5.

Taylor and Laurent series

Complex sequences and series
An innite sequence of complex numbers, denoted by {z
n
}, can be
considered as a function dened on a set of positive integers into
the unextended complex plane. For example, we take z
n
=
n +1
2
n
so that the complex sequence is {z
n
} =
_
1 +i
2
,
2 +i
2
2
,
3 +i
2
3
,
_
.
Convergence of complex sequences
Given a complex sequence {z
n
}, if for each positive quantity , there
exists a positive integer N such that
|z
n
z| < whenever n > N,
then the sequence is said to converge to the limt z. We write
lim
n
z
n
= z.
1
In general, the choice of N depends on . The denition implies
that every -neighborhood of z contains all but a nite number of
members of the sequence. The limit of a convergent sequence
is unique. If the sequence fails to converge, it is said to be
divergent.
Suppose we write z
n
= x
n
+iy
n
and z = x +iy, then
|x
n
x| |z
n
z| |x
n
x| +|y
n
y|,
|y
n
y| |z
n
z| |x
n
x| +|y
n
y|.
Suppose lim
n
= x and lim
n
y
n
= y exist, then for any > 0, there
exist N
x
and N
y
such that
|x
n
x| <

2
whenever n > N
x
|y
n
y| <

2
whenever n > N
y
.
Choose n > max(N
x
, N
y
), then
|z
n
z| |x
n
x| +|y
n
y| <

2
+

2
= .
2
Using the above inequalities, it is easy to show that
lim
n
z
n
= z lim
n
x
n
= x and lim
n
y
n
= y.
Therefore, the study of the convergence of a complex sequence
is equivalent to the consideration of two real sequences.
The above theorem enables us to write
lim
n
(x
n
+iy
n
) = lim
n
x
n
+i lim
n
y
n
whenever we know that both limits on the right exist or the one on
the left exists.
3
For example, the sequence
z
n
=
1
n
3
+i, n = 1, 2, ,
converges to i since lim
n
1
n
3
and lim
n
1 exist, so
lim
n
_
1
n
3
+i
_
= lim
n
1
n
3
+i lim
n
1 = 0 +i 1 = i.
One can show that for each positive number
|z
n
i| < whenever n >
1
3

.
4
Innite series of complex numbers
An innite series of complex numbers z
1
, z
2
, z
3
, is the innite
sum of the sequence {z
n
} given by
z
1
+z
2
+z
3
+ = lim
n
_
_
n

k=1
z
k
_
_
.
To study the properties of an innite series, we dene the se-
quence of partial sums {S
n
} by
S
n
=
n

k=1
z
k
.
If the limit of the sequence {S
n
} converges to S, then the series
is said to be convergent and S is its sum; otherwise, the series
is divergent.
The consideration of an innite series is relegated to that of an
innite sequence of partial sums.
5
Remainder after n terms
Suppose an innite series converges. We dene the remainder after
n terms by
R
n
= S S
n
and obviously
lim
n
R
n
= 0.
Conversely, suppose lim
n
R
n
= 0, then for any > 0, there exists
N() such that |R
n
| < for n > N(). This is equivalent to
|S
n
S| < for n > N(),
hence
S = lim
n
S
n
.
6
A necessary condition for the convergence of a complex series is
that
lim
n
z
n
= 0.
This is obvious since
lim
n
z
n
= lim
n
(R
n1
R
n
) = lim
n
R
n1
lim
n
R
n
= 0.
Comparison Test
If

j=1
M
j
is a convergent series with real nonnegative terms and for
all j larger than some number J, |z
j
| M
j
, then the series

j=1
|z
j
|
converges also. This is easily seen since S
n
=
n

j=1
|z
j
| is a bounded
increasing sequence, so it must have a limit.
7
Absolute convergence
The complex series

n=1
z
n
is absolutely convergent if

n=1
|z
n
| con-
verges. Note that |z
n
| =
_
x
2
n
+y
2
n
and since
|x
n
|
_
x
2
n
+y
2
n
and |y
n
|
_
x
2
n
+y
2
n
,
then from the comparison test, the two series

n=1
|x
n
| and

n=1
|y
n
|
must converge. Thus, absolute convergence in a complex sequence
implies convergence in that sequence.
The converse may not hold. If z
n
converges but |z
n
| does not,
the series z
n
is said to be conditionally convergent. For example,
Log(1 e
i
) =

n=1
e
in
n
, = 0,
is conditionally convergent.
8
Example
Show that the series

j=1
(3 +2i)/(j +1)
j
converges.
Solution
We compare the series

j=1
3 +2i
(j +1)
j
=
(3 +2i)
9
+
(3 +2i)
64
+ (A)
with the convergent geometric series

j=1
1
2
j
=
1
2
+
1
4
+
1
8
+ . (B)
Since |3 +2i| =

13 < 4, one can easily verify that for j 3

3 +2i
(j +1)
j

<
4
(j +1)
j

1
2
j
.
The terms of (B) dominate those of (A), hence (A) converges.
9
Limit superior
Consider a sequence {x
n
} of real numbers, and let S denote the set
of all of its limit points. The limit superior of {x
n
} is the supremum
(least upper bound) of S. For example, x
n
= 3+(1)
n
, n = 1, 2, ,
the limit points are 2 and 4 so that
lim
n
x
n
= max(2, 4) = 4.
Root test
Suppose the limit superior of {|z
n
|
1/n
} equals L, the series z
n
converges absolutely if L < 1 and diverges if L > 1. The root
test fails when L = 1.
10
Ratio test
Suppose lim
n

z
n+1
z
n

converges to L, then z
n
is absolutely conver-
gent if L < 1 and divergent if L > 1. When L = 1, the ratio test
fails.
Gauss test
Suppose

z
n+1
z
n

admits the following asymptotic expansion

z
n+1
z
n

= 1
k
n
+

n
n
2
+ ,
where |
n
| is bounded for all n > N for some suciently large N,
then z
n
converges absolutely if k > 1, and diverges or converges
conditionally if k 1.
11
Proof of the Ratio Test
Suppose lim
n

z
n+1
z
n

converges to L, L < 1, then we can choose an

integer N such that for n N, we have

z
n+1
z
n

r, where L < r < 1.

