ASQ Six Sigma

Workshop on Structured Problem
Solving Using DMAIC Methodology

Agenda
Day 1
TQM
Introduction to Six
Sigma
Define Phase
Project Charter
Day !
Seven QC Tools
Process Mapping
Day "
FMA
Process Capa!ilit"
Control Charts
Day #
#ean nterprise
Day $
$SM xercise
%TPC Case Stud"
xam & 'rap (p
The volution of Qualit"
) Provides a frame*or+ for understanding
the histor" of the ,ualit" movement-
) xpands the definition of ,ualit"-
.uran/s Definition of Qualit"
Defined as 0fitness for use1 !ased on2

) Customer/s perceptions of product design-
) Degree to *hich a product conforms to
design-
) Product/s availa!ilit"3 relia!ilit"3 and
maintaina!ilit"-
) Availa!le customer service-
IS4 Definition of Qualit"
) Degree to *hich a set of characteristics
fulfills re,uirements
5e,uiremen
ts2
Convenienc
e
and speed
Cros!"/s Definition of Qualit"
) Qualit" is conformance to re,uirements-
) 5e,uirements are ans*ers to +e"
organi6ational ,uestions2
7o* ,uic+l" *ill orders ship8
'hat is our return polic"8
'hat forms of pa"ment are
accepta!le8
Qualit" volution2 Medieval 9uilds
9uilds2
u
Developed strict rules for
products and services-
u
(sed stamps to identif"
fla*less goods-
Y e a r a n d P e r i o d
1 2 0 0 - 1 7 9 9
1 9 0 0 - 1 9 4 0 1 9 4 6 - P r e s e n t 1 8 0 0 - 1 8 9 9 1 9 4 1 - 1 9 4 5
G u i l d s o f
m e d i e v a l E u r o p e
P r o d u c t
o r i e n t a t i o n
P r o c e s s
Q u a l i t y d u r i n g
W o r l d W a r I I
B i r t h o f
t o t a l q u a l i t y
Qualit" volution2 Product 4rientation
u
Master cra%tsmen trained
apprentices&
u
Industrial 'evolution divided
trades into speciali(ed tasks)
inspectors guaranteed *uality&
u
+aylor system increased
productivity) inspection
departments %ound de%ects&
1 0 0 - 1 ! 9 9
1 9 0 0 - 1 9 4 0 1 9 4 6 - P r e s e n t 1 8 0 0 - 1 8 9 9 1 9 4 1 - 1 9 4 5
" u i l d s o f
# e d i e $ a l % u r o & e
P r o d u c t
P r o c e s s
W o r l d W a r I I
B i r t h o f
Qualit" volution2 Process 4rientation
u
Processes !ecame critical-
u
She*hart identified statistical
,ualit" control-
u
Developed strict rules for
products and services-
u
Qualit" !ecame relevant for
process3 not just product-
1 0 0 - 1 ! 9 9
1 9 0 0 - 1 9 4 0 1 9 4 6 - P r e s e n t 1 8 0 0 - 1 8 9 9 1 9 4 1 - 1 9 4 5
" u i l d s o f
# e d i e $ a l % u r o & e
P r o d u c t
P r o c e s s
W o r l d W a r I I
B i r t h o f
Qualit" volution2 'artime
u
Qualit" !ecame a safet"
issue-
u
The militar" developed a
sampling inspection s"stem
and trained suppliers-
1 0 0 - 1 ! 9 9
1 9 0 0 - 1 9 4 0 1 9 4 6 - P r e s e n t 1 8 0 0 - 1 8 9 9 1 9 4 1 - 1 9 4 5
" u i l d s o f
# e d i e $ a l % u r o & e
P r o d u c t
P r o c e s s
Q u a l i t d u r i n !
" o r l d " a r # #
B i r t h o f
Qualit" volution2 Total Qualit" Movement
u
Developed in response to
.apanese ,ualit" movement-
u
Focused on improving all
processes through people
*ho used them-
1 0 0 - 1 ! 9 9
1 9 0 0 - 1 9 4 0 1 9 4 $ - P r e s e n t 1 8 0 0 - 1 8 9 9 1 9 4 1 - 1 9 4 5
" u i l d s o f
# e d i e $ a l % u r o & e
P r o d u c t
P r o c e s s
W o r l d W a r I I
% i r t & o f
t o t a l ' u a l i t
'- d*ards Deming
Qualit" +e"s2
) (nderstanding
customer needs
) Process
improvement
) Statistical anal"sis
) xpertise of *or+ers
) PDCA c"cle
.oseph M- .uran
Qualit" +e"s2
) Features that
satisf" customers
) Freedom from
deficiencies
) .uran Trilog"
:
; Qualit" planning
; Qualit" control
; Qualit"
improvement
<aoru Ishi+a*a
Qualit" +e"s2
) Compan"=*ide
participation
) Qualit" control circles
) Advanced statistical
methods and tools
) %ation*ide ,ualit"
control promotion
Armand $- Feigen!aum
Qualit" +e"s2
) Total ,ualit" control
) Integration of ,ualit"
development3
maintenance3 and
improvement
) Focus on internal
and external
customers
9enichi Taguchi
Qualit" +e"s2
) Qualit" should !e
designed in-
) Qualit" should
minimi6e
deviations from a
target-
) D4 optimi6es
performance-
Philip Cros!"
Qualit" +e"s2
) Conformance to
re,uirements
) Prevention
) >ero Defects
) Price of
nonconformance
Total Qualit" Management
Total ,ualit" management ?TQM@2

) A management approach
) Centered on ,ualit"
) Aased on compan"=*ide participation
) Aimed at long=term success
) Through customer satisfaction
B Cs of TQM
Customer relationships
Continuous improvement
Compan"=*ide participation
1
!
"
Customer Definitions
1
P u c ( e r ) p * e m o n a d e + # n c ,
# n t e r n a l - u s t o m e r s
* o a d i n ! . o c (
% o t t l i n ! . e p a r t m e n t / i 0 i n ! . e p a r t m e n t
1 o r t i n ! . e p a r t m e n t
2 u i c i n ! . e p a r t m e n t
1 o r t i n ! . e p a r t m e n t
2 u i c i n ! . e p a r t m e n t
/ i 0 i n ! . e p a r t m e n t
E 0 t e r n a l
- u s t o m e r s
- o n s u m e r s
#evels of Customer Satisfaction
%oria+i <ano identified three
levels2
) xpected ,ualit"
) Desired ,ualit"
) xcited ,ualit"
1
Customer Feed!ac+
1
7as t*o parts2
N
fforts to capture
*hat customers
sa" a!out
compan"/s
productsCservices
N
fforts to drive
feed!ac+ !ac+ into
organi6ation
Partnering *ith
customer2
N
xtension of listening
to customer feed!ac+
N
Most direct route to
customer satisfaction
PDCA
) A *ell=+no*n
model for
continuous
process
improveme
nt is the
Plan=Do=
Chec+=Act
c"cle-
!
P l a n 3 c t
4 3 n a l 5 e r e a s o n
f o r n o t m a ( i n !
d e s i r e d r e s u l t s ,
- & e c ( . o
4 " & a t t o d o ,
4 6 o 7 t o a c c o m p l i s & i t ,
4 - a r r o u t t & e p l a n ,
4 1 e e i f t & e d e s i r e d r e s u l t s
7 e r e o 8 t a i n e d ,
4 . e t e r m i n e 7 & a t
c & a n ! e s t o m a ( e t o
8 e t t e r a c & i e v e d e s i r e d
r e s u l t s ,
4 1 t a n d a r d i 5 e i f d e s i r e d
r e s u l t s a c & i e v e d ,
"
Compan"='ide Participation
) #eadership must come from management-
) All emplo"ees must !e involved-
) mplo"ee involvement usuall" re,uires
emplo"ees to *or+ in cross=functional
teams-
mplo"ee Involvement
,ene%its
) Improved
productivit" and
cost reduction
) Increased
participation and
jo! satisfaction
) 4pportunities for
professional
development
,arriers
) 0It 'on/t 'or+ 7ere1
) Perception of loss of
management
authorit"
) mplo"ees feeling
0used1
) 0Flavor of the
month1
"
Qualit" Aenefits
) +angible
; Increase in
earnings
; Decrease in
-aste
; Increase in
productivity
) Intangible
; Customer
good-ill
; Alignment
bet-een
business
activities
'- d*ards Deming on Qualit"
) Meeting customer needs . -ants /
*uality&
) 0uality improves products1services and
processes&
) Improved products1services and
processes / pro%itability&
A Qualit" Approach Aenefits - - -
2mployees
3rgani(ations
Suppliers
Society
Customers
Aenefits to mplo"ees
9reater jo!
securit"C!enefits
Pride in products and
services
.o! satisfaction
Improved communications
Streamlined *or+
processes
7appier customers
Strong customer
relationships
Aenefits to 4rgani6ations
Q u a l i t
9 r ! a n i 5 a t i o n s
- o s t
/ a r ( e t
1 & a r e
P r o f i t
Qualit" Studies and Standards
5eleased the Profit
Impact of Mar+et
Strateg" ?PIMS@ stud"-
Partnered *ith the
Aaldrige recognition
program-
Aoth organi6ations support the lin+ !et*een
,ualit" and profita!ilit"-
xternal and Internal Customers
Pu!lication
Department
Sales
Department
Customer
Aenefits to Customers
Qualit" results in2

) Increased choices-
) Improved goods
and services-
) xpectations met or
exceeded-
Aenefits to Suppliers
) Achievement of performance re,uirements
) Streamlined processes
) fficient communication
) Increased customer satisfaction
Aenefits to Societ"
conomic gro*th and sta!ilit"

Increased emplo"ment opportunities
Product safet"
Process Management
Qualit" improvements are
applied to single processes
*ithin manufacturing-
Qualit" improvements are
applied to all organi6ational
activities through process
management-
4rgani6ational Process
P r o c e s s
4 P e o p l e
4 E ' u i p m e n t
4 / a t e r i a l
4 / o n e
4 : i m e
; e s o u r c e s
# n p u t 9 u t p u t
3
.
P -
P r e c e d i n !
P r o c e s s
1 u 8 s e ' u e n t
P r o c e s s
- u s t o m e r # n f l u e n c e
Introduction to Six Sigma

'hat is #ean Six Sigma8
Introduction
) Six Sigma goal is process perfection through
defect reduction-
) #ean goal is c"cle time reduction through
elimination of *aste-
04nl" those companies that eliminate their
defects *ill have *hat it ta+es to *in-1

0Area+through companies strive for DEE
percent DFCT=F5 products and
services-
Larry Bossidy
CEO of AlliedSignal

'hat is Six Sigma8
Methodolog" and Improvement Strateg"
) Six Sigma is an overall strateg" to accelerate improvements in
processes3 products3 and services;create !rea+through-
) Six Sigma measures ho* effective strategies are in eliminating
defects and variations from processes3 products3 and services-
F
G
H
xB I@
xJ3
H --- H
f?xD3
Process output ?G@ is a function of ?f@ the inputs ?Ks@-
(nderstanding and controlling this relationship is a major
aspect of Six Sigma projects-
Focus on $ariation
) Sigma ?4@ refers to standard deviation3 a measure of process
variation ?smaller is !etter@-
) Process Sigma is the num!er of units of standard deviations
!et*een the process center and the closest specification
limit ?larger is !etter@-
) A Six Sigma process has six standard deviations ?short term@
!et*een the target and the closest specification limit-
6 Sigma
(pper
Spec
#o*er
Spec
6 Standard Deviations
Target
(pper
Control
#o*er
Control
Process
Center
Sources of $ariation
L
Process
Capabil
ity
Measurem
ent
System
Materi
al
Desig
n
7arvesting the Fruit of Six Sigma
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
'(eet )ruit '(eet )ruit
Design for Manufacturability
Bul* of )ruit Bul* of )ruit
Process Characterization
and Optimization
+o( ,anging )ruit +o( ,anging )ruit
Seven Basic Tools
"round )ruit "round )ruit
Logic and ntuition
= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =
B 'all = Demand improvement
B 'all = Demand improvement
M 'all = Must Improve Internall"
M 'all = Must Improve Internall"
N 'all = Must Address Designs
N 'all = Must Address Designs
The walls crumble faster when
working WT! su""liers and
CO#C$%%E#TL& addressing design
and "rocess issues
C
o
n
t
i
n
u
o
u
s

d
a
t
a
D i s c r e t e
d a t a
The Focus of Six Sigma
Dependent
3utput
2%%ect
Symptom
Monitor
KD - - - K%
Independent
Input=Process
Cause
Pro!lem
Control
f ?K@
f ?K@
G
G
'ould "ou control shooter or target to get the 9old
Medal at 4l"mpics
Six Sigma Defines Pro!lems Statisticall"
G = 4utputs
u
Dependent
u
4utput
u
ffect
u
S"mptom
u
A!le to
Monitor
K
D
- - - K
%
=
Inputs
u
Independent
u
Inputs3
process
u
Cause
u
Pro!lem
u
Controlla!le
The product is
used to
evaluate the
process-
GF f ?K@
Should we focus on
the process outputs
(Y) or inputs ()!
The process is
used to
control the
product-
JE3EEE lost articles of mail per hour
(nsafe drin+ing *ater for almost
DN minutes each da"
N3EEE incorrect surgical operations per
*ee+
T*o short or long landings at most
major airports each da"
JEE3EEE *rong drug prescriptions each
"ear
%o electricit" for almost seven
hours each month
Seven articles lost per hour
4ne unsafe minute ever" seven
months
D-O incorrect operations per *ee+
4ne short or long landing ever"
five "ears
PQ *rong prescriptions per "ear
4ne hour *ithout electricit" ever" BM
"ears
RR-RRRPPS 9ood ?P Sigma@ RRS 9ood ?B-Q Sigma@
Define Phase
The Define Phase
The define phase module provides an

overvie* of the follo*ing tools2
D-Project selection
J-Project charter
B-Supplier3 Input3 4utput3 Customer ?SIP4C@
diagram
M-Collecting $oice of the Customer ?$4C@
Projects Must !e I
Meaningful
Meaningful
And
And
Manageable!
Manageable!
Sorting Projects from Messes
) A mess is a morass of unsettling
s"mptoms3 causes3 data3 pressures3
shortfalls3 opportunities3 etc-
) A "roblem is a *ell=defined situation that is
capa!le of resolution
) Identif"ing a "roblem from *ithin the mess
is fre,uentl" the first step in the process
of project definition
Project Qualifications
) There is a gap !et*een current and
desired performance-
) The cause of the pro!lem is not clearl"
understood-
) The solution is not predetermined-
Project Selection is Critical

) 7igh leverage projects lead to largest LL Savings
) #arge returns justif" the investment in time and
effort
) Developing a #ean Six Sigma culture depends
upon successful projects having significant
!usiness impact
) Alac+ Aelt training depends on completion of a
meaningful project *ithin T P months
) Future Projects are fre,uentl" identified through
initial projects
#ean Six Sigma Project Criteria

) Aligned *ith !usiness o!jectives and plans
; $oice of CustomerC Critical to Satisfaction ?CTS@
; Qualit" ?CTQ@ C Cost ?CTC@ C Deliver" ?CTD@
) Consistent *ith principles of Six Sigma
; limination of process defects
; 5eduction of variation
) Concentrates on significant issuesCopportunities
----- not 0pro!lem of the da"1
) .ustif" the investment
Project Selection
0The !est Six Sigma projects !egin not inside
the !usiness !ut outside it3 focused on the
,uestion U ho* can *e ma+e the customer
more competitive8 'hat is critical to the
customer/s success8 I 4ne thing *e have
discovered is that an"thing *e do to ma+e the
customer more successful inevita!l" results in a
financial return to us-1
.ac+ 'elch
Address to the 9eneral lectric
annual meeting April JB3 DRRO
'hat is Customer Satisfaction8
) A comparison of expectation to
experience
) A matter of degree
) A result of a good match !et*een
suppl" and demand
) A predictor of repeat !usiness
G
) Projects are identified !" the relationship !et*een
product3 service3 or delivera!le re,uirements and processes-
) The process parameters that affect the re,uirements
are later identified
?K
D
3 K
J
3 I K
n
@
Customer needs are translated into product3 service or delivera!le
re,uirements in terms of ,ualit"3 deliver" and cost- The 0G1 of GFf?K@-
#everage processes are identified-
Area+do*n of
the processes
re,uired to
produce the
product3
service3 or
delivera!le-
Customer %eeds Translated into
0Critical To1 ?CT@ Characteristics
+ypical Critical to Characteristics
C+0 Critical to Qualit"
C+D Critical to Deliver"
C+C Critical to Cost
S&
6o&
Criteria Weight
D
Aligned *ith core o!jectives
DE
J
7igh pro!a!ilit" of success
DE
B
Data Availa!ilit"
Q
M
Pain area
Q
N
Process Improvement
O
P
7igher returns
Q
O
5epeata!le
P
Q
Faster Deplo"ment
N
R
Sta+eholder Satisfaction
O
DE
ase of implementation
P
Aligned *ith
core o!jectives
7igh pro!a!ilit"
of success
Data Availa!ilit"
Pain area
Process
Improvement
7igher
returns
5epeata!le
Sta+eholder
Satisfaction
ase of
implementation
Faster
Deplo"ment
Project Selection Criteria Project Selection Criteria
S& 6o& Criteria
Pro7ect 1 Pro7ect ! Pro7ect " Pro7ect # Pro7ect $
APC 'eduction in
stage I
,oiler 8Stage II9
3ptimi(ation
DM 8Stage I9 Make up
3ptimi(ation
2SP 8Stage I9 Inlet
Duct 'eplacement
Soot ,lo-ing
Sy&3ptimi(ation
D Aligned *ith core o!jectives
J 7igh pro!a!ilit" of success
B Data Availa!ilit"
M Pain area
N Process Improvement
P 7igher returns
O 5epeata!le
Q Faster Deplo"ment
R Sta+eholder Satisfaction
DE ase of implementation
Strong 5elationship Moderate 5elationship 'ea+ 5elationship
Project Selection Matrix Diagram Project Selection Matrix Diagram
"
#
6 $
Selected Project
Factors that Improve Project Success
) Dedicated Alac+ Aelt
) Champion phase revie*s
) Alac+ Aelt has +no*ledge of
processCproduct to !e improved
) 7istoric data
) Clearl" defined delivera!les
) Committed process o*ners ?s+in in the
game@ *ith the authorit" to modif" the
process
Q
Project Metrics ; Success Criteria
Primar" Metric
) (sed to measure project success
) Consistent *ith the pro!lem description and o!jective
) Plotted on a time series graph and sho*s the goal and actual
performance lines

Secondar" Metric?s@
) Control unintended negative conse,uence ?assures the Primar"
Metric is not achieved artificiall"@
) Ma" !e used to measure project progress *hen the Primar" Metric
responds slo*l"
) More than one ma" !e re,uired
) Plotted on a time series graph and sho*s the goal and actual
performance lines
Project Charter
Traditionall" created !" #SS Champion
Specifies details of a project including2

D-Scope
J-5esponsi!ilities
B-Aenefits
M-Schedule
N-Success criteria
A project charter template that ma" !e adopted to fit
"our organi6ation is2 Project Charter Template-
SIP4C
Supplier3 Input3 Process3 4utput3 Customer diagrams

are used to2
D-Define the scope of the project
J-Identif" +e" sta+eholders
B-9ain a 0BE3EEE foot1 vie* of the process
targeted !" the project
Tips2
D-The SIP4C is the first of several *a"s the
process *ill !e documented- Therefore3 it
should !e at a relativel" high level of
a!straction-
J-It is a good *a" to assure agreement on the
scope of the project-
SIP4C Diagram ; Questions to Ans*er

) 'ho are the customers of this process8
) 'hat are their re,uirements8
) 7o* are those re,uirements reflected in the
process parameters ?output measures@8
) 'hat are the process outputs8
) 'hat are the process inputs that cause the
outputs8
) 'hat controls are in place for the inputs8
) 'ho are the suppliers of the material for this
process8
Purpose of $arious Diagrams C Maps
) SIP4C diagrams provide a 0forest vie*1 of the
process ; maintains focus on the customer/s
re,uirements-
) $alue stream 0trees level1 descri!es the time3
effort3 resources3 and information used in the
process ; a fre,uent source of earl" *ins-
) #a"=out diagram ?spaghetti diagram@ documents
the distance an item travels during its production
; illustrates unnecessar" movement-
) Process map 0ground level1 documents the inputs
and outputs of each step in the process ;
provides the ra* material for !uilding a model of
the process-
The SIP4C Diagram ; The Forest #evel

) Start *ith the end in mind-
) 'ho are the customers of this process8
) 7o* are those re,uirements reflected in the
process parameters ?output measures@8
) 'hat are the process outputs8
) 'hat are the process inputs that cause the
outputs8
) 'hat controls are in place for the inputs8
) 'ho are the suppliers of the material for this
process8
Sample SIP4C
Supplier8s9 Inputs1'e*:ts Process 3utput8s91'e*:ts Customer8s9
Grocery store
Utility
Company
Appliance
store
Coffee machine
Measuring cup
Electricity
Qualified
operator
Water
Filters
Cream/mil
!"eetener
Ground coffee
#$%
%
!pecified
num&er of cups
'o grounds
( one hour old
)ar
*ot
Aromatic
Fresh
!trong
*us&and
Wife
Guest
+nstall filter
Measure coffee
Add coffee
Add Water
,urn on
machine
SIP4C $alidation
5evie* the SIP4C *ith "our2 team3
Champion and process o*ner?s@ to assure
agreement on the SIP4C content as *ell
as the project scope and success criteria
among all sta+eholders-
I
I
S
S
P
P
4
4
C
C
Suppliers
Inputs Process
4utputs Customers
Coal Field
5ihand Dam
Suppliers
Po*er
ffluent
Process Ash
Steam
C4J
Internal Internal
=Plant Mgmt
=Corp Mgmt
=mplo"ee
xternal xternal
=Cent-9ov-
=Ministr"
=State 9ov-
=Shareholders
=Contractors
=Suppliers
=PAPs
=#a!our
nvironment nvironment
CTQs
Plant Availa!ilit"
(I arned
Plant #oad factor
Maintenance Cost
A(KI##IA5G P4'5 =
C4%S(MPTI4%
Preferred mplo"er
5&5
Man 2 M' 5atio
#ead Time
7eat 5ate
Qualit" S"stem
Social 5esponsi!ilit"
Manpo*er (tili6ation
4verhead xpenses
%59G FFICI%CG
DM 'ater (sed
Safet" aspect
Training of manpo*er
C"cle Time
In process idle stoc+
Air mission ,ualit"
%oise level
-./+ -./+
/I0 /I0
W/1%0 W/1%0
Boiler
'1%/2 '1%/2
1ur3ine
"enerator
"0I4
Coal
'ater
Air
Po*er
Manpo*er
#u!ricants
Maintenance
Services
Spares and
Consuma!les
Collecting $oC
) 'ho is a customer8
) 'hat does the customer need8
; 9athering the $oice of the Customer
; Define customer re,uirements
) 7o* do the customers prioriti6e their needs8
) 7o* are customer needs translated into CTQs8
u
9enerall" a less intense exercise for DMAIC projects than for
DFSS projects
u
More li+el" to !e !ased on information that is alread"
availa!le internall" for DMAIC projects than for DFSS projects
Process
$oice of
Customer
Step Step Step
ProductC
Service
Customer
'ho Is a Customer8
A customer setsCaffects re,uirements for "our product
or service-
xternal
Au"ing customers
nd=users
5egulator" agencies
A customer is one *ho receives "our output-
Internal
Customer Segmentation
9enerall"3 external customer needs are more important
than internal customer needs-
Are all customers e,uall" important8
xternal vs- internal
Customer segments
5egions
T"pe of !usiness
$olumes
Profita!ilit"
Strategic mar+et
Future potential
$oice of the Customer

) The $oice of the Customer ?$4C@ is the
starting point of an" project and data
collection plan-
) The $oice of the Customer includes2
; xpectations
; 5e,uirements
; 4pinions
Questions to Find $oice of the Customer

) 'hat are the elements of "our !usiness that are
the most critical3 from the perspective of "our
top or !est customers8 'hat are their relevant
needs8
) 'hat data has !een collected to understand the
customer re,uirements8
) 7o* do "ou operationall" define the defect from
the perspective of the customer8 (nder *hat
conditions does it occur8
$oice of the Customer Concerns
) 5eal vs- stated needs
) Perceived needs
) Intended vs- actual usage
) Internal customers vs- external customers
) ffectiveness vs- efficienc" needs
) Change over time
Determining Customer 5e,uirements
) (se ver!atim comments from customers to
help determine the +e" customer
re,uirements
; 'e often receive man" ver!al comments
from our customers-
; 'e need to loo+ for *a"s to pro!e for
deeper meaning !ehind the comments in
order to translate these comments into
*hat the customer actuall" re,uires-
Tools for 9athering $oice of the Customer
Unsolicited data %rom customers

; Complaints
; Field reports
; Trade journals
; Aenchmar+ing
; Internal research
) 5e,uirements documents
) Contracts
) Customer o!servation
) Ae a customer
Tools for 9athering $4C
Solicited data %rom customers

; Intervie*s
; Focus groups
; Surve"s
; Informal customer discussions
; Mar+et research
Determining Customer 5e,uirements

