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Elementary Topology in Problems
Elementary Topology in Problems
A First Course
Textbook in Problems
O. Y. Viro, O. A. Ivanov,
N. Y. Netsvetaev, V. M. Kharlamov
This book includes basic material on general topology, introduces
algebraic topology via the fundamental group and covering spaces,
and provides a background on topological and smooth manifolds. It
is written mainly for students with a limited experience in mathe-
matics, but determined to study the subject actively. The material
is presented in a concise form, proofs are omitted. Theorems, how-
ever, are formulated in detail, and the reader is expected to treat
them as problems.
Foreword
Genre, Contents and Style of the Book
The core of the book is the material usually included in the Topol-
ogy part of the two year Geometry lecture course at the Mathematical
Department of St. Petersburg University. It was composed by Vladimir
Abramovich Rokhlin in the sixties and has almost not changed since
then.
We believe this is the minimum topology that must be mastered by
any student who has decided to become a mathematician. Students
with research interests in topology and related elds will surely need
to go beyond this book, but it may serve as a starting point. The book
includes basic material on general topology, introduces algebraic topology
via its most classical and elementary part, the theory of the fundamental
group and covering spaces, and provides a background on topological
and smooth manifolds. It is written mainly for students with a limited
experience in mathematics, but who are determined to study the subject
actively.
The core material is presented in a concise form; proofs are omit-
ted. Theorems, however, are formulated in detail. We present them as
problems and expect the reader to treat them as problems. Most of the
theorems are easy to nd elsewhere with complete proofs. We believe
that a serious attempt to prove a theorem must be the rst reaction to
its formulation. It should precede looking for a book where the theorem
is proved.
On the other hand, we want to emphasize the role of formulations.
In the early stages of studying mathematics it is especially important to
take each formulation seriously. We intentionally force a reader to think
about each simple statement. We hope that this will make the book
inconvenient for mere skimming.
The core material is enhanced by many problems of various sorts
and additional pieces of theory. Although they are closely related to the
main material, they can be (and usually are) kept outside of the standard
lecture course. These enhancements can be recognized by wider margins,
as the next paragraph.
iii
FOREWORD iv
The problems, which do not comprise separate topics and are intended
exclusively to be exercises, are typeset with small face. Some of them are
very easy and included just to provide additional examples. Few problems
are dicult. They are to indicate relations with other parts of mathematics,
show possible directions of development of the subject, or just satisfy an
ambitious reader. Problems, whose solutions seem to be the most dicult
(from the authors viewpoint), are marked with a star, as in many other
books.
Further, we want to deliver additional pieces of theory (with respect to the core
material) to more motivated and advanced students. Maybe, a mathematician, who
does not work in the elds geometric in avor, can aord the luxury not to know
some of these things. Maybe, students studying topology can postpone this material
to their graduate study. We would like to include this in graduate lecture courses.
However, quite often it does not happen, because most of the topics of this sort are
rather isolated from the contents of traditional graduate courses. They are important,
but more related to the material of the very rst topology course. In the book these
topics are intertwined with the core material and exercises, but are distinguishable:
they are typeset, like these lines, with large face, theorems and problems in them are
numerated in a special manner described below.
Exercises and illustrative problems to the additional topics are typeset
with wider margins and marked in a dierent way.
Thus, the whole book contains four layers:
the core material,
exercises and illustrative problems to the core material,
additional topics,
exercises and illustrative problems to additional topics.
The text of the core material is typeset with large face and smallest
margins.
The text of problems elaborating on the core material is typeset with
small face and larger margins.
The text of additional topics is typeset is typeset with large face as the problems
elaborating on the core material.
The text of problems illustrating additional topics is typeset with small
face and larger margins.
Therefore the book looks like a Russian folklore doll, matreshka com-
posed of several dolls sitting inside each other. We apologize for being
nonconventional in this and hope that it may help some readers and does
not irritate the others too much.
The whole text of the book is divided into sections. Each section is
divided into subsections. Each of them is devoted to a single topic and
consists of denitions, commentaries, theorems, exercises, problems, and
riddles.
FOREWORD v
By a riddle we mean a problem of a special sort: its solution is not
contained in the formulation. One has to guess a solution, rather than
deduce it.
0.A. Theorems, exercises, problems and riddles belonging to the core
material are marked with pairs consisting of the number of section and
a letter separated with a dot. The letter identies the item inside the
section.
0.1. Exercises, problems, and riddles, which are not included in the core, but
are closely related to it (and typeset with small face) are marked with pairs
consisting of the number of the section and the number of the item inside the
section. The numbers in the pair are separated also by a dot.
Theorems, exercises, problems and riddles related to additional topics
are enumerated independently inside each section and denoted similarly.
0:A. The only dierence is that the components of pairs marking the items are
separated by a colon (rather than dot).
We assume that the reader is familiar with naive set theory, but
anticipate that this familiarity may be supercial. Therefore at points
where set theory is especially crucial we make set-theoretic digressions
maintained in the same style as the rest of the book.
Advices to the Reader
Since the book contains a summary of elementary topology, you may
use the book while preparing for an examination (especially, if the exam
reduces to solving a collection of problems). However, if you attend
lectures on the subject, it would be much wiser to read the book prior
to the lectures and prove theorems before the lecturer gives the proofs.
We think that a reader who is able to prove statements of the core
of the book, does not need to solve all the other problems. It would be
reasonable instead to look through formulations and concentrate on the
most dicult problems. The more dicult the theorems of the main text
seem to you, the more carefully you should consider illustrative problems,
and the less time you should waste with problems marked with stars.
Keep in mind that sometimes a problem which seems to be dicult is
followed by easier problems, which may suggest hints or serve as technical
lemmas. A chain of problems of this sort is often concluded with a
problem which suggests a return to the theorem, once you are armed
with the lemmas.
Most of our illustrative problems are easy to invent, and, moreover, if
you study the subject seriously, it is always worthwhile to invent problems
of this sort. To develop this style of studying mathematics while solving
FOREWORD vi
our problems one should attempt to invent ones own problems and solve
them (it does not matter if they are similar to ours or not). Of course,
some problems presented in this book are not easy to invent.
Contents
Foreword iii
Genre, Contents and Style of the Book iii
Advices to the Reader v
Part 1. General Topology 1
Chapter 1. Generalities 3
1. Digression on Sets 3
1
2 Equality of Sets 4
1
6 Subsets 6
1
7 Properties of Inclusion 6
1
12 Dierent Dierences 9
Proofs and Comments 10
Hints, Comments, Advises, Solutions, and Answers 11
2. Topology in a Set 12
2
4 Additional Examples 13
2
9 Cantor Set 15
2
12 Neighborhoods 16
Proofs and Comments 16
Hints, Comments, Advises, Solutions, and Answers 17
vii
CONTENTS viii
3. Bases 19
3
1 Denition of Base 19
3
4 Subbases 20
3
6 Hierarchy of Topologies 20
Proofs and Comments 21
Hints, Comments, Advises, Solutions, and Answers 21
4. Metric Spaces 23
4
2 Further Examples 23
4
5 Surprising Balls 25
4
9 Metric Topology 26
4
12 Equivalent Metrics 27
4
13 Ultrametric 27
4
17 Asymmetrics 29
Proofs and Comments 30
Hints, Comments, Advises, Solutions, and Answers 31
5. Ordered Sets 34
5
1 Strict Orders 34
5
2 Non-Strict Orders 34
5
4 Cones 35
5
6 Total Orders 37
5
8 Poset Topology 38
5
2 Relativity of Openness 45
6
3 Closure 48
7
5 Frontier 49
7
12 Dense Sets 51
7
4 Composition 56
8
6 Submappings 57
9. Continuous Maps 58
9
2 Reformulations of Denition 59
9
3 More Examples 59
9
5 Local Continuity 60
9
7 Continuity of Distances 61
9
8 Isometry 61
9
9 Gromov-Hausdor distance 61
9
10 Contractive maps 62
9
11 Monotone maps 62
CONTENTS x
9
15 Fundamental Covers 64
Hints, Comments, Advises, Solutions, and Answers 65
10. Homeomorphisms 67
10
2 Homeomorphic Spaces 67
10
3 Role of Homeomorphisms 67
10
9 Embeddings 73
10
10 Equivalence of Embeddings 73
10
11 Information 74
Chapter 2. Topological Properties 75
11. Connectedness 75
11
2 Connected Sets 75
11
4 Connected Components 76
11
8 Connectedness on Line 78
11
10 Dividing Pancakes 79
11
11 Induction on Connectedness 79
11
1 Paths 81
12
2 Path-Connected Spaces 81
12
3 Path-Connected Sets 82
12
5 Path-Connected Components 82
12
7 Polygon-Connectedness 83
12
2 Limits of Sequence 85
CONTENTS xi
13
4 Hereditary Properties 86
13
9 Niemytskis Space 89
13
4 Bases at a Point 91
14
5 First Countability 92
14
7 Sequential Continuity 93
15. Compactness 94
15
1 Denition of Compactness 94
15
2 Terminology Remarks 94
15
4 Compact Sets 95
15
9 Closed Maps 97
15
10 Norms in R
n
98
16. Local Compactness and Paracompactness 99
16
1 Local Compactness 99
16
2 One-Point Compactication 99
16
8 Set-Theoretic Digression:
Splitting a transitive relation
into equivalence and partial order 117
19
3 Homomorphisms 141
23
4 Subgroups 141
24. Topological Groups 143
24
4 Neighborhoods 144
24
7 Subgroups 145
24
9 Homomorphisms 147
24
2 Associativity 158
27
3 Unit 159
27
4 Inverse 159
28. Fundamental Group 161
28
7 Simply-Connectedness 164
28
3 Properties of T
s
166
29
1 Lifting 172
31
4 Examples 188
35
8 Collaps 203
37
2 Generators 209
39
3 Relators 209
39
4 Description of H
1
(X) in Terms of Free Circular Loops 214
40
2 Dimension 221
41
4 Double 226
42
3 Examples 231
44
1 Examples 234
45
5 Examples 238
46
5 Orientations 252
CONTENTS xviii
49
6 One-Dimensional Z
2
-Cohomology of Surface 257
50
7 One-Dimensional Z
2
-Homology of Surface 258
50
2 Equality of Sets
A set is dened by its elements. It is nothing but a collection of its
elements. This manifests most sharply in the following principle: two
sets are considered equal, if and only if they have the same elements. In
this sense the word set has slightly disparaging meaning. When one calls
something a set, this shows, maybe unintentionally, a lack of interest to
whatever organization of the elements of this set.
For example, when we say that a line is a set of points, we indicate
that two lines coincide if and only if they consist of the same points. On
the other hand, we commit ourselves to consider all the relations between
points on a line (e.g. the distance between points, the order of points on
the line) separately from the notion of line.
We may think of sets as boxes, which can be built eortlessly around
elements, just to distinguish them from the rest of the world. The cost of
this lightness is that such a box is not more than the collection of elements
placed inside. It is a little more than just a name: it is a declaration of
our wish to think about this collection of things as of entity and not to
go into details about the nature of its members-elements. Elements, in
turn, may also be sets, but as long as we consider them elements, they
play the role of atoms with their own original nature ignored.
In modern Mathematics the words set and element are very common
and appear in most of texts. They are even overused. There are instances
when it is not appropriate to use them. For example, it is not good
to use the word element as a replacement for other, more meaningful
words. When you call something an element, the set, whose element
is this one, should be clear. The word element makes sense only in a
combination with the word set, unless we deal with non-mathematical
term (like chemical element), or a rare old-fashioned exception from the
common mathematical terminology (sometimes the expression under the
sign of integral is called an innitesimal element, in old texts lines, planes
and other geometric images are called elements). Euclids famous book
on Geometry is called Elements.
1
6 Subsets
If A and B are sets and every element of A belongs also to B, we say
that A is a subset of B, or B includes A, and write A B or B A.
The inclusion signs and recall the inequality signs < and
> for a good reason: in the world of sets the inclusion signs are obvious
counterparts for the signs of inequalities.
1.A. Let a set A consists of a elements, and a set B of b elements. Prove
that if A B then a b.
Thus, the inclusion signs are not completely true counterparts of the
inequality signs < and >. They are closer to and .
1
7 Properties of Inclusion
1.B Reexivity of Inclusion. Any set includes itself: A A holds
true for any A.
Notice that there is no number a satisfying inequality a < a.
1.C The Empty Set Is Everywhere. A for any set A. In other
words, the empty set is present in each set as a subset.
Thus, each set A has two obvious subsets: the empty set and A
itself. A subset of A dierent from and A is called a proper subset of
A. This word is used when one does not want to consider the obvious
subsets (which are called improper).
1.D Transitivity of Inclusion. If A, B and C are sets, A B and
B C, then A C.
1
A
A. Similarly, the union of
the sets belonging to is the set formed by elements which belong to at
least one of the sets belonging to . This set is denoted by
A
A or
A
A .
1.K. The notions of intersection and union of arbitrary collection of
sets generalize the notions of intersection and union of two sets: for
= A, B
C
C = A B and
_
C
C = A B.
1.8. Enigma. How are related to each other the notions of system of equa-
tions and intersection of sets?
1.L Two Distributivities. For any sets A, B and C
(A B) C = (A C) (B C). (1)
(A B) C = (A C) (B C) (2)
1. DIGRESSION ON SETS 9
A A B B
C C C
(A B) C (A C) (B C) =
=
Figure 2. The left-hand side (AB) C of the equality
(1) and the sets A C B C, whose intersection is the
right-hand side of the equation (1). A B.
In Figure 2 the rst of two equalities of Theorem 1.L is illustrated by
a sort of comics. Such comics are called Venn diagrams. They are very
useful and we strongly recommend to draw them for each formula about
sets.
1.M. Draw a Venn diagram illustrating (2). Prove (1) and (2) tracing
all the details of the proofs in Venn diagrams. Draw Venn diagrams
illustrating all formulas below in this section.
1.9. Enigma. Generalize Theorem 1.L to the case of arbitrary collection of
sets.
1.N Yet Another Pair of Distributivities. Let A be a set and be
a set consisting of sets. Then
A
_
B
B =
_
B
(A B) and A
B
B =
B
(A B).
1
12 Dierent Dierences
A dierence AB of sets A and B is the set of those elements of A
which do not belong to B. Here it is not assumed that A B.
If A B, the set AB is called also the complement of B in A.
1.10. Prove that for any sets A and B their union AB can be represented
as the union of the following three sets: A B, B A and A B, and that
these sets are pairwise disjoint.
1.11. Prove that A(A B) = A B for any sets A and B.
1.12. Prove that A B, if and only if A B = .
1.13. Prove that A(B C) = (AB) (AC) for any sets A, B and C.
The set (A B) (B A) is called the symmetric dierence of sets
A and B. It is denoted by A B.
1.14. Prove that for any sets A and B
A B = (A B) (A B)
1. DIGRESSION ON SETS 10
A B A B A B
B A A B A B
Figure 3. Dierences of disks A and B.
1.15 Associativity of Symmetric Dierence. Prove that for any sets
A, B and C
(A B) C = A (B C).
1.16. Enigma. Find a symmetric denition of symmetric dierence (A
B) C of three sets and generalize it to any nite collection of sets.
1.17 Distributivity. Prove that (A B) C = (A C) (B C) for any
sets A, B and C.
1.18. Does the following equality hold true for any sets A, B C
(A B) C = (A C) (B C)?
Proofs and Comments
1.A The question is so elementary that it is dicult to nd more
elementary facts, which a proof can be based on. What does it mean that
A consists of a elements? It means, say, that we can count elements of A
one by one assigning to them numbers 1, 2, 3, and the last element will
get number a. It is known that the result does not depend on the order
in which we count. (In fact, one can develop the set theory, which would
include a theory of counting, and in which this is a theorem. But since
we have no doubts in this fact, let us use it without proof.) Therefore
we can start counting of elements of B with counting the elements of A.
The counting of elements of A will be done, rst, and then, if there are
some elements of B which are not in A, counting will continue. Thus the
number of elements in A is less than or equal to the number of elements
in B.
1.B Recall that, by the denition of inclusion, A B means that
each element of A is an element of B. Therefore the statement that
we have to prove can be rephrased as follows: each element of A is an
element of A. This is a tautology.
1.C Recall that, by the denition of inclusion, A B means that
each element of A is an element of B. Thus we need to prove that any
element of belongs to A. This is correct, because there is no elements
in . If you are not satised with this argument (since it sounds too
crazy), let us resort to a question, whether this can be wrong. How can
it happen that is not a subset of A? It could happen, only if there was
an element of which would not be an element of A. But there is no
such an element in , because has no elements at all.
1. DIGRESSION ON SETS 11
1.D We have to prove that each element of A is an element of C.
Let x A. Since A B, it follows that x B. Since b C, the latter
(i.e., x B) implies x C. This is what we had to prove.
1.E We have already seen that A A. Hence if A = B then A B
and B A. On the other hand, A B means that each element of
A belongs to B and B A means that each element of B belongs to
A. Hence A and B have the same elements, which means that they are
equal.
1.G It is easy to construct a set A with A , A. Take A = , or
A = N, or A = 1,. . . A set B such that B B is a strange creature.
It would not appear in real problems, unless you think really globally.
Take for B the set of all sets. Mathematicians avoid such sets. There
are good reasons for this. If we consider the set of all sets, why not to
consider the set Y of all the sets X such that X , X? Does Y belongs to
itself? If Y Y then Y , Y , since each element X of Y has the property
that X , X. If Y , Y then Y Y since Y is the set of ALL the sets
X such that X , X. This contradiction shows that our denition of Y
does not make sense. An easy way to avoid this paradox is to prohibit
consideration of sets with the property X X. The the set of all sets is
not a legitimate set.
1.H Take A = 1, B = 1 and C = 1. It is more dicult
to construct sets A, B and C such that A B, B C, and A C. Take
A = 1, B = 1, C = 1, 1.
Hints, Comments, Advises, Solutions, and Answers
1.1 The set consists of one element, which is the empty set . Of
course, this element itself is the empty set and contains no element, but the
set consists of a single element .
1.2 1) and 2) are correct, 3) is not.
1.3 Yes, is a singleton.
1.4 2, 3, 1, 2, 2, 2, 1, 2 for x ,=
1
2
and 1 if x =
1
2
.
1.5 (a) 1, 2, 3, 4; (b) ; (c) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . .
1.8 The set of solutions for a system of equations is equal to the in-
tersection of the sets of solutions of individual equations belonging to the
system.
2 Topology in a Set
2
space of 2.2, are not important, but provide good simple examples.
1
Thus is important: it is called by the same word as the whole branch of
mathematics. Of course, this does not mean that coincides with the subject of
topology, but everything in this subject is related to .
12
2. TOPOLOGY IN A SET 13
2
4 Additional Examples
2.4. Let X be R, and consists of empty set and all the innite subsets of
R. Is a topological structure?
2.5. Let X be R, and consists of empty set and complements of all nite
subsets of R. Is a topological structure?
The space of 2.5 is denoted by R
T1
and called the line with T
1
-topology.
2.6. Let (X, ) be a topological space and Y be the set obtained from X by
adding a single element a. Is
a U : U
a topological structure in Y ?
2.7. Is the set , 0, 0, 1 a topological structure in 0, 1?
In Problem 2.6, if topology discrete, the topology in Y is called a
particular point topology or topology of everywhere dense point. The topology
in Problem 2.7 is a particular point topology; it is called also the topology of
connected pair of points or Sierpinski topology.
2.8. List all the topological structures in a two-element set, say, in 0, 1.
2
A
(X A)
(4) X
A
A =
_
A
(X A).
Formula (4) is deduced from (3) in one step, is it not? These formulas are
nonsymmetric cases of a single formulation, which contains in a symmetric
way sets and their complements, unions and intersections.
2.9. Enigma. Find such a formulation.
2
n=1
is closed in R.
2
9 Cantor Set
Let K be the set of real numbers which can be presented as sums of series of the
form
k=1
a
k
3
k
with a
k
= 0 or 2. In other words, K is the set of real numbers which
in the positional system with base 3 are presented as 0.a
1
a
2
. . . a
k
. . . without digit 1.
2:A. Find a geometric description of K.
2:A.1. Prove that
(a) K is contained in [0, 1],
(b) K does not intersect
_
1
3
,
2
3
_
,
(c) K does not intersect
_
3s+1
3
k
,
3s+2
3
k
_
for any integers k and s.
2:A.2. Present K as [0, 1] with an innite family of open intervals removed.
2:A.3. Try to draw K.
The set K is called the Cantor set. It has a lot of remarkable properties and is
involved in numerous problems below.
2:B. Prove that K is a closed set in the real line.
2
12 Neighborhoods
By a neighborhood of a point one means any open set containing
this point. Analysts and French mathematicians (following N. Bourbaki)
prefer a wider notion of neighborhood: they use this word for any set
containing a neighborhood in the sense above.
2.18. Give an explicit description of all neighborhoods of a point in
(a) a discrete space; (b) an indiscrete space;
(c) the arrow; (d) ;
(e) connected pair of points; (f) particular point topology.
Proofs and Comments
2.A What should we check? The rst axiom reads here that the
union of any collection of subsets of X is a subset of X? Well, this is
right. If A X for each A then
A
A X. Indeed, take arbitrary
point b
A
A. Since it belongs to the union, it belongs to at least one
of A , and since A X, it belongs to X. Exactly in the same way
one checks the second axiom. Finally, of course, X and X X.
2.B Yes, it is. Here we can list all the collections of sets that we
need to consider. If one of the united sets is X then the union is X.
What if it is not there? Then what is there? Empty set, at most. Then
the union is also empty. With intersections the situation is simialr. If
one of the sets to intersect is the the intersection is . If it is not
there, then what is? Only the whole X. Then the intersection equals X.
2.C First, show that
A
A
B
B =
A,B
(A B). Therefore if
A and B are intervals then the right-hand side is a union of intervals.
If you think that a set which is a union of intervals is too simple,
please, try to answer the following question (which has nothing to do with
the problem under consideration, though). Let r
n
n=1
= Q (i. e., we
numbered all the rational numbers). Prove that
(r 2
n
; r +2
n
) ,= R,
although this is a union of some intervals, which contains all (!) the
rational numbers.
2.D The union of any collection of open sets is open. The intersec-
tion of any nite collection of open sets is open. The empty set and the
whole space are open.
2. TOPOLOGY IN A SET 17
2.E
(a)
x
A
(X A) A x X A
x / A
x /
A
A
x X
A
A
(b) Replace both sides of the formula by their complements in X and
put B = X A.
2.G In any topological space the empty set and the whole space
are both open and closed. In a discrete space any set is both open and
closed. Semiopen interval is neither open nor closed on the line. Cf. also
the next problem.
2.H Yes, it is, because R [a; b] = (; a) (b; +) is open.
Hints, Comments, Advises, Solutions, and Answers
2.1 The solution is based on the equality (a
; +) = (inf a
; +).
Prove it. By the way the collection of closed rays [a; +) is not a topological
structure, since it may happen that [a
; +) = (a
0
; +) (nd an example).
2.2 Yes, it is. A proof coincides almost literally with the solution of the
preceding problem.
2.3 The main point here is to realize that the axioms of topological
structure are conditions on the collection of subsets and if these conditions
are satised then the collection is called a topological structure. The second
collection is not a topological structure, because the sets a, b, d are con-
tained in it, while a, b, d = a b, d is not. Find two elements of the
third collection such that there intersection does not belong to it. By this
you would prove that this is not a topology. Finally, it is not dicult to see
that all the unions and intersections of elements of the rst collection still
belong to the rst collection.
2.10 The following sets are closed
(a) in a disctrete space: all sets;
(b) in an indiscrete: only those which are also open, that is the empty set
and the whole space;
(c) in the arrow: , the whole space and segments of the form [0; a];
(d) in : sets X, , b, c, d, a, c, d, b, d, d, c, d;
(e) in R
T1
: all nite sets and the whole R.
2.11 Here it is important to overcome the feeling that the question is
completely obvious. Why is not (0, 1] open? If (0; 1] = (a
; b
) then 1
(a
0
; b
0
) for some
0
, hence b
0
> 1, and it follows that (a
; b
) ,= (0; 1].
Similarly
R (0; 1] = (; 0] (1; +)
2. TOPOLOGY IN A SET 18
is not open. On the other hand,
(0; 1] =
_
n=1
_
1
n
; 1
_
=
n=1
_
0;
n + 1
n
_
.
2.14 Check that = U [ X U T is a topological structure.
2.15 Control indication: there number of such collections is 14.
2.16 The conditions (a) and (c) from 2.14 are obviously satised. To
prove (b), let us use 2.17. Let sets A and B do not contain arithmetic
progression of length n. If the set A B contained a suciently long
progression, in one of the original sets there would be a progression of length
n.
2.18 By this point you have to learn already everything needed for
solving this problem, and must solve it on your own. Please, dont be lazy.
3 Bases
3
1 Denition of Base
Usually the topological structure is presented by describing its part,
which is sucient to recover the whole structure. A collection of open
sets is called a base for a topology, if each nonempty open set is a union
of sets belonging to . For instance, all intervals form a base for the real
line.
3.1. Are there dierent topological structures with the same base?
3.2. Find some bases of topology of
(a) a discrete space; (b) ;
(c) an indiscrete space; (d) the arrow.
Try to choose the bases as small as possible.
3.3. Describe all topological structures having exactly one base.
3.4. Prove that any base of the canonical topology in R can be diminished.
3
and
1
are dened by inequalities max[xa[, [yb[ <
and [x a[ +[y b[ < , respectively.)
3.5. Prove that every element of
2
is a union of elements of
.
3.6. Prove that intersection of any two elements of
1
is a union of elements
of
1
.
3.7. Prove that each of the collections
2
,
,
1
is a base for some topo-
logical structure in R
2
, and that the structures dened by these collections
coincide.
19
3. BASES 20
Figure 1. Elements of
(left) and
1
(right).
3
4 Subbases
Let (X, ) be a topological space. A collection of its open subsets is
called a subbase for , provided the collection
= V [ V =
k
i=1
W
i
, W
i
, k N
of all nite intersections of sets belonging to is a base for .
3.8. Prove that for any set X a collection of its subsets is a subbase of a
topology in X, i ,= and X =
W
W.
3
6 Hierarchy of Topologies
If
1
and
2
are topological structures in a set X such that
1
2
then
2
is said to be ner than
1
, and
1
coarser than
2
. For instance,
among all topological structures in the same set the indiscrete topology
is the coarsest topology, and the discrete topology is the nest one, is it
not?
3.11. Show that T
1
-topology (see Section 2) is coarser than the canonical
topology in the real line.
3.12. Enigma. Let
1
and
2
be bases for topological structures
1
and
2
in a set X. Find necessary and sucient condition for
1
2
in terms of
the bases
1
and
2
without explicit referring to
1
and
2
(cf. 3.7).
Bases dening the same topological structure are said to be equivalent.
3.D. Enigma. Formulate a necessary and sucient condition for two
bases to be equivalent without explicit mentioning of topological struc-
tures dened by the bases. (Cf. 3.7: bases
2
,
, and
1
must satisfy
the condition you are looking for.)
3. BASES 21
Proofs and Comments
3.A Let be a base of and U . Present U as a union of
elements of . Each point x U is contained in some of these sets. Such
a set can be chosen as V . It is contained in U, since it participates in a
union which is equal to U.
Vice versa, assume that for any U and any point x U there
exists a set V such that x V U, and show that is a base of
. For this we need to prove that any U can be represented as a
union of elements of . For each point x U choose according to the
assumption a set V
x
such that x V
x
U and consider
xU
V
x
.
Notice that
xU
V
x
U, since V
x
U for each x U. On the other
hand, each point x U is contained in its V
x
and hence in
xU
V
x
.
Therefore U
xU
V
x
. Thus, U =
xU
V
x
.
3.B Assume that is a base of a topology. Then X, being an open
set in any topology, can be presented as a union of some sets belonging to
[GS. The intersection of any two sets belonging to is open, therefore
it also can be presented as a union of base sets.
Vice versa, assume that is a collection of subsets of X such that
X is a union of sets belonging to and the intersection of any two sets
belonging to is a union of sets belonging to . Let us prove that the
set of unions of all the collections of elements of satises the axioms
of topological structure. The rst axiom is obviously satised, since the
union of some unions is a union. Let us prove the second axiom (the
intersection of two open sets is open). Let U =
V =
,
A
, B
. Then U V = (
) (
) =
,
(A
), and
since, by the assumpiton, A
, where B
B, i x A B
x
B : x B
x
A.
3.7 The statement: B is a base of a topological structure is equivalent
to the following: the set of unions of all collections of sets belonging to B is a
topological structure.
1
is a base of some topology by 3.B and 3.6. So, you
need to prove analogues of 3.6 for
2
and
n
i=1
is open in the canonical topology of the line.
3.12
1
2
, i U
1
x U V
2
: x V U.
4 Metric Spaces
4
n
i=1
(x
i
y
i
)
2
is a metric.
Metrics 4.B and 4.C are always meant when R and R
n
are considered
as metric spaces unless another metric is specied explicitly. Metric 4.B
is a special case of metric 4.C. These metrics are called Euclidean.
4
2 Further Examples
4.1. Prove that R
n
R
n
R
+
: (x, y) max
i=1,...,n
[x
i
y
i
[ is a metric.
4.2. Prove that R
n
R
n
R
+
: (x, y)
n
i=1
[x
i
y
i
[ is a metric.
Metrics in R
n
introduced in 4.C4.2 are included in innite series of the
metrics
(p)
: (x, y)
_
n
i=1
[x
i
y
i
[
p
_
1
p
, p 1.
4.3. Prove that
(p)
is a metric for any p 1.
4.3.1 H older Inequality. Prove that
n
i=1
x
i
y
i
_
n
i=1
x
p
i
_
1/p
_
n
i=1
y
q
i
_
1/q
if x
i
, y
i
0, p, q > 0 and
1
p
+
1
q
= 1.
Metric of 4.C is
(2)
, metric of 4.2 is
(1)
, and metric of 4.1 can be denoted
by
()
and adjoined to the series since
lim
p+
_
n
i=1
a
p
i
_
1
p
= max a
i
,
for any positive a
1
, a
2
, . . . , a
n
.
23
4. METRIC SPACES 24
4.4. Enigma. How is this related to
2
,
, and
1
from Section 3?
For a real number p 1 denote by l
(p)
the set of sequences x = x
i
i=1,2,...
such that the series
i=1
[x[
p
converges.
4.5. Prove that for any two elements x, y l
(p)
the series
i=1
[x
i
y
i
[
p
converges and that
(x, y)
_
i=1
[x
i
y
i
[
p
_
1
p
, p 1
is a metric in l
(p)
.
4
5 Surprising Balls
However in other metric spaces balls and spheres may have rather sur-
prising properties.
4.7. What are balls and spheres in R
2
with metrics of 4.1 and 4.2 (cf. 4.4)?
4.8. Find D
1
(a), D1
2
(a), and S1
2
(a) in the space of 4.A.
4.9. Find a metric space and two balls in it such that the ball with the
smaller radius contains the ball with the bigger one and does not coincide
with it.
4.10. What is the minimal number of points in the space which is required
to be constructed in 4.9.
4.11. Prove that in 4.9 the big radius does not exceed double the smaller
radius.
4
9 Metric Topology
4.G. The collection of all open balls in the metric space is a base for
some topology (cf. 3.A, 3.B and 4.E).
4.G.1 Lemma. In any metric space, B
r
(a) B
r(a,x)
(x) for any point a,
real number r > 0 and point x B
r
(a).
This topology is called metric topology. It is said to be induced by the
metric. This topological structure is always meant whenever the metric
space is considered as a topological one (for instance, when one says
about open and closed sets, neighborhoods, etc. in this space).
