INTRODUCTION

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ll files are located !ere"
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Data Book 1b.pdf (1MB)
Data Book 1c.pdf (1MB)
Data Book 1d.pdf (1MB)
Eac! file is appro# 1MB to make downloading easy.
Eac! Data Book contains lots of !andy information to !elp yo$ $nderstand
electronics% pl$s circ$its and ideas.
Data Book 1 is also a&ailable for &iewing on'line"
Data Book 1a
Data Book 1b
Data Book 1c
Data Book 1d
(!e pages can be printed and collated into a book for easy reference.
More circ$its and pro)ects can be fo$nd on (*+,-. E*E/(R0-,/1 website"
!ttp"22www.talkingelectronics.com
Colin Mitchell
talking@tpg.com.au
Tel: 0417 !" 7##
CONT$NT%
/ (rigger
mmeter
mplifier
rc 3elder
$dio larm
$dio Mi#er
B/ 445 -6- transistor
B/445 6-6 transistor
BD 178 BD149 transistor
Bipolar (ransistors
/ 7179 06'amp
/apacitor Data
/ar :oltage /on&erter
/!ip 6ino$ts
/irc$it 1ymbols
/ommon Base2Emitter2
/ollector /irc$its
/o$nter
/rystal 1et
Darlington (ransistor
D/ Milli&oltmeter
Definitions
Difference mplifier
Diode
D$al 6ower 1$pply
Electronic Dice
FE(
FE( :oltmeter
Field 1trengt! Meter Mk,,
Flas!ing *ED
FM (ransmitter FM B$g
.ermani$m Diode
;earing id
,nfinity B$g
,nfrared *ED
,nfrared *ig!t Beam
+itt 1canner
*amp Dimmer
*amp Flas!er
*ig!t Beam Relay
*ig!t 1witc!
*EDs
*ED /!aser
*ED Dice
*ED Flas!er
*M 749
*M 7<=
*ogic .ates
*ogic 6robe
Metal Detector
Metronome
Microcontrollers
78
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48
4=
18
18
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Microp!one
Morse /ode .enerator
M6F 19> FE(
M$lti&ibrator
0 81 diode
06 mp
6eak Reading :? Meter
6!oto Diode
6!oto Electric Relay
6ino$ts
6ower Diode
6ower 1$pply
Relay Dri&er
Resistors
RF Monitor Meter
RF 6rescaler
1/R /1>>D
1ilicon /ontrolled
Rectifier
1imon
Reg$lator 5<## 58##
1ignal Diode
1emicond$ctor De&ices
1olar /!arger
1@$are 3a&e 0scillator
1team 1im$lator
1$rface Mo$nt Resistors
(ime Delay
(imer
(ransistor mplifier
(ransistor 6ino$ts
(R,/ 1/141D
(o$c! 1witc!
?ltrasonic (ransmitter
?ni)$nction (ransistor
?A(
?A( (ime Delay
3ein Bridge 0scillator
Bener Diode
1-4991 6ower diode
1-414< 1ignal diode
>5M;C *inks
>->=4= ?A(
>- 7944 transistor
4915 Decade co$nter
444 *ig!t 1witc!
444 (imer
5'1egment Displays
54c14 ;e# 1c!mitt
541 06 mp
5444 /M01 444
5<94 D4& Reg$lator
5894 '4& Reg$lator
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/,R/?,( 1EMB0*1 by (*+,-. E*E/(R0-,/1
Learn BASIC ELECTRONICS
Go to:
www//talkingelectronics.com
Ci&cuit %'m(ol)
The list above covers almost every symbol you will find on an electronic circuit diagram. It
allows you to identify a symbol and also draw circuits. It is a handy reference and has some
symbols that have never had a symbol before, such as a Flashing LED and
electroluminescence panel.
Once you have identified a symbol on a diagram you will need to refer to specification sheets
to identify each lead on the actual component.
The symbol does not identify the actual pins on the device. It only shows the component in
the circuit and how it is wired to the other components, such as input line, output, drive lines
etc. ou cannot relate the shape or si!e of the symbol with the component you have in your
hand or on the circuit"board.
#ometimes a component is drawn with each pin in the same place as on the chip etc. $ut this
is rarely the case.
%ost often there is no relationship between the position of the lines on the circuit and the
pins on the component.
That&s what ma'es reading a circuit so comple(.
This is very important to remember with transistors, voltage regulators, chips and so many
other components as the position of the pins on the symbol are not in the same places as the
pins on the component and sometimes the pins have different functions according to the
manufacturer. #ometimes the pin numbering is different according to the component, such
as positive and negative regulators.
ou must to refer to the manufacturer&s specification sheet to identify each pin, to be sure
you have identified them correctly.
)olin %itchell
1N4001 to 1N4007
%ilicon *o+e& Recti,ie&)
The following are subminiature general purpose power rectifiers for low power applications
$lect&ical Cha&acte&i)tic) %peci,ication)
Instantaneous *oltage Drop
+ forward current , - . -.-*
bsol$te Ma#im$m Ratings
/ea' 0epetitive 0everse *oltage
-1233- 43*
-12335 -33*
-12336 533*
-12332 233*
-12334 733*
-12337 833*
-12339 -333*
Their value will depend on the current and the degree of smoothing re:uired.
.s a general guide, if the current being drawn from a supply is high, the
si!e of the smoothing capacitor will need to be large ;around 5433uF or
larger< if the hum level is to be 'ept down to a respectable level.
It must also not be forgotten that all of these circuits are =unregulated=
i.e. as the load increases from !ero to ma(imum the output voltage will drop
due to the transformer voltage dropping under load and losses across the
diodes " and the storage capacity of smoothing capacitors.
E#ample
#ay for e(ample we want a power supply to give >* at - .. ?e could use a %5- 44 transformer which is rated at - .. If we use a
bridge rectifier and the >* tapping the output voltage will be@"
*D), -.2- A*.) " -.2- A>* , -5. 7>* /ea' ; >* at -. load<
-oa.ing an. Nominal /oltage
One thing to be aware of with this type of power supply circuit is the voltages given by the formulas are nominal only.
$ecause the actual output voltage of a transformer varies according to its load, the D) output of the power supply will also
vary. .s well as this, there is a voltage drop across the diodes which will vary according to load. If you need a very precise
voltage, the best solution is to use one of the regulated power supply circuits shown in the !ener Diode and *oltage
0egulator sections of this eboo'. ou will see that most regulated circuits use one of the circuits above to produce
unregulated D), then regulate it to a consistent voltage that is independent of the load.
O0"1 1ene&al pu&po)e ge&manium )ignal .io.e
The O.>- is a small signal germanium point contact diode. It is suitable for a wide range of 0F detector and small signal rectifying
applications.
%a(imum Full")ycle .verage
*oltage Drop
+ Forward )urrent , - . 3.8*
%a(imum
0everse )urrent 3.36m.
0%# 0everse *oltage
-1233- 64v
-12335 93v
-12336 -23v
-12332 583v
-12334 253v
-12337 473v
-12339 933v
%peci,ication)
I/ Forward current 43m.
*0 0everse *oltage >3* *p,
Forward voltage drop
+ I/ , -3m. -.34*
+lF , 3.-m. 3.-*
C&')tal %et
The crystal set consists of a tuned circuit which selects the wanted station or fre:uency, and a detector, which separates the
information ;music, speech etc.< from the radio transmission. The audio voltage produced is an e(act replica of the sound
from the radio station.
The detector diode rectifies the incoming signal, leaving a half wave radio signal which varies in amplitude with the audio
signal. The fi(ed capacitor )
5
shorts out or =bypasses= the 0F signal, leaving only the audio.
The circuit below is for a )rystal set using a readily available Ferrite rod and pre"wound aerial coil.
R2 Monito& Mete&
The circuit is an 0F monitor meter suitable for
measuring the strength of a signal from
transmitters. ou could use it to measure the
effectiveness of different antennas for
e(ample. It wor's in much the same way as the
crystal set, but without the tuned circuit. The
meter %, will indicate the strength of the
=carrier=. %odulation of the carrier i.e. signal on
the carrier, will cause the reading to vary. %, is
not critical, and any meter of -m. or better
sensitivity will be suitable.
1N414# %ilicon %ignal Dio.e
The -12-28 is a general purpose signal diode suitable for a wide range of switching and low power rectifying purposes. It is
e:uivalent to the -1>-2.
Feat$res
B Low )apacitance. 2pF at 3*
B Cigh brea'down voltage. -33*
%peci,ication)
)apacitance *0,3, f, -%C! 2pF
0everse 0ecovery Time 2nsec
0ectification Efficiency 5.3* rms. f,-33 %C!

bsol$te Ma#im$m Ratings
$rea'down *oltage -33*
?or'ing Inverse *oltage 94*
D) Forward )urrent 633m.
%a(imum Total Dissipation at 54D) 433m?
3ene& Dio.e)
Eener diodes are used primarily as voltage references.
They are devices which maintain an almost constant voltage
across them despite various changes in circuit conditions.
Fnli'e conventional diodes, !ener diodes are deliberately intended to be used with the anode connected to a negative
potential ;or 3v< and the cathode connected to the positive potential. ?hen connected in this manner, !ener diodes have a
very high resistance below a certain critical voltage ;called the !ener voltage<. If this voltage is e(ceeded, the resistance of
the !ener drops to a very low level.
?hen used in this region, essentially constant voltage will be maintained across the Eener, despite :uite large changes in the
applied currents. This is illustrated graphically in the figure below.
It can be seen that beyond the !ener voltage, the reverse voltage remains practically constant despite changes in reverse
current. $ecause of this, Eener diodes may be used to provide a constant voltage drop, or reference voltage.
The actual voltage available from a !ener diode is temperature dependent.
The 4a)ic Ci&cuit
The $asic *oltage regulator circuit is shown below. It uses only one resistor and one !ener diode. This is called a #CF1T
0EGFL.TO0. #ee #E0IE# 0EGFL.TO0 below.
Diode bridges are a package of four diodes
connected in a full wave bridge rectifier
configuration. They can be encapsulated in
plastic or steel/epoxy cases, and even DIL
and surface mount packages for the smaller
units. The suare metal packages usually
have one !" terminal marked, with the other
terminal diagonally opposite it. The positive
D" terminal is marked, with the negative
terminal diagonally opposite it. #lastic suare
packages often have all terminal markings
embossed in the package. In line plastic
packages take up less #"$ real estate while
still maintaining a reasonable current
capacity, and usually have their terminals
marked with the !" connections being the
inside two leads.
If the Eener diode is rated at 4.7* and the applied voltage is 8.3*, then with no load applied, the output voltage across 0-
will be 4.7* and the remaining 5.2* will be dropped across 0
s
, If the input voltage is changed to >.3*, then the voltage
across the Eener will remain at 4.7*. In practice, the voltage across the Eener will rise slightly due to the =dynamic
resistance
&
of the !ener.
The resistor 0- represents an e(ternal load. ?hen this load is connected, some of the current flowing through the !ener will
now pass through the load. The series resistor 0
s
is selected so that the minimum current passing through the !ener is not
less than that re:uired for stable regulation. It is also necessary to ensure that the value of 0
s
is such that the current flow
through the !ener cannot e(ceed its specified power rating. This can be calculated by multiplying the !ener voltage by the
!ener current. The design procedure is as follows@"
-< #pecify the ma(imum and minimum load current, say 3m. and -3m..
5< #pecify the ma(imum and minimum supply voltages ;say -5v< but ensure that the minimum supply voltage is always at
least -.4v higher than the !ener voltage being used.
6< In the circuit shown the minimum !ener current is -33H.. Thus the ma(imum !ener current ;which occurs when there is
no load connected< is -3ma plus -33H. e:uals -3.-m..
2< The series resistor must conduct -3.-m. at the lowest input supply voltage, so the minimum voltage drop across 0
s
will be
-.4v. Thus the value of 0
s
will be@"
-.4v I -3.-A-3
"6