) 5evie* customer ver!atim comments and
comparative data
) If possi!le3 pro!e for deeper understanding
) Convert into terms of process performance
) Descri!e the actual customer re,uirement
; 'rite the re,uirement3 not the solution
; (se measura!le terms
; Identif" performance targets
; Ae concise
Define Phase 5evie*
) The purpose of the define phase is to identif" and
launch a project-
) $4C should !e reflected in the project charter
especiall" in the project success criteria-
) The Alac+ Aelt and Champion should revie* and
agree on the details of the project charter and
SIP4C-
) A common cause of project failure is poorl"
defined or projects *ith excessive scope- This
revie* is an opportunit" to mitigate that ris+-
D
D
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A
A
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$4C ? $oice of Customer @
-usto#er 5eed
-usto#er 5eeds
Aux Power Consumption
& Generation Dispatch
Environmental Pollution
Conservation of Coal
W
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81 90 64 66
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Project Charter Project Charter
Aig G2
Reduction in APC of
- Stage I units
Reduction in APC of
- Stage I units
Proect Review Dates
Champion2
Process 4*ner2
Process 4*ner2
Qualit" #eader
Coach ?AA@2
9reen Aelt2
Resource Plan General Information
Tollgate Date Signoff
?xxCxxCxx@
9reen Aelt Contact Information 2
Define
Measure
Anal"6e
Improve
Control
!ohit "adav
. . !r S Baneree
. !r
. . P # !ohapatra
. !r . . $ $ !ishra
Iswar B!D Iswar B!D
Ashish %ain
E!D
Ashish %ain
E!D
. S Sinha &!D . S Sinha &!D
. ' Agarwal EE!G . ' Agarwal EE!G
!ohit "adav ()*+,*-*((
.++/
!ohit "adav ()*+,*-*((
.++/
Ges
Ges
Ges
Ges
Ges
Ges
Ges
Ges
Ges
Ges
Proect &eam Rhythm and
Review
Meeting Fre,uenc"2
Mandator" Attendees2
4ptional Attendees2
.+ Days .+ Days
!ohit "adav !ohit "adav
$- Agar*al $- Agar*al Is*ar Is*ar
Mr-
P-<-Mohapatra
Mr-
P-<-Mohapatra
Mr- %-%-Mishra Mr- %-%-Mishra Mr- %-<-Sinha Mr- %-<-Sinha Mr- S- Aanerjee Mr- S- Aanerjee
5h"thm and 5evie*2
4n=Trac+
4ff=Trac+
%eed Attention
ENCEJC
EO
ENCEJC
EO
ENCEMC
EO
ENCEMC
EO
DNCEMC
EO
DNCEMC
EO
BDCENC
EO
BDCENC
EO
BDCEQC
EO
BDCEQC
EO
D
D
M
M
A
A
I
I
C
C
. !r . . $ # Sinha
. !r . S !athew
S- Sinha S- Sinha A- .ain A- .ain
$4C
$4C
? $oice of Customer @
? $oice of Customer @
The Seven QC Tools
Chec+ sheet
Stratification
Pareto diagram
C & Diagram
7istogram
Scatter diagram
9raphs and Charts

v
Pro!lem Solving
v
Continuous Improvement== ;ai(en
v
Dispersion Control== Si< Sigma
v
'aste limination===ean
v
QMS3 MS3 TS DPRMR3 3>SAS?Process
control@ CAP
v
Supplier Development
v
Project Management==+eam -orking
What is their role B
In problem solving
+ool
Data gathering
Chec+ sheet
Stratification
'ole they Play
Quantif" current status
or magnitude of the
Pro!lem
Facilitate data gathering
Identif" and segregate
different sources of the
pro!lem
+ool
) Pareto diagram
) Arain storming
) Cause & effect

diagram
'ole they Play
) Prioriti(e the problem
) Cenerate many ideas %or

solving a speci%ic problem
) Identi%y possible causes o% a
problem in a structured
-ay
Tool
) 7istogram
) Scatter diagram
) 9raph & chart
5ole the" Pla"
) Study pattern o% variation in

a set o% data&
) Study relationship bet-een
! types o% variable
) Disual display o% data
4/1/ "/1,%0I5"
Data Collection
"&at is .ata <
.ata is a numerical e0pression of
an activit
-onclusions 3ased on facts and data
are necessary for any i#&ro$e#ent9
=, #s&i(a7a
If you are not a3le to e:&ress a
&heno#enon in nu#3ers; you do not
(no7 a3out it adequately
*ord =elvin
1y&es of 4ata
Quantitative Qualitative
/easura8le
e9g9 <+ength;
1e#&erature
-ounta8le
e9g9 <5u#3er of 0
defects
1u8>ective assessment
e9g9 <'core in a 0
3eauty contest
Population
1ampl
e
.ata
3ction
3ction
=
Po&ulation; 'a#&le and 4ata
;andom
1amplin!
/easurement
? 98servation
A Sa"ing
q
'hen "ou see the data3 dou!t it
q
'hen "ou see the measuring instrument3 dou!t
it-
q
'hen "ou see the chemical anal"sis3 dou!t it-
q
Three Categories
q
D False Data
J Mista+en Data
B %o Data availa!le
7o* to Collect Data8
q ( ). Define the purpose 1ollow +2 .3 approach
q . Define the period for data collection
q . Define the Stratification
q Design the chec4 sheet and assess
!easurement
. System Capa5ility
Purpos
e
, , , , Be Clear on 2hat 2here 2hen 2hy 2ho
and 3ow the data should 5e generated
S+'A+IEICA+I36
1tratification
v
/et&od of !roupin! data 8 -ommon
points or c&aracteristics
v
v
3 @iltration Process for isolatin! t&e
cause of a pro8lem,
v
Prevent mi0 up and &elps in eas A
faster identification-
%asis for 1tratification
"or(ers
/aterial
/ac&ines
:ime
.efect
Environment
Product
@older
;e!ion
@iles

Machine A
6 / #$F
D / 1!
PG / !&H
Machine ,
6 / #$F
D / 111I
PG / !J&!
Machine A
6 / #$F
D / 1!
PG / !&H
Machine ,
6 / #$F
D / 11I
PG / !J&!
C3M,I62D
6 / KFF
D / 1"F
PG / 1#&#
,lister De%ect
Pinhole De%ect
All De%ects
UC=
C=
UC=
C
=
UC
=
C=
C>2C;S>22+
-hec* sheet
v
/ con$enient and co#&act for#at
for data collection
v
/ 'i#&le rule> 2a:i#u#
infor#ation (ith #ini#u# (riting
efforts and easy to fill

v
M/C
No.
Comp. DRG.
No
Toen
No.
!p. "t. Prod. Material Defect
# $ % & ' (
No.
) n*p.
M/c Defect*
A + C D,,,P " R
Total Remar
Check Sheet Eor Machining 3peration
=ocation
Machining
De%ect
Material
De%ect
Croup
Date Shi%t
1 ,lo- holes
! Cracks
" >ard Metal
# 2ccentric
$ 3thers
J +otal
A Dia&
.
C =ength
.
M 3blong
, Dia&
?
> =ength
?
6 +aper
C Ch
.
I Sp
.
3 >ole Shi%ted
D Ch
?
L Sp
?
P PCDD
2 CDD
.
; DA + Si(e
.
0 Poor Einish
E CDD
?
= D A + Si(e
?
' 3thers
9raphs & Charts
v
#ine chart
v
Aar chart
v
Multiple !ar Chart
v
Component !ar
Chart
v
5adar chart
v
v
v
Pie chart
v
9antt chart
v
Pareto diagram
v
Scatter diagram
v
Control chart
v
9raphs represent data pictoriall"- A picture can

see *hat DEEE *ords can not tell-

,ar Chart

,ar graphs are parallel !ars of identical *idth !ut differing
length to compare si6e of different ,uantities C things-

=ine Chart

=ine graphs manifest the overall trend in time series data
!" direction of their lines-

Pie charts ma+es it eas" to grasp the !rea+do*n of the
components of a ,uantit" over a certain period-
Pie
Chart
-omparison of /ac&ines 3 A %
for 7ee(l ;e>ection
11
5
10
1
?
10
4
?
1?
0
14
11
6
8
1?
0
15 15
11
0
5
10
15
0
5
1 ? 4 5 6 ! 8 9 10
Wee* 5u#3er
@
0
e
A
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c
t
i
o
n
6? 85
01
4?5
1??
?!5
?1 ?0! 94
?48
44
??6
1
5!
!5
4
81 ?1!
99
?58
0
100
00
?00
400
500
600
!00
800
900
1 ? 4 5 6 ! 8 9 10
Wee* 5u#3er
B
n
i
t
s

P
r
o
d
u
c
e
d
Comparison o% Machines A A ,
%or Units Produced
Multiple bar chart
Component bar
chart
Pie -&art for
-ustomer returned 7atc&es
3 > Glass %ro(en
% - 1top
- - /vt, :rou8le
. - .efective .ial
E - ;e!ulation
@ - 1tem *oose
G - 9t&ers
/
4?@
B
!@
-
1@
4
6@
%
4@
)
?@
"
5@
Control Chart
K= Aar and 5 Chart
JN JE DN DE N Su!group E
JQNM
JQMR
JQMM
S
a
m
p
l
e

M
e
a
n
MeanFJQMR
(C#FJQNB
#C#FJQMM
DN
DE
N
E
S
a
m
p
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e

5
a
n
g
e
5FO-OP
(C#FDP-MD
#C#FE
K!arC5 Chart for CD
E
DE
JE
BE
ME
NE
PE
OE
QE
D
J
B
M
N
P
O
Q
R
DE
DD
DJ
DB
DM
DN
DP
DO
DQ
DR
JE
SeriesD
'adar Chart on IS3 KFF1?1KK#
Implementation
1y&e of (or*
1 ? 4 5 6 ! 8 9 10 11 1
)oundation (or*
)ra#e (or*
4ry-(alling
%:terior touch u&
'heetroc* (or*
Plu#3ing
%lectrical (iring
)it )i:tures
Paint interior (all
Interior touch u&
Ins&ection deli$ery
9antt Chart for Construction
Activit"
Weeks
Cantt Charts makes it easy to understand
the details o% a plan and progress in its
implementation schedule&
Pareto Diagram
$ital fe* from Trivial man"
MD-O
PE-O
OP-Q
QO-N
RM-P
DEE
0
10
0
?0
40
50
Fish not
fresh
$egeta!le
*ilted
Aread
Stale
Cashier
5ude
Meat not
Fresh
ggs rotten
5
o
9

o
f

c
o
#
&
l
a
i
n
t
s
0
10
0
?0
40
50
60
!0
80
90
100
-
u
#

P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

Pareto Anal"sis of
Customer Complaints
Pareto Princi&le
v
80@ of &ro3le#s are caused 3y less
than 0@ of &ro3a3le causes
v
%sta3lishes &roof of the need
v
Identifies $ital fe(
PA5T4 A%A#GSIS2 4utstanding !ranch *ise
BRA$C3 BRA$C3 . Rs D6E RA&I7 &7
&7&A8
. % C6!
= . A + /
= . B * +
= . C ./ /
= . D */ /
= . E )+ /
= . 1 . +
= . G . /
= . 3 . +
. = . 7th / +
E
D

C
A
B
1
3
G
7&3ERS
. )+ /
. */ /
. ./ /
. + /
. * +
. . +
. . +
. . /
. / +
. +. 9
. *- /
. .. +
. + 9
. * (
. . 9
. . 9
. . *
. / :
. +. 9
. 9) 9
. ,: *
. (. (
. () ,
. (: +
. (, *
. (( )
. .// /
. ,9 / &7&A8 . ,9 / . .// /
Pareto /nalysis on .utstanding
ND-O
OM-O
QP-J
RD-R
RM-Q
RP-N RQ-J RR-M DEE
0
10
0
?0
40
50
D C A A F 7 9 4
.
u
t
s
t
a
n
d
i
n
g

C
a
l
u
e
0
10
0
?0
40
50
60
!0
80
90
100
-
u
#

P
e
r
c
e
n
t
a
g
e

Aranches
Pareto 4iagra# for Production 'to&&age
/92D- quality change
B9Inter#ediate con$eyor
-9Po(er failure
49,o&&erDduct line Aa##ing
%94ryer dru# cou&ling &in
)9B P full &ress &ro3le#
"94ryer &re$enti$e
,95i& roller
I90otary co#3 tri&&ed
E9-o#3er Aa##ing
F9/l con$eyor idle roller
+9)ire
29/ccu#ulation
594ru# seal changing
.9)an tri&&ing
P9-hain &ro3le#
Q9)i3er Aa##ing
09Gone gear 3o:
'9Gone con$eyor
E
N
DE
DN
JE
JN
BE
BN
ME
MN
/ B - 4 % ) " , I E F + 2 5 . P Q 0 '
5
o
9

o
f

s
t
o
&
&
a
g
e
s
E
DE
JE
BE
ME
NE
PE
OE
QE
RE
DEE
-
u
#
u
l
a
t
i
$
e

@
Pareto /nalysis of -o#&laints at a +aundry
BN
PE
ON
QN
RB
RQ DEE
0
0
40
60
80
100
10
140
160
180
00
#ate
deliver"
Missing or
*rong
items
Fading
colours
Stains Creased Auttons
Missing
Stretched
or torn
5
o
9

o
f

c
o
#
&
l
a
i
n
t
s
0
10
0
?0
40
50
60
!0
80
90
100
Brain 'tor#ing
generating large num!er of ideas
!" a group of people
Basic 0ules
v
4efer e$aluation
v
)antasiHe freely
v
"enerate quantity
v
Build on ideas
4efer %$aluation
v
Put critical faculties in cold storage
- e$en constructi$e criticis#9
v
v
%nsure a &ro&er cli#ate for acce&tance of
all sorts of ideas9
v
v
5o idea should 3e treated as stu&id9
)antasiHe )reely
v
4onIt o&erate (ith your 3ra*es on9
v
v
Partici&ants are encouraged to generate
ideas; no #atter ho( fanciful they are9

"enerate Quantity
v
"enerate as #any ideas as &ossi3le9
v
v
/ &earl di$er (ill 3e #ore successful in
finding &earls; (hen he 3rings u& 00
oysters than (hen he surfaces only 15-
0 oysters9

Build on ideas

#dea of one participant is more
effectivel 8uilt up 8 anot&er
participant,
'te&s in Brainstor#ing
v
Select the topic
v
v
ach mem!er3 in rotation gives ideas
v
v
Mem!er offers onl" one idea per turn3
regardless of ho* man" he or she has
v
v
Continue till all ideas are exhausted
v
v
Ideas are recorded and displa"ed
Benefits
vIndi$idual is li#ited in generating ideas and grou&
&roduces #ore ideas
v
vIdeas are i#&ro$ed u&on 3y #e#3ers
v
vPresence of others increases creati$ity
v
vPooling of ideas and resources is #ade &ossi3le 3y
co#ing together as a grou&
CAUS2 A6D 2EE2C+
DIAC'AM
q
9raphic tool to represent relationship
!et*een an effect and influencing
causes
q
There can not !e an effect *ithout a
cause-
q
5educe incidence of su!jective
decision ma+ing-
q
Identif" main causes K/s influencing G

Construction of C & Diagram
v
Define pro!lem
v
9ather mem!ers for discussion
v
Conduct Arainstorming
v
9roup causes into MM/s
v
Man3 Material3 Machine3 Method
v
For each cause3 as+3 0'hat goes *rong
that produces the effect1-
v
Identif" major causes
-ause and %ffect 4iagra# for high &etrol consu#&tion
,igh Petrol
-onsu#&tio
n
Procedure 4ri$er Cehicle
2aterials
2aintenanc
e
0oad
0estrictions
5o turn
.ne (ay
-ircuitous
0oad
)requent
sto&s
-rossings
1raffic
'&eed Brea*ers
'tee&
Poor
condition
Potholes
Irregular
ser$icing
)alse
econo#y
5egligence
-logged
filters
+o( &ressure
Ignorance
)aulty
&ressure
1yres
Petrol
.il
5ot changed
+o( le$el
Incorrect $iscosity
I#&urities
Incorrect
.ctane no9
/dditi$es
'&ares
'&urious
Inferior
I#&atience
-raHe
/l(ays
late
0iding on
clutch
+ac* of
a(areness
Poor
antici&ation
Wrong
gears
Poor
s*ill
Wrong
culture
Bad
attitude
Ine:&erience
Body
,ea$y
'ha&e
1echnical
details
-ar3uretor
'&ar* &lugs
+ife
-ontacts
)uel #i:
%ngine
,igh ,9P
-ylinders
-ause J %ffect 4iagra#
P54CSS MAT5IA#S
C44<I%9 QTG 4F '44D Q#TG
TIM C44<I%9 'AT5 ?4#DCF5S7@ $A5IATI4%
TMP- I%
P%T4SA%S
I%
FI%A# P(#P
I%ST5(M%T
T5AI%D (%T5AI%D ACC(5ACG
P5S4%%# Q(IPM%TS
(ses of C & Diagram
v
Trace out real root cause
v
v
7elp evolve countermeasures
v
v
Ma+ing C & an education in itself
v
v
ver"one participating3 learn more
a!out their *or+-
v
Is a focus for discussion-
v
v
Sho*s level of expertise availa!le-
v
v
Can !e used for an" pro!lem
>IS+3C'AM
?
9
1
1 9
4
1 !
1 1
6
0
5
1 0
1 5
0
5
? 0
1 9 ! ! 6 1 9 8 6 8 1 9 9 6 9 0 5 9 1 4 4 9 ? 6 9 ? 8 9 4 9 5 1
- o n s u # & t i o n 7 F W h 8
)
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
,istogra#
v
Method of anal"6ing data
v
v
v
Data is condensed in a ta!le
v
v
v
Ta!ulation is +no*n as fre,uenc"
distri!ution-
v
v
Presented !" a 9raph displa"ing
distri!ution of data
v
7istogram
"ra&h is -haracteriHed 3y ? constituents
K centre 7 #ean8
K (idth 7s&read-$ariation8
K o$er all sha&e
v
?
9
1
1 9
4
1 !
1 1
6
0
5
1 0
1 5
0
5
? 0
1 9 ! ! 6 1 9 8 6 8 1 9 9 6 9 0 5 9 1 4 4 9 ? 6 9 ? 8 9 4 9 5 1
- o n s u # & ti o n 7 F W h 8
)
re
q
u
e
n
c
y
,istogra# -onstruction
v
'elect a sa#&le of #in9 50
v
0ecord the #easure#ents9
v
4eter#ine the range9
v
4ecide the no9 of classes9
v
4i$ide range into no9 of classes
v
4eter#ine 3oundary or class li#its9
v
Pre&are frequency distri3ution9
v
-onstruct histogra# 7"0/P,89
4ata on 2etal Bloc* thic*ness 7in ##8
?956 ?946 ?948 ?950 ?94 ?94? ?95 ?949 ?944 ?950
?948 ?956 ?950 ?95 ?94! ?948 ?946 ?950 ?956 ?9?8
?941 ?9?! ?94! ?949 ?945 ?944 ?950 ?949 ?946 ?946
?955 ?95 ?944 ?950 ?945 ?944 ?948 ?946 ?95 ?946
?948 ?948 ?9? ?940 ?95 ?9?4 ?946 ?94? ?9?0 ?946
?959 ?96? ?959 ?94! ?9?8 ?95 ?945 ?948 ?9?1 ?946
?940 ?954 ?946 ?951 ?948 ?950 ?968 ?960 ?946 ?95
?948 ?950 ?956 ?950 ?95 ?946 ?948 ?946 ?95 ?956
?95 ?948 ?946 ?945 ?946 ?954 ?954 ?948 ?949 ?941
?941 ?945 ?9?4 ?944 ?94! ?94! ?941 ?9?8 ?954 ?94!
5angeF Max- ; Min-FB-PQ=B-BEFE-BQ
%o- of classesF R
Class *idthF E-N
%FDE
E
)requency 1a3le
-lass no, -lass %oundaries /id-value @re'uenc
1

?
4
5
6
!
8
9
?9!5 > ?9?5
?9?5 > ?9?!5
?9?!5 > ?945
?945 > ?94!5
?94!5 > ?955
?955 > ?95!5
?95!5 > ?965
?965 > ?96!5
?96!5 > ?9!5
?9?0
?9?5
?940
?945
?950
?955
?960
?965
?9!0
?
?
9
??
?!
10
?
1
1

,istogra# for 2etal Bloc* 1hic*ness
? ?
9
??
?!
10
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1 1
0
5
10
15
0
5
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40
45
?9? ?9?5 ?94 ?945 ?95 ?955 ?96 ?965 ?9!
1hic*ness 7in ##8
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,istogra# for Bearing 1hic*ness
5
1
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41
?1
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9
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0
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10
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594 598 59? 59?6 594 5944 5948 595 5956 596
1hic*ness 7in ##8
)
r
e
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,istogra# for %nergy -onsu#&tion
?
9
1
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0
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?0
19!!6 19868 1996 905 9144 9?6 9?8 94 951
-onsu#&tion7FWh8
)
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
1y&es of ,istogra#s
Bell sha&ed
'y##etrical sha&e (ith a &ea* in #iddle
re&resenting a nor#al histogra#
?
9
1
1 9
4
1 !
1 1
6
0
5
1 0
1 5
0
5
? 0
1 9 ! ! 6 1 9 8 6 8 1 9 9 6 9 0 5 9 1 4 4 9 ? 6 9 ? 8 9 4 9 5 1
- o n s u # & t i o n 7 F W h 8
)
re
q
u
e
n
c
y
S+e*ed to #eft & 5ight
S+e*ed to #eft
Caused !" centering the process to*ard high end of the
tolerance
S+e*ed to 5ight
Caused !" centering the process to*ard lo* end of the
tolerance--
Aimodal & Truncated
Aimodal 2 T*o com!ined populations== t*o shifts3
operators3 inspectors3 suppliers3 machine settings3
gages3 tools3 machines3 measurement locations3 etc-
Truncated2 This can happen *hen a process is not
capa!le of meeting the specifications3 parts are sorted
from !oth ends3 or too fe* classes are chosen-
Missing Centre Spi+eVs at Tail ?s@
Missing Centre 2 Centre of the distri!ution has !een
sorted from the rest- Portion ma" have !een delivered
to a customer *ith tighter specifications-
Spi+eVs@ at the Tail ?s@ 2 Parts in outer ends of
distri!ution are pro!a!l" !eing re*or+ed to !ring
characteristic just *ithin specifications-
K
Trans
F DCK
0a(
-- &he $eed for &ransformations Prediction from
a $D is possi5le
S4ew distri5ution &ransformation
Before

After
,istogra# Bses
v
1o *no(--(hether $ariation in data
is due to chance or assigna3le causes9
v
1o tell a3out Process Beha$ior
v
--a3out its ca&a3ility to &roduce defect
free out&ut
v
v
Sources 4f $ariation
v
Common Causes
===Chance Causes 4f $ariation
v
Special Causes
=== Assigna!le Cause 4f $ariation
Common Cause
v
Consists of combined effect of several sources of
uncontrollable variation inherent to a process.
v
Collective influence of common cause variation
defines natural process fluctuation and is known
as Chance causes of variation.
v
Process output is predictable
vProcess is said to be in Statistical Control
v
v
Special Cause
v
Variation has a large impact on performance.
v
Determination of source of impact makes cause
"assignable." and is termed as
assignable cause of variation.
vIf they exist, process or key characteristic is
said to be "out-of-control".
vOut-of-control process is not predictable
?
9
1
1 9
4
1 !
1 1
6
0
5
1 0
1 5
0
5
? 0
1 9 ! ! 6 1 9 8 6 8 1 9 9 6 9 0 5 9 1 4 4 9 ? 6 9 ? 8 9 4 9 5 1
- o n s u # & t i o n 7 F W h 8
)
re
q
u
e
n
c
y
Process Beha$ior
v
It tells (hether &rocess is under control6
v
Is it &roducing defect free out&ut6
v
====process under
control or

process varia!ilit"
#S
#
(S
#
Process out
4f control
(S# #S#
process varia!ilit"
"ood Process Beha$ior
v
'ha&e close to nor#al cur$e
v
v
2ean at target $alue
v
v
'&read (ithin '&ecification li#its
v
v
v
-& is greater than 196! and -&* is
greater than 19??
v
SCA++2' DIAC'AM
'hat2 To stud" the possi!le relationship
!et*een t*o varia!les-
'h"2 Diagram ma+e it clear *hether a
relationship exists3 and sho*s
the strength of relationship-
'hen2To test a theor" that the J
varia!les are related-
%:a#&les<
v
-utting s&eed and tool life
v
Brea*do(n and equi&#ent
age
v
1e#&erature J li&stic*
hardness
v
1e#&erature and &ercent
foa#
in soft drin*s
v
,ardness and tensile
strength
4ifferent 'catter diagra# Patterns

'catter 4iagra# on -on$eyor '&eed $s9 'e$ered +ength
1000
1005
1010
1015
100
105
10?0
10?5
1040
1045
1050
5 595 6 695 ! !95 8 895 9
-on$eyor '&eed 7c#Dsec8
'
e
$
e
r
e
d

+
e
n
g
t
h

7
#
#
8
Bses<
v
-ontrol Purpose
v
;eplacin! a destructive test 8 a
non-destructive test
v
1tud of -ause A Effect
relations&ip
v
Process 9ptimi5ation
v
Process Mapping
A!out This ModuleI
Process Mapping is a tool used to2
N
Clearl" define processes
N
N
Identif" areas *here data collection should ta+e
place
N
N
$isuali6e activities involved in a process at the
earl" stages of project development
Si! Sigma" # $uest for Process Perfection
#ttac% &ariation and Meet 'oals
(Data)ile(ProcessT*ppt
'hat 'e 'ill #earn I
xtending Flo* Charts to Process Mapping
D-The importance of process maps and the character of
the product and process parameters-
J-The *hen3 *h" and *here to use process maps-
B-
M-The x/s & "/s and K/s & G/s and GFf?x3K@-
N-
P-'hat to measure and control-
O-
Q-The need for process maps prior to FMA/s3 9age
Studies3 D4/s and SPC-
R-
DE-'hen the process map is completed-
DD-
DJ-7o* to use the tool for "our process-
Process Management
Process
Process
4 People
4 E'uipment
4 /aterial
4 /one
4 :ime
;esources
3
.
P -
#nput
#nput
9utput
9utput
)eed3ac*
1stem
Aasic
Process
Model
C"cle Time
) Time it ta+es to complete a process from
!eginning to end
Question
07o* does a reduction

in c"cle time !enefit an
organi6ation81
A process map *ill identif"
opportunities for ,ualit"
improvements-
A process map *ill identif"
opportunities for ,ualit"
improvements-
Fundamentals of Process Mapping
A process map should descri!e2
N
Major activitiesCtas+s
N
Su! processes
N
Process !oundaries
N
Inputs
N
4utputs
N
Process & Product Parameters
N
Customers & Suppliers
N
Process o*ners
A process map should descri!e2
N
Major activitiesCtas+s
N
Su! processes
N
Process !oundaries
N
Inputs
N
4utputs
N
Process & Product Parameters
N
Customers & Suppliers
N
Process o*ners
A process map should !e
revie*ed fre,uentl" and is
never done-
A process map should !e
revie*ed fre,uentl" and is
never done-
A process map should
document ho* the process
actuall" operates3 notho* it
is supposed to operate-
?0As is31 not 0To Ae1@
A process map should
document ho* the process
actuall" operates3 notho* it
is supposed to operate-
?0As is31 not 0To Ae1@
Principles of Process Management
) sta!lish o*nership-
) $erif" and descri!e the purpose of the
process-
) Define the process3 !oundaries3 and
interfaces-
) 4rgani6e and train the process
improvement team-
Principles of Process Management
) Define and document the process-
) Define points of control-
) sta!lish process measurements-
) Improve process-
Process Mapping Steps
D-ID%TIFG I%P(TS A%D 4(TP(TS
Identif" Inputs ?ra* material3 e,uipment3 energ"3 PM/s3 etc-@
Identif" 4utputs ?measura!leCassessa!le end product

parameters@
B-S74' A## STPS
$alue adding steps have the follo*ing characteristics2
u
Something the customer *ould !e *illing to pa" for
u
Transforms the product or service
u
Done right the first time
%on value=added steps in the process are presented graphicall"2
u
valuation points
u
5e*or+ points
u
Scrap points
u
Inventor"
Steps ?cont-@
B-S74' 4(TP(TS 4F AC7 STP
Sho* after each process step the characteristics
that can impact the follo*ing step?s@-
u
M-S74' A## P54CSS PA5AMT5S AT AC7
STP
#ist under each step the parameters that can
change a product characteristic at that step ?i-e-3
parameters that can !e controlled at that step@-
u
More Steps
% F %oise Factors = (ncontrolla!le = Ma" !e controlla!le3 !ut
are not controlled !" decision-
C F Controlla!le factors = Process factors that can !e
changed to see the effect on product characteristics-
S F Standard 4perating Procedures = A procedure is used to
define and run those factors- Tooling3 Fixtures-
C5 F Critical Factors = Determined through FMA3 D43 etc-

