INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENERGY RESEARCH

Int. J. Energy Res. 2006; 30:895903

Published online 27 April 2006 in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/er.1195
Next generation fuel cell R&D
B. Zhu
1,2,3,n,y
1
Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH),
S-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
2
Department of Chemical Engineering, Harbin University of Engineering, Harbin 150001, Peoples Republic of China
3
Energy Research Institute, Hefei University of Technology, Hefei 230009, Anhui, Peoples Republic of China
SUMMARY
The material innovations and developments can play a key role in realizing solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)
commercialization. However, it seems missing in the long SOFC R&D strategy. Recent R&D on
innovative ceria-based composites (CBCs) make a breakthrough and open a new research subject
on low-temperature (3006008C) SOFCs. Low temperatures create many freedoms to develop next
generation fuel cell technology for commercialization. Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEY WORDS: solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC); low temperature (3006008C); ceria-based composite (CBC)
electrolytes; nanocomposites; superionic conduction; dual H
+
and O
2
conduction
1. STATE-OF-THE-ART
Coming years are a critical period to determine the success of fuel cell technology in the market.
Existing fuel cell technologies face the challenge to provide a commercial path, where the system
costs and fuel infrastructures are critical bottlenecks. The ability to use the existing
infrastructure of hydrocarbon fuels is the most economic solution for the next generation (25
years) until a hydrogen-based infrastructure and economy can be created. The solid oxide fuel
cell (SOFC) can operate on readily available hydrocarbon fuels (coal gas, natural gas and
biomass fuels for the stationary power generation; alcohol (methanol, ethanol, etc.) and
gasoline/diesel for tractionary power applications, which has signicant importance for
sustainable and environmentally responsible development. The SOFC is a true multi-fuel fuel
cell. Other types of fuel cells often need a reformer in order to use hydrocarbon fuels. External
reformers add to system costs and complexity and subtract from overall system eciency. The
Received 23 November 2005
Revised 13 December 2005
Accepted 15 December 2005 Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
y
E-mail: binzhu@kth.se
Contract/grant sponsor: Swedish Research Council
Contract/grant sponsor: Swedish Agency for International Cooperation Development
Contract/grant sponsor: Carl Tryggers Stiftelse for Vetenskap Forskning
n
Correspondence to: B. Zhu, Department of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Royal Institute of Technology
(KTH), S-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden.
SOFCs take maximum advantage of abundant natural resources and their inherent advantage
will propel the technology to the forefront of technologies suitable to meet societys increasing
demand for environmentally sound energy sources.
Conventional high temperature (HT: 10008C) SOFCs developed based on the YSZ
(yttrium-stabilized zirconia) single-phase material have made great successes in technologies
(Souza et al., 1997; Tsai et al., 1997; Murray et al., 1999; Steele, 1999; Seungdoo et al., 2000).
However, the HT technology has caused high cost hindering the SOFC commercialization.
Therefore, low temperature (LT: 3006008C) SOFC possesses a new tendency to develop
marketable SOFCs. Current SOFC technology developed based on the single-phase materials
cannot meet demands for LTSOFCs because of a basic requirement on conductivity of
10
1
S cm
1
at 6008C. The YSZ reaches this level at 10008C (so called HT-SOFC-tech.). New
alternatives, the ion-doped ceria (e.g. gadolinium and samarium doping), regarded as the most
promising candidates for intermediate temperature (6008008C) SOFCs (Steele, 1996; Huijsman
et al., 1998; Steele and Heinzel, 2001; Perednis and Gauckler, 2004), reach 10
1
Scm
1
up to
8008C.
The LTSOFCs are especially interesting since they can be manufactured at the most cost-
eective level with also high eciency and multi-fuel functions. Without the external reformer,
they can be directly operated by coal, biomass-fuels or syngas and liquid hydrocarbon
fuels, such as methanol and ethanol, etc. It creates thus new marketing opportunities for
various transportation, stationary and portable applications. At low temperatures many new
opportunities arise for the use of cheaper materials throughout the fuel cell system. Stainless
steel and cheap alloys replace expensive ceramic components or expensive alloys. The stack,
heart of a SOFC system, can be available at Euros 50/kW.
The LTSOFC has not been developed for such a long SOFC R&D history due to lack of