, -28.4 ohms
This could be changed to the nearest preferred value of -43 ohms.
4< .t the ma(imum supply voltage ;-5v< the voltage across 0
s
is e:ual to
the !ener current times the series resistor.
This is the ma(imum ;worst case< !ener current. To wor' out the resulting power dissipation, we multiply this current by the !ener
voltage. In this e(ample this wor's out at@"
.ny !ener over this in power rating would be suitable in this circuit.
Tempe&atu&e D&i,t in 3ene&)
Typical !ener diodes drift in their voltage at about J3.-KID) at the higher voltages. .t lower voltages this goes negative
reaching "3.32KID) at around 6.4v.
This may be made use of in temperature sensing devices. The circuit below shows how a bridge consisting of two similar
!ener diodes and two resistors can indicate temperature differences when one !ener is held at standard temperature and
the other is subLected to the conditions to be monitored. If a -3v !ener is used, it will have a temperature coefficient of
J3.39KID) giving a change of 9millivolts per degree ).
Non %tan.a&. /oltage)
1on standard voltages can be obtained by connecting !ener diodes in series. The diodes need not have the same voltages since this
arrangement is self e:uali!ing.
3ene& Noi)e
Eener diodes generate noise voltages. These may vary between -3H* and -m* depending on !ener voltage and rating. This
noise is easily suppressed by placing a 3.3- to 3.-HF capacitor across it. This reduces the noise voltage by a factor of at least
-3.
3ene& Dio.e a) a Cali(&ation %ignal
?hen supplied with alternating current, the !ener diode will limit both the negative and positive halves of the .) cycle. The
waveform will be asymmetrical, since the !ener will limit almost immediately in one direction, but will not limit until its
!ener voltage in the other direction.
It may also be necessary at times to provide a
regulated voltage lower than that normally
available from a !ener diode. These voltages may
be obtained by using the difference between two
pairs of !eners. This is shown in the circuit below.
.s a bonus, the temperature compensation of this
circuit is e(cellent, since both !eners tend to drift
in the same direction, maintaining the voltage
difference.
Inc&ea)e. *o+e& 5an.ling
.lthough !eners can be paralleled for higher power operation, it is usually a better idea to use a series transistor with a !ener
reference. This configuration improves the power handling and also the regulation of the circuit by a factor e:ual to the current
gain of the transistor.
Con)tant Cu&&ent Regulation
This simple circuit maintains a constant current ;within appro( -3K<.
O6e&76oltage *&otection
The circuit below uses the !ener as a =fuseblower=. The !ener is selected so that under normal operation it is not conducting. If the
circuit develops a fault and the power supply voltage rises above the !ener voltage, the !ener will come =on= and draw a heavy
current, blowing the fuse.
Imp&o6ing tempe&atu&e )ta(ilit'
If better temperature stability is re:uired than can be obtained with a single !ener, a good tric' is to use an ordinary forward
biased silicon diode. This ma'es use of the fact that the forward voltage temperature coefficient of a silicon diode is appro(imately
"5m*ID). The temperature coefficient of the silicon diode and the !ener diode cancel out, giving an almost temperature
independent voltage reference. The use of the forward biased diode also allows =trimming= of !eners to voltages other than the
preferred value available. . silicon diode when forward biased will have a voltage drop of 3.9v. ?hen put in series with a
!ener it will increase the reference by this much. Thus a 7.5v !ener plus a silicon diode will give a voltage of 7.>v.
Dual /oltage *o+e& %uppl'
The output voltage of this circuit will be
e:ual to the !ener voltage minus the base"
emitter voltage of the transistor ;appro(.
3.9*<.
Output *oltage , Eener *oltage " 3.9*.
The circuit below uses !ener diodes to give a split or dual power supply which is ideal for running I)s such as op"amps. The power
input only needs to be an unregulated single rail D) source. ?hen selecting 0s it should be remembered that the !ener is the sum
of the voltage of the two !eners.
These two circuits show typical use of !eners in power supply circuits. The circuit below is designed to give increased
current capacity. It will supply up to -. with suitable heatsin'ing of the transistors.
These two circuits show typical use of !eners in power supply circuits. The circuit below is designed to give increased
current capacity. It will supply up to -. with suitable heatsin'ing of the transistors.
%emicon.ucto& De6ice)
The simplest type of semiconductor device is the diode. It has two electrodes, a cathode and an anode. II is formed from a Lunction
of / and 1 type silicon. .s shown below, when the diode is forward biased, by applying a negative voltage to the cathode ;the 1
type silicon< and a positive voltage to the anode ;the / type silicon< the diode conducts and has a very low resistance. If the
voltage connections are reversed, the diode is said to be reversed biased and has a very high resistance.
If another layer is added to the semiconductor Lunction, the resulting device becomes a bipolar transistor. The three layers of the
device are the emitter, the collector and the base. In normal operation, the emitter to base Lunction is forward biased and the
collector to base Lunction in the reverse direction.
There are two types of transistor, 1/1 and /1/. The names relate to the =sandwich= structure of the two types of transistor. They
are shown below. For practical purposes, the important difference between the two types of transistor is that in 1/1 transistors
the current flows from emitter to collector. In /1/ transistors the electrons flow from collector to emitter.
4ipola& T&an)i)to&)
$ipolar Transistors are current amplifying devices. ?hen a small signal current is applied at the input terminal ;the base< of
the bipolar transistor, an amplified reproduction of this signal appears at the output terminals ;the collector<.
There are 6 useful way of connecting the input signal for amplification.
Common 4a)e Mo.e
In this mode, the signal is introduced into the emitter"base circuit ;Thus the base element is common to both the input and
output circuits. In this mode, the input impedance is low ;i.e. it puts a heavy load on the signal source<. The output
impedance is fairly high. This type of circuit gives voltage gain and slightly less than unity current gain.
)ommonly used as an impedance converter.
Common $mitte& Mo.e
In this configuration, the signal is introduced into the base"emitter circuit. This arrangement has moderate input and output
impedance. It gives both current and voltage gain. )urrent gain is measured by comparing the base current and the collector
current and so is e:uivalent to CFE . very small change in base current produces a relatively large change in collector current.
Depending on the type of transistor this will vary from 4"733.
This is the most commonly used circuit, very often found in audio amplifiers. For an e(planation of CFE see definition below.
Common Collecto& Mo.e
In this configuration, the signal is introduced into the baseIcollector circuit and is =e(tracted= from the emitterIcollector circuit.
The input impedance of this arrangement is high and the output impedance is low. The voltage gain is less than unity while the
current gain is high. This configuration is used as an impedance matching device. )ommonly called an emitter follower, it is also
often used as a current amplifier in power supplies.
)ommon )ollector %ode
Da&lington *ai&
The Darlington /air uses a pair of transistors coupled together as an
emitter follower so that the emitter current of the first transistor
flows through the baseIemitter Lunction of the second transistor. The
resulting current gain of the transistor pair is found by multiplying the
current gain of the transistors together. The resulting current gain is
very high and the input impedance of such a stage is very high.
4ia)ing 0&&angement)
For linear amplification as opposed to switching applications, the
=operating point= of the transistor must be set so as to minimi!e
distortion. The simplest of biasing arrangement is shown below.
The base resistor 0
$
is selected to provide the desired base
current, which is 59H. in the e(ample shown. This base current
turns the transistor =on= and establishes the collector current.
In the circuit below ;a<@
This arrangement is sensitive to temperature and varying gains of transistors. . better arrangement is shown above ;b<. This
stabili!es the operating point of the transistor because an increase in collector current drops the collector voltage and thus
decreases the base bias.
Definitions
lp!a (a) .ain
In the common base mode, the emitter is the input electrode and the collector is the output electrode. The alpha is the
ratio of the collector current l
c
to the emitter current I
E
. It is always less than -.
Beta c$rrent gain (!
FE
)
In the common emitter mode, the base is the input terminal and the collector is the output terminal. The beta is the ratio of
the collector current l
c
to the base current I
$
.
.ain Bandwidt! 6rod$ct (f
!fe
)
This is the fre:uency at which the alpha or beta ;according to the type of circuit< drops to 3.939 times its - 'C! value.
(ransition Fre@$ency (f
(
)
The fre:uency at which the small"signal forward current transfer ratio ;common"emitter< falls to unity.
Breakdown &oltage
This defines the voltage between two electrodes at which the current rises rapidly. The brea'down voltage may be specified
with the third electrode open, shorted or biased to another electrode.
1econdary Breakdown
Cigh voltages and currents passing through a transistor cause current to be concentrated or focused on a very small area of
the transistor chip causing locali!ed overheating. This is important in power transistors which are often designed to minimi!e
this effect.
1at$ration :oltage (:cesat)
For a given base current, the collector"emitter saturation voltage is the potential across this Lunction while the transistor is
in conduction. . further increase in the bias does not increase the collector current. #aturation voltage is very important in
switching and power transistors. It is usually in the order of 3.-v to -.3v
1afe'operating'area
/ower transistors are often re:uired to wor' at high currents and high voltages simultaneously. This ability is shown in a safe
operating area curve.
6(0(
The total pac'age power dissipation
:)$O
The dc voltage between the collector terminal and the base terminal when the emitter terminal is open"circuited.
:/E0
The dc voltage between the collector terminal and the emitter terminal when the base terminal is open"circuited.
B/445'8 (B/195'8) -6- B/445'8 (B/445'8) 6-6
Low fre:uency, general purpose small signal transistors widely used in audio, switching and television circuits. The $)429"> series
and $)449"> series are functionally identical to the common $)-39"> series.
.ll have a ma(imum power dissipation of 433m?. They have essentially similar specifications and can generally be substituted for
one another ;within the /1/ and 1/1 groups of three each<. .ll devices are housed in standard TO">5 plastic pac'ages.
#pecifications
-6- B/445 B/44< B/448
*)$O
43v
63v 63v
*cto 24v 63v 63v
lc -33m. -33m. -33m.
/totl 433m? 433m? 433m?
hFE min"ma( at I3 5m. --3 " 833 --3 " 833 533 " 833
fT typical 633%C! 633%C! 633%C!
*)Esat ;ma(< at lc -33m.Il$ 4m. 733m* 733m* 733m*
6-6 B/445 B/44< B/448
*)$O
43v
63v 63v
*)EO
24v
63v 63v
lc -33m. -33m. -33m.
/,ot 433m? 433m? 433m?
hFE min"ma( at lc 5m. 94 " 294 94 " 294 -54 " 294
fT typical -43%C! -43%C! -43%C!
*)Esat ;ma(< at lc -33m.Il$ 4m. 733m* 733m* 733m*
0 %imple 0mpli,ie&
Rela' .&i6e&
This simple circuit increases the sensitivity of a relay so that it will trigger at 933m* at 23u.. .ny relay with an operating
current of less than 73m. and operating voltage of less than -5v is suitable. The circuit=s supply rail should be at least 6v
higher than the operating voltage of the relay.
The circuit will wor' with any relay with a coil resistance higher than -83 ohms and a pull in voltage of less than -5v.
2M t&an)mitte&
This circuit, is about as simple as a transmitter can get. The coil is etched onto the printed circuit board, but can be easily
substituted by 7 turns on a 2mm diameter former.
This circuit will operate on any supply from
6v to -4v. Fsing a >v supply, the circuit gives
a voltage gain of 27d$ ;533 times<, fre:uency
response within 6d$ from 63C! to -33'C!,
input impedance of -.4' ohms and an output
impedance of 4.7' ohms. The base bias
resistor 0
-
gives sufficient negative feedbac'
to compensate for the large variation of h
FE

values in individual transistors and for
variations in supply voltage.
Multi6i(&ato&7 Mo&)e Co.e 1ene&ato&
This circuit is an astable multivibrator or s:uare"wave generator. The circuit is suitable as a morse code generator. The
fre:uency of operation can be raised by ma'ing the value of the capacitors smaller. The spea'er can be any general purpose
8 ohm type.
4D1"8140 D&i6e& T&an)i)to&)
$D-6>I-23 are complementary silicon driver transistors designed for audio and switching applications. They come in TO"-57 plastic
cases. The $D-6> is an 1/1 device and the $D-23 is /1/.
Feat$res
B Cigh gain ;hFE23"543< B Cigh fT ;543%C! for $D-6>, 94%C! for $D-23<
bsol$te Ma#im$m Ratings
)ollector"Emitter *oltage ;*)EO<
$D-6> 83*
$D-23 83*
)ollector"$ase *oltage ;*)$#<
$D-6> -33*
$D-23 -33*
)ollector )urrent )ontinuous ;Ic<
$D-6>I-23 -.
Total Device Dissipation ;/tot<
$D-6>I-23 8?
1pecifications
D) )urrent gain ;hFF<
+ lc , -43m. 23"543 ;$D-6>I-23<
fT;%C!<
$D-6> 543%C!
$D-23 94%C!
)ollector"Emitter #aturation *oltage ;*)Esat<
+ lc , 433m. 3.4*
;$D-6>I-23< I$ , 43m.
Basic mplifier
!N099 *o+e& T&an)i)to&
The 516344 is a medium speed 1/1 #ilicon /ower Transistor designed for general purpose switching and amplifier applications.
Feat$res
B D) current Gain ;hFE< , 53"93 + lc , 2.3.
B )ollector"Emitter #aturation *oltage , -.3* + lc , 2.3.
*ow Ripple Reg$lated 6ower 1$pply
The e(cellent characteristics of the 516344 at high currents ;high h
FE
and low collector"emitter saturation voltage< ma'es it
ideal as a series regulator transistor in regulated power supplies. The power supply circuit shown below can be used when
high current with low ripple is re:uired. M, and M
5
form a high power Darlington. ED
-
and 0
-
provide a reference voltage at
the base of M
-
The voltage output will be@" *
OFT
, Eener *oltage " -.5v
bsol$te Ma#im$m Ratings
)ollector"Emitter *oltage ;*)EO< 73v
)ollector"$ase *oltage ;*)$O< -33v
Emitter"$ase *oltage ;*E$< 9.3v
)ollector )urrent )ontinuous ;lc< -4.
$ase )urrent )ontinuous ;I$< 9.
Total Device Dissipation ;/tot< --4?
1pecifications
)ollector" Emitter Lea'age )urrent
;*)E , 63*, l$ , 3< 3.9m.
D) )urrent Gain ;CFE<
lc , 2.3. *)E , 2.3* 53"93
lc , -3.3. *)E , 2.3* 4 ;%inimum<
)oIlector"Emitter #aturation *oltage
I) , 2.3. I$ , 3.2. -.-v
lc , -3.3. I$ , 3.2. 8.3*
Ft + I) , 6.6. 3.8%C!
The circuit is for a low power amplifier using
a $D-6>I-23 pair in the output stage.
The amplifier has a gain of 77.
It needs -3Om* input for full output,
which is appro(imately 433m? into 8 ohms.
/ar :oltage /on&erter for radios and cassettes
This circuit is suitable for dropping a -5v car battery to the correct voltage to run portable cassette playersIradios etc.
Fsing a 516344 might seem li'e a bit of an over'ill but they are cheap. The output voltage will be 3.9v lower than the !ener
voltage, due to the voltage drop across the base"emitter Lunction of the 516344. The -3 ohm series resistor stops e(cessive
current being drawn in the case of a short. The diode ;-1233-< protects the transistor in case of reverse voltage being
applied.
The output will drive transistor radios, cassette players etc. If the current drain is over 433m., it is a good idea to put a
heat sin' on M
-
. %ounting the converter in a metal bo( with M
-
on the lid ;but insulated from it with a mica washer< will act
as a good heatsin'.
>->=4= ?ni)$nction transistor
The 515727 is intended for general and industrial triggering and oscillator circuits where circuit economy is of primary importance.
lt is a high speed switching device with a low saturation voltage.