N-C#ASSIFG T7 PA5AMT5S
Classif" the process parameters identified ?in WM
a!ove@ into the follo*ing categories2
u
I%P(T
S
4(TP
(TS
P54CSS
K/s
G/s
7igh #evel Process Map 7igh #evel Process Map
Inputs & 4utputs
Processes Come in 7ierarchies
Process = #evel WD
Step WD
Process = #evel WJ
Step WD Step WJ
Process = #evel WB
Step WB
Step WD Step WJ Step WB
Step WB
Select the appropriate process level-
Select the appropriate process level-
Step WJ
Product and Process Parameters
Inputs

4utputs
STP 4F
P54CSS
Product Parameters3 "/s
" F f?x@
Process Parameters3 x/s
5emem!er the P M/s
N
Man ?People@
N
Machine ?,uipment@
N
Method ?Procedures@
N
Material
N
Measurement
N
Mother %ature ?nvironment@
<G for ?x/s@
Process Parameters
% %oise Parameters
C Controlla!le
Process Parameters
S S4P Parameters
C5 Critical Parameters
'h" #ist the Parameters8
N
The x/s and K/s are the sources of variation in "our process-
N
$ariation causes defects-
N
The x/s must !e under control to prevent defects-
N
The root cause of a defect is variation of the x/sX
N
The "/s and G/s are the measured results of the process
and include the failure modes of the process-
N
Defects are also outputs of a process step-
T4 5D(C DFCTSX
Defects
'hat Are 'e Measuring8
Measure the x/s3 not the G/s X
K/s
x/s
"/s
G/s
YYYYYYYYY 8
YYYYYYYYY 8
YYYYYYYYY 8
YYYYYYYYY 8
'e cannot control *hat *e don/t
measureX
'e cannot control *hat *e don/t
measureX
Inputs
Process Parameters
Process Step 4utputs
Process 4utputs
Is 'or+manship an x8
N
DFCT F5 4(TP(T
N
DFCTS I% P54CSS 4(TP(T
N
" F f?x@
'45<MA%S7IP 88
4P5AT45 88
I%P(T
S
4(TP
(TS
P54CSS
K/s G/s
P M/s reminders2
NMan ?People@
N
Machine ?,uipment@
NMethod ?Procedures@
NMaterial
NMeasurement
N
'hat Are the x/s and "/s8
Inputs

4utputs
P M/s reminders2
N
Man ?People@
N
Machine ?,uipment@
NMaterial
NMeasurement
N
%
%
%
%
C
C
C
C
S
S
" F f?x@
<G for ?x/s@
Process Parameters
% %oise Parameters
C Controlla!le
Process Parameters
S S4P Parameters
K/s
G/s
The follo*ing ma" !e helpful to identif" process
parameters that have a potential effect on the product
parameters and process output2
N
Arainstorming
N
#iterature revie*
N
4perators manuals
N
'or+ Instructions
N
4perator experience
N
Customer C supplier input
N
ngineering +no*ledge
N
Scientific theor"
5emem!er the P M/s
N
Man ?People@
N
Machine ?,uipment@
N
Method ?Procedures@
N
Material
N
Measurement
N
Identif"ing Product & Process Parameters
Completeness Chec+s
Inputs

4utputs
Are there "/s for ever" x in this step8
Is there a 0good1 t"pe of " for ever" x 8
Is there a 0!ad1 t"pe of " for ever" x 8
Are x/s here that impact do*nstream "/s8
Does the map have input of extended team8
Product Parameters 3 "/s
N
9ood
N
Aad F Defects
N
9ood 5ejected F Defect
N
Aad Accepted F Defect
N
7orror Stories2 'hat has
happened in the past that
caused disasters8
N
Success Stories2 'hat
outputs of this step thrilled
the customer?s@8
N
Are there x/s for each " in
this step8
N
Are upstream x/s changing
"/s of this step8 7o*8
Step of the Process
" F f?x@
5emem!er the P M/s
NMan ?People@
N
Machine ?,uipment@
NMaterial
NMeasurement
N
<G for ?x/s@
Process Parameters
% %oise Parameters
C Controlla!le
Process Parameters
S S4P Parameters
'ave Solder Process
Flux2
<ester
JS Solid EAC+3'
Pre 7eat WD
Temperature
Pre 7eat WJ
Temperature
Pre 7eat WB
Temperature
Solder
Temperature
mmersion
Depth
Conve"er
Speed Angle
7ot Air
<nife
Angle Pressure
S-9-2 %A 'A6C2 = = = = = J-ON=M-JN = MN=PN DJ=JE
63MI6A= MEE MMN MOE MRE DCMZ B-ON %CA PE DOPSI
Current Setup2 Specifications
#4AD I%
FIKT(5
I%P(T
Ad 4rientation
Ad Spacing
Ad Alignment
Ad to 5ail Position
Critical areas mas+ed
#4AD 4%
C4%$G45
F#(K
F#(K
AI5
<%IF
Solder in all holes
Solder Aridging
Solder Insufficients
Fire
Qt" of xcess Flux
#ead Soldera!ilit"
Amount on Ad-
Flux through holes to top side
Distri!ution on Ad-
xcessive Solder
Aridging
Icicles
Partiall" filled 7oles
Cleanliness of Aoard
KConve"or speed
5ail position over pot
Conve"or angle
Time re,/d in Solder
M=Corner Fixture support
Conve"or drive
smoothness
Finger condition
5ail Straightness
Pressure
Flux Arand
Flux T"pe
Thinner
Cleanliness of flux
Tritration level
Stone T"pe
Cleanliness of Stone
7eight over Stone
Temperature
7umidit"
Am!ient Temp
KPressure of air +nife
4rientation
Distance to !oard
Air <nife used
Angle of air +nife
Temperature
KMas+ing
4perator
Aoard thic+ness
M=Corner support
Ad- Spacing in Fixture
Ad ,uantit" in fixture
Ad- position *ithin fixture
Front or rear
Side
FixturesCconve"or *idth
Ad 4rientation
Frame si6eCAoard si6e
Fixture mass-
Fixture dimensions
$ert- location !d-in fix-
Component 4rientation
Component Densit"
T4
P57AT
K/s
Aoards *ith
components
Solder
Flux
lectricit"
Machine Setup
<G for ?x/s@
Process Parameters
%oise Parameters
Controlla!le Process Parameters
S4P Parameters
qCritical Parameters
Immersion depth
5aised Carrier Frame corner
Poor *etting
Partial filled holes
S+ip Soldering
Aridging
xcessive solder speed
Insufficient solder
Aridging
C"cle Time
'ave Solder Process ?cont-@
xcess Pressure
Solder Aridging
Insufficient solderC4pens
Insufficient Pressure
Solder Aridging
Temp Too #o*
Solder Aridging
Temp Too 7igh
Insufficient SolderC4pens
Damage Aoard
Angle Too Steep
Insufficient SolderC4pens
Angle Too Shallo*
Solder Aridging
P57A
T
W D
KTemp =>one D
Temp = >one J
Temp = >one B
Time in Preheat D
5esp time of heater
Sta!ilit" of temp
Distance to !oard
Temp distri!ution
Fixture *arp
5ail *arp
S4#D5
P4T
Solder Distri!ution
Coverage on !oard
Solder Appearance
Solder joint Qualit"
KSolder Temp
7t of PotCPosition
Solder Pot Angle
xit Point
Amount of dross
Solder Pump Speed
Solder 7eight
Solder Pump Pressure
Cho+e !ar settingCadj
Solder contact
Solder t"pe
Solder tin content
Solder Contam
Aaffle ,ual3 hole *ear3
!ent condition3 clean
Aoard Deflection
P57A
T
W J
KTemp = >one J
Temp = >one D
Temp =>one B
Time in Preheat J
5esp time of heater
Sta!ilit" of temp
Dist to !oard
Temp distri!ution
Fixture *arp
5ail *arp
-
74T
AI5
<%IF
Position
Dist to !oard
Temp
Angle
Air Pressure
Temp Dist
-
KIT
'A$
S4#D5
Solder Appearance
Solder .oint
Qualit"CDefects
4pen Solder .oints
9ood Aoards
Dirt" Aoards
Scrap Aoards
7ot Aoards
Damaged Components
#ifted Components
P57A
T
W B
KTemp = >one B
Temp = >one D
Temp = >one J
Time in Preheat B
5esponse time of
heater
Sta!ilit" of temp
Distance to !oard
Temp- Distri!ution
Fixture *arp
5ail *arp
Aoard Temp
Flux Condition
Flux Activated
Flux Solvent drive off
Thermal Shoc+
Aoard 'arping
xcess 7eat
xcess Solder
Poor Fillets
xcess flo* thru
Inade,uate 7eat
Solder splatter
Trapped 9as
Solder Aridges
Poor flo* thru
?plated thru holes@
G/s
Aoards2
Accepted
5ejected
Scrap
'or+manship
Stds
Samples
#ighting
Magnification
ProdCDmndCSch
CensusCInspection
Staffing
Inspection Sample
?S@
"esight
Inspector $ariation
4(TP
(T
I
%
S
P
C
T
I
4
%
5
'
4
5
<
<G for ?x/s@
Process
Parameters
%oise Parameters
Controlla!le Process
Parameters
S4P Parameters
qCritical Parameters
Aoard Temp
Flux Condition
Flux Activated
Thermal Shoc+
Aoard 'arping
xcess 7eat
xcess Solder
Poor Fillets
xcess flo* thru
Inade,uate 7eat
Solder splatter
Trapped 9as
Solder Aridges
Poor flo* thru
?plated thru holes@
Aoard Temp
Flux Condition
Flux Activated
Thermal Shoc+
Aoard 'arping
xcess 7eat
xcess Solder
Poor Fillets
xcess flo* thru
Inade,uate 7eat
Solder splatter
Trapped 9as
Solder Aridges
Poor flo* thru
?plated thru holes@
"/s
Product
Paramenters
The Importance of Questions
#oise 'arameters(
N
'hat are the"8
N
Are the" impossi!le or impractical to control8
N
7o* ro!ust is the s"stem to the noise8
N
Controllable 'arameters(
N
7o* are the" monitored8
N
7o* often are the" verified8
N
Are optimum target values +no*n8
N
7o* much variation is there around the target
values8
N
7o* consistent are the"8
N
Standard O"erating 'rocedures(
N
Do the" exist8
N
Are the" understood8
N
Are the" !eing follo*ed8
N
Are the" current8
N
Is operator certification performed8
N
Is there an audit schedule8
Process Parameter Questions
N
'hat causes variation of the process parameter8
N
7o* is the process parameter controlled8
N
7o* often is the parameter out of control8
N
Is there data on the parameter8
N
'hich of "our process parameters should have
control charts on them8
N
'hen should "ou place a control chart on a process
parameter8
N
'hich of "our process parameters have control charts
on them8
N
7o* are the control charts used8
N
7o* do "ou +no* *hich process parameters to monitor8
N
Should *e focus on parameters of non value=added steps8
'rocess 'arameters(
'roduct 'arameters(
Product Parameter Questions
u
'hat is the goal of the improvement effort8
u
Is the product parameter ,ualitative or ,uantitative8
An attri!ute or a varia!le8
u
For the product parameters2
Is larger !etter8
Is nominal !est8
Is smaller !etter8
Is it d"namic in nature8
u
Is the concern for---
Process centering8
Process variation8
Aoth8
u
'hat is the process !aseline for the product parameter8
'hat is the mean and sigma8
'roduct 'arameters(
N
Is the product parameter currentl" in statistical control8
N
Is the product parameter affected !" time8
N
7o* much of a change in the product parameter do "ou
needC*ish to detect8
N
Do "ou +no* the expected distri!ution of the product
parameter8
N
Is the measurement s"stem ade,uate8
N
Are there multiple responses of concern8 'hat are the
priorities for optimi6ation8
N
'hat measurements are ta+en on product parameters8
N
7o* do "ou +no* *hich product parameters to monitor8
N
'hich product parameters need control charts on them8
N
'hich product parameters have control charts on them8
N
7o* are the control charts used8
More Product Parameter Questions
Process Map=Flo* Charting ?Step=!"=Step@
Document entire
flo* of the
process selected
Identif"Cclassif"
the scope of the
process
Identif"Cclassif"
upstream
in=process
product
parameters
Classif"C
characteri6e
process
parameters
into B main
factors
Identif" all value
and
%on value=added
operations
Identif" the
inputs
and outputs of
the process
Identif"Cclassif"
measurements
ta+en on product
& process
parameters
r%oise factors
rStandard operating procedures
rControlla!le process parameters
Continue to
update &
classif"
process mapX
Develop initial list
of process parameters
along *ith current
operating conditions
)* What
Su""lier
%e+uirements
,* 'rocess Controls-.e"endencies
/* Who are Customers
N
Process o*ner/s
re,uirements on the
supplier
N
Specifications
N
Cost
N
Schedule
N
All *or+ is a process
N
All processes have
o*ners
N
All processes can !e
descri!ed as a ver!
and noun
N
All processes can !e
anal"6ed and
improved
N
Specifications
Function
5elia!ilit"
Format
N
Cost
N
Schedule
ProceduresCPolicies TrainingCducation ,uipmentCFacilities
Qualit" Attitudes
An" *ritten
document that
controlsCimpacts a
process
N
Performance
s+ills
N
Certifications
N
Space re,uired
N
Processing
e,uipment
Personal attitude
*hich is less than
the re,uirement
0* What Out"ut
1* What n"ut
feedback
feedback
2* What 'rocess
3* What Customer
%e+uirements
4* Who are
Su""liers
Consider ver" Process Step
Causes of Process Map Failure
C4%C5%
5SP4%S
5e,uires extra effort = 0'e +no* the
process = lets just move for*ard1
The process appears straight
for*ard = then !ecomes difficult as
"ou reali6e "ou do not understand
process as *ell as "ou thought
The process map just seems to
gro* and gro* and gro*
Initial pa"off is team understands
process == team mem!ers are not
*or+ing on different set of
assumptions- (se experts to help
"ou through the mapping process
If necessar"3 adjust process
!oundaries == initiate another
improvement team
Thin+ a!out approaching the pro!lem
hierarchicall"
'hat is the tool8
N
9raphical method to illustrate
the details of a process
N
'hat *ill the tool identif"Csho*8
N
All process steps3 value=added
& non value=added
NInput parameters ?K
i3in
@
Nnd product parameters ?G
i
@
N
In=process parameters ?x/s &
"/s@
N
Characteri6ation of all
parameters
N
DefectCdata collection points
N
Steps needing FMA/s
N
Sources of variation identified
'hat is the tool8
N
9raphical method to illustrate
the details of a process
N
'hat *ill the tool identif"Csho*8
N
All process steps3 value=added
& non value=added
NInput parameters ?K
i3in
@
Nnd product parameters ?G
i
@
N
In=process parameters ?x/s &
"/s@
N
Characteri6ation of all
parameters
N
DefectCdata collection points
N
Steps needing FMA/s
N
Sources of variation identified
'hen do "ou appl" this tool8
N
Al*a"s2 to full" understand
process & process flo*
N
Find *hereC*henCho* defects
are !eing created
N
Define elements of c"cle time
N
'hat results can "ou expect8
N
S"stems needing MS/s
N
#ist of Factors for D4/s
N
Find the hidden factor"
N
4pportunities for process
step elimination ?i-e- flo*
improvement@
N
'a"s to re=la"out the process
N
Sources of variation reduced
N
Al*a"s2 to full" understand
process & process flo*
N
Find *hereC*henCho* defects
are !eing created
N
Define elements of c"cle time
N
N
S"stems needing MS/s
N
#ist of Factors for D4/s
N
Find the hidden factor"
N
4pportunities for process
step elimination ?i-e- flo*
improvement@
N
'a"s to re=la"out the process
N
Sources of variation reduced
Process Mapping Summar"
Map Gour Process
Eor the ne<t session

) Map and characteri6e a critical part of "our process-
) Identif"2
; The Inputs ?K/s@
; The 4utputs ?G/s@
; The Process Parameters ?x/s@
; The Product Parameters ?"/s@
; The process o*ner3 supplier3 & customer
; Classif" the parameters at each step
; The next step to reduce defects in "our process
'hat 'e 7ave #earned I
D-The importance of process maps and the character of
the product and process parameters-
J-The *hen3 *h" and *here to use process maps-
B-
M-The x/s & "/s and K/s & G/s and GFf?x3K@-
N-
P-'hat to measure and control-
O-
Q-The need for process maps prior to FMA/s3 9age
Studies3 D4/s and SPC-
R-
DE-'hen the process map is completed-
DD-
DJ-7o* to use the tool for "our process-
Failure Modes and
ffects Anal"sis
FMA
A!out This ModuleI
Failure Modes and ffects Anal"sis
Meet 'oals and #ttac% &ariation
An FMA is a s"stematic method for identif"ing3
anal"6ing3 prioriti6ing and documenting potential
failure modes3 their effects on s"stem3 product3
process performance and the possi!le causes of
failure-
(Data)ile()M+#form*!ls
(Data)ile(Copy)M+#*!ls
,Datafile,causeeffecte*ig!
(Datafile(catapultflo-*ig!
(Datafile(catapultC.+*ig!
'hat 'e 'ill #earnI
Failure Modes and ffects Anal"sis
D- As a Team3 ho* to construct an
FMA and associated Action Plan
J- 7o* the FMA process ties to
process mapping
B- The relationship !et*een Failure
Mode3 Cause and ffect
M- The different t"pes of FMAs
Sample FMA
.atafile-Co"y56EA*7ls
Eailure
2%%ects
S
2
D Causes
3
C
C Controls
D
2
+
'
P
6 Action 'ecommended
'esp&
Person
Schedule
Date Action +aken
Actual
Compl&
Date
p
S
p
O
p
D
p
r
p
n
'
i
s
k
'isk
M
prpn
Must
redo
cop" P Paper .am O
Periodic
Maint- O JRM Periodic preventive maintence <e" 4pr BCD
PM Schedule
created and
implemented JCDN P B O DJP B BOQ
Must
redo
cop" P
(ser
misset si6e P
xisting
notes on
copier N DQE
Place sign over copier outlining
standard si6e enlargeCreduce or
relia!le mach to clearl" indicate
standard reduceCenlarge <e" 4pr JCJE
Place sign over
mach JCDN P B J BP D BP
Must
redo
cop" P
(ser
misset
control N
xisting
notes on
copier M DJE
Place sign to encourage user to
utili6e auto settings <e" 4pr JCJE
Place sign over
mach JCDN P J J JM D JM
Must
redo
cop" P
(sed
landscape
instead of
portrait or
vice versa O
Tra"
Selection J QM
Place note on ruler re tra"
selection <e" 4pr DCJE Placed %ote DCDN P J D DJ D DJ
Must
redo
cop" P
align
mar+ing
not clear M
(se Auto
Feeder C
align ruler B OJ
nlarge mar+s for Q-N Z paper on
ruler <e" 4pr DCDN nlarged mar+s DCDM P J D DJ D DJ
Must
redo
cop" P
Doc
moved
*hen lid
closed N
(se Auto
Feeder C
align ruler J PE
Place sign over copier re
Znsure align prior to cop"ing or
use auto FeederZ <e" 4pr DCDN Displa"ed Sign DCDM P D D P D P
Must
redo
cop" P
(ser
selected
*rong tra" B
Auto
select
function B NM
Place sign over copier to
encourage user to use auto tra"
select <e" 4pr JCJN
Place sign over
mach JCJE P J B BP D BP
Must
redo
cop" P Dirt" 9lass P
Periodic
Cleaning
S4P D BP
Place cleaning material near
copier Maint- DCDN
Placed Cleaning
Matl DCDN P D D P D P
'h" (se FMAs8
'hat is an FMA8
Identif"
critical product characteristics and process varia!les
Prioriti6e
product and process deficiencies in support of
do*nstream improvement actions
7elp focus
on prevention of product and process pro!lems
Aenefits of FMA/s
'hat is an FMA8
%
%
M
M
&
&
'
'
u
Improves the ,ualit"3 relia!ilit" and safet" of products-
u
7elps increase customer satisfaction-
u
5educes product development timing and cost-
u
5educes the amount of re*or+3 repair and scrap-
u
Documents and trac+s actions ta+en-
u
Prioriti6es deficiencies to focus improvement efforts-
Process = #evel WD
Step WD Step WJ
Process = #evel WJ
Step WD Step WJ
Process = #evel WB
Step WB
Step WD Step WJ Step WB
FMA = #evel WD
FMA = #evel WJ
FMA = #evel WB
Step WB
Process and FMA 7ierarchies
'hat is an FMA8
u
Steps Completed Prior to FMA2
Charter Team
Develop and Characteri6e Process Map
u
FMA Steps2
D-Identif" 07eav" 7itter1 Process Step
D-
D-Identif" Associated "/s ?Product Parameters@
J-
D-Identif" Failure Mode
B-
D-Identif" Failure ffectsC5ate Severit"
M-
D-Identif" CausesC5ate 4ccurrence
N-
D-Identif" Controls ?if an"@C5ate Detection
P-
D-Calculate 5P%
O-
D-Prioriti6e !" 5P% 4rder
Q-
D-Determine ActionsCPlan
R-
D-5ecalculate 5P% Aased on Plan
DE-
D-Ta+e Action
Process FMA Steps
'hat is an FMA8
7eader Accessi!le
from
$ie*
7eaderCFooter
in xcel
'or+!oo+ in
xcel
FMA Form
'hat is an FMA8
(Data)ile()M+#)orm*!ls
Cause
?x/s@
Failure
Mode
ffect ?"/s@
'hat is an FMA8
Cause =Failure Mode =ffect Continuum
'hat is an FMA8
The Cause and ffect Diagram xample
AdminCService xample
First produced in DRNE !"
Professor <aoru Ishi+a*a =
Also called the2
u
Ishi+a*a Diagram
u
Fish Aone Diagram
Developed to represent the
relationship !et*een some
0effect and all possi!le
0causes1 influencing it-
Create using Igrafx2
Failur
e
ffec
t
Failure Mode
?Defect@
Measurements Materials Manpo*er
Mother Methods Machines
%ature
The Cause and ffect Diagram xample
Measurement
5eproduci!ilit"
5epeata!ilit"
#inearit"
Sta!ilit"
Cali!ration
Methods
$ague
4ut of date
Complex
Machines
%ot maintained
Inade,uate capa!ilit"
Material
#ate
'rong ,uantit"
Defective
Manpo*er
Inade,uate
training
#ac+ of
experience
Distractions
Mother nature
Too humid
Too hot
Too cold
Defects
Cause and ffects Diagram
.atafile-Causeeffecte*ig7
Cop" Machine xample
'hat is an FMA8
) 4ur process is cop"ing
documents on a Kerox
model KCDEMN cop"
machine-
) First *e *ill construct a
process map
) Then *e *ill construct a cause
and effect diagram
) Finall" *e *ill complete an
FMA
Process2 Ma+ing A Cop"
'hat is an FMA8
M
a
+
e

