England (i/lnd/) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom.

*5+*6+*7+ It shares land borders with

Scotland to the north and Wales to the west. The Irish Sea lies north west of England, whilst the Celtic
Sea lies to the south west. The North Sea to the east and the English Channel to the south separate it
from continental Europe. Most of England comprises the central and southern part of the island of Great
Britain which lies in the North Atlantic. The country also includes over 100 smaller islands such as the
Isles of Scilly, and the Isle of Wight.

Northumbria (Old English: Noranhymbra / Norhymbre) was a medieval kingdom of the Angles, in
what is now Northern England and South-East Scotland, becoming subsequently an earldom in a united
Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of England. The name reflects the approximate southern limit to the kingdom's
territory, the Humber estuary.

Northumbria was formed by thelfrith in central Great Britain in Anglo-Saxon times. At the beginning of
the 7th century the two kingdoms of Bernicia and Deira were unified. (In the 12th century writings of
Henry of Huntingdon the kingdom was defined as one of the Heptarchy of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms.) At its
greatest the kingdom extended at least from just south of the Humber, to the River Mersey and to the
Forth (roughly, Sheffield to Runcorn to Edinburgh) and there is some evidence that it may have been
much greater (see map).
Oral poetry is poetry that is composed and transmitted without the aid of writing. The complex
relationships between written and spoken literature in some societies can make this definition hard to
maintain. Oral poetry is sometimes considered to include any poetry which is performed live. In many
cultures, oral poetry overlaps with, or is identical with, song. Meanwhile, although the term oral
etymologically means 'to do with the mouth', in some cultures oral poetry is also performed by other
means, such as talking drums in some African cultures. Oral poetry exists most clearly within oral
cultures, but it can survive, and indeed flourish, in highly literate cultures.

Oral poetry differs from oral literature in general because oral literature encompasses linguistic registers
which are not considered poetry. In most oral literature, poetry is defined by the fact that it conforms to
metrical rules; examples of non-poetic oral literature in Western culture include some jokes, speeches
and storytelling.
SCRIPTURES INTO ENGLISH
Caedmon (680)
Aldhelm (640-709)
Egbert (700)
Venerable Bede (674-735)
Alfred the Great (849-901)
Aelfric (1000)
Orm (1200)
William of Shoreham(1320)
Richard Rolle (1320-1340)
Poems, Songs of
Genesis, Exodus, & Life
of Christ
Bishop south
EnglandPsalms into
English (first)
Archbishop of
YorkGospels into
English
Great ScholarHistory
& Gospel of John into
English
English KingVarious
Bible Passages
Abbot in
WessexSome of OT
from Latin to Saxon
Gospels & Acts
Psalms
PDF Creator - PDF4Free v2.0 http://www.pdf4free.com

Cdmon (/kdmn/ or /kdmn/) is the earliest English (Northumbrian) poet whose name is known.
An Anglo-Saxon who cared for the animals at the double monastery of Streonshalch (Whitby Abbey)
during the abbacy (657680) of St. Hilda (614680), he was originally ignorant of "the art of song" but
learned to compose one night in the course of a dream, according to the 8th-century monk Bede. He
later became a zealous monk and an accomplished and inspirational Christian poet.

Cdmon is one of twelve Anglo-Saxon poets identified in medieval sources, and one of only three of
these for whom both roughly contemporary biographical information and examples of literary output
have survived.[1] His story is related in the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ("Ecclesiastical History
of the English People") by Bede who wrote, "[t]here was in the Monastery of this Abbess a certain
brother particularly remarkable for the Grace of God, who was wont to make religious verses, so that
whatever was interpreted to him out of scripture, he soon after put the same into poetical expressions
of much sweetness and humility in English, which was his native language. By his verse the minds of
many were often excited to despise the world, and to aspire to heaven."

Cdmon's only known surviving work is Cdmon's Hymn, the nine-line alliterative vernacular praise
poem in honour of God which he supposedly learned to sing in his initial dream. The poem is one of the
earliest attested examples of Old English and is, with the runic Ruthwell Cross and Franks Casket
inscriptions, one of three candidates for the earliest attested example of Old English poetry. It is also
one of the earliest recorded examples of sustained poetry in a Germanic language.

Aldhelm (Old English: Ealdhelm) (c. 639 25 May 709), Abbot of Malmesbury Abbey, Bishop of
Sherborne, Latin poet and scholar of Anglo-Saxon literature, was born before the middle of the 7th
century. He is said to have been the son of Kenten, who was of the royal house of Wessex.[1] He was
certainly not, as his early biographer Faritius asserts, the brother of King Ine. After his death he was
venerated as a saint, his feast day being the day of his death, 25th May.
Bede (/bid/ BEED; Old English: Bda or Bda; 672/673 26 May 735), also referred to as Saint Bede or
the Venerable Bede (Latin: Bda Venerbilis), was an English monk at the Northumbrian monastery of
Saint Peter at Monkwearmouth and of its companion monastery, Saint Paul's, in modern Jarrow (see
Monkwearmouth-Jarrow) Northeast England both being located in what was the Kingdom of
Northumbria. He is well known as an author and scholar, and his most famous work, Historia
ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (The Ecclesiastical History of the English People) gained him the title "The
Father of English History".