4.H. Prove that the standard topological structure in R introduced in
Section 2 is induced by metric (x, y) [x y[.
4.19. What topological structure is induced by the metric of 4.A?
4.I. A set is open in a metric space, i it contains together with any its
point a ball with center at this point.
4
12 Equivalent Metrics
Two metrics in the same set are said to be equivalent if they induce
the same topology.
4.26. Are the metrics of 4.C, 4.1, and 4.2 equivalent?
4.27. Prove that metrics
1
,
2
in X are equivalent if there are numbers
c, C > 0 such that
c
1
(x, y)
2
(x, y) C
1
(x, y)
for any x, y X.
4.28. Generally speaking the inverse is not true.
4.29. Enigma. Hence the condition of the equivalence of metrics formulated
in 4.27 can be weakened. How?
4.30. Metrics
(p)
in R
n
dened right above Problem 4.3 are equivalent.
4.31*. Prove that the following two metrics
1
,
C
in the set of all contin-
uous functions [0, 1] R are not equivalent:
1
(f, g) =
_
1
0
f(x) g(x)
dx;
C
(f, g) = max
x[0,1]
f(x) g(x)
.
Is it true that topological structure dened by one of them is ner than
another?
4
13 Ultrametric
A metric is called an ultrametric if it satises to ultrametric triangle inequality:
(x, y) max(x, z), (z, y)
for any x, y, z.
A metric space (X, ) with ultrametric is called an ultrametric space.
4:A. Check that only one metric in 4.A4.2 is ultrametric. Which one?
4:B. Prove that in an ultrametric space all triangles are isosceles (i.e., for any three
points a, b, c two of the three distances (a, b), (b, c), (a, c) are equal).
4:C. Prove that in a ultrametric space spheres are not only closed (cf. 4.23) but also
open.
4. METRIC SPACES 28
The most important example of ultrametric is p-adic metric in the set Q of all
rational numbers. Let p be a prime number. For x, y Q, present the dierence
xy as
r
s
p
, where r, s, and are integers, and r, s are relatively prime with p. Put
(x, y) = p
.
4:D. Prove that this is an ultrametric.
4
2
, and
1
2
metrics?
4.33. Prove that if : X X R
+
is a metric then
(a) function
(x, y)
(x, y)
1 +(x, y)
is a metric;
(b) function
(x, y) f
_
(x, y)
_
is a metric, if f satises the following conditions:
(1) f(0) = 0,
(2) f is a monotone increasing function, and
(3) f(x +y) f(x) +f(y) for any x, y R.
4.34. Prove that metrics and
1 +
are equivalent.
4
(A, B) = max
_
sup
aA
(a, B), sup
bB
(b, A)
_
.
This number is called the Hausdor distance between A and B.
4:E. Prove that the Hausdor distance in the set of all bounded subsets of a metric
space satises the conditions (b) and (c) of the denition of metric.
4:F. Prove that for every metric space the Hausdor distance is a metric in the set
of its closed bounded subsets.
4. METRIC SPACES 29
Let A and B be bounded polygons in the plane
4
. Put
d
17 Asymmetrics
A function : X X R
+
is called an asymmetric in set X, if
(a) (x, y) = 0 and (y, x) = 0, i x = y;
(b) (x, y) (x, z) +(z, y) for any x, y, z X.
Thus, an asymmetric satises the conditions a and c of the denition of metric,
but does not satisfy condition b.
An example of asymmetric taken from the real life: the shortest length of path
from one point to another by a car in a city in which there exist one way streets.
4:J. Prove that if : X X R
+
is an asymmetric then the function
(x, y) (x, y) +(y, x)
is a metric in X.
Let A and B be bounded subsets of a metric space (X, ). The number a
(A, B) =
sup
bB
(b, A) is called the asymmetric distance from A to B.
4:K. a
in the set of nounded subsets of a metric space satises the triangle inequality
from the denition of asymmetric.
4:L. In a metric space (X, ), a set B is contained in all the closed sets containing
A, i a
(A, B) = 0.
4:M. Prove that a
3.
4:N. The set of all open balls of an asymmetric space is a base of some topology.
This topology is said to be generated by the asymmetric.
4:2. Prove that formula a(x, y) = min(x y, 0) denes an asymmetric in
[0, ), and that the topology generated by this asymmetric coincides with
the arrow topology, see 2
2.
Proofs and Comments
4.A Indeed, it makes sense to check that all the conditions of the
denition of metric is satised for each combination of points x, y z.
4.B Triangle inequality in this case looks as follows [x y[ [x
z[ +[z y[. Put a = x z, b = z y. This turns the triangle ineguality
to a well-known inequality [a +b[ [a[ +[b[.
4.C As in the solution of Problem 4.B, the triangle inequality can be
rewritten as follows:
_
n
i=1
(a
i
+b
i
)
2
n
i=1
a
2
i
+
_
n
i=1
b
2
i
. By two
squaring followed by an obvious simplication, this inequality is reduced
to the well-known Cauchy inequality (
a
i
b
i
)
2
a
2
i
b
2
i
.
4.F Show that if d = diamA and a A then A D
d
(a). Vice
versa: diamD
d
(a) 2d (cf. 4.11).
4.G.1 We have to prove that any point y B
r(a,x)
(x) belongs to
B
r
(a). In terms of distances, this means that (y, a) < r, if (y, x) <
r (a, x) and (a, x) < r. By the triangle inequality, (y, a) (y, x) +
(x, a). Replacing in the right-hand side of the latter inequality the rst
summand by a greater number r (a, x), we get the desired inequality.
4.G It is claimed that = B
r
(x) [ r > 0, x X is a topological
structure. This follows from Lemma 4.G.1 and Theorems 3.B and 3.C.
4.H For this metric, the balls are open intervals. Each open interval
in R appears as a ball. The standard topology in R is dened by the base
consisting of all open intervals.
4.I If a set contains together with any of its points a ball with
center at this point, this set is the union of those balls. Thus, it is open
in the metric topology. If a U, where U is open, then a B
r
(x) and
B
r(a,x)
(a) B
r
(x) U, see Lemma 4.G.1.
4.J An indiscrete space does not have enough open sets. For x, y
X and r = (x, y) > 0, the ball D
r
(x) is not empty and does not coincide
with the whole space.
4. METRIC SPACES 31
4:A Clearly, the metric in 4.A is an ultrametric. The other metrics
are not: for each of them you can nd points x, y, z such that (x, y) =
(x, z) +(z, y).
4:B The denition of ultrametric implies that no one of pairwise
distances between points a, b, c can be greater than each of the other
two.
4:C By 4:B, if y S
r
(x) and r > s > 0 then B
s
(y) S
r
(x).
4:D Let x z =
r
1
s
1
p
1
, z y =
r
2
s
2
p
2
and
1
2
. Then: x
y = p
1
_
r
1
s
1
+
r
2
s
2
p
1
_
= p
1
r
1
s
2
+r
2
s
1
p
1
s
1
s
2
, hence p(x, y) p
1
=
max(x, z), (z, y).
4.L Condition (b, A) = 0 means that each ball centered at b meets
A. In turn, this means that b does not belong to the complement of A
(since A is closed).
Hints, Comments, Advises, Solutions, and Answers
4.2 Cf. 4.B.
4.4 Look for an answer in 4.7.
4.7 Squares with sides parallel to the coordinate axes and bisectors of
the coordinate angles, respectively.
4.8 D
1
(a) = X, D
1/2
(a) = a, S
1/2
(a) = .
4.9 For example, X = D
1
(0) R
1
, and D
3/2
(5/6) D
1
(0).
4.10 Three points suce.
4.11 Let R > r and D
R
(b) D
r
(a). Take c D
R
(b) and use the
triangle inequality (b, c) (b, a) +(a, c).
4.12 Put u = b x and t = x a. The Cauchy inequality becomes
equality, i the vectors u and t has the same direction, i.e., x lies on the
segment connecting a and b.
4.13 For metric
(p)
with p > 1 this set coincides with the segment
connecting a and b, and for metric
(1)
it is a rectangular parallelipiped
whose opposite vertices are those two points.
4.14 See the proof of 4.F.
4.19 The discrete one.
4.20 Let us just remind you that you need to prove that X D
r
(a) =
x [ (x, a) > r is open.
4.23 Use the obvious equality X S
r
(a) = B
r
(a) (X D
r
(a)) and
the result of 4.20.
4.K For x X put r = minp(x, y)[y X x. Which points are in
D
r
(x)?
4. METRIC SPACES 32
4.25 Only line and discrete spaces.
4.26 According to 3.7, for n = 2 metrics
(2)
,
(1)
()
are equivalent;
similar arguments work for n > 2, too. However in this case it is more
convenient to use the result of the next problem: to show that for any pair of
metrics
(p)
(1 p ) there exist appropriate constants c and C, required
in 4.27.
4.27 First, let us prove that
2
1
, provided
2
(x, y) C
1
(x, y). In-
deed, inequality
2
C
1
implies B
(1)
r
(a) B
(2)
Cr
. Now let us use Theorem
4.I. Inequality c
1
(x, y)
2
(x, y) can be represented as
1
(x, y)
1
c
2
(x, y).
Hence
1
2
.
4.28 Metrics
1
(x, y) = [x y[
2
(x, y) = arctan[x y[ on the line are
equivalent, but obviously there is no number C such that
1
C
2
.
4.29 Metrics
1
,
2
are equivalent, if there exist c, C, d > 0, such that
1
(x, y) d implies c
1
(x, y)
2
(x, y) C
1
(x, y).
4.31
1
2
, because
1
(f, g)
C
(f, g). On the other hand, there is
no ball centered at the origin for metric
1
, which would not t to B
(C)
1
(0),
since > 0 f
_
[f[ < , max
[0,1]
[f[ 1.
4.32 Clearly in all the cases the only thing which is to be proved and
is not completely obvious is the triangle inequality. For
1
+
2
it is obvious
either. Furthermore
1
(x, y)
1
(x, z) +
1
(z, y)
max
1
(x, z),
2
(x, z) + max
1
(y, z),
2
(y, z).
A similar inequality holds true for
2
(x, y), therefore max
1
,
2
is a met-
ric. Construct examples which would prove that neither min
1
,
2
, nor
1
2
,
nor
1
2
is a metric (for this it would be enough to nd three points with
appropriate pairwise distances).
4.33 The latter statement is quite obvious. The rst and the second
ones follow from the last one for f(t) =
t
1+t
and f(t) = min 1, t, respectively.
Thus it sues to check that these function satisfy the conditions of the last
statement.
4.34 Since
1+
, and for (x, y) 1 inequality
1
2
(x, y)
(x,y)
1+(x,y)
holds true, the statement follows from 4.29.
4:E Condition (b) is obviously satised. Put r(A, B) = sup
aA
(a, B), so
that d
(A, B) = maxr(A, B), r(B, A). To prove that (c) is also satised, it
sucies to prove that r(A, C) r(A, B) +r(B, C) for any sets A, B, C X.
One can easily see that (a, C) (a, b) +(b, C) for all a A, b B. Hence
(a, C) (a, b)+r(B, C), and therefore (a, C) inf
bB
(a, b)+r(B, C) =
(a, B) +r(B, C) r(A, B) +r(B, C), which implies the desired inequality.
4:F By 4:E, d
satises (a).
4:G d
1 Strict Orders
A binary relation in a set X is a set of ordered pairs of elements of
X, that is a subset R X X. Many relations are denoted by special
symbols, like , or , or , or . In the case, if such a notation is used,
there is a tradition to write xRy instead of writing (x, y) R. So, we
write x y, or x y, or x y, etc. This generalizes the notation for
classical binary relations =, <, >, , .
A binary relation in a set X is called a strict partial order, or just
strict order, if it satises the following two conditions:
Irreexivity: There is no a X such that a a holds.
Transitivity: a b and b c imply a c for any a, b, c X.
5.A Antisymmetry. Let be a strict partial order in a set X. There
exist no x, y X such that both x y and y x hold true.
5.B. Relation < in the set R of real numbers is a strict order.
Formula a b is read sometimes as a is less than b or b is greater
than a, but often it is read as a is followed by a or a precedes b.
The advantage of the latter two ways of reading is that then the relation
is not associated too closely to the inequality between real numbers.
5
2 Non-Strict Orders
Binary relation _ in a set X is called a non-strict partial order, or just
non-strict order, if it satises the following three conditions:
Transitivity: If a _ b and b _ c then a _ c for any a, b, c X.
Antisymmetry: If a _ b and b _ a then a = b for any a, b X.
Reexivity: a _ a for any a X.
5.C. Relation in R is a non-strict order.
5.D. In the set N of natural numbers the relation a[b (a divides b) is a
non-strict partial order.
5.1. Is the relation a[b a non-strict partial order in the set Z of integers?
34
5. ORDERED SETS 35
5.E. In the set of subsets of a set X inclusion is a non-strict partial
order.
5
4 Cones
Let (X, ) be a poset and a X. The set x X [ a x is called
the upper cone of a, and the set x X [ x a the lower cone of
5. ORDERED SETS 36
a. The element a does not belong to its cones. By adding it to them, we
get completed cones: the upper completed cone or star C
+
X
(a) = x X [
a _ x and the lower completed cone C
X
(a) = x X [ x _ a.
5.I Properties of Cones. Let (X, ) be a poset.
(a) C
+
X
(b) C
+
X
(a), provided b C
+
X
(a);
(b) a C
+
X
(a) for each a X.
(c) C
+
X
(a) = C
+
X
(b) implies a = b;
5.J Cones Determine an Order. Let X be an arbitrary set. Suppose
for any a X one xes a subset C
a
X. If
(a) b C
a
implies C
b
C
a
;
(b) a C
a
for each a X.
(c) C
a
= C
b
implies a = b;
Let us write a b, if b C
a
. Then the relation is a non-strict order
in X and for this order C
+
X
(a) = C
a
.
5.2. Let C R
3
be a set. Consider relation
C
in R
3
, which is dened as
follows: a
C
b, if b a C. What properties of C would imply that
C
would be a partial order in R
3
? In the poset (R
3
,
C
), what are the upper
and lower cones?
5.3. Prove that any convex cone C in R
3
with vertex (0, 0, 0) such that
P C = (0, 0, 0) for some plane P satises the conditions found in solution
of the preceding problem.
5.4. In the space-time R
4
of special relativity theory (where points rep-
resent moment point events, the rst three coordinates, x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, are the
spatial coordinates and the fourth one, t, is the time) there is a relation event
(x
1
, x
2
, x
3
, t) precedes (and can inuence) event ( x
1
, x
2
, x
3
,
t t)
_
( x
1
x
1
)
2
+ ( x
2
x
2
)
2
+ ( x
3
x
3
)
2
.
Is this a partual ordr? If yes, what are the upper and lower cones of an event?
5.5. Answer the versions of questions of the preceding problem concerning
two-dimensional and three-dimensional versions of this space, in which the
number of spatial coordinates is 1 and 2 respectively.
5
X
(b).
5.L. Each set has at most one greatest and at most one smallest element.
An element b of a set A is called its maximal element, if A does not
contain an element c such that b c. An element b of a set A is called
its minimal element, if A does not contain an element c such that c b.
5. ORDERED SETS 37
5.M. An element b of A is maximal, i A C
X
(b) = b.
An element b of A is minimal, i A C
+
X
(b) = b.
5.6. Enigma. How are the notions of maximal and greatest elements re-
lated? What can you say about a poset, in which for any subset these notions
coincide?
5
6 Total Orders
Please, notice: the denition of a strict order does not require that
for any a, b X either a b, or b a, or a = b. This condition is called
a trichotomy. In terms of the corresponding non-strict order, it can be
reformulated as follows: any two elements a, b X are comparable: either
a _ b, or a _ b.
A strict order which satises trichotomy is said to be total or linear.
The corresponding poset is said to be linearly or totally ordered. It is
called also just an ordered set.
5
Some orders do satisfy trichotomy.
5.N. The order < in the set R of real numbers is linear.
This is the most important example of totally ordered set. The words
and images rooted in it are often extended to all totally ordered set. For
example, cones are called rays, the upper cones turn to right rays, while
lower cones to left rays.
5.7. A poset (X, ) is linearly ordered, i X = C
+
X
(a) C
X
(a) for each
a X.
5.8. In the set N of natural numbers the order a[b is not linear.
5.9. For which X the relation of inclusion in the set of all subsets of X is a
linear order?
5
8 Poset Topology
5.R. Let (X, _) be a poset. The set of subsets of X consisting of all the
sets of form x X [ a _ x, where a runs over the whole X, is a base
of a topological structure in X.
The topological strucuter generated by this base is called a poset
topology.
5.S. In a poset topology each point a X has the smallest (with respect
to inclusion) neighborhood. This is x X [ a _ x.
5.T. The following properties of a topological space are equivalent:
each point has a smallest neighborhood,
the intersection of any collection of open sets is open,
the union of any collection of closed sets is closed.
A space satisfying the conditions of Theorem 5.T is called a smallest
neighborhood space.
6
In a smallest neighborhood space open and closed
sets satisfy the same conditions. In particular, the set of all closed sets of
6
This class of topological spaces was introduced and studied by P. S. Aleksandrov
in 1935. Aleksandrov called them discrete. Nowadays the term discrete space is used
for a much narrower class of topological spaces (see Section 2). The term smallest
neighborhood space was introduced by Christer Kiselman.
5. ORDERED SETS 39
a smallest neighborhood space is a topological structure. This structure
is said to be dual to the original one. It corresponds to the opposite
partial order.
5.13. How to characterize points open in a poset topology in terms of the
partial order? The same question about closed points.
5.14. Describe directly open sets in the poset topology of R with order <.
5.15. In set a, b, c, d consider a partial order in which the strict inequalities
are: c a, d c, d a, d b. Check that this is a partial order and that
the poset topology coincides with the topology of , described in Problem
2.3 (a).
5
such that X splits into subsets A and B such that the restrictions of
to each
of them coincide, while a b and b
2 Relativity of Openness
Sets, which are open in the subspace, are not necessarily open in the
ambient space.
6.D. The unique set open in R
1
, which is also open in R
2
, is .
However:
6.E. An open set of an open subspace is open in the ambient space, i.
e., if A then
A
.
The same relation holds true for closed sets. Sets, which are closed in
the subspace, are not necessarily closed in the ambient space. However:
6.F. Closed sets of the closed subspace are closed in the ambient space.
6.4. Prove that a set U is open in X, i every its point has a neighborhood
V in X such that U V is open in V .
It allows one to say that the property of being open is local. Indeed, we
can reformulate 6.4 as follows: a set is open, i it is open in a neighborhood
of each of its points.
45
6. SUBSPACES 46
6.5. Show that the property of being closed is not local.
6.G Transitivity of Induced Topology. Let (X, ) be a topological
space, and X A B. Then (
A
)
B
=
B
, i.e., the topology induced on
B by the topology induced on A coincides with the topology induced on B
directly.
6.6. Let (X, ) be a metric space, and A X. Then the topology in A
generated by metric
AA
coincides with the topology induced on A by the
topology in X generated by metric .
6.7. Enigma. The statement 6.6 is equivalent to a couple of inclusions.
Which of them is less obvious?
6
U
(A U
X
) = A (
U
U
X
). The union
U
U
X
belongs to (i.
e. is open in X) as the union of sets open in X. (Here we use the fact
that , being a topology in X, satises the rst axiom of topological
structure.) Therefore A (
U
U
X
) belongs to
A
. Similarly one can
check the second axiom. The third axiom: A = A X, and = A .
6.B The intersection of an open disk with a line is either an open
interval or empty. Any open set in the plane is a union of open disks.
Therefore the intersection of any open set of the plane with a line is a
union of open intervals. Thus, it is open in the line.
6.C If a set F is closed in A then its complement AF is open in A,
i. e. AF = AU, where U is open in X. What closed set cuts F on A?
It is cut by XU. Indeed, A(XU) = A(AU) = A(AF) = F.
Similarly one can prove that the intersection with A of the set closed in
X is closed in A.
6.D No disk of R
2
ts into R.
6. SUBSPACES 47
6.E If A and B
A
then B = AU, where U . Therefore
B , for this is the intersection of two sets, A and U, which belong to
.
6.F Act as in the solution of the preceding problem 6.E, but use
6.C instead of denition of induced topology.
6.G The core of the proof is equality (U A) B = U B. It takes
place, for B A, and is applied to U . As U runs over , the right
hand side of the equality (U A) B = U B runs over
B
, while the
left hand side runs over (
A
)
B
. Indeed, elements of
B
are intersections
U B with U , and elements of (
A
)
B
are intersections V B with
V
A
, but V , in turn, being an element of
A
, is intersection U A
with U .
Hints, Comments, Advises, Solutions, and Answers
6.1 In the same way as the induced topology: if is a base in X then
A
= A V [ V is a base of the induced topology in A.
6.2
(a) Discrete, for (n 1, n + 1) N = n;
(b)
N
= (k, k + 1, k + 2...)
kN
;
(c) discrete;
(d) = , 2, 1, 2.
6.3 Yes, it is open, since [0, 1) = (1, 1) [0, 2], and (1, 1) is open on
the line.
6.4 For V one can take U itself, if U is open. To prove the opposite
implication, use problem 6.E.
6.5 Consider interval (1, 1) R and open disk with radius 1 and
center at (0, 0) on plane R
2
.
6.7 The topology induced by the metric in A, is dened by base
1
=
B
A
r
(a) [ a A, where B
A
r
(a) = x A [ (x, a) < r is an open ball
in A with center a and radius r. The other topology is dened by base
2
= A B
r
(x) [ x X. Here B
r
(x) is an open ball in X. Obviously
B
A
r
(a) = A B
r
(a) for a A. Therefore
1
2
. However, it may happen
that
1
,=
2
.
6.6 It is left to prove that elements of
2
are open in the topology
dened by
1
. For a point x of an element U of
2
, nd V
1
such that
x V U.
7 Position of a Point with Respect to a Set
This section is devoted to a further expansion of the vocabulary
needed when one speaks of phenomena in a topological space.
7
3 Closure
The closure of a set A is the smallest closed set containing A. It is
denoted Cl A or, going into details, Cl
X
A.
7.E. Every subset of topological space has closure. It is the intersection
of all closed sets containing this set.
48
7. POSITION OF A POINT WITH RESPECT TO A SET 49
7.3. Prove that if A is a subspace of X, and B A, then Cl
A
B = (Cl
X
B)
A. Is it true that Int
A
B = (Int
X
B) A?
A point b is called an adherent point for a set A if all of its neighbor-
hood intersect A.
7.F. The closure of a set is the set of its adherent points.
7.G. A set A is closed, i A = Cl A.
7.H. The closure of a set is the complement of its exterior. In formulas:
Cl A = X Int(X A), where X is the space and A X.
7.I. Prove that in R:
(a) Cl[0, 1) = [0, 1],
(b) Cl Q = R,
(c) Cl(R Q) = R.
7.4. Find the closure of a in .
7.5. Describe the closure of a point in a poset topology.
7
5 Frontier
The frontier of a set A is the set Cl A Int A. It is denoted by Fr A
or, more precisely, Fr
X
A.
7.6. In nd the frontier of a.
7.K. The frontier of a set is the set of its boundary points.
7.L. Prove that a set A is closed, i Fr A A.
7.7. Prove that Fr A = Fr(X A). Find a formula for Fr A, which is sym-
metric with respect to A and X A.
7.8. The frontier of a set A equals the intersection of the closure of A and
the closure of the complement of A:
Fr A = Cl A Cl(X A).
7
1
n
[ n N
_
, and Fr Q in R.
7.19. Find Cl N, Int(0, 1), and Fr[0, 1] in R
T1
. How to nd the closure and
interior of a set in this space?
7.20. Does a sphere contain the frontier of the open ball with the same center
and radius?
7.21. Does a sphere contain the frontier of the closed ball with the same
center and radius?
7.22. Find an example in which a sphere is disjoint from the closure of the
open ball with the same center and radius.
7
which
has the following properties:
(a) Cl
= ;
(b) Cl
A A;
(c) Cl
(A B) = Cl
A Cl
B;
(d) Cl
Cl
A = Cl
A.
Prove that = U X [ Cl
(X U) = X U is a topological
structure, and Cl
12 Dense Sets
Let A and B be sets in a topological space X. A is said to be dense
in B if Cl A B, and everywhere dense if Cl A = X.
7.M. A set is everywhere dense, i it intersects any nonempty open set.
7.N. The set Q is everywhere dense in R.
7.30. Give a characterization of everywhere dense sets in an indiscrete space,
in the arrow and in R
T1
.
7.31. Prove that a topological space is a discrete space, i it has a unique
everywhere dense set (by the way, which one).
7.32. Formulate a necessary and sucient condition on the topology of a
space which has an everywhere dense point. Find spaces satisfying the con-
dition in Section 2.
7.33. Which singletons are dense in a poset topology?
7.34. Is it true that the union of everywhere dense sets is everywhere dense,
and that the intersection of everywhere dense sets is everywhere dense?
7. POSITION OF A POINT WITH RESPECT TO A SET 52
7.35. Prove that the intersection of two open everywhere dense sets is ev-
erywhere dense.
7.36. Which condition in the previous problem is redundant?
7.37*. Prove that in R a countable intersection of open everywhere dense
sets is everywhere dense. Is it possible to replace R here by an arbitrary
topological space?
7.38*. Prove that Q cannot be presented as a countable intersection of
open sets dense in R.
7
FB,
AFA
F =
HB,
XH
(H A) = A
HB,
XH
H = A Cl
X
B.
The second equality may be obviously wrong. Really, let X = R
2
, A = R
1
,
B = A. Then Int
A
B = R
1
,= = (Int
X
B) A.
8 Set-Theoretic Digression. Maps
8
4 Composition
The composition of mappings f : X Y and g : Y Z is the
mapping g f : X Z dened by formula x g
_
f(x)
_
.
8. SET-THEORETIC DIGRESSION. MAPS 57
8.H. h (g f) = (h g) f for any maps f : X Y , g : Y Z, and
h : Z U.
8.I. f (id
X
) = f = (id
X
) f for any f : X Y .
8.J. The composition of injections is injective.
8.K. If the composition g f is injective then f is injective.
8.L. The composition of surjections is surjective.
8.M. If the composition g f is surjective then g is surjective.
8.N. The composition of bijections is a bijection.
8.7. Let a composition g f be bijective. Is then f or g necessarily bijective?
8
6 Submappings
If A X and B Y then for every f : X Y such that f(A) B
there is mapping ab(f) : A B dened by formula x f(x) and called
an abbreviation of the mapping f to A, B, or submapping, or submap. If
B = Y then ab f : A Y is denoted by f
A
and called the restriction of
f to A. If B ,= Y then ab f : A B is denoted by f
A,B
or even simply
f [.
8.Q. The restriction of a map f : X Y to A X is the composition
of inclusion in A :X and f. In other words, f
A
= f in.
8.R. Any abbreviation (including any restriction) of injections is injec-
tive.
8.S. If a restriction of a mapping is surjective then the original mapping
is surjective.
9 Continuous Maps
9
2 Reformulations of Denition
9.6. Prove that a mapping f : X Y is continuous, i
Cl f
1
(A) f
1
(Cl A)
for any A Y .
9.7. Formulate and prove similar criteria of continuity in terms of Int f
1
(A)
and f
1
(Int A). Do the same for Cl f(A) and f(Cl A).
9.8. Let be a base for topology in Y . Prove that a map f : X Y is
continuous, i f
1
(U) is open for any U .
9
3 More Examples
9.9. Is the mapping f : [0, 2] [0, 2] dened by formula
f(x) =
_
x, if x [0, 1);
3 x, if x [1, 2]
continuous (with respect to the topology induced from the real line)?
9.10. Is the map f of segment [0, 2] (with the topology induced by the
topology of the real line) into the arrow (see Section 2) dened by formula
f(x) =
_
x, if x [0, 1];
x + 1, if x (1, 2]
continuous?
9.11. Give an explicit characterization of continuous mappings of R
T1
(see
Section 2) to R.
9.12. Which maps R
T1
R
T1
are continuous?
9.13. Give an explicit characterization of continuous mappings of the arrow
to itself.
9.14. Let f be a mapping of the set Z
+
of nonnegative numbers onto R
dened by formula
f(x) =
_
1
x
, if x ,= 0;
0, if x = 0.
Let g : Z
+
f(Z
+
) be its submap. Induce topology on Z
+
and f(Z
+
) from
R. Are f and the map g
1
, inverse to g, continuous?
9
5 Local Continuity
A map f of a topological space X to a topological space Y is said to
be continuous at a point a X if for every neighborhood U of f(a) there
exists a neighborhood V of a such that f(V ) U.
9.I. A map f : X Y is continuous, i it is continuous at each point
of X.
9.J. Let X, Y be metric spaces, and a X. A map f : X Y is
continuous at a, i for every ball with center at f(a) there exists a ball
with center at a whose image is contained in the rst ball.
9.K. Let X, Y be metric spaces, and a X. A mapping f : X Y is
continuous at the point a, i for every > 0 there exists > 0 such that
for every point x X inequality (x, a) < implies
_
f(x), f(a)
_
< .
Theorem 9.K means that continuity introduced above coincides with
the one that is usually studied in Calculus.
9
f(x)
, (19)
x maxf(x), g(x), (20)
x minf(x), g(x) (21)
are continuous.
9.19. Prove that if 0 / g(X) then a mapping X R dened by formula
x
f(x)
g(x)
is continuous.
9.20. Find a sequence of continuous functions f
i
: R R, (i N) such that
the formula
x sup f
i
(x) [ i N
denes a function R R which is not continuous.
9.21. Let X be any topological space. Prove that a function f : X R
n
:
x (f
1
(x), . . . , f
n
(x)) is continuous, i all the functions f
i
: X R with
i = 1, . . . , n are continuous.
9. CONTINUOUS MAPS 61
Real pq-matrices comprise a space Mat(pq, R), which diers fromR
pq
only in the way of numeration of its natural coordinates (they are numerated
by pairs of indices).
9.22. Let f : X Mat(p q, R) and g : X Mat(q r, R) be continuous
maps. Prove that then
X Mat(p r, R) : x g(x)f(x)
is a continuous map.
Recall that GL(n; R) is the subspace of Mat(n n, R) consisting of all
the invertible matrices.
9.23. Let f : X GL(n; R) be a continuous map. Prove that X
GL(n; R) : x (f(x))
1
is continuous.
9
7 Continuity of Distances
9.L. For every subset A of a metric space X the function dened by
formula x (x, A) (see Section 4) is continuous.
9.24. Prove that a topology of a metric space is the coarsest topology, with
respect to which for every A X the function X R dened by formula
x (x, A) is continuous.
9
8 Isometry
A mapping f of a metric space X into a metric space Y is called
an isometric embedding if
_
f(a), f(b)
_
= (a, b) for every a, b X. A
bijection which is an isometric embedding is called an isometry.
9.M. Every isometric embedding is injective.
9.N. Every isometric embedding is continuous.
9
9 Gromov-Hausdor distance
9:A. For any metric spaces X and Y there exists a metric space Z such that X and
Y can be isometrically embedded into Z.
Having embedded isometrically two metric space in a single one, we can consider
the Hausdor distance between their images (see. 4
10 Contractive maps
A mapping f : X X of a metric space X is called contractive if there
exists (0, 1) such that
_
f(a), f(b)
_
(a, b) for every a, b X.
9.25. Prove that every contractive mapping is continuous.
Let X, Y be metric spaces. A mapping f : X Y is said to be Holder
if there exist C > 0 and > 0 such that
_
f(a), f(b)
_
C(a, b)
for every
a, b X.