C
o
p
i
e
s
Place
Document
in Copier
Set
num!er of
copies
nter si6e
re,uired
Set
lightCdar+
settings
Select
paper
source
Press
!utton
5etrieve
copies
% 7inges
% 9lass clean
#egend
CControlla!le
Cr Critical
%%oise
PProcedure
x Input
C Copies
re,uired
Cr %um!er
!utton
C Si6e desired
Cr Si6e !utton
C Dar+ness
desired
C Si6e desired
x Paper
Cr Autton
Document set
correctl"
9lass clean
%um!er of
copies selected
correctl"
Si6e selected
correctl"
Dar+ness set
directl"
Correct
paper tra"
selected
Copies Copies
5ight num!er
5ight contrast
5ight
orientation
5ight si6e
5ight paper
The FMA Process
Step D2 Identif" 07eav" 7itter1 Process Step
%
%
M
M
&
&
'
'
u
From the Process Map3 identif" the process step *ith the
most li+elihood of having failure modes *ith significant
effects
u
(se defect data andCor team +no*ledge a!out failure
modes *hen selecting process steps
u
Significant impact to the !usiness8 ?C4PQ3 c"cle time3 fill
rate3 ---@
u
(se a Cause and ffect Diagram to capture
!rainstorming results-
u
After completing FMA Steps WJ=O for all failure modes
associated *ith this process step3 return to this step and
select the next most li+el" 07eav" 7itter1 process step
u
%ot all process steps *ill need to !e anal"6ed !" the
FMA
Step J2 Identif" Associated "/s
The FMA
Process
u
From the Process Map3 identif" the "/s that are associated
*ith the process step !eing investigated
u
As the "/s are the indications of a successful completion of
the process step3 the" are crucial as a !asis for
determining failure modes
Step B2 Identif" Failure Mode
) Arainstorm failure modes for the selected process step 2
; Identif" the *a"s in *hich the process could fail to
generate
each of the expected 0"/s1
) liminate 0duplicates1 from !rainstorm list
) Are the failure modes from the same level of the process8
) Are the failure modes specific8
) Are the failure modes the most li+el"8
) Do the failure modes provide good coverage of the
process step8
) 7ave all "/s !een considered8
The FMA
Process
Step M2 Identif" Failure ffectC5ate Severit"
The FMA Process
u
Pic+ the most li+el" failure mode and !rainstorm the
most important ffects2
FAI#(5 FFCTS are the outcome of the
occurrence of the failure modeon the process-
The impact on the customer === 'hat does the
customer experience as a result of the Failure
Mode8
u
Identif" each effect as !eing 0Attri!ute1 or 0$aria!le1
u
Severit" doesn/t change unless the design changes-
Step N2 Identif" CausesC5ate 4ccurrence
The FMA
Process
u
Identif" the most li+el" causes for each failure mode
using a Cause and ffect Diagram2
CA(SS are the conditions that !ring a!out the
Failure Mode
u
Transfer the resulting information to the FMA form
u
Assign an occurrence value ?D=DE@ to the li+elihood that
each particular cause *ill happen and result in the
failure mode
u
The occurrence score for each cause should !e related
to the li+elihood of that cause resulting in the failure
mode and producing the specific associated effect
4rgani6e Arainstorming Ideas
The FMA Process
Cop" Misaligned
Manpo-er
Selected *rong
orientation
Materials
'rong Paper
Si6e
Measurement
'rong Si6e
Selected
Machine
Alignment Mar+ing
(nclear
Method
Document Moved
'hen #id *as
Closed
Mother
6ature
Too 7umid
'hat *ould "ou add8
Step P2 Identif" ControlsC5ate Detection
The FMA Process
u
Identif" the current mechanisms in place *hich prevent
the causefrom occurring3 or detect it !efore the product
reaches the customer- Some examples of controls are
SPC3 training3 maintenance3 inspection3 S4P etc-
u
Assign a detection value ?D=DE@ !ased on an
assessment of the li+elihood that the current control
mechanisms *ill detect the cause of the failure mode
!efore it reaches the customer-
u
Don/t agoni6e over detecta!ilit"-
The product of the estimates of severit"
occurrence and
detection-
The 5P% provides a relative priorit" for ta+ing action
the !igger the 5P%3 the more important to address-
5P% F S$5ITG x 4CC(55%C x DTCTI4%
Step O2 Calculate 5is+ Priorit" %um!er
The FMA
Process
Q2 Prioriti6e !" 5P% 4rder
(se the 0Sort1 command in xcel to order the
spreadsheet in descending order of 5is+ Priorit"
%um!er ?5P%@-
R2 Determine ActionsCPlan
Aased on the causes found3 determine actions that
*ill minimi6e the effect of each cause3 in priorit"
order-
Steps Q and R
The FMA Process
DE2 5ecalculate 5P% Aased on Plan
u
Assuming the actions are carried out successfull"3 reassign
severit"3 occurrence and detecta!ilit"-
u
u
Place these ne* ratings in the 0predicted1 columns ?ps3 po & pd@-
u
u
Assign a rating from D to N for each action that *ill sho* the 0ris+1
associated *ith each action ?N !eing the greatest ris+@- Place the
rating in the 0ris+1 column-
DD2 Ta+e Action
u
Aased on the ris+ mitigation column ?5is+ [ prpn@3 ta+e the actions
indicated or reassign actions- ThenI-
u
u
Complete the actions indicated !" the times statedX
Steps DE and DD
The FMA Process
Eailure
2%%ects
S
2
D
Causes
3
C
C
Controls
D
2
+
'
P
6
Action 'ecommended
'esp&
Person
Schedule
Date Action +aken
Actual
Compl&
Date
p
S
p
O
p
D
p
r
p
n
'
i
s
k
'isk
M
prpn
Must
redo
cop" P Paper .am O
Periodic
Maint- O JRM Periodic preventive maintence <e" 4pr BCD
PM Schedule
created and
implemented JCDN P B O DJP B BOQ
Must
redo
cop" P
(ser
misset si6e P
xisting
notes on
copier N DQE
Place sign over copier outlining
standard si6e enlargeCreduce or
relia!le mach to clearl" indicate
standard reduceCenlarge <e" 4pr JCJE
Place sign over
mach JCDN P B J BP D BP
Must
redo
cop" P
(ser
misset
control N
xisting
notes on
copier M DJE
Place sign to encourage user to
utili6e auto settings <e" 4pr JCJE
Place sign over
mach JCDN P J J JM D JM
Must
redo
cop" P
(sed
landscape
instead of
portrait or
vice versa O
Tra"
Selection J QM
Place note on ruler re tra"
selection <e" 4pr DCJE Placed %ote DCDN P J D DJ D DJ
Must
redo
cop" P
align
mar+ing
not clear M
(se Auto
Feeder C
align ruler B OJ
nlarge mar+s for Q-N Z paper on
ruler <e" 4pr DCDN nlarged mar+s DCDM P J D DJ D DJ
Must
redo
cop" P
Doc
moved
*hen lid
closed N
(se Auto
Feeder C
align ruler J PE
Place sign over copier re
Znsure align prior to cop"ing or
use auto FeederZ <e" 4pr DCDN Displa"ed Sign DCDM P D D P D P
Steps D=DD2
The FMA Process
(Data)ile(Copy)M+#*!ls
FMA
Step
N
Step
DE
Step O &
Q
Step J
ID "/s
Step
DD
Step
M
Step
R
Step
P
Step D
ID Process
Steps
Step B
ID Failure Modes
Process FMA
%
%
M
M
&
&
'
'
T"pes of FMA
) 7elps anal"6e manufacturing and assem!l"
processes to reduce the occurrence and
improve detection of defects-
) Assists in the development of process control
plans-
) sta!lishes a priorit" for improvement activities-
) Documents the rationale !ehind process
changes and helps guide future process
improvement plans-
) IS P54ACTI$X Should !e started *hen ne*
processes are designed or *hen old
processes are changed-
%ote2 'hen completing a Process FMA3 first assume the material is good and
the process is !ad- Then assume that the process is good and the material is
!ad- #astl"3 revie* the process for safet" considerations-
Process FMA Scoring Definition
T"pes of FMA
Score D2+2C+I36
1F D in J $er" 7igh A!solute (ncertaint"
K D in B $er" 7igh $er" 5emote
I D in Q 7igh 5emote
H D in JE 7igh $er" #o*
J D in QE Moderate #o*
$ D in MEE Moderate Moderate
#
D in
J3EEE Moderate Moderatel" 7igh
"
D in
DN3EEE #o* 7igh
!
D in
DNE3EEE #o* $er" 7igh
1
\D in
D3NEE3EE 5emote Almost Certain
S2D2'I+5 C'I+2'IA 3CCU''26C2
7a6ardous 'ithout 'arning
7a6ardous 'ith 'arning
$er" 7igh
7igh
Moderate
#o*
$er" #o*
Minor
$er" Minor
%one
DesignCProduct FMA
%
%
M
M
&
&
'
'
T"pes of FMA
) 7elps to identif" potential product failure
modes earl" in the product development
c"cle-
) Increases the li+elihood that all potential failure
modes and their effects on assem!lies *ill
!e considered-
) Assists in evaluating product design
re,uirements and test methods-
) sta!lishes a priorit" for design improvement-
) Documents the rationale !ehind design
changes and helps guide future
development projects-
) IS P54ACTI$X Should !e done *hen ne*
products are designed or existing products
are changed-
Defect FMA
) 7elps identif" the root causes of defects-
) sta!lishes a priorit" for improvement activities-
) Documents plan of action-
) Provides methodolog" to !attle initial ground s*ell
of defects-
) Focuses effort on defects *ith highest L impact-
) IS %4T P54ACTI$X
%
%
M
M
&
&
'
'
T"pes of FMA
Scoring Criteria
T"pes of FMA
Score DTCTI4%
DE $er" 7igh A!solute (ncertaint"
R $er" 7igh $er" 5emote
Q 7igh 5emote
O 7igh $er" #o*
P Moderate #o*
N Moderate Moderate
M Moderate Moderatel" 7igh
B #o* 7igh
J #o* $er" 7igh
D
5emote Almost Certain
5IS<2 4ptional field used to reflect the pro!a!ilit" of completing actions-
S$5ITG C5IT5IA 4CC(55%C
7a6ardous 'ithout 'arning
7a6ardous 'ith 'arning
$er" 7igh
7igh
Moderate
#o*
$er" #o*
Minor
$er" Minor
%one
%ote2 To change header information3 clic+ on Z$ie*Z then Z7eaderZ-
(se actual
defect
,uantities
The Catapult
FMA
xercise
Anal"6e the Catapult process using the FMA tool-
?5emem!er *e *ant to get the 0most !ang for the !uc+1-@
JN minutesX
) Area+ into the Catapult teams
) 'e have alread" constructed a process map
) First3 *e *ill construct a cause and effect
diagram
) Then *e *ill complete at least t*o failure
modes for the most critical step?s@ of our
process
) Appoint a spo+esman for "our team to de!rief
the class on "our progress3 ,uestions3 etc-
) Complete the FMA ?FMAform-xls@ for the
Catapult process !efore the third session
?'e *ill use this information for our D4
competition@
Catapult Process Map
FMA xercise
Datafile/Catapultflo-*ig!
Assem!le
Catapult
Secure to ta!le
Select Catapult
Settings
Set Catapult
Pins
Shoot
Measure
distance
5ecord
distance
Pins ?J@
Arm
5u!!er Aand
Aall
Clamp
Tape Measure
Tape
Aligned
*ith tape
] B inches
Pull Arm to
Proper Angle
Arm
moves
smoothl"
Plan or
Prediction
e,uation
Computer
Feasi!le
settings
Correct
settings
Positions
Designated
4perator
Consistenc"
%o Parallax
4perator
#ateral
movement
Tape Measure
4!servers
positioned
properl"
Aall fl"s
straight
Accurate
measurement
] J inches
5ecorder
Computer
Correct
angle
Stop
Correct
distance
recorded
Start
Complete the Diagram Aelo*
FMA
xercise
Datafile/CatapultC.+*'0
Distance
Men
Material Method
Measure Machine
Mother nature
Calculation procedure
5u!!er Aand
Aall
5elease consistenc"
Angle measurement
5epeata!ilit"
5eproduci!ilit"
Arm moves freel"
Air Conditioner
'hen To (pdate an FMA8
FMA Summar"
An FMA should !e updated *henever a change is !eing
considered to a product/s2
u
design
u
application
u
environment
u
material
u
product/s manufacturing or assem!l" process
u
'hat is the tool8
Spreadsheet
u
'hat *ill the tool
identif"Csho*8
All productCprocess failure
modes3 related effects3
causes3 & methods of
controlling them
5is+ Priorit" %um!er
?5P%@ for action !ased
on failure severit"3
pro!a!ilit" of
occurrence and
detection capa!ilit"
ActionsCplans to reduce
elements of 5P%
u
'hen evaluating product for
ro!ustness ?functionalit"3
producea!ilit"3 relia!ilit"@
During earl" stages of defect
reduction efforts to identif"
causes
'hen identif"ing +e"
processCproduct parameters and
evaluating methods for controlling
them
u
#earn to identif" critical productC
process parameters
Achieve consensus on solutions
and methods of implementation
Detailed productCprocess
understanding
Summar" of ProductCProcess FMA/s
FMA
Summar"
<e"s to Success
u
Identif" purpose---A SPCIFICX
u
u
(nderstand effects---I%$4#$ C(ST4M5S & S(PP#I5SX
u
u
#in+ to the process map-
u
u
(se to prioriti6e efforts3 allocate resources-
u
u
(se as a ris+ assessmentCprioriti6ation tool !ased on predicted impact-
u
u
(se to !uild consensus on prioriti6ation-
u
u
ncourage creativit"---TAM'45<X
u
u
P#A%X
u
u
AS< Q(STI4%SX
FMA
Summar"
u
Steps Completed Prior to FMA2
Charter Team
Develop and Characteri6e Process Map
u
FMA Steps2
D-Identif" 07eav" 7itter1 Process Step
D-
D-Identif" Associated "/s ?Product Parameters@
J-
D-Identif" Failure Mode
B-
D-Identif" Failure ffectsC5ate Severit"
M-
D-Identif" CausesC5ate 4ccurrence
N-
D-Identif" Controls ?if an"@C5ate Detection
P-
D-Calculate 5P%
O-
D-Prioriti6e !" 5P% 4rder
Q-
D-Determine ActionsCPlan
R-
D-5ecalculate 5P% Aased on Plan
DE-
D-Ta+e Action
Process FMA Steps
'hat is an FMA8
FMA Appendix
Severit"
is an assessment of ho* serious the effect of the potential failure mode is on the customer-
The customer in this case could !e the next operation3 su!se,uent operations3 or the end user-
4ccurrence is an assessment of the li+elihood that a particular cause *ill happen and result in the
failure mode-
Detectionis an assessment of the li+elihood that the current controls ?design and process@ *ill detect
the cause of the failure mode3 should it occur3 thus preventing it from reaching "our customer-
The customer in this case could !e the next operation3 su!se,uent operations3 or the end user-
Current Controls ?for !oth design and process@ are the mechanisms *hich prevent the cause of the
failure mode from occurring3 or detect the failure mode3 should it occur3 !efore the product
reaches "our 0customer-1 For example3 current controls include SPC3 inspections3 *ritten

procedures3 training3 preventive maintenance and all other activities that ensure a smooth
running process-
Critical Characteristics are those items *hich affect customer safet" andCor could result in non=
compliance to regulations and thus re,uire controls to ensure DEES compliance- These are
usuall" process0settings1 such as temperature3 time3 speed3 etc-
Significant Characteristics are those items *hich re,uire SPC and ,ualit" planning to ensure
accepta!le levels of capa!ilit"-
<e" Definitions for FMA
Terminolog"
A- Process or Product %ame ; Description of Process or Product !eing anal"6ed-
A-
C-
D-
-
F-
9-
7-
I-
.-
<-
#-
M-
%-
4-
P-
Q-
5-
S-
T-
5esponsi!le ; %ame of Process 4*ner-
Prepared A" = %ame of Agent coordinating FMA stud"-
FMA Date ; Dates of Initial and su!se,uent FMA 5evisions-
Process StepCPart %um!er ; Description of individual item !eing anal"6ed-
Potential Failure Mode ; Description of ho* the process could potentiall" fail to meet the
process re,uirements andCor design intent3 i-e- a description of a non=conformance at that
Potential Failure ffects ; Description of the effects of the Failure Mode upon the customer3
i-e- *hat the next user of the process or product *ould experience or notice-
S$ ?Severit"@ ; An assessment of the seriousness of the effect of the potential failure mode
5P% ?5is+ Priorit" %um!er@ ; The product of the Severit"3 4ccurrence3 and Detection
5an+ings i-e-3 5P% F S$ [ 4CC [ DT-
DT ?Detection@ ; An assessment of the pro!a!ilit" that the current controls *ill detect the
potential cause3 or the su!se,uent failure mode-
Current Controls ; Description of process controls that either prevent3 to the extent possi!le3
4CC ?4ccurrence@ ; Description of ho* fre,uentl" the specific failure cause is expected to
Potential Causes ; Description of ho* the failure could occur3 descri!ed in terms of something
5esulting ne* 5P% after corrective action-
%e* DTCTI4% 5ating after corrective action-
%e* 4CC(5%C 5ating after corrective action-
%e* S$5ITG 5ating after corrective action-
Actions Ta+en ; Arief description of actual action and effective date-
5esponsi!ilit" ; Person or group responsi!le for the 5ecommended Action-
Actions 5ecommended ; Actions to reduce an" or all of the 4ccurrence3 Severit" or Detection
ran+ings-
FMA Appendix
Introduction to Process Capa!ilit"
A!out this Module
) Process capa!ilit" ena!les the prediction of the
a!ilit" of an" process to produce products and
services that meet their desired specifications-
) This module focuses on t"pical manufacturing
processes- Transactional and other
manufacturing processes are not discussed
here-
) The principles of process capa!ilit" *ill !e
introduced and Minita! *ill !e used to calculate
process capa!ilities-
#earning 4!jectives
At the conclusion of this module participants

*ill !e a!le to2
D-5ecogni6e the value of and uses for
process capa!ilit"-
J-Calculate and explain the capa!ilit" of
processes *hose output is normall"
distri!uted-
B-Predict the pro!a!ilit" that the output of a
process *ill !e *ithin its specification
limits-
'e #ive in a Statistical 'orld
) Statistics have a pervasive influence on
our lives
; ver" da" there is another poll
; Sampling is !eing used to perform man"
aspects of the census
; All major economic indicators are !ased
on samples
; T$ ratings are !ased on samples
; Statistics determine insurance rates
) Quantum ph"sics has demonstrated that
pro!a!ilit" determines the structure and
operation of ever"thing
) Statistics are a major ena!ler of Six
Sigma
Aasic Statistics
T"pes of Statistics
Descriptive statistics
is the process of descri!ing the information *e have-
'e summari6e information from a sample or
population give a clear understanding3 or description3
of the data-
Inferential statistics
is the process of using information from a smaller set
of data ?sample@ to reach conclusions or inferences
a!out a larger group ?population@- (suall"3 *e have
onl" sample information3 not the entire population3 and
must infer understanding of the population !ased on
our sample- 'e *ant these conclusions to !e
mathematicall" correct-
Definitions
Data T"pes
Attri!ute
Ges = no
9ood = !ad
Accept = reject
Discrete
Multiples of *hole units
Can not !e meaningfull" divided
Count or classification
Continuous
Can !e meaningfull" divided into finer and finer
increments of precision *eight3 length3 voltage3
time
Definitions
Mode = the most fre,uentl" occurring or most li+el" value
Median = the fiftieth percentile
?half the values are a!ove and half !elo* the
median@
= =
Populationmean
0 0 0 0
1
2
2 1
1
?
; ; 999
0
Sample mean
=
Definitions
Mean = the sum of all mem!ers divided !" the
population si6e ?average@
Measures of Central Tendenc" = #ocation
Population $ersus Sample
Definitions
Statistics infer information a!out the parameters of the
population-
Population Samples
Si6e % n
#ocation Average ?Mean@ x
Dispersion2 $ariation
$ariance
J
s
J
Std dev s
5ange 5 F K
7i
=K
#o

Quantif"ing Dispersion = Spread
Definitions
0
x
D
x
J
x
n
'e could add the differences !et*een each value
x and the average of the values x ho*ever that
*ould al*a"s "ield 6ero- Therefore *e s,uare the
difference !et*een each x and x3 to eliminate the
negatives and emphasi6e the outliers3 then ta+e
the average of the results- This is defined as the
variance or
J
- 4!viousl"3

=
2
1 n
) X X (
s
n
1 i
2
= =
=
F
r
e
,
u
e
n
c
"
$alues of K
E
J
M
P
Q
DE
DJ
DM
NE PE OE QE RE DEE DDE
ON QE ON PN OE
QN OE OE QN OE
PE QE QE QE PN
QE ON ON OE QN
OE ON ON ON QN
QE NN OE OE QN
PN OE QE ON PN
ON QN RE QE PN
OE ON ON QE QE
ON RN RE PE PN
$aria!le K measurements2
%um!er of Cases F NE
Mean & Median F ON
Standard Deviation F Q-BJRR
5ange F ME
$ariance F PR-BQQ
Minimum F NN
Maximum F RN
i
n
X
n
1 i
i
X
=
= =
Attri!utes of the 7istogram = #ocation &
Spread
Definitions
Measures of $aria!ilit" = $ariance F
Sigma S,uared
u
Sigma S,uared is a measure of dispersion of the
population a!out the mean
u
$ariances are not in the units of interest^ standard
deviations are in the units of interest
u
$ariances are additive^ standard deviations are not
additive---
Iso
D
J
H
J
J
H
B
J
is 4<3
!ut3
D
H
J
H
B
is %4T 4<
Definitions
Measures of $aria!ilit" ; S- D- F Sigma
Definitions

F the units of interest and is population standard
deviation
F population mean
% F total population
s F estimate of standard deviation
n F sample si6e
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1
0 0 0 0
0
1

?
1
999
+ +
=

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
n 3 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
n

?
1
999
+ +
L s L M
Standard Deviation is a measure of dispersion of the

population a!out the mean
%ormal Distri!ution
ach curve sho*n here has2
u
An area of one
u
A mean of 6ero
u
A standard deviation of
Therefore3 the same S of
the population is under each
of the curves for n a!out
the mean-
Quantif"ing the %ormal Distri!ution
3 2 1 +1 +2
+3
6896@
95946@
999!?@
Definitions
Area under the curve F D
L 1
L 0
An" normal distri!ution
can !e converted to a
standard normal
distri!ution
f z e
z
7 8 =
The formula for the

pro!a!ilit" densit"
function is
Pro!a!ilit" Densit" Function ;
Standard %ormal Distri!ution
Definitions
The Standard %ormal Transform
Permits conversion of an" data point ?K@ into a >
value- This value allo*s us to loo+ up the percentage
of the population that is a!ove and !elo* the data
point-
0
5
=
Definitions
Sample QuestionsIII
Q- A ne* iron ore mine is discovered- DE <g ore is

collected from each of JE spots-
D-
!- This procedure is called as YYYYYYYYYY -
c- Average is calculated from iron content of each of JE
spots- This value is called as YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY
d- If *e calculate average3 range and standard deviation
from the iron content values of each lot3 this data is
called as YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYY -
e- Predictions are made regarding average iron content of
the mine3 total iron that can !e extracted3 impurities
present etc- the anal"sis is called as YYYYYYYYYYY -
f- The a!ove calculations *ill give ans*ers *hich *ill
!eDEES correct- True C False
Ans*ers
a.The procedure is called as SAMPLING.
b.
c.The value is called as STATISTIC.
d.
e.The values are called as STATISTICS.
f.
g.The analysis is called as STATISTICAL
ANALYSIS.
h.
i.The Sae!en is "ALS#.
Aasic Principle
) All measures of process capa!ilit" are !ased
on the concept of calculating the num!er of
standard deviations !et*een the process
center and the specification limits-
) A Six Sigma process has six units of standard
deviation !et*een the process center and
!oth specification limits-
(S#
#S#
$isuali6ing Process Capa!ilit"
Process *idth
Specification
*idth
Quantif"ing Process Capa!ilit"
Process
Sigma
"ield
. . / :,*:,(+
* . / (+))((9
- . / ((9-//*
) . / ((((-:9
+ . / (((((()
: .
If *e assume the
process is centered
on the target and
does not shift or drift
the "ields *ould !e-
-ield of a one sigma process %./$0
#S
#
(S
#
The Standard Deviation
1
1 B'+
&7d8
B&&er '&ecification +i#it 7B'+8
1arget '&ecification 718
+o(er '&ecification +i#it 7+'+8
2ean of the distri3ution 7 8
'tandard 4e$iation of the distri3ution
7 8
?
D Sigma = PQS
J Sigma = RNS
B Sigma = RR-OB S
?K ; K@
J
n
F
Calculating Gield
'e +no* that > is the num!er of units of standard
deviation on a standard normal curve *hich has a mean
of 6ero and a standard deviation of one- 'e also +no*
an" normal distri!ution can !e converted to the standard
normal using the > e,uation-
x
Z
=
If the specification limits are su!stituted for x
*e can determine the num!er of units of
standard deviation !et*een the process
center and the specification limits on the
standard normal curve- Then *e can use the
ta!les to loo+ up the pro!a!ilit" a value *ill !e
less than that num!er-
1
X X
Z
=
In most cases *e do not +no* or so
*e su!stitute the sample statistics for the
population parameters as sho*n-
Calculating Gield
The mean time ta+en for completing an operation is NEE hrs-

and this is normall" distri!uted *ith a standard deviation of
DEE hrs-
D- 'hat is the pro!a!ilit" that an operator ta+en at random
*ill ta+e !et*een NEE to PNE hrs to complete the
operation8
J- 'hat is the pro!a!ilit" that he *ill ta+e _ OEE hrs8
xpress in graphical form also-

Calculating Gield ; xample
D- 'hat is the pro!a!ilit" that an operator ta+en at random
*ill ta+e !et*een NEE to PNE hrs to complete the
operation8
F ?PNE ; NEE@ C DEE F D-N
#oo+ing up 6 ta!le3 the corresponding value under the
Standard %ormal Distri!ution is E-MBBJ- i-e- MBS-
x
Z
=
Calculating Gield ; xample
J- 'hat is the pro!a!ilit" that he *ill ta+e _ OEE hrs8
B-
F ?OEE ; NEE@ C DEE F J
#oo+ing up 6 ta!le3 the corresponding value under the
Standard %ormal Distri!ution is E-MOOJ-
Thus the pro!a!ilit" of an operator ta+ing more than OEE hrs
is ?E-N ; E-MOOJ@ F E-EJJQ3 i-e- slightl" over JS-
x
Z
=
Calculating Gield xample
Consider a process that has the follo*ing specification
limits2 #o*er Specification #imit ?#S#@ of =D and a (pper
Specification #imit of D- Data indicates the process is
centered on E *ith a standard deviation of D- 'hat is the
"ield8
U!2
U!2
U!234
5 6
1
7
#3%
5 6 #
#
=
(sing ta!les or soft*are to loo+ up the
area under the curve *hen >FD *e
find -QMDB- This means that QM-DBS of
the product has a value less than the
upper specification limit-
2!2
2!2
2!234
5 6
1 7
3#3%
5 6 #
#
=
Again using ta!les or soft*are to loo+
up the area under the curve *hen >F=D
*e find -DNQP- This means that
DN-QPS of the product has a value less
than the lo*er specification limit-
'hat if the Process Shifts8
9enerall" spea+ing3 processes have !een

