith hundreds of
#rec<ed and a0andoned 1erman 3ehic$es: Thou%h in a des+erate hurry to %et out of
@dessa6 the 1ermans had had time to turn the har0our6 most of the factories and many
other $ar%e 0ui$din%s6 into smou$derin% hea+s of #rec<a%e:
? dro3e to @dessa on a 0eautifu$ s+rin% day in mid,A+ri$ from a +oint Hust north of
;i<o$ae36 on the east side of the Bu%: The Bu% had 0een the frontier 0et#een 1erman,
occu+ied and 2umanian,anne8ed *<raine6 and ci3i$ians #ere not a$$o#ed to tra3e$
0et#een the t#o e8ce+t 0y 3ery s+ecia$ +ermission: But since Fe0ruary 1944 the
1ermans no $on%er too< any notice of the fiction of FTrans,niestriaF 0ein% +art of
2umania:
They had tried to dri3e a#ay the catt$eL 0ut as they cou$d not %et the co#s across the Bu%6
they shot them6 and the %reen 0an<s of the ri3er #ere $ittered #ith do>ens of 0ro#n
carcasses of dead co#s #hich #ere 0e%innin% to stin<:
?t #as ty+ica$ ste++e country 0et#een the Bu% and @dessa6 and sometimes there #as no
3i$$a%e in si%ht for mi$es as one dro3e 0et#een the immense %reen car+ets of #inter
#heat #hich had 0een du$y so#n in the autumn6 and #hich the 2ussians #ere no# %oin%
to har3est:
.ere and there6 there #ere fa$$o# +atches6 0ut not many: But one of the stran%est si%hts
on this road #ere some com+$ete$y deserted 3i$$a%esL they did not $oo< $i<e 2ussian or
*<rainian 3i$$a%es: Their houses #ere +ainted in 0ri%ht co$ours6 and they had s+ired
churches Dutheran churches6 or may0e 5atho$ic churches6 for 0y the roadside there
#ere a$so one or t#o 5atho$ic shrines: These #ere 1erman 3i$$a%esD3i$$a%es of 1erman
co$onists #ho had $i3ed here for 1-" years6 and had $atter$y acted as =uis$in%s
e3ery#here6 fi$$in% administrati3e and +o$ice Ho0s +$aced at their dis+osa$ 0y the 1ermans
on the eastern side of the Bu%: Those #ho had stayed in this F1reater 2umaniaF6 had
acted as an arro%ant 1erman minority6 and had no dou0t a$ready 0een +re+arin%
un+$easant sur+rises for the 2umanian FmaHorityF: But the ra+id ad3ance of the 2ed
Army had o0$i%ed them to a0andon their homes: ater6 in @dessa6 ? #as to see a +a+er
ca$$ed Der Deutsche in Transniestrien, in #hich the +ro3ince #as in fact treated as +art of
the 1erman herita%e6 and the 2umanians #ere not mentioned onceP ;e3erthe$ess6 unti$
on$y a fe# #ee<s 0efore6 .it$er sti$$ fe$t o0$i%ed to <ee+ u+ the myth of 1reater 2umania6
and the +retence that Transniestria #as a 2umanian +ro3ince and @dessa a 2umanian
city:
9e a++roached @dessa at dus<6 and as #e dro3e to#ards the B$ac< Sea6 the country
0ecame hi$$ier6 and here and there #ere si%ns of fi%htin%: A$$ a$on% the road #e had
+assed many dead horses6 and here6 on these #ind,s#e+t hi$$s a0o3e the B$ac< Sea there
#ere many more6 and some 0om0 craters6 and6 here and there6 some dead men: At one
+oint #e +assed an enormous #ar memoria$ the 2umanians had erected to commemorate
their @dessa 3ictory of 1941: ?t #as here6 throu%h these hi$$s6 that the 2ussian rin% of
defences round @dessa then ran:
And then #e came to @dessa6 and in the streets there #as a shar+ sme$$ of 0urnin%:
@dessa #as com+$ete$y dar<: A$$ the +o#er stations had 0een 0$o#n u+ 0y the 1ermans
#ho had fu$$ contro$ of the city in the $ast fortni%ht and6 #orse sti$$6 there #as no #aterD
e8ce+t for 3ery $imited =uantities dra#n from Artesian #e$$s inside the city: The norma$
su++$y of #ater came from the Dniester6 thirty or forty mi$es a#ay6 and the mains had
0een 0$o#n u+: ;o#6 as durin% the t#o months' sie%e in the %rim autumn of 19416
@dessa #as re$yin% on its o#n #e$$s: At the .ote$ Bristo$6 #here #e stayed6 the #ashin%
ration #as one 0ott$e +er day:
This Bristo$ .ote$6 a %reat 0i% a0surd,$oo<in% 0ui$din% #ith ornate caryatids %oin% three
storeys u+6 #as in !ush<in Street6 and a$$ its #indo#s #ere 0ro<en: ?t had t#o ha$$
+orters6 an o$d man #ith a 0$ac< 0eard6 a former @dessa doc<er or 4end!uzhni*, #ith a
%ruff 3oice and $oud u%$y $au%h6 and his assistant6 a $itt$e o$d man #ith a %rey 4ar4iche
and a $eer: The t#o of them #ou$d stand on the +a3ement outside6 and6 #atchin% the
@dessa %ir$s in their $i%ht dresses #a$< +ast in %rou+s of four or fi3e6 they #ou$d ma<e
$e#d remar<s6 and the $itt$e man #ith the %rey 4ar4iche and the $eer #ou$d then te$$
remar<a0$e anecdotes6 for instance a0out t#o %ir$s #ho #ere $i3in% in the same house as
himse$f6 and of ho# the one s+ecia$ised in 2umanian6 and the other in 1erman officers6
and ho# they #ou$d com+are notes:
;o inhi0itions here: This #as @dessa #ith its +er+etua$ #hiff of the under#or$d6 #hich
reca$$ed the %$ories of ?saac Ba0e$'s Benya 4ri<6 the <in% of the @dessa %an%sters6 and
#hich e3en a hundred years of So3iet ru$e may ne3er =uite eradicate:
?t #asn't =uite the @dessa one had <no#n in the +ast: For one thin%6 it #as an @dessa
#ithout Be#s6 and they had 0een an essentia$ +art of the B$ac< Sea +ortDthey and the
Armenians and 1ree<s and other Mediterranean or =uasi,Mediterranean fauna:
But there #as sti$$ the @dessite #ho6 #hether he #as *<rainian6 or 2ussian6 or
Mo$da3ian6 #as @dessite first and foremost6 s+ea<in% a Har%on of his o#n6 #ith his o#n
idiom and his o#n accent: @03ious$y6 many of them too< $i<e a duc< to #ater to the
seemin%$y easy,%oin% $ife of Antonescu's @dessa6 #ith its restaurants and 0$ac< mar<et6
its 0rothe$s and %am0$in% dens6 $otto c$u0s and ca0arets6 and its sem0$ance of Curo+ean
cu$ture6 com+$ete #ith o+era6 0a$$et and sym+hony concerts:
There #ere the Si%uran>a6 the 2umanian secret +o$ice6 and the Bo$she3i< under%roundD
$itera$$y under%round in the @dessa catacom0sDand the Be#s6 many thousands of #hom
had 0een murdered 0y the 2umaniansL 0ut the occu+ation (or rather6 anne8ation) rN%ime
#as different in many other #ays from the 1erman occu+ation rN%ime ? had seen in cities
$i<e Aorone>h6 @re$ or 4har<o3:
9hi$e the A8is's +ros+ects of #innin% the #ar seemed %ood6 the 2umanians #ere
+$annin% to turn @dessa into a sort of 0ri%hter and 0etter Bucharest: ;ot on$y #ere there
the restaurants6 and sho+s and %am0$in% dens6 and the so$emn a++earance of Antonescu
in the former ?m+eria$ Bo8 at the @+era6 0ut there #as a serious attem+t to con3ince the
+eo+$e that they #ere6 and #ere %oin% to remain6 +art of 1reater 2umania: *n$i<e the
1ermans in occu+ied cities6 the 2umanians did not c$ose do#n either the *ni3ersity or
the schoo$sL schoo$,chi$dren had to $earn 2umanian6 and uni3ersity students #ere #arned
that if they did not $earn 2umanian #ithin a year6 they #ou$d 0e e8+e$$edDthou%h after
Sta$in%rad the 2umanians #ere no $on%er insistent on this +oint: They continued to
distri0ute a 2umanian %eo%ra+hy 0oo<6 trans$ated into 2ussian6 #hich demonstrated that
+ractica$$y the #ho$e of southern 2ussia #as6 F%eo+o$itica$$yF6 +art of 2umania and #as
$ar%e$y inha0ited 0y descendants of the ancient Dacians: Those #ho cou$d +ro3e any
Mo$da3ian 0$ood #ere +romised 3arious +ri3i$e%es: to ha3e a Be#ish %randmother #as
dan%erous6 0ut to ha3e a Mo$da3ian %rand+arent #as $i<e a tit$e of no0i$ity:
There #as one as+ect of @dessa #hich #as not to 0e found in any of the 1erman,
occu+ied cities: Hdessa :as "ull o" !oung people5 ?t #as a ha++y f$u<e: the 2umanians
had re%arded FTransniestriaF as +art of their country6 and its inha0itants as future
2umanian citi>ens: ;o dou0t6 after Sta$in%rad6 they #ere no $on%er so sure a0out <ee+in%
@dessa6 0ut the fiction sti$$ had to 0e <e+t u+: Therefore6 the %reat maHority of youn%
+eo+$e in @dessa #ere not de+orted to 1ermany6 or any#here e$se: ;or had they 0een
ca$$ed u+ into the 2umanian Army6 since they #ere tota$$y unre$ia0$e from the 2umanian
+oint of 3ie#: @n$y durin% the $ast fe# #ee<s6 #hen the 1ermans had ta<en o3er6 #ere
some un$uc<y @dessites de+orted to 1ermanyL 0ut most had dod%ed de+ortation6 than<s6
+art$y6 to the So3iet under%round:
Durin% those first days of the $i0eration6 there #ere sti$$ +$enty of si%ns of the 2umanian
occu+ation rN%ime that had $asted for t#o,and,a,ha$f years:
A$$ do#n !ush<in Street (s+e$$ed PuYchin on the #hite,and,0$ue 2umanian street +$ates
that #ere no# 0ein% ta<en do#n) and the other famous acacia,$ined @dessa streets6
named after the city's 1Jth century French founders (2iche$ieu6 De 2i0as6 an%eron)
there #ere sti$$ ad3ertisements of $otto c$u0s and ca0arets6 and sho+,si%ns #ith .odega
#ritten on them (the .odegas #ere no# c$osed) and remnants of a +roc$amation +rinted
in 2umanian6 1erman and 2ussian (0ut not *<rainian): F9e ?on Antonescu6 Marsha$ of
2umania6 !rofessor : A$e8eanu6 5i3i$ 1o3ernor of TransniestriaF6 etc:6 etc: A $ar%e
0ui$din% had a notice u+: "#uvernamantul Trans-nistriei", and the 0us si%nsDnot that
there #ere any 0uses no#D said that the first 0us from the /eroport to (a #ara (Station)
$eft at 7:1- a:m: The musica$ +ro%rammes referred to the "Teatrul de Hpera Z .alet,
Hdesa"D#hich6 incidenta$$y6 sho#ed that it #as not true that the city had 0een re,named
Antonescu6 and had mere$y $ost one s5 There had 0een many other entertainments in
@dessa6 e3en the Sym+hony @rchestra of the uft#affe had %i3en a concertD thou%h
this #as on March &76 durin% the 1erman rN%imeDand they +$ayed Schu0ert's
*nfinished6 and Beetho3en's Aio$in 5oncerto6 and Tschai<o3s<y's Fifth: There #ere a$so
se3era$ dressma<ers' ateliers, and many other sma$$ sho+s6 #hose +ro+rietors had no#
3anished: Free TradeDof sortsDseemed to ha3e 0een in fu$$ s#in% in @dessa #hi$e the
2umanians #ere there: The 2umanians #ere s+ecu$ators6 and ha$f the +eo+$e of @dessa6
and more +erha+s6 #ere s+ecu$ators6 too: 9as not s+ecu$ation and trade in the @dessite's
0$oodE 2umanian %enera$s used to 0rin% #ho$e trun<$oads of $adies' under#ear and
stoc<in%s from Bucharest6 and %et their order$ies to se$$ them in the mar<et: C3en no#
there #ere =uite a fe# thin%s to 0uy in the mar<etD1erman +enci$s6 .un%arian
ci%arettes6 1erman ci%arettes (ca$$ed F4rimF6 and made in the 5rimea)6 and e3en 0ott$es
of scentDand some stoc<in%s6 thou%h these #ere 0ecomin% scarce no#6 and cou$d on$y
0e 0ou%ht under the counter: ;o# the mi$itia #as <ee+in% an eye on a$$ this tradin%6 and
the @dessites in the mar<et $oo<ed some#hat su0dued: The noisiest +erson #as a 0$ind
man6 accom+anied 0y an o$d #oman #ho ratt$ed her money0o8 in +eo+$e's facesL and the
0$ind man #as sin%in% in a #hinin% +enetratin% 3oice:
G$)*1& 6-( "#*1 ;6)+&,+1,
T)" C',61 -+(5, "#%,/,
R6)/,- &)" -$)+*)5* C/*,(,
G',C$ -6#*1 &)" .#/#C',/.
4DE6(+*8#5* ;$#2- "* 52(//,$%?
T'(+( I /,6( )"#$% &'( %+)6(-,
W'(+( &'( 2,3;(5 -'(//- 2(+( 81+-&,$%,
T'(+( I /#-& "* *#1&'01/ /,0(.D7
They #ere se$$in% Ham at t#enty rou0$es a +ot and 0read at ten rou0$es a <i$o (#hich #as
3ery chea+)L there #as +$enty of mi$<6 and they #ere a$so se$$in% 1erman 0ott$es of
a++$e,Huice: The si$< stoc<in% under the counter #ere no# fetchin% 3"" rou0$es:
I;omina$$y X)6 0ut the 3a$ue of 2ussian currency (e8ce+t for rationed %oods) had
de+reciated so much durin% the #ar that the fi%ure is meanin%$ess:K
And the sa$es#omen #ere sti$$ ta$<in% of mar<s #hen they meant rou0$es: The #ra++in%
+a+er used #as 1erman ne#s+a+ers:
ater6 a$$ these F;e# @rderF $u8uries #ere to disa++ear6 and +rices #ent u+:
A$thou%h the +ort #ith its doc<s and %rain e$e3ators #as a hea+ of smou$derin% ruins6 the
famous marine +romenade o3er$oo<in% the +ort and the sea #as cro#ded as usua$ #ith
youn% +eo+$e: Many of them #ere sittin% on 0enches or on the ste+s of the 1reat
Staircase (of Cisenstein's Potem*in tame75 ? remem0er6 in +articu$ar6 t#o youn%stersD
one fair6 the other #ith the 0e%innin%s of a 0$ac< moustache6 #ho #ere commentin%6 in
their @dessa Har%on6 on the terri0$e destruction the 1ermans had caused to the +ort and
other +arts of the cityD+articu$ar$y to the factories at Mo$do3an<a and !eresy+: They
a$so reca$$ed ho#6 durin% the $ast fortni%ht of the 1erman occu+ation6 they and their
friends had hidden in ce$$ars and in the catacom0sDfor it #as no %ood %oin% out into the
street6 not e3en 0efore the 3 +:m: curfe#6 0ecause the 1ermans mi%ht na0 you6 and de+ort
you to 1ermany6 or sim+$y <i$$ you: They used e$a0orate$y a0usi3e $an%ua%e a0out the
1ermans6 and said the 2umanians #ere e8ceedin%$y fed,u+ #hen the 1ermans too<
e3erythin% o3er in Fe0ruary: F? #onder6F 0$ac< moustache said6 F#hat the 2eds are %oin%
to do a0out sea 0athin%:F (?n @dessa6 too6 many ta$<ed a0out FThe 2edsF): Durin% the
+re3ious summer6 he said6 the 2umanians had a$$o#ed on$y one 0each to 0e used6 and on
hot days as many as &"6""" +eo+$e #ou$d =ueue u+: ;o# that the damned 1ermans had
mined a$$ the 0eaches6 there mi%htn't 0e any 0athin% at a$$ this year: @n the #ho$e6 they
#ere +$eased that the F2edsF had come6 0ecause it #as rea$$y terri"!ing under the
1ermans: The 2umanians at $east $eft Fmost +eo+$eF in +eace6 thou%h others6 es+ecia$$y
the Be#s6 had had %reat trou0$e #ith the Si%uran>a: But6 on the #ho$e6 the 2umanians
didn't interfere too much #ith +eo+$e: -ozhno 4!lo zhitDFone cou$d $i3eF6 and there #as
+$enty of food in the mar<et6 and the 2umanian so$diers a$#ays had a 3ariety of thin%s to
se$$:
F9hat ha++ened to the Be#sEF ? as<ed: F@h6F said the fair,haired 0oy6 Fthey say they
0um+ed off an a#fu$ $ot6 0ut ? didn't see it: Some #ere a$$o#ed to esca+eD#ith a $itt$e
money you cou$d 0uy an!thing from the 2umanians6 e3en a +ass+ort in the name of
2iche$ieu: 9e had a fami$y of Be#s $i3in% in our ce$$arL and #e too< them food once a
#ee<: The 2umanian co+s <ne# a0out them6 0ut didn't 0other: They said that if so many
Be#s #ere 0um+ed off6 it #as 0ecause the 1ermans had demanded it: ';o dead Be#s6 no
@dessa'6 they said: Any#ay6 that's #hat the 2umanians to$d us:F
!rofessor A$e8eanu6 the ci3i$ %o3ernor of the Transniestria6 had ta<en u+ his residence in
the 0eautifu$ Aoront>o3 !a$ace on the Marine !romenadeL in So3iet times it had 0een
turned into the !ioneers' !a$ace: ;o# it #as %oin% to 0e turned into the !ioneers' !a$ace
once a%ain: A$e8eanu6 +eo+$e in @dessa said6 had 0een rather easy,%oin%6 e8ce+t that he
%a3e the Si%uran>a an entire$y free hand: 9hen he #as remo3ed in Fe0ruary 19446 it #as
0ecause of the terri0$e amount of em0e>>$ement of #hich he #as said to 0e %ui$ty: .e did
not s+end his money on ci3ic #e$fare6 0ut rather6 on a nice +air of $e%s: True6 he
+retended to 0e interested in the #e$fare of schoo$s and the uni3ersity6 and it #asn't unti$
the 1ermans came in Fe0ruary 1944 that the uni3ersity $a0oratories and e3erythin% e$se
#ere $ooted: A$e8eanu6 as some0ody said6 F#as ta$$6 $on%,faced6 #ith 0ro#n hair6 the <ind
of man #omen $i<eF: .is che" de ca4inet #as one 5her<a3s<y6 a 9hite 2ussian6 0ut the
0u$< of A$e8eanu's staff came from Bucharest:
A$e8eanu #as succeeded as ci3i$ %o3ernor 0y 1enera$ !oto+ianu6 #ho had 0esie%ed
@dessa 0ac< in 1941: .e #as a 0it $ess easy,%oin% than A$e8eanu6 0ut any#ay he hadn't
much say any $on%er: For from Fe0ruary the 1ermans #ere6 unofficia$$y6 in contro$ of
e3erythin% and6 from A+ri$ 16 officia$$y:
To#ards the end of the occu+ation6 the 1ermans scra++ed the 3ery name of Transniestria6
and too< o3er the rai$#ays and e3ery,thin% e$se (much to Antonescu's indi%nation): They
#ere %reat$y #orried a0out t#o thin%sDthat some of the 2umanian %enera$s in @dessa6
or e$se#here6 mi%ht Fdo a Bado%$ioF on themL and a0out the s+read of communism and
defeatism amon% the 2umanian so$diers:
Before the 1ermans had ta<en o3er6 Transniestria had thirteen districts6 each under its
o#n +refectL in @dessa itse$f there #as a mayor6 .erman !intia6 former$y mayor of
4ishene3: The +o$ice #as 2umanian6 on the $ines of the So3iet mi$itiaL 0ut there #as6
moreo3er6 the Si%uran>a:
!intia #as de+osed 0y the 1ermans #ho a++ointed in his +$ace a 2ussian =uis$in% ca$$ed
!etush<o3: .e #as the $ast mayor of @dessa: .e arri3ed on March &4 and $eft a%ain on
A+ri$ 9: .e had 0een Mayor of Sta$ino under the 1ermansL he #as an en%ineer6 a fat
+od%y $itt$e man of forty,si8L a 1erman maHor did a$$ his #or<:
*nder the 2umanians6 thirty churches #ere o+en in @dessa6 amon% them a fe# utheran
and 2oman 5atho$ic churches: The @rthodo8 c$er%y at @dessa #ere ordered 0y the
2umanians to se3er a$$ connection #ith the Mosco# !atriarchy6 and to acce+t the
authority of the Metro+o$itan ;i<odim of @dessa6 a man #ho sa# eye to eye #ith the
ne# masters: The 2umanians sent a church mission of t#e$3e +riests to @dessa6 headed
0y one Scri0an6 a theo$o%y +rofessor from Bucharest: These +riests too< o3er some of the
0est houses in @dessa6 inc$udin% those of the Metro+o$itan and other Bisho+sL they a$so
too< o3er a$$ the 0est +arishes: Father Aasi$i6 the !riest of the *s+ens<y 5athedra$6 to$d
me that6 as a resu$t6 the 2ussian +riests #ere +ut Fin a hi%h$y unfa3oura0$e +osition6 and
many #ere reduced to findin% themse$3es ne# +arishes in the countryside:F Father Aasi$i
dec$ared that the 2umanian +riests in @dessa #ent in for hi%h$y riotous $i3in%6 and the
#orst offender of a$$ #as Scri0an himse$f: Scri0an had made a rac<et of his Ho0: he #ou$d
authorise 2ussian +riests to ta<e this or that +arish6 and the 0etter the +arish6 the hi%her
Ms ra<e,off:
Fina$$y6 he #as sent 0ac< to Bucharest6 0ecause his 0eha3iour #as 0ecomin% too
scanda$ous$y notorious6 and instead there came the Metro+o$itan Aissarion of Bessara0ia
and 5>erno#it>: .e made a so$emn and trium+ha$ entry into @dessa6 #ith 2umanian
ca3a$ry escortin% his carria%e6 0ut soon after#ards %reat ro#s started 0et#een him6
re+resentin% the 5hurch6 and 1o3ernor A$e8eanu6 re+resentin% the tem+ora$ +o#er: The
fina$ resu$t #as that the Metro+o$itan Aissarion6 #ho had entered @dessa $i<e a Tsar6 $eft
for the rai$#ay station in a drosh<i6 #ith one suitcase:
There #as $itt$e or no Herrenvol* stuff a0out the 2umanians6 and for that matter6 not
much $o3e $ost 0et#een 2umanians and the 1ermans6 e8ce+t +erha+s at the 3ery to+
$e3e$: 5on=uerors and con=uered found common %round in 0usiness and in the 0$ac<
mar<et: But neither *<rainians6 2ussians nor 2umanians cou$d6 after a$$6 ta<e
Transniestria 3ery serious$y: For one year (u+ to Sta$in%rad) it seemed +ossi0$e that the
2umanians had come to stay: 0ut not after that: Many Ffree,enter+riseF enthusiasts amon%
the @dessites must then ha3e %one much more cautious$y a0out their co,o+eration #ith
the ne# masters: These #ere6 moreo3er6 0ecomin% 3isi0$y deHected since the rout of the
2umanian troo+s on the Don6 and #ere increasin%$y fri%htened of the 1ermans thro#in%
them out of Transniestria a$to%ether: ?t #as <no#n that e3en Antonescu #as no#
resentin% .it$er's %ro#in% demands for more and more 2umanian cannon fodder:
9hat had the Si%uran>a done in @dessaE The 2ussians said that they #ere as 0ad as the
1esta+o: that they had not on$y shot 4"6""" Be#s in a +$ace ca$$ed Stre$0ishche Fie$d6 0ut
had a$so6 es+ecia$$y durin% the ear$y +art of the occu+ation6 shot a0out 1"6""" others6
many of them communists or sus+ected communists6 or hosta%es ta<en after the shootin%
of 2umanian officers in the streets6 cases of 0om0,thro#in%6 etc:
IThere #ere o3er 1-"6""" Be#s in @dessa in 19416 0ut a0out t#o,thirds had 0een
e3acuated 0y sea #ith most of the army and many of the other ci3i$ians: 9hen6 in Bune
1944 ? #ent to Boto^ani6 in the +art of 2umania occu+ied 0y the 2ussians6 ? found there a
$ar%e Be#ish +o+u$ation #hich had not 0een e8terminated 0y the 2umanians6 des+ite
1erman demands: There #as some disa%reement in the 2umanian 1o3ernment on this
issue (see 2eit$in%er: The Final %olution5 ondon 19-36 +: 4"4:)K
The on$y redeemin% feature of the Si%uran>a6 accordin% to the 2ussians6 #as that they
#ere e8treme$y corru+t6 and many Be#s #ho cou$d afford it cou$d 0uy FAryanF +a+ers6
or6 at any rate6 0e a$$o#ed to esca+e to the countryside: There is e3idence to sho# that the
2umanians6 #hi$e themse$3es ready to <i$$ Be#s6 resisted 1erman FinterferenceF in
@dessa:
There is some dou0t6 too6 a0out the rea$ im+ortance of the So3iet Funder%roundF
o+eratin% from the ine8trica0$e $a0yrinth of the @dessa catacom0s6 #ith their do>ens of
mi$es of su0terranean +assa%es6 some of them as much as 1"" feet under%round: Many
romantic stories (nota0$y 0y A: 4ataye3) #ere #ritten to#ards the end of the #ar a0out
the Fon$y ur0an +artisans in the #or$dF6 and a0out some of their communist chiefs6 such
as S: F: a>are36 ?: 1: ?$yu<hin and : F: Bor%e$6 #ho functioned throu%hout the
2umanian occu+ation and s+read +er+etua$ terror amon% the in3aders:
IA: 4ataye36 Kata*om4! (The 5atacom0s)6 (Mosco#6 194-):K
?t seems that6 in rea$ity6 the So3iet under%round in @dessa used the catacom0s (#hich had
many secret entrances inside houses) on$y in cases of %reat emer%ency and that6 a$thou%h
some food and arms dum+s #ere hidden there6 3ery fe# +eo+$e (if any) actua$$y lived in
the catacom0s for any $en%th of time: Some Be#s #ere said to ha3e $i3ed there ri%ht
throu%h the occu+ation6 0ut the e8treme dam+ of the catacom0s ma<es this hi%h$y
dou0tfu$:
9hat is certain6 ho#e3er6 is that a"ter the end o" <=J> (0ut not 0efore)6 and +articu$ar$y
durin% the $ast (1erman) month of the occu+ation the catacom0s 0ecame much more
im+ortant: Than<s to the So3iet under%round or%anisations6 they 0ecame a refu%e for
youn% +eo+$e in dan%er of de+ortation6 and for a num0er of A$satian6 !o$ish6 and
es+ecia$$y S$o3a< deserters from the 1erman Army: Some of the +artisan chiefs ? sa# in
@dessa soon after the $i0eration (and +retty thu%%ish 4end!uzhni* ty+es they #ere)6
c$aimed that there #as a #e$$,armed army of 1"6""" men in the catacom0s (#ho 0ou%ht
most of their arms in the 0$ac< mar<et from 2umanian or 1erman so$diers) com+$ete #ith
a Fcatacom0 hos+ita$F #ith Ft#e$3e sur%eons and &"" nursesF6 and not on$y a Fcatacom0
0a<eryF 0ut e3en a Fcatacom0 sausa%e factoryFL 0ut this is not certain 0y any means6 and
must 0e ta<en #ith serious reser3ations: C8ce+t durin% the $ast #ee<s of the occu+ation6
#hen @dessa #as under the 1ermans6 the usua$ incenti3es (such as the dan%er of
de+ortation) for a 0i% +artisan mo3ement #ere sim+$y not thereL and e3en $ater a %reat
num0er of +eo+$e #ho #ent into the catacom0s #ere +assi3e rather than acti3e +artisans:
A$$ ? sa# in the catacom0s #ere se3era$ machine,%un nests co3erin% the essentia$
+assa%esL emer%ency food stores6 artesian #e$$s and arms dum+s: A fe# thousand +eo+$e
may #e$$ ha3e stayed in the catacom0s durin% the $ast fe# critica$ #ee<sL 0ut the c$aims
made to me 0y the +artisan chiefs that the @dessa under%round had <i$$ed Fhundreds of
1ermansF6 that it had +re3ented them from destroyin% the #ho$e of @dessa (it had not
sto++ed them from destroyin% the har0our and +ractica$$y a$$ the factories) had a certain
histoire marseillaise =ua$ity: ?t is +erha+s si%nificant that serious So3iet +ost,#ar studies
of the #ar say 3ery $itt$e of the Fcatacom0 +artisansF6 and certain$y do not descri0e them
as a maHor under%round army #hich (as the +artisan chiefs c$aimed on A+ri$ 146 1944)
Fcou$d ha3e occu+ied @dessa and thro#n out the 1ermans if the 2ed Army had not
arri3ed in timeF: Such 0oasts #ere #ho$$y unsu0stantiated:
? sa# many #ar +risoners that #ee< at @dessa6 amon% them6 the S$o3a<s and the
A$satians #ho had Hoined the +artisans: They #ere in fine fi%htin% s+irit6 es+ecia$$y the
S$o3a<s6 and a$so some !o$es6 and they #ere ty+ica$ of the @ccu+ied Curo+e durin% those
daysD ty+ica$ of its ra+id$y risin% ho+es: The 2umanian #ar +risoners #ere a$$ do#n,at,
hee$6 0oth +hysica$$y and mora$$y6 and one of them6 #hen as<ed #hat he had done durin%
the #ar6 Ho3ia$$y dec$ared that he had 0een a deserter for three years: Another #as a
cheery Bucharest ta8i,dri3er6 #ho said he ho+ed 4in% 5aro$ and Madame u+escuD a
ver! good :oman, he saidD#ou$d come 0ac<6 0ecause in their days $ife #as %ay and
there #as a $ot of 0usiness for ta8i,dri3ers: And the =uestion they #ere a$$ as<in%D
ho+efu$$yD#as F.as Bucharest 0een ta<en yetE F
The 1ermans6 ho#e3er6 su$<ed6 and fe# #ou$d commit themse$3es to sayin% .it$er had
$ost the #ar: They seemed6 in fact6 rather +roud to thin< that near$y a$$ the 1ermans had
mana%ed to %et out of @dessa 0efore it #as too $ate:
The centre of @dessa had in the main sur3i3ed6 thou%h most of the factories in the
su0ur0s had 0een destroyed: But $ifeDa ne# So3iet $ifeD#as a$ready 0e%innin% to ta<e
sha+e here and there: At the Aoront>o3 !a$aceDno# a%ain the !ioneers' !a$aceD#hose
%$ass dome had 0een shattered 0y a 2ussian she$$ that #as aimed at the +ortDchi$dren
#ere in3ited to re%ister a%ain:
The matron of the !ioneers' !a$ace #as indi%nant: FSuch 0ar0arism6F she said: A$e8eanu
had $i3ed here in %rand sty$e #ith his mistress6 and6 not unnatura$$y6 he had FrestoredF the
!a$ace6 accordin% to his o#n taste6 and had %i3en the Cm+ire dra#in% room #ith the
chande$iers ne# cream,co$oured #a$$s: FAnd the cream,co$oured +aint6F she said6 Fis
smeared o3er the mura$ of the +re,re3o$utionary s=ua$or in #hich the chi$dren of 2ussia
had then $i3edL and6 simi$ar$y6 on the o++osite #a$$ A$e8eanu has destroyed fore3er the
0eautifu$ mura$ +aintin% of 5omrade Sta$in c$a++in% his hands as the ha++y So3iet
chi$dren dance round him:F
? #as to see @dessa a%ain6 near$y a year $ater6 in March 194-: By then it had 0ecome the
+ort of em0ar<ation for thousands of British6 American6 French and other +risoners of
#ar6 #ho had 0een $i0erated 0y the 2ed Army in !o$and6 Si$esia6 !omerania and Cast
!russia: They #ere $i3in% in 0arrac<s6 schoo$ 0ui$din%s6 and in 3i$$as near the Arcadia
Beach: Sai$ors6 British and American most$y6 #ere dancin% and drin<in% hard amon% the
dusty +a$m trees of the $oun%e of the .ote$ de ondres6 no# de,mined (it #as ro+ed off
durin% my first 3isit): Food #as scarceDe3en at the .ote$ de ondresDand @dessa had a
hun%ry $oo<6 much $eaner than in 1944: There #ere sti$$ no 0uses or trams6 and the
mar<et $oo<ed +o3erty stric<en: Banditry #as rife: Shady characters #ere s$in<in% a0out
the streets at dar<6 and ro00eries and murders #ere a ni%ht$y occurrence: 9ere the! usin%
the catacom0s no#Dto dod%e the 2ussian +o$iceE The +ort6 it is true6 #as #or<in%6 and
+a$e6 ye$$o#,s<inned 1erman +risoners #ere c$earin% a#ay the ru00$e: Much of the
#rec<a%e had indeed 0een c$eared6 thou%h on$y a sma$$ +art of the +ort #as usa0$e6 #ith
one American and one British trans+ort moored to the =uay6 and the 0rea<#ater #as sti$$
smashed in t#o +$aces: .undreds of British or French or American !:@:9s: #ou$d march
Hoyfu$$y throu%h the #rec<ed doc<$and of @dessa to the shi+ that #as a#aitin% themL they
#ou$d Heer at the 1ermans6 and the 1ermans #ou$d ma<e +hi$oso+hica$ remar<s to each
other a0out the chan%in% fortunes of #ar6 or mere$y %$are disconso$ate$y:
? #ondered then #hy @dessa #as scarce$y 0ein% restored at a$$6 and #hy food and $i3in%
conditions %enera$$y #ere harder than they #ere in so many other $i0erated cities: 9as
not @dessa6 ? #ondered6 0ein% indirect$y +unished for that re$ati3e$y easy time it had had
in the Transniestria days6 and for the ea%erness #ith #hich so many of its citi>ens had
entered into the s+irit of ni%ht,c$u0s6 0ode%as and 0$ac<,mar<etin%E ;ot out of rea$
dis$oya$ty6 0ut rather out of an innate and fri3o$ous $i<in% for +etty 0usiness:
For se3era$ years after the #ar there #as a fee$in% that @dessa #as in +oor odour in
Mosco# and #as $o# on the $ist of +riorities for reconstruction:
C').&(+ IA CLOSE-UP III: HITLER<S CRIMEAN
CATASTROPHE
!ost,#ar 1erman historians ho$d .it$er e8c$usi3e$y res+onsi0$e for the Fsense$ess
disasterF that the 1erman Army suffered in the 5rimea in A+ri$,May 19446 com+$ete #ith
their a0orti3e FDun<ir<F at Se0asto+o$6 +erha+s the most s+ectacu$ar defeat of a$$ inf$icted
on the 1ermans since Sta$in%rad:
.it$er's determination to c$in% on to the 5rimea6 e3en thou%h the #ho$e *<rainian
main$and to the north of it #as no# in 2ussian hands6 had 0een dictated 0y his usua$
+o$itica$ and economic considerations6 0esides the sentimenta$ ru00ish a0out the 5rimea
ha3in% 0een Fthe $ast stron%ho$d of the 1othsF and sti$$ 0ein% +otentia$$y a #onderfu$
+$ay%round for Kra"t durch Freude5 ?t #as e3en said that .it$er intended to retire to the
Tsar's +a$ace of i3adia in his o$d a%e:
9ith Tur<ey 0e%innin% to $ean hea3i$y the other #ay since Teheran6 it #as essentia$ to
im+ress u+on her that 1ermany #as sti$$ +o#erfu$ on the B$ac< SeaL second$y6 o0sessed
0y economic considerations6 .it$er #as determined not to a$$o# the 2ussians to use the
5rimea as a s+rin%0oard for massi3e air attac<s on the 2umanian oi$ fie$dsD1ermany's
most im+ortant source of oi$: ?ronica$$y6 it #as e8act$y t#o days 0efore the 2ussians
undertoo< their attac< on the 5rimea that the Americans6 o+eratin% from southern ?ta$y6
dro++ed their first 0i% 0om0s on !$oestiD#hich .it$er thou%ht he cou$d ma<e
in3u$nera0$e a%ainst air attac<s 0y han%in% on to the 5rimeaP
I!hi$i++i and .eim6 o+: cit:6 +: &43:K
Any#ay6 0y May 19446 the 2ussians #ere a$ready at @dessa6 not much farther a#ay from
!$oesti than Se0asto+o$:
The 2ussians reca+tured the 5rimea #ithin a month: The attac< 0e%an in the north on
A+ri$ 11: ?n the course of the +re3ious #inter the troo+s of To$0u<hin's 4th *<rainian
Front had esta0$ished a 0rid%ehead on the south side of the Si3ash6 the narro# in$et
0et#een the 5rimea and the main$and: ?t had 0een one of the 0o$dest o+erations of its
<ind: After a hea3y 0arra%e a%ainst the re$ati3e$y s$ender 2umanian +ositions on the
south side of the Si3ash6 a considera0$e num0er of 2ussian troo+s %ot across 0y 3arious
means and esta0$ished a 0rid%ehead on the south side: After that hundreds of so$diers
s+ent hours #aist,dee+ or shou$der,dee+ in the icy and 3ery sa$t #ater of the Si3ashDthe
sa$t eatin% into e3ery +ore and causin% a$most un0eara0$e +ainD$ayin% a +ontoon across
the in$et: A$thou%h the 2ussians suffered hea3y $osses in this dou0$e o+eration6 the
0rid%ehead #as firm$y esta0$ished and fortified:
I5urious$y6 at the time there #as no announcement in the 2ussian +ress of this
0rid%ehead6 and $ater in ne#s+a+er artic$es and fi$ms ($i<e The Third .lo:7 the
esta0$ishment of the 0rid%ehead #as re+resented as the first +art of To$0u<hin's A+ri$
offensi3e: !erha+s it #as feared that the 0rid%ehead mi%ht yet 0e $ost6 so it #as 0etter to
say nothin% meantime:K
And so6 on A+ri$ 116 after a hea3y arti$$ery 0arra%e6 thousands of 2ussian troo+s and
hundreds of tan<s +oured from the 0rid%ehead into the interior of the 5rimea:
Simu$taneous$y other 2ussian forces attac<ed the 1erman defences on the !ere<o+
?sthmus6 0ut this #as more in the nature of a di3ersion and6 #ith the troo+s from the
Si3ash 0rid%ehead threatenin% to cut off !ere<o+ from the south6 the 1ermans and
2umanians hasti$y a0andoned the e$a0orate t#enty,mi$e,dee+ defences they had 0een
0ui$t on the ?sthmus:
I?t had 0een the #e$$,%uarded F%ateF of the 5rimean Tartars u+ to the 1Jth century6 and
the main fortified +osition of 9ran%e$'s F9hitesF in 19&": ?n 1941 the ?sthmus #as
+oor$y fortified and manned and the 1ermans 0ro<e throu%h #ith re$ati3e ease:K
9ithin t#o days To$0u<hin's troo+s o3erran the #ho$e northern +art of the 5rimea6 and
ca+tured Simfero+o$6 its ca+ita$: Meantime (eremen<o's s+ecia$ B$ac< Sea Army6
ad3ancin% from east,5rimean 0rid%eheads (a$so esta0$ished durin% the #inter) struc< out
#est a$on% the southern coast of the 5rimea6 ca+turin% 4erch6 Feodosia6 1ur>uf6 (a$ta
and A$u+<a6 and continuin% to +ursue the 1ermans retreatin% to Se0asto+o$:
.it$er's decision to ho$d the 5rimea #as one of his most insane ins+irations: Accordin% to
+resent,day 2ussian sources6 the 2ussians succeeded in achie3in% o3er#he$min%
su+eriority there: 9hereas there #ere 19-6""" 1erman and 2umanian troo+s in the
5rimea6 the 2ussians had 47"6""" and a simi$ar su+eriority in tan<s6 %uns and aircraft:
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: 46 +: J9:K
The 2ussians a$so had %reat na3a$ su+eriority on the B$ac< Sea:
A0out ha$f of the 1erman 17th Army ho$din% the 5rimea consisted of 2umaniansL and
Antonescu had ar%ued months 0efore #ith .it$er in fa3our of e3acuatin% these 2umanian
troo+sL the attem+t to ho$d the +eninsu$a struc< him as tota$$y unrea$istic: But .it$er
#ou$d not hear of it: Many of the 2umanian troo+s6 rea$isin% no dou0t that Se0asto+o$D
to #hich a$$ the 1erman troo+s #ere no# ra+id$y con3er%in%D#ou$d 0e a death,tra+6
and that they #ou$d6 in any case6 0e the $ast to 0e e3acuated6 hastened to surrender to the
2ussians in the northern 5rimea6 at Simfero+o$6 and a$on% the coast:
By A+ri$ 1J6 the 0u$< of the 1erman forces had ra+id$y retreated to Se0asto+o$ #hich
.it$er no# dec$ared to 0e FFestun% Se#asto+o$F: This #ou$d ha3e to 0e he$d indefinite$y
0y some -"6""" menL the others cou$d 0e e3acuatedL the 2ussians had he$d Se0asto+o$ for
&-" days in 1941,&6 and had created a FSe0asto+o$ e%endFL the 1ermans must no# do at
$east as #e$$:
IAccordin% to 1erman sources .it$er thou%ht it essentia$ to ho$d Se0asto+o$ at $east unti$
he had re+e$$ed the e8+ected ;ormandy $andin% si8 or ei%ht #ee<s $ater:K
@n A+ri$ 1J the front ran in a semi,circ$e east of Se0asto+o$6 and #as t#enty,fi3e mi$es
in $en%th:
?n their hurried retreat to Se0asto+o$6 the 1erman troo+s ne3erthe$ess caused considera0$e
destruction: They destroyed the #ho$e sea,front at (a$ta6 0ut had no time to destroy the
rest of the to#n (inc$udin% the 5he<ho3 Museum6 #here the #riter had $i3ed) or the
former +a$aces at A$u+<a6 one of #hich had 0een +resented to Manstein Fthe con=ueror of
the 5rimeaF 0y Fthe %ratefu$ 1erman nationF 0ac< in 194&: ?t #as in these +a$aces that
the (a$ta 5onference #as to meet $ess than a year $ater:
?t #as $ater ar%ued on the 2ussian side that if on$y the 2ed Army had 0e%un to storm
Se0asto+o$ immediate$y after A+ri$ 1J6 and had not #aited ti$$ May -6 3ery fe# of the
1erman troo+s cou$d ha3e %ot a#ay at a$$L 0ut the stormin% of Se0asto+o$ re=uired a hi%h
concentration of troo+s6 %uns and tan<s6 a thorou%h or%anisation of airfie$ds6 etc:6 and this
needed some time: Accordin% to To$0u<hin6 no successfu$ a$$,out attac< #as +ossi0$e
#ithout a0out a fortni%ht's +re+aration:
?t #i$$ remain one of the +u>>$es of the #ar #hy6 in 1941,&6 des+ite o3er#he$min%
1erman and 2umanian su+eriority in tan<s and aircraft6 and a su0stantia$ su+eriority in
men6 Se0asto+o$ succeeded in ho$din% out for &-" days and #hy6 in 19446 the 2ussians
ca+tured it #ithin four days: 1erman authors no# e8+$ain it sim+$y 0y the %reat 2ussian
su+eriority in effecti3es6 aircraft and a$$ other e=ui+ment: But did not the 1ermans and
2umanians enHoy much the same <ind of su+eriority in 1941,&E 9as there not somethin%
$ac<in% in 1erman mora$e 0y A+ri$ 1944Dat $east in a remote +$ace $i<e the 5rimeaE For6
as #e <no#6 the 1ermans cou$d sti$$ +ut u+ suicida$ resistance once on 1erman soi$:
A moot =uestion is ho# many 1ermans #ere actua$$y e3acuated from the 5rimea
0et#een A+ri$ 1J and May 13: Accordin% to a 2ussian %enera$ ? sa# at Se0asto+o$ at the
time6 on$y 3"6""" %ot a#ayL accordin% to 1erman #ar +risoners ta<en6 at $east t#ice as
many: !ost,#ar 1erman accounts say that 1-"6""" %ot a#ay6 0ut that Fat $east )"6"""
1ermansF #ere F$ostF in the 5rimeaL as #e$$ as enormous masses of e=ui+ment6 #hi$e
si8ty shi+s #ere sun<: The 2ussians +ut the enemy $osses in the 5rimea much hi%herD
-"6""" (near$y a$$ 1ermans) <i$$ed and )16""" ta<en +risoner (3"6""" of them at
5hersonese)Da tota$ $oss of 1116"""L 0ut these (es+ecia$$y the +risoners) o03ious$y
inc$uded a %reat num0er of 2umanians: 1erman authors today are sur+rised that the
2ussian B$ac< Sea f$eet a$$o#ed so many shi+s to %et a#ayL the 2ussian ans#er to this is
that the sea 0et#een Se0asto+o$ and 2umania #as hea3i$y mined6 0ut that many 1erman
shi+s6 #ith 4"6""" men on 0oard6 #ere sun< a$$ the same6 most$y 0y aircraft 0et#een May
3 and 13:
Any#ay6 #hether the 1ermans $ost (as they no# admit) at $east )"6""" men or (as the
2ussians c$aim) nearer 1""6""" men6 the #ho$e 5rimean o+eration6 and .it$er's futi$e
attem+t to sta%e a 1erman 3ersion of the F.eroic Defence of Se0asto+o$F is no# admitted
to ha3e 0een one of the FRhrer's +rime 0$unders: 1erman histories today say that the
1erman commander of the 17th Army6 5o$one$,1enera$ Baenic<e6 #as made a sca+e%oat
0y the FRhrer: ?n fact he informed .it$er that he cou$d not ho$d Se0asto+o$ and #as
re$ie3ed of his command on May 36 and #as re+$aced 0y 1enera$ A$$me,din%er: 9hether6
at heart6 the $atter had any more ho+e than Baenic<e is hard to sayL 0ut he #as a++arent$y
a more #ho$ehearted ;a>i: The 0i% 2ussian ons$au%ht 0e%an t#o days after his
a++ointment:
?n his fare#e$$ messa%e6 #hich the 2ussians ca+tured at the time6 Baenic<e #rote:
DT'( Z'+(+ ')- #+5(+(5 "( &# &);( 1. $(2 01$3&,#$-. T',- "()$- ) 8,&&(+ %##5-8*(
&# "* A+"*. W,&' 5((. ("#&,#$ I -')// +("("8(+ *#1+ (B("./)+* 3#1+)%(. T'(
Z'+(+ ')- ($&+1-&(5 *#1 2,&' ) &)-; #0 2#+/5-',-&#+,3)/ ,".#+&)$3(. A& S(8)-&#.#/
-&)$5- &'( 1K&' A+"*, )$5 )& S(8)-&#.#/ &'( S#6,(&- 2,// 8/((5 &# 5()&'.D
There had 0een some hea3y fi%htin% on the outer defences of Se0asto+o$ since A+ri$ 1J6
+articu$ar$y in the 3a$$ey of ?n<ermanL 0ut it #as not ti$$ May - that the 2ussians attac<ed
Se0asto+o$ in stren%th from the north6 in order to dra# there as many 1erman troo+s as
+ossi0$e: .a3in% achie3ed that6 the 2ussians $aunched6 on May 76 an a$$,out attac< on
Sa+un 2id%e6 a hi$$ 1-" feet hi%h6 #ith se3era$ $ines of 1erman trenches6 #hich #as Fthe
<ey to Se0asto+o$F: The arti$$ery and *at!usha 0arra%e6 su++orted 0y aircraft6 $asted
se3era$ hours6 and then the rid%e #as stormed 0y infantry: There #ere hea3y $osses on
0oth sides6 0ut once Sa+un 2id%e #as ta<en6 the road to Se0asto+o$ #as c$ear: T#o days
$ater6 on May 96 .it$er resi%ned himse$f to a0andonin% the 5rimea and ordered
e3acuation: But it #as a$ready too $ate and the -"6""" 1erman troo+s $eft around
Se0asto+o$ #ere no# doomed:
The successfu$ if cost$y 2ussian ca+ture of Sa+un 2id%e #as accom+anied 0y attac<s on
other +arts of the Fim+re%na0$eF Se0asto+o$ defences6 and 0y the 9th6 the 2ussians 0e%an
to +our into Se0asto+o$ from a$$ directions: Se3era$ thousand 1ermans #ere <i$$ed or
ca+tured in Se0asto+o$ itse$f6 #hi$e the restDa0out 3"6""" Da0andoned the city and
retreated across the moors to the 5hersonese !eninsu$a: .ere there #ere three isthmi6 one
$ess than t#o mi$es #ide6 and the others $ess than a mi$e #ide6 and across the first isthmus
the 1ermans had $aid minefie$ds and had 0ui$t an Fearth #a$$F #ith fortifications of sorts
consistin% of 0ar0ed,#ire fences and a series of du%outs and machine,%un nestsDnothin%
3ery so$id6 0ut hard to a++roach 0ecause of the minefie$d:
The distance 0et#een the first $ine of defence and the ti+ of the 5hersonese !romontory6
#ith the ruins of its #hite $i%hthouse6 #as a0out three mi$es: The fortifications across the
other t#o isthmi #ere much more rudimentary: ?t #as in this sma$$ area of a0out three
mi$es 0y a0out one and a ha$f that the 1ermans #ere %oin% to ma<e their $ast stand6 sti$$
in the des+erate ho+e that shi+s #ou$d come to ta<e them a#ay:
And so6 on the 9th6 after a0andonin% Se0asto+o$6 3"6""" 1ermans retreated across the
0$ea< moors outside Se0asto+o$ to the 5hersonese !romontoryDthe 3ery +$ace to #hich
the $ast 2ussian defenders of Se0asto+o$ had retreated in Bu$y 194&6 on$y to 0e
e8terminated or ta<en +risoner:
1erman +risoners $ater said that the mora$e #as $o# amon% the troo+s6 0ut that the
officers <e+t on assurin% them that shi+s #ou$d come: The FRhrer had +romised it::: For
three days and ni%hts the 5hersonese #as that Funs+ea<a0$e infernoF to #hich 1erman
authors no# refer: True6 on the ni%ht of May 9,1" and on the fo$$o#in% ni%ht t#o sma$$
shi+s did come and +erha+s 16""" men #ere ta<en a0oard: This %reat$y encoura%ed the
remainin% troo+s:
The 1ermans sti$$ had one sma$$ fi%hter airfie$d on 5hersoneseL 0ut since it #as no#
under constant 2ussian she$$,fire6 it cou$d not ser3e much +ur+ose:
The 2ussians #ere not6 ho#e3er6 %oin% to a$$o# any more 1ermans to 0e e3acuated 0y
seaL on the ni%ht of May 11,1&6 se3era$ more shi+s a++roached 5hersonese6 0ut t#o #ere
sun< 0y 2ussian she$$,fire and the rest turned tai$: That #as the ni%ht on #hich the
2ussians decided to finish off the 3"6""" 1ermans: By this time the si%ht of the shi+s that
had come and %one #ithout $andin% had serious$y demora$ised the 1erman troo+s: They
had a$ready 0een hea3i$y 0om0ed and she$$ed for t#o days and ni%htsL and on the ni%ht of
May 11,1& the *at!usha mortars (Fthe B$ac< DeathF the 1ermans used to ca$$ them) came
into action: 9hat fo$$o#ed #as a massacre: The 1ermans f$ed in +anic 0eyond the second
and then the third $ine of their defences6 and #hen6 in the ear$y mornin% hours6 2ussian
tan<s dro3e in6 they 0e%an to surrender in $ar%e num0ers6 amon% them their commander6
1enera$ BThme and se3era$ other staff officers #ho had 0een she$terin% in the ce$$ar of
the on$y farm 0ui$din% on the +romontory:
Thousands of #ounded had 0een ta<en to the ti+ of the +romontory6 and here #ere a$so
some 7-" SS,men #ho refused to surrender6 and #ent on firin%: A fe# do>en sur3i3ors
tried in the end to %et a#ay 0y sea in sma$$ 0oats or rafts: Some of these %ot a#ay6 0ut
often on$y to 0e machine,%unned 0y 2ussian aircraft: These des+erate men #ere ho+in%
to %et to 2umania6 Tur<ey6 or may0e to 0e +ic<ed u+ 0y some 1erman or 2umanian
3esse$:
My tri+ to the 5rimea on May 14,1J #as +erha+s the stran%est 5rimean ho$iday anyone
had e3er had:
@n the mornin% of the 14th ? f$e# from Mosco# to Simfero+o$: The +$ane circ$ed o3er
the Si3ash6 #here the 2ussian offensi3e had started a month 0efore6 and then o3er the
!ere<o+ ?sthmus6 #here the 1ermans had 0ui$t their defences in de+th: ?t #as Hust as #e$$
the 2ussians had 0y,+assed !ere<o+:
9ith its +o+$ars6 the country round Simfero+o$ $oo<ed $i<e the Touraine: A$$ the a++$e6
+each6 cherry and a+ricot trees #ere in 0$ossom: Simfero+o$6 sma$$ and nondescri+t6
e8ce+t for a fe# sma$$ mos=ues6 had suffered some 0om0,dama%e6 0ut not much: More
characteristic of the 5rimea #ere the Tartar 3i$$a%es6 #ith their mos=ues and the +ecu$iar
Tartar cotta%es #ith f$at roofs and o+en 3erandahs: 9e dro3e throu%h se3era$ such
3i$$a%es on our #ay to the mountains and the south coast6 and the Tartars $oo<ed on6
morose and scared:
Then #e came to the south coast of the 5rimea: At A$ushta many houses had 0een 0urned
out6 and the 0each #as mined and ro+ed off 0y 0ar0ed,#ire fencesL yet the scenery #as
of a +icture,+ostcard 0eautyDa $and of 3ineyards and cy+resses6 #here the fruit,trees and
the $i$ac #ere no# in 0$oom and houses #ere 0ri%ht #ith the f$amin% red of the
0ou%ain3i$ia6 the $a3ender c$usters of %$ycinium and the %ardens %o$den #ith the ye$$o#
0ushes of $a0urnum: Farther #est6 on the +a$e 0$ue sea6 $ay the %iant sha+e of Ayu Da%6
the roc< #hich6 accordin% to $oca$ $e%end6 #as the de3i$ #ho had 0een turned into a
%ranite 0ear tryin% in 3ain to drain the B$ac< Sea 0y drin<in% it dry: To the ri%ht6 there
rose into the s<y the hi%h $i$ac out$ine of Ai,!etri6 its +ea<s #ra++ed in c$oud:
At (a$ta6 the F;iceF of the 5rimea6 the #ho$e sea front had 0een 0urned do#n 0y the
1ermans6 0ut there #as $itt$e destruction 0et#een (a$ta and the s+ot #here the road turns
in$and: 9e +assed the im+eria$ +a$aces at A$u+<a6 and se3era$ sanatoria6 no# cro#ded
#ith 2ussian #ounded6 and many of them6 thou%h 0anda%ed or on crutches6 #a3ed
cheerfu$$y as #e dro3e +ast: (The 1ermans had a$so made %reat use of the 5rimea as a
%i%antic mi$itary hos+ita$ e3er since they had come here in the autumn of 1941):
;othin% #as more stri<in% than the contrast 0et#een this dri3e a$on% the +icture,+ostcard
coast and the country round Se0asto+o$: There #as nothin% here 0ut 0$ea<6 #inds#e+t
moors6 and a fe# houses6 no# a$$ destroyed: The Aa$$ey of ?n<erman #as $i<e the Aa$$ey
of Death: ?t is se+arated from Se0asto+o$ 0y Sa+un 2id%e6 and this a$so $oo<ed one of the
most me$ancho$y s+ots on earth6 no# +oc<mar<ed #ith she$$,ho$es6 $i<e a$$ the country
around: 1od <no#s ho# many men died here on May 7: ?n the +$ains around Sa+un
2id%e and a$on% the road that runs to Se0asto+o$ throu%h the Aa$$ey of ?n<erman6 the air
#as fi$$ed #ith the stench of death: ?t came from the hundreds of horses sti$$ $yin% there6
inf$ated and decayin% 0y the roadside6 and from the thousands of dead6 many of #hom
had not 0een 0uried dee+ enou%h6 or e3en not yet 0uried at a$$:
.ere6 more than any#here e$se6 one fe$t that one #as dri3in% o3er $ayers and $ayers of
human 0onesDof those #ho died in the 5rimean 9ar6 and in the ri%htin% in 19&"6 and in
1941,& durin% the dead$y &-",day sie%e of Se0asto+o$6 and no# a%ain:::
From a distance Se0asto+o$6 #ith the $on% and narro# 0ay 0eyond6 $oo<ed $i<e a $i3e city6
0ut it a$so #as dead: C3en in the su0ur0s6 at the far end of the 3a$$ey of ?n<erman6 there
#as hard$y a house standin%: The rai$#ay station #as a mountain of ru00$e and t#isted
meta$L on the $ast day the 1ermans #ere at Se0asto+o$ they ran an enormous %oods train
off the $ine into a ra3ine6 #here it $ay smashed6 its #hee$s in the air: Destruction6
destruction e3ery#here:
Se0asto+o$ itse$f6 0ri%ht and $i3e$y 0efore the #ar6 #as no# me$ancho$y 0eyond #ords:
The har0our #as $ittered #ith the #rec<a%e of shi+s the 2ussians had sun< durin% the $ast
days of the 1erman e3acuation:
?t #as hard to ima%ine ho# +eo+$e cou$d ha3e $i3ed and fou%ht here durin% that summer
of 194&6 in the midst of the stench of hundreds of un0uried cor+ses: And then it a$$ .t u+
in a f$ash: on the remnants of the o$d ;a3y monument on the sea front6 ? noticed an
inscri+tion scratched #ith a <nife or a nai$6 and #ritten no dou0t durin% the $ast days of
the a%ony of Bu$y 194&:
Y#1 )+( $#& &'( -)"( )- 8(0#+(, 2'($ .(#./( -",/(5 )& *#1+ 8()1&*. N#2 (6(+*#$(
31+-(- &',- -.#&, 8(3)1-( ,& ')- 3)1-(5 -# "13' -#++#2. A"#$% *#1+ +1,$-, ,$ *#1+
/)$(- )$5 -&+((&-, &'#1-)$5- )$5 &'#1-)$5- #0 .(#./( /,(, )$5 $# #$( ,- &'(+( &# 3#6(+
&'(,+ +#&&,$% 8#$(-.
?t #as stran%e to #ander a$on% the deserted streets of Se0asto+o$6 so fu$$ of historic
memories of the 5rimean 9ar #ith that Mi<hai$o3s<y FortDsti$$6 more or $ess6
undama%ed across the 0ayD#here youn% To$stoy had ta<en +art in the sie%e of 1J-4,-6
and so fu$$ of the more a%onisin% memories of 194&:
?n one of the fe# 0i%%er 0ui$din%s (+atched u+ 0y the 1ermans since 194&) ? sa# the
Mayor of Se0asto+o$6 5omrade (efremo3L he had 0een mayor durin% the sie%e of 1941,
&: ;o#6 he said6 the streets #ere deserted 0ecause the +eo+$e $i3in% in the outs<irts had
not yet $ost the ha0it of $oo<in% u+on this as ver4oten territory: The so$diers a$so had
%one6 e8ce+t for some B$ac< Sea sai$ors mannin% the antiaircraft %uns: For the $ast t#o
years6 these men had 0een day,dreamin% of the day #hen they #ou$d stand a%ain on
%uard at Se0asto+o$::: The famous ;a3a$ Museum had6 in the main6 sur3i3ed the sie%e6
0ut a$$ its e8hi0its had 0een ta<en a#ay to 1ermany 0y the @r%anisation 2osen0er% F#ith
the 9ehrmacht's +ermissionF6 as a notice inside said: ?t #as #ritten in 1erman6
2umanian6 Tartar and 2ussian6 2ussian comin% $ast:
3"6""" ci3i$ians had sur3i3ed the 1941,& sie%e of Se0asto+o$6 0ut some &"6""" #ere
de+orted 0y the 1ermans or shot as sus+ected so$diers in dis%uiseL and 1"6""" had 0een
a$$o#ed to stay in Se0asto,' +o$6 or rather in its northern su0ur0s: (efremo3 a$so a$$uded
to the 5rimean Tartars6 #ho had +$ayed a +articu$ar$y crue$ %ame in huntin% do#n
dis%uised 2ussian so$diers: A$to%ether6 the Tartars' record #as as 0ad as cou$d 0e: They
had formed a +o$ice force under 1erman contro$ and had 0een hi%h$y acti3e in the
1esta+o:::
5hersonese #as %ruesome: A$$ the area in front of the Carth 9a$$ and 0eyond #as
+$ou%hed u+ 0y thousands of she$$s and scorched 0y the fire of the *at!usha mortars:
.undreds of 1erman 3ehic$es #ere sti$$ there6 or #ere 0ein% carted a#ay 0y 2ussian
so$diers: The %round #as $ittered #ith thousands of 1erman he$mets6 rif$es6 0ayonets6 and
other arms and ammunition: Some of this stuff #as no# 0ein% +i$ed u+ 0y 2ussian
so$diers assisted 0y mee< 1erman #ar +risoners #ho $oo<ed a$most ha++y to 0e a$i3e:
There #ere a$so numerous 1erman %uns around6 and a fe# hea3y tan<sD0ut on$y fe#6
for the 1ermans had either $ost or e3acuated the rest of them $on% 0efore:
@3er the %round #ere a$so scattered thousands of +ieces of +a+er D+hoto%ra+hs6
sna+shots6 +ass+orts6 ma+s6 +ri3ate $ettersDand e3en a 3o$ume of ;iet>sche carried to
the end 0y some ;a>i su+erman: ;ear$y a$$ the dead had 0een 0uried6 0ut around the
shattered $i%hthouse dead 1ermans and rafts #ere 0o00in% in the #ater6 as it 0eat a%ainst
the ti+ of the 5hersonese !romontoryD0odies of men #ho had tried to esca+e on the
rafts: They #ere some of those 7-" SS,men #ho had made a $ast stand around the
$i%hthouse6 and #ou$d not surrender: And here6 amon% these dead 0odies6 on the #ater,
ed%e6 #as another #eird sha+e: somethin% that $oo<ed $i<e a s<e$eton #ith on$y a fe#
ra%s sti$$ c$in%in% to it: and one of the ra%s sti$$ had #hite,and,0$ue stri+es: the telniash*a
(sin%$et) of a B$ac< Sea sai$or: 9as he one of those #ho6 near$y t#o years 0efore6 had
fou%ht here to the $astDHust $i<e these 1ermansDon this 3ery 5hersonese !romontory6
and had 0een $eft here on this deso$ate s+ot6 to rot a#ay un0uriedE
Around the $i%hthouse6 the 0$ue sea #as ca$m6 and +erha+s6 not 3ery far a#ay some rafts
#ere sti$$ driftin% o3er the sea6 #ith des+erate men c$in%in% to them6 driftin% o3er #aters
#here on$y three years 0efore6 the +$easure steamers sti$$ cruised 0et#een @dessa6
Se0asto+o$ and ;o3orossis<: @f the three6 on$y @dessa sti$$ $oo<ed $i<e a city:
;o3orossis<6 $i<e Se0asto+o$6 #as a$so a hea+ of ruins:
My $ast ni%ht in the 5rimea6 ? s+ent in the midst of the rich Huicy %reen ste++e: ?t had
rained hea3i$y durin% the +re3ious e3enin% and throu%hout the ni%ht: ? #as 0i$$eted in the
c$ean $itt$e Tartar cotta%eL there #as an o$d man there6 and an o$d #oman6 and their son6 a
0oy of fifteen or si8teen: They had6 0ehind the house6 a $ar%e 3e%eta0$e %arden6 a$$ their
o#nL the 3e%eta0$es #ere comin% u+ $u8uriant$y6 and 0eyond the 3e%eta0$e +$ot #ere
immense fie$ds of %reen #heat: But the Tartar fami$y #ere morose and fri%htened6
scarce$y said a #ord6 and the #oman c$aimed to 0e 3ery i$$: The $and had 0een intense$y
cu$ti3ated: The 1ermans6 sti$$ ho+in% unti$ A+ri$ to ho$d the 5rimea6 had encoura%ed the
Tartars to so# and +$ant #here3er +ossi0$e6 and the Tartars had #or<ed hard:
? remem0er the $oo< of fear that came o3er the o$d man #hen a So3iet officer <noc<ed on
the door in order6 as it turned out6 mere$y to 0i$$et me on him:
The -""6""" 5rimean Tartars #ere6 0efore $on%6 to 0e de+orted en masseD#omen6
chi$dren and a$$Dto Fthe eastF for ha3in% co$$a0orated #ith the 1ermans: The 5rimea
#as e3entua$$y turned o3er to the *<rainian SS26 and nothin% more #as said of the
Tartars6 e3en thou%h Mr 4hrushche3 #as to 0e 3ery indi%nant a0out the Fracia$istF and
Fun,eninistF mass de+ortation of other entire nationa$ities: But the 5rimean Tartars (or
the Ao$%a 1ermans6 for that matter) #ere not mentioned6 and they #ere ne3er a$$o#ed to
return:
C').&(+ A THE LULL BEORE D-DAY-STALIN<S
LIRTATION WITH THE CATHOLIC CHURCHEDSLAA
UNITYD
By the midd$e of May 1944 the So3iet,1erman Front came to a re$ati3e standsti$$: C8ce+t
for the enormous FBe$orussian Bu$%eF in the midd$e6 #here the 1ermans #ere sti$$ near$y
&-" mi$es inside So3iet territory6 the So3iet,1erman Front ran in an a$most strai%ht $ine
from the 1u$f of Fin$and6 near the former Cstonian 0order6 do#n to ;orthern 2umania
and Bessara0ia: To the north6 the Ba$tic 2e+u0$ics #ere sti$$ in 1erman handsL so #as
most of Be$orussiaL 0ut most of the *<raine had 0een $i0erated6 #ith the front no#
runnin% a short distance to the east of #o#: ?t #as e8+ected that6 #ithin the ne8t fe#
months6 not on$y #ou$d the #ho$e of So3iet territory 0e c$eared of 1ermans6 0ut that the
2ed Army #ou$d +enetrate dee+ into eastern and centra$ Curo+eD!o$and6
5>echos$o3a<ia6 2umania and .un%ary6 and +ossi0$y 1ermany: Fin$and #as not yet out
of the #ar6 the tentati3e armistice ta$<s in Mosco# #ith Cnc<e$ and !aasi<i3i ha3in%
0ro<en do#n: Ayshins<y announced this 0rea<do#n on A+ri$ &&6 indicatin% that the 2ed
Army #ou$d ha3e to ma<e the Finns see reason 0efore $on%: Since Fin$and had not
suffered a mi$itary defeat6 there #as sti$$ much o++osition to acce+tin% the stiff armistice
terms6 com+$ete #ith a demand for ])"" mi$$ion in re+arations:
So3iet +o$icy in re$ation to the countries of eastern Curo+e ca$$ed for some c$arificationL
and a$most the moment So3iet troo+s had entered 2umanian territory6 Mo$oto3 con3ened
a +ress conference on A+ri$ & and officia$$y announced that the So3iet *nion did not aim
at ac=uirin% any 2umanian territory or at ma<in% any chan%es Fin the e8istin% socia$
order in 2umania:F The entry of So3iet troo+s into 2umania #as e8c$usi3e$y dictated 0y
mi$itary necessity and the continued resistance of enemy troo+s in that country: So there
#as to 0e no forced F0o$she3isationF or e3en Fsocia$isationF of 2umania6 no a0o$ition of
+ri3ate enter+rise6 +erha+s e3en no a0o$ition of the monarchy: A$$ this6 in +rinci+$e6 #as a
matter for the 2umanians themse$3es to decide: ?t #as no use6 at this sta%e6 either
a$armin% the 2umanians6 or u+settin% the 9estern A$$ies #ith the +ros+ect of
re3o$utionary chan%es in the countries of eastern Curo+e: A$ready6 3arious 2umanians
#ere in contact #ith the British and the Americans6 #ith a 3ie# to %ettin% out of the #ar6
and it #as no %ood fri%htenin% them off: The =uestion of the 2umanian #overnment, as
distinct from the Fsocia$ orderF cou$d 0e tac<$ed once the 2ed Army #as #e$$ inside
2umaniaDun$ess6 in the inter3a$6 Fthe +eo+$eF (as Sta$in said) #ere to chan%e the
%o3ernment themse$3esL for the +resent6 the 2ussians occu+ied on$y a sma$$ area in north,
east 2umania: F;o c$aims on 2umanian territoryF did not6 of course6 re$ate to Bessara0ia
or ;orthern Bu<o3ina6 0oth of #hich had 0een incor+orated in the So3iet *nion in 194":
The Second Front decided u+on at Teheran #as no# <no#n to 0e due in a matter of
#ee<s: The fee$in% #ide$y e8+ressed amon% ordinary 2ussian so$diers and ci3i$ians #as
that it #ou$d 0e Ftoo easyF6 no# that the 2ed Army had a$ready +u$$ed most of the
chestnuts out of the fire6 and that if the British and Americans #ere %oin% to $and in
France no#6 it #ou$d 0e $ess out of any fee$in% of comradeshi+ for the 2ussians than out
of +ure se$f,interest and e3en se$f,+rotection6 since they feared that the 2ussians mi%ht
no# #e$$ smash 1ermany Fsin%$e,handedF:
These 3ie#s #ere soon discoura%ed 0y Sta$in6 #hose May,Day 1944 @rder #as
+articu$ar$y cordia$ to the 9estern A$$ies: After reca$$in% that the 2ed Army had
ad3anced in a $itt$e o3er a year from the Ao$%a to the Sereth6 he said:
W( #2( &',- -133(-- ,$ ) /)+%( "()-1+( &# #1+ %+()& A//,(-, &'( U$,&(5 S&)&(- )$5
!+()& B+,&),$, 2'# )+( '#/5,$% &'( 0+#$& ,$ I&)/* )$5 )+( 5,6(+&,$% 0+#" 1- ) /)+%(
.)+& #0 &'( !(+")$ &+##.-, )$5 2'# )+( )/-# -1../*,$% 1- 2,&' ',%'/* 6)/1)8/( +)2
")&(+,)/- )$5 )+")"($&-, )+( -*-&(")&,3)//* 8#"8,$% ",/,&)+* #8:(3&,6(- ,$
!(+")$* )$5 )+( -# 1$5(+",$,$% '(+ ",/,&)+* .#2(+.
?n +ayin% a tri0ute to the So3iet rear6 Sta$in said:
I$ &'( .)-& *()+ '1$5+(5- #0 $(2 0)3&#+,(- )$5 ",$(- ')6( 3#"( ,$&# #.(+)&,#$,
5#C($- #0 (/(3&+,3 .#2(+ -&)&,#$-, )$5 ")$* +),/2)* /,$(- )$5 8+,5%(-. M,//,#$- "#+(
S#6,(& .(#./( ')6( ($&(+(5 ,$51-&+*.
Then6 after a tri0ute to 2ussia's #omen6 inte$$i%entsia6 and co$$ecti3e farms6 Sta$in said:
T'( -)&(//,&(- "1-& $#2 -(( 3/()+/* &')& !(+")$* ')- /#-& &'( 2)+. %ut their
Governments cannot be relied upon to break /ith Germany, and the sooner the people
take over and make peace, the better.
The 2ed Army6 he said6 had reached the So3iet frontier a$on% &-" mi$es6 and more than
three,=uarters of occu+ied So3iet territory had no# 0een $i0erated: But to dri3e the
1ermans out of the So3iet *nion #as not sufficient: The #ounded 1erman 0east must 0e
finished off in his $air:
This +hrase (thou%h usua$$y amended to FFascist 0eastF) #as to 0ecome ;o: 1 s$o%an
durin% the ne8t t#e$3e months:
And as if to discoura%e any ideas that the 2ed Army had a$ready done the Ho06 and that
the Second Front #as no $on%er a$$ that im+ortant6 he added:
T'( /,8(+)&,#$ #0 E1+#.(, )$5 &'( -")-',$% #0 !(+")$* #$ '(+ #2$ -#,/ 3)$ 8( 5#$(
#$/* #$ &'( 8)-,- #0 :#,$& (00#+&- 0+#" &'( S#6,(& U$,#$, !+()& B+,&),$ )$5 &'(
U$,&(5 S&)&(- )- &'(* -&+,;( 0+#" &'( ()-& )$5 &'( 2(-&. .. T'(+( ,- $# 5#18& &')& #$/*
-13' ) 3#"8,$(5 8/#2 3)$ -")-' H,&/(+ !(+")$*.
This #as6 +o$itica$$y6 an im+ortant statement:
W
There #as much dis+$ay of cordia$ity to#ards the A$$ies durin% May: at a ceremony of
the British Cm0assy on May 1" the 1:5:B:C: #as conferred on the So3iet 5hief of Staff6
Marsha$ Aassi$e3s<y6 and hundreds of other decorations #ere a#arded: Mo$oto3 and
5$ar< 4err e8chan%ed s+eeches:
@n May &)6 the second anni3ersary of the An%$o,So3iet A$$iance #as mar<ed 0y #arm
editoria$s in the +rinci+a$ +a+ers:
@n May &- and &7 5hurchi$$'s and Cden's s+eeches #ere re+orted at %reat $en%th6 and the
Mo$oto3,Cden e8chan%e of anni3ersary messa%es #as +articu$ar$y cordia$: Cden #as
c$ear$y a$$udin% to the comin% e3ents #hen he s+o<e in his messa%e of the Fmi%hty
ons$au%htF in #hich Four t#o +eo+$es6 hand,in,hand #ith our American and other a$$iesF6
#ou$d #in the #ar: Such a 3ictory6 he said6 #ou$d stren%then the 0onds of friendshi+ and
understandin% on #hich the An%$o,So3iet a$$iance #as 0ased:
The sus+ension of di+$omatic mai$ from Britain created a 3ery ha++y im+ression in
2ussia: ?t #as c$ear$y an indication of #hat #as comin%Dand comin% soon: A$e8ei
To$stoy Ho<in%$y remar<ed to me one day: F?f #e Bo$she3i<s had done anythin% so
outra%eous6 no0ody #ou$d ha3e 0een sur+risedL 0ut if the correct Cn%$ish do such a thin%6
then they sure$y must ha3e %ood reasons for doin% so:F
The Second FrontDthe ;ormandy andin%Dcame a fe# days $ater:
9ith the 2ussians +re+arin% for their summer offensi3e #hich #as e8+ected to ta<e the
2ed Army into !o$and6 this country6 more than any other6 continued to 0e in the centre of
the So3iet 1o3ernment's +reoccu+ations: ?n A+ri$ and May there #ere a num0er of
curious de3e$o+ments: the 3isits to Mosco# of Father @r$emans<i6 of Dr @scar an%e6
and of the $eaders of the FDemocratic !o$ish *nder%round:F
The 3isit of Father @r$emans<i6 a +arish +riest from S+rin%fie$d6 Mass:6 #as +ro0a0$y the
most curious e+isode in the #ho$e di+$omatic history of the So3iet *nion: !eo+$e ru00ed
their eyes #hen they $oo<ed at the front +a%e of Pravda of A+ri$ &J sho#in% Sta$in and
Mo$oto3 smi$in% 0eni%n$y in the com+any of the 2e3: Stanis$a# @r$emans<i F#ho has
come here to study the +ro0$ems of the !o$es and the !o$ish Army in the So3iet *nionF:
Sta$in and Mo$oto3 #ere o03ious$y an8ious6 throu%h their contacts #ith @r$emans<i6 to
<i$$ three 0irds #ith one stone: to ma<e a %ood im+ression on the 5atho$ics in the *nited
StatesL to a++ease and6 if +ossi0$e6 #in o3er the +o#erfu$ 5atho$ic c$er%y in !o$andD
#ho #ere6 for the most +art +ro,ondonDas #e$$ as the numerous +riests in ithuania
and Be$orussinL and6 +ossi0$y to $ay the foundations for a ra++rochement #ith the
Aatican:
After a0out a #ee< there6 @r$emans<i came out #ith a statement on the Mosco# radio:
D()+ 0(//#2 3#1$&+*"($ 4'( -),57, I /(0& '#"( #$ A.+,/ 1K. I 3)"( &'+#1%' &'(
U$,&(5 S&)&(-, C)$)5), )$5 A/)-;), )$5 )3+#-- S,8(+,) &# M#-3#2. I &+)6(//(5 6(+*
3#"0#+&)8/*. I ')5 $(6(+ 0/#2$ 8(0#+(, )$5 $#2 I 0/(2 )// &'( 2)* 0+#" C',3)%# &#
M#-3#2H I )" )$ A"(+,3)$ #0 P#/,-' #+,%,$, )$5 I )" ) R#")$ C)&'#/,3 .+,(-&.
M#+(#6(+, 2( )+( 0#1+ 8+#&'(+-, )// .+,(-&- ,$ &'( U$,&(5 S&)&(-.
After this +$easant introduction: Father @r$emans<i6 the +arish +riest from S+rin%fie$d6
Mass:6 said that as soon as he had heard of the formation of the 4oscius><o Di3ision on
So3iet soi$6 he decided to he$+6 and in ;o3em0er 19436 formed the 4oscius><o ea%ue at
Detroit: This6 he said6 #as a %reat success: .e continued: F.a3in% achie3ed a$$ this6 ? fe$t
that ? must inform myse$f more com+$ete$y on the +$ans and aims of the !o$ish emi%rants
in the *SS2:F .e said he had come #ith 5orde$$ .u$$'s +ersona$ o<ay:
First of a$$ ? #ent to Oa%ors< #here there are !o$ish chi$dren: At the schoo$ there ?
attended the $essons in !o$ish history: May ?6 as a neutra$ o0ser3er and +ractica$
American6 say that the +resent conditions cou$d not 0e 0etter: 9e !o$es must 0e %ratefu$
to the So3iet 1o3ernment for their <indness6 and #e must try to +reser3e these
institutions: ? #as to$d that there are such institutions in the #ho$e of 2ussia:
A$$ this sounded some#hat na_3e: Then he descri0ed his 3isit to the !o$ish Army: .ere he
fe$t F=uite at homeF: 9hi$e he #as there6 J6""" ne# so$diers from Terno+o$ and from
other $i0erated +arts had Hoined: F? to$d the so$diers that ? considered the arms in their
hands as the <ey to a free !o$and:F
Fina$$y came his statement on his first t#o,hour meetin% #ith Sta$in and Mo$oto3:
I 3)$$#& +(.()& )// &')& 2)- -),5. B1& I "1-& -)* &')& S&)/,$ ,- )< 0+,($5 #0 &'( P#/(-.
H( 2)$&- &# -(( ) -&+#$%, .#2(+01/, ,$5(.($5($& )$5 5("#3+)&,3 P#/)$5 2',3'
2#1/5 (00(3&,6(/* 5(0($5 '(+ 0+#$&,(+-. S&)/,$ 5#(- $#& ,$&($5 &# ,$&(+0(+( ,$ ,$&(+$)/
P#/,-' )00),+-. H( 2)$&- P#/)$5 &# 8( 0+,($5/* )$5 &# 3#-#.(+)&( ')+"#$,#1-/* 2,&'
&'( S#6,(& R(.18/,3-...
W( )+( S/)6-. A//,(5, P#/)$5 )$5 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 2,// 8( &'( ",%'&,(-& .#2(+ ,$ &'(
()-&. I& 2,// 8( #0 &'( %+()&(-& 8($(0,& &# 8#&'. I& 2,// %1)+)$&(( .()3( 0#+ '1$5+(5- #0
*()+-. L#$% /,6( &'( U$,&(5, S&)&(- #0 A"(+,3). L#$% /,6( &'( S#6,(& U$,#$. L#$% /,6(
) 0+((, -&+#$%, ,$5(.($5($& )$5 5("#3+)&,3 P#/)$5H
A$$ this #as re+orted 3er0atim6 and in a$$ seriousness6 in the So3iet +ress6 as #as a$so his
statement on the fo$$o#in% day:
I 2)$& &# ");( &'( ',-&#+,3 -&)&("($& 2sic) &')& &'( 01&1+( 2,// .+#6( &')& S&)/,$ ,- )
0+,($5 #0 &'( R#")$ C)&'#/,3 C'1+3'. O1+ +(/,%,#$ 2,// 8( &'( +(/,%,#$ #0 #1+
)$3(-&#+-, )$5 M)+-')/ S&)/,$ 2,// $#& &#/(+)&( )$* 6,#/)&,#$ #0 &',-.
.e #ent on to say that there #ere fi3e cha+$ains in the ne# !o$ish Army and that the
Bisho+ of ne#$y,$i0erated uc< (in the 9estern *<raine) had +romised to send se3era$
more +riests into the army:
I ')5 )$#&'(+ "((&,$% 2,&' S&)/,$ )$5 M#/#&#6 4'( 3#$&,$1(57, )$5 &'( +(-1/& ')-
(B3((5(5 )// "* (B.(3&)&,#$-. M)+-')/ S&)/,$ )$5 M+ M#/#&#6 )+( &2# %+()& "($: I
)" "#-& %+)&(01/ &# 8#&' &'(-( %($&/("($ 0#+ &'( 5("#3+)&,3 +(3(.&,#$ &')& 2)-
%,6($ "( 51+,$% "* -&)* ,$ M#-3#2.
!erha+s the So3iet +ress had its ton%ue in its chee< #hen it used the Cn%$ish #ord
F%ent$emanF in =uotin% @r$emans<i's 0roadcast:
But $ess than a fortni%ht $ater @r$emans<i #as 0ac< in the StatesD and in the sou+: For it
turned out that @r$emans<i re+resented no0ody6 and #as either a #e$$,meanin% sim+$eton
or e$se a +ractica$ Ho<er6 in #hich case his 3isit to Sta$in #as the 0i%%est hoa8 e3er +$ayed
on the 4rem$in: ?n any case6 Father @r$emans<i's immediate su+erior6 Bisho+ @'eary6
re+rimanded and re+udiated the 4rem$in 3isitor on his return to the *SA6 and @r$emans<i
had to Fre+entF 0efore 0ein% reinstated: After that Sta$in came to the conc$usion6 either
that he had 0een foo$ed6 or e$se that 5ardina$ S+e$$man and the rest of the hierarchy 0ut
not @r$emans<i6 #ere the +eo+$e #ho rea$$y mattered amon% the 5atho$ics in the *SA:
The officia$ re+udiation of a 5atho$ic +riest #ho had consorted #ith the De3i$ natura$$y
had the 3ery o++osite effect on the !o$ish and ithuanian c$er%y to #hat Sta$in and
Mo$oto3 had ho+ed for #hen they de3oted so much of their time to their unusua$ 3isitor
from the *SA: This #as no Ho<in% matter: for the attitude of the !o$ish c$er%y mattered
%reat$y in a =uestion $i<e the recruitment of !o$es into the FMosco#,madeF !o$ish Army:
As #e sha$$ see6 this Army6 0y the end of 19446 #hen +art of !o$and had a$ready 0een
$i0erated6 consisted of a0out 3""6""" men: 9ith the acti3e co,o+eration of the 5hurch
and the ArmiHa 4raHo#a it mi%ht ha3e 0een much $ar%er:
Father Braun6 the unofficia$ re+resentati3e of the Aatican in the So3iet *nion (and he #as
not %oin% to do anythin% to he$+ the 4rem$in) thou%ht the @r$emans<i 3isit the 0i%%est
Ho<e for years: Father Braun6 of A$satian ori%in6 0ut American nationa$ity6 #as the +riest
of the on$y 5atho$ic church in Mosco#: ?t ha++ened to 0e ne8t door to the ;4AD
head=uarters and #as Ho<in%$y referred to as ;otre,Dame de u0ian<a: Father Braun had
had a %ood dea$ of trou0$e #ith the So3iet authorities durin% the ei%ht or nine years he
had 0een in 2ussiaL in return he #as an unfai$in% source of information to many
forei%ners6 #ho had come to 2ussia #ith an o+en mind: Durin% the ear$ier +art of the #ar
he had $i3ed in t#o rooms at the French Cm0assy6 ti$$ he #as more or $ess turned out 0y
the rather +ro,So3iet and anti,c$erica$ French Minister6 M: 2o%er 1arreau: The *S
Cm0assy too< him under its #in% after that:
!rofessor @scar an%e of 5hica%o *ni3ersity6 #ho #as to 0ecome a +rominent
+ersona$ity in +ost,#ar !o$and6 came to Mosco# soon after Father @r$emans<i6 and #as
a$so +hoto%ra+hed in the com+any of Sta$in and Mo$oto36 and made numerous s+eeches6
in #hich6 more inte$$i%ent$y than @r$emans<i6 he ad3ocated c$ose 0onds 0et#een 2ussian
and the ;e# !o$and: The 2ussians +u0$icised the eminent !rofessor's +reference for the
FMosco#F !o$es in order to ma<e the ma8imum im+ression in the *SA:
F
Throu%hout May6 !o$and continued to 0e front,+a%e ne#s: 9ith o03ious re$ish the So3iet
+ress re+orted on May 19 that 1enera$ Oe$i%o#s<i6 a +o+u$ar !o$ish 3eteran then in
ondon6 had more or $ess re0e$$ed a%ainst the ondon 1o3ernment 0y sayin% that the
a$$iance of the S$a3s #as the on$y sa$3ation for !o$and6 and that6 0y refusin% to ado+t this
s$o%an6 the ondon 1o3ernment #as +$ayin% into the hands of the 1ermans: The
2ussians %$ad$y for%a3e Oe$i%o#s<i the coup de "orce #ith #hich he had snatched Ai$no
a#ay from ithuania in 19&"6 and e3en the contem+tuous remar<s he no# made a0out
the ithuanians6 #hom he descri0ed as a nondescri+t a$ien 0ody in the S$a3 #or$d: ?n
ondon many !o$es tried to e8+$ain Oe$i%o#s<i's chan%e of heart 0y sim+$y sayin% the
+oor o$d 0oy had %one %a%a:
But the 0i%%est sur+rise #as sti$$ in store:
@n May &4 the *nion of !o$ish !atriots issued a statement sayin%:
A 0(2 5)*- )%# 5(/(%)&(- #0 &'( P(#./(<- C#1$3,/ #0 P#/)$5 (Kra?o/a )ada
3arodo/a) )++,6(5 ,$ M#-3#2... T',- C#1$3,/ 2)- (-&)8/,-'(5 ,$ W)+-)2 #$
J)$1)+* 1, 1944, 8* &'( 5("#3+)&,3 .)+&,(- )$5 %+#1.- -&+1%%/,$% )%),$-& &'(
!(+")$ #331.)$&-. T'( 0#//#2,$% )+( +(.+(-($&(5 ,$ &'( K.R.N.: T'( O..#-,&,#$
%+#1.- #0 &'( Stronnict/o udo/o 4P()-)$& P)+&*7, &'( P.P.S. 4S#3,)/,-& P)+&*7,
P.P.R. 4W#+;(+-<E,$ 0)3&, C#""1$,-&EP)+&*7, &'( C#"",&&(( #0 N)&,#$)/
I$,&,)&,6( $#$-.)+&* 5("#3+)&-, &'( 1$5(+%+#1$5 &+)5(-1$,#$ "#6("($&, &'( Y#1&'
S&+1%%/( M#6("($& (<alki Mlodych), %+#1.- #0 2+,&(+- )$5 #&'(+ ,$&(//(3&1)/
2#+;(+-, )+&,-)$ )$5 3#-#.(+)&,6( %+#1.-, +(.+(-($&)&,6(- #0 &'( 1$5(+%+#1$5
",/,&)+* #+%)$,-)&,#$-E&'( N)&,#$)/ !1)+5, &'( N)&,#$)/ M,/,&,), &'( P()-)$&
B)&&)/,#$-, /#3)/ ",/,&)+* 0#+")&,#$- #0 &'( Armi?a Kra?o/a, (&3.
