1 DB2

DB2 - IBMs Relational DBMS

2 DB2
Prerequisite for this course
The participant should be exposed to :
IBM Mainframe Concepts
COBOL and File Handling Concepts
VSAM
3 DB2
Day 1 - Session 1
4 DB2
Topics to be covered in this session
Introduction to databases - covers their advantages and
the types of databases
Relational database concepts - covers Properties,
Terminology, Normalization, Integrity rules, CODDs
Relational Rules and the E-R model
5 DB2
What is Data ?
A representation of facts or instruction in a form
suitable for communication - IBM Dictionary


What is a Database ?
Is a repository for stored data - C.J.Date

Introduction to Databases
6 DB2
What is a database system ?
An integrated and shared repository for stored data or
collection of stored operational data used by
application systems of some particular enterprise.
Or
Nothing more than a computer-based record keeping
system.
Introduction to Database (contd...)
7 DB2
Advantages of DBMS over File Mngt Sys
Data redundancy
Multiple views
Shared data
Data independence (logical/physical)
Data dictionary
Search versatility
Cost effective
Security & Control
Recovery restart & Backup
Concurrency
8 DB2
TYPES OF DATABASES (or Models)
Hierarchical Model
Network Model
Relational Model
Object-Oriented Model
9 DB2
Types of Databases (contd...)
HIERARCHICAL
Top down structure resembling an upside-down
tree
Parent child relationship
First logical database model
Available on most of the Mainframe computers
Example - IMS
10 DB2
Types of Database (contd...)
NETWORK
Does not distinguish between parent and child. Any
record type can be associated with any number of
arbitrary record types
Enhanced to overcome limitations of other models
but in reality, there is minimal difference due to
frequent enhancements
Example - IDMS
11 DB2
Types of Database (contd...)
RELATIONAL
Data stored in the form of tables consists of
multiple rows and columns.
Examples - DB2, Oracle, Sybase, Ingres etc.

OBJECT -ORIENTED MODEL
Data attributes and methods that operate on those
attributes are encapsulated in structures called
objects
12 DB2
RELATIONAL DB CONCEPTS
13 DB2
Relational Properties
Why Relational ? - Relation is a mathematical
term for a table - Hence Relational database is
perceived by the users as a set of tables.
All data values are atomic.
Entries in columns are from the same domain
Sequence of rows (T-B) is insignificant
Each row is unique
Sequence of columns (L-R) is insignificant
14 DB2
Relational Concepts (Terminology)

Relation : A table or File
Tuple : Row contains an entry for each attribute
Attributes : Columns or the characteristics that
define the entity
Domain:. A range of values (or Pool)
Entity : Some object about which we wish to store
information
Null : Represents an unknown/empty value
Atomic Value: Smallest unit of data; the individual
data value
15 DB2
Relational Concepts (contd...)
Candidate key : Some attribute (or a set of
attributes) that may uniquely identify each
row(tuple) in the relation(table)
Primary key : The candidate key that is chosen for
primary attributes to uniquely identify each row.
Alternate key :The remaining candidate keys that
were not chosen as primary key
Foreign key :An attribute of one relation that might
be a primary key of another relation.
16 DB2
Normalization (1NF - 5NF)
It is done to bring the design of database to a standardized
mode or (form)
1NF : All entities must have a unique identifier, or key,
that can be composed of one or more attributes. All
attributes must be atomic and non repeating.
2NF : Partial functional dependencies removed - all
attributes that are not a part of the key must depend on
the entire key for that entity.
17 DB2
Normalization (contd...)
3NF : Transitive dependencies removed - attributes that
are not a part of the key must not depend on any non-
key attribute.
4NF : Multi valued dependencies removed
5NF : Remaining anomalies removed
18 DB2
Types of Integrity
Entity Integrity : Is a state Where no column that is
part of a primary key can have a null values.
Referential Integrity : Is a state Where every foreign
key in the first table must either match a primary key
value in the second table or must be wholly null
Domain Integrity : Integrity of information allowed in
column
19 DB2
CODD's RELATIONAL RULES
1. All information in a relational database is represented
explicitly at the logical level and in exactly one way -
by values in tables

2. Each and every datum(atomic value) in a relational
database is guaranteed to be logically accessible by
resorting to a combination of tablename, primary key
value, and column name
20 DB2
CODD's RELATIONAL RULES (contd...)
3. Null values are supported for representing missing
information in a systematic way irrespective of the
datatype.

4. The database description is represented at the logical
level in the same way as ordinary data, so that
authorized users can apply the same relational language
to its interrogation as they apply to the regular data.
21 DB2
CODD's RELATIONAL RULES (contd...)
5.A relational system may support several languages and
various modes of terminal use. However there must be
one language whose statements can express all of the
following items: (1)data definitions (2)view definitions
(3)data manipulation(interactive and by program)(4)
integrity constraints (5) authorization(6) transaction
boundaries(begin, commit, rollback)
22 DB2
CODD's RELATIONAL RULES (contd...)
6. All views are theoretically updatable, are also
updatable by the system

7. The capability of handling a base relation or a derived
relation (view) as a single operand applies not only to
the retrieval of of data but also to the insertion,
updation and deletion of data
23 DB2
CODD's RELATIONAL RULES (contd...)
8. Application programs and terminal activities remain
logically unimpaired whenever any changes are made
in either storage representations or access methods

9. Application programs and terminal activities remain
logically unimpaired when information-preserving
changes of any kind that theoretically permit
unimpairment are made to the base tables.
24 DB2
CODD's RELATIONAL RULES (contd...)
10. Integrity constraints specific to a particular relational
database must be definable in the relational data
sublanguage and storable in the catalog, not in the
application programs.

