Ad Hominem Argument: Also, "personal attack," "poisoning the well.

" The fallacy of

attempting to refute an argument by attacking the oppositions personal character
or reputation, using a corrupted negative argument from ethos. .g., "He!s so evil
that you can!t believe anything he says." "ee also #uilt by Association. Also applies
to cases where potential opposing arguments are brushed aside without comment
or consideration, as simply not worth arguing about.
Appeal to $losure. The contemporary fallacy that an argument, standpoint, action or
conclusion must be accepted, no matter how %uestionable, or else the point will
remain unsettled and those a&ected will be denied "closure." This refuses to
recogni'e the truth that some points will indeed remain unsettled, perhaps forever.
(.g., ""ociety would be protected, crime would be deterred and )ustice served if we
sentence you to life without parole, but we need to e*ecute you in order to provide
some sense of closure."+ ("ee also "Argument from ,gnorance," "Argument from
$onse%uences."+
Appeal to Heaven: (also -eus .ult, #ott mit /ns, 0anifest -estiny, the "pecial
$ovenant+. An e*tremely dangerous fallacy (a deluded argument from ethos+ of
asserting that #od (or a higher power+ has ordered, supports or approves one!s own
standpoint or actions, so no further )usti1cation is re%uired and no serious challenge
is possible. (.g., "#od ordered me to kill my children," or "2e need to take away
your land, since #od 3or -estiny, or 4ate, or Heaven5 has given it to us."+ A private
individual who seriously asserts this fallacy risks ending up in a psychiatric ward,
but groups or nations who do it are far too often taken seriously. This vicious fallacy
has been the cause of endless bloodshed over history.
Appeal to 6ity: (also "Argumentum ad 0iserecordiam"+. The fallacy of urging an
audience to 7root for the underdog8 regardless of the issues at hand (e.g., 7Those
poor, cute little s%ueaky mice are being gobbled up by mean, nasty cats that are
ten times their si'e98+ A corrupt argument from pathos. "ee also 6laying to
motions.
Appeal to Tradition: (also ",f it ain!t broke, don!t 1* it"+. The fallacy that a standpoint,
situation or action is right, proper and correct simply because it has "always" been
that way, because people have "always" thought that way, or because it continues
to serve one particular group very well.. A corrupted argument from ethos (that of
past generations+. (.g., ",n America, women have always been paid less, so let!s
not mess with long:standing tradition."+. The reverse of this is yet another fallacy,
the "Appeal to ,nnovation," e.g., ",t!s ;2, and 3therefore it must be5 improved9"
Argument from $onse%uences: The ma)or fallacy of arguing that something cannot
be true because if it were the conse%uences would be unacceptable. (.g., "#lobal
climate change cannot be caused by human burning of fossil fuels, because if it
were, switching to non:polluting energy sources would bankrupt American
industry."+
Argument from ,gnorance: The fallacy that since we dont know (or can never know,
or cannot prove+ whether a claim is true or false, it must be false (or that it must be
true+. .g., 7"cientists are never going to be able to positively prove their theory
that humans evolved from other creatures because we weren!t there to see it9 "o,
that proves the #enesis si*:day creation account is literally true98 "ometimes this
also includes 7ither:<r =easoning:8 .g., 7The vet can!t 1nd any reasonable
e*planation for why my dog died. "ee9 "ee9 That proves that my neighbour
poisoned him9 Theres no other logical e*planation98 A corrupted argument from
logos. A fallacy commonly found in American )udicial and forensic reasoning.
"ee also "Argumentum e* "ilentio."
Argument from ,nertia (also 7"tay the $ourse8+. The fallacy that it is necessary to
continue on a mistaken course of action even after discovering it is mistaken,
because changing course would mean admitting one!s decision (or one!s leader, or
one!s faith+ was wrong, and all one!s e&ort, e*pense and sacri1ce was for nothing,
and that is unthinkable. A variety of the Argument from $onse%uences.
