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Organic Aquaculture - A new approach in fisheries Development

Dr. Subhendu Datta
Senior Scientist
Kolkata, India


Introduction:
For Organic Agriculture, USDA's National Organic Standards Board (NOSB)
presented a definition in 1995: Organic agriculture is an ecological production management
system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity.
It is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore,
maintain and enhance ecological harmony". The principal guidelines for organic production
are to use materials and practices that enhance the ecological balance of natural systems and
that integrate the parts of the farming system into an ecological whole. Organic agriculture
practices cannot ensure that products are completely free of residues; however, methods are
used to minimize pollution from air, soil and water. Organic food handlers, processors and
retailers adhere to standards that maintain the integrity of organic agricultural products. The
primary goal of organic agriculture is to optimize the health and productivity of
interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people.
Diminishing fishery harvests, wild fish food-safety issues, environmental concerns,
increased fish consumption, and the increasing market share of organic foods have combined
to focus attention on organic aquaculture. Consumer demand may well drive the organic
production of finfish, shellfish, and other aquatic species into the mainstream during the next
decade. Organic aquaculture has attracted the attention of researchers from several academic
disciplines as well as that of environmental advocates and entrepreneurial innovators. A small
number of certified and non-certified organic fish and microalgae products have made it to
the retail market place in the developed countries. While the regulatory specifics still need to
be addressed, this new organic market niche has significant potential for growth in the future
(Boehmer et al., 2005).