11. The data manipulation sublanguage of a relational
DBMS must enable application programs and inquiries
to remain logically the same whether and whenever
data are physically centralized or distributed.
25 DB2
CODD's RELATIONAL RULES (contd...)
12. If a relational system has a low-level(single-record-at-
a-time)language, that low level cannot be used to
subvert or bypass the integrity rules and constraints
expressed in the higher-level relational
language(multiple-records-at-a-time)
26 DB2
Entity Relationship Model
E-R model is a logical representation of data for a
business area
Represented as entities, relationship between entities
and attributes of both relationships and entities
E-R models are outputs of analysis phase i.e they
are conceptual data models expressed in the form of an
E-R Diagram
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Example of a Relational Structure
CUSTOMER Places ORDERS
ORDERS Has PRODUCTS
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The above relations can be interpreted as
follows :
Each order relates to only one customer (one-to-one)
Many orders can contain many products (many-to-
many)
A CUSTOMER can place any number of orders (one-
to-many)
29 DB2
Entity Relationship Model (contd...)
In the above example CUSTOMER, Order & Product
are called ENTITIES.
An Entity may transform into table(s).
The unique identity for information stored in an
ENTITY is called a PRIMARY KEY. E.g...
CUSTOMER-No uniquely identifies each customer
30 DB2
Entity Relationship Model (contd...)
A table essentially consists of
Attributes, which define the characteristics of the
table
Primary key, which uniquely identifies each row of
data stored in a table
Secondary & Foreign Keys/indexes
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Entity Relationship Model (contd...)
Table Definition :

Table CUSTOMER -
Attributes - CUST_NO, CUST_NAME,
CUST-LOCATION, CUST_ID, ORDER_NO...

Primary Key - CUSTOMER_NO
Secondary Key - CUST_ID
Foreign-Key - ORDER_NO
32 DB2
Entity Relationship Model (contd...)
The Relationships transform into Foreign Keys.
For e.g.. CUSTOMER is related to Orders through
ORDER_NO which is the Foreign-key in
CUSTOMER and Primary key in Order. So basically
the relationship Places is through the ORDER_NO.
As per the relational integrity the Primary-Key,
ORDER_NO, for the table Orders can never be Null,
while it can be so in the table CUSTOMER.
33 DB2
Entity Relationship Model (contd...)
Tables exist in Tablespaces. A tablespace can contain
one or more tables
Apart from the Primary Key, a table can have many
secondary keys/indexes, which exist in Indexspaces.
These tablespaces and indexspaces together exist in a
Database
34 DB2
Entity Relationship Model (contd...)
To do transformations as described above we need a
tool that will provide a way of creating the tables,
manipulate the data present in these, create
relationships, indexes, tablespace, indexspace and so
on. DB2 provides SQL which performs these functions.
The next part briefly deals with SQL and its functions.
A detailed explanation will be taken up later.
35 DB2
Day 1 - Session 2
36 DB2
Topics to be covered in this session
SQL - all data object manipulation, creation and use,
involve SQLs.
DB2 objects - Database, Tablespaces & Indexspaces -
creation & use, and other terminology's associated with
databases.
DDL - Data Definition Language
37 DB2
An introduction to SQL
SQL or Structured Query Language is
A Powerful language that performs the functions of
data manipulation(DML), data definition(DDL) and
data control or data authorization(DAL/DCL).
A Non procedural language - the capability to act
on a set of data and the lack of need to know how to
retrieve it. An SQL can perform the functions of
more than a procedure.
The De Facto Standard query language for RDBMS
Very flexible
38 DB2
Introduction to SQL (contd...)
SQL - Features :-
Unlike COBOL or 4GLs, SQL is coded without
data-navigational instructions. The optimal access
paths are determined by the DBMS. This is
advantageous because the database knows better
how it has stored data than the user.
What you want and not how to get it
Set level processing & multiple row processing
39 DB2
SQL - Types (based on the functionality)
Data Definition Language (DDL)
- Create, Alter and Drop
Data Manipulation Language (DML)
- Select, Insert, Update and Delete
Data Control Language (DCL)
- Grant and Revoke
40 DB2
SQL - Types (Others)
Static or Dynamic SQL
Embedded or Stand-alone SQL
41 DB2
The following are the Operations that can be
performed by a SQL on the database tables :
Select
Project
Union
Intersection
Difference
Join
Divide
42 DB2
Topics dealt with, in DB2 objects
Stogroup, Databases, Tablespaces (types, creation and
modification)
Indexspaces (creation and modification)
Some more terms associated with tablespaces
43 DB2
DB2 Objects
The DB2 Object Hierarchy
44 DB2
Stogroup
It is a collection of direct access volumes, all of the
same device type
The option is defined as a part of tablespace definition
When a given space needs to be extended, storage is
acquired from the appropriate stogroup
45 DB2
Database
A collection of logically related objects - like
Tablespaces, Indexspaces, Tables etc.
Not a physical kind of object - may occupy more
than one disk space
A STOGROUP & BUFFERPOOL (is buffer area
used to maintain recently accessed table and index
pages) must be defined for each database.
Stogroup and user-defined VSAM are the two
storage allocations for a DB2 dataset definition.
46 DB2
Database (contd...)
In a given database, all the spaces need not have the
same stogroup
These are, in a sense, the most physical of various
storage objects in DB2
More than one volume can be defined in a stogroup.
DB2 keeps track of which volume was defined first &
uses that volume.
47 DB2
Tablespaces
Logical address space on secondary storage to hold one
or more tables
A SPACE is basically an extendable collection of
pages with each page of size 4K or 32K bytes.
It is the storage unit for for recovery and reorganizing
purpose
Three Type of Tablespaces - Simple, Partitioned &
Segmented
48 DB2
Simple Tablespace
Can contain more than one stored table
Depending on application, storing more than one Table
might enable faster retrieval for joins using these tables
Usually only one is preferred. This is because a single
page can contain rows from all tables defined in the
database.
LOAD with replace option deletes all data
49 DB2
Segmented Tablespaces
Can contain more than one stored table, but in a
segmented space
A Segment consists of a logically contiguous set of
n pages.
Segsize parameter decides the allocation size for the
tablespace
No segment is allowed to contain records for more than
one table
Sequential access to a particular table is more efficient
50 DB2
Segmented Tablespaces (contd...)
Mass Delete is much more efficient than in any other
Tablespace
Reorganizing the tablespace will restore every table to
its clustered order
Lock Table on table locks only the table, not the entire
tablespace
If a table is dropped, the space for that table can be
reclaimed with minimum reorg
51 DB2
Partitioned Tablespaces
Primarily used for Very large tables
Only one table in a partitioned TS; 1 to 64
partitions/TS
Numpart parameter specifies the no. of partitions
It is partitioned in accordance with value ranges for
single or a combination of columns. Hence these
column(s) cannot be updated
Individual partitions can be independently recovered
and reorganized
Different partitions can be stored on different storage
groups for efficient access.
52 DB2
Tablespace parameters to be specified for TS
creation
LOCKSIZE - indicates the type of locking DB2
performs for the given TS
Page
Table
Tablespace
ANY - DB2 decides the starting page
53 DB2
Tablespace parameters (contd...)
USING - method of storage allocations - Stogroup or
VCAT
PCTFREE - % of space available for future inserts
FREEPAGE - no of pages after which an empty page
is available
BUFFERPOOL - BP1, BP2 & BP32K
CLOSE - Yes/No - whether the underlying VSAM
datasets be closed each time the table is used. Max no
of datasets that can be open in DB2 at a time is 10,000
54 DB2
Tablespace parameters (contd...)
ERASE - Yes/No - whether physical DASD Where
the TS reside to be written with binary zeros when the
TS is dropped
NUMPARTS - For Partitioned Tablespaces
SEGSIZE - For Segmented Tablespaces
55 DB2
VCAT Option
User Defined VSAM datasets have to be defined
explicitly by the AMS utility IDCAMS
Two types of VSAM datasets are used -ESDS & LDS.
Linear Data set is more efficiently used by DB2
VSAM datasets defined here are different from the
plain VSAM datasets - can access them only through
VSAM Media Manager
56 DB2
Data Definition Language
CREATE
This statement is used to create objects