o!served to shift andCor drift D-N standard
deviations over time- 7o* *ould that effect the
"ield of a one sigma process8
# % 3# 38 30 39
2!2 U!2
Calculating Shifted Process Gield
U!2
U!2
2!2
2!2
U!234
5 6
1 7
#3%3#.:
5 6 .:
#
2!234
5 6
1 7
3#3%3#.:
5 6 8.:
#
=
=
area under the curve *hen >F=-N *e
find -BEQN
up the area under the curve *hen >F=
J-N *e find -EEPJ-
Su!tracting the t*o *e o!tain -BEJB
(sing These Principles
) Process capa!ilit" and process capa!ilit"
indices are unam!iguous and *ill !e
addressed first-
) Process sigma is some*hat am!iguous
and *ill !e addressed second-
Process Capa!ilit" Terms
See formulae on ne!t page*
Measures of the a!ilit" of a process to produce compliant
productsCservices2
Cp ? Short?term process capability
u
For a limited period of time ?not including shifts and drifts@
u
Does not consider process centering
u
Also +no*n as process entitlement
Cpk ? Short?term process capability inde<
u
For a limited period of time ?not including shifts and drifts@
u
Does consider process centering
Pp ? =ong?term process capability
u
For an extended period of time ?including shifts and drifts@
u
Does not consider process centering
Ppk ? =ong?term process capability inde<
u
For an extended period of time ?including shifts and drifts@
u
Does consider process centering
Specification 'idth ?s@
Short=Term Process 'idth
F
Specification 'idth ?s@
#ong=Term Process 'idth
F
#esser of2
or
#esser of2
or
Capa!ilit" Formulae
C
p
F
P
p
F
C
p+
F
P
p+
F
;
!,
U!232!2
/7
;
2,
U!232!2
/7
;
!,
U!234
07
;
2,
U!234
07
;
!,
432!2
07
;
2,
432!2
07
(sing Minita!
The data is continuous so test for normalit"
Stat_Aasic Statistics_%ormalit" Test
The %ormalit" Test
#.%%$ #.%%/ #.%%9 #.%%8 #.%%% %.<<$ %.<</ %.<<9 %.<<8
<<.<<
<<
<:
$%
:%
8%
:
#
%.%#
Caps
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Mean #.%%%
!t)e= %.%%#<$/
' >:%
A) %./#<
?3@alue %.#%>
Probability Plot of Caps
WorsheetA Bottle Caps.M,W
'ormal
The P value is
_ -EN therefore
do not reject the
assumption of
normalit"-
(sing Minita! to Calculate Process Capa!ilit"
Minita! 5esults
#
.
%
%
:
%
#
.
%
%
0
:
#
.
%
%
8
%
#
.
%
%
%
:
%
.
<
<
<
%
%
.
<
<
>
:
%
.
<
<
/
%
%
.
<
<
9
:
2!2 ,arget U!2
2!2 %.<<:
,arget #
U!2 #.%%:
!ample Mean #.%%%%/
!ample ' >:%
!t)e=CWithinD %.%%#<$90#
!t)e=CE=erallD %.%%#<$/0/
?rocess )ata
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9<
Cp %.$0
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9$
?p %.$0
Cpm %.$9
E=erall Capa&ility
?otential CWithinD Capa&ility
F (2!2 %.9%
F GU!2 %./>
F ,otal #.%>
E&ser=ed ?erformance
F (2!2 %.:9
F GU!2 %./9
F ,otal #.#$
EHp. Within ?erformance
F (2!2 %.:9
F GU!2 %./:
F ,otal #.#<
EHp. E=erall ?erformance
Within
E=erall
Process Capability of Caps
#et/s examine this
in detail
Process Data
#
.
%
%
:
%
#
.
%
%
0
:
#
.
%
%
8
%
#
.
%
%
%
:
%
.
<
<
<
%
%
.
<
<
>
:
%
.
<
<
/
%
%
.
<
<
9
:
2!2 ,arget U!2
2!2 %.<<:
,arget #
U!2 #.%%:
!ample Mean #.%%%%/
!ample ' >:%
?rocess )ata
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9<
Cp %.$0
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9$
?p %.$0
Cpm %.$9
E=erall Capa&ility
F ( 2!2 %.9%
F G U!2 %./>
F ,otal #.%>
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./9
F ,otal #.#$
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./:
F ,otal #.#<
Within
E=erall
Calculated directly %rom the data& +he -ithin standard deviation is the pooled standard deviation o% the
subgroups&
4!served Performance
#
.
%
%
:
%
#
.
%
%
0
:
#
.
%
%
8
%
#
.
%
%
%
:
%
.
<
<
<
%
%
.
<
<
>
:
%
.
<
<
/
%
%
.
<
<
9
:
2!2 ,arget U!2
2!2 %.<<:
,arget #
U!2 #.%%:
!ample Mean #.%%%%/
!ample ' >:%
?rocess )ata
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9<
Cp %.$0
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9$
?p %.$0
Cpm %.$9
E=erall Capa&ility
F ( 2!2 %.9%
F G U!2 %./>
F ,otal #.%>
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./9
F ,otal #.#$
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./:
F ,otal #.#<
Within
E=erall
+he percent o% product that -as outside o% the upper and lo-er speci%ication limits in this
data set&
xpected 'ithin Performance
#
.
%
%
:
%
#
.
%
%
0
:
#
.
%
%
8
%
#
.
%
%
%
:
%
.
<
<
<
%
%
.
<
<
>
:
%
.
<
<
/
%
%
.
<
<
9
:
2!2 ,arget U!2
2!2 %.<<:
,arget #
U!2 #.%%:
!ample Mean #.%%%%/
!ample ' >:%
?rocess )ata
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9<
Cp %.$0
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9$
?p %.$0
Cpm %.$9
E=erall Capa&ility
F ( 2!2 %.9%
F G U!2 %./>
F ,otal #.%>
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./9
F ,otal #.#$
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./:
F ,otal #.#<
Within
E=erall
+he percent o% product that is e<pectedto be outside o% the upper and lo-er speci%ication limits on an short term basis& +his pro7ection is based on the -ithin standard deviation and the
process mean&
xpected 4verall Performance
#
.
%
%
:
%
#
.
%
%
0
:
#
.
%
%
8
%
#
.
%
%
%
:
%
.
<
<
<
%
%
.
<
<
>
:
%
.
<
<
/
%
%
.
<
<
9
:
2!2 ,arget U!2
2!2 %.<<:
,arget #
U!2 #.%%:
!ample Mean #.%%%%/
!ample ' >:%
?rocess )ata
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9<
Cp %.$0
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9$
?p %.$0
Cpm %.$9
E=erall Capa&ility
F ( 2!2 %.9%
F G U!2 %./>
F ,otal #.%>
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./9
F ,otal #.#$
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./:
F ,otal #.#<
Within
E=erall
+he percent o% product that is e<pectedto be outside o% the upper and lo-er speci%ication limits on an long term basis& +his pro7ection is based on the overall standard deviation and the
process mean&
Potential 'ithin Capa!ilit"
#
.
%
%
:
%
#
.
%
%
0
:
#
.
%
%
8
%
#
.
%
%
%
:
%
.
<
<
<
%
%
.
<
<
>
:
%
.
<
<
/
%
%
.
<
<
9
:
2!2 ,arget U!2
2!2 %.<<:
,arget #
U!2 #.%%:
!ample Mean #.%%%%/
!ample ' >:%
?rocess )ata
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9<
Cp %.$0
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9$
?p %.$0
Cpm %.$9
E=erall Capa&ility
F ( 2!2 %.9%
F G U!2 %./>
F ,otal #.%>
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./9
F ,otal #.#$
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./:
F ,otal #.#<
Within
E=erall
N
US=
and N
=S=
are calculated using the process mean@ the respective speci%ication limits and the -ithin standard deviation&
N
bench
is calculated by putting the pro7ected -ithin yield 8&KI!9 le%t hand tail o% a standard normal then looking up the
respective N score&
C
pk
is calculated 11" o% the lesser o% N
US=
or N
=S=
&
%ote2 Minita! uses
*ithin to descri!e short
term variation and
overall to descri!e long
term variation-
4verall Capa!ilit"
#
.
%
%
:
%
#
.
%
%
0
:
#
.
%
%
8
%
#
.
%
%
%
:
%
.
<
<
<
%
%
.
<
<
>
:
%
.
<
<
/
%
%
.
<
<
9
:
2!2 ,arget U!2
2!2 %.<<:
,arget #
U!2 #.%%:
!ample Mean #.%%%%/
!ample ' >:%
?rocess )ata
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9<
Cp %.$0
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9$
?p %.$0
Cpm %.$9
E=erall Capa&ility
F ( 2!2 %.9%
F G U!2 %./>
F ,otal #.%>
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./9
F ,otal #.#$
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./:
F ,otal #.#<
Within
E=erall
N
US=
and N
=S=
are calculated using the process mean@ the respective speci%ication limits and the overall standard deviation&
N
bench
is calculated by putting the pro7ected -ithin yield 8&KI19 le%t hand tail o% a standard normal then looking up the
respective N score&
P
pk
is calculated as 11" o% the lesser o% N
US=
or N
=S=
&
'ithin = Aet*een
#
.
%
%
:
%
#
.
%
%
0
:
#
.
%
%
8
%
#
.
%
%
%
:
%
.
<
<
<
%
%
.
<
<
>
:
%
.
<
<
/
%
%
.
<
<
9
:
2!2 ,arget U!2
2!2 %.<<:
,arget #
U!2 #.%%:
!ample Mean #.%%%%/
!ample ' >:%
?rocess )ata
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9<
Cp %.$0
5.Bench 8.8/
5.2!2 8.::
5.U!2 8.9$
?p %.$0
Cpm %.$9
E=erall Capa&ility
F ( 2!2 %.9%
F G U!2 %./>
F ,otal #.%>
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./9
F ,otal #.#$
F ( 2!2 %.:9
F G U!2 %./:
F ,otal #.#<
Within
E=erall
+his process is very stable as indicated by the Within and ,et-een lines being very close
together&
Calculating C
p+
and P
p+
Calculating C
p+
and P
p+
#
.
%
%
:
%
#
.
%
%
0
:
#
.
%
%
8
%
#
.
%
%
%
:
%
.
<
<
<
%
%
.
<
<
>
:
%
.
<
<
/
%
%
.
<
<
9
:
2!2 ,arget U!2
2!2 %.<<:
,arget #
U!2 #.%%:
!ample Mean #.%%%%/
!ample ' >:%
?rocess )ata
Cp %.$9
C?2 %.$:
C?U %.$0
Cp %.$0
?p %.$9
??2 %.$:
??U %.$0
?p %.$0
Cpm %.$9
E=erall Capa&ility
??M ( 2!2 9%%%.%%
??M G U!2 ////./>
??M ,otal #%///./>
??M ( 2!2 :0::.%$
??M G U!2 /908.%9
??M ,otal ##>$>.#8
??M ( 2!2 :0<:.:<
??M G U!2 /9>$.9$
??M ,otal ##$>9.%>
Within
E=erall
CP= and CPU are calculated using the process mean@ the respective speci%ication limits and the -ithin standard deviation&
Cp is calculated by putting the pro7ected -ithin yield 8&KI!9 le%t hand tail o% a standard normal then looking up the
respective N score&
+hen dividing by "& Cpk is the lesser o% CP= or CPU&
Calculating C
p+
and P
p+
#
.
%
%
:
%
#
.
%
%
0
:
#
.
%
%
8
%
#
.
%
%
%
:
%
.
<
<
<
%
%
.
<
<
>
:
%
.
<
<
/
%
%
.
<
<
9
:
2!2 ,arget U!2
2!2 %.<<:
,arget #
U!2 #.%%:
!ample Mean #.%%%%/
!ample ' >:%
?rocess )ata
Cp %.$9
C?2 %.$:
C?U %.$0
Cp %.$0
?p %.$9
??2 %.$:
??U %.$0
?p %.$0
Cpm %.$9
E=erall Capa&ility
??M ( 2!2 9%%%.%%
??M G U!2 ////./>
??M ,otal #%///./>
??M ( 2!2 :0::.%$
??M G U!2 /908.%9
??M ,otal ##>$>.#8
??M ( 2!2 :0<:.:<
??M G U!2 /9>$.9$
??M ,otal ##$>9.%>
Within
E=erall
PP= and PPU are calculated using the process mean@ the respective speci%ication limits and the overall standard deviation&
Pp is calculated by putting the pro7ected -ithin yield 8&KI1"9 le%t hand tail o% a standard normal then looking up the
respective N score&
+hen dividing by "& Ppk is the lesser o% PP= or PPU&
A Process that Drifts
Consider a similar process that does change over time-
The data is in Caps Drift-MT'-
First test for normalit"
%ormalit" Test
#.%%:% #.%%8: #.%%%% %.<<>: %.<<:%
<<.<<
<<
<:
$%
:%
8%
:
#
%.%#
Caps Drift
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Mean #.%%%
!t)e= %.%%#8<#
' >8%
A) %.08/
?3@alue %.:8%
Probability Plot of Caps Drift
WorsheetA Caps )rift.M,W
'ormal
Do not
reject the
assumption
of normalit"-
Capa!ilit" Anal"sis
Capa!ilit" Anal"sis
#.%%:% #.%%0: #.%%8% #.%%%: %.<<<% %.<<>: %.<</%
2!2 ,arget U!2
2!2 %.<<:
,arget #
U!2 #.%%:
!ample Mean %.<<<<<$
!ample ' >8%
!t)e=CWithinD %.%%#%8%//
!t)e=CE=erallD %.%%#8<%::
?rocess )ata
5.Bench 9.>/
5.2!2 9.<%
5.U!2 9.<%
Cp #./0
5.Bench 0.>%
5.2!2 0.$>
5.U!2 0.$$
?p #.8<
Cpm #.8<
E=erall Capa&ility
F ( 2!2 %.%%
F G U!2 %.%%
F ,otal %.%%
F ( 2!2 %.%%
F G U!2 %.%%
F ,otal %.%%
F ( 2!2 %.%#
F G U!2 %.%#
F ,otal %.%#
Within
E=erall
Process Capability of Caps Drift
WorsheetA Caps )rift.M,W
+his process is changing over time as indicated by the di%%erence bet-een the Within and
,et-een lines&
Plot this data using a control chart&
Process Capa!ilit" xercise D
Data indicate the process is centered *ith a standard
deviation of -EJ-
Calculate the "ield-
D ] -EP Inches
xercise D $isuali6ing the Ans*er
Design *idth
?-DJ Inches@
Process average
H-EJ H-EM H-EP =-EP =-EM =-EJ
There are B units of standard deviation !et*een the
process average and the specification limits therefore this
is a B sigma process ?short term@-
xercise D Calculating the Gield
U!2
U!2
2!2
2!2
U!234
5 6
1
7
#.%/3#
5 6 0
.%8
2!234
5 6
1
7
.<93#
5 6 0
.%8
=
=
area under the curve *hen >FB *e
find -RRQP
up the area under the curve *hen >F=B
*e find -EEDBN-
Su!tracting the t*o *e find a "ield of -
RROB
xercise J
Assume a process o*ner has as+ed "ou to anal"6e the
data in Process Capa!ilit" xercise D-MT'- Parts A and
A are made on different machines in lots ?su!groups@ of
N-
The customer has esta!lished specification limits of DE
] -D and re,uires a P
p+
of D-BB-
Prepare a !rief presentation to descri!e "our anal"sis
and recommendations8 5emem!er to present data
practicall"3 graphicall" and anal"ticall"-
xercise J %ormalit" Tests
#%.8 #%.# #%.% <.< <.$
<<.<<
<<
<:
$%
:%
8%
:
#
%.%#
Part A
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Mean #%.%%
!t)e= %.%:%9<
' >:%
A) %.98%
?3@alue %.089
Probability Plot of Part A
WorsheetA ?rocess Capa&ility EHercise #.M,W
'ormal
#%.8 #%.# #%.% <.< <.$
<<.<<
<<
<:
$%
:%
8%
:
#
%.%#
Part B
P
e
r
c
e
n
t
Mean #%.%%
!t)e= %.%:/9>
' >:%
A) %.89$
?3@alue %.>:8
Probability Plot of Part B
'ormal
%o reason to reject the
assumption of
normalit" for either
part-
xercise J Process Capa!ilities
xercise J Part A Process Capa!ilit"
#%.#8 #%.%$ #%.%9 #%.%% <.</ <.<8 <.$$
2!2 ,arget U!2
2!2 <.<
,arget #%
U!2 #%.#
!ample Mean #%.%%%<
!ample ' >:%
!t)e=CWithinD %.%9</009
!t)e=CE=erallD %.%:%9<88
?rocess )ata
Cp %./>
C?2 %./$
C?U %./>
Cp %./>
?p %.//
??2 %./>
??U %./:
?p %./:
Cpm %.//
E=erall Capa&ility
F ( 2!2 #.$>
F G U!2 8.$%
F ,otal 9./>
F ( 2!2 8.#%
F G U!2 8.0%
F ,otal 9.9%
F ( 2!2 8.8$
F G U!2 8.9<
F ,otal 9.>>
Within
E=erall
Process Capability of Part A
xercise J Prepare the Control Charts
Control Chart Sho*s Process Sta!ilit"
#0/ #8# #%/ <# >/ /# 9/ 0# #/ #
#%.%:
#%.%%
<.<:
Sample
S
a
m
p
l
e

M
e
a
n
I
I
46#%.%%%<
UC26#%.%/>:
2C26<.<090
#0/ #8# #%/ <# >/ /# 9/ 0# #/ #
%.8
%.#
%.%
Sample
S
a
m
p
l
e

R
a
n
g
e
I
J6%.##:9
UC26%.899#
2C26%
9
9
9
9
XbarR C!art of Part A
Process Capa!ilit" Part A
#%.#9 #%.%$ #%.%8 <.</ <.<% <.$9
2!2 ,arget U!2
2!2 <.<
,arget #%
U!2 #%.#
!ample Mean <.<<</#
!ample ' >:%
!t)e=CWithinD %.%9</009
!t)e=CE=erallD %.%:/9>8>
?rocess )ata
5.Bench #.>#
5.2!2 8.%#
5.U!2 8.%8
Cp %./>
5.Bench #.90
5.2!2 #.>/
5.U!2 #.>$
?p %.:<
Cpm %.:<
E=erall Capa&ility
F ( 2!2 9.#0
F G U!2 9.%%
F ,otal $.#0
F ( 2!2 8.89
F G U!2 8.#/
F ,otal 9.0<
F ( 2!2 0.$<
F G U!2 0.>>
F ,otal >.//
Within
E=erall
Process Capability of Part B
Control Chart Sho*s Time Aased $ariation
#0/ #8# #%/ <# >/ /# 9/ 0# #/ #
#%.%:
#%.%%
<.<:
<.<%
Sample
S
a
m
p
l
e

M
e
a
n
I
I
46<.<<</
UC26#%.%//8
2C26<.<00%
#0/ #8# #%/ <# >/ /# 9/ 0# #/ #
%.8
%.#
%.%
Sample
S
a
m
p
l
e

R
a
n
g
e
I
J6%.##:9
UC26%.899#
2C26%
:
#
#
#
:
#
#
# #
#
#
#
:
#
#
9
9
9
9
XbarR C!art of Part B
Confidence Intervals
A!out This ModuleI
(Data)ile(PurchOrd*mt-
(Data)ile(P-rSuply*mt-
(Data)ile(Conf3nt*mt-
(Data)ile(O+ac%*mt-
Confidence Intervals ?CI@ permit us to state that *e
are KS confident that the population parameter of
interest is at most a specified interval from the
sample statistic-
D-Significance of confidence intervals
9
B-7o* to calculate confidence intervals for2
Means
Standard deviations or $ariation
'hat 'e 'ill #earn---
u
Mean and Standard Deviation statistics are2
estimates of the population Mu/s ? @ and
Sigma/s ? @
!ased on one sample
u
$aria!ilit" exists from sample to sample
u
u
A" using statisticall" !ased confidence
inter8als9 uncertaint" can !e ,uantified
u
u
(suall"3 RNS confidence intervals are
calculated
Confidence in the Midst of (ncertaint"8
The chances are approximatel" RN out of DEE
that the calculated confidence inter8al contains
the population parameter3 orI
'ith RNS certaint"3 the population parameter is
inside the confidence interval-
%
i
n
e
t
"
=
f
i
v
e

P
e
r
c
e
n
t

C
e
r
t
a
i
n
Population vs- Sample
Population
Sample
7o*
representative is
this sample8
Population is the entire area of interest-
Sample is a su!set of the population-
'hat is the relationship !et*een the population and
the sample8
Confidence Interval S"m!ols and
Definitions
Measure
Population
Parameter
Sample
Statistic
(se
Mean
>
?0 n
t
<
?0 n
0
$ariance s
J
J
Standard
Deviation
s
Process
Capa!ilit"
C
p
Proportion
p
F or
> ?approx@
Alpha 5is+
T"picall"
-EN
C
p
`
`
p
is +no*n
Confidence Intervals ?CI@
CI ta+e the general form 2
C-I-FStatistic HC= < [ ?Standard Deviation@
StatisticF Mean3 $ariance3 C
P
3 etc-
< F Constant !ased on a statistical distri!ution
CI reflect the sample to sample variation of our point estimates
'e *ill loo+ at CI for2
3
K
3 and C
P
The Student t distri!ution is a famil" of !ell shaped ?%ormal
li+e@ distri!utions that var" !" degrees of freedom ?sample
si6e@ = the fe*er degrees of freedom3 the *ider and flatter
the distri!ution-
'hat is the Student t=distri!ution8
E
E-EN
E-D
E-DN
E-J
E-JN
E-B
E-BN
E-M
E-MN
=
M
=
B
-
N
=
B
=
J
-
N
=
J
=
D
-
N
=
D
=
E
-
N E
E
-
N D
D
-
N J
J
-
N B
B
-
N M
DFJ DFDE DFBE
t=Distri!utions3 %ormal Approximation3 5is+
'1/1I'1I-' ).0
%=P%0I2%51%0'-- B,,
To give an idea of the values of t
compared to > for RNS ? F
E-EN@3 loo+ at the ta!le !elo*2
Sample t=value >=value
N J-OQ D-RP
DE J-JP D-RP
JE J-ER D-RP
BE J-EN D-RP
DEE D-RQ D-RP
DEEE D-RP D-RP
t
DL0905
DL 0905
F ris+
'e can use >
to
estimate t if
and is
+no*n
BE n
7"pothesis Testing
A!out This ModuleI
7"pothesis Testing helps2
u
Determine if there is a statisticall" significant
difference !et*een t*o relativel" small samples
u
Quantif" the ris+s of ma+ing an incorrect decision
D-7o* to test varia!le data
a-(se a t=test to compare t*o means
!-Alpha ? @ and Aeta ? @ 5is+s
c-(se a paired t=test to compare paired
treatments
d-(se test for e,ual variances
J-7o* to test discrete data
a-Compare proportions
!-Compare discrete data
'hat 'e 'ill #earn

Design2
Determine if t*o alternate design
changes are significantl" different-
Manufacturing2
Determine if t*o different t"pes of
material *ear differentl"-
AdministrativeCTransactional C Service2
Determine if the change to a process
affected the c"cle time-
5eal 'orld Scenario
Purposes of 7"pothesis Testing
u
Determine if there is a real difference
!et*een 8 and 8 -
u
(se relativel" small samples to ans*er
,uestions a!out the population-
u
Quantif" the associated ris+s-
xample
.ld 4esign 5e( 4esign
899! 849!
8194 8691
8498 9199
8!9? 869?
!99! !99?
8591 869
819! 8991
8?9! 8?9!
8495 8895
To ans*er this3 *e need some
fundamentals of significance testing firstX
u
7ard dis+ transfer speed
?mega!"tes per second@ is
marginal- A ne* design is
proposed-
u
An ngineering Change
%otice ?C%@ is
incorporated
u
Is the ne* design !etter8
Steps in 7"pothesis Testing
D-Define the pro!lem
J-Determine the o!jectives
B-sta!lish the 7"pothesis
'rite the %ull 7"pothesis
?7
E
@
'rite the Alternative
7"pothesis ?7
a
@
M-Determine the appropriate
statistical test ?assume
distri!ution >3 t3 F@
N-State the alpha ris+ ?usuall" N S@
P-State the !eta ris+ ?usuall" DE=JE
S@
O-sta!lish the effect si6e ?delta@
Q-Compute the sample si6e
R-Develop a sampling plan
DE-Select the samples
DD-Conduct the test and collect data
DJ-Calculate the test statistic ?>3 t3 or
F@ from the data
DB-Determine the pro!a!ilit" that the
calculated test statistic has
occurred !" chance
DM-If that pro!a!ilit" is less than
alpha3 reject 7
E
DN-If that pro!a!ilit" is greater than
alpha3 do not reject 7
E
DP-Translate the statistical
conclusion into a practical
solution
u
(sed to assess evidence
provided !" sample data to
reject3 or fail to reject a claim
a!out a population parameter-
u%ull h"pothesis ?7
o
@ is the
statement *e assess-
u
7o is usuall" stated as3 0there
is no difference1-
uAlternate h"pothesis ?7
a
@ is
usuall" stated as 0there is a
difference1-
u'e fail to reject 7
o
unless there
is convincing evidence to
reject it-
!
o
!
a
!
o
!
a
!
o
" "
!
a
" "
a b
a b
a b
a b
a b
a b
(
(
(
(
(
(

F
T"pical xamples
Significance Tests
'hat does NS #evel of Significance Mean8
This means that *e *ill reject the null h"pothesis if
the difference !et*een the sample statistic and the
h"pothesi6ed population parameter is so large that
it *ould occur3 on an average3 onl" N or fe*er
times in ever" DEE samples *hen the
h"pothesi6ed population parameter is correct-
This ris+ is
t"picall" set at NS-
T"pe I and II rrors2 Associated 5is+s
T"pe I errors are made *hen
*e reject the null h"pothesis
*hen in fact it is true-
T"pe II errors are made
*hen *e fail to reject the null
h"pothesis *hen in fact it is
false-
Alpha ? @ ris+ is the
pro!a!ilit" of ma+ing a t"pe I
error-
5is+s are set !efore the test or experiment is conducted
This ris+ is
t"picall" set at DES
Aeta ? @ ris+ is the
pro!a!ilit" of ma+ing a t"pe
II error-
7o not rejected 7o rejected
7o should not
!e rejected
?7
o
is true@
Correct
Decision
T"pe II or
consumer/s ris+
= P?T"pe II@
7
o
should
!e rejected
?7
o
is false@
T"pe I or
producer/s ris+
F P?T"pe I@
Correct
Decision
is the ris+ of finding a difference *hen there reall" isn/t one-
is the ris+ of not finding a difference *hen there reall" is one-
Action
State of %ature
The 5is+ Truth Ta!le
5emem!er2
is the ris+ of finding a difference *hen there reall" isn/t one-
is the ris+ of not finding a difference *hen there reall" is
one-
,
o
,
a
%o* *e can determine if the C% improved performance
Another #oo+ at 5is+s
%ormal Distri!ution and t Distri!ution
When Po&ulation
'4 is Fno(n
When Po&ulation
'4 is 5ot Fno(n
'a#&le siHe n is N
?0
5or#al
distri3ution; H ta3le
5or#al
'a#&le siHe O ?0;
and (e can assu#e
&o&ulation is
a&&ro: nor#al
5or#al
t distri3ution; t
ta3le
P $alue
P value is the smallest level of significance that
*ould lead to rejection of the null h"pothesis 7o-
eg- supposing 7o *ere true3 *hat is the
pro!a!ilit" of getting a value of x=!ar this far from
the population mean8 This pro!a!ilit" is called a
pro! value or p=value-
Manual Test %ull 7"pothesis
D

J

( )
8 8
# 8
# 8 K
# 8
)ifference Upper&ound L
)ifference Upper&ound 3#.<< #.>9:<L #.:>
)ifference Upper&ound .>:/
df
s s
X X t
n n

= + +

= +
=
The upper !ound for the difference in the means indicates
the difference !et*een the means of these populations
could !e as great as -ONP ?at the RNS confidence level@-
Therefore3 the evidence is not statisticall" significant to
conclude that the difference !et*een the ne* design and
the old design is less than E- Fail to reject 7o-
Manual Test %ull 7"pothesis
D