These #ere a$$e%ed FdissidentsF of that A:4: #hich #as under the orders of the ondon
1o3ernment: The statement #ent on:
I& ')- 8(3#"( $(3(--)+* &# 0#+" ) 3($&+( #0 -&+1%%/( )$5 3##+5,$)&,#$. .. T'( (",%+(
!#6(+$"($& ,- $#& 0,%'&,$% &'( !(+")$-? ,$-&()5, ,& ,- 3)//,$% 0#+ ,$)3&,6,&*. I&-
.(#./( -#"(&,"(- (6($ "1+5(+ +(-,-&)$3( /()5(+-... I$ 194@ '#.(- 2(+( +,-,$% ,$
P#/)$5, 81&, )& &'( -)"( &,"(, &'( !(+")$ &(++#+ 2)- %+#2,$% ,$ ,$&($-,&*... T'(
N)&,#$)/ C#1$3,/, )& ,&- 6(+* 0,+-& "((&,$%, &##; &'( ',%'/* ,".#+&)$& 5(3,-,#$ &#
1$,0* )// &'( .)+&,-)$ %+#1.,$%-, )+"(5 1$,&-, (&3., -&+1%%/,$% 2,&' &'( #331.)$&-,
)$5 &# "(+%( &'(" ,$&# ) -,$%/( P(#./(<- A+"* (Armi?a udo/a)... T'( N)&,#$)/
!1)+5, &'( N)&,#$)/ M,/,&,), ) /)+%( .)+& #0 &'( P()-)$& B)&&)/,#$-, (&3., ')6( ($&(+(5
&',-. T'( P#/,-' .(#./( ')6( +(-.#$5(5 2,&' ($&'1-,)-". I$ ) 0(2 "#$&'- ) $(&2#+;
#0 /#3)/E+1+)/, 1+8)$, )$5 .+#6,$3,)/E#+%)$,-)&,#$- 2)- -(& 1. 8* &'( N)&,#$)/
C#1$3,/. T'( -&+1%%/( )%),$-& &'( #331.)$&- ')- 8(($ %+()&,* ,$&($-,0,(5.
The statement conc$uded 0y sayin% that the De$e%ates of the ;ationa$ 5ounci$ of !o$and
came to Mosco#6 first$y to 0ecome ac=uainted #ith the #or< of the *nion of !o$ish
!atriots in the *SS26 and #ith the state of the first !o$ish ArmyL and second$y in order to
esta0$ish contact #ith the A$$ied 1o3ernments6 inc$udin% the 1o3ernment of the So3iet
*nion:
?t #as a$so announced that6 on May &&6 Sta$in had recei3ed the !o$ish de$e%ates6 #ith Mr
FMora#s<iF at their head6 that the con3ersation $asted for o3er t#o hours6 and that
Mo$oto3 and 9anda 9assi$e#s<a #ere +resent:
That #as the first ne#s the #or$d #as to hear of the Feft *nder%roundF in !o$and6 and
of a ;ationa$ 5ounci$ of !o$and that had a$$e%ed$y 0een in e8istence there for o3er fi3e
months: ?t #as a$so the first mention of the name of Mora#s<i6 $ater <no#n at @sT0<a,
Mora#s<i: The ondon !o$es $ost no time in de0un<in% the de$e%ates in Mosco# as a
0unch of communist stoo%es or ad3enturers #ith no fo$$o#in% #hatsoe3er6 the ;ationa$
5ounci$ as a +retentious fa<e6 etc:6 etc:
?ndeed6 Mora#s<i and the other de$e%ates #hose names (or e3en +seudonyms) #ere not
disc$osed at the time (thou%h many <ne# that they inc$uded Bierut6 Andr>ei 9itos6 and
some others #ho #ere to 0ecome +rominent 0efore $on%)6 stayed for some time in the
So3iet *nion6 and some did not %o home unti$ the 2ed Army had marched into !o$and in
the fo$$o#in% Bu$y: @n Bune J Mora#s<i %a3e an inter3ie# to Tass in #hich he said that
near$y 1""6""" !o$ish troo+s #ere no# on So3iet soi$L amon% their $eaders #ere 1enera$
Ber$in%6 A$e8ander Oa#ads<i (recent$y +romoted to the ran< of %enera$ 0y the 2ussians)6
and that %reat 1ar%antuan character6 1enera$ 4aro$ S#es>c>e#s<i6 famous in the S+anish
5i3i$ 9ar under the nom de guerre of 1enera$ 9a$ter:
I?n 19476 as De+uty Minister of Defence6 he #as assassinated 0y *<rainian terrorists near
the *<rainian 0order:K
A$ready actin% $i<e somethin% of a !ro3isiona$ 1o3ernment6 the de$e%ates of the ;ationa$
5ounci$ conferred on 1enera$ Ber$in%6 on the 5ounci$'s 0eha$f6 the 1run#a$d 5ross 1st
c$ass:
Amon% other thin%s the de$e%ates had come to Mosco# to as< for arms: They recei3ed
some satisfaction from the 2ussians 0ut none from the British and the Americans #ho
continued to su++$y the ArmiHa 4raHo#a: But the +o$itica$ si%nificance of the arri3a$ in
Mosco# of this Fde$e%ationF #as much %reater than its mi$itary si%nificance: They #ere6
in fact6 a nuc$eus of that Fu0$in 5ommitteeF6 #hich #as6 0efore $on%6 %oin% to 0e the de
"acto %o3ernment of !o$and: ?n the course of his inter3ie# #ith Tass, Mora#s<i
e8+ressed his %ratitude to the 2ed Army and his affection for Sta$in:
;or #ere the (u%os$a3s 0ein% ne%$ected in this 0id for S$a3 *nity: ?n A+ri$ a re%u$ar
mi$itary mission from Tito arri3ed in Mosco#6 and on May &" it #as announced that
Sta$in had had a $on% meetin% the day 0efore #ith 1enera$s Ter>ic and DHi$as6
Fre+resentin% the ;ationa$ i0eration Army of (u%os$a3iaF: Ter>ic6 it #as e8+$ained6 #as
Fthe head of the (u%os$a3 Mi$itary Mission in the *SS2F: 9hether this #as reco%nised
0y the 2oya$ (u%os$a3 1o3ernment no $on%er matteredL the So3iet *nion had a$ready
%i3en de "acto reco%nition to Tito: Simic6 the (u%os$a3 Am0assador had dec$ared himse$f
a Titoite some time 0efore6 and #hen t#o mem0ers of the (u%os$a3 Cm0assy6 returnin%
to Mosco#6 #ere met 0y the Cm0assy car f$yin% the Tito f$a% #ith the red star6 they
ordered the chauffeur to ta<e it do#n: This he refused to do6 and to$d the t#o di+$omats
they cou$d #a$< into Mosco# for a$$ he cared: ?t is not recorded ho# they reached to#n6
0ut they refused to acce+t the Cm0assy's "ait accompli, and stayed for some days at the
.ote$ ;ationa$6 #hereu+on they #ere reca$$ed 0y the 2oya$ 1o3ernment:
@n the same day as the announcement of Sta$in's meetin% #ith the (u%os$a3 %enera$s6 an
inter3ie#6 %i3en 0y Tito to the A:!: #as +rominent$y +u0$ished in the So3iet +ress: Tito
e8+$ained that -"6""" s=uare mi$es and fi3e mi$$ion +eo+$e #ere under his HurisdictionL he
as<ed for *;22A he$+6 and for the reco%nition of the ;ationa$ i0eration 5ommittee as
the 1o3ernment of (u%os$a3ia: A fe# days $ater ieut:,1en: Mi$o3an DHi$as +u0$ished a
$on% artic$e in the 2ussian +ress on the four years of the #ar of $i0eration in (u%os$a3ia:
?n the course of it he 3io$ent$y denounced Mihai$o3ic: .e a$so commented on Sta$in's
shre#dness and c$arity of 3ision6 and his hatred of em+ty +hrases:
H( &);(- ) .+#8/(" )$5 *#1 3)$ :1-& -(( '," .#/,-',$% ,& )$5 -')+.($,$% ,&. H( 5,5
$#& )-; 1- ) -,$%/( ,++(/(6)$& 91(-&,#$, )$5 '( )$-2(+(5 #1+ 91(-&,#$- +(")+;)8/*
91,3;/* )$5 &# &'( .#,$&. H( ')- )$ (B3(//($& ;$#2/(5%( #0 Y1%#-/)6,) )$5 '(+
.(+-#$)/,&,(-, )$5 '( ,$&(+.+(&- &'(-( "($ 2,&' +(")+;)8/( 3#++(3&$(-- )$5
-'+(25$(--.
I ?n retros+ect DHi$as #as to +aint a 3ery different +icture of Sta$in in his )onversations
:ith %talin, +u0$ished in 19)&:K
!o$and6 5>echos$o3a<ia6 (u%os$a3iaDthe future #as ta<in% sha+e:
C').&(+ AI THE RUSSIANS AND THE NORMANDY LANDIN!
@fficia$$y6 re$ations continued to 0e e8ce$$ent 0et#een the So3iet *nion and the 9estern
A$$ies at the time of the ;ormandy andin%: @n$y a fe# days 0efore6 the American
shutt$e,0om0in% 0ases in the *<raine had come into o+eration: F$yin% Fortresses started
comin% in from ?ta$y after dro++in% their 0om0s on De0recen6 !$oesti and other
.un%arian and 2umanian tar%etsL and then f$yin% 0ac< to ?ta$y and dro++in% more 0om0s
on the #ay:
?t #as stran%e to see there6 at !o$ta3a and Mir%orod6 in the heart of the 1o%o$ country6
those hundreds of 1:?:'s eatin% 3ast =uantities of American canned foodDs+am6 and
0a<ed 0eans and a++$e,sauce Ddrin<in% %a$$ons of %ood coffee6 ma<in% +asses at the
%i%%$y *<rainian canteen #aitresses6 and commentin% f$atterin%$y on the *<rainian
$andsca+e6 #hich #as FHust $i<e 0ac< home in ?ndiana or 4entuc<yF: Many of them6 it is
true6 had serious dou0ts a0out the usefu$ness of these shutt$e,0om0in% 0ases6 and thou%ht
them more in the nature of a +o$itica$ demonstration of FSo3iet,American so$idarityF6 or
as a +recedent #hich mi%ht come in usefu$ in the Far Cast if and #hen:::
Bud%in% from 1enera$ Bohn 2: Deane's account6 IThe %trange /lliance5G the 2ussians had
ne3er 0een 3ery <een on the #ho$e idea and had 0een difficu$t and o0structi3e for months
0efore the 0ases actua$$y came into o+eration in ear$y Bune 1944:
Soon after#ards6 in a sur+rise ni%ht raid on the +rinci+a$ (!o$ta3a) 0ase the 1ermans
destroyed forty,nine out of the se3enty F$yin% Fortresses on the %round:
IT#o Americans and thirty 2ussians #ere <i$$ed in this raid6 most$y 0y anti,+ersonne$
mines #ith #hich the 1ermans had +e++ered the airfie$d 0efore dro++in% their hea3y
0om0s:K
My o#n im+ression at the time #as that the 2ussians #ere e8treme$y em0arrassed at
ha3in% fai$ed to +rotect the 0ase effecti3e$y #ith either fi%hters or anti,aircraft %uns 0ut
that they #ere6 on the #ho$e6 re$ie3ed #hen6 0efore 3ery $on%6 these American 0ases #ere
scra++ed a$to%ether6 des+ite the enormous effort and money that had 0een sun< into them:
The 3ery idea of American air 0ases on So3iet soi$ some#hat #ent a%ainst their %rainL
nor did they care for the idea of the *<rainians in a #ar,de3astated +art $i<e the !o$ta3a
!ro3ince (!o$ta3a itse$f had 0een com+$ete$y destroyed) 0ein% a0$e to o0ser3e at c$ose
=uarters the Fhi%h $i3in%F of the American 1:?:'s6 #ith their !,G6 and their enormous
mea$s:
The shutt$e,0om0in% 0ases came into o+eration on$y a fe# days 0efore the ;ormandy
andin%: ? ha++ened to 0e at the !o$ta3a 0ase #hen the ne#s 0ro<e6 and immediate$y
f$e# 0ac< to Mosco#6 arri3in% there in the afternoon of Bune ):
The first #a3e of e8citement o3er the Second Front had su0sided6 0ut +eo+$e #ere ha++y:
The ne#$y,o+ened Fcommercia$F restaurants #ere +ac<ed that ni%ht #ith +eo+$e
ce$e0ratin%Dnot on$y British and Americans6 0ut many 2ussians6 too: (A +arty of Ba+
di+$omats and Hourna$ists a$so came to one6 and 0eha3ed and danced +ro3ocati3e$y and
ostentatious$y and #ere near$y 0eaten,u+ 0y some Americans:)
The ne#s of the ;ormandy $andin% had missed the mornin% +a+ers6 0ut Mosco# radio
had 0een %i3in% ne#s of it in successi3e 0u$$etins: @n the ni%ht of the )t:h 1enera$ Deane
and 1enera$ Burro#s6 heads of the American and British mi$itary missions6 s+o<e on
Mosco# radio6 the $atter in 2ussian (of sorts): @n the -th6 there had 0een enthusiastic
artic$es in the 2ussian +ress on the ca+ture of 2ome6 and no#6 on the 7th6 the %reat ne#s
of the ;ormandy $andin% #as s+$ashed o3er four co$umns6 #ith a $ar%e +icture of
Cisenho#er: But there #as no comment yet: The 2ussians #anted to 0e a0so$ute$y sure
that the $andin% #as a success: A curious feature of this 2ussian re+ortin% on the Second
Front #as that6 a$thou%h faci$ities had 0een %i3en to 2ussian corres+ondents to 0e on the
s+ot6 no ne#s from any 2ussian corres+ondent #as +u0$ished:
The artic$es #ere most$y 0y mi$itary and na3a$ e8+erts6 and dea$t #ith the technica$ities
of the $andin% o+erations6 the +art +$ayed 0y the a$$ied air,forces6 etc:6 and for some days
rosy forecasts #ere a3oided: A$most the on$y non,technica$ artic$e #as #ritten 0y
Chren0ur%6 and6 in the circumstances6 it #as +articu$ar$y ine+t: ?t #as a s$o++y6 emotiona$
+iece on France6 #hich #ou$d ha3e 0een a$$ ri%ht6 if on$y there had 0een somethin% on
the same $ines a0out Britain and AmericaL 0ut6 as it #as6 it $ac<ed a$$ sense of +ro+ortion:
?t #as a$$ a0out the French +eo+$e6 the French 2esistance6 French +aratroo+s that had
$anded in ;ormandy6 the tradition of Aerdun6 the *n<no#n So$dier #ho had no# risen
from his tom0 to fi%ht le .oche, etc: Those rea$$y res+onsi0$e for the o+eration he s#e+t
aside in a +o$ite sentence: F9e admire the 3a$our of our A$$iesD the British6 5anadians6
Americans:F And then he immediate$y +roceeded to #a$$o# in his Franco+hi$ia:
9as this a +ure$y +ersona$ reaction of Chren0ur%'s6 the o$d ha0ituN of the 2otondeE
!erha+s6 and yet in a fi$m +roduced some time $ater on the $i0eration of France6 the
British and Americans #ere a$so made to +$ay a sort of incidenta$ ro$eDor somethin% that
cou$d 0e ta<en for %rantedD#hi$e the men #ho +$ayed the most +rominent +art in sa3in%
France #ereDthe French6 assisted 0y the 2ed Army6 the heroes of Sta$in%rad6 etc:
2ather more $e%itimate #ere the fre=uent su%%estions in the So3iet +ress that the
2ussians had6 in fact6 enormous$y faci$itated the tas< of the A$$ies6 and had a$ready done
the %reater +art of the #or< in smashin% the 1ermans: !atric< acey6 of the BB56 #as
=uoted #ith +$easure as sayin% that F0ut for the 2ussians6 D,Day #ou$d ha3e 0een
im+ossi0$e:F A 4u<ryni<sy cartoon6 on Bune 116 sho#ed .it$er as a rat6 #ith its head
a$ready cau%ht in the 2ussian tra+ and the British,American s#ord then descendin% u+on
its hind =uarters:
A #ee< +assed 0efore Sta$in indicated the officia$ $ine: This #as #ho$$y un$i<e
Chren0ur%'s:
?n a statement to Pravda, Sta$in said:
A0&(+ -(6($ 5)*-< 0,%'&,$% ,$ N#+&'(+$ +)$3( #$( ")* -)* 2,&'#1& '(-,&)&,#$ &')&
&'( 0#+3,$% #0 &'( C')$$(/ )/#$% ) 2,5( 0+#$& )$5 &'( ")---/)$5,$%- #0 &'( A//,(- ,$
N#+&'(+$ +)$3( ')6( 3#"./(&(/* -133((5(5. T',- ,- 1$91(-&,#$)8/* ) 8+,//,)$&
-133(-- 0#+ #1+ A//,(-. O$( "1-& )5",& &')& &'( ',-&#+* #0 2)+- 5#(- $#& ;$#2 #0 )$
1$5(+&);,$% 3#".)+)8/( &# ,& 0#+ 8+()5&' #0 3#$3(.&,#$, %+)$5(1+ #0 -3)/(, )$5
")-&(+* #0 (B(31&,#$.
I$6,$3,8/( N).#/(#$ -')"(01//* 0),/(5 ,$ ',- ./)$ &# 0#+3( &'( C')$$(/ )$5 &#
3#$91(+ &'( B+,&,-' I-/(-. H,&/(+ &'( '*-&(+,3, 2'#, 0#+ &2# *()+-, 8#)-&(5 &')& '(
2#1/5 0#+3( &'( C')$$(/ 5,5 $#& (6($ 6($&1+( &# 3)++* #1& ',- &'+()&. O$/* &'(
B+,&,-' )$5 A"(+,3)$ &+##.- -133((5(5 2,&' 0/*,$% 3#/#1+- ,$ 3)++*,$% #1& &'(
%,%)$&,3 ./)$ #0 0#+3,$% &'( C')$$(/ )$5 #0 /)$5,$% ,$ 0#+3( #$ &'( #&'(+ -,5(.
H,-&#+* 2,// +(3#+5 &',- )3&,#$ )- )$ )3',(6("($& #0 &'( ',%'(-& #+5(+.
After this statement the +ress 0ecame 3ery #arm to the A$$ies and6 on the initiati3e of the
!eo+$e's 5ommissariat for Forei%n Trade6 on$y a fe# days after the o+enin% of the
Second Front6 the So3iet +ress +u0$ished for the first time (and not mere$y in the form of
a statement 0y 2oose3e$t or Stettinius) a $on% $ist of arms and other de$i3eries recei3ed
since the 0e%innin% of the #ar from Britain6 the *nited States and 5anada:
IThis $ist of de$i3eries from the three countries u+ to A+ri$ 3"6 19446 is %i3en on ++: )&-,
):K
;ot $on% after D,Day a$$ 2ussian attention #as a%ain focussed on the So3iet,1erman
Front: ?n a #ay6 this #as natura$6 for no# the 2ed Army #as ma<in% an a$$,out 0id to +ut
a$$ 1ermany's sate$$ites out of action6 and to 0rea< into 1ermany itse$f: @n$y four days
after D,Day the 2ussians6 under Marsha$ 1o3oro36 struc< out at Fin$and and6 after e$e3en
days of hea3y fi%htin% on the 4are$ian ?sthmus6 Aii+uri #as ca+tured: @n Bune &3 0e%an
the %reat offensi3e in Be$orussia6 that #as to carry the 2ed Army far into !o$and: And no
sooner had the front 0ecome more or $ess sta0i$ised there in Au%ust than the 2ussians
struc< out at 2umania6 Bu$%aria and .un%aryDand6 in 2ussian eyes6 the #ar in the #est
a%ain 0ecame re$ati3e$y sma$$ stuff:
At first the A$$ies6 he$d u+ at 5aen and Saint,o6 had made $itt$e +ro%ressD#hich
+roduced some critica$ notes in the 2ussian +ressL then it 0ecame Fe8traordinari$y easyFL
and #hen !aris #as $i0erated6 it #as the French 2esistance #ho recei3ed most of the
credit in the 2ussian +ress (e3en thou%h on$y a fe# days 0efore6 , propos of 9arsa#6 an
officia$ So3iet statement ridicu$ed the su%%estion that6 in conditions of modern #arfare6
any city cou$d 0e $i0erated 0y forces inside it): ?ndeed6 it #as not $on% after the 2ussian
summer offensi3e had 0e%un in Be$orussia that Pravda #rote on Bu$y 1):
T'( R(5 A+"*<- #00($-,6( ')- $#& #$/* ")5( )$ ($#+"#1- %). ,$ &'( ()-&(+$ 2)// #0
H,&/(+<- E1+#.()$ 0#+&+(--, 81& ')- )/-# -')&&(+(5 &'( )+%1"($&- #0 N)C,
.+#.)%)$5). T'( "*&' &')& !(+")$*<- "),$ 0+#$& ,- $#2 ,$ &'( 2(-& ')- 81+-& /,;(
) -#). 8188/(... !(+")$ 3#""($&)&#+- )+( $#2 -.();,$% 2,&' &(++#+ #0 &'( 8)&&/( ,$
&'( ()-& 2',3', &'(* -)*, ')- &);($ #$ ).#3)/*.&,3 .+#.#+&,#$-.
;atura$$y6 the su%%estions +ut for#ard 0y some mi$itary commentators in Britain that the
1ermans #ere de$i0erate$y +u$$in% out of Be$orussia as a resu$t of the ;ormandy $andin%6
#ere stron%$y resented 0y the 2ussians: As the 2ussian commentator #as to say6 Fthis
nonsensica$ ta$< did not sto+ unti$ #e had +araded -76""" ne#$y,ca+tured 1erman
+risoners6 com+$ete #ith do>ens of %enera$s6 throu%h the streets of Mosco#:F That #as
on Bu$y 176 after the enormous 1erman routs at Aite0s<6 Bo0ruis<6 and Mins<:
C3en #hen the cam+ai%n in France #as de3e$o+in% hi%h$y fa3oura0$y6 the So3iet +ress
sti$$ +u0$ished $itt$e more than the officia$ communi=uNs from the 9estern Front6 and fe#
des+atches from the 2ussian corres+ondents attached to S.ACF a++eared in +rint: ?t #as
not unti$ the end of 1947 that one of them6 A: 4ramino36 #rote a $on% retros+ecti3e
account of the Second Front6 and if the sentiments and ideas he e8+ressed then #ere the
same as they had 0een in 19446 it #ou$d scarce$y ha3e 0een %ood inter,a$$ied manners to
+u0$ish his ca0$es #hi$e the #ar #as sti$$ in fu$$ s#in%: .e treated the institution of
S.ACF #ar corres+ondents as a %i%antic +u0$icity machine for armies and e3en for
indi3idua$ %enera$s (Mont%omery6 in his 3ie#6 #as the #orst +u0$icity,mon%er of a$$)L of
Mont%omery's mi$itary %ifts he s+o<e #ith some disdain6 %a3e the British army no credit
for ho$din% the A$$ies' $eft f$an< at 5aen6 and #rote #ith ty+ica$ 2ussian an%er of 0oth the
conce+tion of strate%ic 0om0in% and of the F0ar0arous and futi$eF use made of the air
force in ;ormandy #here cities $i<e 5aen #ere #rec<ed and thousands of ci3i$ians <i$$ed
for no 3a$id mi$itary reason: ?t is true that he s+o<e #ith admiration of 0oth !atton and
Brad$ey6 0ut treated Cisenho#er as a F%ood chairmanF6 and no more:
?n 19446 ho#e3er6 it #as not yet the fashion to s+ea< in rude terms of the Second Front:
Thou%h terri0$y 0e$ated6 it #as sti$$ re%arded as a rea$ he$+ and as a %uarantee that the #ar
#ou$d end soon: ?t made the imminent co$$a+se of 1ermany more tan%i0$e than e3erL and
the 2ussians #ere not a$to%ether sur+rised at the attem+t made on Bu$y &" to assassinate
.it$er:
The fai$ure of the attem+t #as recei3ed in 2ussia #ith undis%uised re$ief: A$thou%h the
2ussians had6 in a #ay6 +re+ared for such an e3entua$ity #ith their Free 1erman
5ommittee6 the settin% u+ of a Fres+ecta0$eF (i:e: +ro,9estern) 1erman 1o3ernment6
#ith the British and Americans no# firm$y esta0$ished on the 5ontinent6 mi%ht ha3e
created a situation #hich #ou$d a$most certain$y ha3e turned out detrimenta$ to 2ussia:
There #as nothin% the 2ed Army #anted more at this sta%e than to Ffinish off the fascist
0east in his $airF:
This did not +re3ent them from $ettin%6 or e3en encoura%in%6 Fie$d,Marsha$ !au$us (#ho
had <e+t si$ent unti$ then) +u0$ish a statement ca$$in% on the 1erman +eo+$e to Fchan%e
the State $eadershi+F: The #ide use made of this statement in $eaf$ets sho#ered o3er the
enemy $ines #as intended to demora$ise the 1erman so$diers6 e3en thou%h the resu$ts of
simi$ar attem+ts in the +ast had 0een disa++ointin%6 es+ecia$$y if measured 0y the num0er
of 1ermans 3o$untari$y surrenderin% to the 2ed Army:
C').&(+ AII !ERMAN ROUT IN BELORUSSIA: DWORSE
THAN STALIN!RADD
The %reat 2ussian summer offensi3e started a $itt$e o3er a fortni%ht after D,Day in the
9est6 and6 some#hat sym0o$ica$$y6 on Bune &36 the day after the third anni3ersary of the
1erman in3asion of the So3iet *nion: The rZ$es had no# 0een com+$ete$y re3ersed: ?n
the $ast t#o years6 des+ite e8treme$y hea3y $osses in 0oth men and e=ui+ment6 the
2ussians had %one on 0ui$din% u+ a tremendous$y effecti3e6 com+etent and +o#erfu$$y
e=ui++ed army6 #hi$e 1ermany's reser3es in man+o#er #ere no# in constant dec$ine:
ISome 3ery interestin% +ercenta%e fi%ures are +u0$ished in Ao$: A of the So3iet Histor!,
sho#in% that 0et#een Sta$in%rad and the end of the #ar the 2ussians increased onl!
slightl! the num4er o" soldiers in their Army6 0ut increased enormousl! the Puantit! o"
ePuipment5 (?A@ASS6 Ao$: A6 +: 4)7):
The fo$$o#in% ta0$e i$$ustrates this +oint admira0$y:
Date E""ectives
#uns and
-ortars
Tan*s /ircra"t
;o3: 196
194&
1"" 1"" 1"" 1""
Ban: 16 1944 111 1J" 133 &""
Ban: 1 :194- 11& &17 &-" 343
The increase in the num0er of truc<s must ha3e 0een %reater sti$$:K
9hereas the So3iet *nion no# had her British and American a$$ies fi%htin% a maHor
cam+ai%n in France6 and tyin% do#n (accordin% to 2ussian estimates) thirty +ercent of
1ermany's com0at troo+s6 the troo+s of a$$ .it$er's remainin% a$$ies #ere 0ecomin% more
and more unre$ia0$e and their %o3ernments #ere ho+in% to %et out of the #ar at the first
con3enient o++ortunity: ?t is ironica$ that one of the reasons #hy .it$er #as determined
to c$in% on to the Aite0s<,Mo%i$e3,Bo0ruis< ine at the east end of the %reat
FBe$orussian Bu$%eF +enetratin% dee+ into 2ussia #as that its $oss #ou$d ha3e a
demora$isin% effect on the Finns #ho6 since the $oss of the 4are$ian ?sthmus and Aii+uri
ear$ier in the month6 #ere sore$y tem+ted to resume their armistice ta$<s #ith the
2ussians:
Fie$d,Marsha$ 3on Busch6 the commander of Army,1rou+ -itte #hich occu+ied
Be$orussia6 had 0een +$eadin% #ith .it$er to +u$$ out of Be$orussia6 or at $east to Fshorten
the $ineF: A$$ that .it$er did6 after fi3e days of ine3ita0$e 1erman defeats6 #as to sac< 3on
Busch and re+$ace him 0y Fie$d,Marsha$ Mode$6 one of the $osers of the Batt$e of 4urs<:
The 2ussian offensi3e 0e%an in the 0est +ossi0$e conditions: For one thin%6 unti$ the 3ery
$ast days of the May,Bune $u$$6 the 1ermans had e8+ected the ne8t 0i% 2ussian 0$o# to
fa$$6 not in Be$orussia6 0ut in the southern +art of the front6 0et#een the !ri+et Marshes
and the B$ac< Sea: The 2ussian concentration of no fe#er than 1)) di3isions in
Be$orussia had 0een done #ith the utmost secrecy and discretion6 and #hen the 0$o# fe$$
the 1ermans #ere ta<en a$most com+$ete$y 0y sur+rise:
IThis is the 2ussian fi%ureL the 1ermans s+ea< of F 14" rif$e di3isions6 +$us forty,three
+an>er and mechanised formations ;1er4Qnde7" (!hi$i++i and .eim6 o+: cit:6 +: &47):K
The cam+ai%n6 startin% a$on% a 4-",mi$e front (#hich #as to e8tend $ater to o3er )""
mi$es) #as conducted 0y four fronts:
1-& B)/&,3 +#$& 1$5(+ !($(+)/ B)%+)",)$,
@+5 B(/#+1--,)$ +#$& 1$5(+ !($(+)/ C'(+$,);'#6-;*,
1-& B(/#+1--,)$ +#$& 1$5(+ !($(+)/ R#;#--#6-;*,
M$5 B(/#+1--,)$ +#$& 1$5(+ !($(+)/ G);')+#6.
The first t#o #ere under the %enera$ command of Marsha$ Aassi$e3s<y and the $ast t#o
under that of Marsha$ Ohu<o3:
The 2ussians made no secret of the fact that this #as6 in a sense6 their re3en%e for 1941
and that it #as they #ho no# had enormous su+eriority o3er the 1ermans6 #ith 1))
di3isions (inc$udin% reser3es) in Be$orussia6 316""" %uns and mortars6 -6&"" tan<s and
se$f,+ro+e$$ed %uns6 and at $east )6""" +$anes: Their su+eriority o3er the 1ermans #as: &
to 1 in menL &:9 to 1 in %uns and mortarsL 4:3 to 1 in tan<sL and 4:- to 1 in +$anes:
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?A6 +: 1)4: 1erman sources +ut the 2ussian su+eriority e3en hi%her:K
This $oo<ed6 indeed6 $i<e 1941 the other #ay roundP ?n the 0rea<throu%h areas6 the
density of arti$$ery #as often as much as 3&" %uns +er mi$e: For se3era$ #ee<s enormous
reser3es of ammunition6 +etro$ and food had 0een accumu$ated 0ehind the 2ussian $inesL
1"" train,$oads had 0een arri3in% dai$y for the four Fronts6 0esides $ar%e =uantities
0rou%ht 0y $orries (chief$y American): A $ar%e f$eet of motor am0u$ances #as in
readiness6 as #e$$ as hos+ita$ accommodation of &946""" 0eds for the #ounded:
I?0id:6 +: 1)):K
A f$eet of 1&6""" $orries #as in readiness to trans+ort &-6""" tons of ammunition6 +etro$6
etc:6 to the ad3ancin% troo+s in a sin%$e Hourney: ?t #asD#ith the +ossi0$e e8ce+tion of
4urs<Dthe most thorou%h$y +re+ared of a$$ the 2ussian o+erations6 #ith e3erythin%
#or<ed out do#n to its finest detai$6 and nothin% $eft to im+ro3isation6 as had 0een the
case in the +ast6 e3en at Sta$in%rad6 chief$y 0ecause of serious shorta%es in e=ui+ment and
motor trans+ort:
@ne characteristic of the Be$orussian cam+ai%n #as the 3ery im+ortant +art +$ayed 0y the
+artisan formations 0ehind the 1erman $ines: Des+ite some +articu$ar$y sa3a%e 1erman
+uniti3e e8+editions a%ainst the Be$orussian +artisans in Banuary,Fe0ruary 19446 and
a%ain in A+ri$6 #ith massacres of entire 3i$$a%es (for e8am+$e6 the 3i$$a%e of Bai<i in the
Brest +ro3ince #here 13" houses had 0een 0urned do#n and 9-7 +eo+$e massacred on
Banuary &&6 1944)6 the +artisans of Be$orussia sti$$ constituted an a++recia0$e armed force
of 1436""" men on the e3e of the offensi3e: There #as c$ose coordination 0et#een the
2ed Army 5ommand and the +artisans #ho succeeded 0et#een Bune &" and &36 in
+uttin% +ractica$$y a$$ the Be$orussian rai$#ays out of actionD+recise$y #hat the 2ed
Army needed to +ara$yse the mo3ement of 1erman su++$ies and troo+s:
From the 3ery start6 the 2ussian offensi3e #as tremendous$y successfu$: Bet#een Bune &3
and &J the four 2ussian Fronts 0ro<e throu%h the 1erman $ines in si8 +$aces6 and
encirc$ed $ar%e 1erman forces at Aite0s< and Bo0ruis<: Tens of thousands of 1ermans
#ere <i$$ed and some &"6""" ta<en +risoner in these t#o encirc$ements a$one: After the
1ermans' $oss of the Aite0s<,@rsha,Mo%i$e3,Bo0ruis< $ine6 .it$er sent a frantic order to
ho$d the Bere>ina $ine: But in this the 1ermans fai$ed com+$ete$y: Stri<in% out from
north,east and south,east6 the 2ussians entered Mins<6 the ca+ita$ of Be$orussia6 on Bu$y
36 and in the +rocess encirc$ed $ar%e 1erman forces in a 3ast F0a%F east of Mins<Da tota$
of a0out 1""6""" men6 the maHority of #hom surrendered: Some 4"6""" #ere <i$$ed or
#ounded6 0ut -76""" 1ermans6 #ith se3era$ %enera$s and do>ens of officers at their head
#ere marched in Bu$y 17 throu%h the streets of Mosco#: The +ur+ose of this unusua$
+rocedure #as to dis+ro3e 0oth the 1erman c$aims of a F+$anned #ithdra#a$ from
Be$orussiaF6 and su%%estions in the British and American +ress that if the 2ussian
cam+ai%n in Be$orussia #as a F#a$<o3erF6 it #as 0ecause $ar%e num0ers of 1erman
troo+s had 0een mo3ed to fi%ht the 9estern A$$ies in France:
That +arade of -76""" 1ermans throu%h Mosco# #as a memora0$e si%ht: !articu$ar$y
stri<in% #as the attitude of the 2ussian cro#ds $inin% the streets: (oun%sters 0ooed and
#hist$ed6 and e3en thre# thin%s at the 1ermans6 on$y to 0e immediate$y restrained 0y the
adu$tsL men $oo<ed on %rim$y and in si$enceL 0ut many #omen6 es+ecia$$y e$der$y #omen6
#ere fu$$ of commiseration (some e3en had tears in their eyes) as they $oo<ed at these
0edra%%$ed FFrit>esF:
? remem0er one o$d #oman murmurin%6 FHust $i<e our +oor 0oys ::: tozhe pognali na
voinu (a$so dri3en into the #ar)F:
The 2ussian so$diers fi%htin% in Be$orussia did not6 on the #ho$e6 fee$ =uite so charita0$e
to#ards the 1ermans: C3ery#here the retreatin% 1ermans had tried to destroy as much as
they +ossi0$y cou$d: At Oh$o0in6 the 2ussians sa# a trench #ith &6-"" cor+ses of ne#$y,
murdered ci3i$ians6 and it is estimated that #e$$ o3er a mi$$ion +eo+$e had 0een murdered
in Be$orussia durin% the 1erman occu+ationD amon% them the entire Be#ish +o+u$ation
and many hundreds of thousands of +artisans and their Faccom+$icesF6 inc$udin% #omen
and chi$dren:
Most of Be$orussia6 and the country east of it 0et#een Smo$ens< and Aia>ma6 had 0een
turned into a Fdesert >oneF: ?n the s+rin% of 19446 antici+atin% a +ro0a0$e #ithdra#a$
from Be$orussia6 the 1ermans had ordered that the #inter cro+s 0e +$ou%hed under6 and
had tried to +re3ent s+rin% so#in%: They e3en de3ised s+ecia$ ro$$ers to destroy the cro+s:
!ractica$$y a$$ the cities #ere in ruins: ?t is true that #ith near$y si8ty +ercent of the rura$
areas more or $ess under +artisan contro$ (and e3en Hurisdiction6 com+$ete #ith So3iet
administrati3e and +arty or%ans) these orders cou$d not 0e +ut into effect in many +$aces:
1enera$ Ti++e$s<irch6 5ommander of the 4th 1erman Army #hich too< +art in the
Be$orussia retreat6 $ater referred to Fa 3ast #ooded and marshy area from the Dnie+er
near$y a$$ the #ay to Mins< #hich #as contro$$ed 0y $ar%e +artisan formations6 and #as
ne3er in three years6 either c$eaned u+6 sti$$ $ess occu+ied 0y 1erman troo+s:F
I4: Ti++e$s<irch: Istori!a vtoroi mirovoi voin!5 I2uss: ed:K +: 44-:K
;e3erthe$ess6 the 1ermans succeeded in turnin% most of Be$orussia into a Fdesert >oneF:
?n the 3i$$a%es (accordin% to 2ussian fi%ures) o3er a mi$$ion houses #ere destroyedL and
#hen ? tra3e$$ed throu%h Be$orussia6 short$y after the 1erman rout6 there #as e8treme$y
$itt$e $i3estoc< to 0e seen:
.ere (as distinct from the *<raine) a $ar%e num0er of youn% +eo+$e had e3aded
de+ortation 0y Hoinin% the +artisansL 0ut e3en so6 3J"6""" had 0een de+orted from
Be$orussia to 1ermany: The destruction in the cities #as a++a$$in%: near$y a$$ factories
and +u0$ic 0ui$din%s had 0een destroyed6 and at Mins< the maHority of a$$ other houses
had 0een 0urned do#n6 too: ?f the $ar%e 1o3ernment .ouse and some other +u0$ic
0ui$din%s and nineteen out of 33& industria$ enter+rises had sur3i3ed6 it #as on$y 0ecause
they had 0een ra+id$y de,mined as soon as the 2ussian troo+s had entered the city: ?n
Mins< a$one 46""" de$ayed,action 0om0s6 mines and 0oo0ytra+s had to 0e un+rimed: The
2ed Army #as fu$$ of admiration for those en%ineers F#ho ne3er made more than one
mista<e:F
The F0a%%in%F of 1""6""" 1ermans east of Mins< meant that the 2ed Army had torn a
&-",mi$e %a+ in the 1erman front6 and that the road #as no# a$most c$ear into !o$and
and ithuania:
@n Bu$y 46 e3en 0efore the fina$ $i=uidation of the Mins< F0a%F6 the So3iet Su+reme
5ommand set ne# tar%ets for the four fronts fi%htin% in Be$orussia: they #ere to ad3ance6
#ithin a 3ery short time into eastern at3ia6 ithuania6 and on to Ai$no6 4aunas6 1rodno
and Brest,ito3s<6 and to force the ;iNmen in se3era$ +$aces6 #ith a su0se=uent ad3ance
to the Cast !russian 0order and (farther south) into !o$and:
The 2ed Army continued to ad3ance at %reat s+eed6 co3erin% 0et#een ten and fifteen
mi$es a dayL on Bu$y J Barano3ichi #as ta<enL on Bu$y 13 Ai$no fe$$ to the troo+s of
5hernia<ho3s<y6 on Bu$y 1J6 2o<osso3s<y's troo+s crossed into !o$and6 and on Bu$y &36
ca+tured u0$inDan e3ent of far,reachin% +o$itica$ conse=uences: @n Bu$y &J they
ca+tured Brest,ito3s<6 and the #ho$e of Be$orussia #as c$eared of the 1ermans:
Accordin% to the 1ermans themse$3es6 the 2ussian offensi3e in Be$orussia #as the
%ra3est defeat e3er inf$icted on the 9ehrmacht on the Castern Front: Bet#een t#enty,
fi3e and t#enty,ei%ht 1erman di3isions #ere destroyed6 a $oss of at $east 3-"6""" men: ?n
the #ords of the H""icial Uournal o" the HK$ the rout of Army 1rou+ -itte (in
Be$orussia) #as Fa %reater catastro+he than Sta$in%rad:F
IKriegstage4uch des HK$, ?A,?6 ++: 13,14:K
This fi%ure of t#enty,fi3e di3isions or 3-"6""" men $ost occurs in other 1erman +ost,#ar
accounts: Thus6 1uderian s+ea<s of the Fdestruction of Army 1rou+e -itte" and of Fthe
tota$ $oss of some t#enty,fi3e di3isions:F The e3ents6 he says6 #ere Fso shatterin%F that
F.it$er mo3ed his head=uarters in mid,Bu$y from @0ersa$>0er% to Cast !russia:F
I1uderian6 o+: cit:6 +: 33): !hi$i++i and .eim s+ea< of t#enty,ei%ht di3isions and
3-"6""" men:K
The routin% of Army 1rou+ -itte in Be$orussia had created hi%h$y fa3oura0$e conditions
for other 2ussian army %rou+s to come into action: @n Bu$y 13 the 1st *<rainian Front
under 4one3 started its #o#,Sandomier> o+erationL in the north6 the 3rd Ba$tic Front
$i0erated !s<o3 on Bu$y 1J and 0ro<e into southern CstoniaL the &nd Ba$tic Front 0ro<e
into southern at3ia6 #hi$e the 1st Ba$tic Front under Ba%ramian6 after ca+turin% (e$%a3a
(Mitau) 0ro<e throu%h on Bu$y 31 to the 1u$f of 2i%a at Tu<<um6 thus cuttin% off the
#ho$e of the 1erman Army 1rou+ 3ord in Cstonia and at3ia from the rest of the
1erman forces: .o#e3er6 three #ee<s $ater6 the 1ermans succeeded in hac<in% out a
t#enty,mi$e corridor south of the 1u$f of 2i%a and thus +art$y restorin% $and
communication 0et#een Army 1rou+ 3ord and #estern ithuania and Cast !russia:
A$thou%h6 in Be$orussia and eastern ithuania the 2ussians had scored one of the %reatest
3ictories of the #arDand one from #hich the 1ermans cou$d ne3er reco3erDtheir
further +ro%ress from a0out Bu$y &- to the end of Au%ust #as much s$o#er for a num0er
of o03ious reasons: $on%,dra#n,out communications6 fati%ue amon% the troo+s6 and the
thro#in% in of hea3y 1erman reser3es a%ainst the 2ussian attem+t to ad3ance 0oth
0eyond the ;iNmen into Cast !russia6 and a$on% the ;are# and u++er and midd$e Aistu$a
into centra$ !o$and: By the end of Au%ust6 #hen most of the o+erations 0et#een (e$%a3a
in at3ia6 and Bo>efo#6 a hundred mi$es south of 9arsa#6 came to a standsti$$ 0y order of
the So3iet Su+reme 5ommand6 the front ran a0out ha$f,#ay across ithuania6 then a short
distance from the eastern 0order of Cast !russia6 and then6 rou%h$y6 a$on% the ;are# and
Aistu$a into centra$ !o$and:
W
By this time !o$and had 0ecome the scene of the most dramatic mi$itary and +o$itica$
e3ents: @n Bu$y &36 the $eft f$an< of 2o<os,so3s<y's 1st Be$orussian Front6 inc$udin% the
1st !o$ish Army6 had a$ready $i0erated the ancient !o$ish city of u0$in: @n Bu$y 316 the
0$unted s+earhead of the ri%ht f$an< of the same 1st Be$orussian Front reached Fthe
outs<irts of !ra%aF across the Aistu$a o++osite 9arsa#L on Au%ust 16 the 9arsa#
*+risin% of the /rmi8a Kra8o:a under 1enera$ Bor,4omaro#s<i 0e%an:
C').&(+ AIII WHAT HAPPENED AT WARSAWI
?t #as short$y 0efore the 0e%innin% of the 9arsa# tra%edy that e3ents of far,reachin%
+o$itica$ im+ortance too< +$ace in the 2ussian,$i0erated +arts of !o$and:
As #e ha3e seen6 u0$in #as $i0erated 0y the 2ussians on Bu$y &36 and t#o days $ater the
So3iet Forei%n @ffice +u0$ished a statement on the attitude of the So3iet *nion to
!o$andL simu$taneous$y a Manifesto #as +u0$ished6 dated Bu$y && and si%ned at 5he$m (a
frontier to#n inside !o$and)6 announcin% the formation of the !o$ish ;ationa$ i0eration
5ommittee6 0efore $on% to 0e <no#n as the Fu0$in 5ommitteeF:
The 2ussian statement said that the 2ed Army6 to%ether #ith the !o$ish Army fi%htin% on
the So3iet Front6 had 0e%un the $i0eration of !o$ish territory: The So3iet troo+s6 it
continued6 had on$y one o0Hect: to smash the enemy and to he$+ the !o$ish +eo+$e re,
esta0$ish an inde+endent6 stron%6 and democratic !o$and: Since !o$and #as a so3erei%n
state6 the So3iet 1o3ernment had decided not to esta0$ish any administration of its o#n
on !o$ish soi$6 0ut had decided to ma<e an a%reement #ith the !o$ish 5ommittee of
;ationa$ i0eration concernin% the re$ations 0et#een the So3iet .i%h 5ommand and the
!o$ish administration: The statement added that the So3iet 1o3ernment did not #ish to
ac=uire any +art of !o$ish territory or to 0rin% a0out any chan%es in the socia$ order of
!o$and6 and that the +resence of the 2ed Army in !o$and #as sim+$y necessitated 0y
mi$itary re=uirements:
The Bada 3arodo:a (the Funder%round +ar$iamentF)6 in a document dated F9arsa#
6sic7, Bu$y &1F6 issued a decree6 #hich #as +u0$ished in 5he$m on the fo$$o#in% day6 in
the first issue of the Fofficia$F +a+er6 Bzeczpospolita, orderin% the formation of the !o$ish
5ommittee of ;ationa$ i0eration:
T'( .+,$3,.)/ "("8(+- #0 &'( C#"",&&(( 2(+(:
P+(-,5($& )$5 C',(0 #0 &'( #+(,%$ A00),+- D(.)+&"($&: E. B. O-O8;)-M#+)2-;,.
D(.1&*-P+(-,5($& )$5 H()5 #0 &'( D(.)+&"($& 0#+ A%+,31/&1+( )$5 A%+)+,)$
R(0#+": A$5+C(, W,&#-.
D(.1&* P+(-,5($&: W)$5) W)--,/(2-;).
H()5 #0 N)&,#$)/ D(0($3( D(.)+&"($&: C#/.-!($. M. R#/)-G*",(+-;,.
H,- D(.1&*: L&.-!($. B(+/,$%.
There #ere fifteen other a++ointments6 amon% them that of S: 2ad<ie#ic>6 the notorious
head of security6 and fi3e #hose names #ere not disc$osed6 since they #ere sti$$ in
1erman,occu+ied territory:
The 5ommittee's FManifestoF stated that it had 0een nominated 0y the Kra8o:a Bada
3arodo:a, Fa 0ody com+risin% re+resentati3es of the !easant !arty and other democratic
e$ements inside !o$andF6 and Freco%nised 0y !o$es a0roadDin the first +$ace 0y the
*nion of !o$ish !atriots in the *SS2 and 0y the !o$ish Army formed in the So3iet
*nion:F ?t denounced the ondon emi%re %o3ernment as a Fusur+erF %o3ernment that had
ado+ted the FfascistF constitution of 193-: The ;ationa$ 5ommittee6 on the other hand6
reco%nised the FdemocraticF constitution of 19&1 unti$ the 5onstituent Assem0$y met and
decided other#ise:
The Manifesto em+hasised the ne# era of S$a3 unityL it said that the frontiers 0et#een
!o$and and the So3iet *nion #ou$d 0e sett$ed on an Fethnica$F 0asis and 0y mutua$
a%reement6 and that6 in the #est6 !o$and #ou$d re%ain her o$d territories in Si$esia6 a$on%
the @der6 and in !omerania: Cast !russia #ou$d a$so 0e inc$uded in !o$and: The 4""
years of fruit$ess enmity 0et#een the S$a3 +eo+$es #ere no# at an end6 and the !o$ish and
So3iet f$a%s #ou$d #a3e in the #ind side 0y side as the 3ictorious troo+s marched into
Ber$in:::
The Manifesto then enumerated the 3arious items of the reconstruction +ro%ramme6 and
stressed the need for a %enera$ $and reform: @n nationa$isation it #as cautiousL it said that
the !o$ish State #ou$d ta<e o3er $ar%e enter+rises no# run 0y the 1erman State and
1erman ca+ita$ists6 and6 Fas economic re$ations #ere 0ein% re%u$ated6 +ro+erty #ou$d 0e
returned to its o#ners:F A$$ this #as sti$$ e8ceedin%$y 3a%ue:
The Manifesto said that comradeshi+,in,arms #ou$d stren%then !o$and's friendshi+ #ith
1reat Britain and the *SA6 and that !o$and #ou$d stri3e to maintain her traditiona$ 0onds
of friendshi+ and a$$iance #ith France:
The +ersonne$ of the ;ationa$ 5ommittee #as a rather mi8ed 0unchL Dr Dro0nerDhead
of the De+artment for a0our and .ea$thDfor instance6 #as a ri%ht,#in% Socia$istL 9itos
#as ($i<e Mi<o$aHc>y<) a 3eteran $eader of the !o+u$ar !easant !arty (he #as soon to 0e
e$iminated)L 0ut the <ey +ositions #ere o03ious$y he$d 0y men of the !!2 (the
5ommunist !arty)Dto #hich Bierut6 the !resident of the Kra8o:a Bada 3arodo:a, at
that time a$so 0e$on%ed: @sT0<a,Mora#s<i #as made !resident of the 5ommitteeDnot
+erha+s 0ecause he #as an outstandin% +ersona$ity6 0ut 0ecause he #as one of the fe#
Socia$ists a3ai$a0$e: This #as free$y admitted (much $ater6 it is true) 0y many of the !!2
men:
@n Bu$y &3 a num0er of decrees #ere issued 0y the Bada 3arodo:aDone esta0$ishin% a
.i%h 5ommand of the !o$ish Army6 another +$acin% the *nion of !o$ish !atriots under
the authority of the ;ationa$ 5ommittee6 and so on:
9e no# come to one of the most contro3ersia$ e+isodes of the #ar in the CastDthe
tra%edy of the 9arsa# 2isin% of Au%ust,Se+tem0er 1944: The Fondon,!o$ishF 3ersion
of #hat ha++ened is too fami$iar to need reca$$in% in detai$: BZr,4omaro#s<i6 the $eader
of the u+risin%6 has to$d his story of F2ussian treacheryFL so has Stanis$as Mi<o$aHc>y< in
his Bape o" Poland F See his 5ha+ter A? ca$$ed FBetraya$F:K Mi<o$aHc>y<'s 0oo< in
+articu$ar6 <ee+s on referrin% to 1enera$ 2o<osso3s<y's head=uarters as Fon$y a fe#
mi$esF outside 9arsa#6 and to the 2ed Army as 0ein% Fin the su0ur0s of 9arsa# from
#hich it #ou$dn't 0ud%e:F The fact that 9arsa# and the 2ed Army #ere se+arated 0y a
#ide ri3er6 the Aistu$a6 is on$y 3ery incidenta$$y referred to: .is im+$ication is that the
Aistu$a #as no serious o0stac$e and that6 if they had #anted to6 the 2ussians cou$d easi$y
ha3e ca+tured 9arsa#6 and so sa3ed the city from destruction6 and a$so sa3ed many of
the 3""6""" !o$es #ho #ere to +erish in the t#o,months' fi%htin%,cum,massacre inside
the city: ?f the 2ussians did not ca+ture 9arsa#6 it #as not6 accordin% to Mi<o$aHc>y<6
0ecause they cou$d not do it6 0ut for +ure$y +o$itica$ reasons: it did not suit them to ha3e
the !o$ish ca+ita$ F$i0eratedF 0y a +o+u$ar risin%6 directed 0y BTr,4omaro#s<i and other
Fa%entsF of the ondon 1o3ernment: Both Bor,4omaro#s<i and Mi<o$aHc>y< ma<e the
most of the fo$$o#in% facts: (1) a Mosco# 0roadcast at the end of Bu$y s+ecifica$$y ca$$in%
on the +eo+$e of 9arsa# to rise a%ainst the 1ermansL (&) the 2ussian refusa$ to a$$o#
+$anes from the #est that had dro++ed su++$ies on 9arsa# to $and on 2ussian airfie$ds6
and (3) the $ac< of +ro+er 2ussian su++ort for the %a$$ant attem+t of the !o$ish troo+s
under 1enera$ Ber$in% to force the Aistu$a in the immediate nei%h0ourhood of 9arsa#6
and the disci+$inary action ta<en a%ainst Ber$in% for fai$in% to ho$d the 0rid%ehead6 or
rather6 for ma<in% the attem+t at a$$:
The 5hurchi$$,Sta$in corres+ondence durin% the +eriod of the 9arsa# risin% is mar<ed 0y
a tone of increasin% e8as+eration on the +art of 5hurchi$$ a0out the 2ussians' unco,
o+erati3e attitude6 and 0y %ro#in% an%er on the +art of Sta$in a%ainst the 9arsa#
Fad3enturersF #ho had dra%%ed the +eo+$e of 9arsa# into a sense$ess re0e$$ion #ithout
co,ordinatin% their actions #ith the 2ed Army 5ommand:
@n Au%ust 4 (i:e: three days after the 0e%innin% of the re0e$$ion) 5hurchi$$ #ired to
Sta$in:
A& &'( 1+%($& +(91(-& #0 &'( P#/,-' 1$5(+%+#1$5 2( )+( 5+#..,$%, -18:(3& &# &'(
2()&'(+, )8#1& -,B&* &#$- 4#$ W)+-)27... T'(* )/-# -)* &'(* )..()/ 0#+ R1--,)$ ),5
2',3' -(("- 6(+* $()+. T'(* )+( 8(,$% )&&)3;(5 8* #$( )$5 ) ')/0 !(+")$
5,6,-,#$-.
@n Au%ust - Sta$in re+$ied:
I &',$; &'( ,$0#+")&,#$ %,6($ *#1 8* &'( P#/(- ,- %+()&/* (B)%%(+)&(5 )$5
1$+(/,)8/(... T'( P#/,-' S",%+S- 3/)," &')& &'(* ')6( )// 81& 3).&1+(5 A,/$# 2,&'
H#"( A+"* 1$,&-... T',- ')- $#&',$% &# 5# 2,&' &'( 0)3&-. T'( H#"( A+"* 3#$-,-&-
#0 ) 0(2 5(&)3'"($&- ",-$)"(5 5,6,-,#$-. T'(* ')6( $(,&'(+ %1$-, ),+3+)0& $#+
&)$;-. I 3)$$#& ,")%,$( 5(&)3'"($&- /,;( &'(-( &);,$% W)+-)2, 2',3' &'( !(+")$-
)+( 5(0($5,$% 2,&' 0#1+ )+"#1+(5 5,6,-,#$-, ,$3/15,$% &'( H(+")$$ !#(+,$%
D,6,-,#$.
@n Au%ust J Sta$in re+orted to 5hurchi$$ on the meetin%s that had ta<en +$ace in Mosco#
0et#een Mi<o$aHc>y< and the Fu0$in !o$esF6 0ut su%%ested that the meetin% had6 so far6
0een fruit$ess: ;e3erthe$ess6 on Au%ust 1"6 5hurchi$$ than<ed Sta$in for 0rin%in% the t#o
sides to%ether6 and a$so said that !o$ish airmen from the #est had dro++ed more su++$ies
on 9arsa#: F? am so %$ad to $earn you are sendin% su++$ies yourse$f: Anythin% you fee$
a0$e to do #i$$ 0e #arm$y a++reciated 0y your British friends and a$$ies:F
But it #as not $on% 0efore 5hurchi$$ 0e%an to sus+ect fou$ +$ay on the +art of the
2ussians: .e te$e%ra+hed to Cden (then in ?ta$y) on the 14th:
DI& 3(+&),$/* ,- 6(+* 31+,#1- &')& )& &'( "#"($& &'( U$5(+%+#1$5 A+"* ')-
+(6#/&(5 &'( R1--,)$ A+",(- -'#1/5 ')6( ')/&(5 &'(,+ #00($-,6( )%),$-& W)+-)2 )$5
2,&'5+)2$ -#"( 5,-&)$3(. #+ &'(" &# -($5 ")3',$(-%1$- )$5 )""1$,&,#$ =&#
W)+-)2> 2#1/5 ,$6#/6( #$/* ) 0/,%'& #0 1LL ",/(-.D
I5hurchi$$6 o+: cit:6 3o$: A?6 +: 117:K
T#o days $ater6 accordin% to 5hurchi$$6 Ayshins<y informed the American Am0assador
that the So3iet 1o3ernment cou$d not o0Hect to Cn%$ish and American aircraft dro++in%
arms in the re%ion of 9arsa#6 0ut they did o0Hect to their $andin% on So3iet territory6
Fsince the So3iet 1o3ernment do not #ish to associate themse$3es either direct$y or
indirect$y #ith the ad3enture of 9arsa#:F
@n Au%ust 1)6 Sta$in sentDthou%h in a mi$der formDa messa%e to the same effect to
5hurchi$$:
There #as %reat a%itation in ondon and 9ashin%ton6 and on Au%ust &" 5hurchi$$ and
2oose3e$t sent a Hoint messa%e to Sta$in 0e%innin%: F9e are thin<in% of #or$d o+inion if
anti,;a>is in 9arsa# are in effect a0andonedF6 and +$eadin% for Bi%,Three co,o+eration
in the matter: Sta$in re+$ied on Au%ust &&:
S##$(+ #+ /)&(+ &'( &+1&' )8#1& &'( ')$501/ #0 .#2(+--((;,$% 3+,",$)/- 2'#
/)1$3'(5 &'( W)+-)2 )56($&1+( 2,// 8( #1&. T'(*... ')6( (B.#-(5 .+)3&,3)//*
1$)+"(5 .(#./( &# !(+")$ %1$-, )+"#1+ )$5 ),+3+)0&... E6(+* 5)* ,- 1-(5, $#& 8*
&'( P#/(- 0#+ 0+((,$% W)+-)2, 81& 8* &'( H,&/(+,&(- 2'# )+( 3+1(//* (B&(+",$)&,$%
&'( 3,6,/ .#.1/)&,#$.
+#" &'( ",/,&)+* .#,$& #0 6,(2 &'( -,&1)&,#$ 2',3' ;((.- !(+")$ )&&($&,#$ +,6(&(5
&# W)+-)2, ,- ',%'/* 1$0)6#1+)8/( 8#&' &# &'( R(5 A+"* )$5 &# &'( P#/(-.
N(6(+&'(/(--, &'( S#6,(& &+##.-, 2'# #0 /)&( ')6( ')5 &# 0)3( +($(2(5 !(+")$
3#1$&(+-)&&)3;-, )+( 5#,$% )// &'(* 3)$ &# +(.1/-( &'( H,&/(+,&( -)//,(- )$5 &# %# #6(+
&# ) $(2 /)+%(--3)/( #00($-,6( $()+ W)+-)2. I 3)$ )--1+( *#1 &')& &'( R(5 A+"* 2,//
-.)+( $# (00#+& &# 3+1-' &'( !(+")$- )& W)+-)2 )$5 /,8(+)&( ,& 0#+ &'( P#/(-. T',-
2,// 8( &'( 8(-&, +()//* (00(3&,6(, '(/. &# &'( )$&,-N)C, P#/(-.D
5hurchi$$ #ent on s+ea<in% in terms of the 2ussians' Fstran%e and sinister 0eha3iourF: .e
attri0uted the 2ussians' un#i$$in%ness to $et 9estern +$anes $and 0ehind the 2ussian $ines
to the 0$ac<est 3i$$ainy: FThey did not mean to $et the s+irit of !o$and arise a%ain in
9arsa#: Their +$ans #ere 0ased on the u0$in 5ommittee:F
I ?0id:6 +: &4:K
But then6 he says6 F@n Se+tem0er 1"6 after si8 #ee<s of !o$ish torment6 the 4rem$in
a++eared to chan%e their tactics:F
T')& )0&(+$##$ -'(//- 0+#" &'( S#6,(& )+&,//(+* 8(%)$ &# 0)// 1.#$ &'( ()-&(+$
-181+8- #0 W)+-)2, )$5 S#6,(& ./)$(- )..()+(5 )%),$ #6(+ &'( 3,&*. P#/,-'
3#""1$,-& 0#+3(-, 1$5(+ S#6,(& #+5(+-, 0#1%'& &'(,+ 2)* ,$&# &'( 0+,$%( #0 &'(
3).,&)/. +#" S(.&("8(+ 14 #$2)+5 &'( S#6,(& ),+ 0#+3( 5+#..(5 -1../,(-, 81& 0(2
#0 &'( .)+)3'1&(- #.($(5 )$5 ")$* #0 &'( 3#$&),$(+- 2(+( -")-'(5 )$5 1-(/(--.
And then:
T'( 0#//#2,$% 5)* &'( R1--,)$- #331.,(5 &'( P+)%) -181+8, but /ent no *urther.
T'(* 2,-'(5 &# ')6( &'( $#$-C#""1$,-& P#/(- 5(-&+#*(5 &# &'( 01//, 81& )/-# &# ;((.
)/,6( &'( ,5() &')& &'(* 2(+( %#,$% &# &'(,+ +(-31(.
I ?0id:6 +: 1&7 (em+hasis added):K
@n @cto0er &6 a $itt$e o3er a fortni%ht $ater6 BTr,4omaro#s<i ca+itu$ated to the 1ermans:
Accordin% to the 2ussian officia$ Histor!, in order to understand the situation one has to
%o 0ac< to the directi3es %i3en 0y the So3iet Su+reme 5ommand to the 3arious fronts on
Bu$y &J: These directi3es inc$uded the fo$$o#in%:
T'( @+5 B(/#+1--,)$ +#$& 2)- #+5(+(5 &# 3).&1+( K)1$)- 8* A1%1-& 1 #+ M, )$5
&'($ .1-' #$ &# &'( E)-& P+1--,)$ 8#+5(+?
T'( M$5 B(/#+1--,)$ +#$& 2)- )/-# #+5(+(5 &# )56)$3(, 0)+&'(+ -#1&', 6,) L#"C),
&#2)+5- &'( E)-& P+1--,)$ 8#+5(+?
T'( 1-& B(/#+1--,)$ +#$& 2)- #+5(+(5, )0&(+ 3).&1+,$% B+(-& )$5 S,(5/3(, &# #331.*
P+)%) 4#..#-,&( W)+-)27 8(&2(($ A1%1-& 5 )$5 N, )$5 &# (-&)8/,-' ) $1"8(+ #0
8+,5%('()5- -#1&' #0 W)+-)2 #$ &'( 2(-&(+$ 8)$; #0 &'( A,-&1/).
The ri%ht f$an< of the 1st Be$orussian Front indeed c$ashed #ith the 1ermans on Bu$y 31
Fon the c$ose a++roaches to !ra%a6 the su0ur0 of 9arsa# on the ri%ht 0an< of the
Aistu$aF: Meantime6 the $eft f$an< of the 1st Be$orussian Front forced the Aistu$a south of
9arsa# and ca+tured the sma$$ 0rid%eheads of Ma%nus>e# and !u$a#a: The ca+ture of
these 0rid%eheads #as fo$$o#ed 0y frantic 1erman attac<s on themL thou%h the 2ussians
#ere not to 0e dis$od%ed6 they #ere not stron% enou%h to en$ar%e them:
Somethin% o03ious$y #ent serious$y #ron% #ith the 2ussian mi$itary +$ans at the end of
Bu$y and 0e%innin% of Au%ust: *nder the date$ine F@utside 9arsa#6 Au%ust 1F (the day
the 9arsa# 2isin% 0e%an)6 Ma<aren<o #rote in Pravda of Au%ust &:
O$ &# W)+-)2H I$ )$ #00($-,6( &'(+( ,- ) "#"($& 2'($ &'( ",/,&)+* #.(+)&,#$
+()3'(- ,&- 31/",$)&,$% .#,$& )$5, ')6,$% )391,+(5 ,&- $(3(--)+* .+(--1+( )$5
,".(&1-, %#(- )'()5 2,&'#1& )$* 5#18& )- &# 2')& 2,// ')..($ $(B&. A& -13' ) &,"(
2'($ &'( 01// -&+($%&' #0 &'( #00($-,6( 3#"(- ,$&# "#&,#$, ,& -&)+&- )56)$3,$% ,$
%+()& -&+,5(-, )$5 &'($ $# .#2(+ 3)$ -&#. ,&- 6,3&#+,#1- 0#+2)+5 ")+3'.
9hate3er e8act$y this 3er0ia%e #as su++osed to mean6 e3ery reader must ha3e
inter+reted it as si%nifyin% that the 2ed Army #ou$d 0e inside 9arsa# #ithin a: fe#
days: @n Au%ust 36 the So3iet +a+ers +u0$ished a ma+ sho#in% the front runnin% a fe#
mi$es from the Aistu$a6 Hust east of !ra%a6 thou%h on a 3ery narro# sa$ient: The ta$< in
Mosco# #as that 2o<osso3s<y #as %oin% to ca+ture 9arsa# on Au%ust 9 or 1": And
then somethin% #ent #ron%: a++arent$y that coup de main, of #hich 1uderian #as to
s+ea<6 had not come off:
The ne#s from 9arsa# %re# more tra%ic e3ery day: Then6 for near$y a fortni%ht there
#as a ne#s 0$ac<out in 2ussia as far as the 9arsa# sector #as concerned6 and it #as not
ti$$ Au%ust 1) that an ominous communi=uN #as +u0$ished sayin% that Feast of !ra%a our
troo+s ha3e 0een re+e$$in% the enemy's $ar%e,sca$e attac<s6 and ha3e a0andoned @sso#:F
@sso# #as on$y a short distance from !ra%a6 and there #as no rea$ indication ho# far the
2ussians had 0een +ushed 0ac<:
After denouncin% the decision ta<en 0y the A4 command6 #ith the 0$essin% of the !o$ish
1o3ernment in ondon6 to start the 9arsa# u+risin% on Au%ust 1 as an anti,So3iet
F+o$itica$ o+erationF6 and after descri0in% the #ho$$y inade=uate =uantities of arms
a3ai$a0$e inside 9arsa#6 the So3iet Histor! %oes on to say:
T'( 6(+* 0,+-& 5)* .+#6(5 ',%'/* 1$0)6#1+)8/( &# &'( ,$-1+%($&-... T'(* 0),/(5 &#
3).&1+( &'( -&+)&(%,3 .#,$&- ,$ &'( 3,&*, &'( +),/2)* -&)&,#$- #+ &'( A,-&1/) 8+,5%(-...
A- ) +(-1/&, &'( !(+")$- 2(+( )8/( &# 8+,$% 1. '()6* +(,$0#+3("($&-. T'(
3#"")$5(+- #0 -#"( #0 &'( AK 5(&)3'"($&-, 5,-3#1+)%(5 8* )// &',-, 5,--#/6(5 &'("
#+ &##; &'(" #1& #0 W)+-)2. Y(&, 5(-.,&( &'(-( 1$0)6#1+)8/( 3#$5,&,#$-, &'(
-&+1%%/( 3#$&,$1(5, )$5 %+()&/* %+(2 ,$ 6,%#1+ 2'($ &'( .#.1/)&,#$ #0 W)+-)2
:#,$(5 ,$... R)$; )$5 0,/( "("8(+- #0 &'( AK, 1$)2)+( #0 &'( .#/,&,3)/ -3'("(- #0
&'(,+ /()5(+-, 0#1%'& 8+)6(/* )%),$-& &'( N)C,-... H#2(6(+, &'( 0#+3(- 2(+( &##
1$(91)/... I$ &'( -(3#$5 ')/0 #0 A1%1-& &'( -,&1)&,#$ 8(3)"( &+1/* &+)%,3, 2,&' &'(
!(+")$- 3)++*,$% #1& H,&/(+<- #+5(+- &# 2,.( W)+-)2 #00 &'( 0)3( #0 &'( ()+&'.
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: ?A6 +: &43:K
The e8+$anation no# %i3en is that a$thou%h Fin +rinci+$eF (as cou$d 0e seen from Sta$in's
$etter to 5hurchi$$ of Au%ust 1))6 the So3iet 1o3ernment did not #ish to 0e associated
#ith the 9arsa# 2isin% (on #hich it had not e3en 0een consu$ted)6 it ne3erthe$ess Fdid
a$$ it cou$dF 0ecause many thousands of 9arsa# +atriots had Hoined in the stru%%$e:
?n re+$y to the 9estern char%e that the FSo3iet 5ommand had de$i0erate$y sto++ed its
troo+s at the %ates of 9arsa# and so condemned the insur%ents to deathF6 the Histor!
says:
I?A@ASS6 3o$: ?A6 ++: &44 ff (em+hasis added):K
P(#./( 2'# -)* &',- ')6( $(6(+ &);($ &'( &+#18/( &# -&15* &'( .#--,8,/,&,(- #0 &'( R(5
A+"* )& &'( &,"( #0 &'( W)+-)2 R,-,$%. H(+( )+( &'( +()/ 0)3&-:
I$ &'( -(3#$5 ')/0 #0 J1/* &'( &+##.- #0 &'( 1-& B(/#+1--,)$ =R#;#---#6-;*> )$5 #0 &'(
M$5 U;+),$,)$ =K#$(6> +#$& ($&(+(5 P#/,-' &(++,&#+* )$5 8(%)$ &# )56)$3(
&#2)+5- &'( A,-&1/)... A& &'( ($5 #0 J1/*, (6($ 8(0#+( &'( 8(%,$$,$% #0 &'( W)+-)2
R,-,$%, &'( &(".# #0 &'( #00($-,6( ')5 %+()&/* -/#2(5 5#2$. T'( !(+")$ H,%'
C#"")$5 ')5 8* &',- &,"( &'+#2$ 6(+* -&+#$% +(-(+6(- )%),$-& &'( "),$ -(3&#+- #0
#1+ )56)$3(. !(+")$ +(-,-&)$3( 2)- -&+#$% )$5 -&188#+$. I& -'#1/5 )/-# 8(
3#$-,5(+(5 &')& #1+ +,0/( 5,6,-,#$- )$5 &)$; 3#+.- ')5 -100(+(5 '()6* /#--(- ,$
.+(6,#1- 8)&&/(-? &')& &'( )+&,//(+* )$5 &'( -1../* 8)-(- 2(+( /)%%,$% 8(',$5, )$5
&')& &'( &+##.- 2(+( -'#+& #0 8#&' .(&+#/ )$5 "1$,&,#$-.
I$0)$&+* )$5 &)$;- 2(+( $#& +(3(,6,$% $()+/* ($#1%' )+&,//(+* -1..#+&. D1+,$% &'(
5(/)*- ,$ +(-8)-,$% #1+ ),+ 0#+3( #$ $(2 ),+0,(/5-, &',- 2)- "13' /(-- )3&,6( &')$
8(0#+(. A& &'( 8(%,$$,$% #0 &'( B(/#+1--,)$ C)".),%$, 2( ')5 3#"./(&( 3#$&+#/ #0
&'( ),+. A& &'( 8(%,$$,$% #0 A1%1-& #1+ -1.(+,#+,&* 2)- &(".#+)+,/* /#-&. I$ &'( 1-&
B(/#+1--,)$ -(3&#+ 8(&2(($ A1%1-& 1 )$5 1@ #1+ ./)$(- 3)++,(5 #1& @,1KL -#+&,(- )$5
&'( ($("* ./)$(- @,@16.
C#$-(91($&/*, )0&(+ ) /#$% 0#+&*-5)* #00($-,6(, 2,&' ($("* +(-,-&)$3( "13' -&+#$%(+
&')$ ,& 2)-, #1+ &+##.- 3#1/5 $#& "),$&),$ &'( ',%' &(".# #0 #1+ )56)$3(, )$5 %,6(
,""(5,)&( '(/. &# &'( W)+-)2 +,-,$%. T',- 2)- 91,&( #86,#1- &# &'( !(+")$
3#"")$5. T'1- !($(+)/ T,..(/-;,+3' 2+,&(-: 1-he <arsa/ )ising started on
August @, at a time /hen the strength o* the )ussian blo/ had e0hausted itsel*.1 T'(
&)-; 2)- +($5(+(5 )// &'( "#+( 5,00,31/& )- 2( 2(+( 0)3(5 2,&' &'( .+#8/(" #0
0#+3,$% &'( A,-&1/).
And then:
O$ A1%1-& 1, &+##.- #0 &'( /(0& 0/)$; #0 &'( 1-& B(/#+1--,)$ +#$& )..+#)3'(5
W)+-)2 0+#" &'( -#1&'-()-&. I$ )..+#)3',$% P+)%), &'( M$5 T)$; A+"* "(& 2,&'
0,(+3( ($("* +(-,-&)$3(? &'( )..+#)3'(- &# P+)%) ')5 8(($ '()6,/* 0#+&,0,(5... I& 2)-
)/-# '(+( &')& the Germans concentrated a heavy striking *orce o* one in*antry and
*our 'anzer divisions, /hich struck out at the beginning o* August and drove the And
-ank Army a/ay *rom 'raga, be*ore the bulk o* our troops had had time to approach
this <arsa/ suburb.
T'( 6(+* 5,00,31/& .#-,&,#$ ,$ 2',3' &'( M$5 T)$; A+"* 0#1$5 ,&-(/0 )& P+)%) ")* 8(
"()-1+(5 8* ,&- /#--(-.
I$ ,&- 8)&&/(- 0#1%'& #$ P#/,-' &(++,&#+*E)& L18/,$, D(8/,$, P1/)2) )$5 &'(
)..+#)3'(- #0 W)+-)2E,& ')5 /#-& )8#1& 5LL &)$;- )$5 "#8,/( %1$-. U$5(+ &'(
2(,%'& #0 &'( !(+")$ #00($-,6( ,& ')5 &# +(&+()& 0+#" P+)%), &);( 1. &'( 5(0($-,6(
)$5 +(.(/ &'( !(+")$ )&&)3;-...
There fo$$o#ed #ee<s of confused fi%htin% 0oth north and south of 9arsa# on the
eastern 0an< of the Aistu$a and a$so on the three 0rid%eheads the 2ussians had ca+tured
on the #estern 0an<Dat Ma%nus>e#6 !u$a#a and Sandomier>Da$$ a considera0$e
distance from 9arsa#: C3ery#here the 1ermans #ere no# thro#in% in hea3y forces:
?t is not c$ear from this ho: "ar a#ay from !ra%a the 2ussians #ere thro#n 0ac<6 0ut they
#ere certain$y a considera0$e distance to the east of !ra%a 0y the midd$e of Au%ust6 #hen
5hurchi$$ #as des+erate to %et 9estern +$anes to $and 0ehind the 2ussian $ines:
.ere ? can su++$ement the Histor! #ith #hat 1enera$ 2o<os,so3s<y6 commander of the
1st Be$orussian Front6 to$d me at u0$in on Au%ust &)6 1944:
My informa$ and off,the,record con3ersation #ith 2o<osso3s<y (after a %reat ceremony
in the main s=uare for the un3ei$in% of a cenota+h to those #ho had fa$$en in the Batt$e of
u0$in) #as a 0rief 0ut si%nificant one: .ere is #hat he said:
F? can't %o into any detai$s: But ?'$$ te$$ you Hust this: After se3era$ #ee<s' hea3y fi%htin%
in Be$orussia and eastern !o$and #e fina$$y reached the outs<irts of !ra%a a0out the 1st of
Au%ust: The 1ermans6 at this +oint6 thre# in four armoured di3isions6 and #e #ere
dri3en 0ac<:F
F.o# far 0ac<EF
F? can't te$$ you e8act$y6 0ut $et's say near$y 1"" <i$ometres (si8ty,fi3e mi$es):F
FAre you sti$$ retreatin%E F
F;oD#e are no# ad3ancin%D0ut s$o#$y:F
FDid you thin< on Au%ust 1 (as #as su%%ested 0y the Pravda corres+ondent that day) that
you cou$d ta<e 9arsa# #ithin a 3ery fe# daysE F
F?f the 1ermans had not thro#n in a$$ that armour6 #e cou$d ha3e ta<en 9arsa#6 thou%h
not in a fronta$ attac<L 0ut it #as ne3er more than a -",-" chance: A 1erman counter,
attac< at !ra%a #as not to 0e e8c$uded6 thou%h #e no# <no# that 0efore these armoured
di3isions arri3ed6 the 1ermans inside 9arsa# #ere in a +anic6 and #ere +ac<in% u+ in a
%reat hurry:F
F9asn't the 9arsa# 2isin% Hustified in the circumstancesEF
F;o6 it #as a 0ad mista<e: The insur%ents started it off their o#n 0at6 #ithout consu$tin%
us:F
FThere #as that 0roadcast from Mosco# ca$$in% on them to rise:F
FThat #as routine stuff6 IsicK There #ere simi$ar ca$$s to rise from %:it radio Ithe A4
radioK6 and a$so from the !o$ish ser3ice of the BB5Dso ?'m to$d6 thou%h ? didn't hear it
myse$f: et's 0e serious: An armed insurrection in a +$ace $i<e 9arsa# cou$d on$y ha3e
succeeded if it had 0een carefu$$y co,ordinated #ith the 2ed Army: The =uestion of
timin% #as of the utmost im+ortance: The 9arsa# insur%ents are 0ad$y armed6 and the
risin% #ou$d ha3e made sense on$y if #e #ere a$ready on the +oint of entering $arsa:5
That +oint had not 4een reached at an! stage, and ?'$$ admit that some So3iet
corres+ondents #ere much too o+timistic on the 1st of Au%ust: 9e #ere +ushed 0ac<:
9e cou$dn't ha3e %ot 9arsa# 0efore the midd$e of Au%ust6 e3en in the 0est of
circumstances: But circumstances #ere not %ood6 0ut 0ad: Such thin%s do ha++en in #ar:
?t ha++ened at 4har<o3 in March 1943 and at Ohitomir $ast #inter:F
F9hat +ros+ect is there of your %ettin% 0ac< to !ra%a #ithin the ne8t fe# #ee<sEF
F? can't %o into that: A$$ ? can say is that #e sha$$ try to ca+ture 0oth !ra%a and 9arsa#6
0ut it #on't 0e easy:F
FBut you ha3e 0rid%eheads south of 9arsa#:F
F(es6 0ut the 1ermans are doin% their damnedest to reduce them: 9e're ha3in% much
difficu$ty in ho$din% them6 and #e are $osin% a $ot of men: Mind you6 #e ha3e fou%ht
non,sto+ for o3er t#o months no#: 9e'3e $i0erated the #ho$e of Be$orussia and near$y
one fourth of !o$andL 0ut6 e3en the 2ed Army %ets tired after a #hi$e: @ur casua$ties ha3e
0een 3ery hea3y:F
F5an't you he$+ the 9arsa# insur%ents from the airEF
F9e are tryin%L thou%h6 to te$$ you the truth6 it isn't much %ood: They are ho$din% on$y
iso$ated s+ots in 9arsa#6 and most of the stuff #i$$ fa$$ into 1erman hands:F
F9hy can't you $et British and American +$anes $and 0ehind the 2ussian $ines6 after
dro++in% their su++$ies on 9arsa#E There's 0een an a#fu$ stin< in Cn%$and and America
a0out your refusa$::: F
FThe mi$itary situation east of the Aistu$a is much more com+$icated than you rea$ise:
And #e Hust don't #ant any British and American +$anes muc<in% around here Hust at the
moment:
IThis may or may not 0e the true e8+$anation6 0ut it ta$$ies #ith the usua$ 2ussian
ca%eyness at times of re3erses:K
? thin< in a cou+$e of #ee<s6 #e'$$ 0e a0$e to su++$y 9arsa# ourse$3es from $o#,f$yin%
+$anes if the insur%ents ho$d any reco%nisa0$e area in the city: But this hi%h a$titude
dro++in% of su++$ies on 9arsa# 0y 9estern +$anes ser3es +ractica$$y no +ur+ose at a$$:F
F?sn't a$$ this massacre and destruction in 9arsa# ha3in% a terri0$y de+ressin% effect on
the !o$ish +eo+$e hereE F
F@f course6 it has: But a fearfu$ mista<e #as made 0y the A4 $eadershi+: $e (the 2ed
Army) are res+onsi0$e for the conduct of the #ar in !o$and6 :e are the force that #i$$
$i0erate the #ho$e of !o$and #ithin the ne8t fe# months6 and Bor,4omaro#s<i and the
+eo+$e around him ha3e 0utted in *a* r!zh! v tsir*eD$i<e the c$o#n in the circus #ho
+o+s u+ at the #ron% moment and on$y %ets ro$$ed u+ in the car+et::: ?f it #ere on$y a
+iece of c$o#nin% it #ou$dn't matter6 0ut the +o$itica$ stunt is %oin% to cost !o$and
hundreds of thousands of $i3es: ?t is an a++a$$in% tra%edy6 and they are no# tryin% to +ut
the 0$ame on us: ?t ma<es me +retty sic< #hen ? thin< of the many thousands of men #e
ha3e a$ready $ost in our fi%ht for the $i0eration of !o$and: And do you thin<6F he
conc$uded6 Fthat #e #ou$d not ha3e ta<en 9arsa# if #e had 0een a0$e to do itE The
#ho$e idea that #e are in any sense afraid of the A4 is too idiotica$$y a0surd:F
F
There #ere t#o stran%e and6 in some #ays6 +athetic fi%ures at a +ress conference %i3en
0y 1enera$ 2o$a,Oymiers<i6 the FMinisterF of Defence of the u0$in 5ommittee6 $ater
that day: t#o A4 officers6 5o$one$ 2a#ic> and 5o$one$ Tarna#a6 #ho said they had $eft
9arsa# on Bu$y &9 on the initiati3e of Fa stron% minorityF of A4 officers inside 9arsa#
to esta0$ish contact #ith Mi<o$aHc>y< (#ho #as then in Mosco#)6 in a $ast,minute
endea3our to +ersuade the ondon 1o3ernment to use a$$ its inf$uence to ca$$ off the
risin% that #as 0ein% +re+ared for Au%ust 1Dfor6 on Bu$y &-6 they had a$ready recei3ed
orders from 1enera$ Bor,4omaro#s<i to +re+are and stand 0y: They c$aimed that it #as
c$ear that the insur%ents cou$d not +ossi0$y ho$d 9arsa# un$ess they struc< out at the
3ery $ast moment6 #ith the 2ussians +ractica$$y inside the city: *nfortunate$y6 it had
ta<en the t#o co$one$s near$y a fortni%ht to reach u0$in6 and it #as then too $ate:
5o$one$ 2a#ic>6 a smart6 da++er $itt$e man in a ne# uniform6 0ut #ith a $oo< of %rief and
0e#i$derment in his eyes6 said that head=uarters had %i3en the order for a risin% as soon
as the 2ussians #ere t#enty mi$es a#ay from 9arsa#L he and many other officers fe$t it
#ou$d 0e fo$$y to do it unti$ the 2ussians had reached the Aistu$a 0rid%es:
F9e did not thin<6F he said6 Fthat the 2ussians cou$d enter 9arsa# 0efore Au%ust 1-: But
the man,in,the,street (and you <no# ho# 0ra3e and romantic our 9arsa# +eo+$e are)
#as con3inced the 2ussians #ou$d 0e there 0y Au%ust &L and #ith tremendous
enthusiasm they Hoined in:::F
2a#ic> #as in a state of %reat emotion as he s+o<e a0out 9arsa# and its destruction and
there #ere tears in his eyes as he mentioned his #ife and dau%hter6 #ho #ere Fsti$$ thereF6
in that 0urnin% inferno: .e rec<oned that &""6""" +eo+$e had a$ready 0een s$au%htered:
?t #as a$$ tra%ic6 and a $itt$e mystifyin%: .ad these t#o men rea$$y acted in %ood faith (?
fe$t that they had) in their attem+t to a3ert the disasterE 9ere they6 as ondon #as $ater to
ca$$ them6 deserters from the A4 causeE
F
Accordin% to the Histor!:
At the 0e%innin% of Se+tem0er6 #ith the 1ermans ha3in% no# turned their main attention
to our 0rid%eheads on the #est side of the Aistu$a6 #e #ere a0$e to concentrate
sufficient$y $ar%e forces #hich ::: fina$$y ca+tured !ra%a on Se+tem0er 14: Thus6 there
#as a considera0$e im+ro3ement in the 9arsa# sector of the front6 and there #as no# a
%ood +ros+ect of %i3in% direct su++ort to the 9arsa# 2isin%: This #as the tas< #ith
#hich the 1st !o$ish Army Iunder 1enera$ Bedin%K #as entrusted: @n Se+tem0er 1- it
entered !ra%a6 and 0e%an to +re+are the forcin% of the Aistu$a and the esta0$ishment of
0rid%eheads in 9arsa# itse$f:
After descri0in% this o+eration6 carried out #ith the he$+ of am+hi0ious 3ehic$es6 and
su++orted 0y 2ussian arti$$ery and aircraft6 the Histor! then %oes on to say that 0et#een
Se+tem0er 1) and 196 si8 0atta$ions crossed the Aistu$a6 that the !o$ish so$diers and
officers fou%ht heroica$$y6 0ut that they #ere he$+$ess a%ainst the 3ery hea3y fortifications
from #hich the 1ermans #ere a0$e to +re3ent any e8tension of the 0rid%ehead:
Moreo3er6 the insur%ents fai$ed to co,ordinate their actions #ith the !o$ish forces on the
0rid%ehead: @n Se+tem0er &1 1erman tan<s and infantry attac<ed in stren%th6 s+$ittin% u+
the 0rid%ehead and inf$ictin% 3ery hea3y casua$ties on the !o$es: @n Se+tem0er &3 the
!o$es had to e3acuate the 0rid%eheads and return to the east 0an< of the Aistu$a6 sufferin%
3ery hea3y $osses:
Such is the +resent 2ussian 3ersion of the a0orti3e FBer$in% o+erationF underta<en
(accordin% to the FondonF !o$es) on Ber$in%'s o#n initiati3e and #ithout 2ussian
su++ort: After its fai$ure6 Ber$in% #as reca$$ed to Mosco# Ffor further trainin%F:
Quotin% So3iet Ministry of Defence archi3es6 the Histor! then %i3es a $on% and
im+ressi3e $ist of arms6 food and other materia$ dro++ed on 9arsa# 0y the So3iet air
force 0et#een Se+tem0er 14 and @cto0er 16 the e3e of BTr,4omaro#s<i's ca+itu$ation:
There #ere a$to%ether o3er &6""" So3iet sorties o3er 9arsa#:
The Histor! a$so d#e$$s on the 3ery hea3y 2ussian casua$ties in the fi%htin% in !o$and
durin% that +eriod: Thus6 0et#een Au%ust 1 and Se+tem0er 1- the 1st Be$orussian Front
$ost 1))6""" men (<i$$ed and #ounded) and the &nd *<rainian Front (in Au%ust on$y)
1&&6""" men:
Fina$$y6 #hen the +osition in 9arsa# had 0ecome com+$ete$y ho+e$ess6 says the Histor!,
the 2ed Army command +ro+osed to the 9arsa# insur%ents6 to fi%ht their #ay across the
Aistu$a under 2ussian arti$$ery and aircraft +rotectionL 0ut on$y a sma$$ num0er of
9arsa# fi%hters too< ad3anta%e of this offer:
?n conc$usion6 the Histor! =uotes 1omu$<a's merci$ess indictment of the A4 $eadershi+ in
9arsa# #ho Fcommitted a fearfu$ crime a%ainst the !o$ish +eo+$e 0y $aunchin% the
insurrection #ithout +re3ious co,ordination #ith the 2ed Army command:F
Such is the +resent,day 2ussianDand 1omu$<aD3ersion of the 9arsa# tra%edy: ?t
e3ades the a#<#ard =uestions of the Mosco# radio a++ea$s at the end of Bu$y to the
+eo+$e of 9arsa# to FriseF (thou%h it criticises the %:it 0roadcasts) and the 2ussians'
refusa$ to $et su++$y +$anes from the 9est $and on So3iet airfie$ds:
IThe %:it 0roadcasts #ere those of the F+ro,ondonF !o$es:K
But the rea$$y crucia$ =uestion is #hether the 2ussians could ha3e forced the Aistu$a at
9arsa# in either Au%ust or Se+tem0erL and on this the 2ussian e3idence to the contrary
seems im+ressi3e6 reinforced as it is 0y the o+inion of 1enera$ 1uderian #ho #rote:
I& ")* 8( )--1"(5 &')& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ ')5 $# ,$&(+(-& ,$ -((,$% &'(-( 4.+#-
L#$5#$7 (/("($&- -&+($%&'($(5 8* ) -133(--01/ 1.+,-,$% )$5 8* &'( 3).&1+( #0 &'(,+
3).,&)/... B1& 8( &')& )- ,& ")*, )$ )&&(".& 8* &'( R1--,)$-... &# 3+#-- &'( A,-&1/) )&
D(8/,$ #$ J1/* M5 0),/(5, 2,&' &'( /#-- #0 &',+&* &)$;-... W( !(+")$- ')5 &'(
,".+(--,#$ &')& it /as our de*ence /hich halted the enemy rather than a )ussian
desire to sabotage the <arsa/ uprising.