bsol$te ma#im$m ratings
/ower Dissipation 633m?
0%# Emitter )urrent 43m.
/ea' Emitter )urrent
;)apacitor discharge N-3HF< 5.
Emitter 0everse *oltage 63*
Interbase *oltage 64*
1pecifications
Intrinsic #tandoff 0atio ;*$$ , -3v< O 3.7>
Interbase 0esistance ;*$$ , 6v, Ie , 3< 0$$3 7.9
Emitter #aturation *oltage ;*$$ , -3v, IE , 43m.< *E;sat< 5
Emitter 0everse )urrent ;*$5E , 63* I$- , 3< IE3 .33-
/ea' /oint Emitter )urrent ;*$$ , 54v< I/ 3.8
*alley /oint )urrent ;*$$ , 53v 0$5 , -330< I* 4
$ase"One /ea' /ulse *oltage *3$- 8.4
Basic (!eory
The uniLunction transistor ;FPT< has 6 terminals@ Emitter ;E<. $ase"one ;$- and $ase"two ;$5<. $etween $, and $5 the FPT has a
resistance of from 2.9' to >.-'.
In operation the FPT emitter voltage *E is lower than the emitter pea' voltage *I. The emitter will be reverse biased and only a
small lea'age current will flow. ?hen *E e:uals *I the emitter current will increase enormously. .t the same time the emitter"$-
resistance will fail to a very low level.
Basic ?A( 6$lse (rigger /irc$it
This is a basic rela(ation oscillator. ) charges through 0, until the emitter reaches */ at which time the FPT turns on and discharges
)- via 0$-. ?hen the emitter has dropped to appro(imately 5v, the emitter stops conducting and the cycle starts again.
The design of the FPT trigger is very broad.
0$- is limited to values below -33 ohms for most applications. 0- should
be a value between 6' and 6%. #upply voltage can be from -3 to 64v.
If the circuit is being used to trigger an #)0, 0$- must be low enough to
prevent D) voltage at the gate from e(ceeding the ma(imum voltage that
will not trigger the #)0. In practice, 'eep 0$, below 43 ohms.
The 515727 is specifically designed for #)0 trigger circuits. 0$5 is typically
-33 ohms.
?A(21/R (ime Delay Relay
This circuit provides an efficient, high power and accurate time delay circuit. The #)0 should be selected to suit the
application. 0
4
and the !ener diode maintain a stable supply for the FPT.
Initially the #)0 is off. The timing se:uence is started by shorting out )-. )- then charges through 0- and 05 until the FPT triggers,
developing a pulse across 02 which turns on the #)0. Colding current for the #)0 is supplied by current through 04 and D5. ?hen
the #)0 triggers, it pulls the voltage across the FPT to N5 volts. This discharges )-.
The load this circuit will drive depends on the #)0 used. . suitable type would be a )-37. This has a ma(imum current
rating of 2.. This would be enough to drive a relay ;even one with a low coil resistance<, globes or an electric bell.
Metronome
This is the simplest metronome circuit. It produces a =clic'= similar to that of the traditional mechanical device. The rate is
variable from 23 to 553 beats per minute. 0- sets the high rate limit and 05 the low rate limit. *irtually any spea'er is
suitable. #upply voltage is from -5 to -8v. ?hile an 8 ohm spea'er is suitable in this circuit, more volume and higher
efficiency can be obtained with a high impedance spea'er, such as a 23 ohm unit.
M*210!: 9: ; 2iel. $,,ect T&an)i)to&)
The %/F-35"7 series are 1"channel Punction"type field effect transistors.
The FET is a three terminal semiconductor device. Input voltage is applied to a G.TE terminal and controls the current
flowing from #OF0)E to D0.I1 terminals.
.n important feature of the FET is its very high input impedance. #ince the FET ma'es use of a small input voltage to control
a large output current, its gain is specified in terms of T0.1#)O1DF)T.1)E. Transconductance ;g
fs
< is e:ual to the change in
drain current ;dI
3
< divided by the change in gate voltage ;d*
G
< and the formula is usually written as follows@"
g
fs
, -33M;dl
D
Id*
G
< where@
g
fs
is the transconductance in micromhos
I
D
is the drain current in D) m.
*
G
is the gateIsource voltage in D) volts.
De,inition) o, )peci,ication)
*
G#
;GateI#ource *oltage<
This is the ma(imum voltage which may appear between gate and source. I
D##
;Drain current at !ero gale voltage<
This is the current which will flow in the drainIsource circuit when *
G#
, 3. It is given for specific drainIsource voltages.
$*
G##
;GateI#ource brea'down voltage<
The voltage at which the gate Lunction of a PFET will enter avalanche. *
p
;GateI#ource pinchoff voltage<
This is the gate"to"source voltage at which the field Lust closes the conduction channel. This is given for a specified value of
*
D#
. The value of the drain current is specified ;usually -%.<.
&'T Type $()**
(# ID** gfs #tot +m,-
.#&/01 12v 3 I) /%! 0.245.0( 3 (D* /2v 1410m! 3 (us /2v 1,00046,200 700m,
.#&/02 12v 3 I) /%! 0.245.0( 3 (D* /2v 84/9 m! 3 (us /2v 1,00049,000 7/0m,
.#&/09 12v 3 I) /%! 0.2(48( 3 (D* /2v 84/0m! 3 (us /2v 1,20046,000 7/0m,
!ll types are mounted in T0:1 plastic cases with pin connections as shown above.
Ope&ation an. 0pplication)
The basic mode of operation of the FET amplifier is shown below. This is referred to as the common source amplifier. The
gate to source circuit is the input and the drain to source circuit is the output.
?hen a moderate reverse or negative voltage is applied between gate and source, the gate Lunction becomes =reverse
biased= i.e. the voltage on the gate reduced the current flowing between the source and the drain. .t a higher gate"source
voltage, the drain"source current is cut to practically !ero. This is referred to as the gate"source pinc!off voltage and is
listed in the specifications as *
/
at a drain"source current of either - or -3u.. In practical circuits, the D) bias is developed
across R
2,
due to the current being through it. This then puts the source at a positive potential relative to ground. The gate is
at ground potential and therefore is at a negative potential relative to the source, 0, sets the input impedance of the circuit
since the gate of the FET draws virtually no current at all and so is seen by the load as a very high impedance.
<NOT$
.ll the circuits and applications in these pages assumes the use of =1"channel= Punction FETs, i.e. FETs in which the drain"
source material is made of 1"type silicon. Cowever, these PFETs may be replaced in the circuits with /"channel PFETs if the
polarity of the power supply is reversed.
T'pical De)ign ,o& a Common7%ou&ce Ci&cuit
?hen used as an amplifier, the FET is biased to a certain part of its response curve for lowest distortion and ma(imum
available voltage swing. .ssume that the FET has the following operating parameters
B *
Ds
, 8* ;where *
Ds
is the voltage between drain and source<
B I
D
, 3.4m. ;where I
D
is the drain current<
*
G#
, "5* ;where *
G#
is the gate"drain voltage or bias<
The power supply voltage is 55.4v
2$T 0pplication) %ou&ce 2ollo+e& Ci&cuit:
The source follower circuit is suitable where a high input impedance and low output impedance is re:uired, but no voltage
gain is needed. The figure below shows a typical source follower stage. Input impedance is set by the gate resistor 0
G
.
Output impedance is very low.
R2 *&e)electo&
The uses for the FET are not limited to audio applications. The circuit below is for an 0F preselector ;a tuned amplifier< for
the broadcast bands. The FET is a very good device to use in this application, due to its low cross modulation characteristics.
%ost cheaper receivers use ordinary bipolar transistors to 'eep costs down. The FET 0F amplifier can also ta'e higher signal
levels without distortion. The preselector has a *olume )ontrol style gain control between the FET and the emitter follower
output stage. This means that only the FET has to handle high signal levels.
The tuning capacitor does not have to be e(actly the same value as shown in the circuit, any capacitor covering a similar
range is suitable. The aerial coil is wound on a 533mm length of ferrite rod. The main winding consists of 25 turns of 55$Q#
enamelled wire. The second winding consists of a further 7 turns. The preselector gives a mar'ed improvement on the
reception of wea' signals and aids in the attenuation of adLacent channel interference and noise.
-DR 0pplication) -ight 4eam Rela'
In this circuit the LD0 is held at a low resistance by light from a small globe. The circuit is actuated when the beam is
bro'en. The resistance of the LD0 then goes high. The circuit is set up so that with the light shining on the LD0 the input
voltages at the two input terminals of the 92- op amp hold its output =low=. ?hen the LD0 goes to high resistance the op
amp=s output goes =high=. This turns the transistor =on= and pulls in the relay.
%imple time&
The very high impedance of the FET ma'es it suitable for a wide variety of timer circuits. The circuit below gives one such
e(ample. ?ith )
-
given a value of -HF, it will give timing periods of 23 sec, and with a value of -33HF it gives a period of 64
minutes. The FET is wired as a source follower and has its gate ta'en to the Lunction of a time constant networ' 0
-
")
-
?hen
the supply is first connected, )
-
is discharged, so M
-
gate is at ground potential, and the source is a volt or two higher. The
base of M
-
is connected to the source of M
-
via 0
6
, so M
5
is turned on and -5v is across 0
4
, ?hen the supply is connected, )
-

starts to charge via 0
-
, so the voltages on the gate of M
-
;and on the source< rise e(ponentially towards the -5v supply. ?hen
the voltage reaches appro(imately -3.4v the bias on M
-
falls to !ero and M
5
switches off, the voltage across 0
4
falls to !ero.
2$T /oltmete&
The very high input impedance of the FET ma'es it the ideal basis of a voltmeter. The circuit below has a basic sensitivity of
55% ohms per volt. %a(imum full scale sensitivity is 3.4*, and input sensitivity is a constant --.- % ohms on all ranges. 0
9
,0
8