Syntax : For Creating a Table
CREATE TABLE <tabname> (Col Definitions)
PRIMARY KEY(Columns) / FOREIGN KEY
UNIQUE (Colname) (referential constraint)
[LIKE Table name / View name]
[IN Database Tablespace Name ]

57 DB2
Data Definition Language (contd...)
Foreign Key references dbname.table on relation
condition for delete
Table1 references table2(target) - Table2s Primary key
is the foreign key defined in Table1
The Conditions that can be used are CASCADE,
RESTRICT & SET NULL (referential constraint for
the foreign key definition)
Inserting (or updating ) rows in the target is allowed
only if there are no rows in the referencing table
58 DB2
Data Definition Language (contd...)
ALTER
This statement is used for altering all DB2 objects

Syntax : For altering a Table
ALTER TABLE <Tablename>
ADD Column Data-type [ not null with default]

Alter allows primary & Foreign key specifications to
be changed
It does not support changes to width or data type of a
column or dropping a column
59 DB2
Data Definition Language (contd...)
DROP
This statement is used for dropping all DB2 objects

Syntax : For dropping a table
DROP TABLE <Tablename>


60 DB2
Some general rules for RI & Table Parameters
Avoid nulls in columns participating in
Arithmetic logic or comparisons
Primary key cols cannot be nulls
Limit referential structures to no more than
three levels in a direction
Use DB2s inherent features rather than program coded
RIs.
61 DB2
Day 2 - Session 1
62 DB2
Topics to be covered in this session
More SQL - Insight into the DML statement Select
Simple Queries
Functions
Complex Queries
Other DML statements Insert, Update and Delete
Dynamic SQL Vs Static SQL
More on DB2 Objects (Indexes, Views, Alias etc...)
63 DB2
SQL - Selection & Projection
Select retrieves a specific number of rows from a table
Projection operation retrieves a specified subset of
columns(but all rows) from the table

E.g.. : SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME
FROM CUSTOMER;

The WHERE clause defines the Predicates for the
SQL operation.
The above WHERE clause can have multiple
conditions using AND & OR .
64 DB2
Other Clauses
Many other clauses can be used in conjunction with
the WHERE clause to code the required
predicate, some are :-
Between / Not Between
In / Not In
Like / Not Like
IS NULL / IS NOT NULL
65 DB2
SELECT using a range :
Between Clause
E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME, CUST_ADDR
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CUST_NO BETWEEN 1000 AND 2000;

