English Grammar

101
A Review of the Essentials
David A. deSilva
Parts of Speech

Nouns

Pronouns

Verbs

Adjective

Adverbs

Prepositions

Conjunctions

Interjections
Parts of Speech (2)

Nouns: words that name persons, places, things, or ideas

Pronouns: words that stand in for a noun

Verbs: words that express action or state of being

Adjectives: words that describe nouns or pronouns

Adverbs: words that describe verbs

Prepositions: words that connect a noun and its modifers to

another component of the sentence

Conjunctions: words that join nouns, verbs, or other parts of a

sentence

Interjections: words that express emotion, shock, and the like.

Parts of a Sentence

Every sentence has a subject and a predicate.

The subject is the noun or the pronoun that the

sentence says something about;

The predicate is what is said about that noun or

pronoun, i.e., what that noun does or what that
noun is.

Jesus wept. (John 11:35 NIV)

Jesus is the subject: the sentence is about

Jesus.

wept is the predicate what is said about Jesus.

Subjects and Predicates

And no one in heaven or on earth or under the

earth was able to open the scroll or to look into it.
(Rev 5:3 NRSV)

no one in heaven or on earth or under the earth is the

subject; the main subject would be one; the rest is
composed of modifers (or descriptors)

was able to open the scroll or to look into it is the

predicate; the main predicate would be was; the
remaining words are complements and objects.
Subjects and Predicates (2)

When he had taken the scroll, the four living

creatures and the twenty-four elders fell before the
Lamb, each holding a harp and golden bowls full
of incense, which are the prayers of the saints.
(Rev 5:8 NRSV)

The subject is in italics; all the rest is predicate (when he

had tells when the elders fell).

Predicates can be split up; subjects do not always come

frst.

In this sentence, we fnd a compound subject (more

than one subject): (1) creatures and (2) elders.
Subjects and Predicates (3)

And the elders fell down and worshiped. (Rev

5:14b NRSV)

In this example, we fnd a compound predicate: the

subject governs more than one verb (1) fell down and
(2) worshiped

Then I saw between the throne and the four

living creatures and among the elders a Lamb
standing as if it had been slaughtered, having
seven horns and seven eyes, which are the seven
spirits of God sent out into all the earth. (Rev 5:6
NRSV)

In this example, the subject is one word: I

Subjects and Predicates (4)

Sentences starting with there or it: these

words are often used as a kind of place marker
for the real subject of a sentence.

There will be earthquakes in various places; there will be

famines. (Mk13:8NRSV)

Grammatically speaking, the sentence is: Earthquakes will

be [=will occur] in various places; famines will be [=will
happen]. The grammatical subjects are earthquakes and
famine, not there and there.
Subjects and Predicates ()

But in these sacrifces there is a reminder of sin

year after year. (Heb10:3NRSV)

Grammatically speaking, the sentence is: But a

reminder of sins is in these sacrifces year after
year. The real subject is reminder.

It is senseless to give a pledge, to become surety

for a neighbor. (Prov17:18NRSV)

Grammatically speaking to give a pledge is the

subject (to become surety for a neighbor is set in
apposition). To give a pledge is senseless.
!omplements

Alongside the verb, the predicate often

contains other essential parts of the
sentence. These may include:

Direct objects

Indirect objects

Predicate nominatives

Predicate adjectives
!omplements (2)

Direct Objects and Indirect Objects occur

with action verbs:

The direct object receives the impact of the

action. Put another way, the subject enacts the
verb upon the direct object.

I baptize you with water for repentance. (Mt

3:11 NRSV). The subject (I) enacts the verb
(baptize), but it is the direct object (you) that
gets dunked.
!omplements (3)

He went and took the scroll. (Rev 5:7 NRSV)

The Lamb (he) does the going and taking; the

scroll is the object afected by the Lambs actions.
The scroll is the direct object.