And then:
O$ A1%1-& M &'( 1-& P#/,-' A+"*... )&&)3;(5 )3+#-- &'( A,-&1/) 2,&' &'+(( 5,6,-,#$-
,$ &'( P1/)2)-D(8/,$ -(3&#+. I& -100(+(5 '()6* 3)-1)/&,(-, 81& -(31+(5 ) 8+,5%('()5...
A& M)%$1-C(2 ) -(3#$5 8+,5%('()5 2)- (-&)8/,-'(5. T'( 0#+3(- &')& 3+#--(5 '(+(
2(+( ordered to advance along the road running parallel to the #istula to <arsa/, but
they /ere stopped at the 'ilica.
1uderian c$ear$y 0e$ie3es that there #as a serious 2ussian attem+t to ca+ture 9arsa# in
the first #ee< of Au%ust: .e then %oes on:
T'( !(+")$ 9&' A+"* ')5 &'( ,".+(--,#$, #$ A1%1-& N, that the )ussian attempt to
seize <arsa/ by a 3#1. 5( "),$ had been de*eated by our de*ence, despite the 'olish
uprising, and that the latter had, *rom the enemy8s point o* vie/, been begun too soon
F1uderian6 o+: cit:6 ++: 3-J,9: (em+hasis added:)K
This is an im+ortant +iece of e3idence6 #hich ta$$ies6 to an e8traordinary de%ree6 0oth
#ith #hat #as said in Mosco# at the 3ery 0e%innin% of Au%ust #hen the ca+ture of
9arsa# 0y the 2ed Army #as e8+ected Fat any momentF6 and #ith #hat #as 0ein% said
in u0$in at the end of Au%ust6 at the hei%ht of the 9arsa# tra%edy:
The on$y conc$usion this author6 at any rate6 has 0een a0$e to reach is that in Au%ust and
Se+tem0er 1944 the a3ai$a0$e 2ed Army forces in !o$and #ere %enuine$y not a0$e to
ca+ture 9arsa# #hich .it$er #as determined to ho$d: For 9arsa# #as on the 2ussians'
shortest road to the heart of 1ermany:
?t mi%ht6 of course6 0e ar%ued that if the 2ussians had #anted to ca+ture 9arsa# at an!
price, that is6 0y transferrin% #ho$e armies to the Aistu$a from other fronts at short notice
(not an easy tas<)6 they mi%ht concei3a0$y ha3e ca+tured it: But this #ou$d ha3e u+set
their other mi$itary +$ans $i<e steadi$y ad3ancin% on Cast !russia6 routin% the 1ermans in
2umania6 Hoinin% #ith the (u%os$a3s and 0rea<in% into Bu$%aria and .un%ary:
There is no =uestion 0ut that the 9arsa# risin% #as a $ast des+erate attem+t to free
!o$and's ca+ita$ from the retreatin% ;a>is and at the same time to +re3ent the u0$in
administration from %ainin% a footho$d and esta0$ishin% itse$f in 9arsa# once the
3ictorious So3iet army had entered the city:
@nce more in !o$and's history this 3a$iant stru%%$e for inde+endence #as defeated 0y the
o3erridin%6 a$thou%h conf$ictin%6 %reat,!o#er interests of other states: Sti$$6 #ith Mosco#
determined6 e3er since the 0e%innin% of the #ar and es+ecia$$y since A+ri$ 19436 to
contro$ the future destinies of !o$and6 Bor,4omaro#s<i #ou$d ha3e 0een e$iminated one
#ay or another 0y the 2ussians6 as they mana%ed a fe# years $ater to rid themse$3es of
Mi<o$aHc>y<:
The story of the end of the 9arsa# tra%edy6 and of 1erman 0estia$ity under the
$eadershi+ of the notorious SS @0er%ru++enfRhrer 3on dem Bach,Oe$e#s<y6 assisted 0y
e=ua$$y notorious murder %an%s $i<e the 4amins<y Bri%ade6 is #e$$ <no#n6 as is a$so
.it$er's maniaca$ order of @cto0er 11 to Fra>e 9arsa# to the %roundF:
3""6""" !o$es $ost their $i3es in 9arsa#: 9hen the 2ussians fina$$y entered 9arsa# in
Banuary 194-6 more than nine,tenths of the city had 0een a$most as com+$ete$y destroyed
as had 0een the 9arsa# 1hetto in 1943:
C').&(+ IX CLOSE-UP: LUBLINETHE MAIDANEK MURDER
CAMP
?t #as a 0eautifu$ sunny day as #e f$e# at the end of Au%ust 1944 from Mosco# to
u0$in o3er those hundreds of mi$es of Be$orussian fie$ds6 marshes and forests that had
0een reca+tured 0y the 2ed Army in the %reat 0att$es of Bune and Bu$y: Be$orussia $oo<ed
more #retched and ruined than any +art of the So3iet *nion6 a+art from that terri0$e
FdesertF that stretched a$$ the #ay from Aia>ma and 1>hats< to Smo$ens<: There #ere
scarce$y any catt$e to 0e seen outside the 3i$$a%es6 most of #hich had suffered +artia$ or
com+$ete destruction: This #as most$y +artisan country and6 f$yin% o3er Be$orussia one
rea$ised once more ho# dan%erous and +recarious their $ife had 0een: 5ontrary to #hat is
often 0e$ie3ed6 there are no immense forests in Be$orussia stretchin% o3er hundreds of
mi$esL there are most$y on$y +atches of forest se$dom more than fi3e or ten mi$es #ide:
C3en many of these +atches #ere ye$$o#Dset on fire 0y the 1ermans6 to smo<e the
!artisans out: A ferocious $ife,and,death stru%%$e had %one on here for t#o years or moreL
one cou$d te$$ that e3en from the air:
Then #e f$e# o3er Mins<6 and it a$$ seemed a sham0$es6 e8ce+t for the enormous %rey
1o3ernment Bui$din%: Mins< had a$so had its torture,cham0ers at the 1esta+o
head=uarters6 and its mass %ra3es of s$au%htered Be#s: ?t #as hard to %ras+ that6 on$y
three years 0efore6 it had 0een a +ros+erous industria$ city:
9e f$e# on to u0$in6 into !o$and: The rura$ scene here $oo<ed 3ery different: @ut#ard$y
at $east6 the country $oo<ed a$most un,scathed 0y #ar: The !o$ish 3i$$a%es $oo<ed intact6
#ith their #hite,#ashed houses and their #e$$,<e+t and +ros+erous,$oo<in% 5atho$ic
churches: The front #as not 3ery far a#ay from here6 and #e #ere f$yin% $o#L chi$dren
#a3ed as #e roared +astL and in the fie$ds there #ere many more catt$e than in any +art of
the So3iet *nion #here the 1ermans had 0eenL and most of the $and #as cu$ti3ated: 9e
$anded a %ood distance outside u0$in6 and the 3i$$a%es throu%h #hich #e then dro3e
a$on% a terri0$y dusty road $oo<ed much the same as from the airDa$$ fair$y norma$,
$oo<in%6 #ith a $ar%e num0er of catt$e a0out6 and the $andsca+e dotted #ith haystac<s:::
? #as to stay se3era$ days in u0$in: The streets #ere cro#ded6 #hich they se$dom #ere
in any ne#$y,$i0erated 2ussian to#nL there #as a$so %reat acti3ity in the mar<et +$ace:
C3ery#here there #ere many 2ussian and !o$ish so$diers: Before $ea3in%6 the 1ermans
had shot 1"" !o$ish +risoners in the o$d 5ast$eL 0ut a+art from a fe# 0urned,out
0ui$din%s6 the city #as more or $ess intact6 com+$ete #ith the 5ast$e6 the 2ad>i#i$$ !a$ace
and the numerous churches:
(et this first im+ression of norma$ity #as a $itt$e dece+ti3e: The 1erman occu+ationD
#hich had no# $asted fi3e yearsDhad $eft a dee+ mar< on the +eo+$e of u0$in6 and the
arri3a$ of the 2ussians here had not set their minds at restL far from it: And6 for o3er t#o
years no#6 u0$in had6 as it #ere6 $i3ed in the shado# of Maidane<6 the %reat
e8termination cam+ on$y t#o mi$es a#ay: 9hen the #ind 0$e# from the east it 0rou%ht
#ith it the stench of 0urnin% human f$esh from the crematoria chimneys:
At dinner on the ni%ht of our arri3a$ #ith some of the $oca$ #orthies and some of the
Fu0$in !o$esFDamon% them 5o$one$ 9i<tor 1ros> IA fe# months 0efore6 1ros>6 as one
of the $eadin% $i%hts of the *nion of !o$ish !atriots6 had tried to %o to ondon to +resent
to the British 1o3ernment the FMosco# !o$es'F +oint of 3ie#6 0ut had 0een refused a
3isa: 1ros> #as a 0ri$$iant #riter6 and s+o<e e8ce$$ent Cn%$ish: .e #as to 0ecome one of
the chief forei%n +o$icy ad3isers of the Fu0$in 5ommitteeF and #as $ater to +$ay a
$eadin% rZ$e at the !o$ish forei%n ministry in 9arsa# unti$ his +remature death on$y a fe#
years $ater:K #hom ? had a$ready met in Mosco#D? sat ne8t to !rofessor Bie$<o#s<i6
#ho had6 0efore the #ar6 0een Assistant 2ector of u0$in *ni3ersityL he #as one of the
fe# !o$ish inte$$ectua$s #ho had sur3i3ed the 1erman occu+ation: u0$in *ni3ersity6 he
said6 #as c$osed 0y the 1ermans6 and the i0rary $ootedL 0ut he #as %i3en a #retched Ho0
in the Archi3es #here he #as e8+ected to di% u+ 0oo<s and documents to sho# that this
+art of !o$and #as urdeutscher .oden (ancestra$ 1erman territory): FThe #ho$e thin%
#as a moc<ery6F he said6 0ut #ou$d not %o into any detai$s on ho# the Fresearch #or<F
#as conducted6 or on #hat resu$ts it had +roduced: .e had o03ious$y co$$a0orated in a
sma$$ #ay to sa3e his $ife: And he #as ready to admit that he #as one of the fe# !o$ish
inte$$ectua$s to ha3e esca+ed:
FThe 1ermans' +o$icy6F he said6 F#as to e8terminate the !o$ish inte$$i%entsiaL and no#
that they are %oin% to 0e thro#n out of !o$and 0efore $on%6 they #ant to ma<e sure that
our +o#er of nationa$ recu+eration is reduced to >ero6 if +ossi0$e: ?n the $ast fe# days ?
ha3e $earned that the 1ermans ha3e murdered do>ens more of our +rofessorsDin
addition to the thousands and thousands of our inte$$ectua$s #ho ha3e a$ready +erished in
their concentration cam+s:F .e %a3e a $on% $ist of names: FThey #anted !o$and to 0e an
inert mass of +easants and $a0ourers6 #ithout $eadershi+ and #ithout any <ind of nationa$
+resti%e:F
FAnd the c$er%yEF ? as<ed:
F(es6 ?'$$ %rant you6 the 5hurch has done its 0est to maintain a sense of nationa$ cohesion
and consciousness in !o$andL 0ut there are %oin% to 0e com+$ications no#: most of the
+riests are +ro,A4 and anti,2ussian:F
F.o# are thin%s here in u0$inEF
F(ou'$$ no dou0t see Maidane< tomorro#L that's one as+ect of u0$in: For the restD#e$$6
thin%s are ta<in% sha+e6 0ut s$o#$y: There is a $ot of #orry and uncertainty: !eo+$e are
o0sessed #ith the idea of 9arsa# 0urnin% and its +eo+$e 0ein% 0utchered 0y the
1ermans:F
F9hat's the fee$in% amon% the !o$ish +eo+$e a0out the 2ussiansE F
FQuite %ood6F he said6 Fyes6 =uite %ood: @f course6 ? may 0e more +ro,2ussian than most
!o$es: ? studied in St !eters0ur%L ? $i<e 2ussian +eo+$e6 and admire their %reat ci3i$isation:
But it's no use denyin% it: there's a terri0$y o$d tradition of mutua$ distrust 0et#een !o$es
and 2ussians: ;o#6 for the first time6 ? thin<6 a rea$ attem+t is 0ein% made 0y the
2ussians to come to a $astin% understandin% #ith the !o$es: But #e !o$es ha3e 0een
<ic<ed around so much that the idea of a 2usso,!o$ish 0$oc ta<es time to sin< in: And
no# there are +$enty of +oisonous stories %oin% around a0out 9arsa#: Quite unHustified6
? thin<: ? ha3e ta$<ed to many 2ussian officersL they are 3ery fed,u+ at ha3in% so far
fai$ed to ta<e 9arsa#::: And there are other thin%s6 too: @ur +eo+$e #ant Ai$no and
#o# to 0e inc$uded in !o$and: ? <no# #e can't ha3e Ai$no6 #hich has 0een +romised to
the ithuanians6 0ut the 2ussians are 0ein% stic<y e3en a0out #o#:::F
I?ncor+orated into the So3iet *nion at the +artition in 194" and <e+t 0y her after the #ar:K
.e then ta$<ed a0out Maidane<6 #here o3er one,and,a,ha$f mi$$ion +eo+$e had 0een
murdered in the $ast t#o yearsDmany !o$es amon%st them6 and +eo+$e of a$$ <inds of
nationa$ities6 0ut6 a0o3e a$$6 Be#s:
F9hat6F ? as<ed6 Fhas 0een the attitude of the !o$ish +eo+$e to the massacre of the
mi$$ions of Be#sEF
FThis is a 3ery tric<y su0HectL $et's face it6F said the !rofessor: F@#in% to a num0er of
historica$ +rocesses6 such as the Tsarist %o3ernment's Be#ish +o$icy of confinin% most of
the Be#s in the 2ussian Cm+ire to !o$and6 #e ha3e had far too many Be#s here: @ur retai$
trade #as entire$y in Be#ish hands: They a$so +$ayed an undu$y $ar%e +art in other #a$<s
of $ife: There's no dou0t that the !o$ish +eo+$e #anted the num0er of Be#s in !o$and
reduced: They #anted +art of them to emi%rate to America6 to !a$estine6 or +erha+s to
Mada%ascarL there #as such a scheme 0efore the #ar: But that #as one thin%6F he added a
$itt$e %$i0$y: F9hat the 1ermans did is =uite another thin%L and this6 ? can te$$ you6
%enuine$y re3o$ted e3ery one of our +eo+$e::: F
Durin% the ne8t fe# days ? s+ent se3era$ hours in the streets of u0$in ta$<in% to a$$ <inds
of +eo+$e: Des+ite some 0om0 dama%e here and there6 the city had +reser3ed some of its
o$d,time charm: @n Sunday6 a$$ the churchesDand there #ere said to 0e more churches
+er s=uare mi$e in u0$in than in any other !o$ish cityD #ere cro#ded: Amon% the
faithfu$6 <nee$in% and +rayin%6 there #ere many !o$ish so$diers: !eo+$e #ere rather 0etter
dressed than in 2ussia6 thou%h many $oo<ed distinct$y #orn out and undernourished6 and
under %reat ner3ous strain: The sho+s #ere a$most em+ty6 thou%h there #as a %ood dea$
of food in the mar<et +$ace: But the food #as dear6 and there #as much animosity a%ainst
the +easants #ho #ere descri0ed as Fa $ot of 0$oodsuc<ersFL there #ere a$so many stories
of ho# the +easants Fcra#$edF to the 1ermansL a 1erman so$dier on$y had to a++ear in a
!o$ish 3i$$a%e6 and the +easants #ere so scared they'd 0rin% out roast chic<ens6 and 0utter
and e%%s and sour cream::: @n the other hand6 the 2ussian so$diers had 0een %i3en strict
orders to +ay for e3erythin% and the +easants #ere not <een at a$$ to %i3e anythin% a#ay
for rou0$es:
I This +o$ite 2ussian 0eha3iour #as to chan%e in timeL 0ut at first the 2ussians 0eha3ed
in a 3ery disci+$ined and FcorrectF #ay to the !o$ish +easants:K
!eo+$eDmany of them 3ery hum0$e,$oo<in% #or<in% +eo+$e6 ta$<ed free$y a0out the
1erman occu+ationL many had $ost friends and re$ati3es at Maidane<L many more had
had mem0ers of their fami$ies de+orted as s$a3e $a0our to 1ermanyL they a$so ta$<ed
a0out that terri0$e first #inter of 1939,4"6 #hen there #as a re%u$ar trade in chi$dren:
#ho$e train$oads of chi$drenD#hose +arents had 0een <i$$ed or arrestedD chi$dren from
!o>nan and other +$aces ta<en o3er 0y the 1ermans #ou$d arri3e in u0$in6 and a chi$dD
often star3ed and ha$f,deadD cou$d 0e 0ou%ht for thirty >$oty from 1erman so$diers:
They ta$<ed of +eo+$e #ho #ere +u0$ic$y han%ed in the main s=uare of u0$in and of the
torture cham0ers of the u0$in 1esta+o: FAnyone6F said an e$der$y #oman $oo<in% $i<e a
schoo$mistress6 Fcou$d 0e ta<en there: if a 1erman thou%ht6 as he +assed you in the street6
that you had %i3en him a dirty $oo<6 that #as enou%h: To <i$$ a human 0ein% Dit #as as
easy as ste++in% on a #orm and s=uashin% it:F Durin% the 1erman occu+ation6 most
+eo+$e in u0$in had %one hun%ry6 and the +easants had not 0een he$+fu$L and no# there
#as no certainty that thin%s #ere %oin% to 0e much 0etter: Sti$$6 to many it had 0een a
+$easant sur+rise to see rea$ !o$ish so$diers in !o$ish uniforms arri3e here from 2ussiaL
the 1ermans had a$#ays denied that there #as a !o$ish Army in 2ussia: @n the other
hand6 there #ereD es+ecia$$y amon% the 0etter,dressed +eo+$eD%ra3e mis%i3in%s a0out
the 2ussians6 and stron% A4 sym+athiesL and there #as a$so much ta$< of &6""" A4 men
ha3in% 0een arrested 0y the 2ussians in the u0$in area a$one: Many =uestions #ere6 of
course6 a$so as<ed a0out the !o$ish troo+s in ?ta$y and France6 and6 on many !o$es6 the
arri3a$ of British and American corres+ondents in u0$in made a +articu$ar$y stron%
im+ression: do>ens of +eo+$e6 #ith a su%%esti3e $oo< in their eyes6 #ou$d %i3e us f$o#ers:
@ne youn% man6 ? remem0er6 too< me aside and dre# my attention to a $ar%e inscri+tion
+ainted on a #a$$L it said FM@;TC 5ASS?;@F: FMonte 5assino6F he said6 Fthat's a
!o$ish 3ictory #on on the other side6 and #e are +articu$ar$y +roud of it::: ?t #as our
+eo+$e #ho +ainted the inscri+tion:F "'our +eo+$eEF ? said6 F(ou mean the /rmi8a
Kra8o:a" .e nodded: FThe #ar seems to 0e %oin% #e$$6F he said6 F0ut you rea$ise there
are many 4uts, many6 many 4uts5:: There's 9arsa#6 and #e don't trust these u0$in
5ommittee +eo+$e::: 9e$$6 you <no# #hat ? mean::: And &6""" arrests:F .e #as a +in<,
chee<ed youn% man of a0out t#enty,three #ith carefu$$y,+$astered hair #hich6 ho#e3er6
stran%e$y contrasted #ith his sha00y c$othesL he had #or<ed as an accountant under the
1ermans6 0ut #as a$so acti3e in the !o$ish FondonF under%round: ;o#6 he said6 he #as
%oin% to 0e mo0i$ised into the !o$ish Army: FSeems reasona0$e enou%h6 ? su++ose6F he
said6 Fto 0e mo0i$ised to fi%ht the 1ermans6 thou%h ? can't say ? am +articu$ar$y de$i%hted
to fi%ht under 2ussian orders::: F
Since the end of the #ar6 there ha3e 0een numerous accounts of 3arious 1erman
C8termination 5am+sDBuchen#a$d6 Ausch#it>6 Be$sen and othersD0ut the story of
Maidane< has not +erha+s 0een fu$$y to$d to 9estern readersL moreo3er6 Maidane< ho$ds
a 3ery s+ecia$ +$ace in the So3iet,1erman #ar:
As they ad3anced6 the 2ussians had 0een $earnin% more and more of 1erman atrocities
and the enormous num0er of <i$$in%s: But6 someho#6 a$$ this <i$$in% #as s+read o3er
re$ati3e$y #ide areas6 and thou%h it added u+ to far6 far more than Maidane<6 it did not
ha3e the 3ast monumenta$6 Findustria$F =ua$ity of that un0e$ie3a0$e Death Factory t#o
mi$es from u0$in:
F*n0e$ie3a0$eF it #as: #hen ? sent the BB5 a detai$ed re+ort on Maidane< in Au%ust
19446 they refused to use itL they thou%ht it #as a 2ussian +ro+a%anda stunt6 and it #as
not ti$$ the disco3ery in the #est of Buchen#a$d6 Dachau and Be$sen that they #ere
con3inced that Maidane< and Ausch#it> #ere a$so %enuine:::
The 2ussians disco3ered Maidane< on Bu$y &36 the 3ery day they entered u0$in: A0out a
#ee< $ater Simono3 descri0ed it a$$ in Pravda+ 0ut most of the 9estern +ress i%nored his
account: But in 2ussia the effect #as de3astatin%: C3ery0ody had heard of Ba0yi (ar and
thousands of other 1erman atrocitiesL 0ut this #as somethin% e3en more sta%%erin%: ?t
0rou%ht into shar+er focus than anythin% e$se had done the rea$ nature6 sco+e and
conse=uences of the ;a>i rN%ime in action: For here #as a 3ast industria$ underta<in% in
#hich thousands of FordinaryF 1ermans had made it a fu$$,time Ho0 to murder mi$$ions of
other +eo+$e in a sort of mass or%y of +rofessiona$ sadism6 or6 #orse sti$$6 #ith the
0usiness,$i<e con3iction that this :as a 8o4 li*e an! other5 The effect of Maidane< #as to
0e enormous6 not $east in the 2ed Army: Thousands of 2ussian so$diers #ere made to
3isit it:
My first reaction to Maidane< #as a fee$in% of sur+rise: ? had ima%ined somethin%
horri0$e and sinister 0eyond #ords: ?t #as nothin% $i<e that: ?t $oo<ed sin%u$ar$y harm$ess
from outside: F?s that itE F #as my first reaction #hen #e sto++ed at #hat $oo<ed $i<e a
$ar%e #or<ers' sett$ement: Behind us #as the many to#ered s<y$ine of u0$in: There #as
much dust on the road6 and the %rass #as a du$$6 %reenish,%rey co$our: The cam+ #as
se+arated from the road 0y a cou+$e of 0ar0ed,#ire fences6 0ut these did not $oo<
+articu$ar$y sinister6 and mi%ht ha3e 0een +ut u+ outside any mi$itary or semi,mi$itary
esta0$ishment: The +$ace #as $ar%eL $i<e a #ho$e to#n of 0arrac<s +ainted a +$easant soft
%reen: There #ere many +eo+$e aroundDso$diers and ci3i$ians: A !o$ish sentry o+ened
the 0ar0ed,#ire %ate to $et our cars enter the centra$ a3enue6 #ith $ar%e %reen 0arrac<s on
either side: And then #e sto++ed outside a $ar%e 0arrac< mar<ed .ad und Desin"e*tion II5
FThis6F some0ody said6 Fis #here $ar%e num0ers of those arri3in% at the cam+ #ere
0rou%ht in:F
The inside of this 0arrac< #as made of concrete6 and #ater ta+s came out of the #a$$6 and
around the room there #ere 0enches #here the c$othes #ere +ut do#n and a"ter:ards
co$$ected: So this #as the +$ace into #hich they #ere dri3en: @r +erha+s they #ere
+o$ite$y in3ited to FSte+ this #ay6 +$easeEF Did any of them sus+ect6 #hi$e #ashin%
themse$3es after a $on% Hourney6 #hat #ou$d ha++en a fe# minutes $aterE Any#ay6 after
the #ashin% #as o3er6 they #ere as<ed to %o into the ne8t roomL at this +oint e3en the
most unsus+ectin% must ha3e 0e%un to #onder: For the Fne8t roomF #as a series of $ar%e
s=uare concrete structures6 each a0out one,=uarter of the si>e of the 0ath,house6 and6
un$i<e it6 had no #indo#s: The na<ed +eo+$e (men one time6 #omen another time6
chi$dren the ne8t) #ere dri3en or forced from the 0ath,house into these dar< concrete
0o8esDa0out fi3e yards s=uareDand then6 #ith &"" or &-" +eo+$e +ac<ed into each 0o8
Dand it #as com+$ete$y dar< there6 e8ce+t for a sma$$ s<y$i%ht in the cei$in% and the
s+yho$e in the doorDthe +rocess of %assin% 0e%an: First some hot air #as +um+ed in
from the cei$in% and then the +retty +a$e,0$ue crysta$s of 5yc$on #ere sho#ered do#n on
the +eo+$e6 and in the hot #et air they ra+id$y e3a+orated: ?n anythin% from t#o to ten
minutes e3ery0ody #as dead::: There #ere si8 concrete 0o8esD%as,cham0ersDside 0y
side: F;ear$y t#o thousand +eo+$e cou$d 0e dis+osed of here simu$taneous$y6F one of the
%uides said:
But #hat thou%hts +assed throu%h these +eo+$e's minds durin% those first fe# minutes
#hi$e the crysta$s #ere fa$$in%L cou$d anyone sti$$ 0e$ie3e that this humi$iatin% +rocess of
0ein% +ac<ed into a 0o8 and standin% there na<ed6 ru00in% 0ac<s #ith other na<ed
+eo+$e6 had anythin% to do #ith disinfectionE
At first it #as a$$ 3ery hard to ta<e in6 #ithout an effort of the ima%ination: There #ere a
num0er of 3ery du$$,$oo<in% concrete structures #hich6 if their doors had 0een #ider6
mi%ht any#here e$se ha3e 0een mista<en for a ro# of nice $itt$e %ara%es: But the doorsD
the doorsP They #ere hea3y stee$ doors6 and each had a hea3y stee$ 0o$t: And in the
midd$e of the door #as a s+yho$e6 a circ$e6 three inches in diameter com+osed of a0out a
hundred sma$$ ho$es: 5ou$d the +eo+$e in their death a%ony see the SS,man's eye as he
#atched themE Any#ay6 the SS,man had nothin% to fear: his eye #as #e$$,+rotected 0y
the stee$ nettin% o3er the s+yho$e: And6 $i<e the +roud ma<er of re$ia0$e safes6 the ma<er
of the door had +ut his name round the s+yho$e: FAuert6 Ber$inF: Then a touch of 0$ue on
the f$oor cau%ht my eye: ?t #as 3ery faint6 0ut sti$$ $e%i0$e: ?n 0$ue cha$< someone had
scri00$ed the #ord "vergast" and had dra#n crude$y a0o3e it a s<u$$ and cross0ones: ?
had ne3er seen this #ord 0efore6 0ut it o03ious$y meant F%assedFDand not mere$y
F%assedF 0ut6 #ith that e$o=uent $itt$e +refi8 ver, F%assed outF: That's this Ho0 finished6
and no# for the ne8t $ot: The 0$ue cha$< came into motion #hen there #as nothin% 0ut a
hea+ of na<ed cor+ses inside: But #hat cries6 #hat curses6 #hat +rayers +erha+s6 had
0een uttered inside that %as cham0er on$y a fe# minutes 0eforeE (et the concrete #a$$s
#ere thic<6 and .err Auert had done a #onderfu$ Ho06 so +ro0a0$y no one cou$d hear
anythin% from outside: And e3en if they did6 the +eo+$e in the cam+ <ne# #hat it #as a$$
a0out:
?t #as here6 outside .ad und Desin"e*tion II, in the side,$ane $eadin% into the centra$
a3enue6 that the cor+ses #ere $oaded into $orries6 co3ered #ith tar+au$ins6 and carted to
the crematorium at the other end of the cam+6 a0out ha$f,a,mi$e a#ay: Bet#een the t#o
there #ere do>ens of 0arrac<s6 +ainted the same soft %reen: Some had notice,0oards
outside6 others had not: Thus6 there #as an E""e*ten Kammer and a Frauen-
.e*leidungs*ammer+ here the 3ictims' $u%%a%e and the #omen's c$othes #ere sorted out6
0efore they #ere sent to the centra$ u0$in #arehouse6 and then on to 1ermany:
At the other end of the cam+6 there #ere enormous mounds of #hite ashesL 0ut as you
$oo<ed c$oser6 you found that they #ere not +erfect ashes: for they had amon% them
masses of sma$$ human 0ones: co$$ar 0ones6 fin%er 0ones6 and 0its of s<u$$6 and e3en a
sma$$ femur6 #hich can on$y ha3e 0een that of a chi$d: And6 0eyond these mounds there
#as a s$o+in% +$ain6 on #hich there %re# acres and acres of ca00a%es: They #ere $ar%e
$u8uriant ca00a%es6 co3ered #ith a $ayer of #hite dust: As ? heard some0ody e8+$ainin%:
Fayer of manure6 then $ayer of ashes6 that's the #ay it #as done::: These ca00a%es are a$$
%ro#n on human ashes::: The SS,men used to cart most of the ashes to their mode$ farm6
some distance a#ay: A #e$$,run farmL the SS,men $i<ed to eat these o3er%ro#n ca00a%es6
and the +risoners ate these ca00a%es6 too6 a$thou%h they <ne# that they #ou$d a$most
certain$y 0e turned into ca00a%es themse$3es 0efore $on%:::F
;e8t #e came to the crematorium: ?t #as a %reat 0i% structure of si8 enormous furnaces
and a0o3e them rose a $ar%e factory chimney: The #ooden structure that used to co3er the
crematorium6 as #e$$ as the adHoinin% #ooden house6 #here H4ersturm4ann"Mhrer
Mussfe$d6 the FDirector of the 5rematoriumF used to $i3e6 had 0een 0urned do#n:
Mussfe$d had $i3ed there amon% the stench of 0urned and 0urnin% 0odies6 and too< a
+ersona$ interest in the +roceedin%s: But the furnaces stood there6 $ar%e6 enormous: There
#ere sti$$ +i$es of co<e on the one sideL on the other side #ere the furnace doors #here
the cor+ses #ent in::: The +$ace stan<6 not 3io$ent$y6 0ut it stan< of decom+osition: ?
$oo<ed do#n: My shoes #ere #hite #ith human dust6 and the concrete f$oor around the
o3ens #as stre#n #ith +arts of charred human s<e$etons: .ere #as a #ho$e chest #ith its
ri0s6 here a +iece of s<u$$6 here a $o#er Ha# #ith a mo$ar on either side6 and nothin% 0ut
soc<ets in 0et#een: 9here had the fa$se teeth %oneE To the side of the furnaces #as a
$ar%e hi%h concrete s$a06 sha+ed $i<e an o+eratin% ta0$e: .ere a s+ecia$istDa medica$ man
+erha+sEDe8amined e3ery cor+se 0efore it #ent into the o3en6 and e8tracted any %o$d
fi$$in%s6 #hich #ere then sent to Dr 9a$ter Fun< at the 2eichs0an<:::
Some0ody #as e8+$ainin% the detai$s of the #ho$e mechanismL the furnaces #ere made
of fi0re+roof 0ric<6 and the tem+erature had a$#ays to 0e maintained at 167""V
centi%radeL and there #as an en%ineer ca$$ed Te$$ener #ho #as an e8+ert in char%e of
maintainin% the ri%ht tem+erature: But the corroded condition of some of the doors
sho#ed that the tem+erature had 0een increased a0o3e norma$ to ma<e the cor+ses 0urn
more =uic<$y: The norma$ ca+acity of the #ho$e insta$$ation #as &6""" cor+ses a day6 0ut
sometimes there #ere more cor+ses than that to dea$ #ith6 and there #ere some s+ecia$
days6 $i<e the %reat Be#,e8termination day of ;o3em0er 36 19436 #hen &"6""" +eo+$eD
men6 #omen and chi$drenD#ere <i$$edL it #as im+ossi0$e to %as them a$$ that dayL so
most of them had 0een shot and 0uried in a #ood some distance a#ay: @n other
occasions many cor+ses #ere 0urned outside the crematorium on enormous funera$ +yres
soa<ed in +etro$L these +yres #ou$d smou$der for #ee<s and fi$$ the air #ith a stench:::
Standin% in front of the %reat crematorium6 #ith human remains scattered on the %round6
one 0e%an to $isten to a$$ these detai$s #ith a <ind of du$$ indifference: The Findustria$
re+ortF #as 0ecomin% unrea$ in its enormity:::
Besides the charred remains of Mussfe$d's house6 there $ay +i$es of $ar%e 0$ac< cans6 $i<e
enormous coc<tai$ sha<ers6 mar<ed FBuchen#a$dF: They #ere urns and had 0een 0rou%ht
from that other concentration cam+: !eo+$e from u0$in #ho had $ost a re$ati3e at
Maidane<6 some0ody said6 #ou$d +ay su0stantia$ sums to the SS,men for the 3ictim's
remains: ?t #as another $oathsome SS rac<et: ;eed$ess to say6 the ashes #ith #hich the
coc<tai$ sha<ers #ere fi$$ed #ere no0ody's ashes in +articu$ar:
Some distance a#ay from the crematorium6 a trench t#enty or thirty yards $on% had 0een
re,o+ened and6 $oo<in% do#n throu%h the fearfu$ stench6 ? cou$d see hundreds of na<ed
cor+ses6 many #ith 0u$$et,ho$es at the 0ac< of their s<u$$s: Most of them #ere men #ith
sha3ed headsL it #as said that these had 0een 2ussian #ar +risoners:
? had seen enou%h6 and hastened to Hoin 5o$one$ 1ros>6 #ho #as #aitin% 0eside the car
on the road: The stench #as sti$$ +ursuin% meL it no# seemed to +ermeate e3erythin%D
the dusty %rass 0eside the 0ar0ed #ire fence6 and the red +o++ies that #ere nai3e$y
%ro#in% in the midst of a$$ this:
1ros> and ? #aited there for the rest of the +arty to Hoin us: A !o$ish youn%ster #ith
tattered c$othes and a torn ca+6 and 0arefooted6 came u+ and ta$<ed to us: .e #as a0out
e$e3en6 0ut ta$<ed of the cam+ #ith a curious noncha$ance6 #ith that nil admirari that had
0ecome his out$oo< on fife after $i3in% for t#o or three years in the immediate +ro8imity
of the Death 5am+::: This 0oy had seen e3erythin%6 at the a%es of nine6 and ten and
e$e3en:
FA $ot of +eo+$e in u0$in6F he said6 F$ost some0ody here: ?n our 3i$$a%e +eo+$e #ere 3ery
#orried6 0ecause #e <ne# #hat #as %oin% on in the cam+6 and the 1ermans threatened
to destroy the 3i$$a%e and <i$$ e3ery0ody in case #e ta$<ed too much: Don't <no# #hy
they shou$d ha3e 0othered6F the 0oy said #ith a shru%6 Fe3ery0ody in u0$in <ne#
any#ay:F And he recounted a fe# thin%s he had seenL he had seen ten +risoners 0ein%
0eaten to deathL he had seen fi$es of +risoners carryin% stones6 and had seen those #ho
co$$a+sed 0ein% <i$$ed #ith +ic<a8es 0y the SS,men: .e had heard an o$d man screamin%
#hi$e he #as 0ein% che#ed u+ 0y +o$ice do%s::: And6 $oo<in% across the fie$ds of
ca00a%es %ro#in% on human ashes6 he said6 a$most #ith a touch of admiration:
FC3erythin% is %ro#in% #e$$ hereDca00a%es6 and turni+s and cau$if$o#ers::: ?t's a$$ $and
0e$on%in% to our 3i$$a%e6 and no# that the SS are %one6 #e'$$ %et the $and 0ac<:F
There #as much comin% and %oin% on the roadDhundreds of men and #omen #ere
%oin% into and out of the cam+L 2ussian so$diers #ere 0ein% ta<en in $ar%e +arties to 0e
sho#n the +its and the %as cham0ers and the crematoriaL and !o$ish so$diers of the 4th
Di3ision and ne# !o$ish recruits: ?t #as +o$icy to ma<e them see it a$$6 and to im+ress
u+on themDin case they #ere not yet sufficient$y im+ressedD#hat <ind of enemy they
#ere fi%htin%: A fe# days 0efore a cro#d of 1erman +risoners had 0een ta<en throu%h
the cam+: Around stood cro#ds of !o$ish #omen and chi$dren6 and they screamed at the
1ermans6 and there #as a ha$f,insane o$d Be# #ho 0e$$o#ed frantica$$y in a hus<y 3oice:
"KindermIrder, KindermIrder@" F 5hi$d,murderers:K and the 1ermans #ent throu%h the
cam+6 at first at an ordinary +ace6 and then faster and faster6 ti$$ they ran in a frantic
+anic<y stam+ede6 and they #ere %reen #ith terror6 and their hands shoo< and their teeth
chattered:::
? sha$$ descri0e on$y 0rief$y some of the other as+ects of that 3ast industria$ enter+rise
that the Murder 5am+ re+resented: There #ere those trenches in 4rem+ec<i Forest6 a fe#
mi$es a#ay6 #here they murdered 1"6""" Be#s on that 3rd of ;o3em0er: .ere s+eed #as
e3en more im+ortant than 0usiness: They shot them6 #ithout ta<in% off their c$othes6 e3en
#ithout ta<in% the #omen's hand0a%s and the chi$dren's toys a#ay: Amon%st the stin<in%
cor+ses6 ? sa# a sma$$ chi$d #ith a teddy,0ear::: But this #as unusua$L the %reat +rinci+$e
of the Murder 5am+ #as that nothin% shou$d 0e #asted: There #as6 for instance6 that
enormous 0arn,$i<e structure #hich had contained J-"6""" +airs of 0oots and shoesD
amon% them tiny 0a0y shoesL no#6 0y the end of Au%ust6 ha$f the shoes had %one:
hundreds of +eo+$e from u0$in had come and ta<en #ho$e 0a%fu$s of shoes:
F.o# dis%ustin%6F some0ody remar<ed:
5o$one$ 1ros> shru%%ed his shou$ders: F9hat do you e8+ectE After ha3in% had the
1ermans here for years6 +eo+$e sto++ed 0ein% s=ueamish: They had $i3ed for years
0uyin% and se$$in% and s+ecu$atin%L they are short of shoes6 so they say to themse$3es:
'These are +erfect$y %ood shoesL someone #i$$ %et them e3entua$$yL #hy not %ra0 them
#hi$e the %oin%'s %oodE'F
And thenD+erha+s the most horrifyin% thin% of a$$Dthere #as the enormous 0ui$din%
ca$$ed the F5ho+in a%erF6 the 5ho+in 9arehouse6 0ecause6 0y a curious irony6 it
ha++ened to 0e in a street ca$$ed after the com+oser: @utside6 there #as sti$$ a notice6 #ith
the s#asti<a on to+6 announcin% a 1erman +u0$ic meetin%:
Kundgebung.
"onnerstag, AB, +uli @CDD.
)eichsredner '.G. Geyer.
9m !ause der 3ationalsozialisten, ublin
IMeetin%6 Thursday6 Bu$y &"6 1944: S+ea<er from the 2eich6 !arty 5omrade 1eyer6 in the
.ouse of ;ationa$ Socia$ism6 u0$in:K
@ne #ondered #hat <ind of cheerfu$ ne#s the Partei-#enosse had to te$$ the Maidane<
murderers a cou+$e of days 0efore the 2ussians entered u0$in6 and #hi$e most of the
1ermans must ha3e 0een 0usy +ac<in% u+: ?t #as a$so the day of the 0om0 that had fai$ed
to <i$$ .it$er:::
The 5ho+in 9arehouse #as $i<e a 3ast6 fi3e,storey de+artment store6 +art of the
%randiose Maidane< Murder Factory: .ere the +ossessions of hundreds of thousands of
murdered +eo+$e #ere sorted and c$assified and +ac<ed for e8+ort to 1ermany: ?n one 0i%
room there #ere thousands of trun<s and suitcases6 some sti$$ #ith carefu$$y #ritten,out
$a0e$sL there #as a room mar<ed Herrenschuhe and another mar<ed Damenschuhe+ here
#ere thousands of +airs of shoes6 a$$ of much 0etter =ua$ity than those seen in the 0i%
dum+ near the cam+: Then there #as a $on% corridor #ith thousands of #omen's dresses6
and another #ith thousands of o3ercoats: Another room had $ar%e #ooden she$3es a$$
a$on% it6 throu%h the centre and a$on% the #a$$sL it #as $i<e 0ein% in a 9oo$#orth store:
here #ere +i$ed u+ hundreds of safety ra>ors6 and sha3in% 0rushes6 and thousands of +en,
<ni3es and +enci$s: ?n the ne8t room #ere +i$ed u+ chi$dren's toys: teddy,0ears6 and
ce$$u$oid do$$s and tin automo0i$es 0y the hundred6 and sim+$e Hi%sa# +u>>$es6 and an
American,made Mic<ey Mouse::: And so on6 and so on: ?n a Hun<,hea+ ? e3en found the
manuscri+t of a Aio$in Sonata6 @+: 1- 0y some0ody ca$$ed Crnst B: 9ei$ of !ra%ue: 9hat
hideous story #as 0ehind thisE
@n the %round f$oor there had 0een the Accounts De+artment: etters #ere stre#n a$$
o3er the +$aceL most$y $etters from 3arious SS and ;a>i or%anisations to the F5ho+in
a%er6 u0$inF6 as<in% to 0e sent this and that: Many of the $etters #ere orders from the
u0$in SS and !o$ice 5hief: on ;o3em0er 36 194& a carefu$$y,ty+ed $etter instructed the
5ho+in a%er to su++$y the .it$er (outh 5am+6 5om+any 9346 #ith a $on% $ist of artic$es
inc$udin% 0$an<ets6 ta0$e $inen6 croc<ery6 0ed,$inen6 to#e$s6 <itchen utensi$s6 etc: The
$etter s+ecified that a$$ this #as #anted for 46""" chi$dren e3acuated from the 2eich:
There #as another $ist of artic$es for &6""" 1erman chi$dren #ho re=uired Fs+orts shirts6
trainin% suits6 coats6 a+rons6 %ym shoes6 s<iin% 0oots6 +$us,fours6 #arm under#ear6 #arm
%$o3es6 #oo$$en scar3esF: The de+artment store #as eu+hemistica$$y ca$$ed
FA$tsachen3er#ertun%sste$$e6 u0$inF (u0$in Dis+osa$ 5entre for Second,hand 1oods):
There #as a$so a $etter from a 1erman #oman $i3in% in u0$in as<in% for a +ram and a
com+$ete $ayette for her ne#0orn chi$d: Another document sho#ed that in the first fe#
months of 1944 a$one ei%hteen rai$#ay #a%ons of %oods from the u0$in #arehouse had
0een sent to 1ermany:
The Hoint 2usso,!o$ish Tri0una$ in3esti%atin% the Maidane< crimes sat in the 0ui$din% of
the 5ourt of A++ea$ at u0$in: ?t inc$uded many $eadin% !o$ish +ersona$itiesDthe
!resident of the District 5ourt6 5>e+ans<iL !rofessor Bie$<o#s<i (#hom ? had a$ready
met)L a round stout +re$ate6 Father 4rus>ins<i6 Dr Cmi$ Sommerstein6 the $eadin% Be#ish
mem0er of the u0$in 5ommittee6 and a former SeHm de+uty6 and Mr 9itos6 the
5ommissioner for A%ricu$ture: That these +eo+$e #ere not 2ussian stoo%es cou$d 0e seen
from the ea%erness #ith #hich one of the mem0ers insisted on te$$in% the forei%n +ress
that the 2ussians had arrested &6""" A4 men in the u0$in District: ?n an introductory
s+eech6 the !o$ish +resident of the tri0una$ %a3e the history of Maidane< cam+6 a $urid
cata$o%ue of a$$ the 3arious #ays in #hich +eo+$e #ere tortured and <i$$ed: There #ere
SS,men #ho s+ecia$ised in the Fstomach,<ic<F or the Ftestic$e,<ic<F as a form of murderL
other +risoners #ere dro#ned in +oo$s6 or tied to +osts and a$$o#ed to die of e8haustionL
there had 0een ei%hteen cases of canni0a$ism in the cam+ e3en 0efore it had officia$$y
0ecome6 on ;o3em0er 36 19436 an e8termination cam+: .e s+o<e of the chief of
Maidane<: H4ersturm4ann"Mhrer 9eiss6 and his assistant6 a notorious sadist6 Anton
Thumann6 and Mussfe$d6 the chief of the crematorium6 and many others:
.imm$er himse$f had t#ice 3isited Maidane< and had 0een +$eased #ith it: ?t #as
estimated that 16-""6""" +eo+$e had 0een +ut to death here: The 0i% fry had6 of course6
f$ed6 0ut si8 of the sma$$ fryDt#o !o$es and four 1ermansDhad 0een cau%ht6 and6 after a
tria$6 they #ere a$$ han%ed a fe# #ee<s $ater:
The four 1ermansDthree of them SS,menD#ere +rofessiona$ <i$$ersL 0ut it seemed a
$itt$e hard on the t#o youn% !o$es6 0oth of #hom had ori%ina$$y 0een arrested 0y the
1ermans and had then Fso$d themse$3esF to them6 in the ho+e of sur3i3in%:
IThe interro%ation of these men is descri0ed in my artic$e6 FFirst 5ontact #ith !o$andF6
+u0$ished in the Bussian Bevie:, 3o5 <5 (!en%uin Boo<s: 194-):K
The +ress and radio in the 9est #ere sti$$ sce+tica$: Ty+ica$ #as the BB5's refusa$ to use
my story6 as #as a$so this comment of the 3e: 'or* Herald Tri4une at the time:
M)*8( 2( -'#1/5 2),& 0#+ 01+&'(+ 3#++#8#+)&,#$ #0 &'( '#++#+ -&#+* &')& 3#"(-
0+#" L18/,$. E6($ #$ &#. #0 )// 2( ')6( 8(($ &)1%'& #0 &'( ")$,)3)/ N)C,
+1&'/(--$(--, &',- (B)"./( -#1$5- ,$3#$3(,6)8/(...
T'( .,3&1+( .+(-($&(5 8* A"(+,3)$ 3#++(-.#$5($&- +(91,+(- $# 3#""($& (B3(.&
&')&, ,0 )1&'($&,3 &sic( &'( +S%,"( 3).)8/( #0 -13' 3+,"(- 5(-(+6(- )$$,',/)&,#$.
? sa# a %reat dea$ durin% those days of the mem0ers of the Fu0$in 5ommitteeFD
@0sT0<a,Mora#s<i6 its chairman6 1enera$ 2o$a,Oymiers<i6 and se3era$ others: The ;e#
!o$and #as sti$$ in its infancy6 and $ess than one,=uarter of !o$and's territory had yet 0een
$i0erated: ;o industria$ centres6 e8ce+t Bia$ysto<6 most$y in ruins6 had yet 0een
reca+tured6 and it #as sti$$ too ear$y to do any $ar%e,sca$e +$annin%: For the +resent6 the
5ommittee #as o0sessed #ith some immediate +ro0$ems6 such as rationin% in the to#ns6
the creation of re%u$ar %o3ernment Ho0s in !o$and6 so as to %et +eo+$e a#ay from the
hand,to,mouth e8istence they had $ed under the 1ermans6 and the mo0i$isation of
conscri+ts into the !o$ish Army6 des+ite the resistance comin% from the A4 men:
@sT0<a,Mora#s<i had seen Mi<o$aHc>y< in Mosco# ear$ier in the month6 and #hat
seemed to #orry him most at the time #as the su++ort the ondon !o$ish %o3ernment
#as sti$$ %ettin% from Britain and the *SA:
There cou$d 0e no =uestion of an ama$%amation 0et#een the ondon 1o3ernment and the
u0$in 5ommittee: F9e are #i$$in% to acce+t Mi<o$aHc>y<6 and 1ra0s<i6 and !o+ie$ and
one more6 and that is all" @sT0<a,Mora#s<i said: .e added that the u0$in 5ommittee
cou$d acce+t on$y the 19&1 constitution6 0ut ondon stuc< to the FfascistF constitution of
193-: *n$i<e the Americans6 5$ar< 4err6 the British Am0assador in Mosco#6 had to$d
him that he fu$$y a++ro3ed of the 19&1 constitutionD0ut it #as Hust a 0it a#<#ard #hat
to do #ith !resident 2ac><ie#ic>:
F? #as %oin% to te$$ him #here he cou$d +ut him6F @sT0<a,Mora#s<i said6 and sudden$y
%rinned $i<e a schoo$0oy: FAny#ay6F he conc$uded6 Fthe sooner #e resume con3ersations
#ith Mi<o$aHc>y<6 the 0etter for himL for time is #or<in% for us: 9e are an8ious to come
to a sett$ement6 and that's #hy #e offered him the +remiershi+: But he had 0etter acce+t
soon6 or the offer may not 0e re+eated:F (9hich is +recise$y #hat ha++ened:)
C').&(+ X RUMANIA, INLAND AND BUL!ARIA PACK UP
A+art from !o$and6 the 2ed Army had a $ot of other fish to fry: ?n that summer and
autumn of 1944 .it$er's sate$$ites #ere co$$a+sin% one after the other6 and it #as
im+ortant to s+eed u+ the +rocess: Be$o# the surface6 there #as ri3a$ry 0et#een the
So3iet *nion and the British and Americans in the Ba$<ans6 and Mosco# thou%ht it
essentia$ to occu+y 2umania6 Bu$%aria and .un%ary as =uic<$y as +ossi0$e:
I Some (+erha+s o3er,sus+icious) 2ussians attri0uted 5hurchi$$'s #ish to %et the 2ed
Army to ca+ture 9arsa# at any +rice to a desire to s$o# do#n its +ro%ress in south,east
Curo+e:K
C3ents in 2umania fo$$o#ed u+on one another #ith fantastic s+eed durin% that month of
Au%ust 1944: Since the $ate s+rin% the 2ussians had he$d a $ine runnin% (#est to east)
from the 5ar+athian foothi$$s across Mo$da3ia and Bessara0ia Hust north of Bassy and
4ishene36 and then a$on% the Dniester to the B$ac< Sea some thirty mi$es south of
@dessa: The Mo$da3ian sector #as he$d 0y the troo+s of the &nd *<rainian Front under
Ma$ino3s<y6 the Bessara0ian sector 0y those of the 3rd *<rainian Front under To$0u<hin6
#hich a$so he$d an im+ortant 0rid%ehead on the ri%ht 0an< of the Dniester Hust south of
Tiras+o$: Facin% them6 east to #est6 #ere the 2umanian 4th Army6 the 1erman Jth Army6
the 1erman )th Army and the 2umanian 3rd Army6 the #ho$e6 under the command of
1enera$ Friessner6 formin% Army 1rou+ %Md-&*raine consistin% of some fifty di3isions6
ha$f of them 2umanian:
@n Au%ust &" 0oth the *<rainian fronts struc< out #ith forces estimated 0y the 1ermans
at Fninety infantry di3isions and forty,one tan< and three ca3a$ry formationsF:
I !hi$i++i and .eim6 o+: cit:6 +: &-9:K
As the same #riters say:
T'( )6)/)$3'( ')5 $#2 8(($ -(& ,$ "#&,#$ )$5 $#&',$% 3#1/5 -&#. ,& #$ ,&- 2)* &#
&'( R1")$,)$ ,$&(+,#+. I& 2)- )// &'( ()-,(+ 0#+ &'( ($("* -,$3( ')/0 &'( 5,6,-,#$- #0
A+"* !+#1. S6d75kraine 2(+( R1")$,)$, )$5 &'( R1--,)$- 5(/,8(+)&(/* -&+13;
&'(,+ 0,+-& 8/#2- )& &'(". B1& ,& 2)- $#& &,// A1%1-& MM &')& &'( 01// (B&($& #0 &'(
3)&)-&+#.'( 3#1/5 8( "()-1+(5... W,&' ,&- -,B&(($ 5,6,-,#$- &'( !(+")$ 6&' A+"*
2)- &+)..(5 ,$ &'( K,-',$(6 )+() )$5 &'( R1")$,)$ @+5 A+"* )/#$% &'( B/)3; S()
3#)-&. I$ &'( %($(+)/ 3#$01-,#$ $# #$( 5,5 )$*&',$% &# 8/#2 1. &'( 8+,5%(- )3+#-- &'(
P+1&' )$5 &'( D)$18( )$5, 0#+ &'( R1--,)$- &'( +#)5 2)- $#2 3/()+ &# B13')+(-&
)$5 &'( D#8+15:).
This rou%h$y corres+onds to 2ussian accounts of the same o+eration #hich6 #ithin a fe#
days6 #as to <noc< 2umania strai%ht out of F.it$er's #arF: As 1enera$ Ta$ens<y to$d me
in 194-:
FThe 1ermans ho$din% the $ine north of Bassy #ere #orried6 for this #as our road to the
2umanian oi$ and to the Ba$<ans: They concentrated here +ractica$$y a$$ that #as $eft of
the 2umanian Army6 #hich no# formed +art of the 1erman Army 1rou+ %Md-&*raine5
The 1ermans had stron%$y fortified their $ines thou%h6 in fact6 they #ere +retty sure that
the 5entra$ Front #as en%a%in% a$$ our attention6 and that there #as $itt$e to fear for the
+resent:
I This is corro0orated 0y 1erman e3idence sho#in% that6 in Bu$y6 a num0er of stron%
1erman formations #ere mo3ed from 2umania to other +arts of the front: See !hi$i++i
and .eim6 o+: cit:6 +: &)":K
FSo our attac< of Au%ust &" came $i<e a 0o$t from the 0$ue::: By Au%ust &3 fifteen
1erman di3isions #ere tra++ed: *n$i<e the 2umanians6 #ho either offered no resistance
or e3en (in a num0er of cases) turned a%ainst their 'a$$ies'6 the 1ermans resisted fierce$y at
firstL some )"6""" #ere <i$$ed6 0ut6 in the end6 #e 0a%%ed 1")6""" +risoners6 amon% them
t#o cor+s commanders6 t#e$3e di3isiona$ commanders and thirteen other %enera$s: T#o
cor+s commanders and fi3e di3isiona$ commanders #ere found dead: 9e a$so ca+tured
or destroyed 33J +$anes6 J3" tan<s and mo0i$e %uns6 -6-"" %uns and 336""" truc<s::: ?t
#as a c$assica$$y,done Ho0:F
;ear$y the #ho$e of the 1erman )th Army #as destroyedL 0ut most of the 1erman Jth
Army hasti$y retreated #est to the 5ar+athians:
Bassy had 0een ca+tured on the &&nd and 4ishene3 on the &4thL durin% the fo$$o#in%
#ee< the 2ussians o3erran the #ho$e of eastern 2umania6 and on the 3"th Ma$ino3s<y's
troo+s trium+hant$y entered Bucharest and the oi$ ca+ita$ of !$oesti: itt$e more than a
#ee< $ater To$0u<hin #as o3errunnin% Bu$%aria:
Meantime the +o$itica$ unrest that had 0een %ro#in% in 2umania for months +ast came to
a head: Antonescu6 #hose $ast ho+e rested in the 1erman and 2umanian forces ho$din%
the Bassy,Dniester ine6 had had an inconc$usi3e $ast meetin% #ith .it$er on Au%ust -6
and a$thou%h he ur%ed .it$er to send se3era$ +an>er formations to 2umania6 the FRhrer
sti$$ did not thin< the situation in 2umania des+erate6 and sti$$ ima%ined that Antonescu
had the 2umanian Army 0ehind him: The tota$ $ac< of enthusiasm for fi%htin% the
2ussians sho#n on Au%ust &" 0y the 2umanian troo+s came as a shoc< to .it$er6 and this
#as to 0e fo$$o#ed 0y an e3en %reater shoc< three days $ater #hen 4in% Michae$
a++ointed 1enera$ Sanatescu head of the 1o3ernment and had 0oth ?on Antonescu and
Michae$ Antonescu interned at the !a$ace:
@n Au%ust &-6 the So3iet Forei%n @ffice +u0$ished a statement reca$$in% its ear$ier
statement of A+ri$ & that the So3iet *nion did not intend to chan%e Fthe socia$ order in
2umaniaF and sayin% that the 2umanian Army cou$d <ee+ its arms if it #ere ready to
fi%ht the 1ermans and .un%arians: The 2umanian troo+s must he$+ to $i=uidate the
1ermansL this #as the on$y #ay in #hich mi$itary o+erations in 2umania cou$d ra+id$y
end and the essentia$ conditions 0e created for an armistice 0et#een 2umania and the
A$$ies:
T#o days $ater it +u0$ished another ;ote sayin% that the Armistice terms #hich had 0een
reHected 0y Antonescu6 had no# 0een acce+ted 0y 4in% Michae$ and 1enera$ Sanatescu:
?t further said that Bucharest #as no# 0ein% firm$y defended 0y the Sanatescu
1o3ernment a%ainst the 1ermans6 and that the 1erman Mi$itary Mission6 #ith 1enera$
.ansen at its head6 had 0een interned: The 4in%'s Dec$aration announcin% a chan%e of
%o3ernment and a chan%e of +o$icy had caused %reat reHoicin% in Bucharest: The
1ermans6 ho#e3er6 #ere #rea<in% 3en%eance on the city 0y 0om0in% and she$$in% it: ?n
the 5ar+athians and in Transy$3ania 2umanian troo+s #ere no# <no#n to 0e fi%htin% the
1ermans: ?n Transy$3ania the 1ermans #ere +$annin% to set u+ a +u++et %o3ernment
under .orea Sima:
The ;ote then said that Mr S: Aino%rado36 the So3iet Am0assador in An<ara Iater for
many years Am0assador in !arisK6 had 0een informed 0y the 2umanian Minister there
that the ne# 2umanian 5oa$ition 1o3ernment #as com+osed of the four +rinci+a$ +arties
$ed 0y Maniu6 Bratianu6 !etrescu and !atrasceanu6 the $ast,named a 5ommunist:
The 2umanian communication to Aino%rado3 a$so said that the %o3ernment #as #i$$in%
to acce+t the armistice terms6 #hich +ro3ided6 amon% other thin%s6 for a com+$ete 0reach
#ith 1ermany6 for the 2umanian army no# fi%htin% a%ainst 1ermany6 for the restoration
of the So3iet,2umanian 0order of 194"6 and for com+ensation to the So3iet *nion: The
So3iet 1o3ernment6 on its side6 su0scri0ed to the cance$$ation of .it$er's FAienna A#ardF
handin% o3er to .un%ary a $ar%e +art of Transy$3ania:
For a #ee< after the chan%e of %o3ernment in 2umania6 the 2umanian troo+s he$d
Bucharest as 0est they cou$d6 thou%h it does not seem that there #ere any $ar%e 1erman
forces around after the Bassy,4ishene3 de0ac$e: But there #as much nuisance she$$in%
and nuisance 0om0in% of the 2umanian ca+ita$6 and the +eo+$e feared a 1erman counter,
offensi3e and an attem+t to reca+ture Bucharest: ?t #as therefore #ith some re$ief that
most of Bucharest #e$comed the 2ed Army on Au%ust 3": The So3iet +ress re+orted that
the 2ed Army aroused fee$in%s of F#onder and sur+riseF in Bucharest: the 2umanians
#ere ama>ed at the =uantity of hea3y 2ussian e=ui+ment and cou$d hard$y 0e$ie3e at first
that most of it #as So3iet,made: FThe courtesy is o3er#he$min%6F one So3iet re+orter
#rote: F;o sooner does one of our comrades +roduce a ci%arette than do>ens of hands
ho$din% 0urnin% $i%hters are stretched out to $i%ht it for himF: The communists #ere
dis+$ayin% +osters e3ery#here #e$comin% "-aresalul %talin, genialul comandat al
armatei rosii"5 FAnd e3ery0ody is do#n on AntonescuF6 the So3iet +ress a$so re+orted:
The Dictator #as sti$$ $oc<ed u+ in the 2oya$ !a$ace:
?n a$$ these So3iet re+orts there #as a note of condescension6 sometimes a note of
contem+t for a$$ this Fhearty crin%in%FL they made a distinction6 ho#e3er6 0et#een the
Fsincere Hoy of the ordinary 2umanian +eo+$eF and the ha$f,hearted re$ief fe$t 0y the
F0our%eois $oafersF in #hom Bucharest a0ounded (and #ho #ou$d no dou0t ha3e
+referred to see American and British troo+s):
For the first time the 2ussian troo+s #ere seein% a Frea$F 9estern ca+ita$6 #ith sho+s6
theatres6 cafNs and a$$ the +ara+herna$ia of the 0our%eois #ay of $ife: This in itse$f6 as #e
sha$$ see6 #as %oin% to raise somethin% of a +sycho$o%ica$ and a$most ideo$o%ica$
+ro0$em inside 2ussia:
At that sta%e the So3iet 1o3ernment raised no o0Hections to the com+osition of the ne#
2umanian 1o3ernment and #as in a hurry to conc$ude an armistice #ith 2umaniaL
ho#e3er6 0efore $on%6 it 0e%an to 0rin% stron% +ressure to 0ear on the Fdou0$e,crossin%
e$ementsF in the 2umanian Fdemocratic 0$ocF: *nder 2ussian +ressure Sanatescu #as
$ater re+$aced 0y 1enera$ 2adescu and6 fina$$y6 0y the much more +$ia0$e !etru 1ro>a:
The 3ery cordia$ 2ussian attitude to the youn% 4in%6 #ho at first #as %i3en a hi%h So3iet
decoration6 a$so chan%ed 0efore 3ery $on%6 and $ater the terri0$e Mr Ayshins<y #as sent
do#n to Bucharest to 0u$$y the $ife out of him:
But that came $ater: Car$y in Se+tem0er the 2umanian Armistice De$e%ation arri3ed in
Mosco#: ?t #as recei3ed in sty$eDa$most $i<e re+resentati3es of a ne# A$$ied !o#erD
and $i3ed in $u8ury at the 1o3ernment 1uest .ouse in @stro3s<y ane:
A$thou%h the de$e%ation #as headed 0y !rince Stir0ea #ho6 ear$ier in the year6 had
esta0$ished contact #ith the British in 5airo6 most of the ta$<in% #as done 0y the
communist $eader6 the ne# Minister of Bustice6 Mr !atrasceanu6 a man of dri3e and
a0i$ity and %reat +ersona$ charm:
I.e #as $ater to 0e shot as a FTitoiteF:K
9ith him #as his +retty youn% #ife: Mme !atrasceanu #as a +roduct of French cu$ture in
2umaniaL e$e%ant6 +etite6 3i3acious6 she e3o<ed 3isions of the rue de $a !ai8: She #ou$d
come to tea and coc<tai$ +arties %i3en 0y British and American corres+ondents and #ou$d
0rin% a #hiff of 1uer$ain into the din%y rooms of the .ote$ Metro+o$e: 9ith a +$ayfu$
%rimace she #ou$d chatter a0out the Ffri%htfu$F #ee< in Bucharest 0efore the 2ussians
came6 and #hen the 1ermans #ere dro++in% 0om0s on the city all the time: She said that
4in% Michae$ #as un trNs 8oli gar9on and most inte$$i%entL and she re$ated ho# difficu$t
$ife had 0een for her under the Fascist rN%ime: F@f course6 e3en our 2umanian Fascists
aren't =uite $i<e the 1ermansL my hus0and #as in a concentration cam+6 0ut ? can't rea$$y
say he #as i$$,treatedL ? cou$d 3isit him and ta<e him food +arce$s:F
At his +ress conferences6 Mr !atrasceanu %ra+hica$$y descri0ed the coup d0Atat of Au%ust
&36 and the #ay in #hich Antonescu #as tra++ed 0y Four 4in%FL he a$so stressed the
heroic deeds of the 2umanian troo+s durin% the days #hen Bucharest #as 0ein% 0om0ed
and she$$ed 0y the 1ermans6 and conc$uded that the 2umanians #ere a +eace,$o3in% and
democratica$$y,minded +eo+$e #ho at heart had a$#ays hated the 1ermans:
@f the difficu$ties that #ere $i<e$y to arise inside the ne# coa$ition he said nothin%: ?n the
0ac<%round6 at one of his +ress conferences6 sat a Mr !o++6 the Minister of A%ricu$ture6
0ut he had $itt$e to say a0out $and reform6 and +referred to $et !atrasceanu do the ta$<in%:
I!ri3ate$y6 Mr !o++ remar<ed to me that the 1ermans #ou$d ha3e found it difficu$t to
dra% the 2umanians into the #ar a%ainst 2ussia6 if the 2ussians hadn't rec<$ess$y %ra00ed
Bessara0ia and Bu<o3ina from them in 194":K
That month Armistice De$e%ations #ere sim+$y =ueuein% u+ in Mosco#: ;o sooner had
the 2umanians %one than the Finns #ere ready to 0e recei3ed: The 2umanian Armistice
#as si%ned on the 1&th6 and the Finnish on the 19thL and then came the Bu$%arians:
?n Bune6 after their ca+ture of Aii+uri (Ai0or%)6 the 2ussians had sto++ed at the 194"
Finnish frontier6 and did not %o 0eyond it: They #ere %i3in% the Finns time to ref$ect: But
the Finns refused to 0e rushed:
?t #as not ti$$ the 0e%innin% of the 2ussian in3asion of Cstonia6 that they 0ecame
thorou%h$y a$armed: For #hat if the 2ussians #ere to $and troo+s from Cstonia in the
most 3ita$ +arts of Fin$and6 Hust across the 1u$f of Fin$andE ?n the first #ee< of Au%ust
!resident 2yti6 the +erson most res+onsi0$e for the recent $ast,ditch a%reement #ith
1ermanyDan a%reement under #hich the Finns #ou$d not conduct se+arate +eace
ne%otiations #ithout 1ermany's a++ro3a$D 3ery sudden$y resi%ned6 and the Finnish
!ar$iament6 i%norin% the usua$ +rocedure in these matters6 +assed a $a# handin% o3er the
!resident's +o#ers to Fie$d,Marsha$ Mannerheim: 4eite$6 #ho rushed to .e$sin<i on
Au%ust 176 #as informed 0y Mannerheim that the 2yti,2i00entro+ a%reement #as FoffF:
@n Au%ust &- the Finnish Minister in Stoc<ho$m handed a ;ote to the So3iet
Am0assador6 Mme 4o$$ontai6 as<in% that an Armistice De$e%ation 0e recei3ed in
Mosco#: The So3iet 1o3ernment a%reed6 +ro3ided Fin$and +u0$ic$y announced its
0reach #ith 1ermany and demanded that a$$ 1erman troo+s 0e #ithdra#n from Fin$and
0y Se+tem0er 1-: ?f the 1ermans refused6 the Finns #ou$d disarm them and hand them
o3er to the A$$ies as #ar +risoners: The So3iet ;ote added that it #as sent in a%reement
#ith Britain6 and #ith no o0Hections from the *nited States:
Des+ite some hed%in% 0y the Finns on the =uestion of Fdisarmin%F the 1ermans6 a cease,
fire #as a%reed to6 to ta<e +$ace on Se+tem0er 4 a$on% the Finnish frontier of 194":
The Finnish Armistice De$e%ation6 headed 0y 4: Cnc<e$6 arri3ed in Mosco# on
Se+tem0er 14 and the Armistice #as si%ned on the 19th: The chief So3iet ne%otiator #as
Ohdano36 #ho soon after#ards 0ecame head of the A$$ied 5ontro$ 5ommission in
.e$sin<i: The 3"" mi$$ion do$$ars,#orth of re+arations in <indDthe hardest of the
armistice termsD#ere s+read out o3er si8 years:6 $ater to 0e e8tended to ei%ht yearsL the
194" frontier #as restoredL the 2ussians renounced their c$aim on .an%T 0ut6 instead6
$eased the territory of !or<<a$a *dd6 on$y a fe# mi$es from .e$sin<i6 as a mi$itary 0ase
IThe 2ussians renounced this some years after the #arK6 and the !etsamo area6 #ith its
nic<e$ mines and its out$et to the Arctic6 F3o$untari$yF surrendered to Fin$and in 19&"6
#as no# returned to the So3iet *nion: The $oss of 4are$ia and !etsamo im+$ied the
re+atriation to Fin$and of some 4""6""" +eo+$e #ho did not #ant to stay under So3iet ra$e
and the $oss of su0stantia$ tim0er and hydroe$ectric resources: The a%reement not to
occu+y Fin$and #ith 2ussian troo+s #as a %esture of %ood#i$$ to the Finns themse$3es
and a %esture of reassurance to the Scandina3ian countries %enera$$y:
9hen Ohdano36 #ho had stood at the head of the defence of enin%rad6 #ent to .e$sin<i6
he conferred +o$ite$y for t#o hours #ith Ffascist BeastF Mannerheim6 the o0Hect of so
many 3icious 2ussian cartoonsL and in @cto0er Sta$in sent a friend$y messa%e to the
Finnish,So3iet Friendshi+ Society in .e$sin<i6 #hose +resident #as none other than that
conser3ati3e 0ut u$tra,rea$ist ne# !remier6 !aasi<i3i himse$f:
?n the end6 the Finns did not do much to FdisarmF the 1ermans6 and there does not a++ear
to ha3e 0een any actua$ fi%htin% 0et#een Finns and 1ermans: 9hat in fact ha++ened #as
that the 1ermans #ithdre# from most of northern Fin$and of their o#n free #i$$6 after
0urnin% do#n a$$ the to#ns and 3i$$a%es (to 0e $ater re0ui$t #ith *;22A he$+): 9hat
fi%htin% there #as #as done 0y 2ussian troo+s under Marsha$ Merets<o3 #ho 0ro<e
throu%h the stron% 1erman $ines #est of Murmans<6 and then ca+tured !etsamo and
4ir<enes IThe 1erman air 0ase #hose main +ur+ose had 0een to smash the
con3oys from Cn%$and to Murmans< and Archan%e$K6 the $atter inside ;or#ay:
C3erythin% in northern ;or#ay #as 0urned do#n 0y the 1ermans #ho then #ithdre# 0y
sea: The rest of ;or#ay remained under their occu+ation ti$$ May 194-: But the fact that
e3en a sma$$ +art of ;or#ay #as $i0erated 0y the 2ed Army continued to 0e of some
sentimenta$ 3a$ue in So3iet,;or#e%ian re$ations for some years after the #ar:
The story of Bu$%aria can 0e to$d 3ery 0rief$y: A$thou%h Britain and the *nited States
#ere at #ar #ith Bu$%aria6 the So3iet *nion #as not6 and there #as a Bu$%arian Minister
in Mosco# (or 4ui0yshe3) throu%hout the #ar: The 1ermans had used Bu$%aria as a
source of ra# materia$s and as a mi$itary and na3a$ 0ase6 0ut the 2ussians6 ma<in%
a$$o#ances for the #ides+read +ro,2ussian sentiment in Bu$%aria and the #ea<ness of its
%o3ernment6 had sho#n considera0$e to$erance to that country for a $on% time6 e3en
des+ite serious +ro3ocationsDfor instance #hen the 1ermans free$y used Bu$%arian +orts
durin% their e3acuation of the 5rimea: But 0y Au%ust 19446 the situation had chan%ed:
9hen the 2ed Army o3erran 2umania6 se3era$ armed 1erman shi+s esca+ed from there
to Bu$%arian +orts6 and #ere not interned: These +orts #ere a$so a$$e%ed to har0our
1erman su0marines:
@n Au%ust &)6 Dra%ano36 the Bu$%arian Forei%n Minister6 made a Fneutra$ityF dec$aration
and +romised that any 1erman so$diers in Bu$%aria #ou$d 0e disarmed if they refused to
#ithdra# from the country:
The 2ussians did not thin< this %ood enou%h and dec$ared #ar on Bu$%aria on Se+tem0er
-: Three days $ater To$0u<hin's troo+s in3aded Bu$%aria: They met #ith no resistance6
and #ere recei3ed #ith enthusiasm: @n the fo$$o#in% day as a resu$t of an anti,1erman
insurrection in Sofia6 4imon 1eor%ie3's FFather$and FrontF 1o3ernment #as formed and
dec$ared #ar on 1ermany: The 0$ood$ess T#o Days' 9ar #as o3er: Messa%es of
0rother$y affection #ere sent 0y the Bu$%arian 1o3ernment to Tito6 and a Bu$%arian
Army #as %ettin% ready to fi%ht the 1ermans: The Fre3o$utionary enthusiasmF in
Bu$%aria #as much dee+er and more %enera$ than in 2umania:
Before many #ee<s had +assed6 the 2ussian +ress noted #ith satisfaction that a$$ o3er
Bu$%aria !eo+$e's 5ourts had 0een set u+ to try #ar crimina$s6 and that the Bu$%arian
Army #as 0ein% +ur%ed of a$$ its FFascist e$ementsF:
The Armistice 0et#een the A$$ies and Bu$%aria #as si%ned in Mosco# on @cto0er &J:
I@ne of the Bu$%arian si%natories #as ;: !et<o36 the A%rarian $eader6 #ho #as to 0e tried
and shot soon after the #ar as a 9estern Fa%entF:K
Bu$%aria6 $i<e 2umania6 had entered the So3iet Fs+here of inf$uenceF:
The $in<,u+ 0et#een the 2ed Army and Tito's (u%os$a3s too< +$ace at the end of
Se+tem0er: @n the &9th a TASS communi=uN announced that6 in order to 0e a0$e to
attac< the 1ermans and .un%arians in .un%ary from the south6 the 2ussians had as<ed
+ermission from the (u%os$a3 5ommittee of ;ationa$ i0eration to enter (u%os$a3
territory: @n @cto0er 4 it #as announced that the 2ussian and (u%os$a3 armies had
Hoined forces in an uns+ecified to#n in the Danu0e 3a$$ey:
@n @cto0er &"6 To$0u<hin's troo+s and Tito's (u%os$a3s entered Be$%rade to%ether
amidst %reat +o+u$ar reHoicin%:
@n the same day Ma$ino3s<y's troo+s too< De0recen in eastern .un%ary6 0ut the 2ussian
ad3ance in .un%ary6 thou%h ra+id at first6 #as then s$o#ed do#n 0y 3eiry stiff 1erman
and .un%arian resistance6 es+ecia$$y as the 2ussians a++roached Buda+est in ;o3em0er:
The 1ermans had6 0y then6 foi$ed .orthy's attem+t to Fdo a 4in% Michae$ on themF6 and
.it$er and Sa$asi6 the .un%arian Fascist $eader6 decided at their meetin% ear$y in
Decem0er6 to ho$d Buda+est Fat any +riceF: A$thou%h6 officia$$y6 the 1ermans e8+ressed
their confidence in 0ein% a0$e to ho$d Buda+est6 it #as <no#n that many of its industries
#ere no# 0ein% e3acuated to Austria:
?t too< some time to set u+ at $east the nuc$eus of a Fdemocratic rN%imeF in 2ussian,
occu+ied .un%ary: ?t #as not ti$$ Decem0er &" that it #as announced that a .un%arian
!ro3isiona$ ;ationa$ Assem0$y had 0een formed at De0recen6 Fthe citade$ of .un%arian
FreedomDthat De0recen #here 4ossuth raised the f$a% of inde+endence in 1J49F:
@n the fo$$o#in% day the So3iet +ress announced:
A& &'( 8(%,$$,$% #0 D(3("8(+, 1$5(+ &'( 3'),+")$-',. #0 D+ A)-)+*, &'( ")*#+ #0
D(8+(3($, ) %+#1. 2)- 0#+"(5 #0 +(.+(-($&)&,6(- #0 &'( 5,00(+($& H1$%)+,)$ .)+&,(-.
I$ &'( /,8(+)&(5 &(++,&#+* &'( (/(3&,#$ #0 5(/(%)&(- &# &'( P+#6,-,#$)/ N)&,#$)/
A--("8/* &##; ./)3( 8(&2(($ D(3("8(+ 1@ )$5 ML. M@L 5(/(%)&(- 2(+( (/(3&(5,
+(.+(-($&,$% &'( 5("#3+)&,3 .)+&,(-, &'( &#2$ )$5 6,//)%( 3#1$3,/- )$5 &'( &+)5( )$5
.()-)$& 1$,#$-... T'( A--("8/* #.($(5 2,&' &'( ./)*,$% #0 &'( H1$%)+,)$ N)&,#$)/
A$&'(". T'( "((&,$% 2)- '(/5 ,$ &'( R(0#+")&,#$ C#//(%( 2'(+(, ,$ 1N49, K#--1&'
.+#3/),"(5 &'( ,$5(.($5($3( #0 H1$%)+*...
An Address to the .un%arian !eo+$e #as ado+ted #hich said:
I& ,- &,"( &# ");( .()3(. S)/)-, ,- )$ 1-1+.(+... W( 3)// 1.#$ &'( H1$%)+,)$ .(#./(
&# +)//* &# &'( 8)$$(+- #0 K#--1&' )$5 R);#-C, )$5 &# 0#//#2 ,$ &'( 0##&-&(.- #0 &'(
H#$2(5- =6#/1$&((+ ",/,&,)> #0 1N4N. W( 2)$& ) 5("#3+)&,3 H1$%)+*. W( %1)+)$&((
&'( ,$6,#/)8,/,&* #0 .+,6)&( .+#.(+&* )- &'( 8)-,- #0 #1+ -#3,)/ )$5 (3#$#",3 #+5(+.
W( 2)$& L)$5 R(0#+"... T1+$ *#1+ )+"- )%),$-& &'( !(+")$ #..+(--#+- )$5 '(/.
&'( R(5 A+"*... 0#+ &'( %##5 #0 ) +(( )$5 D("#3+)&,3 H1$%)+*H
T#o days $ater a !ro3isiona$ .un%arian 1o3ernment #as formedL no 5ommunist $eaders
#ere inc$uded in itDit #ou$d ha3e 0een +remature #hen a $ar%e +art of .un%ary6
inc$udin% Buda+est6 #as sti$$ in 1erman hands: The +remier #as 1enera$ Mi<$osL the
other ministers inc$uded a +easant $eader6 Ferenc Crdei6 Banos 1Tn%Ts6 5ount 1esa
Te$e<i6 and 1enera$ Banos Aeres6 the Minister of Defence6 a .orthy man6 #ho had 0een
.un%arian chief of staff since A+ri$ 19446 #as then arrested 0y the 1ermans6 0ut
mana%ed to esca+e:
This assortment of 0ac<,the,#inner .un%arian %ent$emen #ere not to stay $on% at the
head of affairs: F4ossuthF #as a con3enient sym0o$6 0ut did not mean much: ;or did
2a<os>y: ?t #as the other 2a<osi #ho #as #aitin% for the si%na$ to enter the sta%e:
?t #as a$so in the e3entfu$ autumn of 1944 that in Finde+endentF S$o3a<ia a %reat risin%
too< +$ace a%ainst the 1ermans 0y S$o3a< +artisans6 su++orted 0y 2ed Army units and 0y
+art of the S$o3a< Army: ?n the end6 the risin% #as crushed 0y stron% 1erman forces that
#ere rushed to S$o3a<ia6 thou%h some +artisans esca+ed to the mountains: A$thou%h6 at
the time6 there #as a 3irtua$ ne#s 0$ac<out a0out the #ho$e tra%ic 0usiness6 there #as
$ater to 0e much recrimination6 on the +art of the 2ussians6 0oth a%ainst the Fdu0iousF
and Fha$f,heartedF rZ$e +$ayed in the risin% 0y the S$o3a< Army and 0y the 5>echos$o3a<
1o3ernment in ondon #hich had not %i3en the insurrection sufficient encoura%ement:
I The S$o3a< 5ommunist !arty6 a$$e%ed$y ridd$ed #ith F0our%eois nationa$istsF6 #as a$so
to 0e 0$amed for its ha$f,heartedness and for its fai$ure to carry out the instructions of the
5entra$ 5ommittee of the 5>echos$o3a< 5:!: (?A@ASS6 3o$: ?A6 +: 31J):K
Both the S$o3a< ?nsur%ents and the So3iet troo+s6 fi%htin% in incredi0$y difficu$t
conditions in the 5ar+athians6 suffered 3ery hea3y casua$ties:
Si%nificant$y (and the ondon 1o3ernment #as $ar%e$y to 0e 0$amed for this) on$y a0out
a thousand men from Bohemia and Mora3ia came to Hoin in the S$o3a< risin%6 the a3era%e
unromantic 5>echs +referrin% not to stic< their nec<s out:
The facts a3ai$a0$e on the S$o3a< risin% are numerous6 0ut hi%h$y confusin%6 and the
2ussian +resentation of the rZ$e +$ayed 0y the non,communist e$ements in S$o3a<ia has
0een far from %enerous:
There #as a$so much recrimination in the o++osite direction6 and in S$o3a<ia6 to this day6
there continues to 0e some i$$,fee$in% a%ainst the 2ed Army amon%st many non,
communists6 #hose stories a0out ha3in% 0een F$et do#nF are not un$i<e those sti$$ current
amon%st +ro,9estern e$ements in !o$and:
C').&(+ XI CHURCHILL<S SECOND MOSCOW AISIT
?n @cto0er 1944 the 2ed Army #as o3errunnin% Cstonia and at3ia in the northL farther
south6 1enera$ 5hernia<ho3s<y's troo+s first set foot on 1erman soi$ at the eastern ti+ of
Cast !russiaL 0ut #hat interestedDand #orriedD5hurchi$$ a0o3e a$$ #ere first6 the !o$ish
!ro0$em and second6 the 2ussian +enetration of the Ba$<ans and 5entra$ Curo+eD0y
#hich he meant6 in the first +$ace6 .un%ary:
.e #as ready to #rite off 2umania and Bu$%aria as +art of the 2ussian s+here6 0ut #as
not +re+ared to do so in the case of (u%os$a3ia6 .un%ary and6 a0o3e a$$6 1reece: The
4in%s of 1reece and (u%os$a3ia #ere $oo<in% to Britain for +rotection a%ainst
communism and a$thou%h the 2ussians #ere $osin% thousands of men e3ery day in the
hea3y fi%htin% in .un%ary6 he fe$t that .un%ary6 $i<e (u%os$a3ia6 shou$d at $east 0e the
o0Hect of an Cast,9est com+romise:
As #e <no# from 5hurchi$$'s o#n account the #ho$e =uestion of the Ba$<ans6 inc$udin%
.un%ary6 #as Fsett$edF in a fe# minutes 0et#een him and Sta$in:
I5hurchi$$6 o+: cit:6 3o$: A?6 +: 19J:K
Durin% their 3ery first meetin% on @cto0er 96 he scri00$ed on a ha$f,sheet of +a+er his
+ro+osa$ for 2ussian or British F+redominanceFD2umania: 2ussia 9"Y6 the others6 1"YL
1reece: Britain (in accord #ith *SA) 9"Y6 2ussia6 1"YL Bu$%aria: 2ussia6 7-Y6 the
others6 &-YL (u%os$a3ia and .un%ary: -",-"Y:
I .1-'(5 &',- )3+#-- &# S&)/,$... T'($ '( &##; ',- 8/1( .($3,/ )$5 ")5( ) /)+%( &,3;
1.#$ ,&, )$5 .)--(5 ,& 8)3; &# 1-... A& /($%&' I -),5:
DM,%'& ,& $#& 8( &'#1%'& +)&'(+ 3*$,3)/ ,0 ,& -(("(5 2( ')5 5,-.#-(5 #0 &'(-(
,--1(- ... ,$ -13' )$ #00')$5 ")$$(+I L(& 1- 81+$ &'( .).(+.D DN#, *#1 ;((. ,&,D
-),5 S&)/,$.