In Clause
E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME, CUST_ADDR
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CUST_NO IN(1000, 1001,1002);

66 DB2
Select clause (contd...)
Like Clause
E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME, CUST_ADDR
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CUST_ID like/not like 425%

Note :- _ for a single char ; % for a string of chars
Escape \ - escape char; if precedes _ or % overrides
their meaning
67 DB2
Select clause (contd...)
NULL Clause : To check null the syntax is IS NULL

E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME, ORDER_NO

WHERE ORDER_NO IS NULL;

However if there are null values for ORDER_NO, then
these are always evaluated as a Not True condition in
a Query.
68 DB2
Order by and Group by clauses :
Order by sorts retrieved data in the specified order;
uses the WHERE clause
Group by operator causes the table represented by the
FROM clause to be rearranged into groups, such that
within one group all rows have the same value for the
Group by column (not physically in the database). The
Select clause is applied to the grouped data and not to
the original table.
Here HAVING is used to eliminate groups, just like
WHERE is used for rows.
69 DB2
Order by and Group by clauses (contd...)
E.g. SELECT ORDER_NO, SUM(NO_PRODUCTS)
FROM ORDER
GROUP BY ORDER_NO
HAVING AVG(NO_PRODUCTS) < 10
ORDER BY ORDER_NO ;
70 DB2
Functions
Types are two :
Column Function
Scalar Function
71 DB2
Column Functions
Compute from a group of rows aggregate value for a
specified column(s)
AVG, COUNT, MAX, MIN, SUM

72 DB2
Scalar Functions
Are applied to a column or expression and operate on a
single value.
CHAR, DATE, DAY(S), DECIMAL, DIGITS,
FLOAT, HEX, HOUR, INTEGER, LENGTH,
MICROSECOND, MINUTE, MONTH, SECOND,
SUBSTR, TIME, TIMESTAMP, VALUE,
VARGRAPHIC, YEAR
73 DB2
Complex SQLs
One terms a SQL to be complex when data that is
to be retrieved comes from more than one table
SQL provides two ways of coding a complex SQL
Subqueries and
Joins
74 DB2
Subqueries
Nested Select statements
Specified using the IN(or NOT IN) predicate, equality
or non-equality predicate(= or <>) and comparative
operator(<, <=, >, >=)
When using the equality, non-equality or comparative
operators, the inner query should return only a single
value
75 DB2
Subqueries (contd...)
E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE ORDER_NO IN
(SELECT ORDER_NO FROM ORDER
WHERE NO_PRODUCTS <5);

E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_ADDR
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE ORDER_NO =
(SELECT ORDER_NO FROM ORDER
WHERE NO_PRODUCTS = 5);
76 DB2
Subqueries (contd...)
The nested loop statements gives the user the flexibility
for querying multiple tables
A specialized form is Correlated Subquery - the
nested select statement refers back to the columns in
previous select statements
It works on Top-Bottom-Top fashion
Non-correlated Subquery works in Bottom-to-Top
fashion
77 DB2
Correlated Subquery
E.g. SELECT A.CUST_NAME A.CUST_ADDR
FROM CUSTOMER A
WHERE A.ORDER_NO IN
(SELECT ORDER_NO
FROM CUSTOMER B
WHERE A.CUST_ID = B.CUST_ID)
ORDER BY A.CUST_ID, A.CUST_NO ;

78 DB2
Corelated Subquery using EXISTS clause :
E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME
FROM CUSTOMER A
WHERE EXISTS
(SELECT * FROM ORDER B
WHERE B.ORDER_NO = A.ORDER_NO
AND B.ORDER_NO = 5);
79 DB2
Multiple levels of Subquery
E.g. SELECT CUST_NO, CUST_NAME, CUST_ADDR
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE ORDER_NO IN
(SELECT ORDER_NO FROM ORDER
WHERE PROD_ID IN
(SELECT PROD_ID
FROM PRODUCTS
WHERE PROD_NAME = NUTS));
80 DB2
Joins
OUTER JOIN : For one or more tables being joined, both
matching and non-matching rows are returned.
Duplicate columns may be eliminated
The non-matching columns will have nulls in them.

INNER JOIN: Here there is a possibility one or more of
the rows from either or both tables being joined will
not be included in the table that results from the join
operation
81 DB2
Other DML Statements
INSERT

E.g..: INSERT INTO Tablename(column1,
column2, column3 ,......)
VALUES( value1, value2, value3 ,........)

If any column is omitted in an INSERT statement and
that column is NOT NULL, then INSERT fails; if null
it is set to null
82 DB2
DML statements (contd...)
If the column is defined as NOT NULL BY
DEFAULT, it is set to that default value
Omitting the list of columns is equivalent to specifying
all values
SELECT - INSERT
E.g. INSERT INTO TEMP (A#, B)
SELECT A#, SUM(B)
FROM TEMP1 GROUP BY A# ;
83 DB2
DML statements (contd...)
UPDATE

E.g.. UPDATE tablename
SET Columnname(s) = scalar expression
WHERE [ condition ]

Single or Multiple row updates
Update with a Subquery
84 DB2
DML statements (contd...)
DELETE

E.g. DELETE FROM Tablename
WHERE [condition ];