9.26. Prove that every Holder mapping is continuous.
9
11 Monotone maps
Let (X, ) and (Y, ) be posets. A map f : X Y is said to be
(non-strictly) monotonically increasing or just monotone, if
f(a) _ f(b) for any a, b X with a _ b ;
(non-strictly) monotonically decreasing or antimotone, if
f(b) _ f(a) for any a, b X with a _ b ;
strictly monotonically increasing or just strictly monotone, if
f(a) f(b) for any a, b X with a b ;
strictly monotonically decreasing or strictly antimonotone, if
f(b) f(a) for any a, b X with a b.
9.O. Let X and Y be linearly ordered sets. With respect to the interval
topology in X and Y any surjective monotone or antimonotone mapping
X Y is continuous.
9.27. Show that the surjectivity condition in 9.O is needed.
9.28. Under conditions of Theorem 9.O, is f continuous with respect to right
ray or left ray topologies?
9.P. A mapping of a poset to a poset is monotone, i it is continuous
with respect to the poset topologies.
9
k=1
a
k
3
k
with a
k
= 0 or 2.
9:E. Let
1
be a map K I dened by
k=1
a
k
3
k
k=1
a
k
2
k+1
.
Prove that
1
: K I is a continuous surjection. Draw the graph of .
9. CONTINUOUS MAPS 63
9:F. Prove that the function K K dened by
k=1
a
k
3
k
k=1
a
2k
3
k
is continuous.
Denote by K
2
the set (x, y) R
2
: x K, y K.
9:G. Prove that the map
2
: K K
2
dened by
k=1
a
k
3
k
_
k=1
a
2k1
3
k
,
k=1
a
2k
3
k
_
is a continuous surjection.
9:H. Prove that the map
3
: K I
2
dened as the composition of
2
: K K
2
and K
2
I
2
: (x, y) (
1
(x),
1
(y)) is a continuous surjection.
9:I. Prove that the map
3
: K I
2
is a restriction of a continuous map. (Cf.
2:A.2.)
The latter map is a continuous surjection I I
2
. Thus, this is a curve lling the
square. A curve with this property was rst constructed by G. Peano in 1890. Though
the construction sketched above is based on the same ideas as the original Peanos
construction, they are slightly dierent. Since then a lot of other similar examples
have been found. You may nd a nice survey of them in a book by Hans Sagan, Space-
Filling Curves, Springer-Verlag 1994. Here is a sketch of Hilberts construction.
9:J. Prove that there exists a sequence of polygonal maps f
k
: I I
2
such that
(a) f
k
connects all centers of the squares forming the obvious subdivision of I
2
into
4
k
equal squares with side 1/2
k
;
(b) dist(f
k
(x), f
k1
(x))
2/2
k+1
for any x I (here dist means the metric
induced on I
2
from the standard Euclidean metric of R
2
).
9:K. Prove that any sequence of paths f
k
: I I
2
satisfying the conditions of 9:J
converges to a map f : I I
2
(i.e. for any x I there exists a limit f(x) =
lim
k
f
k
(x)) and this map is continuous and its image is dense in I
2
.
9:L.
8
Prove that any continuous map I I
2
with dense image is surjective.
9:M. Generalize 9:G 9:I 9:J 9:L to obtain a continuous surjection of I onto I
n
.
9
A
A. In this
case elements of are said to cover X.
There is also a more general meaning of these words. A collection
of subsets of a set Y is called a cover or a covering of a set X Y if X
is contained in the union of the sets belonging to , i.e., X
A
A.
In this case, sets belonging to are also said to cover X.
9
15 Fundamental Covers
Consider a cover of a topological space X. Each element of inher-
its from X a topological structure. When are these structures sucient
for recovering the topology of X? In particular, under what conditions
on does continuity of a map f : X Y follow from continuity of
its restrictions to elements of . To answer these questions, solve the
problems 9.309.31 and 9.S9.X.
9.30. Is this true for the following coverings:
(a) X = [0, 2], = [0, 1], (1, 2];
(b) X = [0, 2], = [0, 1], [1, 2];
(c) X = R, = Q, R Q;
(d) X = R, is a set of all one-point subsets of R?
A cover of a space X is said to be fundamental if a set U X is
open, i for every A the set U A is open in A.
9.S. A covering of a space X is fundamental, i a set U X is open,
provided U A is open in A for every A .
9.T. A covering of a space X is fundamental, i a set F X is closed,
provided F A is closed A for every A .
9. CONTINUOUS MAPS 65
9.31. A cover of a topological space consisting of singletons is fundamental,
i the space is discrete.
A cover of a topological space is said to be open if it consists of open
sets, and closed if it consists of closed sets. A cover of a topological space
is said to be locally nite if every point of the space has a neighborhood
intersecting only a nite number of elements of the cover.
9.U. Every open cover is fundamental.
9.V. Every nite closed cover is fundamental.
9.W. Every locally nite closed cover is fundamental.
9.X. Let be a fundamental cover of a topological space X. If the
restriction of a mapping f : X Y to each element of is continuous
then f is continuous.
A cover
is
contained in some element of .
9.32. Prove that if a cover
is funda-
mental then is also fundamental.
9.33. Prove that if is a fundamental cover, and A is a subspace of a space
X, then
A
= U A [ U is a fundamental cover of A.
9.34. Let be a fundamental cover of a topological space X, and be a
cover of X such that
A
= U A [ U is a fundamental cover for
subspace A X for every A . Prove that is a fundamental cover.
9.35. Prove that the property of being fundamental is local, i.e., if every
point of a space X has a neighborhood V such that
V
= U V [ U
is fundamental, then is fundamental.
Hints, Comments, Advises, Solutions, and Answers
9:A Construct Z as the union of disjoint copies of X and Y . In the
union, put the distance between points, which belong to a copy of one of
the spaces, to be equal to the distance between the corresponding points of
the original space. To dene the distance bewteen points of dierent copies,
choose points x
0
X and y
0
Y , and put (a, b) =
X
(a, x
0
) +
Y
(y
0
, b) +1
for a X and b Y . Check (this is easy, really), that this denes a metric.
9:B Yes. For example a singleton and any non-bounded space.
9:C Although, as we have seen solving the previous problem, the Gromov-
Hausdor distance can be innite, while symmetricity and triangle inequality
were formulated above only for functions with nite values, these two prop-
erties make sense if innite values are admitted. (The triangle inequality
should be considered satised, if two or three of the quantities involved are
innite, and not satised, if only one of them is innite.) The following con-
struction helps to prove the triangle inequality. Let metric spaces X and Y
are isometrically embedded into a metric space A, and metric spaces Y and
9. CONTINUOUS MAPS 66
Z are isometrically embedded into a metric space B. Construct a new met-
ric space in which A and B would be isometrically embedded meeting in Y .
For this, add to A all points of B A. Put distances between these points
to be equal to the distances between them in B. Put the distance between
x A B and z B A equal to inf
A
(x, y) +
B
(y, z) [ y A B.
Compare this construction to the construction from the solution of Problem
9:A. Prove that this gives a metric space and use the triangle inequality for
the Hausdor distance between X, Y and Z in this space.
9:D Partially, the answer is obvious. Certainly, the Gromov-Hausdor
distance is non-negative! But what if it is zero, in what sense the spaces
should be equal then? First, the most optimistic idea is that then there
should exist an isometric bijection between the spaces. But this is not true,
as one can see looking at spaces Q and R with standard distances in them.
We promise ahead of time that for compact metric spaces this is true.
10 Homeomorphisms
10
2 Homeomorphic Spaces
A topological space X is said to be homeomorphic to space Y , if there
exists a homeomorphism X Y .
10.F. Being homeomorphic is an equivalence relation.
10.1. Enigma. How is Theorem 10.F related to 10.C10.E?
10
3 Role of Homeomorphisms
10.G. Let f : X Y be a homeomorphism. Then U X is open (in
X), i f(U) is open (in Y ).
10.H. f : X Y is a homeomorphism, i f is a bijection and denes a
bijection between the topological structures of X and Y .
10.I. Let f : X Y be a homeomorphism. Then for every A X
(a) A is closed in X, i f(A) is closed in Y ;
(b) f(Cl A) = Cl f(A);
(c) f(Int A) = Int f(A);
(d) f(Fr A) = Fr f(A);
(e) A is a neighborhood of a point x X, i f(A) is a neighborhood of
the point f(x);
(f) etc.
Therefore from the topological point of view homeomorphic spaces
are completely identical: a homeomorphism X Y establishes one-to-
one correspondence between all phenomena in X and Y which can be
expressed in terms of topological structures.
This phenomenon was used as a basis for a denition of the subject
of topology in the rst stages of its development, when the notion of
67
10. HOMEOMORPHISMS 68
topological space had not been developed yet. Then mathematicians
studied only subspaces of Euclidean spaces, their continuous mappings
and homeomorphisms. Felix Klein in his famous Erlangen Program,
9
where he classied various geometries that had emerged up to that time,
like Euclidean, Lobachevsky, ane, and projective geometries, dened
topology as a part of geometry which deals with the properties preserved
by homeomorphisms.
10
a b
c d
> 0.
10.4. Prove that a bijection R R is a homeomorphism, i it is a monotone
function.
10.5. Prove that every bijection of an indiscrete space onto itself is a home-
omorphism. Prove that the same holds true for a discrete space and R
T1
.
10.6. Find all homeomorphisms of the space (see Section 2) to itself.
10.7. Prove that every continuous bijection of the arrow onto itself is a
homeomorphism.
10.8. Find two homeomorphic spaces X and Y and a continuous bijection
X Y , which is not a homeomorphism.
9
In fact it was not assumed to be a program in the sense of being planned,
although it became a kind of program. It was a sort of dissertation presented by
Klein for getting the position as a professor at Erlangen University.
10. HOMEOMORPHISMS 69
10.9. Is
2
: K K
2
considered in Problem 9:G a homeomorphism? Recall
that K is the Cantor set, K
2
= (x, y) R
2
: x K, y K and
2
is
dened by
k=1
a
k
3
k
_
k=1
a
2k1
3
k
,
k=1
a
2k
3
k
_
10
= [a, b)
= (0, 1]
= R;
(e) [0, 1)
= (0, +).
10.P. S
1
(0, 1)
= R
1
.
10.Q. S
n
point
= R
n
.
10.10. Prove that the following plane gures are homeomorphic:
(a) the whole plane R
2
;
(b) open square (x, y) R
2
[ x, y (0, 1) ;
(c) open strip (x, y) R
2
[ x (0, 1) ;
(d) half-plane (x, y) R
2
[ y > 0 ;
(e) open half-strip (x, y) R
2
[ x > 0, y (0, 1) ;
(f) open disk (x, y) R
2
[ x
2
+y
2
< 1 ;
(g) open rectangle (x, y) R
2
[ a < x < b, c < y < d ;
(h) open quadrant (x, y) R
2
[ x, y > 0 ;
(i) (x, y) R
2
[ y
2
+ [x[ > x, i.e., plane cut along the ray y = 0, x
0 .
10.R. Prove that
(a) closed disk D
2
is homeomorphic to square I
2
= (x, y) R
2
[ x, y
[0, 1] ;
(b) open disc Int D
2
= (x, y) R
2
[ x
2
+ y
2
< 1 is homeomorphic to
open square Int I
2
= (x, y) R
2
[ x, y (0, 1) ;
(c) circle S
1
is homeomorphic to the boundary of square I
2
= I
2
Int I
2
.
10.S. Prove that
(a) every bounded closed convex set in the plane with nonempty interior
is homeomorphic to D
2
;
(b) every bounded open convex nonempty set in the plane is homeomor-
phic to the plane;
(c) boundary of every bounded convex set in the plane with nonempty
interior is homeomorphic to S
1
.
10. HOMEOMORPHISMS 70
10.11. In which of the situations considered in 10.S can the assumption that
the set is bounded be omitted?
10.12. Classify up to homeomorphism all closed convex sets in the plane.
(Make a list without repeats; prove that every such set is homeomorphic
to one in the list; postpone a proof of nonexistence of homeomorphisms till
Section 11.)
10.13*. Generalize the previous three problems to the case of sets in R
n
with arbitrary n.
The latter four problems show that angles are not essential in topol-
ogy, i.e., for a line or boundary of a domain the property of having angles
is not preserved by homeomorphism. And now two more problems on
this.
10.14. Prove that every closed simple (i.e., without self-intersections) poly-
gon in R
2
(and in R
n
with n > 2) is homeomorphic to the circle S
1
.
10.15. Prove that every non-closed simple nite unit polyline in R
2
(and
in R
n
with n > 2) is homeomorphic to the segment [0, 1].
10.16. Prove that R
2
[x[, [y[ > 1
= I
2
(1, 1), (1, 1).
10.17. Prove that the following plane gures are homeomorphic to each
other:
(a) (x, y) [ 0 x, y < 1 ;
(b) (x, y) [ 0 < x < 1, 0 y < 1 ;
(c) (x, y) [ 0 x 1, 0 y < 1 ;
(d) (x, y) [ x, y 0 ;
(e) (x, y) [ x 0 ;
(f) (x, y) [ x y 0 ;
(g) (x, y) [ x
2
+ y
2
1, x ,= 1 .
10.18. Prove that the following plane gures are homeomorphic to each
other:
(a) punctured plane R
2
(0, 0);
(b) punctured disc (x, y) [ 0 < x
2
+y
2
< 1 ;
(c) annulus (x, y) [ a < x
2
+y
2
< b where 0 < a < b;
(d) plane without disc (x, y) [ x
2
+y
2
> 1 ;
(e) plane without square (x, y) [ 0 x, y 1 ;
(f) plane without segment R
2
[0, 1].
10.19. Let X R
2
be an union of several segments with a common end
point. Prove that the complement R
2
X is homeomorphic to the punctured
plane.
10.20. Let X R
2
simple non-closed nite polyline. Prove that its comple-
ment R
2
X is homeomorphic to the punctured plane.
10.21. Let D
1
, . . . , D
n
R
2
be pairwise disjoint closed discs. The com-
plement of the union of its interior is said to be plane with n holes. Prove
that any two planes with n holes are homeomorphic, i.e., dislocation of discs
D
1
, . . . , D
n
does not aect on the topological type of R
2
n
i=1
Int D
i
.
10.22. Prove that for continuous functions f, g : R R such that f < g, the
space between their graphs (x, y) R
2
[ f(x) y g(x) is homeomorphic
to a closed strip (x, y) [ y [0, 1] .
10. HOMEOMORPHISMS 71
10.23. Prove that a mug (with handle) is homeomorphic to a doughnut.
10.24. Arrange the following items to homeomorphism classes: a cup, a
saucer, a glass, a spoon, a fork, a knife, a plate, a coin, a nail, a screw, a bolt,
a nut, a wedding ring, a drill, a ower pot (with hole in the bottom), a key.
10.25. In a spherical shell (the space between two concentric spheres) one
drilled out a cylindrical hole connecting the boundary spheres. Prove that
the rest is homeomorphic to D
3
.
10.26. In a spherical shell one made a hole connecting the boundary spheres
and having the shape of a knotted tube (see Figure 1.). Prove that the rest
of the shell is homeomorphic to D
3
.
Figure 1.
10.27. Prove that surfaces shown in Figure 2 are homeomorphic (they are
called handles).
Figure 2.
10.28. Prove that surfaces shown in the Figure 3 are homeomorphic. (They
are homeomorphic to Klein bottle with two holes. More details about this is
given in Section 20.)
10.29*. Prove that R
3
S
1
= R
3
_
R
1
(1, 1, 1)
_
.
10.30. Prove that subset of the sphere S
n
dened in standard coordinates
in R
n+1
by inequality x
2
1
+x
2
2
+ +x
2
k
< x
2
k+1
+ +x
2
n
is homeomorphic
to R
n
R
nk
.
10. HOMEOMORPHISMS 72
Figure 3.
10
9 Embeddings
Continuous mapping f : X Y is called a (topological ) embedding
if the submapping ab(f) : X f(X) is a homeomorphism.
10.V. The inclusion of a subspace into a space is an embedding.
10.W. Composition of embeddings is an embedding.
10.X. Give an example of continuous injective map, which is not a topo-
logical embedding. (Find such an example above and create a new one.)
10.33. Find topological spaces X and Y such that X can be embedded into
Y , Y can be embedded into X, but X ,
= Y .
10.34. Prove that Q cannot be embedded into Z.
10.35. Can a discrete space be embedded into an indiscrete space? How
about vice versa?
10.36. Prove that spaces R, R
T1
, and the arrow cannot be embedded into
each other.
10.37 Corollary of Inverse Function Theorem. Deduce from the Inver-
se Function Theorem (see, e.g., any course of advanced calculus) the following
statement:
For any dierentiable function f : R
n
R
n
whose Jacobian det(
fi
xj
)
does not vanish at the origin 0 R
n
there exists a neighborhood U of the
origin such that f[
U
: U R
n
is an embedding and f(U) is open.
10
10 Equivalence of Embeddings
Embeddings f
1
, f
2
: X Y are said to be equivalent, if there exist
homeomorphisms h
X
: X X and h
Y
: Y Y such that f
2
h
X
=
h
Y
f
1
(the latter equality may be stated as follows: the diagram
X
f
1
Y
h
X
_
h
Y
X
f
2
Y
is commutative).
10. HOMEOMORPHISMS 74
An embedding of the circle S
1
into R
3
is called a knot.
10.38. Prove that knots f
1
, f
2
: S
1
R
3
with f
1
(S
1
) = f
2
(S
1
) are equiva-
lent.
10.39. Prove that knots are equivalent.
10
11 Information
There are nonequivalent knots. For instance, and .
CHAPTER 2
Topological Properties
11 Connectedness
11
1
(i.e.,
1
2
). If (X,
1
) is connected, is (X,
2
) connected? If (X,
2
)
is connected, is (X,
1
) connected?
11
2 Connected Sets
When one says that a set is connected, it means that this set lies in
some topological space (which should be clear from the context), and,
with the induced topology, is a connected topological space.
11.5. Give a denition of disconnected subset without relying on the induced
topology.
11.6. Is the set 0, 1 connected in R, in the arrow, in R
T1
?
11.7. Describe explicitly all connected subsets of the arrow, of R
T1
.
11.8. Show that the set [0, 1] (2, 3] is disconnected in R.
11.9. Prove that every non-convex subset of the real line is disconnected.
11.10. Let A be a subset of a topological space X. Prove that A is dis-
connected, i there exist non-empty sets B and C such that A = B C,
B Cl
X
C = , and C Cl
X
B = .
75
11. CONNECTEDNESS 76
11.11. Find a topological space X and disconnected subset A X such that
for any disjoint open sets U and V , which form a cover of X, either U A,
or V A.
11.12. Prove that for every disconnected set A in R
n
there exist disjoint
open sets U and V such that A U V , U A ,= , and V A ,= .
Compare 11.1011.12 with 11.5.
11
is con-
nected. (In other words: the union of pairwise intersecting connected sets
is connected.)
11.D. Let A
k
kZ
be a family of connected sets such that A
k
A
k+1
,=
for any k Z. Prove that
kZ
A
k
is connected.
11.14. Let A, B be connected sets, and A Cl B ,= . Prove that A B is
connected.
11.15. Let A be a connected subset of a connected space X, and B XA
be an open and closed set in the topology of the subspace X A of the
space X. Prove that A B is connected.
11.16. Does connectedness of A B and A B imply connectedness of A
and B?
11.17. Prove that if A and B are either both closed or both open sets, and
their union and intersection are connected then A and B are connected, too.
11.18. Let A
1
A
2
be an innite descending sequence of connected
spaces. Is
k=1
A
k
a connected set?
11
4 Connected Components
A connected component of a space X is its maximal connected subset,
that is a connected subset, which is not contained in any other (strictly)
larger connected subset of X.
11.E. Every point belongs to some connected component. Moreover, this
component is unique. It is the union of all connected sets containing this
point.
11.F. Connected components are closed.
11.G. Two connected components either are disjoint or coincide.
11. CONNECTEDNESS 77
A connected component of a space X is called just a component of X.
Theorems 11.E and 11.G mean that connected components comprise a
partition of the whole space. The next theorem describes the correspond-
ing equivalence relation.
11.H. Prove that two points are in the same component, i they belong
to the same connected set.
11.19. Let x and y belong to the same component. Prove that any set,
which is closed and open, either contains both x and y or does not contain
either of them (cf. 11.29).
11.20. Let a space X has a group structure, and the multiplication by an
element of the group is a continuous map. Prove that the component of unity
is a normal subgroup.
11
8 Connectedness on Line
11.O. The segment I = [0, 1] is connected.
There are several ways to prove 11.O. One is suggested by 11.N, but
refers to a famous Intermediate Value Theorem from calculus, see 11.T.
Basically the same proof as a combination of 11.N with a traditional proof
of Intermidiate Value Theorem is sketched in the following two problems.
Cf. also 11.26 below.
11.O.1. Let U, V be subsets of I with V = U V . Let a U, b V
and a > b. Prove that there exists a descending sequence a
n
with a
1
= a,
a
n
U and an ascending sequence b
n
with b
1
= b, b
n
V such that both
a
n
and b
n
have the same limit c.
11.O.2. If under assumptions of 11.O.1 U and V are open, then in which
of them can be c?
11.26. Prove that every open subset of the real line is a union of disjoint
open intervals (do not use 11.O). Deduce 11.O from this.
11.P. Prove that the set of connected components of an open subset of
R is countable.
11.Q. Prove that R
1
is connected.
11.R. Describe explicitly all connected subsets of the line.
11.S. Prove that every convex set in R
n
is connected.
11.27. Consider the union of spiral
r = exp
_
1
1 +
2
_
, with 0
(r, are the polar coordinates) and circle S
1
. Is this set connected? Would
the answer change, if the entire circle was replaced by some its subset?
(Cf. 11.13)
11.28. Consider the subset of the plane R
2
consisting of points with both
coordinates rational or both coordinates irrational. Is it connected?
11.29. Find a space and two points belonging to its dierent components
such that each simultaneously open and closed set contains either both of the
points, or neither of them (cf. 11.19).
11. CONNECTEDNESS 79
11
10 Dividing Pancakes
11.31. Any irregularly shaped pancake can be cut in half by one stroke of
the knife made in any prescribed direction. In other words, if A is a bounded
open set in the plane and l is a line in the plane, then there exists a line L
parallel to l which divides A in half by area.
11.32. If, under the conditions of 11.31, A is connected then L is unique.
11.33. Suppose two irregularly shaped pancakes lie on the same platter;
show that it is possible to cut both exactly in half by one stroke of the knife.
In other words: if A and B are two bounded regions in the plane, then there
exists a line in the plane which divides each region in half by area.
11.34 Dividing Pancake. Prove that a plane pancake of any shape can be
divided to four pieces of equal area by two straight cuts orthogonal to each
other. In other words, if A is a bounded connected open set in the plane,
then there are two perpendicular lines which divide A into four parts having
equal areas.
11.35. Enigma. What if the knife is not makes cuts of a shape dierent
from straight line? For which shapes of the blade you can formulate and solve
problems similar to 11.31 11.34?
11.36. Enigma. Formulate and solve counter-parts of Problems 11.31
11.34 for regions in the three-dimensional space. Can you increase the number
of regions in the counter-part of 11.31 and 11.33?
11.37. Enigma. What about pancakes in R
n
?
11
11 Induction on Connectedness
A function is said to be locally constant if each point of its source
space has a neighborhood such that the restriction of the function to this
neighborhood is constant.
11.V. A locally constant function on a connected set is constant.
11. CONNECTEDNESS 80
11.38. Enigma. How are 11.24 and 11.V related?
11.39. Let G be a group equipped with a topology such that for any g
G the map G G dened by x xgx
1
is continuous, and let G with
this topology be connected. Prove that if the topology induced in a normal
subgroup H of G is discrete, then H is contained in the center of G (i.e.,
hg = gh for any h H and g G).
11.40 Induction on Connectedness. Let c be a property of subsets of a
topological space such that the union of sets with nonempty pairwise inter-
sections inherits this property from the sets involved. Prove that if the space
is connected and each its point has a neighborhood with property c, then the
space has property c.
11.41. Prove 11.V and solve 11.39 using 11.40.
For more applications of induction on connectedness see 12.R, 12.14,
12.16 and 12.18.
11
1 Paths
A path in a topological space X is a continuous mapping of the in-
terval I = [0, 1] to X. The point s(0) is called the initial point of a path
s : I X, while s(1) is called its nal point. One says that path s con-
nects s(0) with s(1). This terminology is inspired by an image of moving
point: at the moment t [0, 1] it is in s(t). To tell the truth, this is
more than what is usually called a path, since besides an information on
trajectory of the point it contains a complete account on the movement:
the schedule saying when the point goes through each point.
A constant map s : I X is called a stationary path and denoted
by e
a
where a = s(I). For a path s the inverse path is the path dened
by t s(1 t). It is denoted by s
1
. Although, strictly speaking,
this notation is already used (for the inverse mapping), the ambiguity
of notations does not lead to confusion: in the context involving paths,
inverse mappings, as a rule, do not appear.
Let u : I X, v : I X be paths such that u(1) = v(0). Set
(22) uv(t) =
_
u(2t), if t [0,
1
2
]
v(2t 1), if t [
1
2
, 1].
12.A. Prove that the map uv : I X dened by (12
1) is continuous
(i.e., it is a path). Cf. 9.V and 9.X.
Path uv is called the product of paths u and v. Recall that it is
dened only if the nal point u(1) of u coincides with the initial point
v(0) of v.
12
2 Path-Connected Spaces
A topological space is said to be path-connected or pathwise con-
nected, if any two points can be connected in it by a path.
12.B. Prove that I is pathwise connected.
12.C. Prove that the Euclidean space of any dimension is pathwise con-
nected.
12.D. Prove that sphere of dimension n > 0 is path-connected.
12.E. Prove that the zero-dimensional sphere S
0
is not path-connected.
12.1. Which of the following topological spaces are path-connected:
(a) a discrete space; (b) an indiscrete space;
(c) the arrow; (d) R
T1
;
(e) ?
81
12. PATH-CONNECTEDNESS 82
12
3 Path-Connected Sets
By a path-connected set or pathwise connected set one calls a subset
of a topological space (which should be clear from the context) path-
connected as a space with the topology induced from the ambient space.
12.2. Prove that a subset A of a topological space X is path-connected, i
any two points in it can be connected by a path s : I X with s(I) A.
12.3. Prove that a convex subset of Euclidean space is path-connected.
12.4. Prove that the set of plane convex polygons with topology dened by
the Hausdor metric is path-connected.
12
5 Path-Connected Components
A path-connected component or pathwise connected component of a
topological space X is a path-connected subset of X such that no other
path-connected subset of X contains it.
12.G. Every point belongs to a path-connected component.
12.H. Two path-connected components either coincide or are disjoint.
12.I. Prove that two points belong to the same path-connected compo-
nent, i they can be connected by a path.
Unlike to the case of connectedness, path-connected components may
be non-closed. (See 12.O, cf. 12.N, 12.P.)
12.J. A continuous image of a pathwise connected space is pathwise con-
nected.
12. PATH-CONNECTEDNESS 83
12.9. Let s : I X be a path connecting a point of a set A with a point of
X A. Prove that s(I) Fr(A) ,= .
12
7 Polygon-Connectedness
A subset A of Euclidean space is said to be polygon-connected if any two
points of A can be connected by a nite polygonal line contained in A.
12.14. Prove that for open subsets of Euclidean space connectedness is equiv-
alent to polygon-connectedness.
12. PATH-CONNECTEDNESS 84
12.15. Construct a path-connected subset A of Euclidean space such that A
consists of more than one point and no two distinct points can be connected
with a polygon in A.
12.16. Let X R
2
be a countable set. Prove that then R
2
X is polygon-
connected.
12.17. Let X R
n
be a union of a countable collection of ane subspaces
with dimensions not greater than n 2. Prove that then R
n
X is polygon-
connected.
12.18. Let X C
n
be a union of a countable collection of algebraic sub-
sets (i.e., subsets dened by systems of algebraic equations in the standard
coordinates of C
n
) Prove that then C
n
X is polygon-connected.
12
2 Limits of Sequence
Let a
n
be a sequence of points of a topological space X. A point
b X is called its limit, if for any neighborhood U of b there exists a
number N such that a
n
U for any n > N. The sequence is said to
converge or tend to b as n tends to innity.
13.2. Explain the meaning of the statement b is not a limit of sequence a
n
avoiding as much as you can negations (i.e., the words no, not, none, etc..)
13.C. In a Hausdor space any sequence has at most one limit.
13.D. Prove that in the space R
T
1
each point is a limit of the sequence
a
n
= n.
1
Letter T in these notations originates from a German word Trennungsaxiom,
which means separation axiom.
85
13. SEPARATION AXIOMS 86
13
4 Hereditary Properties
A topological property is called hereditary if it is carried over from a
space to its subspaces, i.e. if a space X possesses this property then any
subspace of X possesses it.
13.9. Which of the following topological properties are hereditary:
niteness of the set of points;
niteness of the topological structure;
inniteness of the set of points;
connectedness;
path-connectedness?
13.E. The property of being Hausdor space is hereditary.
13
9 Niemytskis Space
Denote by H the open upper half-plane (x, y) R
2
: y > 0 equipped
with the topology induced by the Euclidean metric. Denote by X the union
of H and its boundary line L = (x, y) R
2
: y = 0, but equip it with the
topology, which is obtained by adjoining to the Euclidean topology the sets
of the form xD, where x R
1
and D is an open disc in H which is tangent
to L at the point x. This is the Niemytski space. It can be used to clarify
properties of the fourth separation axiom.
13.25. Prove that the Niemytski space is Hausdor.
13.26. Prove that the Niemytski space is regular.
13.27. What topological structure is induced on L from X?
13.28. Prove that the Niemytski space is not normal.
13.29 Corollary. There exists a regular space, which is not normal.
13.30. Embed the Niemytski space into a normal space in such a way that
the complement of the image would be a single point.
13.31 Corollary. Theorem 13.22 does not extend to non-closed subspaces,
i.e., the property of being normal is not hereditary?
13
1
3
,
1
3
1
K
n
also belongs to the family.
Then the family contains a minimal set, i.e., a set such that no proper its
subset belongs to the family.
14
4 Bases at a Point
Let X be a topological space, and a its point. A neighborhood base
at a or just base of X at a is a collection of neighborhoods of a such that
any neighborhood of a contains a neighborhood from this collection.
14.L. If is a base of a space X then U : a U is a base of X
at a.
14.11. In a metric space the following collections of balls are neighborhood
bases at a point a:
the set of all open balls of center a;
the set of all open balls of center a and rational radii;
14. COUNTABILITY AXIOMS 92
the set of all open balls of center a and radii r
n
, where r
n
is any
sequence of positive numbers converging to zero.
14.12. What are the minimal bases at a point in the discrete and indiscrete
spaces?
14
5 First Countability
A topological space X is says to satisfy the rst axiom of countability
or to be a rst countable space if it has a countable neighborhood base
at each point.
14.M. Any metric space is rst countable.
14.N. The second axiom of countability implies the rst one.
14.O. Find a rst countable space which is not second countable. (Cf.
14.4.)
14.13. Which of the following spaces are rst countable:
(a) the arrow; (b) R
T1
;
(c) a discrete space; (d) an indiscrete space?
14.14. Find a rst countable separable space which is not second countable.
14
7 Sequential Continuity
Consider now continuity of maps along the same lines. A map f :
X Y is said to be sequentially continuous if for any b X and a
sequence a
n
X, which converges to b, the sequence f(a
n
) converges to
f(b).
14.R. Any continuous map is sequentially continuous.
14.S. The preimage of a sequentially closed set under a sequentially con-
tinuous map is sequentially closed.
14.T. If X is a rst countable space then any sequentially continuous
map f : X Y is continuous.