materials. Nanotechnology was reviewed as an eective approach to reduce the SOFC operation
temperature; however, nano-structured materials do not exist in the YSZ-based SOFCs at high
temperatures, while the nano-ceria (single-phase) causes strong side eects that can decrease
signicantly the ionic conductivity and increase the electronic one (Tscho pe, 2001), causing
critical problems for SOFC applications.
2. CHALLENGES, METHODOLOGY AND INNOVATIONS
2.1. Challenges and methodologies
2.1.1. The ceria-based composite (CBC) electrolytes for LTSOFCs. The CBCs (usually
containing two phases) and their successful LTSOFC applications have shown great
performance improvements that have demonstrated a breakthrough in fuel cell R&D (Zhu,
2001a, b; Zhu et al., 2003a, 2004). New research achievements on the CBC materials showed
superionic and dual or hybrid H
+
/O
2
conduction with a conductivity of 10
1
S cm
1
below
6008C (Schober, 2005; Zhu, 2003). Currently joint industrial developments on the CBCs have
been scaled up for production, to manufacture the practical large cells and develop the kW
prototype LTSOFCs.
2.1.2. Compatible high performance electrodes. Though advanced CBC materials have been
successful, without the compatible electrodes the SOFC device cannot function in high
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Energy Res. 2006; 30:895903
B. ZHU 896
performance even if the electrolyte is perfect. This is a fact from the long SOFC R&D history.
Thus to develop compatible electrodes with high catalytic and conductive properties becomes
next important strategy for LTSOFC R&D.
It has been recently recognized that for the case of smaller SOFC stacks for various CHP
(combined heat and power) and APU (auxiliary power unit) applications, the operating
temperature should be as low as possible but without compromising the electrode kinetics and
internal resistance of the cell/stack. Matching the high SOFC performance in the LT range puts
critical challenges on the electrode materials, anode and cathode. In our previous LTSOFC
R&D, a large amount of the research achievements/results on the compatible electrodes has
been made. Some of them have been recently reported (Feng et al., 2005; Li et al., 2005). These
eorts will accelerate developments of the CBC materials for applications.
2.1.3. The sealing and interconnects. The ceramic or glass sealing materials become a technical
barrier for the current planar-type SOFCs success, and the interconnects are also critical
elements of SOFC stack, both providing electrical connections between each cell and gas ow
routes for fuel and air. The LT range (3006008C) can provide new solutions. For example, in
the current state-of-the-art of Polymer Science, high temperature polymer materials have been
developed to sustain a temperature up to 5008C. This has already created the possibility to use
such polymer materials for the LTSOFCs sealings operated below 5008C. The composite-
plastic (polymer-oxide) sealing materials can sustain the operation up to 6008C. These would
make no sealing problem for LTSOFCs. Metallic bipolar plates (interconnects) are another
good example of LTSOFC advantages. The stainless steel replaces expensive ceramic
components, and ferritic or normal stainless steel materials replace nickel-base alloys. These
make the stack itself (heart of an SOFC system) in extremely low costs. However, metallic
interconnects are vulnerable when exposed to oxidative environment. One approach is to
develop conductive oxide layers, e.g. nano-coating of a conducting oxide layer such as
electrically conductive perovskite to suppress oxidation, on interconnects; another is to develop
corrosion resistance and long life metallic interconnect materials for LTSOFCs.
2.1.4. Thin lm methodology and new materials. As a general requirement, the combined area
specic resistivity (ASR) of the cell components (anodeelectrolytecathode) for the whole FC
should be below 0.5 Ocm
2
to ensure high power density and minimize the amount of material
per kilowatt of power supply. Most importantly, the contribution of the electrolyte to the total
combined ASR ( d=s where d is electrolyte thickness and s specic ionic conductivity) is
typically required to be less than 0.15 Ocm
2
. To meet this requirement, the maximum thickness
of the electrolyte is about 150 mm when conventional YSZ electrolyte is self-supported and the
operating temperature is about 9508C (s: 0.1 S/cm). Further reducing the YSZ electrolyte lm
down to 10 mm would result in an operation temperature down near 7008C, but no way to reach
the LT range. However, the thin lm may not guarantee the long-stability performances and
reproducible results, which requires an electrolyte thickness not less than 50 mm (Steele, 1996).
New materials are an eective way to lower signicantly the SOFC operation temperature.
The CBCs prepared in combination of advantages from the ceramic composite and