0
>
form a potential divider across the -5v supply. 0
8
is adLusted for a !ero meter deflection. .ny potential across the gate
circuit of M- causes the circuit to =unbalance=. To avoid drift, the power supply should be stabili!ed if possible.
999 -ight %+itch
The use of the 444 timer -) with an LD0 provides a high performance light switch.
.n LD0 is a Light Dependent 0esistor and is a very low cost way of detecting light.
The 444 is used with its trigger and thresholds tied together to provide a #chmitt trigger with a very low input current but
which can drive a relay ta'ing up to 533m. of current. The trigger is activated when the light level on the LD0 falls below a
predetermined level. The relay energi!es when the voltage on pins 5 and 7 is greater than
5
I
6
*
cc
. It de"energi!es when the
voltage falls below
-
I
6
*
))
. This gives a hysteresis of
-
I
6
*
))
.
The 444 can supply current up to 533m., so the relay type is not critical. .ny with a coil resistance from -33"583 ohms
would be suitable.
-ight %en)iti6e %+itch
This circuit ma'es use of the wide change of resistance of the LD0. $etween positive and negative supply there is a voltage
divider. The bottom section is a variable resistor 0*-. The top half is formed by the LD0 and a 2.9R ohm resistor in series. In
low light conditions when the resistance of the LD0 is very high, the bias to the Darlington pair formed by T0
-
and T0
5
is very
low, and they do not conduct. ?hen the light level rises, the resistance of the LD0 falls. This turns the transistors =on= and
pulls in the relay.
The LD0 should be an O0/-5 or similar. The relay should have a pull in voltage of >* or lower and a coil resistance of 583
ohms or higher.
*hoto $lect&ic Rela'
This circuit is basically a bistable multivibrator. ?hen the light level is low and the resistance of the O0/-5 is high, transistor
M
-
conducts and M
5
is off. .s the level of illumination increases the resistance drops until M
-
cuts off and Q
2
turns on,
energi!ing the relay coil.
The relay should have a coil resistance of -83 ohms or higher and a pull in voltage of >* or lower
-$D)
2eatu&e)
; Low power consumption
; I" compatible
; Long life
0()olute Ma=imum Rating)
<ed )reen =ellow !mber >range
<everse (oltage 2v 2v 2v 2v 2v
!v forward "urrent 10m! 70m! 70m! 70m! 70m!
#eak &orward "urrent 100m! 100m! 100m! 100m! 100m!
#ower Dissipation /00m, /00m, /00m, /00m, /00m,
-$D 4a)ic)
LEDs are used in the =forward biased= mode. i.e. positive on the anode and negative on the cathode. This voltage drop is
stated in the specifications ;eg -.9* for a red LED<, If the LED is used on a higher voltage than this, a current limiting
%peci,ication)
Forward *oltage ;I
F
, 53m.<
0ed -.9v Typ. 5.3v %a(
Green 5.5v Typ. 5.8v %a(
ellow 5.-v Typ. 5.8v %a(
.mber 5.-v Typ. 5.8v %a(
Orange 5.3v Typ. 5.8v %a(
/ea' Emission ?avelength
0ed 7>9nm
Green 474nm
ellow 484nm
.mber 733nm
Orange 764nm
1ote@ Luminous intensity is measured with a light sensor
and filter combination that appro(imates the )IE eye
response curve.
resistor must be used.
The following formula can be used@"
0 , ;E "-.9< ( -333II
0 is the resistance in ohms. E is the D) supply voltage. I is the LED current in milliamps.
. common LED current is 53m..
#ome calculated values are@"
For 7v use 553 ohm.
For >v use 6>3 ohm.
For -5v use 473 ohm.
For 52v use -.5' ohm.
If a LED is reverse biased, it will brea' down, in a similar way to a !ener diode. This occurs at 6"4*. It usually damages the
diode if a high current flows.
Ope&ating -$D) ,&om the main)
This circuit uses a capacitor as a voltage dropping element. . -12-28 diode is placed across the LED for rectification. .s the
voltage across the LED is negligible compared with the supply, capacitor current is almost e(actly e:ual to mains voltage
divided by the capacitor reactance. .t 43C!, a 3.29HF will result in a LED current of about -7m.. 0esistor 0
s
limits current
on transients. . value of 593 ohms is ade:uate.
The 2la)hing -$D
The Flashing LED has a chip inside the device to produce the flash"rate. #imply connect the LED to a supply voltage ;2v to
-3v< and the LED will flash at a rate of appro( 5C!. 1o e(ternal resistor is needed up to -3v. For voltages higher than -3v,
the resistor should be -33 ohms for each volt above -3v.
This is the only SLEDT that does not need a resistor when connected to a supply as it has an internal resistor. .ll other LEDs
%F#T have a resistor in series to limit the current and prevent damage.

-$D 2la)he&
This circuit for a LED flasher is very simple and cheap to ma'e and will wor' on any voltage between 6v and -5v. .s the
voltage is raised the value of 0- must be increased " The speed can be changed by altering the value of )
-
and )
5
andIor 0
5

or 0
6
. 0aising the value of )
-
and )
5
slows the rate down. 0aising the value of 0
5
and 0
6
also slows it down.
-$D Cha)e&
This circuit acts as a LED chaser. The 23-9 is driven by a 444 wor'ing as a free"running multivibrator. The speed can be
changed by altering )
-
or 0
-
.
C>?#" -ight $mitting Dio.e 7 In,&a&e. -$D
The )M8> is an infrared LED, similar in performance to conventional LEDs, but emitting light in the infrared region. This is
visible to the human eye. Fnli'e conventional LEDs, infrared LEDs are usually pulsed rather than fed with continuous D).
They find wide use in alarms and in remote control e:uipment.
%peci,ication)
%a(imum Forward )urrent -63m.
%a(imum 0everse *oltage 4*
%a(imum /ower Dissipation 5-4m?
%a(imum Forward )urrent -63m.
$eamwidth between half intensity directions ;I
F
, -33m.U 23D typ.
?avelength at pea' emission ;l
r
, -33m.< ;V
p'
< >63nm typ.
4*@4 photo)en)iti6e .io.e
This device is mainly used in combination with a light source for goIno go detection as in card readers and industrial safety
devices.
%peci,ication)
*
0
Forward voltage 65*
Total power dissipation -43m?
#pectral sensitivity ;*
0
,4*< 93n.Il(
Dar' 0everse )urrent ;*
0
,-3W E
e
,3< 5n.
Light 0everse )urrent
;*
0
, 4W E
e
, -m?Icm
5
WV , >63nm< -3H.
4*@48C>?#" In,&a&e. light7(eam &ela'
Recei&er
The light is pic'ed up by the photodiode a $/?62. It is wired so that a current is generated that is proportional to the light
falling on it. The FET acts as a source follower and impedance matches to the ne(t stage. The amplifier after this acts as a
bandpass filter. Its output is coupled to a )%O# #chmitt trigger, followed by a rectifying circuit and a pulse stretcher. This
drives a transistor and a bu!!er and LED.
(ransmitter
. )%O# oscillator drives an output stage consisting of a $)429 transistor and two )M8> infrared LEDs. )urrent drive is
limited by the 783 ohm resistor. If greater range is re:uired, this resistor may be reduced to a minimum of -43 ohms with a
conse:uent increase in current consumption.
7 %egment -$D Di)pla')
The 9 segment display is found in many displays such as microwaves, lifts, ovens etc. It consists of 9 LEDs that have been
combined into one case to ma'e a convenient device for displaying numbers and some letters. There are basically two
different si!e displays. 3.6T and 3.4T. The two si!es are shown below@
Displays come is a range of colours and brightness levels.
%ost come in super"bright and these are preferred so the display can be seen during the day. They are not much more
e(pensive but give a much better illumination.
.ll displays also come in )O%%O1 ).TCODE and )O%%O1 .1ODE.
The )O%%O1 ).TCODE display has all the cathodes of the LEDs tied together and connects to the pin that goes to the 3v
rail. This is the most common type of display.
The )ommon )athode and )ommon .node displays are wired as shown below@
9.7F and 9.4F 5'segment displays

The proLect above from AAM turns on each segment of the display to show how each letter and number is produced. The
second photo is a white 9"segment display.
$lect&onic Die
This circuit consists of three sections@ an oscillator, a counter, and the display. The oscillator uses three sections of a 237>
he( inverter. The 235> is a four bit counter with the capacity to count from !ero to -4. The 24-- driverIdecoder ta'es binary
output and decodes it to drive a seven segment display. The current to the 9"segmenl display is limited by seven 473 ohm
resistors. The display is a common cathode type, and any 9"segment display can be used.
Counte&
This circuit uses a 9"segment display as the output of a basic counter circuit. The 92>3 counts decimal pulses and converts
them to a $)D code. Its output is fed to a 9294 latch. This stores the outputs from the decade counter. The four binary
outputs are ta'en from the 9294 to a 9229 L)D to the 9 segment LED decoder, which drives the display.
T5$ UNIAUNCTION TR0N%I%TOR