Bear fruit worthy of repentance. (Mt 3:8 NRSV)

In this imperative sentence, fruit is the thing

that has to be borne: it is the direct object of the
command, bear.
!omplements (4)

Indirect Objects: nouns or pronouns that are the

indirect recipients of the action, often the
benefciaries of the action (to or for whom
the action happens).

By your blood you ransomed for God saints from every

tribe and language and people and nation. (Rev 5:9
NRSV).

The subject is you; the main verb of the predicate,

ransomed,; saints are the ones actually ransomed,
hence the direct object. God is the indirect object: the
ransoming of the saints has an indirect efect on God, for
whom the action happens.
!omplements ()

God is able from these stones to raise up

children to Abraham. (Matt 3:9 NRSV)

Looking at the infnitive to raise up, the direct

object of the infnitive is children, the entities
actually raised up; the indirect object is
Abraham, to whom (i.e., in whose favor) these
children are raised up.
!omplements (")

Predicate nominatives and predicate

adjectives occur with verbs expressing
being or a state of being (also called
linking verbs).

God is able (Matt 3:9 NRSV).

Subject: God; verb: is; able is a predicate

adjective. The whole point of the sentence is to
link God with this quality, or predicate this
quality upon God.
!omplements (#)

You are worthy to take the scroll and to open its seals.
(Rev 5:9 NRSV)

Subject: you; main verb: are; worthy is another

predicate adjective (followed by two complementary
infnitives, to take and to open, further describing this
worthiness).

No one was found worthy to open the scroll or to look

into it. (Rev 5:4 NRSV)

worthy is still a predicate adjective, since was found (=

was proven to be) is still a state of being verb.
!omplements ($)

Jesus Christ is Lord (Phil 2:11 NRSV)

Subject: Jesus Christ; main verb: is; Lord is a noun

that is being predicated of Jesus Christ it is a predicate
nominative.

Sometimes a direct object can also have a

complement in the form of an adjective or noun
predicated, in efect, upon it.

You have made them a kingdom and priests to our God.

(Rev5:10ESV)

them is the direct object, but a kingdom and priests is

also specifcally what God made them the phrase is an
object complement.
%inds of Sentences

Declarative: sentences stating something (whether

fctive or real, narrative or argument).

I began to weep bitterly because no one was found

worthy to open the scroll or to look into it. (Rev 5:4
NRSV)

Interrogative: sentences asking a question (thus

calling for some declarative statement in
response).

Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals?

(Rev 5:2 NRSV)
%inds of Sentences (2)

Sometimes an interrogative statement is in

transposed word order: the subject is most
easily found when one reformulates the
question as a statement.

What did you go out into the wilderness to look

at? (Mt11:7NRSV)

What is not the subject; it is, in fact, the object of

the preposition at. The subject is you: You
did go out into the wilderness to look at ____.
%inds of Sentences (3)

Imperative: sentences that issue commands.

Repent, for the kingdom of heaven has come

near. (Mt 3:2 NRSV)

Bear fruit worthy of repentance. (Mt 3:8 NRSV)

"Do not weep. (Rev 5:5 NRSV)

In all these examples the subject You is not

expressed, but is understood. Repent, you, for
the kingdom.
%inds of Sentences (4)

There are 1
st
and 3
rd
person commands as well, in
which the subject will be expressed.

1
st
person plural: Let us hold fast to our
confession. (Heb4:14NRSV)

3
rd
person singular: Let him who is without sin
among you be the frst to throw a stone at her.
(Jn8:7ESV)

3
rd
person plural: If any want to become my
followers, let them deny themselves and take up
their cross and follow me. (Mt16:24NRSV)
&ouns

Words that denote a person, place, thing, or idea

Can be proper nouns (e.g., Peter, Judea) or

common nouns (e.g., disciple, region)

Can have number: singular, disciple; plural,

disciples (note: usually there is a change of
form)

Special ending for possessive/genitive case: the

Lords day, the nations tribute
&ouns

6 Then I saw between the throne and the

four living creatures and among the elders
a Lamb standing as if it had been
slaughtered, having seven horns and seven
eyes, which are the seven spirits of God
sent out into all the earth.