Argument from 0otives (also >uestioning 0otives+. The fallacy of declaring a
standpoint or argument invalid solely because of the evil, corrupt or %uestionable
motives of the one making the claim. .g., "?in @aden wanted us out of Afghanistan,
so we have to keep up the 1ght9" ven evil people with corrupt motives sometimes
say the truth (and even those who have the highest motives are often wrong or
mistaken+. A variety of the Ad Hominem argument.
The counterpart of this is the fallacy of falsely )ustifying or e*cusing evil or vicious
actions because of the perpetrator!s purity of motives or lack of malice. (.g., ""he!s
a good $hristian womanA how could you accuse her of doing something like thatB"+
Argumentum ad ?aculam (also "Argument from the $lub"+. The fallacy of
"persuasion" by force, violence, or threats. .g., "#immee your money, or ,!ll knock
your head o&9" or "2e have the perfect right to take your land, since we have the
guns and you don!t." Also applies to indirect forms of threat. .g., "?elieve in our
religion if you don!t want to burn in hell forever and ever9"
Argumentum e* "ilentio (see also, Argument from ,gnorance+. The fallacy that if
sources remain silent or say nothing about a given sub)ect or %uestion this in itself
proves something about the truth of the matter. .g., ""cience can tell us nothing
about #od, which proves #od doesn!t e*ist." <r ""cience can tell us nothing about
#od, so you have no basis for denying that #od e*ists9" <ften misused in the
American )ustice system, where remaining silent or "taking the 4ifth" is often falsely
portrayed as proof of guilt. .g., "0r. Hi*el has no alibi for the evening of Canuary
DEth. This proves that he was in fact in room FFD at the "muggler!s 6ass ,nn,
murdering his e*:wife9"
?andwagon (also, Argument from $ommon "ense, Argumentum ad populum+: The
fallacy of arguing that because "everyone" supposedly thinks or does something, it
must be right. .g., "veryone thinks undocumented aliens ought to be kicked out9"
"ometimes also includes @ying with "tatistics, e.g. 7"urveys show that over GEH of
Americans believe "enator "nith is not telling the truth. 4or anyone with half a
brain, that conclusively proves hes a dirty liar98
?egging the >uestion (also $ircular =easoning+: 4alsely arguing that something is
true by repeating the same statement in di&erent words. .g., 7The witchcraft
problem is the most urgent challenge in the world today. 2hyB ?ecause witches
threaten our very souls.8 A corrupt argument from logos. "ee also "?ig @ie
techni%ue."
?ig @ie Techni%ue (also ""taying on 0essage"+: The contemporary fallacy of
repeating a lie, slogan or deceptive half:truth over and over (particularly in the
media+ until people believe it without further proof or evidence.. .g., "2hat about
the Cewish >uestionB" ;ote that when this particular phony debate was going on
there was no "Cewish >uestion," only a ";a'i >uestion," but hardly anybody in
power recogni'ed or wanted to talk about that.
?lind @oyalty (also ?lind <bedience, the "Team 6layer" appeal, or the ;uremberg
-efense+. The dangerous fallacy that an argument or action is right simply and
solely because a respected leader or source (an e*pert, parents, one!s own "side,"
team or country, ones boss or commanding oIcers+ say it is right. This is over:
reliance on authority, a corrupted argument from ethos that puts loyalty above truth
or above one!s own reason and conscience. ,n this case, a person attempts to )ustify
incorrect, stupid or criminal behavior by whining "That!s what , was told to do," or 7,
was )ust following orders."
?lood is Thicker than 2ater (also 4avoritism, $ompadrismo, "4or my friends,
anything."+. The reverse of the "Ad Hominem" fallacy, a corrupt argument from
ethos where a statement, argument or action is automatically regarded as true,
correct and above challenge because one is related to (or knows and likes, or is on
the same team as+ the individual involved. (.g., "0y brother:in:law says he saw
you goo1ng o& on the )ob. Jou!re a hard worker, but who am , going to believe, you
or himB Jou!re 1red9"+
?ribery (also 0aterial 6ersuasion, 0aterial ,ncentive, 4inancial ,ncentive+. The fallacy
of "persuasion" by bribery, gifts or favors, the reverse of the Argumentum ad
?aculam. As is well known, someone who is persuaded by bribery rarely "stays
persuaded" unless the bribes keep on coming in, and usually increasing with time.