As 5hurchi$$ himse$f says6 e3en in retros+ect6 re$ations 0et#een him and Sta$in #ere
ne3er 0etter than they #ere durin% that @cto0er 3isit to Mosco#: Short$y 0efore that6 he
had %one out of his #ay to f$atter the 2ussians 0y sayin% that they had Ftorn the %utsF out
of .it$er's #ar machine: The British Am0assador6 Sir Archi0a$d 5$ar<,4err #as ea%er to
ma<e the 5hurchi$$,Cden 3isit to Mosco# an o3er#he$min% success and somethin% of a
+ersona$ trium+h for himse$f:
I.e #as 3ery conscious of his historic rZ$e as #artime Am0assador to 2ussia: As<ed6
0efore $ea3in% Mosco# for 9ashin%ton in 194-6 #hat had im+ressed him most in 2ussia6
he said unhesitatin%$y6 F Sta$in:F Sta$in had %one out of his #ay to 0e +$easant to him:K
Since the British statesmen #ere the %uests of the So3iet 1o3ernment6 5$ar<,4err (at
5hurchi$$'s su%%estion6 it is true) or%anised a 0an=uet and6 for the first time in his $ife6
Sta$in dined at the British Cm0assy: The Am0assador a$so e8ercised a$$ his di+$omatic
s<i$$ and charm on the t#o sets of !o$es: .e tried to 0e +articu$ar$y nice to Bierut and
@sT0<a,Mora#s<i #ho had 0een offended 0y the treatment %i3en them 0y 5hurchi$$ and
Cden6 #ho $oo<ed u+on them as a +air of 2ussian F=uis$in%sF #ho had %one so far as to
dec$are that the F!o$ish +eo+$eF did not #ant #o#: 5$ar<,4err a$so ho+ed that he had
+ersuaded Mi<o$aHc>y< durin% this 5hurchi$$,Cden 3isit to return to Mosco# after a
f$yin% 3isit to ondon6 and to %o to !o$and immediate$y to form the ne# %o3ernment
there: 9hen Mi<o$aHc>y< fai$ed to return6 5$ar<,4err fe$t he had 0een 0ad$y $et do#n:
@ut#ard$y6 an un+recedented atmos+here of cordia$ity surrounded the An%$o,So3iet
ta$<sL for se3era$ minutes a thunderous o3ation at the Bo$shoi Theatre %reeted 5hurchi$$
and Sta$in as they 0oth a++eared in the State Bo8:
@n @cto0er 1J6 at the end of his Mosco# 3isit6 5hurchi$$ recei3ed the +ress in the $ar%e
Am0assador's studyL outside the $ar%e #indo#s #ere the 0are trees and an autumn
t#i$i%ht6 and in the study hun% the $ar%e oi$ +aintin%s of Queen Aictoria6 4in% Cd#ard
A?? in his re%a$ia6 Queen A$e8andra6 4in% 1eor%e A and Queen Mary: 9earin% a $oun%e
suit #ith a 0$ue 0o# tie6 5hurchi$$ $oo<ed in %ood form: .e 0e%an 0y Ho<in%$y referrin% to
his days as a #ar corres+ondent in South Africa and to Fthe 0itter irritation of ha3in% my
dis+atches censored: and ? sym+athise #hen a %ood story is s+oi$t 0y the 0$ue +enci$Dor
it may 0e the red +enci$ here:F
W'($ I /)-& 3)"( &# M#-3#2 4'( -),57, S&)/,$%+)5 2)- -&,// 1$5(+ -,(%(, )$5 &'(
($("* 2)- -,B&* #+ -(6($&* ",/(- 0+#" &',- 3,&*, )$5 '( 2)- (6($ $()+(+ C),+#. T')&
2)- ,$ A1%1-& 194M... S,$3( &'($ &'( &,5( ')- &1+$(5, )$5 2( ')6( ')5 6,3&#+,(- )$5
2#$5(+01/ )56)$3(- #6(+ 6)-& (B.)$-(-... C#",$% 8)3; '(+(, I 0,$5 ) %+()& -($-( #0
'#.( )$5 3#$0,5($3( &')& &'( ($5 #0 &'( &+,)/- 2,// 8( +()3'(5... S#"( 6(+* ')+5
0,%'&,$% 2,// *(& ')6( &# 8( 5#$(. T'( ($("* ,- +(-,-&,$% 2,&' 5,-3,./,$( )$5
5(-.(+)&,#$, )$5 ,& ,- 8(-& &# &);( ) -#8(+ 6,(2 #0 &'( -.((5 2,&' 2',3' &'(
3#$3/1-,#$ 2,// 8( +()3'(5 #$ &'( W(-&(+$ +#$&. B1& &'(+( ,- %##5 $(2- (6(+*5)*,
)$5 ,& ,- 5,00,31/& $#& &# 8( #6(+--)$%1,$(.
After referrin% to the Fcirc$e of fire and stee$F c$osin% in on 1ermany and the hun%er6 co$d
and shorta%es #ith #hich 1ermany #as no# faced6 5hurchi$$ said:
I& ,- ) %+()& 3')$%( 0+#" &'( 5)*- 2'($ E$%/)$5 )$5 '(+ E".,+( 2(+( /(0& )/#$( &#
0)3( &'( ",%'&* .#2(+ #0 !(+")$*... A- 0#+ #1+ 2#+; '(+(, I -')// #$/* -)* &',-:
)0&(+ R1(8(3 )$5 &'( /#$% 5,-31--,#$- I ')5 2,&' "* %+()& 0+,($5 P+(-,5($&
R##-(6(/&, I &'#1%'& ,& +,%'& &# -(( "* #&'(+ 0+,($5E)- I &',$; I ")* &+1/* 3)// ',"
EM)+-')/ S&)/,$.
The smooth #or<in% of intera$$ied re$ations6 he said6 #as %reat$y assisted 0y these
conferences: ?n the course of these Mosco# ta$<s6 F#e #ere most dee+$y in3o$3ed in the
an8ious =uestions concernin% !o$and6 and ? am =uite sure ? am entit$ed to say that 3ery
definite resu$ts ha3e 0een %ained and differences ha3e 0een sensi0$y narro#ed: The
!o$ish =uestion stands in a 0etter +osition than it did and ? ha3e %ood ho+e #e sha$$ reach
fu$$ a%reement e3entua$$y amon% a$$ the +arties concerned: *ndou0ted$y6 #e must not
a$$o# !o$and to 0ecome a sore +$ace in our affairs: 9e British #ent to #ar for !o$and6
and our sym+athy for !o$and is %reat6 and Britain has a s+ecia$ interest in her fortunes6
no# that !o$and is a0out to 0e $i0erated 0y the %reat man$y efforts of our A$$ies:F .e
made no reference #hatsoe3er to the 9arsa# tra%edy #hich had come to its %ruesome
end on$y a fortni%ht 0efore:
5hurchi$$ then referred to the Fsur+risin% e3entsF that had 0een occurrin% in the Ba$<ans6
and said that each of the Ba$<an +ro0$ems #as difficu$t to hand$e 0y corres+ondence6
#hich #as another %ood reason for comin% to Mosco#: Cden here had had Fa hard timeF:
But 3ery sensi0$e resu$ts had 0een achie3ed in co,ordinatin% the +o$icies of the t#o
%o3ernments in these re%ions: Then he s+o<e of the atmos+here of Ffriendshi+ and
comradeshi+F that had mar<ed these Mosco# ta$<s:
W( 8#&' ')6( #1+ )+",(- ,$ &'( 0,(/5 )$5 I )" %/)5 &'( R1--,)$- $# /#$%(+ ')6( &'(
'()6* 0((/,$% &')& &'(* 8()+ &'( 2'#/( 8+1$&... U$,&* ,- (--($&,)/ ,0 .()3( ,- &# 8(
-(31+(. L(& 1- 3)-& #1+ (*(- 0#+2)+5 8(*#$5 &'( 8)&&/(-/,$( &# &'( 5)* 2'($
!(+")$* ')- -1++($5(+(5 1$3#$5,&,#$)//*, 8()&($ &# &'( %+#1$5, )$5 )2),&,$% &'(
5(3,-,#$- #0 &'( #1&+)%(5 $)&,#$- 2'# -)6(5 &'("-(/6(- 0+#" &'( .,& #0 5(-&+13&,#$
&')& H,&/(+ ')5 5,%%(5 0#+ &'(".
.e ended #ith a 5hurchi$$ian tirade on An%$o,2ussian,American friendshi+:
T',- 0+,($5-',., ,$ 2)+ )- ,$ .()3(, 3)$ -)6( &'( 2#+/5, )$5 .(+').- ,& ,- &'( #$/*
&',$% &')& 3)$ -)6( &'( .()3( 0#+ #1+ 3',/5+($ )$5 %+)$53',/5+($. I$ "* #.,$,#$, ,&
,- ) %#)/ ()-,/* )&&),$)8/(. A(+* %##5, 6(+* %##5 )+( &'( +(-1/&- ,$ &'( 0,(/5, 6(+*
%##5 &'( 2#+; 8(',$5 &'( /,$(-, )$5 '#.(- )+( ',%' 0#+ &'( .(+")$($& +(-1/&- #0
6,3&#+*.
.e a$so referred to Fthe %reat re%ard6 and res+ect6 and %reat confidenceF he fe$t for Fthe
%reat chief of the 2ussian StateF:
The 2ussians +resent at the conference #ere 3ery +$eased #ith the statementL they sa# in
5hurchi$$ a stron% su++orter of a Bi%,Three +o$icy:
;o dou0t there #ere difficu$tiesDno rea$ +ro%ress #as made durin% the $on% ta$<s #ith
Mi<o$aHc>y<6 2omer and 1ra0s<i on the one hand6 and the u0$in !o$es on the otherL nor
did the a%reement on the Ba$<ans amount to 3ery much6 e8ce+t that the 2ussians seemed
ready to a0andon 1reeceD0ut some usefu$ ta$<s had ta<en +$ace on the +ossi0$e +artition
of 1ermany6 and6 a0o3e a$$6 5hurchi$$ had secured some fair$y +recise assurances from
Sta$in a0out the 2ussians Hoinin% in the #ar a%ainst Ba+an #ithin three months after the
defeat of 1ermany: At 2oose3e$t's re=uest the discussion of the disa%reements that had
arisen at Dum0arton @a<s o3er *;@ #as +ost+oned ti$$ the ne8t Bi%,Three meetin%:
So the resu$ts of the Mosco# ta$<s #ere rather a mi8ed 0a%: ;e3erthe$ess6 there #as a
%enera$ im+ression that 5hurchi$$ and Sta$in #ere no# on e8ce$$ent terms6 and that
5hurchi$$ #as no# %enuine$y starry,eyed a0out Fthe %reat chief of the 2ussian StateF6
+art$y +erha+s under the inf$uence of 5$ar<,4err:
The e8treme cordia$ity in the 5hurchi$$,Sta$in re$ations is ref$ected in the corres+ondence
they e8chan%ed durin% and Hust after the Mosco# 3isit: These $etters are re+roduced in
the 3o$ume +u0$ished in Mosco# in 19-76 thou%h they are not =uoted 0y 5hurchi$$
himse$f:
Thus6 his $etter of @cto0er 176 in #hich he as<ed Sta$in to see Mi<o$aHc>y<DFin #hose
desire to reach an understandin% #ith you and #ith the ;ationa$ 5ommittee ? am more
than e3er con3incedF Dconc$udes #ith the #ords:
M* 5)1%'&(+ S)+)' 2,// 8( 5(/,%'&(5 2,&' &'( 3')+",$% &#;($ 0+#" M,-- S&)/,$ )$5
2,// %1)+5 ,& )"#$% '(+ "#-& 6)/1(5 .#--(--,#$-. I +("),$, 2,&' -,$3(+( +(-.(3& )$5
%##52,//,
Y#1+ 0+,($5 )$5 2)+ 3#"+)5(,
W,$-&#$ S. C'1+3',//.
@n @cto0er 196 Sta$in #rote:
D()+ M+ C'1+3',//,
O$ &'( #33)-,#$ #0 *#1+ 5(.)+&1+( 0+#" M#-3#2 ./()-( )33(.& 0+#" "( &2# "#5(-&
%,0&- )- -#16($,+-. T'( 6)-(, DM)$ ,$ ) B#)&D ,- 0#+ M+- C'1+3',// )$5 &'( 6)-(
DW,&' B#2 )%),$-& B()+D 0#+ *#1+-(/0. O$3( )%),$ I 2,-' *#1 %##5 '()/&' )$5 %##5
3'((+.
J. S&)/,$.
?n re+$y 5hurchi$$ #rote:
M* 5()+ M)+-')/ S&)/,$,
I ')6( :1-& +(3(,6(5 &'( &2# 8()1&,01/ 6)-(-... W( -')// &+()-1+( &'(" )"#$%-& #1+
"#-& 3'(+,-'(5 .#--(--,#$-... T'( 6,-,& ')- 8(($ 0+#" 8(%,$$,$% &# ($5 ) +()/
./()-1+( &# "(... "#-& .)+&,31/)+/* 8(3)1-( #0 #1+ 6(+* ./()-)$& &)/;- &#%(&'(+. M*
'#.(- 0#+ &'( 01&1+( )//,)$3( #0 #1+ .(#./(- $(6(+ -&##5 -# ',%'. I '#.( *#1 ")* /#$%
8( -.)+(5 &# +(.),+ &'( +)6)%(- #0 2)+ )$5 /()5 A// T'( R1--,)- #1& #0 &'( *()+- #0
-&#+" ,$&# %/#+,#1- -1$-',$(.
Y#1+ 0+,($5 )$5 2)+-&,"( 3#"+)5(,
W,$-&#$ S. C'1+3',//.
After a further messa%e of o3er#he$min% cordia$ity sent durin% his and Cden's return
Hourney6 5hurchi$$ sent Sta$in from ondon an a$most %ushin% messa%e of than<s for the
F2ussian +roductsF (o03ious$y ca3iare) that had 0een added to the Cn%$ish +arty's
$u%%a%e:
I& ,- #$/* -,$3( "* )++,6)/ ,$ L#$5#$ &')& I ')6( +()/,-(5 &'( %+()& %($(+#-,&* #0 *#1+
%,0&- #0 R1--,)$ .+#513&- 0#+ "*-(/0 )$5 "("8(+- #0 "* ",--,#$. P/()-( )33(.& &'(
2)+"(-& &')$;- #0 )// 2'# ')6( 8(($ &'( %+)&(01/ +(3,.,($&- #0 &',- $(2 (B)"./( #0
R1--,)$ '#-.,&)/,&*.
I Sta$in,5hurchi$$ corres+ondence6 ++: &)3,):K
At a$$ the Mosco# +arties6 5hurchi$$ had6 indeed6 sho#n a %ar%antuan $i<in% for ca3iare:
Throu%hout the 3isit6 Sta$in had %one out of his #ay to sho# 5hurchi$$ and Cden the
%reatest friend$inessL he had e3en %one to see them off to the airfie$d: There had 0een
nothin% $i<e it since the Matsuo<a 3isit in 1941: The communi=uN recorded Fconsidera0$e
+ro%ressF in the ta$<s on !o$and6 F%reat$y reduced differencesF and Fdis+e$$ed
misunderstandin%sFL a%reement on Bu$%aria6 and a%reement on a Hoint +o$icy on
(u%os$a3iaDthe (u%os$a3s #ou$d6 of course6 0e Ffree to choose their o#n systemF6 0ut
meantime there #ou$d 0e a fusion of the ;ationa$ i0eration 5ommittee and the 2oya$
(u%os$a3 1o3ernment:
C').&(+ XII STALIN<S HORSE-TRADIN! WITH DE !AULLE
There is a $on% story 0ehind de 1au$$e's 3isit to Mosco# in Decem0er 1944: Durin% the
So3iet,1erman !act the So3iet *nion had esta0$ished di+$omatic re$ations #ith the Aichy
1o3ernment6 thou%h the Aichy Am0assador6 M: 1aston Ber%ery and his American #ife6
Bettina6 the e8,Schia+are$$i manne=uin6 did not arri3e in Mosco# unti$ A+ri$ &-6 19416
i:e: after the 1erman in3asion of (u%os$a3ia: 9hen he +resented his credentia$s to
4a$inin in the +resence of Mo$oto36 and ur%ed 2ussia to Fta<e +art in the or%anisation of
the ;e# @rder in Curo+eF6 his s+eech #as met #ith stony si$ence from the 2ussians: @n
the fo$$o#in% day6 Mr Bo%omo$o36 the So3iet Am0assador to Aichy France6 #ho
ha++ened to 0e in Mosco# at the time6 ca$$ed on Ber%ery and e8+$ained to him6 in
Fideo$o%ica$ termsF6 #hy the So3iet *nion did not thin< it +ossi0$e to acce+t 1ermany's
he%emony in Curo+e:
I1: 1afencu: PrAliminaires de la guerre , F Est5 (!aris6 1944)6 ++: &34,-: Bo%omo$o3
#as to 0ecome Am0assador to the 3arious Fa$$iedF (i:e: e8i$ed) %o3ernments in ondon:K
Di+$omatic re$ations #ith Aichy #ere6 of course6 0ro<en off the moment the 1ermans
in3aded the So3iet *nion: The first direct contacts 0et#een the Free French and the
2ussians #ere made as ear$y as the 0e%innin% of Au%ust 1941 on de 1au$$e's initiati3e
#hen M: Bou3e6 de 1au$$e's unofficia$ re+resentati3e in Tur<ey6 ca$$ed on Mr S:
Aino%rado36 the So3iet Am0assador there and informed him that de 1au$$e6 #hom he had
Hust seen at Beirut6 #ou$d $i<e to send t#o or three Free French re+resentati3es to
Mosco#: 9ithout insistin% on reco%nitionDofficia$ or unofficia$Dof the Free French 0y
the So3iet 1o3ernment6 de 1au$$e #as an8ious to esta0$ish direct re$ations #ith the
2ussians6 instead of dea$in% #ith them6 as hitherto6 throu%h the British: Accordin% to the
So3iet account of the meetin%6 Bou3e +ointed out that6 in 1enera$ de 1au$$e's 3ie#6 the
So3iet *nion and France #ere 0oth continenta$ !o#ers #hich had +ro0$ems and aims
different from those of the An%$o,Sa8on states: And Bou3e added:
!($(+)/ 5( !)1//( &)/;(5 ) /#& )8#1& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$. H(+ ($&+* ,$&# &'( 2)+, '(
-),5, +(.+(-($&(5 0#+ 1- ) %+()& 3')$3( #$ 2',3' 2( ')5 $#& 3#1$&(5 8(0#+(. H( )/-#
-),5 &')& 2',/( ,& 2)- ,".#--,8/( &# -)* 2'($ (B)3&/* 6,3&#+* 2#1/5 8( 2#$, '( 2)-
)8-#/1&(/* 3(+&),$ &')&, ,$ &'( ($5, &'( !(+")$- 2#1/5 8( -")-'(5.
I%oviets*o-Frantsuzs*ie otnosheni!a55, <=J<-<=JK5 (Mosco# 19-9)6 ++: 43,44:K
Durin% the same #ee< MM: 5assin and DeHean ca$$ed on Mr Mais<y6 the So3iet
Am0assador in ondon +ro+osin% to him the esta0$ishment of Fsome <ind of officia$
re$ationsF 0et#een the So3iet *nion and the Free French: They su%%ested that these
re$ations 0e mode$$ed on those e8istin% 0et#een the Free French and the British
1o3ernment: @n Se+tem0er &)6 19416 Mais<y informed de 1au$$e that the So3iet *nion
reco%nised him as the $eader of a$$ the Free French #ho had ra$$ied to him6 Fre%ard$ess of
#here they #ereF: ?t a$so +romised the Free French a$$ +ossi0$e aid in the common
stru%%$e a%ainst 1ermany and her a$$ies:
I?0id:6 +: 47:K
De 1au$$e #as an8ious6 a$most from the outset6 to %i3e tan%i0$e form to the mi$itary co,
o+eration 0et#een the Free French and the So3iet *nion6 and #anted to send to 2ussia a
French di3ision then stationed in Syria: But this a++arent$y met #ith o++osition from the
British and6 in A+ri$ 194&6 DeHean +ro+osed that the French send to 2ussia thirty airmen
instead6 and thirty %round staffDto 0e%in #ith:
Thus the foundations #ere $aid for that French ;ormandie S=uadron #hich arri3ed in
2ussia $ater in the year: ;o dou0t they #ere $itt$e more than a to<en force6 0ut they
re+resented an im+ortant +o$itica$ factor and a sym0o$ic $in< 0et#een 2ussia and the
French 2esistance: The French airmen fou%ht %a$$ant$y on the 2ussian Front6 suffered
3ery hea3y casua$ties6 and 2ussian mi$itary decorations #ere $a3ish$y conferred on them:
1reat +u0$icity #as %i3en to this French unit:
?n March 194& a sma$$ di+$omatic mission6 headed 0y M: 2o%er 1arreau6 and #ith
1enera$ C: !etit as the Mi$itary AttachN6 arri3ed in Mosco#: 1arreau #as (at $east at that
sta%e) a stron% su++orter of de 1au$$e and6 in his con3ersations #ith the 2ussians6 ne3er
made any secret of the disa%reements 0et#een de 1au$$e on the one hand and the British
and Americans on the other:
I?n this he #as c$ose$y fo$$o#in% de 1au$$e's e8am+$e in ondon: ?n ta$<in% to So3iet
di+$omats the 1enera$ fre=uent$y com+$ained a0out the British 1o3ernment: thus6 on
;o3em0er &)6 19416 in re+$y to Am0assador Bo%omo$o3's remar< that he re%u$ar$y read
his (de 1au$$e's) +a+er6 France, de 1au$$e an%ri$y sna++ed 0ac<: FThat isn't my +a+er6
that's the +a+er of the British Ministry of ?nformation:F @n another occasion6 on
Se+tem0er &)6 194&6 he to$d Bo%omo$o3 that the British #ere tryin% to 0ui$d u+ .erriot
as his ri3a$6 addin% F#ith %reat irritationF that the British #ere tryin% a$$ the time to
o3erthro# him 0y ma<in% use of a$$ sorts of other +eo+$e: (?0id:6 ++: -" and 9)):K
1arreau ($i<e de 1au$$e) attached the %reatest im+ortance to the su++ort %i3en 0y 2ussia
to the Free French6 and on March &3619436 #ent so far as to te$$ Mo$oto3 that F0ut for the
So3iet 1o3ernment's su++ort6 Fi%htin% France #ou$d not ha3e sur3i3ed the %reat
;o3em0er (194&) crisis #hen 3arious attem+ts #ere made in ;orth Africa to set u+ =uite
a different %o3ernment:F
I?0id:6 +: 11J: K
?n Bune 1943 the =uestion arose of reco%nisin% the French 5ommittee of ;ationa$
i0eration in A$%iers6 and on the &3rd6 the British Am0assador6 in a $etter to Sta$in6 said
that he had $earned F#ith a$armF of the So3iet intention of reco%nisin% this 5ommittee:
I ?0id:6 +: 1)7:K
*nder British and American +ressure6 this reco%nition #as de$ayed6 0ut #hen it #as
fina$$y %ranted in Au%ust 19436 the So3iet Fformu$aF of reco%nition #as much shorter and
more strai%htfor#ard than that of the British and American 1o3ernments6 #ith its
numerous conditions and reser3ations: 9hen6 fina$$y6 in Au%ust 19446 the de 1au$$e
1o3ernment esta0$ished itse$f in !aris6 the 2ussians +ressed Britain and the *nited States
for an ear$y reco%nition as the French !ro3isiona$ 1o3ernment: So6 on the #ho$e6 de
1au$$e had e3ery reason to 0e satisfied #ith the 0ac<in% the So3iet 1o3ernment had
%i3en him e3er since 1941:
.is decision to %o to Mosco# to see Sta$in at the end of 1944 had 0een $ar%e$y
determined 0y a %ood dea$ of irritation and annoyance caused him 0y the British and
Americans6 0y their Fdomineerin%F +osition in France6 and 0y his desire to sho# that he
had an inde+endent +o$icy and #as no0ody's sate$$ite: The 2ussians6 for their +art6 #ere
interested in France in so far as this #as a country in #hich the communists had +$ayed a
$eadin% +art in the 2esistance and #ere ma<in% their inf$uence fe$t inside the French
1o3ernment:
And yet6 in the conditions +re3ai$in% at the end of 19446 the most im+ortant =uestion for
the 2ussians #as to finish the #ar a%ainst 1ermany as =uic<$y as +ossi0$e6 and Sta$in
e8+ected the French communists to su0ordinate their o#n +o$itica$ interests to this endD
as #e <no#6 for instance6 from the instructions Sta$in o03ious$y %a3e Maurice Thore>
soon after#ards to a++ro3e the disso$ution of the !atriotic Mi$itias (the +ara,mi$itary
communist or%anisations of the 2esistance)6 and to co,o+erate #ith de 1au$$e:
ISee the author's France <=JD-<=KK (ondon6 19-))6 ++: &44,-:K
Durin% de 1au$$e's 3isit to Mosco# Sta$in made a +oint of ur%in% the 1enera$ ha$f,
Ho<in%$y Fnot to shoot Thore>Dat $east not for the +resentFDsince the communist $eader
#as %oin% to 0eha3e as a %ood +atriotic Frenchman: Thore>6 #ho had 0een in Mosco#
throu%hout the #ar6 had returned to France in ;o3em0er 1944D#here he had Hust 0een
amnestied for his FdesertionF from the French Army in 19396 and #as $ater (in 194-) a$so
%oin% to 0e a++ointed one of the Ministers of State in de 1au$$e's %o3ernment:
De 1au$$e's 3isit to Mosco# #as6 a0o3e a$$6 a mo3e to 0rea< a#ay from an e8cessi3e
de+endence on Britain and the *SA: ?n those +re,atomic days de 1au$$e continued to
thin< of France and 2ussiaD as he had a$ready done in 1941Das the t#o %reat future
mi$itary !o#ers on the 5ontinent of Curo+e #hich cou$d <ee+ 1ermany do#n6 and #hose
+oints of 3ie# and interests #ere different from those of the FAn%$o,Sa8onsF: ?t #as
+recise$y on this +oint that6 in 19446 Sta$in #as una0$e to see eye,to,eye #ith de 1au$$eD
for the sim+$e reason that6 in +ure$y mi$itary and economic terms6 France #as tota$$y
insi%nificant com+ared #ith Britain and America: So6 much to de 1au$$e's
disa++ointment6 Sta$in refused to ta<e France serious$y at that sta%e as a mi$itary a$$y:
?nstead6 Sta$in tried to use de 1au$$e as a means of 0rea<in% 9estern unity o3er the
!o$ish =uestion: De 1au$$e6 for his +art6 tried to force the hands of Britain and America
0y %ettin% Sta$in to acce+t the anne8ation of the 2hine,$and 0y France: ?n the end6 de
1au$$e refused to reco%nise the u0$in 5ommittee6 and Sta$in refused to reco%nise the
2hine frontier6 and de 1au$$e fina$$y Ftrium+hedF 0y ta<in% 0ac< to !aris a Franco,So3iet
Treaty of A$$iance6 on the $ines of the An%$o,So3iet !act of 194&: But this #as 0y no
means e3erythin% that either de 1au$$e or Sta$in had ori%ina$$y ho+ed to achie3e:
There #as somethin% s$i%ht$y comic a0out the #ho$e de 1au$$e,Bidau$t 3isit that
Decem0er: The 2ussians treated the French #ith a %ood dea$ of condescension6 and the
French6 at the time6 fe$t this 3ery <een$y6 thou%h there is not the s$i%htest su%%estion of
that in de 1au$$e's -emoirs5
Tra3e$$in% 3ia Ba<u and Sta$in%rad6 de 1au$$e6 Bidau$t6 1enera$ Buin and a handfu$ of
di+$omats arri3ed in Mosco# on Decem0er &: First de 1au$$e dro++ed a 0ric< at
Sta$in%rad #here there #as a rece+tion in his honour at #hich he +resented the city #ith a
memoria$ ta0$et from the +eo+$e of France: ?n his s+eech he referred to Sta$in%rad as Fa
sym0o$ of our common 3ictories o3er the enemyF6 a descri+tion of the defence of
Sta$in%rad #hich the 2ussians did not much re$ish6 es+ecia$$y comin% from a Frenchman:
At the 4urs< Station in Mosco# t#o days $ater6 the French +arty #ere met 0y Mo$oto3
and a %uard of honour: The Di+$omatic 5or+s #ere a$so there in force6 and a $ar%e cro#d
had %athered outside the station6 attracted 0y the numerous officia$ cars: Cmer%in% from
the station6 de 1au$$e $oo<ed at this 0i% cro#d in the s=uare: and the cro#d $oo<ed 0ac<6
not =uite sure #ho he #as6 and no0ody e3en murmured FAi3e de 1au$$ePF or anythin%:
So he dro3e off6 #onderin% #hat a =ueer country this #as:
I?n his -emoirs, de 1au$$e #rites: FA considera0$e cro#d had %athered6 from #hich rose
a hum of sym+athetic 3oices:F @+: cit:6 +: )JL ? #as there6 and #as tota$$y una#are of any
<ind of FhumF:K
?n 19446 de 1au$$e #as a 3ery %reat man in France6 and it shoc<ed him not to 0e treated
as such any#here e$se:
The minutes of the three Sta$in,de 1au$$e meetin%s on Decem0er &6 ) and J6 as +u0$ished
0y the So3iet Forei%n Ministry in 19-96 as #e$$ as the minutes of the Mo$oto3,Bidau$t
ta$<s are of the %reatest interest6 since in su0stance and es+ecia$$y in their o3ertones they
differ considera0$y from de 1au$$e's rather %$i0 account of #hat ha++ened:
I%oviets*o-Frantsuzs*ie otnosheni!a, <=J<-JK5 (Mosco#6 19-9):K
The minutes are a$so one of the fe# first,hand accounts #e ha3e of ho# Sta$in conducted
ne%otiations durin% the #ar:
Durin% de 1au$$e's first meetin% #ith Sta$in the 1enera$ started 0y sayin% that the rea$
trou0$e #ith France #as that she did not ha3e any a$$iance #ith 2ussia6 and6 a$so6 that her
eastern frontier #as 3ery 3u$nera0$e:
(es6 said Sta$in6 the fact that 2ussia and France #ere not to%ether had 0een a %reat
misfortune for 2ussia6 too: .e then as<ed de 1au$$e #hether French industry #as 0ein%
restored:
De #aulle: (es6 0ut 3ery6 3ery s$o#$y: There are terri0$e trans+ort difficu$ties and a coa$
shorta%e: ?n order to e=ui+ her army6 France has to a++ea$ for arms from the Americans
and6 for the +resent these #on't %i3e her any: ?t #i$$ ta<e France t#o years to restore her
industry:
Sta$in e8+ressed some sur+rise at this6 and said that 2ussia #as not findin% the restoration
of industry such an insu+era0$e +ro0$em: The south of France had 0een $i0erated #ithout
difficu$ty6 and there had not 0een much fi%htin% in !aris6 so #hat #as the trou0$eE
De 1au$$e said that most of the French ro$$in% stoc< had 0een destroyed and that much of
#hat #as $eft #as 0ein% used 0y the British and Americans:
2ather #ith the su%%estion that it #as these #ho #ere doin% most of the fi%htin% in
France6 Sta$in then as<ed ho# France stood for officer cadres5
De 1au$$e re+$ied that in 194" the 1ermans had ca+tured near$y the #ho$e French Army
and most of the officers: @n$y a sma$$ num0er #ere $eft in ;orth Africa6 and these #ere
no# fi%htin% in France: Some had 0etrayed their country 0y co$$a0oratin% #ith Aichy: So
a $ot of ne# officers no# had to 0e trained:
Stalin4 T'( +()-#$ 2'* I )-;(5 )8#1& &',- ,- &')& (6(+*2'(+(E2'(&'(+ ,$ P#/)$5,
H1$%)+*, R1")$,) #+ Y1%#-/)6,)E&'( !(+")$- )/2)*- &+* &# +#1$5 1. #00,3(+-
)$5 .)3; &'(" #00 &# !(+")$*. B1& '#2 5# *#1 -&)$5 0#+ ),+"($I
"e Gaulle4 W( ')6( 6(+* 0(2 ),+"($, )$5 (6($ &'#-( 2( ')6( $((5 3#"./(&( +(-
&+),$,$%, )- &'(* )+( 1$0)",/,)+ 2,&' "#5(+$ ./)$(-.
Stalin4 N#2 &'( +($3' ),+"($ #0 &'( N#+")$5,( S91)5+#$ )+( 5#,$% 6(+* 2(// #$
&'( R1--,)$ +#$&? -# ,0 *#1 )+( -# ')+5 1. 0#+ ),+"($, 2( 3#1/5 .(+').- -($5 &'("
8)3; &# +)$3(I
"e Gaulle4 N#, $#, &',- ,- 91,&( 1$$(3(--)+*. T'(* )+( 3#$&+,81&,$% $#8/* &# &'(
3#""#$ 3)1-( 2',/( ,$ R1--,).
Stalin4 I -1..#-( *#1 ')6( 6(+* 0(2 &+),$,$% -3'##/- 0#+ ),+"($I
"e Gaulle4 Y(-, 6(+* 0(2, )$5 6(+* 0(2 ./)$(-.
.a3in% %ot o3er this +hase of the ta$<6 in #hich he had to act the +oor re$ation (there is no
mention of these remar<s in his -emoirs7, de 1au$$e tried to %et do#n to more serious
0usiness: ?t #ou$d 0e a %ood thin% for 0oth France and 2ussia6 he said6 if the 2hine$and
cou$d 0e Hoined to France: May0e the 2uhr #ou$d ha3e to 0e %i3en an internationa$
rN%ime6 0ut not the 2hine$and +ro+er:
Sta$in as<ed ho# Britain and America $oo<ed u+on this6 to #hich de 1au$$e re+$ied that
these had a$ready $et France do#n in 191J 0y insistin% on a tem+orary arran%ement6
#hich Hust didn't #or<: As a resu$t6 France #as a%ain in3aded: !erha+s Britain and
America had $earned their $esson6 0ut he cou$dn't 0e sure:
Stalin4 A- 0)+ )- I ;$#2, &'( B+,&,-' )+( 3#$-,5(+,$% ) 5,00(+($& -#/1&,#$: )$
,$&(+$)&,#$)/ 3#$&+#/ #0 R',$(/)$5-W(-&.')/,). W')& *#1 )+( .+#.#-,$% ,-
-#"(&',$% 91,&( 5,00(+($&. W( "1-& 0,$5 #1& 2')& B+,&),$ )$5 A"(+,3) &',$; )8#1&
,&.
"e Gaulle4 I '#.( &'( ")&&(+ ")* 8( (B)",$(5 8* &'( E1+#.()$ A56,-#+*
C#"",--,#$.
Stalin4 Y(-.
De 1au$$e then #ent on #ith his shar+ criticism of Britain and America: They #ere
neither %eo%ra+hica$$y nor historica$$y on the 2hine6 and the French and 2ussians had had
to +ay a hea3y +rice for this: C3en thou%h they #ere fi%htin% there no#6 they #ou$d not
0e on the 2hine fore3er6 #hi$e France and 2ussia #ou$d a$#ays remain #here they #ere:
The fu$$,sca$e inter3ention of Britain and America a$#ays too< +$ace in +ecu$iar
conditionsDmuch too $ateL as a resu$t6 France #as near$y destroyed in 194":
Sta$in #as not con3inced: The stren%th of 2ussia and France a$one #ere insufficient to
<ee+ 1ermany in order: The e8+erience of the t#o #or$d #ars had demonstrated this:
Frontiers in themse$3es #ere not of decisi3e im+ortanceL #hat mattered #as a %ood and
#e$$,commanded army: ?t #as no use re$yin% on the Ma%inot ine6 or .it$er's Hst:all5
And #hen de 1au$$e sti$$ +ersisted6 Sta$in said:
P/()-( 1$5(+-&)$5 "(. W( -,"./* 3)$$#& -(&&/( &',- 91(-&,#$ #0 +)$3(<- ()-&(+$
0+#$&,(+ 2,&'#1& ')6,$% &)/;(5 )8#1& ,& &# &'( B+,&,-' )$5 &'( A"(+,3)$-. T',- )$5
")$* #&'(+ .+#8/("- "1-& 8( 5(3,5(5 :#,$&/*.
@03ious$y not at a$$ satisfied #ith this6 de 1au$$e tried to a++roach the =uestion from a
different an%$e 0y 0rin%in% u+ 1ermany's eastern frontier:
"e Gaulle4 I0 I 1$5(+-&)$5 &'( 91(-&,#$ 3#++(3&/*, &'( !(+")$ 0+#$&,(+ -'#1/5 +1$
)/#$% &'( O5(+ )$5 &'($ )/#$% &'( N(,--(, &')& ,-, 2(-& #0 &'( O5(+.
Stalin4 Y(-, I &',$; &'( #/5 P#/,-' &(++,&#+,(--ES,/(-,), E)-& P+1--,), P#"(+)$,)E
-'#1/5 8( +(&1+$(5 &# P#/)$5, 2',/( &'( S15(&($ 3#1$&+* -'#1/5 8( %,6($ 8)3; &#
CC(3'#-/#6);,).
But he did not rise to the 0ait:
Throu%hout the de 1au$$e,Bidau$t 3isit6 Sta$in #as6 si%nificant$y6 in re%u$ar
communication #ith 5hurchi$$: The day after his first meetin% #ith de 1au$$e he ca0$ed
to 5hurchi$$ sayin% that he had informed de 1au$$e that the =uestion of 1ermany's
#estern frontier cou$d not 0e sett$ed inde+endent$y of Britain and the *nited States: As
re%ards the Franco,So3iet !act6 he had to$d de 1au$$e that the matter #ou$d re=uire a
many,sided e8amination: 5hurchi$$6 in re+$y6 indicated his +reference for a Tri+artite
!act:
?t #as durin% the Mo$oto3,Bidau$t meetin% of Decem0er - that the 2ussians 0$unt$y
raised the =uestion of the reco%nition of the u0$in 5ommittee 0y France:
Molotov4 W'* -'#1/5$<& +)$3( )$5 &'( P#/,-' C#"",&&(( (B3')$%( #00,3,)/
+(.+(-($&)&,6(-I A0&(+ )//, 8#&' B+,&),$ )$5 &'( USSR ($&(+&),$ +(/)&,#$- 2,&' 8#&'
&'( Y1%#-/)6 L,8(+)&,#$ C#"",&&(( )$5 &'( R#*)/ Y1%#-/)6 !#6(+$"($&. B*
(-&)8/,-',$% #00,3,)/ +(/)&,#$- 2,&' L18/,$, +)$3( 2#1/5 $#& $((5 &# 8+(); 2,&' &'(
P#/,-' S",%+S %#6(+$"($&.
Mo$oto3 then said that he $i<ed the French draft of the So3iet,French !act6 0ut the So3iet
1o3ernment considered that the si%nin% of this !act shou$d %o to%ether #ith the
esta0$ishment of officia$ French re$ations #ith the u0$in 5ommittee:
Bidau$t6 o03ious$y ta<en a0ac<6 said he #as sur+rised that the Franco,So3iet !act shou$d
ha3e this condition prAala4le attached to itL for their o#n +art6 the French a$so had some
=uestions they #ou$d $i<e ur%ent$y sett$ed: for instance6 that of the 2hine frontier:
Mo$oto3 dod%ed the issue6 #ithout te$$in% Bidau$t that Sta$in had a$ready ca0$ed to
5hurchi$$ a0out it: ?nstead6 he stressed that the So3iet *nion #as sti$$ 0earin% the 0runt of
the #ar and that6 in si%nin% a !act #ith France6 she #ou$d $i<e a definite decision to 0e
ta<en a0out !o$andL this #ou$d 0e of the %reatest im+ortance to the im+$ementation of the
!act:
Durin% the second Sta$in,de 1au$$e meetin% on Decem0er )6 !o$and #as the main to+ic:
De 1au$$e referred to the o$d cu$tura$ and re$i%ious 0onds unitin% France and !o$and6 and
(#ithout mentionin% the anti,So3iet cordon sanitaire7 said that France had tried6 in 191J6
to turn !o$and into a %reat anti,1erman force: *nfortunate$y6 men $i<e Bec< had tried to
ma<e an a%reement #ith 1ermany6 and #ere 0oth anti,2ussian and anti,5>ech: .e Ide
1au$$eK #as a$$ in fa3our of 0oth the 5ur>on ine and the @der,;eisse ine:
.e had no o0Hection to an An%$o,Franco,So3iet 0$ocL 0ut he #ou$d $i<e a strai%ht Franco,
So3iet !act to 0e%in #ith:
Sta$in (sti$$ 0usy consu$tin% 5hurchi$$) said he thou%ht the matter cou$d 0e sett$ed in the
ne8t fe# days: .e #ou$d $i<e6 instead6 to return to the =uestion of !o$and: .e ho+ed
France #ou$d ado+t6 3is , vis !o$and6 a more rea$istic attitude than that sho#n 0y Britain
and the *nited States: The British 1o3ernment had6 unfortunate$y6 %ot itse$f tied into
<nots #ith 0oth the !o$ish 1o3ernment in ondon and Mihai$o3ic6 #ho #as no# Fhidin%
some#here in 5airoF: The ondon !o$es #ere +$ayin% at musica$ chairs6 #hi$e the u0$in
!o$es #ere carryin% out a $and reform6 simi$ar to #hat France had done in the 1Jth
century: .e #ent on to demonstrate that the ondon 1o3ernment #ere 0ecomin% more
and more discredited in !o$and and ta$<ed at some $en%th of the Ffo$$yF of the 9arsa#
risin%6 sayin% that the 2ed Army cou$d not ha3e ta<en 9arsa# in time6 #ith its %uns and
she$$s $a%%in% &"" mi$es 0ehind:
De 1au$$e #as not con3inced a0out the ondon 1o3ernment 0ein% FdiscreditedF in
!o$and6 and said it #ou$d 0ecome more a++arent #hat the !o$ish +eo+$e rea$$y fe$t once
the #ho$e country had 0een $i0erated:
@n Decem0er 76 Sta$in ca0$ed 5hurchi$$ sayin% that he and his co$$ea%ues had a++ro3ed
5hurchi$$'s idea of a Tri+artite An%$o,Franco,So3iet !act6 and had su0mitted it to the
French6 0ut had not yet recei3ed a re+$y:
That same day Bidau$t to$d Mo$oto3 that it #as not satisfactory for France to sim+$y
FHoinF in the o$d An%$o,So3iet !actL it mi%ht %i3e rise to the idea that France fi%ured in
such a !act as a <ind of Hunior +artner: Mo$oto3 0rushed this ar%ument aside6 and
returned to the =uestion of French reco%nition of the u0$in !o$es: This #as an as+ect of
the Franco,2ussian ta$<s on #hich Sta$in #as not <ee+in% 5hurchi$$ informedDthou%h
the British Cm0assy in Mosco# <ne#6 of course6 more or $ess #hat #as %oin% on:
Durin% his third meetin% #ith Sta$in on Decem0er J de 1au$$e a%ain announced that
1ermany #as France's ;um0er @ne !ro0$em and that Fso $on% as the 1erman +eo+$e
e8isted6 there #ou$d a$#ays 0e a menace:F And a%ain he started on the 2hine frontier: ?t
#as essentia$ for France and 2ussia to Hoin forces: Britain6 #hich #as Fa$#ays $ateF6
cou$d ran< on$y as a Fsecond,sta%eF a$$y6 and the *nited States as a Fthird,sta%eF a$$y:
;either cou$d 0e de+ended u+on in the %reat moment of dan%er6 and under a Tri+artite
!act a$$ immediate action #ou$d ine3ita0$y 0e s$o#ed do#n 0y the British:
Sta$in a%reed that a strai%ht Franco,So3iet !act #ou$d ma<e France more inde+endent in
re$ation to Fother countriesF6 0ut since it #ou$d 0e difficu$t for 2ussia and France a$one to
#in the #ar6 he sti$$ +referred a Tri+artite !act:
De 1au$$e then said that the Tri+artite !act #as Fun,FrenchFL it #ou$d6 in +resent
circumstances6 stress France's inferiority vis-,-vis Cn%$andL it #ou$d 0e easier for France
to dea$ direct #ith 2ussiaL France #as uncertain a0out Britain's future attitude to
1ermany6 and6 moreo3er6 she #as e8+ectin% a$$ <inds of difficu$ties #ith the British 0oth
in the Midd$e Cast and the Far Cast:
Sta$in remar<ed that the Tri+artite !act #as 5hurchi$$'s idea6 and that he ISta$inK and his
co$$ea%ues had a%reed to the British +ro+osa$: True6 5hurchi$$ had not 3etoed the Franco,
So3iet !act6 0ut6 a$$ the same6 he +referred the Tri+artite !act:
I0 2( -'(/6( &',- 4S&)/,$ 3#$&,$1(57, C'1+3',// 2,// 8( #00($5(5. H#2(6(+, -,$3( &'(
+($3' )+( -# )$B,#1- &# ')6( ) -&+),%'& +)$3#-S#6,(& P)3&, /(& "( -1%%(-& &',-: ,0
&'( +($3' 2)$& 1- &# +($5(+ &'(" ) -(+6,3(, &'($ /(& &'(" +($5(+ 1- #$(. P#/)$5 ,-
)$ (/("($& ,$ #1+ -(31+,&*. L(& &'( +($3' )33(.& ,$ P)+,- ) +(.+(-($&)&,6( #0 &'(
P#/,-' C#"",&&(( #0 N)&,#$)/ L,8(+)&,#$, )$5 2( -')// -,%$ &'( +)$3#-S#6,(& P)3&.
C'1+3',// 2,// 8( #00($5(5, 81& ,& 3)$<& 8( '(/.(5.
F(ou ha3e +ro0a0$y offended 5hurchi$$ 0efore6F de 1au$$e said:
F? ha3e sometimes offended 5hurchi$$6F Sta$in re+$ied6 Fand 5hurchi$$ has sometimes
offended me: Some day our corres+ondence #i$$ 0e +u0$ished6 and you #i$$ see #hat <ind
of messa%es #e ha3e sometimes e8chan%ed:F
There seems6 at this +oint6 to ha3e 0een an em0arrassed si$ence and then Sta$in sudden$y
as<ed de 1au$$e #hen he intended to return to France: De 1au$$e said he #as ho+in% to
$ea3e in t#o days:
After a some#hat irre$e3ant di%ression on the aircraft factory the French %uests had
3isited6 de 1au$$e remar<ed that he much re%retted that there cou$d 0e no Franco,So3iet
!act6 and it #ou$d no# 0e necessary to start discussin% a Tri+artite !act: .e a++reciated
Sta$in's +o$icy on !o$and6 0ut it #as not at a$$ c$ear #hat the u0$in 5ommittee
re+resented:
The meetin% 0ro<e u+ in a chi$$y atmos+here:
ater that day Bidau$t ca$$ed on Mo$oto3 and said there had +erha+s 0een some
Fmisunderstandin%F a0out the u0$in 5ommittee: Any#ay6 de 1au$$e intended to see the
mem0er of this 5ommittee on the fo$$o#in% day: Mo$oto3 said he ho+ed this meetin%
#ou$d ma<e a %reat difference6 and meantime he and Bidau$t cou$d #or< on the draft of
the Franco-%oviet Pact5
De 1au$$e #as no more im+ressed 0y Bierut6 @sT0<a,Mora#s<i and 2o$a,Oymiers<i than
Cden and 5hurchi$$ had 0een6 and a%reed6 in the end6 0efore $ea3in% Mosco#6 to no more
than sendin% an Funofficia$F French re+resentati3e to u0$in6 and F=uite inde+endent$yF
of the Franco,So3iet !act:
Such #as the horse,tradin% that #ent on for o3er a #ee< 0et#een Sta$in and de 1au$$eD
each6 in his o#n #ay6 tryin% to +u$$ a fast one on Britain and the *nited States:
The atmos+here surroundin% this French 3isit to Mosco# #as not de3oid of comedy: @ne
day6 de 1au$$e and Bidau$t #ere ta<en for a ride on the Metro6 #here no0ody too< any
notice of them and #here they #ere +ushed a0out and had their feet trodden on
merci$ess$y: Bidau$t seemed +articu$ar$y outra%ed #hen he to$d me a0out it: ?n their
ne%otiations6 he said6 the 2ussians #ere +retty rou%h: "[a manPue d0AlAgance, 9a
manPue de courtoisie5 )0est un rAgime 4rutal, inhumain"5 As for the +eo+$e in the Metro:
")es gens sont muets5 Hnt-ils des sentiments"
IFThere's a $ac< of %raciousness6 a $ac< of courtesy: A 0ruta$6 inhuman rN%ime::: F FAre
these +eo+$e muteE .a3e they any fee$in%s at a$$EFK
@ne assured him that they had6 thou%h not necessari$y for officia$ French 3isitors6 of
#hom they <ne# $itt$e or nothin%: And the +eo+$e on to+6 Bidau$t fumed6 #ere mean and
accrocheurs5 FStic<y:K
.e t#isted his #rist a0out in the air: .e a$so thou%ht their #ho$e ideo$o%y com+$ete$y
coc<eyedDan incredi0$e med$ey of .e%e$6 Mar8 and Sta$inD#hat <ind of +o$itica$
+hi$oso+hy #as thatE .e thou%ht that in a com+$ete$y ruined Curo+e6 there #ou$d 0e a
#a3e of somethin% more e8treme than communism6 as understood hereL and Fthey must
0e terrified of Trots<yismP F
Somethin% #asn't =uite c$ic<in%: As a 2ussian co$one$ #hom ? met at the %reat rece+tion
%i3en at the French Cm0assy said: F(ou <no#6 #e can't rea$$y ta<e the French terri0$y
serious$y: Tou$on and 4ronstadt and l0alliance Franco-Busse #ith Marsei$$aise and 1od
Sa3e the Tsar don't mean a damned thin% to the +resent %eneration of 2ussiansPF
A$$ the same6 that Cm0assy rece+tion #as rea$$y somethin%: There #as an enormous
trico$our f$a% outside6 f$ood$it in the 0$i>>ard6 and the Cm0assy teemed #ith do>ens of
ce$e0ritiesD*$ano3a and e+eshins<aya and Chren0ur% and !ro<ofie3 amon%st them:
The %a$$ant French airmen of the ;ormandie S=uadron6 #ho had 0een decorated 0y de
1au$$e that mornin%6 #ere a$so there: 9ith sur+risin% %raciousness6 de 1au$$e #as doin%
the round of the %uests: 9hen he came to me ? mentioned his 3isit to Sta$in%rad: "/h,
%talingrad@" he said6 "c0est tout de mVme un peuple "ormida4le, un trNs grand peuple5"
"/h, oui, les Busses5::F "-ais non," said de 1au$$e #ith a touch of im+atience: "Ue ne
parle pas des Busses, 8e parle des /llemands5 Tout de mVme, avoir poussA 8usPue l,@"
FFAh6 Sta$in%radP A$$ the same6 they are a +retty tremendous +eo+$e6 a 3ery %reat +eo+$e:F
FAh yes6 the 2ussians::: F F ;o6 ?'m not ta$<in% a0out the 2ussiansL ? mean the 1ermans:
Fancy ha3in% +ushed a$$ that farPFK
?n $ater years6 #hen de 1au$$e started on his F!aris,Bonn A8isF and +u0$ic$y em0raced
Adenauer6 ? often remem0ered that remar<: 9as he6 in 19446 sti$$ fu$$ of +rofessiona$
admiration for an Army that had smashed the French Army in fi3e #ee<sE @r #as this
astonishin% remar< a reaction to the condescension #ith #hich Sta$in had s+o<en to him6
on$y a fe# days 0efore6 of the French Army6 most of #hich had 0een ta<en +risoner 0y
the 1ermans in 194"E @r did de 1au$$e +erha+s #ant to remind the 2ussians that they6
too6 had 0een on the run6 and that than<s to their %eo%ra+hy6 they had 0een a0$e to run
much farther e3en than the French had run in 194"E
At the 4rem$in 0an=uet on the $ast ni%ht Sta$in 0eha3ed #ith a mi8ture of trucu$ence6
0onhomie and 0uffoonery 6"il avait l0air de se "outre un peu de nous," one of the French
%uests $ater remar<ed)6 and it #as not ti$$ after de 1au$$e had made an an%ry and
s+ectacu$ar e8it that the 2ussians fina$$y decided to si%n the Franco,So3iet !act #ithout
the !o$ish Fcounter+artF6 e8ce+t for a 3ery minor face,sa3er: The 2ussians on$y si%ned
the !act in these conditions 0ecause they thou%ht it mi%ht sti$$ come in usefu$ at some
$ater date6 and #ou$d a$so he$+ the French 5ommunists: But6 throu%hout the de 1au$$e
3isit6 they made no secret of their $o# o+inion of France's contri0ution to the a$$ied #ar
effort6 and the idea of 0asin% the future security of Curo+e and of the So3iet *nion in the
first +$ace on a Franco,2ussian a$$iance struc< them as unrea$istic:
Sta$in did not raise a fin%er to %et de 1au$$e in3ited to (a$ta t#o months $ater: ?n
Decem0er 1944 #hat mattered to Sta$in #ere Britain and the *SA6 #ith their armies and
air forces and economic resources:
?t is more than im+ro0a0$e that Sta$in #ou$d ha3e a%reed to the 2hine frontier
inde+endent$y of them e3en if de 1tau$$e had a%reed to reco%nise the u0$in 5ommittee:
The on$y dea$ that Sta$in had +ro+osed #as the si%nin% of the Franco,So3iet !act (e3en at
the ris< of annoyin% 5hurchi$$) in e8chan%e for a French reco%nition of u0$in:
But to de 1au$$e this !act #as sti$$ im+ortant as +art of that Finde+endentF French +o$icy
Dthe FBet#een,Cast,and,9estF +o$icy Dthat he and Bidau$t tried (unsuccessfu$$y) to
+ursue for t#o years after the #ar:
C').&(+ XIII ALTERNATIAE POLICIES AND IDEOLO!IES
TOWARDS THE END O THE WAR
The $ast three months of 1944 #ere mar<ed 0y a 3ariety of 2ussian mi$itary cam+ai%ns in
+re+aration for the fina$ ons$au%ht on ;a>i 1ermany 0et#een Banuary and May 194-: ?n
the north the 2ed Army o3erran the Ba$tic 2e+u0$ics6 #here they met #ith a some#hat
mi8ed rece+tion from the +o+u$ation: There #ere Cstonian6 at3ian and ithuanian
formations in the 2ed Army6 and much #as a$so made in the So3iet +ress of a
5ommunist,ins+ired +artisan mo3ement in 0oth at3ia and ithuaniaL 0ut #hi$e6 in the
$ar%er cities $i<e Ta$$inn and 2i%a6 the #or<in%,c$ass #e$comed the 2ed Army #ith
a++arent enthusiasm6 the +easantry #ere $u<e#arm: The midd$e,c$ass6 and the many
%o3ernment officia$s #ho had more or $ess co$$a0orated #ith the 1ermans6 had either
fo$$o#ed them in their retreat6 or #ere no# $yin% $o#: A$$ three countries had their o#n
;a>is and their o#n 1esta+o men: 9hen ? #ent to Ta$$inn in @cto0er 19446 ? sa# furti3e
and an8ious $oo<s on a %ood many faces6 es+ecia$$y amon% the 0etter,dressed +eo+$e: The
;4AD #ere 0ecomin% 3ery acti3e6 and thousands of Ba$ts #ere to 0e de+orted in the
ne8t fe# years:
I ?n So$>henitsyn's famous Hne Da! in the (i"e o" Ivan Denisovich, se3era$ seemin%$y
=uite harm$ess Ba$ts fi%ure amon% the con3icts:K
By the end of @cto0er a$$ the three 2e+u0$ics #ere $i0erated6 #ith the e8ce+tion of the
5our$and +eninsu$a (#here thirty 1erman di3isions #ere to remain tra++ed ti$$ the end of
the #ar): By that time o3er 3"" s=uare mi$es of 1erman territory in Cast !russia had a$so
0een con=uered 0y the 2ussians: The %reat e8odus of the 1erman +o+u$ation from Cast
!russia had 0e%un6 many f$eein% to 4Tni%s0er%6 others further #est:
The fi%htin% for these sma$$ areas of 1erman territory had 0een e8treme$y hea3y: The
2ussians #ere a$so meetin% #ith 3ery stron% 1erman resistance in S$o3a<ia and
.un%ary6 #here the 2ed Army's +ro%ress #as 3ery much s$o#er than it had 0een in
2umania: Buda+est #as not to fa$$ ti$$ Fe0ruary 136 194-:
?n !o$and the front had 0ecome more or $ess sta0i$ised in Se+tem0er6 0ut it #as %enera$$y
e8+ected that the fina$ 0$o# at ;a>i 1ermany #ou$d 0e struc< from here:
Fi%htin%6 ho#e3er6 continued on the Sandomier> 0rid%ehead6 south of 9arsa# #hich the
1ermans #ere attac<in% #ith %reat determination: Amon% the 2ed Army so$diers there
#as no# a fee$in% of im+atienceDand distrust: ?n ;o3em0er 1944 ? #as sho#n a $etter
from a so$dier #ho #as fi%htin% Fsome#here in !o$andFD a++arent$y at Sandomier>:
A- 8(0#+(, I )" #$ "* 2)* &# B(+/,$. T+1(, 2( ")* $#& %(& &'(+( ,$ &,"(, 81& B(+/,$
,- .+(3,-(/* &'( ./)3( &')& 2( must +()3'. W( ')6( -100(+(5 ($#1%', )$5 2( 5(-(+6(
&'( +,%'& &# ($&(+ B(+/,$. O1+ D",/,&)+* +)$;D ($&,&/(- 1- &# ,&, 2',/( &'( A//,(- )+(
$#& ($&,&/(5 &# ,&. T'(* .+#8)8/* 2#1/5$<& 1$5(+-&)$5, 81& +,&C 1$5(+-&)$5- ,& #$/*
&## 2(//. H($3( &'( 0+)$&,3 +(-,-&)$3( 2,&' 2',3' 2( )+( "((&,$%. T'(* ;((. -'(//,$%
1- "#+$,$%, $##$ )$5 $,%'&, )$5 "1-& ')6( 8+#1%'& .+(&&* 2(// (6(+*&',$% &'(* ')5
,$ &'( 2(-&. T'(* #86,#1-/* .+(0(+ &# 8( /,3;(5 8* &'( A//,(-, )$5 $#& 8* 1-. I0 &')&
')..($(5, ,& 2#1/5 +()//* hurt 1-. I &+1-&, '#2(6(+, *#1 2,// -##$ '()+ -#"( %##5
$(2- 0+#" 1-. O1+ 0(//#2-< 01+* )$5 &',+-& 0#+ +(6($%( )0&(+ )// 2( ')6( -(($ )+(
"#+( ,$&($-( &')$ (6(+. E6($ ,$ &'( 5)*- #0 #1+ +(&+()& ,& 2)- $#&',$% /,;( ,&...
But the =uestion of #ho #ou$d reach Ber$in firstDand this had a$ready 0ecome a rea$
o0session #ith many 2ussian so$diersD#as no# thou%ht to 0e no $on%er a mi$itary6 0ut a
di+$omatic =uestion6 #hich #ou$d have to 0e sett$ed in the 2ussians' fa3our:
IAt any rate6 a$$ 2ussians #ere con3inced that there #as such a di+$omatic a%reement6
and the so$diers had no dou0t #hatsoe3er that the A$$ies could ha3e ta<en Ber$in had they
#anted to6 0ut that the A$$ied %o3ernments decided a%ainst it for +o$itica$ reasonsD
name$y6 so as not to anta%onise the 2ussians undu$y: As #e <no#6 Cisenho#er6 fearin%
that 1erman resistance mi%ht continue for a 3ery $on% time in the mountainous FSouthern
2edou0tF6 %a3e +riority o3er Ber$in to the occu+ation of southern 1ermany and #estern
Austria6 des+ite an%ry +rotests from 5hurchi$$ #ho thou%ht it +o$itica$$y of the utmost
im+ortance for the 9estern !o#ers to occu+y Ber$in 0efore the 2ussians %ot there: ?t has6
ne3erthe$ess6 0een su%%ested that there #as a Sta$in,2oose3e$t a%reement 0ehind
Cisenho#er's choice: But6 as Stettinius says: F? <no# of no e3idence to su++ort the char%e
that !resident 2oose3e$t a%reed at (a$ta that American troo+s shou$d not ca+ture Ber$in
ahead of the 2ed Army:F 6Boosevelt and the Bussians: The 'alta )on"erence, ondon
19-"6 +: &)4): The fact remains that had the 9estern !o#ers occu+ied Ber$in 0efore the
2ussians6 it #ou$d ha3e created 3io$ent anti,American fee$in% in 2ussia6 es+ecia$$y in the
Army: 2oose3e$t #as no dou0t a#are of it: By the time Truman too< o3er6 the fina$
2ussian offensi3e a%ainst Ber$in #as on the +oint of startin%:K
?t is +ro0a0$y true to say that the 2ed Army as a #ho$e #as +re+ared to $ose many
thousands of men in the Batt$e of Ber$in6 rather than see the British and Americans %et
there first #ith a minimum $oss of $ife: ?t #as6 o03ious$y6 a$so +o$itica$$y im+ortant6 from
the 2ussian stand+oint6 to record in e3ery 1erman mind the fact that Ber$in had not 0een
3o$untari$y surrendered to the 9estern A$$ies6 0ut had 0een con=uered 0y the 2ussians in
0$oody 0att$e:
A 3ery $ar%e num0er of ne# =uestions arose durin% the $atter ha$f of 19446 no# that the
#ar #as mo3in% to its c$oseD=uestions concernin% forei%n +o$icy6 interna$ +o$icy6 as
#e$$ as a 3ariety of cu$tura$ and ideo$o%ica$ +ro0$ems: A +arado8ica$ as+ect of 2ussia at
that time #as that the %i%antic human $osses it had suffered and the immense de3astation
#rou%ht 0y the retreatin% 1erman armies6 as #e$$ as %reat hardshi+s and shorta%es in
0oth to#n and country6 #ere com0ined #ith a nation,#ide fee$in% of +ride and an
immense sense of achie3ement:
The So3iet *nion #as faced #ith the 3ast +ro0$em of economic reconstruction and the at
$east e=ua$$y serious +o+u$ation +ro0$em: Today it is estimated that6 0y the end of the
#ar6 the So3iet *nion had $ost6 in one #ay or another6 a0out t#enty mi$$ion +eo+$e6
amon% them at $east se3en mi$$ion so$diers: A$thou%h no e8act fi%ures are a3ai$a0$e6 it
#ou$d seem that these se3en mi$$ion inc$ude some three mi$$ion so$diers #ho died in
1erman ca+ti3ity: Further6 se3era$ mi$$ion ci3i$ians died under the 1erman occu+ation6
inc$udin% a0out t#o mi$$ion Be#s #ho #ere massacred6 0esides the 3ictims of the
1erman anti,+artisan +uniti3e e8+editionsL a0out a mi$$ion +eo+$e died in enin%rad
a$one6 #hi$e the shar+ $o#erin% of $i3in% and food conditions throu%hout 2ussia6 the
shorta%e of medica$ su++$ies6 etc:6 must account for a fe# mi$$ion more deaths: Se3era$
hundred thousand a$so died in the 3arious e3acuations in 1941 and 194&6 in the strafin% of
refu%ees and the 0om0in%s of cities: Thus in Sta$in%rad a$one some )"6""" ci3i$ians #ere
<i$$ed:
@ne of the characteristic de3e$o+ments of 1944 #as the ne# Fami$y 5ode em0odied in
the Su+reme So3iet Decree of Bu$y J6 1944: The t#o main +ur+oses of the reform #ere to
discoura%e F$oose $i3in%F after the #ar6 and to increase the 0irth,rate: The decree
esta0$ished the @rder of FMother,.eroineF for mothers of ten or more $i3e chi$dren6 the
@rder (three c$asses) of FMother$y 1$oryF for mothers of nine6 ei%ht or se3en $i3e
chi$dren6 and the FMotherhood Meda$F (t#o c$asses) for mothers of si8 or fi3e $i3e
chi$dren: A +ro%ressi3e sca$e of monetary %rants #as $aid do#n: Thus6 at the 0irth of a
third chi$d the mother recei3ed 4"" rou0$es6 at the 0irth of the fourth6 163"" rou0$es6 and
so on6 ti$$ -6""" rou0$es for the tenth6 e$e3enth6 etc:6 chi$d: Cs+ecia$$y after the monetary
reform of 1947 it 0ecame +ositi3e$y %ood 0usiness to +roduce chi$dren ad in"initum5 The
system #as6 in su0stance6 not un$i<e the French allocations "amiliales esta0$ished after
the i0eration:
The same decree made di3orce 3ery much more difficu$t6 trou0$esome6 and cost$y than it
had 0een: The most contro3ersia$ +art of the decree concerned F$oneF (i:e: unmarried)
mothers: A$imony #as a0o$ished6 thou%h not retroacti3e$y: Monetary %rants #ere a$$o#ed
to unmarried mothers6 and they cou$d a$so6 if they #ished6 hand their chi$d6 or chi$dren6
o3er to a: State institution6 #ith the o+tion of c$aimin% them 0ac< at any time: This
measure #as dictated +art$y 0y #artime conditions #hich6 es+ecia$$y in the #ar >ones and
the ne#$y,$i0erated areas6 made it 0oth difficu$t and em0arrassin% to en=uire too c$ose$y
into a chi$d's +arenta%e: Second$y6 in 3ie# of the $ar%er num0er of #omen than men in
2ussia to#ards the end of the #ar6 this decree #as6 in fact6 intended to encoura%e the
+roduction of Fi$$e%itimateF chi$dren 0y re$ie3in% unmarried mothers of a$$6 or most of the
financia$ res+onsi0i$ity for them: The rather crude demo%ra+hic +rinci+$e under$yin% it
#as Fi$$e%itimate chi$dren6 rather than none at a$$F: ?n $ater years6 this +art of the 1944
decree #as to 0e se3ere$y criticised6 since6 #ith the encoura%ement it %a3e the
+rofessiona$ seducer6 it #ent counter to the Fcu$t of the fami$yF and that hi%h standard of
mora$s the rest of the decree #as stri3in% to 0rin% a0out6 nota0$y 0y ma<in% the
re%istration of marria%e com+u$sory 0efore the father cou$d incur any $e%a$ and financia$
res+onsi0i$ities for the chi$dren: De "acto marria%es6 #ithout re%istration6 #ere no $on%er
$e%a$$y 3a$id6 and the chi$dren remained officia$$y Ffather$essF6 e3en if the father #as a
mode$ fami$y man: The decree of Au%ust J6 19446 0esides +ro3idin% 3arious financia$
0enefits re$atin% to +re%nancy and confinement6 a$so im+osed a hea3y ta8 on 0ache$ors
o3er t#enty,fi3e and a sma$$er ta8 on cou+$es #ith fe#er than three chi$dren: The $a# of
193) +rohi0itin% a0ortion remained in force6 and #as not to 0e chan%ed unti$ many years
after the #ar:
As im+ortant as the +o+u$ation +ro0$em after the #ar #as that of the economic restoration
of the country: .undreds of cities and to#ns and thousands of 3i$$a%es had 0een #ho$$y
or +artia$$y destroyed 0y the 1ermans6 much $i3estoc< and a%ricu$tura$ machinery had
0een ta<en6 and the %reat =uestion that 0e%an to 0e discussed at to+ $e3e$ as ear$y as 1943
#as ho# this economic restoration #as to 0e financed: There #ere6 in +rinci+$e6 three
+ossi0$e sources: the So3iet *nion's o#n admitted$y de+$eted resourcesL a $ar%e forei%n
$oanDine3ita0$y from the *nited StatesL and6 fina$$y6 su0stantia$ 1erman re+arations in
<ind6 and simi$ar re+arations6 on a sma$$er sca$e6 from 1ermany's a$$ies: (The idea$ #ou$d
ha3e 0een a com0ination of a$$ three): The armistice terms acce+ted 0y Fin$and and
2umania in 1944 #ere the first e8am+$es of such $imited re+arations a%reements: Fin$and6
for e8am+$e6 a%reed to +ay 3"" mi$$ion do$$ars o3er a +eriod of si8 years6 $ater e8tended
to ei%ht years: At (a$ta6 Sta$in #as to +ro+ose that 1ermany +ay 2ussia ten 0i$$ion
do$$ars in <ind6 a fi%ure to #hich 5hurchi$$6 in +articu$ar6 stron%$y o0Hected:
A further source of Freconstruction e8+ensesF6 as the +ost,#ar years #ere to sho#6 #ere
the 3arious trade a%reements and other financia$ arran%ements made 0et#een 2ussia and
the countries of Castern Curo+e:
IThe (u%os$a3s #ere the first to re0e$ a%ainst such a%reements #hich #ere hi%h$y
ad3anta%eous to 2ussia6 0ut unfa3oura0$e to them:K
But this #as sti$$ in the future6 and the +ro0$em that +reoccu+ied Sta$in and the other
2ussian $eaders6 from 1943 on6 #as an American $oan of se3en 0i$$ion do$$ars or more:
American 3isitors to 2ussia6 re+resentin% im+ortant 0usiness interests6 such as Dona$d M:
;e$son and Cric Bohnston6 fa3oura0$e to a +ro%ramme of $ar%e,sca$e American e8+orts to
2ussia after the #ar6 and seein% this as a +recaution a%ainst a +ossi0$e +ost,#ar s$um+ in
the *SA6 #ere ta<en 3ery serious$y 0y the 2ussians6 es+ecia$$y at the hei%ht of the Bi%,
Three harmony6 rou%h$y 0et#een the midd$e of 1943 and the (a$ta 5onference in
Fe0ruary 194-: At the same time6 the 2ussians fe$t certain ideo$o%ica$ and +o$itica$
inhi0itions a0out such a $oan6 since they feared that e8cessi3e financia$ de+endence on
the *nited States mi%ht #e$$ %o counter to their o#n security considerations: !ut +erha+s
a $itt$e crude$y6 there #as a conf$ict 0et#een reconstruction and securit!5 S+eedy and
re$ati3e$y easy reconstruction meant a certain de+endence on the *nited States6 0ut it a$so
ine3ita0$y meant a %reat$y,reduced de%ree of So3iet contro$ o3er eastern Curo+e and +arts
of centra$ Curo+e6 #hich re+resented6 in the 2ussian mi$itary conce+tion of 1944,-6 an
indis+ensa0$e security +recaution a%ainst a ne# 1erman a%%ression or a%ainst any <ind of
a%%ression from the 9est: oose ta$< in the *nited States a0out a F#ar #ith 2ussia in
fifteen years' timeF had a$ready 0e%un in 19446 and #as to 0ecome more and more
#ides+read once the first American atom 0om0 had 0een dro++ed:
?n the end6 the American $oan of se3en 0i$$ion do$$ars came to nothin%: But it seems
certain that the 2ussian $eadershi+ #as to some e8tent di3ided on the =uestion and that6
inside the !arty itse$f6 there #ere rou%h$y three tendencies6 often in conf$ict inside the
minds of the same +eo+$e: There #ere6 to =uote 9i$$iam A++$eman 9i$$iams's definition6
the FsoftiesF6 the Fconser3ati3esF and the Fdoctrinaire re3o$utionariesF:
IThe Traged! o" /merican Diplomac! (;e# (or<6 19)&)6 ++: &&&,3:K
Since many So3iet $eaders com0ined a$$ three tendencies in 3aryin% de%rees6 it is
im+ossi0$e to say ho# $ar%e each Fschoo$ of thou%htF #as: The +attern a$so 3aried %reat$y
from year to year: There #ere certain$y far more FsoftiesF in 1944 than there #ere to 0e in
1947 or 194J:
!erha+s the most diehard FsoftyF #as it3ino36 #ho remained one e3en as $ate as 1947: ?
had a con3ersation #ith him at the rece+tion %i3en 0y Mo$oto3 on 2ed,Army Day in
Fe0ruary 1947 #hich thre# some $i%ht on #hat had ha++ened: Ta<in% me aside6 he
sudden$y started +ourin% his heart out: .e said he #as e8treme$y unha++y a0out the #ay
the 5o$d 9ar #as %ettin% #orse and #orse e3ery day: By the end of the #ar6 he said6
2ussia had had the choice of t#o +o$icies: one #as to Fcash in on the %ood#i$$ she had
accumu$ated durin% the #ar in Britain and the *nited States:F But the! (meanin% Sta$in
and Mo$oto3) had6 unfortunate$y6 chosen the other +o$icy: ;ot 0e$ie3in% that F%ood#i$$F
cou$d constitute the lasting 0asis for any <ind of +o$icy6 they had decided that FsecurityF
#as #hat mattered most of a$$6 and they had therefore %ra00ed a$$ they cou$d #hi$e the
%oin% #as %oodDmeanin% the #ho$e of eastern Curo+e and +arts of centra$ Curo+e: At
this +oint6 Ayshins<y #a$<ed +ast6 and %a3e us 0oth an e8ceedin%$y dirty $oo<: it3ino3
#as ne3er to a++ear at any +u0$ic rece+tion a%ain: ?3y it3ino3's rec<$ess indiscretions at
the same +artyDremar<s made for any0ody to hear Dadded to Mo$oto3's %reat
dis+$easure:
?n the end6 for a 3ariety of reasons6 it #as the Fconser3ati3eF +o$icy that +re3ai$ed6 i:e: the
+o$icy $yin% ha$f,#ay 0et#een the FsoftyF +o$icy and the F#or$d re3o$utionF +o$icy: The
Fconser3ati3eF +o$icy fina$$y ado+ted 0y Sta$in #as a reHection of the F#or$d re3o$utionF
idea6 at $east in any foreseea0$e future (his ad3ice that the 5ommunist F+atriotic mi$itiaF
0e dis0anded in France after the $i0eration is a case in +oint)L at the same time6 the
security of the So3iet *nion6 as he sa# it6 re=uired a strict 2ussian contro$ of eastern
Curo+e6 a contro$ that 0ecame increasin%$y strict as the co$d #ar de3e$o+ed: The most
im+ortant $andmar< in this +rocess #as the Fsta$inisationF of 5>echos$o3a<ia in Fe0ruary
194J:
The FsoftyF attitude #as not +erha+s #ides+read amon% the !arty hierarchy in 1943,46
0ut it certain$y #as amon% the %enera$ +u0$ic6 and most of a$$6 +erha+s6 amon% the
2ussian inte$$ectua$s: Their %reat 0e$ief #as that6 after the #ar:6 2ussia #ou$d 0e a0$e to
Fre$a8F:
?n Mosco#6 in +articu$ar6 there #ere some e8traordinary si%ns of re$a8ation 0y the midd$e
of 19446 #ith a <ind of foretaste of easier $i3in% conditions6 of +ost,#ar +ros+erity and of
a %ro#in% fri3o$ity in +u0$ic taste:
A$thou%h the Fcommercia$ restaurantsF and Fcommercia$ sho+sF #hich o+ened in A+ri$
1944 had nothin% to do #ith that ideo$o%ica$ FsoftnessF a%ainst #hich the !arty Hourna$s
#ere to +rotest 0efore $on%6 they undou0ted$y contri0uted to the easy,%oin% mood amon%
the more +ri3i$e%ed sections of the Mosco# +o+u$ation6 and e3en amon% #ider sections:
Forei%ners in Mosco#6 and es+ecia$$y the Cn%$ish6 #ith their ideas on #ar,time austerity6
#ere scanda$ised 0y anythin% so FundemocraticF as these sho+s and restaurants #here
+eo+$e #ith a $ot of money cou$d 0uy any $u8uries they $i<ed: ?n such restaurants6 a %ood
mea$6 inc$udin% drin<s6 cost a0out 3"" rou0$es or6 at the Fdi+$omaticF rate6 a0out X) +er
head: These sho+s and restaurants re+resented a sort of $e%a$ 0$ac< mar<et:
After a ruinous +arty for four at the Mos<3a 2estaurant on May,Day6 1944 (there #as a
Ha>> 0and +$ayin%6 and the mea$6 #ith t#o 0ott$es of #ine6 cost near$y X3") ? as<ed Boris
Aoite<ho36 the #riter6 a diehard +arty,man6 a0out the F+arty $ineF on these commercia$
restaurants:
FThis country6F he said6 Fis in a tra%ic +$i%ht after three years of #ar: oo< at our #omen6
for instance: 9hen ? see ho# they #or<D ho# they run our a%ricu$ture6 and $oo< after
their chi$dren6 thou%h tired and dirty and hun%ry6 ho# they dri3e steamshi+s and f$y
aero+$anesDit 0rin%s a $um+ to my throat: ?t affects me more e3en than the 2ed Army6
#ith its fearfu$ casua$ties: There are +eo+$e in our country #ho are $itera$$y dyin% of
hun%er: At first si%ht6 the commercia$ restaurants are a scanda$: But they are not: And ?'$$
te$$ you #hy: ?t is sentimenta$ democracy to say you mustn't a$$o# an officer on $ea3e to
ha3e a ni%ht out at the Mos<3a: 9hat he eats and drin<s is a dro+ in the ocean and #on't
he$+ the +oor and the star3in%: ?t is a$so a %ood thin% #hen a factory director from the
+ro3inces6 #ho has 0een re+ortin% on his #or< to the 4rem$in6 can %o some#here for a
decent mea$: ?t <ee+s him in %ood humour6 ma<es him thin< <ind$y of Mosco#6 and has a
%ood effect on his #or<: And e3en if there are t#enty or thirty croo<s and rac<eteers out
of e3ery hundred +eo+$e in the restaurant6 it doesn't matter: 5roo<s don't $ast $on% in our
country:F
!eo+$e #ere6 in fact6 %$ad to ha3e commercia$ restaurants and commercia$ sho+s to %o to:
Cs+ecia$$y the sho+s: These %a3e e3en the +oor$y,+aid a chance to ha3e an occasional
treat6 such as 0uyin% some choco$ates or cream ca<es6 e3en at an a0surd +rice6 and so6 for
once6 %ettin% somethin% different from the same dreary o$d rations: The restaurants #ere
most$y fre=uented 0y hi%h$y,+aid industria$ e8ecuti3es6 #riters6 artists and scientists and6
a0o3e a$$6 0y officers on $ea3e #ho #ere on$y too %$ad to F0$o#F a #ho$e month's uns+ent
sa$ary on a ni%ht out:
These commercia$ sho+s and restaurants #ere a$so +art of a $on%,term +o$icy for
re%u$atin% +rices in the *ol*hoz mar<ets6 and their introduction #as6 in fact6 to 0e a first
ste+ to#ards the a0o$ition of rationin% t#o years after the #ar6 after a further series of
+rice adHustments and the monetary reform:
But #hether commercia$ restaurants and sho+s #ere an economica$$y sound +ro+osition
or not in the $on% run6 0y the midd$e of 1944 they certain$y created a some#hat fri3o$ous
i$$usion of F0ac< to norma$F and +ost,#ar +ros+erity: And that at a time #hen a 3ery6 3ery
hard #ar #as sti$$ 0ein% fou%ht:
There #ere other si%ns of fri3o$ity and esca+ism: The famous chansonnier and diseur
A$e8ander Aertins<y6 after s+endin% more than t#enty years as an ido$ of the 2ussian
Nmi%rNs in !aris6 ;e# (or< and6 fina$$y6 Shan%hai6 turned u+ in Mosco#: .is recita$s of
FdecadentF son%s dre# immense cro#ds6 inc$udin% hundreds of so$diers and officers:
A$thou%h he #as ne3er re3ie#ed or ad3ertised in the +ress6 +osters announcin% Aertins<y
recita$s #ere stuc< u+ a$$ o3er Mosco#6 and the story #ent that he #as the +rotN%N of
hi%h,u+ ;4AD officia$s #ho $o3ed him after years of confiscatin% thousands of his
%ramo+hone records #hich tra3e$$ers had tried to smu%%$e into 2ussiaP Another theory
#as that he had 0een a So3iet s+y #hi$e +osin% as an Nmi%rN: The fact remains that his
son%s6 #ith their =uaint e8oticism6 #ere thorou%h$y esca+ist and #i$d$y +o+u$ar in the
Mosco# of 1944:
Both son%s and fi$ms #ere tendin% to 0ecome esca+ist: The most +o+u$ar son% hits in
1944 #ere t#o son%s 0y ;i<ita Bo%us$a3s<y from a fi$m ca$$ed The T:o PalsDThe Dar*
3ight and Kost!a, the Hdessa -ariner a$ready referred toL 0oth #ere $ater to 0e
denounced as e8am+$es either of esca+ism6 or of Fta3ern me$ancho$yFD *a4ats*a!a
melan*holi!a5
The 2ussian +eo+$e in 1944 $i<ed to thin< that $ife #ou$d soon 0e easier6 and that 2ussia
cou$d Fre$a8F after the #ar: The F$astin% a$$ianceF #ith Britain and the *SA had much to
do #ith it: ?n the midd$e of 1944 4onstantin Simono36 #ith his %enius for scentin% the
mood in the country6 +roduced a +$ay ca$$ed %o It $ill .e, in #hich officers home on
$ea3e #ere seen +re+arin% to sett$e do#n to a +$easant6 easy $ife in a nice Mosco# f$at6
#here e3en that +ro3er0ia$ 0u$$y6 the upravdom, the mana%er of the 0$oc< of f$ats6 #as a
+ersonification of <indness and efficiency: FThe #ounds of #ar6 ho#e3er dee+6 #i$$ soon
hea$6F one of the officers said: And another6 after somethin% of a crise de conscience,
decided that his #ife and chi$d6 #ho had 0een missin% for years in 1erman,occu+ied
territory6 must 0e considered as fina$$y $ost6 and that he mi%ht as #e$$ start $ife a%ain #ith
a +rofessor's s#eet youn% dau%hter: ?t #as the 3ery antithesis of the $ait "or -e mood of
Simono3's 1941,& +oetry: ?n 1944 the cinemas #ere sho#in% American fi$ms6 amon%
them a +articu$ar$y inane Deanna Dur0in fi$m6 for #hich thousands =ueued for hours:
Some !arty mem0ers #ere fu$$ of easy%oin% ideas: @ne 3ery tou%h !arty mem0er
remar<ed to me in 1944: F9e a$so ha3e our softies in the !artyD+eo+$e #ho thin< of the
future of An%$o,So3iet and American,So3iet re$ations in terms of the .ritans*! %o!uzni*
I The British Ministry of ?nformation #ee<$y #hich so$d a0out -"6""" co+ies in those
days:K #ith its sic<$y ru00ish a0out '4"" (ears of An%$o,2ussian Friendshi+': ?t is hi%h
time they read some enin:F
C3en some notorious$y tou%h +arty mem0ers #ere not =uite immune a%ainst this re$a8ed
atmos+here: Thus6 in the summer of 19446 #ith the Second Front in fu$$ s#in%6 the #riter
Ase3o$od Ayshne3s<y remar<ed at a A@4S I Society for 5u$tura$ 2e$ations #ith Forei%n
5ountries:K +arty (may0e he #ou$d not ha3e made the same remar<s any#here e$se):
W'($ &'( 2)+ ,- #6(+, /,0( ,$ R1--,) 2,// 8(3#"( 6(+* ./()-)$&. A %+()& /,&(+)&1+(
2,// 8( .+#513(5 )- ) +(-1/& #0 #1+ 2)+ (B.(+,($3(-. T'(+( 2,// 8( "13' 3#",$% )$5
%#,$%, 2,&' ) /#& #0 3#$&)3&- 2,&' &'( W(-&. E6(+*8#5* 2,// 8( )//#2(5 &# +()5
)$*&',$% '( /,;(-. T'(+( 2,// 8( (B3')$%(- #0 -&15($&-, )$5 0#+(,%$ &+)6(/ 2,// 8(
")5( ()-*.
?t #as e3en #ide$y su%%ested that $i%ht readin% #ou$d 0e encoura%ed: Thus6 there #as a
scheme for startin% a $i0rary of thri$$ers and detecti3e stories in 2ussianDmost$y
trans$ated from Cn%$ishD under the %enera$ editorshi+ of Ser%ei Cisenstein6 that %reat
$o3er of 9estern thri$$ers:
The first serious #arnin% a%ainst these F9esternF and F0our%eoisF tendencies came from
a certain So$odo3ni<o36 #ritin% in the officia$ !arty ma%a>ine .olshevi*, in @cto0er
1944:
R(3($&/* 6,(2- ')6( 8(($ (B.+(--(5 ,$ 6)+,#1- 91)+&(+- &# &'( (00(3& &')&, )0&(+ &'(
2)+, )+& )$5 /,&(+)&1+( 2,// 0#//#2 &'( D()-* +#)5D, )$5 2,//, ,$ &'( 0,+-& ./)3(, 8(
3)/31/)&(5 &# ($&(+&),$. T'( -1..#+&(+- #0 &',- 6,(2 &)/; #0 &'( 5(6(/#."($& #0 /,%'&
3#"(5* )$5 #&'(+ &'#1%'&/(-- 0#+"- #0 ($&(+&),$"($&, )$5 #8:(3& &# 8,% )$5 -(+,#1-
-18:(3&- 8(,$% ,$3/15(5 ,$ )+& )$5 /,&(+)&1+(. S13' 6,(2- +(3(,6( -1..#+& 0+#" .)+&
#0 #1+ )15,($3(-. S13' &($5($3,(- "1-& 8( 0#1%'&. T'(* )+( +()3&,#$)+*, )$5 ,$ 0/)&
3#$&+)5,3&,#$ 2,&' &'( L($,$-S&)/,$ 6,(2 &')& )+& ,- ) .#2(+01/ 2().#$ #0 )%,&)&,#$
)$5 (513)&,#$ )"#$% &'( ")--(-.
.e not on$y fumed a%ainst Ffri3o$ousF art6 0ut a$so a%ainst FrefinedF art #hich #as
ca$cu$ated on$y for Fthe 0$oated u++er ten thousandF:
@n the #ho$e6 ho#e3er6 he s+o<e hi%h$y of So3iet $iterary and artistic +roduction durin%
the #arDand #as +articu$ar$y enthusiastic a0out the music +roduced 0y Shosta<o3ich6
!ro<ofie36 Mias<o3s<y6 4hachaturian and She0a$in:
IA$$ these #ere to 0e fierce$y denounced as Fforma$istsF in 194J:
(see the author's -usical &proar in -osco:, ondon6 1949):K
.e a$so #arned 2ussian artists a%ainst a+in% F9estern6 es+ecia$$y 1ermanFIThis #as a
+o$ite #ay of a3oidin% any mention of Britain and the
*SA:K mode$s and de+$ored the #artime tendency to #a8 enthusiastic o3er i<ons and
re$i%ious music6 mere$y on the %round that they formed +art of the 2ussian Fnationa$
herita%eF6 a mar<ed de+arture from the 1941,& $ine:
The ra+id succession of e3ents in 1944 raised a num0er of other ne# +ro0$ems in the eyes
of the !arty: Dee+ 0e$o# the surface6 there #as a fundamenta$ ri3a$ry 0et#een the !arty
and the Army: Durin% the first three years of the #ar6 the !arty #as usua$$y on$y too %$ad
to identify itse$f #ith the Army: But #ith the end of the #ar in si%ht6 it decided that it #as
time to re%ain somethin% of its former identity: Durin% the first t#o years of the #ar6 the
em+hasis in near$y a$$ officia$ +ro+a%anda had 0een on F.o$y 2ussiaF6 and it no# seemed
im+ortant to re3i3e a %reater So3iet,consciousness: The !arty a$so had to ta<e account of
the fact that many +eo+$e in the occu+ied areas had 0een demora$ised 0y ;a>i
+ro+a%anda and 0y the re,introduction of +ri3ate enter+rise (on$y sma$$,sca$e6 0ut sti$$
+ri3ate enter+rise)6 that the 2ed Army #as no# fi%htin% in F0our%eoisF countries6 #hich
created a num0er of ne# +sycho$o%ica$ +ro0$ems:
For the first t#o or three years of the #ar (#hate3er #as said $ater to the contrary) there
had 0een a tendency for the !arty to %et $ost in the cro#d: Cs+ecia$$y in the Army6 the
!arty had 0ecome di$uted 0y the easy admission of ne# mem0ers6 #hose num0ers had
%ro#n 0et#een 1941 and 1944 from a0out t#o to si8 mi$$ion:
?n 1944 there came a chan%e: Pravda of Bune &46 1944 sti$$ +$aced the 5ommunist's
practical :artime value a0o3e a$$ other =ua$ities:
P(+-#$)/ 91)/,&,(- )+(, )& &'( .+(-($& &,"(, &(-&(5, )8#6( )//, 8* &'( .)+&* 3)$5,5)&(<-
3#$&+,81&,#$ &# &'( -&+1%%/( 2,&' &'( ($("*. E6(+* 3)$5,5)&( #+ "("8(+ #0 &'(
P)+&* "1-& 8( ,$ &'( 0+#$& +)$; #0 &'#-( 3)++*,$% #1& &'( +(91,+(5 ",/,&)+*,
(3#$#",3 #+ .#/,&,3)/ &)-;-. T'( C#""1$,-& )& &'( 0+#$& "1-& 8( 8+)6( )$5
-.#$&)$(#1-/* 2,//,$% &# 5# &'( "#-& 5)$%(+#1- :#8-. T')& ,- 2'* &'( C#""1$,-&<-
)1&'#+,&* ,- -# ',%' ,$ &'( R(5 A+"*, )$5 2'* '1$5+(5- #0 &'#1-)$5- #0 -#/5,(+-,
8(0#+( %#,$% ,$&# 8)&&/(, $#2 )../* 0#+ "("8(+-',..