Now, we have
|z
N+1
| r|z
N
|, |z
N+2
| r|z
N+1
| r
2
|z
N
|, and so forth,
|z
N+1
| +|z
N+2
| + |z
N
|(r +r
2
+ ).
Thus,

n=1
|z
n
| converges absolutely by virtue of the comparison test.
12
Sequences of complex functions
Let f
1
(z), , f
n
(z), , denoted by {f
n
(z)}, be a sequence of com-
plex functions of z that are dened and single-valued in a region R
in the complex plane.
For some point z
0
R, {f
n
(z
0
)} becomes a sequence of complex
numbers. Supposing {f
n
(z
0
)} converges, the limit is unique. The
value of the limit depends on z
0
, and we write
f(z
0
) = lim
n
f
n
(z
0
).
If this holds for every z R, the sequence {f
n
(z)} denes a complex
function f(z) in R. We write
f(z) = lim
n
f
n
(z).
This is usually called pointwise convergence.
13
Denition
A sequence of complex functions {f
n
(z)} dened in a region R is
said to converge to a complex function f(z) dened in the same
region if and only if, for any given small positive quantity , we can
nd a positive integer N(; z) [in general, N(; z) depends on and
z] such that
|f(z) f
n
(z)| < for all n > N(; z).
The region R is called the region of convergence of the sequence
of complex functions.
In general, we may not be able to nd a single N() that works for
all point in R. However, when this is possible, {f
n
(z)} is said to
converge uniformly to f(z) in R.
14
Convergence of series of complex functions
An innite series of complex functions
f
1
(z) +f
2
(z) +f
3
(z) + =

k=1
f
k
(z)
is related to the sequence of partial sum {S
n
(z)}
S
n
(z) =
n

k=1
f
k
(z).
The innite series is said to be convergent if
lim
n
S
n
(z) = S(z),
where S(z) is called the sum; otherwise the series is divergent.
15
Many of the properties related to convergence of complex functions
can be extended from their counterparts of complex numbers. For
example, a necessary but not sucient condition for the innite
series of complex functions to converge is that
lim
k
f
k
(z) = 0,
for all z in the region of convergence.
Example
Consider the complex series

k=1
sinkz
k
2
,
show that it is absolutely convergent when z is real but it becomes
divergent when z is non-real.
16
Solution
(i) When z is real, we have

sinkz
k
2

1
k
2
, for all positive integer values of k.
Since

k=1
1/k
2
is known to be convergent, then

k=1
sinkz/k
2
is
absolutely convergent for all z by virtue of the comparison test.
(ii) When z is non-real, we let z = x +iy, y = 0. From the relation
sinkz
k
2
=
e
ky
e
ikx
e
ky
e
ikx
2k
2
i
,
we deduce that

sinkz
k
2

e
k|y|
e
k|y|
2k
2
as k .
Since

sinkz/k
2

is unbounded as k , the series is divergent.

17
Uniform convergence of an innite series of complex functions
Let R
n
(z) = S(z)
n

k=1
f
k
(z) = S(z) S
n
(z).
The innite series f
k
(z) converges uniformly to S(z) in some region
R i for any > 0, there exists N which is independent of z such
that for all z R
|R
n
(z)| < whenever n > N.
Weierstrass M-test
If |f
k
(z)| M
k
where M
k
is independent of z in R and the series
M
k
converges, then f
k
(z) is uniformly convergent in R.
18
Proof of the Weierstrass M-test
The remainder of the series

f
k
(z) after n terms is
R
n
(z) = f
n+1
(z) +f
n+2
(z) + .
Now,
|R
n
(z)| |f
n+1
(z)| +|f
n+2
(z)| + M
n+1
+M
n+2
+ .
Since

M
k
converges, M
n+1
+ M
n+2
+ can be made less than
> 0 by choosing n > N for some N = N(). As N is clearly
independent of z, we have
|R
n
(z)| < for n > N,
so the series is uniformly convergent. We also have absolute con-
vergence of the series.
19
Test for uniform convergence using the M-test
1.

n=1
z
n
n

n +1
, |z| 1.
Note that |f
n
(z)| =
|z|
n
n

n +1

1
n
3/2
if |z| 1. Take M
n
=
1
n
3/2
and note that

M
n
converges.
2.

n=1
1
n
2
+z
2
, 1 < |z| < 2.
Omit the rst two terms since it does not aect the uniform
convergence property. For n 3 and 1 < |z| < 2, we have
|n
2
+z
2
| |n
2
| |z
2
| n
2
4
n
2
2
so that