nanotechnology exhibit superionic conductivity, 0.010.5 S/cm, in the LT range, 3006008C.
If a thick layer electrolyte (e.g. 300500 mm thick) is adopted, the contribution to the total ASR
at 6008C is only about 0.1 Ocm
2
or less, still lower than the requested. By constructing thick
lm, say 50 mm thick, the new materials may be used down to 3008C still having suciently high
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Energy Res. 2006; 30:895903
NEXT GENERATION FUEL CELL R&D 897
LTSOFC performance in case of compatible electrode and sucient catalyst function. These
new CBC composite electrolyte materials and nanocomposites have, of course, created a great
potential and freedom to develop next generation fuel cell technology.
2.2. Long-term innovations and R&D strategies
2.2.1. Nanocomposites. Nanocomposites can combine advantages from the nanotechnology
and advanced ceramic composite technology. The LT provides new freedoms to develop
nanotech.-based materials, especially for nanocomposite electrolytes and electrodes with
successful LTSOFC applications. Normal nano-structured materials cannot function for
LTSOFCs because hundreds of degree celsius can easily destroy the nano-structures in addition
to strongly reducing and oxidizing LTSOFC environments. A unique approach has been
developed using a 2nd phase material to create a nanocomposite: a nanocore particle with a
nano-layer shell formed by the 2nd phase, or by interactions between the constituent phases,
both being functional material components. Figure 1 shows a schematic of such nanocomposite
material model.
The nanocomposite approach is based on the fact that in the nano-scale some materials
become conductive though they are non-conductive in normal (mm) scale. In this case, the
particle bulk nature is not anymore dominant but the eects of the boundaries and interfaces
among the particles turn to determinable factor for the material property and conductivity. The
second phase particles can be introduced to form the composites in order to adjust and optimize
the interfacial eects to the maximum. This is the basic principle of the nanocomposites. Typical
examples are various ceriaoxide composites, e.g. CeO
2
SiO
2
, CeO
2
La
2
O
3
, ceriaBCY
(perovskite H
+
conducting oxide) and ceriasalt composites as well as corresponding thin
lm materials. The nanocomposite approach uses the two-phase interfacial mechanisms to
create new material functions neither limited by nor changing the single-phase bulk structure,
Figure 1. Schematic of the ceria-based nanocomposite: a core-shell composite structure.
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Energy Res. 2006; 30:895903
B. ZHU 898
which can be an ecient tool to create advanced materials and devices by optimizing and
developing the interfacial functions that each individual phase/component does not possess.
2.2.2. Superionic conduction. Unlike the conventional superionic conduction/transition that
appears in a single-phase bulk from low conductive phase transferred to the superionic one
accompanying a structural change, the superionic conduction in the composites is determined
by the interfaces, i.e. the change in the interfacial properties without changing the constituent
phase structures. The composite system conductivity thus strongly depends on the coupling
eect between the phases. Figure 2 shows a schematic of the superionic conduction and phase
transition occurring in the interface between the two phases. Studies on various interfaces
between the constituent phases are more important than that of the individual phase/bulk
structure to describe the superionic conduction and other interfacial phenomena. There are
highly conducting contributions in parallel due to space charge zones near phase boundaries.
The defect concentrations are much higher in these zones than that in the bulk (Maier, 1995).
The same phenomenon also exists in the composite interfacial regions created by the two-phase
co-existence, thus resulting in advanced multi-functions. Our latest studies on this subject may
conclude that one of the superionic conduction mechanisms is caused by the interaction between
the composite phases, and can be described by sub-lattice melting model/theory (Hainovsk and
Maier, 1995) for the 2nd phase in the composites.
2.2.3. Dual or hybrid H
+
and O
2
conduction. It is based on a consideration that both proton
(H
+
) and oxygen ion (O
2
) are the fuel cell source ions. Proton conduction is important for
LTSOFCs because it can be activated more easily than oxygen ions in the LT (3006008C)
region, thus make signicant conducting and electrical contributions. The composite approach
can combine or integrate multi-ion functions, typically, dual H
+
and O
2
conduction together
to enhance the material conductivity.
1E-5
1E-4
1E-3
0.01
0.1
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
700 600 500 400 300 200
1000/T (K
-
1
)
(