Thus for mappings of a rst countable space continuity and sequential
continuity are equivalent.
14.16. Construct a sequentially continuous, but discontinuous map. (Cf.
14.15)
15 Compactness
15
1 Denition of Compactness
This section is devoted to a topological property, which plays a very
special role in topology and its applications. It is sort of topological
counter-part for the property of being nite in the context of set theory.
(It seems though that this analogy has never been formalized.)
Topological space is said to be compact if any of its open covers
contains a nite part which covers the space.
If is a cover of X and is a cover of X then GS is called a
subcover (or subcovering) of . Thus, a topological space is compact if
every open cover has a nite subcover.
15.A. Any nite topological space and indiscrete space are compact.
15.B. Which discrete topological spaces are compact?
15.1. Let
1
2
be topological structures in X. Does compactness of
(X,
2
) imply compactness of (X,
1
)? And vice versa?
15.C. The line R is not compact.
15.D. A topological space X is not compact, i there exists an open
covering which contains no nite subcovering.
15.2. Is the arrow compact? Is R
T1
compact?
15
2 Terminology Remarks
Originally the word compactness was used for the following weaker
property: any countable open cover contains a nite subcover.
15.E. For a second countable space the original denition of compactness
is equivalent to the modern one.
The modern notion of compactness was introduced by P. S. Alexan-
dro (18961982) and P. S. Urysohn (18981924). They suggested for it
the term bicompactness. This notion appeared to be so successful that
it has displaced the original one and even took its name, i.e. compact-
ness. The term bicompactness is sometimes used (mainly by topologists
of Alexandro school).
Another deviation from the terminology used here comes from Bour-
baki: we do not include the Hausdor property into the denition of
compactness, which Bourbaki includes. According to our denition, R
T
1
is compact, according to Bourbaki it is not.
94
15. COMPACTNESS 95
15
4 Compact Sets
By a compact set one means a subset of a topological space (the latter
must be clear from the context) provided it is compact as a space with
the topology induced from the ambient space.
15.H. A subset A of a topological space X is compact, i any cover
which consists of sets open in X contains a nite subcover.
15.3. Is [1, 2) R compact?
15.4. Is the same set [1, 2) compact in the arrow?
15.5. Find a necessary and sucient condition (formulated not in topological
terms) for a subset of the arrow to be compact?
15.6. Prove that any subset of R
T1
is compact.
15.7. Let A and B be compact subsets of a topological space X. Does it
follow that A B is compact? Does it follow that A B is compact?
15.8. Prove that the set A = 0
1
n
n=1
in R is compact.
15
. Prove that U
A
K
n=1
K
n
is nonempty
and connected.
15.13. Construct a decreasing sequence of connected subsets of the plane
with nonconnected intersection.
15.14. Let K be a connected component of a compact Hausdor space X
and let U be an open set containing K. Prove that there exists an open and
closed set V such that K V U.
15
9 Closed Maps
A continuous map is said to be closed if the image of any closed set
under this map is closed.
15. COMPACTNESS 98
15.W. A continuous map of a compact space to a Hausdor space is
closed.
Here are two important corollaries of this theorem.
15.X. A continuous injection of a compact space to a Hausdor space
is a topological embedding.
15.Y. A continuous bijection of a compact space to a Hausdor space is
a homeomorphism.
15.25. Show that none of the hypothesis in 15.Y can be omitted without
making the statement false.
15.26. Does there exist a noncompact subspace of Euclidian space such that
any its map to a Hausdor space is closed? (Cf. 15.U and 15.W.)
15
10 Norms in R
n
15.27. Prove that any normR
n
R (see Section 4) is a continuous function
(with respect to the standard topology of R
n
).
15.28. Prove that any two norms in R
n
are equivalent (i.e. dene the same
topological structure). See 4.27, cf. 4.31.
15.29. Does the same hold true for metrics in R
n
?
16 Local Compactness and Paracompactness
16
1 Local Compactness
A topological space X is called locally compact if each of its points has a neigh-
borhood with compact closure.
16:A. Local compactness is a local property, i.e., a space is locally compact, i each
of its points has a locally compact neighborhood.
16:B. Is local compactness hereditary?
16:C. A closed subset of a locally compact space is locally compact.
16:D. An open subset of a locally compact Hausdor space is locally compact.
16:1. Which of the following spaces are locally compact:
(a) R;
(b) Q;
(c) R
n
;
(d) a discrete space?
16:2. Find two locally compact sets on the line such that their union is not
locally compact.
16
2 One-Point Compactication
Let X be a Hausdor topological space. Let X
be the collection of
subsets of X
consisting of
sets open in X and
sets of the form X
is a topological structure.
16:F. Prove that the space (X
) is compact.
16:G. Prove that the inclusion X X
).
16:H. Prove that if X is locally compact then the space (X
) is Hausdor. (Recall
that X is assumed to be Hausdor.)
A topological embedding of a space X into a compact space Y is called a com-
pactication of X if the image of X is dense in Y . In this situation Y is also called a
compactication of X.
16:I. Prove that if X is a locally compact Hausdor space and Y is its compacti-
cation with Y X consisting of a single point then there exists a homeomorphism
Y X
3 Proper Maps
A continuous map f : X Y is said to be proper if the preimage of any compact
subset of Y is compact.
Let X, Y be Hausdor spaces. Any continuous map f : X Y is naturally
extended to a map X
(x) =
_
f(x), if x X
Y
Y, otherwise, i.e., if x = X
X.
16:L. Prove that f
is continuous, i f is proper.
16:M. Prove that any proper map of a Hausdor space to a Hausdor locally compact
space is closed.
Problem 16:M is related to Theorem 15.W.
16:N. Extend this analogy: formulate and prove statements corresponding to theo-
rems 15.X and 15.Y.
16
iN
be a locally nite open cover of R
n
. Prove that there exist an
open cover V
i
iN
such that Cl V
i
U
i
for each i N.
16. LOCAL COMPACTNESS AND PARACOMPACTNESS 101
16
5 Paracompact Spaces
A space X is said to be paracompact if any its open cover has a locally nite open
renement.
16:S. Any compact space is paracompact.
16:T. R
n
is paracompact.
16:U. Let X =
i=1
X
i
and X
i
are compact sets. Then X is paracompact.
16:V. Any closed subspace of a paracompact space is paracompact.
16:8. A disjoint union of paracompact spaces is paracompact.
16
7 Partitions of Unity
For a function f : X R, the set Clx X [ f(x) ,= 0 is called the support of
f and denoted by suppf.
16:W. Let f
) comprise a locally nite cover of the space X. Prove that the relation
f(x) =
(x)
denes a continuous function f : X R.
A family of nonnegative functions f
X R
+
is called a partition of unity if the
sets supp(f
(x) = 1.
A partition of unity f
)
is contained in an element of .
16:X. For every normal space X there exists a partition of unity which is subordinate
to a given locally nite open cover of X.
16:Y. A Hausdor space is paracompact, i any its open cover admits a partition of
unity which is subordinate to this cover.
16
h
i
(x)), where f
i
X R comrise
a partition of unity, which is subordinate to the given cover and
h
i
(x) =
(h
i
(x), 1) R
n+1
, is an embedding.
17 Sequential Compactness
17
2 In Metric Space
A subset A of a metric space X is called an -net (where is a positive
number) if (x, A) < for each point x X.
17.D. Prove that in any compact metric space for any > 0 there exists
a nite -net.
17.E. Prove that in any sequentially compact metric space for any > 0
there exists a nite -net.
17.F. Prove that a subset of a metric space is everywhere dense, i it is
an -net for any > 0.
17.G. Any sequentially compact metric space is separable.
17.H. Any sequentially compact metric space is second countable.
17.I. For metric spaces compactness and sequential compactness are
equivalent.
103
17. SEQUENTIAL COMPACTNESS 104
17.1. Prove that a sequentially compact metric space is bounded. (Cf. 17.E
and 17.I.)
17.2. Prove that in any metric space for any > 0 there exists
(a) a discrete -net and even
(b) an -net such that the distance between any two of its points is greater
than .
17
nN
of points of a metric space is called a Cauchy sequence if for
any > 0 there exists a number N such that (x
n
, x
m
), for any n, m > N. A metric
space is said to be complete if each Cauchy sequence in it is convergent.
17:A. A Cauchy sequence, which contains a convergent subsequence, converges.
17:B. Prove that a metric space is complete, i any decreasing sequence of its closed
balls with radii tending to 0 has nonempty intersection.
17:C. Prove that a compact metric space is complete?
17:D. Is any locally compact, but not compact metric space complete?
17:E. Prove that a complete metric space is compact, i for any > 0 it contains a
nite -net.
17:F. Prove that a complete metric space is compact i for any > 0 it contains a
compact -net.
17
: [x
n
[ 2
n
, n N compact?
17.5. Prove that the set x l
: [x
n
[ = 2
n
, n N is homeomorphic to
the Cantor set K introduced in Section 2.
17.6*. Does there exist an innitely dimensional normed space, in which
closed balls are compact?
17
5 p-Adic Numbers
Fix a prime integer p. By Z
p
denote the set of series of the form a
0
+
a
1
p + +a
n
p
n
+. . . with 0 a
n
< p, a
n
N. For x, y Z
p
put (x, y) = 0
if x = y and (x, y) = p
m
, if m is the smallest number such that the m-th
coecients in the series x and y dier.
17.7. Prove that is a metric in Z
p
.
This metric space is called the space of integer p-adic numbers. There is
an injection Z Z
p
assigning to a
0
+a
1
p + +a
n
p
n
Z with 0 a
k
< p
the series
a
0
+ a
1
p + +a
n
p
n
+ 0p
n+1
+ 0p
n+2
+ Z
p
17. SEQUENTIAL COMPACTNESS 105
and to (a
0
+a
1
p + +a
n
p
n
) Z with 0 a
k
< p the series
b
0
+b
1
p + +b
n
p
n
+ (p 1)p
n+1
+ (p 1)p
n+2
+. . . ,
where
b
0
+b
1
p + +b
n
p
n
= p
n+1
(a
0
+a
1
p + +a
n
p
n
).
Cf. 4:D.
17.8. Prove that the image of the injection Z Z
p
is dense in Z
p
.
17.9. Is Z
p
a complete space?
17.10. Is Z
p
compact?
17
6 Induction on Compactness
A function f : X R is locally bounded if for any point a X there
exists a neighborhood U and a number M > 0 such that [f(x)[ M for
x U (i.e., each point has a neighborhood such that the restriction of f to
this neighborhood is bounded).
17.11. Prove that if a space X is compact and a function f : X R is
locally bounded then f is bounded.
This statement is one of the simplest applications of a general princi-
ple formulated below in 17.12. This principle may be called induction on
compactness (cf. induction on connectedness discussed in Section 11).
Let X be a topological space, ( a property of subsets of X. We say that
( is additive if the union of any nite family of sets having ( also has (. The
space X is said to possess ( locally if each point of X has a neighborhood
with property (.
17.12. Prove that a compact space which possesses locally an additive prop-
erty has this property itself.
17.13. Deduce from this principle the statements of problems 15.Q, 17:E,
and 17:F.
17
X
Y
Y is open
subset of R
n
Y is anti-
discrete
Table 1.
107
PROBLEMS FOR TESTS 108
Test.2. Let X be a topological space. Fill Table 2 with pluses and minuses
according to your answers to the corresponding questions.
If X is: non- non- second
connected Hausdor Hausdor separable compact compact countable
Has Y
the same
property, if:
X = Y Z
Y = X Z
Y is open
dense in X
X is open
dense in Y
X is quotient
space of Y
Y = X as sets,
X
Y
Y is closed
and bounded
subset of R
n
Y is discrete
Table 2.
Test.3. Give as many proves as you can for non-existence of a homeomor-
phism between
(a) S
1
and R
1
,
(b) I and I
2
,
(c) R and R
T1
(d) R and R
+
= x R : x 0.
CHAPTER 3
Topological Constructions
18 Multiplication
18
f
is bijective.
18.5. Prove that f is injective, i pr
Y
f
is injective.
18.6. Let T : X Y Y X be the map dened by (x, y) (y, x). Prove
that
f
1 = T(
f
) for any invertible map f : X Y .
109
18. MULTIPLICATION 110
18
2 Product of Topologies
Let X and Y be topological spaces. If U is an open set of X and B is
an open set of Y , then we say that U V is an elementary set of X Y .
18.D. The set of elementary sets of X Y is a base of a topological
structure in X Y .
The product of topological spaces X and Y is the set XY with the
topological structure dened by the base consisting of elementary sets.
18.7. Prove that for any subspaces A and B of spaces X and Y the topology
of the product A B coincides with the topology induced from X Y via
the natural inclusion A B X Y .
18.E. Y X is canonically homeomorphic to X Y .
The word canonically means here that a homeomorphism between
XY and Y X which exists according to the statement can be chosen
in a nice special (or even obvious?) way, so that one may expect that it
has additional pleasant properties.
18.F. X (Y Z) is canonically homeomorphic to (X Y ) Z.
18.8. Prove that if A is closed in X and B is closed in Y then AB is closed
in X Y .
18.9. Prove that Cl(A B) = Cl A Cl B for any A X and B Y .
18.10. Is it true that Int(A B) = Int AInt B?
18.11. Is it true that Fr(A B) = Fr A Fr B?
18.12. Is it true that Fr(A B) = (Fr A B) (A Fr B)?
18.13. Prove that Fr(AB) = (Fr AB) (AFr B) for closed A and B?
18.14. Find a formula for Fr(A B) in terms of A, Fr A, B and Fr B.
18
f
is a homeo-
morphism.
18.17. Prove that if W is open in X Y then pr
X
(W) is open in X.
A map of a topological space X to a topological space Y is said to be
open, if the image of any open set under this map is open. Therefore 18.17
states that pr
X
: X Y X is an open map.
18.18. Is pr
X
a closed map?
18.19. Prove that for each topological space X and each compact topological
space Y the map pr
X
: X Y X is closed.
18
2 Quotient Topology
A quotient set X/
S
of a topological space X with respect to a parti-
tion S into nonempty subsets is provided with a natural topology: a set
U X/
S
is said to be open in X/
S
if its preimage pr
1
(U) under the
canonical projection pr : X X/
S
is open.
19.C. The collection of these sets is a topological structure in the quo-
tient set X/
S
.
This topological structure is called the quotient topology. The set X/
S
with this topology is called the quotient space of the space X by parti-
tion S.
19.3. Give an explicit description of the quotient space of the segment [0, 1]
by the partition consisting of [0,
1
3
], (
1
3
,
2
3
], (
2
3
, 1].
19.4. What can you say about a partition S of a topological space X if the
quotient space X/
S
is known to be discrete?
19.D. A subset of a quotient space X/
S
is open, i it is the image of an
open saturated set under the canonical projection pr.
19.E. A subset of a quotient space X/
S
is closed, i its preimage under
pr is closed in X, i it is the image of a closed saturated set.
19.F. The canonical projection pr : X X/
S
is continuous.
19.G. Prove that the quotient topology is the nest topology in X/
S
such that the canonical projection pr is continuous with respect to it.
19
_ g
X/
S
Prove that such a map g coincides with f/
S
.
More generally, if S and T are partitions of sets X and Y then every
map f : X Y , which maps each element of S into an element of
T, gives rise to a map X/
S
Y/
T
which assigns to an element A of
partition S the element of partition T containing f(A). This map is
denoted by f/
S, T
and called the quotient map or factor map of f (with
respect to S and T).
19.O. Formulate and prove for f/
S, T
a statement which generalizes
19.N.
A map f : X Y denes a partition of the set X into nonempty
preimages of the elements of Y . This partition is denoted by S(f).
19.P. The map f/
S(f)
: X/
S(f)
Y is injective.
This map is called injective factor (or injective quotient) of the map f.
19
6 Closed Partitions
A partition S of a topological space X is called closed, if the saturation of each
closed set is closed.
19:1. Prove that a partition is closed, i the canonical projection X X/
S
is a closed map.
19:2. Prove that a partition, which contains only one element consisting of
more than one point, is closed if this element is a closed set.
19:A. The quotient space of a topological space satisfying the rst separation axiom
with respect to a closed partition satises the rst separation axiom.
19:B. The quotient space of a normal topological space with respect to a closed par-
tition is normal.
19
7 Open Partitions
A partition S of a topological space X is called open, if the saturation of each
open set is open.
19:3. Prove that a partition is open, i the canonical projection X X/
S
is an open map.
19:4. Prove that if a set A is saturated with respect to an open partition,
then Int A and Cl A are also saturated.
19:C. The quotient space of a second countable space with respect to an open partition
is second countable.
19:D. The quotient space of a rst countable space with respect to an open partition
is rst countable.
19:E. Let S be an open partition of a topological space X and T be an open partition
of a topological space Y . Denote by S T the partition of X Y consisting of AB
with A S and B T. Then the injective factor X Y/
S T
X/
S
Y/
T
of
pr pr X Y X/
S
Y/
T
is a homeomorphism.
19
8 Set-Theoretic Digression:
Splitting a transitive relation
into equivalence and partial order
In the denitions of equivalence and partial order relations the condition of tran-
sitivity seems to be the most important. Below we supply a formal justication of this
feeling by showing that the other conditions are natural companions of transitivity,
although are not its consequences.
19:F. Let be a transitive relation in a set X. Then the relation dened as follows
a b, if a b or a = b,
is also transitive (and furthermore it is certainly reexive, i. e. a a for each a X).
A binary relation in a set X is called a preorder if it is transitive and reective,
that is it satises the following conditions:
Transitivity. If a b and b c, then a c.
Reexivity. a a for any a.
A set X equipped with a preorder is called preordered.
If a preorder is antisymmetric then this is a non-strict order.
19. QUOTIENT SPACES 118
19:5. Is the relation a[b a preorder in the set Z of integers?
19:G. If (X, ) is a preordered set then the relation dened by
a b, if a b and b a
is an equivalence relation (i. e., it is symmetric, reexive and transitive) in X.
19:6. What equivalence relation is dened in Z by the preorder a[b?
19:H. Let (X, ) be a preordered set and be an equivalence relation dened in X
by according to 19:G. Then a
a, a b and b b
imply a
and in this
way denes a relation in the set of equivalence classes X/
. This relation is a
non-strict partial order.
Thus any transitive relation generates an equivalence relation and a partial order
in the set of equivalence classes.
19:I. How this chain of constructions would degenerate, if the original relation was
(a) an equivalence relation, or
(b) non-stric partial order.
19:J. In any topological space the relation dened by
a b, if a Clb,
is a preorder.
19:7. In the set of all subsets of an arbitrary topological space the relation
A B, if A ClB,
is a preorder. This preorder denes the following equivalence relation: sets
are equivalent i they have the same closure.
19:K. The equivalence relation dened by the preorder of Theorem 19:J denes the
partition of the space to maximal (with respect to inclusion) indiscrete subspaces. The
quotient space satises the Kolmogorov separation axiom T
0
.
The quotient space of Theorem 19:K is called the maximal T
0
-quotient of X.
19:L. A continuous image of an indiscrete topological space is indiscrete.
19:M. Prove that any continuous map X Y induces a continuous map of the
maximal T
0
-quotient of X to the maximal T
0
-quotient of Y .
19
10 Simplicial schemes
Let V be a set and be a set of some of its subsets. A pair (V, ) is called a
simplicial scheme with set of vertices V and set of simplices , if
each subset of any element of belongs to ,
the intersection of any collection of elements of belongs to ,
each one-element subset of V belongs to .
The set is partially ordered by inclusion. When equipped the poset topology of this
partial order, it is called the space of simplices of the simplicial scheme (X, ).
Each simplicial scheme gives rise also to another topological space. Namely, for a
simplicial scheme (V, ) consider the set S(V, ) of all functions c : V I (= [0, 1])
such that
Supp(c) = v V : c(v) ,= 0
and
vV
c(v) = 1. Equip S(V, ) with the topology generated by metric
(c
1
, c
2
) = sup
vV
[c
1
(v) c
2
(v)[.
Space S(V, ) is called simplicial or triangulated space. It is covered by sets
c S [ Supp(c) = , where , which are called its (open) simplices.
19:8. Which open simplices of a simplicial space are open sets, which are
closed, and which are neither closed nor open?
19:N. Find for each a homeomorphism of the space
c S [ Supp(c) = S(V, )
onto an open simplex of dimension equal to the number of vertices belonging to
minus one (recall that n-dimensional open simplex is the set (x
1
, . . . , x
n+1
) R
n+1
[
x
j
> 0 for j = 1, . . . , n + 1 and
n+1
i=1
x
i
= 1, ).
19:O. Prove that for any simplicial scheme (V, ) the quotient space of the simplicial
space S(V, ) by its partition to open simplices is homeomorphic to the space of
simplices of the simplicial scheme (V, ).
19
) is a simplicial scheme.
There is a natural map X
: V R with b
(v
i
) =
1
n+1
and b
(v) = 0
for any v , .
Dene a map : S(,
()b
(v).
19:S. Prove that the map : S(,
a commutative diagram
S(,
)
S(V, )
20 Zoo of Quotient Spaces
20
4 Transitivity of Factorization
A solution of Problem 20.I can be based on Problems 20.E and 20.H
and the following general theorem.
20.J Transitivity of Factorization. Let S be a partition of a space
X, and let S
is canonically homeomorphic to X/
T
, where T is the parti-
tion of the space X into preimages of elements of the partition S
under
projection X X/
S
.
20. ZOO OF QUOTIENT SPACES 124
20
5 Mobius Strip
Mobius strip or Mobius band is I
2
/
[(0, t) (1, 1 t)]
. In other words,
this is the quotient space of square I
2
by the partition into pairs of
points symmetric with respect to the center of the square and lying on
the vertical edges and one-point set which do not lie on the vertical
edges. Figuratively speaking, the Mobius strip is obtained by identifying
the vertical sides of a square in such a way that the directions shown on
them by arrows are superimposed .
20.K. Prove that the Mobius strip is homeomorphic to the surface swept
in R
3
by an interval, which rotates in a halfplane around the middle point
while the halfplane rotates around its boundary line. The ratio of the
angular velocities of these rotations is such that rotation of the halfplane
by 360
. See
Figure 1.
Figure 1.
20
6 Contracting Subsets
20.4. Prove that [0, 1]/
[
1
3
,
2
3
]
is homeomorphic to [0, 1], and [0, 1]/
1
3
, 1
is
homeomorphic to letter P.
20.5. Prove that the following spaces are homeomorphic: (a) R
2
; (b) R
2
/
I
; (c)
(e) R
2
/
A
, where A is a union of several segments with a common end
point;
(f) R
2
/
B
, where B is a simple nite polygonal line, i.e., a union of a
nite sequence of segments I
1
, . . . , I
n
such that the initial point of
I
i+1
coincides with the nal point of I
i
.
20.6. Prove that if f : X Y is a homeomorphism then the quotient spaces
X/
A
and Y/
f(A)
are homeomorphic.
20.7. Prove that R
2
/
[0, +)
is homeomorphic to Int D
2
(0, 1).
20. ZOO OF QUOTIENT SPACES 125
20
7 Further Examples
20.8. Prove that S
1
/
[z e
2i/3
z]
is homeomorphic to S
1
.
In 20.8 the partition consists of triples of points which are vertices of
equilateral inscribed triangles.
20.9. Prove that the following quotient spaces of disk D
2
are homeomorphic
to D
2
:
(a) D
2
/
[(x, y) (x, y)]
,
(b) D
2
/
[(x, y) (x, y)]
,
(c) D
2
/
[(x, y) (y, x)]
.
20.10. Find a generalization of 20.9 with D
n
substituted for D
2
.
20.11. Describe explicitly the quotient space of line R
1
by equivalence rela-
tion x y x y Z.
20.12. Represent the Mobius strip as a quotient space of cylinder S
1
I.
20
8 Klein Bottle
Klein bottle is I
2
/
[(t, 0) (t, 1), (0, t) (1, 1 t)]
. In other words,
this is the quotient space of square I
2
by the partition into
one-point subsets of its interior,
pairs of points (t, 0), (t, 1) on horizontal edges which lie on the same
vertical line,
pairs of points (0, t), (1, 1 t) symmetric with respect to the center
of the square which lie on the vertical edges, and
the quadruple of vertices.
20.13. Present the Klein bottle as a quotient space of
(a) a cylinder;
(b) the Mobius strip.
20.14. Prove that S
1
S
1
/
[(z, w) (z, w)]
is homeomorphic to the Klein
bottle. (Here w denotes the complex number conjugate to w.)
20.15. Embed the Klein bottle into R
4
(cf. 20.K and 18.T).
20.16. Embed the Klein bottle into R
4
so that the image of this embedding
under the orthogonal projection R
4
R
3
would look as follows:
20. ZOO OF QUOTIENT SPACES 126
20
9 Projective Plane
Let us identify each boundary point of the disk D
2
with the antipodal
point, i.e., factorize the disk by the partition consisting of one-point
subsets of the interior of the disk and pairs of points on the boundary
circle symmetric with respect to the center of the disk. The result is
called the projective plane. This space cannot be embedded into R
3
, too.
Thus we are not able to draw it. Instead, we present it in other way.
20.L. A projective plane is the result of gluing of a disk and the Mobius
strip by homeomorphism between boundary circle of the disk and bound-
ary circle of the Mobius strip.
20
A
is the set of pairs (x
, ) such that
x
A
X
. The map of X
( A)
to
A
X
. If only sets X and Y are involved and they are distinct, we can
avoid indices and dene the sum by setting
X HY = (x, X) [ x X (y, Y ) [ y Y .
20
12 Sums of Spaces
20.M. If X
A
is a collection of topological spaces then the collection
of subsets of
A
X
( A)
are open, is a topological structure.
The sum
A
X
, ( A).
20.N. Topology described in 20.M is the nest topology with respect to
which all inclusions in
are continuous.
20.17. The maps in
: X
A
X
A
X
.
20. ZOO OF QUOTIENT SPACES 127
20.18. Which topological properties are inherited from summands X
by
the sum
A
X
13 Attaching Space
Let X, Y be topological spaces, A a subset of Y , and f : A X
a continuous map. The quotient space (X HY )/
[a f(a) for a A]
is
denoted by X
f
Y , and is said to be the result of attaching or gluing the
space Y to the space X by f. The latter is called the attaching map.
Here the partition of XHY consists of one-point subsets of in
2
(Y A)
and in
1
(X f(A)), and sets in
1
(x) in
2
_
f
1
(x)
_
with x f(A).
20.19. Prove that the composition of inclusion X X H Y and projection
X HY X
f
Y is a topological embedding.
20.20. Prove that if X is a point then X
f
Y is Y/
A
.
20.O. Prove that attaching a ball D
n
to its copy by the identity map of
the boundary sphere S
n1
gives rise to a space homeomorphic to S
n
.
20.21. Prove that the Klein bottle can be obtained as a result of gluing two
copies of the Mobius strip by the identity map of the boundary circle.
20.22. Prove that the result of gluing two copies of a cylinder by the identity
map of the boundary circles (of one copy to the boundary circles of the other)
is homeomorphic to S
1
S
1
.
20.23. Prove that the result of gluing two copies of solid torus S
1
D
2
by
the identity map of the boundary torus S
1
S
1
is homeomorphic to S
1
S
2
.
20.24. Obtain the Klein bottle by gluing two copies of the cylinder S
1
I
to each other.
20.25. Prove that the result of gluing two copies of solid torus S
1
D
2
by
the map
S
1
S
1
S
1
S
1
: (x, y) (y, x)
of the boundary torus to its copy is homeomorphic to S
3
.
20.P. Let X, Y be topological spaces, A a subset of Y , and f, g : A X
continuous maps. Prove that if there exists a homeomorphism h : X X
such that h f = g then X
f
Y and X
g
Y are homeomorphic.
20.Q. Prove that D
n
h
D
n
is homeomorphic to S
n
for any homeomor-
phism h : S
n1
S
n1
.
20.26. Classify up to homeomorphism topological spaces, which can be ob-
tained from a square by identifying a pair of opposite sides by a homeomor-
phism.
20.27. Classify up to homeomorphism the spaces which can be obtained
from two copies of S
1
I by identifying of the copies of S
1
0, 1 by a
homeomorphism.
20. ZOO OF QUOTIENT SPACES 128
20.28. Prove that the topological type of the space resulting in gluing two
copies of the Mobius strip by a homeomorphism of the boundary circle does
not depend on the homeomorphism.
20.29. Classify up to homeomorphism topological spaces, which can be ob-
tained from S
1
I by identifying S
1
0 with S
1
1 by a homeomorphism.
20
14 Basic Surfaces
A torus S
1
S
1
with the interior of an embedded disk deleted is
called a handle. A two-dimensional sphere with the interior of n disjoint
embedded disks deleted is called a sphere with n holes.
20.R. A sphere with a hole is homeomorphic to disk D
2
.
20.S. A sphere with two holes is homeomorphic to cylinder S
1
I.
A sphere with three holes has a special name. It is called pantaloons.
The result of attaching p copies of a handle to a sphere with p holes
by embeddings of the boundary circles of handles onto the boundary
circles of the holes (the boundaries of the holes) is called a sphere with
p handles, or, more ceremonial (and less understandable, for a while),
orientable connected closed surface of genus p.
20.30. Prove that a sphere with p handles is well-dened up to homeomor-
phism (i.e., the topological type of the result of gluing does not depend on
the attaching embeddings).
20.T. A sphere with one handle is homeomorphic to torus S
1
S
1
.
20.U. A sphere with two handles is homeomorphic to the result of gluing
two copies of a handle by the identity map of the boundary circle.
A sphere with two handles is called a pretzel. Sometimes this word
denotes also a sphere with more handles.
The space obtained from a sphere with q holes by attaching q copies
of the Mobius strip by embeddings of the boundary circles of the Mobius
strips onto the boundary circles of the holes (the boundaries of the holes)
is called a sphere with q crosscaps, or non-orientable connected closed sur-
face of genus q.
20.31. Prove that a sphere with q crosscaps is well-dened up to homeomor-
phism (i.e., the topological type of the result of gluing does not depend on
the attaching embeddings).
20.V. A sphere with one crosscap is homeomorphic to the projective
plane.
20.W. A sphere with two crosscaps is homeomorphic to the Klein bottle.
A sphere, spheres with handles, and spheres with crosscaps are called
basic surfaces.
20. ZOO OF QUOTIENT SPACES 129
20.X. Prove that a sphere with p handles and q crosscaps is homeomor-
phic to a sphere with 2p +q crosscaps (here q > 0).
20.32. Classify up to homeomorphisms topological spaces, which can be ob-
tained by attaching to a sphere with 2p holes p copies of S
1
I by embeddings
of the boundary circles of the cylinders onto the boundary circles of the sphere
with holes.
21 Projective Spaces
This section can be considered as a continuation of the previous one.
The quotient spaces described here are of too great importance to con-
sider them just as examples of quotient spaces.
21
point ; b) open Mobius strip (i. e. Mobius strip with the boundary circle
removed).
21.2. Prove that the set of all rotations of the space R
3
around lines passing
through the origin equipped with the natural topology is homeomorphic to
RP
3
.
21
4 Metric Case
22:E. If Y is metrizable and X is compact then ((X, Y ) is metrizable.
Let (Y, ) be a metric space and X a compact space. For continuous maps f, g :
X Y put
d(f, g) = max(f(x), g(x)) [ x X.
22:F This is a Metric. If X is a compact space and Y a metric space, then d is a
metric on the set ((X, Y ).
Let X be a topological space and Y a metric space with metric . A sequence
f
n
of maps X Y is said to uniformly converge to f : X Y if for any > 0 there
exists a natural N such that (f
n
(x), f(x)) < for any n > N and x X. This is a
straightforward generalization of the notion of uniform convergence which is known
from Calculus.