Conventional Aquaculture:
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Aquaculture is defined as the production of aquatic animals and plants under
controlled conditions for all or part of their lifecycle. The combination of the environment,
equipment, and techniques selected for the farming of an aquatic species is referred to as the
aquaculture production or cultural system. Several different types of systems have been
developed based on availability of environmental resources and the type of species being
raised. Environmental factors that can influence aquacultural system and species selection
include salinity of the water (marine, brackish and fresh), seasonal climate, watershed
drainage, and tides. The major aquaculture systems are pond culture, cage culture, raceway,
recirculating and integrated. Each of these systems has characteristics that may lead to
consideration for organic production.
Conventional Aquaculture: Environmental Issues
The outlook for aquaculture worldwide is growing. According to FAO statistics,
aquacultures contribution to global supplies of fish, crustaceans and molluscs continues to
grow, increasing from 3.9 percent of total production by weight in 1970 to 27.3 percent in
2000. Aquaculture is growing more rapidly than all other animal food producing sectors.
Worldwide, the sector has increased at an average compounded rate of 9.2 percent per year
since 1970, compared with only 1.4 percent for capture fisheries and 2.8 percent for terrestrial
farmed meat production systems (FAO, 2001a).
Aquacultural activities, like their terrestrial farming counterparts, affect surrounding
ecosystems. Despite numerous regulations aimed at ameliorating these effects, environmental
impacts currently associated with some operations and practices draw criticism of the
industry. Concerns include pollution from solid waste and effluent by-products, pesticide and
antibiotic residues, introductions of species to non-native environments, and transmission of
disease between individual organisms and to other species. These impacts have been
documented across several production systems and types of farmed species (Pillay, 1992).
Developments in research and policy are increasingly being focused on resolving these
environmental problems. Members of the aquaculture community believe that sustainable and
ecologically based management practices can lead to environmentally benign aquacultural
operations. Costa-Pierce (2002) envisaged a future where ecological agriculture research is
oriented to the design, development, and monitoring of aquatic farming systems that preserve
and enhance the form and functions of the natural and social environments in which they are
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suited. Aquaculture depends upon inputs from various food, processing, transportation and
other industries, and can produce valuable, uncontaminated wastewaters and fish processing
wastes, all of which can be a vital part of an ecological system that can be planned and
organized for community-based aquatic foods production and natural ecosystem
rehabilitation, reclamation and enhancement not degradation. Additionally, aquaculture
may provide some relief to over-fishing pressures for some species by supplying rising
consumer demand for these products. Thus, the opportunity exists to create aquacultural
systems that are models of environmental stewardship. The development and implementation
of organic production practices may lead the way in this effort.
Organic Production in Aquaculture
Defining organic aquaculture is very much a work-in-progress and, for many
reasons, an endeavor marked by controversy. Members of both the organic and the
aquaculture communities disagree on how, or even if, aquatic animal and plant production
systems can qualify as organic as the term is commonly used. Any potential definition must
be a multi-faceted one. Organic in the context of food production connotes standards and
certification a verifiable claim for the production process and production practices as well
as more elusive characteristics such as consumer expectation for food quality and safety and
general environmental, social, and economic benefits for farmers and for society. The variety
of species produced in aquacultural systems and vast differences in cultural requirements for
finfish, shellfish, mollusks, and aquatic plants add to the complexity of defining this sector.
Some species and some production systems may prove quite difficult to adapt to a traditional
organic system (Boehmer et al., 2005).
Traditional organic farming systems rely on ecologically based practices, such as
cultural and biological pest management, and virtually exclude the use of synthetic chemicals
in crop production and prohibit the use of antibiotics and hormones in livestock production.
Sustainability, environmental stewardship, and holistic, integrated approaches to production
are hallmarks of organic systems. Standards for organic cropping and terrestrial livestock
husbandry practices have existed for decades. In recent years, standards have been
incorporated into state and national organic rule making and certification requirements.
Interpreting practices and standards developed for terrestrial species into practices and
standards relevant to aquatic species, both animal and plant, remains a major challenge for
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organic aquaculture. How can aquatic operations comply with the requirements for an organic
system plan, for obtaining acceptable stock, for implementing health care monitoring and
management, for maintaining prescribed living conditions, for development and acceptance
of allowed and prohibited substances lists, for organic feed requirements, for controlled post-
harvest processing, for nutrient management, and for required animal identification and
record-keeping?
Many specialists agree that the most immediate deterrent to production of organic
animals is the issue of providing organically produced feed, especially for species requiring
significant proportions of animal-based protein. Where will it come from? Can wild-caught
fish and fish by-products be utilized as organic feed stock for farmed species? Should
emphasis be placed on farming low trophic species?
Other points:
Criteria for evaluating the suitability of a production site for an organic aquaculture
operation; specifically, how standards will be developed for the site of production to
address nutrient concentration/effluent management and water testing parameters,
chemical drift, the emergence and transfer of disease, the escape of captive species to
the wild, biodiversity, and detrimental impacts on indigenous species;
Guidelines to control practices used in aquaculture operations that are consistent with
organic principles, especially with regard to chemicals administered to control
diseases and parasites, and to accommodating natural behaviour and animal welfare
in closed systems;
Induction of triploidy in fish species;
Origin of livestock requirement for aquaculture operations that obtain stock or fry
from wild populations;
Status of wild caught fish and related by-products;
Conversion requirements for producers wishing to change over to an organic system;
Recordkeeping/traceability elements, and inspection practices pertinent to aquatic
species; and
Harmonization of organic aquaculture standards between countries.
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Today, organic aquaculture production takes place primarily in Europe, where certified
organic salmon, carp, and trout are grown and sold. Certified organic mussels, Tiger shrimp,
white shrimp, and tilapia also are cultured in such diverse places as Vietnam, Peru, Ecuador,
Chile, New Zealand, and Israel. Standards and certification procedures are set by just a few
certification agencies. Universal acceptance of any standards does not currently exist. To risk
investment in this sector, producers require formally recognized standards in order to
communicate the advantages of organic aquaculture products to consumers. The key to the
continued growth and development of organic aquaculture lies in resolving a number of issues
that currently stand in the way of instituting internationally accepted certification standards
(Boehmer et al., 2005).
Research and Development
Aquatic species, both animal and plant; ecological situations and locations; and
various production systems, both marine and freshwater; are now under scrutiny in order to
determine adaptability to organic production systems. Concern about the production and
handling requirements that organic standards would impose and the overarching
environmental impacts that organic systems attempt to address has pointed research and
development efforts in some new directions. Current research activities with important
implications for the organic aquaculture industry include: alternative feeds, especially protein
sources from grain and oilseed plants; culture of low-trophic aquatic species; disease
management and use of natural and alternative medicines; polyculture and multi-species
systems; self-filtering systems; techniques for expanded recovery of fishery by-catch and
waste for use in organic systems; implications of using closed containment systems;
environmentally sound effluent management systems; and consumer studies related to food
preferences and purchasing habits (Bullis, 2004; Mathies, 2002).
Draft IFOAM general principles concerning organic aquaculture production
(IFOAM, 2002)
Conversion to Organic Aquaculture
Conversion to organic aquaculture is a process of developing farming practices that
encourage and maintain a viable and sustainable aquatic ecosystem. The time between
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the start of organic management and certification of the production is known as the
conversion period.
Aquaculture production methods can vary widely according to biology of the
organisms, technology used, geographical conditions, ownership structure, time span,
etc. These aspects should be considered when the length of conversion is specified.

