Carbohydrates have six major functions within the body:

1. Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose

2. Sparing the use of proteins for energy
3. Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis
4. Biological recognition processes
5. Flavor and Sweeteners
6. Dietary fiber

SWEETNESS OF SUGARS RELATIVE TO SUCROSE
SUGAR RELATIVE SWEETNESS OTHER NAME
Sucrose
Glucose
Fructose
Lactose
Maltose
Sorbitol
1
0.7
1.1
0.4
0.5
0.5
Sugar
Grape sugar
Fruit sugar
Milk sugar
Malt sugar
-

Artificial Sweetener List for Compounds

Acesulfame K - (E950)
Discovered 1967.
Safety: Seems okay 6/10.
Taste: Some aftertaste 5/10.
Total Score: 11/20.

Alitame - (E956)
Discovered 1980s.
Safety: Seems okay 6/10.
Taste: Good 7/10.
Total Score: 13/20.

Aspartame - (E951)
Discovered 1965.
Safety: Not safe 1/10.
Taste: Okay 6/10.
Total Score: 7/20.

Aspartame-Acesulfame Salt - (E962)
Developed in 1995.
Safety: Not safe 2/10.
Taste: Good 7/10.
Total Score: 9/20.

Cyclamate - (E952)
Discovered 1937.
Safety: Safe 7/10.
Taste: Okay 5/10.
Total Score: 12/20.

Neohesperidin DC - (E959)
Discovered 1960s.
Safety: Some concerns 3/10.
Taste: Poor 2/10.
Total Score: 5/20.

Neotame - (E961)
Developed 1990s.
Safety: Seems okay 6/10.
Taste: Good 7/10.
Total Score: 13/20.

Saccharin, - (E954)
Discovered 1878.
Safety: Safe 7/10.
Taste: Okay 5/10.
Total Score: 12/20.

Sucralose - (E955)
Discovered 1976.
Safety: Some concerns 3/10.
Taste: Good 7/10.
Total Score: 10/20.
Functions of Lipids
Energy storage, mobilization, and utilization
Prostaglandin, cytokine synthesis
Cell differentiation and growth
Cell membrane structure, myelination
Signal transmission
Hormone synthesis
Bile acid synthesis
List of unsaturated fatty acids

n
Common
Name
Lipid
Num
bers

n
Structural Formula
Tr
an
s
or
Ci
s
Naturally
Occurring in

3
-
Linolenic
acid
C18:
3

9,12,15

CH
3
CH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CH(CH
2
)
7
CO
OH
cis
Flaxseeds,
chiaseeds,
walnuts
[citation
needed]

3
Stearidoni
c acid
C18:
4

6,9,12,
15

CH
3
CH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=C
H(CH
2
)
4
COOH
cis
Seed oils of
hemp,
blackcurrant,
corn
gromwell
[citation
needed]

3
Eicosape
ntaenoic
acid
C20:
5

5,8,11,
14,17

CH
3
CH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=C
HCH
2
CH=CH(CH
2
)
3
COOH
cis
cod liver,
herring,
mackerel,
salmon,
menhaden and
sardine
[citation
needed]

3
Docosahe
xaenoic
acid
C22:
6

4,7,10,
13,16,19

CH
3
CH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=C
HCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CH(CH
2
)
2
COOH
cis
maternal milk,
fish oil.
[1]

6
Linoleic
acid
C18:
2

9,12
CH
3
(CH
2
)
4
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CH(CH
2
)
7
COOH cis
Peanut
oil,
[2]
chicken
fat,
[3]
olive
oil
[4][5]

6
-
Linolenic
acid
C18:
3

6,9,12

CH
3
(CH
2
)
4
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CH(CH
2
)
4
C
OOH
cis
borage oil,
black currant
oil, evening
primrose
oil
[6]
and
safflower oil
[7]

Dihomo-
-linolenic
C20:

8,11,14

CH
3
(CH
2
)
4
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CH(CH
2
)
6
C
cis
only in trace
amounts in
6 acid 3 OOH animal
products
[8][9]

6
Arachidon
ic acid
C20:
4

5,8,11,
14

CH
3
(CH
2
)
4
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH
=CH(CH
2
)
3
COOH
cis
meat, eggs,
dairy
[citation
needed]

6
Docosatet
raenoic
acid
C22:
4

7,10,13
,16

CH
3
(CH
2
)
4
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH
=CH(CH
2
)
5
COOH
cis -