The $omple* >uestion: The fallacy of demanding a direct answer to a %uestion that
cannot be answered without 1rst analy'ing or challenging the basis of the %uestion
itself. .g., "Answer me yes or no9 -id you think you could get away with plagiarism
and not su&er the conse%uencesB" <r, "2hy did you rob that bankB" Also applies to
situations where one is forced to either accept or re)ect comple* standpoints or
propositions containing both acceptable and unacceptable parts. A corruption of the
argument from logos.
-iminished =esponsibility: The common contemporary fallacy of falsely applying a
speciali'ed American )udicial concept (that criminal punishment should be less if
one!s )udgment was impaired+ to logic in general. .g., "Jou can!t count me absent
on 0onday::, was hung over and couldn!t come to class::it!s not my fault." <r,
"Jeah, , was speeding on the freeway and killed a guy, but , was high and didn!t
know what , was doing, so it didn!t matter that much." ,n reality the death does
matter very much to the victim, to her family and friends and to society in general.
2hether the perpetrator was high or not does not matter at all, since the material
results are the same.
ither:<r =easoning: (also 4alse -ilemma, ?lack K 2hite 4allacy+. A fallacy that
falsely o&ers only two possible alternatives even though a broad range of possible
alternatives are really available. .g., "ither you are DLLH straight or you are
%ueer::it!s as simple as that, and there!s no middle ground9" <r, 7ither youre with
me all the way, or youre my enemy and must be destroyed9
8" for &ort. (Also ;oble &ort+ The contemporary fallacy that something must be
right, true, valuable, or worthy of credit simply because someone has put so much
sincere good:faith e&ort or even sacri1ce and bloodshed into it. ("ee also Appeal to
6ity, Argument from ,nertia, or "ob "tory.+.
%uivocation: The fallacy of deliberately failing to de1ne one!s terms, or deliberately
using words in a di&erent sense than the one the audience will understand. (.g.,
?ill $linton stating that he did not have se* with "that woman," meaning no se*ual
penetration, knowing full well that the audience will understand his statement as ",
had no se*ual contact of any sort with that woman."+ This is a corruption of the
argument from logos, and a tactic often used in American )urisprudence.
ssentiali'ing: A fallacy that proposes a person or thing 7is what it is and thats all
that it is,8 and at its core will always be what it is right now (.g., "All e*:cons are
criminals, and will still be criminals even if they live to be DLL."+. Also refers to the
fallacy of arguing that something is a certain way "by nature," an empty claim that
no amount of proof can refute. (.g., "Americans are cold and greedy by nature," or
"2omen are better cooks than men."
4alse Analogy: The fallacy of incorrectly comparing one thing to another in order to
draw a false conclusion. .g., "Cust like an alley cat needs to prowl, a normal human
being cant be tied down to one single lover."
4inish the Cob: The dangerous contemporary fallacy that an action or standpoint (or
the continuation of the action or standpoint+ may not be %uestioned or discussed
because there is "a )ob to be done," falsely assuming all ")obs" are meaningless but
never to be %uestioned. "ometimes those involved internali'e ("buy into"+ the ")ob"
and make the task a part of their own ethos. (.g., "<urs is not to reason why K <urs
is but to do or die."+ =elated to this is the "Cust a Cob" fallacy. (.g., "How can
torturers stand to look at themselves in the mirrorB ?ut, , guess it!s <M because for
them it!s )ust a )ob like any other."+ ("ee also "?lind @oyalty," "Argument from
,nertia."+
#uilt by Association: The fallacy of trying to refute or condemn someone!s
standpoint, arguments or actions by evoking the negative ethos of those with whom
one associates or a collective to which he or she belongs. A form of Ad Hominem
Argument. (.g., "-on!t listen to her. "he!s a =epublican, so you can!t trust anything
she says."+
"ee also "They!re ;ot @ike /s."