7 He went and took the scroll from the

right hand of the one who was seated on
the throne.
&ouns

6 Then I saw between the throne and the

four living creatures and among the elders
a Lamb standing as if it had been
slaughtered, having seven horns and seven
eyes, which are the seven spirits of God
sent out into all the earth.

7 He went and took the scroll from the

right hand of the one who was seated on
the throne.
Pronouns

Words used in place of a proper or

common noun. A pronoun generally has
an antecedent a specifc noun named
earlier in the discourse for which the
pronoun is standing in.
Personal Pronouns
Personal pronouns have person, number, and
case.

Singular (nominative): I (1
st
) , you (2
nd
) , he, she, it
(3
rd
)

Plural (nominative): we (1
st
) , you (2
nd
) , they (3
rd
)

Singular (objective): me, you, him, her, it

Plural (objective): us, you, them

Personal Pronouns
And I began to weep bitterly because no one
was found worthy to open the scroll or to
look into it.
Then one of the elders said to me, "Do not
weep. See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah,
the Root of David, has conquered, so that
he can open the scroll and its seven seals."
Personal Pronouns
And I began to weep bitterly because no one
was found worthy to open the scroll or to
look into it.
Then one of the elders said to me, "Do not
weep. See, the Lion of the tribe of Judah,
the Root of David, has conquered, so that
he can open the scroll and its seven seals."
Possessi'e Pronouns

Singular: mine, yours, his, hers, its

Plural: ours, yours, theirs

He is the atoning sacrifce for our sins, and
not for ours [= our sins] only but also for
the sins of the whole world. (1 John 2:2)
My beloved is mine and I am his. (Song
2:16)
Possessi'e Pronouns
's( Possessi'e )djecti'es

Pronouns: stand in for nouns he atoned

not only for their sins, but ours. Ours
stands in for the noun sins.

Adjectives: describe nouns he atoned for

our sins. Our describes a noun in the
sentence.
*ntensi'e and +efle,i'e Pronouns

Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself

Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves

Intensive: He himself was not the light, but he
came to testify to the light. (John 1:8)
Refexive: "Is he going to kill himself? Is that what
he means by saying, 'Where I am going, you
cannot come'? (John 8:22)
-efinite +elati'e Pronouns

Introduce subordinate clauses that, as a whole,

function as adjectives (supplying additional
information about some noun or pronoun). As
with most pronouns, the defnite relative pronoun
points back to some antecedent (some noun to
which it is referring)

Who, whom (objective case of who), whose

(possessive case of who), which/that
+elati'e !lauses

The relative pronoun introduces a relative clause

with a verb and, often, objects, modifers, and
prepositional phrases. The entire clause modifes
some noun or pronoun in the main sentence (the
antecedent of the relative pronoun).

A relative clause generally could have been

written as a separate sentence:

You love Lazarus.

Lazarus is sick.

He [Lazarus] whom you love is sick. (John 11:3)

+elati'e Pronouns (and relati'e
clauses)

He went and took the scroll from the right hand

of the one who was seated on the throne.

This is the one of whom the prophet Isaiah spoke.

(Matt 3:3)

I baptize you with water for repentance, but one

who is more powerful than I is coming after me,
whose sandals I am not worthy to carry. (Matt 3:11)
*ndefiniti'e relati'e pronouns

The relative pronoun can also be used

where there is no antecedent, sometimes
generalized (whoever, whatever)

Whoever denies me before others, I also

will deny before my Father in heaven.
(Matt 10:33)

Remember then what you received and

heard (Rev 3:3)
*nterrogati'e Pronouns

Used to ask questions; no antecedent

Who? What? Which?

Who is worthy to open the scroll and

break its seals? (Rev 5:2)
-emonstrati'e Pronouns

Used to point out particular objects.