C)
Phase I Phase II

(
c
m
-
1
)
Figure 2. Phase transition caused by the interface or interactions between the two constituent phases.
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Energy Res. 2006; 30:895903
NEXT GENERATION FUEL CELL R&D 899
In general, proton conduction exists commonly in many salts, and it often takes place in the
two-phase interfaces (Zhu et al., 1999; Zhu, 2000, 2001c). In the ceriasalt composites the ceria
is the host O
2
conducting phase, while H
+
conduction may exist in the 2nd (guest) salt phase
and in the two-phase interfaces (Zhu, 2003). The conducting chains: H- - - - OH, HOH and
HO- - - - H create the H
+
and O
2
interfacial conducting path/mechanism, see Figure 3. Both
H
+
and O
2
conduction can be integrated in one composite to enhance the material
conductivity basically due to the composite eect. This eect concerns the ion conduction in
interfaces, or interfacial conduction, as the key. Nanotechnology and nanocomposite
approaches can create a great potential to enhance the composite eect and conductivity.
Although mixed H
+
and O
2
conduction was discovered in some proton conducting oxides
(PCO) (Yajima et al., 1991; Iwahara, 1992; Kreuer et al., 1994), there are substantial dierences
between the PCO and CBC materials. In PCO the H
+
and O
2
conductions are in a single phase
and resulted from the same oxygen vacancies. Consequently, the rule
t
H
t
O
2 1 1
has to be followed due to the same constituent, the oxygen vacancy determining the
conductivity. Thus, H
+
and O
2
conductions cannot enhance each other, but reversely, if one is
strengthened, the other is weakened. Nevertheless, the situation is very dierent from the dual
H
+
and O
2
conduction in the two-phase composite electrolytes (Zhu, 2001c). Each conducting
phase/species conducts through a dierent structure, phase and origin, and the interfacial
conduction mechanism is responsible for the large conductivity enhancement. This applies not
only to protons but also to oxygen ions because of active interaction and interfacial mechanism
between the two constituent phases in the composite.
Deep study on the dual or hybrid H
+
/O
2
conductors and conduction mechanisms is
signicantly important for both fundamental and applied research.
2.2.4. New fuel cell electrochemistry and technology. In the H
+
/O
2
conducting electrolyte the
dual H
+
and O
2
ion transport causes new fuel cell reactions and processes as below:
Figure 3. Dual or hybrid proton and oxygen ion conduction process and mechanism in interfaces between
the two constituent phases, where the interfacial ion conduction process is indicated: H- - - - OH, HOH
and HO- - - - H chains through HO combination/decomposition, or association/dissociation process. The
larger black boll represents oxygen element O or oxygen ion O
2
and small black bolls for H or proton.
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Energy Res. 2006; 30:895903
B. ZHU 900
At anode a bi-functional electrode reaction takes place for both H
+
and O
2
at the same time
H
2
O
2
H
2
O2e

for O
2
2
H
2
2H

2e

for H

3
At cathode the similar bi-functional electrode processes exist
1
2
O
2
2e

O
2
for O
2
4
1
2
O
2
2H

2e

H
2
O for H

5
Thus the fuel cell overall reaction
H
2

1
2
O
2
xH
2
Oa 1 xH
2
Oc
resulting in water formation at both anode and cathode sides. Figure 4 shows a schematic of
dual proton and oxygen ion conduction processes in a fuel cell.
The combination of the H
+
and O
2
conduction can, on one hand, enhance transported ion
concentrations/ows resulting in higher fuel cell current/power outputs; on the other hand,
improve the electrode dynamics/kinetics and processes to create excellent fuel cell performances.
These phenomena are signicantly dierent from other fuel cells with only one kind of the ion
function in/for the processes. Recent theoretical studies (Assabumrungrat et al., 2005) have
shown that SOFC-H
+
operation mode is more preferential than the SOFC-O
2
mode because
the former can make a higher eciency, especially for direct operation of the hydrocarbon fuels,
such as methanol, etc. Therefore, the combination of H
+
/O
2
contributions creates another
excellence and advance for the LTSOFC technology.
2.2.5. Multi-fuel functions. LTSOFCs can act as one kind sustainable energy technology and
power source using the biomass/bio-resourced fuels. There are several readily technical
solutions/approaches for using the biomass for LTSOFCs, e.g. the gasication to produce
syngas or alternative liquid fuels, typically, methanol and ethanol.
Advanced multi-fuelled LTSOFC technologies in direct operation of hydrocarbon fuels can
have very high eciency from the fuel-to-wire or the fuel-to-wheel targeting various
applications. High LTSOFC performances have been achieved at 8001000 mWcm
2
for H
2