But6 0y Se+tem0er 19446 0ra3ery #as no $on%er enou%h: As Bed %tar #rote on Se+tem0er
&7:
T'( ,5(#/#%,3)/ &+),$,$% #0 "("8(+- ,- $#2 "#+( $(3(--)+* &')$ (6(+. T'( P)+&*
#+%)$,-)&,#$- ,$ &'( A+"* ')6( 5#$( "13' ,$ &',- +(-.(3&E81& $#& ($#1%'. T'(
A+"*<- P)+&* O+%)$,-)&,#$- /)+%(/* 3#$-,-& #0 *#1$% .)+&* "("8(+- )$5 )+( 8(,$%
+(./($,-'(5 8* "#+( *#1$% "($ /ho have been tested as brave soldiers but /ho,
politically, are insu**iciently e0perienced. M#+( )&&($&,#$ "1-& 8( %,6($ &# &'(
,5(#/#%,3)/ 1.8+,$%,$% #0 3)$5,5)&(- )$5 "("8(+-.
S(3#$5/*... &'( 0+#$& $#2 +1$- through territory outside our borders. -o *ind his /ay
about in these ne/ conditions, a :ommunist needs a sound ideological e.uipment
more than ever 4(".')-,- )55(57.
As the #ar #as mo3in% to its c$ose the admission of ne# !arty mem0ers #as ti%htened
u+: F9hat #e need no# is not =uantity 0ut =ua$ity6F Bed %tar #rote on ;o3em0er 16 thus
com+$ete$y a0andonin% its ear$ier +osition: ?t no# reca$$ed that the ru$es of admission to
the !arty had 0een re$a8ed ear$y in the #ar6 and no# ar%ued that far too many +eo+$e6
inc$udin% so$diers #ho had ne3er 0een in any 0att$e at a$$6 had 0een admitted to the !arty:
I ?t reca$$ed the t#o decrees of Au%ust and Decem0er 19416 the $atter issued at the hei%ht
of the Batt$e of Mosco#: *nder this any officer or so$dier F#ho has distin%uished himse$f
in 0att$eF cou$d 0e admitted to the !arty after a three months' candidate sta%e:K
The !arty's re+resentati3es #ithin the Army had often Fmisused the authority %i3en themF
and had admitted far too many +eo+$e into the !arty: ;o#6 Fthe chief o0Hect of the
Army's +arty or%anisations must 0e the ideo$o%ica$,+o$itica$ education of communists and
their a0sor+tion into !arty #or<:F The same $ine #as ta<en 0y .olshevi* in @cto0er 1944
#hich dec$ared: F?n the com+$e8 internationa$ situation facin% the So3iet *nion6 the !arty
mem0er needs a com+ass6 and there is no 0etter one than Mar8ist,eninism:F ?t
recommended the intensi3e study of the Sta$inist %hort Histor! o" the )ommunist Part!5
The same .olshevi* artic$e then referred to t#o recent 5entra$ 5ommittee decrees #hich
concerned ne#$y $i0erated areas: ?t #as remar<a0$y outs+o<en in commentin% on the
5entra$ 5ommittee's Decree on Be$orussia:
I5(#/#%,3)/ )$5 .#/,&,3)/ (513)&,#$ ,- #0 (B3(.&,#$)/ ,".#+&)$3( ,$ &'( $(2/*-
/,8(+)&(5 )+()-... T'( ($("* ')- -.+()5 &'( .#,-#$ #0 +)3,)/,-& &'(#+,(- ,$ &'(-(
)+()-, ,$3,&,$% U;+),$,)$- )%),$-& R1--,)$-, B(/#+1--,)$- )%),$-& L,&'1)$,)$-,
E-&#$,)$- )%),$-& R1--,)$-, (&3... T'( N)C, ,$6)5(+- ')6( )/-# ,$0/)"(5 .+,6)&(-
.+#.(+&* ,$-&,$3&- )"#$% &'(-( .(#./(-. T'(* /,91,5)&(5 &'( kolkhozes, 5,-&+,81&(5
&'( /)$5 )"#$% !(+")$ 3#/#$,-&-, 5(-&+#*(5 &'( ,$&(//,%($&-,), ($3#1+)%(5 &+)5,$%
)$5 .+#0,&((+,$%, )$5 ./)*(5 #00 2#+;(+- )$5 .()-)$&- )%),$-& ()3' #&'(+...
?n short6 +o$itica$ education in these ne#$y,$i0erated areas must 0e intensified: And
.olshevi* a$so em+hasised a num0er of a#<#ard facts se$dom6 if e3er6 mentioned in the
dai$y +ress at the time:
W',&( (",%+)$&-, U;+),$,)$ $)&,#$)/,-&-, B)$5(+), B1/8) )$5 M(/$,-;#6 8)$5- )+(
8(,$% (B&($-,6(/* 1-(5 8* &'( !(+")$- ,$ &'( U;+),$(... T'(-( 3#$&(".&,8/(
0/1$;(*- #0 H,&/(+ ./)3(5 &'(,+ $)&,#$)/,-& -/#%)$- )& &'( -(+6,3( #0 !(+")$
,".(+,)/,-", )$5 )/-# )3&,6(/* .)+&,3,.)&(5 ,$ &'( ")--)3+(- #+%)$,-(5 8* &'(
!(+")$-.
IThe massacres o03ious$y refer to the massacres of Be#s6 thou%h these are6 as usua$6 not
s+ecifica$$y mentioned:K
T'( P)+&* #+%)$,-)&,#$- "1-& ,$&($-,0* &'(,+ 2#+;, (-.(3,)//* ,$ &'( +1+)/ )+()- #0
&'( U;+),$(. T'(* "1-& +("("8(+ &')& 1$&,/ &',- !(+")$-U;+),$,)$ $)&,#$)/,-" ,-
3#"./(&(/* 2((5(5 #1&, &'( +(-&#+)&,#$ #0 &'( U;+),$,)$ (3#$#"* )$5 $)&,#$)/
31/&1+( ,- ,".#--,8/(.
But #hat #orried the !arty a0o3e a$$6 +erha+s6 #as the #ides+read ho+e6 0oth in the
$i0erated territories6 and inside the /rm!, #ith its mi$$ions of +easant conscri+ts6 that the
*ol*hoz system #ou$d 0e Fchan%edF:
W
?f the 1ermans6 des+ite the %enera$ 0east$iness of their occu+ation rN%ime6 had succeeded6
on the 2ussians' o#n admission6 in creatin% anti,So3iet moods in 0oth Be$orussia and the
*<raine6 +articu$ar$y amon% +ri3ate,enter+rise enthusiasts6 there #as6 o03ious$y6 a$so a
+ara$$e$ dan%er of 2ussian so$diers 0ecomin% infected 0y their contact #ith the 0our%eois
#ay of $ife in countries $i<e 2umania6 !o$and6 .un%ary and 5>echos$o3a<ia:
The +ro0$em #as not6 of course6 entire$y ne#: ?n 1939 the 2ed Army had occu+ied
eastern !o$and and6 in 194"6 the Ba$tic States: There had then 0een a rush 0y So3iet
citi>ens6 on one +rete8t or another6 to #o# and Ta$$inn and 2i%a to 0uy u+ trun<fu$s of
c$othes6 and shoes and hand0a%s #hi$e stoc<s $asted: But that had 0een re$ati3e$y sma$$
stuff: ;o# hundreds of thousands6 or mi$$ions of 2ussian so$diers #ere seein% countries
#here housin% conditions #ere often 0etter than in 2ussia6 #here farms #ere more
+ros+erous,$oo<in%6 and #here there #as sti$$ somethin% to 0e 0ou%ht in the sho+s:
2umania in 1944 #as not o3erf$o#in% #ith consumer %oods6 0ut there #as much more to
0e found in the Bucharest de+artment stores than in the com+$ete$y 0are sho+s in the
So3iet *nion: A0out that time ? remem0er 4onstantin Simono3 #earin% in Mosco# a
#onderfu$$y $oud t#eed suit ac=uired in Bucharest: And6 unti$ further notice6 2umania
#as %oin% to remain a F0our%eois countryFL Mosco# had assured the 9estern a$$ies that
no chan%es in 2umania's Fsocia$ structureF #ere contem+$ated: There #as a$$ the more
reason to de0un< the 9estern #ay of $ife6 as seen in 2umania6 and to #arn 2ussians
a%ainst 0ein% ta<en in 0y the Ftinse$F of Bucharest:
Ty+ica$ of this cam+ai%n #as a series of artic$es 0y eonid So0o$e3 in Pravda in
Se+tem0er 1944:
)$&)-&,3 T+)$-$,(-&+,) ')- )%),$ 8(3#"( &'( S#6,(& .+#6,$3( #0 O5(--). T'(
1$0#+&1$)&( R1")$,)$ .(#./( ')6( ')5 &# .)* ",//,#$- (sic) #0 /,6(- 0#+ &')&
-.(3&)3/(... O1+ S#6,(& .(#./( 2(+( 1$,&(5, )$5 &')& ,- 2'* 2( ')6( 2#$. H(+( ,$
R1")$,) ,& ,- 5,00(+($&: #$ &'( #$( ')$5 &'(+( )+( &'( R1")$,)$ .(#./(, #$ &'(
#&'(+, &'( .#/,&,3)/ )56($&1+(+-... W')& .)&+,#&- &'(+( 2(+( ,$ R1")$,) 2(+( /#-& ,$
) 8(2,/5(+(5, 8(0155/(5 3+#25... R1")$,)$ ,$&(//(3&1)/- &(// "( &')& ,$ 19@9 )//
+(-,-&)$3( &# H,&/(+ 2#1/5 ')6( 8(($ 1-(/(--... O$( 2#1/5 &',$; &')& #$( ")$<-
+(-,-&)$3( &# #$( &)$; 2#1/5 )/-# 8( 1-(/(--E *(& -13' &',$%- ')..($(5 )&
S(8)-&#.#/.
After a satirica$ and contem+tuous descri+tion of Bucharest6 #ith Fits tinse$6 3u$%arity and
commercia$ismF6 its Fsic<enin% crin%in% to the 2ed ArmyF6 and its F#e$$,dressed +eo+$e
sittin% at cafN ta0$esF6 and Ftraders and s+ecu$ators6 sittin% on the hi%h seats of horse,
carria%es6 and $oo<in% $i<e o$d +osters of 4urzhuis", So0o$e3 then said that Fthis tinse$ of
BucharestF #as not ty+ica$ of 2umania: At 5onstan>a there #ere J"6""" +eo+$e6 0ut not a
sin%$e theatre6 no concert ha$$6 no $oca$ ne#s+a+er and on$y t#o secondary and t#o
e$ementary schoo$s:
DW( -')// .)-- &'+#1%' ")$* 0#+(,%$ 3#1$&+,(- *(&. S#/5,(+-H *#1+ (*(- 2,// #0&($ 8(
5)CC/(5? 81& 5# $#& 8( 5(3(,6(5 8* &'(-( #1&2)+5 -,%$- #0 &'(,+ -#-3)//(5 3,6,/,-)&,#$H
R("("8(+, +()/ 31/&1+( ,- &')& 2',3' *#1 3)++* 2,&' *#1... W'($ &'( 2)+ ,- #6(+,
0#+(,%$ $)&,#$- 2,// +(-1"( &'(,+ #2$ /,6(-, 81& &'(+( 2,// )/2)*- +("),$ ,$ &'(,+
'()+&- &'( "("#+* #0 *#1+ %+()& '1")$ 31/&1+(, #0 &'( -#1/ #0 &'( S#6,(& .(#./(E#0
&')& .(#./( 2'# -'(5 &'(,+ 8/##5 -# &')& ",//,#$- ",%'& 8( 0+(( )$5 ')..*.D
.e then #ent on to say that the 2umanian countryside #as +oor6 and that a$$ the $oot #ent
to Bucharest:
R1,(&/*, 2,&' )$ ,+#$,3)/ -",/(, #1+ -#/5,(+- ")+3' )/#$% &'(-( -1".&1#1- -&+((&-...
T'( R1")$,)$- ')5 (B.(3&(5 DR1--,)$ 8()-&-D &# ($&(+ &'( 3,&*. T'(* 2(+(
(B.(3&,$% "1+5(+ )$5 +#88(+* )$5 +).(. N#&',$% /,;( &')& ')..($(5... A 0(2
8)$5,&- ,$ R1--,)$ 1$,0#+" 2'# 2(+( 3)1%'& &1+$(5 #1& &# 8( R1")$,)$ 5(-(+&(+-...
So3iet comments on the S$a3 countriesDBu$%aria6 (u%os$a3ia6 5>echos$o3a<iaD#ere
some#hat different6 e3en thou%h these6 too6 had their F#e$$,dressed +eo+$e sittin% at cafN
ta0$esFDes+ecia$$y 5>echos$o3a<ia: For one thin%6 there #as more %ood fee$in% for the
2ussians there than there #as in 2umania6 $et a$one .un%ary:
A$so6 #hate3er officia$ #riters said6 the 2ussian so$diers #ere far from a$#ays 0ein%
%a$$ant <ni%hts in shinin% armour: ?f6 in the southern and centra$,Curo+ean S$a3 countries6
their conduct #as reasona0$y %ood (thou%h far from +erfectDthe (u%os$a3s had a %reat
dea$ to say $ater on that score)6 it #as #orse in 2umania and #orse sti$$ in .un%ary and
Austria: ;or #as it 0y any means e8em+$ary in !o$and: Sometimes this conduct 3aried
from army to army: Ma$ino3s<y's troo+s had a #orse re+utation than others6 and the
4a>a<hs and other Asiatics sometimes emu$ated their fore0ears6 the #arriors of 1en%his
4han6 es+ecia$$y in 1ermany6 #here anythin% from #rist,#atches to youn% 0oys attracted
their co3etous attention:
?t is not denied 0y the 2ussians themse$3es that some 2ussian troo+s ran #i$d6 es+ecia$$y
in 1ermanyL 0ut here there #ere6 of course6 some #ei%hty e8tenuatin% circumstances:
PART EI!HT A,3&#+*EA$5 &'( S((5- #0 &'(
C#/5 W)+
C').&(+ I INTO !ERMANY
The fina$ 2ussian offensi3e a%ainst 1ermany6 #hich #as not to sto+ unti$ her ca+itu$ation
near$y four months $ater6 0e%an on Banuary 1&: @n the fo$$o#in% day the 2ussians
+u0$ished this communi=uN:
T'( &+##.- #0 &'( 1-& U;+),$,)$ +#$& 1$5(+ M)+-')/ K#$(6 4C',(0 #0 S&)00,
!($(+)/ S#;#/#6-;*7 &##; &'( #00($-,6(, #$ J)$1)+* 1M ,$ &'( )+() 2(-& #0
S)$5#",(+C )$5, 5(-.,&( 8)5 2()&'(+, 2',3' ")5( ),+ -1..#+& ,".#--,8/(, 8+#;(
&'+#1%' &'( ($("*<- -&+#$% 5(0($3(- )/#$% ) &2($&*-0,6( ",/( 0+#$&. O1+ )+&,//(+*
8)++)%( 2)- 5(3,-,6(. I$ &2# 5)*- &'( &+##.- )56)$3(5 &2($&*-0,6( ",/(- )$5 &'(
2,5&' #0 &'( 8+();&'+#1%' ,- $#2 0#+&* ",/(-. @5L /#3)/,&,(- ')6( 8(($ #331.,(5.
The statement that the 2ussian offensi3e #as started F#ithout air su++ortF had a
di+$omatic story 0ehind it:
?n 194J the 2ussian Forei%n Ministry +u0$ished the $etters e8chan%ed 0et#een 5hurchi$$
and Sta$in 0efore and durin% this Banuary offensi3e:
After the 1ermans had $aunched their Ardennes @ffensi3e6 #hich had +$aced the An%$o,
American troo+s in a Fdifficu$t +ositionF (the 2ussian +u0$ication said)6 and Britain #as
threatened #ith Fa second Dun<ir<F6 5hurchi$$ sent the fo$$o#in% messa%e to Sta$in on
Banuary )6 194-:
T'( 8)&&/( ,$ &'( 2(-& ,- 6(+* '()6* )$5, )& )$* &,"(, /)+%( 5(3,-,#$- ")* 8( 3)//(5
0#+ 0+#" &'( S1.+("( C#"")$5. Y#1 ;$#2 *#1+-(/0... '#2 6(+* )$B,#1- &'(
.#-,&,#$ ,- 2'($ ) 6(+* 8+#)5 0+#$& ')- &# 8( 5(0($5(5 )0&(+ &(".#+)+* /#-- #0 &'(
,$,&,)&,6(. I& ,- !($(+)/ E,-($'#2(+<- %+()& 5(-,+( )$5 $((5 &# ;$#2 ,$ #1&/,$( 2')&
*#1 ./)$ &# 5#... =C)$ 2(> 3#1$& #$ ) "):#+ R1--,)$ #00($-,6( #$ &'( A,-&1/) 0+#$&,
#+ (/-(2'(+(, 51+,$% J)$1)+*I... I +(%)+5 &'( ")&&(+ )- 1+%($&
@n the ne8t day Sta$in re+$ied that it #as F3ery im+ortant to ma<e use of our su+eriority
in arti$$ery and aircraftF6 for #hich c$ear #eather #as essentia$Dand the #eather
+ros+ects #ere 0adD0ut Fin 3ie# of the +osition of our a$$ies on the 9estern Front6
.ead=uarters of the ISo3ietK Su+reme 5ommand has decided to com+$ete the
+re+arations at a forced +ace and6 disre%ardin% the #eather6 to $aunch #ide,sca$e
offensi3e o+erations a%ainst the 1ermans a$$ a$on% the 5entra$ Front not $ater than the
second ha$f of Banuary:F
@n Banuary 96 5hurchi$$ re+$ied #ith o3er#he$min% %ratitude:
DI )" "#-& %+)&(01/ &# *#1 0#+ *#1+ &'+,//,$% "(--)%(. I ')6( -($& ,& #6(+ &# !($(+)/
E,-($'#2(+ 0#+ ',- (*(- #$/*. M)* )// %##5 0#+&1$( +(-& 1.#$ *#1+ $#8/( 6($&1+(.
T'( $(2- *#1 %,6( "( 2,// 8( ) %+()& ($3#1+)%("($& &# !($(+)/ E,-($'#2(+
8(3)1-(... !(+")$ +(,$0#+3("($&- 2,// ')6( &# 8( -./,&.D
The 2ussian offensi3e #as du$y $aunched on the 1&thDe3en ear$ier than Sta$in had
+romised: fi3e days $ater6 5hurchi$$ ca0$ed to Sta$in than<in% him Ffrom the 0ottom of his
heartF and con%ratu$atin% him on Fthe immense assau$t you ha3e $aunched u+on the
Castern Front:F
ater6 in Fe0ruary6 in an @rder of the Day6 Sta$in c$aimed that the 2ussian offensi3e had
undou0ted$y sa3ed the situation in the 9est: FThe first conse=uence of our #inter
offensi3e #as to th#art the 1erman #inter offensi3e in the 9est6 #hich aimed at the
sei>ure of Be$%ium and A$sace6 and ena0$e the armies of our a$$ies6 in their turn6 to $aunch
an offensi3e a%ainst the 1ermans:F
5hurchi$$6 #hi$e =uotin% some of this corres+ondence6 %i3es it rather $ess dramatic
si%nificance: .e descri0es it6 ne3erthe$ess6 as Fa %ood e8am+$e of the s+eed at #hich
0usiness cou$d 0e done at the summit of the a$$iance:F A$so6 Fit #as a fine deed of the
2ussians and their chief to hasten this 3ast offensi3e6 no dou0t at hea3y cost in $ife:
Cisenho#er #as 3ery +$eased indeed:F
I5hurchi$$6 o+: cit:6 3o$: A?6 +: &44: @n the other hand6 5hester 9i$mot6 in descri0in% the
mi$itary e3ents in the 9est in Decem0er 1944,Banuary 194- in The %truggle "or Europe
%reat$y minimises the effect of the 2ussian offensi3e on the situation on the 9estern
Front:K
@n Banuary 146 t#o days after 4one3's thrust from the Sandomier> 0rid%ehead6 the 1st
Be$orussian Front under Marsha$ Ohu<o3 (5hief of Staff6 1enera$ Ma$inin) struc< out
from their t#o 0rid%eheads south of 9arsa#6 and from another one to the north: After
surroundin% 9arsa#6 the t#o %rou+s entered the !o$ish ca+ita$ (or rather6 its ruins) on the
17th: *nits of the !o$ish Army too< +art in this o+eration:
The timin% of the 2ussian offensi3e on the midd$e Aistu$a a++ears to ha3e come as a
sur+rise to the 1erman .i%h 5ommand: True6 an e3entua$ 2ussian thrust in the F9arsa#,
Ber$in directionF #as to 0e e8+ected6 and the 1ermans had 0ui$t se3en defence $ines
0et#een the Aistu$a and the @der: But in Banuary they e8+ected that6 0efore attac<in%
here6 the 2ussians #ou$d try to destroy the thirty 1erman di3isions tra++ed in 5our$and
and a$so stri<e their hea3iest 0$o# in .un%ary: The concentration of 1erman forces a$on%
the midd$e Aistu$a #as therefore not as %reat as it mi%ht ha3e 0een: The enormous
su+eriority the 2ussians achie3ed in this Fsector of the main 0$o#F may 0e %au%ed from
the fo$$o#in% fi%ures =uoted 0y the %oviet Histor!5
T'( 1-& B(/#+1--,)$ )$5 1-& U;+),$,)$ +#$&- ')5 16@ 5,6,-,#$-, @M,14@ %1$- )$5
"#+&)+-, 6,46L &)$;- )$5 "#8,/( %1$- )$5 4,KKM ),+3+)0&. T'( &#&)/ (00(3&,6(- 2(+(
M,MLL,LLL "($. T'1- 2( ')5 ,$ &'( W)+-)2-B(+/,$ 5,+(3&,#$ =)& &'( 8(%,$$,$% #0 &'(
#00($-,6(> 5.5 &,"(- "#+( "($ &')$ &'( ($("*, K.N &,"(- "#+( %1$-, 5.K &,"(- "#+(
&)$;-, )$5 1K.6 &,"(- "#+( ./)$(-.
=?A@ASS6 3o$: A6 +: -7: This %reat su+eriority #as6 of course6 far from 0ein% maintained
throu%hout the su0se=uent fi%htin%L #ith the 1ermans thro#in% in reser3es6 there #as to
0e some e8treme$y 0itter fi%htin% in many areas for the ne8t four months6 e:%: on the
@der6 at 4Tni%s0er%6 etc:K
Further north6 the troo+s of 2o<osso3s<y's &nd Be$orussian Front a$so struc< out:
By the 1Jth the #ho$e +icture #as c$ear: 4one3 #as o3errunnin% southern !o$and on his
#ay to Si$esiaL Ohu<o36 centra$ !o$and to#ards the heart of 1ermanyL 2o<osso3s<y6
northern !o$and on the #ay to Dan>i%: Meantime in the south6 1enera$ !etro3 (4th
*<rainian Front) #as ad3ancin% in the 5ar+athians and6 in the north6 5hernia<ho3s<y
(3rd Be$orussian Front) #as 0rea<in% dee+ into Cast !russia:
A fe# dates and +$ace names shou$d suffice to i$$ustrate the success of this offensi3e:
Banuary 1J 2o<osso3s<y ca+tured the fortress of Mod$in: 4one3 ca+tured !iotr<o#:
Banuary 19 4one3 ca+tured 5raco#6 a$most intact:
Banuary &" 5hernia<ho3s<y ca+tured Ti$sitt in Cast !russia:
Banuary &1 5hernia<ho3s<y ca+tured 1um0innen6 and 2o<osso3s<y Tannen0er%6 a$so in
Cast !russia:
Banuary &3 Ohu<o3 ca+tured By%dos>c> (Brom0er%) and 4one3 0ro<e into Si$esia and
reached the @der a$on% a forty,mi$e front:
Banuary &4,&) Ohu<o3 ca+tured 4a$is>6 Fon the #ay to Bres$auF: 2o<osso3s<y 0ro<e
throu%h to the Bay of Dan>i%6 thus a$most iso$atin% the 1erman forces in Cast !russiaL
4one3 0ro<e into the !o$ish Dom0ro#s<i coa$ 0asin:
Banuary &9 Ohu<o3 crossed the 193J frontier into 1ermany6 south,#est of !o>nan:
!o>nan6 and its $ar%e 1erman %arrison6 #as encirc$ed and6 t#o days $ater6 Ohu<o3
+enetrated into the +ro3ince of Branden0ur%6 on his #ay to Fran<furt,on,the,@der:
That #as the settin% in #hich .it$er #as Fce$e0ratin%F the 1&th anni3ersary of his
accession to +o#erD#ith the 2ussians inside the +ro3ince of Branden0ur%P @ne $ast
o0stac$e6 the @der6 and thenD "inis5
There #as +anic in Ber$in: .undreds of thousands of refu%ees #ere f$eein% a$on% a$$
roads to Ber$in and 0eyond6 in t#enty,fi3e or thirty de%rees of frost: Many died 0y the
roadside6 and thousands #ere sufferin% from frost0ite #hen they reached Ber$in: ?f they
#ere not6 as a ru$e6 strafed from the air6 it #as 0ecause amon% this torrent of refu%ees6
#ith their $orries6 horse,carts6 hand,carts6 0a0ies and anima$s6 there #ere a$so many non,
1ermansD#ar +risoners and s$a3es of a$$ nationa$ities6 #ho #ere 0ein% forci0$y
e3acuatedDa#ay from the front6 a#ay from the 2ussians: .os+ita$s in Ber$in #ere
+ac<ed6 the mi$itary 0arrac<s #ere a$most em+ty6 and the $ife of the ca+ita$ #as made an
end$ess misery 0y massi3e air,raids from the 9est6 the most de3astatin% of #hich
+recise$y coincided #ith this inf$u8 of refu%ees from the Cast: The most fearfu$ #ere the
thousand,0om0er ni%ht raids at the 0e%innin% of Fe0ruary6 #hich set mi$es and mi$es of
the city a0$a>e:
Before a0andonin% Tannen0er%6 the 1ermans 0$e# u+ the immense Tannen0er% #ar
memoria$ and too< to Ber$in the remains of .inden0ur% and his #ife: F9e sha$$ +ut it u+
a%ain #hen Cast !russia is $i0eratedF6 the radio announcer said disma$$y: But Ditt,mar6
the Fradio %enera$F6 #as sayin%: FThe +osition on the Castern Front is incredi0$y %ra3eF6
and they #ere interru+tin% the +ro%rammes #ith announcements of Terror4om4er, here6
there and e3ery#here:
@n Banuary 3" .it$er himse$f s+o<e6 $u%u0rious$y6 $i<e a 3oice from the %ra3e: ?t #as the
$ast time his +eo+$e #ere %oin% to hear him s+ea<: FBy s+arin% my $ife on Bu$y &"6 the
A$mi%hty has sho#n that .e #ishes me to continue as your FRhrer:F ;o #ord of comfort6
sti$$ $ess of a+o$o%y came from him: @n$y: F1erman #or<ers6 #or<P 1erman so$diers6
fi%htP 1erman #omen6 0e as fanatica$ as e3erP ;o nation can do more:F .e then started
+ro+hesyin% ho# Curo+e6 #ith 1ermany as her s+earhead ;an der %pitze7, #ou$d yet
defeat the hordes that Cn%$and had ca$$ed u+ from the ste++es of centra$ Asia:
Mean#hi$e6 thousands of refu%ees #ere chasin% a$on% the /uto4ahnen and other roads to
Ber$in6 #here no0ody #anted them: Ber$iners6 aided 0y the +o$ice and the SS6 #ere
dri3in% them farther a#ayD#here toE 1-"6""" of those #ho had not f$ed to Ber$in6 f$ed
to Fim+re%na0$eF 4Tni%s0er%6 on$y to 0e tra++ed there6 unti$ the 1erman %arrison hac<ed
a +ath throu%h the 2ussian $ines and they cou$d f$ee to Dan>i% a$on% the icy #astes of the
$a%oon and the stri+ of sno#,co3ered dunes: But6 0efore 3ery $on%6 Dan>i% itse$f #as
%oin% to 0e cut off 0y the 2ussians:
The 2ussian offensi3e across !o$and and dee+ into 1ermany #as s+ectacu$ar: The
1ermans retreated to the @der6 0ut $ea3in% 0ehind 3arious %arrisons for de$ayin% actions:
The $ar%est de$ayin% force #as that +ro%ressi3e$y iso$ated in an e3er,shrin<in% area of
Cast !russiaL 0ut there #ere a$so %arrisons at !o>nan6 Torun and6 $ater6 at SchneidemRh$
and Bres$au: A handfu$ #ere sti$$ resistin% des+erate$y in the cast$e of the Teutonic
4ni%hts at Marien0ur%: ?n their retreat throu%h !o$and the 1ermans destroyed #hat they
cou$dD rai$#ay 0rid%es a0o3e a$$D0ut they had no time to destroy od> or 5raco#6 or
the %reat sources of #ea$th that Si$esia re+resented to the ne# !o$ish State:
?n many of the con=uered to#ns of 1ermany there #as a 0a0e$ of ton%uesDFrench #ar,
+risoners #ho had #or<ed on the $and (F?t #as #e Frenchmen #ho ran the a%ricu$ture of
Cast !russia in the $ast t#o years6F some of them $ater c$aimed)L British +risoners6 many
of them sur3i3ors of Dun<ir< and a$most o$d residentsL American ne#comersD1:?:'s
ca+tured at Basto%nes a fe# #ee<s 0efore6 #ho had %one into 1ermany from one end6
and #ere no# comin% out at the otherL Dutch #or<ers6 Be$%ian #or<ers6 French #or<ers6
!o$ish s$a3es6 2ussian s$a3es6 ?ta$iansDnot much 0etter than s$a3es either Dit #as rather
cra>y6 Ho$$y and chaotic:
ater6 in March6 ? #as to see many British6 American6 French and other e8,#ar +risoners
#ho #ere 0ein% sent home 0y sea 3ia @dessa: The first days of their $i0eration had 0een
+retty rou%h,and,tum0$e6 and each had some tra%ic6 or comic6 story to te$$: A <ind of rea$
internationa$ so$idarity had de3e$o+ed amon% them6 and if thin%s sometimes #ent #ron%6
as they #ere 0ound to do6 it cou$dn't 0e he$+ed: The 2ussian armies had +$enty of other
thin%s to #orry a0out 0ut6 0y and $ar%e6 the re+atriation throu%h @dessa #as done as #e$$
as cou$d 0e e8+ected in e8ce+tiona$$y difficu$t circumstances:
ISome had e3en arri3ed in @dessa #ith their F#i3esF6 most$y *<rainian %ir$s #ho had
0een de+orted to 1ermany: ? sa# si8 Cn%$ish $ads #ith *<rainian F#i3esFDthey a$$
c$aimed to ha3e %one throu%h some sort of re$i%ious marria%e ceremony in 1ermanyD
and a$$ si8 cou+$es $i3ed ha++i$y to%ether in @dessa in a schoo$room: There #as a se3enth
cou+$eDa ondon $ad #ith a 1erman %ir$ from Cast !russia6 a +$uc<y youn% thin% #ho6
he c$aimed6 had sa3ed 0oth his $ife and that of a 2ussian officer6 #ho had thereu+on
%i3en them his 0$essin%: *nfortunate$y6 the *<rainian %ir$sDrather ra# 3i$$a%e s+ecimens
they #ereD#ere not a$$o#ed to %o to Cn%$and #ith their Tommy hus0ands6 and the +oor
+$uc<y 1erman %ir$ #as informed 0y the British re+atriation authorities that her
Fhus0andF a$ready had a #ife in ondon:K
F
Des+ite the s+ectacu$ar 2ussian ad3ance throu%h Banuary and Fe0ruary6 and %reat
su+eriority in 0oth men and e3ery <ind of e=ui+ment6 the 1ermans #ere not crac<in% u+
yet: Chren0ur%'s dai$y out0ursts of %$oatin%6 most$y on the su0Hect of Fsee,ho#,they,runF6
did not strict$y corres+ond to the facts: ? remem0er a 2ussian maHor sayin% to me: F?n
some +$aces their resistance reminds me of Se0asto+o$L those 1erman so$diers can 0e
=uite heroic at times:F And a +rofessiona$ so$dier #rote in Bed %tar in Fe0ruary:
H#2 0,(+3( &'( 8)&&/(- )+( ,$ &'( P#C$)$ )+() ")* 8( :15%(5 0+#" &',- (.,-#5(: ,$
#$( #0 &'( -181+8- #0 P#C$)$ -#"( 0,6( '1$5+(5 !(+")$ -#/5,(+- )$5 #00,3(+- 2(+(
31& #00 0+#" &'( +(-&. H)6,$% ($&+($3'(5 &'("-(/6(- ,$ ) $1"8(+ #0 -&#$( 81,/5,$%-,
&'(* 3#$&,$1(5 &# +(-,-& #1+ )56)$3,$% &+##.- &,// &'(* 2(+( $()+/* )// 5(-&+#*(5.
O$/* &'( /)-& 0,0&* !(+")$-, 2'# +()/,-(5 &'( 1-(/(--$(-- #0 01+&'(+ +(-,-&)$3(,
-1++($5(+(5.
The 1ermans #ere certain$y not easi$y surrenderin% to the 2ussiansL their chief ho+e6
e8ce+t #hen tra++ed or $eft 0ehind for de$ayin% actions6 #as to %et 0eyond the @der: By
the end of Banuary the 1erman $osses since the 0e%innin% of the offensi3e #ere +ut 0y the
2ussians at --& +$anes6 &699- tan<s6 1-6""" %uns and mortars6 &)6""" machine %uns6
346""" motor 3ehic$es6 &9-6""" deadD0ut on$y J)6""" +risonersL and e3en this fi%ure
may ha3e 0een an e8a%%eration: Throu%hout Fe0ruary6 the 2ussian ad3ance #ent on
re$ent$ess$y: C3ery ni%ht the 1erman radio +$ayed $i%ht musicD #hat e$se #ere they to
doE And then a ma$e 3oice #ou$d say disma$$y that here #as the re+ort from the Fiihrer's
head=uarters: FAfter heroic resistance6 C$0in% has fa$$en::: The enemy has 0ro<en into
!osen and SchneidemRh$::: The Bo$she3i<s are sufferin% enormous $osses: They $ost
76-"" tan<s in the $ast month: But the A,0om0in% of ondon continues::: F Then there
#ou$d 0e atrocity stories a0out such,and,such $itt$e %ir$s and some0ody's J7,year,o$d
%randmother ha3in% 0een ra+ed: ;e8t6 another mi$itary march and a%ain: Terror-4om4er,
Terror4om4er o3er such,and,such cities: Fina$$y the same o$d 0aritone #ou$d then sin%
his $itt$e son%: "#eht zu .ett und geht zu Buh, geht dem neuen -orgen zu", FF1o to 0ed
and %o to s$ee+6 unti$ the mornin% comesF:K or the FrSu$ein #ou$d #ind u+ reassurin%$y6
and yet rather conscious6 one fe$t6 of the si$$iness of the remar<: F1ood ni%ht6 and s$ee+
rea$$y #e$$:F
The 2ussian +ress +u0$ished many $urid accounts of Ber$in6 es+ecia$$y after the immense
fire raid of Fe0ruary 4: But so far the 0i% $and offensi3e in the 9est had not yet started6
and the 2ussians tried to +ush on as fast as they cou$d:
@n Fe0ruary 1 2o<osso3s<y too< Torun 0y storm6 after a si8,days' sie%e:
@n Fe0ruary )6 4one3 forced the @der a$on% a #ide front in Si$esia and iso$ated Bres$au:
By Fe0ruary 96 4Tni%s0er% #as a$most entire$y encirc$ed6 and a 1erman +risoner #as
re+orted as sayin%:
T'(+( ,- $#& "13' ($&'1-,)-" )"#$%-& &'( &+##.- 2'# ')6( 8(($ #+5(+(5 &# 5(0($5
KO$,%-8(+% &# &'( /)-&. A// )+( &,+(5, )$5 &'( -#/5,(+- )+( -,/($&/* 2)&3',$% &'( .)$,3
)"#$% &'( 3,6,/,)$-? ,& ')- ) 5(.+(--,$% (00(3& #$ -#/5,(+- )$5 #00,3(+- )/,;(. T'( 3,&*
,- 01// #0 %/##"* +1"#1+-. A// &'( -3'##/-, &'()&+(- )$5 +),/2)* -&)&,#$- )+( .)3;(5
2,&' 2#1$5(5. T'( 3,6,/,)$- ')6( 8(($ &#/5 &')& &'(* "1-& %(& #1& #0 KO$,%-8(+% )-
8(-& &'(* 3)$.
@n Fe0ruary 1" 2o<osso3s<y too< C$0in%6 and on the 14th Ohu<o3 too< Schneidemiih$6
after se3era$ days' street,fi%htin%: @n Fe0ruary &36 after a month's sie%e6 Ohu<o3 too<
!o>nan and its citade$6 the $ast 1erman stron%ho$d there: 1enera$ 5hui<o36 of Sta$in%rad
fame6 and a s+ecia$ist in street,fi%htin% too< a $eadin% +art in the fi%htin% there: &36"""
+risoners #ere ta<en: That #as the day on #hich the A$$ies $aunched their offensi3e in
the #est:
A fe# days 0efore6 one of 2ussia's most 0ri$$iant youn% so$diers6 1enera$
5hernia<ho3s<y #as fata$$y #ounded outside 4Tni%s0er%: Marsha$ Aassi$e3s<y too<
o3er the command of the 3rd Be$orussian Front:
Durin% March6 the #ar in the Cast 0ecame some#hat $ess s+ectacu$ar than in Banuary and
Fe0ruary: C3ery#here the 1ermans #ere resistin% fierce$y: Aassi$e3s<y #as 0atterin% at
4Tni%s0er% #hich6 reduced to a hea+ of ru00$e6 #as not %oin% to fa$$ unti$ A+ri$ 9:
Ohu<o3's and 2o<osso3s<y's troo+s #ere c$osin% in on Dan>i% from different directions:
By the midd$e of March Dan>i% #as com+$ete$y iso$ated6 e8ce+t 0y seaL on March &J
1dynia #as ta<en6 #ith its har0our #rec<ed6 0ut its modern !o$ish,0ui$t to#nDca$$ed
F1othenhafenF durin% the 1erman ru$eDmore or $ess intact: ;ot so Dan>i%6 #hich fe$$
on March 3"6 after se3era$ days' fierce street,fi%htin%: The 0eautifu$ medie3a$ city had
0een reduced 0y then to a smo<in% ruin6 0ut the !o$ish f$a% #as so$emn$y hoisted on #hat
#as henceforth to 0e <no#n as 1dans<: Ten thousand 1erman +risoners #ere ta<en6 0ut
many more than that #ere dead: Many ci3i$ians in and around Dan>i% committed suicide6
so %reat #as the fear of fa$$in% into 2ussian hands: ? #as $ater to see a 1erman Army
$eaf$et +rinted durin% the $ast days of the defence of Dan>i%L it #as fu$$ of $ast,ditch
resistance s$o%ans and stories of 2ussian atrocities6 and it +romised a mi%hty 1erman
counter,offensi3e: Si%nificant$y6 there #as no mention of .it$er in it:
?t #as6 more or $ess6 the same at 4Tni%s0er%: 9hen it fe$$6 J46""" +risoners #ere c$aimed
there6 and 4&6""" 1erman dead6 thou%h the 2ussians a$so had $ost many thousands of
men: A fe# thousand ha$f,demented ci3i$ians #ere sti$$ $i3in% amon% the ruins6 amon%
them many 2ussian #ar +risoners and de+ortees: C8ce+t for some minor mo++in%,u+
o+erations sti$$ to 0e done6 Cast !russia had 3anished from the ma+ 0y the midd$e of
A+ri$: The country #as to 0ecome +art$y 2ussian6 +art$y !o$ish: Most of the 2ussian
troo+s in Cast !russia cou$d no# 0e mo3ed to the @der #here6 #ith the 0rid%eheads the
2ussians a$ready he$d on its #est 0an<6 the sta%e #as no# set for the fina$ ons$au%ht on
Ber$in: Mean#hi$e6 after the fa$$ of Dan>i%6 2o<osso3s<y #as +ushin% a$on% the Ba$tic
to#ards Stettin:
For a time6 durin% that first ha$f of A+ri$6 attention shifted to the south: C3en 0efore the
fa$$ of Buda+est in Fe0ruary6 the FDemocratic 1o3ernmentF of .un%ary at De0recen
as<ed for an Armistice6 and this #as si%ned in Mosco# on Banuary &" 0y 1Tn%Ts6 9eres
and Ba$o%h on 0eha$f of .un%ary and 0y Aoroshi$o3 on 0eha$f of the three A$$ied
!o#ers: As Bed %tar #rote on the fo$$o#in% day:
H1$%)+* 2)- H,&/(+<- /)-& -)&(//,&( ,$ E1+#.(, )$5 &'( "#-& -&188#+$ #0 )//. N#& 1$&,/
&'( R(5 A+"* ')5 #331.,(5 ) /)+%( .)+& #0 H1$%)+* 5,5 &'( H#+&'* !#6(+$"($&
0((/ #8/,%(5 &# 8+(); 2,&' !(+")$*... B1& &'( !(+")$- #+%)$,-(5 ) coup d8Etat ,$
B15).(-& )$5 S)/)-,, ) +100,)$ 2,&' ) 3+,",$)/ .)-&, )$5 '()5 #0 &'( C+#--(5 A++#2-
IA .un%arian ;a>i or%anisation:K , 8(3)"( '()5 #0 &'( $(2 .1..(& %#6(+$"($&... H,-
)," 2)- -,"./* &# 5(0($5 A1-&+,)<- 0+#$&,(+- 2,&' &'( '(/. #0 H1$%)+,)$
D6#/1$&((+-D. B1& (6($ H,&/(+, ,$ ',- N(2 Y()+ "(--)%(, ')5 &# )5",& &')& &'(
.)+&$(+-',. 2)- 3#",$% &# )$ ($5.
T'( H1$%)+,)$ D("#3+)&,3 !#6(+$"($& )& D(8+(3($ 5(3,5(5 &'($ &# 5(3/)+( 2)+
#$ !(+")$* )$5 -1(5 0#+ )$ A+",-&,3(... T'( &(+"- )+( %($(+#1-, (-.(3,)//* 2'($
#$( 3#$-,5(+- &')& H1$%)+* 2)- H,&/(+<- 0,+-& )$5 /)-& -)&(//,&(, )$5 &')& &'(
H1$%)+,)$ &+##.- 8(')6(5 )8#",$)8/* )& A#+#$(C', #$ &'( D#$, )& O+(/, C'(+$,%#6
)$5 K,(6... T'( @LL ",//,#$ 5#//)+-< +(.)+)&,#$- 4MLL &# &'( S#6,(& U$,#$, 1LL &#
Y1%#-/)6,) )$5 CC(3'#-/#6);,)7 -.+()5 #6(+ -,B *()+-, )+( %($(+#1-... T(++,&#+,)//*,
H1$%)+* +(&1+$- &# '(+ 19@K 0+#$&,(+-, )$5 H,&/(+<- A,($$) A2)+5 #0 194L ,- &'1-
3)$3(//(5... H1$%)+* "1-& $#2 &);( .)+& ,$ &'( 2)+ )%),$-& !(+")$*... M()$&,"(,
&'( S#6,(& &+##.- )+( 3#"./(&,$% &'( /,8(+)&,#$ #0 B15).(-&.
Buda+est fe$$ at $ast on Fe0ruary 13: 11"6""" +risoners #ere ta<en6 amon% them 5o$:,
1en: !feffer,9i$den0ruch: C$e3en +an>er di3isionsD#hich mi%ht ha3e ser3ed a 0etter
+ur+ose e$se#hereD #ere no# thro#n into .un%ary6 since .it$er #as ea%er to sa3e
Aienna at any +rice: After the fa$$ of Buda+est the 1ermans $aunched a stron% counter,
offensi3e and the 2ussians e3en $ost some %round: ?t #as not ti$$ the end of March that
0oth To$0u<hin and Ma$ino3s<y cou$d say that the 1erman counter,offensi3e had s+ent
itse$f: @n March &9 the 2ussians crossed into AustriaL on A+ri$ 46 Ma$ino3s<y ca+tured
Bratis$a3a6 the ca+ita$ of S$o3a<ia and6 on the 13th6 after a #ee<'s hea3y fi%htin% inside
the city6 Ma$ino3s<y and To$0u<hin occu+ied Aienna:
A no3e$ feature of the Aienna fi%htin% #as the announcement 0y To$0u<hin that ran<,
and,fi$e ;a>is had nothin% to fear: A$$ <inds of other sur+risin% +hrases 0e%an to a++ear
in the So3iet +ress at the time: FThe Aiennese are he$+in% the 2ed Army6 and they fu$$y
understand that the So3iet *nion is not fi%htin% a%ainst Austrians:F
FThe Austrians' hatred for !russianised 1ermany has dee+ historic roots:::F And6 after the
fa$$Dor F$i0erationF as it #as ca$$edDof Aienna6 the So3iet +ress #as fu$$ of +$easant
$itt$e stories of ho# the 2ussian so$diers #ent on +i$%rima%es to the %ra3e of their
fa3ourite com+oser6 Bohann Strauss F#ho had #ritten the music for the fi$m The #reat
$altz"5 9reaths #ere a$so $aid on the %ra3e of Beetho3en:
Meantime (eremen<o had ta<en the +$ace of !etro3 as commander of the 4th *<rainian
Front6 and the s#ee+ throu%h 5>echos$o3a<ia a$so %ained in momentum: @n A+ri$ &)6
Ma$ino3s<y entered Brno6 the ca+ita$ of Mora3ia: .o#e3er6 in the end6 neither he nor
(eremen<o #as destined to $i0erate !ra%ue: @n the 3ery $ast day of the #ar6 it #as
4one3's tan<s #hich made a s+ectacu$ar 0rea<throu%h to the city from Sa8ony in the
north6 Hust as street fi%htin% in !ra%ue #as 0ecomin% serious and the dan%er of the city's
destruction #as %ro#in% from hour to hour: The +art +$ayed in the !ra%ue fi%htin% 0y the
A$aso3 troo+s6 #ho deserted their 1erman masters and #ent o3er to the 5>ech 2esistance
mo3ement ma<es one of the stran%est stories of this +hase of the #arL 0ut6 for a $on%
time6 neither the 2ussians nor the 5>echs $i<ed it mentioned:
By the midd$e of A+ri$6 #ith the 2ussians dee+ inside Austria and 5>echos$o3a<ia and
the 9estern A$$ies s#ee+in% across 9estern and Southern 1ermany6 and Ohu<o36 4one3
and 2o<osso3s<y ho$din% the @der ine6 the time #as ri+e for the fina$ attac< on Ber$in:
A short di%ression is ca$$ed for6 ho#e3er6 on the tric<y su0Hect of 2ussian +o$icy to#ards
1ermany #hen the 2ed Army 0e%an to occu+y 1erman territory: After a$$ that the
1ermans had doneD and horrors $i<e the destruction of 9arsa# and the e8termination
cam+s at Maidane< and Ausch#it> #ere sti$$ fresh in e3ery so$dier's memoryDthere #as
no sym+athy at a$$ for the 1erman +eo+$e: ;o dou0t6 there #as much res+ect for the
1erman so$dier6 0ut that #as different: .a3in% fou%ht the 1ermans for near$y four years
on 2ussian soi$6 and ha3in% seen thousands of 2ussian to#ns and 3i$$a%es in ruins6 the
2ussian troo+s cou$d not resist their thirst for re3en%e #hen they fina$$y 0ro<e into
1ermany:
C3er since 2ussian troo+s had 0een on 1erman soi$6 some rou%h thin%s had 0een %oin%
on: ?n the first f$ush of the in3asion of 1ermany6 2ussian so$diers 0urned do#n numerous
houses6 and sometimes #ho$e to#nsDmere$y 0ecause they #ere 1ermanP (? #as to see
this $ater6 for instance in a $ar%e Cast !russian to#n $i<e A$$enstein: The !o$es #ho had
ta<en o3er the cityDno# re,christened @$s>tynD#ere furious at a$$ the re+airin% and
re0ui$din% they had to do in a to#n #hich had ori%ina$$y fa$$en a$most intact into 2ussian
hands): There #as a$so a %reat dea$ of $ootin%6 ro00ery and ra+e: The ra+e no dou0t
inc$uded many %enuine atrocitiesL 0ut as a 2ussian maHor $ater to$d me6 many 1erman
#omen someho# assumed that Fit #as no# the 2ussians' turnF6 and that it #as no %ood
resistin%: FThe a++roach6F he said6 F#as usua$$y 3ery sim+$e: Any of our cha+s sim+$y
had to say: 0Frau, *omm,00 and she <ne# #hat #as e8+ected of her::: et's face it: For
near$y four years6 the 2ed Army had 0een se8,star3ed: ?t #as a$$ ri%ht for officers6
es+ecia$$y staff officers6 so many of #hom had a 'fie$d,#ife' handyDa secretary6 or
ty+ist6 or a nurse6 or a canteen #aitressL 0ut the ordinary Aan<a had 3ery fe#
o++ortunities in that $ine: ?n our o#n $i0erated to#ns6 some of our fe$$o#s #ere $uc<y6 0ut
most of them #eren't: The =uestion of more,or,$ess 'ra+in%' any 2ussian #oman Hust
didn't arise: ?n !o$and a fe# re%retta0$e thin%s ha++ened from time to time6 0ut6 on the
#ho$e6 a fair$y strict disci+$ine #as maintained as re%ards 'ra+e': The most common
offence in !o$and #as 0dai chas!0D'%i3e me your #rist,#atch:' There #as an a#fu$ $ot of
+etty thie3in% and ro00ery: @ur fe$$o#s #ere Hust cra>y a0out #rist,#atchesDthere's no
%ettin% a#ay from it: But the $ootin% and ra+in% in a 0i% #ay did not start unti$ our
so$diers %ot to 1ermany: @ur fe$$o#s #ere so se8,star3ed that they often ra+ed o$d
#omen of si8ty6 or se3enty or e3en ei%htyDmuch to these %randmothers' sur+rise6 if not
do#nri%ht de$i%ht: But ? admit it #as a nasty 0usiness6 and the record of the 4a>a<hs and
other Asiatic troo+s #as +articu$ar$y 0ad:F
The +osters +ut u+ in 1ermany6 durin% the first #ee<s of the in3asion6 such as: F2ed
Army So$dier: (ou are no# on 1erman soi$L the hour of re3en%e has struc<P F did not
ma<e thin%s any easier: Moreo3er6 the +ress +ro+a%anda of Chren0ur% and others
continued to 0e 3ery ferocious indeed:
.ere are some sam+$es from Chren0ur%'s artic$es durin% the in3asion of 1ermany:
!(+")$* ,- ) 2,&3'... W( )+( ,$ !(+")$*. !(+")$ &#2$- )+( 81+$,$%, I )"
')..*...
T'( !(+")$- ')6( $# -#1/-... A$ E$%/,-' -&)&(-")$ -),5 &')& &'( !(+")$- 2(+( #1+
8+(&'+($. N#H ,& ,- 8/)-.'("* &# ,$3/15( &'( 3',/5-"1+5(+(+- )"#$% &'( 0)",/* #0
$)&,#$-...
N#& #$/* 5,6,-,#$- )$5 )+",(- )+( )56)$3,$% #$ B(+/,$. A// &'( &+($3'(-, %+)6(- )$5
+)6,$(- +,//(5 2,&' &'( 3#+.-(- #0 &'( ,$$#3($&- )+( )56)$3,$% #$ B(+/,$, )// &'(
3)88)%(- #0 M),5)$(; )$5 )// &'( &+((- #0 A,&(8-; #$ 2',3' &'( !(+")$- ')$%(5 -#
")$* 1$')..* .(#./(. T'( 8##&- )$5 -'#(- )$5 &'( 8)8,(-< -/,..(+- #0 &'#-(
"1+5(+(5 )$5 %)--(5 )& M),5)$(; )+( ")+3',$% #$ B(+/,$. T'( 5()5 )+( ;$#3;,$%
#$ &'( 5##+- #0 &'( J#)3',"-&')/(+ S&+)--(, #0 &'( K),-(+)//((, #0 U$&(+ 5($ L,$5($
)$5 )// &'( #&'(+ 31+-(5 -&+((&- #0 &')& 31+-(5 3,&*...
W( -')// .1& 1. %)//#2- ,$ B(+/,$... A$ ,3* 2,$5 ,- -2((.,$% )/#$% &'( -&+((&- #0
B(+/,$. B1& ,& ,- $#& &'( ,3* 2,$5, ,& ,- &(++#+ &')& ,- 5+,6,$% &'( !(+")$- )$5 &'(,+
0(")/(- &# &'( 2(-&... NLL *()+- )%# &'( P#/(- )$5 L,&'1)$,)$- 1-(5 &# -)*: DW( -')//
&#+"($& &'(" ,$ '()6($ )- &'(* &#+"($&(5 1- #$ ()+&'D... N#2 #1+ .)&+#/- -&)$5
#1&-,5( &'( 3)-&/(- #0 &'( T(1&#$,3 K$,%'&- )& A/,($-&(,$, O-&(+#5(, M)+,($81+%...
W( -')// 0#+%(& $#&',$%. A- 2( )56)$3( &'+#1%' P#"(+)$,), 2( ')6( 8(0#+( #1+
(*(- &'( 5(6)-&)&(5, 8/##5-5+($3'(5 3#1$&+*-,5( #0 B(/#+1--,)...
S#"( -)* &'( !(+")$- 0+#" &'( R',$( )+( 5,00(+($& 0+#" &'( !(+")$- #$ &'( O5(+.
I 5#$<& ;$#2 &')& 2( -'#1/5 2#++* )8#1& -13' 0,$( .#,$&-. A !(+")$ ,- ) !(+")$
(6(+*2'(+(. T'( !(+")$- ')6( 8(($ .1$,-'(5, 81& $#& ($#1%'. T'(* )+( -&,// ,$
B(+/,$. T'( Z'+(+ ,- -&,// -&)$5,$%, )$5 $#& ')$%,$%. T'( +,&C(- )+( -&,// +1$$,$%,
81& $#& /*,$% 5()5. W'# 3)$ -&#. 1- $#2I !($(+)/ M#5(/I T'( O5(+I T'( A#/;--
-&1+"I N#, ,&<- &## /)&(. !(+")$*, *#1 3)$ $#2 2',+/ +#1$5 ,$ 3,+3/(-, )$5 81+$,
)$5 '#2/ ,$ *#1+ 5()&'/* )%#$*? &'( '#1+ #0 +(6($%( ')- -&+13;H...
And6 after 3isitin% Cast !russia6 Chren0ur% #rote: FThe ;ie>schean su+ermen are
#hinin%: They are a cross 0et#een a Hac<a$ and a shee+: They ha3e no di%nity::: A
Scottish army cha+$ain6 a $i0erated +risoner,of,#ar6 said to me: '? <no# ho# the 1ermans
treated their 2ussian +risoners in 1941 and 194&: ? can on$y 0o# to your %enerosity
no#:'F
?t did not ta<e 3ery $on% for 0oth the !arty and the 5ommand of the 2ed Army to rea$ise
that a$$ this #as %oin% too far: The troo+s #ere %ettin% out of hand6 and6 moreo3er6 it #as
c$ear that6 0efore $on%6 the 2ussians #ou$d 0e faced #ith a 3ariety of +o$itica$ and
administrati3e +ro0$ems in 1ermany #hich cou$d sim+$y not to 0e hand$ed on the Fanti,
Mar8istF 0asis that Fa$$ 1ermans are e3i$:F The a$arm6 not so much o3er FatrocitiesF as
o3er the tota$$y unnecessary destruction caused 0y the 2ed Army in the occu+ied +arts of
1ermany6 #as first ref$ected in the Bed %tar editoria$ of Fe0ruary 96 194-:
DA$ (*( 0#+ )$ (*(, ) &##&' 0#+ ) &##&'D ,- )$ #/5 -)*,$%. B1& ,& "1-& $#& 8( &);($
/,&(+)//*. I0 &'( !(+")$- ")+)15(5, )$5 .18/,3/* +).(5 #1+ 2#"($, ,& 5#(- $#&
"()$ &')& 2( "1-& 5# &'( -)"(. T',- ')- $(6(+ 8(($ )$5 $(6(+ -')// 8(. O1+
-#/5,(+- 2,// $#& )//#2 )$*&',$% /,;( &')& &# ')..($E$#& 8(3)1-( #0 .,&* 0#+ &'(
($("*, 81& #1& #0 ) -($-( #0 &'(,+ #2$ .(+-#$)/ 5,%$,&*... T'(* 1$5(+-&)$5 &')&
(6(+* 8+()3' #0 ",/,&)+* 5,-3,./,$( #$/* 2();($- &'( 6,3&#+,#1- R(5 A+"*... O1+
+(6($%( ,- $#& 8/,$5. O1+ )$%(+ ,- $#& ,++)&,#$)/. I$ )$ )33(-- #0 8/,$5 +)%( #$( ,- ).&
&# 5(-&+#* ) 0)3&#+* ,$ 3#$91(+(5 ($("* &(++,&#+* E) 0)3&#+* &')& 2#1/5 8( #0 6)/1(
&# 1-. S13' )$ )&&,&15( 3)$ #$/* ./)* ,$&# &'( ($("*<- ')$5-.
.ere #as a c$ear admission that factoriesDand much e$seD#ere 0ein% 0urned do#n 0y
2ussian troo+sDsim+$y 0ecause they #ere F1erman +ro+ertyF:
@n A+ri$ 146 Chren0ur%'s hate +ro+a%anda #as sto++ed 0y a stron% attac< on him in
Pravda 0y 1: F: A$e8andro36 the +rinci+a$ ideo$o%ist of the 5entra$ 5ommittee:
Accordin% to Chren0ur%'s +ost,#ar -emoirs this attac< #as $aunched on direct
instructions from Sta$in: A$e8andro3's artic$e6 F5omrade Chren0ur% is @3ersim+$ifyin%F
too< him u+ on t#o +oints: first of a$$6 it #as 0oth un,Mar8ist and ine8+edient to treat all
1ermans as su0,humanL
F.it$ers come and %o6 0ut the 1erman +eo+$e %o on fore3erF6 Sta$in himse$f had said in a
recent s+eechL and 2ussia #ou$d ha3e to $i3e #ith the 1erman +eo+$e: To su%%est that
e3ery 1erman democrat or 5ommunist #as necessari$y a ;a>i in dis%uise #as a0so$ute$y
#ron%: The artic$e c$ear$y su%%ested that there #ere no# certain 1ermans #ith #hom it
#ou$d 0e necessary for the 2ussian authorities to co,o+erate: Second$y6 A$e8andro3
o0Hected to Chren0ur%'s Bed %tar artic$e t#o days 0efore6 ca$$ed FThat's Cnou%hP F in
#hich he had ra%ed a%ainst the ease #ith #hich the A$$ies #ere ad3ancin% in the #est and
the des+erate resistance the 1ermans #ere continuin% to offer the 2ussians in the east:
Chren0ur% had said that this #as so 0ecause6 ha3in% murdered mi$$ions of ci3i$ians6 in the
east6 the 1ermans #ere therefore scared of the 2ussians6 0ut not of the 9estern A$$ies6
#ho #ere 0ein% de+$ora0$y FsoftF: They had6 he c$aimed6 e3en ordered 2ussian and
*<rainian s$a3es to %o on #or<in% on 1erman estates durin% the s+rin% so#in%:
9hi$e a%reein% #ith some of this6 A$e8andro3 sti$$ said that Chren0ur% #as
Fo3ersim+$ifyin%F the issue:
A& &'( .+(-($& -&)%( &'( N)C,- )+( 0#//#2,$% &'(,+ #/5 ",-3',(6#1- .#/,3* #0 -#2,$%
5,-&+1-& )"#$% &'( A//,(-... T'(* )+( &+*,$%, 8* "()$- #0 &',- .#/,&,3)/ ",/,&)+* &+,3;,
&# )3',(6( 2')& &'(* 3#1/5 $#& )3',(6( 8* .1+(/* ",/,&)+* "()$-. I0 &'( !(+")$-, )-
E'+($81+% -)*-, 2(+( #$/* -3)+(5 #0 &'( R1--,)$-, &'(* 2#1/5 $#&, &# &',- 5)*, %# #$
-,$;,$% A//,(5 -',.-, "1+5(+,$% B+,&,-' .+,-#$(+-, #+ -($5,$% 0/*,$% 8#"8- #6(+
L#$5#$. DW( 5,5 $#& 3).&1+( KO$,%-8(+% 8* &(/(.'#$(,D E'+($81+% -),5. T')& ,-
91,&( &+1(? 81& &'( (B./)$)&,#$ '( #00(+- 0#+ &'( -,"./( 2)* ,$ 2',3' &'( A//,(-
#331.* &#2$- ,$ W(-&(+$ !(+")$* ,- $#& &'( 3#++(3& #$(.
This so+ to the A$$ies #as no dou0t sti$$ intended to 0e in the %ood (a$ta tradition6 0ut it
#as +erha+s not meant to 0e o3er#he$min%$y con3incin%: For6 a$thou%h there #as to 0e
%enuine reHoicin%6 es+ecia$$y amon% so$diers and officers on 0oth sides6 #hen6 on A+ri$
&76 the 2ussian and American forces met at Tor%au on the C$0e6 and cut the 1erman
forces in t#o6 and a$thou%h there #ere friend$y demonstrations outside the American
Cm0assy on AC,Day in Mosco# on May 96 there continued to 0e considera0$e distrust of
the 9estern A$$ies: True6 the A$$ies did not fa$$ for .imm$er's (or any other) Fse+arate
+eaceF offer6 0ut no sooner had the 1ermans ca+itu$ated than the 2ussian +ress #as
a$ready fu$$ of an%ry screams a0out F5hurchi$$'s F$ens0ur% 1o3ernmentFDa %o3ernment
#hich6 they $ater asserted6 #as not $i=uidated unti$ the 2ussians themse$3es had ta<en a
3ery stron% $ine a0out this Foutra%eous 0usiness:F
IThe F1o3ernmentF under Admira$ Doenit>D.it$er's FheirFD #hich continued to
function at F$ens0ur%6 near the Danish 0order6 as an Fadministrati3e or%anF for some days
after the ca+itu$ation: The encoura%ement a$$e%ed$y %i3en to it 0y the British #as
attri0uted 0y the 2ussians to the most sinister moti3es on 5hurchi$$'s +art:K
But that is a different story: The most si%nificant +art of A$e8an,dro3's attac< on
Chren0ur% concerned the ne# officia$ $ine on Fthe 1erman +eo+$eF: Aery sudden$y the
hate +ro+a%anda a%ainst Fthe 1ermans F #as sto++ed: Chren0ur% #as no $on%er a$$o#ed
to #riteD at $east not on 1ermany: .is hate +ro+a%anda had ser3ed its +ur+ose in the
+ast6 0ut no# it had 0ecome ine8+edient:
The Fno,more,Chren0ur%F 0$o# fe$$ t#o days 0efore the fina$ 2ussian offensi3e a%ainst
Ber$in6 #hich started on A+ri$ 1)6 from the 0rid%eheads on the @der: A #ee< $ater6 a
s+ecia$ communi=uN stated:
T'( &+##.- #0 &'( 1-& B(/#+1--,)$ +#$& 1$5(+ M)+-')/ G'1;#6 /)1$3'(5 &'(,+
#00($-,6( 0+#" &'( 8+,5%('()5- #$ &'( O5(+ 2,&' &'( -1..#+& #0 )+&,//(+* )$5
),+3+)0&, )$5 8+#;( &'+#1%' &'( 5(0($3(- #0 B(+/,$. T'(* &##; +)$;01+&-#$-&'(-
O5(+, W)$$/,&C, O+)$,($81+%, B,+;($2(+5(+, H($$,$%-5#+00, P)$;#2, KO.($,3;
)$5 K)+/-'#+-&, )$5 8+#;( ,$&# &'( 3).,&)/ #0 !(+")$*, B(+/,$.
At the same time6 4one3's troo+s 0ro<e into Ber$in from the south6 after ta<in% first
5ott0us6 and then Marienfe$de6 Te$to# and other Ber$in su0ur0s:
@n the &-th it #as announced that Ohu<o3 and 4one3 had made their Hunction north,#est
of !otsdam6 thus com+$ete$y encirc$in% Ber$in: @n the same day6 !i$$au6 the $ast 1erman
stron%ho$d in Cast !russia #as ta<en:
@n May &6 after a #ee< of the most dramatic 0att$esDa #ee< in the course of #hich
.it$er and 1oe00e$s <i$$ed themse$3es in Ber$in Dthe city surrendered:
Then6 on the 7th6 the #ho$e 1erman Army ca+itu$ated: Bod$ si%ned the ca+itu$ation at
2eims6 and 4eite$6 the ne8t day6 in Ber$in: .ere the 2ussian si%natory #as Marsha$
Ohu<o3: To the 2ussians6 the 2eims ca+itu$ation had 0een a F+re$iminaryF forma$ityL
on$y a re$ati3e$y Hunior 2ussian officer #as +resent: 9hi$e 5hurchi$$ #as 0roadcastin%
the end of the #ar on May J at 4 +:m:6 the 2ussian radio #as 0roadcastin% its F5hi$dren's
.ourFDa +$easant $itt$e story a0out t#o ra00its and a 0ird: ?n 2ussia6 the end of the #ar
#as not announced unti$ the ear$y hours of May 9: ?n 2ussia AC,Day #as a day $ater than
in the 9est: For one thin%6 !ra%ue had not yet 0een $i0erated: The 9estern A$$ies thou%ht
this a detai$L the 2ussians did not:
May 9 #as an unfor%etta0$e day in Mosco#: The s+ontaneous Hoy of the t#o or three
mi$$ion +eo+$e #ho thron%ed the 2ed S=uare that e3enin%Dand the Mosco# 2i3er
em0an<ments6 and 1or<i Street6 a$$ the #ay u+ to the Be$orussian StationD#as of a
=ua$ity and a de+th ? had ne3er yet seen in Mosco# 0efore: They danced and san% in the
streetsL e3ery so$dier and officer #as hu%%ed and <issedL outside the *S Cm0assy the
cro#ds shouted F.urray for 2oose3e$tPF (e3en thou%h he had died a month 0efore)L they
#ere so ha++y they did not e3en ha3e to %et drun<6 and under the to$erant %a>e of the
mi$itia6 youn% men e3en urinated a%ainst the #a$$s of the Mos<3a .ote$6 f$oodin% the
#ide +a3ement:
IThe British Cm0assy6 0ein% on the other side of the Mos<3a ri3er6 some distance from
the main scene of mass reHoicin%6 #as %i3en on$y a fe# minor friend$y demonstrations:K
;othin% $i<e this had e3er ha++ened in Mosco# 0efore: For once6 Mosco# had thro#n a$$
reser3e and restraint to the #inds: The fire#or<s dis+$ay that e3enin% #as the most
s+ectacu$ar ? ha3e e3er seen:
(et the one,day difference 0et#een AC,Day in the 9est and AC,Day in the Cast made
an un+$easant im+ressionL and at first minor6 and then more serious s=ua00$es 0e%an
0et#een the A$$ies a$most 0efore the in< of 4eite$'s si%nature had dried:
There #as the ro# o3er the FF$ens0ur% 1o3ernmentFL there #ere ro#s o3er the
re+atriation of So3iet +risoners and other So3iet citi>ens6 #hose return #as 0ein%
de$ayed: An an%ry statement on the a$$e%ed 0reaches of the (a$ta re+atriation a%reement
#as +u0$ished 0y 1enera$ 1o$i<o36 head of the 2e+atriation 5ommission: A0o3e a$$6
there #as more trou0$e a0out !o$and: Many seeds of un+$easantness #ere 0e%innin% to
s+rout:::
C').&(+ II YALTA AND ATER
The (a$ta 5onference of the Bi% Three6 #hich #as he$d three months 0efore the co$$a+se
of 1ermany6 has 0een descri0ed so often Dnota0$y 0y some of its +artici+ants6 such as
Mr 5hurchi$$6 Mr Bames F: Byrnes and Mr Cd#ard StettiniusDthat no detai$ed account of
that historic meetin% is re=uired here:
IThe conference too< +$ace 0et#een Fe0ruary 4 and 11: The de$e%ations #ere $od%ed in
three of the +a$aces outside (a$taDthe Tsar's +a$ace of i3adia6 the Aorontso3 !a$ace
and 4oreisD#hich had more or $ess sur3i3ed the 1erman occu+ation: They had to 0e
fitted #ith ne# +$um0in%6 and furniture had to 0e 0rou%ht from Mosco#:K
(a$ta has 0een descri0ed as the Fhi%h tide of Bi%,Three unityF and6 at the time6 its resu$ts
#ere hai$ed #ith %reat +raise in most of the American +ress: ?t #as not unti$ $ater6 #hen
the 5o$d 9ar #as in fu$$ s#in%6 that (a$ta #as descri0ed as a FMunichF at #hich Britain
and the *nited States had Fsurrendered to Sta$inF6 $ar%e$y6 it #as said6 0ecause6 at the time
of (a$ta6 2oose3e$t #as a F#eary and sic< manF6 #ho had a$$o#ed himse$f to 0e
0am0oo>$ed and out#itted 0y the #i$y 2ussian dictator:
2oose3e$t #as certain$y a sic< man: ? sti$$ remem0er those tru$y +athetic ne#sree$s of
(a$ta sho#in% a terri0$y emaciated 2oose3e$t in his #hee$,chair: ? a$so remem0er Fenya6
the <ind$y e$der$y 2ussian maid at the Metro+o$e .ote$ in Mosco#6 #ho #as a++ointed
to (a$ta as 2oose3e$t's +ersona$ cham0ermaid and #ho commented on her return6 a$most
#ith tears in her eyes: FSuch a s#eet and <ind man6 0ut so terri0$y6 terri0$y i$$:F 9hen
2oose3e$t sudden$y died soon after#ards6 not on$y Fenya6 0ut thousands of other 2ussian
#omen #e+t:
@n the other hand6 Stettinius has ar%ued in his 0oo< that the 2ussians made more
concessions at (a$ta than they o0tained from the 9estern A$$ies:
IBoosevelt and The Bussians (ondon6 19-"):K
.is $ist of FSo3iet concessionsF inc$udes the fo$$o#in%:
The So3iet *nion acce+ted the *S formu$a for 3otin% on the Security 5ounci$6 thus
+uttin% an end to the Dum0arton @a<s impasse5
The So3iet *nion a0andoned her re=uest for a$$ the si8teen So3iet 2e+u0$ics 0ein%
re+resented at the *; Assem0$y6 and contented herse$f #ith 3otes for the *SS26 the
*<raine and Be$orussia on$y:
The So3iet *nion a%reed to the Associated ;ations6 #ho dec$ared #ar on 1ermany 0y
March 16 +artici+atin% at San Francisco as ori%ina$ mem0ers:
The So3iet *nion a%reed to c$oser mi$itary co,ordination:
She a%reed6 des+ite ear$ier o0Hections6 to the French not on$y ha3in% an occu+ation >one
in 1ermany6 0ut a$so to their 0ein% re+resented on the 5ontro$ 5ommission:
She acce+ted that the #estern 0order of !o$and 0e $eft for the !eace 5onference to sett$e:
She a%reed to a com+romise formu$a on the constitution of the future !o$ish 1o3ernment
and to Ffree e$ectionsF in !o$and:
She 0o#ed to the *S 3ie# that the fi%ure of t#enty 0i$$ion do$$ars shou$d 0e treated 0y
the 2e+arations 5ommission in its initial studies mere$y as a 4asis o" discussion5
?n the case of the Dec$aration on i0erated Curo+e the 2ussians #ithdre# their t#o
amendments6 inc$udin% that %i3in% a s+ecia$ status to +eo+$e #ho had Facti3e$y o++osed
the ;a>isF:
@n the other hand6 #hi$e a++ea$in% to Sta$in's F%enerosityF to !o$and6 the 9estern
!o#ers had not fe$t a0$e to insist on #o# and the oi$ areas of 1a$icia 0ein% %i3en to
!o$and: They had a$so %i3en #ay on one or t#o =uestions concernin% the strict a$$ied
su+er3ision of the !o$ish e$ection 0ut6 as Stettinius said in an ita$icised +assa%e:
A- ) +(-1/& #0 &'( ",/,&)+* -,&1)&,#$ =,$ (8+1)+* 1945> ,& 2)- $#& ) 91(-&,#$ #0 2')&
!+()& B+,&),$ )$5 &'( U$,&(5 S&)&(- 2#1/5 .(+",& R1--,) &# 5# ,$ P#/)$5, 81& 2')&
&'( &2# 3#1$&+,(- 3#1/5 .(+-1)5( &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ &# )33(.&...
=O1+ &+##.-> ')5 :1-& +(3#6(+(5 %+#1$5 /#-& 8* &'( B)&&/( #0 &'( B1/%( )$5 ')5 $#&
*(& 8+,5%(5 &'( R',$(. I$ I&)/* #1+ )56)$3( 2)- 8#%%(5 5#2$ ,$ &'( A..($$,$(-.
T'( S#6,(& &+##.-, #$ &'( #&'(+ ')$5, ')5 -2(.& &'+#1%' )/"#-& )// P#/)$5 )$5 E)-&
P+1--,) )$5 ')5 +()3'(5 )& -#"( .#,$&- &'( +,6(+ O5(+... P#/)$5 )$5 "#-& #0 ()-&(+$
E1+#.(, (B3(.& 0#+ "#-& #0 CC(3'#-/#6);,), 2)- ,$ &'( ')$5- #0 &'( R(5 A+"*.
IStettinius6 o+: cit:6 +: &)): K
For a$$ that6 Stettinius c$aims that Fthe (a$ta A%reements #ere6 on the #ho$e6 a di+$omatic
trium+h for the *nited States and 1reat Britain: The rea$ difficu$ties #ith the So3iet
*nion came a"ter (a$ta #hen the a%reements #ere not res+ected:F
I?0id:6 +: &)1:K
?t is c$ear that Britain and the *nited States #ere not ne%otiatin% #ith the So3iet *nion
from F+ositions of stren%thF: ;o dou0t 0oth 2oose3e$t and6 es+ecia$$y6 5hurchi$$ fe$t 3ery
stron%$y a0out a num0er of =uestionsL in the first +$ace !o$and: F!o$and6F 5hurchi$$ said6
Fis the most im+ortant =uestion 0efore the 5onference6 and ? don't #ant to $ea3e #ithout
its 0ein% sett$ed:F Cden ar%ued that Fthe +resence of Mi<o$aHc>y< in the !o$ish
1o3ernment #ou$d do more than anythin% e$se to add to its authority and con3ince the
British +eo+$e of its re+resentati3e natureF: 5hurchi$$ dec$ared himse$f horrified 0y the
re+orts that Fthe u0$in 1o3ernment had announced its intention of tryin% mem0ers of
the .ome Army and under%round forces as traitorsFL
IThis is +recise$y #hat the So3iet authorities #ere %oin% to do on$y a fe# months $ater:K
he a$so ar%ued a%ainst Fstuffin% the !o$ish %oose so fu$$ of 1erman food that it #ou$d %et
indi%estionF6 and +articu$ar$y a%ainst the 9estern (and not the Castern) ;eisse 0ein%
ta<en as +art of the #estern frontier of !o$and: A%ainst this6 Mo$oto3 ar%ued in fa3our of
%i3in% !o$and 0ac< her ancient frontiers in Cast !russia and on the @der: F.o# $on% a%o
#ere these $ands !o$ishEF 2oose3e$t as<ed: FAery $on% a%o6F said Mo$oto3: 2oose3e$t
mere$y made a #isecrac< in re+$y: FThis mi%ht $ead the British to as< for a return of the
*nited States to 1reat Britain:F
But the 2ussians fe$t6 in their o#n #ay6 e3en more stron%$y a0out !o$and than 5hurchi$$
did: ?n re+$y to one of 5hurchi$$'s haran%ues a0out !o$and ha3in% to remain Fca+tain of
her sou$F6 Sta$in remar<ed: FTo Britain6 !o$and is a =uestion of honourL to the So3iet
*nion it is a =uestion of 4oth honour and security6F and6 time and a%ain6 he returned to
the =uestion of the /rmi8a Kra8o:a constitutin% a threat to the 2ed Army in !o$and:
The record of (a$ta sho#s that6 #hi$e a%reein% to %i3e the 9estern A$$ies somethin% of a
face,sa3er in the sha+e of the .arriman,Mo$oto3,5$ar< 4err committee6 #hich #ou$d
he$+ to Freor%aniseF the !o$ish 1o3ernment6 and thus F+re+areF a free !o$ish e$ection6
Sta$in made no secret #hatsoe3er of #hat he considered to 0e 2ussia's fundamenta$
interests in !o$and: A Ffree and unfetteredF !o$ish e$ectionDe3en thou%h he re$uctant$y
su0scri0ed to itD#as not one of them:
The same6 0road$y s+ea<in%6 a++$ied to other countries in eastern Curo+e6 nota0$y
2umania and Bu$%aria: ?t is +erha+s si%nificant that6 accordin% to Stettinius6 Sta$in shou$d
ha3e remar<ed se3era$ times at (a$ta that he did not %i3e a han% a0out 1reece6 and had
e3ery confidence in British +o$icy there: This meant that there #as6 in fact6 a tacit
a%reement a0out Fs+heres of inf$uenceF6 rou%h$y on the $ines of those a$ready a%reed
u+on in Mosco# in @cto0er 19446
ISee ++: 91&,3: This is hot$y denied in the +ost,#ar So3iet Histor!, #hich says6 in
+articu$ar6 that 5hurchi$$'s story a0out the F-",-"F a%reement on (u%os$a3ia is F+ure
fictionF: (?A@ASS6 A: +: 134:)K
e8ce+t that6 in the case of !o$and6 5hurchi$$ (and6 to a $esser e8tent6 2oose3e$t) continued
to ha3e serious =ua$ms: But neither cou$d o3er$oo< the fact that !o$and #as in the rear of
the 2ed Army: ?t is si%nificant that #hen6 soon after (a$ta6 the 2ussians ordered 4in%
Michae$ of 2umania to dismiss 1enera$ 2adescu and re+$ace him 0y the +ro,So3iet !etru
1ro>a6 2oose3e$t thou%ht it ina++ro+riate to +rotest 0ecause the 2ed Army's
communication and su++$y $ines ran throu%h 2umania: The same6 in a sense6 #as a$so
true of !o$and:
ISome ten days after (a$ta6 at the 2ed Army Day rece+tion that Mo$oto3 %a3e in Mosco#
on Fe0ruary &36 Ayshins<y6 tryin% to sound rather drun< (#hich he #asn't) +ro+osed a
toast to some of the 0i% shots of the So3iet armaments industries +resent: F ? drin< to
you6F he said6 F#ho are the 0est and most indis+ensa0$e au8i$iaries of us di+$omats:
9ithout you6 #e shou$d 0e com+$ete$y he$+$ess:F And he then announced that he #as
%oin% to $ea3e for Bucharest the ne8t mornin%6 FHust to sho# them #here the! %ot off:F ?t
#as not =uite c$ear #ho FtheyF #ere6 0ut it #as soon $earned that he had had a F3ery
seriousF ta$< #ith 4in% Michae$L that he had 0an%ed the roya$ des< #ith his fist and that6
as a resu$t6 the +ro,9estern 1enera$ 2adescu had 0een re+$aced at the head of the
2umanian 1o3ernment 0y Mr !eter 1ro>a: 2adescu too< refu%e in the British e%ation:K
The (a$ta 5onference de3oted $ess time than one mi%ht ha3e e8+ected to the +ro0$em of
1ermany: F5$oser co,ordination of the three A$$ies than e3er 0eforeF #as decided u+on:
The +u0$ished 2e+ort on the 5onference said that ;a>i 1ermany #as doomed6 and that
the 1erman +eo+$e F#i$$ on$y ma<e the cost of their defeat hea3ier to themse$3es 0y
attem+tin% to continue a ho+e$ess resistance:F The terms of the unconditiona$ surrender
#ere not +u0$ished:
T'(-( &(+"- 2,// $#& 8( ")5( ;$#2$ 1$&,/ &'( 0,$)/ 5(0()& #0 !(+")$*... T'( 0#+3(-
#0 &'( T'+(( P#2(+- 2,// ()3' #331.* ) -(.)+)&( C#$( #0 !(+")$*... =T'(+( 2,// 8(>
) 3($&+)/ C#$&+#/ C#"",--,#$ 3#$-,-&,$% #0 &'( S1.+("( C#"")$5(+- #0 &'( T'+((
P#2(+- 2,&' '()591)+&(+- ,$ B(+/,$.
IBer$in6 not +art of the So3iet >one6 #as to 0e a distinct >one di3ided in four:K
France6 the 2e+ort continued6 #ou$d 0e in3ited to ta<e o3er a >one of occu+ation and to
+artici+ate as a fourth mem0er of the 5ontro$ 5ommission6 if she so desired:
Then fo$$o#ed a +assa%e on the A$$ies' Finf$e8i0$e +ur+ose to destroy 1erman mi$itarism
and ;a>ism::: to disarm and dis0and a$$ 1erman armed forces6 to 0rea< u+ for a$$ time the
1erman 1enera$ Staff::: to remo3e or destroy a$$ 1erman mi$itary e=ui+ment ::: to 0rin%
a$$ #ar crimina$s to Hust and s#ift +unishment and e8act re+aration in <ind::: #i+e out the
;a>i !arty6 ;a>i $a#s6 or%anisations and institutions6 remo3e a$$ ;a>i and mi$itarist
inf$uence from +u0$ic offices and from the cu$tura$ and economic $ife of the 1erman
+eo+$e::: ?t is not our +ur+ose to destroy the +eo+$e of 1ermany6 0ut on$y #hen ;a>ism
and mi$itarism ha3e 0een e8tir+ated #i$$ there 0e ho+e for a decent $ife for 1ermans6 and
a +$ace for them in the comity of nations:F
?n the !rotoco$ of the (a$ta 5onference (not +u0$ished at the time) the Surrender Terms
for 1ermany inc$uded a +ro3ision under #hich the Bi% Three #ou$d ta<e Fany such ste+s
as they deem re=uisite for future +eace and security6 inc$udin% the com+$ete disarmament6
demi$itarisation and the dismem0erment of 1ermany:F The study for the +rocedure of
dismem0erment #as referred to a committee consistin% of Mr Cden6 Mr 9inant and Mr
1use3 (the Forei%n Secretary and the *S and So3iet Am0assadors in ondon):
IThe +ost,#ar Histor! c$aims that at (a$ta6 the 2ussians #ere against dismem0erment
and $oo<ed #ith sus+icion at any 9estern dismem0erment +$ans: (?A@ASS6 A6 ++: 13",
-): ?f at Teheran Sta$in sti$$ fa3oured the dismem0erment of 1ermany6 he a++ears to ha3e
chan%ed his mind 0y the time the (a$ta 5onference met: The Fdismem0ermentF =uestion
#as discussed at a num0er of meetin%s6 +articu$ar$y 0et#een the ;o3em0er 1944 meetin%
of the Curo+ean Ad3isory 5ommission and !otsdam in Bu$y 194-: At the CA5 meetin% in
March 194- the 2ussians had c$ear$y chan%ed their minds a0out the desira0i$ity of
Fdismem0ermentF: ?n c$aimin% that they had a$ready chan%ed their minds at (a$ta6 i:e: a
month 0efore6 the 2ussians are no# stretchin% a +oint on$y s$i%ht$y:K
A 2e+arations 5ommittee #as set u+ in Mosco# under the chairmanshi+ of Mr Mais<y
#hich #ou$d ta<e Fin its initia$ studies as a 0asis of discussion F the t#enty 0i$$ion do$$ars
(ha$f of it for the So3iet *nion) +ro+osed 0y the 2ussians:
The 2ussians #ere not +articu$ar$y +$eased #ith this de$i0erate$y non,committa$ +rotoco$
of 2e+arations6 and #ere $ater to c$aim that 2oose3e$t had a%reed to their %ettin% ten
0i$$ion do$$ars (from e=ui+ment6 current +roduction and $a0our)6 des+ite 3ery stron%
o++osition from 5hurchi$$6 #ho had <e+t reca$$in% the fearfu$ re+arations mudd$e after
9or$d 9ar ?: But there is $itt$e dou0t that6 a+art from this 2e+arations =uestion6 the
2ussians #ere #e$$ satisfied #ith the !rotoco$ on the de,na>ification and the
demi$itarisation of 1ermany: ?t is a$so certain that Sta$in too< the 9or$d @r%anisation6
0ased on the unity of the Bi% Three6 3ery serious$yDthou%h not =uite serious$y enou%h to
run any %ra3e ris<s #ith !o$and6 2umania and the rest of his east,Curo+ean s+here of
inf$uence:
The atom 0om0 had not yet 0een e8+$oded6 and American mi$itary men feared that6
un$ess 2ussia Hoined in6 the #ar a%ainst Ba+an mi%ht #e$$ $ast ti$$ 19476 and cost the
*nited States at $east another mi$$ion casua$ties: Britain and the *SA #ere therefore
an8ious6 at the time of (a$ta6 to %et 2ussia to Hoin in the Ba+anese #ar: After a$$ the $oss
of $ife in the #ar a%ainst 1ermany6 the 2ussians #ere not at a$$ <een on another #ar6 and
Sta$in ar%ued that he #ou$d Fha3e to sho# somethin% for itF 0efore they #ou$d readi$y
acce+t #ar a%ainst Ba+an: .e therefore demanded first6 the maintenance of the status Puo
in outer Mon%o$iaL second6 the restoration of 2ussia's former ri%hts 3io$ated 0y Ba+an in
19"4Dthe return of southern Sa<ha$inL the restoration (su0Hect to an ear$y a%reement #ith
5hian% 4ai,she<) of 2ussian interests in res+ect of Dairen6 !ort Arthur and the 5hinese
Castern and South,Manchurian rai$#ays6 to 0e o+erated Hoint$y 0y a So3iet,5hinese
5om+any6 #ith 5hina retainin% fu$$ so3erei%nty in ManchuriaL and third6 the handin%
o3er of the 4uri$e ?s$ands to the So3iet *nion (e3en thou%h these had in effect 0e$on%ed
to Ba+an for a $on% time): This #as a satisfactory pour4oire for 2ussia to recei3e in the
Far Cast: Stettinius =uoted a si%nificant remar< of Mo$oto3's6 #hich su%%ests that the
2ussians #ere +erfect$y content to +ursue a Bi%,Three +o$icy e3en in 5hina6 i:e: to co,
e8ist +eacefu$$y #ith 5hian% 4ai,she<:
M#/#&#6 &#/5 !($(+)/ P)&+,3; H1+/(* &')& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 2)- $#& ,$&(+(-&(5 ,$ &'(
C',$(-( C#""1$,-&-? &'(-( 2(+($<& +()//* C#""1$,-&- )$*2)*.