This, these; that, those

Nearer demonstratives: this, these

Farther demonstratives: that, those

-emonstrati'e Pronouns

This [= this person] is the one of whom the

prophet Isaiah spoke. (Matt 3:3)

Then one of the elders addressed me, saying,

"Who are these [=these people], robed in white,
and where have they come from? (Rev 7:13)

Blessed are those [=those people] who mourn,

for they will be comforted. (Matt 5:4)
*ndefinite Pronouns

These pronouns do not refer to specifc

persons or things, but rather to general
types or classes.

Anyone, anybody, anything; someone,

somebody, something; everyone,
everybody, everything; none, nobody,
nothing; all, few, many, several, etc.
*ndefinite Pronouns

Blessed is anyone who takes no ofense at

me. (Matt 11:6)

The kingdom of heaven may be compared

to someone who sowed good seed in his
feld. (Matt 13:24)

For many are called, but few are chosen.

(Matt 22:14)
+eciprocal Pronouns

Pronouns indicating that the individual

members of a collective subject act back on
other members of the group.

One another, each other

I give you a new commandment, that you

love one another. (John 13:34)

What are you discussing with each other

while you walk along? (Luke 24:17)
)ppositi'es

Nouns or pronouns can be used simply to rename

another noun or pronoun in the sentence. The
second noun or pronoun is said to stand in
apposition to the frst, and is like a
parenthetical comment.

A Savior, Christ, the Lord, is born for you today in Davids

city (Luke 2:11)

Paul and Timothy, servants of Jesus Christ, to all the

saints. (Phil 1:1)

Ananias came down with some elders and an attorney, a

certain Tertullus, and they reported their case against
Paul. (Acts 24:1)
.erbs

Action

Jesus wept.

I saw a mighty angel.

He went and took the scroll.

State of being

no one was able.

You are worthy.

.erbs (2)

English verbs are often formed by a combination

of one or more helping verbs with a main
verb.

The Lion has conquered.

You were slaughtered.

They will reign on earth.

Helping verbs are an essential part of the

formation of the various voices, tenses, and
aspects of the English verb.
/elping .erbs 0isted

Common Helping Verbs:

Do, does, did

Has, have, had

Am, are, is, were, was, be, being, been

Modal Helping Verbs

Can, could

May, might

Must

Shall, should, ought [to]

Will, would
.erbs1 Person and &umber

1
st
Person

Singular: I heal.

Plural: We heal.

2
nd
Person

Singular: You heal.

Plural: You (Yall) heal.

3
rd
Person

Singular: He, she, it heals.

Plural: They heal.

.erbs1 .oice

Active: The subject of the sentence performs the

action of the verb, often upon one or more objects.

He went and took the scroll.

They will reign on earth.

Passive: The action of the verb is done to the

Subject of the sentence.

You were slaughtered.

They were baptized by him in the river Jordan.

.erbs1 2ense
(all e,amples are in acti'e 'oice)

Present

Simple: I baptize.

Progressive: I am baptizing.

Past

Simple: I baptized.

Progressive: I was baptizing.

Future

Simple: I will baptize.

Progressive: I will be baptizing.

.erbs1 2enses (2)

Present Perfect

Simple: I have baptized.

Progressive: I have been baptizing.

Past Perfect (Pluperfect)

Simple: I had baptized.

Progressive: I had been baptizing.

Future Perfect

Simple: I will have baptized.

Progressive: I will have been baptizing.

.erbs1 2enses (Passi'e E,amples)

Present

Simple: I am baptized.

Progressive: I am being baptized.

Past

Simple: I was baptized.

Progressive: I was being baptized.

Future

Simple: I will be baptized.

Progressive: I will be being baptized. (Not regularly used.)

.erbs1 2enses (Passi'e E,amples)

Present Perfect

Simple: I have been baptized.

Progressive: N/A

Past Perfect (Pluperfect)

Simple: I had been baptized.

Progressive: N/A

Future Perfect

Simple: I will have been baptized.

Progressive: N/A
.erbs1 3oods

Indicative: Narrating Facts or Purported Facts

John was baptizing in the Jordan River.

Imperative: Giving Commands

Repent, for the kingdom of heaven is near.