Electrolyte

H +
O
2 =
C
a
t
h
o
d
e

A
n
o
d
e

Air Fuel
Power grid
Figure 4. Dual proton and oxygen ion transport processes in a fuel cell.
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Energy Res. 2006; 30:895903
NEXT GENERATION FUEL CELL R&D 901
and 300500 mWcm
2
for direct alcohol operation without external reformer below 6008C
(Zhu, 2001a; Zhu et al., 2002; Huang et al., 2005; Li et al., 2005).
2.2.6. Nano-scale and theoretical modelling/simulation. These studies on various material,
device, system levels provide a platform for overall guidance on developments of multi-
functional materials/nanocomposites, devices, technologies and systems. The unique advantages
of the LTSOFC have tried the best eorts to avoid the conventional SOFC problems and to
provide solutions in a new systematic approach from materials, technology, devices and systems
as a whole.
3. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The innovative CBCs (usually two-phase composites/materials) possess many advantages
overcoming the drawbacks of the single-phase materials. Based on recent developments on
various composites we focus on nanocomposite approach and interfacial properties/functions
e.g. dynamic and physical properties, interfacial structures and performances of the superionic
and dual H
+
/O
2
conduction; and new advanced LTSOFC technologies for applications.
Nanotechnology will play a key role in continuous material Research and technical
development (RTD) to create advanced multi-functional nanocomposites and develop
LTSOFCs more eectively. Understanding and investigating deeply the mechanisms on the
nanocomposites, developing multi-functional materials and establishing new scientic
disciplinary will greatly help next generation fuel cell R&D.
The nanocomposite approach tting best for the LT range oers a great new material
freedom in a powerful articial way to develop multi-functional materials with many
advantages over the single-phase materials. This means the use of at least two readily existing
single-phase materials without changing their structures to create the interfacial functions and
mechanisms thus new functions that each individual phase does not possess. The LT provides
new possibilities to use various nanotech.-based inorganicinorganic and inorganicorganic
composites for all fuel cell components. This can, on one hand, create required functions with
wide exibilities; on the other hand, get rid of the SOFC ceramic problems that suer from
shaping and large area forming, and sealing as well. Facing the commercial challenges the
advanced LTSOFC, nanotechnology and nanocomposite can make new solutions to relevant
fuel cell problems/challenges. It is a historical chance for us to stand on this unique advanced
eld to develop the next generation to realize the fuel cell mission and commercialization!
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is supported by the Swedish Research Council (VR) and Sida (the Swedish Agency for
International Cooperation Development) Asian Research Partnership projects, and a special support from
Carl Tryggers Stiftelse for Vetenskap Forskning (CTS).
REFERENCES
Assabumrungrat S, Sangtongkitcharoen W, Laosiripojana N, A

rpornwichanop A, Charojrochkul S, Praserthdam P.