Basic Conditions
Management techniques must be governed by the physiological and ethological needs
of the organisms in question. The organisms should be allowed to meet their basic
behavioural needs. Management techniques, especially when applied to influence
production levels and speed of growth must maintain and protect the good health and
welfare of the organisms.
When introducing non-native species, special care must be to avoid permanent
disruption to natural ecosystems.

Location of Production Units
Location of organic production units maintains the health of the aquatic environment
and surrounding aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem.

Location of Collecting Areas
Wild, sedentary/sessile organisms in open collecting areas may be certified as organic
if they are derived from an unpolluted, stable and sustainable environment.

Health and Welfare
Management practices achieve a high level of disease resistance and prevention of
infections.
All management techniques, especially when influencing production levels and speed
of growth maintain the good health and welfare of the organisms. Living aquatic
organisms should be handled as little as possible.
The well being of the organisms is paramount in the choice of treatment for disease or
injury.

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Breeds and Breeding
Breeding strategies and practices in organic aquaculture interfere as little as possible
with natural behaviour of the animals. Natural breeding methods are used.

Nutrition (Aquaculture)
Organic aquaculture production provides a good quality diet balanced according to the
nutritional needs of the organism. Feed is only offered to the organisms in a way that
allows natural feeding behaviour, with minimum loss of feed to the environment.
Feed compromises by-products from organic food processing and wild marine feed
resources not otherwise suited for human consumption.

Harvesting
Harvesting certified organic aquatic organisms from enclosures or collecting areas
creates minimum stress to the organisms. The act of collection does not negatively
affect natural areas.

Transportation of Living Animals
The transportation medium should be appropriate for the species with regards to water
quality, including salinity, temperature, oxygen, etc. Transportation distance, duration
and frequency should be minimised.

Slaughter
Slaughter process minimises the stress and suffering of the organism.
Slaughter management and techniques governed by careful consideration of the
physiology and ethology of the organisms in question and accepted ethical standards.

Organic aquaculture and the environment
In marked contrast to the freshwater-dependent terrestrial agricultural production
systems, aquaculture (including organic aquaculture) can also be realised within marine
and/or brackish water environments. For example, over half (54.7 percent) of total global
aquaculture production currently originates from marine or brackish coastal waters (Figure 1).
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This includes aquatic plants and molluscs within marine waters (46.6 percent and 44.4 percent
total marine production in 1999) and crustaceans (shrimp, crabs) and finfish (mainly
salmonids) in brackish water (56.2 percent and 35.7 percent of total brackish water production
in 1999 (FAO, 2001). In the case of the total reported certified organic aquaculture products
produced in Europe (4 200 - 4 700 tonnes in 2000 (Baker, 2001, Barret, 2001, Bergleiter,
2001a), 87-93 percent of these were produced in marine and brackish waters (i.e. Atlantic
salmon and blue mussels). The use of these hitherto largely untapped vast aquatic resources
(over two-thirds of our planet being covered by oceans) is particularly essential in view of the
urgent need to conserve our precious fresh water supplies for human consumption and
conventional agriculture, including livestock production (Vorosmarty et al., 2000). In addition
to organic fish and mollusc production, the seas hold particular promise for the production of
organic aquatic plants for either for direct human consumption or as much needed organic
feed inputs for animal husbandry.

Figure 1: Major aquaculture species groups by rearing environment in 1999

For the organic aquaculture sector to successfully co-exist with other food production
sectors, it will have to successfully source its own organic feed and nutrient resources. For
example, a major concern with the organic production of carnivorous fish species such as
salmon and trout (over 73 percent of farmed finfish production within developed countries
currently being carnivorous finfish species) is the use or not of fish meal and fish oil within
organic feeds for these species (Tacon and Pruder, 2001). In particular, questions revolve
around:
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whether a product derived from wild caught animals can be certified (Kirschenmann,
2001).
what the maximum level of fish meal or fish oil is that can be used within certified
organic feeds (GAA. 2000, Merican, 2001).
the transfer of essential protein and lipid sources from one part of the globe to the
other (Bergleiter, 2001b ).
concerning the ethics and long term sustainability of producing organic carnivorous
fish species (Staniford, 2001).