1
n
2
+z
2

2
n
2
.
Take M
n
=
2
n
2
and note that

n=3
2
n
2
converges.
20
Example
Prove that the series
z(1 z) +z
2
(1 z) +z
3
(1 z) +
converges for |z| < 1 and nd its sum.
Solution
S
n
(z) = z(1 z) + +z
n
(1 z)
= z z
2
+z
2
z
3
+ +z
n
z
n+1
= z z
n+1
.
For |z| < 1, consider |S
n
(z) z| = | z
n+1
| = |z|
n+1
< . In order
that this is true, we choose n such that
(n +1) ln|z| < ln so that n +1 >
ln
ln|z|
or n >
ln
ln|z|
1, z = 0.
When z = 0, S
n
(0) = 0 so |S
n
(0) 0| < for all n.
Hence, lim
n
S
n
(z) = z for all z such that |z| < 1.
21
Questions
1. Does the series converge uniformly to z for |z|
1
2
?
Yes. If |z|
1
2
, the largest value of
ln
ln|z|
1 occurs when |z| =
1
2
and is given by
ln
ln
1
2
1.
Take N() to be the largest integer smaller than
ln
ln
1
2
1. It then
follows that |S
n
(z) z| < for n > N where N depends only on
and not on the particular z in |z|
1
2
. Hence, we have uniform
convergence of the series for |z|
1
2
.
22
2. Does the series converge uniformly for |z| 1?
The same argument given in Qn (1) serves to show uniform
convergence for |z| 0.9 or |z| 0.99 by using
N =
_
ln
ln0.9
1
_
and N =
_
ln
ln0.99
1
_
, respectively.
However, if we apply the argument to |z| 1, this would require
N =
_
ln
ln1
1
_
, which is innite. The series does not converge
uniformly for |z| 1.
23
Example
Show that the geometric series

n=0
z
n
converges uniformly to
1
1 z
on any closed subdisk |z| r < 1 of the open unit disk |z| < 1.
Solution
To establish the uniform convergence of the series for |z| r < 1,
we apply the Weierstrass M-test. We have |f
n
(z)| = |z
n
| r
n
= M
n
for all |z| r.
Since

n=1
M
n
=

n=0
r
n
is convergent if 0 r < 1, we conclude that
the series

n=1
z
n
converges uniformly for |z| r.
24
For uniformly convergent innite series of complex functions, prop-
erties such as continuity and analyticity of the continuous functions
f
k
(z) are carried over to the sum S(z). More precisely, suppose
f
k
(z), k = 1, 2, , are all continuous (analytic) in the region of
convergence, then

f
k
(z) is also continuous (analytic) in the same
region.
Further, an uniform convergent innite series allows for termwise
dierentiation and integration, that is,
_
C

k=1
f
k
(z) dz =

k=1
_
C
f
k
(z) dz
d
dz

k=1
f
k
(z) =

k=1
f

k
(z).
25
Power series
The choice of f
n
(z) = a
n
(zz
0
)
n
leads to the power series expanded
at z = z
0
. A power series denes a function f(z) for those points z
at which it converges.
Given a power series

n=1
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
, there exists a non-negative real
number R, R can be zero or innity, such that the power series
converges absolutely for |z z
0
| < R, and diverges for |z z
0
| > R.
R is called the radius of convergence
|z z
0
| < R is called the circle of convergence.
Convergence of the power series must be determined for each point
on the circle of convergence.
26
Ratio test as applied to the innite power series
The radius of convergence R is given by lim
n

a
n
a
n+1

, given that the

limit exists.
Consider the ratio
|a
n+1
||z z
0
|
n+1
|a
n
| |z z
0
|
n
and suppose lim
n

a
n
a
n+1

exists,
then the power series converges absolutely when |z z
0
| satises
lim
n

a
n+1
a
n

|z z
0
| < 1 |z z
0
| < lim
n

a
n
a
n+1

.
27
(i) R = when lim
n

a
n+1
a
n

= 0. The series converges in the whole

plane.
(ii) R = 0 when lim
n

a
n
a
n+1

= 0. The series does not converges for

any z other than z
0
.
Root test as applied to the innite power series
The radius of convergence can also be found by
R =
1
lim
n
n
_
|a
n
|
, which is a consequence of the root test.
Note that
lim
n
n
_
|a
n
||z z
0
| < 1 |z z
0
| <
1
lim
n
n
_
|a
n
|
.
28
Example
Find the circle of convergence for each of the following power series:
(a)

k=1
1
k
(z i)
k
,
(b)

k=1
k
ln k
(z 2)
k
,
(c)

k=1
_
z
k
_
k
,
(d)

k=1
_
1 +
1
k
_
k
2
z
k
.
29
Solution
(a) By the ratio test, we have
R = lim
k
1/k
1/(k +1)
= 1;
so the circle of convergence is |z i| = 1.
(b) Using the root test, we have
1
R
= lim
k
k
_
|a
k
| = lim
k
k
_
k
lnk
.
To evaluate the limit, we consider the logarithm,
ln lim
k
k
_
k
ln k
= lim
k
ln
k
_
k
lnk
= lim
k
(lnk)
2
k
= 0;
so
1
R
= lim
k
k
_
k
ln k
= e
0
= 1.
The circle of convergence is |z 2| = 1.
30
(c) By the ratio test, we have
R = lim
k
_
1
k
_
k
_
1
k+1
_
k+1
= lim
k
(k +1)
_
1 +
1
k
_
k
= ;
so the circle of convergence is the whole complex plane.
(d) By the root test, we have
1
R
= lim
k
k

_
_
1 +
1
k
_
k
2
= lim
k
_
1 +
1
k
_
k
= e,
so the circle of convergence is |z| = 1/e.
31
Theorem
If z
1
is a point inside the circle of convergence |z z
0
| = R of a
power series

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
then the power series must be uniformly convergent in the closed
disk |z z
0
| R
1
, where R
1
= |z
1
z
0
|.
Some useful results
Let S(z) denote the sum of the innite power series inside the circle
of convergence. Then
(i) S(z) represents a continuous function at each point interior to
its circle of convergence.
(ii) S

(z) =

n=1
na
n
(z z
0
)
n1
at each point z inside the circle of
convergence.
32
Power series of f(z)
Suppose a power series represents the function f(z) inside the circle
of convergence, that is,
f(z) =

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
.
It is known that a power series can be dierentiated termwise so
that
f

