Lab Manual

PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
By
Physics Department
First Year B. E. Physics Laboratory
PHYSICS DEPARTMENT
Shri Ramdeobaba Kamla Nehru Engineering College
Katol Road, Nagpur, India
c Copyright by RKNEC, Nagpur, 2002
Dedicated to
Bygone Days
ii
Table of Contents
Table of Contents iii
List of Tables iv
List of Figures v
Preface to First Edition vi
1 Study of Diodes 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.1 Forward characteristics of semiconductor diode . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.2 Reverse characteristics of semiconductor diode . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.3 Forward characteristics of a Zener diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4.4 Reverse characteristics of a Zener diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Graph Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Plane Diraction Grating for Optical Region 7
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1 Path dierence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.2 Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.1 Levelling and alignment of collimator and telescope . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.2 Finding least count of verniers on the circular scale . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.4.3 Adjustment of normal incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4.4 Final levelling of prism table and adjustment of the slit . . . . . . . 11
iii
2.4.5 Measurement of diraction angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3 Transistor In Common Emitter Conguration 15
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.2.1 Input characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2.2 Output characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2.3 Current gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2.4 Input resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.2.5 Output resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4.1 Input and transfer characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5 Graph Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.6 Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.6.1 Input resistance, R
i
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.6.2 Transfer characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.6.3 Output resistance, R
o
and current gain, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.7 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4 Electrical Measurements on a CRO 23
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2.1 Determination of unknown frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2.2 Determination of phase dierence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.2.3 Experimental determination of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.4.1 Frequency determination using time-base circuit . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.4.2 Frequency determination using Lissajous gures . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.4.3 Determination of using CRO in XY-mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4.4 Determination of using CRO in dual mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.5 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.5.1 Frequency determination using time-base circuit . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.5.2 Frequency determination using Lissajous gures . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.5.3 Determination of using CRO in XY-mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.5.4 Determination of using CRO in dual mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
iv
5 Transistor in Common Base Conguration 34
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.3.1 Input characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.4 Graph Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5.5 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
i
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
o
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.5.3 Current gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.6 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6 Activation Energy of a Thermistor 39
6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.4.1 Main experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
6.5 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6.6 Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
7 Interference of Light in Thin Films 47
7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.2.1 Path dierence calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.2.2 Phase change at one of the reections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.2.3 Total path dierence between the two rays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.2.4 Newtons rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
7.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.4.1 Assembling the lens and plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.4.2 Setting the travelling microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
7.4.3 Obtaining Newtons rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
7.4.4 Making measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.5 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
7.6 Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8 Hall Eect in Semiconductors 55
8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
v
8.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
8.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8.4.1 Testing of the electromagnet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
8.4.2 Main experimental set-up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
8.4.3 Observations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
8.5 Graph Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.6 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8.7 Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
9 Study of Rectication of ac Signals 63
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
9.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
9.2.1 Half-wave rectication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
9.2.2 Full-wave rectication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
9.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.4.1 Half-wave rectier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
9.4.2 Full-wave rectier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.4.3 Bridge rectier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.4.4 Observation Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
9.5 Graph Plotting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.6 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
9.7 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
10 Dispersion of Light Through a Glass Prism 73
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
10.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
10.2.1 Refraction through a prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
10.2.2 Dispersive power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
10.3 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
10.4 Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
10.4.1 Levelling and alignment of collimator and telescope . . . . . . . . . . 74
10.4.2 Finding least count of spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
10.4.3 Setting the prism in the minimum deviation position . . . . . . . . . 75
10.4.4 Collimator adjustment for parallel rays Schusters method . . . . . 76
10.4.5 Measurement of the angles of minimum deviation . . . . . . . . . . . 77
10.4.6 Measurement of angle of prism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
10.4.7 Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
10.4.8 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
vi
A Linear Least-squares Fit 80
A.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
A.2
2
minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
vii
List of Tables
viii
List of Figures
1.1 A p-n junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 A forward biased p-n junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 A reverse biased p-n junction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.4 Forward biased semiconductor diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Reverse biased semiconductor diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.6 Forward biased Zener diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 Reverse biased Zener diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.8 Characteristics of semiconductor diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.9 Characteristics of Zener diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.10 Voltage regulation curve for Zener diode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1 Path dierence calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 The spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Getting normal incidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Angles of Diraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1 P-N-P and N-P-N transistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.2 N-P-N transistor in CE conguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3 Characteristics in CE mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4 Transfer characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1 A R-C series combination with sinusoidal voltage supply . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 Phasor diagrams for (i) voltage and (ii) impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3 Measurement of in X-Y mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.4 Frequency determination block ciruit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
ix
4.5 Lissajous for (a) f
x
= f
y
, (b) f
x
= 2 f
y
, (c) f
y
= 2 f
x
. . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.6 Circuit for phase determination in dual mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.7 Phase determination in dual mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.1 Common base circuit for a pnp transistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.2 Input characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
5.3 Output characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.1 Resistance vs. Temperature curve for NTC and PTC thermistors . . . . . 40
6.2 V-I characteristics for an NTC thermistor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.3 Variation of lnR with 1/T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6.4 Experimental Arrangement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
7.1 (a) Lens-plate system, (b)Top view of Newtons rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
7.2 (a)Interference in a thin lm, (b) Relation between r and t . . . . . . . . . . 48
7.3 Schematic ray diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.4 Schematic of the travelling microscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8.1 A semiconductor specimen in an electric eld . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
8.2 A current carrying p-type semiconductor in a magnetic eld . . . . . . . . . 55
8.3 Schematic of experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
9.1 Half-wave rectier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
9.2 Full-wave rectier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
9.3 Full-wave rectier: half cycle conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.4 Full-wave rectier: second half cycle conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
9.5 Bridge rectier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.6 Bridge rectier: half cycle conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.7 Bridge rectier: second half cycle conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
9.8 Finding internal resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
10.1 Ray diagrams for measurements of
m
and A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
x
Preface to First Edition
This manual contains a set of ten experiments performed by rst year B.E. students in the Physics
Practicals course. These contain three experiments in optics, ve in elementary physics of semicon-
ductor devices and two in which use of a cathode ray oscilloscope is mode. All the experiments are
described in a uniform format- an introduction, necessary elementary theory, a rst of objectives,
detailed stepwise procedure, recording of observations, method of plotting relevant graphs, method
of performing calculations from recorded data and reporting the result with errors. Necessary di-
agrams, labelled photographs of the experimental set-up and illustrative graphs are included. The
student is expected to read each experiment thoroughly prior to its actual performance. It is ex-
pected that by doing so she/he is about to do. A set of Appendices is included in the Manual. These
provide some additional background material for a better understanding of the experiments. Two
of the appendices lay stress on an understanding of estimation of the errors involved in performance
of any experiment and on the concept of an objective method to draw the best possible conclusion
from a set of data through a linear least squares t. These are to be explicitly used in calculations
in many of the experiments. Also included at end is a set of test questions. These will provide the
student with opportunity to know what to expect in examinations and to prepare beforehand. The
set is fairly exhaustive. We have tried to take some feedback from the students in giving nal shape
to this set of questions.
The manual has been written jointly by the entire faculty of Physics Department. This is a
possible cause of any non-uniformities that may be still present in the exposition of various experi-
ments. We have all enjoyed preparing this Manual and we all do earnestly hope that it will be useful
to the students.
On behalf of Physics Department I take this opportunity to thank our Director, Dr. A. A.
Kayande. Our principal, Dr. K. L. Asnare and Honourable members of Shri Ramdeobaba Sarvajanik
Smarak Samiti who have taken keen interest in preparation and publication of this Manual. Without
their help it would not have been possible to take this Manual to the students.
Girish Sahasrabudhe
xi
Experiment No. 1
Study of Diodes
1.1 Introduction
Electrical circuits used to be based on the ow of electrons in devices called vacuum tubes.
Today, almost all electronic circuits are based on current ow in solid state. This means
that semiconducting crystals are being used to do the job. The mechanism of current ow
in semiconductors is dierent from that in conductors. There are current carriers other
than electrons created in semiconductors at any non-zero temperature. This is the chief
dierence between semiconductors and conductors.
1.2 Theory
P - Type N - Type
Acceptor Ion Donor Ion
Junction
Hole
Electron
Depletion
Region
Fig 1.1: A p-n junction
P N
Fig 1.2: A forward bi-
ased p-n junction
P N
Fig 1.3: A reverse bi-
ased p-n junction
If donor (pentavalent) impurities are introduced on one side and acceptors (trivalent)
on the opposite side of a single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor like germanium or
silicon, a p-n junction is formed as shown in Fig 1.1. In the gure a donor ion is indicated
schematically by a plus sign because after this impurity atom donates an electron, it becomes
a positive ion. The acceptor ion is indicated by a minus sign because, after this atom accepts
1
2
an electron, it becomes a negative ion. Initially, there are only n-type carriers to the right of
the junction and only p-type carriers to the left. Because there is a density gradient across
the junction, holes will diuse to the right across the junction, and electrons to the left.
As a result of the displacement of these charges, an electric eld appears across the
junction. Equilibrium is established when the eld becomes large enough to restrain the
process of diusion. The positive holes which neutralize the acceptor ions near the junction
in p-type germanium disappear as a result of combination with electrons which diuse across
the junction. Similarly, the neutralizing electrons on the n side of the junction combine with
holes which cross the junction from the p side. Since the region of the junction is depleted
of mobile charges, it is called the depletion region, or a potential barrier.
Forward Bias: An external voltage applied to the p-n junction with the polarity shown
in Fig 1.2 is known as forward bias. The height of the potential barrier at the junction is
lowered by the applied forward voltage. In other words we can say that p-n junction diode
is connected to an external battery in such a way that depletion region is reduced in size or
eliminated altogether. Which of these takes place is determined by the size of the applied
voltage. The positive terminal of the battery repels the holes on the p-side and pushes them
towards the junction. The negative terminal of the battery repels the electrons and pushes
them towards the junction. This collapses the depletion region. With the depletion region
gone, the diode can conduct.
Reverse bias: An external voltage applied with polarity in Fig 1.3 is called reverse
bias. When reverse bias is applied to a junction diode the depletion region does not collapse.
On the contrary, it becomes wider. The positive side of battery is applied to the n-type
material. This attracts the free electrons away from the junction. The negative side of
the battery attracts the holes in p-type material away from the junction. This makes the
depletion region wider than it was when no voltage is applied. The depletion region is an
insulator, and it will block the ow of current. Actually a small current will ow because of
minority carriers. The p-type material has a few minority electrons. These are pushed to
the junction by the repulsion of the negative side of the battery. The n-type material has
few minority holes. These are also pushed towards the junction. Reverse bias forces the
minority carriers together, and a small current - called leakage current - results.
Diodes which are designed with adequate power dissipation capability to operate in
the breakdown region are none as Zener diodes. Two mechanisms of diode breakdown
3
for increasing reverse voltage are recognized. In one mechanism, the thermally generated
electrons and holes acquire sucient energy from the applied potential to produce new
carriers by removing valence electrons from their bonds. These new carriers, in turn produce
additional carriers again through the process of disrupting bonds. This cumulative process
is referred to as avalanche breakdown. Even if the initially available carriers do not acquire
sucient energy to disrupt bonds, it is possible to initiate breakdown through a direct
rupture of the bonds because of the existence of strong electric eld. Under these conditions
the breakdown is referred to as Zener breakdown. Zener breakdown occurs below 6 V. Zener
diodes are commonly used in voltage-reference or constant-voltage devices.
Characteristic curves of diode: Fig 1.8 shows V-I Characteristic curves for typical
p-n junction diode. It is seen that the curve is not linear. With 0 V across the diode, the
diode will not conduct, the diode will not begin to conduct until a few tenths of a volt are
applied across it. This is the voltage needed to overcome the potential barrier. It requires
about 0.2 V to turn on a germanium diode and about 0.6 V to turn on a silicon diode. Fig
1.8 also shows what happens when reverse bias is applied to a diode. At increasing levels
of reverse voltage, the curve shows some reverse current. This leakage current is caused by
minority carries. It is usually very small.
1.3 Objectives
1. To plot forward and reverse characteristic and to determine cut-in voltage of a semi-
conductor diode;
2. To plot forward and reverse characteristic and to determine Zener breakdown voltage
of a Zener diode;
3. To plot voltage regulation curves for reverse biased Zener diode.
1.4 Procedure
1.4.1 Forward characteristics of semiconductor diode
1. Make the connections shown in Fig 1.4.
2. Vary the voltage in small steps; note down the corresponding values of current.
4
3. After cut-in voltage ( 0.175 V ) the current increases rapidly. Now vary the current
in small steps (say, 1 or 2 mA) and note down the corresponding voltage values in
Table 1.1. Take about fteen readings.
mA
+
-
+ -
+
-
V
P N
0-0.75 V
Fig 1.4: Forward
biased semiconductor
diode
mA
V
+
-
+
-
+ -
0 -10 V
P N
Fig 1.5: Reverse bi-
ased semiconductor
diode
mA
+
-
+
-
P N
V
+
-
Fig 1.6: Forward bi-
ased Zener diode
mA
V
+
-
+ -
+
-
V
0-10 V
0-10 V
N P
+ -
Fig 1.7: Reverse bi-
ased Zener diode
Forward bias
Reverse bias
Cut-in voltage
mA
V
mA
+
+
Fig 1.8: Characteris-
tics of semiconductor
diode
Forward bias
Reverse bias
Cut-in voltage
V
mA
Breakdown
voltage
+
+
Fig 1.9: Characteris-
tics of Zener diode
1.4.2 Reverse characteristics of semiconductor diode
5
2. Vary the voltage in steps equalling least count of the volt meter. Note down the
corresponding values of current in Table 1.1. Take about ten readings.
Table 1.1: Ordinary semiconductor diode
S. Forward Bias Reverse Bias
No. Voltage (V ) Current (mA) Voltage (V ) Current (A)
1. . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10. . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4.3 Forward characteristics of a Zener diode
2. Vary the voltage in steps of 0.1 V (i.e., 0 V, 0.1 V,...). Note down the corresponding
values of current.
3. After cut in voltage ( 0.68 V) the current increases rapidly. Now vary the current in
steps of 2 mA and note down the corresponding values of voltage in Table 1.2. Take
about fteen readings.
1.4.4 Reverse characteristics of a Zener diode
2. Vary the voltage in steps of 1 V up to Zener breakdown voltage. After a certain
critical value of reverse voltage rapid increases in reverse current results. This critical
values of voltage in known as breakdown voltage.
Table 1.2: Zener diode
S. Forward Bias Reverse Bias
No. Voltage
(V )
Current
(mA)
Input
Voltage (V )
Output
Voltage (V )
Current
(mA)
1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
3. Once Zener breakdown voltage is achieved, vary the current in steps of 2 mA and note
down the corresponding values of input voltage (V
i
) and output voltage (V
o
) in Table
1.2. Take about fteen readings.
1.5 Graph Plotting
1. Plot semiconductor diode characteristic. See Fig 1.8.
2. Plot Zener diode characteristic. See Fig 1.9.
3. Plot voltage regulation curves for Zener diode characteristic. See Fig 1.10.
Note: The scale for plotting should be so chosen that the actual plot occupies
about three quarters of the total graph area.
Breakdown voltage
Input Voltage, V
i
O
u
t
p
u
t