Subjunctive: Unreal Situations

"If this man were a prophet, he would have known who

and what sort of woman this is who is touching him, for
she is a sinner." (Luke7:39ESV)
.erbal 4orms

Infnitives: the bare form of the verb

Present Active (time contemporary with or subsequent to

main verb): To heal, to save, to call

Present Passive: To be healed, to be saved, to be

called

Perfect Active (time prior to main verb): To have healed,

to have loved

Perfect Passive: To have been healed, to have been

loved

Stative: To be, to have been

*nfiniti'es1 5ses

As a noun:

Subject of verb: To live is Christ, and to die is

gain. (Phil 1:21 ESV)

What is?

Object of verb: I want to know Christ. (Phil 3:10

NRSV)

I want what?
*nfiniti'e1 5ses (2)

As an adjective:

By faith Sarah herself received power to

conceive. (Heb 11:11 NRSV)

The infnitive answers the question what kind of

power?
*nfiniti'e1 5ses (3)

As an adverb:

Abraham obeyed when he was called to go

out. (Heb 11:8 NRSV)

Supplies more information about the verb called

God is not ashamed to be called their God.

(Heb 11:16)

Supplies more information about the adjective

ashamed, perhaps giving the circumstances
Participles

Active: baptizing

While baptizing by the river, John was arrested.

Passive: baptized

Baptized by John, Peter and Andrew went out to preach.

Participles can form additional voices and tenses

with helping verbs, e.g.:

Perfect Active: having baptized

Having baptized many, Johns reputation spread.

Perfect Passive: having been baptized

Having been baptized by John, the tax collectors repented.

Participles1 5sage

Adjectival Participial Clauses: the

participles describes some noun or pronoun

I saw in the right hand of the one seated on the

throne a scroll written on the inside and on the back,
sealed with seven seals (Rev 5:1 NRSV)

The participle seated introduces a clause that

further describes the one; the participles
written and sealed introduce clauses giving
additional information describing the scroll.
Participles1 5sage (2)

Adverbial Participial Clauses: the participle gives

more information about the action of the main verb

These all died in faith, not having received the things promised,
but having seen them and greeted them from afar, and having
acknowledged that they were strangers and exiles on the earth. (Heb
11:13 NRSV)

[not] having received and having seen and greeted and

having acknowledged all describe under what circumstances
these all died.

They were baptized by him in the river Jordan, confessing

their sins. (Matt 3:6 NRSV)

Confessing supplies information about the circumstances

under which the people were being baptized.
Gerunds (Participles acting as &ouns)

The gerund looks like the present participle

in form: baptizing, seeing, healing

As a gerund, however, the word acts as a

simple noun, naming the particular action.

To me, living is Christ and dying is gain (Phil

1:21 NRSV).

Living and Dying are both fulflling the role

of nouns as subjects of the verb is.
.erbals and their !omplements

Participles, Infnitives, and Gerunds can

take all the complements that a normal
verb can take:

Adverbs

Direct Objects

Indirect Objects

Adverbial Prepositional Phrases

Predicate Nominatives
)djecti'es

Words used to describe nouns or pronouns.

Adjectives are words that answer questions like
what kind of ____? or which _____? or how
many _____?

Attributive Adjectives (simple descriptors):

Then I saw in the right hand of the one seated on the

throne a scroll written on the inside and on the back,
sealed with seven seals; and I saw a mighty angel
proclaiming with a loud voice, Who is worthy to open
the scroll and break its seals? (Rev 5:1-2 NRSV)
)djecti'es (2)

Predicate Adjectives: the point of the

sentence is to link a noun or pronoun with
a descriptor by means of a linking verb (a
form of be, become, etc.)

No one in heaven or on earth or under the earth

was able to open the scroll (Rev 5:3)

No one [S] was [V] able [Pred Adj]

No one was found worthy. (Rev 5:4)

You are worthy to take the scroll. (Rev 5:9)

)djecti'es (3)

Substantive Adjectives: Adjectives can be

used as nouns, as in the title, The Good,
the Bad, and the Ugly.

Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the

earth. Blessed are the merciful, for they will
receive mercy. (Mt5:5, 7NRSV)

meek and merciful are actually adjectives.

Here it is understood that Jesus is talking about
those who are meek or the meek ones.
)djecti'es (4)

Adjectives have degrees

Positive: holy, righteous, good

you are my strong refuge (Ps71:7)

Comparative: holier, more righteous, better

And the LORD made his people stronger than

their enemies (Ps105:24)

Superlative: holiest, most righteous, best

The anger of God rose against them and he killed the

strongest of them (Ps78:31)
)d'erbs

Adverbs are words that give more information

about the action of the sentence i.e., the verb or
about an adjective or even another adverb. Adverbs
often answer questions like:

How?

Why?

Where?

When?

Under what circumstances?

To what degree or extent? (This is the sense in which

adverbs generally describe adjectives and other adverbs.)

Adverbs often, but do not always, end in -ly

)d'erbs (2)

I began to weep bitterly because no one was

found worthy to open the scroll or to look into
it. (Rev 5:4 NRSV)

How was John weeping?

I know you are enduring patiently and

bearing up for my name's sake. (Rev 2:3 ESV)

How are the believers enduring?

When the disciples heard this, they were

greatly astonished. (Matt 19:25 NIV)

To what extent were the disciples astonished?

)d'erbs (3)

Like adjectives, adverbs can be compared:

Positive: bitterly

Comparative: more bitterly

Superlative: most bitterly

Irregular comparisons also exist:

Well, better, best

Little, less, least

Badly, worse, worst

!aution1 6hen ad'erbs loo7 li7e
prepositions

And when he had looked around at

everything, as it was already late, he went
out to Bethany with the twelve. (Mark
11:11).

Around is often used as a preposition, as in I

heard the voice of many angels around the throne
(Rev 5:11 NASU). In Mk 11:11, however,
around describes the action of looking
Where did Jesus look?
Prepositions

Prepositions stand before a noun or

pronoun (and its descriptors) to create a
prepositional phrase.

The entire prepositional phrase will

describe some other noun or pronoun in
the sentence (acting adjectivally) or the verb
in the clause to which it is related (acting
adverbially).
Prepositions (2)

Some common prepositions in

prepositional phrases (from Mt 3:1-12):

in the wilderness

from the coming wrath

to yourselves

at the root

of the trees

into the granary

with unquenchable fre

!ommon Prepositions

About, above, according to, across, after,

against, along, alongside [of], among, around,
at, because of, before, behind, below, beneath,
beside(s), between, beyond, by, concerning,
despite, down, during, except, for, from, in,
inside, instead of, into, like, near, of, of, on,
out of, over, past, since, through, throughout,
to, together with, toward, under, underneath,
until, unto, up, upon, up to, with, within,
without
Prepositions (3)

I tell you, God is able from these stones to raise up

children to Abraham. Even now the ax is lying at
the root of the trees; every tree therefore that does
not bear good fruit is cut down and thrown into the
fre. (Mt 3:9-10 NRSV)

Adverbial prepositional phrases:

from these stones (giving information about the raising)

to Abraham (ditto)

at the root (where is the ax lying?)

into the fre (where is it being thrown?)

Adjectival prepositional phrase

of the trees (giving information about what root)

Prepositions (4a)

Then I saw in the right hand of the one

seated on the throne a scroll written on the
inside and on the back, sealed with seven
seals. And no one in heaven or on earth
or under the earth was able to open the
scroll or to look into it. (Rev 5:1, 3 NRSV)
Prepositions (4b)

Then I saw in the right hand [adv.: where saw?]

of the one [adj.: describes what hand] seated on
the throne [adv.: where seated?] a scroll written
on the inside [adv.: how or where written?] and
on the back [adv.], sealed with seven seals [adv.:
sealed by what means or how?]. And no one
in heaven [adj.: describes one] or on earth
[adj.] or under the earth [adj.] was able to open
the scroll or to look into it [adv.: look where?].
(Rev 5:1, 3 NRSV)
!aution

Many words that can function as prepositions

can also function as other parts of speech!