%C191D TRI0C
The *"/2/ D is a medium power plastic package T<I!" designed for economical mains power and lighting control. ?nlike *"<s, the
*"I 2/ D is a bidirectional thyristor 4 when triggered, it conducts in both directions and can be triggered by a positive or negative gate
signal. T<I!" +Triode !" *emiconductor-. The diagram below shows the (/l characteristics of the Triac. ! gate current of the specified
level of either polarity will trigger the triac into conduction in either uadrant, provided the applied voltage is less than ($0.
Triggering may be from D", rectified !" or pulse sources such as uni@unctions, neon lamps or breakdown devices such as the *T8.
%peci,ication)
*oltage 0ating 233*
)urrent 0ating -4. 0%#
I
T#%
%a(imum pea' one cycle non rep. surge current --3.
I
D0%
$loc'ing )urrent at 54D) 3.-m. ma(
dvIdt Off #tate, T
c
, -33D), 0ated *
D0%
, gate OI) 543*IH# ;typ.<
FI0I1G
I
GT
%a( D) Gate Trigger current *
D
,-5v, 54D) 43m.
*
GT
%a( Gate Trigger voltage *
D
, -5v 54D) 5.4*
T&iac a) a )+itch
This gives improved performance over a conventional switch, as there can be no arcing or contact bounce. This circuit shows
a simple three position power control. In position one there is no gate connection, so power is off. In position two there is
gate current during one half cycle only and load power is half wave. In position three the gate is triggered on both half
cycles and the power is full on. For a simple on"off switch, Lust delete the diode.
$ecause the contacts only carry current for the few microseconds needed to trigger the triac, the actual switch can be almost
any small deviceA reed relays, thermostats, pressure switches or program/timer switches.
-amp .imme&85eate& cont&olle&
</ and "/ are a phase shift network 4 they produce a variable delay in the waveform applied to the *T8 and hence the triac.
,hen the voltage across "/ reaches the breakdown voltage for the *T8, "/ partially discharges into the triac gate through the
*T8. This pulse triggers the triac into conduction for the remainder of the half cycle.
This easy4to4build controller is ideal for dimming lights, and controlling the output of electric heating type appliances. The light or
heater element etc is placed where the BL>!DB is marked on the circuit.
%T4 0)'mmet&ical 0C T&igge& %+itch
The #T2 is an integrated triac trigger circuit that provides wide range hysteresis"free control of voltage.
It behaves li'e a !ener diode in series with a silicon bilateral switch ;a symmetrical device<.
The !ener provides asymmetry since the switching voltage is increased in one direction by the !ener brea'down voltage.
#witching voltage@
*
#-
-2v"-8v
*
#5
9">v
#witching current
I
#-
I
#5
83H.
On"state voltages
*
F-
;I , -33m.< 9"-3v
*
F5
;I , -33m.< -.7v ma(
/ea' pulse voltage
*
3
6.4v min
C1!!D8C1!!$ %ilicon Cont&ol Recti,ie&
The )-55Dand -55E are medium power plastic pac'age #)0s designed chiefly for mains power and motor control. The #)0 is
a unidirectional device, ;current flows through it in one direction, from anode to cathode<.
The #)0 is a three terminal semiconductor device. The three terminals are the anode ;.<, cathode ;R<. and the gate ;G<.
?ith no voltage applied to the gate terminal, if a voltage is applied to the #)0 anode and cathode terminals, ;anode positive
with respect to cathode< current flow is prohibited. If the supply is reversed the flow is li'ewise prohibited. Thus with no
signal applied, the #)0 appears as an open circuit as long as its diode Lunctions do not brea' down. The #)0 is brought into
conduction by applying a current into the gate terminal. This will cause it to conduct in the forward direction ;i.e. with the
anode positive and the cathode negative<. The gate voltages re:uired vary from appro(imately -.4" 7.3v. Once the #)0 is
turned on the gate no longer controls the circuit and the #)0 only drops out of conduction when the anode"cathode voltage
falls to near !ero. .t this instant, the current through the device falls to !ero.
%peci,ication)
/1>>E
*D0% ;0epetitive off state voltage. %a( between anode and cathode< 433*
IT ;0%# )urrent through #)0< 8 .mps
I
GT
;/ea' /ositive gate current< ;T
c
, 54D)< 54m.
*
GT
;/ea' /ositive gate voltage< ;T
c
, 54D)< -.4*
/G ;.*< ;%a( Gate power< 3.4?
I
C
Colding )urrent ;)urrent below which the #)0 will drop out of
conduction< ;T
c
, 54D)< 63m.
dvIdt 0ate of change of on"state voltage ;%a(. rate of change of
anode"cathode voltage which will not turn #)0 on< 43*IHsec;typ.<
The )-55D differs only in that its *
D0%
is only 233v as against 433v for the )-55E.
The *"<s listed above are medium power *"<s +*ilicon "ontrolled <ectifiers- designed primarily for economical mains power
and motor control. They are three terminal devices +see above-. The electrodes are anode, cathode and control gate. They are
unidirectional devices i.e when triggered BonB they only conduct in one direction. The *"< is a BregenerativeB device. It is
triggered BonB by in@ecting a signal into the gate. !s noted earlier, once the gate has triggered the *"< BonB it no longer controls
the gate. The only way to cause the *"< to stop conducting from cathode to anode is to drop the anode cathode voltage to a
level where the current flowing from anode to cathode is below the Bholding levelB. This is indicated in the figure above. In
practice, this is not a problem, since *"<s are normally used to control fluctuating voltages such as the !" mains. The Bdrop
outB of the *"< occurs as the mains voltage goes through Cero.
0pplication)
*"<s are current rather than voltage triggered devices. This means that they must be fed from a relatively low impedance
source i.e. one in which the voltage wonBt drop down under load from the gate. In a way analogous to a relay or a solenoid, the
*"< reuires certain minimum anode current if it is to remain in the BclosedB or conducting state. If the anode current drops
below the minimum level, the *"< reverts to the forward blocking or BopenB state. The following circuit shows a basic <4"4Diode
trigger circuit giving full half wave control. >n positive half cycles the capacitor " will charge to the trigger point, at a speed
determined by the time constant of < and ". >n the negative half cycle, the capacitor is reset by "<1, resetting it for tire next
charging cycle, Thus the triggering current is supplied by the line voltage.
C1!!D: C1!!$: C10;D %CR) *ha)e Cont&ol Ci&cuit
Imp&o6e. pha)e cont&ol ci&cuit
The following diagram shows a circuit using a neon lamp as a breakdown device. This gives smoother control and improved
performance. The neon triggers when the voltage across the two 0./% capacitors reaches the breakdown voltage of the lamp
+904:0(-. "ontrol extends from :2D to full off.
The neon lamp phase controlled circuit shown below combines the low cost of the simple <" circuit shown before but gives
improved performance. The circuit below gives half wave control from :2D on to full off. &ull power can be easily obtained by
putting a switch across the *"<. The circuit uses a neon. This gives the following improvementsA
! higher impedance circuit can be used for control.
!s a result, the control element +which is a /00k pot in the circuit below- can be replaced by a high impedance device such as
a thermistor or light dependent resistor, for heating or light control applications.
O*70M* 4a)ic)
The op4amp is a very high gain D" amplifier. This is uoted in specifications as typically in the range of 10,000 to /00,000
times. The symbol for the op4amp is shown below. !s can be seen, there are two inputs, the inverting and the non4inverting. If a
signal is applied to the 4input +inverting- with the E input +non4inverting- grounded, the polarity of the output signal will be
opposite that of the input. If the signal is applied to the E input with the 4 input grounded, the polarity of the output signal will be
the same as the input signal. &or an !" signal, this means that when it is applied to the 4 input, the output signal will be /50F out
of phase with the input. If the same signal is applied to both the E and 4 inputs, the two signals will cancel each other out. The
op4amp responds to the difference between its two inputs 4 hence the name differential amplifier. The ability of an op4amp to
cancel two eual signals at its pins is referred to as its common4mode re@ection.
The most common op4amp circuit is shown below and uses two external componentsG
/- an input component, </
1- a feedback component, <&.
,hen the feedback component is between the op4amp output and the negative input the op4amp is said to have negative
feedback. ,hen the feedback component is between the op4amp output and the positive input, the circuit is said to have
positive feedback.
,ith no feedback applied, the gain is set by the op4amp itself and is very high +at very low freuencies-. This is referred to as
the open loop gain. ,hen negative feedback is applied, the gain is specified by the feedback components, and is referred to as
the Bclosed loop gainB.
)ain H <f / <i
Thus to produce an amplifier with a gain of /00, we can use an input resistor of /k and a feedback resistor of /00k. This is
shown below with the op4amp connected as an inverting amplifier. To produce a non4inverting amplifier, the signal is applied to
the non4inverting input and the feedback components are left on the non4inverting side. This is shown following.
Output O,,)et
The steady state output of an op4amp with negative feedback is Cero when the input is Cero. The actual D" output +in a real op4
amp- is usually not uite Cero, and this small unwanted signal is usually referred to as the output offset voltage. .ost op4amps
have means of nulling this out. &ig ! shows the most common method, where the op4amp has special nulling pins. If these are
not available, the method in &ig $ can be used.
2&eBuenc' Compen)ation
)ircuits using op"amps must be designed so that the open loop gain of the op"amp itself is greater than the closed loop gain
of the circuit for all fre:uencies of operation. The gain drops as the fre:uency increases. This is mainly due to the large
amounts of internal =compensation= used to ma'e sure that they do not oscillate. Fre:uency compensation is the shaping of
the fre:uency responses of the op"amp so that it does not oscillate due to internal phase shift. This phase shift acts as a
time delay. ?hen this delay is great enough so that the input signal is delayed 673D ;a complete cycle<, the amplifier will
oscillate. This is because the =negative feedbac'= signal, instead of being in opposition to the input signal will actually
reinforce it. Thus the input signal 'eeps getting bigger and bigger " positive feedbac' occurs. To ma'e sure this can=t happen,
the open loop gain of the amplifier is shaped either internally ;eg. internal compensation in the 92- op"amp< or e(ternally so
that at the fre:uency where the phase shift approaches 673D, the gain is less than unity.
In practice we need to be careful that we don=t design a circuit which sets a closed loop gain higher than the op"amp can
='eep up with= at high fre:uencies. For e(ample, the 92- op"amp has a unity gain bandwidth of -%C! ;i.e. at -%C! its gain is
(-< and its gain rolls off from appro(imately D) at a rate of (-3 per decade. This means that at -33C! it will typically have a
gain of -3,333 times, but at -333C! this has dropped to -333 times. $y -3,333C! it has dropped to -33 times. $y -33'C! it
has dropped to only -3 times.
*o+e& %uppl' ReCection Ratio
This is the ratio of change in input voltage to the change in supply voltage. This is the ability of an op"amp to reLect power"
supply"induced noise, hum and drift. *oltage changes on the supply lines are coupled into the amplifier and appear as part
of the input signal. $ecause of this, the power supply hum and noise at the output will be amplified by the gain of the op"
amp. Thus if the op"amp is being used as a unity gain inverter, the hum and noise at the output will be that at the input. If
the gain is set high, then it will be amplified accordingly. The figures presented for power supply reLection in the data are
for unity gain and will deteriorate in direct proportion to the gain of the op"amp. To give an e(ample@"
If an op"amp has a power supply reaction of 83d$ ;-3,333< times, then a power supply hum level of -v will only produce a
hum level of 3.-m* at the output. Cowever, if the op"amp is used at a gain of -,333 times, this hum will be amplified -,333
times as well, producing 3.-v of hum in the output signal. .lso, power supply reLection will usually deteriorate at high
fre:uencies.
-atch7up
Latch"up is the =stic'ing= or =loc'ing"up= of the output of an op"amp when the ma(imum differential input voltage is
e(ceeded. In the latch"up condition, the output is stuc' at either the positive or negative ma(imum output voltage, and the
input is ineffective in affecting the output. %ost of the modern op"amps such as the 92- have eliminated this problem.
CMO% Ope&ational ampli,ie&)
The ).6-63 is a )%O# output operational amplifier, originally designed by 0).. It is a good choice when you want the full
output voltage swing to go from rail to rail.
Li'e the conventional op"amp, the 6-63 has an inverting and a non"inverting input. These go to a pair
of p"channel %O#FETs set up as a differential amplifier.
)ompensation is applied between pins - and 8. )ompared to the 92-, the 6-63 has about the same open loop gain and input
offset voltage.
The input impedance is about a million times higher ;5(-3
-5
ohms rather than 5(-3
7
< and the input bias and offset currents
are proportionately lower. #lew rate is about 53 times better, at -3*IHsec. The output of the 6-63 is sensitive to capacitive
loading. It wor's on voltages as low as 4v but will only wor' up to -7v total. .nother similar device is the ).6-23. It has a
bipolar output stage and will wor' up to a full X-4*. Fre:uency compensation is internally provided. The output easily drives
capacitive loads. It has the same high slew rate and input impedance of the 6-63
C0140 5igh Impe.ance DC /oltmete&
This circuit ma'es use of the very high impedance of the ).6-23 to produce a high performance D) voltmeter with an input
impedance of --% ohms. The instrument uses a cheap -m. F#D movement and has a diode bridge to correct polarity. If
reverse polarity is applied to the instrument, the op"amp biases the $)448 =on= and this turns a LED on.
741 Ope&ational 0mpli,ie&
The 92- is a high performance operational amplifier with high open loop gain, internal compensation, high common mode
range and e(ceptional temperature stability. It is short circuit proof and allows for nulling of offset voltage.
2eatu&e)
B Internal fre:uency compensation
B #hort circuit protection
B Offset voltage null capability
B E(cellent temperature stability
B Cign input voltage range
B 1o latch up
0()olute Ma=imum Rating)
#upply *oltage X-8v
Internal /ower Dissipation 433m?
Differential Input *oltage X63v
Input *oltage ;either input< X -4v
Output #hort )ircuit Duration Indefinite
0pplication)
The 92- is an internally compensated op"amp for unconditional stability. Its gain falls off at 7d$ per octaveI 53d$ per
decade above D). i.e. as the fre:uency doubles, the open loop gain halves.
It has a unity gain bandwidth of -%C! i.e. at -%C! its gain has dropped to (-.
O,,)et 0.Cu)tment
%peci,ication)
Input >ffset (oltage 9m(+max-
Input <esistance 1.+typ-
*upply "urrent /.6m!+typ-
Large *ignal Differential voltage gain 100v/m(+typ-
"ommon .ode <e@ection :0d$+typ-
*upply (oltage <e@ection :9d$+typ-
>utput (oltage *wing +<L I/0k- J/8(+typ-
0u.io Mi=e&
This can be important in D) circuits or where a high
impedance feedbac' resistor is used. . -3' ohm
variable resistor is connected between pins - and 4 ;of
the 8 pin pac'age< and the wiper is ta'en to " supply.
*o+e& %uppl' Regulation
The 92- can be run on a poorly regulated supply
;or one with lots of ripple<, but only under certain
conditions. $oth the 92- and the 63- have a
typical supply reaction of >7d$, but this is at unity
gain. This decreases with gain. If you are using
either op"amp in a high closed loop gain
configuration, you must have a well smoothed and
regulated supply.
%le+ Rate
The 92-, when used on X-4* rails will swing to
near the full supply rails up to -3'C!. .bove this it
will be slew"rate"limited, dropping to half the
value each octave, i.e. only swing half rail at 53'
C!. This may not matter in audio circuits where
the standard output is usually -.3v 0%#, which the
92- can wor' up to appro(imately -33'C!.
Difference !mplifier
The circuit below shows a typical application for a unity gain difference amplifier" a balanced input audio amplifier. The
output is the difference between the two input signals. These circuits are often used in audio when long leads must be run "
say between a microphone and an audio mi(er. #ignals such as hum or bu!! from lighting controllers ;triac dimmers are
renowned for their electrical =noise= producing abilityY< are pic'ed up along the cable. The difference amplifier gets this
signal e:ually on both inputs and cancels it out. The good =wanted= signal will be seen as a difference at the input terminals
and will be passed through.
#recision D" .illivoltmeter
This circuit is for a unity gain
inverting adder. The output
voltage will be e:ual to the sum of
the three input voltages. ?hile the
circuit is shown with only three
inputs, more could be added if
necessary. This circuit is called a
virtual earth input mi(er since pin
5 ;the inverting input< is seen as
=earth= by the input signals. .s a
result the input impedance is set
by the input resistors and there is
very little interaction between
inputs. It this is used as an audio
mi(er, it is a good idea to wire
capacitors between the inputs and
their signals and also on the
output. -uF tantalum would be a
good value.
The very high D) performance of the 92- and 63- ma'e them ideal for D) measuring e:uipment. The circuit following is for a
precision D) millivoltmeter. It will give full scale voltage readings from -m* to -33m* in seven ranges.

*eak &ea.ing /U Mete&
,ein4$ridge O)cillato&
The circuit shows how the 92- or 63-
can be connected as a variable
fre:uency ?ein"$ridge oscillator. .s it
stands, the circuit covers from -43C!
to -.4'C! and uses only a cheap
miniature globe for amplitude
stabili!ation. Output is appro(imately
5.4* 0%# and distortion less than 3.-
K. The fre:uency is inversely
proportional to the values of ), and )
5