Single or multiple row delete or deletion of all rows
85 DB2
Day 2 - Session 2
86 DB2
Static SQL
Hard-coded into an application program
cannot be modified during the programs execution
except for changes to the values assigned to the host
variables
Cursors are used to access set-level data (i.e when a
SQL SELECT returns more than 1 row)
The general form is EXEC SQL
[SQL statements]
END-EXEC.
87 DB2
Dynamic SQL
Statements can change throughout the programs
execution
When the SQL is bound, the application plan or
package that is created does not contain the same
information as that for a static SQL program
The access paths cannot be determined before
execution
88 DB2
Indexes
What is an Index ?
An index is an ordered set of pointers to rows of a
base table.
Or
An Index is a balanced B-tree structure that orders
the values of columns in a table

Why an Index ?
One can access data directly and more efficiently
89 DB2
Indexes (contd...)
Each index is based on the values of data in one or
more columns. An index is an object that is separate
from the data in the table.
When you define an index using the CREATE INDEX
statement, DB2 builds this structure and maintains it
automatically.
Indexes can be used by DB2 to improve performance
and ensure uniqueness.
In most cases, access to data is faster with an index.
A table with a unique index cannot have rows with
identical keys.
90 DB2
Indexes (contd...)
Syntax : For creation of an Index

CREATE INDEX <indexname> ON <tabname>
(colname asc/desc)
91 DB2
Index Parameters for Creation
CLUSTER
USING STOGROUP/VCAT (the corresponding name)
FREEPAGE
PCTFREE
PRIQTY / SECQTY
BUFFERPOOL
CLOSE - Yes/No
ERASE Yes/No
92 DB2
Index Guidelines - What to do ?
1. Consider indexing on columns used in UNION,
DISTINCT, GROUP BY, ORDER BY & WHERE
clauses.
2. Limit the indexing of frequently updated columns
3. Create explicitly, a clustering index
4. Create a unique index on the primary key and
indexes on foreign keys
93 DB2
Index Guidelines (contd...)
5. Overloading of index when row length of a table to
be accessed is short
6. Atleast one index must be defined for a table with
more than 100 pages
7. Use Multicolumn index rather than a multi-index
(appln dependent); however the latter requires more
DASD .
94 DB2
Index Guidelines (contd...)
8. Create indexes before loading the table.
9. Clustering reduces I/O; DB2 optimizer usually tries
to use an index on clustered column before using the
other indexes.
10. Specify Indexspace freespace the same as
tablespace freespace
95 DB2
Index Guidelines (contd...)
11. Use the DEFER option while creating the index.
RECOVER INDEX utility can then be used to populate
the index. Recover utility populates index entries
faster.
12. Use different STOGROUPs for Tablespaces &
indexspaces
13. Create Critical indexes in a different bufferpool than
the tablespaces.
96 DB2
Index Guidelines - What Not to do ?
1. Avoid indexing on Variable columns
2. Limit the number of indexes on partitioned TS
3. Avoid indexes if
the table is very small (< 10 pages)
it has heavy inserts and deletes and is relatively
small (< 20 pages)
it is accessed with a scan.
4. Avoid defining redundant indexes
97 DB2
Other DB2 Objects
VIEWS
It is a logical derivation of a table from other
table/tables. A View does not exist in its own right.
They provide a certain amount if logical independence
They allow the same data to be seen by different users
in different ways
In DB2 a view that is to accept a update must be
derived from a single base table
98 DB2
DB2 Objects (contd...)
Aliases
Mean another name for the table.
Aliases are used basically for accessing remote tables
(in distributed data processing), which add a location
prefix to their names.
Using aliases creates a shorter name.

Synonym
Also means another name for the table, but is private to
the user who created it.
99 DB2
DB2 Objects (contd...)
Syntax:
CREATE VIEW <Viewname> (<columns>)
AS Subquery (Subquery - SELECT FROM
other Table(s))

CREATE ALIAS <Aliasname> FOR <Tablename>

CREATE SYNONYM <Synonymname> FOR
<Tablename>
100 DB2
SQL Guidelines

- Refer handout
- Mullins, chapter 2
101 DB2
Day 3 - Session 1
102 DB2
Topic to be covered in this session
Application programming using DB2
Steps to write a DB2 application
Cursors
QMF and SPUFI
Some Hints
103 DB2
Application programming using DB2
Application environments supporting DB2 :
IMS(Batch/Online), CICS, TSO(Batch/Online)
CAF - Call Attach Facility
All DB2 application types can execute concurrently
Host Language support - COBOL, PL/1, C, Fortran
or Assembly lang
104 DB2
Steps involved in creating a DB2 application
Coding the application
using Embedded SQL
using Host variables (DCLGEN)
using SQLCA
pre-compile the program
compile & link edit the program
bind