I Stettinius6 o+: cit:6 +: &J: @ne can on$y #onder #hether today 4hrushche3 a%rees #ith
his o$d friend Mo$oto3P See a$so +: 1"3" for Sta$in's remar<s on the 5hinese 5ommunists
to .o+<ins in May 194-:K
@n the #ho$e6 Sta$in $eft the British and6 e3en more so6 the Americans at (a$ta #ith a
rather fa3oura0$e im+ression: Byrnes thou%ht him Fa 3ery $i<ea0$e +ersonFL 5hurchi$$
thou%ht he had F%reat$y me$$o#ed since the hard days of the #arFL #hi$e he struc<
Stettinius as a man F#ith a fine sense of humourFD
A& &'( -)"( &,"( #$( +(3(,6(5 )$ ,".+(--,#$ #0 .#2(+ )$5 +1&'/(---$(-- )/#$% 2,&'
',- '1"#1+... T'( #&'(+ "("8(+- #0 &'( S#6,(& 5(/(%)&,#$ 2#1/5 3')$%( &'(,+ ",$5-
.(+0(3&/* 1$)-')"(5/* 2'($(6(+ M)+-')/ S&)/,$ 3')$%(5 ',-.
I?0id:6 +: 1"7: This remar< is a$$ the more curious in the $i%ht of 0oth Stettinius's and
.arriman's FtheoryF that if Sta$in F#ent 0ac< on the (a$ta decisionsF soon after#ards6 it
#as under the +ressure of the other mem0ers of the !o$it0uro6 #ho #ere su++osed to ha3e
criticised him for ha3in% 0een too soft in his dea$in%s #ith 5hurchi$$ and 2oose3e$t:K
.e a++eared as a ca$m and s<i$fu$ ne%otiator6 #ho on$y sho#ed any stron% emotion #hen
he s+o<e of 1erman re+arations and of the fearfu$ de3astation caused 0y the 1ermans in
2ussia: @n the #ho$e6 he #as reasona0$y accommodatin%6 and did not +ress on his
+artners demands they thou%ht #ho$$y unreasona0$eDsuch as the one that a$$ the si8teen
So3iet 2e+u0$ics 0e re+resented at *;:
ISta$in and Mo$oto3 started this %am0it 0y e8+$ainin% that6 in 19446 the So3iet
5onstitution had 0een amended so as to %i3e a$$ the si8teen So3iet re+u0$ics the ri%ht to
conduct their o#n forei%n re$ations: This #as an o03ious de3ice to %et e8tra seats at *;:
? remem0er 3isitin% the im+ro3ised FMinistry of Forei%n Affairs of the 1eor%ian SS2F at
T0i$isi in 194): ;one of its officia$s too< it in the $east serious$y: ?t consisted of on$y
three or four rooms:K
9estern o0ser3ers #ere im+ressed 0y the fact that6 throu%hout the (a$ta 5onference6
Sta$in remained in the c$osest touch #ith the conduct of the #ar and did his #or< as
5ommander,in,5hief 0et#een midni%ht and - a:m:
As one $oo<s c$ose$y at the (a$ta records6 se3era$ +oints stand out c$ear$y: Sta$in #as a$$
in fa3our of a *nited ;ations6 0ased on the unity of the Bi% Three: .e #as 3ery re$uctant
to admit France to 1ermany as a fourth +artner6 0ut %a3e #ay at 5hurchi$$'s insistence:
.e made no secret of his contem+t for France's mi$itary record or of his +ersona$ dis$i<e
of de 1au$$e6 #hom6 accordin% to .arriman6 he descri0ed as Fan a#<#ard and stu00orn
man:F 4indness6 he ar%ued6 #as the on$y +ossi0$e reason for %i3in% France a >one in
1ermany: Accordin% to Stettinius6 Sta$in ca$$ed de 1au$$e Fnot a com+$icated manF:
;or did Sta$in ma<e any secret of his menta$ reser3ations a0out !o$and: .e <e+t on
ta$<in% a0out Fa%ents of the ondon 1o3ernment shootin% 2ussian so$diers6F and no
dou0t fe$t that6 so $on% as 2ussia #as needed as an A$$y a%ainst Ba+an6 he had $itt$e to fear
from any An%$o,American +rotests a0out 2ussian +o$icy in either !o$and or the Ba$<ans:
?n the Ba$<ans6 moreo3er6 there #as a tacit understandin% a0out s+$ittin% them into
Fs+heres of inf$uenceF: Hust as Sta$in Fdidn't %i3e a han% a0out 1reeceF6 so 5hurchi$$ had
to$d 4in% !eter of (u%os$a3ia that he #ou$dn't sacrifice a sin%$e man or a sin%$e +enny to
+ut any <in% 0ac< on his throne:
The +rotoco$ on 1ermany6 and its demi$itarisation and dena>ification6 satisfied Sta$in6
thou%h he thou%ht the a%reement on re+arations #as much too 3a%ue: Mais<y had s+o<en
of the Fastronomica$ fi%uresF of the dama%e caused 0y the 1ermans to the So3iet *nion6
and there #as one e8treme$y im+ortantDand c$ose$y,re$ated D+oint #hich #as raised at
(a$ta6 0ut a++arent$y dro++ed a$most immediate$y: the =uestion of a 0i% American
reconstruction $oan to the So3iet *nion:
Accordin% to Stettinius's record6 this =uestion came u+ on$y incidenta$$y #hen Mo$oto3
said to him that 2ussia e8+ected to recei3e re+arations in <ind from 1ermany6 and Fa$so
e8+ressed the ho+e that the So3iet *nion #ou$d recei3e $on%,term credits from the
*nited States:F
I @+: cit:6 +: 11-:K
Stettinius reca$$s that Secretary of the Treasury Mor%enthau had sent a $etter to the
!resident short$y 0efore (a$ta ad3ocatin% Fa concrete +$an to aid the 2ussians in the
reconstruction +eriodF6 and su%%estin% that Fthis #ou$d iron out many of the difficu$ties
#e ha3e 0een ha3in% #ith res+ect to their +ro0$ems and +o$icies:F But6 as Stettinius says:
FThe So3iet *nion did not recei3e a $oan at the c$ose of the #ar: 9hether such a $oan
#ou$d ha3e made her a more reasona0$e and co,o+erati3e nation #i$$ 0e one of the %reat
'if =uestions of history:F
There is e3ery reason to 0e$ie3e that6 at (a$ta6 Sta$in #as sti$$ ho+in% that such a $oan
mi%ht materia*seL it #ou$d ha3e meant the re$ati3e$y FeasyF #ay of reconstruction for the
2ussian +eo+$e6 instead of the FhardF #ay that Sta$in had to choose for them des+ite
certain Fideo$o%ica$F o0Hections to the former so$ution:
?t may 0e +ossi0$e to read a hint at such a $oan into Sta$in's toast to 2oose3e$t at one of
the (a$ta 0an=uets #hen he said that the !resident had 0een Fthe chief for%er of the
instruments #hich had $ed to the mo0i$isation of the #or$d a%ainst .it$er:F end,$ease6 he
said6 #as Fone of the !resident's most remar<a0$e and 3ita$ achie3ementsF #hich +ointed
to an e8ce+tiona$$y 0road conce+tion of America's nationa$ interests:
A$thou%h he a$so +aid some %$o#in% com+$iments to 5hurchi$$ at the same 0an=uetDFthe
0ra3est %o3ernmenta$ fi%ure in the #or$dF Da$$ o0ser3ers are a%reed that he #as much
more an8ious to 0e friend$y to 2oose3e$t than to 5hurchi$$: C3en so6 he said he #as sure
that 5hurchi$$ #ou$d continue to 0e at the head of the British 1o3ernment6 and that there
#ou$d 0e no a0our 3ictory in the ne8t e$ection: And he seemed to +refer it that #ay:
This6 he su%%ested6 #as a$$ the more desira0$e 0ecauseD
T'( 5,00,31/& &)-; 2,// 3#"( )0&(+ &'( 2)+, 2'($ 5,6(+-( ,$&(+(-&- 2,// &($5 &# 5,6,5(
&'( A//,(-. I )" 3#$0,5($&, '#2(6(+, &')& &'( .+(-($& )//,)$3( 2,// "((& &')& &(-& )$5
&')& &'( .()3(-&,"( +(/)&,#$- #0 &'( &'+(( !+()& P#2(+- 2,// 8( )- -&+#$% )- &'(*
2(+( ,$ 2)+-&,"(.
I Stettinius6 o+: cit:6 +: 19J:K
American #riters ha3e made much of Sta$in's F0etraya$F of (a$ta so soon after the
conference: Some ha3e attri0uted itDnot at a$$ +$ausi0$yDto the criticisms and
o++osition #ith #hich Sta$in met from the Fre3o$utionary doctrinairesF in the !o$it0uro:
Much more credi0$e are some of the other e8+$anations offered for the Fchan%eF in So3iet
+o$icy after (a$ta: ?t is +ro0a0$e that Sta$in too< note of 2oose3e$t's remar< that the
*nited States #ere un$i<e$y to <ee+ any troo+s in Curo+e for more than t#o years:
Second$y6 he seems to ha3e 0een im+ressed6 soon after (a$ta6 0y the %reat hosti$ity that
the 2ussians met in !o$and6 #hich $ed to his determination not to ta<e any serious
chances6 either there or in any of the other east,Curo+ean countries:
The %ro#in% American o++osition in March and A+ri$6 to the idea of a 0i% +ost,#ar $oan
to 2ussia #as a$so of some im+ortance6 in increasin% Cast,9est tension: 2oose3e$t's
death caused %enuine a$arm in 2ussiaD
I?t made a 3ery dee+ im+ression: A$$ So3iet +a+ers a++eared #ith #ide 0$ac< 0orders on
their front +a%es6 and6 0y a curious instinct6 +eo+$e fe$t that this #as a maHor tra%edy for
2ussia #hich had $ost Fa rea$ friendF:K
Dan a$arm #hich soon +ro3ed Hustified6 es+ecia$$y #hen !resident Truman made his
dA4ut in his 2ussian +o$icy 0y sto++in% end,ease for 2ussia immediate$y after AC,Day
D#hi$e 2ussia #as sti$$ committed to enterin% the #ar a%ainst Ba+an6 on America's side:
As #e <no# from .arry .o+<in's account of his 3isit to Mosco# soon after#ards6 Sta$in
#as dee+$y annoyed and offended 0y #hat Stettinius ca$$ed this Funtime$y and incredi0$eF
ste+:
?ndeed6 (a$ta6 this %reat manifestation of three,+o#er unity of +ur+ose #ith 3ictory o3er
;a>i 1ermany in si%ht6 +ro3ed6 +erha+s ine3ita0$y6 a #atershed in inter,a$$ied re$ations:
5onf$ictin% interests and contrastin% ideas that in norma$ circumstances #ou$d ha3e 0een
a$most incom+ati0$e6 had 0een she$3ed6 #hi$e the %i%antic stru%%$e #as in +ro%ress: But
no# #hen it came to +re+arin% for +eace the #or<in% com+romises that had 0een reached
+ro3ed on$y too fra%i$e: As #e ha3e seen6 it #as difficu$t enou%h to reach these
com+romisesL no# they #ere to 0e +ut to the test of 0ein% a++$ied in +ractice and
inter+reted in detai$: Thus it 0ecame increasin%$y difficu$t to concea$ those 3ita$
differences of se$f,interest and out$oo< 0et#een the #artime coa$ition +artners:
Another +sycho$o%ica$ factor contri0uted to the tension 0et#een So3iet 2ussia and the
A$$ies to#ards the 3ery end of the #ar in Curo+e: The a++roach of 3ictory +roduced in
2ussia not on$y #a3es of re$ief6 ho+e and indeed6 e$ation6 0ut e3en e8traordinary
out0ursts of nationa$ +ride a$most 0orderin% on arro%ance: There #as6 not $east in the 2ed
Army6 a tendency to resent the +resence of the 9estern A$$ies in 1ermany and es+ecia$$y
in Ber$inDin the ca+ture of #hich so many thousands of 2ussians #ere to die in the $ast
days of the #ar:
@n the one hand6 2ussia #as a de3astated86 a$most a ruined6 country6 #ith a formida0$e
tas< of economic reconstruction ahead of her: But on the other hand6 she #as sittin% on
to+ of the #or$d6 ha3in% #on the %reatest #ar in her history: The future seemed 0ri%ht as
ne3er 0efore: Some so$diers #ere o+en$y sayin%: FBut for Britain and America6 the #ho$e
of Curo+e #ou$d 0e ours:F This Fre3o$utionary romanticismF #as not #ides+read6 sti$$
$ess officia$$y a++ro3ed6 0ut it had a tiny $itt$e corner in many +eo+$e's hearts: The future
seemed +re%nant #ith a$$ <inds of e8citin% +ossi0i$ities: A re3o$utionary Curo+e to a fe#
Da ha++y6 +ros+erous 2ussia to most: Amon% many of those #ho no# dreamed of such
a ha++y 2ussia there a$so e8isted the idea that the sur3i3a$ of the Bi%,Three a$$iance after
the #ar #ou$d6 someho#6 tend to $i0era$ise the So3iet rN%ime (as6 in some res+ects6 it had
a$ready done durin% the #ar): Many i$$usions (in either direction) #ere to 0e destroyed
on$y a fe# months $ater6 #ith the dro++in% of the atom 0om0 on .iroshima:::
C').&(+ III - JUNE, 1945: BERLIN UNDER THE RUSSIANS
ONLY
This #as 3ery un$i<e Ber$in: There #ere Hasmin 0ushes round the 3i$$a6 the %arden #as
fu$$ of stron% s#eet scents6 0irds #ere t#itterin% in the trees6 and6 at the end of the %reen6
sunny a$$ey6 the #ater of the 9annsee #as 0ri%ht 0$ue: FThey $i3ed #e$$6 the +arasites6F
said the 2ussian $ad6 a sentry outside the 3i$$a: .e #as nineteen or t#enty6 #ith a $itt$e
do#n on his chin6 rosy chee<s and $au%hin% 0$ue eyes: @n his <ha<i shirt he #ore the
Sta$in%rad Meda$ and the Bra3ery Meda$: FThey $i3ed #e$$6 the +arasites6F he re+eated:
F1reat 0i% farms in Cast !russia6 and +retty +osh houses in the to#ns that hadn't 0een
0urned out or 0om0ed to he$$: And $oo< at these datchas hereP 9hy did these +eo+$e #ho
#ere $i3in% so #e$$ ha3e to in3ade usEF
This #as one of the most common thou%hts of 2ed Army so$diers durin% that first
summer in 1ermany: They #ere not im+ressed 0y the 3esti%es of F9esternF +ros+erity6
0ut sim+$y an%ered at the thou%ht that these FrichF 1ermans shou$d ha3e #anted to
con=uer 2ussia:
FAnd to thin< of a$$ our fe$$o#s they <i$$ed6F he #ent on: F?t #as tou%h Hust outside
Ber$in: Some of the 1erman youn%sters #ere =uite cra>yDattac<ed our tan<s #ith their
"austpatronen+ <noc<ed out =uite a fe# that #ay: Some of the 1erman %ir$s thre# hand
%renades out of #indo#s: .o#e3er6 they are a$$ 3ery mee< and =uiet no#: Some of the
1ermans are rea$$y not too 0ad: They're scared6 of courseL that's #hy they are so +o$ite:
But ? $ost a $ot of comrades on the #ay here6 and one cou$d ne3er 0e sure that one #ou$d
%et to Ber$in a$i3e: But no# ? am ha3in% a %ood time: Four of us ha3e a motor,0oat and
#e %o out on it at ni%ht on the $a<e: There are a $ot of $a<es here6 a$$ strun% to%etherDone
can %o in the 0oat for mi$es: !retty country round here6 don't you thin<E ;o# the
1ermans aren't a$$o#ed to come to this +$ace: 9endensch$oss it's ca$$ed:F
The F+arasiteF to #hom the 3i$$a 0e$on%ed must ha3e 0een =uite a 0i% $oca$ shot in the
;a>i !arty: ?n my 0edroom there #ere sti$$ some 1erman 0oo<sDmost$y !arty $iterature
D-ein Kamp", and a 3o$ume of 1oerin% s+eeches6 and a 0io%ra+hy of 1oerin%6 fu$$ of
idy$$ic +ictures of the 0rute: Cach 3o$ume #as a +resentation co+y from the $oca$ !arty
committee:
9endensch$oss #as6 indeed6 ro+ed off from the rest of Ber$in: Marsha$ Ohu<o3 #as
$i3in% in a $ar%e 3i$$a 0eside the $a<eL and in the (acht 5$u0 a F%reat inter,A$$ied
ceremonyF (as the ne#s+a+ers ca$$ed it) too< +$ace on Bune -: Ohu<o36 Cisenho#er6
Mont%omery and De$attre de Tassi%ny6 sat round a $ar%e %reen ta0$e and si%ned the Four,
!o#er Dec$aration on the defeat of 1ermany6 the assum+tion 0y the Four !o#ers of the
su+reme ru$e o3er 1ermany and the esta0$ishment of a 5ontro$ 5ounci$:
?t #as a some#hat disorder$y affair: Mont%omery arri3ed at the air+ort three hours $ater
than the 2ussians had e8+ected him: There #as much un+$easant #his+erin% and hissin%:
FThe 2ussians #ant to %ra0 as much as they can:F
IThe 9estern A$$ies #ere not at a$$ +$eased to ha3e to e3acuate 3ery short$y a $ar%e
territory6 inc$udin% ei+>i%6 and to hand it to the 2ussians in accordance #ith the >ona$
0oundaries +re3ious$y a%reed to: 5hurchi$$ #as much o++osed to this e3acuation #ithout
%ettin% anythin% in return: .e #as 3ery an%ry a0out the "ait accompli of the @der,;eisse
ine:K
A$thou%h Ohu<o3 #as e8+ectin% a$$ the si%natories to stay for his e$a0orate$y,+re+ared
dinner6 0oth Cisenho#er and Mont%omery e8cused themse$3es6 and on$y the French
stayed onDthe British and Americans $ea3in% a$most immediate$y after the si%nin%
ceremony: 9hy Mont%omery had 0rou%ht ninety,se3en +eo+$e #ith him no0ody cou$d
ma<e out: FIl ! a un "roid trNs net," the French at 9endensch$oss remar<ed: Any#ay6 the
French stayed on for the 0an=uet6 and Ayshins<y6 Ohu<o3's +o$itica$ ad3iser6 made a
s+eech in #hich (choosin% to for%et a$$ that Sta$in had said a0out the French at (a$ta) he
referred to them as Four real friends6F and 1enera$ De$attre de Tassi%nyD#ho #as then
in the midst of his f$irtation #ith the French 5ommunistsDdec$ared that he #ished
France to 0e Fa true democratic +eo+$e's re+u0$icFD #hate3er that meant: Any#ay6 the
2ussians #ere 3ery +$eased #ith the French 1enera$6 and a fe# amon% them +erha+s
0e%an to thin< 3a%ue$y of Curo+e in terms of some o$d,time re3o$utionary romanticism:::
For a$$ that6 e3erythin% #as ca$cu$ated to sho# the 1ermans that the four A$$ies #ere
mono$ithica$$y united and that they #ou$d continue to 0e so once Ber$inDno# under so$e
2ussian occu+ationD #as s+$it into four >ones6 in terms of the ne# arran%ements made:
A$$ the streets of Ber$inDe3en the most de3astated onesD#ere decorated that day #ith
f$a%s of a$$ the four A$$ies:::
At the 9endensch$oss ceremony ? had a ta$< #ith Marsha$ So<o,$o3s<y6 #hom ? had not
seen since the %rim days of 1941:1 reminded him of ho#6 a fortni%ht 0efore the a$$,out
1erman offensi3e a%ainst Mosco#6 he had e8+$ained that the 2ed Army #ou$d %radua$$y
grind do:n the mi%ht of the 1erman Army: .e %a3e a ha++y smi$e6 and said he
remem0ered that meetin% #ith the +ress at Aia>ma: .e to$d me that he #as F=uite
satisfiedF that .it$er #as dead6 a$thou%h his remains had not 0een definite$y identified:
FBut there seems no dou0t that he is dead a$$ ri%ht6F he said: So6 he added6 #as 1oe00e$s6
to%ether #ith his #ho$e fami$yD0ut that #as more common <no#$ed%e: So<o$o3s<y's
statement #as a$$ the more interestin% as the officia$ 2ussian $ine at that timeDand for a
$on% time after#ardsD #as that .it$er mi%ht ha3e esca+ed: So<o$o3s<y's Foff,the,
recordFD or shou$d one say Foff,his,%uardFEDremar< #as uni=ue in its o#n #ay:
Ohu<o3's statement on the same su0Hect a fe# days $ater #as Fon the recordFDand much
more cautious:
IThere #as a stron% sus+icion amon% 9estern di+$omats that there #as a sha00y +o$itica$
+ur+ose in the innuendo that .it$er had esca+ed to S+ain or South America #ith certain
9estern com+$icities: Sta$in +ersisted in te$$in% .o+<ins6 a0out the same time6 that .it$er
#as not dead:K
9hen ? mentioned the ta$< a0out 2ussian troo+s ha3in% run #i$d in 1ermany6
So<o$o3s<y shru%%ed his shou$ders: F@f course6F he said6 Fa $ot of nasty thin%s ha++ened:
But #hat do you e8+ectE 'ou <no# #hat the 1ermans did to their 2ussian #ar +risoners6
ho# they de3astated our country6 ho# they murdered and ra+ed and $ooted: .a3e you
seen Maidane< or Ausch#it>E C3ery one of our so$diers $ost do>ens of his comrades:
C3ery one of them had some +ersona$ scores to sett$e #ith the 1ermans6 and in the first
f$ush of 3ictory our fe$$o#s no dou0t deri3ed a certain satisfaction from ma<in% it hot for
those Herrenvol* #omen: .o#e3er6 that sta%e is o3er: 9e ha3e no# +retty #e$$ c$am+ed
do#n on that sort of thin%D not that most 1erman #omen are 3esta$ 3ir%ins: @ur main
#orry6F he %rinned6 Fis the a#fu$ s+read of the c$a+ amon% our troo+s:F
;o one #ho had <no#n ;a>i 1ermany6 and had $i3ed throu%h the #arDin France in
194"6 in Britain durin% the Batt$e of Britain and the ondon 0$it>6 and the rest of it in
2ussiaDcou$d a3oid fee$in% a +an% of %chaden"reude at the si%ht of Ber$in: The ca+ita$
of .it$er's 16""",year 2eich had 0een turned into a hundred s=uare mi$es of most$y ruin
and ru00$e: A$$ do#n the end$ess Fran<furter A$$ee not a houseDe8ce+t one6 #here the
commandant of Ber$in no# had his head=uartersDhad esca+ed destructionL
A$e8ander+$at>6 *nter den inden6 Friedrichstrasse6 9i$he$mstrasse6 and then the
!otsdamer+$at>6 and the 4$eiststrasse and Tauent>ienstrasse and6 0eyond them6 the
4urfRrstendamm (here a$one a fe# houses had esca+ed)Da$$ the o$d fami$iar +$aces had
0een smashed: ?n the #astes of the 9i$he$mstrasse6 #ith .it$er's no# shattered
5hance$$ery6 there #ere on$y %hostsD%hosts of the mi$$ion +eo+$e #ho had 0e$$o#ed
.ei$ .it$er on the day .it$er 0ecame 5hance$$or6 %hosts of the S:A: marchin%6 marchin%6
marchin% +ast their FRhrer in their intermina0$e raucous torch$i%ht +rocession:
For once6 1ermany #as no $on%er marchin%L she had come to the end of the road:
Bet#een the ruins6 the 9i$he$mstrasse #as si$ent no#6 #ithout a $i3in% sou$ any#here6
and #ith on$y a stin< of cor+ses risin% from the ruins: The TQgliche Bundschau,
+u0$ished under 2ussian aus+ices6 #as +rintin% +hoto%ra+hs of Ber$in's ruins6 and
reca$$in% #hat .it$er had said in 193-: F?n ten years' time Ber$in #i$$ 0e unreco%nisa0$e:F
This #as 2ussian Ber$in: The 2ussians #ere sti$$ in so$e command: A month had +assed
since the 1erman ca+itu$ation: Car$y in May Ber$in #as in a state of com+$ete chaos6 #ith
mi$$ions mi$$in% round the ruins6 not <no#in% #hat to do6 and #here to %o6 or #here to
find e3en a scra+ of food: @n May 46 t#o days after the ca+itu$ation of Ber$in6 the
2ussian commandant6 1enera$ Ber>arin6 issued his first @rder:
17 T'( N)C, P)+&* )$5 )// ,&- #+%)$,-)&,#$- )+( 5,--#/6(5.
M7 W,&',$ 0#+&*-(,%'& '#1+- )// "("8(+- #0 &'( N)C, P)+&*, &'( !(-&).#, &'( .#/,3(
)$5 "("8(+- #0 &'( .18/,3 -(+6,3(- "1-& +(%,-&(+. W,&',$ &'+(( 5)*-, )// "("8(+- #0
&'( W('+")3'& )$5 &'( SS "1-& +(%,-&(+, &##.
@7 A// .18/,3 -(+6,3(- ,$ B(+/,$ "1-& 8( +(-1"(5 ,""(5,)&(/*, )$5 0##5 -'#.- )$5
8);(+,(- "1-& #.($.
47 W,&',$ &2($&*-0#1+ '#1+- )// 0##5 +(-(+6(- (B3((5,$% 0,6( 5)*-< 3#$-1".&,#$
"1-& 8( 5(3/)+(5.
57 B)$;- "1-& 8( 3/#-(5 )$5 )// )33#1$&- 0+#C($.
67 A// )+"-, )""1$,&,#$, 2,+(/(-- -(&-, 3)"(+)-, 3)+- )$5 .(&+#/ "1-& 8( ')$5(5
#6(+ &# &'( R1--,)$ )1&'#+,&,(-.
K7 A// .+,$&,$% ")3',$(+* )$5 &*.(2+,&(+- "1-& 8( +(%,-&(+(5.
N7 N# #$( "1-& /()6( &'(,+ 52(//,$%- 8(&2(($ 1L ..". )$5 N ).". B1& &'()&+(-,
3,$(")-, +(-&)1+)$&- )$5 3'1+3'(- ")* +("),$ #.($ &,// 9 ..".
The entire +o+u$ation6 e8ce+t o$d +eo+$e and #omen #ith sma$$ chi$dren #as mo0i$ised
for #or<: Men had to return to their re%u$ar Ho0s6 or do Fhea3y #or<F $i<e re+airin%
0rid%es and dismant$in% factoriesL #omen had to c$ear a#ay the ru00$e6 +i$e u+ 0i$$ions of
0ric<s6 and 0ury the thousands of cor+ses rottin% amon% the ruins: @n$y those re%isterin%
for #or< (a+art from the a0o3e e8ce+tions) #ere entit$ed to a ration card: The distri0ution
of ration cards 0e%an on May J6 0ut the $o#er,cate%ory ration cards #ere $ess than
ade=uate: The 0$ac< mar<et 0e%an to f$ourish ri%ht a#ay6 and many 2ussian so$diers
s#a++ed food for a$$ <inds of more or $ess 3a$ua0$e o0Hects: There #as rea$ famine amon%
those #ho had nothin% to e8chan%e for food: This #as +articu$ar$y true of Ber$in and
Dresden:
The dismant$in% of factoriesDTrophQena*tion (F@+eration BootyF)D0e%an at once: The
Siemens +$ant near Ber$in #as com+$ete$y em+tied of machinery durin% the 3ery first
days of the 2ussian occu+ation6 and the same ha++ened to many other +$aces: ?t #as done
under the direction of en%ineers #ho had come from 2ussia6 and the mi$itary authorities
#ere not too +$eased a0out it:
9ithin a month of the 1erman ca+itu$ation of Ber$in6 some <ind of order had 0een
introduced into the com+$ete chaos: @n Bune - the A$$ied 5ontro$ 5ounci$ #as formed6
and6 on Bune 9 Marsha$ Ohu<o3 announced the settin% u+6 under his authority6 of the
SMA6 the So3iet Mi$itary Administration for Castern 1ermany: C3en 0efore that6 1enera$
Ber>arin6 the commandant of Ber$in had set u+ an administration of sorts in the ca+ita$:
This #as fo$$o#ed6 on Bune 1"6 0y Marsha$ Ohu<o3's @rder ;o: & +ermittin% the creation
of Fdemocratic and anti,Fascist +artiesF actin%6 of course6 under 2ussian contro$: @n the
3ery fo$$o#in% day the 1erman 5ommunist !arty6 headed 0y !iec< and *$0richt6
dec$ared itse$f in fa3our of the %onder:egDa F+articu$ar 1erman #ayF:
W( 8(/,(6( &')& ,& 2#1/5 8( 2+#$% &# ,".#-( &'( S#6,(& -*-&(" #$ !(+")$*, -,$3(
&',- 2#1/5 $#& 3#++(-.#$5 &# &'( .+(-($& 5(6(/#."($& #0 &'( 3#1$&+*... I$-&()5, 2(
)+( ,$ 0)6#1+ #0 ) 5("#3+)&,3 )$&,-)-3,-& +S%,"( )$5 ) .)+/,)"($&)+* +(.18/,3
%1)+)$&((,$% &'( .(#./( 5("#3+)&,3 +,%'&- )$5 0+((5#"-.
A simi$ar $ine #as ta<en 0y the S!D6 the Socia$ists6 se3era$ of #hose $eadersDnota0$y
Fechner6 1rote#oh$ and 1niff<eD#ere short$y to dec$are themse$3es in fa3our of a
united Socia$ist,5ommunist !arty6 #hich6 #ithin a year6 #as to 0ecome the SCD
;%ozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands75 The SMA a$so +ermitted the constitution of
0our%eois +artiesDthe 5atho$ic 5D* and the $i0era$ D!D+ro3ided these entered a
united anti,Fascist Front: This anti,Fascist 0$oc #as to 0e formed on Bu$y 146 194-:
?n 194-6 not on$y the 0our%eois +arties and the Socia$ists6 0ut a$so the 1erman
5ommunists #ere sti$$ o+en$y a%ainst the Hstgrenze, the @der,;eisse Frontier6 and ho+ed
that the 2ussians #ou$d FreconsiderF it: ?t #as not ti$$ 194J that the 1erman 5ommunists
reco%nised it as Fthe Frontier of !eace and Friendshi+:F ;or #as it ti$$ 194J that6 under
the im+act of the Sta$in,Tito =uarre$s6 the 1erman 5ommunists o+en$y a0andoned their
%onder:eg +ositions and decided to mode$ their rN%ime6 in the main6 on the So3iet
*nion:
There #ere thousands of 2ussian so$diers in Ber$in durin% those days: @n the ruins of the
2eichsta%6 #here dead$y $i%htin% had %one on for days6 on the +i$$ars of the shattered6
0attered Branden0ur%er Tor6 on the +edesta$s of the Sie%essSu$e (Aictory 5o$umn)6 of the
Bismarc< monument6 of the smashed e=uestrian statue of 4aiser 9i$he$m ?6 thousands of
2ussian names had 0een scratched6 or #ritten or +ainted: FSidoro3 from Tam0o3F6 or
F?3ano36 a$$ the #ay from Sta$in%radF6 or FMi<hai$o3 #ho fou%ht the Frit>es in the Batt$e
of 4urs<F6 or F!etro36 enin%rad to Ber$inF6 and so on: There #ere 2ussian so$diers'
%ra3es in the Tier%arten6 around the 2eichsta%L and a$on% the main streets6 es+ecia$$y in
the 0usier and $ess de3astated streets of Cast Ber$in6 notices had 0een +ut u+ e3ery#here:
F.?TC2S 5@MC A;D 1@6 B*T T.C 1C2MA; !C@!C A;D T.C 1C2MA;
STATC 1@ @;:DSTA?;:F The reference to the F1erman StateF made many 1ermans
0e$ie3e that there #ou$d soon 0e a centra$ 1erman %o3ernment: There #ere 1erman
+o$icemen #ith #hite 0rassards at street corners6 and a fe# tramcars and a cou+$e of
under%round $ines #ere runnin%: 9ater #as 0ein% +um+ed out of other under%round $ines
#hich had 0een f$ooded on .it$er's orders and in #hich a $ar%e num0er of +eo+$e had
0een dro#ned as a resu$t:
There #as much army traffic in the main streets and there #ere a$so the #hee$0arro#sD
hundreds of themDof 1ermans mo3in% their 0e$on%in%s from one +$ace to another:
There #ere a$so $orries +ac<ed #ith D:!:'s: The 1ermans $oo<ed su0duedL on$y once in a
#hi$e one cau%ht the %$im+se of a dirty $oo<: Most of them #ere 0usy: they #ere c$earin%
a#ay ru00$e and mendin% +a3ements:
There #as more mateyness 0et#een the 2ussians and the 1ermans than one #ou$d ha3e
e8+ected: At street corners so$diers #ere seen chattin% #ith 1erman men and %ir$sL they
#ere not su++osed to s$ee+ #ith 1erman %ir$s6 thou%h they cou$d at their o#n ris< and
+eri$Dand they did: Sma$$ 1erman 0oys and e$der$y #omen #ere the most 0oisterous of
a$$: The 0oys #ou$d scroun%e food and ci%arettes off the 2ussians6 and the e$der$y #omen
dis+$ayed a sort of mother$y fami$iarity: They #a3ed at 2ussian $orries for $ifts6 and the
$orries #ou$d often sto+:
5o$one$,1enera$ Ber>arin6 the commandant of Ber$in6 #as a fine s+ecimen of a So3iet
%enera$:
I.e #as to 0e <i$$ed in a car smash on$y a #ee< $aterL that6 at any rate6 #as the officia$
3ersion: Many 2ussians in Ber$in sus+ected that he had6 in rea$ity6 0een assassinated 0y
;a>i terrorists:K
.e #as6 =uite o03ious$y6 not at a$$ +$eased at the +ros+ect that Ber$in #ou$d soon ha3e to
0e shared #ith the British6 Americans and French: .e fe$t that as the 2ussians had $ost
thousands in the fierce fina$ 0att$e of the #ar they deserved Ber$in a$$ to themse$3es: .e
a$so fe$t that he had made as %ood a Ho0 as +ossi0$e of Ber$in in the incredi0$e
circumstances of May 194-6 and that thin%s #ere 0e%innin% to ta<e sha+e: The arri3a$ of
the others #ou$d on$y cause a $ot of ri3a$ry and friction6 and undermine the 2ussians'
authority #ith the 1ermans:::
Any#ay6 Ber>arin #as not the <ind of man #ho had much use for the A$$ies6 $east of a$$
the British: The son of a enin%rad stee$ #or<er6 and a !arty mem0er of $on% standin%6 he
had Hoined the 2ed Army in 191J at the a%e of 146 and6 in 19196 he had fou%ht the British
at Archan%e$: F(es6F he said6 F? had to fi%ht there a%ainst our +resent a$$ies: At first #e
%ot it in the nec< from them6 0ut $ater ? rea$ised #hat %ood ath$etes they #ereDthey
cou$d certain$y run@" ?n 1939 he had fou%ht at .a$<in 1o$L in 19416 he commanded a
2ussian army at 2i%a6 Fand there ? %ot my first <noc< from the 1ermans6 and it #as a
+retty hard <noc<6 ? can te$$ you:F Then he fou%ht on 3arious other frontsDand6 fina$$y6
Four army #as the first to reach the @der6 and it #as #e to #hom the 1ermans in Ber$in
fina$$y ca+itu$ated $ast month:F
FBut it #as hea3y %oin%6F he #ent on: F@ur arti$$ery and infantry #on this 0att$e: The
a$$ied 0om0in% caused %reat dama%e here6 0ut it #as of no direct mi$itary 3a$ue: The
a$$ied dro++ed )-6""" tons of 0om0s on Ber$in6 0ut it #as #e #ho6 in a fortni%ht6 fired
4"6""" tons of she$$s at it: 9ith tan<s and %uns #e had to smash u+ #ho$e houses: The
1ermans #ere fanatica$: (oun% 0oys and %ir$s thre# hand,%renades at us and attac<ed
our tan<s #ith their inferna$ near,suicida$ 8austpatronen5 There #ere a $ot of 0arricades
a$$ o3er Ber$in: Fina$$y6 they ca+itu$ated on May &: A $ar%e +art of the +o+u$ation and
thousands of so$diers #ere hidin% in ce$$ars and she$ters: But e3en after the ca+itu$ation
some SS,men and .it$er youths continued to fire at us from the ruins: This #ent on for a
fe# days: Since then6 there are sti$$ occasiona$$y assassinations of 2ussian so$diers and
es+ecia$$y officersL 0ut6 on the #ho$e6 e3erythin% is =uiet::: F
.e admitted that6 to +ut an end to these assassinations6 the 2ussians had had to ta<e
hosta%es from amon%st the numerous ;a>is:
Ber>arin c$aimed that in May 194- the 2ussians had sa3ed Ber$in from star3ation: .e
%a3e fi%ures for the %radua$ restoration of the under%round,rai$#ay6 tram$ines6
te$e+hones6 %as su++$y6 etc:Dand then s+o<e of the rations: C3ery +erson recei3ed ":7-
$0: of +otatoes a day6 0ut the other rations amon% the fi3e cate%ories 3aried %reat$y: 0read
from &" o>: to 1" o>:6 meat from 3 o>: to ":)) o>:6 su%ar from 1 o>: to ":- o>: Some food
e3en had to 0e 0rou%ht from 2ussia:
FBut 0efore $on%6F Ber>arin said6 Fthe 2ed Army6 no# $ar%e$y de+endin% on its o#n
su++$ies6 #i$$ ha3e to 0e fed 0y the 1ermans6 and #e are ma<in% the +easants %ro# as
much as +ossi0$e:F .e #as +$annin% to a$$o# a Ffree mar<etF in Ber$in6 #hich #ou$d
encoura%e the +easants to 0rin% their +roduce to the city:
The +o+u$ation of Ber$in #as a$ready near$y three mi$$ions6 and more +eo+$e #ere
comin% in a$$ the time: The hea$th ser3ices #ere a maHor +ro0$em: a$$ doctors had 0een
mo0i$ised6 and there #ere 4"6""" #ounded 1ermans in Ber$in in s+ecia$ hos+ita$s:
.ousin% #as6 of course6 the #orst +ro0$em of a$$: forty,fi3e +ercent of Ber$in's houses
had 0een tota$$y destroyed6 thirty,fi3e +ercent +art$y destroyed6 and on$y some fifteen or
t#enty +ercent6 most$y in the su0ur0s6 #ere more or $ess intact: There #as no #or< for
most of the +o+u$ation6 #ho #ere 0ein% used for c$earin% a#ay ru00$e:
.e a$so made it c$ear that it #as F#e$$ #orth#hi$eF under the 2ussians to 0e em+hatica$$y
anti,;a>i6 and a$$ 4ona "ide anti,;a>is #ere 0ein% hi%h$y fa3oured:
A$&,-N)C,- )+( 8(,$% 1-(5 8* 1- 0#+ 3'(3;,$% )// )..#,$&"($&-, .)+&,31/)+/* &# &'(
.#/,3( 0#+3(. T'( .#/,3("($ )+( 3)+(01//* 3'#-($? (6($ -#, &'(* )+( )//#2(5 &# 3)++*
#$/* &+1$3'(#$-, $#& 0,+()+"-. I$ -")//(+ :#8- 2( )//#2 $#",$)/, $#$-)3&,6( N)C,- &#
+("),$. A// (B-N)C,- "1-& +(.#+& 0#+ 2#+;.
T'( 31/&1+)/ -,5( ,- 8(,$% 5(6(/#.(5? &'(+( )+( MLL 3,$(")- ,$ B(+/,$, )$5 2( -'#2
&'(" R1--,)$ 0,/"-, -13' )- 9van the -errible. T'( 3($&+( #0 "1-,3)/ )3&,6,&* ,- &'(
R)5,# C($&+(? '(+( &'( !(+")$ #.(+) #+3'(-&+) ')- 8(($ +(3#$-&,&1&(5 1$5(+ &'(
3#$513&#+ L152,%. S3'##/- 2,// 8( +(-&#+(5 )- -##$ )- .#--,8/(? 81& )// &'( N)C,
-3'##/-8##;- 2,// ')6( &# 8( +(./)3(5. T'( .+#8/(" #0 0,$5,$% ($#1%' )$&,-N)C,
&()3'(+- 2,// $#& 8( ()-*.
W( ')6( #+%)$,-(5 &'( "1$,3,.)/,&*, 3#"./(&( 2,&' )$ ;berb6rgermeister, ) D+
W(+$(+ )$5, 1$5(+ ',", -,B&(($ 5(.)+&"($&-E0##5, '()/&', ,$51-&+*, &+)5(,
)5",$,-&+)&,#$, (513)&,#$, (&3.
There #as 0oth comedy and +athos a0out the To#n .a$$ of Ber$in6 in a former ?nsurance
0ui$din%6 #hich had someho# esca+ed destruction6 some#here off the A$e8ander+$at>:
The H4er4Mrgermeister, .err 9erner6 #as a %aunt handsome o$d man of si8ty,ei%ht6
#earin% a $on% 0$ac< froc< coat6 a stiff 0utterf$y co$$ar and 0$ac< tie: .e #as a #ea$thy
rentier #ith a 3i$$a at ichterfe$de6 and the 2ussians %ot ho$d of him se3era$ days 0efore
enterin% Ber$in +ro+er6 and had a++ointed him H4er4Mrgermeister5
IThe Ber$in 5ity 1o3ernment #as com+osed of se3en 4ourgeois, si8 5ommunist !arty
officia$s6 t#o Socia$,Democrats and t#o non+arty mem0ers: T#o #ere 1erman
communists #ho had s+ent years in a ;a>i concentration cam+6 0ut most of the other
communists #ere FMosco#F 1ermans: Accordin% to 9o$f%an% eonhard6 at that time a
c$ose associate of *$0richt's6 it #as the F*$0richt 1rou+F6 #or<in% in c$ose co,o+eration
#ith the 2ussians6 #ho #ere chief$y res+onsi0$e for the a++ointments: ?t #as a$so
*$0richt #ho insisted6 in Bune 194-6 on the disso$ution of the Fanti,fascist committeesF
#ho had constituted themse$3es in Ber$in s+ontaneous$y and Ffrom 0e$o#F6 and on their
3irtua$ re+$acement 0y the +o$itica$ +arties6 as authorised 0y Ohu<o3: ?t #as these +arties6
es+ecia$$y the 5ommunist !arty6 #hich #ere to +ro3ide administrati3e cadres for the
So3iet Oone: (9o$f%an% eonhard6 o+: cit:6 ++: 3&3,3-):K
.e said he had $i3ed #e$$ ti$$ 194&6 and had had a $ar%e income6 0ut then hard times
came6 and he had $ost )" $0s: in #ei%ht: The constant 0om0in%s of Ber$in had %ot him
do#n: ;o# he #as sayin% a$$ the ri%ht thin%s: 1enera$ Ber>arin had Fdone him the %reat
honourF of a++ointin% him H4er4Mrgermeister of Ber$in: The feedin% of Ber$in #as a
terri0$e +ro0$em6 since the ;a>is had destroyed a$$ the food,stores6 sayin%: F9hi$e #e are
here you'$$ ha3e food6 0ut #hen the Bo$she3i<s ta<e o3er6 you'$$ star3eF: But thin%s #ere
not near$y as 0ad as the 1ermansD3ery fri%htened at firstDhad e8+ected: The 2ed Army
had +resented Ber$in #ith a thousand $orries for c$earin% the ru00$e and doin% some
reconstruction6 and they had +$aced a car at his (9erner's) dis+osa$6 since he $i3ed ten
mi$es from his office and a$so a 0ody%uard of si8 so$diers: .e a$so said: FMarsha$ Sta$in
%a3e us t#enty,fi3e mi$$ion mar<s6 and the Marsha$'s ma%nanimous %esture has 0een
dee+$y a++reciated 0y a$$ Ber$iners:F By the end of the summer6 schoo$s #ou$d 0e
o+ened6 Fand #hen ? raised the =uestion of re$i%ious tuition #ith 1enera$ Ber>arin6 he
said6 '(ou can educate them in a re$i%ious s+irit for a$$ ? care': ? reHoiced at these #ords6
for ? and my fami$y are 3ery de3out utherans:F
There #as6 he said6 e3en a re$i%ious de+artment at the Ber$in To#n .a$$6 headed 0y a
5atho$ic +riest6 Father Buchho$>6 #ho had 0een $oc<ed u+ in a concentration cam+ after
Bu$y &": At ichterfe$de6 9erner said6 he had a %arden6 and some $o3e$y rose,0ushes6 and
he ho+ed he cou$d soon retireL 0ut no# he fe$t it his duty to do #hate3er he cou$d to
reha0i$itate the 1erman +eo+$e in the eyes of the #or$d: They had fa$$en so fearfu$$y $o#:
There #as somethin% +athetic a0out this o$d,time conser3ati3e 1erman: !athetic in a
different #ay #as .err 1esch<e6 a seedy $itt$e man #ith 0$oodshot eyes6 #ho seemed in
misera0$e hea$th and a$most ha$f,demented: This former 1erman communist de+uty had
0een in a concentration cam+ for t#e$3e years: .e #as no# head of the 9e$fare
De+artment at the Ber$in To#n .a$$ and6 as he to$d his story of torture and %as,cham0ers6
he sudden$y 0ro<e do#n and #e+t:
1ermans re$eased from concentration cam+sDe3en 0ro<en reeds $i<e 1esch<eD+$ayed
an im+ortent +art durin% those ear$y #ee<s in Ber$in in se$ectin% +ersonne$ for the
2ussian,s+onsored administration6 and in doin% FdemocraticF +ro+a%anda and
dena>ification #or<: Before the constitution of the four +arties authorised 0y the 2ussian
authorities6 an or%anisation ca$$ed A;T?FA #as acti3e in +ur%in% the administration and
in runnin% the Fcu$tura$ $ifeF of Ber$inDand +articu$ar$y the Ber$in radio:
?n a sense6 the 2ussians #ere 0ui$din% on sandL for soon the %reater +art of Ber$in #as
%oin% to 0e ta<en o3er 0y Fthe othersF: The 2ussians #ere in3aria0$y 0itter a0out it6
c$aimed that they #ere 0ui$din% u+ a coherent anti,;a>i 1ermany6 0ut that6 in Ber$in6 at
any rate6 Fa$$ this %ood #or< #ou$d %o to +otF: ? #as to remem0er some of these
ar%uments #hen6 three years $ater6 they attem+ted their a0orti3e Ber$in B$oc<ade:
This #as a different Ber$in from #hat it had 0een: Su0dued6 fri%htened6 %ratefu$ for sma$$
mercies6 %ratefu$ e3en for a re3i3a$ of some of the o$d Ber$in fri3o$ity: ?n one of the
sur3i3in% 0ui$din%s of the 4urfRrstendamm there #as a ca0aret attended 0y #e$$,dressed
1ermans #ith furti3e $oo<s6 0y tarts and 2ussian officers: The #ho$e sho# #as
uns+ea<a0$y 3u$%ar: Some dirty $itt$e son% a0out sonny as<in% 1rand+a #hether he and
1randma had rea$$y made $o3e in their time and %randdad re+$yin%: "Hlala", or some
such muc<: Then a ta$$ 0oy #ith a %uitar 0oomed 2ussian fo$<son%s in 0ro<en 2ussian
and a FSon% of Transy$3aniaF #ith the refrain: "Deine /ugen 4rennen heisser als
Papri*a" (F(our eyes 0urn hotter than +a+ri<aF)6 then there #as a ta+,dancer6 a
8y$o+hone +$ayer6 and a !o$ish or Be#ish fema$e #ho ho#$ed Parlez-moi d0amour5 There
#ere no anti,;a>i crac<s6 0ut the theme,son% #as a 0oost for $oca$ Ber$in +atriotism: ?t
#as ca$$ed .erlin *ommt :ieder, and the s$imy audience <e+t Hoinin% in #ith %reat %usto:
At the sta$$ they so$d co+ies of this son%6 and at the 0uffet some fou$ ersat> oran%eade:
The mana%ers of the ca0aret crin%ed and 0o#ed dee+$y to the 2ussian officers:
This #as a 0it of 9est Ber$inDunder the 2ussians: ?t a$most had a #hiff of ?sher#oodP
F
A fe# days $ater6 Marsha$ Ohu<o3 %a3e his famous +ress conference on the 3erandah of
his 3i$$a o3er$oo<in% the 9annsee: Ayshins<y #as a$so there: 9ith Ohu<o36 one fe$t in
the +resence of a 3ery %reat man: Mosco#6 enin%rad6 Sta$in%rad6 and no# the offensi3e
#hich had started on the Aistu$a on Banuary 1&6 and had ended here6 in Ber$inDOhu<o3's
name #as inse+ara0$e from them a$$: But his manner #as sim+$e6 and fu$$ of 0onhomie:
.e s+o<e of the Batt$e of Ber$in:
T',- 2)- $#& /,;( M#-3#2 #+ L($,$%+)5, #+ (6($ S&)/,$%+)5... D1+,$% &'( 0,+-& *()+-
#0 &'( 2)+, 2( #0&($ ')5 &# 0,%'& )%),$-& 0()+01/ #55-? $#+ 5,5 #1+ #00,3(+- )$5
-#/5,(+- ')6( )- "13' (B.(+,($3( )- &'(* ')6( $#2. I$ &',- B)&&/( #0 !(+")$* 2(
')5 %+()& -1.(+,#+,&* ,$ "($, &)$;-, ),+3+)0&, %1$- )$5 (6(+*&',$%. T'+((-&#-#$(,
-#"(&,"(- (6($ 0,6(-&#-#$(. B1& &'( ,".#+&)$& &',$% 2)- $#& &# &);( B(+/,$E &')&
2)- ) 0#+(%#$( 3#$3/1-,#$E81& &# &);( ,& ,$ &'( -'#+&(-& .#--,8/( &,"(. T'(
!(+")$- 2(+( (B.(3&,$% #1+ 8/#2 )$5 2( ')5 &# &',$; #1& '#2 &# ,$&+#513( &'(
,".#+&)$& (/("($& #0 -1+.+,-(.
I )&&)3;(5 )/#$% &'( /hole 0+#$&, )$5 )& $,%'&. A- .+,-#$(+- /)&(+ &#/5 1-, &'( %+()&
)+&,//(+* 8)++)%( )& $,%'& 2)- 2')& &'(* ')5 /()-& (B.(3&(5. T'(* ')5 (B.(3&(5 $,%'&
)&&)3;-, 81& $#& ) general )&&)3; )& $,%'&. A0&(+ &'( )+&,//(+* 8)++)%(, #1+ &)$;- 2($&
,$&# )3&,#$. W( ')5 1-(5 MM,LLL %1$- )$5 "#+&)+- )/#$% &'( O5(+, )$5 4,LLL &)$;-
2(+( $#2 &'+#2$ ,$. W( )/-# 1-(5 4,LLL &# 5,LLL ./)$(-. D1+,$% &'( 0,+-& 5)* )/#$(
&'(+( 2(+( 15,LLL -#+&,(-.
T'( %+()& #00($-,6( 2)- /)1$3'(5 )& 4 ).". #$ A.+,/ 16, )$5 2( 5(6,-(5 -#"( $#6(/
0()&1+(-: &# '(/. &'( &)$;- &# 0,$5 &'(,+ 2)*, 2( 1-(5 -()+3'/,%'&-, MLL #0 &'(".
T'(-( .#2(+01/ -()+3'/,%'&- $#& #$/* '(/.(5 &'( &)$;-, 81& )/-# 8/,$5(5 &'( ($("*,
2'# 3#1/5 $#& )," .+#.(+/* )& #1+ &)$;-.
A(+* -##$ 2( 8+#;( &'+#1%' &'( !(+")$ 5(0($3(- #$ &'( O5(+ )/#$% ) 2,5( 0+#$&.
R()/,-,$% &',-, &'( !(+")$ ',%' 3#"")$5 &'+(2 2')& +(-(+6(- ,& ')5 #1&-,5( B(+/,$
,$&# &'( 0+)*, )$5 (6($ -#"( +(-(+6(- 0+#" ,$-,5( B(+/,$. B1& ,& 2)- $# %##5. T'(-(
+(-(+6(- 2(+( -")-'(5 0+#" &'( ),+ #+ 8* #1+ &)$;-, )$5 2'($ #1+ &+##.- 8+#;( ,$&#
B(+/,$, &'( 3,&* 2)- /)+%(/* 5($15(5 #0 &+##.-. M#-& #0 B(+/,$<- )$&,),+3+)0& %1$- ')5
8(($ &'+#2$ ,$&# &'( O5(+ B)&&/(, )$5 &'( 3,&* 2)- 5(0($3(/(-- )%),$-& ),+ )&&)3;.
M#+( &')$ ')/0-)-",//,#$ !(+")$ -#/5,(+- &##; .)+& ,$ &'( B(+/,$ #.(+)&,#$. @LL,LLL
2(+( &);($ .+,-#$(+ (6($ 8(0#+( &'( 3).,&1/)&,#$, 15L,LLL 2(+( ;,//(5? &'( +(-& 0/(5.
And he conc$uded this 0rief story in characteristica$$y +rofessiona$ fashion:
I& 2)- )$ ,$&(+(-&,$% )$5 ,$-&+13&,6( 8)&&/(, (-.(3,)//* )- +(%)+5- &(".#- )$5 &'(
&(3'$,91( #0 $,%'&-0,%'&,$% #$ -13' ) -3)/(.
I.e said he had had to stay a#a<e for si8 ni%hts runnin%: .e and his officers had on$y
0een a0$e to do this 0y si++in% co%nac: Aod<a6 thou%h a %ood stimu$ant for the troo+s6
#as no %ood for %enera$s as after a time it had a so+orific effect:K
T'( "),$ .#,$& ,- &')& &'( !(+")$- 2(+( -")-'(5 #$ &'( O5(+, )$5 ,$ B(+/,$ ,&-(/0
,& 2)-, ,$ 0)3&, :1-& #$( ,""($-( "#..,$%-1. #.(+)&,#$. I& 2)- 6(+*, very 5,00(+($&
0+#" &'( B)&&/( #0 M#-3#2.
IMore recent So3iet accounts of the Ber$in @+eration6 nota0$y in 3o$: A of the officia$
So3iet history of the #ar (?A@ASS6 A6 ++: &JJ,9") +u0$ished in 19)3 sho# that it #as a
much more com+$e8 affair than Ohu<o3 su%%ested: ?n this 0att$e three,and,a,ha$f mi$$ion
+eo+$e #ere in3o$3ed on the t#o sides6 -"6""" %uns and mortars6 J6""" tan<s and mo0i$e
%uns6 and o3er 96""" +$anes: ?n this Ber$in o+eration6 the 2ussians smashed se3enty
1erman infantry di3isions6 t#e$3e armoured and e$e3en motorised di3isions: Before the
actua$ ca+itu$ation of the 1ermans on May J6 the 2ussians ca+tured 4J"6""" +risoners6
0esides 16-"" tan<s6 o3er 46""" +$anes and 1"6""" %uns: The Histor! stresses that the
Ber$in @+eration #as carried out not on$y 0y the 1st Be$orussian Front under Ohu<o36 0ut
a$so 0y t#o other Fronts6 the 1st *<rainian and the &nd Be$orussian: The 2ed Army6
accordin% to the Histor!, had Fcrushin% su+eriorityF in this o+eration: ?t a$so says that the
1erman so$diers and officers6 0$inded 0y ;a>i +ro+a%anda6 #ent on fi%htin% fanatica$$y
ti$$ the 3ery end and that6 0et#een A+ri$ 1) and May J6 they inf$icted 3ery serious $osses
on the 2ussians: The three fronts direct$y concerned #ith the Ber$in o+eration $ost
3"-6""" men in dead6 #ounded and missin%D chief$y durin% the 0rea<throu%h on the
@der and ;eisse and durin% the fi%htin% inside Ber$in: They $ost o3er &6""" tan<s and
mo0i$e %uns6 16&"" %uns6 -&7 +$anes: FThe An%$o,American casua$ties durin% the #ho$e
of 194- #ere &)"6""" men:F Se3era$ hundred6 if not thousand6 2ussians #ere <i$$ed in the
stormin% of the 2eichsta% a$one: So the fi%htin% inside Ber$in #as much more serious
than mere$y Fa 3ast mo++in%,u+ o+erationF6 as Ohu<o3 ca$$ed it: ?t seems a++arent from
the discre+ancies 0et#een some of the a0o3e fi%ures and those =uoted 0y Ohu<o3 that he
s+o<e chief$y of his 1st Be$orussian Front6 rather than of the more F%enera$F Ber$in
o+eration: The ri3a$ry 0et#een him and other to+ %enera$s may ha3e had somethin% to do
#ith it:K
Some0ody as<ed #hat the 2ussians' re$ations #ith the 1ermans #ou$d 0e: That6 he said6
de+ended on ho# the 1ermans 0eha3edL the sooner they dre# the necessary conc$usions
from #hat had ha++ened6 the 0etter: .e (Ohu<o3) #as certain$y in fa3our of a =uic< tria$
of the 1erman #ar crimina$s: .e thou%ht there #as a%reement on that +oint amon% a$$ the
A$$ies: FAnd on other +ointsEF some0ody as<ed: F@n other +oints6F he said6 Fthere's a$so
got to 0e a%reement if #e don't #ant to +$ay into the hands of the 1ermans:F
9hat rZ$e6 if any6 #ou$d no# 0e +$ayed 0y the Free 1erman 5ommitteeE F?t's no $on%er
of any conse=uence6F Ohu<o3 said6 and smi$ed6 thus +retty #e$$ confirmin% that it had
ne3er 0een more than a +ro+a%anda de3ice: FAnd the so,ca$$ed 1erman anti,FascistsEF
F9hy 'so,ca$$ed'EF Ohu<o3 said: FThere are some %enuine ones6 thou%h not +erha+s 3ery
many yet: For t#e$3e years they'3e had .it$er +ro+a%anda +um+ed into them::: F
FAnd #hat ha++ened to .it$erEF
Ohu<o3 sudden$y 0ecame 3ery cautious (=uite un$i<e So<o$o3s<y #hen he had ta$<ed to
me on$y a fe# days 0efore): For one thin%6 he had Ayshins<y sittin% 0y his side: FA
mysterious 0usiness6F he said6 and then to$d for the first time the story that #as %oin% to
0e f$ashed a$$ round the #or$d:
A 0(2 5)*- 8(0#+( &'( 0)// #0 B(+/,$ '( ")++,(5 E6) B+)1$. W( ;$#2 &',- 0+#" &'(
5,)+* #0 #$( #0 ',- A.D.C.<-. B1& 2( ')6( $#& 5,-3#6(+(5 )$* 3#+.-( &')& 3#1/5 8(
,5($&,0,(5 )- H,&/(+<-. H( ")* ')6( (-3).(5 ,$ ) ./)$( )& &'( /)-& "#"($&.
F9ou$dn't you say6 Marsha$6 that that #as most un$i<e$yEF ? as<ed:
Ohu<o3 i%nored the =uestion6 and #ent on:
FMartin Bormann #ho #as in Ber$in a$most ti$$ the 3ery end6 a++ears to ha3e esca+ed:F
FAnd #ho :as C3a BraunE F some0ody as<ed:
Ayshins<y %rinned and chi++ed in: FMay0e a %ir$6 may0e a 0oy:F
Ohu<o3 ($au%hin%): FSome0ody said she #as a cinema actress6 0ut ? don't <no#:F
Ayshins<y: FMay0e a Be#essDF: (au%hter:)
After sayin% that 1oe00e$s and his #ho$e fami$y had 0een found dead6 Ohu<o3 then
turned to other thin%s: ;o# that the #ar in Curo+e (he stressed in Europe7 #as at an end6
a $ar%e +art of the 2ed Army #ou$d 0e demo0i$ised:
Then he ta$<ed informa$$y a0out himse$f6 reca$$ed that he had 0een 0orn in a 3i$$a%e near
Mosco# in 1J9)6 that6 from the a%e of e$e3en6 he had #or<ed in a fur sho+6 that6 in 9or$d
9ar ? he had fou%ht first as a +ri3ate6 then as an ;:5:@: in the ;o3%orod Dra%oons6 and
had 0een a#arded t#o St 1eor%e's crosses and t#o St 1eor%e's meda$s:
FFor +ersona$ 0ra3ery6F Ayshins<y commented:
FFor ca+turin% 1erman officers durin% ni%ht reconnaissance6F Ohu<o3 e8+$ained:
F.e #as %ood at ni%ht o+erations e3en then6F Ayshins<y %rinned:
Ohu<o3 reca$$ed that he had 0een a !arty mem0er since 19196 and then ta$<ed of his
e8+eriences in the Far Cast #here he routed the Ba+anese in the 0att$e of .a$<in 1o$ in
1939:
FThe 1ermans6F he said6 Fare technica$$y 0etter,e=ui++ed than the Ba+anese6 and they are
3ery %ood so$diersDno use denyin% itD 0ut6 ta<en as a #ho$e6 the 1erman army $ac<s
the Ba+s' rea$ fanaticism:F
Then Ohu<o3 s+o<e of #hat he ca$$ed his F+rinci+a$ acti3itiesF durin% the #ar that had
Hust ended:
+#" &'( 6(+* 8(%,$$,$% #0 &'( 2)+ I 2)- ($%)%(5 #$ .+(.)+,$% &'( 5(0($3( #0
M#-3#2. #+ ) &,"(, 8(0#+( &'( B)&&/( #0 M#-3#2, &'(+( 2)- )/-# L($,$%+)5 &# &);(
3)+( #0, )$5 &'($ &'(+( 2)- &'( B)&&/( #0 M#-3#2 ,&-(/0. A0&(+ &')& I ')5 &# #+%)$,-(
&'( 5(0($3( #0 S&)/,$%+)5 )$5 &'($ &'( S&)/,$%+)5 #00($-,6(. I 2)- D(.1&*
C#"",--)+ #0 D(0($3( 1$5(+ C#"+)5( S&)/,$. T'($ &'(+( 2)- &'( U;+),$(, )$5
W)+-)2E )$5 *#1 ;$#2 &'( +(-&.
FAnd 4urs<6 and Be$orussiaEF some0ody as<ed:
F(es6 ? had somethin% to do #ith those too6F Ohu<o3 smi$ed:
Ayshins<y 0eamed a$most o0se=uious$y: FMosco#6 enin%rad6 Sta$in%rad6 4urs<6
9arsa#6 and so on6 ri%ht on to Ber$inD+retty #onderfu$PF he said:
Ohu<o3 added a tri0ute to 5omrade Sta$in Fand his %reat understandin% of mi$itary
affairsFD0ut this came a$most as an afterthou%ht: There #ere ri3a$ries amon%st the
So3iet marsha$sDnone of #hom6 e8ce+t himse$f6 he had e3en mentioned at this +ress
conferenceDand6 moreo3er6 the !arty (and Sta$in) #ere conscious of Ohu<o3's immense
+o+u$arity in the army and in the country: Aery understanda0$y6 Ohu<o3 had a 3ery hi%h
o+inion of himse$f and6 #ith a curious mi8ture of modesty and a$most 0oyish 0oastfu$,
ness6 he tended to ta<e credit for +ractica$$y all the decisi3e 3ictories the 2ed Army had
#on: Sta$in did not $i<e it at a$$:
That day at 9endensch$oss Ayshins<y6 #hi$e <ee+in% an eye on him6 treated him
out#ard$y #ith the %reatest o0se=uiousness and admirationL 0ut one cou$d 3a%ue$y fee$
that Ohu<o3 did not $i<e Ayshins<y (ho# cou$d heE) and resented his su+er3ision:
I9hen .arry .o+<ins sa# Ohu<o3 a0out the same time6 he #as a$so una0$e to ta$< to
him #ithout Ayshins<y a$#ays 0ein% there6 and su%%estin% to him ho# to ans#er
=uestions: (Sher#ood6 o+: cit:6 +: 9"4):K
9hen6 some months $ater6 Marsha$ Ohu<o3 #as reca$$ed from 1ermany and a++ointed to
the re$ati3e$y o0scure +ost of 5ommander of the @dessa Mi$itary District6 a$$ <inds of
e8+$anations #ere offered for his semi,dis%race: @ne #as that he had +ro3ed himse$f
much too inde+endent of the So3iet !arty 0ossesL another6 that he had o0Hected to the
e8cessi3e dismant$in% of factories in the So3iet Oone6 and that he a$so treated 3arious
!arty and Trade *nion de$e%ations #ho had come to Ber$in #ith %reat casua$ness6
sometimes e3en refusin% to see themL it #as a$so said that he had $et his troo+s run #i$d
in 1ermany6 and fina$$y6 that he #as much too friend$y and soft in his re$ations #ith the
9estern A$$ies6 +articu$ar$y #ith Cisenho#er: ?n rea$ity6 there seems $itt$e dou0t that
Ohu<o3's ec$i+se #as the most stri<in% manifestation of a$$ of Sta$in's and the !arty's
determination to +ut the 2ed Army in its +$ace: Ohu<o3 #as too +o+u$ar in the country:
After Sta$in's death6 Ohu<o3 made a s+ectacu$ar come,0ac<L and a$thou%h he sa3ed
4hrushche3 in 19-7 from #hat $ater came to 0e <no#n as the Fanti,!arty 1rou+F6
4hrushche3 a$so decided6 0efore $on%6 that Ohu<o3 #as too stron% a +ersona$ity for his
taste: The Marsha$ #as accused of $oo<in% u+on the Army as a distinct +o$itica$ forceL he
#as a$so accused of immodesty and se$f,%$orification at the e8+ense of the other 2ussian
%enera$s6 and of ha3in% encoura%ed in the Army his o#n F+ersona$ity cu$tF: .e #as
+ensioned off at the end of 19-7L his %reat ri3a$6 Marsha$ 4one3 #rote a diso0$i%in%
artic$e on him in Pravda, and the immense rZ$e he had +$ayed in sa3in% enin%rad and
Mosco# and in #innin% so many other 3ictories #as de$i0erate$y +$ayed do#n in a$$
su0se=uent accounts of the #ar +u0$ished in 2ussia:
C').&(+ IA THE THREE MONTHS< PEACE
The -ood a"ter 1E-Da!
A$thou%h it #as %enera$$y <no#n that a $ar%e num0er of so$diers #ere 0ein% mo3ed to the
Far Cast durin% those summer months6 3ery $itt$e thou%ht #as %i3en to Ba+an 0y the
2ussian +eo+$e %enera$$y: As far as they #ere concerned6 the #arDthe real #arD #as
o3er #ith the co$$a+se of .it$er's 1ermany: The thou%ht that there mi%ht yet 0e another
#ar to fi%ht a%ainst Ba+an #as hatefu$ to mostL 2ussia had $ost =uite enou%h men as it
#as:
?t is not easy to descri0e the %enera$ mood in the country durin% that summer of 194-: ?t
#as com+osed of many different thin%s: First of a$$6 +erha+s6 a fee$in% of o3er#he$min%
re$ief that the #ar #as o3erL 0ut this #ent to%ether #ith a fee$in% of immense nationa$
+ride and a sense of enormous achie3ementDand e3ery so$dier6 and near$y e3ery ci3i$ian6
too6 fe$t that he had done his 0it: This fee$in% of s+ontaneous Hoy6 +ride and re$ief found
+erha+s its fu$$est e8+ression on that unfor%etta0$e AC,Day of May 9 in Mosco#:
The Army #as enormous$y +o+u$arDtoo +o+u$ar6 indeed6 for Sta$in's and the !arty's
taste6 thou%h6 for a short time after AC,Day6 Sta$in #as determined to cash in on the
Army's +o+u$arity and6 in Bune6 #ent so far as to assume the tit$e of 1enera$issimo:
Short$y 0efore6 on May &46 he he$d a %reat rece+tion at the 4rem$in in honour of
numerous So3iet marsha$s6 %enera$s and other hi%h,ran<in% officers6 and it #as then that
he made that stran%e s+eech in #hich he sin%$ed out for s+ecia$ +raise the Bussian +eo+$e6
Fthe most remar<a0$e of a$$ the nations of the So3iet *nionFDFthe $eadin% nation6
remar<a0$e for its c$ear mind6 its +atience and its firm character:F The So3iet
1o3ernment6 he said6 had made many mista<es6 0ut e3en in the des+erate moments of
1941,&6 the 2ussian +eo+$e had not to$d its %o3ernment to %o6 had not thou%ht of ma<in%
+eace #ith 1ermany6 had sho#n confidence in the So3iet 1o3ernment and had decided
to fi%ht on ti$$ fina$ 3ictory6 #hate3er the cost:
A %reat dea$ cou$d 0e read into that s+eech: a 0e$ated mea culpa for many thin%s that had
ha++ened 0efore the #ar and durin% the ear$y days of the #arL a tri0ute to the 2ussians
for ha3in% fou%ht on #hen the *<raine and so many other +arts of the country had 0een
o3errun 0y the 1ermansL a$$ sorts of menta$ reser3ations not on$y a0out the Fdis$oya$F
nationa$ities $i<e the 5rimean Tartars6 the 5aucasian mountaineers and +ro0a0$y a$so the
Ba$ts (#ho #ere 0ein% +unished in 3aryin% de%rees)6 0ut e3en a0out the *<rainians
#hose record6 in Sta$in's sus+icious eyes6 had 0een une3en: The 2ed Army #as rich in
*<rainian %enera$s and *<rainian .eroes of the So3iet *nion6 and yet there #ere other
*<rainians #hose $oya$ty to Mosco# and the So3iet system had 0een =uestiona0$e: ?n the
9estern *<raine6 at that time6 *<rainian nationa$ists #ere sti$$ conductin% a %uerri$$a #ar
a%ainst the 2ussians6 and this #as %oin% to continue ti$$ 1947: 9ere the 2ussians6 Fthe
$eadin% nationF6 to 0e the ;um0er @ne citi>ens in the So3iet *nion henceforthE There
#ere some uneasy reactions in Mosco# to this e8a$tation of 1reat,2ussian nationa$ism6
es+ecia$$y comin%6 as it did6 from a 1eor%ian #ho s+o<e 2ussian #ith a 0road 5aucasian
accent: 9hat stran%e menta$ <in< #as 0ehind itE
Then6 on Bune &46 came the %reat a+otheosis of the 2ed Army6 #ith F1enera$issimoF
Sta$in at its headDthe famous Aictory !arade in the 2ed S=uare: Marsha$ Ohu<o36 0y
common consent the %reatest of 2ussia's so$diers6 re3ie#ed the troo+s6 and Marsha$
2o<osso3s<y commanded the !arade6 in the course of #hich hundreds of 1erman
0anners #ere f$un% do#n6 in a torrentia$ rainfa$$6 on the ste+s of the enin Mauso$eum6
and at the feet of Aictorious Sta$in: @#in% to the do#n+ourDsome o$d #omen in
Mosco# sa# in this an e3i$ omenDthe ci3i$ian +arade that #as to fo$$o# the mi$itary
+arade #as ca$$ed offL 0ut that ni%ht Sta$in entertained &6-"" %enera$s6 officers and
so$diers at the 4rem$in: .ere he made another stran%e s+eech6 in #hich he +aid tri0ute to
the Fsma$$ +eo+$eF6 to Fthe $itt$e scre#s and 0o$tsF of the %i%antic machine #ithout #hich
the machine6 #ith a$$ its marsha$s and %enera$s and industria$ chiefs cou$d not ha3e
#or<ed: This s+eech a$so %a3e rise to some uneasy s+ecu$ation: #as there not here6 a+art
from an e8treme anti,e%a$itarian motif6 a #arnin% to the Fmi$itary casteF that had emer%ed
from the #arE Durin% the months that fo$$o#ed Mosco# 0e%an to 0u>> #ith FanecdotesF
a0out marsha$s' and %enera$s' #i3es6 #ith their nouveau-riche #ays and their end$ess
ma$a+ro+isms:
IFor e8am+$e6 there #as the %enera$'s #ife #ho <e+t on ta$<in% at the @+era #hi$e the
o3erture #as 0ein% +$ayed: FSh,sh6 o3erturePF her nei%h0our said: F @3erture yourse$f6F
she sna++ed 0ac<6 thin<in% ouvertura to 0e some unfami$iar term of a0use: @r e$se there
#as the story of the Marsha$'s #ife #ho had so many si$3er fo8es that she decided to
#ear on$y one6 0ut to +in to her chest the tai$s of the remainin% nine6 to sho# that she had
ten a$to%ether:K
There is %ood reason to su++ose that this 3er0a$ +ro+a%anda6 a fair$y fami$iar de3ice in
2ussia6 had 0een +ut a0out on instructions from the !arty hierarchy:
;or #as it 3ery $on% 0efore the officia$ +ro+a%anda 0e%an to discoura%e 0oastfu$ness on
the +art of officers and so$diersL the #ar #as dec$ared to 0e a thin% of the +ast6 and the
so$diers cou$d not 0e a$$o#ed to rest on their $aure$s: Aery soon after the end of the
Ba+anese #ar there a++eared a +oem 0y one ;edo%ono36 ca$$ed The Flag over the 1illage
%oviet #hich #as %i3en #ide +u0$icity: ?ts main theme #as summed u+ in the *nes:
FAnd if you #on't #or< hard on the *ol*hoz, #e sha$$ s+it on a$$ your meda$s and
decorations:F
This systematic de0un<in% of the #ar hero came $ater6 0ut the first si%ns of it cou$d
a$ready 0e detected on$y a cou+$e of months after the 3ictory o3er 1ermany:
Economic Hardships )ontinue
A$$ this #as6 in a #ay6 un%racious and hurtfu$L and yet it #as understanda0$e: ?n 194-
2ussia #as in a serious economic situationL it #as essentia$ to demo0i$ise as much of the
2ed Army as +ossi0$e6 and to %et do#n to the hard rea$ities of +eace,time reconstruction:
.undreds of to#ns6 tens of thousands of 3i$$a%es had 0een +art$y or com+$ete$y destroyed
0y the 1ermansL the industria$ areas of 4har<o36 4ie36 Sta$in%rad6 @dessa6 2osto36 the
Don0as6 Oa+oro>hie and 4ri3oi 2o%6 0esides many others6 had 0een $aid #asteL mi$$ions
of 2ussians and *<rainians had 0een de+orted to 1ermany and most of them had
returned in 0ad or indifferent hea$thL a$to%ether (thou%h this fi%ure #as not to 0e
mentioned unti$ much $ater) t#enty mi$$ion +eo+$e had $ost their $i3esDor one,tenth of
the entire +o+u$ation6 an a++a$$in% +ro+ortion e=ua$$ed on$y 0y !o$and and (u%os$a3ia:
There #ere a$so mi$$ions of #ar in3a$ids:
The ci3i$ian +o+u$ation of the So3iet *nion had not on$y 0een underfed6 0ut a$so %ross$y
o3er#or<ed durin% the #ar years6 and many had died under the strain: The #ho$e of the
country's a%ricu$ture had 0een run a$most entire$y 0y #omen6 and it #as the #omen too
#ho had <e+t the country's industries %oin% in #artime: In <=JK, "i"t!-one percent o" all
industrial :or*ers in the %oviet &nion :ere :omen5 Many of the other #or<ers #ere
ado$escents:
Des+ite this intensi3e effort on the +art of the So3iet +eo+$e to <ee+ the #ar,time
industries %oin%Dand #ithout this mass,effort 2ussia cou$d ne3er ha3e #on the #arD
the #ho$e industria$ situation #as $itt$e short of disastrous 0y the end of the #ar: 9ith the
reco3ery of some of the industria$ areas in 1943,4 and the intensification of +roduction in
the east and in centra$ 2ussia6 the +roduction fi%ures for the first ha$f of 194- sho#ed a
s$i%ht im+ro3ement6 com+ared #ith the first ha$f of 1944: But this #as 3ery $itt$e6
com+ared #ith the not o3er#he$min%$y %ood +re,#ar fi%ures:
D1+,$% &'( 0,+-& ')/0 #0 1945, &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ .+#513(5 #$/* KK\ #0 &'( 3#)/
.+#513(5 ,$ &'( 0,+-& ')/0 #0 1941? 54\ #0 &'( #,/? KK\ #0 &'( (/(3&+,3 .#2(+? 46\ #0
&'( .,%-,+#$? 5M\ #0 &'( -&((/? 54\ #0 &'( 3#;(? 65\ #0 &'( ")3',$(-&##/-.. .
I ?A@ASS6 3o$: A6 ++: 37),J4:K
A$most e3erythin% had had to %o into the #ar industries #hich in the first ha$f of 194-6
had +roduced near$y &16""" aircraft6 &96""" aircraft en%ines6 o3er 96""" tan<s6 o3er )6"""
mo0i$e %uns6 )&6""" %uns6 J736""" rif$es and machine,%uns6 J&m: she$$s6 0om0s and
mines6 o3er 3 0i$$ion cartrid%es6 etc: The industria$ mi%ht of the So3iet *nion had 0een
+ractica$$y cut in ha$f since 1941: ?n 194- she #as +roducin% on$y one-eighth as much
stee$ as the *SA: She #as faced #ith the %i%antic +ro0$em of reconstruction6
recon3ersion and de3e$o+ment: A%ricu$ture had to 0e re,e=ui++ed #ith machinery a$most
from scratch6 and su++$ied #ith chemica$ ferti$isers: The +roduction of a%ricu$tura$
machinery and of ferti$isers #as one of the first thin%s to 0e ste++ed u+ immediate$y the
#ar in Curo+e #as o3er:
The num0er of $i3estoc<6 3ery far from enormous in 194" (#hen the after,effects of
co$$ecti3isation #ere sti$$ <een$y fe$t)6 #as much $o#er sti$$ in 194-: ?n 194-6 there #ere
on$y 47:4 m: head of catt$e (#hich #as 3:& m: more than in 1944): By the end of 194- the
tota$ num0er of catt$e #as on$y J7Y of the 194" fi%ureL co#s6 J&YL shee+ and %oats6
7"YL +i%s6 3JYL horses6 -1Y: ?n the $i0erated areas the +ercenta%es #ere $o#er sti$$
(co#s6 7)YL +i%s6 34YL horses6 44Y):
I?A@ASS6 3o$: A6 +: 39&: Some of the ne# catt$e had 0een 0rou%ht from 1ermany:K
There #as a$so6 in 194-6 a shorta%e of hi%h,=ua$ity fora%eL as a resu$t of this and other
factors6 the state +urchases of meat #ere )1:J +ercent of #hat they had 0een in 194"6 and
those of dairy +roduce6 4- +ercent: 9hich6 o03ious$y6 meant that the ci3i$ian +o+u$ation6
+articu$ar$y in the cities6 had to continue on short rationsD es+ecia$$y those ho$din%
c$erica$,#or<ers'6 de+endents' and chi$dren's ration cards: Di+$omats and other +ri3i$e%ed
forei%ners in Mosco# at that time6 #ho enHoyed hi%her rations and often attended
sum+tuous officia$ So3iet rece+tions6 #ere scarce$y a#are of the misera0$e standard of
$i3in% that continued amon% FordinaryF 2ussians: S+ecia$ efforts #ere made to %i3e
reasona0$y am+$e food to industria$ #or<ers6 and to +ro3ide e8tra mea$s of sorts for
schoo$chi$drenL 0ut most 2ussians sti$$ $i3ed 3ery +oor$y6 their diet consistin% a$most
entire$y of 0read6 +otatoes and 3e%eta0$es6 #ith 3ery $itt$e su%ar6 fats6 meat or fish: ?n
194-6 ? <ne# many fami$ies #ith c$erica$ #or<ers' ration,cards #ho6 #ithout actua$$y
star3in%6 #ere ha3in% a #orse than thin time6 and to #hom a #ho$e $um+ of su%ar in their
tea #as a$most a $u8ury: The sto++in% of end,ease6 #hich had su++$ied a su0stantia$
amount of food to the ArmyD i:e: to a0out ten mi$$ion +eo+$eDcaused an a++recia0$e
dro+ in the tota$ amount of food consumed in 2ussia:
IA sma$$ +ro+ortion of end,ease food a$so #ent to the ci3i$ian +o+u$ation:K
*;22A #as of some he$+ in Be$orussia and the *<raine6 thou%h it cou$d not 0e said to
0e o3er,%enerousL and there #as no *;22A re$ief at a$$ in the rest of the So3iet *nion:
IThere mi%ht ha3e 0een *;22A he$+ in the #estern +arts of 2ussia +ro+er6 0ut6
a++arent$y as a matter of +resti%e6 the So3iet 1o3ernment dec$ined it:K
For a time6 the %reat drou%ht of 194) #as to ma<e food conditions in 3ery $ar%e +arts of
the So3iet *nion e3en more difficu$t:
These hardshi+s at the end of the #ar6 #hich #ere6 after a$$6 on$y a continuation of the
#ar,time hardshi+s6 cannot6 ho#e3er6 0e said to ha3e undermined 2ussian mora$e as a
#ho$e6 e8ce+t that a certain re$a8ation in #ar,time disci+$ine #as to 0e ref$ected6 0efore
$on%6 in intensified 0$ac<,mar<et acti3ities and in a considera0$e increase in crimeDa
fami$iar +ost,#ar +henomenon in most countries:
But in the summer of 194- the fee$in% of e$ation continued6 #ith the homecomin% of
mi$$ions of so$diers: ?n many +$aces6 $ife #as a$ready 0e%innin% to rise from the ruinsL the
Don0as mines #ere 0ein% ra+id$y +ut 0ac< into o+erationL the 4har<o3 Tractor !$ant #as
0e%innin% to turn out tractors a%ainL 3i$$a%es in #estern 2ussia and in Be$orussia #ere
0ein% ra+id$y re0ui$tDthou%h usua$$y 0y on$y the most rudimentary methodsL hundreds
of thousands of +eo+$e #ere returnin% to enin%rad: The reconstruction that had a$ready
0e%un in the $i0erated areas in 1944 #as 0ein% s+eeded u+:
A$on% #ith this6 there #ere a$so mi$$ions of +ersona$ tra%ediesD of #omen #ho had no#
$ost a$$ ho+e of seein% their hus0ands or sons return from ca+ti3ity6 and e8,#ar,+risoners
#ho had sur3i3ed the #ar6 0ut #ere no# 0ein% +ut throu%h the ;4AD mi$$6 and of #hom
so many #ere to s+end years in cam+s: There #ere +ur%es in #hich not on$y rea$6 0ut a$so
a$$e%ed co$$a0orators #ere to suffer: These +ur%es #ere +ro0a0$y hea3iest of a$$ in the
Ba$tic 2e+u0$ics and in the #estern *<raine: But officia$$y6 3ery $itt$e #as <no#n a0out
a$$ this at the time6 and the fu$$ story of the 1944,- +ur%e sti$$ remains to 0e #rittenDif
the rea$ facts e3er come to $i%ht:
(c) International Pleasantness and &npleasantness
A some#hat uneasy internationa$ atmos+here mar<ed those three months of +eace Ft#i8t
1ermany and Ba+anF: ?t cannot 0e said that a uniform +rocess of #leichschaltung #as yet
0ein% a++$ied 0y the 2ussians to the #ho$e of eastern Curo+e: 5>echos$o3a<ia #as to
remain for some time a sort of sho#,#indo# of Cast,9est coe8istence6 #ith the +o#erfu$
5ommunist !arty under 1ott#a$d a++arent$y co,o+eratin% $oya$$y #ith the F0our%eoisF
+arties: !resident Benes6 thou%h not rea$$y trusted 0y the 2ussians6 #as6 ne3erthe$ess6
treated #ith a %reat sho# of res+ect:
I?t #as at this time that the 5>echos$o3a< +remier6 Fier$in%er6 came to Mosco# to si%n
the a%reement #here0y 2uthenia (the eastern ti+ of +re,#ar 5>echos$o3a<ia) #as
FreturnedF to the So3iet *<raine:K
More curious #ere the friend$y %estures made 0y the 2ussians to 4in% Michae$ of
2umania6 des+ite a$$ the un+$easantness of the +re3ious Fe0ruary: ;o#6 in the summer of
194-6 it #as +rominent$y re+orted that Marsha$ To$0u<hin had so$emn$y conferred on the
youn% 4in% the @rder of Aictory6 the hi%hest 2ussian mi$itary decoration6 for the
coura%eous stand he had ta<en in Au%ust 1944 #hen he 0ro<e #ith 1ermany: @n another
occasion it #as a$most e=ua$$y +rominent$y re+orted that some of the most famous
2ussian sin%ers and musica$ +erformers had %i3en a s+ecia$ concert in Bucharest in
honour of 4in% Michae$ and the Do#a%er Queen .e$en and that6 after the concert6 the
artistes6 as #e$$ as many eminent So3iet scientists #ho #ere there6 #ere +resented to
FTheir MaHestiesF:
Amon% other friend$y %estures durin% that summer #as the conferrin% 0y Marsha$
Ohu<o3 of the @rder of Aictory on Cisenho#er and Mont%omeryL the com+$iment #as
returned #hen Mont%omery conferred the 1:5:B: on Ohu<o36 the 4:5:B: on
2o<osso3s<y6 the @:B:C: on So<o$o3s<y and Ma$inin6 and so on:
@n the other hand6 there #as a %ood dea$ of un+$easantness of one <ind or another: The
So3iet +ress sho#ed much indi%nation o3er Fie$d,Marsha$ A$e8ander's Finso$ent and
insu$tin%F 0eha3iour to the (u%os$a3s at Trieste:
ITito had tried to anne8 Trieste and ?stria6 #hich met #ith shar+ o++osition from
5hurchi$$ and Truman: A$thou%h A$e8ander #as at first friend$y to the (u%os$a3s6 he
$ater shar+$y o++osed them on 5hurchi$$'s instructions6 and on one occasion e3en
com+ared Tito to .it$er and Musso$ini6 much to Sta$in's indi%nation: (See 5hurchi$$6 o+:
cit:6 3o$: ?A6 ++: 4J",J): ater6 in 194J6 at the time of the Sta$in,Tito =uarre$6 the 2ussians
made a com+$ete a0out,turn and accused the (u%os$a3s of ha3in% 0eha3ed +ro3ocati3e$y
and irres+onsi0$y and of near$y ha3in% dra%%ed the So3iet *nion into an un#anted #ar
#ith the 9estern A$$ies 0y tryin% to %ra0 Trieste:K
There had a$so 0een6 as a$ready said6 some an%ry recrimination on the +art of the
2ussians a0out 5hurchi$$'s Fsus+ect +atrona%eF of the FF$ens0ur% 1o3ernmentF: There
#ere6 further6 some an%ry +rotests o3er the tem+orary arrest6 in northern ?ta$y6 of ;enni
and To%$iatti6 and a %ood dea$ of recrimination a0out British +o$icy in 1reece: Much #as
made6 of course6 of the $eadin% +art +$ayed 0y the communists in 0oth the ?ta$ian and the
French 2esistance6 0ut6 for a$$ that6 the 2ussian attitude to the French6 ?ta$ian and other
9estern 5ommunist +arties remained some#hat 3a%ue: Do#nri%ht re3o$utionary
acti3ities on their +art #ere not encoura%edL instead6 0oth #hi$e the #ar $asted and for
t#o years after6 they #ere ur%ed to Fco,o+erateF #ith the 0our%eois +artiesDand in
France6 #ith de 1au$$e in +articu$arDand to ma<e their inf$uence fe$t 0oth in +ar$iament
and in the administration:
IThe most stri<in% e8am+$e of communist Fa++easementF vis-,-vis the 0our%eoisie #as
the forma$ a++ro3a$ that Thore>DHust 0ac< from 2ussiaD%a3e on Banuary &16 194- to de
1au$$e's disso$ution of the gardes patriotiPues, the +ara,mi$itary formations of the
+redominant$y communist +art of the 2esistance: This a++ro3a$ #as %i3en in the name of
Fnationa$ unityF6 and #ith the defeat of 1ermany as ;o: 1 o0Hecti3e: Thore>'s mo3e6
o03ious$y ta<en #ith
Sta$in's a++ro3a$6 if not sim+$y on his instructions6 annoyed a %reat +art of the communist
ran<,and,fi$e6 and a$so some $eaders $i<e Marty and Ti$$on (the $atter had 0een hi%h$y
+rominent in the 2esistance inside France)6 0oth of #hom #ere $ater to 0e char%ed 0y the
communist $eadershi+ #ith irres+onsi0$e re3o$utionary romanticism and 4lanPuisme5
Simi$ar$y6 Thore> dec$ared that the i0eration 5ommittees that had emanated from the
2esistance must not try to Fsu0stitute themse$3esF for the 1o3ernments: (See the author's
France <=JD-<=KK, +: &44:)K
@n$y time #ou$d sho# ho# inf$uentia$ they cou$d 0ecome:
(d) Poland againDHop*insSTrial o" the Polish &nderground
!o$andDa$#ays !o$andPDcontinued to 0e the most acute +ro0$em 0et#een 2ussia and
the 9estern A$$ies in the ear$y summer of 194-: C3en 0efore enterin% !o$and +ro+er6 that
is6 in 9estern Be$orussia and ithuania6 the 2ed Army had met #ith some armed
resistance and sa0ota%e from the FondonF !o$ish under%round6 the /rmi8a Kra8o:a, and
thin%s had %one from 0ad to #orse once the 2ussians #ere inside !o$and: ?t #as c$aimed
on the 2ussian side that se3era$ hundred 2ussian so$diers and officers had 0een
assassinated 0y !o$esL the /rmi8a Kra8o:a #as a$so he$d %ui$ty of many terrorist acts
a%ainst re+resentati3es of the u0$in 1o3ernment and of sa0ota%in% the recruitment of
!o$es into the !o$ish Army fi%htin% side,0y,side #ith the 2ed Army: The 2ussians #ere
a$so im+ressed 0y the hosti$ity of a $ar%e +art of the !o$ish +o+u$ation6 and 0y the
intensi3e anti,So3iet +ro+a%anda conducted in !o$and6 0oth 0y the FondonF
under%round and 0y the 5hurch:
?n Banuary 194-6 on instructions from ondon6 the /rmi8a Kra8o:a officia$$y disso$3ed
itse$f6 0ut #as re+$aced 0y a secret or%anisation6 ca$$ed ;?C (short for 3iepodleglosc, i:e:
?nde+endence)6 sti$$ #ith 1enera$ @<u$ic<i at its head: After the co$$a+se of the 9arsa#
2isin%6 @<u$ic<i had 0een a++ointed to re+$ace 1enera$ BTr,4omaro#s<i as head of the
/rmi8a Kra8o:a5 The ne# *nder%round6 #hich had FinheritedF the mi$itary and radio
e=ui+ment of the /rmi8a Kra8o:a, continued its acti3ities after the 2ussians had o3errun
the #ho$e of !o$and: So in March the So3iet 1o3ernment decided to deca+itate this Fanti,
2ussian resistance mo3ementF:
1enera$ @<u$ic<i and fifteen others #ere in3itedDin t#o $otsDto meet a num0er of
2ussian officers6 ostensi0$y #ith a 3ie# to discussin% the (a$ta decisions on !o$and and a
modus vivendi5 The meetin%s #ere a tra+6 @<u$ic<i and the others6 amon% them three
mem0ers of the F!o$ish *nder%round 1o3ernmentF (Ban Ban<o#s<i6 Adam Ben and
Stanis$a# Basiu<o#ic>)6 and !u>a<6 socia$ist +resident of the Funder%round +ar$iamentF6
#ere arrested and ta<en to Mosco#: @n A+ri$ &J 5hurchi$$ an8ious$y in=uired6 in a $etter
to Sta$in6 a0out the Ffifteen !o$esF #ho #ere rumoured to ha3e 0een Fde+ortedF: @n May
46 Sta$in re+$ied that he had no intention of 0ein% si$ent a0out the si8teenDnot fifteenD
!o$es: A$$6 or some of them6 de+endin% on the outcome of the in3esti%ations6 #ou$d 0e
+ut on tria$:
=T'(* )+(> 3')+%(5 2,&' -186(+-,6( )3&,6,&,(- 8(',$5 &'( /,$(- #0 &'( R(5 A+"*. T',-
-186(+-,#$ ')- &);($ ) &#// #0 #6(+ ) '1$5+(5 R(5 A+"* -#/5,(+- )$5 #00,3(+-? &'(*
)+( )/-# 3')+%(5 2,&' ;((.,$% ,//(%)/ +)5,# &+)$-",&&(+- 8(',$5 #1+ /,$(-... T'( R(5
A+"* ,- 0#+3(5 &# .+#&(3& ,&- 1$,&- )$5 +()+-/,$(- )%),$-& -)8#&(1+-.