(z) =

n=1
na
n
(z z
0
)
n1
f

(z) =

n=2
n(n 1)a
n
(z z
0
)
n2
, .
Putting z = z
0
successively, we obtain
a
n
=
f
(n)
(z
0
)
n!
, n = 0, 1, 2,
f(z) =

n=0
f
(n)
(z
0
)
n!
(z z
0
)
n
.
33
A power series represents an analytic function inside its circle of
convergence. Can we expand an analytic function in Taylor series
and how is the domain of analyticity related to the circle of conver-
gence?
Taylor series theorem
Let f(z) be analytic in a domain D with boundary D and z
0
D.
Determine R such that
R = min{|z z
0
|, z D}.
Then there exists a power series

k=0
a
k
(z z
0
)
k
which converges to
f(z) for |z z
0
| < R. The coecients a
k
are given by
a
k
=
1
2i
_
C
f()
( z
0
)
k+1
d =
f
(k)
(z
0
)
k!
, k = 0, 1, 2, ,
C is any closed contour around z
0
and lying completely inside D.
34
Proof
Take a point z such that |z z
0
| = r < R.
A circle is drawn around z
0
with radius R
1
, where r < R
1
< R. Since
z lies inside C
1
, by virtue of the Cauchy Integral Theorem, we have
f(z) =
1
2i
_
C
1
f()
z
d.
The circle C
1
lies completely inside D.
35
The trick is to express the integrand
f()
z
in powers of
z z
0
z
0
. Recall
1
1 u
= 1 +u +u
2
+ +u
n
+
u
n+1
1 u
.
1
z
=
1
z
0
1
1
zz
0
z
0
=
1
z
0
_

_
1 +
z z
0
z
0
+ +
(z z
0
)
n
( z
0
)
n
+
_
zz
0
z
0
_
n+1
1
zz
0
z
0
_

_
.
We then multiply by
f()
2i
and integrate along C
1
.
36
By observing the property
1
2i
_
C
1
f()
( z
0
)
k+1
d =
f
(k)
(z
0
)
k!
,
we obtain
f(z) =
n

k=0
f
(k)
(z)
k!
(z z
0
)
k
+R
n
,
where the remainder is given by
R
n
=
1
2i
_
C
1
f()
z
_
z z
0
z
0
_
n+1
d.
To complete the proof, it suces to show that
lim
n
R
n
= 0.
(i) |f()| M for C
1
since f(z) is continuous inside D.
(ii) | z| = |( z
0
) (z z
0
)| | z
0
| |z z
0
| = R
1
r
37
so that

f()
z

z z
0
z
0

n+1

M
R
1
r
_
r
R
1
_
n+1
.
Finally
|R
n
|

1
2i

M
R
1
r
_
r
R
1
_
n+1
2R
1
. .
arc length
=
MR
1
R
1
r
_
r
R
1
_
n+1
0 as n .
The Taylor coecients are given by
a
k
=
1
2i
_
C
1
f()
( z
0
)
k+1
d, k = 0, 1, 2,
=
1
2i
_
C
f()
( z
0
)
k+1
d,
where C
1
is replaced by C and C is any simple closed contour en-
closing z
0
and lying completely inside D [by virtue of Corollary 3 of
the Cauchy-Goursat Theorem].
38
Example
Consider the function
1
1 z
, the Taylor series at z = 0 is given by
1
1 z
=

n=0
z
n
, |z| < 1.
The function has a singularity at z = 1. The maximum distance
from z = 0 to the nearest singularity is one, so the radius of
convergence is one.
Alternatively, the radius of convergence can be found by the
ratio test, where
R = lim
k

a
k
a
k+1

= 1.
39
If we integrate along the contour C inside the circle of convergence
|z| < 1 from the origin to an arbitrary point z, we obtain
_
C
1
1
d =

n=0
_
C

n
d
Log(1 z) =

n=0
z
n+1
n +1
=

n=1
z
n
n
.
The radius of convergence is again one (checked by the ratio test).
z
x
x
0
C
x
y
40
Example
Consider the Taylor series of the real function:
1
1 +x
2
1
1 +x
2
= 1 x
2
+x
4
x
6
+
What is the interval of convergence?
The Taylor series converges only for |x| < 1. This is because the
complex extension
1
1 +z
2
has singularities on the circle |z| = 1 so
that the radius of convergence of the innite series

n=0
(1)
n
z
2n
is one. The above innite power series diverges for points out-
side the circle of convergence, including points on the real axis,
where |x| > 1.
When |x| = 1, the series becomes
1 1 +1
with alternating terms. It is known to be divergent.
41
Example
Find the Taylor expansion of f(z) =
1
1 +z
2
at z = 1. The function
is analytic inside |z 1| <

2.
1
1 +z
2
=
1
2i
_
1
z i

1
z +i
_
=
1
2i
_
_
1
1 i
1
1 +
z1
1i

1
1 +i
1
1 +
z1
1+i
_
_
=

n=0
(1)
n
1
2i
_
1
(1 i)
n+1

1
(1 +i)
n+1
_
(z 1)
n
.
By observing 1 i =

2e
i/4
and 1 +i =

2e
i/4
, we obtain
1
1 +z
2
=

n=0
(1)
n
e
i(n+1)/4
e
i(n+1)/4
(2i)2
(n+1)/2
(z 1)
n
=

n=0
(1)
n
sin(n +1)

4
2
(n+1)/2
(z 1)
n
.
42
Example
Find the Maclaurin expansion of f(z) = (z +1)
1/2
, where the prin-
cipal branch of the function is used. Where is the expansion valid?
Solution
The required branch is identical to e
1
2
Log(z+1)
, whose derivative is
given by
e
1
2
Log(z+1)
1
2(z +1)
=
(z +1)
1/2
2(z +1)
.
Deductively, we have
f