22:G Metric of Uniform Convergence. Let X be a compact space and Y a
metric space. A sequence f
n
of maps X Y converges to f : X Y in the topology
dened by d, i f
n
uniformly converges to f.
22:H Uniform Convergence Versus Compact-Open. Let X be a compact space
and Y a metric space. Then the topology dened by d on ((X, Y ) coincides with the
compact-open topology.
22:12. Prove that the space ((R, I) is metrizable.
22:13. Let Y be a bounded metric space and X a topological space which
admits presentation X =
i=1
X
i
, where X
i
is compact and X
i
Int X
i+1
for i = 1, 2, . . .. Prove that ((X, Y ) is metrizable.
Denote by (
b
(X, Y ) the set of all continuous bounded maps from a topological
space X to a metric space Y . For maps f, g (
b
(X, Y ), put
d
, i f
n
uniformly converges to f.
22:K When Uniform Is Not Compact-Open. Find X and Y such that the topol-
ogy dened by d
on (
b
(X, Y ) does not coincide with the compact-open topology.
22. SPACES OF CONTINUOUS MAPS 136
22
i=1
((X
i
, Y ) : f (f[
X1
, . . . , f[
Xn
)
is a topological embedding. What if the cover is not fundamental?
22:Q Factorizing Source. Let S be a closed partition
1
of a Hausdor compact
space X. Prove that for any topological space Y the mapping
((X/S, Y ) ((X, Y )
is a topological embedding.
22:15. Are the conditions imposed on S and X in 22:Q necessary?
22:R The Evaluation Map. Let X, Y be topological spaces. Prove that if X is
locally compact and Hausdor then the map
((X, Y ) X Y : (f, x) f(x)
is continuous.
22:16. Are the conditions imposed on X in 22:R necessary?
22
3 Homomorphisms
Recall that a map f : G H of a group to other one is called a homomorphism,
if f(xy) = f(x)f(y) for any x, y G.
23:4. Above, in the denition of homomorphism, multiplicative notation is
used. How does this denition look in additive notation? What if one of the
groups is multiplicative, while the other is additive?
23:5. Let a be an element of a multiplicative group G. Is a map Z G
dened by formula n a
n
a homomorphism?
23:F. Let G and H be groups. Is the contant map G H mapping the whole G
to the neutral element of H a homomorphism? Is any other constant map G H a
homomorphism?
23:G. A homomorphism maps the neutral element to the neutral element, and ele-
ments inverse to each other to elements inverse to each other.
23:H. The identity map of a group is a homomorphism. The composition of homo-
morphisms is a homomorphism.
Recall that a homomorphism is called an epimorphism, if it is surjective, monomor-
phism, if it is injective, and isomorphism, if it is bijective.
23:I. The inverse map to an isomorphism is also an isomorphism.
Groups are called isomorphic, if there exists an isomorphism of one of them to
another one.
23:J. Being isomorphic is an equivalence relation.
23
4 Subgroups
A subset A of a group G is called a subgroup of G if it is invariant under the
group operation of G (i.e. ab A for any a, b A) and A, with the operation induced
by the operation in G, is a group.
For subsets A and B of a group G put AB = ab [ a A, b B and A
1
=
a
1
[ a A.
23:K. A subset A of a multiplicative group G is a subgroup of G, i AA G and
A
1
A.
23:6. The one element subset of a group consisting of its neutral element is
a subgroup.
23:7. Prove that a subset A of a nite group G is a subgroup, if AA A
(the condition A
1
A is not needed).
23:8. List all subgroups of the additive Z.
23:9. Is GL(n, R) a subgroup of M
n
(R) (for notations see 23:3)?
23:L. The image of a group homomorphism f : G H is a subgroup of H.
23. DIGRESSION. GENERALITIES ON GROUPS 142
23:M. Let f : G H be a group homomorphism and K a subgroup of H. Then
f
1
(K) is a subgroup of G. Shortly speaking:
The preimage of a subgroup under a group homomorphism is a subgroup.
The preimage of the neutral element under a group homomorphism f : G H
is called the kernel of f and denoted by Ker f.
23:N Corollary of 23:M. Kernel of a group homomorphism is a subgroup.
23:O. A group homomorphism is a monomorphism, i its kernel is trivial.
23:P. Intersection of any collection of subgroups of a group is a subgroup of this
group.
A subgroup of a group G is said to be generated by a subset S G if this is the
smallest subgroup of G which contains S.
23:Q. The subgroup generated by S is the intersection of all the subgroups of G
that contain S. On the other hand, this is the set of all the elements which can be
obtained as products of elements of S and elements inverse to elements of S.
The elements of a set that generates G are called generators of G. A group
generated by an element is said to be cyclic.
23:R. A cyclic (multiplicative) group consists of powers of its generator. (I.e., if G
is a cyclic group and a is its generator then G = a
n
[ n Z.) Any cyclic group is
commutative.
23:10. A subgroup H of group G is cyclic, i there exists a homomorphism
f : Z G such that H = f(Z).
23:S. Any subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
The number of elements of a group G is called the order of G. It is denoted by
[G[.
23:T. Let G be a nite cyclic group. Then for any positive divisor d of [G[ there
exists a unique subgroup H of G with [H[ = d.
Each element of a group generates a cyclic subgroup which consists of all powers
of this element. The order of the subgroup generated by a G is called the order of
a. It can be a natural number or innity.
24 Topological Groups
24
2Z,
(c) Z +
2Z?
24:9. Prove that if U is compact and V is closed then UV and V U are closed.
24:9.1. Let F and C be disjoint subsets of a topological group G.
If F is closed and C is compact, then there exists a neighborhood
V of unity such that CV does not intersect F.
24
4 Neighborhoods
24:I. If is a neighborhood basis at the unity 1 in a topological group G then =
aU : a G, U is a basis for topology of G.
A subset A of a group G is said to be symmetric if A
1
= A.
24:J. Any neighborhood of unity of a topological group contains a symmetric neigh-
borhood of unity.
24:K. For any neihgborhood U of 1 of a topological group there exists a neighborhood
V of 1 such that V V U.
24:10. For any neihgborhood U of 1 of a topological group and any natural
number n there exists a symmetric neighborhood V of 1 such that V
n
U.
24:11. Let G be a group and be a collection of its subsets. Prove that there
exists a unique topology on G such that G with this topology is a topological
group and is its neighborhood basis at the unity, i satises the following
ve conditions:
(a) each U contains the unity of G,
(b) for every x U there exists V such that xV U,
(c) for each U there exists V such that V
1
U,
(d) for each U there exists V such that V V U,
(e) for every x G and U there exists V such that V x
1
Ux.
24:L. Enigma. For what reasons 24:K is similar to the triangle inequality?
24. TOPOLOGICAL GROUPS 145
24
5 Separaion Axioms
24:M. A topological group is Hausdor, i it satises the rst separation axiom, i
the unity is closed.
24:N. A topological group is Hausdor, i the unity is equal to the intersection of
its neighborhoods.
24:O. If the unity of a topological group G is closed, then G (as a topological space)
is regular.
24:P Corollary. For topological groups the rst three separation axioms are equiv-
alent.
24
6 Countability Axioms
24:Q. If is a neighborhood basis at the unity 1 in a topological group G and S G
is dense in G, then = aU : a S, U is a basis for topology of G. Cf. 24:I
and 14.F.
24:R. A rst countable separable topological group is second countable.
24:12*. (Cf. 14:D) If a Hausdor topological group has a countable base
at the unity, then it is metrizable.
24
7 Subgroups
Recall that a subset H of a group G such that HH = H and H
1
= H is called
a subgroup of G. It is a group with the operation dened by the group operation of
G. If G is a topological group, then H inherits also a topological structure from G.
24:S. If H is a subgroup of a topological group G, then the topological and group
structures induced from G make H a topological group.
24:13. Prove that a subgroup of a topological group is open, i it contains
an interior point.
24:14. Prove that every open subgroup of a topological group is also closed.
24:15. Prove that every closed subgroup of nite index is open.
24:16. Find an example of a subgroup of a topological group, which
(a) is closed, but not open,
(b) is neither closed, nor open.
24:17. Prove that a subgroup of a topological group is discrete, i it contains
an isolated point.
24:18. Prove that a subgroup H of a topological group G is closed, i it
is locally closed, i.e., there exists an open set U G such that U H =
U Cl H ,= .
24:19. Prove that if H is a non-closed subgroup of a topological group G
then Cl H H is dense in Cl H.
24:20. The closure of a subgroup of a topological group is a subgroup.
24:21. Is it true that the interior of a subgroup of a topological group is a
subgroup?
24. TOPOLOGICAL GROUPS 146
Recall that the smallest subgroup of a group G containing a set S is said to be
generated by S.
24:T. A connected topological group is generated by any neighborhood of the unity.
Recall that for a subgroup H of a group Gright cosets are sets Ha = xa : x H
with a G. Analogously, sets aH are left cosets of H in G.
24:22. Let H be a subgroup of a group G. Dene a relation: a b if
ab
1
H. Prove that this is an equivalence relation and the right cosets of
H in G are the equivalence classes.
24:23. What is the counter-part of 24:22 for left cosets?
The set of left cosets of H in G is denoted by G/H, the set of right cosets of H
in G, by H G. If G is a topological group and H is its subgroup then the sets G/H
and H G are provided with the quotient topology. Equipped with these topologies,
they are called spaces of cosets.
24:U. For any topological group G and its subgroup H, the natural projections
G G/H and G H G are open (i.e., the image of every open set is open).
24:24. The space of left (or right) cosets of a closed subgroup in a topological
group is regular.
24
8 Normal Subgroups
Recall that a subgroup H of a group G is said to be normal if a
1
ha H for
all h H and a G. Normal subgroups are called also normal divisors or invariant
subgroups.
24:25. Prove that the closure of a normal subgroup of a topological group
is a normal subgroup.
24:26. The connected component of the unity of a topological group is a
closed normal subgroup.
24:27. The path-connected component of the unity of a topological group is
a normal subgroup.
Recall that for a normal subgroup left cosets coincide with right cosets and the
set of cosets is a group with the multiplication dened by formula (aH)(bH) = abH.
The group of cosets of H in G is called the quotient group or factor group of G by H
and denoted by G/H.
24:V. The quotient group of a topological group is a topological group (provided
that it is considered with the quotient topology).
24:28. The natural projection of a topological group onto its quotient group
is open.
24:29. A quotient group of a rst (or second) countable group is rst (re-
spectively, second) countable.
24:30. The quotient group G/H of a topological group G is regular, i H is
closed.
24:31. Prove that if a normal subgroup H of a topological group G is open
then the quotient group G/H is discrete.
24. TOPOLOGICAL GROUPS 147
24:32. Let G be a nite topological group. Prove that there exists a normal
subgroup H of G such that a set U G is open, i it is a union of several
cosets of H in G.
24
9 Homomorphisms
Recall that a map f of a group G to a group H is called a (group) homomorphism
if f(xy) = f(x)f(y) for all x, y G. If G and H are topological groups then by a
homomorphism G H one means a group homomorphism which is continuous.
24:W. A group homomorphism of a topological group to a topological group is con-
tinuous, i it is continuous at 1.
Besides similar modications, which can be summarized by the following prin-
ciple: everything is assumed to respect the topological structures, the terminology of
group theory passes over without changes. In particular, the kernel Ker f of a homo-
morphism f : G H is dened as the preimage of the unity of H. A homomorphism
f is a monomorphism if it is injective. This is known to be equivalent to Ker f = 1.
A homomorphism f : G H is an epimorphism if it is surjective, i.e, its image
Imf = f(G) is the whole H.
In group theory, an isomorphism is an invertible homomorphism. Its inverse is a
homomorphism (and hence an isomorphism) automatically. In theory of topological
groups this must be included in the denition of isomorphism: an isomorphism of
topological groups is an invertible homomorphism whose inverse is also a homomor-
phism. In other words, an isomorphism of topological groups is a map which is both
an algebraic homomorphism and a homeomorphism. Cf. Section 10.
24:33. An epimorphism f : G H is open, i its injective factor, f/
S(f)
:
G/ Ker f H, is an isomorphism.
24:34. An epimorphism of a compact topological group onto a topological
group with closed unity is open.
24:35. Prove that the quotient group R/Z of the additive group of real
numbers by the subgroup of integers is isomorphic to the multiplicative group
S
1
= z C : [z[ = 1 of complex numbers with absolute value 1.
24
10 Local Isomorphisms
Let G and H be topological groups. A local isomorphism of G to H is a homeo-
morphism f of a neighborhood U of the unity of G to a neighborhood V of the unity
of H such that
f(xy) = f(x)f(y) for every x, y U such that xy U,
f
1
(zt) = f
1
(z)f
1
(t) for every z, t V such that zt V .
Topological groups G, H are said to be locally isomorphic if there exists a local
isomorphism of G to H.
24:X. Isomorphic topological groups are locally isomorphic.
24:Y. Additive group R of real numbers and multiplicative group S
1
of complex
numbers with absolute value 1 are locally isomorphic, but not isomorphic.
24:36. Prove that the relation of being locally isomorphic is an equivalence
relation on the class of topological groups.
24. TOPOLOGICAL GROUPS 148
24:37. Find neighborhoods of unities in R and S
1
and a homeomorphism
between them, which satises the rst condition from the denition of local
isomorphism, but does not satisfy the second one.
24:38. Prove that for any homeomorphism between neighborhods of unities
of two topological groups, which satises the rst condition from the denition
of local isomorphism, but does not satisfy the second one, there exists a
submapping, which is a locall isomorphsm between these topological groups.
24
11 Direct Products
Let G and H be topological groups. In group theory, the product GH is given
a group structure,
1
in topology it is given a topological structure (see Secion 18).
24:Z. These two structures are compatible: the group operations in G H are
continuous with respect to the product topology.
Thus, G H is a topological group. It is called the direct product of the topo-
logical groups G and H. There are canonical homomorphisms related with this: the
inclusions i
G
: G G H : x (x, 1) and i
H
: H G H : x (1, x),
which are monomorphisms, and the projections p
G
: G H G : (x, y) x and
p
H
: GH H : (x, y) y, which are epimorphisms.
24:39. Prove that the topological groups GH/
i
H
and G are isomorphic.
24:40. The product operation is both commutative and associative: GH is
(canonically) isomorphic to HG and G(HK) is canonically isomorphic
to (GH) K.
A topological group G is said to decompose into the direct product of its subgroups
A and B if the map AB G : (x, y) xy is an isomorphism of topological groups.
If this is the case, the groups G and AB are usually identied via this isomorphism.
Recall that a similar denition exists in ordinary group theory. The only dierence
is that there the isomorphism is just an algebraic isomorphism. Moreover, in that
theory, G decomposes into the direct product of its subgroups A and B, i A and B
generate G, are normal subgroups and A B = 1. Therefore, if these conditions are
satised in the case of topological groups, then (x, y) xy : A B G is a group
isomorphism.
24:41. Prove that in this situation the map (x, y) xy : A B G is
continuous. Find an example where the inverse group isomorphism is not
continuous.
24:42. Prove that a compact Hausdor group which decomposes algebraically
into the direct product of two subgroups, decomposes also into the direct
product of these subgroups in the category of topological groups.
24:43. Prove that the multiplicative group R0 of real numbers is isomorphic
(as a topological group) to the direct product of the multiplicative group
S
0
= 1, 1 and the multiplicative group R
+
= x R : x > 0.
24:44. Prove that the multiplicative group C 0 of complex numbers is
isomorphic (as a topological group) to the direct product of the multiplicative
group S
1
= z C : [z[ = 1 and the multiplicative group R
+
.
1
Recall that the multiplication in G H is dened by formula (x, u)(y, v) =
(xy, uv).
24. TOPOLOGICAL GROUPS 149
24:45. Prove that the multiplicative group H0 of quaternions is isomorphic
(as a topological group) to the direct product of the multiplicative group
S
3
= z H : [z[ = 1 and the multiplicative group R
+
.
24:46. Prove that the subgroup S
0
= 1, 1 of S
3
= z H : [z[ = 1 is
not a direct factor.
24:47. Find a topological group homeomorphic to RP
3
(the three-dimensional
real projective space).
25 Actions of Topological Groups
25
2 Continuous Actions
Must be written!
25
3 Orbit Spaces
Must be written!
25
4 Homogeneous Spaces
Must be written!
150
Part 2
Algebraic Topology
This part of the book can be considered as an introduction to alge-
braic topology. This is a part of topology, which relates topological and
algebraic problems. The relationship is used in both directions, but re-
duction of topological problems to algebra is at rst stages more useful,
since algebra is usually easier.
The relation is established according to the following scheme. One
invents a construction, which assigns to each topological space X under
consideration an algebraic object A(X). The latter may be a group, or a
ring, or a quadratic form, or algebra, etc. Another construction assigns
to a continuous mapping f : X Y a homomorphism A(f) : A(X)
A(Y ). The constructions should satisfy natural conditions (in particu-
lar, they form a functor), which make it possible to relate topological
phenomena with their algebraic images obtained via the constructions.
There are innitely many useful constructions of this kind. In this
part we deal mostly with one of them. This is the rst one, rst from both
the viewpoints of history and its role in mathematics. It was invented
by Henri Poincare in the end of the nineteenth century.
CHAPTER 5
Fundamental Group and Covering Spaces
26 Homotopy
26
3 Homotopy as Relation
26.E. Homotopy of maps is an equivalence relation.
26.E.1. If f : X Y is a continuous map then H : X I Y dened by
H(x, t) = f(x) is a homotopy between f and f.
26.E.2. If H is a homotopy between f and g then H
dened by H
(x, t) =
H(x, 1 t) is a homotopy between g and f.
26.E.3. If H is a homotopy between f and f
and H
is a homotopy between
f
and f
then H
dened by
H
(x, t) =
_
H(x, 2t) for t 1/2,
H
.
Homotopy, being an equivalence relation by 26.E, divides the set
((X, Y ) of all continuous mappings of a space X to a space Y into equiva-
lence classes. The latter are called homotopy classes. The set of homotopy
classes of all continuous maps X Y is denoted by (X, Y ).
26.1. Prove that for any X, the set (X, I) has a single element.
26.2. Prove that the number of elements of (I, Y ) coincides with the num-
ber of path connected components of Y .
26
4 Straight-Line Homotopy
26.F. Any two continuous maps of the same space to R
n
are homotopic.
26.G. Solve the preceding problem by proving that for continuous maps
f, g : X R
n
formula H(x, t) = (1 t)f(x) +tg(x) denes a homotopy
between f and g.
The homotopy dened in 26.G is called a straight-line homotopy.
26.H. Any two continuous maps of an arbitrary space to a convex sub-
space of R
n
are homotopic.
26
7 Easy Homotopies
26.6. Prove that any non-surjective map of an arbitrary topological space
to S
n
is homotopic to a constant map.
26.7. Prove that any two maps of a one-point space to R
n
0 with n > 1
are homotopic.
26.8. Find two non-homotopic maps of a one-point space to R 0.
26.9. For various m, n, k, calculate the number of homotopy classes of maps
1, 2, . . . , m R
n
x
1
, x
2
, . . . , x
k
, where 1, 2, . . . , m is equipped with
discrete topology.
26.10. Let f, g be maps of a topological space X to C 0. Prove that if
[f(x) g(x)[ < [f(x)[ for any x X then f and g are homotopic.
26.11. Prove that for any polynomials p and q over C of the same degree in
one variable there exists r > 0 such that for any R > r formulas z p(z)
and z q(z) dene maps of circle z C : [z[ = R to C 0 and these
maps are homotopic.
26.12. Let f, g be maps of an arbitrary topological space X to S
n
. Prove
that if [f(a) g(a)[ < 2 for any a X then f is homotopic to g.
26.13. Let f : S
n
S
n
be a continuous map. Prove that if it is xed point
free, i.e., f(x) ,= x for any x S
n
, then f is homotopic to the symmetry
x x.
26
: X Y , g : Y B, h : A X be continuous maps
and F : X I Y a homotopy between f and f
h.
26.J. Enigma. Under conditions of 26.I dene a natural mapping
(X, Y ) (A, B).
How does it depend on g and h? Write down all the nice properties of
this construction.
26.K. Prove that maps f
0
, f
1
: X Y Z are homotopic i pr
Y
f
0
is
homotopic to pr
Y
f
1
and pr
Z
f
0
is homotopic to pr
Z
f
1
.
26. HOMOTOPY 156
26
9 Stationary Homotopy
Let A be a subset of X. A homotopy H : XI Y is said to be xed
or stationary on A, or, briey, to be an A-homotopy, if H(x, t) = H(x, 0)
for all x A, t I. Maps which can be connected by an A-homotopy
are said to be A-homotopic.
Of course, A-homotopic maps coincide on A. If one wants to empha-
size that a homotopy is not assumed to be xed, one says that it is free.
If one wants to emphasize the opposite (that it is xed), one says that
the homotopy is relative.
Warning: there is a similar, but dierent kind of homotopy, which is
also called relative. See below.
26.L. Prove that, like free homotopy, A-homotopy is an equivalence
relation.
The classes into which A-homotopy divides the set of continuous maps
X Y that agree on A with a map f : A Y are called A-homotopy
classes of continuous extensions of f to X.
26.M. For what A is a straight-line homotopy xed on A?
26
11 Homotopy of Paths
26.R. Prove that any two paths in the same space X are freely homo-
topic, i their images belong to the same pathwise connected component
of X.
26. HOMOTOPY 157
This shows that the notion of free homotopy in the case of paths is
not interesting. On the other hand, there is a sort of relative homotopy
playing a very important role. This is (0 1)-homotopy. This causes the
following commonly accepted deviation from the terminology introduced
above: homotopy of paths always means not a free homotopy, but a
homotopy xed on the end points of I (i.e. on 0 1).
Notation: a homotopy class of a path s is denoted by [s].
27 Homotopy Properties of Path Multiplication
27
and
there exists product uv, then u
2 Associativity
27.C. Is multiplication of paths associative?
Of course, this question might be formulated with more details:
27.D. Let u, v, w be paths in the same space such that products uv
and vw are dened (i.e., u(1) = v(0) and v(1) = w(0)). Is it true that
(uv)w = u(vw)?
27.1. Prove that for paths in a metric space (uv)w = u(vw) implies that u,
v, w are constant maps.
27.2. Enigma. Find non-constant paths u, v, and w in an indiscrete space
such that (uv)w = u(vw).
27.E. Multiplication of homotopy classes of paths is associative.
27.E.1. Reformulate Theorem 27.E in terms of paths and their homotopies.
27.E.2. Find a map : I I such that if u, v and w are paths such that
u(1) = v(0) and v(1) = w(0) then ((uv)w) = u(vw).
27.E.3. Any path in I which starts at 0 and nishes at 1 is homotopic to
id I I.
27.E.4. Recall Problem 26.I.
27.E.5. Let u, v and w be paths in a space such that products uv and vw
are dened (thus, u(1) = v(0) and v(1) = w(0)). Then (uv)w is homotopic
to u(vw).
1
Of course, when the initial point of paths of the rst class coincides with the
nal point of paths of the second class.
158
27. HOMOTOPY PROPERTIES OF PATH MULTIPLICATION 159
If you want to understand the essence of 27.E, you have to realize that
paths (uv)w and u(vw) have the same trajectories and diers by time
spent in dierent fragments of the path. Therefore to nd a homotopy
between them one has to nd a continuous way to change one schedule
to the other. The lemmae above suggest a formal way of such a change,
but the same eect can be achieved in many other ways.
27
3 Unit
Let a be a point of a space X. Denote by e
a
the path I X : t a.
27.F. Is e
a
a unit for multiplication of paths?
The same question in more detailed form:
27.G. For a path u with u(0) = a is e
a
u = u? For a path v with v(1) = a
is ve
a
= v?
27.3. Prove that e
a
u = u implies u = e
a
.
27.H. The homotopy class of e
a
is a unit for multiplication of homotopy
classes of paths.
Problems 27.F, 27.G and 27.H are similar to problems 27.C, 27.D and
27.E, respectively.
27.H.1. Enigma. Exploring this analogy, formupate and prove analogues
of lemmas 27.E.1, 27.E.2 and 27.E.5.
27
4 Inverse
Recall that for a path u there is inverse path u
1
dened by u
1
(t) =
u(1 t) (see Section 12).
27.I. Is the inverse path inverse with respect to multiplication of paths?
In other words:
27.J. For a path u beginning in a and nishing in b is uu
1
= e
a
and
u
1
u = e
b
?
27.4. Prove that for a path u with u(0) = a equality uu
1
= e
a
implies
u = e
a
.
27.K. For any path u the homotopy class of path u
1
is inverse to the
homotopy class of u.
27.K.1. Find a map : I I such that (uu
1
) = u for any path u.
27.K.2. Any path in I, which starts and nishes at 0, is homotopic to the
constant path e
0
: I I.
27. HOMOTOPY PROPERTIES OF PATH MULTIPLICATION 160
We see that from the algebraic viewpoint multiplication of paths is
terrible, but it denes multiplication of homotopy classes of paths, which
has nice algebraic properties. The only unfortunate property is that the
multiplication of homotopy classes of paths is not dened for any two
classes.
27.L. Enigma. How to select a subset of the set of homotopy classes
of paths to obtain a group?
28 Fundamental Group
28
1
(X, x
0
) is called the fundamental group of the space X with base
point x
0
. It was introduced by Poincare and that is why it is called also
Poincare group. The letter in its notation is also due to Poincare.
28
2 Why Index 1?
The index 1 in the notation
1
(X, x
0
) appeared later than the let-
ter . It is related to one more name of the fundamental group: the
rst (or one-dimensional) homotopy group. There is an innite series of
groups
r
(X, x
0
) with r = 1, 2, 3, . . . and the fundamental group is one of
them. The higher-dimensional homotopy groups were dened by Witold
Hurewicz in 1935, thirty years after the fundamental group was dened.
There is even a zero-dimensional homotopy group
0
(X, x
0
), but it is
not a group, as a rule. It is the set of path-wise connected components
of X. Although there is no natural multiplication in
0
(X, x
0
) , unless
X is equipped with some special additional structures, there is a natural
unit in
0
(X, x
0
). This is the component containing x
0
.
Roughly speaking, the general denition of
r
(X, x
0
) is obtained from
the denition of
1
(X, x
0
) by replacing I with the cube I
r
.
28.B. Enigma. How to generalize problems of this section in such a
way that in each of them I would be replaced by I
r
?
28
r
(X, x
0
) = (I
r
, I
r
; X, x
0
).
Multiplication of spheroids induces multiplication in
r
(X, x
0
), which makes
r
(X, x
0
) a group.
28.1. For any X and x
0
the group
r
(X, x
0
) with r 2 is Abelian.
28.2. Enigma. For any X, x
0
and r 2 present group
r
(X, x
0
) as the
fundamental group of some space.
28
4 Circular loops
Let X be a topological space, x
0
its point. A continuous map l :
S
1
X such that
2
l(1) = x
0
is called a (circular) loop at x
0
. Assign
to each circular loop l the composition of l with the exponential map
I S
1
: t e
2it
. This is a usual loop at the same point.
28.C. Prove that any loop can be obtained in this way from a circular
loop.
Circular loops l
1
, l
2
are said to be homotopic if they are 1-homotopic.
Homotopy of a circular loop not xed at x
0
is called a free homotopy.
28.D. Prove that circular loops are homotopic, i the corresponding
loops are homotopic.
28.3. What kind of homotopy of loops corresponds to free homotopy of
circular loops?
28.4. Describe the operation with circular loops corresponding to the mul-
tiplication of paths.
28.5. Let U and V be circular loops with common base point U(1) = V (1)
which correspond to loops u and v. Prove that circular loop dened by
formula
z
_
U(z
2
), if Im(z) 0
V (z
2
), if Im(z) 0
corresponds to the product of u and v.
28.6. Outline a construction of fundamental group based on circular loops.
Similarly, high-dimensional homotopy groups can be constructed not out
of homotopy classes of maps (I
r
, I
r
) (X, x
0
), but as
(S
r
, (1, 0, . . . , 0); X, x
0
).
Another, also quite a popular way, is to dene
r
(X, x
0
) as
(D
r
, D
r
; X, x
0
).
28.7. Establish natural bijections
(I
r
, I
r
; X, x
0
) (D
r
, D
r
; X, x
0
) (S
r
, (1, 0, . . . , 0); X, x
0
)
2
Recall that S
1
is considered as a subset of the plane R
2
and the latter is identied
in a canonical way with C. Hence 1 S
1
z C : [z[ = 1.
28. FUNDAMENTAL GROUP 163
28
1
(X Y, (x
0
, y
0
)) =
1
(X, x
0
)
1
(Y, y
0
)
28.10. Prove that
1
(R
n
0, (1, 0, . . . , 0)) is trivial if n 3
28:B. Prove the following generalization of 28.H:
r
(X Y, (x
0
, y
0
)) =
r
(X, x
0
)
r
(Y, y
0
).
28. FUNDAMENTAL GROUP 164
28
7 Simply-Connectedness
A non-empty topological space X is said to be simply connected or
one-connected, if it is path-connected and any loop in it is homotopic to
a constant map.
28.I. For a path-connected topological space X the following statements
are equivalent:
(a) X is simply connected,
(b) any continuous map f : S
1
X is (freely) homotopic to a constant
map,
(c) any continuous map f : S
1
X can be extended to a continuous
map D
2
X,
(d) any two paths s
1
, s
2
: I X connecting the same points x
0
and x
1
are homotopic.
The following theorem implies Theorem 28.I. However, since it treats
a single loop, it can be applied to more situations. Anyway, proving 28.I,
one proves 28.J in fact.
28.J. Let X be a topological space and s : S
1
X be a circular loop.
Then the following statements are equivalent:
(a) s is homotopic to the constant loop,
(b) s is freely homotopic to a constant map,
(c) s can be extended to a continuous map D
2
X,
(d) the paths s
+
, s
: I X dened by formula s
(t) = s(e
it
) are
homotopic.
28.J.1. Enigma. To prove that 4 statements are equivalent, one has to
prove at least 4 implications. What implications would you choose for the
easiest proof of Theorem 28.J?
28.J.2. Does homotopy of circular loops imply that these circular loops are
free homotopic?
28.J.3. A homotopy between a map of the circle and a constant map pos-
sesses a quotient map whose source space is homoeomorphic to disk D
2
.
28.J.4. Represent the problem of constructing of a homotopy between
paths s
+
and , s
3 Properties of T
s
29.A. T
s
is a (group) homomorphism. (Recall that this means that
T
s
() = T
s
()T
s
().)
166
29. THE ROLE OF BASE POINT 167
29.B. If u is a path connecting x
0
to x
1
and v is a path connecting x
1
with x
2
then T
uv
= T
v
T
u
. In other words the diagram
1
(X, x
0
)
Tu
1
(X, x
1
)
Tuv
_
Tv
1
(X, x
2
)
is commutative.
29.C. If paths u and v are homotopic then T
u
= T
v
.
29.D. T
ea
= id :
1
(X, a)
1
(X, a)
29.E. T
s
1 = T
1
s
.
29.F. T
s
is an isomorphism for any path s.
29.G. For any points x
0
and x
1
lying in the same path-connected com-
ponent of X groups
1
(X, x
0
) and
1
(X, x
1
) are isomorphic.
29
4 Role of Path
29.H. If s is a loop representing an element of fundamental group
1
(X, x
0
) then T
s
is the internal automorphism of
1
(X, x
0
) dened by
1
.
29.I. Let x
0
and x
1
be points of a topological space X belonging to
the same path-connected component. Isomorphisms T
s
:
1
(X, x
0
)
1
(X, x
1
) do not depend on s, i
1
(X, x
0
) is commutative.