J

1
7 ; 8

1
1
-196
911
df
0 0
t
s s
n n
P
= =
+
=
P_ -EN therefore fail to reject 7o-
7"pothesis Testing Decision Tree
7o2 MDFMJFMBI
7a2 At least J are different
Minita!2 Stat=%onparametric=Mann='hitne" ?or@
Stat=%onparametric=<rus+al='allis ?or@
Stat=%onparametric=Freidmans
MDFMedian sample D3 etc-
7o2 MD F Target 7a2 MD Target
Minita!2 Stat=%onparametric=D Sample = sign ?or@
Stat=%onparametric=D Sample 'ilcoxon
?Also used for paired comparisons 7o2 MD=MJFE@
MDFMedian or sample D
M target F Target Median
7"pothesis
Testing
Continuous Data
?4ne factor onl"@
Attri!ute Data
Contingenc" Ta!le
Proportions Testing ?J factors onl"@
7o2 J factors are independent
7a2 J factors are dependent
Minita!2 Stat=ta!les=Chi s,uare test
7o2 PDFPJ 7a2 PD PJ 0
Minita!2 Stat=Aasic Stat=Dor J proportions
%ormalit" test
7o2 DF JF BI
7a2 At least D is different
Minita!2 Stat=A%4$A=Test for ,ual $ariances
For onl" J s3 this is similar to an F=test2 FF?SD@JC?SJ@J
If Fcalc_F
crit
3 reject null
?(se Chi=S,uared for D sample@
#ormal
0 or more sam"les
#evene/s Test
J or More Samples
D Sample
7o2 Data is %ormal
7a2 Data is %4T %ormal
Minita!2 Stat=Aasic Stat=%ormalit" Test
(se Anderson=Darling
Chi=S,uare
Aartlett/s TestCF=Test
#on:normal
2 Sam"le 0 or 6ore Sam"les
D Sample T Test
Paired T Test ?$ariance F@
4ne 'a" A%4$A
J Sample T Test
7o2 DF Target 7a2 D 0 Target
Minita!2 Stat=Aasic Stat=9raphical Summar"
If target falls *ithin CD2 then fail to reject 7o
Minita!2 Stat=Aasic Stat=D Sample=T
?Also used for paired comparisons27o2 DF JFE@
7o2 DF JF BI 7a2 D At least J are
different
Minita!2 Stat=A%4$A=Test for ,ual $ariances
For onl" J s3 this is same as F=test2
Stat_AasicStat_J $ariances
FF?SD@JC?SJ@J
If Fcalc_F
crit
3 reject 7o
7o2 DF JF BFI
7a2 D at least J are different
Minita!2 Stat=A%4$A=4ne 'a"
?Caution Aartlett/s paE-EN^
assumesFvariances@
7o2 DF J 7a2 D 0 J
Minita!2 Stat=Aasic Stat=J Sample=T
?Compares Means using pooled Std Dev@
Chec+ !ox to assume e,ual variances or
Chec+ !ox to assume une,ual variances
0 Sam"les
7o2 D= JFE 7a2 D=#J E 0
Minita!2 Stat=Aasic Stat=Paired T
?Compares Means *hen o!servations are
paired or dependent in a pair*ise manner@
D Sample > Test
Minita!2 Stat=Aasic Stat=D Sample=>
?Also used for paired comparisons2 7o2 DF JFE@
Sample Si6e _FBE is +no*n
5egression and Correlation
A!out This ModuleI
(Data)ile(Correlat*mt-
(Data)ile(6arn*mt-
(Data)ile(Cases*mt-
(Data)ile(7ater*mt-
(Data)ile(8Mystery*mt-
(Data)ile(83+!ampl*mt-
(Data)ile(Call9ue*mt-
(Data)ile(Pizza*mt-
(Data)ile(Cases*!ls
(Data)ile(C+O3COMP+1S#TO1*!ls
(Data)ile(8ealestate*!ls
(Data)ile(Oilcons*mt-
Correlation Anal"sis is used to ,uantif"2
the degree of linear association !et*een
varia!les
5egression Anal"sis is used to ,uantif"2
the functional relationship !et*een varia!les
'hat 'e 'ill #earn
D-Correlation
7o* to measure the linear relationship !et*een t*o
varia!les
The correlation coefficient
Implication of the correlation coefficient 0r1
B-5egression
Definition of the regression line and ho* it is developed
7o* to calculate and anal"6e a regression e,uation
7o* to anal"6e relationships !et*een an independent
varia!le
and one or more dependent varia!les using regression
7o* to interpret r
J
(nderstanding and anal"6ing residuals
7o* to use the regression A%4$A ta!le
u
ADMI%IST5ATI$
A soft*are compan" *ants to +no* the relationship !et*een calls in
,ueue and service time-
MA%(FACT(5I%9
A customer and supplier disagree on the ,uantit" received !" customer
versus several months/ ,uantit" ordered for a given lead time-
DSI9%
A chemical engineer3 designing a ne* process3 *ants to investigate the
relationship !et*een +e" input varia!les and stac+ loss of ammonia-
5eal 'orld xamples
5egression and Correlation
u
5egression and Correlation anal"ses sho* us
ho* to determine !oth the nature and the
strength of a relationship !et*een t*o varia!les-
u
In regression anal"sis *e develop an estimating
e,uation relating the dependent and independent
varia!les- i-e- ho* much percent of variation can
!e explained !" the regression e,uation-
u
In correlation anal"sis *e determine the degree to
*hich the varia!les are related-
5egression Anal"sis
u
(sed to fit lines and curves to data
u
The fitted lines
Quantif" the relationship !et*een the process
varia!les ?K/s@ and process performance ?G@
7elp identif" the vital fe* K/s
na!le predictions to !e made
Identif" the impact of controlling the process
varia!les ?K/s@
u
Produces an e,uation to match the line
Terms
Correlation
A measure of linear association
(sed *hen !oth K and G are continuous
r values range from2
Perfect positive relationship F D
%o relationship F E
Perfect negative relationship F =D
5egression
Provides the !asis for predicting the values of a
varia!le from the values of one or more other
varia!les
(sed *ith a continuous G and continuous Ks3 or
continuous G and categorical Ks
r
J
= proportion of variation of G explained !" the prediction
e,uation
u
A 'ord of Caution
It is important that *e consider the relationships

found !" regression to !e relationships of
association !ut not necessaril" of cause & effect-
That is unless *e have specific reasons for

!elieving that the values of the dependent
varia!le are caused !" the values of the
independent varia!le?s@3 do not infer causalit"
from the relationships *e find !" regression-
Correlation Illustrated
E
N
DE
DN
JE
E J M P Q DE
=BE
=JN
=JE
=DN
=DE
=N
E
E J M P Q DE
E
J
M
P
Q
DE
DJ
E J M P Q DE
Correlation F D Correlation F = D
Correlation F E
Correlation xample
Is this reasona!le8
Are "ou comforta!le *ith -RNR8
'hat does it mean to "ou8
7o* does the data actuall" loo+8
7o* *ould "ou find out8
Correlation of Station D and Station J F E-RNR3 P=$alue F E-EEE
T*o test stations are used to measure po*er suppl"
voltage-
Is there a correlation8
(Data)ile(Correlat*mt-
Minita!2 Stat_!asic stat_correlation
The t*o are highl" correlated ?-RNR@
8
Plot the Data
9raph_ScatterPlots
The Data
Station 2
S
t
a
t
i
o
n

1
<./ <.9 <.8 <.% $.$ $./
<.9
<.0
<.8
<.#
<.%
$.<
$.$
$.>
$./
$.:
Scatterplot of Station 1 "s Station 2
WorsheetA Correlat.M,W
If all of the data points
*ere on the diagonal
line3 *ould *e have
perfect correlation8
#et/s tr" regression
5egression
Fitted line plot is used *hen there is onl" one predictor-
xample D ?cont-@
In *hat *a"s is
this graph
different from
the preceding
one8
'hat are the
implications8
'hat action
*ould "ou
ta+e8
Station 2
S
t
a
t
i
o
n

1
<./ <.9 <.8 <.% $.$ $./
<.:
<.9
<.0
<.8
<.#
<.%
$.<
$.$
$.>
$./
! %.%::>8$$
J3!M <8.%F
J3!MCadND <#.:F
#itte$ %ine Plot
!tation # 6 #.%8% O %.$>8< !tation 8
WorsheetA Correlat.M,W
Slide JJN *as actual line ; this is a
fitted line- Can !e used for prediction-
i i
3= a P + =
A" minimi6ing the
residual sum of
s,uares3 *e get a
!est fit line of the
form2
a F coefficient of the constant term or intercept
! F coefficient of the predictor3 K
Aest Fit #ine
&est Piece
C
a
s
e
s
#%% <% $% >% /% :% 9%
#%%
<%
$%
>%
/%
:%
9%
! ##.:#0#
J3!M 9<.9F
J3!MCadND 9>.>F
#itte$ %ine Plot
Cases 6 88.9> O %.>:9/ ,est ?iece
WorsheetA cases.M,W
Statistical Process Control
A!out This ModuleI
Control charts portra" process performance and
separate causes of variation2
5andom
Assigna!le
Control Chart S"stems are2

A proven techni,ue for improving productivit"
ffective in defect prevention
Prevent unnecessar" process adjustments
Provide diagnostic information
Provide information a!out process capa!ilit"
(Data)ile(#ttribut mt-
(Data)ile(&ariable*mt-
D- Control charts are a po*erful tool to hold the gains-
J- 7o* control charts discriminate !et*een common
cause and assigna!le cause variation-
B- 'h" control charts must !e designed to fit the data
t"pe and the control purpose-
'hat 'e 'ill #earn-
Process $ariation
Process variation is the
result of2
) Common causes-
) Special ?assigna!le@
causes-
Common Causes
) 5esult in normal process
variation-
) Are specific to each process-
) Can !e reduced !" changing
the process-
Special ?Assigna!le@ Causes
) Are attri!uted to something outside of the
process-
) 5esult in a!normal process variation-
) Do not result in process improvement
if eliminated-
(ses of Control Charts
19 Attain a state o% statistical control
All su!group averages and ranges *ithin control limits = no
assigna!le causes of variation present
!9 Monitor a process
"9 Determine process capability
What happens after an out-of-control situation occurs at the

core of a successful SPC program?
:uran;s $uality Control <andboo%" =th edition" page >=*?
9eneral Concepts
* F some characteristic of interest
F mean of each sample
S
*
F standard deviation of *
(pper Control #imit
Centerline F

#o*er Control #imit
Therefore RR-OBS of points *ill !e *ithin the control limits
unless there is an assigna!le cause
W
=
0
w
UCL X S = +
0
w
LCL X S =
X
Control Chart Selection Tree
T"pe of data
Count or
Classification
Discrete
Fixed or
varia!le
opportunit"8
Count
C Chart
Fixed
( Chart
$aria!le Fixed or
varia!le
opportunit"8
Attri!ute
%P Chart
Fixed
P Chart
$aria!le
Su!group _D8
$aria!le
IM5 Chart
%o
K Aar and 5
or
K Aar and S
Ges
Supplement
*ith 'MA if
CTQ is
sensitive to
small process
shifts
K and 5 Control Chart Formulae
& Constants
4
?
=-ontrol +i#its L=Q/ 0
0 B&&er -ontrol +i#it L4 0
0+o(er -ontrol +i#it L4 0
'a#&le
'iHe
/
4
?
4
4
d
19880 - ?96! 1918

? 190? - 95!4 1969?
4 9!9 - 98 9059
5 95!! - 9114 9?6
6 948? - 9004 95?4
! 9419 90!6 1994 9!04
8 9?!? 91?6 19864 984!
9 9??! 9184 19816 99!0
10 9?08 9? 19!!! ?90!8
Creating Control Charts for $aria!les
(Data)ile(&ariable*mt-
Creating an K=!ar and 5 Chart
An K=Aar and 5 Chart
Sample
S
a
m
p
l
e

M
e
a
n
9: 9% 0: 0% 8: 8% #: #% :
9#
9%
0<
0$
I
I
469%.%%%
UC269#.8<9
2C260$.>%/
Sample
S
a
m
p
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e

R
a
n
g
e
9: 9% 0: 0% 8: 8% #: #% :
9.:
0.%
#.:
%.%
I
J68.890
UC269.>90
2C26%
:
#
/
/
#
# #
#
#
#
XbarR C!art of meas're1( )))( meas're*
WorsheetA @aria&le.M,W
The num!ers sho* violations of the assumption of
control- The nature of the violation is given in the
session *indo*-
K=Aar and 5 Chart Session 'indo*
Test Results for Xbar Chart of measure1, ..., measure5
TEST 1. One point more than 3.00 standard deviations from enter line.
Test !ailed at points" #, 10, 13, 1$, 1#, %&, '$
TEST 5. % out of 3 points more than % standard deviations from enter line (on
one side of C)*.
Test !ailed at points" 10, 1#, '#
TEST $. ' out of 5 points more than 1 standard deviation from enter line (on
one side of C)*.
Test !ailed at points" #, 3%, 3'
+ ,-R./.0 + /f 1raph is updated 2ith ne2 data, the results above ma3 no
+ lon1er be orret.
Stat9uide Interprets the Tests
Comparing the Suppliers
Sample
S
a
m
p
l
e

M
e
a
n
89 88 8% #$ #/ #9 #8 #% $ / 9 8
9#
9%
0<
I
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UC269#.8%>
2C260$.:$%
Sample
S
a
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p
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e

R
a
n
g
e
89 88 8% #$ #/ #9 #8 #% $ / 9 8
9
8
%
I
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UC269.$#/
2C26%
Sample
S
a
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e

M
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a
n
89 88 8% #$ #/ #9 #8 #% $ / 9 8
98
9%
0$
II
469%.#%/
UC269#.0$9
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Sample
S
a
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R
a
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g
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89 88 8% #$ #/ #9 #8 #% $ / 9 8
9
8
%
I
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UC269./$0
2C26%
#
:
#
:
:
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#
# #
#
#
WorsheetA @aria&le.M,WC!upplier 6#D
WorsheetA @aria&le.M,WC!upplier 68D
Supplier J/s process is less sta!le than
Supplier D/s process-
Add Dates to Control Charts
Adding dates to the control
charts may help identi%y
potential sources o% shi%ts&
Adding Dates Indicates 'hen the
Shift 4ccurred
</#</8%%/ </#0/8%%/ </>/8%%/ </#/8%%/ $/8$/8%%/ $/88/8%%/ $/#//8%%/ $/#%/8%%/ $/9/8%%/ >/0#/8%%/
#8
##
#%
<
Date
S
a
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p
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e

M
e
a
n
I
I
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UC26##.$:%
2C26<.8$/
</#</8%%/ </#0/8%%/ </>/8%%/ </#/8%%/ $/8$/8%%/ $/88/8%%/ $/#//8%%/ $/#%/8%%/ $/9/8%%/ >/0#/8%%/
9.:
0.%
#.:
%.%
Date
S
a
m
p
l
e

R
a
n
g
e
I
J68.888
UC269./<<
2C26%
8
8
8
8
8
8
/
:
/
/
/
XbarR C!art of Stac+e$ Data 1s
WorsheetA @aria&le data.M,W
Detecting 9radual Process Drift
Sample
S
a
m
p
l
e

M
e
a
n
9% 0/ 08 8$ 89 8% #/ #8 $ 9
#8
##
#%
<
I
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2C26<.8$/
Sample
S
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9% 0/ 08 8$ 89 8% #/ #8 $ 9
9.:
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8
8
8
8
8
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The tests detect the process shift !ut it *ould have !een
detected earlier if the control limits had !een !ased on the
first JE data points-
Detecting 9radual Process Drift
Minitab calculates control limits based on the entire data set be de%ault&
Eree(ing control limits detects shi%ts earlier than using the entire data set
to calculate limits&
Sample
S
a
m
p
l
e

M
e
a
n
9% 0/ 08 8$ 89 8% #/ #8 $ 9
#8
##
#%
<
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Sample
S
a
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e

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a
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9% 0/ 08 8$ 89 8% #/ #8 $ 9
9.:
0.%
#.:
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UC269.:>:
2C26%
8
8
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:
5ational Su!grouping
(suall" consecutive units
Must come from a single distinct population
'ithin su!group3 variation should !e *hite noise onl"
Aet*een su!groups should capture variation due to !lac+ noise
D@ Su!group needs to represent the distinct population
J@ sta!lish minimum su!group si6e to reflect the *ithin variation
B@ sta!lish sample fre,uenc" to capture the !et*een variation
M@ Collect data maintaining the se,uential information
.onald ;* Wheeler has si7 guiding "rinci"les for subgrou"ing in a rational manner*
1ever %no-ingly subgroup unli%e things together
Minimize variation -ithin each subgroup
Ma!imize opportunity for variation bet-een subgroups
#verage across noise not across signals
Treat charts in accordance -ith the use of the data
+stablish standard sampling procedures
'hen to Increase Sample Si6e
If the sample si6e is too small3 assigna!le causes ma"
produce real effects that are relativel" small and
unimportant- In this case3 it ma" not !e economical to
ta+e action-
To minimi6e the num!er of these 0nuisance1 causes3
the sample si6e should !e increased using the follo*ing
techni,ues2
Identif" characteristics
Determine logical nature of su!groups
Identif" sampling se,uence
Measurement methods proven to !e accurate
D- Control charts are a po*erful tool to hold the gains
J- 7o* control charts discriminate !et*een common
cause and assigna!le cause variation
B- 'h" control charts must !e designed to fit the
data t"pe and the control purpose
'hat 'e 7ave #earned-
#ean nterprise
A 5ormula for Organi<ational Success
Agenda
D- Introduction to #ean3 'astes

J- NS 'P4 & $isual Management
B- Standard 'or+
M- $alue Stream Mapping
N- Quic+ changeover
P- Po+a="o+e
O- Continuous Improvement
Q- <ai6en Alit6
R- Starting #ean
Introduction to #ean and O 'astes
) Identif" and liminate
the O 'astes
Arief 7istor" of #ean
) Craftsman to mass production
) Mass production to lean production
) #ean production2 Ford to To"ota
; Frederic+ Ta"lor
; Taiichi 4hno
; Shigeo Shingo
; .ames 'omac+
) From shop floor to office and support functions
then to service industr"
Craft Manufacturing
=ate 1IFFOs
G
Car !uilt on !loc+s as *or+ers *al+ed around
G
Auilt !" craftsmen *ith pride
G
Components hand=crafted3 hand=fitted
G
xcellent ,ualit"
G
$er" expensive
G
Fe* produced
Mass Manufacturing
) Assembly line ? >enry Eord 1K!Fs
G
#o* s+illed la!or3 simplistic jo!s3 no pride in *or+
G
Interchangea!le parts
G
#o*er ,ualit"
G
Afforda!l" priced for the average famil"
G
Aillions produced ; identical
Model P+O
#ean 7istor" ; .apan
Sa+ichi To"oda at his textile mills ?JE/s;BE/s@
To"ota Motor Compan"/s <iichiro To"oda and
Taiichi 4hno made innovations ?ME/s@ in
assem!l" lines that provided efficient3
customer=focused3 streamlined processes
*ith flo*3 variet"3 and short lead timeU
To"ota Production S"stem ?TPS@^ to face
competition of 9M and Ford after ''II
*hen +e" need *as flexi!ilit"-
Taiichi 4hno and Shigeo Shingo developed
#ean !ased on TPS
#ean Manufacturing
G
Cells or flexi!le assem!l" lines
G
Aroader jo!s3 highl" s+illed *or+ers3 proud of
product
G
Interchangea!le parts3 even more variet"
G
xcellent ,ualit" mandator"
G
Costs !eing decreased through process
improvement
G
9lo!al mar+ets and competition-
'hat is #ean8
0A !usiness s"stem for organi6ing and

managing product development3 operations3
suppliers3 and customer relations that re,uires
less human effort3 less space3 less capital and
less time to ma+e products *ith fe*er defects
to precise customer desires compared *ith the
previous s"stem of mass production-1
Lean Le7icon3 #ean nterprise Institute3 JEEB
#ean manufactuirng is aimed at the elimination of *aste in
ever" area of production including customer relations3
product design3 supplier net*or+s and factor" management-
The goal of #ean Manufacturing is to incorporate less
human effort3 less inventor"3 less time to develop products3
and less space to !ecome highl" responsive to customer
demand3 *hile at the same time producing top ,ualit"
products in the most efficient and economical manner-
De%inition
) +he term QleanR is used because lean
uses QlessRS
#a!or
Space
Capital investment
Materials
Time !et*een the customer order and

the product shipment
'h" Call it 0#ean18
Definition of #ean
#ean has !een defined in man" different *a"s ;
0A systematic a""roach to identifying and

eliminating waste ?non=value=added activities@
through continuous im"ro8ement !" flowing the
"roduct at the "ull of the customer in "ursuit of
"erfection-1
Definition !" the MP #ean %et*or+
9ive the customers *hat the" *ant3 *hen the"

*ant it3 and do not *aste an"thing-
Definition of $alue Added
'aste is an" activit" that does not add value to

the final product for the customer-
) Dalue?added is an activit" that transforms or
shapes ra* material or information to meet
customer re,uirements-
) 6on?value added is an activit" that ta+es time3
resources or space3 !ut does not add to the value
of the product or service itself-
) 6on?value?adding@ but necessary ; does not add
value to the product or service !ut is re,uired
?e-g-3 accounting3 governmental regulations3 etc-@-
'aste
0An"thing that adds Cost
to the product
*ithout adding $alue1

To"ota 'a" ; the DM Principles !"
.effre" <- #i+er
D- Aase management decisions on long=term philosoph"3 even
at expense of short=term financial goals-
J- Create continuous process flo* to !ring pro!lems to surface-
B- (se pull s"stems to avoid overproduction-
M- #evel out *or+load ?heijun+a@^ *or+ li+e a tortoise3 not a hare-
N- Auild culture of stopping to fix pro!lems3 to get ,ualit" right
first time-
P- Standardi6ed tas+s are the foundation for continuous
improvement and emplo"ee empo*erment-
O- (se visual controls so no pro!lems are hidden-
Q- (se onl" relia!le3 thoroughl" tested technolog" that serves
people and processes-
To"ota 'a" = DM Principles ?cont-@
R- 9ro* leaders *ho thoroughl" understand *or+3 live philosoph"3
and teach others-
DE-Develop exceptional people and teams that follo* compan"/s
philosoph"-
DD-5espect extended net*or+ of partners and suppliers !"
challenging them and helping them improve-
DJ-9o and see to thoroughl" understand situation ?genchi
gen!utsu@-
DB-Ma+e decisions slo*l" !" consensus3 thoroughl" considering
all options^ implement decisions rapidl"-
DM-Aecome a learning organi6ation through relentless reflection
?hansei@ and continuous improvement ?+ai6en@-
#i+er Model
Philosoph"
Pro!lem
Solving
Process
People and Partners
Challenge
9enchi
9en!utsu
5espect and
Team*or+
<ai6en
To"ota Terms
#i+er Model = M Ps
D- Philosoph"
#ong=term thin+ing even at expense of short=term

financial goals
J- Process
liminate *aste !" focusing on flo*3 pull3 *or+load

!alance3 error reduction3 standardi6ation3 visual
controls3 and jido+a or use of relia!le3 tested
technolog"Cautomation *ith mista+e proofing and
human touch
B- People and Partners
5espect3 develop3 and challenge people

M- Pro!lem Solving
Fix and prevent pro!lems !" continual learning3 going

to place *here pro!lem occurs3 getting hands dirt"3
and ma+ing good decisions !ased on fact
'hat Is #ean8
#ean is a methodolog"
that allo*s organi6ations to drasticall" improve
!ottom line
!" improving processes and monitoring ever"da"
!usiness activities to reduce errors
in *a"s that increase value and minimi6e *or+3 non=
value=add tas+s3 and *aste *hile increasing
customer satisfaction
= Aased on idea that faster processes "ield less

*aste3 less cost3 less *or+ in process3 less
complexit"3 higher ,ualit"3 and happier customers
'omac+ and .ones Model
D-Define value from customers/ perspective
J-Document value stream
B-Improve flo* of value stream
M-Drive for pull versus push
N-Continuousl" improve
#ean Principles
Create value for customer
(nderstand2
'ho is customer ; person or entit" *ho is
recipient of product or service^ one *ho places
value on output^ catal"stCtrigger in value chain
Another !usiness
Someone inside o*n !usiness
Specific individual3 group3 or team
ConsumersUultimate customer
'hat customer considers valua!le
Ma+e value flo* !ased on customer/s needs
#ean Principles ?cont-@
Consider life c"cle of information3 materials3
processes3 products3 and services
#oo+ for process pro!lems that prevent people
from performing !est *or+
liminate *aste
%on=value=add steps
'IP
Cost
Standardi6e *or+
Do not !ecome distracted !" other sta+eholders
$alue=Add Qui6
In *hich categor" should the follo*ing !e

placed8
Activit" $alue Add T"pe D T"pe J
Attending *ee+l" team coordination meeting
Filtering through dail" e=mail list
5eporting status to upper management
9aining multiple approvals on documents
9aining management approval for routine actions
xpediting document through approval list
'riting formal policies and procedures
'riting !rief *or+=method instructions
9aining regulator" or agenc" approvals
Creating IS4 REEE documentation
7unting for needed information to do "our jo!
Auilding 0!est practices1 data!ase
7olding lessons learned meeting
Spending time on process improvements
#ean vs- Traditional
=ean
) Simple and visual signals
) Demand driven
) Inventor" as needed
) 5educe non=value added
) Small lot si6e
) Minimal lead time
) Qualit" !uilt
) $alue stream managers
+raditional
) Complex
) Forecast driven
) xcessive inventor"
) Speed up value=added
*or+
) Aatch production
) #ong lead time
) Inspected=in
) Functional departments
Aenefits of #ean Manufacturing
7elps in ;
) Cost reduction
) C"cle time reduction
) 0'aste1
minimi6ation
) limination of non=
value=added
activities
) 5esulting in a more
0lean31
competitive3 agile3
and mar+et=
responsive
compan"
5eal 5esults
E NE DEE
#ead Time
5eduction
Productivit"
Increase
'IP
5eduction
Qualit"
Improvement
Space
(tili6ation
'h" the mphasis on #ean %o*8
) 9lo!al econom"
) Pressure from customers for price reduction
) Fast=paced technological changes ?e-g- Internet auctions@
) Continued focus on ,ualit"3 cost3 deliver"
) 7igher and higher expectations of customers
) Qualit" standards3 such as QS=REEE ?or TS DPRMR@3 the
ne* IS4 REEE2JEEE
) 7olding on to 0Core Competencies31outsourcing the rest
) Mar+et=driven pricing2 Customers expect !etter
performance at lo*er prices "ear after "ear
volution of #ean Across Mar+ets
Proven glo!al concept since DRQEs
Transformed !usiness processes across
man" industries2
Automotive
Aerospace
4ther industries !eginning to em!race
#ean concepts *ith excellent results2
Construction
7ospitals
Pharmaceutical Manufacturing
Service 4rgani6ations
Pricing Model
4ld 'a"
Cost H Profit F Price

%e* 'a"
Price = Cost F Profit
Customers
Demand
#o*er
Prices
If Costs
Sta" the
Same
Profits
Decrease
Costs
Increase
Increase
Price
Maintain
Profits
What
can -e doB
Pricing Model
4ld 'a"
Cost H Profit F Price
%e* 'a"
Price = Cost F Profit
Customers
Demand
#o*er
Prices
Costs
Increase
Increase
Price
Maintain
Profits
Implement
#ean
Increased
Profits
Core Concepts of #ean
) Creativit" !efore Capital
) A solution that is not=so=perfect implemented
toda"3 is !etter than a perfect solution that is
late- 0.ust do it-1
) Inventor" is not an asset3 !ut a *asteCcost-
) T"picall"3 RNS of lead=time is not value added-
) #ean implementation using the Plan=Do=Chec+=
Act methodolog"
) Continuous Improvement environment2 !oth
incremental and !rea+through-
) #ean is a never=ending philosoph"-
Aluminum Can xample
Aauxite Cr"olite Aluminum Cast Product
5olled Plate Sheet Cans
From aluminum ore to usa!le cans3 it t"picall"
ta+es a!out BEE da"s
9uess *hat the total value=added time is8
B hours
$ideo
) Introduction to #ean
O 'astes of #ean
04MIT 'hat ( D41

) 4verproduction
) Motion
) Inventor"
) Transportation ?Movement@
) 'aiting
) Defects ?Correction@
) 4ver=processing
) $nderutili<ed 'eo"le
C
3
M
M
WI
P
4verproduction
Ma+ing more=earlier=faster than the

next process needs it
.ust in case logic
(n!alanced *or+load
(nleveled scheduling
False sense of
efficienc"
Printing JE
copies of a
report that onl"
B people loo+ at
All=staff e=mails
*hen it pertains
to onl" a fe*
'aiting to
0!atch1 *or+
Motion
An" movement of people that does not

add an" value to the product or service
Poor la"out
Inefficient 'or+place
4rgani6ation
#ac+ of
Standardi6ation3
inconsistent *or+
methods
People3 Material and
Machine
Ineffectiveness
'here is are copier3
printer3 files and
coffee=ma+er
located8
7o* far does the
paper*or+ travel8
Inventor"
An" suppl" in excess of one=piece flo*

.ust in case logic
(n!alanced
*or+load
(nleveled
scheduling
(nrelia!le
suppliers
5e*ard s"stem
0Pac+ rat1
mentalit"
Printed forms or
tags that !ecome
o!solete
Q *ee+s of paper
located !" the
copier
7o* man" pens do
"ou have in "our
des+ dra*er8
Transportation
Moving people3 materials and

information around the organi6ation
Poor la"out
Inefficient 0flo*1
Carr"ing large
,uantities
Moving 0!an+er/s
!oxes to a
storage area
Mail carts
Messenger
services
'aiting
'aiting forI man3 machine3 materials3

information etc-
.ust in case logic

(n!alanced
*or+load
(nleveled
scheduling
(nplanned
do*ntime
%eeds not
understood
'aiting for files or
information
%eed a signature
Customer repl" to
a voice=mail or e=
mail
Someone is
printing NE copies
of a OE page
report
Starting a meeting
Defects
Information3 products and service that

need correction
%ot using .ido+a or
Po+a="o+e
#ac+ of
Standardi6ation3
inconsistent *or+
methods
Ineffective
communication
#ittle investment in
training
7ave to fix paper*or+
that is not completel"
filled in or trac+ do*n
the right person to get
the information
An entr" error causes
the *rong actions li+e
shipping too man"3
or too fe* to the
*rong address3 etc-
4ver=processing
ffort that adds no value to the product or
service from the customer/s standpoint

.ust in case logic
Inconsistent *or+
methods
Ineffective
communication
5edundant
approvals
xcessive
information3 extra
copies
Multiple sign=offs
or chec+s
(nderutili6ed People
%ot utili6ing people/s experience3 s+ills3

+no*ledge3 creativit"
%ot utili6ing
Teams
4rgani6ation
structure
Poor hiring
practices
#ittle investment in
training
#ac+ of
suggestions
0That/s not m" jo!1
attitude
'aiting for lead
from management
Mura and Muri
Mura ?unevenness@ ; variation in operation3
*asted resources *hen ,ualit"3 cost3 or
deliver" cannot !e predicted
TestingCinspection3 Containment3
5e*or+3 5eturns3 4vertime3
(nscheduled travel
Muri ?overdoing@ ; unnecessar" or unreasona!le
over!urdening of people3 e,uipment3 or
s"stems *hen demand exceeds capacit" or
tas+s are not designed properl" including
harmful3 *asteful3 or unnecessar" tas+s
Auilding Aloc+s of #ean
Change Management
NS $isual #a"out Standard 'or+
Aatch Si6e
5eduction
P4(S
Autonomation
.IT
Quic+ Changeover
Pull S"stem &
<an!an
Cellular &
Flo*
TPM
$
S
M
Continuous Improvement & <ai6en Alit6
Self Inspection Po+a="o+e
Teams
Change Management
Aatch Si6e
5eduction
P4(S
Autonomation
.IT
Quic+ Changeover
Pull S"stem &
<an!an
Cellular &
Flo*
TPM
$
S
M
Teams
N 'ords that !egin *ith 0S1
.apanese Translation Conversion [4ther
Seiri 4rgani6ation Sort Sorting
Seiton %eatness Set in order Simplif"ing
access
Seison Cleaning Shine S*eeping
Sei+etsu Standardi6ation Standardi6e Standardi6e
Shitsu+e Discipline Sustain Self=
discipline
[ There are several other conversions
1
Clear1Sort
A" red tagging
!
3rgani(e1Straighten
A place for
ever"thing
"
Clean1S-eep
7ouse+eeping C
Inspection
#
Maintain1Standardi(e
sta!lish standards
$
Continuous Improvement
Sustain
Discipline
"aste
5 Steps to Workplace Organization
'or+place Scan
=$nderstand your Current State

) Start *ith a *or+place Scan
) Team Aased
) Define the !oundaries
) Complete a Diagnostic Chec+list
) Dra* a Spaghetti Diagram
) Ta+e 0Aefore1 Photos
) Starts the NS Program
'or+place Scan Displa"

Chec+li
st
Score
Area
Details
Spaghetti Diagram
After
Photos
Aefore
Photos
Sort
=When in doubt9 mo8e it out

) Move unneeded items out of the area
) (se the 5ed Tag Techni,ue
) (se a Temporar" 5ed Tag 7olding Area
) Criteria for unneeded items
; 0BE=da" 5ule1
) <eep onl" *hat "ou need in the area
6ameTTTT DateTTT
Item TTTTTTTTTTTTT
'eason TTTTTTTTT
Set in 4rder
=A "lace for e8erything and
e8erything in its "lace*

) Ma+e it eas" for an"one to find
; 0BE=second 5ule1
) Ma+e it o!vious if an item is out of place
) Decide *here to +eep items3 ho* man" items to
+eep3 ho* and *hen to replenish items
) Ma+e it $isual
Shine
=Clean and ns"ect

) 9et items to a li+e=ne* condition
; 0DE Second 5ule1
) Must plan Shine ; assignments & supplies
) Perform as a Team
) Prevent dirt3 grime3 or contamination
) 5epair as needed
Standardi6e
=Create the rules and follow them

) Determine ho* the first BS conditions are
met
) (se 04ne=Point #essons1
) Maintain and monitor the conditions
) (se $isual techni,ues
Sustain
=6ake 3S a habit
) NS is not something additional3 it is part of
ever"one/s dail" jo!
) Supports discipline
) Train
) Communicate
) Support from Management
) 5e*ard and recognition
NS is Fundamental to #ean
) NS is directl" related to other Auilding
Aloc+s
; Teams
; $isual
; P4(S
; Standard 'or+
; TPM
Point=4f=(se Storage
) 5a* material and 'IP are stored at
*or+station *here used3 *hich reduces
the inventor" that can !e carried-
) 'or+s !est if vendor relationship permits
fre,uent3 on=time3 small shipments ?.IT@-
) Simplifies ph"sical inventor" trac+ing3
storage3 and handling-
Carpenter Stor"
) Does the
carpenter *al+
!ac+ to the
tool!ox ever"
time a tool is
needed8
) 'hich *aste is
this8
) 'hat does the
carpenter do8
Proximit"
) T"picall"3 up to PES of time is spent on
findingCcollecting items needed-
) Minimi6e non=value activities
) Store as close as possi!le and *ithin reach
) #a"out and *or+station design should
accommodate re,uired materials
) Tr" to use the pac+aging from the supplier
or have the supplier change pac+aging
P4(S Components
) 7ave the2
; Information
; Parts & materials
; Tools & e,uipment
that "ou need to perform "ou tas+s *ithin

reach
P4(S 'or+place >ones

) Items used most often
?i-e-3 dail"@ should !e
+ept *ithin reach
) Items used less often
?i-e-3 *ee+l"@ should !e
+ept close=!"
) Items used rarel" ?i-e-3
monthl"@ should !e
+ept in the vicinit"
Dail"
'ee+l"
Monthl"
#ocation of items
) (se hori6ontal
transfers and gravit"
feeds *hen possi!le
) Support heav" o!jects
) Set items
ergonomicall"
) Must !e comforta!le
for a da"/s *or+
Aenefits
) Supports NS & $isual and other Auilding
Aloc+s
) Simplifies inventor" trac+ing and accurac"
) 5educes *aiting3 inventor"3 motion and
transportation *aste
Aenefits of NS
) Improved e,uipment relia!ilit"
) Superior ,ualit"
) Increased productivit"
) Aetter *or+flo*
) nhanced Safet"
) 5educed inventor"
) More pleasant place to *or+
) Impress customers
$ideo
) Introduction to NS
Change Management
Aatch Si6e
5eduction
P4(S
Autonomation
.IT
Quic+ Changeover
Pull S"stem &
<an!an
Cellular &
Flo*
TPM
$
S
M
Teams
$isual
Signs3 lines3 la!els and color coding

'h" $isual8
) 'hat "ou need to +no*
) Coc+pit vie*
) Information sharing
7o* do "ou +no* *here to par+ *hen "ou
drive to a shopping mall8
Does someone have to tell "ou *here to
par+8
7o* to Appl" $isual

) (se Signs3 #ines3
#a!els and Color=
coding
) Charts3 pictures3
lights3 score!oards
) <an!an3 Andon lights
) Inventor" #evels
xamples
) Productivit" 9oals
) Qualit" 9oals
) Deliver" schedules
) Set=up specification
) Safet" Initiatives
) Attendance 9oals
) Team 4!jectives
More xamples of $isual
) Signs
) Charts
) 9oals
) Pictures
) Color coding
) #ights
) Score!oards
) $SM Current & Future
State
) Standard 'or+
instructions
) Tags
) Forms
) Training hours
) mplo"ees/ suggestions
) Cross trained s+ills
) mplo"ee a*ards
) A!senteeism
) Critical maintenance
points
) Customer satisfaction
goals
) Performance targets
$isual Controls as Communication

Tools
) $isual controls expose *aste so *e can
reduce or eliminate it
) $isual controls help in2
; Improving motivation & morale
; Focus on safet"
; Pride of *or+place & *or+manship
) $isuals and performance metrics
; 'hat gets measured3 gets done
; Policies drive !ehaviors
'orld Class $isual Controls
) An"one +no*s *hat/s going on !" loo+ing
around
) Gou do not have to *ait for information to
do "our jo!
) ver"one passes the BE second test
$isual xamples
Andon #ights
Shado* Aoards
Displa" Panels
5ange Mar+ings
4n 9auges
Standard 'or+
5educe tas+ varia!ilit"

Standard 'or+
Aest se,uence of operations3 using the

most productive com!ination of resources2
) Man3 machine3 materials3 changeovers3
etc-
) Details an" special s+illC+nac+ needed
) Safet"3 ergonomics are integrated
) Tool for perfect ,ualit" and efficienc"
Standard 'or+ Properties
) Specific
) Measura!le
) 5epeata!le
) Documented
Standard 'or+
Identifies value added versus non=value added

activities
) 5educe or eliminate non=value added activities
) Convert Internal Time to xternal Time3
*herever possi!le
) Continuous Improvement2 once Standard 'or+
is esta!lished as a !ase and displa"ed at
*or+stations3 operators monitor and
implement improvements
) (se as a training tool for ne* emplo"ees
) Created !" input from the people *ho actuall"
*or+ in the process
Philosoph" of Standard 'or+
Ae specific a!out2
) Content
) Se,uence
) Timing
) 4utcome
xample2 Installing a Car Seat

) Aolts are installed and
tightened in the same
exact order
) The time re,uired to tighten
!olts is stated and
follo*ed
) Specified tor,ue is applied
and chec+ed
(sed as the !asis from *here the next level of
improvement is made-
T"pes of Standardi6ed 'or+ Forms
) Process Capacit" Ta!le
) 'or+ Com!ination Sheet
) Standard 'or+ Sheet
) 4thers forms ma" !e used !ased on "our
organi6ation/s needs
Process Capacit" Ta!le
Times for2
) lapsed time
) lement time
) Internal Time
) xternal Time
) Manual Time
Step Identification
) Transportation
) Process
) Inspection
) Storage
(se to identif" !ottlenec+s (se to calculate the capacit" of

machines3 and identif" !ottlenec+s
Process2
Se,
%o- lement S"m!ol
lapsed
Time
lement
Time
Internal
Time
xternal
Time
1 Review work order for die number and material 600 600 300
2 Locate the die 1800 1200 300
3 Locate material 3000 1200 300
4 Get tools 3600 600 300
5 a!out machine 4500 "00 60
6 Loosen bolts 4"80 480 60
# $isconnect hoses 5280 300 60
8 Remove die from %ress 5580 300 120
" Return die to ool Room 6180 600 300
10 Load die into %ress 6480 300 "0
11 &li!n die 6"60 480 0 '
12 i!hten bolts #440 480 60
13 (onnect hoses ##40 300 60
14 )osition material 8340 600 300
15 (lear ta!out 8"40 600 60
16 *ake sam%le %iece "000 60 60
1# ake first %iece sam%le to +( "600 600 120
18 &d,ust die and %ress 10800 1200 0 '
1" *ake sam%le %iece 10860 60 0 '
20 Return tools 11460 600 600
#50 2400
Changeover Analisys Chart
Date2 %ame2 Shift2
%
$
A
F

K
Comments
(onvert to -.ternal
(onvert to -.ternal
(onvert to -.ternal
(onvert to -.ternal
)re%are a!s before
/se 0uick connects
/se 0uick connects
)osition die cart
(onvert to -.ternal
/se %ositive sto%s
-liminate
/se 0uick connects
/se 0uick connects
(onvert to -.ternal
1ave +( ech read2
)re3ad,ust die
Transport Process Inspection Storage Total Time Page YYYY of YYYYY 11460
-liminate
(onvert to -.ternal
'or+ Com!ination Sheet
Se,uence of2
) Manual *or+ time
) Machine
operations time
) 'al+ing
Sho*s the
interactions
!et*een machines
and operators
Allo*s to recalculate
operator *or+
content as ta+t
time changes
A = 9enerators JM3PEE Date

Assem!l" Cell WJB JEE 6ame
Final Assem!l" DJB DS Mgr
ID
Manual
4peration
Machine
4peration 'al+ing Start Manual 4peration Machine 4peration 'al+ing
D DJ BJ E MM E E DJ BJ E
J B E J N MM MR B E J
B D DP J DR MR PQ D DP J
M MN DJE E DPN PQ JBB MN DJE E
N J DN B JE JBB JNB J DN B
P JB MD J PP JNB BDR JB MD J
O MJ E E MJ BDR BPD MJ E E
Q BN E E BN BPD BRP BN E E
R N E M R BRP MEN N E M
DE E E E E MEN MEN E E E
DD E E E E MEN MEN E E E
DJ E E E E MEN MEN E E E
DB E E E E MEN MEN E E E
DM E E E E MEN MEN E E E
DN E E E E MEN MEN E E E
DP E E E E MEN MEN E E E
DO E E E E MEN MEN E E E
DQ E E E E MEN MEN E E E
DR E E E E MEN MEN E E E
JE E E E E MEN MEN E E E
JD E E E E MEN MEN E E E
JJ E E E E MEN MEN E E E
JB E E E E MEN MEN E E E
JM E E E E MEN MEN E E E
JN E E E E MEN MEN E E E
JP E E E E MEN MEN E E E
JO E E E E MEN MEN E E E
JQ E E E E MEN MEN E E E
JR E E E E MEN MEN E E E
BE E E E E MEN MEN E E E
DPQ JJM DB
MDS NNS BS
MEN
MEN
Time PCS 5ate
D 'or+ Flo* Diagram
J
B
M
N
Throughput per shif t F Availa!le Time C Total 4perating Time2
Total Time ?C"clical H %on=c"clical@2
seconds
pieces
seconds per piece I-C- Flo*
Total %on=c"clic Time2
+ime Available
Demand
+akt +ime
6on?cyclical Work 2lements Seconds
Total Time2
Percent 4perator Time2
Total C"clic Time2
#oad on cart
Start 'C=D3 go to 'C=J
(nload part3 #oad Part3 Start Machine3 go to 'C=B
(nload part3 f ile corner3 inspect to print
#oad next part3 start machine3 go to 'C=D
Fasten parts A=D3 and A=D together3 go to AS=J
Fasten 7ousing and Aase
Pac+age generator
Description of 'or+ lement
Manuall" load 'C=D
Product Eamily
Process
Description
Cyclical Work 2lement lement Time 9raph Data
.anuar" BD3 JEEK
ileen %- Terprise
E DEE JEE BEE MEE NEE
D
J
B
M
N
P
O
Q
R
DE
DD
DJ
DB
DM
DN
DP
DO
DQ
DR
JE
JD
JJ
JB
JM
JN
JP
JO
JQ
JR
BE
3peration +imes
'C=D 'C=J 'C=B
AS=D
AS=D AS=D
Standard 'or+ Sheet
Se,uence of processing steps

) 'or+er
) Machine
) Tools
) #a"out
) Material location
?Standard stoc+@
Displa"ed at 'or+stations
Continuousl" revie*ed and updated

Standard Work Sheet
Product Eamily
A = 9enerators
Process
Assem!l" Cell WJB
Description
Final Assem!l"
Supplier
Fa!3 Assm WDO3 SM=JR
Customer
SM=F9MQ3 Shipping
'C=D 'C=J
'
C
=
B
A
S
=
D
FS=D
AS=J
B J
D
J
D J
B
D
(ses
) The Process Capacity Table can !e used
to reduce changeover times
) The Work Combination Sheet can !e
used for line !alancing *hen creating a
cell
) The Standard Work Sheet can !e used for
training and team development
Standard 'or+ xamples

Ado&e Acro&at
)ocument
Ado&e Acro&at
)ocument
Ado&e Acro&at
)ocument
Standard 'or+ and Training
Questions to as+ 4perators a!out Standard 'or+

) 7o* do "ou do this *or+8
) 7o* do "ou +no* "ou are doing this *or+
correctl"8
) 7o* do "ou +no* there are no defects8
) 'hat do "ou do if "ou have a pro!lem8
If these ,uestions cannot !e ans*ered

satisfactoril"3 then either the 4perator needs
additional training or the Standard 'or+ is
unclear
(ses of Standard 'or+
) Consistent performance of tas+s F !etter ,ualit"
) Trac+ performance F actual versus standard for
continuous improvement
) as" to Train F reduced learning c"cle time
Old Learning Cur8e

Time
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
"
#ew Learning Cur8e
Time
P
r
o
d
u
c
t
i
v
i
t
"
Aenefits of Standard 'or+
) Standard documentation for all shifts
) 5eductions in injuries and strain
) mplo"ee o*nership of process
) More pleasant *or+ing conditions^ higher
morale
) Aetter than traditional time and motion
studies
) 5educed varia!ilit"
Po+a="o+e
) rror proof ?mista+e proof@ ta+es a*a" the
possi!ilit" of human error
) The term Po+a="o+e *as made popular !"
Shigeo Shingo
) Fail=safe devices
) #o* cost3 highl" relia!le mechanisms
) Detects a!normal situations !efore the" occur3
or
) 4nce the" occur3 *ill stop the e,uipment from
further production- The machine stoppage
ma+es the pro!lem visi!le-
4ther Po+a="o+e xamples

) (SA ports on computers
) 5e=t"ping pass*ords to verif"
) Computer prompts !efore deleting file
) Aar codes & scanning
) ATM s*ipe card or !eep
Aenefits of Po+a="o+e
) 9ives immediate feed!ac+ for root cause
anal"sis & correction ?and prevention for the
future@-
) Failure Mode and ffect Anal"sis ?FMA@ solution
can !e Po+a="o+e
) Some examples of Po+a="o+e devices are2
sensors3 counters3 feelers3 limit s*itches3
electric e"es3 pro!es3 automatic stops-
Change Management
Aatch Si6e
5eduction
P4(S
Autonomation
.IT
Quic+ Changeover
Pull S"stem &
<an!an
Cellular &
Flo*
TPM
$
S
M
Teams
$alue Stream Mapping
See the Flo*

$alue Stream Anal"sis
$alue stream anal"sis encompasses all activities

compan" must do to design3 order3 produce3 and deliver
its products and services to customers
Flo* of tas+s3 from re,uest for service ?trigger event@
to service complete3 from receipt of materials or
information from suppliers to deliver" of finished
product or service to customers
From vie*point of customer3 service3 or transaction
Flo* of information that supports and directs !oth flo*
of materials and transformation of ra* materials or
information into finished goods or services
Finance 7uman
5esources
4perations Purchasing Sales
$alue Stream
$alue Stream
Purpose of $alue Stream Map
7as customers/ perspective and focuses on meeting
customers/ *ants and needs
Starts *ith immediate customer and maps !ac+ to
receiving inputs from suppliers and sho*s ho* fits
into overall value stream
Provides single vie* that is a complete3 fact=!ased3
and time=!ased representation of stream of
activities
Provides common language and vie* for anal"sis
Sho*s ho* information triggers and supports
activities
Sho*s time for activities and *hether the" add value
lements of $alue Stream Map
Process steps
$alue=add classification for each step
Information flo* such as orders3 re,uirements3 schedules3
messages3 approvals3 specifications3 +an!an signals3 shipping
information3 standard procedures
Aox score of +e" operational metrics including c"cle time3 *aiting
time3 *or+ing time3 conve"ance time3 distance traveled3 items
per shift3 items processed per hour3setup time3 !ac+logC*or+=
in=process3 amount of inventor" !et*een last step and
consumer3 defects3 cost information3 resource availa!ilit" and
active time3 process variations
#ead time is amount of time for one item to flo* completel"
through process3 noted along !ottom of flo*
Ta+t time sho*ing customer demand rate3 in upper right corner
of flo*
$alue Stream Anal"sis Steps
Identif" delivera!le3 value stream3 and sponsor *ho has authorit" and
responsi!ilit" to allocate resources and ma+e changes across
organi6ation
Identif" customer and value from customer/s perspective as *ell as
regulator"3 legal3 and compliance re,uirements
Dra* visual representation of process current state3 generall" dra*
steps starting at consumer/s vie* *or+ing !ac+ through steps to
sources of material and la!or^ flo*s from left to right *ith time3 *ith
steps in order of occurrence
Add metrics and o!servations li+e Ta+t timeCthroughput3 c"cle times3
defect rates3 and inventor"C*or+=in=process and information flo*s
to identif" magnitude and fre,uenc" of *aste
(se lean principles to reduce or eliminate *aste and reduce c"cle
time
Develop future state map3 document steps of process that need to
happen3 and prioriti6e and implement action plans to achieve future
state
$alue Anal"sis Matrix Steps
Structure value anal"sis matrix
%um!er process steps on su! process map
7ave column for each process step
stimate time for each process step
Place chec+ in categor" for each process step3
either value=add or one of non=value=add
categories
Total num!er of hours or num!er of chec+s for
each ro*
5eport percentages of value=add and non=
customer re,uired
D
Process Step
Time ?7ours@
$alue = Added
%on Customer 5e,uired
Internal Failure
xternal Failure
ControlCInspection
Dela"
PrepCSet = (p
Move
Total
J B M N P O Q R DE Total S Total
BES
DEE
NJS NJ
PS P
DEE DEES DE P JE DE DE DJ DE JE D D
J JS
BE
DEES

DE DES

D
Process Step
Time ?7ours@
$alue = Add
%on Customer 5e,uired
Internal Failure
xternal Failure
ControlCInspection
Dela"
PrepCSet=(p
Move
Total
J B M N P O Q R DE Total S Total
BES
DEE
NJS NJ
PS P
DEE DEES DE P JE DE DE DJ DE JE D D
J JS
BE
DEES

DE DES

$alue Anal"sis Matrix xample
5FQ Creation $alue Stream Map
9ather
5e,uirements
Assign Au"er
CCT F B da"s
'CT F M hours
$ACT F T E
$erif" Customer
5e,uirements
CCT F DM da"s
'CT F J da"s
$ACT F D da"s
Consult *ith Manu=
facturing ngineer
CCT F N da"s
'CT F J da"s
$ACT F M hours
CCT F DM da"s
'CT F J da"s
$ACT F D da"
Customer Meetings
CCT F DM da"s
'CT F J da"s
$ACT F D da"
Create Preliminar"
5FQ
CCT F N da"s
'CT F J da"s
$ACT F D da"
5evie* and
Approval C"cle
CCT F N da"s
'CT F D da"
$ACT F T E
Create Final
5FQ
CCT F N da"s
'CT F J da"s
$ACT F D da"
5evie* and
Approval C"cle
CCT F N da"s
'CT F D da"
$ACT F TE
Iterate
5evise
Triggering
vent
5elease 5FQ
CCT F J da"s
'CT F D da"
$ACT F J hours
Continue
5evise
Continue
Measura!le
Delivera!le
As=Is Process
C"cle Time[2
CCT F NQ da"s
'CT F TDM da"s
$ACT F N da"s
CCT F Calendar Time
'CT F 'or+ Time
$ACT F $alue=Add Time
Assumes no revisionsX
'ait for Availa!le
Sales Person
Initial Phone
Contact
CCT F E
'CT F E
$ACT F E
CCT F N minutes
'CT F E
$ACT F E
Sales Pitch
CCT F DE minutes
'CT F DE minutes
$ACT F DE minutes
Configure S"stem
CCT F BE minutes
'CT F BE minutes
$ACT F N minutes
Fill 4ut 4rder
Form
CCT F DE minutes
'CT F DE minutes
$ACT F N minutes
Promise to Ship
CCT F N minutes
'CT F N minutes
$ACT F E
Pending 4rder
0FIF41 Queue
CCT F O Da"s
'CT F E
$ACT F E
Aatch Together
Similar S"stems
CCT F P Da"s
'CT F D Da"
$ACT F E
Chec+ Availa!ilit"
of Materials
CCT F B Da"s
'CT F D hour
$ACT F E
Issue 'or+ 4rder
to Factor" Floor
CCT F D Da"
'CT F D hour
$ACT F E
Mtl
-
Av
ail
a!l
e
8
Ges
%o
Change Ship Date
Time Customer is 4n Telephone
Triggering
vent
Measura!le
Delivera!le
'hile customer
is on telephone2
CCT F PE min-
'CT F NN min-
$ACT F JE min-
From Contact
to 4rder #aunch2
CCT F DO da"s
'CT F T D da"
$ACT F E
Sales 4rder Processing $alue
Stream Map
CCT F Calendar Time
'CT F 'or+ Time
$ACT F $alue=Add Time
Customer
!u"s salad
*ith salmon
9rocer offers
premade
salads
Salad compan"
ma+es salad and
delivers to grocer
Salad compan"
!u"s supplies
Processed salmon
is shipped to fish
mar+ets
Salmon is
processed at
fisher"
Fishers catch
salmon
Mother nature
ma+es
salmon
5estaurant
suppl" compan"
distri!utes food
Farmers gro* and
harvest produce
Produce is pac+age
and shipped
Meat companies
process animals
Farmers raise
meat animals
Container
compan" sells
containers
Manufacturers
ma+e
containers
Chemical producers
ma+e plastics from
petroleum
4il refined for
petroleum
products
Au"ing a Salad Process Flo*
C"cle Time Definition
04ne of the most note*orth" accomplishments in +eeping

the price of products lo* is the gradual shortening of the c"cle
time- The longer an article is in the process and the more it is
moved a!out3 the greater is its ultimate cost-1
7enr" Ford3 DRJP
Time that elapses from !eginning to end of process