(z) =
1
2
(z +1)
1
2
1
, f

(z) =
1
2
_
1
2
1
_
(z +1)
1
2
2
, ,
f
(n)
(z) =
1
2
_
1
2
1
_

_
1
2
(n 1)
_
(z +1)
1
2
n
, n 1,
where (z +1)
1
2
n
=
(z +1)
1
2
(z +1)
n
=
e
1
2
Log(z+1)
(z +1)
n
.
43
The principal branch of Log(z+1) is taken to have branch cut along
the negative real axis with branch points at z = 1 and z = .
When z = 0, e
1
2
Log 1
= 1 so that the Maclaurin coecients are
c
0
= 1, c
n
=
1
n!
__
1
2
__
1
2
1
__
1
2
2
_

_
1
2
n 1
__
, n 1.
The singularity of (z+1)
1/2
nearest to the origin is the branch point
z = 1. Hence, the circle of convergence is |z| < 1.
Remark
An analytic branch of a multi-valued function can be expanded in a
Taylor series about any point within the domain of analyticity of the
branch, provided that one takes care to use this branch consistently
in obtaining the coecients of the series.
44
Laurent series
Consider an innite power series with negative power terms

n=1
b
n
(z z
0
)
n
,
how to nd the region of convergence? Set w =
1
z z
0
, the series
becomes

n=1
b
n
w
n
, a Taylor series in w. Suppose R

= lim
n

b
n
b
n+1

exists, then

n=1
b
n
w
n
converges for |w| < R

|z z
0
| >
1
R

.
45
Special cases: (i) R

= 0 and (ii)
1
R

= 0.
1. When R

= lim
n

b
n
b
n+1

= 0, the innite series

n

n1
b
n
(z z
0
)
n
does not converge for any z, not even at z = z
0
.
2. When
1
R

= lim
n

b
n+1
b
n

= 0, we consider the ratio of successive

terms in

n=1
b
n
w
n
and observe that
lim
n

b
n+1
b
n

|w| < 1
is satised for all w (except w = since the innite series
b
n
(z z
0
)
n
is not dened at z = z
0
). By virtue of the ra-
tio test, the region of convergence is the whole complex plane
except at z = z
0
, that is, |z z
0
| > 0.
46
For the more general case (Laurent series at z
0
)

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
+

n=1
b
n
(z z
0
)
n
. .
principal part
,
suppose R = lim
n

a
n
a
n+1

and R

= lim
n

b
n
b
n+1

exists, and RR

> 1,
then inside the annular domain
_
z :
1
R

< |z z
0
| < R
_
the Laurent series is convergent.
When RR

1, the intersection of the two regions: |z z

0
| <
R and |z z
0
| >
1
R

is the empty set. This is because the

combination of |z z
0
| >
1
R

and RR

1 implies |z z
0
| R,
which contradicts with |z z
0
| < R.
47
The annulus degenerates into
(i) hollow plane if R =
(ii) punctured disc if R

= .
48
Remarks
1. When R = 0,

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
does not converge for any z other
than the trivial point z
0
. However, z = z
0
is a singularity for
the principal part. Actually, when R = 0, RR

> 1 can never be

satised.
2. A Laurent series denes a function f(z) in its annular region of
convergence. The Laurent series theorem states that a func-
tion analytic in an annulus can be expanded in a Laurent series
expansion.
49
Laurent series theorem
Let f(z) be analytic in the annulus A : R
1
< |z z
0
| < R
2
, then f(z)
can be represented by the Laurent series,
f(z) =

k=
c
k
(z z
0
)
k
,
which converges to f(z) throughout the annulus. The Laurent co-
ecients are given by
c
k
=
1
2i
_
C
f()
( z
0
)
k+1
d, k = 0, 1, 2, ,
where C is any simple closed contour lying completely inside the
annulus and going around the point z
0
.
50
Remarks
1. Suppose f(z) is analytic in the full disc: |z z
0
| < R
2
(without
the punctured hole), then the integrand in calculating c
k
for
negative k becomes analytic in |z z
0
| < R
2
. Hence, c
k
= 0 for
k = 1, 2, .
The Laurent series is reduced to a Taylor series.
2. When k = 1, c
1
=
1
2i
_
C
f() d. We may nd c
1
by any
means, so a contour integral can be evaluated without resort to
direct integration.
51
Example
The Laurent expansion of e
1/z
at z = 0 is given by
e
1/z
=

n=0
1
n!z
n
.
The function e
1/z
is analytic everywhere except at z = 0 so that the
annulus of convergence is |z| > 0. We observe
lim
n

b
n+1
b
n

= lim
n
1/(n +1)!
1/n!
= 0 so that
1
R

= 0.
Lastly, we consider
_
C
e
1/z
dz, where the contour C is |z| = 1. Since
C lies completely inside the punctured disc |z| > 0, we have
_
C
e
1/z
dz = 2i(coecient of
1
z
in Laurent expansion) = 2i
52
Example
Find the Laurent expansion of
f(z) = sin
_
z
1
z
_
.
The function has a singularity at z = 0 so that the annulus of
convergence is |z| > 0. The Laurent coecient c
n
is given by
c
n
=
1
2i
_
C
sin
_
z
1
z
_
z
n+1
dz, n = 0, 1, 2,
where C is chosen to be the unit circle |z| = 1.
53
Take z = e
i
so that dz = ie
i
d, then
c
n
=
1
2i
_

sin(2i sin)ie
i
e
i(n+1)
d
=
1
2
_

i sinh(2sin)(cos n i sinn) d.
Note that sinh(2sin) is an odd function in , hence
_