29
r
(X, s(0))
r
(X, s(1)) dened by 29.5 is denoted by T
s
. By 29.2 this T
s
generalizes T
s
dened in the beginning of the section for the case r = 1.
29.6. Prove that the properties of T
s
formulated in Problems 29.A 29.G
hold true in all dimensions.
29. THE ROLE OF BASE POINT 168
29
6 In Topological Group
In a topological group G there is another way to relate
1
(G, x
0
) with
1
(G, x
1
):
there are homeomorphisms L
g
: G G : x xg and R
g
: G G : x gx,
so that there are the induced isomorphisms (L
x
1
0
x1
)
:
1
(G, x
0
)
1
(G, x
1
) and
(R
x1x
1
0
)
:
1
(G, x
0
)
1
(G, x
1
).
29:A. Let G be a topological group, s I G be a path. Prove that
T
s
= (L
s(0)
1
s(1)
)
= (R
s(1)s(0)
1 ) :
1
(G, s(0))
1
(G, s(1)).
29:B. Deduce from 29:A that the fundamental group of a topological group is abelian
(cf. 28:E).
29:1. Prove that the fundamental groups of the following spaces are com-
mutative:
(a) the space of non-degenerate real nn matrices GL(n, R) = A [ det A ,=
0;
(b) the space of orthogonal real nn matrices O(n, R) = A [ A (
t
A) = 1;
(c) the space of special unitary complex n n matrices SU(n) = A [
A (
t
A) = 1, det A = 1
(d) RP
n
;
(e) V
k,n
= Hom(R
k
, R
n
);
29:C. Generalize 29:A and 29:B to a homogeneous space G/H.
29:D. Enigma. What are the counterparts for 29:A and 29:B and 29:C for high
homotopy groups?
CHAPTER 6
Covering Spaces and Calculation of Fundamental
Groups
30 Covering Spaces
30
1 Denition of Covering
Let X, B topological spaces, p : X B a continuous map. Assume
that p is surjective and each point of B possesses a neighborhood U such
that the preimage p
1
(U) of U is presented as a disjoint union of open
sets V
2 More Examples
30.D. R
2
S
1
R : (x, y) (e
2ix
, y) is a covering.
30.E. C C 0 : z e
z
is a covering.
30.1. Enigma. In what sense the coverings of 30.D and 30.E are the same?
Dene an appropriate equivalence relation for coverings.
169
30. COVERING SPACES 170
30.F. R
2
S
1
S
1
: (x, y) (e
2ix
, e
2iy
) is a covering.
30.G. For any natural n the map S
1
S
1
: z z
n
is a covering.
30.2. Prove that for any natural n the map C 0 C 0 : z z
n
is a
covering.
30.H. For any natural p and q the map S
1
S
1
S
1
S
1
: (z, w)
(z
p
, w
q
) is a covering.
30.3. Prove that if p : X B and p
: X
: X X
B B
is a covering.
30.I. The natural projection S
n
RP
n
is a covering.
30.J. Is (0, 3) S
1
: x e
2ix
a covering? (Cf. 30.14.)
30.K. Is the projection R
2
R : (x, y) x a covering? Indeed, why
not take an open interval (a, b) R as a trivially covered neighborhood:
its preimage (a, b) R is the union of open intervals (a, b) y which
are projected homeomorphically by the projection (x, y) x onto (a, b)?
30.4. Find coverings of Mobius strip by cylinder.
30.5. Find non-trivial coverings of Mobius strip by itself.
30.6. Find a covering of the Klein bottle by torus. Cf. Problem 20.14.
30.7. Find coverings of the Klein bottle by plane R
2
, cylinder S
1
R, and
a non-trivial covering by itself.
30.8. Construct a covering of the Klein bottle by R
2
. Describe explicitly the
partition of R
2
into preimages of points under this covering.
30.9. Find a covering of a sphere with any number of crosscaps by a sphere
with handles.
30
4 Number of Sheets
Let p : X B be a covering. The cardinality (i.e., number of points)
of the preimage p
1
(a) of a point a B is called the multiplicity of the
covering at a or the number of sheets of the covering over a.
30.L. If the base of a covering is connected then the multiplicity of the
covering at a point does not depend on the point.
In the case of covering with connected base the multiplicity is called
the number of sheets of the covering. If the number of sheets is n then
the covering is said to be n-sheeted and we talk about n-fold covering.
Of course, unless the covering is trivial, it is impossible to distinguish
the sheets of it, but this does not prevent us from speaking about the
number of sheets.
30.16. What are the numbers of sheets for the coverings from Section 30
2?
30.17. What numbers can you realize as the number of sheets of a covering
of the Mobius strip by the cylinder S
1
I?
30.18. What numbers can you realize as the number of sheets of a covering
of the Mobius strip by itself?
30.19. What numbers can you realize as the number of sheets of a covering
of the Klein bottle by torus?
30.20. What numbers can you realize as the number of sheets of a covering
of the Klein bottle by itself?
30.21. What numbers can you realize as the numbers of sheets for a covering
of the Klein bottle by plane R
2
?
30.22. What numbers can you realize as the numbers of sheets for a covering
of the Klein bottle by S
1
R?
30.23. Construct a d-fold covering of a sphere with p handles by a sphere
with 1 +d(p 1) handles.
30.24. Let p : X Y and q : Y Z be coverings. Prove that if q has
nitely many sheets then q p : x Y is a covering.
30.25*. Is the hypothesis of niteness of the number of sheets in Problem
30.24 necesary?
30
5 Universal Coverings
A covering p : X B is said to be universal if X is simply connected.
The appearance of word universal in this context will be explained below
in Section 36.
30.M. Which coverings of the problems stated above in this section are
universal?
31 Theorems on Path Lifting
31
1 Lifting
Let p : X B and f : A B be arbitrary maps. A map g : A X
such that p g = f is said to cover f or be a lifting of f. A lot of topo-
logical problems can be phrased in terms of nding a continuous lifting
of some continuous map. Problems of this sort are called lifting problems.
They may involve additional requirements. For example, the desired
lifting has to coincide with a lifting already given on some subspace.
31.A. The identity map S
1
S
1
does not admit a continuous lifting
with respect to the covering R S
1
: x e
2ix
. (In other words, there
exists no continuous map g : S
1
R such that e
2ig(x)
= x for x S
1
.)
31
2 Path Lifting
31.B Path Lifting Theorem. Let p : X B be a covering, x
0
X,
b
0
B be points such that p(x
0
) = b
0
. Then for any path s : I B
starting at b
0
there exists a unique path s : I X starting at x
0
and
being a lifting of s. (In other words, there exists a unique path s : I X
with s(0) = x
0
and p s = s.)
31.B.1 Lemma 1. Let p : X B be a trivial covering. Then for any
continuous map f of any space A to B there exists a continuous lifting
f : A X.
31.B.2 Lemma 2. Let p : X B be a trivial covering and x
0
X, b
0
B
be points such that p(x
0
) = b
0
. Then for any continuous map f of a space
A to B mapping a point a
0
to b
0
, a continuous lifting
f : A X with
f(a
0
) = x
0
is unique.
31.B.3 Lemma 3.
2
Let p : X B be a covering, A a connected space. If
f, g : A X are continuous maps coinciding in some point and pf = pg,
then f = g.
31.1. If in the Problem 31.B.2 one replaces x
0
, b
0
and a
0
by pairs of points,
then it may happen that the lifting problem has no solution
f with
f(a
0
) = x
0
.
Formulate a condition necessary and sucient for existence of such a solution.
31.2. What goes wrong with the Path Lifting Theorem 31.B for the local
homeomorphism of Problem 30.J?
31.3. Consider the covering C C 0 : z e
z
. Find liftings of the paths
u(t) = 2 t, v(t) = (1 +t)e
2it
, and their product uv.
31.4. Prove that any covering p : X B with simply connected B and path
connected X is a homeomorphism.
2
This is rather a generalization of the uniqueness, than a necessary step of the
proof. But a good lemma is to clarify the real content of the proof, and a generalization
is one of the best ways to do this.
172
31. THEOREMS ON PATH LIFTING 173
31
3 Homotopy Lifting
31.C Path Homotopy Lifting Theorem. Let p : X B be a cov-
ering, x
0
X, b
0
B be points such that p(x
0
) = b
0
. Let u, v : I B be
paths starting at b
0
and u, v : I X be the lifting paths for u, v starting
at x
0
. If the paths u and v are homotopic then the covering paths u and
v are homotopic.
31.D Corollary. Under the assumptions of Theorem 31.C, the covering
paths u and v have the same nal point (i.e., u(1) = v(1)).
Notice that in 31.C and 31.D paths are assumed to share the initial
point x
0
. In the statement of 31.D we emphasize that then they share
also the nal point.
31.E Corollary of 31.D. Let p : X B be a covering and s : I B
be a loop. If there exists a lifting s : I X of s with s(0) ,= s(1) (i.e.,
there exists a covering path which is not a loop), then s is not homotopic
to a constant loop.
31.5. Prove that if a pathwise connected space B has a non trivial pathwise
connected covering space, then the fundamental group of B is not trivial.
31.6. What corollaries can you deduce from 31.5 and the examples of cov-
erings presented above in Section 30?
31:A. Enigma. Is it that important in the hypothesis of Theorem 30.6 that u and
v are paths? To what class of maps can you generalize this therorem?
31
= (1, 0, . . . , 0), of S
n
. Denote by the homotopy class of l. It is an
element of
1
(RP
n
, (1 : 0 : : 0)).
32.G. For any n 2 group
1
(RP
n
, (1 : 0 : : 0)) is a cyclic group of
order 2. It consists of two elements: and 1.
32.G.1 Lemma. Any loop in RP
n
at (1 : 0 : : 0) is homotopic either
to l or constant. This depends on whether the covering path of the loop
connects the poles P
+
and P
, or is a loop.
32.4. Where in the proofs of Theorem 32.G and Lemma 32.G.1 the assump-
tion n 2 is used?
32
and
denoted by
.
The restriction of P to K U
+
, U
, V
+
, V
, g)
with (U
+
, ga) and (V
, g) with (V
+
, gb) for each g F(a, b). Denote the
resulting quotient space by X.
32.N. The composition of the natural projection K F(a, b) K and
P : K B denes a continuous quotient map p : X B.
32.O. p : X B is a covering.
32.P. X is path-connected. For any g F(a, b) there exists a path
connecting (c, 1) with (c, g) and covering loop obtained from g by sub-
stituting a by u and b by v.
32.Q. X is simply connected.
32
1
(X).
32.7. Find a non-simply-connected topological space with nitely many points.
32.8. What is the smallest possible number of points of a topological space
with a non-trivial fundamental group?
32.9. What groups can be realized as the fundamental group of a nite topo-
logical space with the minimal number of points for which the fundamental
group can be non-trivial?
32.10. Let X be a topological space, which can be presented as a union of
open connected sets U and V . Prove that if U V is disconnected then X
has a connected innite-fold covering space.
32.11. Find a nite topological space with a non-abelian fundamental group.
What is the minimal number of points in such a space?
32.12. Prove that if under conditions of 32.10 UV contains at least three
connected components then the fundamental group of X is non-abelian and,
moreover, it can be mapped epimorphically onto a free group of rank 2.
32.13*. Find a nite topological space with fundamental group Z
2
.
CHAPTER 7
Fundamental Group and Mappings
33 Induced Homomorphisms
and Their First Applications
33
(s) =
f s. This map assigns to a loop its composition with f.
33.A. f
induces a map
1
(X, x
0
)
1
(Y, y
0
). The latter is
denoted by f
.
33.B. f
: (X, x
0
)
1
(Y, y
0
) is a homomorphism for any continuous
map f : (X, x
0
) (Y, y
0
).
f
: (X, x
0
)
1
(Y, y
0
) is called a homomorphism induced by f.
33.C. Let f : (X, x
0
) (Y, y
0
) and g : (Y, y
0
) (Z, z
0
) be (continuous)
maps. Then
(g f)
= g
:
1
(X, x
0
)
1
(Z, z
0
).
33.D. Let f, g : (X, x
0
) (Y, y
0
) be continuous maps homotopic via a
homotopy xed at x
0
. Then f
= g
.
33.E. Enigma. How to generalize Theorem 33.D to the case of freely
homotopic f and g?
33.F. Let f : X Y be a continuous map, x
0
and x
1
points of X
connected by a path s : I X. Denote f(x
0
) by y
0
and f(x
1
) by y
1
.
Then the diagram
1
(X, x
0
)
f
1
(Y, y
0
)
Ts
_
T
fs
1
(X, x
1
)
f
1
(Y, y
1
)
179
33. INDUCED HOMOMORPHISMS AND APPLICATIONS 180
is commutative, i.e., T
fs
f
= f
T
s
.
33.1. Prove that the map C 0 C 0 : z z
3
is not homotopic to the
identity map C 0 C 0 : z z.
33.2. Let X be a subset of R
n
. Prove that a if a continuous map f : X Y
is extentable to a continuous map R
n
Y then f
:
1
(X, x
0
)
1
(Y, f(x
0
))
is the trivial homomorphism (i.e., maps everything to 1) for any x
0
X.
33.3. Prove that a Hausdor space, which contains an open set homeomor-
phic to S
1
S
1
(1, 1), has an innite non-cyclic fundamental group.
33.3.1. Prove that a space X satisfying the conditions of 33.3 can be
continuously mapped to a space with innite non-cyclic fundamen-
tal group in such a way that the map would induce an epimorphism
of
1
(X) onto this innite group.
33.4. Prove that the fundamental group of the space GL(n, C) of complex
n n-matrices with non-zero determinant is innite.
33.4.1. Construct continuous maps S
1
GL(n, C) S
1
, whose
composition is the identity.
33
n1
(S
n1
)
n1
(R
n
0),
then there exists a point x D
1
such that f(x) = 0.
Usability of Theorem 33.K is impeded by a condition, which is dicult
to check, if n > 0. For n = 1 this is still possible in the frameworks of the
theory developed above.
33.5. Let f : D
2
R
2
be a continuous map which leaves xed each point
of the bounding circle S
1
. Then f(D
2
) D
2
.
33.6. Let f : D
2
R
2
be a continuous map. If f(S
1
) does not contain
a R
2
and the circular loop f[ : S
1
R
2
a denes a nontrivial element of
1
(R
2
a) then there exists x D
2
such that f(x) = a.
33.7. Let f : R
2
R
2
be a continuous map and there exists a real number
m such that [f(x) x[ m for any x R
2
. Prove that f is a surjection.
33.8. Let u, v : I I I be two paths such that u(0) = (0, 0), u(1) = (1, 1)
and v(0) = (0, 1), v(1) = (1, 0). Prove that u(I) v(I) ,= .
33.8.1. Let u, v be as in 33.8. Denote by w the map I
2
R
2
dened by w(x, y) = u(x) v(y). Prove that 0 R
2
is a value of
w.
33.9. Let C be a smooth simple closed curve on the plane with two inection
points. Prove that there is a line intersecting C in four points a, b, c, d with
segments [a, b], [b, c] and [c, d] of the same length.
33. INDUCED HOMOMORPHISMS AND APPLICATIONS 182
33
4 Winding Number
As we know (see 32.F), the fundamental group of the punctured plane R
2
0
is Z. There are two isomorphisms which dier by multiplication by 1. We choose
the one which maps the homotopy class of the loop t (cos 2t, sin2t) to 1 Z.
In terms of circular loops, the isomorphism means that to any loop f : S
1
R
2
0
we associate an integer. It is the number of times the loop goes arround 0 in the
counter-clockwise direction.
Now we change the viewpoint in this consideration, and x the loop, but vary
the point. Let f : S
1
R
2
be a circular loop and x R
2
f(S
1
). Then f denes an
element of
1
(R
2
x) = Z (we choose basically the same identication of
1
(R
2
x)
with Z assigning 1 to the homotopy class of t x + (cos 2t, sin 2t)). This number
is denoted by ind(f, x) and called winding number or index of x with respect to f.
33:A. Formula x ind(u, x) denes a locally constant function on R
2
u(S
1
).
33:1. Let f : S
1
R
2
be a loop and x, y R
2
f(S
1
). Prove that if
ind(f, x) ,= ind(f, y) then any path connecting x and y in R
2
meets f(S
1
).
33:2. Prove that if u(S
1
) is contained in a disk, and a point x is not, then
ind(u, x) = 0.
33:3. Find the set of values of function ind : R
2
u(S
1
) Z for the following
loops u:
a) u(z) = z; b) u(z) = z; c) u(z) = z
2
; d) u(z) = z+z
1
+z
2
z
2
(here z S
1
C).
33:4. Choose several loops u : S
1
R
2
such that u(S
1
) is a bouquet of two
circles. Calculate winding number for various points with respect to these
loops.
33:5. Find a loop f : S
1
R
2
such that there exist points x, y R
2
f(S
1
)
with ind(f, x) = ind(f, y), but belonging to dierent connected conmponents
of R
2
f(S
1
).
33:6. Prove that for any ray R radiating from x meets f(S
1
) at least in
[ ind(f, x)[ points (i. e., the number of points in f
1
(R) is not less than
[ ind(f, x)[).
33:B. If u : S
1
R
2
is a restriction of a continuous map F : D
2
R
2
and
ind(u, x) ,= 0 then x F(D
2
).
33:C. If u and v are circular loops in R
2
with common base point (i. e., u(1) = v(1))
and uv is their product then ind(uv, x) = ind(u, x)+ind(v, x) for any x R
2
uv(S
1
).
33:D. Let u and v be circular loops in R
2
, and x R
2
(u(S
1
) v(S
1
)). If there
exists a (free) homotopy u
t
, t I connecting u and v such that x R
2
u
t
(S
1
) for
each t I then ind(u, x) = ind(v, x).
33:E. Let u : S
1
C be a circular loop and a C
2
u(S
1
). Then
ind(u, a) =
1
2i
_
S
1
[u(z) a[
u(z) a
dz.
33
5 Borsuk-Ulam Theorem
33:F One-Dimensional Borsuk-Ulam. For each continuous map f : S
1
R
1
there exists x S
1
such that f(x) = f(x).
33. INDUCED HOMOMORPHISMS AND APPLICATIONS 183
33:G Two-Dimensional Borsuk-Ulam. For each continuous map f : S
2
R
2
there exists x S
2
such that f(x) = f(x).
33:G.1 Lemma. If there exists a continuous map f : S
2
R
2
with f(x) ,=
f(x) for any x S
2
then there exists a continuous map : RP
2
RP
1
inducing a non-zero homomorphism
1
(RP
2
)
1
(RP
1
).
33:7. Prove that at each instant of time, there is a pair of antipodal points on
the earths surface where the pressures and also the temperatures are equal.
Theorems 33:F and 33:G are special cases of the following general theorem. We
do not assume the reader to be ready to prove Theorem 33:H in the full generality,
but is there another easy special case?
33:H Borsuk-Ulam Theorem. For each continuous map f : S
n
R
n
there exists
x S
n
such that f(x) = f(x).
34 Retractions and Fixed Points
34
:
1
(X, x
0
)
1
(A, x
0
) is an epimorphism and i
1
(A, x
0
)
1
(X, x
0
) is a monomorphism.
184
34. RETRACTIONS AND FIXED POINTS 185
34.G. Enigma. Which of the two statements of Theorem 34.F (about
or i
3 Fixed-Point Property.
Let f : X X be a continuous map. A point a X is called a xed
point of f if f(a) = a. A space X is said to have the xed-point property
if any continuous map X X has a xed point. Fixed point property
means solvability of a wide class of equations.
34.11. Prove that the xed point property is a topological property.
34.12. A closed interval [a, b] has the xed point property.
34.13. Prove that if a topological space has xed point property then each
its retract also has the xed-point property.
34.14. Prove that if topological spaces X and Y have xed point property,
x
0
X and y
0
Y , then X H Y/
x
0
y
0
also has the xed point property.
34. RETRACTIONS AND FIXED POINTS 186
34.15. Prove that any nite tree (i.e., a connected space obtained from a
nite collection of closed intervals by some identifying of their end points such
that deleting of an internal point of each of the segments makes the space
disconnected, see 38
3 Deformation Retraction
A retraction , which is homotopy inverse to the inclusion, is called a
deformation retraction. Since is a retraction, one of the two conditions
from the denition of homotopy inverse maps is satised automatically:
its composition with the inclusion in is equal to the identity id
A
. The
other condition says that in is homotopic to the identity id
X
.
If X admits a deformation retraction onto A, then A is called a de-
formation retract of X.
187
35. HOMOTOPY EQUIVALENCES 188
35
4 Examples
35.C. Circle S
1
is a deformation retract of R
2
0
35.5. Prove that Mobius strip is homotopy equivalent to circle.
35.6. Prove that a handle is homotopy equivalent to a union of two circles
intersecting in a single point.
35.7. Prove that a handle is homotopy equivalent to a union of three arcs
with common end points (i.e., letter ).
35.8. Classify letters of Latin alphabet up to homotopy equivalence.
35.D. Prove that a plane with s points deleted is homotopy equivalent
to a union of s circles intersecting in a single point.
35.E. Prove that the union of a diagonal of a square and the contour of
the same square is homotopy equivalent to a union of two circles inter-
secting in a single point.
35.9. Prove that the space obtained from S
2
by identication of a two (dis-
tinct) points is homotopy equivalent to the union of a two-dimensional sphere
and a circle intersecting in a single point.
35.10. Prove that the space (p, q) C : z
2
+pz +q has two distinct roots
of quadratic complex polynomials with distinct roots is homotopy equivalent
to the circle.
35.11. Prove that the space GL(n, R) of invertible n n real matrices is
homotopy equivalent to the subspace O(n) consisting of orthogonal matrices.
35.12. Enigma. Is there any relation between a solution of the preceding
problem and the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization? Can the Gram-Schmidt
orthogonalization algorithm be considered a deformation retraction?
35
6 Contractible Spaces
A topological space X is said to be contractible if the identity map id :
X X is homotopic to a constant map.
35.14. Show that R and I are contractible.
35.15. Prove that any contractible space is path-connected.
35.16. Prove that the following three statements about a topological space
X are equivalent:
(a) X is contractible,
(b) X is homotopy equivalent to a point,
(c) there exists a deformation retraction of X onto a point,
(d) any point a of X is a deformation retract of X,
(e) any continuous map of any topological space Y to X is homotopic to a
constant map,
(f) any continuous map of X to any topological space Y is homotopic to a
constant map.
35.17. Is it right that if X is a contractible space then for any topological
space Y
(a) any two continuous maps X Y are homotopic?
(b) any two continuous maps Y X are homotopic?
35.18. Check if spaces of the following list are contractible:
(a) R
n
,
(b) a convex subset of R
n
,
(c) a star convex subset of R
n
,
(d) (x, y) R
2
: x
2
y
2
1,
(e) a nite tree (i.e., a connected space obtained from a nite collection
of closed intervals by some identifying of their end points such that
deleting of an internal point of each of the segments makes the space
disconnected, see 38
3.)
35.19. Prove that X Y is contractible, i both X and Y are contractible.
35
and g
:
1
(X, x
0
)
1
(A, x
0
) and in
:
1
(A, x
0
)
1
(X, x
0
)
are isomorphisms inverse to each other.
35.20. Calculate the fundamental group of the following spaces:
(a) R
3
R
1
, (b) R
N
R
n
, (c) R
3
S
1
, (d) R
N
S
n
,
(e) S
3
S
1
, (f) S
N
S
k
, (g) RP
3
RP
1
, (h) handle,
(i) Mobius band, (j) sphere with s handles,
(k) Klein bottle with a point re-
moved,
(l) Mobius band with s holes.
35. HOMOTOPY EQUIVALENCES 190
35.21. Prove that the boundary of the Mobius band standardly embedded
in R
3
(see 20.18) could not be the boundary of a disk embedded in R
3
in such
a way that its interior does not intersect the band.
35.22. Calculate the fundamental group of the space of all the complex
polynomials ax
2
+ bx + c with distinct roots. Calculate the fundamental
group of the subspace of this space consisting of polynomials with a = 1.
35.23. Enigma. Can you solve 35.22 along deriving of the formular for
roots of quadratic trinomial?
35.I. What if the hypothesis of Theorem 35.G were weakened as follows:
g(y
0
) ,= x
0
and/or the homotopies relating f g to id
Y
and g f to id
X
are not xed at y
0
and x
0
, respectively? How would f
and g
be related?
Would
1
(X, x
0
) and
1
(Y, y
0
) be isomorphic?
36 Covering Spaces via Fundamental Groups
36
:
1
(X, x
0
)
1
(B, b
0
) is a monomorphism. Cf. 31.C.
The image of the monomorphism p
:
1
(X, x
0
)
1
(B, b
0
) induced
by a covering projection p : X B is called the group of covering p with
base point x
0
.
36.B. Enigma. Is the group of covering determined by the covering?
36.C Group of Covering vs Lifting Loops. Describe loops in the
base space of a covering, whose homotopy classes belong to the group of
the covering, in terms provided by Path Lifting Theorem 31.B.
36.D. Let p : X B be a covering, let x
0
, x
1
X belong to the same
path-component of X, and b
0
= p(x
0
) = p(x
1
). Then p
(
1
(X, x
0
)) and
p
(
1
(X, x
1
)) are conjugate subgroups of
1
(B, b
0
) (i.e., there exists an
1
(B, b
0
) such that p
(
1
(X, x
1
)) =
1
p
(
1
(X, x
0
))).
36.E. Let p : X B be a covering, x
0
X, b
0
= p(x
0
). Let
1
(B, b
0
). Then there exists x
1
p
1
(b
0
) such that p
(
1
(X, x
1
)) =
1
p
(
1
(X, x
0
)).
36.F. Let p : X B be a covering in a narrow sense and G
1
(B, b
0
)
be the group of this covering with a base point x
0
. A subgroup H
1
(B, b
0
) is a group of the same covering, i it is conjugate to G.
36
2 Number of Sheets
36.G Number of Sheets and Index of Subgroup. Let p : X B
be a covering in narrow sense with nite number of sheets. Then the
number of sheets is equal to the index of the group of this covering.
36.H Sheets and Right Cosets. Let p : X B be a covering in
narrow sense, b
0
B, x
0
p
1
(b
0
). Construct a natural bijection of
p
1
(b
0
) and the set p
(
1
(X, x
0
))
1
(B, b
0
) of right cosets of the group
of the covering in the fundamental group of the base space.
36.1 Number of Sheets in Universal Covering. The number of sheets
of a universal covering equals the order of the fundamental group of the base
space.
36.2 Non-Trivial Covering Means Non-Trivial
1
. Any topological
space, which has a nontrivial path-connected covering space, has a nontrivial
fundamental group.
36.3. What numbers can appear as the number of sheets of a covering of the
Mobius strip by the cylinder S
1
I?
191
36. COVERING SPACES VIA FUNDAMENTAL GROUPS 192
36.4. What numbers can appear as the number of sheets of a covering of the
Mobius strip by itself?
36.5. What numbers can appear as the number of sheets of a covering of the
Klein bottle by torus?
36.6. What numbers can appear as the number of sheets of a covering of the
Klein bottle by itself?
36.7. What numbers can appear as the numbers of sheets for a covering of
the Klein bottle by plane R
2
?
36.8. What numbers can appear as the numbers of sheets for a covering of
the Klein bottle by S
1
R?
36:A Action of
1
in Fiber. Let p : X B be a covering, b
0
B. Construct a
natural right action of
1
(B, b
0
) in p
1
(b
0
).
36:B. When the action in 36:A is transitive?
36
3 Hierarchy of Coverings
Let p : X B and q : Y B be coverings, x
0
X, y
0
Y and
p(x
0
) = q(y
0
) = b
0
. One says that q with base point y
0
is subordinate to
p with base point x
0
if there exists a map : X Y such that q = p
and (x
0
) = y
0
. In this case the map is called a subordination.
36.I. A subordination is a covering map.
36.J. If a subordination exists, then it is unique. Cf. 31.B.
Coverings p : X B and q : Y B are said to be equivalent if there
exists a homeomorphism h : X Y such that p = q h. In this case h
and h
1
are called equivalencies
36.K. If two coverings are mutually subordinate, then the corresponding
subordinations are equivalencies.
36.L. The equivalence of coverings is, indeed, an equivalence relation in
the set of coverings with a given base space.
36.M. Subordination denes a partial order in the set of equivalence
classes of coverings with a given base.
36.9. What equivalence class of coverings is minimal (i. e., subordinate to
all other classes)?
36.N. Let p : X B and q : Y B be coverings, x
0
X, y
0
Y
and p(x
0
) = q(y
0
) = b
0
. If q with base point y
0
is subordinate to p with
base point x
0
then the group of covering p is contained in the group of
covering q, i.e. p
(
1
(X, x
0
)) q
(
1
(Y, y
0
)).
36. COVERING SPACES VIA FUNDAMENTAL GROUPS 193
36
4 Existence of subordinations
A topological space X is said to be locally path-connected if for each point a X
and each neighborhood U of a there is a neighborhood V U which is path-connected.
36:1. Find a path connected, but not locally path connected topological
space.
36:C. Let B be a locally path-connected space, p : X B and q : Y B be
coverings in narrow sense, x
0
X, y
0
Y and p(x
0
) = q(y
0
) = b
0
. If p
(
1
(X, x
0
))
q
(
1
(Y, y
0
)) then q is subordinate to p.
36:C.1. Under the conditions of 36:C, if paths u, v : I X have the same
initial point x
0
and a common nal point, then the paths which cover p u
and p v and have the same initial point y
0
also have the same nal point.
36:C.2. Under the conditions of 36:C, the map X Y dened by 36:C.1
(guess, what is this map!) is continuous.
36:2. Construct an example, which proves that the hypothesis of local path
connectedness in 36:C.2 and 36:C is necessary.
36:D. Two coverings, p : X B and q : Y B, with a common locally path-
connected base are equivalent, i for some x
0
X and y
0
Y with p(x
0
) = q(y
0
) = b
0
the groups p
(
1
(X, x
0
)) and q
(
1
(Y, y
0
)) are conjugate in
1
(B, b
0
).
36:3. Construct an example, which proves that the hypothesis of local path
connectedness of the base in 36:D is necessary.
36
6 Existence of Coverings
36:E. Any space, which has a universal covering space, is micro simply connected.
36:F Existence of covering with a given group. If a topological space B is path
connected, locally path connected and micro simply connected then for any b
0
B and
any subgroup of
1
(B, b
0
) there exists a covering p : X B and a point x
0
X
such that p(x
0
) = b
0
and p
(
1
(X, x
0
)) = .
36:F.1. Let under conditions of Theorem 36:F there exists a covering p :
X B satifying all the requirements of this theorem. For each x X,
describe all paths in B which can be represented as images under p of paths
connecting x
0
to x in X.
36:F.2. Does the solution of Proble 36:F.1 dene an equivalence relation
in the set of all paths in B, starting at b
0
, such that there is a bijection
between the set X and the set of equivalence classes?
36:F.3. Describe a topology in the set of equivalence classes from 36:F.2
so that the natural bijection between X and this set would be a homeo-
morphism.
36:F.4. Prove that the reconstruction of X and p : X B provided by
problems 36:F.1 36:F.4 under the assumptions of Theorem 36:F give rise
to a covering which existence is laimed by Theorem 36:F.
36:G Classication of Coverings Over a Good Space. There is a one-to-one
correspondence between classes of equivalent coverings (in narrow sense) over a path
connected, locally path connected, and micro simply connected space B with a base
point b
0
, on one hand, and congruence classes of subgroups of
1
(B, b
0
), on the other
hand. This correspondence identies the hierarhy of coverings (ordered by subordina-
tion) with the hierarhy of subgroups (ordered by incluion).