(ltimate o!jective or goal of #ean processes is to reduce c"cle
time !" eliminating *aste

'or+
rrors3 *aiting3 transportation3 movement
etcI--
Total C"cle Time
Aenefits of $SM
) 7elps "ou visuali6e more than the single
process level
) #in+s the material and information flo*s
) Provides a common language
) Provides a !lueprint for implementation
) More useful than ,uantitative tools
) Ties together lean concepts and techni,ues
M Steps for $SM
D-Determine the Product Famil"
J-Dra* "our Current State Map
B-Create the Future State Map
M-Develop "our plan to get there
Current State Map
) (nderstanding ho* the floor currentl"
operates
; Material and Information flo*s
; Dra* using s"m!ols
; Start *ith the 0door to door1 flo*
; 7ave to *al+ the flo* and get actuals
) %o standard times
) Dra* !" hand3 *ith pencil and eraser
; Foundation for the future state
Current State Icons
Cuso!ers
Suppliers
*on45
6ed45
7ri4
Ship!en$
Truc%
Process &o'
)aintin!
(aa
&o'
(891 sec
Cycle Ti!e
(8:9 1 hr
Changeover
Rel49 "8;
)eliabiliy
7)< 9 "5;
*ualiy
=
Invenory
Push Syse!
+peraor
Go See
More Current State Icons
Train
&oa
Cell
,ardcopy
#lecronic
Person
Plane
Fun Current State Icons
>
>
>
o
AUVWGX
Fa
x
Current State Map Setup
+ips
(se DD1 x DO1 paper3 landscape
(se pencil and eraser
Dra* !" hand
Don/t *aste time putting it on a computer just to
ma+e it loo+ nice ?non=value added time@
Practice3 practice3 practice
Steps
Customer
Supplier
Process
Information flo*
Calculate process time and lead=time
Current State Map Setup
Title
Aloc+
Process Time and #ead=time Area
Process Flo* Area
Information Flo* Area
Custome
r
informati
on
Supplier
informati
on
Current State Map
$ewe25
(heatem ?
1owe
$ail2
)hl2e3
@ikni!ht
6eekl2
Atam%in! A%ot 6eld $eburr &ssemble
(891 sec
(8:9 4 hrs
Rel49 "8;
(893" sec
(8:9 11 min
Rel49 "";
7)< 9 "0;
(891# sec
(8:9 0 min
Rel49 80;
7)< 9 100;
(8948 sec
(8:9 5 min
Rel49 100;
7)< 9 "8;
= = = =
91 91 91 92
Ahared
2 6eeks 55425
15400 15225
55300 %cs8mo4
265 %cs8da2
:rder -ntr2
*R)
*onthl2
6eekl2
7)< 9 "5;
L89 2 da2s
)8 9 20 min
)rod (trl
*R)
6eekl2
Achedule
$ail2
308608"0
7orecast
6eekl2
1 sec 3" sec 1# sec 48 sec
2045 da2s 5 da2s 445 da2s
10 da2s
20 min
2 da2s
105 sec
40 da2s
Future State Questions
D- 'hat is the Ta+t Time8
J- 'ill *e !uild to shipping or to a supermar+et8
B- 'here can *e use continuous flo*8
M- 'here do *e have to use supermar+et pull s"stem8
N- At *hat single point in the production chain do *e trigger
production8
P- 7o* do *e level the production mix at the pacema+er
process8
O- 'hat increment of *or+ *ill *e release and ta+e a*a" at
the pacema+er process8 ?#eveling the volume@
Q- 'hat process improvements *ill !e necessar"8 ?e-g-
uptime3 changeover3 training@
D- 'hat is the Ta+t Time8
) Ta+t means drumbeat
) A!ilit" to meet customers/ demand
) Formula
Ta+t Time F
Time Availa!le
Demand
Ta+t Time Calculation
Time availa!le
Shift ?Q hours@ F MQE mins
Area+s ?J xDE@ = JE mins
#unch = BE mins
Meetings = N mins
CC4 = N mins
Total Time F MJE mins F JN3JEE sec
Demand F JPN parts
Ta+t Time F RN secCpart

Ta+t Time F Demand 5ate
9oal2 Produce to demand *ith no excess
capacit"
Ta+t Time F *or+ time availa!le num!er of
units sold
Assume N people *or+3 sell NEE
unitsC*ee+2
Ta+tTime F ?N x ME x PE@ C NEE F JM
minCunit
Set c"cle time to match
personnelCoperation
For three=step process3 perfect is Q
minCstep
xercise
) Ta+t time calculation
4ld re,uirements2 QMOCda" [ JME *or+da"sC"r F
JEB3EEEC"r
DES gro*th F JJB3PEEC"r
%e* re,uirements2 JJB3PEC"rCJME *or+da"sC"r F
RBDCda"
Time availa!le2 Q-N hrsCda" = -N hrs ?lunch@ = -BB hrs
?!rea+s@ F O-PO hrsCda"
B3PEE secsChr [ O-PO hrsCda" F JO3PDJ secondsCda"
JO3PDJ secondsCda" divided !" RBD unitsCda" F JR-B
secs per unit
C"cle time ?actuall" DDP secsCunit@ divided !" Ta+t
time ?JR-B secsCunit@ F B-RN F M operators re,uired
Quic+ Changeover
Changeovers in less than DE minutes

Quic+ Changeover
) Factor" definition ; the time from the last
good piece of previous run to the next
good piece of ne* run
) 4ffice definition ; the time it ta+es to s*itch
from one tas+ to a ne* tas+
; T"picall"3 in the office the time savings is
not as significant as in manufacturing
J 7our CC4 ; #arge Aatch Si6e
E
D
J
B
M
N
P
O
Q
Mon Tue 'ed Thu Fri
A A C D
D 7our CC4 ; 7alf Aatch Si6e
E
D
J
B
M
N
P
O
Q
Mon Tue 'ed Thu Fri
A
A
C
D
A
A
C
D
DE Minute CC4 ; Small Aatch Si6e

E
D
J
B
M
N
P
O
Q
Mon Tue 'ed Thu Fri
A
A
C
D
A
A
C
D
A
A
C
D
A
A
C
D
A
A
C
D
DE Minute CC4 ; Man" Different Small

Aatches
E
D
J
B
M
N
P
O
Q
Mon Tue 'ed Thu Fri
A
A
C
D
F
A
C
D
9
A
F
A
A
7
C
A
I
9
7
D
A
Changeover Summar"
CCE Time %um!er of
Changeovers
%um!er of
Production
5uns
Production
Time
Availa!le
J 7our N N BE hours
D 7our DE DE BE hours
BE Minute DN DN BJ-N hours
DE Minute JN JN BN-Q hours
Aased on ME hours per *ee+
SMD
) Single Minute xchange of Dies ?SMD@
) Shigeo Shingo ?DROE@
D-Separate internal steps and external steps
J-Convert internal steps to external *here
ever possi!le
B-Streamline all steps
M Categories of SMD time

D- Preparation3 after=
process
adjustments3
chec+ing of
material and tools
?BES@
J- Mounting3 removing
tools and parts
?NS@
B- Measurements3
settings and
cali!rations ?DNS@
M- Trial runs and
adjustments ?NES@
BES
NS
DNS
NES
T"pical proportions
Step D- Separate Internal and
xternal Times
) Chec+lists
) Functional chec+s
) Transportation of parts and tools
Step J- Convert Internal Time to
xternal Time
) Preparation conditions
; Pre=heat3 correct air pressure3 stage
materials
) Standardi6e
; Centering3 gripping3 securing3 replace
fe*est parts3 standardi6e heights3
standardi6e !olts or fasteners
) Intermediar" jigs
; Mounting plates
Step B- Streamline
) Parallel operations
; More than one person *or+ing at the same
time
) liminate adjustments
; Mar+ings
; Scales
) Functional clamps
) Mechani6ation
Changeover Cart xample
Aefore
) 'aste of time to find
correct tools
) Tools can !ecome
damaged
) 'aste of mone" for extra
tools
After
) Saves time
) Do not have to replace
tools as often
) 7ave *hat "ou need
*here its needed
QC4 and 4ther Auilding Aloc+s
) NS3 $isual3 P4(S3 Teams and Standard
'or+
) $SM can discover opportunities for QC4
) As Aatch Si6e 5eduction continues3 QC4
!ecomes more important
) <ai6en Alit6 is a great method to implement
QC4
) Must sustain the gains
Aenefits of Quic+ Changeover
) Shorter lead time
) #ess material *aste
) Fe*er defects
) #ess inventor"
) #o*er space re,uirements
) 7igher productivit"
) 9reater flexi!ilit"
) Aetter Team*or+
Change Management
Aatch Si6e
5eduction
P4(S
Autonomation
.IT
Quic+ Changeover
Pull S"stem &
<an!an
Cellular &
Flo*
TPM
$
S
M
Teams
<ai6en vs- <ai6en Alit63 or Incremental vs- Area+through

Improvements
<ai6en Incremental Improvements2

) Are continuous3 since there is al*a"s room for
improvement in an" process
) It is never=ending
) Man" small improvements throughout the enterprise
) Done !" individuals or small teams
) Could !e functional3 departmental3 or tas+=oriented
) Part of the 0useful man"1
) A little time spent on an ongoing !asis
) Standardi6ation of processes
?i-e-3 process improvement oriented@
) Plan=Do=Chec+=Act methodolog"
Ideas for continuous improvement could come from2

; mplo"ee suggestions
; Corrective & Preventive actions
; %on=conformities3 defects
; Customer complaints3 returns
; Aenchmar+s
; The #ean 0*astes1
; $ariations from the standard
; Assessments3 audits & competitive anal"ses
; 5esearch & Development activities
Continuous Improvement & Continuous #earning

) Continuous #earning goes hand in hand *ith
continuous improvement
) Management should have training given to
emplo"ees in #ean and Qualit" tools3 pro!lem
solving and root cause anal"sis3 the process
model3 concepts of Theor" of Constraints3
!asic statistical techni,ues3 graphical tools3 etc-
) (nderstanding of Plan=Do=Chec+=Act and
Standardi6e=Do=Chec+=Act ?SDCA@ *ill !e
!eneficial
Continuous Improvement & Continuous #earning
) Continuous improvement and learning2
; Aecomes part of dail" *or+ life
; Is practiced at !oth personal3 functional and
organi6ational levels
; Is result oriented
; Is shared *ithin the enterprise
; Aecomes part of institutional memor" and
+no*ledge3 even after emplo"ees retire3
move upClaterall" or leave
'h" C- I-8
) Standing still is not an option2
; Competitors *ill overta+e us
; 9lo!ali6ed econom"
; 7igher customer expectations
; Technical and !rea+through changes
; Tapping into human potential and creativit"
) Improvements !ased on2
; Cost and c"cle time reduction
; 0'aste1 minimi6ation
; Defect prevention
; nhancing customer satisfactionCdelight
; Attaining competitive advantage
<ai6en Alit6
) Area+through strategies for lasting
results
Change Management
Aatch Si6e
5eduction
P4(S
Autonomation
.IT
Quic+ Changeover
Pull S"stem &
<an!an
Cellular &
Flo*
TPM
$
S
M
Teams
<ai6en Alit6
) <ai6en Alit6 is a com!ination of the .apanese *ord
<ai6en for 0continuous improvement1 and the
9erman *ord Alit6 for 0lightning-1 It is a focused3
week:long *or+shop *here a cross=functional team
revie*s a process3 identifies and eliminates *aste3
there!" achieving dramatic and tangi!le
breakthrough ?rather than incremental@
improvement results-
) <ai6en Alit6 no* stands to mean the improvement
activit" itself-
) It is treated more as a 0Project1 ?rather than a
0Process1@-
'h" <ai6en Alit68
) Major !enefits in a flash-
) Can use !enchmar+ing for setting goals-
) Innovation has !ecome indispensa!le in toda"/s
competitive *orld econom"-
) C"cle Time 5eduction translates directl" to cost
savings-
) <ai6en Alit6es t"picall" attac+ *asted time-
) Positive impact on organi6ational culture through
0!rea+through1 t"pe improvements-
'ho 'ill !e Involved8
) <ai6en Alit6 teams that come together for one *ee+ to
implement improvements in a pre=selected !ottlenec+
project or process-
) Cross=functional teams ?seven to ten persons@
) 7ourl" and salaried personnel
) 4perators3 engineers3 supervisors3 maintenance persons3
managers3 technical experts3 material handlers3 ,ualit"
personnel3 !usiness support personnel3 participants from
the outside
) T"picall"3 the Team #eader is person *ith clout and is the
highest sta+eholder in the process *ho possess leadership
s+ills3 open minds3 strong desire to succeed and some prior
#ean experience-
<ai6en and C"cle Time 5eduction
) Focus on 'rocess-
) Focus on Elimination of Waste-
) Focus on S"eed-
) Time improvement translates directl" to
cost savings and customer satisfaction-
<ai6en Alit6 Steps

D-Select specific area for improvement-
J-Define current situation in measura!le
terms
B-Set aggressive goals ?stretch goals@-
M-Identif" team mem!ers-
N-Conduct training on the first da" of the
project-
P-Do it ?in three to five da"s@-
Step D ; Select Project
) $alue Stream Map
) Aottlenec+s
) Customer or ,ualit" related issues
) Interdepartmental
) #ong lead=times or setup times
) Competitive advantage
) Cost reduction or avoidance
Step J ; Define Current State
) $ideo tape
) Time stud"
) Flo*chart
) 7istorical information
) 4!servations and intervie*s
Step B ; Identif" Team Mem!ers
) Cross=functional teams ?seven to ten persons@
) 7ourl" and salaried personnel
) 4perators3 engineers3 supervisors3 maintenance persons3
managers3 technical experts3 material handlers3 ,ualit"
personnel3 !usiness support personnel3 participants
from the outside
) T"picall"3 Team #eader is person *ith clout and is the
highest sta+eholder in the process- Ideall"3 the team
leader must possess leadership s+ills3 open minds3
strong desire to succeed and some prior 0#ean1
experience-
Step M ; Set Aggressive 9oals
) Define the purpose or o!jective and set stretch
goals-
) 9oals should !e clearl" defined and ,uantifia!le
?e-g-3 reduce machine set up time !" ONS3
increase throughput !" MES3 reduce floor
space !" BES@-
) mphasis should !e on identif"ing and
eliminating *aste3 and then standardi6ing at
the improved level-
) Aenchmar+ *hen possi!le
Step N ; Conduct Training
) Select hands=on training that is compati!le
*ith the project
) Do training on the first morning
) Provided !" an internal or external expert
Step P ; Do itX
) Perform in B to N da"s
xample D ; (niversal .oint QC4
Categor" Changeover Tool Change
Target savings M-R hours ?ONS@ DM-Q hours ?ONS@
Actual savings M-N hours ?PRS@ DB-Q hours ?OES@
Target savings
per da"
LJRD LQOR
Actual savings
per da"
LJPQ LQJE
Total savings LJOJ3EMD per "ear
xample J ; Tu!e Mill SMD
) Changeover savings per "ear2 LNDE3EEE
) 5educed changeover time from M hours3 ME
minutes to J hours3 DD minutes
) mplo"ees happier ; !onuses !ased on
changeovers
) Management happier ; more changeovers3
more production3 more cash in the door
7o* to Start and Sustain "our #ean
.ourne"
) A journe" of one thousand miles3 starts
*ith a single step
Q 'a"s to 9et Started
D-Aaseline Assessment or 9ap Anal"sis
J-$alue Stream Map
B-Training in #ean
M-Aasic Auilding Aloc+s
N-<ai6en Alit6
P-Pilot Projects
O-Change Management
Q-4
D- Aaseline Assessment
Aaseline Assessment or 9ap Anal"sis performed

!" experienced #ean experts
) (se
; Intervie*s
; 4!servations
; Process mapping
; Anal"sis of relia!le data
) Create a 09ap Anal"sis1 *ith focus on
eliminating the ight 'astes
) 9enerate an Action Plan for implementing #ean
improvements
J- $alue Stream Mapping
$alue Stream Mapping

) Assem!le the cross functional team
) 7ave a $alue Stream Manager
) Determine a Product Famil"
) Create the Current State Map
) Create the Future Stats Map
) Develop the Plan to get there3 tie=in *ith !usiness
o!jectives
) 5evie* the Plan3 sta" on course
) Gour Future State then !ecomes "our Current State
) xpand to Multiple $alue Streams
B- Training in #ean
Training in #ean
) 0Massive1 training in #ean
) %eed to !uild a critical mass of trained
emplo"ees
) Perform the training just !efore
implementation
) #ean Champions should have advanced
s+ills in #ean
M- Aasic Auilding Aloc+s

) Start *ith one of the Aasic Auilding Aloc+s
of #ean
Change Management
Aatch Si6e 5eduction P4(S
Autonomation
.IT
Quic+ Changeover
Pull S"stem & <an!an
Cellular &
Flo*
TPM
$
S
M
Teams
Aasic Auilding Aloc+s
Aasic Auilding Aloc+s

) Start *ith the implementation of the Aasic
Auilding Aloc+s
) Auild up la"er !" la"er until TPM3 Cellular
Manufacturing and PullC<an!an are
esta!lished
) Then continuousl" improve using <ai6ens3
suggestion s"stems and periodic $alue
Stream Maps-
xample ; Implementing NS
) Plan
; Identif" NS
Champions &
Teams
; Decide ho* to roll=
out to entire
organi6ation
; 5esources re,uired
) Train
; Train just !efore
<ai6en
; Train=the=trainer
) Do
) Improve & 5epeat
D
O
D
N
N
P
Q R
Q Q
Q Q
M
M
R R
R R
J
B
DE
DE
DB
D
M
D
M
DD
DJ
NS Implementation Map
N- <ai6en Alit6
Select a <ai6en Alit6 project

) Perform in B=N da"s
) Focus on speed and elimination of *aste
) Can perform on 0lo* hanging fruit1
) 9enerates ,uic+ victories and
improvements
) Do not continue in an Ad=hoc approach3
use "our $alue Stream Map
P- Pilot Projects
Pilot Projects
) Implement #ean Pilot Projects *here !ottlenec+s
have !een identified
) (se cross=functional teams
) PDCA methodolog" is !est
) Can use !enchmar+s and !est practices for goal
setting
) Communicate results
) Migrate lessons learned to other areas
O- Change Management
Change Management
) Aegin *ith cultural Change Management !efore
rolling out #ean
) Address the human side of #ean in "our three to
five "ear Master Plan
) (se internalCexternal change agents
) Communicate the need for change2 ultimatel"3
#ean has to !ecome integrated into dail" *or+
life
) 4pen up channels for sharing ideas
Q- 4
4verall ,uipment ffectiveness ?4@ anal"sis

can identif" *here to start "our #ean journe"
) Pareto the time spent on2
; Area+do*ns
; Setups
; Tool changes
; Idling time
; Slo*er speed
; Minor stoppages
; Producing defects3 re*or+
; Start=up issues
) This exercise *ill self=identif" the 0!iggest !ang
for the !uc+1 and *here to start
Plan
) Gou must have a plan
) (tili6e a Steering Committee3 Design
Teams and #ean Champions
) Tie the #ean 4!jectives *ith the Ausiness
4!jectives
) Commit resources ?time3 people3 !udgets@
Stages of #ean Implementation
9enerall"3 organi6ations can use this model

for the stages of implementing #ean
) Ta+t
; sta!lish ta+t time and meet it
) Flo*
; After meeting ta+t time3 then create Flo*
) Pull
; 'here "ou can/t Flo*3 Pull
7o* to Sustain #ean8
) #ean *ill not !e sustaina!le *ithout proper
training in #ean and satisfied emplo"ees
) Internali6e into dail" *or+
) (nderstand that it is a never=ending process or
philosoph"2 no turning !ac+
) Create disciplineCmotivationCincentives
) Standardi6e so as not to slip !ac+
7o* to Sustain #ean8
) Continued3 visi!le management commitment
) 4pen communication channels
) mphasi6e accounta!ilit"
) (se #ean performance metrics
) 5ole of #ean champions
) .o! rotation
7o* to Setup the #ean Team

) Steering Committee
) Design Teams
) Champions
Champions
Champions
Champions
#ean Steering
Committee
NS3 $isual3
P4(S
Design
Team
Cellular
Design
Team
PullC<an!
an
Design
Team
7PT
Design
Team
Design
Team
#ean Team 5oles & 5esponsi!ilities
Steering Committee
5oles & 5esponsi!ilities

) Set the #ean polic"
) Provide resources ; time3 people3
!udgets & remove !arriers
) Develop and share the #ean $ision
) Develop the Communication Plan
and then deplo" it
) 0'al+ the tal+1 ever"da" and full"
support the #ean initiatives
) Determine the Design Team ma+e=
up and mem!ers
) 5evie* the *or+ of the Design
Teams
#ean Steering
Committee
) Mem!ers usuall"
from top
management3 !ut
can include 0$alue
Adders1
Design Teams

) Deplo" the #ean polic"
) Determine the resources
re,uired
; Time3 people3 !udgets3
etc
) Determine the !est *a" to
implement the #ean
Auilding Aloc+s in "our
organi6ation
) 5eport to the Steering
Committee on progress
) Support "our #ean
Champions
) Mem!ers usuall"
from management
or 0$alue Adders1
) 9roup li+e Auilding
Aloc+s together
Design
Team
Design Team Agenda
) Design Teams decide ho*
#ean *ill !e implemented
at their facilit"
) Ta+e into account2
; 4rgani6ational
Culture
; Change management
; 5esources
; Current s+ills &
needed s+ills
; Si6e and timing of
projects
; Metrics & 9oals
) Design Teams ma" change
over time
; At first the" oversee
the implementation
plan
; Then the" support
the sustaining
efforts
; The" ma" dis!and3
!e a!sor!ed into
another Design
Team or morph
into a ne* design
Team
; Allo*s mem!ers to
tr" different
aspects of #ean
Champions
#ean Champions

) Deplo" the #ean polic" via
training3 implementation
and <ai6en Alit6
) Feed!ac+ information to the
Design Team on progress
) Ae given the time to support
the #ean efforts
) Ma+e presentations and
communicate the results of
the #ean projects
) Mem!ers usuall"
from management
or 0$alue Adders1
) Motivated to learn3
lead and improve
their organi6ation
Champion/s Agenda
) Ae read" to commit
time to #ean
projects
) Ae *illing to learn and
continuall" improve
) Aecome a #ean
content expert
) 7ave s+ills in training3
pu!lic spea+ing3
project management
and !e a team
pla"er
'IIFM
) 9ain ne* s+ills
) $alued !" the
organi6ation
) xciting3 ne*
assignments
) #earn other aspects of
#ean
Multi=facilit" Deplo"ment xample
4rgani6at
ion
#ean
Steering
Committe
e
Small
Facilit"
#ean
Steering
Committe
e
Large
Facilit"
#ean
Steering
Committe
e
Design
TeamC
Champio
ns
Desi
gn
Tea
m
Desi
gn
Tea
m
Desi
gn
Tea
m
Desi
gn
Tea
m
Champions
Momentum
) 7ave to !uild a
0critical mass1 of
emplo"ees trained
in #ean and appl"
principles
) Auild 0!u"=in1 and
get people
on!oard
) 0Aand*agon1 affect
4rgani6ational
Alignment
Dealing *ith 4!jections to #ean
) Put "ourself in their shoes
) 7elp ans*er 0'IIFM1
) Communicate3 communicate3 communicate
and then communicate some moreX
) Create an 0levator Speech1
9etting People on Aoard

#
e
a
n
P
a
ra
d
is
e
Status Quo
#and
X
8
#ean nterprise vs-
#ean Manufacturing
) Ta+ing #ean !e"ond the shop floor
#ean nterprise
) Move from the shop floor to nterprise=*ide #ean
implementation
) Man" of the Auilding Aloc+s are essential for
efficient office functions ; NS3 $isual3 P4(S3
Standard 'or+3 #a"out3 Self Inspection3 Po+a=
"o+e
) The goal is to reduce or eliminate the *astes to
reduce lead times and to enhance
responsiveness3 competitiveness and customer
satisfaction

+hank youX

***-as,-org

ASQ Six Sigma

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ASQ Six Sigma

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Workshop on Structured Problem

Solving Using DMAIC Methodology

.uran/s Definition of Qualit"

Defined as 0fitness for use1 !ased on2

Total Qualit" Management

Total ,ualit" management ?TQM@2

%oria+i <ano identified three

Qualit" results in2

conomic gro*th and sta!ilit"

The define phase module provides an

Project Selection is Critical

#ean Six Sigma Project Criteria

Traditionall" created !" #SS Champion

Specifies details of a project including2

Supplier3 Input3 Process3 4utput3 Customer diagrams

SIP4C Diagram ; Questions to Ans*er

The SIP4C Diagram ; The Forest #evel

$oice of the Customer

Questions to Find $oice of the Customer

Tools for 9athering $oice of the Customer

Unsolicited data %rom customers

Tools for 9athering $4C

Solicited data %rom customers

Determining Customer 5e,uirements

9raphs and Charts

'ole they Play

Quantif" current status

Facilitate data gathering

Identif" and segregate

different sources of the

) Cause & effect

'ole they Play

) Prioriti(e the problem

) Cenerate many ideas %or

) 9raph & chart

5ole the" Pla"

) Study pattern o% variation in

for data collection

infor#ation (ith #ini#u# (riting

efforts and easy to fill

9raphs represent data pictoriall"- A picture can

"ra&h is -haracteriHed 3y ? constituents

4ifferent 'catter diagra# Patterns

07o* does a reduction

Identif" Inputs ?ra* material3 e,uipment3 energ"3 PM/s3 etc-@

Identif" 4utputs ?measura!leCassessa!le end product

C5 F Critical Factors = Determined through FMA3 D43 etc-

Eor the ne<t session

At the conclusion of this module participants

Standard Deviation is a measure of dispersion of the

The formula for the

Q- A ne* iron ore mine is discovered- DE <g ore is

The mean time ta+en for completing an operation is NEE hrs-

xpress in graphical form also-

F ?PNE ; NEE@ C DEE F D-N

#oo+ing up 6 ta!le3 the corresponding value under the

Standard %ormal Distri!ution is E-MBBJ- i-e- MBS-

F ?OEE ; NEE@ C DEE F J

#oo+ing up 6 ta!le3 the corresponding value under the

Standard %ormal Distri!ution is E-MOOJ-

Thus the pro!a!ilit" of an operator ta+ing more than OEE hrs

is ?E-N ; E-MOOJ@ F E-EJJQ3 i-e- slightl" over JS-

9enerall" spea+ing3 processes have !een

9ive the customers hat the" ant3 *hen the"

liminate aste !" focusing on flo3 pull3 *or+load

In hich categor" should the folloing !e

7o* do "ou +no* here to par+ hen "ou