sinh(2sin) cos n d = 0.
Finally,
c
n
=
1
2
_

sinh(2sin) sinn d, n = 0, 1, 2, .
54
Example
Find the Laurent expansion of the function
f(z) =
1
z k
that is valid inside the domain |z| > |k|, where k is real and |k| < 1.
Using the Laurent expansion, deduce that

n=1
k
n
cos n =
k cos k
2
1 2k cos +k
2
,

n=1
k
n
sinn =
k sin
1 2k cos +k
2
.
55
Solution
For |z| > |k|, where |k| < 1, we have
1
z k
=
1
z
_
1
k
z
_
=
1
z
_
1 +
k
z
+
k
2
z
2
+
_
for

k
z

< 1.
x
y
| | k
z = e
iq
56
Take the point z = e
i
, which lies inside the region of convergence
of the above Laurent series. Substituting into the innite series
1
e
i
k
=
1
e
i
(1 +ke
i
+k
2
e
2i
+ +k
n
e
in
+ ).
Rearranging the terms
e
i
(e
i
k)
(e
i
k)(e
i
k)
1 =
1 k(cos +i sin) (1 2k cos +k
2
)
1 2k cos +k
2
=
k cos k
2
ik sin
1 2k cos +k
2
=

n=1
k
n
cos n i

n=1
k
n
sinn.
Equating the real and imaginary parts, we obtain the desired results.
57
Example
By evaluating the contour integral
_
|z|=1
_
z +
1
z
_
2n
dz
z
,
show that
_
2
0
cos
2n
d = 2
1 3 5 (2n 1)
2 4 6 2n
.
Solution
On |z| = 1, z = e
i
,
_
z +
1
z
_
2n
= 2
2n
cos
2n
,
dz
z
= i d.
I =
_
|z|=1
_
z +
1
z
_
2n
dz
z
= 2
2n
i
_
2
0
cos
2n
d.
On the other hand, the integrand can be expanded as
1
z
_
z
2n
+
2n
C
1
z
2n2
+ +
2n
C
n
+ +
2n
C
2n
1
z
2n
_
, 0 < |z| < .
58
Since the integrand is analytic everywhere except at z = 0, the
above expansion is the Laurent series of the integrand valid in the
annulus: |z| > 0.
_
|z|=1
_
z +
1
z
_
2n
dz
z
= 2i
_
coecient of
1
z
in the Laurent series
_
= 2i
2n
C
n
.
Hence,
_
2
0
cos
2n
d = 2
2n
C
n
2
2n
= 2
(2n)!
(n!)
2
2
2n
= 2
1 3 (2n 1)(2
n
n!)
(2
n
n!)(2
n
n!)
= 2
1 3 (2n 1)
2 4 6 2n
.
59
The shaded region is |z| > 0. The circle C : |z| = 1 lies completely
inside the annulus of convergence and goes around z = 0. This is a
punctured complex plane with a single deleted point.
60
Example
Find all the possible Taylor and Laurent series expansions of
f(z) =
1
(z i)(z 2)
at z
0
= 0.
Specify the region of convergence (solid disc or annulus) of each of
the above series.
61
Solution
There are two isolated singularities, namely, at z = i and z = 2.
The possible circular or annular regions of analyticity are
(i) |z| < 1, (ii) 1 < |z| < 2, (iii) |z| > 2.
(i) For |z| < 1
1
z i
=
i
1
z
i
= i
_
1 +
z
i
+ +
_
z
n
i
n
_
+
_
for |z| < 1
1
z 2
=
_

1
2
_
1
1
z
2
=
_

1
2
__
1 +
z
2
+ +
_
z
2
_
n
+
_
for |z| < 2
f(z) =
1
i 2
_
1
z i

1
z 2
_
=
1
i 2
_
_
i

n=0
_
z
i
_
n
+
1
2

n=0
_
z
2
_
n
_
_
=
1
i 2

n=0
_
_
1
i
_
n1
+
1
2
n+1
_
z
n
.
This is a Taylor series which converges inside the solid disc |z| < 1.
62
(ii) For 1 < |z| < 2
1
z i
=
1
z
1
1
i
z
=
1
z

n=0
_
i
z
_
n
valid for |z| > 1
1
z 2
=

n=0
z
n
2
n+1
valid for |z| < 2
f(z) =
1
i 2
_
_

n=0
_
i
n
z
n+1
+
z
n
2
n+1
_
_
_
valid for 1 < |z| < 2.
(iii) For |z| > 2
1
z i
=

n=0
i
n
z
n+1
valid for |z| > 1
1
z 2
=
1
z
1
1
2
z
=

n=0
2
n
z
n+1
valid for |z| > 2
f(z) =
1
i 2
_
_

n=0
(i
n
2
n
)
1
z
n+1
_
_
valid for |z| > 2.
63
Example
Find all possible Laurent series of
f(z) =
1
1 z
2
at the point = 1.
Solution
The function has two isolated singular points at z = 1 and z = 1.
There exist two annular regions (i) 0 < |z +1| < 2 and (ii) |z +1| >
2 where the function is analytic everywhere inside the respective
region.
64
(i) 0 < |z +1| < 2
1
1 z
2
=
1
2(z +1)
_
1
z+1
2
_
=
1
2(z +1)

k=0
(z +1)
k
2
k
=
1
2(z +1)
+
1
4
+
1
8
(z +1) +
1
16
(z +1)
2
+ .
The above expansion is valid provided

z +1
2

< 1 and z +1 = 0.
Given that 0 < |z +1| < 2, the above requirement is satised.
For any simple closed curve C
1
lying completely inside |z+1| < 2
and encircling the point z = 1, we have
c
1
=
1
2i
_
C
1
1
1 z
2
dz =
1
2
.
65
(ii) |z +1| > 2
1
1 z
2
=
1
(z +1)
2
_
1
2
z+1
_
=
1
(z +1)
2