Organic agriculture and aquaculture: The Indian scenario
Aquaculture and fish farming activities are included as allied activities in Indian agriculture.
So to understand the organic aquaculture under Indian context, one has to understand the
organic agricultural scenario in India.
Organic agriculture in India:
(Provided to FAO by the Ministry of Agriculture, India, December 2001, Source: Scialabba
and Hattam, 2002).
The Indian definition
"Organic agriculture is a system of farm design and management that creates an
ecosystem which can achieve sustainable productivity without the use of artificial external
inputs such as chemical fertilizers and pesticides."
Legislation
The Indian Government's strategy for organic agriculture is covered by the
National Programme for Organic Production which aims to promote sustainable
production, environmental conservation, reduction in the use and import of agrochemicals,
the promotion of export and rural development. This strategy is promoted by the Ministry
of Agriculture, the Ministry of Environment and the Ministry of Commerce.
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Specific legislation has only been developed for the export of organic products.
This is regulated by Public Notice No. 19 (RE-2001)/1997-2002, 11 June 2001 (duly
amended by 25 (RE-2001)/1997-2002, 2 July 2001).
Support to organic agriculture
Economic:
A programme of direct economic support is provided to farmers; however, this is
limited in scale. As an incentive to adopt organic farming Rs 10 000 (approximately
US$230) per ha is provided both during the conversion period (3 years) and after (as
required). The total cost to the country will be Rs 3.5 million (US$80 000) per year until
2006-2007. This financial support aims to compensate for losses, promote organic
agriculture, support infrastructure development (e.g. the purchase of machinery and
equipment, and the re-structuring of rural buildings), for conducting feasibility studies and
preparation of guidelines for organic production. Some other specific financial incentives
do exist, such as tax reductions and preferential conditions to credit.
Research:
Although support to agricultural research is not specific to organic agriculture,
backing is given to, for example, the development of biofertilizers and biological control
of pests and diseases. The scheme developing biofertilizers has an outlay of US$1.3
million during the years 1998 to 2002, a regular form of extension, technical assistance
and training for farmers. A programme also exists for the promotion of organic farms and
gardens for self sufficiency at the community level. So far 4 model farms have been
developed and replicated. There are now 10 farms following the model developed for the
production of organic joha rice and 20 farms using the model for organic sugarcane
production in Siphajar, near Guwahati. There are 10 farms producing organic pineapples
in Jumerdhepa near Agartala using another model and a further 20 farms using the fourth
model for organic passion fruit production in Mao, near Manipur.
Marketing:
There is no regular support for the marketing or certification of organic products,
however, occasionally on a case by case basis, financial help can be made available.
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Inspection and certification
India has no locally based certification bodies, however, two international
certification organizations have branches in India, namely IMO India, part of the Institute
of Marketecology, Switzerland and Skal India, subordinate to Skal International, from the
Netherlands. ECOCERT International is also active within India, but does not have a local
branch. These market for export to the European Union under article 11 of EU Regulation
2092/91, but also certify to standards of non-European Union countries.
A National Accreditation Policy has recently been approved in India (May 2001)
for the accreditation of certification bodies. The certification bodies already working
within India are now being accredited. The Norms that apply follow the standards of the
FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission guidelines for the production, labelling and
marketing of organically produced foods. For the present the National Steering Committee
for Organic Farming, set up under the Chairmanship of the Secretary of Commerce to the
Government of India, together with members from the Ministry of Agriculture, is the
competent authority which consents to such accreditation. However, the Ministry of
Agriculture will be the nodal Ministry to develop the mechanism for organic standards in
the course of time.
The organic market
In 2000-2001 there were approximately 41 000 ha of land certified as organic in
India. At present, organic products sold on the domestic market receive a premium of
about 20-30 percent over conventional products. Such organic food is usually sold directly
from the farmer or through specialized shops and restaurants. As India has no national
legislation for organic agriculture, there is no mandate stating that organic products
labelled as such need to be certified, however, a national Indian Organic Logo will
eventually be developed for export.
Many organic farmer are organized into farmers associations such as the Organic
Tea Manufacturers Association, from Calcutta; the Delhi Trust for Development, based in
New Delhi and Vidharbha Organic Farming Association, from Hingarh Ghat. Other
farmers associations exist but still remain to become active.
India does not import any organic products, however the export market was
estimated to be worth approximately US$700 000 in 2000-2001. The main market for
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exported products was the European Union and involved rice, pulses, sugarcane products,
walnuts, fruit pulp, tea, coffee and spices.
Future developments
Large tracks of land in India particularly the hilly states of North-Eastern India are
already cultivated with very low use of agrochemicals, and traditional production systems
adopted by farmers for many perennial crops have been, by and large, without any use of
fertilizers and pesticides. Although yields in these areas are low and production is
principally for subsistence, there exists great scope for organic agriculture. Work carried
out in different universities and institutions suggests that the productivity in these areas
could be improved further by adoption of organic techniques, for example, organic
manure and biopesticides. Recently a package of organic practices for a number of crops
has been standardized and is now at the implementation stage.
There is growing appreciation for organically grown food, especially as it provides
additional value to production. However, there are a number of challenges that India and
its organic community need to face:
awareness needs to be raised amongst producers, processors and consumers
regarding organic agriculture and the potential on the domestic and export markets
for organic products;
domestic markets need to be developed and supported, and the role of NGOs
encouraged;
a holistic approach to organic farming needs to be encouraged, both with farmers
but also at research institutes and universities;
local certification should be developed and a database on organic farms and
marketing of produce should be initiated and maintained.