V
o
l
t
a
g
e
,

V
z
Fig 1.10: Voltage regulation curve for Zener diode
1.6 Results
1. Report the results as follows.
(a) Cut-in voltage of the given semiconductor diode = Volts.
(b) Breakdown voltage of given Zener diode = Volts.
2. From the Zener voltage regulation curve we conclude that .
Experiment No. 2
Plane Diraction Grating for
Optical Region
2.1 Introduction
The phenomena of interference and diraction are characteristic of a wave. Occurrence
of these phenomena under suitable experimental conditions brings out the wave nature of
light. These phenomena have a wide range of applications. They can as well be used to
nd the wave parameters of the light wave. Interference is simply addition or superposition
of waves. Diraction is the result of interference of a large number of waves.
2.2 Theory
2.2.1 Path dierence
Assume a broad wave train - a plane monochromatic wave - falling normally on a transmis-
sion grating. The grating presents an array of transparent and opaque slitshaped regions
to the wave front. We calculate the path dierence x between cylindrical waves (Huygens
principle) emanating from adjacent transparent regions in a direction. (See Fig 2.1).
x = (a +b)Sin[] (2.2.1)
where, (a +b) is the distance between centres of two adjacent transparent regions.
7
8
2.2.2 Interference
If is such that this path dierence is an integral multiple of , the wavelength, then the
cylindrical waves from each transparent region interfere constructively in that direction and
we get maximum intensity. Therefore, the condition for getting a maximum is,
(a +b)Sin[
n
] = n (2.2.2)
Since, Sin[
n
] < 1, for transmitted diraction pattern n <
(a+b)
.
n
is called the angle
of n
th
order diraction. If
n
is known for any n, can be calculated. Thus, for a given
grating, since (a +b) is xed, we can get only a nite number of diraction orders.
For two wavelengths
1
and
2
, which are very close to each other, if the angles of n
th
order diraction are taken to be
n1
and
n2
then we get,
12
=
2
1
=
(a +b)
n
(Sin[
n2
] Sin[
n1
]) (2.2.3)
As
n1
and
n2
are very close to each other, the above relation can be written as,
12
=
(a +b)
n

n12
Cos[
n2
],
n12
=
n2
n1
. (2.2.4)
2.3 Objectives
1. To determine wavelengths of sodium yellow doublet;
x
q
q
q
a+b
x: Path difference
between cylindrical
waves from adjacent
transparent regions
of the grating
a+b: Grating element
q: Direction of
diffraction
Incident
rays
Diffracted
rays
Fig 2.1: Path dierence calculation
9
2. To nd the dierences between doublet wavelengths.
2.4 Procedure
2.4.1 Levelling and alignment of collimator and telescope
LS1
LS2
LS3
LS4
DS1
FS1
TELESCOPE
COLLIMATOR
Slit
Slit limitter
W1
M1
FS2
hidden
Fig 2.2: The spectrometer
1. Switch on the sodium lamp. Adjust the levelling screws of the chassis (LS1) and
the prism table (LS2) so that they appear horizontal (See Fig 2.2). Place the spirit
level on the chassis and do ner adjustment of levelling screws to bring the bubble in
the spirit level to the centre. Repeat this, placing the spirit level along a direction
perpendicular to the earlier direction.
2. Close the slit at the end of the collimator using the drum screw DS1. Now, open it
to a reasonable width.
3. Place the spectrometer in front of the sodium lamp window such that the collimator
slit faces the window.
4. View the slit through the telescope. If it is not in the centre of the view, level the
collimator and telescope (screws LS3, LS4) so as to bring it to the center.
2.4.2 Finding least count of verniers on the circular scale
1. Count the total number of divisions on the vernier. Note the divisions on the main
scale in minutes.
10
2. The least count is the smallest division on the main scale divided by the number of
divisions on the vernier.
2.4.3 Adjustment of normal incidence
1. Rotate the window so that the line joining them makes an angle of approximately 45
o
with the collimator. Tighten screw FS1 to x window position.
2. Rotate the telescope (Fig 2.3(a)) in front of the collimator to view the slit directly.
Adjust the telescope cross wire on the slit. Read window W1 (reading, say, x).
3. Rotate the telescope over window W1 by 90
o
changing W1 reading to x+90
o
. Now the
telescope axis is perpendicular to collimator axis. Tighten screw FS2 to x position
of the telescope (Fig 2.3(b)).
(b)
COLLMATOR
TELESCOPE
Mount gratingto get
reflected slit image
in telescope
Grating
( c )
COLLMATOR
TELESCOPE
Rotate table
with grating
(d)
COLLMATOR
TELESCOPE
Rotate
telescope
(e)
COLLMATOR
TELESCOPE
Rotate
telescope
by 90
o
Arrange
windows
at 45 to
collimator-
telescope
axis
o
COLLMATOR
TELESCOPE
(a)
~45
0
Fig 2.3: Getting normal incidence
11
4. Mount the grating on stand and put it on the prism table. Fix it with bolts. Rotate
the platform of the table (without rotating the windows) so that the reected image
of slit is obtained on the cross wire in the telescope (Fig 2.3(c)).
5. Now release FS1 and rotate the windows along with the prism table and grating by
45
o
changing W1 reading to x + 45
o
. The grating face is now normal to light coming
from the collimator (Fig 2.3(d)).
2.4.4 Final levelling of prism table and adjustment of the slit
1. Free the telescope and rotate it so as to face the collimator and observe the slit directly
through grating (Fig 2.3(e)).
2. Rotate it towards right slowly. You will see the rst order image of the slit rst and
then the second order image.
3. See whether the second order image is in the center of the view after you have focused
it. If it is not adjust the prism table levelling screws LS2 slightly to bring it to the
center.
4. Rotate the telescope now to the left passing through the direct image position so as to
see rst order image and then the second order image. See if the second order image
is in the center of view. If it is not, again adjust the levelling screws on the prism
table to bring it in the center.
5. Rotate the telescope back to the right side second order image and see that the image
is still in the centre. If not, bring it to centre by a further adjustment of levelling
screws.
6. Now focus the second order image properly in the telescope. Decrease the slit width
using DS1 so that you see the maximum possible separation between the two lines
and the intensity is just enough to see the lines.
2.4.5 Measurement of diraction angles
1. Fix the telescope such that the outer line in second order is to the left of the cross
wire. Bring the line on cross wire by moving the ne movement screw M1 under the
12
telescope. Read W1 and W2 and record the readings in the Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Diraction positions
S. Side Order / W1 W2
No. Line MS VS TR1 MS VS TR2
1. 2/d2 p
o
q
r p
o
(q +r)
s
o
t
u s
o
(t +u)
2. LHS 2/d1
3. 1/d1d2
4. direct 0/d1d2 k
o
l
m k
o
(l +m)
f
o
g
h f
o
(g +h)
5. 1/d1d2
6. RHS 2/d1
7. 2/d2
2. Move the telescope in the same direction again using the ne movement screws so
that the cross wire coincides with the inner line in second order. Read W1, W2 and
record readings.
3. Release the screw FS2 a little and move the telescope so that the rst order d1-d2
doublet is seen. Fix FS2. Use ne movement screws to bring d1-d2 onto the cross
wires. Read W1, W2. Record readings.
4. Similarly record positions of the direct (0
th
order) line and rst and second order lines
on the LHS, always moving the telescope in the same direction.
2.5 Calculations
1. Use Table 2.1 to nd the angles shown in the Fig 2.4 and prepare Table 2.2. For
example, the entry a in Table 2.2 is given by the dierence of TR1 readings of W1 for
1
st
order and 0
th
order on LHS in Table. 2.1.
13
Table 2.2: Average diraction angles
Angles of rst
order (d1,d2)
Angles of second
order (d2)
Angles of second
order (d2)
LHS LHS LHS
W1(a) W2(b) W1(e) W2(f) W1(p) W2(q)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
RHS RHS RHS
W1(c) W2(d) W1(g) W2(h) W1(r) W2(s)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
=
a+b+c+d
4

21
=
e+f+g+h
4

22
=
p+q+r+s
4
2. The angles
1
,
21
and
22
are the average rst order, second order for d1 and second
order for d2 angles respectively. Thus, for example,
22
is the average of
22L
and
22R
(See Fig 2.4), while
22L
is the average of the W1 and W2 measurements respectively
p and q in Table 2.1 of this angle. From Table 2.1, we have:
22L
=
1
2
_
|k
o
(l +m)
p
o
(q +r)
+
1
2
_
|f
o
(g +h)
s
o
(t +u)
.
Use these angles in Eq (2.2.2) to calculate ,
1
and
2
respectively.
3. Calculate
12
using Eq (2.2.4) above.
Grating
Incident
radiation
LHS RHS
n=0
1 1
d1
d1
d2 d2
direct
q
1L q
21L
q
1R q
21R
q
22L
q
22R
Fig 2.4: Angles of Diraction
14
4. Estimate absolute error and relative error in
1
and
2
as described in Appendix
Estimation of Experimental Error.
2.6 Results
Report the results as follows:
i. Wavelength of d1 line = (
1
)

A;
ii. Wavelength of d2 line = (
2
)

A;
iii. Separation of sodium doublet = (
12
)