k=0
2
k
(z +1)
k
since

2
z +1

< 1
=
_
1
(z +1)
2
+
2
(z +1)
3
+
4
(z +1)
4
+
_
.
For any simple closed curve C
2
encircling the circle: |z +1| = 2,
we have
c
1
=
1
2i
_
C
2
1
1 z
2
dz = 0.
66
Example
Suppose f(z) is analytic inside the annulus: r < |z| <
1
r
, r < 1 and
satises f
_
1
z
_
= f(z). Write the Laurent expansion of f(z) at z = 0
as f(z) =

k=
a
k
z
k
. Show that
(a) a
k
= a
k
,
(b) f(z) is real on |z| = 1.
67
Solution
(a) Consider
f
_
1
z
_
=

k=
a
k
z
k
=

k=
a
k
z
k
f(z) =

k=
a
k
z
k
f
_
1
z
_
= f(z) a
k
= a
k
.
(b) It suces to show f(z) = f(z) when z satises zz = 1. This is
obviously satised from the given property f
_
1
z
_
= f(z), for all
z lying inside the annulus: r < |z| <
1
r
.
68
Example
From the Maclaurin series expansion of e
z
, it follows that the Lau-
rent series expansion of e
1/z
about 0 is
e
1/z
=

n=0
1
z
n
n!
, |z| > 0.
The Laurent coecients are
b
n
=
1
2i
_
C
e
1/z
z
1n
dz
where C is chosen to be the circle |z| = 1. Such choice of C is
feasible since the circle |z| = 1 lies completely inside the annulus
region of convergence of e
1/z
and it goes around the point z = 0.
By comparing the coecients, we obtain
_
C
e
1/z
z
1n
dz =
2i
n!
, n N.
69
On |z| = 1, z = e
i
, , so that the complex integral can be
expressed as
_

exp(e
i
)
e
(1n)i
ie
i
d =
_

ie
(cos i sin+in)
d =
2i
n!
giving
_

e
cos
[cos(n sin) +i sin(n sin)] d =
2
n!
.
Comparing the real parts on both sides, we obtain
_

e
cos
cos(n sin) d =
2
n!
, for all n N.
Equating the imaginary parts gives
_

e
cos
sin(n sin) d = 0.
The above result is obvious since the integrand e
cos
sin(n sin)
is an odd function.
70
Classication of singularities and residue calculus
Singular point of a function f(z) is a point at which f(z) is not
analytic.
Isolated singularity Existence of a neighborhood of z
0
in which z
0
is
the only singular point of f(z).
e.g. f(z) =
1
z
2
+1
has i as isolated singularities.
Singularities of csc z are all isolated and they are simply the zeros
of sinz, namely, z = k, k is any integer.
Non-isolated singularities
f(z) = z is nowhere analytic so that every point in C is a non-isolated
singularity.
71
Consider f(z) = csc

z
, all points z = 1/n, n = 1, 2, , are iso-
lated singularities, while the origin is a non-isolated singularity.
Suppose z
0
is an isolated singularity, then there exists a positive
number R such that f(z) is analytic inside the deleted neighborhood
0 < |z z
0
| < R.
This forms an annular domain within which the Laurent series the-
orem is applicable, where
f(z) =

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
+

n=1
b
n
(z z
0
)
n
, 0 < |z z
0
| < R.
The isolated singularity z
0
is classied according to the property
of the principal part of the Laurent series expanded in the deleted
neighborhood of z
0
where f is analytic. A singular point must be
either a removable singularity, an essential singularity or a pole.
72
Removable singularity
The principal part vanishes and the Laurent series is essentially a
Taylor series. The series represents an analytic function in |z z
0
| <
R.
For example,
1 cos z
z
2
is undened at z = 0. The Laurent expansion
of
1 cos z
z
2
in a deleted neighborhood of z = 0 is
1 cos z
z
2
=
1
z
2
_
1
_
1
z
2
2!
+
z
4
4!

__
=
1
2!

z
2
4!
+
z
4
6!
+, 0 < |z| < ,
Note that lim
z0
1 cos z
z
2
=
1
2!
. The singularity at z = 0 can be re-
moved by dening f(0) =
1
2
. The function f(z) =
_
(1 cos z)/z
2
, z = 0
1/2, z = 0
admits the above Taylor series expansion valid for |z| < .
73
Essential singularity
The principal part has innitely many non-zero terms. For example,
consider z
2
e
1/z
. Inside the annular region 0 < |z| < , the Laurent
series of z
2
e
1/z
is
z
2
e
1/z
= z
2
+z +
1
2!
+
1
3!
1
z
+
1
4!
1
z
2
+ , 0 < |z| < .
Pole of order k
The Laurent expansion in the deleted neighborhood of z
0
is
f(z) =

n=0
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
+
b
1
z z
0
+
b
2
(z z
0
)
2
+ +
b
k
(z z
0
)
k
,
with b
k
= 0. It is called a simple pole when k = 1. For example,
z = i are simple poles of
1
1 +z
2
.
74
Example
Observe that
1 cos z
z
5
=
1
z
3
_
1
2!

z
2
4!
+
z
4
6!