Note : Cursors can also be used
105 DB2
Embedded SQL statements
It is like the file I/O
Normally the embedded SQL statements contain the
host variables coded with the INTO clause of the
SELECT statement.
They are delimited with EXEC SQL ...... END EXEC.
E.g. EXEC SQL
SELECT Empno, Empname
INTO :H-empno, :H-empname
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE empno = 1001
END EXEC.
106 DB2
Host Variables
These are variables(or rather area of storage) defined in
the host language to use the predicates of a DB2 table.
These are referenced in the SQL statement.
A means of moving data from and to DB2 tables
DCLGEN produces host variables, the same as the
columns of the table
107 DB2
Host Variables (contd...)
Host variables can be used
In WHERE Clause of Select, Insert, Update & Delete
INTO Clause of Select & Fetch statements
As input of SET Clause of Update Statements
As Input for the VALUES Clause of Insert
statements
As Literals in Select list of a Select Statement
108 DB2
Host Variables (contd...)
E.g. SELECT Cust_No, Cust_name, Cust_addr
INTO :H-CUST-NO, :H-CUST-NAME,
:H-CUST-ADDR
FROM CUSTOMER
WHERE CUST_NO = :H-CUST-NO;
109 DB2
DCLGEN
Issued for a single table
Prepares the structure of the table in a COBOL
copybook
The copybook contains a SQL DECLARE TABLE
statement along with a working storage host variable
definition for the table
110 DB2
SQLCA
An SQLCA is a structure or collection of variables
that is updated after each SQL statement executes.
An application program that contains executable
SQL statements must provide exactly one
SQLCA.
111 DB2
SQLCA (contd...)
Structure of the SQLCA (for COBOL)
01 SQLCA.
05 SQLCAID PIC X(8).
05 SQLCABC PIC S9(9) COMP
05 SQLCODE PIC S9(9) COMP
05 SQLERRM.
:
05 SQLWARN.
10 SQLWARN0 PIC X(1).
:
10 SQLWARNA PIC X(1).
10 SQLSTATE PIC X(5).

112 DB2
Day 3 - Session 2
113 DB2
Cursors
Used when a large number of rows are to be Selected
Can be likened to a pointer
Can be used for modifying data using FOR UPDATE
OF clause
114 DB2
Cursors (contd...)
The four (4) Cursor control statements are -
Declare : name assigned for a particular SQL
statement
Open : readies the cursor for row retrieval; sometimes
builds the result table. However it does not assign
values to the host variables
Fetch : returns data from the results table one row at a
time and assigns the value to specified host variables
Close : releases all resources used by the cursor
115 DB2
Cursors (contd...)
DECLARE
E.g. - For the Declare statement
EXEC SQL
DECLARE EMPCUR CURSOR FOR
SELECT Empno, Empname,Dept, Job
FROM EMP
WHERE Dept = 'D11'
FOR UPDATE OF Job
END-EXEC.

116 DB2
Cursors (contd...)
OPEN
E.g. - For the Open statement
EXEC SQL
OPEN EMPCUR
END-EXEC.

117 DB2
Cursors (contd...)
FETCH
E.g. - For the Fetch statement
EXEC SQL
FETCH EMPCUR
INTO :Empno, :Empname, :Dept, :Job
END-EXEC.

118 DB2
Cursors (contd...)
CLOSE
E.g. - For the Close statement
EXEC SQL
CLOSE EMPCUR
END EXEC.
119 DB2
Cursors (contd...)
WHENEVER
E.g. - For the Whenever Clause
EXEC SQL
WHENEVER NOT FOUND
Go To Close-EMPCUR
END EXEC.
Note :- Not recommended for use in application programs
120 DB2
Cursors (contd...)
UPDATE
E.g. - For the Update statement using cursors
EXEC SQL
UPDATE EMP
Set Job = :New-job
WHERE current of EMPCUR
END EXEC.
121 DB2
Cursors (contd...)
DELETE
E.g. - For the Delete statement using cursors
EXEC SQL
DELETE FROM EMP
WHERE current of EMPCUR
END EXEC.
122 DB2
Application development guidelines
Code modular DB2 programs and make them as small
as possible
Use unqualified SQL statements; this enables
movement from one environment to another(test to
production)
Never use Select * in an embedded SQL program;
Use joins rather than subqueries
123 DB2
Application development guidelines (contd...)
Use WHERE clause and filter out data
Use cursors when fetching multiple rows, though they
add overheads
Use FOR UPDATE OF clause for UPDATE or
DELETE with cursor - this ensures data integrity.
Use Inserts minimally ; use LOAD utility instead of
INSERT, if the inserts are not application dependent
124 DB2
QMF - Query Management Facility
It is an MVS- and VM- based query tool
allows end users to enter SQL queries to produce a
variety of reports and graphs as a result of this query
QMF queries can be formulated in several ways : by
direct SQL statements, by means of relational
prompted query interface or by query-by-example
(QBE). QBE is similar to SQL in some ways but more
user friendly
125 DB2
SPUFI - SQL Processing Using File Input
Supports the online execution of SQL statements from
a TSO terminal
Used for developers to check SQL statements or view
table details
SPUFI menu contains the input file in which the SQL
statements are coded, option for default settings and
editing and the output file.
126 DB2
Day 4 - Session 1
127 DB2
Topic to be covered in this session
Program Preparation
Precompile, Compile, Linkedit and Bind
Plan & Packages
128 DB2
Precompile
Searches all the SQL statements and DB2 related
INCLUDE members and comments out every SQL
statement in the program
The SQL statements are replaced by a CALL to the
DB2 runtime interface module, along with parameters.
All SQL statements are extracted and put in a Database
Request Module (DBRM)
129 DB2
Precompile (contd...)
Places a timestamp in the modified source and the
DBRM so that these are tied. If there is a mismatch in
this a runtime error of -818, timestamp mismatch
occurs
All DB2 related INCLUDE statements must be placed
between EXEC SQL & END EXEC keywords for the
precompiler to recognize them
130 DB2
Compile & Link
Modified precompiler COBOL output is compiled
Compiled source is link edited to an executable load
module
Appropriate DB2 host language interface module
should also be included in the link edit step(i.e
DSNELI)
131 DB2
Bind
A type of compiler for SQL statements
It reads the SQL statements from the DBRM and
produces a mechanism to access data (in an efficient
manner) as directed by the SQL statements being
bound
Checks syntax, checks for correctness of table &
column definitions against the catalog information &
performs authorization validation
132 DB2
Bind Types
BIND PLAN : accepts as input one or more DBRMs
and outputs an application plan containing executable
logic representing optimized access paths to DB2 data.
BIND PACKAGE : accepts as input a single DBRM
and produces a single package containing the
optimized access path. The PLAN in this case contains
a reference to the physical location of the package(s).
133 DB2
What is a Package ?
It is a single bound DBRM with optimized access paths
It also contains a location identifier, a collection
identifier and a package identifier
A package can have multiple versions, each with its
own version identifier
134 DB2
Advantages of Package
Reduced bind time
Can specify bind options at the programmer level
Versioning
Provides remote data access(in version DB2 V2.3 or
higher)
135 DB2
What is a Plan ?
An application plan contains one or both of the
following elements:
A list of package names
The bound form of SQL statements taken from one
or more DBRMs.
Every DB2 application requires an application plan.
Plans are created using the DB2 subcommands BIND
PLAN
136 DB2
For the following refer handout
List of common SQL return codes and solutions
137 DB2
Day 4 - Session 2
138 DB2
Topics to be covered in this Session
DB2 Utilities