Under the correspondence of Theorem 36:G, the trivial subgroup corresponds to
the covering with simply connected covering space. Since this is the covering which
subordinates any other covering with the same base space, it is said to be universal.
36:10. Describe all the coverings of the following spaces up to equivalence
and subordination:
(a) circle S
1
;
(b) punctured plane R
2
0;
(c) torus S
1
S
1
;
(d) Mobius strip;
(e) Klein Bottle;
(f) four point digital circle (the space formed by 4 points, a, b, c, d with the
base of open sets formed by a, c, a, b, c and c, d, a).
36
7 Automorphisms of Covering
A homeomorphism : X X is called an automorphism of covering p : X B,
if p = p.
36:H. Automorphisms of a covering form a group (with repect to compositions).
Denote the group of automorphisms of a covering p : X B by Aut(p).
36. COVERING SPACES VIA FUNDAMENTAL GROUPS 195
36:I. An automorphism : X X of covering p : X B is recovered from the
image (x
0
) of any x
0
X. Cf. 36.J.
36:J. Any two-fold covering has a non-trivial automorphism.
36:11. Find a three-fold covering which does not have a non-trivial auto-
morphism.
Let G be a group and H its subgroup. Recall that normiliser Nr(H) of H is the
subset of G consisting of g G such that g
1
Hg = H. This is a subgroup of G,
which contains H as a normal subgroup. So, Nr(H)/
H
is a group.
36:K. Let p : X B be a covering, x
0
X and b
0
= p(x
0
). Construct a map
1
(B, b
0
) p
1
(b
0
), which would induce a bujection of the set p
(
1
(X, x
0
))
1
(B, b
0
)
of right cosets onto p
1
(b
0
).
36:L. Show that the set of images of a point x
0
under all automorphisms of covering
p : X B is mapped by the bijection p
(
1
(X, x
0
))
1
(B, b
0
) p
1
(b
0
) from 36:K
to the group Nr(p
(
1
(X, x
0
)))/
p
(
1
(X, x
0
))
.
36:M. For any covering p : X B in the narrow sense, there is a natural in-
jective map Aut(p) to the group Nr(p
(
1
(X, x
0
)))/
p
(
1
(X, x
0
))
. This map is an
antihomomorphism.
1
36:N. Under assumptions of Theorem 36:M, if the base space B is locally path con-
nected then the antihomomorphism Aut(p) Nr(p
(
1
(X, x
0
)))/
p
(
1
(X, x
0
))
is bi-
jective.
36
8 Regular Coverings
36:O Regularity of Covering. Let p : X B be a covering in a narrow sense,
b
0
B, x
0
p
1
(b
0
). The following conditions are equivalent:
(a) p
1
(X, x
0
) is a normal subgroup of
1
(B, b
0
);
(b) p
1
(X, x) is a normal subgroup of
1
(B, p(x)) for each x X;
(c) all the groups p
1
(X, x) for x p
1
(b) are the same;
(d) for any loop s : I B either every path in X covering s is a loop (independent
on the its initial point) or none of them is a loop;
(e) the automorphism group acts transitively on p
1
(b
0
).
A covering satisfying to (any of) the equivalent conditions of Theorem 36:O is
said to be regular.
36:P. The coverings R S
1
: x e
2ix
and S
1
S
1
: z z
n
for integer n > 0
are regular.
36:Q. The automorphism group of a regular covering p : X B is naturally anti-
isomorphic to the quotient group
1
(B, b
0
)/
p
1
(X, x
0
)
of the group
1
(B, b
0
) by the
group of the covering for any x
0
p
1
(b
0
).
36:R. Any two-fold covering is regular.
1
Recall that a map : G H of a group G to a group H is called antihomomor-
phism, if (ab) = (a)(b) for any a, b G.
36. COVERING SPACES VIA FUNDAMENTAL GROUPS 196
36:12. Which coverings considered in Problems of Section 30 are regular?
Is out there any non-regular covering?
36:13. Find a three-fold non-regular covering of a bouquet of two circles.
36:14. Let p : X B be a regular covering, Y X, C B and q : Y C
be a submap of p. Prove that if q is a covering then this covering is regular.
36
:
1
(X, x
0
)
1
(B, p(x
0
)) and f
:
1
(Y, y
0
)
1
(B, f(y
0
)) a necessary condition
for existence of a lifting
f : Y X of f such that
f(y
0
) = x
0
. Find an example
in which this condition is not sucient. What additional assumptions can make it
sucient?
36:T Theorem on Lifting a Map. Let p : X B be a covering in the narrow
sense and f : Y B be a continuous map. Let x
0
X and y
0
Y be points such that
p(x
0
) = f(y
0
). If Y is a locally path connected space and f
(Y, y
0
) p
(X, x
0
),
then there exists a unique continuous map
f : Y X such that p
f = f and
f(y
0
) = x
0
.
36:U. Let p : X B and q : Y C be coverings in the narrow sense and f : B C
be a continuous map. Let x
0
X and y
0
Y be points such that fp(x
0
) = q(y
0
). If
there exists a continuous map F : X Y such that fp = qF and F(x
0
) = y
0
then
f
1
(X, x
0
) q
1
(Y, y
0
).
36:V Theorem on Covering of a Map. Let p : X B and q : Y C be
coverings in the narrow sense and f : B C be a continuous map. Let x
0
X
and y
0
Y be points such that fp(x
0
) = q(y
0
). If Y is locally path connected and
f
1
(X, x
0
) q
1
(Y, y
0
) then there exists a unique continuous map F : X Y
such that fp = qF and F(x
0
) = y
0
.
CHAPTER 8
Cellular Techniques
37 Cellular Spaces
37
: S
0
X
0
. Attach to X
0
by
):
X
0
(H
D
1
).
The images of the interior parts of copies of D
1
are called (open) 1-
dimensional cells, or 1-cells, or one-cell, or edges. The subsets obtained
out of D
1
are called closed 1-cells. The cells of X
0
(i.e., points of X
0
)
are also called vertices. Open 1-cells and 0-cells comprise a partition of a
one-dimensional cellular space. This partition is included in the notion
of cellular space, i.e., a one-dimensional cellular space is a topological
space equipped with a partition, which can be obtained in this way.
197
37. CELLULAR SPACES 198
One-dimensional cellular spaces are associated also with the word
graph. However, rather often this word is used for objects of other
classes. For example, in this way one can call one-dimenional cellular
spaces, in which attaching maps of dierent one-cells are prohibitted to
coincide, or the boundary of a one-cell is prohibited to consist of a single
vertex. When one-dimensional cellular spaces are to be considered any-
way, despite of this terminological disregard, they are called multigraphs
or pseudographs. Moreover, sometimes one includes into the notion of
graph an additional structure. Say, a choice of orientation on each edge.
Certainly, all these variations contradict to a general tendency in math-
ematical terminology to call in a simpler way decent objects of a more
general nature, passing to more complicated terms along with adding
structures and imposing restrictions. However, in this specic situation
there is no hope to implement that tendency. Any attempt to x a
meaning for the word graph apparently contributes only to the chaos,
and we just keep this word away from important formulations, using it
as a short informal synonym for more formal term of one-dimeninsional
cellular space. (Other overused common words, like curve and surface,
also deserve this sort of caution.)
A two-dimensional cellular space is a space, which can be obtained
as follows. Take any cellular space X
1
of dimension 1. Take a family
of continuous
1
maps
: S
1
X
1
. Attach to X
1
by
the sum of a
family of copies of D
2
:
X
1
(H
D
2
).
The images of the interior parts of copies of D
2
are called open 2-
dimensional cells, or 2-cells, or faces. The cells of X
1
are also considered
as cells of the 2-dimensional cellular space. Open cells of both kinds
comprise a partition of a 2-dimensional cellular space. This partition is
included in the notion of cellular space, i.e., a two-dimensional cellular
space is a topological space equipped with a partition, which can be
obtained in the way described above. The set obtained out of a copy of
the whole D
2
is called a closed 2-cell.
A cellular space of dimension n is dened in a similar way: This is a
space equipped with a partition. It can be obtained from a cellular space
X
n1
of dimension < n by attaching a family of copies of ball D
n
by a
family of continuous maps of their boundary spheres:
X
n1
(H
D
n
).
The images of interior parts of the attached n-dimensional balls are
called (open) n-dimensional cells, or n-cells. The images of the whole
1
Above, in the denition of 1-dimensional cellular space, the attaching maps
also were continuous, although their continuity was not required, since any map of
S
0
to any space is continuous.
37. CELLULAR SPACES 199
n-dimensional balls are called closed n-cells. Cells of X
n1
are also
considered as cells of the n-dimensional cellular space.
A cellular space is obtained as a union of increasing sequence of cellular
spaces X
0
X
1
X
n
. . . obtained in this way from each other.
The sequence may be nite or innite. In the latter case topological
structure is introduced by saying that the cover of the union by X
n
s
is fundamental, i.e., that a set U
n=0
X
n
is open, i its intersection
U X
n
with each X
n
is open in X
n
.
The partition of a cellular space into its open cells is called a cellular
decomposition. The union of all cells of dimension n of a cellular space
X is called the n-dimensional skeleton of X. This term may be misleading,
since n-dimensional skeleton may be without cells of dimension n, hence
it may coincide with (n 1)-dimensional skeleton. Thus n-dimensional
skeleton may have dimension < n. Therefore it is better to speak about
n-th skeleton or n-skeleton. Cells of dimension n are called also n-cells. A
cellular space is said to be nite if it contains a nite number of cells. A
cellular space is said to be countable if it contains a countable number of
cells. A cellular space is said to be locally nite, if any of its points has a
neighborhood which intersects a nite number of cells.
Let X be a cellular space. A subspace A X, which can be presented
both as a union of closed cells and a union of open cells, is called a cellular
subspace of X. Of course, it is provided with a partition into the open
cells of X contained in A. Obviously, the k-skeleton of a cellular space
X is a cellular subspace of X.
37.A. Prove that a cellular subspace of a cellular space is a cellular
space.
37
2 First Examples
37.B. A cellular space consisting of two cells, one 0-dimensional and one
n-dimensional, is homeomorphic to S
n
.
37.C. Represent D
n
with n > 0 as a cellular space made of three cells.
37.D. A cellular space consisting of a single zero-dimensional cell and q
one-dimensional cells is a bouquet of q circles.
37.E. Represent torus S
1
S
1
as a cellular space with one 0-cell, two
1-cells, and one 2-cell.
37.F. How to obtain a presentation of torus S
1
S
1
as a cellular space
with 4 cells from a presentation of S
1
as a cellular space with 2 cells?
37.1. Prove that if X and Y are nite cellular spaces then X Y can be
equipped in a natural way with a structure of nite cellular space.
37.2*. Does the statement of 37.1 remain true if one skips the niteness
condition in it? If yes, prove; if no, nd an example when the product is not
a cellular space.
37. CELLULAR SPACES 200
37.G. Represent sphere S
n
as a cellular space such that spheres S
0
S
1
S
2
S
n1
are its skeletons.
37.H. Represent RP
n
as a cellular space with n + 1 cells. Describe the
attaching maps of its cells.
37.3. Represent CP
n
as a cellular space with n + 1 cells. Describe the
attaching maps of its cells.
37.4. Represent the following topological spaces as cellular ones
(a) handle; (b) Mobius strip; (c) S
1
I,
(d) sphere with p
handles;
(e) sphere with p
crosscaps.
37.5. What is the minimal number of cells in a cellular space homeomorphic
to
(a) Mobius strip; (b) sphere with p
handles;
(c) sphere with p
crosscaps?
37.6. Find a cellular space, in which a closure of a cell is not equal to a union
of other cells. What is the minimal number of cells in a space containing a
cell of this sort?
37.7. Consider a disjoint sum of a countable collection of copies of closed
interval I and identify the copies of 0 in all of them. Represent the result
(which is the bouquet of the countable family of intervals) as a countable
cellular space. Prove that this space is not rst countable.
37.I. Represent R
1
as a cellular space.
37.8. Prove that for any two cellular spaces homeomorphic to R
1
there exists
a homeomorphism between them mapping each cell of one of them homeo-
morphically onto a cell of the other one.
37.J. Represent R
n
as a cellular space.
Denote by R
R
1
R
n
canonically included to each other: R
n
= x R
n+1
:
x
n+1
= 0. Equip R
as a cellular space.
37
4 Simplicial spaces
Recall that in 19
Y into
R
p+q+1
.
37.N.2. Let X be a locally nite countable k-dimensional cellular space
and A be its (k 1)-skeleton. Prove that if A can be embedded to R
p
then
X can be embedded into R
p+k+1
.
37.O. Any countable locally nite cellular space can be embedded into
R
.
37.P. Any countable locally nite cellular space is metrizable.
37. CELLULAR SPACES 203
37
7 Euler Characteristic
Let X be a nite cellular space. Let c
i
(X) denote the number of its
cells of dimension i. Euler characteristic of X is the alternating sum of
c
i
(X):
(X) = c
0
(X) c
1
(X) +c
2
(X) + (1)
i
c
i
(X) +. . .
.
37:O. Prove that Euler characteristic is additive in the following sense: for any
cellular space X and its nite cellular subspaces A and B
(A B) = (A) +(B) (A B).
37:P. Prove that Euler characteristic is multiplicative in the following sense: for any
nite cellular spaces X and Y the Euler characteristic of their product X Y is
(X)(Y ).
37
8 Collaps
Let X be a cellular space, e and f its open cells of dimensions n and
n 1, respectively. Suppose:
the attaching map
e
: S
n1
X
n1
of the cell e denes a homeo-
morphism
1
e
(f) f,
f does not meet images of attaching maps of cells, distinct from e,
the cell e is disjoint from the image of attaching map of any cell.
37.Q. X (e f) is a cellular subspace of X.
37.R. X (e f) is a deformation retract of X.
We say that X (e f) is obtained from X by an elementary collaps,
and write X X (e f).
If a cellular subspace A of a cellular space X is obtained from X by
a sequence of elementary collapses, then we say that X is collapsed onto
A and also write X A.
37.S. Collapsing does not change the Euler characteristic: if X is a
nite cellular space and X A, then (A) = (X).
37.11. Let A be cellular space of dimension n, let : S
n
A and : S
n
= A
D
n+1
and X
= A
D
n+1
are homotopy equivalent.
37.12. Let X be a space obtained from a circle by attaching of two copies
of disk by maps S
1
S
1
: z z
2
and S
1
S
1
: z z
3
, respectively. Find
a cellular space homotopy equivalent to X with smallest possible number of
cells.
37.13. Enigma. Generalize the preceding problem.
37. CELLULAR SPACES 204
37
9 Generalized collaps
Let, as above, X be a cellular space, e and f be its open cells of
dimensions n and n 1, respectively, and let the attaching map
e
:
S
n
X
n1
of e dene a homeomorphism
1
e
(f) f. (Unlike in the
preceding section, we assume neither that f is disjoint from the images
of attaching maps of cells dierent from e, nor that e is disjoint from
the images of attaching maps of whatever cells.) Let
e
: D
n
X be a
natural map of D
n
onto the closure of e, which maps the interior of D
n
homeomorphicaly onto e and coincides on the boundary sphere with
e
.
(This map is called a characteristic map of e.
Furthermore, let : D
n
S
n1
1
e
(f) be a deformation re-
traction. Since
1
e
(f) is homeomorphic to an open (n 1)-ball, the
latter condition is not very restrictive. For example, if
1
e
(f) is hemi-
sphere (x
1
, . . . , x
n
) S
n1
[ x
n
> 0, then for one can take the
projection of D
n
along the n-th coordinate axis onto closed hemisphere
(x
1
, . . . , x
n
) S
n1
[ x
n
0.
37.T. Under these conditions, quotient space X/
[
e
(x)
e
((x))]
of
X is a cellular space, which cells are the images under the natural pro-
jections of all the cells of X, besides e and f.
Cellular space X/
[
e
(x)
e
((x))]
is said to be obtained by cancel-
lation of cells e and f.
37.U. The natural projection X X/
[
e
(x)
e
((x))]
is a homotopy
equivalence.
37.U.1. Find a cellular subspace Y of a cellular space X such that the
projection Y Y/
[
e
(x)
e
((x))]
would be a homotopy equivalence
by Theorem 37.R.
37.U.2. Extend inclusion map Y (e f) Y to a map homotopically
inverse to projection X X/
[
e
(x)
e
((x))]
, and extend homotopies
which exist by 37.U.1 to homotopies which prove that this map is homo-
topically inverse to the projection above.
37:Q. A cellular space X, which contains a closed 1-cell e homeomorphic to I, is
homotopy equivalent to cellular space X/
e
obtained by contraction of e.
37:R. Any connected cellular space is homotopy equivalent to a cellular space with
one point 0-skeleton.
37.14. Prove that the torus S
1
S
1
with two disks attached along meridian
1 S
1
and parallel S
1
1, respectively, is homotopy equivalent to S
2
.
37.15. Prove that the quotient space
CP
2
/
[(z
0
: z
1
: z
2
) (z
0
: z
1
: z
2
)]
37. CELLULAR SPACES 205
of the complex projective plane CP
2
is homotopy equivalent to S
4
.
38 One-Dimensional Cellular Spaces
38
1 Homotopy Classication
38.A. Any connected nite 1-dimensional cellular space is homotopy
equivalent to a bouquet of circles.
38.A.1 Lemma. Let X be a 1-dimensional cellular space, and e its 1-cell,
which is attached by an injective map S
0
X
0
(i.e., it has two distinct
end points). Prove that the natural projection X X/
e
is a homotopy
equivalence. Describe the homotopy inverse map explicitly.
38.B. A nite connected cellular space X of dimension one is homotopy
equivalent to the bouquet of 1 (X) circles and its fundamental group
is a free group of rank 1 (X).
38.C Corollary. The Euler charateristic of a nite connected one-
dimensional cellular space is invariant under homotopy equivalence. It is
not greater than one. It equals one, i the space is homotopy equivalent
to point
38.D Corollary. The Euler characteristic of a nite one-dimensional
cellular space is not greater than the number of its connected components.
It is equal to this number, i each of its connected components is homo-
topy equivalent to point
38.E Homotopy Classication of Finite 1-Dimensional Cel-
lular Spaces. Finite connected one-dimensional cellular spaces are ho-
motopy equivalent, i their fundamental groups are isomorphic, i their
Euler characteristics are equal.
38.1. The fundamental group of a 2-sphere punctured at n points is a free
group of rank n 1.
38.2. Prove that the Euler characteristic of a cellular space homeomorphic
to S
2
is equal to 2.
38.3 The Euler Theorem. For any convex polyhedron in R
3
, the sum of
the number of its vertices and the number of its faces equals the number of
its edges plus two.
38
2 Dividing Cells
38:A. In a connected cellular space each connected component of the complement of
an edge meets the closure of the edge. The complement has at most two connected
component.
A complete local characterization of a vertex in a one-dimensional cellular space
is its valency. This is the totla number of points in the preimages of the vertex under
attaching maps of all one-dimensional cells of the space.
38:B. Each connected component of the complement of a vertex in a connected one-
dimensional cellular space contains an edge with boundary containing the vertex. The
complement of a vertex of valency m has at most m connected components.
206
38. ONE-DIMENSIONAL CELLULAR SPACES 207
38:C. In any nite connected one-dimensional cellular space there exists a vertex
with connected complement.
38
4 Simple Paths
Let X be a one-dimensional cellular space. A simple path of length n in X is
a nite sequence (v
1
, e
1
, v
2
, e
2
, . . . , e
n
, v
n+1
), formed of vertices v
i
and edges e
i
of X
such that each term appears in it only once and the boundary of every edge e
i
consists
of the preceding and susequent vertices v
i
and v
i+1
. Vertex v
1
is said to be initial
and v
n+1
, nal vertex. The simple path is said to connect these vertices. They are
connected by a path I X, which is a topological embedding with image contained
in the union of all the cells involved in the simple path. The union of these cells is a
cellular subspace of X. It is called a simple broken line.
38:N. In a connected one-dimensional cellular space any two vertices can be connected
by a simple path.
38:O Corollary. In a connected one-dimensional cellular space X any two points
can be connected by a path I X, which is a topological embedding.
38:1. Does there exist a path-connected space in which there exist distinct
points which cannot be connected by a path which is a topological embedding.
38:2. Can you nd a Hausdor space with this property?
38:P. A connected one-dimensional cellular space X is a tree, i there exists no
topological embedding S
1
X.
38. ONE-DIMENSIONAL CELLULAR SPACES 208
38:Q. In a one-dimensional cellular space X there exists a loop S
1
X not homo-
topic to a constant loop, i there exists a topological embedding S
1
X.
38:R. A one-dimensional cellular space is a tree, i any two distinct vertices can be
connected in it by a unique simple path.
38:3. Prove that any nite tree has xed point property.
Cf. 34.12, 34.13 and 34.14.
38:4. Is this true for any tree; for any nite connected one-dimensional cel-
lular space?
38
5 Maximal Trees
A cellular subspace A of a cellular space X is called a maximal tree
of X if A is a tree and is not contained in any other cellular subspace
B X, which is a tree.
38.F. Any nite connected one-dimensional cellular space contains a
maximal tree.
38.G. Prove that a cellular subspace A of a cellular space X is a maximal
tree, i it is a tree and contains all vertices of X.
A maximal tree is called also a spanning tree. Theorem 38.G provides
the reason for this.
38.H. Prove that a cellular subspace A of a cellular space X is a maximal
tree, i it is a tree and the quotient space X/
A
is a bouquet of circles.
38.I. Let X be a onr-dimensional cellular space and A its cellular sub-
space. Prove that if A is a tree then the natural projection X X/
A
is
a homotopy equivalence.
Problems 38.F, 38.I and 38.H provide yet another proof of Theorem
38.A.
39 Fundamental Group of a Cellular Space
39
2 Generators
39.C. Let A be a topological space, x
0
A. Let : S
k1
A be a con-
tinuous map, X = A
D
k
. If k > 1, then the inclusion homomorphism
1
(A, x
0
)
1
(X, x
0
) is surjective. Cf. 28.G.5, 28.G.4.
39.D. Let X be a cellular space, x
0
its 0-cell and X
1
the 1-skeleton of
X. Then the inclusion homomorphism
1
(X
1
, x
0
)
1
(X, x
0
)
is surjective.
39.E. Let X be a nite cellular space, T a maximal tree of X
1
and
x
0
T. For each cell e X
1
T choose a loop s
e
, which starts at x
0
,
goes inside T to e, then goes once along e and then comes back to x
0
in
T. Prove that
1
(X, x
0
) is generated by homotopy classes of s
e
.
39.1. Deduce Theorem 28.G from Theorem 39.D.
39.2. Find
1
(CP
n
).
39
3 Relators
Let X be a cellular space, x
0
its 0-cell. Denote by X
n
the n-skeleton
of X. Recall that X
2
is obtained from X
1
by attaching copies of disk
D
2
by continuous maps
: S
1
X
1
. The attaching maps are circular
loops in X
1
. For each choose a path s
: I X
1
connecting
(1)
with x
0
. Denote by N the normal subgroup of
1
(X, x
0
) generated (as a
normal subgroup
2
.) by elements
T
s
[
]
1
(X
1
, x
0
).
39.F. N does not depend on the choice of paths s
.
2
Recall that a subgroup is said to be normal if it coincides with conjugate sub-
groups. The normal subgroup generated by a set A is the minimal normal subgroup
containing A. As a subgroup, it is generated by elements of A and elements conju-
gate to them. This means that each element of this normal subgroup is a product of
elements conjugate to elements of A
209
39. FUNDAMENTAL GROUP OF A CELLULAR SPACE 210
39.G. N coincides with the kernel of the inclusion homomorphism
i
:
1
(X
1
, x
0
)
1
(X, x
0
).
39.G.1 Lemma 1. N Ker i
: S
1
Y
1
of
with
(1) = y.
39.G.3 Lemma 3. Let Y
2
be a cellular space obtained by attaching copies
of disk to Y
1
by all liftings of attaching maps
1
(A, x
0
) =
1
, . . . ,
p
:
1
= 1, . . . ,
r
= 1,
1
(B, x
0
) =
1
, . . . ,
q
:
1
= 1, . . . ,
s
= 1,
and
1
(C, x
0
) be generated by
1
, . . .
t
. Let the images of
i
under the inclusion
homomorphisms
1
(C, x
0
)
1
(A, x
0
) and
1
(C, x
0
)
1
(B, x
0
) be expressed as
i
(
1
, . . . ,
p
) and
i
(
1
, . . . ,
q
), respectively. Then
1
(X) =
1
, . . . ,
p
,
1
, . . . ,
q
:
1
= 1, . . . ,
r
= 1,
1
= 1, . . . ,
s
= 1,
1
=
1
, . . . ,
t
=
t
.
39:C. Let X, A, B and C be as above. Suppose A, B are simply connected and C
consists of two path connected components. Prove that
1
(X) is isomorphic to Z.
To write details: van Kampen published much more gen-
eral theorem!
40 One-Dimensional Homology and Cohomology
40
4 Description of H
1
(X) in Terms of Free Circular Loops
Factorization by the commutator subgroup kills the dierence between translation
maps dened by dierent paths. Therefore the abelianized fundamental groups of a
path-connected space can be naturally identied. Hence each free loop denes a
homology class. This suggests that H
1
(X) can be dened starting with free loops,
rather than loops at a base point.
40:B. On the sphere with two handles and three holes shown in Figure 1 the sum
of the homology classes of the three loops, which go counter-clockwise arround the
three holes, is zero.
Figure 1. Sphere with two handles and three holes. The
boundary circles of the holes are equipped with arrows
showing the counter-clockwise orientation.
40:C Zero-Homologous Collections of Loops. Let X be a pathwise connected
space and s
1
, . . . , s
n
: S
1
X be a collection of n free loops. Prove that the sum
of homology classes of s
1
, . . . , s
n
is equal to zero, i there exist a continuous map
f : F X, where F is a sphere with handles and n holes, and embeddings i
1
, . . . , i
n
:
S
1
F parametrizing the boundary circles of the holes in the counter-clockwise
direction (as in Figure 1) such that s
k
= f i
k
for k = 1, . . . , n.
40. ONE-DIMENSIONAL HOMOLOGY AND COHOMOLOGY 215
40:D Homologous Collections of Loops. In a topological space X any class
H
1
(X) can be represented by a nite collection of free circular loops. Collections
u
1
, . . . , u
p
and v
1
, . . . , v
q
of free circular loops in X dene the same homology
class, i there exist a continuous map f : F X, where F is a disjoint sum of
several spheres with handles and holes with the total number of holes equal p + q,
and embeddings i
1
, . . . , i
p+q
: S
1
F parametrizing the boundary circles of all the
holes of F in the counter-clockwise direction such that u
k
= f i
k
for k = 1, . . . , p
and v
1
k
= f i
k+p
for k = 1, . . . , q.
40
1
(X, x
0
). On the other hand, H
1
(X
0
) is contained in H
1
(X) as a direct summand.
This allows one to dene the Hurewicz homomorphism
1
(X, x
0
) H
1
(X) as a
composition of the Hurewicz homomorphism H :
1
(X
0
, x
0
) H
1
(X
0
) (which is
already dened above), isomorphism in
1
:
1
(X, x
0
)
1
(X
0
, x
0
) (inverse to the
inclusion isomorphism), and inclusion H
1
(X
0
) H
1
(X).
40:E. Let f : (X, x
0
) (Y, y
0
) be a continuous map. If X is path connected, then
the diagram
1
(X, x
0
)
f
(Y, y
0
)
H
_ H
_
H
1
(X) H
1
(Y )
is completed in a unique way to a commutative diagram
1
(X, x
0
)
f
(Y, y
0
)
H
_ H
_
H
1
(X) H
1
(Y )
The homomorphism H
1
(X) H
1
(Y ) completing the diagram in 40:E is denoted
by the same symbol f
as the homomorphism f
:
1
(X, x
0
)
1
(Y, y
0
). It is also
called a homomorphism induced by f.
40:F. Extend the denition of f
: H
1
(X) H
1
(Y ) given in 40:E to the case when
X is not path connected.
40:G. For any continuous map f : X Y and any loop : S
1
X, the image
under f
: H
1
(X) H
1
(Y ) of the homology class represented by is the homology
class represented by f .
3
Witold Hurewicz has introduced a high dimensional generalization of this ho-
momorphism,
n
(X, x
0
) H
n
(X), which we cannot discuss here for you are not
assumed to be familiar with H
n
(X). The homomorphism
1
(X, x
0
) H
1
(X) should
be rather attributed to Henry Poincare, although the group H
1
(X) was introduced
long after he died.
40. ONE-DIMENSIONAL HOMOLOGY AND COHOMOLOGY 216
40:2. Look through 33, 34, 35, 36 and 39 and nd all the theorems
about homomorphisms of fundamental groups which gives rise to similar the-
orems about homomorphisms of one-dimensional homology groups. In which
applications the fundamental groups can be replaced by one-dimensional ho-
mology groups?
40:3 Homology Group of a Cellular Space. Deduce from the calcula-
tion of the fundamental group of a cellular space (see 39) an algorithm for
calculation of H
1
(X) for a cellular space X.
40
6 One-Dimensional Cohomology
Let X be a path-connected topological space and G a commutative group.
40:H. The homomorphisms
1
(X, x
0
) G comprise a commutative group in which
the group operation is the pointwise addition.
The group Hom(
1
(X, x
0
), G) of all the homomorphisms
1
(X, x
0
) G is called
one-dimensional cohomology group of X with coecients in Gand denoted by H
1
(X; G).
For an arbitrary topological space X, the one-dimensional cohomology group of X
with coecients in G is dened as the direct product of one-dimensional cohomology
group with coecients in G of all the path-connected components of X.
40:I Cohomology via Homology. H
1
(X; G) = Hom(H
1
(X), G).
The following subsection is to be rewritten when
the section on classication of coverings will be done!
40
: H
1
(X) H
1
(S
1
) = Z. Therefore it denes an element of
H
1
(X; Z).
40. ONE-DIMENSIONAL HOMOLOGY AND COHOMOLOGY 217
40:K. This construction denes a bijection of the set of all the homotopy classes of
maps X S
1
onto H
1
(X; Z).
40:L Addition of Maps to Circle. What operation on the set of homotopy classes
of maps to S
1
corresponds to the addition in H
1
(X; Z)?
40:M. What regular Z-covering of X corresponds to a homotopy class of mappings
X S
1
under the compositions of the bijections described in 40:K and 40:J
40
2 Dimension
41.D. Can a topological space be simultaneously a locally Euclidean
space of dimension both 0 and n > 0?
221
41. LOCALLY EUCLIDEAN SPACES 222
41.E. Can a topological space be simultaneously a locally Euclidean
space of dimension both 1 and n > 1?
41.3. Prove that any nonempty open connected subset of a locally Euclidean
space of dimension 1 can be made disconnected by removing two points.
41.4. Prove that any nonempty locally Euclidean space of dimension n >
1 contains a nonempty open set, which cannot be made disconnected by
removing any two points.
41.F. Can a topological space be simultaneously a locally Euclidean
space of dimension both 2 and n > 2?
41.G. Let U be an open subset of R
2
and a p U. Prove that
1
(Up)
admits an epimorphism onto Z.
41.H. Deduce from 41.G that a topological space cannot be simultane-
ously a locally Euclidean space of dimension both 2 and n > 2.
We see that dimension of locally Euclidean topological space is a
topological invariant at least for the cases when it is not greater than
2. In fact, this holds true without that restriction. However, one needs
some technique to prove this. One possibility is provided by dimen-
sion theory, see, e.g., W. Hurewicz and H. Wallman, Dimension Theory
Princeton, NJ, 1941. Other possibility is to generalize the arguments
used in 41.H to higher dimensions. However, this demands a knowledge
of high-dimensional homotopy groups.