A.
Experiment No. 3
Transistor In Common Emitter
Conguration
3.1 Introduction
The bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is a three element device (see Appendix: NPN Tran-
sistor) made up of three alternating layers of n and p type semiconducting material joined
metallurgically. The transistor can be p-n-p type (principal conduction by positive holes)
or of n-p n type (principal conduction by negative electrons) as shown in Fig 3.1. Note the
schematic symbols and positive current directions.
I
E
I
E
I
B
I
B
I
C
I
C
(a) npn transistor (b) pnp transistor
n
p
n
Emitter
Base
Collector
p
n
p
Emitter
Base
Collector
Fig 3.1: P-N-P and N-P-N transistors
The common emitter (CE) connection is a two-port transistor arrangement (widely used
15
16
because of its high current amplication) in which the emitter is a common point with the
input and output terminals. The input variables are base current I
B
and base-to-emitter
voltage V
BE
and the output variables are collector current I
C
and the collector-to-emitter
voltage V
CE
. The common emitter analysis is based on the following characteristics.
Input characteristics: These relate the input variables V
BE
and I
B
, with V
CE
held
constant. Fig 3.2 shows the circuit diagram and Fig 3.3, the resulting input characteristics.
One can calculate the input resistance R
i
from these.
Transfer characteristics: These show the variation of the output collector current,
I
C
, as a function of input base current I
B
; while V
CE
is held constant (Fig 3.4). One can
calculate the current gain from these.
mA
V
CE
mA
V
BE
I
C
+
-
-
+
- +
+
+
+
-
-
-
E
C
I
B
0-15 V
0-15 V
B B
350kW
Fig 3.2: N-P-N transistor in CE conguration
Output or collector characteristics: These show the functional relationship be-
tween the output variables I
C
and V
CE
for constant I
B
. Typical output characteristics are
shown in Fig 3.3. The transistor is normally operated in active region. In this region the
emitter base junction is necessarily forward biased and collector base junction is necessarily
reverse biased. The related parameters (R
o
, the output resistance and the current gain )
are found in active region of Fig 3.3.
3.2 Theory
The transistor can be thought of as two diodes back-to-back (Fig A5.3 in Appendix 5: NPN
Transistor). Note that the diodes point outward as does the arrow on the emitter lead of
17
this npn transistor. Observe that the base-emitter diode junction is forward-biased by V
BE
,
but the collector-base diode junction is reverse-biased by V
CE
. This is true case for normal
amplier operation of a transistor in all the three common - common emitter, common base
and common collector. Since V
CE
= V
CB
+V
BE
and V
BE
is very small ( 0.2V for Ge, 0.7V
for Si), V
CB
V
CE
. Note that Fig A5.3 should not be taken as an accurate model of a
transistor. It is used merely to emphasize the current biasing of the transistor.
3.2.1 Input characteristics
Since the base-emitter diode is forward biased, V
BE
is expected to be small. It is around
0.6 V to 0.7 V for a silicon transistor and around 0.2 V for a germanium one. The current
in the base will then depend on the transistor type (signal or power). From the curve, (Fig
3.3) it is obvious that what happens in input circuit depends on the voltage V
CE
in the
output circuit. The change in input characteristics when V
CE
is applied is due to the change
in the width of the depletion region. A large value of V
CE
widens the depletion region at
collector- base junction and causes a greater pull on principal carriers - electrons in npn
case. Therefore, I
C
increases at the cost of I
B
. Thus I
B
decreases as V
CE
is increased.
I
B
V
BE
V
CE
0V 0.5V
DI
B
DV
BE
Input characteristics
R =
i
DV
BE
DI
B
I =40 A
B
m
DI
C
DI
C1
DV
CE
V
c
o
n
s
t
C
E
b Calculation
R Calculation
0 I
C
V
CE
30 A m
20 A m
Output characteristics
R =
O
DV
CE
DI
C
b=
DI
C1
DI
B1
DI = (40-30) A
= 10 A
B1
m
m
Fig 3.3: Characteristics in CE mode
18
3.2.2 Output characteristics
In the output circuit shown in Fig 3.3, the natural question is: How can any current ow in
the collector circuit if collector base diode is reverse-biased? The answer lies in the heavier
doping of the collector compared to the base and in the narrow width of the base. The
collector-emitter junction is leaky. So, a large reverse current can ow if the base-emitter
junction is forward-biased. This is the basis of transistor action. The amount of current that
ows in the collector circuit is determined by how well the base-emitter diode is turned-on.
The junction from base to emitter acts like a valve or a control gate. For a given V
CE
, the
larger the forward bias in input circuit, the larger is the current in output circuit. Thus
output characteristic curves are plots of I
C
vs V
CE
with I
B
as the control parameter. This is
shown in Fig 3.3. These characteristic curves can be compared with the plate characteristics
of a tube with base current as the controlling parameter instead of grid voltage of a triode.
3.2.3 Current gain
The magnitude of I
B
compared to that of I
C
in Fig 3.3 suggests that the device has a good
current gain in the common-emitter connection. This gain is the ratio of a small change
in I
C
to the corresponding change in I
B
for constant V
CE
. Values of may vary from 20
to 500 according to the transistor type. In transistors of the same type it is not unusual to
nd a 1:3 spread between the minimum and maximum values of . can be also calculated
from the transfer characteristics - the plot of I
C
vs I
B
for xed V
CE
values.
3.2.4 Input resistance
In forward bias, the input resistance R
i
is expected to be small. It is given by,
R
i
=
V
BE
I
B
V
CE
=Constant
(3.2.1)
3.2.5 Output resistance
Since the collector-base junction is reverse biased, the output resistance Ro is larger. It is
dened as,
R
o
=
V
CE
I
C
I
B
=Constant
(3.2.2)
19
3.3 Objectives
1. To plot input and transfer characteristics;
2. To plot output characteristics;
3. To calculate
(a) Input resistance R
i
;
(b) Output resistance R
o
;
(c) dc current gain .
3.4 Procedure
3.4.1 Input and transfer characteristics
1. Make the connections as shown in Fig 3.2.
2. Fix the output voltage V
CE
at 0V by shorting collector to the emitter and disconnect-
ing the collector from the current meter measuring I
C
in Fig 3.2. Enter I
B
= 0 mA
for V
BE
= 0 V in the Table 3.1
Table 3.1: Input and transfer characteristics
V
CE
= 0V V
CE
= 0.3/0.5V V
CE
= 1.0V
SN V
BE
I
B
SN V
BE
I
B
SN V
BE
I
B
I
C
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
3. Vary the base current I
B
in steps of the smallest division of the current meter and
note corresponding V
B
readings till you reach I
B
40 A. Record your observations
in Table 3.1.
4. Remove the connection shorting collector and emitter and reconnect collector to the
current meter measuring I
C
in Fig 3.2.
20
5. Using the pot on the output supply x the output voltage V
CE
at 0.3 V or 0.5 V.
Repeat steps 2-4 ensuring that V
CE
remains xed. Note down value for each value of
I
B
.
6. Repeat step 5 with V
CE
= 1 V. Note down V
BE
as well as I
C
values for each value of
I
B
.
1. Fix I
B
= 20 A by using the pot at the input supply.
2. Vary V
CE
from 0V to 1V in steps equal to the meter least count and thereafter from
1V to 10V in step of 1V . Note down corresponding values of V
CE
and I
C
. Ensure
that I
B
remains xed throughout. Record your observations in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Output characteristics
I
B
= 20A I
B
= 30A I
B
= 40A
SNo V
CE
I
C
SN V
CE
I
C
SN V
CE
I
C
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
3. Repeat steps 1-2 with I
B
= 30 and then with I
B
= 40 A.
Note: When you have nished taking readings, rotate all the knobs on the power
supply to minimum. Switch o the power supply. Remove the plugs from the
mains- sockets. Remove all the connections, bunch the wires neatly and put
them beside the equipment.
3.5 Graph Plotting
To plot input characteristics choose the voltage axis scale such that the separation in the
curves for dierent values of V
CE
is discernible. If this is not done, the entire characteristic
will consume the full voltage axis (18cm) and the separation in curves for dierent values
of V
CE
will not be seen.
21
For calculating slope (refer to Figs 3.3, 3.4) choose the most liner portion of the graph,
since at the knees and bends the slope varies and the result (values of parameters) would be
erroneous. Choose two widely separated points on this portion. These should be dierent
from data points. This minimizes the error in calculating the slope. This is well-illustrated
in Figs 3.3- 3.4. No ink-work on the graphs, use pencil only (preferably HB). Do not simply
connect the data points. Draw a smooth curve which depicts the average behavior of the
dependent variable with respect to the independent variable.
I
B
I
C
DI
C
DI
B
V = constant
CE
b calculation
Fig 3.4: Transfer characteristics
3.6 Calculation
i
Refer to Fig 3.3. Choose, say, V
CE
= 0.5V curve. Select any two points far enough from
each other on the linear portion. Find V
BE
and I
B
. Use Eq (3.2.1) to nd R
i
.
3.6.2 Transfer characteristics
Refer to Fig 3.4. Select any two points suciently far from each other. Note I
C
and I
B
.
Find =
I
C
I
B
|
V
CE
=0.3/0.5V
. Take proper care of units.
o
and current gain,
For calculating the output resistance, R
o
refer to Fig 3.3. Choose the column I
B
= 30mA in
Table 3.2. Calculate the slope of best tting straight line to the data points corresponding
to I
B
= 10A (see Appendix Linear Least Squares Fit). According to Eq (3.2.2), R
o
=
1
slope
(). For calculating the current gain Refer to Fig 3.3. Choose the active region.
22
Draw a line for which V
CE
= 5 V, say, this line intersects adjacent curves for which I
B
values are constant. Drop perpendiculars from these points of intersection on the I
C
axis.
Note, =
I
C
I
B
|
V
CE
=0.3/0.5V
. Take care of units.
3.7 Results
1. The input resistance for the given transistor in common emitter conguration is found
to be ().
2. The output resistance for the given transistor in common emitter conguration is
found to be ().
3. The dc current gain b of the given transistor in common emitter conguration is found
to be.
(a) , from output characteristics at V
CE
= Volts.
(b) , from transfer characteristics at V
CE
= Volts.
Experiment No. 4
Electrical Measurements on a CRO
4.1 Introduction
Measurement of the electrical parameters such as voltage, current, frequency and phase
dierence in ac circuits plays an important role in ac circuit analysis. Depending on the
accuracy required, various techniques are used for such measurement. For example, analog
and digital meters may be used for the measuring current, voltage, frequency and phase
dierence. However, these meters are incapable of displaying the nature of voltage and
current waveforms. In this context the cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) turns out to be the
most versatile all-in-one instrument. A great advantage with a CRO is that, apart from its
capability of measuring large number of parameters, it allows a visual presentation of time
varying quantities such as an alternating current or voltage. Coupled with a transducer,
the CRO can be used to measure many physical quantities such as temperature, pressure
and so on. These features make the CRO an ideal measuring instrument in experimental
sciences and in engineering practice.
The purpose of this experiment is to introduce the CRO to you. You are expected to
develop adequate familiarity with basic operations of the CRO. You are exposed to simple
applications, wherein a CRO is used for the measurement of frequency and phase dierence
between an alternating voltage and current. Such an exercise should help you to appreciate
some features of ac circuit theory and also the versatility of the CRO.
23
24
4.2 Theory
4.2.1 Determination of unknown frequency
This experiment consists of two parts:
i Determination of frequency of the given sinusoidal voltage source, and
ii Determination of the phase dierence between voltage and the current in an R-C
circuit.
A brief theory of the experiment follows.
The method used here is based on the fact that, when two dierent sinusoidal voltage
signals are applied to X and Y deection plates of the CRO, the result is a well-dened
pattern on the screen of the CRO. The shape of the pattern depends essentially on the
ratio of the frequencies of the two signals. Patterns obtained when this ratio is rational
are known as Lissajous gures. These gures result when a point undergoes simultaneous
simple harmonic motions along two perpendicular directions. To visualize Lissajous gures,
choose = 1, n = 2, m = 1 and plot (5 Sin[nt], 5 Sin[mt]) on a graph paper for various
values of t. You can study how the gure changes with change in values of n and m.
Note:
As will be evident below, in the experiment, voltage signals applied to the X
and the Y deection plates are obtained from independent sources. The phase
dierence between the two waveforms varies with time. This results in an un-
stable pattern on the CRO screen. It is interesting to note a similar situation in
case of interference phenomenon in optics. As here, there too a stable interfer-
ence pattern can not be obtained if interfering waves have independent origins.
However, there is one dierence. For optical interference, because of the very
small oscillation periods and comparatively much larger time of persistence of
vision, the instability in the interference pattern leads to its total obliteration.
As against this, in this experiment, you can actually see the pattern instability.
4.2.2 Determination of phase dierence
It is a well-known fact that if an alternating voltage is applied across a capacitor then the
current in the circuit leads the applied voltage by

2
radians (90
o
). On the other hand, in
25
case of a pure resistance the phase dierence between current and voltage is zero. Therefore,
in a simple R C series the voltage across the resistance and that across the capacitance
dier in phase by

2
radians. This also means that the total voltage across an RC series
combination is not in phase with the voltage across R. Thus, in the circuit of Fig 4.1, the
phase dierence between applied voltage V
a
and current I can take any value between 0
o
and 90
o
. The complex impedance Z of the series R C combination is given by,
Z = R +X
C
(4.2.1)
where, X
c
is the capacitive reactance given by,
X
C
=
1
jC
=
j
2fC
(4.2.2)
where, f denotes the frequency of the applied voltage and C is capacitance of the condenser
in farads. From Eqs (4.2.1) and (4.2.2), one obtains,
Z = R
j
2fC
. (4.2.3)
The phase angle associated with the complex impedance Z in Eq (4.2.3) is given by,
= Tan
1
_
_
_
1
2fC
_
R
_
_
= Tan
1
_
1
2fCR
_
(4.2.4)
This is nothing but the phase dierence between the applied voltage V
a
and current
I since V
a
= Z I( See Fig 4.1). One can clearly see from Eq (4.2.4) that depends on
V
C
R
C
Applied
voltage
V
a
GND
V
R
I
Fig 4.1: A R-C series
combination with sinu-
soidal voltage supply
V
=

I

X
C
C
X
C
V
a
V = I R
R
R
f
f
Z
=
(R
+
X
)
2
2
1/2
C
(i)
(ii)
Fig 4.2: Phasor dia-
grams for (i) voltage
and (ii) impedance
26
R, C and f, but is independent of V
a
and I. In this experiment we set f = 50 Hz. The
values of R and C are chosen in such a way that assumes values between 30
o
and 70
o
. For
analytical ease, voltage, current and impedance may be represented by phasors as shown
in Fig 4.2.
Phasors are complex quantities useful in working with physical variables hav-
ing sinusoidal time variations. Alternating currents and voltages, electric and
magnetic elds in an electromagnetic wave such as a beam of visible light, os-
cillations of a charge, motion of a pendulum, vibrations of a diaphragm - all
these may be usefully represented by phasors. If an oscillating quantity x is
given by x = x
o
Cos(t), then the phasor of x, x, is a complex quantity. x
can be obtained by multiplying x by e
jt
and taking the real part. That is,
x = Re[xe
jt
]. An electric eld