Since can be a preposition, conjunction, or adverb

To can be a preposition (to the river), or it can be

part of an infnitive (to come, to sing, to look)

FUNCTION determines what a word is in a

given context
!onjunctions

Conjunctions are used to link words or

phrases together (coordinating
conjunctions), set them in relationship to
one another (correlative conjunctions), or
subordinate one clause to another, usually
giving some indication of the logical
relationship between those clauses
(subordinating conjunctions).
!onjunctions (2)

Coordinating Conjunctions: and, or, but, so,

yet:

No one in heaven or on earth or under the earth

was able to open the scroll or to look into it. Rev
5:3 NRSV)

The frst two conjunctions link three prepositional

phrases together as one overarching unit of
modifers describing one

The last conjunction links two infnitives,

connecting both as complements to was able
!onjunctions (3a)

You are worthy to take the scroll and to open its

seals, for you were slaughtered and by your
blood you ransomed for God saints from every
tribe and language and people and nation. (Rev
5:9 NRSV)
!onjunctions (3b)

You are worthy to take the scroll and to open its

seals, for you were slaughtered and by your blood
you ransomed for God saints from every tribe and
language and people and nation. (Rev 5:9 NRSV)

The frst and links two infnitives as complements to

worthy (worthy of what?)

The second and links two clauses as part of the

rationale introduced by for (you were slaughtered
and you ransomed)

The last three occurrences of and link four nouns as

the common objects of the preposition from
!onjunctions (4)

Correlative (bothand, neithernor, not only

but also, eitheror):

At that time his voice shook the earth, but now he has
promised, Yet once more I will shake not only the earth
but also the heavens. (Heb 12:28 ESV)

The not onlybut also coordinates earth and heaven

as twin objects of the verb shake, while also establishing a
stronger relationship between the two objects.

Store up for yourselves treasures in heaven, where

neither moth nor rust consumes and where thieves do not
break in and steal. (Matt 6:20 NRSV)

neither and nor link moth and rust as two subjects

of the verb consumes.
!onjunctions ()

Subordinating Conjunctions (when, while,

after, before, since; where; whether; as, as if;
because; though, although; if, unless; so, so
that, in order that; as as; rather than)

Used to connect noun or adverb clauses to

some other element in the sentence
!onjunctions (")

And I began to weep bitterly because no one was found

worthy to open the scroll or to look into it. Then one of the
elders said to me, Do not weep. See, the Lion of the
tribe of Judah, the Root of David, has conquered, so that
he can open the scroll and its seven seals. Then I saw
between the throne and the four living creatures and
among the elders a Lamb standing as if it had been
slaughtered, having seven horns and seven eyes, which
are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth.
(Rev 5:4-6 NRSV)

because introduces a subordinate clause specifying CAUSE

so that introduces a subordinate clause specifying RESULT

as if introduces a subordinate clause specifying MANNER

!onjuncti'e )d'erbs

Not to be confused with subordinating

conjunctions, these adverbs can also be used
to indicate the relationship between
independent clauses:

Accordingly, also, anyway, besides, certainly,

consequently, conversely, fnally, furthermore, hence,
however, incidentally, indeed, instead, likewise,
meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next,
nonetheless, otherwise, similarly, specifcally, still,
subsequently, then, therefore, thus
*nterjections

Words usually expressing surprise or emotion,

drawing attention to something or some
experience.

And those who passed by derided him, wagging

their heads and saying, Aha! You who would
destroy the temple and rebuild it in three days, save
yourself, and come down from the cross! (Mk 15:29-
30 ESV)

His disciples said, "Ah, now you are speaking

plainly and not using fgurative speech! (Jn 16:29
ESV)
%inds of Sentences and !lauses

Clauses: groups of related words containing a

subject and a verb.

Independent (or main) clauses: An independent

clause expressed a grammatically complete thought
and can stand alone as a complete sentence.