7
Palmitolei
c acid
C16:
1

9
CH
3
(CH
2
)
5
CH=CH(CH
2
)
7
COOH cis
Macadamia
nuts
[10]

7
Vaccenic
acid
C18:
1

11
CH
3
(CH
2
)
5
CH=CH(CH
2
)
9
COOH
tra
ns
dairy
products such
asmilk, butter,
andyogurt.
[11]

7
Paullinic
acid
C20:
1

13
CH
3
(CH
2
)
5
CH=CH(CH
2
)
11
COOH cis guarana
[12]

9
Oleic acid
C18:
1

9
CH
3
(CH
2
)
7
CH=CH(CH
2
)
7
COOH cis
olive oil, pecan
oil,
[13]
canola
oil,
[14]

9
Elaidic
acid
C18:
1

9
CH
3
(CH
2
)
7
CH=CH(CH
2
)
7
COOH
tra
ns
hydrogenated
vegetable
oil
[15]

9
Gondoic
acid
C20:
1

11
CH
3
(CH
2
)
7
CH=CH(CH
2
)
9
COOH cis
jojoba
oil
[16]
(edible
but non-caloric
and non-
digestible)

9
Erucic
acid
C22:
1

13
CH
3
(CH
2
)
7
CH=CH(CH
2
)
11
COOH cis -

9
Nervonic
acid
C24:
1

13
CH
3
(CH
2
)
7
CH=CH(CH
2
)
13
COOH cis
King
Salmon, flaxse
ed,Sockeye
salmon,sesam
e
seed,macade
mia nuts
[17]

9
Mead
acid
C20:
3

5,8,11

CH
3
(CH
2
)
7
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CHCH
2
CH=CH(CH
2
)
3
C
OOH


List of saturated fatty acids
Main article: Saturated fat
Common Name Systematic Name Structural Formula Lipid Numbers
Propionic acid Propanoic acid CH
3
CH
2
COOH C3:0
Butyric acid Butanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
2
COOH C4:0
Valeric acid Pentanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
3
COOH C5:0
Caproic acid Hexanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
4
COOH C6:0
Enanthic acid Heptanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
5
COOH C7:0
Caprylic acid Octanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
6
COOH C8:0
Pelargonic acid Nonanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
7
COOH C9:0
Capric acid Decanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
8
COOH C10:0
Undecylic acid Undecanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
9
COOH C11:0
Lauric acid Dodecanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
10
COOH C12:0
Tridecylic acid Tridecanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
11
COOH C13:0
Myristic acid Tetradecanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
12
COOH C14:0
Pentadecylic acid Pentadecanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
13
COOH C15:0
Palmitic acid Hexadecanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
14
COOH C16:0
Margaric acid Heptadecanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
15
COOH C17:0
Stearic acid Octadecanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
16
COOH C18:0
Nonadecylic acid Nonadecanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
17
COOH C19:0
Arachidic acid Eicosanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
18
COOH C20:0
Heneicosylic acid Heneicosanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
19
COOH C21:0
Behenic acid Docosanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
20
COOH C22:0
Tricosylic acid Tricosanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
21
COOH C23:0
Lignoceric acid Tetracosanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
22
COOH C24:0
Pentacosylic acid Pentacosanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
23
COOH C25:0
Cerotic acid Hexacosanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
24
COOH C26:0
Heptacosylic acid Heptacosanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
25
COOH C27:0
Montanic acid Octacosanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
26
COOH C28:0
Nonacosylic acid Nonacosanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
27
COOH C29:0
Melissic acid Triacontanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
28
COOH C30:0
Henatriacontylic acid Henatriacontanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
29
COOH C31:0
Lacceroic acid Dotriacontanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
30
COOH C32:0
Psyllic acid Tritriacontanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
31
COOH C33:0
Geddic acid Tetratriacontanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
32
COOH C34:0
Ceroplastic acid Pentatriacontanoic acid CH
3
(CH
2
)
33
COOH C35:0
Hexatriacontylic acid Hexatriacontanoic acid


Table of the Amino Acids
Name Abbreviation Linear Structure
Alanine ala A CH3-CH(NH2)-COOH
Arginine arg R HN=C(NH2)-NH-(CH2)3-CH(NH2)-COOH
Asparagine asn N H2N-CO-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Aspartic Acid asp D HOOC-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Cysteine cys C HS-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Glutamic Acid glu E HOOC-(CH2)2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Glutamine gln Q H2N-CO-(CH2)2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Glycine gly G NH2-CH2-COOH
Histidine his H NH-CH=N-CH=C-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Isoleucine ile I CH3-CH2-CH(CH3)-CH(NH2)-COOH
Leucine leu L (CH3)2-CH-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Lysine lys K H2N-(CH2)4-CH(NH2)-COOH
Methionine met M CH3-S-(CH2)2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Phenylalanine phe F Ph-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Proline pro P NH-(CH2)3-CH-COOH
Serine ser S HO-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Threonine thr T CH3-CH(OH)-CH(NH2)-COOH
Tryptophan trp W Ph-NH-CH=C-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Tyrosine tyr Y HO-Ph-CH2-CH(NH2)-COOH
Valine val V (CH3)2-CH-CH(NH2)-COOH