.e descri0ed @<u$ic<i as a +erson of F+articu$ar odiousnessF:
I)hurchill-%talin )orrespondence, +: 34JK
The arrest of these !o$esDand the #ho$e !o$ish =uestionD#ere ri%ht in the centre of the
Sta$in,.o+<ins discussions 0et#een May &) and Bune ): These si8 meetin%s too< +$ace
durin% the F$ast missionF that .o+<insDa 3ery sic< man #ho #as to die on$y a fe#
months $aterD#as to +erform at the re=uest of the ne# !resident6 .arry Truman: At the
3ery first meetin% #ith Sta$in6 .o+<ins reca$$ed ho#6 on his #ay 0ac< from (a$ta6
2oose3e$t had fre=uent$y s+o<en of Fthe res+ect and admiration he had for Marsha$
Sta$inFL 0ut the fact remained that Fin the $ast si8 #ee<s deterioration of IAmericanK
+u0$ic o+inion had 0een so serious as to affect ad3erse$y the re$ations 0et#een the t#o
countries:F
?n a country $i<e ours I.o+<ins saidK +u0$ic o+inion is affected 0y s+ecific incidents6 and
the deterioration ::: has 0een centred on our ina0i$ity to carry into effect the (a$ta
A%reement on !o$and:
Time and a%ain he returned to this =uestion6 sayin% that6 in the +u0$ic 3ie# in the *nited
States6 F!o$and had 0ecome a sym0o$ of our a0i$ity to #or< out +ro0$ems #ith the So3iet
*nion:F .e ur%ed Sta$in to s+eed u+ the formation of the Fne#F !o$ish 1o3ernment and
a$so6 +ure$y and sim+$y6 to re$ease the $eaders of the !o$ish *nder%round no# under
arrest:
Sta$in #ou$d not yie$d on this +ointL not on$y had this *nder%round committed %ra3e
crimes a%ainst the 2ed Army6 0ut these +eo+$e re+resented that cordon sanitaire +o$icy
so dear to 5hurchi$$'s heartL the British conser3ati3es did not #ant the ne# !o$and to 0e
friend$y to the So3iet *nion: ?n re+$y to .o+<in's $on% +$ea in fa3our of a$$o#in% !o$and
a$$ the necessary democratic freedoms6 as America understood them6 Sta$in said that (a)
in time of #ar these +o$itica$ freedoms cou$d not 0e enHoyed to the fu$$ e8tent and (0) nor
cou$d they 0e %ranted #ithout reser3ations to Fascist +arties tryin% to o3erthro# the
%o3ernment: ?t #as o03ious that6 in Sta$in's mind6 the #ord FFascistF a++$ied to the
/rmi8a Kra8o:a and a$$ other !o$ish e$ements hosti$e to 2ussia:
.o#e3er6 a 3irtua$ a%reement #as reached a0out inc$udin% Mi<o$aHc>y< and a fe# others
in the !o$ish 1o3ernment6 and6 after his fourth meetin% #ith Sta$in6 .o+<ins #as a0$e to
re+ort to Truman:
I& /##;- )- &'#1%' S&)/,$ ,- .+(.)+(5 &# +(&1+$ &# )$5 ,"./("($& &'( C+,"()
5(3,-,#$ )$5 .(+",& ) +(.+(-($&)&,6( %+#1. &# 3#"( &# M#-3#2 &# 3#$-1/& 2,&' &'(
=M#/#&#6-H)++,")$-C/)+; K(++> 3#"",--,#$.
?n the course of the si8 .o+<ins,Sta$in meetin%s se3era$ other im+ortant =uestions #ere6
of course6 discussed:
I Sher#ood6 o+: cit:6 3o$: ??6 ++: J7&,9"):K
.o+<ins ur%ed Sta$in to a++oint #ithout de$ay the 2ussian mem0er of the 5ontro$
5ounci$ in 1ermany6 since Cisenho#er had a$ready 0een a++ointed its American
mem0erL Sta$in said he #ou$d a++oint Ohu<o3 in the ne8t fe# days: Sta$in +ersisted in
e8+ressin% the 0e$ief that .it$er #as not dead and said he thou%ht that 1oe00e$s and
Bormann had a$so esca+ed:
Sta$in6 #ithout o0Hectin% to the termination of end,ease6 said it had 0een done in an
Funfortunate and 0ruta$F #ay: F.e added that the 2ussians had intended to ma<e a
suita0$e e8+ression of %ratitude to the *nited States for the end,ease assistance durin%
the #ar6 0ut the #ay in #hich the +ro%ramme had 0een ha$ted made this im+ossi0$e
no#:F .o+<ins6 #hi$e de+$orin% certain Ftechnica$ misunderstandin%sF #hich had created
this situation6 added that the termination of end,ease #as not intended as a F+ressure
#ea+onF a%ainst 2ussia6 as Sta$in had su%%ested: .e said Fhe #ished to add that #e had
ne3er 0e$ie3ed that our end,ease he$+ had 0een the chief factor in the So3iet defeat of
.it$er::: This had 0een done 0y the heroism and 0$ood of the 2ussian Army:F
Another im+ortant =uestion discussed 0y .o+<ins and Sta$in re$ated to 2ussia's entry into
the #ar a%ainst Ba+an: Sta$in dec$ared that the So3iet Army #ou$d 0e +ro+er$y de+$oyed
in its Manchurian +ositions 0y Au%ust J: This +art of the .o+<ins,Sta$in ta$<s #i$$ 0e
dea$t #ith $ater:
The Mosco# tria$ of the !o$ish *nder%round o+ened in the !i$$ared .a$$ in Mosco# (the
3ery ha$$ #here the %reat !ur%e Tria$s of the '3"'s had ta<en +$ace) on Bune 1J6 and $asted
for three days: The +residin% Hud%e #as the notorious 1enera$ *$rich6 a$so of the !ur%e
Tria$s:
1enera$ @<u$ic<i6 the +rinci+a$ defendant6 a da++er !o$ish officer6 defended himse$f a0$y
and #ith coura%e6 +$eadin% %ui$ty to most of the char%es (formation of an under%round
after the disso$ution of the /rmi8a Kra8o:a, i%norin% the 2ed Army's orders to surrender
arms and radio e=ui+ment6 secret #ire$ess communications #ith ondon6 anti,So3iet
+ro+a%anda amon%st the +o+u$ation6 etc:) 0ut dec$ined res+onsi0i$ity for the <i$$in% of
2ussian officers and so$diers: Since he had ta<en command of the /5K5, he had 0een in
the +art of !o$and sti$$ under 1erman occu+ation6 and he had had no contro$ o3er eastern
!o$and or ithuania6 #here the 2ussians #ere murderedL #hen the 2ussians +enetrated
into #estern !o$and6 nothin% $i<e that ha++ened:
9hen he #as as<ed 0y the Second !u0$ic !rosecutor6 1enera$ 2uden<o6 #hy he had not
surrendered the /5K50s armaments6 radio transmitters6 etc:6 to the 2ed Army6 the fo$$o#in%
e8chan%e too< +$ace:
;kulicki4 I ,$&($5(5 &# ;((. &'(" 0#+ &'( 01&1+(.
)udenko4 #+ 2')& .1+.#-(I
;kulicki4 T# 0,%'& 0#+ P#/)$5 -'#1/5 -'( 8( &'+()&($(5.
)udenko4 ,%'& )%),$-& 2'#"I
;kulicki4 A%),$-& )$*#$( &'+()&($,$% P#/)$5.
)udenko4 W')& 3#1$&+* 5,5 *#1 ')6( ,$ ",$5I
;kulicki4 T'( S#6,(& U$,#$.
)udenko4 S# 2')& *#1 ')5 ,$ ",$5 2)- ) 2)+ )%),$-& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$, 2,&' &',-
91)/,0,3)&,#$: D,0 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ &'+()&($- &'( ,$5(.($5($3( #0 P#/)$5D. I$ -13'
)$ (6($&1)/,&* 2')& )//,(-, 2')& 8/#3 2(+( *#1 &',$;,$% #0I
;kulicki4 A 8/#3 )%),$-& &'( S#6,(&-.
)udenko4 T')& "()$& P#/)$5, )$5 2'# (/-(I W')& #&'(+ -&)&(-I
;kulicki4 A// #&'(+ -&)&(-.
)udenko4 W,// *#1 ($1"(+)&( &'( -&)&(- "($&,#$(5 ,$ *#1+ /(&&(+ &# C#/#$(/
DS/)28#+DI =#$( #0 ',- -18#+5,$)&(->.
;kulicki4 I "($&,#$(5 E$%/)$5.
)udenko4 A$5 2'#" (/-(I
;kulicki4 T'( !(+")$-.
)udenko4 S# *#1 2(+( &',$;,$% #0 ) 8/#3 2,&' &'( !(+")$-, 2,&' !(+")$*, &'(
($("* #0 )// 0+((5#"-/#6,$% 3#1$&+,(-, $#&#+,#1- 0#+ ,&- 3+1(/&* )$5 8)+8)+,&*...
;kulicki4 I "()$& ) 8/#3, $#& 2,&' &'( !(+")$-, 81& 2,&' E1+#.(.
(aughter.)
&%ude4n!i otchet po delu555 pols*ogo podpoli!a (2e+ort of the Tria$ of the !o$ish
*nder%round) (Mosco#6 194-)6 ++: 141,&:K
@n the $ast day of the tria$6 in his F$ast #ordsF 0efore the 3erdict6 @<u$ic<i admitted that
he had 0een mista<en in distrustin% the So3iet *nion and in trustin% the !o$ish
1o3ernment in ondonL this had not acce+ted the (a$ta A%reement on !o$and6 and that
#as a mista<e6 #hich he had reco%nised at once: ;e3erthe$ess6 he had maintained the
!o$ish *nder%round6 com+$ete #ith arms stores and radio e=ui+ment6 0ecause he had
continued to distrust 2ussia: .e remem0ered that Tsarist 2ussia had o++ressed !o$and
for 1&3 years6 and he had not 0een con3inced that !o$and's inde+endence #ou$d 0e
res+ected 0y the 3ictorious 2ussiansL he did not <no# at the time #hat chan%es had ta<en
+$ace in 2ussia: .e had fou%ht the 1ermans6 0ut said that there #as nothin% in his
directi3es to the /K to sho# that he had ordered acts of terrorism a%ainst the 2ussians6
and if these too< +$ace #ithout his <no#$ed%e (and they did ta<e +$ace) it #as dee+$y
re%retta0$e: As for his ideas a0out an a$$iance #ith FCuro+eF6 inc$udin% Cn%$and and
1ermany6 these re$ated to the future and #ere +ure$y Fhy+othetica$F:
That #as as far as he #ou$d %o: But the officia$ 2ussians #ere fair$y satisfiedL in their
eyes the tria$ had sho#n u+ the ondon 1o3ernment and6 indirect$y6 5hurchi$$6 #ith his
cordon sanitaire5
As Sta$in had a$ready foreto$d to .o+<ins6 the sentences #ere re$ati3e$y $enient: The
!u0$ic !rosecutor6 no dou0t actin% on instructions from a0o3e6 did not demand the death
sentence6 not e3en for @<u$ic<i: The $atter #as %i3en ten years6 the three mem0ers of the
Funder%round %o3ernmentF 0et#een fi3e and ei%ht years6 the others much shorter
sentences6 and three #ere ac=uitted:
C3en so6 there #as somethin% distastefu$ a0out the #ho$e thin%6 not on$y to 9estern
o0ser3ers6 0ut a$so to many 2ussians #ho remem0ered the !ur%e Tria$s in the $ate '3"'s:
Bust 4e"ore the tria$ there had a$so 0een a +articu$ar$y nauseatin% artic$e 0y Oas$a3s<y in
Pravda ca$$in% a$$ the accused murderers6 0andits6 etc:6 in the #orst sty$e of 1937: To
many it a$so seemed a confession of #ea<ness to ha3e these men tried 0y a 2ussian6 and
not a !o$ish6 court: 9ou$d there ha3e 0een too much sym+athy for them in !o$andE After
a$$6 many of them had fou%ht for years a%ainst the 1ermans6 and the main char%e that
they #ere direct$y res+onsi0$e for the deaths of many 2ussian officers and so$diers had
not 0een +ro3ed:
A$thou%h6 on the face of it6 the tria$ $oo<ed fair enou%h6 many 2ussians #ondered6 as they
$oo<ed at this same court room and the same sinister Bud%e *$rich6 #hether some
+ressures had not 0een 0rou%ht to 0ear on the defendants:
Soon after#ards in !o$and ? found that e3en +ro,So3iet 1o3ernment !o$es #ere a $itt$e
em0arrassed a0out the #ho$e thin%6 and many !o$es #ondered6 of course6 #hat #ou$d
actua$$y ha++en to @<u$ic<i and the three other +rinci+a$ +risoners:: :
IThe e3idence here is conf$ictin%: Accordin% to the *S Am0assador in 9arsa#6 Arthur
B$iss ane (` %a: Freedom .etra!ed, ondon6 1947)6 @<u$ic<i and the others sti$$ in
2ussian +risons #ere amnestied in 194)6 thou%h a fe# (not @<u$ic<i) #ere $ater
+rosecuted 0y the !o$ish authorities: !o$es6 0oth in 9arsa# and in Cn%$and6 ha3e assured
me that @<u$ic<i died in 2ussian ca+ti3ity in 1947:K
As a resu$t of .arry .o+<ins's +roddin%6 the Mo$oto3,.arriman,5$ar< 4err 5ommittee at
$ast mana%ed to 0rin% a0out the formation of a !o$ish F1o3ernment of ;ationa$ *nityF:
@n$y a sma$$ num0er of Fondon !o$esF6 thou%h none of them mem0ers of Arcis>e#s<i's
!o$ish 1o3ernment there6 entered this %o3ernment: The most +rominent amon% them #as
Mi<o$aHc>y<6 #ho had resi%ned from the ondon 1o3ernment some months 0efore6 and
had6 a$0eit re$uctant$y6 acce+ted the (a$ta A%reement on !o$and: Des+ite the %reat
hosti$ity sho#n him 0y the Fu0$in !o$esF6 5hurchi$$ had insisted that he Hoin the ne#
!o$ish 1o3ernment: The fina$ ne%otiations #hich ended in the formation of this
%o3ernment too< +$ace in Mosco# 0et#een Bune 17 and &46 thus coincidin%6 0y a %rimD
and +erha+s intentiona$Dirony6 #ith the tria$ of @<u$ic<i and the other *nder%round
$eaders: Both 0efore and after the tria$ Mi<o$aHc>y< had +$eaded #ith the 2ussians that
the *nder%round $eaders 0e re$easedL he ar%ued #ith Mo$oto3 that such an act of
ma%nanimity on the 2ussians' +art #ou$d ha3e a #onderfu$ +sycho$o%ica$ effect in
!o$andL 0ut it #as of no a3ai$: Bierut6 #hom Mi<o$aHc>y< 0e%%ed to su++ort his +$ea6
refused to do so6 sayin% it #ou$d mere$y annoy Sta$in: FBesides6 #e don't need these
+eo+$e in !o$and Hust no#:F
IMi<o$aHc>y<: (e viol de la Pologne, +: 1-J:K
The !o$ish 1o3ernment that #as fina$$y formed6 and in #hose honour Sta$in %a3e a
sum+tuous 0an=uet at the 4rem$in 0efore its mem0ers $eft for 9arsa#6 #as a some#hat
$o+,sided affair6 in #hich the <ey +ositions #ere he$d 0y +ro,So3iet !o$esL 0ut it #as the
0est the 9estern !o#ers cou$d achie3e in the circumstances6 and they hastened to
reco%nise the ne# !o$ish 1o3ernment: ?n his s+eech at the 4rem$in that ni%ht6 Sta$in
s+o<e of the harm !o$and and 2ussia had done each other in the +ast6 and admitted that
2ussia's %ui$t had 0een %reater than !o$and'sL he e3en su%%ested that a ne# %eneration of
!o$es #ou$d ha3e to %ro# u+ 0efore a$$ the 0itterness disa++eared: 1ermany6 he said6
#ou$d continue to 0e a threat to 0oth !o$and and 2ussia6 and their a$$iance #as essentia$6
0ut it #as not enou%h in itse$f6 and 0oth countries6 therefore6 needed the a$$iance of the
*nited States6 Britain and France:
I ?0id:6 +: 1-7:K
(e) )lose-&p: )ivil $ar &ndertones in Poland
This #as for forei%n consum+tion: Sta$in and a$$ other 2ussians <ne# that an acute
stru%%$e #as %oin% on in !o$and 0et#een FCastF and F9estF: 9hen ? s+ent ten days in
!o$and soon after the formation of the ne# %o3ernment6 ? found there somethin% not
un$i<e a ci3i$ #ar atmos+here: The arri3a$ in !o$and of an unusua$$y $ar%e %rou+ of
9estern corres+ondents %a3e rise to some shar+ anti,2ussian demonstrations for their
0enefit: @ne of them #as +articu$ar$y %rim: at 5raco#6 to sho# us that the Funder%roundF
#as acti3e6 t#o unfortunate 2ussian so$diers #ere shot outside the hote$ #here #e #ere
stayin%: Any meetin%s #e had #ith the Finte$$i%entsiaFD#hether #ith #riters in 5raco#6
or #ith mem0ers of the 2adio 5ommittee at 4ato#iceD#ere in3aria0$y mar<ed 0y
3io$ent denunciations of the 2ussians and of their Fstoo%esFD F;4ADF Bierut6 @so0<a,
Mora#s<i6 or 1omu$<a:
Faute de mieu2, Mi<o$aHc>y< 0ecame a sym0o$ of !o$ish +atriotism of the ri%ht <ind:
soon after his arri3a$ in !o$and6 many thousands sta%ed a tremendous demonstration in
his honour at 5raco#6 #hich had 0ecome $i<e the ca+ita$ of the o$d,time and +ro,9estern
!o$and6 and the stron%ho$d of the !easant !arty6 the !S6 and a$so of a$$ that #as most
c$erica$ and FreactionaryF in the country: The city6 #ith its famous 0aro=ue churches6 and
!i$suds<i's tom0Dan Fanti,2ussianF shrine #hich thousands 3isited e3ery day Dhad
suffered $ess dama%e than most !o$ish cities: But a$thou%h the 2ussians had sa3ed
5raco# from destruction6 the hosti$ity to them #as %reater here than any#here e$se: The
2ussian so$diers in 5raco#6 for their +art6 #ere +articu$ar$y ner3ous6 0oorish and defiant6
and amon% those #ho had come from 1ermany #ith a$$ its $a#$essness6 disci+$ine #as far
from %ood6 and the !o$es #a$$o#ed in stories of 2ussian ro00ery and ra+e:
The atmos+here in 9arsa# #as distinct$y 0etter: The city #as6 of course6 a tra%ic si%ht:
!ractica$$y a$$ %o3ernmenta$ and other acti3ity #as centred in !ra%a6 on the other side of
the ri3er6 and the Aistu$a cou$d 0e crossed on$y 0y a tem+orary #ooden 0rid%e: ?n
9arsa# +ro+er6 amon% the fe# F$i3eF +$aces #ere the .ote$ !o$onia and a fe# 0$oc<s of
houses 0ehind itL here the 1ermans had $i3ed ti$$ the end6 #hi$e the rest of 9arsa# #as
0urnin%: Around6 for mi$es6 #as the desert of 0urned,out houses and mountains of ru00$e:
There #ere ci%arette 3endors outside the !o$onia se$$in% most$y *;22A ci%arettes6 and
the Ffourteen f$o#er sta$$sF of 9arsa# #ere considered a +athetic sma$$ 0e%innin% of the
restoration of $ife: A fe# +re,fa0ricated houses and a fe# 0uses and tramcars had 0een
+resented to 9arsa# 0y the So3iet *nion6 and there #as much ta$< that 2ussia #as %oin%
to Fre0ui$d ha$f of 9arsa#FL 0ut6 #hether true or not6 a$$ this #as sti$$ in the future:
Meantime6 most of the #or<ers of 9arsa# #ere 0usy c$earin% ru00$e and +atchin% u+
houses that cou$d sti$$ 0e made more or $ess ha0ita0$e: 9hat #as stri<in% in 9arsa#6
thou%h6 #as the faith that the city :ould 0e re0ui$tL the Fu0$inF !o$es had announced
that this #ou$d 0e done6 and this #as +sycho$o%ica$$y6 a %reat +oint in their fa3our: This
reconstruction of 9arsa# and the @der,;eisse ine #ere the t#o +oints on #hich a$$
!o$es #ere a%reed:
@ne day #hen ? #as in 9arsa#6 a0out &"6""" #or<ers6 and some +easant de$e%ations6
he$d a %reat demonstration in the 4ra<o#s<ie !r>edmescieDa$$ of it in ruins6 and from
the 0a$cony of the 0urned,out @+era,house o3er$oo<in% the street6 the mem0ers of the
%o3ernment6 com+$ete #ith Mi<o$aHc>y<6 #ere there to %reet them: There #as a %reat dea$
of cheerin% from the demonstratorsD0ut it #as not necessari$y meant for Mi<o$aHc>y<
on$y: Many of these #or<ers6 carryin% red 0anners6 #ere !!2 and !!S6 5ommunists and
Socia$ists:
IThe +ro,2ussian !o$es6 as ? noticed +articu$ar$y at 4ato#ice6 the centre of the Si$esian
0$ac< country6 #ere doin% their utmost to 0ui$d u+6 amon% the miners6 a $ar%e trade,union
or%anisation #ith a stron% communist s$ant6 #hich #as e8+ected to 0e one of the main
+i$$ars of the ne# rN%ime:K
FAma>in%6 ama>in%6F Mi<o$aHc>y< #as sayin%6 Fsuch 3ita$ity amon% our +eo+$e6 $i3in%6
as they do6 amon% the ruins6 and hun%ry6 3ery6 3ery hun%ry:::F A %ir$6 in nationa$
costume6 re+resentin% the !S6 the !easant !arty6 +resented him #ith a 0unch of f$o#ers:
Mi<o$aHc>y< then reca$$ed the F#onderfu$ rece+tion he had 0een %i3en at 5raco#Dan
o3ation6 a rea$ o3ation:F (At this +oint some0ody #his+ered that it #asn't rea$$y a +ro,
Mi<o$aHc>y< o3ation6 0ut an anti,Bierut o3ation):
?n 194-6 !o$and's F9estern TerritoriesF #ere sti$$ a desert: ;ear$y a$$ the 1ermans had
%one6 and the 3i$$a%es #ere most$y em+ty: !o$ish and 2ussian troo+s #ere 0ein% used to
0rin% in the har3est: .ere and there ne# sett$ers #ere comin% in in dri0$ets6 some from
the #o# areas6 some from tiny Funeconomica$F farms in centra$ !o$and: Some came
#ithout catt$e6 and a$thou%h they had 0een %i3en %ood 1erman farmhousesDin #hich
they had a$ready insta$$ed then,ho$y +icturesDthey #ere $i3in% on +otatoes and $itt$e e$se:
Some6 0et#een the @der and the 9estern ;eisse6 #ere sayin%: F.ere #e ha3e 0een %i3en
more $and than #hat #e had at home6 0ut #e ha3e nothin% to #or< it #ithD#e'3e no
horsesDand this isn0t our countr!, an!:a!5" T#o years $ater6 0oth the %enera$ +icture in
these +arts and the +eo+$e's menta$ity had chan%ed com+$ete$y: By 1947 they $oo<ed
u+on it 3ery much as their country: 1omu$<a6 the minister then in char%e of the 9estern
Territories6 had +$ayed a $eadin% +art in this +rocess:
A fe# 1ermans #ere sti$$ $i3in% here in 194-: ? remem0er the $oca$ mi$$er's son6 a sturdy
youn%ster #ith turned,u+ nose and frec<$es: .e $oo<ed 0e#i$dered: F? don't <no# #here
they #i$$ send us: 9e ha3e no#here to %o: ? ha3e $i3ed here a$$ my $ife:F @n a road #e
met a +rocession of se3era$ hundred 1ermans6 men6 #omen6 chi$dren6 carryin% 0und$es6
and the o$d fo$<s sittin% in horse,carts: !o$ish so$diers6 #ho #ere escortin% them6
0e$$o#ed at them #hen they started te$$in% us some ta$e of #oe: The 1ermans had had no
+ity for the !o$esL no# the !o$es had none for the 1ermans:
Dan>i%Dno# 1dans<D#as hideous in its destruction: The fi%htin% here had 0een 3ery
hea3y6 and there #ere do>ens of 2ussian mass,%ra3es a$on% the coasta$ road 0et#een
1dynia and Dan>i%: @utside Dan>i% #e sa# an e8+erimenta$ factory for ma<in% soa+ out
of human cor+ses6 #hich had 0een run 0y a 1erman +rofessor ca$$ed S+anner: ?t #as a
ni%htmarish si%ht6 #ith its 3ats fu$$ of human heads and torsoes +ic<$ed in some .=uid6
and its +ai$s fu$$ of a f$a<ey su0stanceDhuman soa+: A s$o#,#itted 1ermanised youn%
!o$e6 #ho had #or<ed here as a $a0oratory assistant6 and #ho no# $oo<ed 3ery scared6
said that the factory had not %one much 0eyond the e8+erimenta$ sta%e6 thou%h #hat soa+
had actua$$y 0een made #as %ood: ?t had sme$t 0ad6 unti$ some chemica$ had 0een added
#hich made it sme$$ of a$monds: .is mother had $i<ed it: .e said that6 !rofessor S+anner
had to$d him that after the #ar6 the 1ermans #ou$d set u+ a soa+ factory in each
concentration cam+6 so that the #ho$e thin% cou$d 0e run on a sound industria$ 0asis:
;o# that the Be#s had 0een #i+ed out6 they cou$d start on mi$$ions of S$a3s:
Bac< in 9arsa#: ? ta$<ed to a 2ussian co$one$ #ho said: FThere are a $ot of A4 and ;SO
I!o$ish FascistK terrorists e3ery#here6 es+ecia$$y in +$aces $i<e 5raco#: The !!2 Ithe
!o$ish 5ommunistsK are ha3in% a 3ery tou%h timeL hundreds of their officia$s ha3e 0een
0um+ed off: @ne has to 0e 3ery 0ra3e to 0e a !o$ish communist: ?n 5>echos$o3a<ia there
is %reat enthusiasm for the 2ed Army6 0ut not here in !o$and: The !o$es are difficu$t
+eo+$eL the on$y %ood thin% is that they hate the 1ermans e3en more than they hate usL it
may ma<e thin%s easier 0et#een us in the $on% run6 es+ecia$$y #ith the @der,;eisse
frontier6 on #hich they are a$$ 3ery <een: A$so6 the 2ed Army is +u$$in% out of !o$and6
e8ce+t on the communication $ines to 1ermany6 and that may ma<e them fee$ 0etter and
sto+ a$$ their si$$y ta$< a0out the '2ussian occu+ation':F
Mean#hi$e6 ho#e3er6 a $itt$e ci3i$ #ar #as %oin% on in !o$and 0e$o# the surfaceDand
not so 3ery far 0e$o#: ?t did not sto+ unti$ 19476 and not #ithout the he$+ of the Army and
a +o#erfu$ +o$ice force6 0oth 0ui$t u+ #ith 2ussian ad3ice and assistance: Mi<o$aHc>y<
f$ed in 194J6 5yran<ie#ic> re+$aced @sT0<a,Mora#s<i6 0ut6 after se3era$ years of
FSta$inistF terror (thou%h $ess 3io$ent in !o$and than e$se#here) a different <ind of !o$and
emer%ed6 #ith 1omu$<a at its headDthat 3ery 1omu$<a #hom Mi<o$aHc>y< re%arded in
194- as a crimina$ maniac: ?t #as6 ho#e3er6 #ron% to assume that in 194- there #ere no
%enuine socia$ists or communists in !o$and6 e8ce+t those Fso$dF to the 2ussians6 or that
all !o$es $o3ed the 9estL Hust as there #ere 3ery many 5>echs6 so there #ere a$so
numerous !o$es #ho remem0ered on$y too #e$$ that their country's a$$iance #ith the 9est
had done them no %ood in 1939:
;ot on$y amon% the #or<in%,c$ass $eaders6 0ut a$so amon% a +art of the inte$$i%entsia
there #ere many #ho #ere sayin%: F9ith our economy as de3astated as it is6 and #ith the
9estern Territories to sett$e and or%anise6 on$y a centra$$y,contro$$ed socia$ist economy
can co+e effecti3e$y #ith a$$ these +ro0$ems:F But this #as the Frationa$F a++roach and6
emotiona$$y6 a $ar%e num0er of !o$es6 startin% #ith the 5hurch6 #ere more or $ess hosti$e
to 2ussia:
There #ere +o+u$ar rhymes in 194- on the ear$y return of #o# to !o$and6 in #hich
(:o:a (the %eniti3e of #o#) rhymed #ith 4om4a atomo:a5
C').&(+ A POTSDAM
At the !otsdam 5onference #hich met on Bu$y 176 the So3iet de$e%ation #as headed 0y
Sta$in and Mo$oto36 the American de$e%ation 0y the ne# !resident6 .arry Truman6 and
the ne# Secretary of State6 Bames Byrnes6 and the British de$e%ation6 first 0y 5hurchi$$
and Cden and from Bu$y &J6 i:e: after the a0our 3ictory in the 1enera$ C$ection6 0y Att$ee
and Be3in6 the ne# !rime Minister and Forei%n Secretary:
At the end of the 5onference6 Pravda #rote in its editoria$ of Au%ust 3: F?t +oints to a
further stren%thenin% of the co,o+eration 0et#een the Bi% Three6 #hose armed a$$iance
0rou%ht a0out 3ictory o3er the common enemyF6 and6 durin% the days that fo$$o#ed6 it
an%ri$y denounced as ma$icious s$ander any su%%estion6 for instance in the S#edish +ress6
that Fthe seeds of the di3ision of 1ermany and of Curo+e into t#o had 0een so#n at
!otsdam:F
(et6 unfortunate$y6 that is +recise$y #hat ha++ened there6 des+ite the $on% officia$
communi=uN #hich <e+t u+ the sem0$ance of unity amon% the Bi% Three: But e3en this
document sho#ed that no a%reement had 0een reached on se3era$ =uestions6 and that
many decisions had 0een +ost+oned:
This t#enty,+a%e document #as di3ided into the fo$$o#in% fifteen sections: 1) !ream0$eL
&) Csta0$ishment of a 5ounci$ of Forei%n MinistersL 3) 1ermanyL 4) 1erman 2e+arationsL
-) 1erman ;a3y and Merchant F$eetL )) 4Tni%s0er%L 7) 9ar 5rimina$sL J) AustriaL 9)
!o$andL 1") !eace Treaties and Admissions to *;@L 11) Territories under Trusteeshi+L
1&) 2e3ision of the !rocedure of the A$$ied 5ontro$ 5ommissions in 2umania6 Bu$%aria
and .un%aryL 13) Transfer of 1erman !o+u$ationsL 14) Mi$itary !ro0$ems discussed 0y
the .eads of the 1enera$ Staffs at the 5onferenceL 1-) ist of De$e%ates:
?t #i$$ 0e seen from this $ist a$one ho# $ar%e a ran%e of su0Hects #as discussed durin% the
thirteen +$enary meetin%s of the 5onference6 0esides the 3arious committee and su0,
committee meetin%sL and e3en this $ist is far from e8hausti3e: it ma<es no s+ecific
mention of Ba+an6 #hich he$d a 3ery im+ortant +$ace in 0oth the +o$itica$ and mi$itary
ta$<s at !otsdam6 or of such secondary su0Hects as Trieste and (u%os$a3ia6 or Franco
S+ain: A$$ three a%reed that S+ain #as not to 0e admitted to *;@6 0ut neither Britain nor
the *nited States #ere +re+ared to 0rea< off di+$omatic re$ations #ith her6 as the
2ussians had ur%ed them to do: ;or #as there any mention of Tur<ey in the
communi=uNL the 2ussian demand for 0ases there #as reHected:
@ne of the most im+ortant achie3ements of !otsdam #as the settin% u+ of the 5ounci$ of
Forei%n Ministers6 #hose most ur%ent tas< #as to draft the +eace treaties #ith ?ta$y6
2umania6 Bu$%aria6 .un%ary and Fin$and: The 5ounci$ #as a$so to dea$6 in due course6
#ith a 1erman +eace treaty:
The $on% section on 1ermany #as chief$y concerned #ith the numerous demi$itarisation6
dena>ification and dNmocratisation measures that #ou$d 0e a++$ied to her: There #as no
mention of any +artition of 1ermany6 0ut the communi=uN stated that6 for the +resent6 no
centra$ 1erman %o3ernment #ou$d 0e formed: There #ou$d6 ho#e3er6 0e certain centra$
1erman administrati3e de+artments6 actin% under the %uidance of the A$$ied 5ontro$
5ounci$:
The dis+osa$ of the 1erman ;a3y and Merchant F$eet #as referred to a committee of
e8+erts: Britain and the *nited States a%reed6 in +rinci+$e6 to the transfer to the So3iet
*nion of 4Tni%s0er% and the adHoinin% territory: A%reement #as a$so reached on the
+rocedure #hich u$timate$y $ed to the constitution of the ;urem0er% Tri0una$ for the tria$
of the maHor 1erman #ar crimina$s and of other courts dea$in% #ith simi$ar cases: The
=uestion of reco%nisin% the 2enner 1o3ernment set u+ 0y the 2ussians in Austria #as
+ost+oned unti$ the entry of British and American troo+s into Aienna: The 2ussian
+ro+osa$ that the So3iet *nion 0e made a trustee of one of the former ?ta$ian co$onies met
#ith no fa3oura0$e res+onse from Britain and America6 and the matter #as referred to the
5ounci$ of Forei%n Ministers6 #ho #ere to draft the ?ta$ian +eace treaty: ?t #as a%reed
that the transfer of 1ermans sti$$ in !o$and6 5>echos$o3a<ia and .un%ary #ou$d
henceforth 0e carried out in an Forder$y and humaneF manner:
The officia$ 2ussian $ine sti$$ #as that a$$ had %one #e$$ at !otsdam: ?n rea$ity6 the #ho$e
atmos+here at !otsdam #as radica$$y different from that at Teheran and (a$ta: There #as
much an%ry recrimination on a #ide ran%e of su0Hects: Thus6 the British and Americans
treated the +o$icy the 2ussians #ere +ursuin%6 +articu$ar$y in Bu$%aria and 2umania6 as a
3io$ation of the (a$ta Dec$aration on i0erated Curo+eL the 2ussians counter,attac<ed 0y
ma<in% simi$ar char%es a0out the British in 1reece: Truman made %reat difficu$ties a0out
reco%nisin% the Bu$%arian6 .un%arian and 2umanian 1o3ernments: There #as a$so some
recrimination a0out British and American +ro+ertyDnota0$y oi$ e=ui+mentDin 2umania
#hich had 0een confiscated 0y the 1ermans and had since 0een ta<en o3er 0y the
2ussians: The 2ussians a$so char%ed that the 9estern !o#ers had set u+ an F?ta$ian
Fascist rN%imeF in Trieste:
But a$$ this6 a$thou%h indicati3e6 #as not yet fundamenta$: The t#o maHor differences
#ere focused on 1ermany and !o$and: ?t is true that a$$ the demi$itarisation6
dena>ification6 etc:6 measures #ere6 on the face of it6 strict$y in accord #ith +re3ious
decisionsL on the face of it6 too6 1ermany #as +$aced under the Hoint contro$ of the Four
!o#ers: The unity of 1ermany as a +o$itica$ and economic entity #as im+$icit$y
reco%nised6 and the 2ussians $ater c$aimed %reat credit for ha3in% firm$y o++osed6 as
ear$y as March 194-6 any 9estern +ro+osa$s for the +artition of 1ermany into a #estern
+art centred on the 2uhr and 2hine$and6 a southern +art6 inc$udin% Austria6 and #ith
Aienna as its ca+ita$L and an eastern +art6 #ith Ber$in as its ca+ita$: But #hi$e such a
+artition #as not 0rou%ht a0out6 !otsdam undou0ted$y $aid the foundations for a different
<ind of +artition: A$$ 2ussian attem+ts to secure a footho$d in the 2uhr #ere firm$y
reHectedL 0ut #hat made the F>ona$F di3ision of 1ermany e3en more o03ious #as the
a%reement that #as fina$$y reached on re+arationsDostensi0$y in return for the 9estern
!o#ers' acce+tance of the "ait accompli of the @der,;eisse ine as the #estern 0oundary
of the 1erman territories Funder !o$ish AdministrationF6 +endin% the fina$ 1erman +eace
sett$ement: These territories #ere not to 0e re%arded as +art of the So3iet @ccu+ation
Oone of 1ermany:
?f6 as Stettinius com+$ained6 Britain and the *nited States #ere not in a stron% +osition at
(a$ta6 Truman and Byrnes thou%ht they #ere in a 3ery stron% +osition indeed at !otsdam:
The American atom test 0om0 had Hust 0een successfu$$y e8+$oded and Truman6 in the
#ords of Secretary of 9ar6 .enry Stimson6 #as Fimmense$y +$easedF and Ftremendous$y
+e++ed 0y itF: The !resident said Fit %a3e him an entire$y ne# fee$in% of confidenceF in
ta$<in% to the 2ussians:
H( =T+1")$> -&##5 1. &# &'( R1--,)$- ,$ &'( "#-& (".')&,3 )$5 5(3,-,6( ")$$(+,
&(//,$% &'(" )- &# 3(+&),$ 5(")$5- &')& &'(* )8-#/1&(/* 3#1/5 $#& ')6( )$5 &')& &'(
U$,&(5 S&)&(- 2)- ($&,+(/* )%),$-& &'("... H( &#/5 &'( R1--,)$- :1-& 2'(+( &'(* %#&
#00 )$5 %($(+)//* 8#--(5 &'( 2'#/( "((&,$%.
=Stimson6 =uoted 0y 9: A: 9i$$iams6 The Traged! o" /merican Diplomac!, ;e# (or<6
19)&6 +: &49:K
5hurchi$$ #as de$i%hted #ith the ne# !resident6 and fu$$y su++orted his Ftou%hF $ine #ith
the 2ussians and #hat came to 0e <no#n as his F@+en DoorF +o$icy in Castern Curo+e:
.e a$so 0$e# u+ at the 2ussians' FeffronteryF in #antin% to contro$ one of the former
?ta$ian co$onies on the Mediterranean:
The 2ussians #ere %$ad to see the $ast of 5hurchi$$6 0ut #hen6 after the British 1enera$
C$ection6 5hurchi$$ and Cden #ere re+$aced 0y Att$ee and Be3in6 they found that they had
nothin% to con%ratu$ate themse$3es on: Accordin% to Mr Byrnes6 Be3in #as 3ery
Fa%%ressi3eF indeed in his Fforcefu$ o++ositionF to the ne# !o$ish 0oundaries:
IBames F: Byrnes6 Fran*l! %pea*ing (ondon6 194J)6 +: 79:K
Soon after !otsdam6 a mem0er of the 2ussian de$e%ation remar<ed to me that he had
found Mr Be3in an "ochen volevoi chelove*"Da F3ery stron%,#i$$ed manF6 #hich #as a
+o$ite #ay of sayin% that he had found the ne# Forei%n Secretary e8treme$y +i%headed:
The foundations for the rea$ di3ision of 1ermany6 officia$$y sti$$ to 0e under Four,!o#er
contro$6 #ere $aid 0y the re+arations a%reement reached at !otsdam: C3en 0efore !otsdam
the 2ussians had 0een he$+in% themse$3es indiscriminate$y to re+arationsDsti$$ termed
F0ootyF at the timeDfrom the So3iet Oone: But they continued to ho+e that the
re+arations =uestions #ou$d 0e +ut on an a$$,1erman 0asis at !otsdam: This #as not to
0e: @n Bu$y &36 Mr Byrnes dec$ared Sta$in's (a$ta fi%ure of t#enty 0i$$ion do$$ars (ha$f of
it for the So3iet *nion) to 0e Fun+ractica$F6 and refused to name any other: .e a$so
reiterated the *nited States 1o3ernment's o++osition to the 2ussians' medd$in% in the
contro$ of industry in the 2uhr and other +arts of 9estern 1ermany: And there fo$$o#ed
this con3ersation:
Mr Molotov4 I 1$5(+-&)$5 &')& 2')& *#1 ')6( ,$ ",$5 ,- &')& ()3' 3#1$&+* -'#1/5
&);( +(.)+)&,#$- 0+#" ,&- #2$ C#$(. I0 2( 0),/ &# +()3' )$ )%+(("($&, &'( +(-1/& 2,//
8( &'( -)"(.
Mr %yrnes4 Y(-.
Mr Molotov4 W#1/5 $#& *#1+ -1%%(-&,#$ "()$ &')& ()3' 3#1$&+* 2#1/5 ')6( ) 0+((
')$5 ,$ ,&- #2$ C#$( )$5 2#1/5 )3& ($&,+(/* ,$5(.($5($&/* #0 &'( #&'(+-I
Mr %yrnes4 T')& ,- &+1( ,$ -18-&)$3(.
I Quoted 0y 9: A: 9i$$iams6 o+: cit:6 +: &-1:K
The 2ussians fou%ht this +ro+osa$ for o3er a #ee<6 0ut6 in the end6 acce+ted it6 to%ether
#ith the fo$$o#in% +ro3isions: they #ou$d a$so ha3e a free hand in co$$ectin% 1erman
assets throu%hout Castern Curo+eL they #ou$d recei3e a sma$$ +ercenta%e of the
re+arations a3ai$a0$e from 9estern 1ermanyL and6 fina$$y6 the 9estern !o#ers #ou$d
F+ro3isiona$$yF reco%nise the @der,;eisse ineDrather to 5hurchi$$'s dis%ust6 as
e8+ressed in the fina$ +a%es of The %econd $orld $ar5 9hat this meant in fact #as that
the a$$,1erman treatment of re+arations6 for #hich the 2ussians had fou%ht so
des+erate$y6 #as do#n the drain: C3en the sma$$ face,sa3er for this Fa$$,1ermanF
treatmentDthe minor re+arations de$i3eries to 2ussia from 9estern 1ermanyD#as
scra++ed $ess than a year $ater6 a++arent$y on the +ersona$ res+onsi0i$ity of 1enera$
ucius 5$ay6 the Mi$itary 1o3ernor of the American Oone:
This re+arations sett$ement #as crucia$: it started the +rocess #here0y 2ussia #as <e+t
strict$y outside 9estern 1ermany 0ut6 at the same time6 stren%thened her economicDand
therefore a$so +o$itica$Dho$d on Castern 1ermany and Castern Curo+e as a #ho$e: This
a++arent ratification of a Fs+heres of inf$uenceF +o$icy #as6 of course6 in f$at
contradiction to Truman's @+en Door +o$icy6 and American e8+erts ha3e continued to
ar%ue on the rea$ si%nificance of this a++arent contradiction:
There #as a direct connection 0et#een the American atom 0om0 and the sin%u$ar
re+arations dea$ at !otsdam: This #as6 in fact6 sym+tomatic of the tem+orary (as Truman
thou%ht) di3ision of 1ermany and of Curo+e in t#o: A$thou%h a++earances #ere <e+t u+
to some e8tent for the ne8t t#o or three years6 !otsdam mar<ed in the rea$ity the
0e%innin% of the end of that FBi%,Three !eaceF of #hich the main +i$$arDas the 2ussians
sa# itD#as the 8oint contro$ of 1ermany:
C').&(+ AI THE SHORT RUSSO-JAPANESE WAR-
HIROSHIMA
There #ere t#o +eriods in the So3iet,1erman #ar #hen the 2ussians dreaded a Ba+anese
attac< on them: First6 durin% the 3ery first months of the #ar6 and indeed6 ri%ht u+ to
!ear$ .ar0ourL and a%ain durin% the disastrous summer and autumn of 194&: As a
+recaution a%ainst a Ba+anese attac<6 the 2ussians had to <ee+ su0stantia$ forces in the
Far Cast6 a0out forty di3isions accordin% to the +ost,#ar Histor!5 A$thou%h in e8treme
emer%enciesDdurin% the Batt$e of Mosco# and6 a%ain6 at the time of Stai$in%radDthe
So3iet Su+reme 5ommand had to dra# on its Far,Castern forces and 0rin% some
+articu$ar$y tou%h Si0erian troo+s to the So3iet,1erman Front6 the fact remains that6
es+ecia$$y durin% the first ei%hteen months of the #ar6 Ba+an rendered .it$er a %reat
ser3ice 0y tyin% u+ #ith its one,mi$$ion,stron% 4#antun% Army im+ortant 2ussian forces
#hich #ou$d ha3e 0een of the %reatest 3a$ue in Curo+e:
After Sta$in%rad6 and #ith the #ar in the !acific not %oin% =uite as #e$$ as the Ba+anese
had e8+ected6 a Ba+anese attac< on the So3iet *nion #as F+ost+onedF: As the Histor!
says:
S&)/,$%+)5 -&+13; )$ ,++(.)+)8/( 8/#2 )& &'( J).)$(-( ./)$- 0#+ )$ ,$6)-,#$ #0 &'(
S#6,(& U$,#$. H)6,$% 8(($ 8#%%(5 5#2$ ,$ &'(,+ 2)+ )%),$-& C',$), &'( U$,&(5
S&)&(- )$5 B+,&),$, &'( J).)$(-( $#2 ')5 (6(+* +()-#$ &# 5#18& ) -133(--01/
#1&3#"( #0 &'(,+ )%%+(--,6( ./)$- )%),$-& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$... T'( J).)$(-(
A"8)--)5#+ ,$ B(+/,$ &#/5 R,88($&+#. #$ M)+3' 6, 194@ &')& &'( J).)$(-(
!#6(+$"($& D3#$-,5(+(5 ,& 2+#$% &# ($&(+ &'( 2)+ )%),$-& &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ :1-&
$#2.D
T'( -18-(91($& 5(6(/#."($&- #0 W#+/5 W)+ II 5,5 $#& 3')$%( &'( -,&1)&,#$ ,$
J).)$<- 0)6#1+: 8* 194@ &'( -&+)&(%,3 ,$,&,)&,6( ,$ &'( 2)+ ,$ &'( P)3,0,3 .)--(5 ,$&#
&'( ')$5- #0 &'( U$,&(5 S&)&(- 0#+3(-... B* &'( -.+,$% #0 1944 &'( J).)$(-( !($(+)/
S&)00 8(%)$ &# (/)8#+)&( de*ensive ./)$- ,$ &'( (6($& #0 ) 2)+ 2,&' &'( S#6,(& U$,#$.
=?A@ASS6 3o$: A6 +: -&): ;ote the much %reater credit %i3en to the *SA and Britain in
this 19)3 +u0$ication than in ear$ier So3iet histories of the #ar:K
There is %ood reason to su++ose that e3en if the e8act #ords uttered 0y the Ba+anese
Am0assador in Ber$in after Sta$in%rad #ere not <no#n to the 2ussians at the time6 they
had an e8ce$$ent idea of the rea$ +osition: their es+iona%e ser3ice in Ba+an #as
e8ce+tiona$$y %ood: *+ ti$$ 194& they enHoyed the in3a$ua0$e ser3ices of 2ichard Sor%e6 a
1erman Hourna$ist6 #ho had the confidence of Am0assador @tt himse$fP
The 2ussians had stored u+ 0y then =uite a num0er of %rie3ances a%ainst Ba+an: they had
reason to su++ose that durin% the ear$ier sta%es of the #ar the Ba+anese Cm0assy in
Mosco# or 4ui0ishe3 had 0een transmittin% much 3a$ua0$e information to the 1ermans
and6 at $east unti$ Sta$in%rad6 the Ba+anese had created %reat difficu$ties for So3iet
shi++in% in the !acific6 es+ecia$$y for shi+s 0rin%in% su++$ies from the *nited States: 17J
So3iet shi+s had 0een sto++ed and searched 0y the Ba+anese 0et#een the 0e%innin% of the
#ar and the end of 1944 (most$y durin% the ear$ier +eriod)6 and three 2ussian car%oes had
0een sun< 0y su0marines #hich the 2ussians $ater c$aimed #ere Ba+anese:
I?A@ASS6 3o$: A6 +: -&9: ?t can6 of course6 0e ar%ued that Ba+an rendered 2ussia a %reat
ser3ice in not attac<in% her (and many 2ussians #ere fu$$y conscious of this at the time)6
0ut this #as not a +oint to stress in 194-PK
For a$$ that6 in 1943 and 19446 di+$omatic re$ations 0et#een the So3iet *nion and Ba+an
remained coo$ 0ut correct6 and the Ba+anese Am0assador continued to 0e in3ited to
officia$ rece+tions: At Teheran and on many other occasions the British and Americans
#ere to$d that there cou$d 0e no =uestion of the So3iet *nion Hoinin% in the #ar a%ainst
Ba+an unti$ after the defeat of 1ermany: A$$ the same6 there #ere a$ready some curious
stra#s in the #ind as ear$y as the midd$e of 1944L one of them #as the +u0$ication of a
$on% no3e$ 0y A: Ste+ano3 ca$$ed Port /rthur #hich6 #ithout actua$$y Hustifyin% the
Tsarist %o3ernment's +o$icy of im+eria$ist e8+ansion in the Far Cast6 ne3erthe$ess
re+resented the 2usso,Ba+anese 9ar of 19"4,- as a Fnationa$F #ar6 and as a humi$iatin%
nationa$ defeat #hich ca$$ed for re3en%e: Anythin% $ess FeninistF #as hard to ima%ine:
?t #as not6 ho#e3er6 ti$$ (a$ta6 in Fe0ruary 194-6 that the So3iet $eaders firm$y committed
themse$3es to enterin% the #ar a%ainst Ba+anL the So3iet *nion #as to recei3e Southern
Sa<ha$in $ost to the Ba+anese in 19"- and the 4uri$e ?s$ands:
I*nder a 2usso,Ba+anese a%reement of 1J-- Sa<ha$in #as to 0e administered Hoint$y 0y
the t#o countries6 #hi$e the 4uri$e ?s$ands #ere di3ided 0et#een them: ?n 1J7- Ba+an
a0andoned her c$aims on Sa<ha$in6 0ut recei3ed a$$ the 4uri$e ?s$ands: *nder the 19"-
+eace treaty6 Ba+an recei3ed the southern ha$f of Sa<ha$in: The 2ussians no# not on$y
demanded the return of Southern Sa<ha$in6 0ut a$$ the 4uri$e ?s$ands #hich they
considered as Ba+anese 0ases interferin% #ith 2ussian shi++in% in the !acific: May0e
they a$so sus+ected e3en then that the *SA had an eye on the 4uri$es as a +otentia$ air
0ase:K
The c$auses of the (a$ta !rotoco$ on the reco%nition of the status Puo for Mon%o$ia and
on 2ussian +ri3i$e%es in 5hina #ere su0Hect to FconcurrenceF 0y the 5hinese
1o3ernment6 i:e: 0y 5hian% 4ai She<: ?t #as a%reed6 ho#e3er6 at (a$ta that in 3ie# of its
to+,secret nature6 the !rotoco$ on Ba+an cou$d not 0e communicated to 5hian% 4ai She<
unti$ after the defeat of 1ermany:
@n A+ri$ -6 194- the 2ussian +eo+$e #ere $eft in $itt$e dou0t that they #ou$d sti$$ ha3e to
fi%ht Ba+an: @n that day the So3iet 1o3ernment denounced its ;eutra$ity !act #ith Ba+anL
Mo$oto3 informed the Ba+anese 1o3ernment that6 since the conc$usion of the !act in
19416 the situation had Fradica$$y chan%edFL 1ermany had attac<ed the *SS2 and Ba+an
had he$+ed 1ermany: Moreo3er6 Ba+an #as fi%htin% a #ar a%ainst Britain and the *nited
States6 #hich #ere A$$ies of the So3iet *nion: F?n 3irtue of Artic$e 3 ::: a$$o#in% the ri%ht
to denounce the !act one year 0efore its e8+iry6 the So3iet *nion here0y does so6 as from
A+ri$ 136 194-:F
I Buridica$$y6 the Fi3e,(ear ;eutra$ity !act #as 3a$id ti$$ A+ri$ 136 194)6 des+ite this
re+udiation6 and 2ussia's attac< on Ba+an in Au%ust 194- #as in fact a 3io$ation of the
!act:K
@n May 1-6 194- the Ba+anese 1o3ernment annu$$ed its a$$iance #ith the no# non,
e8istent 1erman %o3ernment and other Fascist %o3ernments: The So3iet 1o3ernment
considered this as a +re$iminary to a ne# series of +eace,fee$ers the Ba+anese #ere a0out
to +ut outL 0ut there is nothin% to sho# that they intended to res+ond fa3oura0$y to them:
9hi$e6 at the end of May6 .arry .o+<ins found the 2ussians e8treme$y stic<y on
=uestions $i<e !o$and6 he found them +erfect$y co,o+erati3e as re%ards Ba+an: .e ca0$ed
to 9ashin%ton on May &J sayin% that6 accordin% to Sta$in6 the So3iet Army #ou$d 0e
F+ro+er$y de+$oyed in the Manchurian +ositions 0y Au%ust JFL that Sta$in re+eated the
(a$ta statement that the 2ussian +eo+$e Fmust ha3e %ood reason for %oin% to #arF6 and
that this de+ended on the #i$$in%ness of the 5hinese to a%ree to the (a$ta +ro+osa$sL he
therefore as<ed that T: A: Soon% come to Mosco# Fnot $ater than Bu$y 1 F6 and ur%ed that
the *SA (as 2oose3e$t had +romised) ta<e u+ the matter #ith 5hian% 4ai,she<:
Sta$in's 3ie#s on 5hina6 as re+orted 0y .o+<ins6 are +articu$ar$y interestin%6 in the $i%ht
of #hat ha++ened $ater:
H( =S&)/,$> 3)&(%#+,3)//* -&)&(5 &')& '( 2#1/5 5# (6(+*&',$% &# .+#"#&( &'(
1$,0,3)&,#$ #0 C',$) 1$5(+ C',)$% K),--'(;. H,- /()5(+-',. 2#1/5 3#$&,$1( )0&(+
&'( 2)+, 8(3)1-( $# #$( (/-( 2)- -&+#$% ($#1%'. H( -.(3,0,3)//* -&)&(5 &')& $#
3#""1$,-& /()5(+ 2)- -&+#$% ($#1%' &# 1$,0* C',$). I$ -.,&( #0 ',- +(-(+6)&,#$-
)8#1& C',)$% K),--'(;, '( .+#.#-(5 &# 8)3; ',".
=Sher#ood6 o+: cit:6 +: J9&: ;one of this is re+orted in the +resent,day So3iet Histor!
#hich treats the 5hinese 5ommunists as the on$y force in 5hina at the time not defeatist
in its attitude to Ba+an:K
?n another messa%e to 9ashin%ton .o+<ins stated that Sta$in #as a$$ in fa3our of the
@+en Door for the *SA in 5hina6 since she a$one #as ca+a0$e of %i3in% $ar%e financia$
aid to that country6 2ussia ha3in% her o#n reconstruction to ta<e care of: Sta$in a$so
intimated that the So3iet *nion #anted an occu+ation >one in Ba+an:
The fu$$ story of the e3ents that $ed to the ca+itu$ation of Ba+an is one of the most intricate
in the #ho$e of 9or$d 9ar ??: ?t is c$ear that6 at (a$ta6 0oth 2oose3e$t and 5hurchi$$ #ere
sti$$ e8treme$y an8ious that 2ussia shou$d Hoin in the #ar a%ainst Ba+an as =uic<$y as
+ossi0$e: The +osition 0ecomes much $ess c$ear after Truman 0ecame !resident: Bud%in%
from the .o+<ins' mission to Mosco# in May6 Truman sti$$ #anted 2ussia in the #arD
#hich #as one of the chief reasons #hy the ne# !resident a$so #anted to meet Sta$in at
!otsdam: The 2ussians no# ar%ue6 ho#e3er6 that e3en 0efore he had the atom 0om06
Truman #as des+erate$y an8ious to %et Ba+anD or at $east Fthe Ba+anese armed forcesFD
to surrender unconditiona$$y 0efore 2ussia entered the #ar: They may ha3e sus+ected this
at the time6 on the stren%th of the American 0roadcasts to that effect6 #hich 0e%an as
ear$y as May J IMuch is made of these in the So3iet Histor!5 (?A@ASS6 3o$: A6 +: -3))K6
0ut conso$ed themse$3es #ith the thou%ht that Ba+an cou$d not 0e defeatedDat $east not
#ithin a short timeD#ithout the 2ussians smashin% the 4#antun% Army in Manchuria:
They had understood from 2oose3e$t at (a$ta that6 #ithout 2ussian +artici+ation6 the #ar
a%ainst Ba+an #ou$d ha3e to %o on ti$$ 19476 and #ou$d cost the Americans and British at
$east another mi$$ion men:
As ear$y as Fe0ruary,March6 the Ba+anese sou%ht 2ussian mediation in their desire to end
the #ar #ith the *SA and Britain: The So3iet Histor! enumerates se3era$ such +eace,
fee$ers:
,+-& #0 )//, &2# D.+,6)&(D .(+-#$- )..+#)3'(5 &'( R1--,)$- #$ 8(')/0 #0 &'(
J).)$(-( !#6(+$"($&EM+ M,:);)2), &'( J).)$(-( C#$-1/-!($(+)/ ,$ H)+8,$ )$5
M+ T)$);)")+1, ) 0,-',$% ")%$)&(.
O$ M)+3' 4, &'( -)"( T)$);)")+1 3)//(5 #$ M+ J. M)/,;, &'( S#6,(& A"8)--)5#+
,$ T#;*#, -)*,$% &')& $(,&'(+ J).)$ $#+ &'( U$,&(5 S&)&(- 3#1/5 -&)+& -.();,$% #0
.()3(. A D5,6,$( #1&-,5( 0#+3(D 2)- $(3(--)+* &# 8+,$% )8#1& ) .()3( -(&&/("($&,
)$5 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$ 3#1/5 ./)* &')& +[/(.
A0&(+ &'( 0#+")&,#$ #0 &'( S1C1;, !#6(+$"($&, &'(-( .()3(-0((/(+- 8(3)"( (6($
"#+( (B./,3,&. #+(,%$ M,$,-&(+ T#%# )-;(5 M+ M)/,; #$ A.+,/ ML &# )++)$%( 0#+
'," ) "((&,$% 2,&' M+ M#/#&#6.
S&,// )$B,#1- &# )6#,5 1$3#$5,&,#$)/ -1++($5(+ &# &'( USA, T#%# -($& (B-.+(",(+
H,+#&);( H,+#&) &# -(( M)/,; #$ J1$( @. H( -&+(--(5 J).)$<- 5(-,+( &# ,".+#6( '(+
+(/)&,#$- 2,&' &'( USSR. A -(3#$5 "((&,$% &##; ./)3( #$ &'( 0#//#2,$% 5)*, )$5 &2#
01+&'(+ "((&,$%- #$ J1$( M4.
I?A@ASS6 3o$: A6 ++: -3),7:K
The Histor! dismisses a$$ these .irota 3isits to Ma$i< and his offers of $ar%e,sca$e So3iet,
Ba+anese economic co,o+eration as Fa +iece of effrontery comin% from a %an% %ui$ty of
so many treacherous acts to#ards the So3iet *nionFL 0ut the fact remains that Ma$i<
consented to see .irota "our times5
;e3erthe$ess6 the .irota mission fai$ed6 and the Ba+anese 1o3ernment no# tried to
esta0$ish direct contact #ith the So3iet 1o3ernment in Mosco#: The Cm+eror decided to
send !rince 4onoye to Mosco# on Bu$y 1&6 and Mr Sato6 the Ba+anese Am0assador in
Mosco# #as instructed to inform the So3iet 1o3ernment of the Cm+eror's desire: But in
3ain: ?n the #ords of the Histor!:
T',- J).)$(-( .+#.#-)/ 2)- /(0& 2,&'#1& )$ )$-2(+ 8* &'( S#6,(& !#6(+$"($& 2',3'
2)-, "#+(#6(+, .+(.)+,$% &# %# &# &'( B,%-T'+(( C#$0(+($3( )& P#&-5)". H(+( &'(
S#6,(& 5(/(%)&,#$ 01//* ,$0#+"(5 ,&- )//,(- #0 &'(-( J).)$(-( D.()3(D "#6(-. T'1-,
&'( J).)$(-( ,".(+,)/,-&-< )&&(".&- &# -./,& &'( A//,(- 0),/(5 3#"./(&(/*.
I?A@ASS6 3o$: A6 +: -3J:K
At !otsdam the American mi$itary #anted to <no# #hen e8act$y the 2ussians #ou$d
attac< in the Far Cast: The So3iet 5hief of Staff6 1enera$ Antono3 confirmed that a$$
#ou$d 0e ready 0y Au%ust J6 0ut much de+ended on the outcome of the So3iet,5hinese
ta$<s #hich had 0e%un in Mosco# short$y 0efore the !otsdam 5onference:
As #e no# <no#6 the Americans #ere6 in fact6 no $on%er interested at the time of
!otsdam in 2ussian +artici+ation in the #ar a%ainst Ba+an: 5hurchi$$ te$$s #ith
undis%uised %$ee ho# he and .arry Truman foo$ed Sta$in:
As 5hurchi$$ te$$s the story:
O$ J1/* 1K 4)& P#&-5)"7 2#+/5--');,$% $(2- )++,6(5... DI& "()$-D, S&,"-#$ -),5,
D&')& &'( (B.(+,"($& ,$ &'( M(B,3)$ 5(-(+& ')- 3#"( #00. T'( )&#",3 8#"8 ,- )
+()/,&*D.
And a$most the first thou%ht that occurred to 5hurchi$$ #as that the 2ussians cou$d 0e
dis+ensed #ith in the #ar a%ainst Ba+an:
W( -'#1/5 $#& $((5 &'( R1--,)$-. T'( ($5 #0 &'( J).)$(-( 2)+ $# /#$%(+ 5(.($5(5
#$ &'( .#1+,$% ,$ #0 &'(,+ )+",(-... W( ')5 $# $((5 &# )-; 0)6#1+- #0 &'("... I
",$1&(5 &# M+ E5($: D I& ,- 91,&( 3/()+ &')& &'( U$,&(5 S&)&(- 5# $#& )& &'( .+(-($&
&,"( 5(-,+( R1--,)$ .)+&,3,.)&,#$ ,$ &'( 2)+ )%),$-& J).)$.D
There #as no dou0t6 he #rote6 that the 0om0 #ou$d 0e used:
A "#+( ,$&+,3)&( 91(-&,#$ 2)- 2')& &# &(// S&)/,$. T'( P+(-,5($& )$5 I $# /#$%(+ 0(/&
2( $((5(5 ',- ),5 &# 3#$91(+ J).)$... I$ #1+ #.,$,#$ &'(* 4&'( S#6,(& &+##.- ,$ &'(
)+ E)-&7 2(+( $#& /,;(/* &# 8( $((5(5, )$5 S&)/,$<- 8)+%),$,$% .#2(+, 2',3' '( ')5
1-(5 2,&' -13' (00(3& 1.#$ &'( A"(+,3)$- )& Y)/&), 2)- &'(+(0#+( %#$(.
And then came 5hurchi$$'s sin%u$ar$y tortuous menta$ com+romise:
S&,//, '( ')5 8(($ ) ")%$,0,3($& )//* ,$ &'( 2)+ )%),$-& H,&/(+, )$5 2( 8#&'
4C'1+3',// )$5 T+1")$7 0(/& &')& '( "1-& 8( ,$0#+"(5 #0 &'( %+()& N(2 )3& 2',3'
$#2 5#",$)&(5 &'( -3($(, but not /ith any particulars.
I5hurchi$$6 o+: cit:6 3o$: A?6 ++: --&,4:K
?n the end the +rocedure chosen #as this: ;othin% #as %oin% to 0e +ut in #ritin%: ?nstead6
Truman said:
DI &',$; I ')5 8(-& :1-& &(// '," )0&(+ #$( #0 #1+ "((&,$%- &')& 2( ')6( )$ ($&,+(/*
$#6(/ 0#+" #0 8#"8, -#"(&',$% 91,&( #1& #0 &'( #+5,$)+*, 2',3' 2( &',$; 2,// ')6( )
5(3,-,6( (00(3& 1.#$ &'( J).)$(-( 2,// &# 3#$&,$1( &'( 2)+.D
5hurchi$$ a%reed #ith this F+rocedureF:
I?0id:6 +: --4:K
And this is ho# it #as done:
O$ J1/* M4, )0&(+ #1+ ./($)+* "((&,$% ')5 ($5(5... I -)2 &'( P+(-,5($& %# 1. &#
S&)/,$, )$5 &'( &2# 3#$6(+-(5 )/#$(, 2,&' #$/* &'(,+ ,$&(+.+(&(+-. I 2)- .(+').- 0,6(
*)+5- )2)*, )$5 I 2)&3'(5 2,&' &'( 3/#-(-& )&&($&,#$ &'(,+ "#"($&#1- &)/;. I ;$(2
2')& &'( P+(-,5($& 2)- %#,$% &# 5#. W')& 2)- 6,&)/ &# "()-1+( 2)- ,&- (00(3& #$
S&)/,$. I 3)$ -(( ,& )// )- ,0 ,& 2(+( *(-&(+5)*. H( -(("(5 &# 8( 5(/,%'&(5. A $(2
8#"8H O0 (B&+)#+5,$)+* .#2(+H... W')& ) 8,& #0 /13;H... I 2)- -1+( &')& '( ')5 $#
,5() #0 &'( -,%$,0,3)$3( #0 2')& '( 2)- 8(,$% &#/5... I0 '( ')5 ')5 &'( -/,%'&(-& ,5()...
',- +()3&,#$- 2#1/5 ')6( 8(($ #86,#1-... N#&',$% 2#1/5 ')6( 8(($ ()-,(+ &')$ 0#+
'," &# -)*:
D... M)* I -($5 "* (B.(+&- &# -(( *#1+ (B.(+&- &#"#++#2 "#+$,$%ID B1& ',- 0)3(
+("),$(5 %)* )$5 %($,)/...
DH#2 5,5 ,& %#ID I )-;(5 4T+1")$7. DH( $(6(+ )-;(5 ) 91(-&,#$,D '( +(./,(5.
I5hurchi$$6 o+: cit:6 3o$: A?6 ++: -79,J": The su%%estion that the 2ussians a$ready <ne# a$$
a0out the 0om0 from their o#n inte$$i%ence is not 0orne out 0y their 0eha3iour after
!otsdam:K
? must add here a 3ery im+ortant historica$ +oint #hich dots the i's in 5hurchi$$'s account
to an e8traordinary de%ree:
9hen6 in 194)6 ? +ri3ate$y as<ed Mo$oto3 #hether the So3iet 1o3ernment had 0een
informed at !otsdam that an atom 0om0 #ou$d 0e dro++ed on Ba+an6 he $oo<ed start$ed6
thou%ht for a moment6 and then said: F?t's a tric<y su0Hect6 and the rea$ ans#er to your
=uestion is 0oth (es and ;o: 9e #ere to$d of a 'su+er0om0'6 of a 0om0 'the $i<e of #hich
had ne3er 0een seen'L 0ut the #ord atom #as not used:F
? often #ondered after#ards #hether Mo$oto3's ans#er #as strict$y true6 and ? 0e$ie3e it
#asL had Truman rea$$y to$d Sta$in that the ne# #ea+on #as not Hust a Fsu+er,0om0F6 0ut
an atom 4om4, it is a$most inconcei3a0$e that Sta$in cou$d ha3e re%istered the ne#s as
ca$m$y and cheerfu$$y as 5hurchi$$ said he did6 and done nothin% at a$$ a0out it:
5ertain$y6 there #as nothin% in the 0eha3iour of either Sta$in or any other 2ussians at
!otsdam after they had 0een to$d a0out the ne# #ea+on to su%%est that anythin% Puite
unusual had ha++ened: Their +$ans a0out Ba+an #ere not chan%ed one #hit: The
ne%otiations #ith the 5hinese #ere resumed in Mosco# after Sta$in's and Mo$oto3's
return from !otsdam: There #as no su%%estion of the 2ussians 0ein% more ner3ous than
0efore:
?f there #as anythin% stran%e a0out these ne%otiations #ith the 5hinese on somethin%
#hich had a$ready 0een a++ro3ed in ad3ance 0y 0oth 2oose3e$t and 5hurchi$$6 it #as the
5hinese attem+t to dra# out the discussions: 9hat #as 0ehind these de$ayin% tactics has
since 0een e8+$ained 0y Mr Byrnes: F?f Sta$in and 5hian% #ere sti$$ ne%otiatin%6 it mi%ht
de$ay So3iet entrance and the Ba+anese mi%ht surrender:
IB: Byrnes6 /ll in Hne (i"etime (;e# (or<6 19-J)6 ++: &91,9:K
And to dra% out the Mosco# discussions #as +recise$y #hat on Bu$y &3 5hian% 4ai,she<
had 0een as<ed 0y 9ashin%ton to do:
@n the face of it6 these So3iet,5hinese ta$<s6 #hich #ent on for a fortni%ht (from Bune 3"
to Bu$y 14) 0efore !otsdam6 and for another #ee< (Au%ust 7 to 14) after !otsdam6 shou$d
ha3e 0een $itt$e more than a forma$ity: True6 the (a$ta A%reement said that Fthe
a%reement concernin% @uter Mon%o$ia and +orts and rai$roads ::: #i$$ re=uire concurrence
of 1enera$issimo 5hian% 4ai,she<FL 0ut it a$so said:
T'( P+(-,5($& =R##-(6(/&> 2,// &);( "()-1+(- &# #8&),$ &',- 3#$31++($3(. .. T'(
H()5- #0 &'( &'+(( !+()& P#2(+- ')6( )%+((5 &')& &'(-( 3/),"- #0 &'( S#6,(& U$,#$
-')// 8( 1$91(-&,#$)8/* 01/0,//(5 )0&(+ J).)$ ')- 8(($ 5(0()&(5.
(et the ta$<s on the a0o3e =uestions and on the Friendshi+ and A$$iance !act #ith 5hina6
a$so +ro3ided for in the (a$ta A%reement6 #ere not conc$udedDas they #ere e8+ected to
0eD0efore the So3iet *nion entered the #ar on Au%ust J6 i:e: t#o days after the
.iroshima 0om0:
?t #as the atom 0om0 that +reci+itated 2ussia's entry into the #ar: ;o dou0t6 after the
0om06 5hian% 4ai,she< #ou$d ha3e $i<ed to 0ac< out of the a%reement #ith 2ussia6 0ut it
#as scarce$y +ossi0$e in 3ie# of 2oose3e$t's and 5hurchi$$'s firm commitments at (a$ta
D and6 a0o3e a$$6 +erha+s6 0ecause there #as no# an enormous 2ussian army
o3errunnin% Manchuria:
9hat annoyed the 2ussians at !otsdam #as not the 3a%ue ne#s of some American
Fsu+er,0om0F6 0ut the F!otsdam *$timatumF to Ba+an of Bu$y &) demandin%
unconditiona$ surrender: They c$aim that they had not 0een consu$ted a0out this An%$o,
American,5hinese *$timatum6 and #hen they as<ed that its +u0$ication 0e +ost+oned for
t#o days6 they #ere to$d that it had a$ready 0een re$eased: This may #e$$ ha3e made them
#onder #hether the *nited States and Britain #ere not in a hurry to o0tain a Ba+anese
ca+itu$ation 0efore the So3iet *nion entered the #ar:
They may ha3e #onderedDand yet they did nothin% a0out it6 sti$$ assumin% that the #ar
cou$d not 0e #on in a short time #ithout their +artici+ation: And they #ere certain$y
%oin% to +artici+ate6 since Sta$in thou%ht the s+oi$s +romised him at (a$ta #e$$ #orth a
maHor mi$itary effort:
There is much conf$ictin% e3idence a0out the Ba+anese res+onse to the !otsdam
*$timatum: Accordin% to 0oth the American officia$ 3ersion and the 2ussian (re+eated in
the officia$ Histor!7 the Ba+anese reHected itL accordin% to certain Ba+anese sources6 the
Ba+anese 1o3ernment F3irtua$$yF acce+ted it6 thou%h it as<ed for further c$arifications:
IThe 1erman #riter Anton Oisch<a6 Krieg oder Frieden (9ar or !eace)6 1Rters$oh6 19)16
++: )1,- +uts for#ard the 3ie# that the Ba+anese re+$y to the *$timatum #as either
accidenta$$y or6 more +ro0a0$y6 de$i0erate$y mistrans$ated 0y certain American officia$s6
!remier Su>u<i's Fno comment +endin% further informationF 0ein% trans$ated as F#e are
i%norin% the u$timatumF6 the #ord mo*usatsu meanin% either Fi%norin%F or Fno
commentF6 accordin% to the conte8t:K
Be that as it may6 it is certain that on Au%ust & Am0assador Sato +aid an ur%ent 3isit to
Mo$oto3 in connection #ith the !otsdam *$timatumL he #as an8ious to o0tain the
immediate cessation of hosti$ities and ho+ed that6 #ith 2ussian mediation6 the a0so$ute$y
crucia$ =uestion of the Cm+erorDnot mentioned in the !otsdam *$timatumD#ou$d 0e
sett$ed in an acce+ta0$e manner: Mo$oto3 #as tota$$y unres+onsi3e6 o03ious$y un#i$$in%
to see Ba+an ca+itu$ate 0efore 2ussia had Hoined in the #ar: 9hen6 si8 days $ater6 he
as<ed Sato to ca$$ on him6 it #as on$y to inform him of the So3iet *nion's dec$aration of
#ar on Ba+an: That #as t#o days after the .iroshima 0om0:
The #ordin% of the So3iet dec$aration of #ar on Ba+an #as odd: ?t said that6 since the
ca+itu$ation of 1ermany6 Ba+an #as the on$y 1reat !o#er #antin% to continue the #arL
since Ba+an had reHected the !otsdam *$timatum the Ba+anese 1o3ernment's +ro+osa$s
that the So3iet 1o3ernment act as a mediator had F$ost a$$ 0asisF: Since Ba+an had refused
to ca+itu$ate6 the A$$ies had as<ed the So3iet *nion to Hoin in the #ar6 and so to shorten it:
T'( S#6,(& !#6(+$"($& 3#$-,5(+- &')& -13' ) .#/,3* ,- &'( #$/* #$( &')& 2,// 8+,$%
)8#1& )$ ()+/* .()3(, +,5 .(#./(- #0 01+&'(+ -)3+,0,3(- )$5 -100(+,$%- )$5 ($)8/( &'(
J).)$(-( .(#./( &# )6(+& &'( 5)$%(+- )$5 5(-&+13&,#$ &')& !(+")$* -100(+(5 )0&(+
'(+ +(01-)/ &# -1++($5(+ 1$3#$5,&,#$)//*.
As from Au%ust 96 the So3iet *nion #ou$d consider herse$f in a state of #ar #ith Ba+an:
@n that ni%ht of Au%ust J Mo$oto3 recei3ed the +ress6 sim+$y to communicate to it the
te8t of the So3iet dec$aration of #ar: .e $oo<ed e3en more stony,faced than usua$ and6
after ans#erin% on$y t#o or three =uite innocuous =uestions6 hastened to end this F+ress
conferenceF: Mo$oto3 did not mention the .iroshima 0om0L and nor did anyone e$se:
(et the Bom0 #as the one thin% e3ery0ody in 2ussia had ta$<ed a0out that #ho$e day:
The 0om0 had 0een dro++ed on .iroshima on the mornin% of the )th6 0ut it #as not ti$$
the mornin% of the Jth that the So3iet +ress +u0$ished6 a$most at the 0ottom of the forei%n
+a%e6 a short itemDone,third of a co$umn to 0e e8actD#hich #as +art of the Truman
statement on .iroshima: The 0om06 this statement said6 #as e=ua$ in +o#er to &"6"""
tons of T;T:
A$thou%h the 2ussian +ress +$ayed do#n the .iroshima 0om06 and did not e3en mention
the ;a%asa<i 0om0 unti$ much $ater6 the si%nificance of .iroshima #as not $ost on the
2ussian +eo+$e: The ne#s had an acute$y de+ressin% effect on e3ery0ody: ?t #as c$ear$y
rea$ised that this #as a ;e# Fact in the #or$d's +o#er +o$itics6 that the 0om0 constituted
a threat to 2ussia6 and some 2ussian +essimists ? ta$<ed to that day disma$$y remar<ed
that 2ussia's des+erate$y hard 3ictory o3er 1ermany #as no# Fas %ood as #astedF:
The ne#s6 that same day6 that 2ussia had dec$ared #ar on Ba+an aroused no enthusiasm at
a$$: The idea of fi%htin% another #ar6 so soon after a$$ the $osses suffered in the #ar
a%ainst 1ermany6 had ne3er 0een +o+u$ar: 4no#in% nothin% a0out the (a$ta A%reement6
most 2ussians no# fe$t that the ne# #ar had 0een forced on 2ussia6 or at any rate
+reci+itated6 0y the .iroshima Bom0: ?t had6 of course6 0een <no#n for a $on% time that
masses of 2ussian troo+s #ere 0ein% sent to the Far Cast6 0ut e3ery0ody fe$t that there
must 0e some connection 0et#een the ne#s a0out .iroshima in the mornin%6 and
2ussia's dec$aration of #ar on Ba+an a fe# hours $ater:
@n Au%ust 7Dthe day after .iroshimaDSta$in summoned to the 4rem$in fi3e of the
$eadin% 2ussian atomic scientists and ordered them to catch u+ #ith the *nited States in
the minimum of time6 re%ard$ess of cost: Beria #as +$aced in char%e of a$$ the
$a0oratories and industries #hich #ere to +roduce the atom 0om0: 5ontrary to American
e8+ectations6 the first So3iet A,0om0 #as e8+$oded in the *st,*rt Desert6 0et#een the
5as+ian and the Ara$ Sea on Bu$y 1"6 1949L t#o further A,0om0s #ere e8+$oded #ithin
the ne8t #ee<: The So3iet .,0om0 fo$$o#ed four years $ater:
But this #as in the future6 and the thou%ht that the Americans had a mono+o$y of the
atom 0om0 had a dee+$y de+ressin% effect on 2ussian o+inion: The 2ussian +ress
continued to 0e si$ent a0out it6 and the issue of the Cn%$ish #ee<$y .ritans*! %o!uzni*
#hich #as the first +a+er inside 2ussia to %i3e any detai$s on .iroshima and ;a%asa<i6
so$d in the 0$ac< mar<et for si8ty rou0$es6 instead of the officia$ t#o rou0$es6 or the usua$
F0$ac<,mar<etF +rice of t#enty rou0$es:
The fee$in% of resentment a%ainst those #ho had dro++ed the atom 0om0 #as so acute
that any fee$in% of animosity a%ainst Ba+an #as cons+icuous$y a0sent: ? remem0er that
e3enin% of Au%ust J on$y too #e$$: There #as fe3erish acti3ity amon%st the many
Ba+anese $i3in% at the .ote$ Metro+o$e in Mosco#: They #ere +ac<in% their 0a%s in order
to ta<e them to the Ba+anese Cm0assy 0efore midni%ht: They $oo<ed morose 0ut
di%nified6 andD+art$y +erha+s 0ecause they a$#ays ti++ed #e$$Dthe hote$ staff #ere
3ery he$+fu$: ;o0ody e$se sho#ed any ma$ice either: Short$y 0efore midni%ht6 as they
#ere +i$in% their $ast trun<s on $orries6 somethin% of a cro#d %athered around6 0ut no
hosti$ity #as sho#n and many +eo+$e e3en $ent a hand #ith the trun<s: ?t #as $i<e a
su0t$e $itt$e demonstration of sym+athy:
The +a+ers the ne8t day did $itt$e more than +ara+hrase the ;ote dec$arin% #ar on Ba+an6
and reca$$ a$$ the e3i$ that Ba+an had done to 2ussia and the So3iet *nion in the +astD
startin% #ith the 2usso,Ba+anese #ar6 and %oin% on to Ba+anese ?nter3ention in 19196 to
a<e .assan and .a$<in 1o$6 and to a$$ the he$+ Ba+an had %i3en to .it$er: ?f6 in the +ast6
Mar8ist #riters had said that Ba+an had sto++ed the s+read of 2ussian im+eria$ism in the
Far Cast in 19"4,-6 the +a+ers no# s+o<e of her F+erfidious attac< on the 2ussian ;a3y
at !ort ArthurF6 and the F0$ot of shameF from #hich 2ussia had suffered for forty years:
?n the ne8t fe# days6 the +ress re+orted mass meetin%s in many factories $oud$y
a++ro3in% the dec$aration of #ar on the FBa+anese mi$itarists and im+eria$ists:F ?n rea$ity6
the 2ussians #ho fe$t +assionate$y a0out 1ermany6 had no fee$in%s a0out Ba+an at a$$6 and
the ne# #ar a%ainst Ba+an #as distinct$y un+o+u$ar6 e8ce+t +ossi0$y amon% 2ussians in
the Far Cast:
The on$y thin% in its fa3our #as that it did not $ast $on%: ?t #as c$ear from the start that
the three 2ussian army %rou+sDthe Bai<a$ Front under Marsha$ Ma$ino3s<y6 the First
Far,Castern Front under Marsha$ Merets<o3 and the Second Far,Castern Front under
1enera$ !ur<aye36 a$$ of them under the %enera$ command of Marsha$ Aassi$e3s<yDhad
o3er#he$min% su+eriority o3er the much,3aunted 4#antun% Army: 9ithin a fe# days
they had +enetrated dee+ into Manchuria: The hea3y and often fanatica$ Ba+anese
counter,attac<s made $itt$e differenceL the 2ussians had more men and incom+ara0$y
more %uns6 tan<s and +$anes than the Ba+anese: @n Au%ust 1) 1enera$ Antono36 the
So3iet 5hief,of,Staff6 announced that the dec$aration of Au%ust 14 0y the Cm+eror #as
Fon$y a %enera$ statement on Ba+an's ca+itu$ationF6 and that no cease,fire order had 0een
%i3en to the Ba+anese troo+s fi%htin% the 2ussians: There had 0een no actua$ ca+itu$ation
0y the Ba+anese armed forcesL therefore Fthe So3iet offensi3e in the Far Cast must
continue:F @n Au%ust 17 Marsha$ Aassi$e3s<y sent an u$timatum to the commander of
the 4#antun% Army6 demandin% surrender 0y noon6 Au%ust &": The surrender of this
Army #as6 indeed6 announced 0y Sta$in in an @rder of the Day on Au%ust &&: The
2ussians had used air0orne troo+s e8tensi3e$y in Manchuria6 +articu$ar$y to occu+y the
+orts of Dairen and !ort Arthur #here they feared an American $andin%: They a$so
hastened to +enetrate into ;orthern 4orea: The 2ussian !acific ;a3y +$ayed an im+ortant
+art in the com0ined o+erations that resu$ted in the occu+ation of Southern Sa<ha$in and
the 4uri$e ?s$andsL here6 in +articu$ar6 the 2ussians met #ith stiff Ba+anese resistanceD
e3en $on% after the officia$ ca+itu$ation:
?n Manchuria6 too6 e3en after the officia$ ca+itu$ation of the 4#antun% Army6 numerous
Ba+anese units continued to fi%ht and it #as not ti$$ Se+tem0er 1& that the fina$ resu$ts of
the #ar a%ainst Ba+an #ere +u0$ished in a s+ecia$ So3inform0ureau statement: This said
that6 0et#een Au%ust 9 and Se+tem0er 9 the Ba+anese $osses #ere: 9&- +$anes6 3)9 tan<s6
16&&) %uns6 46J3) machine,%uns6 3""6""" rif$es: ?n re$ation to the num0er of +risoners6
these fi%ures su%%ested that the mi%hty 4#antun% Army had 0een 3ery +oor$y e=ui++ed:
-946""" Ba+anese +risoners had 0een ta<en6 inc$udin% &"6""" #ounded: Amon% the
+risoners #ere 14J %enera$s: The Ba+anese dead #ere +ut at J"6""": The 2ussian
casua$ties #ere stated to 0e e8treme$y $o# in com+arison: J6""" dead and &&6"""
#ounded:
IThe +resent,day Histor! (?A@ASS6 3o$: A6 +: -J1) %i3es the same fi%ures for the
Ba+anese +risoners6 0ut +uts the e=ui+ment fi%ures rather hi%herL it says that the Bai<a$
and 1st Far,Castern Front a$one ca+tured 16-)- %uns6 &61)9 mortars6 )"" tan<s6 J)1
+$anes6 and 136""" machine,%uns: The Histor! %i3es no fi%ures for 2ussian casua$ties6
#hich su%%ests that they #ere hi%her than the officia$ 194- fi%ure:K
@n Se+tem0er & the fina$ ca+itu$ation of Ba+an #as si%ned on 0oard the *S 0att$eshi+
-issouri5 The So3iet si%natory #as a 1enera$ Dere3yan<o6 tota$$y un<no#n to the
%enera$ +u0$ic in 2ussia:
Sta$in's 0roadcast that day $eft +eo+$e #ith a stran%e$y unsatisfactory im+ression: .e
d#e$t6 to an e8traordinary de%ree6 on the 3ictory o3er Ba+an 0ein% 2ussia's re3en%e for
her defeat in the 2usso,Ba+anese #ar of 19"4,-: .e reca$$ed that6 ta<in% ad3anta%e of the
#ea<ness of the Tsarist 1o3ernment6 Ba+an had +erfidious$y attac<ed the 2ussian ;a3y
at !ort Arthur6 in a$most e8act$y the same #ay as she #as to attac< the *S ;a3y at !ear$
.ar0our thirty,se3en years $ater:
R1--,) 2)- 5(0()&(5 ,$ &')& 2)+. A- ) +(-1/&, J).)$ %+)88(5 S#1&'(+$ S);')/,$ )$5
0,+"/* (-&)8/,-'(5 '(+-(/0 ,$ &'( K1+,/(-, &'1- .)5/#3;,$% #1+ (B,&- &# &'( P)3,0,3...