139 DB2
DB2 System administration
DB2 UTILITIES
Check
Copy/Mergecopy
Recover
Load
Reorg
Runstats
Explain
140 DB2
Check
Checks the integrity of DB2 data structures
Checks the referential integrity between two tables and
also checks DB2 indexes for consistency
Can delete invalid rows and copies them to a exception
table
Use CHECK DATA when loading a table without
specifying the ENFORCE CONSTRAINTS option or
after the partial recovery of tablespaces in a referential
set
141 DB2
Copy
Used to create an imagecopy for the complete
tablespace or a partition of the tablespace - full
imagecopy or incremental imagecopy
Every successful execution of COPY utility places in
the table SYSIBM.SYSCOPY, atleast one row that
indicates the status of the imagecopy
142 DB2
Mergecopy
The MERGECOPY utility combines multiple
incremental image copy data sets into a new full or
incremental image copy data set
143 DB2
Recover
Restore DB2 tablespaces and indexes to a specific
instance
Data can be recovered for single page, pages that
contain I/O errors, a single partition or an entire
tablespace
Indexes are always recovered from the actual table
data, not from image copy and log data, as in the case
of tablespace recovery
Standard unit of recovery is a Tablespace
144 DB2
Load
To accomplish bulk inserts into DB2 table
Can replace the current data or append to it .i.e. LOAD
DATA REPLACE or LOAD DATA RESUME(S)
If a job terminates in any phase of LOAD REPLACE
the utility has to be terminated and rerun
145 DB2
Load (contd...)
If a job terminates in any phase other than
UTILINIT(which sets up and initializes the LOAD
utility), the tablespace must be first restored using the
full RECOVER, if LOG NO option of the LOAD was
mentioned. After the tablespace is restored, the error is
to be corrected, the utility terminated and the job rerun.
146 DB2
Reorg
To reorganize DB2 tables and indexes and thereby
improving their efficiency of access
Re-clusters data, resets free space to the amount
specified in the create DDL statement and deletes and
redefines underlying VSAM datasets for stogroup
defined objects
147 DB2
Runstats
Collects statistical information for DB2 tables,
tablespaces, partitions, indexes, and columns.
It can place this information in the catalog tables with
DB2 optimizer statistics or DBA monitoring statistics
or with all statistics that have been gathered
It can be used on specific SQL queries without
updating the current usable statistics
148 DB2
Reorg Job stream
The total reorg schedule should include a Runstats job
or step : to record current tablespace and index
statistics to DB catalog
Two copy steps for each tablespace being reorganized :
so that data is recoverable. The second copy job is
required after the REORG if it was performed with a
LOG NO option
149 DB2
Reorg Job stream (contd...)
After a REORG is run with LOG NO option, DB2
turns on the copy pending status flag for tablespaces
specified in the REORG.
When LOG NO parameter is specified it is better to
take a imagecopy of the tablespace being reorganized
immediately after reorg
A REBIND job for all plans using tables in any of the
tablespaces being organized
150 DB2
Explain
This feature can be used to obtain the details about the
access paths chosen by the DB2 optimizer for SQL
statements.
Used specifically for performance monitoring.
When EXPLAIN is requested the access paths that the
DB2 chooses are put in coded format into the table
PLAN_TABLE, which is created in the default
database.
151 DB2
Explain (contd...)
To EXPLAIN a single SQL statement precede that
SQL statement with the EXPLAIN Command
EXPLAIN ALL SET QUERYNO = integer
FOR SQL statement
The other method is specifying EXPLAIN YES with
the Bind command
Then PLAN_TABLE is to be queried to get the
required information.
152 DB2
Explain (contd...)
The information provided include the type of access of
particular tables used in the SQL or Package or Plan,
the order in which the tables or joined in a JOIN,
whether SORT is required and so on
Since the EXPLAIN results are dependent on the DB
catalog, it is better to run RUNSTATS before running a
EXPLAIN
153 DB2
Day 5 - Session 1
154 DB2
Topics to be covered in this Session
DB2 Security and DCL
DB2 Locking
155 DB2
Data Control language
DB2 security is provided internal to DB2 using the
DCL