The Half Truth (also $ard "tacking, ,ncomplete ,nformation+. A corrupt argument
from logos, the fallacy of telling the truth but deliberately omitting important key
details in order to falsify the larger picture and support a false conclusion (e.g. 7The
truth is that $iudad CuNre', 0e*ico is one of the world!s fastest growing cities and
can boast of a young, ambitious and hard:working population, mild winters, a dry
and sunny climate, low cost medical and dental care, a multitude of churches and
places of worship, delicious local cuisine and a swinging nightclub scene. Taken
together, all these facts clearly prove that Cuare' is one of the worlds most
desirable places for young families to live, work and raise a family.8+
, 2ish , Had a 0agic 2and: The fallacy of regretfully (and falsely+ proclaiming
oneself powerless to change a bad or ob)ectionable situation, because there is no
alternative. .g., "2hat can we do about high gas pricesB As "ecretary of nergy ,
wish , had a magic wand, but , don!t." 3shrug5
<r, ";o, you can!t %uit piano lessons. , wish , had a magic wand and could teach you
piano overnight, but , don!t, so like it or not, you have to keep on practicing." The
parent, of course, ignores the possibility that the child may not want or need to
learn piano. "ee also, T,;A.
Cust in $ase: A fallacy by which ones argument is based on a far:fetched or
imaginary worst:case scenario rather than on reality. 6lays on pathos (fear+ rather
than reason. .g., "2hat if armed terrorists were to attack your own neighborhood
day:care center tomorrow morningB Are you ready to 1ght backB ?etter stock up on
assault riOes9"
@ying with "tatistics: /sing true 1gures and numbers to 7prove8 unrelated claims.
(e.g. "#as prices have never been lower. 2hen taken as a percentage of the
national debt, 1lling up at your corner gas station is actually far cheaper today than
it was in DPQE9"+. A corrupted argument from logos. ("ee also Half:truth, ;on
"e%uitur, =ed Herring.+
0J<? (0ind Jour <wn ?usinessA Jou!re ;ot the ?oss of 0e+, The contemporary
fallacy of arbitrarily prohibiting any discussion of one!s own standpoints or behavior,
no matter how absurd, dangerous, evil or o&ensive, by drawing a phony curtain of
privacy around oneself and one!s actions. A corrupted argument from ethos (your
own+. (.g., ""o , was doing eighty and weaving between lanes on 0ain "treet::
what!s it to youB Jou!re not a cop, so mind your own business9"+ ("ee also, "Taboo."+
=ational discussion is cut o& because "it is none of your business9" ("ee also, the
"Appeal to 6rivacy."+
;ame:$alling: A variety of the "Ad Hominem" argument. The dangerous fallacy that,
simply because of who you are, any and all arguments, disagreements or ob)ections
against your standpoint or actions are automatically racist, se*ist, anti:"emitic,
bigoted, discriminatory or hateful. .g., "0y stand on abortion is the only correct
one. To disagree with me, argue with me or %uestion my )udgment in any way
would only show what a pig you really are." Also applies to refuting an argument by
simply calling it a fallacy or declaring it invalid, without proving why it is invalid.
"ee also, "=eductionism."
;on "e%uitur: The fallacy of o&ering reasons or conclusions that have no logical
connection to the argument at hand (e.g. 7The reason , Ounked your course is
because the government is now putting out purple 1ve:dollar bills98+. ("ee also =ed
Herring.+
<ccasionally involves the breathtaking arrogance of claiming to know why #od is
doing certain things. .g., "<bviously, #od sent the earth%uake to punish those
people for their great wickedness."
<vergenerali'ation (also Hasty #enerali'ation+. The stupid but common fallacy of
incorrectly applying one or two e*amples to all cases (e.g. 7"ome college student
was tailgating me all the way up ;orth 0ain "treet last night. This proves that all
college students are lousy drivers, and we should pull their drivers licenses until
they either grow up, learn to drive or graduate98+.