and can be varied to wor' up to about
54'C!.
999 Time&
The 444 is a highly stable device designed for generating accurate time delays or oscillations. .dditional terminals are
provided = for triggering or resetting. In the time delay mode ;monostable mode< the time is set by one e(ternal resistor
and one capacitor. In the astable ;free running< mode the fre:uency and duty cycle are set by two e(ternal resistors and one
capacitor. The circuit can be both triggered and reset on falling waveforms. The output circuit can source or sin' up to
533m.. TTL circuitry can be driven directly from the output.
. dual version of this I) is available, the 447.
2eatu&e)
B Timing from microseconds to hours
B .dLustable duty cycle
B #in' Q source 533m.
B 2"-4* operation
B Temperature stability Z3.334K perD)
0()olute ma=imum &ating)
#upply J-8*
/ower dissipation 733m?
%peci,ication)
Timing Error, monostable Temperature drift 43ppmID)
#upply Drift 3.- KI*
Timing Error, astable Temperature Drift -43ppmID)
#upply Drift 3.63KI*
Trigger *oltage
*
cc
-4* ;I
trig
, 3.4H.< 4*
*
cc
4* -.79v
)ontrol *oltage
*
))
-4* -3v
*
))
4* 6.6v
999 Mo.e) D u)e)
2&ee7&unning: a)ta(le multi6i(&ato&
?hen powered from a 4v supply the 444 is directly compatible with TTL. It can also run from 2"-4v and can source and sin'
several hundred milliamps at its output.
One end of the timing capacitor is connected to ground, the other to the positive supply via resistor;s< allowing the use of
electrolytics.
The high input impedance allows the use of large resistors and small capacitors. Fp to -333@- fre:uency range can be
obtained from a single capacitor by changing the resistance timing element.
0)ta(le ope&ation
-. Output ;pin 6< is high
5. )harge on capacitor is low
6. Discharge transistor not conducting
2. )apacitor starts to charge
4. ?hen voltage across the capacitor reaches two"thirds of the supply voltage the comparator triggers. Output goes low,
capacitor is discharged via 0
5
. ?hen the voltage on the capacitor drops to one third of the supply the comparator flips the
circuit bac'. Then the whole se:uence repeats for the ne(t cycle.
444 ,/
If 0
5
is made large compared to 0
-
, output is low but symmetry of waveform is high.
0lte&ing the Dut' C'cle
The duty cycle is the =on= time as a percentage of total cycle time. This is normally limited to 43K. $y adding a diode, a duty
cycle of less than 43K can be achieved.
Cu&ing -atch7up p&o(lem)
Latch"up when driving an inductive load can be avoided by adding two diodes as shown in the circuit below. This stops
negative voltage from reaching pin three.
2ine Cont&ol o, Timing82&eBuenc'
/in 4, the control pin, is primarily used for filtering when the device is used in noisy electrical environments. Cowever, by
putting a voltage on this point, it is possible to vary the timing of the device independently of the =0)= components. This
control voltage may be varied from 24K to >3K of supply voltage in the monostable mode and from -.9* to *
cc
;supply
voltage< in the astable mode.
Mono)ta(le ope&ation
-. $ringing trigger from J* to ground starts se:uence.
5. Output goes positive.
6. )lamp is removed from timing capacitor which then charges to two thirds of supply voltage. The threshold comparator
then flips the circuit over. Output goes to ground and the capacitor is rapidly discharged to ground.
%Bua&e @a6e O)cillato&
This simple circuit provides s:uare waves at five switched fre:uencies from -C! to -3'C!. It uses the 444 in the astable
mode.
Time& ci&cuit
This circuit produces a warning tone after a preset period. The delay period is controlled by )
-
I0
-
and 0*
-
and can be
adLusted from a few milliseconds to appro(imately 433 seconds. The 444 is normally [switched off[. )
-
discharges via 0
-
and
0*
-
. ?hen it has discharged, the 444 is turned =on= via M
-
and oscillates, producing a warning tone.
%pecial /e&)ion o, the 999
ICM7999
The I)% 9444 is a )%O# timer I) providing significantly improved performance over the standard 444 timer. .t the same time
it will act as a direct replacement for this device in most applications. Improved parameters include the low supply current,
wide operating supply voltage range, low threshold, trigger and reset currents, no crowbarring of the supply current during
any output transition, higher fre:uency performance and no re:uirement to decouple the control voltage for stable
operation. . dual version of the 9444 is available, the 9447, with two timers sharing only *J;*
))
< and *";G1D<. They are both
capable of sourcing and sin'ing sufficient current to drive TTL loads and have small enough offset to drive )%O# loads.
2eatu&e)
B Low supply current ;83H. typ<
B Fltra low trigger threshold. ;53p. typ<
B Cigh speed operation ;433'C! guaranteed<
B ?ide supply range 5v to -8v
B 1o crowbarring of supply during reset.
B )an be used with higher impedance timing elements than 444.
B )omplete static protection.
!bsolute .aximum <atings
#upply *oltage J-8v
Input *oltage
Trigger #upply J 3.6*
Threshold #upply " 3.6*
0eset control voltage
Output )urrent -33m.
/ower Dissipation 533m?
-M40 an. 7#EE )e&ie) te&minal &egulato&) -M40T9: 1!: 19
7#09: 7#1!: 7#19
The L%623 series of positive 6 terminal regulators offer similar performance to the 98AA series. They are complete voltage
regulators with outstanding ripple reLection and superior line load regulation.
)urrent limiting is included to limit pea' output current to a safe level. #afe area protection for the output transistor is
provided. If internal power dissipation is too high, thermal shutdown occurs. .lthough designed primarily as fi(ed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with e(ternal components to obtain adLustable voltages and currents.
2eatu&e)
B %a(imum -. output
B Output voltage tolerance X5K
B Load regulation 3.6K
B Thermal overload protection
B #hort circuit current limit
B Output transistor safe area protected
B )ontinuous dissipation -4?
4a)ic u)e a) a ,i=e. &egulato&
The -3HF capacitor across the output is needed for stability and improves the transient response of the supply.
%peci,ication)
#upply *oltage 5v to -8v
#upply )urrent 73"-53u.
Timing
Initial .ccuracy 5.3K
Drift with temperature 43ppmID)
Drift with #upply *oltage -KI*
Trigger )urrent + #upply *oltage 4* -3p.
0eset )urrent + #upply *oltage 4* 53p.
%a(imum Oscillator Fre:uency 433'C!
Trigger and Threshold *oltages are as for the standard 444.
%peci,ication) @ 54D)
%!6502/ L.780T42 %!65/1/ L.780T4/1 %!65/2/ L.780T4/2
Output voltage 2v J .12 /1v J .9 /2( J.9
0ipple reLection 50d$ 61d$ 60d$
Input voltage ;minimum to
maintain line regulation<
6.7v /8.2v /6.2v
Dropout voltage 1.0 1.0 1.0
/ea' output current 1.1! 1.1! 1.1!
#hort circuit current 1./! max /.2! max. /.1! max.
Load regulation ;4m. to -.4.< /1m( typ. /1m( typ. /1m( typ.
$ias current 5m! max 5m! max 5m! max
.bsolute ma( input voltage
72v 72v 72v
0pplication)
.part from the normal use as a fi(ed voltage regulator, the L%623I98AA can be used in a variety of ways with the addition of
e(ternal circuitry.
0.Cu)ta(le output
This simple circuit gives the L.780T42 variable output voltage according to the formulaA
*out , 4v J ;4vI0-JI
M
<05
4oo)ting the cu&&ent output o, the -M40T8 7#EE )e&ie)
This circuit supplies regulated outputs at up to 4.. .t low currents M- is off. Only above 733m. is it biased on.
*&o6i.ing ,i=e. highe& 6oltage)
The output voltage of the L%623TI98AA series can be increased over the standard voltage of the regulator by using a !ener
diode in the common to earth lead.
:
OFT
G :
EE1E0
D :
0EGFL.TO0
7"EE th&ee te&minal negati6e 6oltage &egulato&)
The 9>AA series are three terminal negative regulators with fi(ed output voltages. The only e(ternal component necessary is
a compensation capacitor on the output.
These are essentially similar to the 98AA series positive regulators, with current limiting and thermal overload protection.
*pecifications 312F"
*M5894 *M581> *M5814
Output *oltage "4v X.5 "-5v X.4 "-4v X .7
Line regulation 4m* typ 4m* typ 4m* typ
Muiescent )urrent -m. -.4m. typ -.4m. typ
/ower dissipation -.4? -.4? -.4?
Input voltage ma(imum "64v "64v "64v
%inimum input voltage 9v -2.4v -9.4v
%tan.a&. ci&cuit
The use of a pair of the
regulators ;positive and
negative< ma'es an ideal
dual rail supply, for
powering op"amps etc. .
suitable circuit is shown
below. This one uses -5*
regulators, but obviously
the voltage can be
varied by changing
regulators.
Thi) li)t i) onl' )ome o, the mo)t common
t'pe):
De6ice /oltage Cu&&ent *inout
6502
65L02
6509
6505
65/0
65L/1
65/1
65*/1"T
65/5
6518
6:02
6:L02
6:09
6:05
6:/1
6:L/1
6:/2
6:/5
6:18
L.7/6T
L.776*#
L./17k
L.//6K
E2v
E2v
E9v
E5v
E/0v
E/1v
E/1v
E/1v
E/5v
E18v
42v
42v
49v
45v
4/1v
4/1v
4/2v
4/5v
418v
E/.1( to E76(
4/.1( to 476(
E2v
E/.1( to E76(
/!
/00m!
/!
/!
/!
/00m!
/!
1!
/!
/!
/!
/00m!
/!
/!
/!
/00m!
/!
/!
/!
/.2!
/.2!
7!
7!

T>4110 positive
T>4:1 positive
T>4110 positive
T>4110 positive
T>4110 positive
T>4:1 positive
T>4110 positive
T>47 positive
T>4110 positive
T>4110 positive
T>4110 negative
T>4:1 negative
T>4110 negative
T>4110 negative
T>4110 negative
T>4:1 negative
T>4110 negative
T>4110 negative
T>4110 negative
T>4110 ad@ustable
T>4110 ad@ustable
T>47 positive
T>47 positive
The above tables are called T0FTC T.$LE#. They give all the possible outcomes for a particular gate.
The inputs are labeled . and $ as shown above and the output is the result of the inputs at CIGC or LO? level.
. CIGC is S-T and a LO? is S3.T
4001 Metal Detecto&
233- is used in this circuit as two different types of oscillator. I)-a and I)-b with 0
-
, 0*
-
and )
5
form one oscillator. 0*
-

varies its fre:uency slightly. l)l
d
, )
2
, )
4
and L
-
;search coil< form the second oscillator. I)-
8
acts as a mi(er, combining the
two oscillators and producing an output which is the difference between the two. This is amplified by T0
-
and fed to a
magnetic earpiece.
Ult&a)onic T&an)mitte&
The 233- forms a complete 23'C! oscillator and driver for an ultrasonic transmitter. The oscillator fre:uency can be
adLusted by means of 0*
-
. Two gates act as s:uare wave oscillators which then drive the other two gates in push"pull. These
drive the transducer in push"pull to get the ma(imum.
CMO% -ogic *&o(e
The logic probe is an essential instrument for testing digital circuitry. This one uses only one 233- I), 6 LEDs and a handful of
passive components. /ower is obtained from the circuit to be tested. The first gate acts as an inverter by strapping its two
inputs together. It is biased for half supply by 0
-
. Fnder :uiescent conditions neither LED- or LED5 will light. If the input
goes high, gate output goes low and LED- comes on. If the input is ta'en low, the output of I)- goes high and LED5 comes
on, indicating a low signal. #hort pulses are =stretched
&
by I) gates 5 and 6, producing a flic'ering output at LED6.
Touch %+itch
The near infinite input impedance of )%O# ma'es it ideal for use in touch and pro(imity circuits. Fsually a touch sensitive
circuit needs physical contact, while pro(imity circuit needs only the presence of an obLect such as the human body. Touch
sensors rely on three features of the human body. #'in resistance is usually a few hundred thousand ohms, the body has a
capacitance to earth of around 633pF and the human body acts as an antenna, pic'ing up 43C! power line fields. The figure
below shows a pro(imity switch based on human coupling of the 43C! power line. . hand very near the plate will induce hum
onto the plate and this will be passed to the circuit. The first gate is a 233- with both inputs strapped together. The hum will
be s:uared up and used to trip the retriggerable monostable as shown. . clean output results from the instant of first
pro(imity until a few milliseconds after release. The sensitivity depends on the si!e of the plate.
The output of the 23-6 can be connected to a relay via a transistor. It could then be used to turn on a light or other piece of
electrical e:uipment. The 43% resistor can be made by putting 4% resistors in series.
CMO% -amp 2la)he&
This circuit uses the four )%O# 1.1D gates of the 23-- as an oscillator and low power driver. The first two form a low
fre:uency oscillator. .ll the gates are used with their inputs connected together. In this form they act as an inverter i.e. a
CIGC produces a LO? out. The very high input impedance of the gates means that high impedance values can be used in the
oscillator circuit. The power consumption is also very low and the circuit will function over the normal 6"-4 volts range of
)%O#.
0u.io 0la&m
Metal Detecto&
This unit uses two pairs of 23-- 1.1D gates as two oscillators and two 23-- buffers. The search coil oscillator has its
fre:uency influenced by the position and pro(imity of metal at the search head. The reference oscillator has its fre:uency
adLusted by the slug tuning of its coil and fine tuning by adLusting the voltage on I)5c. The two signals are digitally mi(ed in
one section of a dual D"type flip"flop.
The addition of a *FET
driver transistor following
a )%O# oscillator ma'es
a very efficient and
simple audio alarm. .s
well as this it will drive a
low impedance spea'er
directly.
4017 CMO% Deca.e Counte&8 Di6i.e& +ith 10 Deco.e. Output)
FAohn)ton Counte&G
The )D 23-9 is called a )OF1TE0 or DI*IDE0 or DE).DE )OF1TE0. It is a very handy chip for producing [0unning LED effects[
etc.
It has -3 outputs. For normal operation, the cloc' enable and reset should be at ground.
Output [3[ goes CIGC on the rise of the first cloc' cycle.
On the rise of the second cloc' cycle, output [3[ goes LO? and output [-[ goes CIGC. This process continues across the ten
outputs and cycles to output [3[ on the eleventh cycle.
The [)arry Out[ pin goes LO? when output [4[ goes CIGC and goes CIGC when output [3[ goes CIGC.
In other words, [)arry Out[ is CIGC for outputs 3, -, 5, 6 and 2. It is LO? when the following outputs are active@ 4, 7, 9, 8
and >.
?hen 0E#ET ;pin -4< is ta'en CIGC, the chip will ma'e output [3[ go CIGC and remain CIGC.
?hen [)loc' Inhibit[ ;pin -6< is ta'en CIGC, the counter will F0EEEE on the output that is currently CIGC.
The cloc' signal must have a rise time faster than 4Hsecs ;*
DD
,-4v<.
= *EDs on t!e +,(( 1/--ER scan back and fort! similar to t!e
lig!ts on t!e front of t!e +,(( car in t!e mo&ie.