Scope of organic Aquaculture in India:

In India there is an ample opportunity to boost organic crop, livestock and fish
production to catch the organic food market of the world.
The north-eastern region can become a major organic farming of the world. In N-E
region of India, particularly the hill States, have already started moving towards organic
agriculture. In the eastern region, it is estimated that about 1.8 million ha already existing as
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organic by default. It is obvious that large quantity of FYM, compost, vermi-compost, feeds,
biopesticides and other organically produced inputs and biomass would be required to
compensate for the fertilizers and pesticides. For the sustainability of organic farm, it is
important to note that a certified organic farm(s) has to produce most of these inputs in-situ.
But that is lacking in the region.
With increasing purchasing power and heightened ecological awareness, the demand
for organic aquaculture products by major importing countries such as the US and Europe
have been on the rise.
For India, if the marine shrimp exporter can get 25 per cent of their products labelled
as organic, it will fetch an additional Rs 3,000 crore, virtually doubling the present export
realisation of Rs 3,500 crore from shrimp. Though aquaculture currently contributes to around
30 per cent of the total shrimp trade of the world, the real future development lies in shrimp
farming, especially produced the organic way.
Taking the sale of organic salmon as a case in point, its sales in Europe had shot up
forty-fold between 1997 and 2000. Further facilitating the export potential, many countries,
including the European Union have formulated specific standards and guidelines for organic
fish products, distinct from organic farm products. The decision of the US Congress to allow
labelling of wild seafood as organic is another such initiative. In India, such initiatives are
still lacking. However, on the positive side, making a transition to organic systems, especially
in extensive system of shrimp farming would be easy. Also, the technology for production of
low-cost organic feeds is available e.g. the shrimp feed, Mahima, developed by CMFRI.
Large and comparatively clean and pollution-free water bodies are also available. The natural
seed availability for the organic programme is still not in peril.
But the institutional support system in the fisheries sector, for research and trade in
general should be made capable to tackle the transitional challenges. There is a surging global
market waiting for such a product, valued at over $20 billion. Over 90 per cent of this global
organic market comes from India's traditional marine export market of US and Europe, and
demand for organic products from several of these countries have been growing between 20
to 30 per cent. This represents an interesting combination of product and market
diversification, whose rationale is based upon the consumer perceiving value to be added to
the product through its differentiated, more natural but controlled production regime (The
Hindu Bussiness Line, 2005).
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Conclusion:
Organic fish farming is a new concept and is still in the early stages of development
and strives to re-establish a proper balance in aquaculture systems, for the benefit of the fish,
the environment and the consumers. Organic fish farming systems and standards that define
them are likely to witness considerable evolution and refinement over the years.
However, for the moment, three basic issues have to be conformed with - for setting
up standards. Nutrient cycling within closed systems, following the law of return, is a central
organic principle. Also, the use of pesticides, dyes and antibiotics, which are conventionally
used in aquaculture are not to be permitted.
Water, which is both soil and air to the fish, is the critical issue, the quality of which
plays an important role in the quality of the product. Standards must be set up on the quality
and purity of the incoming and outgoing water in terms of environmental impact.
The feed, consisting of fishmeal, fish oil, cereal-based products, vitamins and minerals
etc. should be organically produced. It is not an easy task to bring down and remove the level
of organo-chlorine pollutants in the marine fish that are used for conversion into fishmeal.
National standards would have to be set up which the farmers and exporters who seek eco-
labelling will have to abide by.

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