T',- 5(0()& #0 &'( R1--,)$ &+##.- ,$ 19L4 /(0& ) 8,&&(+ "("#+* ,$ &'( ",$5- #0 #1+
.(#./(. O1+ .(#./( 2),&(5 )$5 8(/,(6(5 &')& &',- 8/#& 2#1/5 -#"( 5)* 8( (+)-(5.
W(, .(#./( #0 &'( #/5(+ %($(+)&,#$, 2),&(5 0#+ &',- 5)* 0#+ 0#+&* *()+-. N#2 &',- 5)*
')- 3#"(.
?n conc$usion he said that +eace had come at $ast6 that the So3iet *nion #as no $on%er
threatened 0y either 1ermany or Ba+an6 and he +aid a tri0ute to the armed forces of the
So3iet *nion6 the *nited States6 5hina and 1reat Britain #ho had #on this 3ictory o3er
Ba+an:
There #ere fire#or<s that ni%ht to ce$e0rate Aictory o3er Ba+anL 0ut in and around 2ed
S=uare there #as 0are$y one,tenth of the cro#d that had turned out to ce$e0rate the defeat
of 1ermany on May 9:
?t #as a ho$$o# 3ictory6 and e3ery0ody #as conscious of it: For many years after#ards
the officia$ So3iet $ine #as (and sti$$ is6 thou%h rather $ess em+hatica$$y) that Ba+an
ca+itu$ated 0ecause of the So3iet *nion's entry into the #ar: if the mi%hty 4#antun%
Army had not 0een defeated6 Ba+an's resistance to America and Britain #ou$d ha3e
continued for years6 and cost them a mi$$ion $i3es or more: ?t #as6 in fact6 +recise$y the
same ar%ument as that Truman6 5hurchi$$ and others a++$ied to the atom 0om0s #hich6
they said6 had +reci+itated Ba+an's unconditiona$ surrender and had so sa3ed unto$d
American and British $i3es: ?n rea$ity the 0est e3idence sho#s that Ba+an #as on the +oint
of surrenderin% at the time of the !otsdam *$timatum6 and mere$y #anted assurances
concernin% the status of the Cm+erorDthe 3ery =uestion Am0assador Sato +ut to
Mo$oto3 on Au%ust &6 four days 0efore the .iroshima 0om06 and si8 days 0efore the
So3iet dec$aration of #ar:
I.o# unnecessary it #as to dro+ the atom 0om0 is sho#n 0y MaHor,1enera$ B: F: 5:
Fu$$er in The %econd $orld $ar (ondon6 194J)6 +: 39-: F@n the 1"th a 0roadcast from
To<yo announced the acce+tance of the !otsdam *$timatum '#ith the understandin% that
IitK does not com+rise any demand #hich +reHudices the +rero%ati3es of the Cm+eror as a
so3erei%n ru$er': @n the fo$$o#in% day the A$$ies re+$ied: 'From the moment of surrender
the authority of the Cm+eror::: sha$$ 0e su0Hect to the Su+reme 5ommander of the A$$ied
!o#ers': I?n other #ords6 there #as no =uestion of han%in% the Cm+eror as a #ar
crimina$:K
F9hy #as this not made c$ear in the Dec$aration of Bu$y &)E .ad it 0een6 #ou$d not
ITruman'sK '+ur+ose of 1od' ha3e 0een more 5hristian$y fo$$o#edEF Fu$$er comments: .e
a$so says that the re=uests made to 2ussia as ear$y as May to intercede as a mediator must
ha3e made it c$ear to the 9estern !o#ers that Ba+an's +osition #as catastro+hic6 and that
she #as com+$ete$y ri+e for surrender: The on$y o0stac$e #as the =uestion of the
Cm+eror:K
C3en assumin% that the Ba+anese #ou$d ha3e continued to resist and that the sa3in% of
American $i3es #as a$$ that #as at sta<e6 then the dro++in% of the 0om0 cou$d sti$$ ha3e
0een he$d u+ unti$ Se+tem0er6 Hust 0efore the in3asion of 4yushuD#hich :ould ha3e
cost a $ot of American $i3es: ?f the 0om0 #as dro++ed in a des+erate hurry on Au%ust )6 it
must ha3e 0een 0ecause Truman #as determined to dro+ it 0efore the 2ussians had
entered the #arD#hich they #ere e8+ected to do6 in accordance #ith the (a$ta
A%reement6 not much $ater than the Jth:
IAs<ed in 19)" #hether there #as any ur%ency to end the #ar in the !acific 0efore the
2ussians 0ecame too dee+$y in3o$3ed6 Mr Byrnes re+$ied: FThere certain$y #as on my
+art: 9e #anted to %et throu%h #ith the Ba+anese +hase of the #ar 0efore the 2ussians
came in:F 6&5%5 3e:s and $orld Beport, Au%ust 1-6 19)":)K
But that #as not a$$: the 0om06 as is so c$ear$y su%%ested 0y Truman6 Byrnes6 Stimson
and others6 #as dro++ed 3ery $ar%e$y in order to im+ress 2ussia #ith America's %reat
mi%ht: Cndin% the #ar in Ba+an #as incidenta$ (the end of this #ar #as c$ear$y in si%ht6
any#ay)6 0ut sto++in% the 2ussians in Asia and chec<in% them in Castern Curo+e #as
fundamenta$:
9hether the 2ussians intended to stic< c$ose$y to the (a$ta A%reement and enter the #ar
on Au%ust J is not a$to%ether certainL 0ut once the 0om0 had 0een dro++ed6 the 2ussians
cou$d not afford to de$ayL for #hat if Ba+an ca+itu$ated as a resu$t of the 0om0 0efore
2ussia entered the #arE ?t #as essentia$ to enter the #ar 0efore such a Ba+anese
ca+itu$ation6 if 2ussia #as to recei3e her territoria$ Fre#ardF and +$ay any +art in the
occu+ation of 4oreaDand Ba+an:
The rea$ irony of it a$$ is that Ba+an #as ready to ca+itu$ate 4oth :ithout the atom 4om4
and :ithout Bussian intervention5 But this suited neither the *SA6 nor the So3iet *nion6
0oth of #hich had to stri<e the Fdecisi3eF 0$o#:
?t is interestin% to note that the +resent,day Histor! does not 0reathe a #ord a0out Sta$in's
Fre3en%e for 19"4F6 0ut attri0utes 2ussia's entry into the #ar to three hi%h,minded
moti3es: 1) security a%ainst future Ba+anese a%%ressionL &) 2ussia's sacred duty to her
9estern A$$iesL and6 3) her mora$ duty to he$+6 5hina6 4orea and other Asian +eo+$es in
their stru%%$e a%ainst the Ba+anese im+eria$ists:
The Fne# $oo<F of American +o$icy after the dro++in% of the atom 0om0 soon 0ecame
a++arent: @n Au%ust 1) Truman dec$ared that6 un$i<e 1ermany6 Ba+an #ou$d not 0e
di3ided into occu+ation >ones: Truman firm$y reHected the 2ussian +ro+osa$ that the
Ba+anese surrender to 2ussian troo+s in northern .o<<aidoL nor #ere the 2ussians to ta<e
any +art #hatsoe3er in the occu+ation of Ba+an: Truman #ent e3en further: on Au%ust 1J
he as<ed that the 2ussians $et the Americans use one of the 4uri$e ?s$ands as an air 0ase6
a +ro+osa$ that Sta$in reHected #ith a %reat sho# of indi%nation:
I)orrespondence 4et:een %talin and the Presidents o" the &%/ and the Prime -inisters
o" #reat .ritain55: (Mosco# 19-7)6 3o$: ??6 ++: &)7,J:K
The uneasiness and an8iety created in 2ussia 0y the atom 0om0 #ere such that6 soon
after the ca+itu$ation of Ba+an6 2ussian corres+ondents 3isited .iroshima and ;a%asa<i
and de$i0erate$y re+orted that the 0om0s had not 0een near$y as destructi3e as the
Americans had made outL if there #ere 3ery hea3y casua$ties6 it #as 0ecause of the
inf$amma0$e nature of Ba+anese houses6 and any city #ith stone houses and ade=uate
she$ters #ou$d not ha3e suffered near$y as much: The corres+ondents said they had
inter3ie#ed se3era$ +eo+$e #ho had esca+ed inHury 0y sim+$y $yin% do#n in an ordinary
trenchP
These stories a0out the re$ati3e innocuousness of the atom 0om0 #ere not on$y intended
to reassure the 2ussian +u0$ic6 0ut a$so to su++ort the theory that it #as not the atom
0om06 0ut the destruction of the 4#antun% Army 0y the 2ussians6 that had 0rou%ht Ba+an
to her <nees:
They did not ma<e much im+ression in 2ussia: C3ery0ody there fu$$y rea$ised that the
atom 0om0 had 0ecome an immense factor in the #or$d's +o#er +o$itics6 and 0e$ie3ed
that6 a$thou%h the t#o 0om0s had <i$$ed or maimed a fe# hundred thousand Ba+anese6
their rea$ +ur+ose #as6 first and foremost6 to intimidate 2ussia:
After causin% a s+e$$ of an8iety and 0e#i$derment6 a$$ the 0om0s did6 in effect6 #as to
create on the 2ussian side a fee$in% of an%er and acute distrust vis , vis the 9est: Far
from 0ecomin% more amena0$e6 the So3iet 1o3ernment 0ecame more stu00orn:
IThe on$y maHor e8ce+tion #as ?ran6 #here Mosco# yie$ded to American +ressure 0y
e3acuatin% ?ranian A>er0aiHan:K
?nside 2ussia6 too6 the rN%ime 0ecame much harder after the #ar instead of 0ecomin%
softer6 as so many had ho+ed it #ou$d 0e:
?t #as scarce$y a coincidence that6 ten days after .iroshima6 the Su+reme So3iet shou$d
ha3e instructed the 1os+$anDthe State !$annin% 5ommissionDand the 5ounci$ of
!eo+$e's 5ommissars to %et 0usy on a ne# Fi3e,(ear !$an: ;o 0reathin%,s+ace #as to 0e
a$$o#ed to the 2ussian +eo+$eL the %reat industria$ and economic reconstruction of the
country #as to start immediate$y: And6 to%ether #ith it6 the ma<in% of the 2ussian atom
0om0:
The end of the #ar #as to 0e fo$$o#ed 0y years of disa++ointment and frustration for the
2ussian +eo+$e: The #artime ho+es of a Bi% Three !eace %a3e #ay to the rea$ity of the
5o$d 9ar and the F?ron 5urtainF: The ha++y i$$usions of 1944 that the So3iet rN%ime
#ou$d 0ecome more $i0era$6 and $ife easier and freer after the #ar6 soon #ent u+ in
smo<e: For one thin% the So3iet economy #as $ar%e$y in ruins6 and to re0ui$d it a %i%antic
+ro%ramme of austerity and hard #or< #as ca$$ed for: The +o$icy of restorin% hea3y
industry as fast as +ossi0$e meant that consumer %oods remained scarce for a $on% time:
.ousin% conditions #ere 0ad and food #as short: The ;4AD6 #hich had sho#n a certain
discretion durin% the #ar6 came into its o#n a%ain and a ne# terror de3e$o+ed #hich did
not come to an end unti$ 19-36 after Sta$in's death:
(et des+ite the disa++ointments that fo$$o#ed it6 the %rim 0ut heroic nationa$ #ar of
1941,- remains 0oth the most fearfu$ and the +roudest memory of the 2ussian +eo+$eDa
#ar #hich6 for a$$ her $osses6 turned 2ussia into the %reatest !o#er oi$ the @$d 9or$d:
A$ready it a$most seems an historica$ e+ic of a 0y%one a%eD#hich can ne3er 0e re+eated:
To the 2ussian +eo+$e the thou%ht of another #ar is dou0$y horrifyin%L for it #ou$d 0e a
#ar #ithout its Se0asto+o$6 enin%rad or Sta$in%radL a #ar in #hichDe3ery#hereDthere
#ou$d 0e on$y 3ictims and no heroes:
SELECTED BIBLIO!RAPHY
The most im+ortant sin%$e So3iet +u0$ication on the #ar years6 not on$y in terms of sheer
0u$<6 0ut a$so for the 3a$ua0$e information it contains is the monumenta$ si8,3o$ume (fi3e
+u0$ished to date) Histor! o" the #reat Patriotic $ar o" the %oviet &nion 6Istori!a
1eli*oi Htechestven-noi 1oin! %ov5%o!uza7, referred to as ?A@ASS: ?n the ?ntroduction ?
refer to some of its numerous #ea<nesses Dits stod%y #ritin%6 its e3er,re+eated c$ichNs6
its su++ression of many a#<#ard facts (for instance the FMosco# +anicF of @cto0er 1)6
1941)6 the 3irtua$ de$etion of names of +eo+$e no# out of fa3our6 e3en thou%h they
+$ayed an im+ortant +art durin% the #ar yearsL the ma%nification of 4hrusche3's ro$e in
the #arL the tendentiousness in the treatment of some of the di+$omatic e+isodes Hust
0efore and durin% the #ar L the +ooh,+oohin% of end,ease6 and so on: This co$$ecti3e
#or< 0y do>ens of So3iet scho$ars and 3arious <inds of e8+erts6 #or<in% under an
editoria$ committee com+osed of +rofessiona$ historians6 $eadin% !arty ideo$o%ists and a
num0er of %enera$s6 and the #ho$e of it +u0$ished 0y FThe De+artment of .istory of the
1reat !atriotic
9ar of the ?nstitute of Mar8ism,eninism attached to the 5entra$ 5ommittee of the
5!S*F is6 of course6 a 0oo< #hich has %one throu%h the most carefu$ +rocess of F3ettin%F
at the hi%hest !arty $e3e$: And yet6 des+ite a$$ this6 ?A@ASS sti$$ contains an immense
amount of information most of #hich #as not a3ai$a0$e in the Sta$in days: ?t contains6 for
e8am+$e6 a 3ery thorou%h and6 on the #ho$e6 con3incin% e8+$anation of the numerous
reasons for the 2ed Army's disastrous re3erses in 1941 L it ana$yses 3ery carefu$$y the
reasons6 0oth mi$itary and economic6 for the re$ati3e fai$ure of the second +hase of the
2ussian counter,offensi3e in the #inter of 1941,&L it te$$s6 #ith masses of ne# detai$s6 the
story of the stu+endous effort to <ee+ the country's #ar economy %oin%6 #ith the main
armaments +roduction 0ein% concentrated in the Cast: The Histor! is 0ased a$most
entire$y on archi3e materia$6 and this inc$udes such 3a$ua0$e sources as AA! SS2
(Forei%n !o$icy Archi3es)6 AM@ SSS2 (Archi3es of the Ministry of Defence)6 the #ar
archi3es of the ?nstitute of Mar8ism,eninism (?M)L the 5entra$ !arty Archi3es of the
same ?nstitute (Ts!A ?M)6 the 4omsomo$ and Trade *nion Archi3es6 the State Archi3es
of the @cto0er 2e3o$ution (Ts1A,@2)6 the 9ar .istory Archi3es of the 5entra$
5ommittees of the 5ommunist !arties of the *<rainian6 Be$o,russian and of other Federa$
2e+u0$ics of the So3iet *nion6 and simi$ar archi3es of the different ministries and of the
3arious o4*oms (re%iona$ +arty committees)Dfor instance6 those of Smo$ens<6 Brians<6
etc: (chief$y on !artisan #arfare) or of S3erd$o3s<6 5he$ia0ins<6 etc: (chief$y on the #ar
industries): A$thou%h these =uotations from the 3arious archi3es are ine3ita0$y se$ecti3e6
they sti$$ contain much ne# information: @n forei%n +o$icy too6 the Histor! a$so =uotes
some re3ea$in% documents6 for instance some of the dis+atches from Asta<ho36 the So3iet
chargA d0a""aires in Ber$in6 on his con3ersations #ith 9ei>sSc<er and 2i00entro+ durin%
the summer of 1939D dis+atches from #hich Sta$in and Mo$oto3 cou$d o03ious$y dra#
certain conc$usions:
? ha3e a$so6 in #ritin% this 0oo<6 made use of not on$y a num0er of %enera$ So3iet
histories of the #ar (none of them 3ery satisfactory) 0ut a$so of a #ide ran%e of
mono%ra+hs on 3arious e+isodes of the #ar (some6 +articu$ar$y those on enin%rad6 are
e8ce$$ent)6 and an e3en %reater num0er of +ersona$ reminiscences 0y %enera$s6 +artisan
$eaders6 etc: @f these 0oo<s6 hundreds of #hich ha3e a++eared6 es+ecia$$y since 19-J: ?
%i3e as detai$ed a $ist as +ossi0$e: @n the other hand6 in $istin% 9estern 0oo<s +ertainin%
to the immediate +re,#ar +eriod and the #ar years in 2ussia6 ? ha3e confined myse$f to
on$y some of the most im+ortant tit$es: The same a++$ies to 1erman 0oo<s on the #ar in
the So3iet *nion:
DIPLOMATIC AND OICIAL DOCUMENTS
)orrespondence 4et:een the )hairman o" the )ouncil o" -inisters o" the &%%B (Sta$in)
and the Presidents o" the &nited %tates (2oose3e$t and Truman) and the Prime -inisters
o" #reat .ritain (5hurchi$$ and Att$ee) during the #reat Patriotic $ar o" <=J<-JK5 &
3o$s: Mosco#6 19-7:
Documents o" .ritish Foreign Polic! <=<=->=5 ondon6 1947 and after:
Documents o" #erman Foreign Polic!5 %eries D5 <=>\-JK5 1" 3o$s: 9ashin%ton6 19-7:
Do*ument! vneshnei politi*i %%B, 3o$s: 1,4: Mosco#6 19-76 +u0$ication continuin%:
Do*ument! i material! *anuna vtoiroi mirovoi voin!5 3o$: ??: /r*hiv Dirc*sena5 Mosco#6
194J:
Foreign Belations o" the &nited %tates5 Diplomatic Papers5 The )on"erence o" .erlin5
9ashin%ton6 194):
(e (ivre Uaune Fran9ais5 Documents diplomatiPues5 !aris6 1939:
3azi-%oviet Belations <=>=-J<5 9ashin%ton6 194J:
%ovets*o-Frantsus*ie otnosheni!a vo vremia 1eli*oi Htechestvennoi 1oin!5 Do*ument! i
material!5 Mosco#6 19-9:
%ovets*o-)he*hoslovats*ie otnosheni!a vo vremia 1eli*oi Htechestvennoi 1oin!5
Do*ument! i material!5 Mosco#6 19)":
%oviet Documents on Foreign Polic! 6<=<\-J<7, selected and edited 4! U5 Degras5 3 3o$s:
ondon6 194J,-3:
1neshn!a!a politi*a %ovets*ogo %o!uza v period Htechestvennoi 1oin!5 3 3o$s: Mosco#6
194),7:
1neshn!a!a Politi*a %ovets*ogo %o!uza, <=JR g5 Mosco#6 1947:
The Trial o" #erman -a8or $ar )riminals+ Proceedings o" the International -ilitar!
Tri4unal sitting at 3urem4erg, #erman!5 &3 3o$s: (.MS@6 ondon6 194),-1)6 referred to
as T1M95:
STUDIES AND MEMOIRS CONCERNIN! DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS WITH
THE SOAIET UNION
I?nc$udin% some %enera$ #or<s +art$y dea$in% #ith these:K
Be$off6 M:6 The Foreign Polic! o" %oviet Bussia, <=C=-J<5& 3o$s: ondon6 1947:
Bonnet6 1:6 Fin d0une Europe5 1ene3a6 194):
Byrnes6 B: F:6 %pea*ing Fran*l!5 ondon6 1947:
Byrnes6 B: F:6 /ll in Hne (i"etime5 ;e# (or<6 19-J:
5arr6 C: .:6 #erman-%oviet Belations 4et:een the T:o $ars5 Ba$timore6 19-1:
5hurchi$$6 9: S:6 The %econd $orld $ar5 ) 3o$s: ondon6 194J,-4:
)iano0s Diaries5 ondon6 194J:
5oates6 9: !: and O:6 / Histor! o" /nglo-%oviet Belations5 C 3o$s: ondon6 194- and
19-J:
5ou$ondre6 2:6 De %taline , Hitler5 -Amoires de deu2 am4assades5 !aris6 19-":
Da$ton6 .:6 The Fate"ul 'ears <=><-JK5 ondon6 1947:
Da3ies6 B:6 -ission to -osco:5 ondon6 194&:
Deane6 B: F:6 The %trange /lliance5 ondon6 1947:
Cisenho#er6 D: D:6 )rusade in Europe5 ondon6 194J:
Fei$in%6 4:6 The (i"e o" 3eville )ham4erlain5 ondon6 194):
1afencu6 1:6 The (ast Da!s o" Europe5 ondon6 194):
1afencu6 1:6 PrAliminaires de la guerre , l0Est5 !aris6 1944:
1au$$e6 5: de6 -Amoires5 3 3o$s: !aris6 19-4,J:
The -emoirs o" )ordell Hull5 ondon6 194J:
?c<es6 .: :6 The %ecret Diar!5 ;e# (or<6 19-4:
?>rae$yan6 A: :6 Diplomatiches*a!a istori!a 1eli*oi Htechestvennoi 1oin! <=J<-JK5
Mosco#6 19-J:
4ennan6 1:6 %oviet Foreign Polic! <=<\-<=J<5 ;e# (or<6 19)":
4ennan6 1:6 Bussia and the $est under (enin and %talin5 ;e# (or<6 19)1:
eahy6 9: D:6 I $as There5 ondon6 19-":
Mais<y6 ?:6 $ho Helped Hitler ondon6 19)4:
;amier6 : B:6 Diplomatic Prelude, <=>?->=5 ondon6 194J:
;oe$6 :6 (0aggression allemande contre la Pologne5 !aris6 194):
!otem<in6 A: !: (ed:)6 Istori!a diplomatii, 3o$: ??? (1919,39): Mosco#6 194-:
2eynaud6 !:6 /u coeur de la mVlAe5 !aris6 19-1:
2eynaud6 !:6 (a France a avAsu l0Europe5 C 3o$s: 1947:
Schuman6 F: :6 Bussia since <=<\5 ;e# (or<6 19-7:
Scherer6 A:6 (e pro4lNme des "mains li4res , l0Est" 6Bev5 d0Histoire de la Ce #uerre
-ondiale, @cto0er 19-J)6 !aris6 19-J:
Sher#ood6 2: C:6 The $hite House Papers o" Harr! (5 Hop*ins5 C 3o$s: ondon6 1949:
Shirer6 9: :6 The Bise and Fall o" the Third Beich5 ondon6 19)":
Stettinius6 C: 2:6 (end-(ease, $eapon o" 1ictor!5 ;e# (or<6 1944:
Stettinius6 C: 2:6 Boosevelt and the Bussians: The 'alta )on"erence5 ondon6 19-":
Tay$or6 A: B: !:6 The Hrigins o" the %econd $orld $ar5 ondon6 19)1:
Truman6 .:S -emoirs o" Harr! Truman, 3o$: ?: ;e# (or<6 19--:
9i$$iams6 9: A:6 The Traged! o" /merican Diplomac!5 ;e# (or<6 19)&:
SOAIET OICIAL SPEECHES, ETC.
5!S* 5on%ress re+orts: 1J,yi6 19,yi6 &",yi6 &1,yi6 &&,oi s'ye>d 4!SS (Mosco#6 19396
19-&6 19-)6 19-9 and 19)1 res+ecti3e$y):
4a$inin6 M: ?:6 1s!o dl!a "ronta, vs!o dl!a po4ed!5 (Artic$es and s+eeches:) Mosco#6
194&:
4hrushche36 ;: A:6 The Dethronement o" %talin5 6%ecret speech at CDth )ongress57
-anchester #uardian re+rint6 Manchester6 19-):
See a$so Fe0ruary 194) e$ection s+eeches 0y Sta$in6 Mo$oto36 Aoroshi$o36 Mi<oyan6
Andreye36 Ohdano36 4hrushche36 4a%ano3ich6 Beria6 Ma$en<o36 Aosnesens<y and
others6 a$$ +u0$ished in +am+h$et form (Mosco#6 194)):
The Bed /rm! To-da!5 6%peeches delivered at the <?th )ongress o" the )P% &6.757 6In
Cn%$ish:) Mosco#6 1939:
Sta$in6 ?: A:6 H 1eli*oi Htechestvennoi 1oine %ovets*ogo %o!uza5 -th ed: Mosco#6 194-:
Sta$in6 ?:A:6 1opros! (eninizma5 11th ed: Mosco#6 194" (contains te8t of March 1"6 1939
s+eech):
See a$so 1neshn!a!a politi*a %ovets*ogo %o!uza v god! Htechestvennoi 1oin! for se3era$
s+eeches and statements 0y A: M: Mo$oto3 and others: 3 3o$s: Mosco#6 194),7:
Oasedani!e 1er*hovnogo %oveta %%%B, <-a!a sessi!a5 <C-<= marta <=JRg5
%tenogra"iches*!i otchet5 & 3o$s: Mosco#6 194) and su0se=uent Su+reme
So3iet sessions:
!ENERAL SOAIET HISTORIES O THE WAR
Istori!a 1eli*oi Htechestvennoi 1oin! %ovets*ogo %o!uza5 - 3o$s: Mosco#6 19)",3: (See
introduction to Bi0$io%ra+hy:)
!$atono36 ieut:,1en: S: !: (and others)6 1tora!a mirova!a voina, <=>=-JK5 Mosco#6
19-J:
Te$+u<ho3s<y6 B: S:6 1eli*a!a Htechestvenna!a 1oina %ovets*ogo %o!uza, <=J<-JK5
Mosco#6 19-9: See a$so 1erman trans$ation of same 0oo< #ith critica$ 1erman
introduction and footnotes :
Te$+ucho#s<i6 B: S:6 Die so:8etische #eschichte des #rossen 1aterlQndischen Krieges5
Kritisch erlQutert von /ndreas Hillgru4er und Hans-/dol" Ua*o4sen5 Fran<furt a`M:6
19)1:
Aoro0yo3 F: D: i 2ra3tso36 A: M:6 1eli*a!a Htechestvenna!a 1oina %ovets*ogo %o!uza,
<=J<-JK5 Mosco#6 19)1:
Aoro0yo36 A: F: (and others)6 .o!evoipu" sovets*i*h vooruzhenn!*h %il5 Mosco#6 19)":
(This is a +o+u$ar history of the 2ed Army since 191J:)
SPECIAL STUDIES, REMINISCENCES AND DOCUMENTS ON THE WAR IN
RUSSIA, INCLUDIN! SOME !ENERAL WORKS PARTLY DEAOTED TO
THE WAR YEARS
A00re3iations:
!2 a !artisan and 2esistance acti3ity
Mi$: a Mi$itary
Cc: a Cconomic and industria$
4)7 -#6,(& 1$,#$
Am+i$o36 A: i Smirno36 A:6 1malen0*om gorode (ide5 Mosco#6 19)&: (!2)
Armstron%6 B: A:6 &*rainian 3ationalism <=>=-JK5 ;e# (or<6 19--:
Armstron%6 B: A: (ed:): %oviet Partisans in $orld $ar II5 Madison6 9is:619)4:
A>aro36 Aice,Adm: ?:?:6 Hsazhde44a!a Hdessa5 Mosco#6 19)&: (1941 defence of
@dessa:)
Be$o36 1en: ?: B:6 Oa nanti -os*va5 Mosco#6 19)&: (Batt$e of Mosco#:)
Biryu>o36 Marsha$ S: S:6 Kogda gremeli push*i5 Mosco#6 19)1: (Mi$:)
.itva za Tulu5 %4orni* materialov i do*umentov5 Tu$a6 19-7: (1941 defence of Tu$a:)
.itva za 1olgu: vospominani!a uchastni*ov %talingrads*ogo srazheni!a5 Sta$in%rad6
19-J: (Sta$in%rad 0att$e:)
Boi<o6 F: F:6 Tsitade1 )hernomori!a5 Mosco#6 19)3: (Defence of @dessa6 1941:)
Bo$din6 1en: ?: A:6 %tranits! zhizni5 Mosco#6 19)1: (Mi$:6 chief$y on 1941:)
Boriso36 B:6 Podvig %evastopol!a5 Mosco#6 19-7:
Boriso36 B:6 %evastopolts! ne sda!uts!a5 Simfero+o$6 19)1: (Both 0oo<s on 1941,& sie%e
of Se3asto+o$:)
Brins<y6 A:6 Po tu storonu "ronta5 C 3o$s: Mosco#6 19)1: (!2)
5assidy6 .:6 -osco: Dateline5 ondon6 1943:
5herno36 (u:6 Hni o4oroniali -oonzund5 Mosco#6 19-9: (1941 0att$es on Cstonian
is$ands:)
5hui<o36 Marsha$ A: ?66 3achalo puti5 First edition6 Mosco#6 19-9: Second (re3ised)
edition6 Mosco#6 19)&: (Mi$:6 Defence of Sta$in%rad:) (Cn%$ish trans$ation of second
edition6 The .eginning o" the Boad5 ondon6 19)3:)
Da$$in6 A:6 #erman Bule in Bussia, <=J<-JK5 ondon6 19-7:
De0orin6 A:6 H Khara*tere 1toroi -irovoi 1oin!5 Mosco#6 19)":
Deutscher6 ?:6 %talin: a Political .iograph!5 ondon6 1949:
Deviatsot dnei5 %4orni*5 enin%rad6 19-7: (enin%rad 0$oc<ade sym+osium:)
Dire*tiv! KP%% i sovets*ogo pravitel0stva po *hoz!aistvenn!m voprosam5 %4orni*
do*umentov5 Ao$: &6 19&9,4-: Mosco#6 19-7: (Cc:)
DHi$as6 M:6 )onversations :ith %talin5 ondon6 19)&:
Dorogoi 4or04! i slav!5 Mosco#6 19)1: (Sym+osium inc$udin% contri0ution 0y Marsha$
4: 4: 2o<osso3s<y:)
Dostizheni!a sovets*oi vlasti za JD let 3 tsi"ra*h5 Mosco#6 19-7: (Statistica$ sur3ey for
1917,-7:)
Chren0ur%6 ?:6 1oina5 C 3o$s: Mosco#6 194&,3: (2e+rinted artic$es:)
Chren0ur%6 ?:6 (!udi, god!, zhizn5 (Series on the #ar years:) 3ov!i -ir, Mosco#6 19)&,3:
Cric<son6 B:6 The %oviet High )ommand5:: <=<?-<=JK5 ondon6 19)&:
Fedoro36 A: F:6 Podpoln!i o4*om deistvu!et5 Mosco#6 19-J: (!2)
Fedyunins<y6 1en: 1:1:6 Podn!atuie po trevoge5 Mosco#6 19)1: (Mi$:6 memoirs on 1941
and $ater:)
Fischer6 1:6 %oviet Hpposition to %talin5 5am0rid%e6 Mass:6 19-1:
Fu$$er6 B: F: 56 The %econd $orld $ar5 ondon6 194J:
1arthoff6 2: :6 Ho: Bussia -a*es $ar: %oviet -ilitar! Doctrine5 ondon6 19-4:
1$u<ho36 A: 1:6 3arodn!ie mstiteli5 4a$u%a6 19)": (!2 in 4a$u%a and Brians< areas:)
1oure6 :6 The %iege o" (eningrad5 ondon6 19)&:
1o3oro36 Marsha$ : A:6 1 4o!a*h za gorod (enina5 enin%rad6 194-: (Mi$:6 0att$es in
enin%rad area:)
1o$o3<o6 Adm: A: 1:6 1meste s"lotom5 Mosco#6 19)": (;a3a$ #arfare:)
1rossman6 A:6 #od! voin!5 Mosco#6 194-: (2e+rinted #ar re+ortin%:)
#vardi!a t!la5 Mosco#6 19)": (Sym+osium on $a0our in #ar,time industry:)
.indus6 M:6 -other Bussia5 ondon6 1943:
.indus6 M:6 The )ossac*s, the %tor! o" a $arrior People5 ondon6 194):
Histor! o" the )P%& (in Cn%$ish): Mosco#6 19)": (The officia$ 4hrashche3ite history
trans$ated 0y Andre# 2othstein:)
?n0er6 A: Pochti tri goda5 Mosco#6 194): (enin%rad 0$oc<ade:)
Istori!a 1KP6475 Krat*ii *urs5 Mosco#6 194-: (A$thou%h this #as first +u0$ished 0efore
the #ar6 it continued6 throu%hout the #ar6 to 0e the standard #or< on the !arty6 and #as
e3en (#ron%$y) attri0uted to Sta$in:)
Istori!a (atviis*oi %%B5 3 3o$s: 2i%a6 19)1: (.istory of at3ian SS2:)
Iz istorii partizans*ogo dvizheni!a v .elorussii, <=J<-JJ5 Mins<6 19)1: (?m+ortant
sym+osium on !2 in Be$orussia:)
4aftano36 S:6 %ovets*a!a intelligentsi!a 3 1eli*oi Htechestvennoi 1oine5 Mosco#6 194-:
4a$inin6 1en: S: A:6 Bazm!shleni!a o minuvshem5 Mosco#6 19)3: (Mi$:reminiscenses:)
4amenets<y6 ?:6 Hitler0s Hccupation o" the &*raine5 Mar=uette *ni3: !ress6 19-7:
4arase36 A: A:6 (eningradts! 3 god! 4lo*ad!5 Mosco#6 19-9: (enin%rad 0$oc<ade:)
4aro36 D:6 Partizans*o!e dvidzeni!e v %%%B5 Munich6 19-4: (An anti,So3iet account of
the !artisan mo3ement:)
4ataye36 A:6 Kata*om4!5 Mosco#6 194-: (!2 in @dessa:)
4$imo36 ?: D:6 #eroiches*a!a o4orona Tul!5 Mosco#6 19)1: (1941 defence of Tu$a:)
4o$ar>6 9:6 Beligion in the %oviet &nion5 ondon6 19-9:
4o3a$e36 ?: A:6 %ovets*!i zheleznodorozhn!i transport <=<\-J\5 Mosco#6 1947: (Cc6
rai$#ays:)
4o3+a<6 A:6 Ht Putivl!a do Karpat5 Mosco#6 1949: (!2 in *<raine):
4o>$o36 ?:6 1 Kr!ms*om podpolii5 Mosco#6 19-4: (!2 in 5rimea:)
4o>$o36 A: ?:6 (!udi oso4ogo s*lada5 Mosco#6 19-9: (!2)
KP%% o 1ooruzhenn!*h %ila*h %ovets*ogo %o!uza5 %4orni* do*umentov <=<\-<=K?5
Mosco#6 19-J:
4raso3s<y6 S: A:6 Ohizn 3 aviatsii5 Mosco#6 19)": (Airforce reminiscences:)
Kurs*a!a .itva5 Iz vospominanii uchastni*ov5 4urs<6 19-J: (4urs< Batt$e sym+osium:)
4u>netso36 1en: !: 1:6 Dni 4o!ev!ie5 Mosco#6 19-9: (Mi$: reminiscences:)
eonhard6 9:6 )hild o" the Bevolution5 ondon6 19-7:
(eningrad v 1eli*oi Htechestvennoi 1oine: %4orni* do*umentov i materialov5 enin%rad6
1944:
idde$$ .art6 B: .: (ed:)6 The Bed /rm!5 ;e# (or<6 19-J:
idde$$ .art6 B: .:6 The Hther %ide o" the Hill5 ondon6 194J:
in'<o36 1: M:6 1oina v t!lu vraga5 Mosco#6 1939: (!2)
i+a$o6 !: @:6 KP.Dorganizator i ru*ovodite1 partizans*ogo dvizheni!a 3 .elorussii5
Mins<6 19-9: (!2 in Be$orussia:)
i+ato36 ;: !:6 )herna!a metallurgi!a &rala v god!555 voin!5 Mosco#6 19)": (Cc6 *ra$s
industry:)
u<nits<y6 !:6 3a 4erega*h 3ev!5 Mosco#6 19)1: (Defence of enin%rad:)
yashchen<o6 A:6 Kara!ushchii gorod5 Mosco#6 19)1: (Mo%i$e3 !2)
Ma%idoff6 2:6 The Kremlin and the People5 ;e# (or<6 19-3:
Ma<aro36 !: M:6 Partizan! Tavrii5 Mosco#6 19)": (!2 in 5rimea and north of it:)
Ma<simo36 S: ;:6 H4orona %evastopol!a <=J<-JC5 Mosco#6 19-9: (1941,& defence of
Se0asto+o$:)
Med3ede36 D: ;:6 %il0n!ie du*hom5 Mosco#6 19-7: (!2 in 9est *<raine:)
Med3ede36 D: ;:6 Eto 4!lo pod Bovno5 Mosco#6 19-J: (!2 in 9est *<raine:)
Mi<hai$o3s<y6 ;: Tallins*ii dnevni*5 Mosco#6 19-): (1941 #ar in Cstonia:)
-irova!a 1oina <=>=-JK5 %4orni* statei5 Mosco#6 19-7: (Sym+osium on Second 9or$d
9ar:)
Monastyrs<ii6 5a+tain F: A:6 Oeml!a om!ta!a *rovi!u5 Mosco#6 19)&: (Mi$:6 fi%htin% on
B$ac< Sea coast:)
Moro>o36 A: !:6 Oapadne!e 1oronezha, !anvar-"evra1 <=J> g5 Mosco#6 19-): (Mi$:6
S+rin%6 1943:)
Mushni<o36 A: ;6 .altiits! v 4o!a*h za (eningrad, <=J<-JJ5 Mosco#6 19--: (2o$e of
;a3y in Batt$es of enin%rad:)
3arodno!e opolcheni!e -os*v!5 Mosco#6 19)1: (Mosco# Fhome %uardF in Batt$e of
Mosco#: sym+osium:)
3a rzhevs*oi zemle5 4a$inin6 19)36 (!2 and 1erman occu+ation +o$icy in 2>he3 area:)
;eustroye36 ieut:,5o$:6 Put0 * Beichstagu5 Mosco#6 19)1: (Batt$e of Ber$in:)
Hdessa v 1eli*oi Htechestvennoi 1oine %ov5 %o!uza5 %4orni*5 3 3o$s: @dessa6 19-1:
(Sym+osium on @dessa durin% the #ar:)
Hrlovs*a!a H4last0 v god!555 voin!, <=J<-JK5 %4orni* do*umentov i materialov5 @re$6
19)1: (Documents6 etc:6 on @re$ !ro3ince durin% the #ar:)
Partizans*ie 4!li5 Mosco#6 19-J: (!2)
!a3$o36 D: A:6 (eningrad v 4lo*ade5 Mosco#6 19-9:
!a3$o3s<y6 MaHor ;: A:6 3a ostrova*h5 Mosco#6 19)3: (1941 #ar on Cstonian is$ands:)
!o+e$'6 1en: ;: 4:6 1t!azh*u!u poru5 Mosco#6 19-9: (Mi$:6 on 1941,&:)
!o+e$'6 1en: ;: 4:6 Tan*i povernuli na zapad5 Mosco#6 19)": (4urs< and after:)
Pravda o religii v Bossii5 (!u0$ished 0y Mosco# !atriarchate)6 Mosco#6 194&:
Prom!shlennos" %%%B5 %tatistiches*ii s4orni*5 Mosco#6 19-7: (Boo< of industria$
statistics a$so re$e3ant to #ar years:)
2otmistro36 1en: !: A:6 Tan*ovo!e srazheni!e pod Pro*horov*oi5 Mosco#6 19)": (Mi$:6
4urs< 0att$e:)
2o>ano36 1: :6 Krushenie "ashists*oi #ermanii5 Mosco#6 19-3: (Batt$e of Ber$in and
end of ;a>i 1ermany:)
Scha+iro6 :6 The )ommunist Part! o" the %oviet &nion5 ondon6 19)":
Sham<o6 C:6 Partizans*o!e dvizheni!e 3 Kr!mu <=J<-JJ5 Simfero+o$6 19-9: (!2 in
5rimea:)
Sirota6 F: ?:6 (eningrad, gorod-geroi5 Mosco#6 19)": (Defence of enin%rad:)
So0o$e36 :6 Dorogami po4ed5 Mosco#6 194-: (2ussian ad3ance into 2umania6 etc:)
%oo4schcheni!a %ovets*ogo In"orm4uro5 4 3o$s: Mosco#6 194&,4: (Se$ection of officia$
#artime communications:)
%ovets*ie partizan!5 Mosco#6 19)": (!2 sym+osium:)
(anon:) I5 15 %talin: Krat*a!a 4iogra"i!a5 Mosco#6 194&: (Short 0io%ra+hy:)
So<o$o3s<y6 Marsha$ A: D: (ed:)6 -ilitar! %trateg!5 %oviet Doctrine and )oncepts5
Introduction 4! B5 (5 #artho""5 ondon6 19)3:
Sidoro36 5o$: A: ?:6 Bazgrom nemtsev na %evere5 Mosco#6 194-: (Defeat of 1ermans in
;: Fin$and and ;: ;or#ay in 1944:)
%talingradts!: rass*az! zhitelei o geroiches*oi o4orone5 Mosco#6 19-": (Defence of
Sta$in%rad sym+osium:)
Su+runen<o6 ;: ?:6 &*raina v 1eli*oi Htech5 1oine %ov5 %o!uza, <=J<-JK5 4ie36 19-):
She3erda$<in6 !: 2:6 #eroiches*a!a 4or04a leningrads*i*h partizan5 enin%rad6 19-9:
(!2 in enin%rad +ro3ince:)
%putni* Partizana5 Mosco#6 194&: (!artisan hand0oo<:)
Timo<ho3ich6 ?: A:6 %ovets*a!a aviatsi!a v 4itve pod Kurs*om5 Mosco#6 19-9: (Airforce
in Batt$e of 4urs<:)
Tread%o$d6 D: 9:6 T:entieth-centur! Bussia5 5hica%o6 19-9:
Tsessars<ii6 A:6 Oapis*i partizans*ogo vracha5 Mosco#6 19-): (2eminiscences of a
+artisan doctor:)
Tyu$ene36 1en: ?: A:6 )herez tri voin!5 Mosco#6 19)": (@f s+ecia$ interest are his
cha+ters on the 5aucasus fi%htin%:)
1 4o!a*h za Hrel: %4orni*5 Mosco#6 1944: (@re$ 0att$e 1943:)
Aershi%ora6 !:6 Beid na %an i 1islu5 Mosco#6 19)": (!2 in 9: *<raine and !o$and:)
Aershi%ora6 !:6 (!udi s chistoi sovest!u5 Mosco#6 194J: (!2 in *<raine:)
1(K%- v tsi"ra*h i "a*ta*h5 Mosco#6 1949: (Sur3ey of 4omsomo$ acti3ity6 +articu$ar$y
durin% the #ar:)
Aodo$a%in6 M: A:6 %talingrad 3 1elo*oi Htech5 1oine, <=J<-J>5 Sta$in%rad6 1949:
1ognennom *oltse5 1ospominani!a uchastni*ov o4oron! (eningrada5 Mosco#6 19)&:
(Sym+osium on defence of enin%rad:)
Ao>nen<o6 A: A: i *t<in6 1: M:6 Hsvo4ozhdeni!e Kieva, osen0 <=J> g5 Mosco#6 19-3:
(i0eration of 4ie3:)
Ao>nesens<y6 ;: A:6 1o!enna!a e*onomi*a %%%B v period Htech5 1oin!5 Mos, co#6
194J: (Cc6 sur3ey of #ar years:)
Ayshne3s<y6 A:6 14o!a*h Ca Tallin5 4ronstadt6 1944:
1 trude *a* v 4o!u: iz istorii *omsomols*i*h molodezhn!*h 4rigad v god!
1eli*oi Htech5 1oin!5 Mosco#6 19)1: (4omsomo$ durin% the #ar:)
A'yunen<o6 ;: M:6 )hernomors*i Flot v 1eli*oi Htech5 1oine5 Mosco#6 19-7: (B$ac< Sea
;a3y in the #ar:)
9erth6 A:6 (eningrad5 ondon6 1944:
9erth6 A:6 The 'ear o" %talingrad5 ondon6 194):
(ar<humo36 A: M:6 )herez 3evu ;R\-!a armi!a v 4o!a*h po pror!vu 4lo*ad!
(eningrada75 Mosco#6 19)": (The 1943 0rea<in% of the enin%rad 0$oc<ade:)
(eremen<o6 Marsha$6 A: ?:6 3aOapadr:m 3apravlenii5 Mosco#6 19)3: (1941 fi%htin%:)
(eremen<o6 Marsha$ A: ?:6 %talingrad5 Mosco#6 19)1:
(uden<o36 A: F:6 1 ognennom *oltse5 Mosco#6 19)&: (!2 in Smo$ens< +ro3ince:)
Oamyatin6 5o$: ;: M: (and others)6 .itva pod Kurs*om5 Mosco#6 194-: (Mi$:6 ana$ysis of
4urs< 0att$e:)
Oamyatin6 5o$: ;: M: (and others)6 %talingrads*a!a 4itva5 Mosco#6 1943: (Mi$:6 ana$ysis
of Sta$in%rad 0att$e:)
487 P#/)$5
Anders6 1en: 9:6 Kat!n5 !aris6 1949:
B$iss ane6 A:6 I %a: Freedom .etra!ed5 ondon6 1949:
BTr,4omaro#s<i6 1en: T:6 The %ecret /rm!5 ondon6 19-1:
1omu$<a6 9:6 %tat!i i rechi5 (2ussian trans$ation:) Mosco#6 19-9:
Istori!a Pol0shi, 3o$: ???: Mosco#6 19-J:
Mi<o$aHc>y<6 S:6 The Bape o" Poland5 ondon6 194J:
%ude4n!i otchetpo dein o4 organizatora*h 555 pols*ogo podpo1!a v t!lu Krasnoi /rmii5 5 5
rassmotrennomu 1oennoi Kollegiei 1er*hovnogo %uda %o!uza %%B5
(2ecord of Mosco# tria$ of !o$ish *nder%roundD1enera$ @<u$ic<i and othersDBune 1J
to &16 194-:) Mosco#6 194-:
437 INLAND
4uusaari6 ;: and ;itemaa6 A:6 Finlands Krig <=J<-JK (in S#edish): .e$sin<i6 1949:
undin6 :6 Finland in the %econd $orld $ar5 ?ndiana *:!:6 19-7:
Mannerheim6 MarNcha$6 -Amoires5 !aris6 19-&:
!aasi<i3i6 B: 4:6 %tat!i i rechi, <=JJ-KR5 (2ussian trans$ation of artic$es and s+eeches:)
Mosco#6 19-J:
Tanner6 A:6 The $inter $ar5 ;e# (or<6 19--:
9uorinen6 B: (ed:)6 Finland and $orld $ar II5 ;e# (or<6 194J:
NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS
@n ideo$o%ica$6 economic and or%anisationa$ +ro0$ems durin% the 9ar much more
information is to 0e found in ne#s+a+ers and +eriodica$s than in 0oo<s:
PRINCIPAL NEWSPAPERS
Pravda, Izvesti!a, Komsomols*a!a Pravda, 1echern!a!a -os*va: the Army +a+er
Krasna!a Ovezda (2ed Star) and ;a3y +a+er Krasn!i Flot 2ed ;a3y)6 0esides
(eningrads*a!a Pravda, Bad!ans*a &*raina (4ie3) and others +u0$ished outside
Mosco#:
More s+ecia$i>ed +a+ers inc$ude Trud (trade unions)6 #udo* (rai$#aymen)6 &chitels*a!a
#azeta (teachers)6 (iteraturna!a #azeta (+art,$iterary6 +art,+o$itica$)6 %otsialistiches*o!e
Oemledeli!e (a%ricu$ture)6 Pioners*a!a Pravda (chi$dren)6 and the officia$ #ee<$y of the
Su+reme So3iet6 1edomosti 1er*hovnogo %oveta %%%B5 Some of these more s+ecia$ised
+a+ers a++eared once6 t#ice or three times a #ee<: Another 0i,#ee<$y #as -osco: 3e:s
(in Cn%$ish): Durin% the #ar the 2ussians +u0$ished a +a+er in ondon6 %oviet 3e:s, and
the British a +a+er in Mosco#6 .ritans*! %o!uzni* (The British A$$y): There #ere a$so
count$ess army +a+ers +rinted $oca$$y:
PRINCIPAL PERIODICALS
.olshevi* (renamed Kommunist after the #ar) the +rinci+a$ ideo$o%ica$ Hourna$ of the
!artyL Propagandist (ceased +u0$ication in 194))L .lo*not /gitatora+ .ez4ozhni* (the
anti,1od +a+er6 ceased +u0$ication in Bu$y 1941)L Kommunistiches*ii Internatsional
(5omintern Hourna$6 ceased +u0$ication in 1943)L 1o!enna!a -!sl+ Partiino!e
%troite1stvo+ -irovo!e Khoziaistvo i -irova!a Politi*a+ 1opros! Filoso"ii+ 1opros!
Istorii+ Planovo!e Khoziaistvo+ Partiina!a Ohizn+ 1oina i Ba4ochii Klass, since 19436
renamed after the #ar 3o!o!e 1rem!a ;$ar and the $or*ing )lass and 3e: Times
res+ecti3e$y)6 a$so +u0$ished in Cn%$ish and other $an%ua%esL (iteratura i Is*usstvo, etc:
Hgon!o* #as the +rinci+a$ i$$ustrated Hourna$6 and Kro*odil the +rinci+a$ satirica$ Hourna$:
The +rinci+a$ $iterary month$ies (thou%h +u0$ished 3ery irre%u$ar$y durin% the #ar) #ere
3ov!i -ir, Onam!a, H*t!a4r, Ovezda (enin%rad)L on the theatre: Teatr+ on the cinema:
%ovets*o!e Kino+ on music: %ovets*a!a -uz!*a5
Besides a$$ these6 there #ere6 of course6 scores of s+ecia$i>ed scientific6 technica$6
medica$ and other Hourna$s:
SELECTION O !ERMAN BOOKS ON THE WAR IN RUSSIA
Assmann6 4:6 Deutsche %chic*sals8ahre5 9ies0aden6 19-1:
5onrad6 2:6 Kamp" um den Kau*asus5 Munich6 19--:
DTrr6 .:6 Po*hodna %talingrad (2ussian trans$ation): Mosco#6 19-7:
Cinsiede$6 .: 3:6 I Uoined the Bussians5 (a$e *:!:6 19-3:
Entscheidungsschlachten des z:eiten $elt*rieges (5o$$ected artic$es): Fran<furt a`M:6
19)":
Crfurth6 ;:6 Der Finnische Krieg5 <=J<-JJ5 9ies0aden6 19-":
Friessner6 1en: .:6 1erratene %chlachten: die TragIdie der Deutschen $ehrmacht in
BumQnien und &ngarn5 .am0ur%6 19-):
1oe00e$s6 The #oe44els Diaries5 ondon6 194J:
1oer$it>6 9:6 Der O:eite $elt*rieg5 & 3o$s: Stutt%art6 19-1:
1oer$it>6 9':6 Paulus and %talingrad5 ondon6 19)3:
1reiner6 .:6 Die H4erste $ehrmacht"Mhrung, <=>=-J>5 9ies0aden6 19-1:
1uderian6 il5, Panzer (eader5 ondon6 19-&:
.a$der6 F:6 Hitler als Feldherr5 Munich6 1949:
.a$der6 F:6 Kriegstage4uch5 3 3o$s: Stutt%art6 19)3:
.eid<am+er6 @:6 $ite4s*5 Kamp"und &ntergang der >5 Panzerarmee5 .eide$0er%6 19-4:
.i$$%ru0er6 A:6 Die BQumung der Krim5 Ber$in6 19-9:
Hitler0s %ecret )onversations <=J<-JJ5 ;e# (or<6 19-3:
.oth6 .6 Panzer Hperationen5 .eide$0er%6 19-):
4o$$er6 4:6 Der (etzte -onat (uft#affe): Mannheim6 1949:
Kriegstage4uch des HK$5 4 3o$s: Fran<furt a`M:6 19)1:
asch6 @:6 %o "iel KInigs4erg5 Munich6 19-9:
Rdde,;eurath6 9:6 Begierung DInitz55: 1Tttin%en6 19-3:
Manstein6 C: 3:6 1erlorene %iege5 Bonn6 19--: ;(ost 1ictories7 5hica%o6 19-J:
Me$$enthin6 F: 3:6 Tan*ov!ie srazheni!a <=>=-JK gg5 (2ussian trans$ation:) Mosco#6
19-7:
!hi$i++i6 A: und .eim6 F:6 Der Feldzug gegen %o:8etrussland5 Stutt%art6 19)&:
!ic<ert6 9:6 1om Ku4an .rMc*en*op" 4is %e:astopol5 .eide$0er%6 19--:
2ede$is6 A:6 Partisanen*rieg5 .eide$0er%6 19-J:
2ohden6 .: 3:6 Die (u"t:a""e ringt um %talingrad5 9ies0aden6 19-":
SchrTter6 .:6 %talingrad "4is zur letzten Patrone"5 en%erich6 19--:
Schu$t>6 B:6 Die letzten >D Tage5 Stutt%art6 19-1:
Ti++eis<irch6 4: 3:6 #eschichte des z:eiten $elt*rieges5 Bonn6 19-1:
Aormann6 ;: 3:6 Tscher*ass!5 .eide$0er%6 19-4:
9aasen6 .: M:6 $as geschah in %talingrad $o sind die %chuldigen Sa$>0ur%6 19-":
9einert6 C:6 Das 3ational*omitee "Freies Deutschland", <=J>-JK5 Cast Ber$in6 19-7:
SOME IMPORTANT RUSSIAN LITERARY WORKS WRITTEN DURIN! OR
SOON ATER THE WAR
PROSE
Be<6 A:6 1olo*olams*o!e shosse5 Mosco#6 1944:
Fadeye36 A:6 -oloda!a #vardi!a5 Mosco#6 194):
1or0ato36 B:6 3epo*or!onn!ie5 Mosco#6 1943:
1rossman6 A:6 3arod 4essmerten5 Mosco#6 194&:
4a>e<e3ich6 C:6 Ovezda5 Mosco#6 194-:
4a>e<e3ich6 C:6 1esna na Hdere5 Mosco#6 194J:
4orneichu<6 A:6 Front (+$ay): Mosco#6 194&:
eono36 :6 1nashi god!5 Pu4litz!sti*a <=J<-J?5 Mosco#6 1949:
eono36 :6 P!es!5 Mosco#6 194-: (!$ays6 inc$udin% 3ashestvi!e (The ?n3asion):)
;e<raso36 A:6 1 H*opa*h %talingrada5 Mosco#6 194):
!o$e3oi6 B:6 Povest o nasto!ashchem chelove*e5 Mosco#6 1947:
Simono36 4:6 Buss*ie l!udi (+$ay): Mosco#6 194&:
Simono36 4:6 Dniinochi5 Mosco#6 1944:
Sho$oh<o36 M6 3au*a nenavisti5 Mosco#6 194&:
Sho$o<ho36 M:6 Hni srazhalis0 za rodinu5 19-9 (re+rint):
To$stoi6 A: ;:6 Polno!e so4rani!e sochinenii, 3o$: 14: Mosco#6 19-":
To$stoi6 A: ;:6 Ivan #rozn!], Dramatiches*a!a povest05 Mosco#6 194-:
Aasi$e3a<aya6 A:6 Baduga5 Mosco#6 194&:
More recent no3e$s on the #ar years are too numerous to $ist6 0ut the most im+ortant
from a documentary stand+oint are 4: Simono3's Ohiv!ie i mertv!ie (Mosco#6 19-J) and
%oldatami ne rozhda!uts!a (+u0$ished in Onamya6 19)3,4)6 no3e$s and stories 0y (u:
Bondare36 (u: ;a%i0in6 : Ao$yns<y6 A: 1rossman6 A: ;e<raso36 (u: 1erman6 @:
Ber%ho$> 6Dnevn!ie zvezd!7, B: !o$e3oi6 etc:
WARTIME POETRY
A<hmato3a6 A:6 Iz4ranno!e5 Tash<ent6 1943:
A$i%er6 M:6 Oo!a5 Mosco#6 194&: (A$so in form of a +$ay6 Mosco#6 1943:)
Ber%ho$>6 @:6 %ti*hi5 Mosco#6 19)&: (?nc$udes most of her #ar +oems:)
Chren0ur%6 ?:6 %vo4oda5 Mosco#6 1943:
?n0er6 A:6 H (eningrade, poem! i sti*hi5 enin%rad6 1943:
!asterna<6 B:6 Oemnoi prostor5 Mosco#6 194-:
Se$3ins<y6 ?:6 Kr!m, Kav*az, Ku4an5 Mosco#6 1947:
Simono36 4:6 %ti*hi5 Mosco#6 194&:
Sur<o36 A:6 %ti*hi5 Mosco#6 1943:
Ti<hono36 ;:6 Kirov s nami5 Mosco#6 194&:
T3ardo3s<y6 A:6 1asili Ter*in5 Mosco#6 194&:
Most of the $ess con3entiona$ +oetry on the #ar #as not +u0$ished unti$ after Sta$in's
deathL see6 in +articu$ar6 (iteraturna!a -os*va annua$6 19-- and 19-)6 and the Den0
Poezii annua$ since 19--6 +articu$ar$y that of 19)&: These contain much +oetry 0y
Fso$dier +oetsF $i<e S: 1ud>en<o and a$so many +oems6 Fun+u0$isha0$eF under Sta$in6 0y
o$der #riters $i<e S: 4irsano36 ;: Ti<hono36 A: T3ardo3s<y6 etc:6 some of them #ritten
durin% the #ar:
MUSIC
Music ho$ds an im+ortant +$ace in #artime art and +ro+a%anda: @f the innumera0$e
sym+honies6 oratorios6 cantatas6 etc:6 direct$y ins+ired 0y the #ar the most stri<in% are D:
Shosta<o3ich's ce$e0rated \th %!mphon! and the e3en more +oi%nant (thou%h %ross$y
underrated) ?th %!mphon!, 0esides his cham0er music6 es+ecia$$y his Piano Trio of 1944:
?m+ortant are a$so a num0er of #ar,time com+ositions 0y ;: Myas<o3s<y6 e:%: his
cantata6 Kirov s nami5 @f S: !ro<ofie3's +rinci+a$ #or<s #ritten durin% the #ar6 on$y his
o+era $ar and Peace has an o03ious and direct connection #ith the 9ar:
There #as an enormous out+ut of #artime son%s6 many inc$uded in se$ections $i<e
Krasnoarmeis*! pesenni* (Mosco#6 194&)6 Pesni 0y M: B$anter (Mosco#6 194&)6 Pesni
0y D: and D: !o<rass (Mosco#6 194&) and many other $ater co$$ections:
CINEMA
More im+ortant than the feature fi$ms +roduced durin% the #ar (most$y historica$6
inc$udin% Cisenstein's Ivan the Terri4le7 are the outstandin% documentaries on The
#erman Bout outside -osco:, on enin%rad6 Se0asto+o$ and Sta$in%rad and Hne Da! o"
$ar, a$$ +roduced in 194&: These are not to 0e confused #ith the a0surd F#ar fi$msF
+roduced to#ards the end of the #ar or soon after (such as The Third .lo:Drecon=uest
of the 5rimeaDor The Fall o" .erlin7 the main +ur+ose of #hich is to demonstrate the
mi$itary %enius of Sta$in a$#ays comin% to the rescue of the f$ummo8ed %enera$s:
CHRONOLO!ICAL TABLE
19@9
March 1" Sta$in's sur3ey of internationa$ situation since Munich:
March 1- 1ermans in3ade F+ost,MunichF 5>echos$o3a<ia:
March 31 British %uarantee to !o$and:
A+ri$ 17 Fit3ino3 !$anF6 soon reHected 0y 5ham0er$ain:
A+ri$ &7 .it$er denounces An%$o,1erman na3a$ a%reement and non,a%%ression +act #ith
!o$and: ;o attac<s on 2ussia in his s+eech:
May 4 Mo$oto3 re+$aces it3ino3 as Forei%n 5ommissar:
Bune 1& Stran% %oes to Mosco#:
Bu$y 9 5hurchi$$ a%ain ur%es immediate mi$itary a$$iance #ith 2ussia:
Au%ust 1& An%$o,French Mi$itary Mission arri3es in Mosco#:
Au%ust &" .it$er's te$e%ram to Sta$in:
Au%ust &3 So3iet,1erman non,a%%ression +act si%ned:
Au%ust &- An%$o,!o$ish mutua$ assistance +act si%ned:
Se+tem0er 1 1ermany in3ades !o$and:
Se+tem0er 3 Britain and France dec$are #ar on 1ermany: 1ermans sin< SS /thenia off
?re$and:
Se+tem0er 1 to 9 1ermans o3errun #estern !o$and:
Se+tem0er 17 1ermans reach Brest,ito3s<: 2ussians in3ade Castern !o$and:
Se+tem0er &J 9arsa# surrenders:
@cto0er 14 .MS Bo!al Ha* sun< at Sca+a F$o#:
;o3em0er 3" 2ussians in3ade Fin$and:
Decem0er 13 Batt$e of 2i3er !$ateL scutt$in% of #ra" %pee (17th) 194":
194L
Fe0ruary 11 2ussians $aunch decisi3e attac< on Mannerheim ine:
March 1& So3iet,Finnish +eace treaty si%ned:
A+ri$ 9 1ermans in3ade Denmar< and ;or#ay: British troo+s $and in ;or#ay:
May & A$$ies e3acuate ;amsos:
May 1" 1ermans in3ade .o$$and6 Be$%ium and u8em0ur%: 5ham0er$ain resi%ns:
5hurchi$$ 0ecomes !rime Minister:
May 14 Dutch army surrenders:
May 14 1erman s#ee+ into France 0e%ins:
May &1 1ermans ca+ture Amiens6 Arras and Bou$o%ne:
May &9 to Bune 3rd Dun<ir< e3acuation:
Bune 1" ?ta$y dec$ares #ar on Britain and France:
Bune 14 1ermans enter !aris:
Bune 17 !etain see<s Franco,1erman armistice6 si%ned &&nd:
Bune 17,&3 2ussians occu+y Ba$tic States:
Bune &7,3" 2ussians occu+y Bessara0ia and ;orthern Bu<o3ina:
Bu$ 1-,&1 ;inety 1erman 0om0ers shot do#n o3er Britain:
Au%ust 11,1J !ea< of Batt$e of Britain:
Se+tem0er 7 First %reat 0$it> o3er ondon:
Se+tem0er 13,1) ?ta$ians cross C%y+tian frontier and ta<e Sidi Barrani:
@cto0er 7 1ermans sei>e 2umanian oi$fie$ds:
;o3em0er 11 Attac< on Taranto cri++$es ?ta$ian na3y:
;o3em0er 1&,14 Mo$oto3's 3isit to Ber$in:
Decem0er 9 Ci%hth Army o+ens offensi3e in ;orth Africa:
Decem0er 1J .it$er fina$$y decides on in3asion of So3iet *nion (!$an Bar0arossa):
1941
Banuary 3 ?ta$ians surrender Bardia:
Banuary 3" Ci%hth Army ta<es Derna and ad3ances to#ards Ben%ha>i: To0ru< ca+tured:
Fe0ruary ) Ben%ha>i ca+tured:
March 11 end,ease Bi$$ si%ned:
March &J Batt$e of 5a+e Mata+an:
March 31 1erman counter,offensi3e in ;orth Africa 0e%ins:
A+ri$ - So3iet,(u%os$a3 non,a%%ression +act si%ned:
A+ri$ ) 1ermans in3ade 1reece and (u%os$a3iaL Britain sends )"6""" men to 1reece:
A+ri$ 7 British e3acuate Ben%ha>i:
A+ri$ 13 1ermans surround To0ru< and reca+ture Bardia: So3iet,Ba+anese non,
a%%ression +act si%ned:
A+ri$ && British e3acuation of 1reece 0e%ins:
May ) Sta$in 0ecomes head of So3iet 1o3ernment: Mo$oto3 remains Forei%n 5ommissar:
May 1" 2udo$f .ess $ands in Scot$and:
May &" 1erman in3asion of 5rete:
May &J to Bune &: British e3acuate 5rete:
Bune 14 Tass communi=ue am0i%uous$y denies dan%er of 1erman in3asion:
Bune && 1ermany in3ades So3iet *nion:
Bune &J 1ermans ca+ture Mins<6 ca+ita$ of Be$orussia and $ar%e +arts of ithuania6
at3ia and 9estern *<raine:
Bu$y 3 Sta$in's 0roadcast to the 2ussian +eo+$e:
Bu$y 1& An%$o,So3iet mutua$ assistance a%reement si%ned:
Bu$y 14 1ermans reach u%a ri3er on #ay to enin%rad:
Bu$y 1) 1ermans reach Smo$ens< on #ay to Mosco#:
Bu$y &- 1ermans ca+ture Ta$$inn:
Bu$y 3" .arry .o+<ins in Mosco#:
Au%ust D 1ermans o3errun $ar%e +arts of *<raine6 ca+turin% Dnie+ro+etro3s< on 17th:
Au%ust 3" 1ermans ca+ture M%a6 enin%rad's $ast rai$#ay $in<:
Se+tem0er J 1ermans ca+ture Schii$sse$0ur%6 thus com+$etin% enin%rad's $and 0$oc<ade:
Se+tem0er 17 Cnd of FBatt$e of 4ie3F resu$tin% in encirc$ement of $ar%e 2ussian forces:
Se+tem0er &9 1erman +enetration of Don0as 0e%ins: Bea3er0roo< and .arriman arri3e
in Mosco#:
Se+tem0er 3" 1erman offensi3e a%ainst Mosco# 0e%ins:
@cto0er & 1ermans ca+ture @re$:
@cto0er ) to 1& Batt$e of Aia>ma6 endin% in encir$ement of $ar%e 2ussian forces #est of
Mosco#:
@cto0er 1& 1ermans ca+ture 4a$u%a:
@cto0er 13 1ermans ca+ture 4a$inin:
@cto0er 14,1) Further 1erman ad3ances to#ards Mosco#:
@cto0er 1) .ei%ht of FMosco# +anicF: 1ermans and 2umanians ca+ture @dessa:
@cto0er &" State of sie%e dec$ared in Mosco#:
@cto0er &4 1ermans ca+ture 4har<o3:
@cto0er &- Fai$ure of first 1erman offensi3e a%ainst Mosco#:
@cto0er 3" ;ine,month sie%e of Se0asto+o$ 0e%ins:
;o3em0er 3 1ermans ca+ture 4urs<:
;o3em0er 9 1ermans ta<e Ti<h3in6 thus a$most com+$ete$y iso$atin% enin%rad:
;o3em0er 1& .MS /r* Bo!al sun<:
;o3em0er ) and 7 Sta$ins t#o F.o$y 2ussiaF s+eeches:
;o3em0er 1) Second 1erman offensi3e a%ainst Mosco# 0e%ins:
;o3em0er 1J British offensi3e in 9estern Desert 0e%ins:
;o3em0er 19 1ermans ta<e 2osto3:
;o3em0er &" to Dec &- A$$,time $o# in enin%rad rationin%:
;o3em0er && 1ermans 0rea< into 4$in and ?stra:
;o3em0er &9 2ussians reca+ture 2osto3:
Decem0er - Cden arri3es in Mosco#:
Decem0er ) 2ussian Mosco# counter,offensi3e 0e%ins:
Decem0er 7 Ba+anese 0om0 !ear$ .ar0our6 and raid British Ma$aya:
Decem0er J Britain and *SA dec$are #ar on Ba+an: Ba+anese air,raids on 1uam6
Mid#ay6 !hi$i++ines and .on% 4on%:
Decem0er 9 Ba+anese $and on u>on: 2ussians reca+ture Ti<h3in6 thus sa3in%
enin%rad:
Decem0er 11 .it$er dec$ares #ar on *SA:
Decem0er 1" .MS Prince o" $ales and .MS Bepulse sun< 0y Ba+anese:
Decem0er 1- 2ussians reca+ture 4$in6 ?stra and re$ie3e Tu$a:
Decem0er 19 !enan% e3acuated:
Decem0er &4 British reca+ture Ben%ha>i:
Decem0er &- .on% 4on% surrenders:
Decem0er &-,3" 2ussians esta0$ish 0rid%ehead in Cast 5rimea:
Decem0er 3" 2ussians reca+ture 4a$u%a:
Banuary,March 2ussian offensi3e #est of Mosco# continues:
Banuary 1" Ba+anese in3ade Dutch Cast ?ndies:
Banuary 11 Ba+anese ta<e 4ua$a um+ur:
Banuary &1 1erman counter,offensi3e in 9estern Desert 0e%ins:
Banuary &J 1ermans reta<e Ben%ha>i:
194M
Fe0ruary 1 British forces in Ma$aya #ithdra# to Sin%a+ore:
Fe0ruary 1- Sin%a+ore surrenders:
Fe0ruary &4 *S tas< force raids 9a<e ?s$and:
Fe0ruary &J Ba+anese $and in Ba3a:
March 1" 2an%oon fa$$s to Ba+anese:
March &J 5ommando raid on St: ;a>aire
A+ri$ 9 Surrender of Bataan:
May 1 Ba+anese ta<e Manda$ay:
May ) 5orre%idor surrenders:
May J 1ermans attac< in Castern 5rimea:
May 1& 2ussian offensi3e o+ens in 4har<o3 area:
May 17 1erman counter,offensi3e 0e%insL 2ussian defeat in 4har<o3 area:
May &" 1ermans ta<e 4erch +eninsu$a:
May &) Mo$oto3 si%ns An%$o,So3iet t#enty,year A$$iance in ondon6 then 3isits
9ashin%ton: 2omme$ resumes offensi3e in 9estern Desert:
May 3" Thousand,0om0er raid on 5o$o%ne:
Bune 3 Batt$e of Mid#ay ?s$and 0e%ins:
Bune 7 1ermans and 2umanians $aunch fina$ attac< on Se0asto+o$:
Bune 11 !u0$ication of the FSecond,FrontF communi=ue:
Bune 19 British #ithdra# to C%y+tian frontier:
Bune &1 2omme$ ta<es To0ru<:
Bune &J Ci%hth Army retreats to C$ A$amein: Be%innin% of %reat 1erman offensi3e in the
South:
Bu$y 3 Fa$$ of Se0asto+o$:
Bu$y 19 1ermans ta<e Aoroshi$o3%rad:
Bu$y &J 1ermans reta<e 2osto3:
Bu$y 3" Sta$in's F;ot another ste+ 0ac<F order to the Army:
Au%ust 3 1ermans reach 4ote$ni<o3o:
Au%ust 7 Americans $and in 1uada$cana$:
Au%ust 11 Fa$$ of Mai<o+ and 4rasnodar:
Au%ust 1&,1- 5hurchi$$6 .arriman and Sta$in confer in Mosco#:
Au%ust 19 Die++e raid:
Au%ust &3 1ermans 0rea< throu%h to Ao$%a6 north of Sta$in%rad: 4"6""" <i$$ed in air,raid
on Sta$in%rad:
Au%ust &- 1ermans he$d at Mo>do< on #ay to 1ro>ny and Ba<u:
Au%ust 31 Batt$e of A$am .aifa 0e%ins:
Se+tem0er 3 1erman 0rea<throu%h to Ao$%a south of Sta$in%rad:
Se+tem0er 13 1erman a$$,out attac< on Sta$in%rad 0e%ins:
Se+tem0er &4 Most of centra$ Sta$in%rad in 1erman hands:
@cto0er 14,1- Fai$ure of most concentrated 1erman attac< on northern Sta$in%rad
@cto0er &3 Batt$e of C$ A$amein 0e%ins:
;o3em0er 4 2omme$ in fu$$ retreat:
;o3em0er J A$$ied $andin%s in French ;orth Africa:
;o3em0er 13 Sea 0att$e of 1uada$cana$:
;o3em0er 19 2ussian counter,offensi3e at Sta$in%rad 0e%ins:
;o3em0er && @3er 3""6""" 1ermans surrounded at Sta$in%rad:
Decem0er 1&,&3 Manstein's a0orti3e attem+t to re$ie3e Sta$in%rad:
Decem0er 1),&" 2out of ?ta$ians on Don:
Decem0er &1 Ci%hth Army reaches Ben%ha>i:
194@
Banuary & 1erman #ithdra#a$ from 5aucasus 0e%ins:
Banuary &3 Ci%hth Army reaches Tri+o$i:
Banuary &) 2ussians $i0erate Aorone>h:
Banuary 31 !au$us surrenders at Sta$in%rad:
Fe0ruary & Fina$ 1erman surrender at Sta$in%rad:
Fe0ruary J 2ussians ta<e 4urs<:
Fe0ruary 14 2ussians ta<e 2osto3:
Fe0ruary 1) 2ussians ta<e 4har<o3:
March 3,1& 2ussians $i0erate 1>hats<,Aia>ma,2>he3 trian%$e:
March 1- 1ermans reca+ture 4har<o3:
March &9 Ci%hth Army ta<es Mareth ine:
A+ri$ 14 Ci%hth Army reaches Cnfida3i$$e:
A+ri$ &" Massacre in 9arsa# 1hetto:
A+ri$ &) *SS2 0rea<s off re$ations #ith ondon !o$ish 1o3ernment fo$$o#in% 4atyn
F0om0she$$F:
May 7 A$$ies ta<e Tunis and Bi>erta:
May 11 *S troo+s $and on Attu6 A$eutian ?s$ands:
May 1& 1erman Army in Tunisia surrenders:
May && 5omintern disso$3ed:
Bune &9 *S forces $and in ;e# 1uinea:
Bu$y - Batt$e of 4urs< 0e%ins:
Bu$y 1" A$$ies $and in Sici$y:
Bu$y 1&,1- 2ussian counter,offensi3e a%ainst @re$ sa$ient 0e%ins:
Bu$y &) Musso$ini fa$$s from +o#er:
Au%ust - 2ussians ta<e @re$ and Be$%orod:
Au%ust 1) Americans enter Messina:
Au%ust &3 2ussians reta<e 4har<o3:
Au%ust &7 Ba+anese e3acuate ;e# 1eor%ia ?s$and:
Au%ust 3" Ta%anro% reca+tured:
Au%ust 31 1$u<ho3 reca+tured:
Se+tem0er 3 A$$ies in3ade ?ta$y:
Se+tem0er J 2ussians $i0erate Don0as:
Se+tem0er 1" Mariu+o$ ta<en:
Se+tem0er 1) ;o3orossis< ta<en:
Se+tem0er &- Smo$ens< ta<en:
Se+tem0er 3" Fifth Army ta<es ;a+$es:
@cto0er 7 2ussians c$ear the Taman !eninsu$aL Dnie+er forced:
@cto0er 13 ?ta$y dec$ares #ar on 1ermany:
@cto0er 14 Oa+oro>hie reca+tured:
@cto0er 1J Forei%n Ministers' conference o+ens in Mosco#:
@cto0er 19 1ermans in ?ta$y retire from Ao$turno ri3er:
@cto0er &- Dne+ro+etro3s< reca+tured:
;o3em0er 1 Americans $and on Bou%an3i$$e in So$omons:
;o3em0er 4 Ci%hth Army ta<es ?sernia:
;o3em0er ) 2ussians reca+ture 4ie3:
;o3em0er 1& Brid%ehead esta0$ished across the San%ro: 2ussians ta<e Ohitomir:
;o3em0er 19 1erman counter,offensi3e reta<es Ohitomir:
;o3em0er &" Americans $and on Tara#a and Ma<in ?s$ands:
;o3em0er &J Teheran conference 0e%ins:
Decem0er 7 Fifth Army ta<e Monte 5amino:
Decem0er &) %charnhorst sun<:
1944
Banuary 4 Fifth Army $aunches attac< east of 5assino:
Banuary &7 enin%rad com+$ete$y re$ie3ed:
Banuary 1- Americans com+$ete recon=uest of So$omon ?s$ands:
Fe0ruary 17 1erman rout in 4orsun sa$ient in centra$ *<raine:
Fe0ruary && 4ri3oi 2o% ta<en:
March 4 2ussian s+rin% offensi3e o+ens in *<raine:
March 1& *man reca+tured:
March 19 2ussians force the Dniester:
A+ri$ & 2ussians enter 2umania:
A+ri$ 11 i0eration of 5rimea 0e%ins:
A+ri$ 1- Tarno+o$ $i0erated:
A+ri$ && A$$ies $and at .o$$andia6 ;e# 1uinea:
May 9 Se0asto+o$ ta<en:
May 1& A$$ies in ?ta$y assau$t the 1usta3 ine:
May 13 5rimea c$eared of 1ermans:
May 1J 5assino ta<en:
May &3 An>io 0rea<,out:
Bune 4 Fifth Army enters 2ome:
Bune ) A$$ies in3ade ;ormandy:
Bune 1" 2ussians 0e%in offensi3e a%ainst Fin$and:
Bune 13 First A1 0om0 on ondon:
Bune 1- First Su+er,Fortress raid on Ba+an:
Bune 19 Americans ta<e Sai+an:
Bune &" Ai0or% ta<en 0y 2ussians:
Bune &3 2ussians 0e%in offensi3e in Be$orussia:
Bune &3,&J 1ermans encirc$ed at Aite0s< and Bo0ruis<:
Bune &7 5her0our% ca+tured:
Bu$y 3 2ussians ta<e Mins<: A0out 1""6""" 1ermans ca+tured:
Bu$y ) 2ussians ta<e 4o3e$:
Bu$y 9 5aen ca+tured:
Bu$y 13 Ai$no ca+tured:
Bu$y 1J 2o<osso3s<y's troo+s enter !o$and: !s<o3 $i0erated:
Bu$y &" Attem+t to assasinate .it$er:
Bu$y &3 u0$in ta<en:
Bu$y &- Americans 0rea< throu%h at St: o:
Bu$y &J Brest ito3s< ta<en:
Bu$y 31 2ussians reach outs<irts of !ra%a6 o++osite 9arsa#: A3ranches entered:
Au%ust 1 Be%innin% of 9arsa# 2isin%:
Au%ust 11 Ci%hth Army reaches F$orence:
Au%ust 1- A$$ies $and in south of France:
Au%ust 1) Americans near 5hartres and Dreu8:
Au%ust &" 2ussians 0e%in offensi3e in Bessara0ia and 2umania:
Au%ust &3 4in% Michae$ of 2umania interns Antonescu and forms ne# F+eace
1o3ernment:
Au%ust &- !aris $i0erated:
Au%ust &) Ci%hth Army o+ens attac< in Adriatic sector:
Au%ust 3" 2ussians enter Bucharest and !$oesti:
Se+tem0er 3 British reach Brusse$s: Americans reach Mons:
Se+tem0er 4 Ant#er+ $i0erated: 5ease,fire on Finnish Front:
Se+tem0er - 2ussians dec$are #ar on Bu$%aria:
Se+tem0er J First A& $ands in Britain:
Se+tem0er 9 2ussians in3ade Bu$%aria:
Se+tem0er 1" 2ussians ca+ture !ra%a:
Se+tem0er 11 Americans cross 1erman frontier near Trier:
Se+tem0er 1& 2umanian armistice si%ned:
Se+tem0er 17 Arnhem 0att$e 0e%ins:
Se+tem0er 19 Finnish armistice si%ned:
Se+tem0er &J 5a$ais $i0erated:
Se+tem0er &9 2ussians enter (u%os$a3ia:
@cto0er & Surrender of under%round forces in 9arsa#:
@cto0er 9 5hurchi$$ arri3es in Mosco#:
@cto0er 19 Americans $and in !hi$i++ines:
@cto0er &" 2ussians and (u%os$a3s enter Be$%rade:
;o3em0er 1 British $and on 9a$cheren ?s$and:
;o3em0er 1& Tirpitz sun<:
;o3em0er &4 Stras0our% ca+tured:
Decem0er & De 1au$$e arri3es in Mosco#:
Decem0er - A$$ies ta<e 2a3enna
Decem0er 1) 1erman offensi3e in the Ardennes 0e%ins:
Decem0er 1J ;orth Burma c$eared of Ba+anese:
Decem0er &7 2ussians surround Buda+est:
1945
Banuary 3 Americans counter,attac< Ardennes sa$ient:
Banuary 1& 1reat 2ussian offensi3e 0e%ins in !o$and:
Banuary 17 2ussians ta<e 9arsa#:
Banuary 19 5raco# ca+tured:
Banuary &" Ti$sit ca+tured: .un%arian FDe0recenF 1o3ernment si%ns armistice6
Banuary &3 2ussians reach the @der:
Banuary &9 2ussians encirc$e !o>nan:
Fe0ruary 3 A$$ies ca+ture 5o$mar:
Fe0ruary 4 (a$ta conference o+ens:
Fe0ruary - Americans enter Mani$a: British and 5anadians o+en offensi3e to reach the
2hine:
Fe0ruary 9 4Tni%s0er% a$most surrounded:
Fe0ruary 1" C$0in% ca+tured:
Fe0ruary 13 Buda+est fa$$s:
Fe0ruary 19 Americans $and on ?#oHima:
Fe0ruary &3 !o>nan ta<en:
March 7 5o$o%ne ca+tured:
March 13 A$$ies command #est 0an< of 2hine:
March &3 2hine crossed:
March &9 2ussians cross Austrian frontier:
March 3" Dan>i% ca+tured:
A+ri$ 1 Americans in3ade @<ina#a:
A+ri$ - @sna0rRc< ca+tured:
A+ri$ 9 4Tni%s0er% surrenders:
A+ri$ 9 A$$ies 0e%in fina$ offensi3e in ?ta$y:
A+ri$ 1" .ano3er ca+tured:
A+ri$ 1& Death of !resident 2oose3e$t: Ci%hth Army cross the Santorno:
A+ri$ 13 2ussians ta<e Aienna:
A+ri$ 1) Fina$ 2ussian Ber$in offensi3e starts:
A+ri$ 19 Americans ta<e ei+>i%:
A+ri$ &1 A$$ies ta<e Bo$o%na:
A+ri$ &3 2ussians reach Ber$in: A$$ies reach the !o:
A+ri$ &7 1enoa and Aerona ta<en: American and 2ussian forces meet at Tor%au:
A+ri$ 3" .it$er's suicide:
May 1 Surrender of 1erman Army on ?ta$ian front:
May & Ber$in surrenders to 2ussians:
May 4 A$$ies reach Trieste: 2an%oon ta<en:
May 7 Bod$ si%ns unconditiona$ surrender at Cisenho#er's .:Q: at 2eims:
May J FA:C:F Day: 4eite$ si%ns surrender at Oha<o3's .:Q: near Ber$in:
May 9 2ussians ta<e !ra%ue: Aictory Day in So3iet *nion:
May &1 @r%anised resistance ends in @<ina#a:
Bu$y 17 !otsdam conference 0e%ins:
Au%ust ) Atom 0om0 dro++ed on .iroshima:
Au%ust J So3iet *nion dec$ares #ar on Ba+an:
Au%ust 9 Atom 0om0 dro++ed on ;a%asa<i: 2ussian in3asion of Manchuria 0e%ins:
Au%ust 14 Ba+anese a%ree to surrender:
Se+tem0er & Ba+an si%ns ca+itu$ation on 0oard *SS -issouri5
ACKNOWLED!EMENTS
Than<s are due to the fo$$o#in% +u0$ishers for +ermission to =uote from co+yri%ht
#or<s :
Bonathan 5a+e td:6 and Dou0$eday b 5o: ?nc:6 for Boosevelt and the Bussians 0y C: 2:
Stettinius6 co+yri%ht 1949 0y the Stettinius Fund ?nc:
5asse$$ b 5o: td:6 and .ou%hton Miff$in 5o: ?nc:6 for The %econd $orld $ar 0y Sir
9inston 5hurchi$$6
Cyre b S+ottis#oode td:6 and .ar+er b 2o#6 for The $hite House Papers o" Harr! (5
Hop*ins, edited 0y 2: C: Sher#ood:
Michae$ Bose+h td:6 and C: !: Dutton b 5o: ?nc:6 for Panzer (eader 0y 1enera$ .:
1uderian:
Macmi$$an b 5o: td:6 and The St: Martin's !ress ?nc:6 for #erman Bule in Bussia 0y
A$e8ander Da$$in: