LeadershipTheories

andStyles
IAAP
2009AdministrativeProfessionalsWeek
Event Event
April28,2009
Development of Leadership Theory DevelopmentofLeadershipTheory
Untilapproximately1930,therewasnotmuch
academic interest in the area of leadership academicinterestintheareaofleadership
Fredrick Taylor Scientific Management (time/motion FredrickTaylor ScientificManagement(time/motion
studiesofproductivity)(late1800s)
MaxWeber(writingonbureaucracy)aleader
possessedpowerbyvirtueofhisposition(1922)
MaryParkerFollett participatorymanagementin
power with as opposed to power over (1926) powerwith asopposedto powerover (1926)
LutherGulick
NotesonOrganization 1937
Work of the Executive WorkoftheExecutive
POSDCORB
Planning Planning
Organizing
Staffing Staffing
Directing
Coordinatingg
Reporting
Budgeting g g
Leadership a new definition Leadership anewdefinition
ChesterBarnard 1938newdefinitionof
leadership leadership
Theabilityofasuperiortoinfluencethe
behaviorofsubordinatesandpersuadethem
tofollowaparticularcourseofaction.
(Barnard1938)
Power French and Raven (1960) Power FrenchandRaven(1960)
Legitimatepower comessolelyfromthepositionthe g p y p
superiorholdsinanorganization
Rewardpower comesbymeansofpromotion,salary
i d i t ti i t increasesandinterestingassignments
Expertpower comesfromtheleaderpossessing
superior knowledge of the matter under discussion superiorknowledgeofthematterunderdiscussion
Referentpower comesfromthefactthat
subordinatesidentifywiththeleaderandrespect
/ him/her
Coercivepower comesfromforcedactionsand
potential for punishment potentialforpunishment
Nature of Leadership NatureofLeadership
Effectiveleadershipisakeyfactorinthelifeandsuccess
ofanorganization
Leadership transforms potential into reality Leadershiptransformspotentialintoreality.
Leadershipistheultimateactwhichbringstosuccessall p g
ofthepotentpotentialthatisinanorganizationand
itspeople.
Leadersproposenewparadigmswhenoldoneslose
theireffectiveness.
Leadership isamajorwayin
whichpeoplechangethe
minds of others and move mindsofothersandmove
organizationsforwardto
accomplishidentifiedgoals.
Theories of Leadership TheoriesofLeadership
Overtime,anumberoftheoriesofleadershiphave , p
beenproposed,including:
GreatManTheory
TraitTheory
B h i l Th i BehavioralTheories
TheManagerialGrid
Theory X and Theory Y TheoryXandTheoryY
ParticipativeLeadership
Lewinsleadershipstyles
Theories of Leadership (con't) TheoriesofLeadership(con t)
Situational Leadership SituationalLeadership
C i h ContingencyTheory
TransactionalLeadership
TransformationalLeadership
Theories of Leadership: Trait TheoriesofLeadership:Trait
TraitTheory/GreatMan(Woman) assumesthe a t eo y/G eat a ( o a ) assu es t e
leaderisdifferentfromtheaveragepersonin
termsofpersonalitytraitssuchasintelligence,
d b perseverance,andambition
Assumptions
Peoplearebornwithinheritedtraits.
S t it ti l l it d t l d hi Sometraitsareparticularlysuitedtoleadership.
Peoplewhomakegoodleadershavetheright(or
sufficient)combinationoftraits. sufficient) combination of traits.
Trait Theory TraitTheory
Earlyresearchonleadershipwasbasedonthe y p
psychologicalfocusoftheday,whichwasof
peoplehavinginheritedcharacteristicsortraits.
Attentionwasgiventodiscoveringthesetraits,
often by studying successful leaders. oftenbystudyingsuccessfulleaders.
Underlyingassumptionthatifotherpeoplecould y g p p p
alsobefoundwiththesetraits,thenthey,too,
couldalsobecomegreatleaders.
Stodgill's (1974) Traits and Skills Stodgill s(1974)TraitsandSkills
Traits Skills
Adaptabletosituations
Alerttosocialenvironment
Clever(intelligent)
Conceptuallyskilled
Ambitiousandachievementorientated
Assertive
Cooperative
Decisive
Creative
Diplomaticandtactful
Fluentinspeaking
Knowledgeable about group task Decisive
Dependable
Dominant(desiretoinfluenceothers)
Energetic(highactivitylevel)
Knowledgeableaboutgrouptask
Organized(administrativeability)
Persuasive
Sociallyskilled
Persistent
Selfconfident
Tolerantofstress
Willing to assume responsibility Willingtoassumeresponsibility
Behavioral Theories BehavioralTheories
Assumptions
Leaderscanbemade,ratherthanareborn
Successfulleadershipisbasedindefinable,learnablebehavior
Description p
Behavioraltheoriesdonotseekinborntraits theylookatwhat
leadersactuallydo
Successcanbedefinedintermsofdescribableactions
Implication:
Leadership capability can be learned Leadershipcapabilitycanbelearned
Behavioral Theories BehavioralTheories
Twogeneraltypesofbehaviorexhibitedby
leaders: leaders:
ConcernforPeople
ConcernforProduction
Early Research on Leader's Behavior EarlyResearchonLeader sBehavior
Whilealeadercanexhibitbothtypesofbehavior, yp ,
earlyresearchonthetwodimensionsindicate
thatgenerally:
As a leaders consideration increased employee Asaleadersconsiderationincreased,employee
turnoverandabsenteeismdeclined
Asaleaderstaskorientationincreased,
employeeperformancerose.
But,thefindingsweresometimescontradictory.
The Managerial Grid TheManagerialGrid
High
Country Club
management
Team management
Concern for People
g
management
g
Medium
Middle of the road
management
Low
Impoverished
management
Authority-compliance
Low Medium High
Concern for Production (Task)
BlakeandMouton(early1960s)
McGregor'sTheoryXandTheoryY
( ) (1960)
TheoryXLeadersAssume: TheoryYLeadersAssume:
1.Employeesinherentlydislikeworkand,
whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
1.Employeescanviewworkasbeingasnaturalas
rest or play wheneverpossible,willattempttoavoidit.
2.Becauseemployeesdislikework,theymustbe
coerced,controlled,orthreatenedwith
punishment to achieve desired goals
restorplay
2. Menandwomenwillexerciseselfdirection
andselfcontroliftheyarecommittedtothe
objectives punishmenttoachievedesiredgoals
3.Employeeswillshirkresponsibilitiesandseek
formaldirectionwheneverpossible
objectives
3.Theaveragepersoncanlearntoaccept,even
seek,responsibility
4.Mostworkersplacesecurityaboveallother
factorsassociatedwithworkandwilldisplaylittle
ambition
4.Theabilitytomakegooddecisionsiswidely
dispersedthroughoutthepopulationandisnot
necessarilythesoleprovinceofmanagers
Participative Leadership ParticipativeLeadership
Assumptions
Involvementindecisionmakingimprovesthe
understandingoftheissuesinvolvedbythosewhomust
carryoutthedecisions.
Peoplearemorecommittedtoactionswheretheyhave
involvedintherelevantdecisionmaking.
People are less competitive and more collaborative when Peoplearelesscompetitiveandmorecollaborativewhen
theyareworkingonjointgoals.
Whenpeoplemakedecisionstogether,thesocial
commitment to one another is greater and thus increases commitmenttooneanotherisgreaterandthusincreases
theircommitmenttothedecision.
Severalpeopledecidingtogethermakebetterdecisions
than one person alone thanonepersonalone.
Participative Leadership ParticipativeLeadership
A Participative Leader rather than taking AParticipativeLeader,ratherthantaking
autocraticdecisions,seekstoinvolveother
people in the process possibly including peopleintheprocess,possiblyincluding
subordinates,peers,superiorsandother
stakeholders stakeholders.
M i i i i i i i hi h Mostparticipativeactivityiswithinthe
immediateteam.
Continuum of Participatory Style ContinuumofParticipatoryStyle
<Not
participative
Highly
participative>
Autocratic
decisionby
Leader
proposes
decision,
listens to
Teamproposes
decision,
leader has final
Jointdecision
withteamas
Fulldelegation
ofdecisionto
leader
listensto
feedback,then
decides
leaderhasfinal
decision
equals team
You should also know: Youshouldalsoknow:
This approach is also known as consultation, Thisapproachisalsoknownasconsultation,
empowerment,jointdecisionmaking,
democraticleadership,ManagementBy
Objective(MBO)andpowersharing.
ParticipativeLeadershipcanbeashamwhen
managersaskforopinionsandthenignore
them.Thisislikelytoleadtocynicismand
feelingsofbetrayal.
Lewin's Three Participatory Lewin sThreeParticipatory
LeadershipStyles(1939)
Autocratic
Intheautocraticstyle,theleadermakesdecisions
withoutconsultingwithothers.InLewin'sexperiments,
h f d th t thi d th t t di t t hefoundthatthiscausedthegreatestdiscontent.
Anautocraticstyleworksbestwhen:
there is no need for input on the decision thereisnoneedforinputonthedecision
wherethedecisionwouldnotchangeasaresultofinput
wherethemotivationofpeopletocarryoutsubsequent
actionswouldnotbeaffectedwhethertheywereorwere
notinvolvedinthedecisionmaking.
Lewin's Styles (con't) Lewin sStyles(con t)
Democratic
Inthedemocraticstyle,theleaderinvolvesthepeople
inthedecisionmaking,althoughtheprocessforthe
fi l d i i f th l d h i th fi l finaldecisionmayvaryfromtheleaderhavingthefinal
saytothemfacilitatingconsensusinthegroup.
Democratic decisionmaking is usually appreciated by Democraticdecision makingisusuallyappreciatedby
thepeople,especiallyiftheyhavebeenusedto
autocraticdecisionswithwhichtheydisagreed.
Democraticstylecanbeproblematicwhentherearea
widerangeofopinionsandthereisnoclearwayof
reaching an equitable final decision. reachinganequitablefinaldecision.
Lewin's Styles (con't) Lewin sStyles(con t)
LaissezFaire Laissez Faire
Thelaissezfairestyleminimizestheleader's
involvement in decisionmaking. involvementindecision making.
Laissezfaire works best when: Laissezfaireworksbestwhen:
peoplearecapableandmotivatedinmakingtheir
owndecisions,and o dec s o s, a d
wherethereisnorequirementforacentral
coordination
Lewin's Conclusions Lewin sConclusions
These experiments were actually done with Theseexperimentswereactuallydonewith
groupsofchildren,butwereearlyinthe
modern era and were consequently highly moderneraandwereconsequentlyhighly
influential.
Lewindiscoveredthat:
ThemosteffectivestylewasDemocratic
Excessiveautocraticstylesledtorevolution
Laissezfaireresultedinlesscoherentwork
patternsandexertionoflessenergythanwhen
b i ti l l d
Situational Leadership SituationalLeadership
Assumptions Assumptions
Thebestactionoftheleaderdependsona
range of situational factors rangeofsituationalfactors.
Whenadecisionisneeded,aneffectiveleader
doesnotjustfallintoasinglepreferredstyle.
FactorsInfluenceSituational
d h Leadership
Tannenbaum and Schmidt (1958) identified TannenbaumandSchmidt(1958)identified
threeforcesthatledtotheleader'saction:
the forces in the situation theforcesinthesituation
theforcesinthefollower
the forces in the leader theforcesintheleader
Thi i th t th l d ' t l i hi hl Thisrecognizesthattheleader'sstyleishighly
variable,andevensuchdistanteventsasafamily
argument can argumentcan
influencedecisionsmadeintheworkplace.
Contingency v. Situational Theory Contingencyv.SituationalTheory
Bothassumethatthereisnosimpleonerightway: ot assu e t at t e e s o s p e o e g t ay:
Situational theory tends to focus more on the Situationaltheorytendstofocusmoreonthe
behaviorsthattheleadershouldadopt,given
situationalfactors(oftenaboutfollower
behavior).
Contingencytheorytakesabroaderviewthat
includescontingentfactorsaboutleader
capability and other variables within the capabilityandothervariableswithinthe
situation.(Leaderswhoareveryeffectiveatone
placeandtimemaybecomeunsuccessfuleither
Transactional Leadership TransactionalLeadership
Assumptions Assumptions
Peoplearemotivatedbyrewardand
punishment punishment.
Socialsystemsworkbestwithaclearchainof
d command.
Whenpeoplehaveagreedtodoajob,apart
ofthedealisthattheycedeallauthorityto
theirmanager.
Theprimepurposeofasubordinateistodo
whattheirmanagertellsthemtodo.
Transactional Leadership Style TransactionalLeadershipStyle
Transactionalleaderworksthroughcreatingclear g g
structures
Workrequirementsareclear
R d t t i l Rewardstructureisclear
Punishmentsarenotalwaysmentioned,buttheyarealso
wellunderstoodandformalsystemsofdisciplineare
usuallyinplace
Negotiate the contract whereby the subordinate is given a Negotiatethecontractwherebythesubordinateisgivena
salaryandotherbenefits,andthecompany(andby
implicationthesubordinate'smanager)getsauthorityover
the subordinate thesubordinate.
Whenworkisallocatedtosubordinates,theyare
Transactional Considerations TransactionalConsiderations
The transactional leader often uses Thetransactionalleaderoftenuses
managementbyexception,workingonthe
principlethatifsomethingisoperatingas
expectedthenitdoesnotneedattention.
IntheLeadershipvs.ManagementSpectrum,
transactionalleadershipisverymuchtowards
themanagementendofthescale.
Reliesstronglyonprincipleofrationalman
andreactiontorewardsandpunishment.
TransactionalandTransformational
( ) (Burns 1978)
Transactional leader engages others in the Transactional leaderengagesothersinthe
reciprocalactivityofexchangingonethingfor
another (participatory/dynamic) another.(participatory/dynamic)
T f i l l d i d Transformational leaderexaminesand
searchesfortheneedsandmotivesofothers
hil ki hi h d f d whileseekingahigheragendaofneeds.
(visionary/changeagent)
Transformational Leadership TransformationalLeadership
Assumptions Assumptions
Peoplewillfollowapersonwhoinspiresthem.
Apersonwithvisionandpassioncanachieve
greatthings.
Thewaytogetthingsdoneisbyinjecting
enthusiasm and energy enthusiasmandenergy.
ComponentsofTransformational
d h Leadership
Developthevision p
Startswiththedevelopmentofavision,aviewof
thefuturethatwillexciteandconvertpotential
followers (This vision may be developed by the followers.(Thisvisionmaybedevelopedbythe
leader,bytheseniorteamormayemergefroma
broadseriesofdiscussions.Theleadermustbuy
incompletely.)
S ll h i i Sellthevision
Sellthevisionimmediatelyandcontinually.
Create trust Createtrust
Relyonpersonalintegrity
Transformational leaders are selling themselves as well as
Finding the Way FindingtheWay
Find the way forwards: Findthewayforwards:
Pathmaybeclear otherssimplyneedto
follow follow
Pathmayneedtobeexploredtogether
Directionwillnotalwaysbeknown
Leaderguidesalongthecourse g g
Transformational Leader will accept that there TransformationalLeaderwillacceptthatthere
willbefailuresandblindcanyonsalongthe
way As long as they feel progress is being
Leadingthecharge
TransformationalLeadersarealwaysvisible
Will stand up to be counted rather than hide Willstanduptobecountedratherthanhide
behindtheirtroops.
Th h b th i ttit d d ti h Theyshowbytheirattitudesandactionshow
everyoneelseshouldbehave.
Theymakecontinuedeffortstomotivateand
rallytheirfollowers,constantlydoingthe
rounds,listening,soothingandenergizing.
Theirunswervingcommitmentkeepspeople
going,particularlythroughthedarkertimes
whensomemayquestionwhetherthevision
Transformational Leadership TransformationalLeadership
One of the methods the Transformational Leader OneofthemethodstheTransformationalLeader
usestosustainmotivationisintheuseof
ceremonies,ritualsandotherculturalsymbolism. , y
Smallchangesgetbighurrahs,pumpinguptheir
significanceasindicatorsofrealprogress.
(CultureCreators)
Overall,theybalancetheirattentionbetween y
actionthatcreatesprogressandthementalstate
oftheirfollowers.