(!e 19 *EDs on t!e 1/--ER t$rn on one'at'a'time% from left to rig!t
*ED D,/E
-ogic *&o(e

4010; OR 74C14 5$E %chmitt T&igge& IC
This chip is 'nown by a number of identities. 92)-2. It is also mar'eted as
23-37, 233-2, and 92C)-2. These are all )%O# chips and are characterised by
low current consumption, high input impedance and a supply voltage from 4v to
-4v. (Do not s$bstit$te 5414 or 54*114. (!ey are ((* c!ips and operate on
4.4& to 4.4& and !a&e low impedance inp$ts.)
The 92)-2 contains 7 #chmitt Trigger gates.
%inimum supply voltage 4v
%a(imum supply voltage -4v
%a( current per output -3m.
%a(imum speed of operation 2%C!
)urrent consumption appro( -u. with nothing connected to the inputs or
outputs.
The e(cellent input protection and wide supply
voltage tolerance of the 232> ma'es it ideal as the
basis of a logic probe. The circuit below shows a
logic probe for both )%O# and TTL circuits and will
wor' over a 6"-4v range and reliably up to -.4%C!.
On a =low= input, I)-
e
will send I)-f low, lighting LED
-. On a high input I)-
)
will go =low=, lighting LED 5.
I)-
a
and I)-
b
form a monostable circuit which
=stretches= short pulses to -4msec, so they can be
seen. Thus on even high fre:uency pulse trains, LED
6 will flash.

Cere are some of the things you can do with the gates in the 23-37 Ce( #chmitt Trigger chip@
INVERTING
If the output is re:uired to be the opposite of the circuit above, an inverter is addedA
If a diode is added across the input resistor, the capacitor L"L will be discharged when the input goes
low, so the LDelay TimeL will be instantly available when the input goes MI)MA
The following circuit produces a #?L*' +a L>, pulse- when the input goes MI)MA
To invert the output, add an inverterA

To produce a pulse after a delay, the following circuit can be usedA
The following circuit produces a tone during the MI)M period. ,hen the output of the second inverter
is MI)M, it places a high on the input of the third inverter, via the diode. This is called L@ammingL the
oscillator and prevents the oscillator from operating. ,hen the second inverter goes L>,, the
oscillator will operate.
The oscillator above can be set to produce a /00MC tone and this can activate a 1kMC oscillator to produce
a 14tone output. ! L@amming diodeL is needed between the third and fourth gates to allow the high4
freuency oscillator to operate when the output of the low4freuency oscillator is MI)M.
The output can be buffered with a transistorA
$=ten.ing the action o, a pu)h (utton
The action of a push button can be extended by adding the following circuitA
To produce a pulse of constant length, +no matter how long the button is pressed-, the following circuit is neededA
GATING
)ating is the action of preventing or allowing a signal to pass though a circuit.
In the following circuit, buttons L!L and L$L are gated to allow the oscillator to produce an output.
The first two inverters form an L><4gate.L ,hen the output of the gate is MI)M it allows the oscillator to operate.
The second diode is called the gating .io.e. ,hen the output of the second inverter is L>,, the capacitor is prevented from
charging as the diode will not allow it to charge higher than 0.6v, and thus the oscillator does not operate.
,hen the output of the second inverter is MI)M, the capacitor is allowed to charge and discharge and thus oscillator will
produce an output. If the push buttons can be placed together, the circuit can be simplified toA
PULSER
The 68c/8 can be used to produce a 7m* pulses every second. The circuit is ad@ustable to a wide range of
reuirements.

2 MINUTE TIMER
*ome of the features we have discussed have been incorporated into the following circuit. The relay is
energiCed for a short time, 1 minutes after the push4button is pressed. The push4button produces a brief L>,
on pin /, no matter how long it is pushed and this produces a pulse of constant length via the three components
between pin 1 and 7.
This pulse is long enough to fully discharge the /00u timing electrolytic on pin 2.
The /00k and electrolytic between pins 9 and : are designed to produce a brief pulse to energiCe the relay.

TRIGGER TIMER
The next design interfaces a LNormally >penL and LNormally "losedL switch to a delay circuit.
The feedback diode from the output prevents the inputs re4triggering the timer +during the delay period- so that a
device such as a motor, globe or voice chip can be activated for a set period of time.

ALARM
In the following circuit, the gates are used to detect the touch of a door knob and produce an output that goes
MI)M for approx / minute.

The output of the above circuit can be ta'en to an alarm. Open the reed switch contacts and connect the
reed switch to the output of the Door"'nob alarm.

-M #;
00m@ ampli,ie& u)ing -M #;
00m@ ampli,ie& u)ing -M #;
The L. 759 is an 54pin !udio #ower !mplifier
.inimum supply voltage 2v
.aximum supply voltage /2v
7 variationsA
L.7594N/ cheapest variety 700m,
L.7594N7 200m,
L.7594N8 expensive variety 600m,



%u&,ace Mount Re)i)to&)
!ll *. resistors conform to a 74digit or 84digit code. $ut there are a number of codes, according to the
tolerance of the resistor. ItBs getting very complicated.
Mere is a basic 74digit *. resistorA

The first two digits represent the two digits in the answer. The third digit represents the number of CeroBs
you must place after the two digits. The answer will be >M.*. &or exampleA 778 is written 77 0 000.
This is written 770,000 ohms. The comma can be replaced by the letter LkL. The final answer isA 770k.
111 H 11 00 H 1,100 H 1k1
867 H 86 000 H 86,000 H 86k
/02 H /0 00000 H /,000,000 H /. H one million ohms
There is one trick you have to remember. <esistances less than /00 ohms are writtenA /00, 110, 860.
These are /0 and N> CeroBs H /0 ohms H /0<
or 11 and no CeroBs H 11< or 86 and no CeroBs H 86<. *ometimes the resistor is markedA /0, 11 and 86
to prevent a mistake.
Remem(e&A
< H ohms k H kilo ohms H /,000 ohms . H .eg H /,000,000 ohms
The 7 letters +<, k and .- are put in place of the decimal point. This way you cannot make a mistake
when reading a value of resistance.
T5$ COM*-$T$ R0N1$ O2 %M R$%I%TOR M0RHIN1%:
! 770k *. resistor
30- , 3.-ohm
055 , 3.55ohm
066 , 3.66ohm
029 , 3.29ohm
078 , 3.78ohm
085 , 3.85ohm
-03 , -0
-05 , -05
505 , 505
606 , 606
209 , 209
407 , 407
708 , 708
805 , 805
-33 , -30
-53 , -50
-43 , -40
-83 , -80
553 , 550
593 , 590
663 , 660
6>3 , 6>0
293 , 290
473 , 470
783 , 780
853 , 850
-3- , -330
-5- , -530
-4- , -430
-8- , -830
55- , 5530
59- , 5930
66- , 6630
6>- , 6>30
29- , 2930
47- , 4730
78- , 7830
85- , 8530
-35 , -'3
-55 , -'5
-45 , -'4
-85 , -'8
555 , 5'5
595 , 5'9
665 , 6'6
6>5 , 6'>
295 , 2'9
475 , 4'7
785 , 7'8
855 , 8'5
-36 , -3'
-56 , -5'
-46 , -4'
-86 , -8'
556 , 55'
596 , 59'
666 , 66'
6>6 , 6>'
296 , 29'
476 , 47'
786 , 78'
856 , 85'
-32 , -33'
-52 , -53'
-42 , -43'
-82 , -83'
552 , 553'
592 , 593'
662 , 663'
6>2 , 6>3'
292 , 293'
472 , 473'
782 , 783'
852 , 853'
-34 , -%3
-54 , -%5
-44 , -%4
-84 , -%8
554 , 5%5
594 , 5%9
664 , 6%6
6>4 , 6%>
294 , 2%9
474 , 4%7
784 , 7%8
854 , 8%5
-37 , -3%3
The complete &ange o, %M &e)i)to& ma&king) ,o& 47.igit co.eA
3333 ,330
330- , 3.-ohm
3055 , 3.55ohm
3029 , 3.29ohm
3078 , 3.78ohm
3085 , 3.78ohm
-033 , -ohm
-053 , -05
5053 , 505
6063 , 606
7083 , 708
8053 , 805
-303 , -30
--03 , --0
-503 , -50
-603 , -60
-403 , -40
-703 , -70
-803 , -80
5303 , 530
5503 , 550
5203 , 520
5903 , 590
6303 , 630
6603 , 660
6703 , 670
6>03 , 6>0
2603 , 260
2903 , 290
4-03 , 4-0
4703 , 470
7503 , 750
7803 , 780
9403 , 940
8503 , 850
>-03 , >-0
-333 , -330
--33 , --30
-533 , -530
-633 , -630
-433 , -430
-733 , -730
-833 , -830
5333 , 5330
5533 , 5530
5233 , 5230
5933 , 5930
6333 , 6330
6633 , 6630
6733 , 6730
6>33 , 6>30
2633 , 2630
2933 , 2930
4-33 , 4-30
4733 , 4730
7533 , 7530
7833 , 7830
9433 , 9430
8533 , 8530
>-33 , >-30
-33- , -'3
--3- , -'-
-53- , -'5
-63- , -'6
-43- , -'4
-73- , -'7
-83- , -'8
533- , 5'3
553- , 5'5
523- , 5'2
593- , 5'9
633- , 6'3
663- , 6'6
673- , 6'7
6>3- , 6'>
263- , 2'6
293- , 2'9
4-3- , 4'-
473- , 4'7
753- , 7'5
783- , 7'8
943- , 9'4
853- , 8'5
>-3- , >'-
-335 , -3'
--35 , --'
-535 , -5'
-635 , -6'
-435 , -4'
-735 , -7'
-835 , -8'
5335 , 53'
5535 , 55'
5235 , 52'
5935 , 59'
6335 , 63'
6635 , 66'
6735 , 67'
6>35 , 6>'
2635 , 26'
2935 , 29'
4-35 , 4-'
4735 , 47'
7535 , 75'
7835 , 78'
9435 , 94'
8535 , 85'
>-35 , >-'
-336 , -33'
--36 , --3'
-536 , -53'
-636 , -63'
-436 , -43'
-736 , -73'
-836 , -83'
5336 , 533'
5536 , 553'
5236 , 523'
5936 , 593'
6336 , 633'
6636 , 663'
6736 , 673'
6>36 , 6>3'
2636 , 263'
2936 , 293'
4-36 , 4-3'
4736 , 473'
7636 , 753'
7836 , 783'
9436 , 943'
8536 , 853'
>-36 , >-3'
-332 , -%
--32 , -%-
-532 , -%5
-632 , -%6
-432 , -%4
-732 , -%7
-832 , -%8
5332 , 5%3
5532 , 5%5
5232 , 5%2
5932 , 5%9
6332 , 6%3
6632 , 6%6
6732 , 6%7
6>32 , 6%>
2632 , 2%6
2932 , 2%9
4-32 , 4%-
4732 , 4%7
7532 , 7%5
7832 , 7%8
9432 , 9%4
8532 , 8%5
>-32 , >%-
-334 , -3%
0000 is a value on a surface4mount resistor. It is a Cero4ohm -INHO
<esistances less than /0 ohms have B<B to indicate the position of the decimal point. Mere are some examplesA
Th&ee Digit $=ample) 2ou& Digit $=ample)
0 i) ohm) - not 330 ohms 1000 i) 100 ohm) - not 1000 ohms
!!1 i) !!0 ohm) 4""! i) 4" "00 ohm): o& 4"k"
;# i) ;# 000 ohm): o& ;#k 1;! i) 1;! 000 ohm): o& 1;!k
109 i) 1 000 000 ohm): o& 1M
0R9; o& R9; i)
0.9; ohm)
#R! i) #.! ohm)
! new coding system has appeared on 1I t'pe). This is known as the 'I!4:9 marking method. It consists of a three4character
code. The first two digits signify the 7 significant digits of the resistor value, using the lookup table below. The third character 4 a
letter 4 signifies the multiplier.
co.e 6alue

co.e 6alue

co.e 6alue

co.e 6alue

co.e 6alue

co.e 6alue
01 /00 17 /86 1/2 4" 7/9 ;9 898 #1 95/
0! /01 1# /20 4 11/ 90 718 ;; 862 #! 9:5
0 /02 1" /28 9 119 91 771 ;7 856 # 6/2
04 /06 !0 /25 ; 171 9! 780 ;# 8:: #4 671
09 //0 !1 /91 7 176 9 785 ;" 2// #9 620
0; //7 !! /92 # 187 94 726 70 217 #; 695
07 //2 ! /9: " 18: 99 792 71 279 #7 656
0# //5 !4 /68 40 122 9; 768 7! 28: ## 509
0" /1/ !9 /65 41 19/ 97 757 7 291 #" 512
10 /18 !; /51 4! 176 9# 7:1 74 269 "0 582
11 /16 !7 /56 4 168 9" 801 79 2:0 "1 599
1! /70 !# /:/ 44 150 ;0 8/1 7; 908 "! 556
1 /77 !" /:9 49 156 ;1 811 77 9/: " :0:
14 /76 0 100 4; 1:8 ;! 871 7# 978 "4 :7/
19 /80 1 102 47 70/ ; 881 7" 98: "9 :27
1; /87 ! 1/0 4# 70: ;4 827 #0 992 "; :69
The multiplie& letters are as followsA
lette& mult

lette& mult
2 100000 4 10
$ 10000 0 1
D 1000 E o& % 0.1
C 100 ? o& R 0.01
!!0 is a /92 ohm resistor, ;#C is a 8::00 ohm +8:k:- and 4$ a 1680000 +1.68-. This marking scheme applies to /D
resistors only.
! similar arrangement can be used for !I an. 9I tolerance types. The multiplier letters are identical to /D ones, but occur
(e,o&e the number code and the following co.e is usedA
!I