2005. Eects of electrolyte type and ow pattern on performance of methanol-fuelled solid oxide fuel cells. Journal of
Power Sources 148:1823.
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Energy Res. 2006; 30:895903
B. ZHU 902
Feng B, Wang CY, Zhu B. 2005. Novel AC-M-SCC anode materials for solid oxide fuel cells using methanol operation
at intermediate or low temperature. Electrochemical and Solid State Letters, in press.
Hainovsk N, Maier J. 1995. Simple phenomenological approach to premelting and sublattice melting in Frenkel
disordered ionic crystals. Physical Review B 51:1578915797.
Huijsmans JPP, van Berkel FPF, Christie GM. 1998. Intermediate temperature SOFC}a promise for the 21st century.
Journal of Power Sources 71:107110.
Iwahara H. 1992. Oxide-ionic and protonic conductors based on perovskite-type oxides and their possible applications.
Solid State Ionics 52:99104.
Kreuer KD, Scho nherr E, Maier J. 1994. Proton and oxygen diusion in BaCeO
3
based compounds: a combined thermal
gravimetric analysis and conductivity study. Solid State Ionics 7071:278284.
Li S, Sun XL, Sun JC, Zhu B. 2005. LaSrFeNi oxides as solid oxide fuel cell cathodes for low temperature operation.
Electrochemical and Solid State Letters, in press.
Maier J. 1995. Ionic conduction in space charge regions. Progress in Solid State Chemistry 23:171.
Murray EP, Tsai T, Barnett SA. 1999. A direct-methane fuel cell with a ceria-based anode. Nature 400:649651.
Perednis D, Gauckler LJ. 2004. Solid oxide fuel cells with electrolytes prepared via spray pyrolisis. Solid State Ionics
166:229239.
Schober T. 2005. Composite of ceramic high-temperature proton conductors with inorganic compounds. Electrochemical
and Solid State Letters 8(4):A199A200.
Souza S, Visco SJ, Jonghe LC. 1997. Thin-lm solid oxide fuel cell with high performance at low-temperature. Solid
State Ionics 98:5761.
Seungdoo P, John MV, Raymond JG. 2000. Direct oxidation of hydrocarbons in a solid-oxide fuel cell. Nature 404:
265267.
Steele BCH. 1996. Survey of materials selection for ceramic fuel cells. Solid State Ionics 92:8688.
Steele BCH. 1999. Fuel-cell technology: running on natural gas. Nature 400:619621.
Steele BCH, Heinzel A. 2001. Materials for fuel-cell technologies. Nature 414:345352.
Tsai T, Perry E, Barnett S. 1997. Low-temperature solid-oxide fuel cells utilizing thin bilayer electrolytes. Journal of
Electrochemistry Society 144:L130L134.
Tscho pe A. 2001. Grain size-dependent electrical conductivity of polycrystalline cerium oxide II: space charge model.
Solid State Ionics 139:267280.
Yajima T, Iwahara H, Uchida H. 1991. Protonic and oxide ionic conduction in BaCeO
3
-based ceramics}eect of partial
substitution for Ba in BaCe
0.9
O
3a
with Ca. Solid State Ionics 47:117124.
Zhu B. 2000. Proton and oxygen ion conduction in non-oxide ceramics. Materials Research Bulletin 35:4751.
Zhu B. 2001a. Advantages of intermediate temperature SOFCs for tractionary applications. Journal of Power Sources
93:8286.
Zhu B. 2001b. New generation or universal fuel cell system? R&D for intermediate temperature solid oxide fuel cells
(ITSOFCs). Journal of New Materials for Electrochemical System 4:239251.
Zhu B. 2001c. Proton and oxygen ion-mixed-conducting composites and fuel cells. Solid State Ionics 145:371380.
Zhu B. 2003. Functional ceria-salt-composite materials for advanced ITSOFC applications. Journal of Power Sources
114:19.
Zhu B, Albinsson I, Mellander BE, Meng GY. 1999. Intermediate temperature proton conducting fuel cells}present
experience and future opportunities. Solid State Ionics 125:439446.
Zhu B, Bai XY, Chen GX, Buesell M. 2002. Fundamental study on biomass fuelled ceramic fuel cells. International
Journal of Energy Research 26:5766. DOI:10.1002/er.258.
Zhu B, Liu XR, Schober T. 2004. Novel hybrid conductors based on doped ceria and BCY20 for ITSOFC applications.
Electrochemistry Communications 6:378383.
Zhu B, Yang XT, Xu J, Zhu ZG, Ji SJ, Sun MT, Sun JC. 2003a. Innovative low temperature SOFCs and advanced
materials. Journal of Power Sources 118:4753.
Zhu B, Yang XT, Xu J, Zhu ZG, Ji SJ, Sun MT, Sun JC. 2003b. Innovative low temperature SOFCs and advanced
materials. Journal of Power Sources 118:4753.
Copyright # 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Energy Res. 2006; 30:895903
NEXT GENERATION FUEL CELL R&D 903