The two (2) DCL statements used are
Grant
Revoke
156 DB2
Data Control language (contd...)
GRANT
Grants privileges on different DB2 objects such as
the Tables, Views, Plans, Packages, Databases etc.
to the required set of users.
Is used to grant Use privileges to user on
requirement
Is also used to grant system privileges to select
few users
User with a SYSADM privilege will be
responsible for overall control of the system
157 DB2
Data Control language (contd...)
Syntax : GRANT <privileges> TO <users/PUBLIC>
[WITH GRANT OPTION]

E.g. GRANT SELECT, UPDATE(NAME, NO)
ON Table EMPL To A, B, C (or PUBLIC);

GRANT EXECUTE ON PLAN PLANA To USER;
158 DB2
Data Control language (contd...)
Some table (or View) privileges are
Select, Update, Delete and Insert
Privileges specific to Tables are
Alter & Index (create)
There are no specific DROP privileges; the table can be
dropped by its owner or a SYSADM
A user having authority to grant privilege to another,
also has the authority to grant the privilege with with
the GRANT Option
159 DB2
Data Control language (contd...)
REVOKE
Revoke is primarily used to revoke the privileges given
to a user on specific Objects.
The user granting the privileges has the authority to
Revoke also.
It is not possible to be column specific when revoking
an Update privilege

160 DB2
Data Control language (contd...)
Syntax : REVOKE <privileges> FROM <user/PUBLIC>

E.g. REVOKE ALL ON Table EMPL
FROM A, B, C (or PUBLIC);

REVOKE Bind ON PLAN PLANA FROM USER;

161 DB2
DB2 Locking
Why Locking ?
Locking is used to provide multiple user access to the
same system

How does DB2 manage locking ?
DB2 uses locking services provided by an MVS
subsystem called the IMS Resource Lock
Manager(IRLM).
162 DB2
DB2 Locking (contd...)
The above is based on Transaction Processing - the
system component that provides this is
A TRANSACTION MANAGER
COMMIT & ROLLBACK are key methods of
implementing this
163 DB2
Explicit locking facilities
The SQL statement LOCK TABLE
The ISOLATION parameter on the BIND PACKAGE
command - the two possible values are
RR(Repeatable Read) & CS(Cursor Stability).
CS is the value specified if the application program is
used in an online environment.
The tablespace LOCKSIZE parameter - physically
DB2 locks data in terms of pages or tables or
tablespaces. This parameter is specified in CREATE
or ALTER Tablespace option LOCKSIZE. The
options are Tablespace, Table, Page or Any
164 DB2
Explicit locking facilities (contd...)
The ACQUIRE/RELEASE parameters on the BIND
PLAN command specifies when table locks(which are
implicitly acquired by DB2) are to be acquired and
released.
Types :
ACQUIRE
Use
Allocate
RELEASE
Commit
Deallocate
165 DB2
Day 5 - Session 2
166 DB2
Topics to be covered in this Session
DB2 Catalog & Directory
Optimizer
Performance tuning
167 DB2
Catalog Tables & the DB2 directory
Repository for all DB2 objects - contains 43 tables
Each table maintains data about an aspect of the DB2
environment
The data refers to information about tablespaces,
tables, indexes, privileges, on utilities run on DB2 and
so on e.g. : SYSIBM.SYSTABLES,
SYSINDEXES/SYSCOLUMNS ......
168 DB2
Catalog Tables & the DB2 directory (contd...)
When standard DB2 SQL is used, the DB2 catalog is
either accessed or updated. e.g.. When a CREATE
TABLE statement is issued the catalog tables
SYSIBM.SYSTABLES, SYSIBM.SYSCOLUMNS &
SYSIBM.SYSFIELDS are updated.
However the DB2 catalog is semi active only. This is
because updates to number of rows, the physical order
of the rows for a set of keys and the like are updated
only after running a RUNSTATS utility
DB2 catalog is integrated - DB2 catalog and DB2
DBMS are inherently bound together
169 DB2
Catalog Tables & the DB2 directory (contd...)
It is nonsubvertible - DB2 catalog cannot be updated
behind DB2s back. i.e. if a table of 10 columns is
created, it is not possible to go and change the number
of columns directly on the catalog to 15. It has to be
done using the standard SQL statements for dropping
and recreating the table
170 DB2
DB2 Optimizer
Analyzes the SQL statements and determines the most
efficient way to access data - gives Physical data
independence
It evaluates the following factors : CPU cost, I/O cost,
DB2 catalog statistics & the SQL statement
It estimates CPU time, cost involved in applying
predicates, traversing pages and sorting
171 DB2
DB2 Optimizer (contd...)
It estimates the cost of physically retrieving and writing
the data
The information pertaining to the state of the tables that
will be accessed by the SQL statements are provided
by the Catalog
172 DB2
Performance Tuning
The performance of an application can be monitored
and enhanced in the application, as well as at the
database level
In application side the SQLs can be tuned to make
them more efficient, and avoid redundancy
It is better to structure the SQLs so that they perform
only the necessary operations
173 DB2
Performance Tuning (contd...)
On the database side, the major enhancements can be
done to the definitions of tables, indexes & the
distribution of tablespace and indexspace
The application run statistics are obtained from
EXPLAIN or DB2PM (DB2 Performance Monitor)
report
174 DB2
Thank You