9I
co.e 6alue

co.e 6alue co.e 6alue

co.e 6alue
01 /00 1 770 !9 /00 7 770
0! //0 14 790 !; //0 # 790
0 /10 19 7:0 !7 /10 " 7:0
04 /70 1; 870 !# /70 40 870
09 /20 17 860 !" /20 41 860
0; /90 1# 2/0 0 /90 4! 2/0
07 /50 1" 290 1 /50 4 290
0# 100 !0 910 ! 100 44 910
0" 110 !1 950 110 49 950
10 180 !! 620 4 180 4; 620
11 160 ! 510 9 160 47 510
1! 700 !4 :/0 ; 700 4# :/0
,ith this arrangement, C1 is 2D, /5000 ohm +/5k-, and D1# is 2/0000 ohms +2/0k- 1D tolerance.
!lways check with an ohm4meter +a multimeter- to make sure.
Chip &e)i)to&) come in the ,ollo+ing )t'le) an. &ating):
%t'le: 0801, 0907, 0502, /109, /1/0, 10/0, 12/1, 79/9, 8011
*o+e& Rating: 0801+///9,-, 0907+///0,-, 0502+//5,-, /109+//8,-, /1/0+//7,-, 10/0+7/8,-, 12/1+/,-, 79/9+1,-,
8011+7,-
Tole&ance: 0./D, 0.2D, /D, 2D
Tempe&atu&e Coe,,icient: 12ppm 20ppm /00ppm
C0*0CITOR D0T0
. capacitor wor's on the principle of having two conductive plates which are
very close and are parallel to each other. ?hen a charge is applied to one plate
of the capacitor, the electrons will generate an appro(imately e:ual, but
opposite charge on the other plate. )apacitors will pass .) current, but will
bloc' D) current. . capacitor can also he used to smooth voltage ripple, as in
D) power supplies. )apacitance is measured in Farads ;F<.
/apacitor 6arameters
)apacitors have five parameters@
)apacitance ;Farads<,
Tolerance ;K<,
%a(imum ?or'ing *oltage ;*olts<
#urge *oltage ;*olts< and lea'age
$ecause a Farad is a very large unit, most capacitors are normally measured in
the ranges of pico, nano and micro farads.
3orking :oltage
This refers to the ma(imum voltage that should be placed across the capacitor
under normal operating conditions.
1$rge :oltage
The ma(imum instantaneous voltage a capacitor can withstand. If the surge
voltage is e(ceeded over too long a period there is a very good chance that the
capacitor will be destroyed by the voltage punching through the insulating
material inside the casing of the capacitor. If a circuit has a surging
characteristic, choose a capacitor with a high rated surge voltage.
*eakage
0efers to the amount of charge that is lost when the capacitor has a voltage
across its terminals. If a capacitor has a low lea'age it means very little power
is lost. Generally lea'age is very small and is not normally a consideration for
general purpose circuits.
(olerance
.s with resistors, tolerance indicates how close the capacitor is to its noted
value. These are normally written on the larger capacitors and encoded on the
small ones.
)ode Tolerance )ode Tolerance
/ H.>4pF D H9.4pF
E H1pF . H>I
A H4I + H19I
* H14I M H>9I
- H79I B D<9'>9I
/apacitor Markings
There are two methods for mar'ing capacitor values. One is to write the
information numerically directly onto the capacitor itself. The second is to use
the EI. coding system.
E, /oding
The EI. code wor's on a very similar principle to the resistor colour code. The
first two digits refer to the value with the third being the multiplier. The fourth
character represents the tolerance.
?hen the EI. code is used, the value will always be in /ico"Farads ;see Decimal
%ultipliers<.
E#ample 197+
(!is e#pands to"
- , -
3 , 3
6 , ( -,333
R , -3K ;sec )apacitor Tolerance for listings<
Then we combine these numbers together@
- 3 ( - 333 , -3 333pF , 3.3-HF, , -3n X-3K tolerance
E(ample 664R
(!is e#pands to"
6 , 6
6 , 6
E , (-33,333
R , X-3K
Then we combine these numbers together
6 6 (-33,333 , 6,633,333pF , 6,633nF , 6.6uF -3K tolerance.
%T$0M %IMU-0TOR
. realistic steam sound can be generated with a 2"transistor directly"coupled amplifier connected to a small
spea'er. The Swhite noiseT is generated by the brea'down across the Lunction of a transistor and it is activated
by a switch made up of contacts touching the wheel of one of the carriages. .s the train speeds up and slows
down, the sound corresponds to the movement. #ee Tal'ing Electronics website for the full proLect.
!7M5J -INH%
.
Cere is the circuit from a 59%C! remote control car. It is a simple single"channel lin' that activates the car in the forward
direction when no carrier is being received, and the motor reverses when a carrier is detected. #ee Tal'ing Electronics
website for more details \ >5M;C *inks.
This is a single channel receiver, similar to the circuit above.
It can be modified to turn on a SlatchT a relay. This means the relay can be turned on remotely but
it cannot be turned off. The second circuit shows the modification to turn the relay O1 with a short
tone and OFF with a long tone.
(!e relay can be t$rned on b$t not t$rned off
(!e relay can be t$rned on wit! a s!ort
tone and t$rned off wit! a long tone
%O-0R C50R1$R
This solar charger can be used to charge a -5v battery from any number of solar cells. The circuit automatically adLusts for
any input voltage and any output voltage. #ee Tal'ing Electronics website for the full proLect.
R/ 3E*DER
2iel. )t&ength Mete& MkII
.
. field strength meter is a very handy piece of test e:uipment to determine the output of a transmitter.
Tal'ing Electronics website describes a number of Test E:uipment proLects to help with developing your
proLects.
,-F,-,(E B?.
T5$ %UR20C$7MOUNT COM*ON$NT% O2 T5$ IN2INIT? 4U1
The Infinity $ug sits on a remote phone and when the handset is returned to the rest position, the caller whistles down the line
and a very sensitive microphone connected to the infinity bug is activated and any audio within 2 metres is detected.
2M 4U1
2M 4U1 CIRCUIT
FM (R-1M,((ER ' <<M;C J 19<M;C
7T&an)i)to& 0mpli,ie&
The )u&,ace7mount 7T&an)i)to& ampli,ie&
5$0RIN1 0ID
T5$ 0MM$T$R
+0 4 /u! uses a /u! movement-
T5$ MICRO*5ON$
$asically there are two different types. One /0ODF)E# a voltage and the other 0EMFI0E# a voltage for its operation.
This means you need to supply energy to the second type and this is very important when you are designing a battery"
operated circuit and need to have a very low :uiescent current.
Cere is a list of different types of microphones and their advantages@
%U**-? /O-T01$ R$>UIR$D:
Electret Microp!one " sometimes called a condenser microphone. 0e:uires about 5"6v + about -m..
E(tremely good reproduction and sensitivity " an ideal choice. Output " about -3 " 53m*
/arbon Microp!one ' also called a telephone insert or telephone microphone. 0e:uires about 6v " 7v. /roduces
about -v waveform. 1ot very good reproduction. O' for voice.
NO %U**-? /O-T01$ R$>UIR$DA
/rystal Microp!one " also called a /ie!o microphone.
/roduces about 53"63m*
/roduces a very [tinny[ sound " li'e tal'ing into a tin.
Dynamic Microp!one " also called a %oving")oil, %oving"Iron, %agnetic %icrophone or 0ibbon %icrophone. *ery
good reproduction. /roduces about -m*.
Connecting an 0MM$T$R
.n ammeter is never connected across a battery or the supply rails of a proLect as
this will create a #CO0T")I0)FIT and a large current will flow to either burn"out the
meter or bend the pointer.
;owe&er, you need to 'now which way to connect a meter so that it reads up"
scale.
(!is is !ow yo$ do it"
0emember this simple fact@ )urrent flows through the meter from the Jve lead to
the "ve lead and this means the leads must be placed so that the positive lead sees
the higher voltage.
Do not place an ammeter .)0O## a component. This will generally cause damage
and in most cases it will not tell you anything.
ou can chec' to see how much current is flowing through a circuit by flicking one
lead of the ammeter onto the circuit and watching the needle. If it moves up"scale
very :uic'ly, you 'now e(cess current is flowing and a higher range should be
chosen. If the needle moves fairly slowly up"scale, the chosen range may be
correct.
.lways start with a high range ;3"-.mp for e(ample< and if the needle moves a very
small amount up the scale, another range can be chosen.
D0-K( F0R.E(@ /lacing an ammeter on a circuit is a very dangerous thing because
it is similar to playing with a Lumper lead and represents a lead with a very small
resistance. It is very easy to slip off a component and create a short"circuit. ou
have to be very careful.
.mmeters have to be connected across a [gap[ or [cut[ in a circuit and the easiest
way to get a gap is across the onIoff switch.
The accompanying diagram shows how to connect an ammeter.
The ammeter is placed in #E0IE# with one lead of a circuit. It must be placed around
the correct way so the needle moves up"scale.
.n ammeter is really a microamp"meter ;it=s called a movement " generally a 3"63
micro"amp movement< with a #CF1T ;a thic' piece of wire< across the two terminals.
To cover the range of current used in electronic circuits, there are basically 6 types of
amp"meters ;or 6 ranges<@
3 " - amp ;3 " -.<
3 " -milliamp ;3 " -m.<
3 " - microamp ;3 " -u.<
In each range you can get many different scales, such as@
3 " -., 3 " -3., and higher
3 " -3m., 3 " -33m., 3"543m., 3"433m.
3 " -u., 3 " -33u., 3 " 433u.
. spea'er can be used as a microphone " it is called a Dynamic %ic. or %agnetic mic. " output about -m*
If a microphone produces about 53m* under normal conditions, you will need a single stage of amplification. If the
microphone produces only -m* under normal conditions, you will need two stages of amplification.
The circuits below show the first stage of amplification and the way to connect the microphone to the amplifier.

Connecting an elect&et
mic&ophone.
The -33n capacitor separates the voltage needed by the microphone ;about -v< from the 3.7v base voltage. . good electret
microphone can hear a pin drop at 5 metres. . poor :uality electret mic produces crac'les in the bac'ground li'e bacon and
eggs frying.
The inte&nal con)t&uction o, an elect&et mic&ophone
.ir enters the electret mic via the top holes and moves the thin mylar sheet. This changes the distribution of the charges on
the plastic and the changes is passes down the Gate lead to the FET. The FET amplifies the signal and the result is available
on the Drain lead.

Connecting a C&')tal mic&ophone
The crystal microphone has an almost infinite impedance " that=s why it can be connected directly to the base of the
transistor.
The magnetic microphone has a very low internal resistance and needs a capacitor to separate it from the base of the
amplifying stage. If it is connected directly, it will reduce the base voltage to below 3.9v and the transistor will not operate.
*I$3O DI0*5R01M
ou can also use a pie!o diaphragm as a microphone. It produces a very StinnyT sound but it is :uite sensitive.
#ome diaphragms are more sensitive than others, but the sound :uality is always terrible.
MICROCONTRO--$R%
%icrocontrollers are the way of the future. %ost of the basic theory you will learn for the individual components in this
eboo' will become very handy when you need to design a circuit.
.s a circuit becomes more and more comple(, you have a decision to ma'e. Do you want to use lots of individual
components or consider using a microcontroller]
Tal'ing Electronics website has a number of proLects using individual components and this is the only way the proLect can be
designed. $ut when it comes to StimingT and re:uiring an output to produce a CIGC for a particular length of time after an
action has ta'en place, the circuit may re:uire lots of components.
This is where the brilliance of a microcontroller comes in.
It can be programmed to produce and output after a se:uence of events and the circuit loo's Smagic.T Pust one component
does all the wor' and a few other components interface the inputs and output to the chip.
The second special thing about micros is the program.
This has been produced by OF and it can be protected from Sprying eyesT by a feature 'nown as Scode protection.T
This gives you e(clusive rights to reproduce the proLect and all your hard wor' can be rewarded by volume sales.
This is the future.
Tal'ing Electronics website has a number of very simple proLects using microcontrollers and these chips all belong to the /I)
family of micros.
These chips are very easy to program as they only have 66 " 64 instructions and they can perform ama!ing things.
#ee the Tal'ing Electronics website for proLect using these micros.
The three micros covered on the website are@ /I)-5F75>, /I)-7F82 and /I)-7F758. The %)*38. is a )hinese version of the
/I)-5F75> and has some e(tra features and some of the features in the /I)-5F75> are not present. $ut the cost is
considerably lower than the /I)-5F75>. The )hinese get special deals all the time.

HERE IS A PROJECT
USING A MICROCONTROLLER:
%IMON
%IMON *ROA$CT U%IN1 *IC1;2;!#
#I%O1 is the simple game where you repeat a se:uence of flashing coloured lights.
.ll the Swor'ingsT of the proLect are contained in the program ;in the /I)-7F758
microcontroller< and the program is provided on Tal'ing Electronics website.
#ee 1imon proLect for more details.

This completes Data Book 1. Loo' out for more e"boo's on Tal'ing Electronics website@
http:88+++.talkingelect&onic).com
%ept !00# Nothing i) cop'&ight. ?ou can cop' an'thing. Colin Mitchell