_
, 0 < |z| < ,
so that (1 cos z)/z
5
has a pole of order 3 at z = 0.
Example
The function f(z) =
1
z(z 1)
2
has a pole of order 2 at z = 1. It
admits the following Laurent expansion
1
z(z 1)
2
=
1
(z 1)
3

1
(z 1)
4
+
1
(z 1)
5
+ , |z 1| > 1.
It is incorrect to conclude that z = 1 is an essential singularity
by observing that the above Laurent expansion has innitely many
negative power terms. This is because the annulus of convergence
of the series is not a deleted neighborhood of z = 1.
75
Example
The Laurent expansion

n=1
z
n
+

n=0
z
n
2
n+1
contains innitely many negative power terms of z. Is z = 0 an
essential singularity of the function represented by the series?
The rst sum converges to
1/z
1 1/z
=
1
z 1
for |z| > 1 and the
second sum converges to
1/2
1 z/2
=
1
2 z
for |z| < 2.
Hence, the Laurent series converges to
f(z) =
1
z 1
+
1
2 z
=
1
z
2
3z +2
in 1 < |z| < 2.
The annulus of convergence is not a deleted neighborhood of z =
0. Hence, we cannot make any claim about whether z = 0 is an
essential singularity of f(z) simply through the examination of the
above series.
76
Simple method of nding the order of a pole
If z
0
is a pole of order k, then
lim
zz
0
(z z
0
)
k
f(z) = b
k
, b
k
= 0.
In general, if we multiply f(z) by (z z
0
)
m
and take the limit z z
0
,
then
lim
zz
0
(z z
0
)
m
f(z) =
_

_
b
k
m = k
0 m > k
m < k
.
For example, take f(z) =
1 cos z
z
5
.
lim
z0
z
m
1 cos z
z
5
=
_

_
1
2
m = 3
0 m > 3
m < 3
.
Hence, z = 0 is a pole of order 3 of (1 cos z)/z
5
.
77
Example
Suppose z = 0 is a pole of order n and m, respectively, of the
functions f
1
(z) and f
2
(z), nd the possible order of z = 0 as a pole
for f
1
(z) +f
2
(z). Without loss of generality, we assume n m.
(i) When n > m
f
1
(z) =
n

k=1
b
(1)
k
z
k
+

k=0
a
(1)
k
z
k
, b
(1)
n
= 0,
f
2
(z) =
m

k=1
b
(2)
k
z
k
+

k=0
a
(2)
k
z
k
, b
(2)
m
= 0,
so f
1
(z) +f
2
(z) must contain negative power terms up to z
n
.
(ii) When n = m, in general, z = 0 is a pole of order n for f
1
(z) +
f
2
(z). However, it is possible that f
1
(z) = f
2
(z)+
1
z

, 0 n.
In this case, z = 0 is a pole of order . When = 0, z = 0 is not
an isolated singularity.
78
Behavior of f near isolated singularities
1. If z
0
is a pole of f, then
lim
zz
0
f(z) = .
To show the claim, suppose f has a pole of order m at z
0
, then
f(z) =
(z)
(z z
0
)
m
where (z) is analytic and non-zero at z
0
. Since
lim
zz
0
1
f(z)
= lim
zz
0
(z z
0
)
m
(z)
=
lim
zz
0
(z z
0
)
m
lim
zz
0
(z)
=
0
(z
0
)
= 0,
hence lim
zz
0
f(z) = .
79
2. If z
0
is a removable singularity of f, then f admits a Taylor
series in some deleted neighborhood 0 < |z z
0
| < of z
0
, so it
is analytic and bounded in that neighborhood.
3. In each deleted neighborhood of an essential singularity, the
function assumes values that come arbitrarily close to any given
number.
Casorati-Weierstrass Theorem
Suppose that z
0
is an essential singularity of a function f, and let
w
0
be any complex number. Then, for any positive number ,
|f(z) w
0
| < (A)
is satised at some point z in each deleted neighborhood of z
0
.
80
Proof
Take any deleted neighborhood of z
0
. Since z
0
is an isolated sin-
gularity, the neighborhood itself or a subset of which will have the
property that f is analytic inside 0 < |z z
0
| < for some value
of . Assume that inequality (A) is not satised for any z in the
neighborhood 0 < |z z
0
| < (inside which f is analytic). Thus,
|f(z) w
0
| when 0 < |z z
0
| < .
Dene
g(z) =
1
f(z) w
0
, 0 < |z z
0
| < ,
which is bounded and analytic. Hence, z
0
is a removable singularity
of g

. We let g be dened at z
0
such that it is analytic there.
We use the following result: Suppose f is analytic and bounded
in 0 < |z z
0
| < . If f is not analytic at z
0
, then it has a
removable singularity at z
0
.
81
We consider the following two cases:
(i) If g(z
0
) = 0, then
f(z) =
1
g(z)
+w
0
, 0 < |z z
0
| < , (B)
becomes analytic at z
0
if f(z
0
) =
1
g(z
0
)
+w
0
. This means that
z
0
is a removable singularity of f, not an essential one. We have
a contradiction.
(ii) If g(z
0
) = 0, then g must have a zero of some nite order m at
z
0
since g(z) is not identically equal to zero in the neighborhood
|z z
0
| < . Write g(z) = (z z
0
)
m
(z
0
), where (z
0
) = 0. In
this case, f has a pole of order m since
lim
zz
0
f(z)(z z
0
)
m
= lim
zz
0
(z z
0
)
m
g(z)
=
1
(z
0
)
which is nite. Again, there is a contradiction.
82
Example
Classify the zeros and singularities of the function sin(1 z
1
).
Solution
Since the zeros of sinw occur only when w is an integer multiple of
, the function sin(1 z
1
) has zeros when
1 z
1
= n,
i.e., at
z =
1
1 n
, n = 0, 1, 2, .
83
Furthermore, the zeros are simple because the derivative at these
points is
d
dz
sin(1 z
1
)

z=(1n)
1
=
1
z
2
cos(1 z
1
)

z=(1n)
1
= (1 n)
2
cos n = 0.
The only singularity of sin(1z
1
) appears at z = 0. Suppose we let
z approach 0 through positive values, sin(1z
1
) oscillates between
1. Such behavior can only characterize an essential singularity.
84