The 6aralysis of Analysis (also, 6rocrastination+: A postmodern fallacy that, since all
data is never in, no legitimate decision can ever be made and any action should
always be delayed until forced by circumstances. A corruption of the argument from
logos.
6laying on motions (also, the "ob "tory+: The classic fallacy of pure argument from
pathos, ignoring facts and calling on emotion alone. .g., 7,f you dont agree
witchcraft is a ma)or problem, )ust stop for a moment and think of all those poor
moms crying bitter tears for their innocent tiny little children whose little beds and
tricycles lie cold and abandoned, all because of those wicked old witches9 @ets
stringem all up98
6olitical $orrectness ("6$"+: A contemporary fallacy that the nature of a thing or
situation can be changed simply by changing its name. .g., "2e can strike a blow
against cruelty to animals by changing the name of Rpets to Ranimal companions."
or "2hat!s going on in CuNre' is not a !war,! it is a 1ght between drug cartels. That
means it!s not that bad."
6ost Hoc Argument: (also, "post hoc propter hoc" argument, or the "too much of a
coincidence" argument+: The classic fallacy that because something comes at the
same time or )ust after something else, the 1rst thing is caused by the second. .g.,
"A,-" 1rst emerged as a problem during the e*act same time that -isco music was
becoming popular::that!s too much of a coincidence: ,t proves that -isco causes
A,-"9"
=ed Herring: An irrelevant distraction, attempting to mislead an audience by
bringing up an unrelated, but usually emotionally loaded issue. .g., ",n regard to
my recent indictment for corruption, lets talk about whats really important
instead::terrorists are out there, and if we don!t stop them we!re all gonna die9"
=eductionism: (also, <versimplifying, "loganeering+: The fallacy of deceiving an
audience by giving simple answers or slogans in response to comple* %uestions,
especially when appealing to less educated or unsophisticated audiences. .g., ",f
the glove doesnt 1t, you must vote to ac%uit." <ften involves appeals to emotion
(pathos+. .g., 70oms9 ,f you want to protect your little kids from armed terrorists,
vote for "nith98
=eifying: The fallacy of treating imaginary categories as actual, material "things."
(.g., "The biggest struggle in youth culture today is between #oths and mos."+
"ometimes also referred to as "ssentiali'ing" or 7Hypostati'ation.8
"ending the 2rong 0essage: A dangerous fallacy that attacks a given statement or
action, no matter how true, correct or necessary, because it will "send the wrong
message." ,n e&ect, those who uses this fallacy are publicly confessing to fraud and
admitting that the truth will destroy the fragile web of illusion that has been created
by their lies. .g., "Actually, we!re losing the war, but if we admit it we!ll be sending
the wrong message to our enemies."
"hifting the ?urden of 6roof. (see also Argument from ,gnorance+ A fallacy that
challenges opponents to disprove a claim, rather than asking the person making
the claim to defend hisKher own argument. .g., ""pace:aliens are everywhere
among us, even here on campus, mas%uerading as true humans9 , dare you prove it
isn!t so9 "eeB Jou can!t9 That means you have to accept that what , say is true."
"lippery "lope (also, the -omino Theory+: The common fallacy that "one thing
inevitably leads to another." .g., ",f you two go and drink co&ee together, one thing
will lead to another, and soon enough you!ll be pregnant and end up spending your
life on welfare living in the pro)ects," or ",f we cut and run in ,ra% or Afghanistan,
pretty soon all of southwest Asia will be run by Al:>aeda."
"now Cob: The fallacy of 7proving8 a claim by overwhelming an audience with
mountains of irrelevant facts, numbers, documents, graphs and statistics that they
cannot be e*pected to understand. This is a corrupted argument from logos. "ee
also, "@ying with "tatistics."