John the Baptist appeared in the wilderness of Judea.

(Matt 3:1 NRSV)

John wore clothing of camel's hair with a leather belt

around his waist, and his food was locusts and wild honey.
(Matt 3:3 NRSV) a compound of two independent
clauses.
%inds of Sentences and !lauses (2)

Dependent (subordinate) clauses: these clauses are

not complete sentences, but must always be attached
to a main (independent) clause.

because no one was found worthy to open the scroll

or to look into it. (Rev 5:4 NRSV)

so that he can open the scroll and its seven seals.

(Rev 5:5 NRSV)

as if it had been slaughtered. (Rev 5:6 NRSV)

In each of these three examples, there is a subject

(bold) and verb (italic), but none can stand as a
complete sentence.
%inds of Sentences and !lauses (3)

By faith Sarah herself received power to

conceive, even when she was past the age,
since she considered him faithful who had
promised. (Heb 11:11 NRSV)

By faith Sarah herself received power to conceive.

(Main clause; could stand alone as a complete
sentence)

even when she was past the age (Subordinate

clause)

since she considered him faithful who had

promised (Subordinate clause)
%inds of Sentences and !lauses (4)

Phrases:

These are related groups of words that do not contain

both a subject and a verb, e.g., prepositional phrases
and participial phrases.

in the right hand

of the one

seated on the throne

sealed with seven seals

proclaiming with a loud voice

having seven horns and seven eyes

into all the earth

4unctions of Subordinate !lauses

Adjectival (most often involving relative clauses

introduced by relative pronouns)

This is the one of whom the prophet Isaiah spoke. (Matt 3:3
NRSV)

Every tree therefore that does not bear good fruit is cut down and
thrown into the fre. (Matt 5:10 NRSV)

One who is more powerful than I is coming after me. (Matt 5:11
NRSV)

These can be introduced also by where, when,

why, and whose

He has risen. Come and see the place where he lay. (Matt
28:6 NIV) Still answers the question, What place?
4unctions of Subord( !lauses (2)

Adverbial

Temporal (when does the action of the main clause take

place?)

When he had taken the scroll, the four living creatures and
the twenty-four elders fell before the Lamb. (Rev 5:8 NRSV)

Location (where does the action of the main clause take

place?)

You knew that I reap where I have not sowed and gather
where I scattered no seed. (Matt 25:26 ESV)

Manner (by what means or in what manner does the action

of the main clause take place?)

I saw a Lamb standing as if it had been slaughtered.

(Rev 5:6 NRSV)
4unctions of Subord( !lauses (3)

Cause (for what reason does the action of the main clause
take place?)

I began to weep bitterly because no one was found worthy to

open the scroll or to look into it. (Rev 5:4 NRSV)

Concession (despite what does the action of the main clause

take place?)

Although he was a son, he learned obedience from what he

sufered. (Heb 5:8 NIV)

Condition (under what circumstances would the action of

the main clause take place?)

If anyone hears my voice and opens the door, I will come in and
eat with him, and he with me. (Rev 3:20 NIV)
4unctions of Subord( !lauses (4)

Purpose (to what end does the action of the main

clause take place?)

They watched Him, and sent spies who pretended

to be righteous, in order that they might catch Him in
some statement. (Luke 20:20 NASU)

Result (to what efect did the action of the main

clause take place?)

The Lion of the tribe of Judah has conquered, so

that he can open the scroll and its seven seals. (Rev 5:5
NRSV)
4unctions of Subord( !lauses ()

Noun Clauses: the clause as a whole plays a role usually

assigned to a noun (like subject, direct object, object of a
preposition).

When he heard that Archelaus was reigning over Judea in place of

his father Herod, he was afraid to go there. (Matt 2:22 ESV) the
whole that clause is the direct object of he heard

What you sow must die before it is given new life (1 Cor 15:36
NJB) What you sow functions, as a whole, as the subject of
the sentence.

Note: because noun clauses often play an integral role in

the main clause, they are often not separable from the
main clause (as adjectival and adverbial clauses are).