Transformationalleadersarepeopleoriented
MetaLeadership Meta Leadership
Working across organizations Workingacrossorganizations
i i i f d hi FiveDimensionsofMetaLeadership
e
a
d

U
p
TheTh
Person
as
Leader
Connectivity Lead
L
L
e
a
d

t
h
e

S
i
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o
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Women's Leadership Style Women sLeadershipStyle
Effectiveness most often depends upon the fit Effectivenessmostoftendependsuponthefit
betweenthesettingandthemanagement
gender gender.
W i ll i hi Womenstypicallymorementoring,coaching
styleismorefavorablyreceivedinfemale
d i d f i dominatedprofessions.
Mensmoretypicallycommandandcontrol
styleiswellreceivedinmaledominated
What the "studies" show: Whatthe studies show:
Male and female leaders are equally effective Maleandfemaleleadersareequallyeffective
i d b i Womenwereperceivedtobemoresuccessin
femaleorientedsettingsandmalesinmale
i d i orientedsettings
Womenhavebeenfoundtobemore
democratic,encouragingparticipation,and , g g p p ,
menmoreautocratic,directingperformance.
(EaglyandJohnson,1990)
Studies In 2003: Studies In2003:
Women have been shown to be slightly more Womenhavebeenshowntobeslightlymore
likelythanmentohavethetransformational
leadershipstyle,inwhichthemanageracts
morelikeagoodteacherorcoachand
encouragescreativesolutionstoproblems.
Especiallysuitedtothecontemporaryworkplace
Womenalsoappeartorewardgood
performancemorethanmen
Menaremorelikelytocriticizesubordinates
andbelesshandson
Words of Caution WordsofCaution
Psychologists suggest that there may not be an Psychologistssuggestthattheremaynot bean
innatemanagementstyle
Womenmaysoftentheirapproachtoavoid
h b d thebossywomansyndrome
Researchonlyshowsaveragetendenciesany
onemanorwomanmayhavemorefeminine y
ormasculinestyles
Research in the Workplace ResearchintheWorkplace
Bureau of Labor Statistics BureauofLaborStatistics
Nearlyoneoffourchiefexecutivesisnowa
woman reflects the # of women who own their woman reflectsthe#ofwomenwhoowntheir
ownbusinesses.InFortune500 womenhold
onlyabout1outof20topmanagementpositions.
Researchersareinterestedinthequestionof q
whetheramanagementstylemoreassociated
withwomen lessauthoritarian,morenurturing
approach willclickastheworkplacegenerally
shiftstomoreteamorientedstructuresthat
thrive under a less directive approach
Leadership Practices Inventory LeadershipPracticesInventory
JamesKouzesandBarryPosnerdevelopeda
survey (The Leadership Practices Inventory) survey(TheLeadershipPracticesInventory)
thataskedpeoplewhich,ofalistofcommon
characteristics of leaders were in their characteristicsofleaders,were,intheir
experiencesofbeingledbyothers,theseven
top things they look for admire and would topthingstheylookfor,admireandwould
willinglyfollow.
75,000peopleover20years
Kouzes/Posner'sLeadershipInventory
(Inorderofpriority)
Honest Honest
Forwardlooking
Competent Competent
Inspiring
I t lli t Intelligent
Fairminded
Broadminded
Supportive
Straightforward
Dependable
Kouzes/Posner's Inventory (con't) Kouzes/Posner sInventory(con t)
Cooperative Cooperative
Determined
Imaginative Imaginative
Ambitious
C Courageous
Caring
Mature
Loyal
Selfcontrolled
Independent
Keys to Successful Leadership KeystoSuccessfulLeadership
Model the Way ModeltheWay
i Sh d i i InspireaSharedVision
ChallengetheProcess
EnableotherstoAct
EncouragetheHeart
A good leader Agoodleader
i h i i h i i d Isapersonwithintegritywhoiscommittedto
theorganizationandthepeoplewhowork
h li h h i i togethertoaccomplishtheorganizations
mission;thispersonleadsbyexample,
i i h i d h communicateswithoutceasing,andshows
care,concern,andconsistencyinalldealings.
Resources: Resources:
http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/leadership_theories.htm
http://psychology.about.com/library/quiz/blleadershipquiz.htm
TheLeadershipChallenge,4thEdition
J M K B Z P JamesM.Kouzes,BarryZ.Posner
August2007,JosseyBass