E =

E
o
Cos[t kz +] will be represented by
the phasor E = E
o
e
j(kz+)
! Try to convince yourself of this!
y
1
y
2
Fig 4.3: Measurement
of in X-Y mode
CRO
X Y
Unknown
frequency
source, f
x
Known
frequency
source, fy
Fig 4.4: Frequency
determination block
ciruit
4.2.3 Experimental determination of
The formula = Tan
1
_
1
2fCR
_
may be used for theoretical evaluation of . For
experimental estimation, the formula used is,
= Sin
1
_
y
1
y
2
_
(4.2.5)
where, y
1
is the intercept of a certain ellipse on + Y axis and y
2
is the projection of its
semi-major axis on Y axis. This ellipse is seen on the CRO screen when the CRO is in
27
the XY-mode and the two signals diering in phase by are applied to the X and the Y
deection plates.
When input voltage V
a
and voltage V
R
across R (Fig 4.1) are fed respectively to X and
Y inputs of the CRO in XY-mode a steady ellipse with inclined major axis (Fig 4.3) is
obtained on the screen. It can be clearly seen from Eq (4.2.5) and Fig 4.3 that y intercepts
of the ellipse are governed by the phase dierence . Let us try to understand the formation
of this ellipse and the expression of Eq (4.2.5).
As is clear from the above discussion, the ellipse on the CRO appears due to the appli-
cation of two sinusoidal voltages V
a
and V
R
to the X and Y inputs of the dual trace CRO.
For the sake of simplicity let us replace these sinusoidal voltages by the simple harmonic
sinusoidal waves along X- and Y-axes. We take these waves to have a phase dierence of
. These waves are represented by,
x = x
o
Sin[t] (4.2.6)
y = y
o
Sin[t +] (4.2.7)
From Eq (4.2.7) one obtains,
y
y
o
= Sin[t +] = Sin[t]Cos[] +Cos[t]Sin[] (4.2.8)
From Eq (4.2.6) we have,
Sin[t] =
x
x
o
; Cos[t] =
_
1
_
x
2
x
2
o
__
1
2
(4.2.9)
Squaring Eq (4.2.8), and substituting for Sin[t], Cos[t], from Eq (4.2.9),
_
y
y
o
_
2
=
_
_
x
x
o
_
Cos[] +
_
1
x
2
x
2
o
_
1
2
Sin[]
_
2
y
2
y
2
o
x
2
x
2
o
Cos
2
[] + 2
xSin[]Cos[]
x
o
1
x
2
x
2
o
1
2
+
1
x
2
x
2
o
Sin
2
[] (4.2.10)
For a given this is a second degree equation which represents an ellipse in the X-Y
plane. The Y intercept y
1
of this ellipse can be obtained by putting x = 0 and y = y
1
in
Eq (4.2.10).
28
_
y
1
y
o
_
2
= Sin
2
[] = y
1
= y
o
Sin[] (4.2.11)
The two values of intercepts with same magnitude and opposite sign indicate a sym-
metrical ellipse. y
o
in Eq (4.2.7) is the amplitude (i.e., the maximum displacement) of the
simple harmonic motion along Y axis. This is equal to y
2
in Eq (4.2.5) and Fig 4.3. Thus
putting y
o
= y
2
, and dropping the negative sign, we get,
Sin[] =
y
1
y
2
, or, = Sin
1
_
y
1
y
2
_
. (4.2.12)
4.3 Objectives
1. To determine the frequency of the sources of alternating voltage using principle of
Lissajous gure;
2. Determination of the phase dierence between 50 Hz applied voltage and current for
the given sets of values of R and C, by using CRO in XY mode;
3. Determination of the phase dierence between 50 Hz applied voltage and current for
the given sets of values of R and C, by using CRO in dual mode.
4.4 Procedure
4.4.1 Frequency determination using time-base circuit
1. Ensure that the time-base variable knob 17 is at cal position. Set the Time/Div
knob 15 to a suitable position, say, a ms. Note the setting in Table 4.1.
2. Make the connections shown in the block diagram (Fig 4.4). Do not connect the
known frequency source. Ensure that the mode selector switch 11 is not on dual.
3. Switch on the mains supply to get a sine wave on the screen. Measure the horizontal
peak to peak distance of between adjacent sine wave peaks and record it in Table 4.1.
29
Table 4.1: Frequency using time-base circuit
Time/Div
setting (a)
Distance between
adjacent maxima (x)
Time Period
T = ax
Frequency
f =
1
T
4.4.2 Frequency determination using Lissajous gures
1. Make the connections shown in the block diagram (Fig 4.4). Choose sine as the
function of the function generator using the appropriate button/switch. Do not touch
any switch on the modulation side on the front panel of the function generator if it is
of type 1014.
2. Set the dual trace CRO ready for operation as per the front panel control setting
(basic operation) given in the Appendix Front panel controls of dual trace CRO.
3. Adjust the frequency of the generator to 50 Hz. Keep the mode selector 11 on dual
mode. Switch on function generator, CRO, and unknown frequency source (secondary
of a step-down transformer connected to mains). Ensure the presence of two sine waves
on the screen of CRO.
4. Switch the mode selector 11 and Time/Div selector 15 to x-y. You should see a circle
or an ellipse on the screen of CRO. This is a Lissajous gure. If you do not see a
stable gure, adjust the generator frequency slightly till a stable closed gure is seen
on the screen.
5. Use position controls (14) and (19) to nd maximum number n
x
(n
y
) of points at
which a horizontal (vertical) line can be tangent to the gure on the screen. Record
the shape of the gure, generator frequency, n
x
and n
y
in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2: Frequency by Lissajous gures
Lissajous Figure Generator Frequency f
g
n
x
n
y
f =
n
y
n
x
f
g
30
Note: If the generator frequency dial is not properly calibrated then it may
be necessary to measure it using the time base circuit as in 4.4.1 above.
6. Repeat for the generator frequencies near 25 Hz and 100 Hz and, if possible, also for
frequencies near 75 Hz and 150 Hz.
a)
b)
c)
n =1
n =1
x
y
X
Y
n =1
n =2
x
y
X
Y
n =2
n =1
x
y
Y
X
Fig 4.5: Lissajous for
(a) f
x
= f
y
, (b) f
x
=
2 f
y
, (c) f
y
= 2 f
x
V
C
R
C
V
a
GND
V
R
X-input
Hi
Lo
Hi
Lo
Y-input
Fig 4.6: Circuit for
phase determination in
dual mode
4.4.3 Determination of using CRO in XY-mode
1. Make connections as per block diagram shown in Fig 4.6. Set the frequency of function
generator equal to 50Hz. Set the dual trace CRO ready for operations as per the front
panel control settings (basic operation) given in Appendix Front Panel Controls of
Dual Trace CRO.
2. Choose R = 2000 and C = 2.756 F.
3. Ensure that the var controls 13 for both the channels are on cal positions. Ensure
that Volt/Div knobs 12 for both CH1 and CH2 are set at same Volt/Div. Keep
mode selector 11 on dual and Time/Div knob 15 at suitable range, say, 1 ms/Div.
Switch on the function generator and dual trace CRO. You should see two steady sine
waves with some relative horizontal displacement.
4. Switch mode selector 11 and Time/Div selector to x-y. You will see a tilted ellipse
on the screen of the CRO.
31
5. Set ac-gnd-dc switch 8 to gnd for both the channels. Adjust position knobs 14 and
19 and intensity control 3 to obtain tiny spot right at the center of the screen of CRO
a ne spot. Set ac-gnd-dc switch 8 to ac to obtain properly centered ellipse.
6. Adjust the Volt/Div knobs 12 of both CH1 and CH2 to make the ellipse tangent
to the top and the bottom horizontal grid lines on the screen. Measure y
1
and y
2
accurately. Enter the observations in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Phase using CRO in XY-Mode
R () C (F) y
1
y
2
Tan
1
1
2fRC
Sin
1
_
y
1
y
2
_
2000 2.756
1000 3.183
500 3.675
7. Repeat steps 2-6 for,
i. R = 1000 , C = 3.183 F and
ii. R = 500 , C = 3.675 F.
4.4.4 Determination of using CRO in dual mode
1. Follow the procedure above to obtain two steady sine waves with some relative hori-
zontal displacement with R = 2000 and C = 2.756 F.
2. Ensure that variable knob 17 is at CAL position. Adjust Time/Div knob 15 to obtain
maximum displacement between corresponding peaks of two sine waves along X-axis.
Table 4.4: Phase using CRO in Dual-Mode
[Generator frequency: .... (Hz); Time/Div setting, a:..... (ms/Div); Time Period, T: ax(ms)]
R () C (F) Diatance x t = a x(ms) Tan
1
1
2fRC
t
T
360
o
2000 2.756
1000 3.183
500 3.675
32
3. Adjust vertical position control 14 to bring the crest of sine wave right on the X-
axis. Measure the peak to adjacent peak distance of any one sine wave. Measure
the horizontal displacement between adjacent peaks of the two sine waves (Fig 4.7).
Record your observations in Table 4.4.
Dx
x
Fig 4.7: Phase determination in dual mode
4. Repeat steps 2-3 for,
i. R = 1000 , C = 3.183 F and
ii. R = 500 , C = 3.675 F.
4.5 Calculations
4.5.1 Frequency determination using time-base circuit
The frequency is found directly as the inverse of the time period T. See table 4.1.
4.5.2 Frequency determination using Lissajous gures
1. Find the unknown frequency (f
x
) using
f
x
f
y
=
n
y
n
x
, where, f
x
and f
y
are the frequencies
of the signals applied to x and y inputs of the CRO n
x
being the number of points at
which horizontal tangent makes contact with the Lissajous gure and n
y
the number
of points at which a vertical tangent makes contact with the gure. Use Table 4.2.
2. Repeat the calculations for the other two Lissajous gures. Enter results in Tables
4.2.
33
4.5.3 Determination of using CRO in XY-mode
1. Formula; = Sin
1
_
y
1
y
2
_
2. Calculate of in degrees for all the three seats of values of R and C.
3. Enter calculated values of in last column of Table 4.3.
4.5.4 Determination of using CRO in dual mode
1. Formula: =
t
T
360
o
, where,
t =
Relative displacement be-
tween two sine waves

Time/Div
knob setting
= a t, and
T =
Time period of the sine wave
=
Peak to peak
distance for wave

Time/Div
knob setting
2. Calculate for all the three seats of values of R and C.
3. Enter these values of in last column of the Table 4.4.
4.6 Results
1. The average value of unknown frequency is found to be Hz.
2. The calculated by the two methods for given R and C combinations are found to
be:
Table 4.5: Comparison of values of from theory and experiment
R () C( F)
Theoretical
Tan
1
1
2RC
Experimental
XY Mode
Experimental
Dual Mode
2000 2.756
1000 3.183
500 3.675
Experiment No. 5
Transistor in Common Base
Conguration
5.1 Introduction
A junction transistor consists of a silicon (or germanium) crystal in which a layer of ntype
silicon is sandwiched between two layers of p type silicon. Alternatively, a transistor may
consist of a layer of ptype between two layers of ntype material. In the former case
the transistor is referred to as a pnp transistor and in the latter case as npn transistor.
The semiconductor sandwich is extremely small and is sealed inside a plastic or metal case
against moisture.
The three portions of a transistor are known as emitter, base and collector.
Transistors provide power gain that is needed for most electronic applications. De-
pending upon the type of application a transistor is connected in three congurations:
(i) Common Base (CB); (ii) Common Emitter (CE); (iii) Common Collector (CE).
A transistor is dierent from the vacuum tube triode in that it is a current operated device
instead of a voltage controlled device like vacuum triode. A transistor can be thought to be
made up of two diodes placed back to back. When put in circuit, rst diode is usually for-
ward biased and other reverse biased. This is done to get useful output from the transistor.
Detailed transistor action is discussed in Appendix: PNP Transistor. In this experiment we
shall connect a transistor in the common base conguration. This means that the base is a
terminal common to both the input circuit and the output circuit. Consequently, all volt-
ages are measured with respect to base. Thus, V
CB
refers to collectortobase voltage while
34
35
V
BE
refers to basetoemitter voltage. The currents through emitter, base and collector
are I
E
, I
B
and I
C
respectively. Three of the important transistor parameters are,
1. Input resistance, R
i
=
V
BE
I
E
V
CB
=constant
();
2. Output resistance R
o
=
V
CE
I
C
I
B
=constant
();
3. Current gain, =
I
C
I
E
V
CE
=constant
,
where, V
BE
is the change in base to emitter voltage in volts, I
C
is change in collector
current in amperes and I
E
is change in emitter current in amperes.
5.2 Objectives
1. To plot input characteristics;
2. To plot output characteristics; and
3. To calculate: (a) Input resistance, R
i
; (b) Output resistance, R
o
; and (c) Current gain, .
5.3 Procedure
5.3.1 Input characteristics
mA
V
CB
mA
V
BE
I
E
I
C
+
-
-
+
-
+
+
-
E C
B
0-2 V
0-15 V
Fig 5.1: Common base circuit for a pnp transistor
1. Make connections as in Fig 5.1.
2. Fix output voltage V
CB
at 0 Volts. Fix V
BE
at 0 Volts and note values of I
E
and I
C
in Table 5.1.
36
Table 5.1: Input Characteristics
S. V
CB
= 0 V V
CB
= 2V/5V
No. V
BE
I
E
I
C
V
BE
I
E
I
C
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. ..
3. Increase V
BE
in small steps and note down I
E
and I
C
. Repeat till you reach V
BE
=
0.1V.
4. Now, increase V
BE
in smaller steps and note I
E
and I
C
. Repeat till you reach V
BE
=
0.17V. You will notice that I
E
rises faster this region. That is the reason for increasing
V
BE
more slowly.
5. Repeat steps 2-4, for V
CB
= 2V/5V.
1. Fix I
E
= 2mA. Fix V
CB
= 0 Volt and note down corresponding I
C
reading in Table
5.2.
2. Increase V
CB
in steps of 1 V till becomes 10 Volt and at each stage note down cor-
responding I
C
. Ensure that I
E
does not change during this set of readings. If it
changes, adjust it to its original value.
Table 5.2: Output Characteristics
S. I
E
= 2mA I
E
= 4mA I
E
= 6mA
No. V
CB
I
C
I
C
I
C
.. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. ..
5.4 Graph Plotting
1. Using Table 5.1, plot graphs as shown in Fig 5.2.
2. Using Table 5.2, plot graphs as shown in Fig 5.3.
37
(a) All the graphs are to be plotted in pencil only;
(b) All observation points must be shown on the graphs;
(c) There is a break symbol in each of Fig 5.2 and Fig 5.3 along one of the axes.
This stands for change of scale after the sign. Hence while plotting output
characteristics expand scale for third characteristic around current I
C
= 5 mA
to 6 mA. After such a changes, the graph will look like the curve for I
E
= 6 mA
in Fig 5.4.
5.5 Calculations
i
1. Using the input characteristics (Fig 5.2), nd R
i
=
V
BE
I
E
V
CB
=0V
()
Note: Before you nd R
i
, current should be converted from mA to A. Use the linear
portion, i.e., the straight line portion, of the characteristic to nd R
i
.
o
1. Select output resistance points from that portion of the curve of Fig 5.3. I
E
= 6 mA
on which I
C
changes by least count of the meter, i.e., from the step like portion of
the graph.
I
E
V
EB
DV
EB
DI
E
0V 5V
R calculation: R=
i i
D D V / I
EB E
V
CB
Fig 5.2: Input charac-
teristics
I
C
V
CB
I =6 mA
E
I =4 mA
E
I =2 mA
E
DI
C1 DI =2mA
E1
DI
C
DV
CB
R =
O
DV
CB
DI
C
a=
DI
C1
DI
E1
Fig 5.3: Output char-
acteristics
38
2. Using these points, nd slope of the line that would pass through them using formula
for slop given in Appendix Linear Least Squares Fit. This is the best estimate of the
slope of this portion of the output characteristics.Inverse of this slope will give output
resistance R
o
. Note that while nding slope, current should be converted from mA to
A. R
o
will be in .
5.5.3 Current gain
1. Choose a value of V
CB
, say, 4V or 5V, and nd the current gain as shown in Fig
5.3.
5.6 Results
Report the results as follows:
For the given pnp transistor connected in CB mode,
Input resistance R
i
= .... , for V
CB
= .... V ;
Output resistance R
o
= .... , for IV
E
= .... A;
Current gain = ....., at V
CB
= .... V .
Experiment No. 6
Activation Energy of a Thermistor
6.1 Introduction
Conventional wire wound metallic resistors have positive temperature coecient of resis-
tance. This is because an increase in the temperature of a metal results in a greater thermal
motion of the ions, and this decreases slightly the mean free path of the free electrons. Con-
sequently, the resistance is increased as the temperature is raised. For most metals, the
resistance increased at a rate of about 0.4 percent per degree rise in temperature. When
the temperature of a semiconductor (e.g., Ge) is raised the concentration of current carriers
(free electrons and holes) also increases , thus resulting in decreases in resistance. For Ge
and Si the resistance decreases at the rate of 6 to 8 per sent per degree rise in temperature.
All the resistors types considered above are linear, i.e., they follow Ohms law. In some
applications, resistors with special characteristics are useful. One example is a thermistor.
A thermistor is a devise whose resistance is temperature sensitive, usually decreasing with
increasing temperature, i.e., it has a negative temperature coecient of resistance. It is
a non-linear devise which does not obey Ohms law. Although Ge and Si are non-linear
devices in this sense, they are not used as thermistor materials because their properties are
too sensitive to impurities.
The two main categories of a non-linear resistors are:
thermally sensitive resistors (from which the name thermistor is derived); and
voltage dependent resistors usually referred to as VDRs or, simply, varistors.
Thermistors can be subdivided into two groups:
39
40
those having negative temperature coecient of resistance: NTC thermistors; and
those having positive temperature coecient of resistance: PTC thermistors.
The resistance of an NTC thermistor falls with rise in temperature following an expo-
nential characteristic over a wide range of temperatures. The PTC thermistor, on the other
hand, shows a large increase over a small temperature range. Although NTC thermistors
are widely used then the PTC type, many of the practical uses of the thermistor depend
upon the features associated with the given thermistor. High sensitivity and case of han-
dling encourages their use in many applications. Some examples of these applications are
resistance compensation circuit and temperature measuring devices. Commercial thermis-
tors are made of sintered mixtures of Mn2 O3,NiO2 and Co2O3. Thermistors are used in
electronic circuits to compensate for the change in resistance with temperature of ordinary
components where variation of component values cannot be tolerated. Thermistors also
nd extensive use as sensing elements in microwave power measuring equipments and as
temperature sensors for electronic thermometers. They are capable of yielding power range
of 10
5
mW to 20 mW.
Devices that exhibit, in some region, a negative slops in their I-V characteristics are
useful for making oscillators, ampliers and small switching circuits. Unfortunately, ther-
mistors are not suitable in these applications because their response characteristics are
too slow. However, certain bulk semiconducting compounds have negative resistance char-
acteristics over a limited range of operating parameters utilizing mechanism unrelated to
the temperature sensitivity of the resistivity. These materials, which are preferred to the
thermistors, use Gunn-eect (see Appendix Gunn Eect).
R
T
NTC
PTC
Fig 6.1: Resistance vs.
Temperature curve for
NTC and PTC ther-
mistors
V
I
Fig 6.2: V-I character-
istics for an NTC ther-
mistor
l
o
g
R
e
1/T
Fig 6.3: Variation of
lnR with 1/T
41
6.2 Theory
Fig 6.1 shows a graph between the temperature (T) of the component and its resistance
(R) for NTC thermistors. The general behaviour of the RT curve for an NTC thermistor
can be explained on the basis of the band theory of solids. When the temperature is low,
the electron density in the valence band is far more then in the conduction band. This
gives rise to a large resistance. As the temperature of the thermistor is increased, some
electrons in the valence band get sucient thermal energy to jump into the conduction
band by crossing the energy gap, E
g
, between the two bands. Consequently, the electron
density in the conduction band increases resulting in decreases in the resistance (Fig 6.1).
The I-V characteristic of an NTC thermistor also shows a behaviour as shown in Fig 6.2.
A part of the characteristic corresponds to the negative temperature region. The general
behaviour vis-` a -vis I-V plot can be explained as follows.
For suciently small currents and voltages, the power dissipated in the thermistor is
too small to raise the temperature of the material of the thermistor appreciably. Ohms
law is obeyed to this extent and the curve start out in a straight line from the origin. For
higher currents and voltages, however, the temperature of the thermistor is increased. This
results in decrease of resistance (Fig 6. 1). Therefore, for a given value of current passed,
the voltage across the thermistor decreases. In this region; Ohms law is not obeyed and
characteristics correspond to a negative coecient of resistance.
In general, the raw materials used in the preparation of an NTC thermistor are usually
metallic oxides like the oxides of Fe, Mn, Co etc. since the main mixture itself is an intrinsic
semiconductor, the relevant theory of semiconductor can be applied in this case to determine
the forbidden energy gap, E
g
, the temperature coecient of resistance, , etc. (see Appendix
Semiconductors-II ).
If the electron and hole mobilities are assumed to be temperature independent, the
conductivity is proportional to n
i
, the intrinsic charge carrier concentration (see Appendix
Semiconductors-II ). Hence,
exp
_
E
g
2 kT
_
=
o
exp
_
E
g
2 kT
_
, (6.2.1)
42
where,
o
= 2
_
2 mkT
h
2
_3
2
(
e
+
h
).
Then the resistivity, , takes the form, =
o
exp
_
E
g
2 kT
_
. The resistance oered by
the material at a temperature T is given by,
R = R
o
exp
_
E
g
2 kT
_
, (6.2.2)
where, R
o
, the limiting value of resistance at innitely large temperature, is dependent on
the temperature and the mobilities of the charge carriers. Taking logarithm on both sides,
ln R = ln R
o
+
E
g
2 kT
, or, ln R = c +
E
g
2 k10
3
10
3
T
(6.2.3)
where, c is the y-intercept of the straight line graph between in R and
10
3
T
(See Fig 6.3).
Hence the slope m of this line is given by m =
E
g
2 k 10
3
, or,
E
g
=
10
3
2 (1.38) 10
23
m
1.6 10
19
= 0.1725 m (eV ) (6.2.4)
From the denition of temperature coecient of resistance at a given temperature,
=
1
R
dR
dT
=
1
R
o
exp
_
E
g
2kT
_
__
E
g
2k
__
1
T
2
_
R
o
exp
_
E
g
2 kT
__
,
=
_
E
g
2k
_ _
1
T
2
_
(6.2.5)
= 0.1725
m
2 k T
2
(6.2.6)
Therefore, the value of temperature coecient of resistance can be determined at dif-
ferent temperatures by substituting value for E
g
in Eq (6.2.5). The pre-exponential factor
R
o
, of Eq (6.2.2) is calculated from Eq (6.2.3) and is given by, ln R
o
= c. Therefore,
ln R
o
= c (6.2.7)
The y-intercept, c, can be determined using the least squares t formula as given in the
Appendix Linear Least Squares Fit.
43
6.3 Objectives
1. To plot: (a) lnR versus
10
3
T
graph at two dierent values of current through the
thermistor and (b) R versus T graph;
2. To determine the values of energy gap, E
g
. corresponding to two dierent values of
passing current;
3. To determine: (a) the values of temperature coecient of resistance at two dierent
values of temperatures, and (b) the limiting values of resistance, R
O
, using least
squares t formula.
6.4 Procedure
6.4.1 Main experiment
1. Insert the thermistor and thermometer inside the test tube containing toluene. Mount
the assembly on a retort stand and place it just inside the heating mantle. (See Fig
6.4)
mA
V
TH
constant
current
supply
+
+
-
+
-
thermometer
r
e
t
o
r
t