41.5. Deduce that a topological space cannot be simultaneously a locally Eu-
clidean space of dimension both n and p > n from the fact that
n1
(S
n1
) =
Z. Cf. 41.H
41
1 Denition of Manifold
A topological space is called a manifold of dimension n if it is
locally Euclidean of dimension n,
second countable,
Hausdor.
42.A. Prove that the three conditions of the denition are independent
(i.e., there exist spaces not satisfying any one of the three conditions and
satisfying the other two.)
42.A.1. Prove that R
i
R, where i : x R : x < 0 R is the inclusion,
is a non-Hausdor locally Euclidean space of dimension one.
42.B. Check whether the spaces listed in Problem 41.B are manifolds.
A compact manifold without boundary is said to be closed. As in the
case of interior and boundary, this term coincides with one of the basic
terms of general topology. Of course, the image of a closed manifold under
embedding into a Hausdor space is a closed subset of this Hausdor
space (as any compact subset of a Hausdor space). However absence
of boundary does not work here, and even non-compact manifolds may
be closed subsets. They are closed in themselves, as any space. Here
we meet again an ambiguity of classical terminology. In the context of
manifolds the term closed relates rather to the idea of a closed surface.
42
2 Components of Manifold
42.C. A connected component of a manifold is a manifold.
42.D. A connected component of a manifold is path-connected.
42.E. A connected component of a manifold is open in the manifold.
42.F. A manifold is the sum of its connected components.
42.G. The set of connected components of any manifold is countable.
If the manifold is compact, then the number of the components is nite.
42.1. Prove that a manifold is connected, i its interior is connected.
42.H. The fundamental group of a manifold is countable.
42
4 Double
42.Q. Can a manifold be embedded into a manifold of the same dimen-
sion without boundary?
Let X be a manifold. Denote by DX the space X
id
X
X obtained
by gluing of two copies of X by the identity mapping id
X
: X X
of the boundary.
42.R. Prove that DX is a manifold without boundary of the same di-
mension as X.
DX is called the double of X.
42.S. Prove that a double of a manifold is compact, i the original
manifold is compact.
42
= (x, t) X R
+
: t (x).
A bite on X at U is an embedding b : B
X with some : X R
+
such that b(x, 0) = x for each x X.
This is a generalization of collar. Indeed, a collar is a bite at U = X
with = 1.
42:A.1. Prove that if U X is contained in an open subset of X home-
omorphic to R
n
+
, then there exists a bite of X at U.
42:A.2. Prove that for any bite b : B X of a manifold X the closure of
X b(B) is a manifold.
42:A.3. Let b
1
: B
1
X be a bite of X and b
2
: B
2
Cl(X b
1
(B
1
))
be a bite of Cl(X b
1
(B
1
)). Construct a bite b : B X of X with
b(B) = b
1
(B
1
) b
2
(B
2
).
42:A.4. Prove that if there exists a bite of X at X then there exists a
collar of X.
42:B. For any two collars c
1
, c
2
: X I X there exists a homeomorphism h :
X X with h(x) = x for x X such that h c
1
= c
2
.
This means that a collar is unique up to homeomorphism.
42:B.1. For any collar c : XI X there exists a collar c
: XI X
such that c(x, t) = c
(x, t/2).
42:B.2. For any collar c : X I X there exists a homeomorphism
h : X X
x(x,1)
X I
with h(c(x, t)) = (x, t).
43 Isotopy
43
1 Isotopy of Homeomorphisms
Let X and Y be topological spaces, h, h
: X Y homeomorphisms.
A homotopy h
t
: X Y , t [0, 1] connecting h and h
(i.e., with h
0
= h,
h
1
= h
if h
t
is a homeomorphism
for each t [0, 1]. Homeomorphisms h, h
.
43.A. Being isotopic is an equivalence relation on the set of homeomor-
phisms X Y .
43.B. Find a topological space X such that homotopy between homeo-
morphisms X X does not imply isotopy.
This means that isotopy classication of homeomorphisms can be
more rened than homotopy classication of them.
43.1. Classify homeomorphisms of circle S
1
to itself up to isotopy.
43.2. Classify homeomorphisms of line R
1
to itself up to isotopy.
The set of isotopy classes of homeomorphisms X X (i.e. the
quotient of the set of self-homeomorphisms of X by isotopy relation) is
called the mapping class group or homeotopy group of X.
43.C. For any topological space X, the mapping class group of X is a
group under the operation induced by composition of homeomorphisms.
43.3. Find the mapping class group of the union of the coordinate lines in
the plane.
43.4. Find the mapping class group of the union of bouquet of two circles.
43
: X Y
topological embeddings. A homotopy h
t
: X Y , t [0, 1] connecting
h and h
(i.e., with h
0
= h, h
1
= h
if h
t
is an embedding for each t [0, 1]. Embeddings
h, h
.
43.D. Being isotopic is an equivalence relation on the set of embeddings
X Y .
A family A
t
, t I of subsets of a topological space X is called an
isotopy of the set A = A
0
, if the graph = (x, t) X I [ x A
t
of
the family is brewise homeomorphic to the cylinder A I, i. e. there
228
43. ISOTOPY 229
exists a homeomorphism AI mapping At to X t for
any t I. Such a homeomorphism gives rise to an isotopy of embeddings
t
: A X, t I with
0
= in,
t
(A) = A
t
. An isotopy of a subset
is also called a subset isotopy. Subsets A and A
= A
1
.
43.E. It is easy to see that this is an equivalence relation on the set of
subsets of X.
As it follows immediately from the denitions, any embedding isotopy
determines an isotopy of the image of the initial embedding and any
subset isotopy is accompanied with an embedding isotopy. However the
relation between the notions of subset isotopy and embedding isotopy is
not too close because of the following two reasons:
(a) an isotopy
t
accompanying a subset isotopy A
t
starts with the
inclusion of A
0
(while arbitrary isotopy may start with any embed-
ding);
(b) an isotopy accompanying a subset isotopy is determined by the sub-
set isotopy only up to composition with an isotopy of the identity
homeomorphism A A(an isotopy of a homeomorphism is a special
case of embedding isotopies, since homeomorphisms can be consid-
ered as a sort of embeddings).
An isotopy of a subset A in X is said to be ambient, if it may be
accompanied with an embedding isotopy
t
: A X extendible to an
isotopy
t
: X X of the identity homeomorphism of the space X. The
isotopy
t
is said to be ambient for
t
. This gives rise to obvious rene-
ments of the equivalence relations for subsets and embeddings introduced
above.
43.F. Find isotopic, but not ambiently isotopic sets in [0, 1].
43.G. If sets A
1
, A
2
X are ambiently isotopic then the complements
X A
1
and X A
2
are homeomorphic and hence homotopy equivalent.
43.5. Find isotopic, but not ambiently isotopic sets in R.
43.6. Prove that any isotopic compact subsets of R are ambiently isotopic.
43.7. Find isotopic, but not ambiently isotopic compact sets in R
3
.
43.8. Prove that any two embeddings S
1
R
3
are isotopic. Find embed-
dings S
1
R
3
that are not ambiently isotopic.
43
4 Connected Sums
43.H. Let X and Y be manifolds of dimension n, and : R
n
X,
: R
n
Y be embeddings. Then
X (Int D
n
)
(S
n
)X(Int D
n
):(a)(a)
Y (Int D
n
)
is a manifold of dimension n.
This manifold is called a connected sum of X and Y .
43.I. Show that the topological type of the connected sum of X and Y
depends not only on the topological types of X and Y .
43.J. Let X and Y be manifolds of dimension n, and : R
n
X,
: R
n
Y be embeddings. Let h : X X be a homeomorphism.
Then the connected sums of X and Y dened via and , on one hand,
and via and h , on the other hand, are homeomorphic.
43.9. Find pairs of manifolds connected sums of which are homeomorphic
to
(a) S
1
,
(b) Klein bottle,
(c) sphere with three crosscaps.
43.10. Find a disconnected connected sum of connected manifolds. Describe,
under what circumstances this can happen.
44 One-Dimensional Manifolds
44
1 Zero-Dimensional Manifolds
This section is devoted to topological classication of manifolds of
dimension one. We skip the case of 0-dimensional manifolds due to trivi-
ality of the problem. Indeed, any 0-dimensional manifold is just a count-
able discrete topological space, and the only topological invariant needed
for topological classication of 0-manifolds is the number of points: two
0-dimensional manifolds are homeomorphic, i they have the same num-
ber of points.
The case of 1-dimensional manifolds is also simple, but it requires
more detailed consideration.
44
3 Examples
44.A. What connected 1-manifolds do you know?
(a) Do you know any closed connected 1-manifold?
(b) Do you know a connected compact 1-manifold, which is not closed?
(c) What non-compact connected 1-manifolds do you know?
(d) Is there a non-compact connected 1-manifolds with boundary?
44.B. Fill the following table with pluses and minuses.
Manifold X Is X compact? Is X empty?
S
1
R
1
I
R
1
+
44
2,
U to z S
1
: 1/
2.
44. ONE-DIMENSIONAL MANIFOLDS 233
44
6 Without Boundary
44.D.1. Deduce Theorem 44.D from Lemma 44.G.
44.E.1. Deduce from Lemma 44.G that for any connected non-compact
one-dimensional manifold X without a boundary there exists an embedding
X R with open image.
44.E.2. Deduce Theorem 44.E from 44.E.1.
44
7 With Boundary
44.F.1. Prove that any compact connected manifold of dimension 1 can be
embedded into S
1
.
44.F.2. List all connected subsets of S
1
.
44.F.3. Deduce Theorem 44.F from 44.F.2, and 44.F.1.
44.G.1. Prove that any non-compact connected manifold of dimension 1
can be embedded into R
1
.
44.G.2. Deduce Theorem 44.G from 44.G.1.
44
8 Consequences of Classication
44.I. Prove that connected sum of closed 1-manifolds is dened up home-
omorphism by topological types of summands.
44.J. Which 0-manifolds bound a compact 1-manifold?
44
1 Examples
45.A. What connected 2-manifolds do you know?
(a) List closed connected 2-manifold that you know.
(b) Do you know a connected compact 2-manifold, which is not closed?
(c) What non-compact connected 2-manifolds do you know?
(d) Is there a non-compact connected 2-manifolds with non-empty bound-
ary?
45.1. Construct non-homeomorphic non-compact connected manifolds of di-
mension two without boundary and with isomorphic innitely generated fun-
damental group.
For notions relevant to this problem see what follows.
45
n=1
D
n
. Prove that for any end U
1
U
n
. . . of X with respect
to C
n
there exists a unique end V
1
V
n
. . . of X with respect to D
n
such
that for any p there exists q such that V
q
U
p
.
45:C. Let X, C
n
and D
n
be as above. Then the map of the set of ends of X with
respect to C
n
to the set of ends of X with respect to D
n
dened by the statement of
45:B is a bijection.
Theorem 45:C allows one to speak about ends of X without specifying a system
of compact sets
C
1
C
2
C
n
X
with X =
n=1
C
n
. Indeed, 45:B and 45:C establish a canonical one-to-one corre-
spondence between ends of X with respect to any two systems of this kind.
45:D. Prove that R
1
has two ends, R
n
with n > 1 has one end.
45:E. Find the number of ends for the universal covering space of the bouquet of two
circles.
45:F. Does there exist a 2-manifold with a nite number of ends which cannot be
embedded into a compact 2-manifold?
234
45. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MANIFOLDS: GENERAL PICTURE 235
45:G. Prove that for any compact set K S
2
with connected complement S
2
K
there is a natural map of the set of ends of S
2
K to the set of connected components
of K.
Let W be an open set of X. The set of ends U
1
U
n
. . . of X such that
U
n
W for suciently large n is said to be open.
45:H. Prove that this denes a topological structure in the set of ends of X.
The set of ends of X equipped with this topological structure is called the space
of ends of X. Denote this space by c(X).
45.1.1. Construct non-compact connected manifolds of dimension two with-
out boundary and with isomorphic innitely generated fundamental group,
but with non-homeomorphic spaces of ends.
45.1.2. Construct non-compact connected manifolds of dimension two with-
out boundary and with isomorphic innitely generated fundamental group,
but with dierent number of ends.
45.1.3. Construct non-compact connected manifolds of dimension two with-
out boundary with isomorphic innitely generated fundamental group and
the same number of ends, but with dierent topology in the space of ends.
45.1.4. Let K be a completely disconnected closed set in S
2
. Prove that
the map c(S
2
K) K dened in 45:G is continuous.
45.1.5. Construct a completely disconnected closed set K S
2
such that
this map is a homeomorphism.
45:I. Prove that there exists an uncountable family of pairwise nonhomeomorphic
connected 2-manifolds without boundary.
The examples of non-compact manifolds dimension 2 presented above
show that there are too many non-compact connected 2-manifolds. This
makes impossible any really useful topological classication of non-compact
2-manifolds. Theorems reducing the homeomorphism problem for 2-
manifolds of this type to the homeomorphism problem for their spaces
of ends do not seem to be useful: spaces of ends look not much simpler
than the surfaces themselves.
However, there is a special class of non-compact 2-manifolds, which
admits a simple and useful classication theorem. This is the class of
simply connected non-compact 2-manifolds without boundary. We post-
pone its consideration to section ??. Now we turn to the case, which is
the simplest and most useful for applications.
45
3 Closed Surfaces
45.B. Any connected closed manifold of dimension two is homeomorphic
either to sphere S
2
, or sphere with handles, or sphere with crosscaps.
45. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MANIFOLDS: GENERAL PICTURE 236
Recall that according to Theorem 39.L the basic surfaces represent
pairwise distinct topological (and even homotopy) types. Therefore, 39.L
and 45.B together give topological and homotopy classications of closed
2-dimensional manifolds.
We do not recommend to prove Theorem 45.B immediately and, es-
pecially, in the form given above. All known proofs of 45.B can be de-
composed into two main stages: rstly, a manifold under consideration
is equipped with some additional structure (like triangulation or smooth
structure); then using this structure a required homeomorphism is con-
structed. Although the rst stage appears in the proof necessarily and
is rather dicult, it is not useful outside the proof. Indeed, any closed
2-manifold, which we meet in a concrete mathematical context, is either
equipped, or can be easily equipped with the additional structure. The
methods of imposing the additional structure are much easier, than a
general proof of existence for this structure in arbitrary 2-manifold.
Therefore, we suggest for the rst case to restrict ourselves to the
second stage of the proof of Theorem 45.B, prefacing it with general
notions related to the most classical additional structure, which can be
used for this purpose.
46 Triangulations
46
1 Triangulations of Surfaces
By an Euclidean triangle we mean the convex hall of three non-collinear
points of Euclidean space. Of course, it is homeomorphic to disk D
2
, but
not only the topological structure is relevant for us now. The boundary
of a triangle contains three distinguished points, its vertices, which di-
vide the boundary into three pieces, its sides. A topological triangle in a
topological space X is an embedding of an Euclidean triangle into X. A
vertex (respectively, side) of a topological triangle T X is the image
of a vertex ( respectively, side) of T in X.
A set of topological triangles in a 2-manifold X is a triangulation of
X provided the images of these triangles form a fundamental cover of X
and any two of the images either are disjoint or intersect in a common
side or in a common vertex.
46.A. Prove that in the case of compact X the former condition (about
fundamental cover) means that the number of triangles is nite.
46.B. Prove that the condition about fundamental cover means that the
cover is locally nite.
46
be two triangles
of the triangulation adjacent to V . Prove that there exisits a sequence
T = T
1
, T
2
, . . . , T
n
= T
4 Scheme of Triangulation
Triangulations
present a surface
combinatorially.
Let X be a 2-manifold and T a triangulation of X. Denote the set of vertices of
T by V . Denote by
2
the set of triples of vertices, which are vertices of a triangle
of T . Denote by
1
the set of pairs of vertices, which are vertices of a side of T . Put
0
= S. This is the set of vertices of T . Put =
2
1
0
. The pair (V, ) is
called the (combinatorial) scheme of T .
46:A. Prove that the combinatorial scheme (V, ) of a triangulation of a 2-manifold
has the following properties:
(a) is a set consisting of subsets of V ,
(b) each element of consists of at most 3 elements of V ,
(c) three-element elements of cover V ,
(d) any subset of an element of belongs to ,
(e) intersection of any collection of elements of belongs to ,
(f) for any two-element element of there exist exactly two three-element elements
of containing it.
Recall that objects of this kind appeared above, in Section 19
10. Let V be
a set and is a set of nite subsets of V . The pair (V, ) is called a triangulation
scheme if
any subset of an element of belongs to ,
intersection of any collection of elements of belongs to ,
any one element subset of V belongs to .
For any simplicial scheme (V, ) in 19
5 Examples
46.1. Consider the cover of torus obtained in the obvious way from the cover
of the square by its halves separated by a diagonal of the square.
Is it a triangulation of torus? Why not?
46.2. Prove that the simplest triangulation of S
2
consists of 4 triangles.
46. TRIANGULATIONS 239
46.3*. Prove that a triangulation of torus S
1
S
1
contains at least 14
triangles, and a triangulation of the projective plane contains at least 10
triangles.
46
6 Subdivision of a Triangulation
A triangulation o of a 2-manifold X is said to be a subdivision of a
triangulation T , if each triangle of o is contained in some triangle
1
of T .
Then o is also called a renement of T .
There are several standard ways to subdivide a triangulation. Here
is one of the simplest of them. Choose a point inside a triangle , call
it a new vertex, connect it by disjoint arcs with vertices of and call
these arcs new edges. These arcs divide to three new triangles. In
the original triangulation replace by these three new triangles. This
operation is called a star subdivision centered at . See Figure 6.
11).
46
7. Compare with
the topological classication of 1-manifolds obtained in Section 44.
46.Q. What values take the Euler characteristic on compact 1-manifolds?
46.R. What is relation of the Euler characteristic of a compact triangu-
lated 1-manifold X and the number of X?
46.S. Triangulation of a 2-manifold X gives rise to a triangulation of
its boundary X. Namely, the edges of the triangualtion of X are the
sides of triangles of the original triangulation which lie in X.
46
Int D
np
is called the interior of h, the image of the core h(D
p
0) of
the standard handle is called the core of h, the image h(0 D
np
) of
cocore, the cocore, etc.
47
that lies in
_
S. Thus, if S is a vertex then H
S
is the union
of all triangles of
4 Regular Neighborhoods
Let X be a 2-manifold, its triangulation, and A be a simplicial
subspace of X. The union of all those simplices of the double baricen-
tric subdivision
2 Orientation of Triangulation
An orientation of a triangulation of a 2-manifold is a collection of ori-
entations of all tringles constituting the triangulation such that for each
edge the orientations dened on it by the orientations of the two adja-
cent triangles are opposite to each other. A triangulation is said to be
orientable, if it admits an orientation.
48.A Number of Triangulations. A triangulation of a connected
2-manifold is either non-orientable or admits exactly two orientations.
These two orientations are opposite to each other. Each of them can be
recovered from the orientation of any triangle involved in the triangula-
tion.
48.B Lifting of Triangulation. Let B be a triangulated surface and
p : X B be a covering. Can you equip X with a triangulation?
48.C. Let B be an oriented triangulated surface and p : X B be a
covering. Equip X with a triangulation such that p maps each simplex
of it homeomorphically onto a simplex of the original triangulation of B.
Is this triangulation orientable?
48.D. Let X be a triangulated surface, C X be a 1-dimensional
manifold contained in 1-skeleton of X.
248
49 Classical Approach to Topological Classication
of Compact surfaces
49
1 Families of Polygons
The problems considered above show that triangulations provide a
combinatorial description of 2-dimensional manifolds, but this descrip-
tion is usually too bulky. Here we will study other, more practical way
to present 2-dimensional manifolds combinatorially. The main idea is to
use larger building blocks.
Let T be a collection of convex polygons P
1
, P
2
, . . . . Let the sides
of these polygons be oriented and paired o. Then we say that this is
a family of polygons. There is a natural quotient space of the sum of
polygons involved in a family: one identies each side with its pair-mate
by a homeomorphism, which respects the orientations of the sides. This
quotient space is called just the quotient of the family.
49.A. Prove that the quotient of the family of polygons is a 2-manifold
without boundary.
49.B. Prove that the topological type of the quotient of a family does not
change when the homeomorphism between the sides of a distinguished
pair is replaced by other homeomorphism which respects the orientations.
49.C. Prove that any triangulation of a 2-manifold gives rise to a family
of polygon whose quotient is homeomorphic to the 2-manifold.
A family of polygons can be described combinatorially: Assign a letter
to each distinguished pair of sides. Go around the polygons writing down
the letters assigned to the sides and equipping a letter with exponent 1
if the side is oriented against the direction in which we go around the
polygon. At each polygon we write a word. The word depends on the
side from which we started and on the direction of going around the
polygon. Therefore it is dened up to cyclic permutation and inversion.
The collection of words assigned to all the polygons of the family is called
a phrase associated with the family of polygons. It describes the family to
the extend sucient to recovering the topological type of the quotient.
49.1. Prove that the quotient of the family of polygons associated with
phrase aba
1
b
1
is homeomorphic to S
1
S
1
.
49.2. Identify the topological type of the quotient of the family of polygons
associated with phrases
(a) aa
1
;
(b) ab, ab;
(c) aa;
(d) abab
1
;
(e) abab;
(f) abcabc;
249
49. CLASSICAL APPROACH TO TOPOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATIONOF COMPACT SURFACES 250
(g) aabb;
(h) a
1
b
1
a
1
1
b
1
1
a
2
b
2
a
1
2
b
1
2
. . . a
g
b
g
a
1
g
b
1
g
;
(i) a
1
a
1
a
2
a
2
. . . a
g
a
g
.
49.D. A collection of words is a phrase associated with a family of poly-
gons, i each letter appears twice in the words.
A family of polygons is called irreducible if the quotient is connected.
49.E. A family of polygons is irreducible, i a phrase associated with it
does not admit a division into two collections of words such that there is
no letter involved in both collections.
49
and
Y = V b
1
V
.
49.F.6 Separation of Handle. A family corresponding to a phrase con-
sisting of a word UbU
aV b
1
V
a
1
, where U, U
, V , and V
are words
and a, b are letters, can be transformed to the family presented by phrase
dcd
1
c
1
UV
V U
.
49.F.7 Handle plus Crosscap Equals 3 Crosscaps. A family corre-
sponding to phrase aba
1
b
1
ccX can be transformed by elementary trans-
formations to the family corresponding to phrase abdbadX.
49
5 Orientations
By an orientation of a segment one means an ordering of its end
points (which one of them is initial and which one is nal). By an orien-
tation of a polygon one means orientation of all its sides such that each
vertex is the nal end point for one of the adjacent sides and initial for
the other one. Thus an orientation of a polygon includes orientation of
all its sides. Each segment can be oriented in two ways, and each polygon
can be oriented in two ways.
An orientation of a family of polygons is a collection of orientations
of all the polygons comprising the family such that for each pair of sides
one of the pair-mates has the orientation inherited from the orientation
of the polygon containing it while the other pair-mate has the orientation
opposite to the inherited orientation. A family of polygons is said to be
orientable if it admits an orientation.
49.5. Which of the families of polygons from Problem 49.2 are orientable?
49.6. Prove that a family of polygons associated with a word is orientable i
each letter appear in the word once with exponent 1 and once with exponent
1.
49.J. Orientability of a family of polygons is preserved by the elementary
operations.
A surface is said to be orientable if it can be presented as the quotient
of an orientable family of polygons.
49.K. A surface S is orientable, i any family of polygons whose quotient
is homeomorphic to S is orientable.
49.L. Spheres with handles are orientable. Spheres with crosscaps are
not.
49
2 Subdivisions of Triangulation
To avoid a congestion of paths on edges, one can add new edges, i.e., subdivide
the triangulation. Although an elementary operation on families of polygons applied
to a triangulation, gives rise to a family, which is not a triangulation, making several
elementary operations, one can get a new triangulation with more edges.
One triangulation of a surface is called a renement of another one if each triangle
of the former is contained in a triagle of the latter. There are several standard ways
to construct a renement of a triangulation.
For example, add a new vertex, which is located inside of a triangle of a given
triangulation, connect it with the vertices of this triangle with segments, which are
three new edges. The triangle is subdivided into three new triangles. The other tri-
angles of the original triangulations are kept intact. This is called the star subdivision
centered at . See Figure 6.
Another kind of local subdivision: add a new vertex located on an edge of a
given triangulation, connect by new edges this vertex to the vertices opposite to of
the triangles adjacent to . Each of the adjacent triangles is subdived into two new
triangles. Leave the other triangles intact. This is a star subdivision centered at .
See Figure 7.
254
50. ONE-DIMENSIONAL mod2-HOMOLOGY OF SURFACES 255
, v
homotopic to
u and v, respectively, such that u
(I) v
(I) is nite.
50:D. Let F be a triangulated and u a polygonal circular loop on F. Then there
exist a subdivision of the triangulation of F and a polygonal loop v homotopic to u
such that v maps the preimage v
1
() of any edge v(I) homeomorphically onto
. (In other words, v passes along each edge at most once).
Let u, v be polygonal circular loops on a triangulated surface F and a be an
isolated point of u(I) v(I). Suppose u
1
(a) and v
1
(a) are one point sets. One
says that u intersects v translversally at a if there exist a neighborhood U of a in F
and a homeomorphism U R
2
which maps u(I) U onto the x-axes and v(I) U
to y-axes.
Polygonal circular loops u, v on a triangulated surface are said to be in general
position to with respect each other, if u(I)v(i) is nite, for each point a u(i)v(I)
each of the sets u
1
(a) and v
1
(a) contains a single point and u, v are transversal at
a.
50. ONE-DIMENSIONAL mod2-HOMOLOGY OF SURFACES 256
50:E. Any two circular loops on a triangulated surface are homotopic to circular
loops, which are polygonal with respect to some subdivision of the triangulation and
in general position with respect to each other.
For a map f : X Y denote by S
k
(f) the set
a X [ f
1
f(a) consists of k elements
and put
S(f) = a X [ f
1
f(a) consists of more than 1 element.
A polygonal circular loop l on a triangulated surface F is said to be generic if
(a) S(l) is nite,
(b) S(l) = S
2
(l),
(c) at each a l(S
2
(l)) the two branches of s(I) intersecting at a are transversal,
that is a has a neighborhood U in F such that there exists a homeomorphism
U R
2
mapping the images under s of the connected components of s
1
(U)
to the coordinate axis.
50:F. Any circular loop on a triangulated surface is homotopic to a circular loop,
which is polygonal with respect to some subdivision of the triangulation and generic.
Generic circular loops are especially suitable for graphic representation, because
the image of a circular loop denes it to a great extend:
50:G. Let l be a generic polygonal loop on a triangulated surface. Then any generic
polygonal loop k with k(S
1
) = l(S
1
) is homotopic in l(S
1
) to either l or l
1
.
Thus, to describe a generic circular loop up to a reparametrization homotopic to
identity, it is sucient to draw the image of the loop on the surface and specify the
direction in which the loop runs along the image.
The image of a generic polygonal loop is called a generic (polygonal) closed
connected curve. A union of a nite collection of generic closed connected polygo-
nal curves is called a generic (polygonal) closed curve. A generic closed connected
curve without double points (i.e., an embedded oriented circle contained in the one-
dimensional skeleton of a triangulated surface) is called a simple polygonal closed
curve.
The adjective closed in the denitions above appears because there is a version
of the denitions with (non-closed) paths instead of loops.
50:H. Enigma. What modications in Problems 50:C 50:G and corresponding
denitions should be done to replace loops by paths everywhere?
By a generic polygonal curve we will mean a union of a nite collection of pairwise
disjoint images of generic polygonal loops and paths.
50
T T such that p h = p.
The surface T described in 50:I is called the result of cutting F along C. It is
denoted by F C. This is not the complement F C, though a copy of F C is
contained in F C as a dense subset, which is homotopy equivalent to the whole
F C.
50:J Triangulation of F C. There exists a unique triangulation of F C such
that the natural map F C F maps edges onto edges and triangles onto triangles
homeomorphically.
50:4. Describe the topological type of F C for the following F and C:
(a) F is Mobius band, C its core circle (deformation retract);
(b) F = S
1
S
1
, C = S
1
1;
(c) F is S
1
S
1
standardly embedded into R
3
, C the trefoil knot on F,
that is (z, w) S
1
S
1
[ z
2
= w
3
;
(d) F is Mobius band, C is a segment: show that there are two possible
placements of C in F and describe F C for both of them;
(e) F = RP
2
, C = RP
1
.
(f) F = RP
2
, C is homeomorphic to circle: show that there are two possible
placements of C in F and describe F C for both of them.
50:5 Euler Characteristic and Cutting. Find the Euler characteristic of
F C when C = . What if C ,= ?
50
6 One-Dimensional Z
2
-Cohomology of Surface
By 40:J, a two-fold covering of F can be thought of as an element of H
1
(F; Z
2
).
Thus any one-dimensional manifold C contained in the 1-skeleton of F and such that
C = F C denes a cohomology class of F with coecients in Z
2
. This class is
said to be realized by C.
50:L. The cohomology class with coecients in Z
2
realized by C in a compact surface
F is zero, i C divides F, that is, F = G H, where G and H are compact two-
dimensional manifolds with G H = C.
Recall that the cohomology group of a path-connected space X with coecients
in Z
2
is dened above in Section 40 as Hom(
1
(X), Z
2
).
50. ONE-DIMENSIONAL mod2-HOMOLOGY OF SURFACES 258
50:M. Let F be a triangulated connected surface, let C F be a manifold of
dimension one with C = F C contained in the 1-skeleton of F. Let l be a
polygonal loop on F which is in general position with respect to C. Then the value
which the cohomology class with coecients in Z
2
dened by C takes on the element
of
1
(F) realized by l equals the number of points of l C reduced modulo 2.
50
7 One-Dimensional Z
2
-Homology of Surface
50:N Z
2
-Classes via Simple Closed Curves. Let F be a triangulated connected
two-dimensional manifold. Every homology class H
1
(F; Z
2
) can be represented
by a polygonal simple closed curve.
50:O. A Z
2
-homology class of a triangulated two-dimensional manifold F represented
by a polygonal simple closed curve A F is zero, i there exists a compact two-
dimensional manifold G F such that A = G.
Of course, the if part of 50:O follows straightforwardly from 40:O.
The only if part requires trickier arguments.
50:O.1. If A is a polygonal simple closed curve on F, which does not
bound in F a compact 2-manifold, then there exists a connected compact
1-manifold C F with C = F C, which intersects A in a single point
transversally.
50:O.2. Let F be a two-dimensional triangulated surface and C F a
manifold of dimension one contained in the 1-skeleton of the triangulation
of F. Let C = F C. Any polygonal loop f : S
1
F, which intersects
C in an odd number of points and transversally at each of them, is covered
in F
C
by a path with distinct end-points.
50:O.3. See 40:8.
50
8 Poincare Duality
To be written!
50
11 Relative Homology
To be written!
51 Surfaces Beyond Classication
To be written!
51
1 Genus of Surface
To be written!
51
5 Dehn Twists
To be written!
51
6 Coverings of Surfaces
To be written!
51
7 Branched Coverings
To be written!
51
9 Braid Groups
To be written!
259
52 Three-Dimensional Manifolds
To be written!
52
1 Poincare Conjecture
52
2 Lens Spaces
52
3 Seifert Manifolds
52
and v
t
: I
X be a homotopy between v and v
. Then paths u
t
v
t
with t [0, 1] form
a homotopy between uv and u
.
27.B This is a straight-forward reformulation of 27.A.
34.C The line is connected. Therefore its retract (being its contin-
uous image) must be connected, too. However a pair of points in the line
is not connected.