"traw 0an (also "The "traw 6erson"+: The fallacy of setting up a phony version of an
opponent!s argument, and then proceeding to knock it down with a wave of the
hand. .g., ".egetarians say animals have feelings like you and me. ver seen a cow
laugh at a "hakespeare comedyB .egetarianism is nonsense9"
Taboo: The fallacy of unilaterally declaring certain arguments, standpoints or actions
to be "sacrosanct" or not open to discussion or arbitrarily taking some standpoints
or options "o& the table" beforehand. (.g., "-on!t bring my drinking into this," or
"?efore we start, , won!t allow you to put my arguments down by saying !That!s )ust
what Hitler would say9!"+
Testimonial (also >uestionable Authority, 4aulty /se of Authority+: A fallacy in which
support for a standpoint or product is provided by a well:known or respected 1gure
(e.g. a star athlete or entertainer+ who is not an e*pert and who was probably well
paid for the endorsement (e.g., 7<lympic gold:medal pole:vaulter 4ulano de Tal uses
>uick 4lush ,nternet:shouldnt youB"+. Also includes other false, meaningless or paid
means of associating oneself or ones product with the ethos of a famous person or
event (e.g. 7Try "alsa $abria, the oIcial taco sauce of the .ancouver 2inter
<lympics98+ This is a corrupted argument from ethos.
They!re ;ot @ike /s: A badly corrupted, bigoted argument from ethos where a fact,
argument or ob)ection is arbitrarily disregarded, ignored or put down without
consideration because those involved "are not like us," or "don!t think like us." .g.,
",t!s <M for 0e*icans to earn half a buck an hour in the ma%uiladoras. ,f it were
here, ,!d call it e*ploitation and daylight robbery, but south of the border they!re not
the same as we are." <r, ""ure, the nuclear bombing of Hiroshima killed hundreds
of thousands of innocent people, but over there they!re not like us and don!t think
the same way we do about life and death." A variety of the Ad Hominem Argument,
most often applied to non:2hite populations.
T,;A (There ,s ;o Alternative. Also "#et <ver ,t," the "fait accompli"+. A very
common contemporary e*tension of the eitherKor fallacy, %uashing critical thought
by announcing that there is no realistic alternative to a given standpoint, status or
action, ruling any and all other options irrelevant, or announcing that a decision has
been made and any further discussion is simply a waste of time (or even
insubordination or disloyalty+ when there is a )ob to be done. ("ee also, "Taboo."+
Transfer: A corrupt argument from ethos, falsely associating a famous person or
thing with an unrelated standpoint (e.g. putting a picture of #eorge 2ashington on
an advertisement for mattresses or using #enghis Mhan (a 0ongol+ as the name of a
$hinese restaurant, or using the Te*as Oag to sell cars or pickups that were made in
-etroit, Mansas $ity or Myoto+..
Tu >uo%ue (also Two 2rongs 0ake a =ight+: The fallacy of defending a shaky or false
standpoint or e*cusing one!s own bad action by pointing out that one!s opponent!s
acts or personal character are also open to %uestion, or even worse. .g., ""ure, we
may have tortured prisoners of war, but we didn!t cut o& heads o& like they do9" A
corrupt argument from ethos. =elated to the =ed Herring and to the Ad Hominem
Argument.
2e Have to -o "omething: The dangerous contemporary fallacy that in moments of
crisis one must do something, anything, at once, even if it is an overreaction, is
totally ine&ective or makes the situation worse, rather than ")ust sitting there doing
nothing." (.g., "?anning air passengers from carrying nail clippers probably does
nothing to deter potential hi)ackers, but we have to do something to respond to this
crisis9"+ This is often a corrupted argument from pathos.
2here theres smoke, theres 1re (also Hasty $onclusion, Cumping to a $onclusion+.
The dangerous fallacy of %uickly drawing a conclusion andKor taking action without
suIcient evidence. .g., 70y neighbor Caminder "ingh wears a long beard and a
turban and speaks a funny language. 2here there!s smoke there!s 1re. This is war,
our country is in danger, and thats all the evidence we need to string him up98 A
variety of the 7Cust in $ase8 fallacy.