s
t
a
n
d
heating mantle
thermistor
solder contacts
Fig 6.4: Experimental Arrangement
2. Switch on the heating mantle and set the temperature control knob at say, 50
o
C.
3. While the thermistor is being heated up, follow the procedure given below.
44
Select the lead wires connected to +ve and -ve polarity of the 0-15 V/DC supply.
Rotate the coarse knob to the right till the built-in voltmeter displays 15 V
reading.
Make the connections shown in Fig 6.1, but keep AB disconnected.
4. Rotate the temperature control knob further and set it to 70
o
C temperature. As the
temperature in the thermometer reads 70
o
C, connect AB. Now rotate the current
limit knob of the power supply to set the values of desired constant current, say, 20
mA. By the time you are doing this, the thermometer may be reading, say, 75
o
C.
5. Switch o the heating mantle (although the heating is stopped, the temperature rises
for a short time due to convection).
6. As soon as the thermometer reads 75
o
C takes readings as given below. Ensure that
the passing current is held constant at 20 mA.
Table 6.1: Measurement of voltage as a function of temperature
S. I = 20 mA I = 50 mA
No. Temp, t
o
C Voltage, V
TH
Volts Temp, t
o
C Voltage, V
TH
Volts
1. 75 75
2. 73 73
3. 71 71

21 35 35
7. Record readings in Table 6.1 noting down the values of voltage V
TH
across the ther-
mistor and the corresponding temperature in thermometer.
8. Repeat 7. at a dierential fall of every 2
o
C in the thermometer. In this way, note
down the readings of V
TH
and t
o
C in Table 6.1 till the temperature falls down to
about the room temperature. Ensure that the passing current is constant throughout.
9. Disconnect AB and repeat steps 2. to 8. setting the current to, say, 50 mA (step4.).
It is advisable that you record V
TH
values for the same set of temperature t.
45
6.5 Calculations
1. Prepare the following calculation table.
Table 6.2:
10
3
T
and lnR calculation
S. T
o
K 10
3
/T I = 20 mA I = 50 mA
No. (t
o
C + 273)
o
K
1
R = V
TH
/I() ln R R = V
TH
/I() ln R
1 348
2 346

21 308
2. Plot R() versus T(
o
K) graphs for I = 20mA and I = 50mA, taking T on X- axis
and R on Y axis. Take care that R-values for both the constant current values are
accommodated in the same graph. Separation in the curves should be discernible.
3. Plot lnR versus
10
3
T
(
o
K
1
) graphs for I = 20mA and I = 50mA; taking
10
3
T
on X-axis
and in R on Y-axis. Similar care as under 1should be taken.
4. Select two sets of data points:
_
10
3
T
, ln R(I = 20mA)
_
and
_
10
3
T
, ln R(I = 50mA)
_
from Table 6.2. Find separately the slope, m
1
and m
2
, of the best t lines correspond-
ing to these sets of data points using the formulae given in Appendix Linear Least
Squares Fit.
5. Then, according to Eq (6.2.4), from ln R versus
10
3
T
curves,
(i) Energy gap (I=20mA, constant), E
g
= 0.1725 m
1
(eV )
(ii) Energy gap (I=50 mA, constant), E
g
= 0.1725 m
2
(eV )
6. The negative temperature coecient of resistance for two values of temperatures, say,
T
1
, and T
2
can be found using the values of E
g
and Eq (6.2.6).
|
T
1
=
_
E
g
2 k
_ _
1
T
2
1
_
= 1000
m
1
T
2
1
per
o
K,
and
|
T
1
=
_
E
g
2 k
_ _
1
T
2
1
_
= 1000
m
2
T
2
2
per
o
K,
46
7. Selecting the same sets of data points are under 2., nd separately the intercepts c
1
and c
2
of the best lines corresponding to these sets of data points (see appendix Linear
Least Squares Fit).
8. Then, using Eq (6.2.7), (i) the limiting values of resistance, R
o
, for a constant passing
current of 20mA R
o
|
I=20 mA
= e
c
1
and, (ii) Similarly, R
o
for a current of 50mA:
R
o
|
I=50 mA
= e
c
2
6.6 Result
For given thermistor, the following parameters were found.
1. The energy gap (activation energy)
(a) E
g
|
I=20mA
= eV ,
(b) E
g
|
I=50mA
= eV.
2. The temperature coecient of resistance
(a) |
T
1
= per
o
K,
(b) |
T
2
= per
o
K
3. The limiting value of resistance,
(a) R
o
= at I = 20mA,
(b) R
o
= at I = 50mA.
Experiment No. 7
Interference of Light in Thin Films
7.1 Introduction
When a ray of light strikes the boundary between two optical media, in general, it is partly
reected and partly transmitted. A lm of air between, say, two glass pieces presents two
such boundaries to a ray of light. The rst of these is encountered by the ray when it enters
the air lm form glass. The second is crossed, when the ray, after traversing the air lm,
enters the second piece of glass. The phenomenon of partial reection and partial transmis-
sion then provides a mechanism for interference to take place. If the ray of light is coherent
consisting of a single frequency, one can get interference patterns. Constructive interference
gives brightness and destructive interference gives darkness. Therefore, depending on the
lm geometry, one gets well dened dark and bright fringes of denite shapes and size.
(a) (b)
FP
L
Fig 7.1: (a) Lens-plate system, (b)Top view of Newtons rings
In this experiment you study this interference phenomenon with the help of an air lm
between a at totally reecting glass piece and a plano-convex lens placed on the glass
plate with its convex face touching the plate. The interference fringes obtained are circular.
47
48
These are known as Newtons rings. (See Fig 7.1b).
7.2 Theory
7.2.1 Path dierence calculation
Refer to Fig 7.2(a). A ray of wavelength in outside medium falls on a lm of optical
medium of refractive index n (relative to medium outside the lm) at an angle to the
normal. is the angle of refraction. We want
, the optical path dierence in the outside

medium between rays PP
and RR
reected from the top and the bottom faces of the lm.
The lm thickness is t.
r
t
y
S
D
P
Q
C
q
q
t
j
X
P
P R
R
Q
M
PQ = n t/Cos(j)
PM = 2 t Tan( Sin(
= 2 n t Tan( Sin(
j) q)
j) j)
D = 2 PQ - PM
= 2nt/Cos [1-Sin (
= 2 n t Cos(
(j) j)]
j)
2
x
DPQ = 90
0
DS = 2 R-t
(a) (b)
Fig 7.2: (a)Interference in a thin lm, (b) Relation between r and t
7.2.2 Phase change at one of the reections
If the medium on both sides of the lm is optically denser (n < 1) or rarer (n > 1), then
for one of the two reections at P and Q the one for which the ray enters an optically
denser medium from a rarer one there is a phase change of in the reected rays. This
result follows from the electromagnetic theory of light.
7.2.3 Total path dierence between the two rays
The phase change of is equivalent to an additional path dierence of

2
between the two
interfering rays PP
and RR
. Thus the total path dierence between the rays is,

=

+

2
= 2 n t Cos() +

2
.
For normal and near-normal incidence, this becomes,
= 2 n t +

2
49
7.2.4 Newtons rings
If the above expression for path dierence is to be used for getting interference fringes in
the lm of air created by placing a plano-convex lens on a at totally reecting glass plate
as in Fig 7.1(a), then t must be regarded as a changing variable - t is zero at the point of
contact of the lens and the at plate and increases as one moves radially outward on the
lens. The locus of equal-t points in the lm is a circle. t can be related to r, the radially
outward distance from the point of contact, using Fig 7.2(b).
r
2
= x
2
(2R t)
2
= y
2
t
2
,
2 r
2
= x
2
+y
2
+ (2 R t)
2
t
2
.
Using x
2
+y
2
= 4R
2
, we get r
2
= 2 R t. Thus,
t =
r
2
2 R
.
Now, we get constructive interference, i.e., a bright fringe when the total path dierence
between the interfering rays is an integral multiple of , the wavelength. Since equal-t loci
are concentric circles, the interference fringes are alternating concentric dark and bright
rings. Thus, the condition for obtaining p
th
bright rings is,
= 2 n t +

2
= p , or, n t =
n r
2
p
2R
=
(2 p 1)
4
,
where, r
p
is the radius of the p
th
bright fringe. The square of the diameter of the p
th
bright
fringe is then given by,
d
2
p
=
2 R (2p 1)
n
=
4 R
n
p
2 R
n
.
So, the graph between d
2
p
on the Yaxis and p on the X-axis is a straight line with slope
s =
4 R
n
. The wavelength is then given by,
= s
n
4 R
(7.2.1)
The schematic diagram for the entire experimental setup is depicted in Fig 7.3.
7.3 Objectives
1. To determine the wavelength of sodium light from the diameters of Newtons rings.
50
Microscope
objective
Glass plate G
C
o
l
l
i
m
a
t
o
r
Flat glass plate FP
Lens L
Near-normal
incidence
45
0
Fig 7.3: Schematic ray diagram
Vernier
MA
LS
Eye-piece
FS1
FS2
Scale S
M
Base
Fig 7.4: Schematic of the travelling microscope
51
7.4 Procedure
7.4.1 Assembling the lens and plate
1. Switch on the sodium lamp. Clean the at glass plate FP, the plano-convex lens L
and the partially reecting glass plate G using a piece of clean soft cloth and some
organic liquid, like acetone, if necessary. See that there are no small dust particles or
bres sticking to the lens.
2. Assemble the lens plate system with the lens L on the plate FP with its convex face
down (See Fig 7.4).
3. Mount the partially reecting at glass plate G on to the clamp mounted. Rotate
the clamp to orient the plate so that it makes an angle of 45
o
with the plane of the
lens-plate system. If necessary, you can adjust the height of G over the lens-plate
system by sliding the clamp.
4. Place this assembly in front of the window in the sodium lamp. The correct position
is when the plate G is inclined toward the window. In this position the plate G will
partially reect the rays coming through the window onto the lens-plate assembly.
7.4.2 Setting the travelling microscope
1. See that the microscope arm MA (See Fig 7.4) is vertical and the scale S is horizontal.
Use the xing screw FS1 to do this.
2. The microscope should now freely slide along the scale with its arm always remaining
vertical. Check this. If the microscope is not moving loosen the xing screw FS2.
3. Now move the long screw LS so that the threads go completely inside. Fix FS2. Take
rough reading of the microscope position. Rotate LS so that the threads come com-
pletely out. Again read microscope position. Now rotate LS so that the microscope
moves back half the distance it moved earlier. Release FS2. Slide the microscope
manually so that it is the centre of the scale. Fix FS2.
4. Note the smallest division on the main scale of the microscope. Note the number of
divisions on the vernier scale. Find the least count of the vernier by dividing the latter
by the former.
52
7.4.3 Obtaining Newtons rings
1. The rst thing you should understand is that obtaining Newtons rings is a matter of
practice. You should try to learn it by repetition.
2. Look vertically through the inclined glass plate on the L-FP assembly which you have
earlier placed in front of the window in the sodium lamp. By now the lamp should be
glowing bright yellow.
3. Move your head slightly from side to side so that you are always viewing the lens-
plate system along near normal directions. Simultaneously do slight adjustments of
the inclination of the glass plate G, and slight shifting of the entire lens-plate (L-FP)
assembly in front of the sodium lamp window till you start seeing bright and dark
rings in the fully illuminated area around the point of contact of the lens L and the
at plate FP.
4. Once you start seeing the rings, place the microscope with the microscope arm MA
above G and as far up as possible. This is to avoid striking the plate G of assembly A
with the a arm MA. Move the microscope arm MA above by bodily moving the entire
travelling microscope. Look through the microscope eye-piece and move the screw M
bringing the arm MA down slowly towards the inclined plate G. The rings will come
into focus if your adjustments are correct.
5. Now adjust the entire L-FP assembly under the microscope arm MA moving it slightly
so that the rings become sharper and as well illuminated as possible. Using screw M
focus on the rings as well as you can. you should see a central dark spot surrounded
by alternating bright and dark well dened circular rings. In this position you should
have the microscope scale perpendicular to the direction of light rays coming out of
the sodium lamp window and falling on the glass plate G.
6. Move the screw LS so that through the microscope eye-piece you see the rings moving
laterally. Ensure that by moving the screw LS you can make the cross-wires tangent
to, say, the thirtieth bright ring on both the left and the right sides.
53
7.4.4 Making measurements
1. Move LS so that the cross-wire, as seen through the microscope eye-piece is tangent
to the 30
th
ring on the left hand side. Now, move LS slowly so that the cross-wire
becomes tangent to the 25
th
bright ring. Note down the main and vernier scale
readings on the microscope scale S in the observation table (Table 7.1).
2. Move LS again so that now the cross-wire is tangent to the 23
rd
bright ring. Again
note the readings on scale S.
3. Repeat this, moving two rings at a time. Continue through the central dark spot
till you have recorded positions of tangency on the right hand side up to the 25
th
ring. Take care never to reverse the direction in which you rotate LS once you have
started recording observations. This is essential to avoid backlash error. Even if you
overshoot a ring you had to record, leave it and go ahead to next ring to be recorded.
4. Record the radius of curvature of the plane convex lens.
Table 7.1: Measurement of ring diameters
S. Ring No Left Hand Side Right Hand Side
No. (p) MSR VSR TR
L
P
(cm) MSR VSR TR
R
P
(cm)
1. 25
2. 23

10. 7
Radius of curvature of plano-convex lens L = cm.
7.5 Calculations
1. From Table 7.1 nd the diameter of each ring by subtracting the lesser of the left hand
side and right hand side readings from the larger. Note it in Table7.2. Calculate the
diameter of each ring as well as the square of the diameter. Enter all these in Table
7.2.
54
Table 7.2: Slope calculation using linear least squares t
S. Ring No. Diameter (cm) p
2
d
2
p
p d
2
p
No. (p) d
p
= TR
L
p
TR
R
p
(cm
2
) (cm
2
)
1. 25
2. 23

12. 3
p
2
d
2
p
p d
2
p
2. Also calculate and ll in the columns of p
2
and p d
2
p
in Table 7.2, where, d
p
is the
diameter of the p
th
ring. Calculate the column sums as shown in Table 7.2
3. Find the slope of the best tting straight line to a graph of p on the X- axis and d
2
p
on
the Y-axis treating p as the independent variable and d
2
p
as the dependent variable.
See Appendix Linear Least Squares Fit.
4. Use the slope to nd the Wavelength as:
air
=

n
=
(slope)
4 R
. This will be in cm. Note
that we are using Eq (7.2.1) after equating
air
to

n
. This is because in that equation
is the wavelength in the medium outside the lm, in this case glass, and n is the
refractive index of the lm relative to the outside medium, in this case that of air
relative to glass.
5. Convert the wavelength to Angstroms.
7.6 Result
Report the result as follows.
The wavelength of sodium light was found to be ..........

A.
Experiment No. 8
Hall Eect in Semiconductors
8.1 Introduction
It is a well known fact that a charged particle in motion experiences a force when it is
subjected to an external magnetic eld. This is application not only to the free charges
but also to loosely bound charges in motion, such as a drifting electron in a metal or a
semiconductor. In general, if a moving charge is subjected to a combination of an electric
eld and a magnetic eld, it experiences a force, known as Lorentz force. In the absence
of electric eld Lorentz force is perpendicular to the velocity of the charge as well as the
magnetic eld.
+
+
-
-
X
Z
E
Fig 8.1: A semicon-
ductor specimen in an
electric eld
X
Y
Y
Z
I
B
d
w
F
L
Fig 8.2: A current car-
rying p-type semicon-
ductor in a magnetic
eld
In a semiconductor, motion of two types of charge carriers, electrons and holes, consti-
tutes a total current. Let a semiconductor specimen be subjected to a magnetic eld along
positive Y - direction (see Fig 8.1). The holes (indicated by + ) and electrons(indicated
55
56
by - ) move in opposite directions (Fig 8.1),thereby constituting the total current. If the
magnetic eld is acting along the negative X - direction, then both holes and electrons
experience force in the same direction, i.e., along positive Z - directions. This follows from
the fact that a charge q moving with velocity v in electric eld E and magnetic eld B
experiences a force F = q[E + v B]. The resulting displacement of the charge carriers
cause spatial charge imbalance which gives rise to an induced electric eld along Z - axis.
The phenomenon of appearance of induced electric eld, (or voltage) across the faces of a
material subjected to a magnetic eld is known as Hall Eect. The induced voltage is called
the Hall voltage. Hall Eect was discovered by E. H. Hall in 1879. In this phenomenon the
Hall voltage (and also the induced electric eld ) is directly proportional to the product of
the magnetic eld (B) and current density (J). the constant of proportionality is known as
the Hall Coecient, R
H
.
In a heavily doped semiconductor, one can assume that only one type of charge carriers
(electrons for n- type or holes for p-type) constitute the total current. Under suitable
conditions the Hall voltage can be measured in the laboratory. The Hall phenomenon
can be used to identify p-type / n-type semiconductor and also to determine the carrier
concentration.
8.2 Theory
Let a semiconductor of width w and thickness d carry a current I A along Y-direction
as shown in Fig 8.2. let the semiconductor specimen be placed in a magnetic eld B
along positive X-direction. Assume, without loss of generality, that the specimen is a p-
type semiconductor in which the predominant charge carriers are holes. From the above
expression for Lorentz force, it is clear that the lorentz force acts on the charge carriers
(holes) along negative Z-direction. As discussed in the introduction this gives rise to the
induced electric eld E along positive Z-direction. In the equilibrium state the electric eld
E arising due to Hall eect exerts a force on the charge carriers, which just balances the
magnetic force. This gives,
eE = evB, (8.2.1)
where, e is the magnitude of the charge on the carrier and v is the average drift velocity
of the carrier. If this eld E develops a Hall voltage V
H
across the shaded faces of the
57
specimen, i.e, faces 1 and 2 in Fig 8.2, then,
E = E =
V
H
d
. (8.2.2)
From Eqs (8.2.1) and (8.2.2) we get,
V
H
= Bvd. (8.2.3)
If n denotes the carrier density, i.e., the number of charge carriers per unit volume, then
the current density J is given by,
J = nev. (8.2.4)
From Eqs (8.2.3) and (8.2.4),
E =
V
H
d
= Bv =
BJ
ne
. (8.2.5)
Now, the Hall coecient, R
H
is dened by the relation,
E = R
H
[J B], (8.2.6)
where, E is the eld induced because of a current density J in magnetic eld B. As J is
perpendicular to B, we have,
E = R
H
J B. (8.2.7)
From Eqs (8.2.5) and (8.2.7), we get,
R
H
=
1
ne
. (8.2.8)
Thus, if the Hall coecient R
H
is known then the carrier concentration n can be determined.
From Eqs (8.2.5) and (8.2.8), as I = Jdw (See Fig 8.2), we get,
R
H
=
w V
H
B I
_
m
3
C
_
. (8.2.9)
If V
H
experimentally measured, knowing B, I and w, one can determine the Hall coecient
R
H
.
8.3 Objectives
1. To determine Hall coecient R
H
of the given n-type / p-type semiconductor specimen;
2. To determine the carrier concentration of the majority carriers in the given specimen.
58
8.4 Procedure
8.4.1 Testing of the electromagnet
1. The magnetic eld is established by the electromagnet (model EMU-75). The current
to the electromagnet is supplied by a constant current power supply (model PS-175).
You have to ensure that the eld is reasonably uniform over a large enough region
between the pole pieces of the electromagnet. Start by ensuring that the power supply
(PS-175) is o.
2. Connect the coils to the supply leads of the power supply. Ensure that the current
control knob is in its extreme anti-clockwise position. Establish a gap of about 2 cm
between the pole pieces of the electromagnet using the key K. Mount the probe of the
gauss meter on the stand and introduce the probe between the pole pieces with at
face parallel to the pole faces.
3. Switch on the digital gauss meter (model GM-102) and note that there is a non-zero
eld (about 90-100 Gauss) even when no current ows through the magnet coils.
This is the remnant elds. Switch on the power supply (PS-175)of the electromagnet.
Increase the current through the coil in such a way that the magnetic eld (read by the
Gauss meter) increases in the steps of 100 Gauss. Usually the magnetic eld should
range between 200-2000 Gauss.
4. Move the Hall probe between the faces and ensure that the gauss meter reading is
constant over a large enough region. Before nally recording the magnetic eld, ensure
that the orientation of the Hall probe (for the given magnetizing current) gives the
maximum magnetic eld.
5. Change the selector (toggle switch on the gauss meter) from x 1 to x 10 whenever
the magnetic eld exceeds 1000G. Reduce the magnetizing current to decrease the
magnetic eld to the minimum in similar steps. Now the electromagnet is ready for
performing the experiment. Switch of the power supply (PS-17) of the electromagnet.
59
CONSTANT
CURRENT
POWER
SUPPLY
DIGITAL
VOLTMETER
B
S N
Through coils to the constant
current supply
Semiconductor sample
Fig 8.3: Schematic of experimental setup
8.4.2 Main experimental set-up
1. Note down the type (p- or n-) of the semiconductor specimen. Mount the specimen
on the retort stand so that it can be placed and slid between the at pole pieces of
the electromagnet. Ensure that at faces of the specimen are parallel to the faces of
poles of the electromagnet.
2. Connect the current leads (green) and the voltage leads (red) to proper input terminals
(labelled current and voltage respectively) on the front panel of the Hall eect set-up
model DHE-21.
3. The semiconductor specimen is in the form of a rectangular slab (see Fig 8.3). Current
ows parallel to the longer side, the magnetic eld acts perpendicular to the bigger face
and the Hall voltage is generated across the breadth. These directions are mutually
perpendicular to each other.
4. Ensure that the current control is in its extreme anti clockwise position. Switch on the
constant current power supply PS-175. Put the selector knob to the left (x1position)
and see that the voltage reading is zero in the Hall eect set-up model DHE-21. Now
establish a current of 1mA (for n-type) or 3 mA (for p-type) semiconductor sample
using the knob for current adjustment. The digital display can read either the Hall
voltage in mV or sample current in mA. To adjust the current through the sample it
should be operated in current mode.
60
5. Introduce the sample holder in between the pole pieces so that the sample is positioned
to read the maximum possible Hall voltage (VH). make sure that the semiconductor
specimen does not touch either the pole pieces of the electromagnet or the Gauss
meter probe.
8.4.3 Observations
1. Adjust the current knob in PS-175 so that the magnetic eld read in the gauss meter
is 200 Gauss. Record the Hall voltage from the digital display of DHE-21 and magnet
eld shown by the gauss meter GM-102 in the observation table Table8.1.
2. Increase the magnetic eld in steps of 100 Gauss, till you reach a maximum eld of
2000 Gauss, noting down the Hall voltage at each step.
3. Now decrease the magnetic eld to 1950 Gauss. Record VH.
4. Decrease the eld in steps of 100 Gauss, till you reach 150 Gauss, recording at each
step the Hall voltage in Table 8.1.
Table 2.1: Field-voltage observations
S. Current Increasing Field Decreasing Field
No. I (mA) B
(Gauss)
Hall Voltage
V
H
(mV )
B
(Gauss)
Hall Voltage
V
H
(mV )
1. 1(n-type) 200 . . . 1950 . . .
2. 3(p-type) 300 . . . 1850 . . .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 2000 . . . 150 . . .
1. 2(n-type) 200 . . . 1950 . . .
2. 5(p-type) 300 . . . 1850 . . .
3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 2000 . . . 150 . . .
61
5. Repeat steps 1.-4. Above, setting the sample current to 2mA (n-type) or 5mA (p-
type).
8.5 Graph Plotting
1. Convert the magnetic eld from Gauss to Webers per metre2; 1 Wb- m2 = 10000
Gauss. Convert the Hall voltage from millivolts to volts and the sample current from
milliamperes.
2. Plot a graph of the magnetic eld (on the X-axis) versus the Hall voltage (on Y- axis)
for each sample current values.
3. Draw the best possible straight line (in the sense of least squares t) through the
plotted points on both the graphs.
8.6 Calculations
1. Use the following data for the calculations of 2. and 3. below.
a. Hall element: p-type Ge (No 399) Thickness = 0.4 mm. Resistivity = 8 ohm-cm.
Max Current = 15 mA.
b. Hall element: n-type Ge (No 400) Thickness = 0.4 mm. Resistivity = 20ohm-cm.
Max Current = 6 mA.
2. Determine the slope of the straight line in each of the graphs you have plotted. Find
the Hall coecient using the formula,
R
H
=
w
I
slope
_
m
3
C
_
.
3. Find the carrier concentration using the formula,
n =
1
R
H
e
(m
3
).
4. For any one value of sample current, calculate the slope of the B V
H
straight line
by least squares tting (see Appendix Linear Least Squares Fit. Use the slope to
calculate R
H
as in 2.
62
8.7 Result
1. The Hall coecient R
H
of the given p-/ n- type sample was found to be . . .
m
3
C
.
2. The Hall coecient RH of the given p-/ n- type sample calculated using least squares
tting was found to be . . .
m
3
C
.
3. The carrier concentration in the given p-/ n- type sample was found to be . . .
m
3
C
holes
/ electrons per
m
3
C
.
Experiment No. 9
Study of Rectication of ac Signals
9.1 Introduction
Electronic circuits need energy to work. In most cases, this energy is provided by a circuit
called the power supply. A power supply failure will aect all the remaining circuitry.
The power supply is thus a key part of any electronic system. DC power supplies use
rectier diodes to convert alternating current to direct current. This is called rectication.
Alternating current ows in both directions and direct current ows in only one direction.
Since diodes conduct in only one direction, they serve as rectiers.
9.2 Theory
The ac supply available at at ordinary wall outlets is 230V, 50 Hertz. Electronic circuits
often require lower voltages. Transformers can be used to step down the voltage to the level
needed.
9.2.1 Half-wave rectication
The rectier
Fig 9.1 shows a simple circuit in which a diode is used as a half wave rectier. The diode
allows current to ow only from its cathode to its anode. The diode is in series with the
load resistance R
L
. The current is constant over a series circuit. Hence, the diode current
and the load current are the same. Since the load current is owing in only one direction,
it is a direct current.
63
64
Rectifier circuit Negative half of wave blocked
half wave
pulsating dc
0
positive half cycle
0
CH2
Hi
Lo
ac
Step down transformer
Load
R
L
V
Appl
Fig 9.1: Half-wave rectier
Note the polarity across the load in Fig 9.1a. Electrons move from negative to positive
through the load. The positive end of the load is connected to the cathode end of the
rectier and the negative end of the load is connected to the anode of rectier. Fig 9.1b
shows the input wave from to the rectier circuit. In Fig 9.1c the waveform that appears
across the, load resistance of Fig 9.1a is shown. The negative half of the cycle is missing
since the diode blocks it. This waveform is called half-wave pulsating direct current. If
represents only the positive half of the ac input to the rectier.
Ripple factor
The object of a rectier is to convert ac to dc. A measure of how successful a circuit is in
doing this is the ripple factor, r. This is dened as follows,
r =
ripple voltage
dc voltage
=
rms value of ac component
dc value of wave
=
V
r,rms
V
dc
,
where, V
r,rms
is the rms value of the voltage. In case of the half wave rectier, rms value
is given by
V
m
2
and V
dc
is
V
m
, V
m
being the peak voltage. The ripple factor may also be
dened as,
r =
_
_
V
rms
V
dc
_
2
1
_1
2
= 1.21,
where, V
rms
is the rms value of the total rectied output voltage. This indicates that
the amount of ac present in the output is 121
65
Percentage voltage regulation
The degree to which the output of a power supply varies under conditions of load variations
is measured by the voltage regulation,usually expressed as a percentage.
% V oltage Regulation =
V
open circuit
V
m
V
m
100.
Note that a power supply that has good voltage regulation has low percentage regulation.
An ideal power supply for which full-load voltage is equal to no-load voltage has zero percent
regulation.
Disadvantages of the half wave rectier
The disadvantages of the half wave rectier are: 1) Excessive ripple (r= 1.21); 2) Low ratio
of rectication; 3) Low transformer utilization factor.
9.2.2 Full-wave rectication
The rectier
A full wave rectier is shown in Fig 9.2. It uses a centre=tapped transformer secondary
and two diodes. The centre-tap is located at the electrical centre of the secondary winding.
The wave from in Fig 9.2b across the load of Fig 9.2 is a full wave pulsating direct current.
Both alternations of the ac input are used to energize the load. Thus, a full wave rectier
can deliver twice the power of a half wave rectier.
CH2
Hi
Lo
ac
Transformer
Rectifier circuit
Center tap
D
1
D
2
Load
R
L
V
Load
0
V
Appl
Output waveform
Fig 9.2: Full-wave rectier
The ac input cycle is divided in two parts, a positive alternations and a negative alter-
nation. The positive alternation is shown in Fig 9.3. the induced polarity at the secondary
is such that D1 is turned on. Electrons leave the centre-tap, ow through the load, through
66
D1 and back into the top of the secondary. On the negative alternations, the polarity across
the secondary is reversed. This is shown in Fig 9.4. Electrons leave the centre-tap, ow
through the load, through D2 and back into the bottom of the secondary. The load current
is the same for both alternations and it ows through the resistor. Since the direction never
changes, the load current is direct current.
The ripple factor
In full wave rectier the ripple factor r is given by,
r =
_
_
V
rms
V
dc
_
2
1
_1
2
= 0.482,
as V
rms
=
V
m
2
and V
dc
=
2 V
m
, V
dc
being the open-circuit voltage.
Bridge rectier
The need for a centre tapped transformer is eliminated in the bridge rectier. It contains
four diodes connected to from bridge as shown in Fig 9.5. the ac supply to be rectied is
applied to the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge as shown in Fig 9.5. the load resistance
R
L
is connected between the other pair of diagonally opposite ends of the bridge.
During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, D1 and D2 are forward biased and
D3 and D4 are reverse biased and eectively open. D1 and D2 provide a current path
through the load resistor R
L
, as shown if Fig 9.6. when the input voltage reverses polarity
during the second half cycles, the situation is reversed. D1 and D2 are reverse biased and
eectively open; D3 and D4 are forward biased and provide a current path through R
L
,
as shown in Fig 9.7. the current through R
L
is in same direction during the negative and
positive half cycles.
The load current i
o
for either of the above two full-wave rectier circuits is given by,
The dc and rms currents are given by, In case of bridge rectier the ripple factor r is given
by We can readily see that the ripple factor is lower than that for the half-wave rectier.
So, as in the, case of the other full wave rectiers, the ac component in the rectied output
of the bridge rectier will also be smaller than that in the half wave rectier.
67
9.3 Objectives
1. To trace the input and the output wave-forms in half wave, full wave and bridge
rectier circuits;
2. To plot graphs showing variation in terminal voltage with load resistance;
3. To determine a) ripple factor, b) percentage voltage regulation and c) input resistance
for half wave, full wave and bridge rectiers.
9.4 Procedure
9.4.1 Half-wave rectier
1. Make the connections as shown in Fig 9.1 a.
2. Set the CRO controls as given below. a) Select the DC input coupling mode. b) Set
the vertical display mode to dual. c) Set
TIME
DIV
to 5ms. d) Set
V OLTS
DIV
, to 5 V (both
CH1and CH2). e) Keep the variable Knob in the extreme clockwise position. f) Use
the Intensity Control and the Focus Control Knobs to adjust intensity and focus.
3. Switch on the CRO and the experimental assembly. You will see I) a sine wave
corresponding to the out put of transformer and ii) a pulsating half-wave form cor-
responding to the out put signal across the load. If you do not see these, check your
connections again.
4. Shift the mode knob to CH1. You will now see the half wave pulsating wave form
(Fig 9.1c) on the CRO screen. Trace the wave form on tracing paper or draw it to
scale on an ordinary graph paper. Note down the number of divisions corresponding
to the height of the signal (V
m
) multiplied by the
V OLTS
DIV
factor;
5. Shift the mode knob to the CH2. You will now see the half wave on the screen. Trace
the wave from on tracing paper or draw it to scale on a graph paper. Note down the
number of divisions corresponding to the full height of the signal (2V
m
) multiplied by
the
V OLTS
DIV
factor.
6. In order to obtain the load voltage (V
m
), shift the mode knob to CH1. You the half
wave pulsating wave from on the screen. Trace the wave from on tracing paper or
68
draw it to scale on a graph paper. Adjust one of the peaks along a vertical grid line on
the CRO screen and note the number of divisions corresponding to the height of the
signal multiplied by
V OLTS
DIV
factor for dierent values of load in Table 9.1. in order
to determine the open circuit voltage (V
open circuit
), remove the banana terminals
connecting the central conductor of the coaxial connected to the CRO input to the
load. Adjust one of the peaks of along a vertical grid line on the screen and note down
the number of divisions corresponding to the peaks height multiplied by the
V OLTS
DIV
factor.
9.4.2 Full-wave rectier
Repeat steps 4-6, above for full wave rectier. Use Fig 9.2a. Make a table similar to Table
9.1.
CH2
Hi
Lo
ac
Transformer
D conducting
1
Center tap
D
1
D
2
Load
R
L
V
Load
0
V
Appl
Output waveform
Through D
1
Fig 9.3: Full-wave rectier: half cycle conduction
Output waveform
Through D
2
D conducting
2
CH2
Hi
Lo
ac
Transformer
Center tap
D
1
D
2
Load
R
L
V
Appl V
Load
0
Fig 9.4: Full-wave rectier: second half cycle conduction
69
9.4.3 Bridge rectier
CH2
Hi
Lo
ac
Transformer
Center tap
Load
R
L
V
Load
0
V
Appl
Rectifier circuit Output waveform
D
1
D
2
D
4
D
3
Fig 9.5: Bridge rectier
CH2
Hi
Lo
ac
Transformer
D and D conducting
1 2
Center tap
Load
R
L
V
Load
0
V
Appl
D
1
D
2
D
4
D
3
Output
Fig 9.6: Bridge rectier: half cycle conduction
CH2
Hi
Lo
ac
Transformer
D and D conducting
3 4
Load
R
L
V
Load
0
V
Appl
D
1
D
2
D
4
D
3
Output
Fig 9.7: Bridge rectier: second half cycle conduction
70
1. Make the connections shown in Fig 9.5. Make a table similar to Table 9.1.
2. Repeat step 4.
3. In order to trace the output wave form of the transformer, remove the banana termi-
nals connected across the load resistance and connect it across the secondary terminals
of the transformer. You will see a sine wave on the screen. Trace the wave form on
tracing paper or draw it to scale on a graph paper. Note down the number of divisions
corresponding to the full height of the signal (2V
m
) multiplied by the
V OLTS
DIV
factor.
4. Now remove the banana terminals connected across the secondary of the transformer
and connect them across the load resistance. You will see a half wave pulsating
wave from on the screen. Adjust one of the peaks along a vertical grid line on the
CRO screen and note down number of divisions corresponding to the height of the
signal. Also note down the
V OLTS
DIV
knob setting. Repeat for dierent loads. In order
to determine the open circuit voltage (V
open circuit
), remove the banana terminals
connecting the central conductor of the coaxial connected to the CRO input to the
load. Note the readings as for other nite values of load resistance.
9.4.4 Observation Table
Table 9.1: Voltage as a function of load
S.No. R
L
()
V OLTS
DIV
Peak Reading V
m
(V ) V
dc
(V )
1. 100
2. 68
3. 47
4. 22
5. 10
6. 4.7
V
open circuit
= . . .
_
V OLTS
DIV
_
. . . (div) = . . . (V olts).
71
9.5 Graph Plotting
Using Table 9.1 plot the graph, shown in Fig 9.8, between load resistance and load voltage
for each of the rectiers. In order to plot a good graph, proper selection of scale is very
important. The scale should be chosen in such a way that the entire set of observations
is conveniently spread over the graph paper. Use good quality HB pencil for plotting the
graph.
R
L
V
FL
V
max
V /2
max
Internal
Resistance,
R
i
Fig 9.8: Finding internal resistance
9.6 Calculations
1. Using V
rms
at 100 nd the ripple factor r =
_
(
v
rms
V
dc
)
2
1
2. For 100 full load value nd, Percentage Voltage Regulation =
(V
open circuit
V
m
)
V
m
100
3. From the graph for half wave rectier, mark the value of load resistance corresponding
to the load voltage value equal to half V
open circuit
. This resistance is the internal
resistance of the supply. Repeat for graphs of other rectiers.
9.7 Results
1. Input resistance for half wave, full wave and bridge rectiers were found to be . . . , . . .
and . . . respectively.
72
2. Ripple factors for half wave, full wave and bridge rectiers were found to be . . . , . . .
and . . . respectively.
3. Percentage regulation for half wave, full wave and bridge rectiers were found to be
. . . , . . . and . . . respectively.
Experiment No. 10
Dispersion of Light Through a
Glass Prism
10.1 Introduction
Light emitted by any source is composite, i.e., it contains a number of wavelengths. The
frequency of a pure light wave is an invariant quantity. It determines the energy of photon
of that wave. The velocity and wavelength of the wave depend on the medium in which the
wave is propagating. The index of refraction of a substance also depends on wavelength or
colour of the light. As a result, on emergence from a prism, a light beam is separated into
its constituent colours, and we say that light is dispersed. Dispersion of composite light in
passing through a prism was discovered by Newton. The dispersive power of material of
prism is dened as ratio of angular dispersion to mean deviation.
In this experiment you study the variation of refractive index with wavelength and the
dispersive power of the material of a prism.
10.2 Theory
10.2.1 Refraction through a prism
When a monochromatic ray of light passes through the principal section of a prism, it
deviates due to refraction. If the angle of minimum deviation is
m
, The refractive index of
the material of the prism is given by,
=
Sin
_
A+
m
2
Sin
_
A
2
, (10.2.1)
73
74
A being the angle of prism.
As velocity in a refracting substance depends on wavelength of light, index of refraction
of the substance also depends on wavelength, or colour, of light. For white light, the angle
of minimum deviation is greater at the blue end than at the red end of the spectrum. In
other words, red light is deviated the least while violet light is deviated the most, other
colours occupying intermediate positions. The refractive index of the material of prism for
various colours is then obtained by substituting values of corresponding
m
in Eq 10.2.1 For
example, for red colour,
r
=
Sin
A+
m,r
2
Sin[
A
2
]
. Similar considerations apply to other colours.
10.2.2 Dispersive power
The dispersive power of a substance is denoted by . To dene it, consider three wavelengths
v
,
y
and
r
for violet, yellow and red colours respectively. Let the indices of refraction of
the substance for these colours be
v
,
y
and
r
. Then dispersive power is dened as,
=

v
y
1
(10.2.2)
10.3 Objectives
1. To determine refractive indices of the material of the given prism for various colours
in the mercury spectrum;
2. To determine dispersive power of the material of the prism.
10.4 Procedure
10.4.1 Levelling and alignment of collimator and telescope
1. Switch on the mercury lamp. Adjust the levelling screws on the chassis. Keep the
spirit level on the chassis and do ner adjustments of these screws to bring the bubble
in the sprit level to the centre. Repeat this placing the sprit level along a direction
perpendicular to the earlier direction.
2. Repeat this procedure for the prism table.
75
3. Close the slit at the other end of the collimator using the drum screw DS1. Open it
to a reasonable width. Place the spectrometer in front of the mercury lamp window
and rotate the collimator so that the slit faces of window. View the slit through the
telescope. If it is not in the centre of the view, level collimator and the telescope so
as to bring it to the centre.
10.4.2 Finding least count of spectrometer
1. Count the total number of division on the vernier scale, say, n. Note the smallest
division on the circular scale in minutes, say, m minutes.
2. The least count is the smallest division divided by the number of divisions on the
vernier, i.e., it is
m
n
minutes.
10.4.3 Setting the prism in the minimum deviation position
1. Rotate the prism table such that lines ruled on the table become perpendicular to the
axis of collimator.
2. Place prism over the prism table such that its rough surface BA is perpendicular to
the line on prism table (See Fig 10.1a).
3. Rotate the prism slightly about point A such that the prism is in slightly tilted position
ABC .
4. View the spectrum through the telescope. It will contain red, yellow, green, blue and
violet lines. The spectral lines will in general be broad and blurred.
5. Rotate the telescope and prism table together in clockwise direction, watching the
spectrum all the time through the telescope so as to keep the spectrum in view. The
spectrum will rotate in any one direction (to the right or to the left). Continue this
till the spectrum starts retracing its path, i.e., it starts moving opposite to the earlier
direction. This position is called the minimum deviation position .
6. Tighten screw FS2 to x the telescope.
76
10.4.4 Collimator adjustment for parallel rays Schusters method
1. Rotate the prism table slightly so that the refracting edge moves towards . The
spectral lines will appear a little blurred. Adjust the collimator screw till you see
the spectral lines as best as possible. Keep the lines in the best focus all the time
adjusting the focusing screw of the telescope.
2. Now rotate the prism table slightly in the opposite direction so that the refracting edge
moves away from the telescope. You should cross the minimum deviation position and
go slightly beyond it. The spectral lines will again appear a little blurred. Now adjust
the collimator screw to make the lines as well dened as possible.
3. Repeat steps 1. and 2. three to four times so that the spectrum remains sharp
and well-illuminated around the minimum deviation position. This ensures that the
conguration of collimator lenses is adjusted to send out parallel rays. The rays are
then parallel also to the axis of the collimator. The spectrometer is now adjusted
for parallel rays. After this do not disturb the adjustment of the collimator screw
throughout the experiment.
4. Adjust the prism table to bring the spectrum exactly to the minimum deviation
position. Tighten the screw FS1 so that the prism table is xed. Take care that you
Telescope:
Position 1
Collimator
Prism
Table
Direct Ray
Deviated
Ray
Angle
2A
Telescope:
Position 2
Angle of
Prism:
A
Telescope
Collimator
Prism
Table
Direct Ray
Deviated
Ray
Deviation,
d
A
B
B
C
C
(a) Measurement of d
m
(b) Measurement of A
A
C
B
Path 1 Path 2
Fig 10.1: Ray diagrams for measurements of
m
and A
77
do not disturb the prism throughout 10.4.5 below.
10.4.5 Measurement of the angles of minimum deviation
1. Once the minimum deviation position is obtained adjust the vertical cross wire of the
telescope slightly beyond the violet (or if violet is not seen, then the blue) line. Fix
FS2. Using M1 bring the cross wire on the violet line, or, if this is not visible, on the
blue line. Note down the readings in both the windows.
2. Now set the telescope cross wire on line of the next colour in the spectrum using ne
adjustment screw M. note down both window readings.
3. Repeat step 2. for the rest of the colours. The red line may not appear as a line, but
as a band. If this is so, adjust the cross wire at the centre of the red band. Take care
that you are moving the telescope all the time in the same direction. For this you
should avoid overshooting the position you want to record. Record all the readings in
the Table 10.1. The symbols in the table are again referred to in Table 10.4. After
you have taken the last reading the telescope will be positioned to see the redline or
band.
Table 10.1: Angles of minimum deviation
Deviated Ray Reading
Window I Window II
Colour MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR
Violet x
o
, y
z x
o
(y +z)
a
o
, b
c a
o
(b +c)
Blue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Green . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yellow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Red . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Direct Ray Reading
All Window I Window II
colours MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR
together p
o
, q
r p
o
(q +r)
e
o
, f
g e
o
(f +g)
78
4. Without disturbing the telescope or anything else remove the prism from the prism
table. Release FS2. Move the telescope slowly all the time looking through the eye-
piece so that the direct slit image just comes in view. Fix FS2 again. Using M1 again
bring the cross wire on the direct slit image. Note down the direct ray reading in both
the windows.
10.4.6 Measurement of angle of prism
1. Remove prism from the prism table. Rotate the prism platform (without moving the
windows) so that the lines ruled on it are roughly perpendicular to collimator axis
(Fig 10.1b).
2. Place the prism on the table such that its ground surface is parallel to the grooved
lines on the table.
3. In this position of prism, a beam of parallel rays will fall on both refracting faces of
the prism. The rays falling on face AC are reected along path 1 and those falling on
CB are reected along path 2. Place telescope in position 1, as shown in Fig 10.1b, to
view the reected image of the slit. Fix telescope and adjust screw M1 to bring the
reected slit- image on the cross wire. Note down the readings in both the windows.
Repeat the same for position it. Record readings in Table 10.2. The symbols in the
table are again referred to in Table 10.3. (See below.)
Table 10.2: Angle of the prism
Telescope in Position 1
Window I Window II
MSR
x
o
, y
VSR
z
TR
x
o
, (y +z)
MSR
a
o
, b
VSR
c
TR
a
o
, (b +c)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Telescope in Position 2
Window I Window II
MSR
p
o
, q
VSR
r
TR
p
o
, (q +r)
MSR
e
o
, f
VSR
g
TR
e
o
, (f +g)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
10.4.7 Calculations
1. Obtain
m
for various colours as shown in Table 10.4. Use entries in Table 10.1.
2. Also nd mean value of A as in Table 10.3. Use entries in Table 10.2.
3. Substitute these values in the formula (Eq (10.2.1)) to obtain for each colour.
4. Find dispersive power of the material of prism using the formula in Eq (10.2.2). If
you have not been able to get the violet line use
b
instead of
v
.
Table 10.3: Calculation of Angle of Prism (from Table 10.2)
2 A A Average A
Window 1 x
o
, (y +z)
p
o
, (q +r)
. . . . . .
Window 2 a
o
, (b +c)
e
o
, (f +g)
. . . . . .
Table 10.4: Calculation of angles of minimum deviation (from Table 10.1)
Colour
m1

m2
Average
m
Violet x
o
, (y +z)
p
o
, (q +r)
a
o
(b +c)
e
o
(f +g)
. . .
Blue . . . . . . . . .
Green . . . . . . . . .
Yellow . . . . . . . . .
Red . . . . . . . . .
10.4.8 Results
Tabulate the results as follows.
1. The refractive index for dierent colours were found to be,
Table 10.5: Refractive indices found
Colour Violet Blue Green Yellow Red
Refractive
Index
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Dispersive power of material of prism is found to be . . . .
Appendix A
Linear Least-squares Fit
A.1 Introduction
In many experiments the result of observations is a set of pairs of values of two quantities.
For example, when the output characteristics of a common emitter conguration are to
be found, the observations give a set of values of the collector to base voltage and the
corresponding collector current. Or, in the energy gap experiment, one obtains a set of pairs
of temperature and saturation current values. Sometimes it is known theoretically that one
of the quantities observed is linear function of the other. In such cases it is important
to 0btain the linear relation from observed data because the slope or the intercept of the
straight line graph between the two quantities is generally related to some physical quantity
of interest. So, the question is:
Given a set of data pairs which are observed values of two variables, what is the
equation of the straight line graph between them?
The answer to this question can only be statistical. Suppose that observations have
given the data (x
1
, y
1
), (x
2
, y
2
), . . . , (x
n
, y
n
), where, x
i
are values of a variable X and y
i
are
the corresponding values of a dependent variable Y . For example, X may be collector to
base voltage and Y , the collector current. Suppose that the equation of the straight line
graph between X and Y is, y = mx +c then m is the slope and c is the Y -intercept of the
graph. For the pair of values (x
1
, y
1
), the point on the straight line will then be (x
i
, mx
i
+c).
The dierence between y
i
and the corresponding point mx
i
+c on the straight line,
y
i
= y
i
(mx
i
+c)
80
81
is called the deviation for the i
th
data pair. This deviation is a good measure of how far
the data point is from the point on the line. Suppose we add squares of y
i
for all data
points,
2
=
i=n
i=1
y
2
i
=
i=n
i=1
(y
i
mx
i
c)
2
.
2
is good measure of how well the theoretical straight line ts the entire dataset.
If we add y
i
or y
3
i
then we do not get a good measure. In both these cases we get
positive as well as negative numbers. We are not really interested in whether the theoretical
points are above or below the experimental points. We are interested only in how far the
theoretical points are from the experimental ones. Moreover, taking squares of deviations
is also the norm in estimating scatter of data around some reference. So, the meaning of
the statistically best straight line graph between X and Y is taken to be the following:
The straight line y = mx +c is the best statistical t for a dataset (x
i
, y
i
), i =
1, 2, . . . , N, if it minimizes
2
, i.e., we get a larger
2
if we use any other pair
of values for slope, m, and intercept, c.
A.2
2
minimization
For a given dataset, (x
i
, y
i
), i = 1, 2, . . . , n, are xed usually, measured experimentally.
So,
2
is a function of m and c, considered as variable parameters. If we want to minimize
2
by changing m and c then we should have,
2
m
= 0,

2
c
= 0.
These equations reduce to,
m
_
(y
i
)
2
= (y
i
mx
i
c)
2
= 0,
and,
c
_
(y
i
)
2
= (y
i
mx
i
c)
2
= 0.
If we calculate these derivatives and equate them to zero, we get two linear simultaneous
equations for m and c. We can solve them to obtain m and c. These m and c will give the
best straight line y = mx +c.
82
Let us do this. Remember that the variables in
2
are m and c, not x
i
and y
i
. x
i
and
y
i
are numbers obtained from observations. If is always
i=1
i
= N, we have,
2
m
=

m
_
(y
i
mx
i
c)
2
= 2
_
x
i
(y
i
mx
i
c)
2
= 0
Simplifying the expression above, we get,
m x
2
i
+ c x
i
x
i
y
i
= 0.
Similarly,

2
c
= 0 gives,
m x
i
+ c 1 y
i
= 0,
or,
m x
i
+ c N y
i
= 0,
Solving these equations gives,
m =
Nx
i
y
i
x
i
y
i
Nx
2
i
(x
i
)
2
, (A.2.1)
c =
x
2
i
y
i
x
i
x
i
y
i
Nx
2
i
(x
2
i
. (A.2.2)
All terms on the right hand side of these equations can be calculated from the data.
Note that x
2
i
is the sum over i from 1 to N of squares of x
i
, whereas, (x
i
)
2
is the square
of sum of x
i
. To facilitate this calculation in any specic application make the following
table for your specic x
i
, y
i
data in the experiment.
SNo x y x
2
x y
1. x
1
y
1
x
2
1
x
1
y
1
2. x
2
y
2
x
2
2
x
2
y
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
N x
N
y
N
x
2
N
x
N
y
N
Sums x
i
y
i
x
2
i
x
i
y
i
Now, use the last line in the table to calculate m and c.

Lab Manual

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lab Manual

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

, the optical path dierence in the outside

. Thus the total path dierence between the rays is,

You might also like