In 1899, Bede was made a Doctor of the Church by Leo XIII, a position of theological significance; he is
the only native of Great Britain to achieve this designation (Anselm of Canterbury, also a Doctor of the
Church, was originally from Italy). Bede was moreover a skilled linguist and translator, and his work with
the Latin and Greek writings of the early Church Fathers contributed significantly to English Christianity,
making the writings much more accessible to his fellow Anglo-Saxons. Bede's monastery had access to a
superb library which included works by Eusebius and Orosius among many others.

The Dream of the Rood is one of the earliest Christian poems in the corpus of Old English literature and
an example of the genre of dream poetry. Like most Old English poetry, it is written in alliterative verse.
Rood is from the Old English word rod 'pole', or more specifically 'crucifix'. Preserved in the 10th century
Vercelli Book, the poem may be considerably older, even one of the oldest works of Old English
literature.
A part of The Dream of the Rood can be found on the 8th century Ruthwell Cross, which was an 18 feet
(5.5 m), free standing Anglo-Saxon cross that was perhaps intended as a 'conversion tool'.[1] At each
side of the vine-tracery are carved runes. On the cross there is an excerpt that was written in runes
along with scenes of Jesus healing the blind, the Annunciation and the story of Egypt. Although it was
torn down and destroyed during a Protestant revolt, it was reconstructed as much as possible after the
fear of iconography passed.[2] Fortunately during that time of religious unrest, those words that were in
the runes were still protected in the Vercelli Book, so called because the book is kept in the Italian city of
Vercelli. The Vercelli Book, which can be dated to the 10th century, includes twenty-three homilies
interspersed with six poems: The Dream of the Rood, Andreas, The Fates of the Apostles, Soul and Body,
Elene and a poetic, homiletic fragment.
An epic (from the Ancient Greek adjective (epikos), from (epos) "word, story, poem"*1+) is a
lengthy narrative poem, ordinarily concerning a serious subject containing details of heroic deeds and
events significant to a culture or nation.[2] Oral poetry may qualify as an epic, and Albert Lord and
Milman Parry have argued that classical epics were fundamentally an oral poetic form. Another type of
epic poetry is epyllion (plural: epyllia), which is a brief narrative poem with a romantic or mythological
theme. The term, which means 'little epic', came into use in the nineteenth century. It refers primarily to
the erudite, shorter hexameter poems of the Hellenistic period and the similar works composed at
Rome from the age of the neoterics; to a lesser degree, the term includes some poems of the English
Renaissance, particularly those influenced by Ovid.[citation needed] The most famous example of
classical epyllion is perhaps Catullus 64.

Some of the most famous examples of epic poetry include the Ramayana, Mahabharata, the Ancient
Greek Iliad and the Odyssey, the Old English Beowulf, or the Portuguese Lusiads.[3]
Christian literature is writing that deals with Christian themes and incorporates the Christian world view.
This constitutes a huge body of extremely varied writing.Contents [hide]
1 Scripture
2 Christian devotional literature
3 Christian non-fiction
4 Christian allegory
5 Christian fiction
6 Christian poetry
7 Christian theatre
8 Notable works
9 See also
10 References
11 Further reading

Scripture[edit source | editbeta]

While falling within the strict definition of literature, the Bible is not generally considered literature.
However, the Bible has been treated and appreciated as literature; the King James Version in particular
has long been considered a masterpiece of English prose, whatever may be thought of its religious
significance. Several retellings of the Bible, or parts of the Bible, have also been made with the aim of
emphasising its literary qualities.
Christian devotional literature[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Devotional literature

Devotionals are often used by Christians in order to help themselves grow closer in their relationship
with God and learn how to put their faith into practice.
Christian non-fiction[edit source | editbeta]

Letters, theological treatises and other instructive and devotional works have been produced by
Christian authors since the times of Jesus. For early Christian times almost all writing would be non-
fiction, including letters, biblical commentaries, doctrinal works and hagiography. See Patristics.

Since the invention of the printing press non-fictional literature has been used for the dissemination of
the Christian message, and also for disseminating different viewpoints within Christianity. The tract (a
small pamphlet containing an explanation of some point, or an appeal to the reader) was in use at the
time of the Reformation and continues to be used as a part of proselytization.
Christian allegory[edit source | editbeta]
See Category:Christian fiction and allegory for more articles on this topic

Allegory is a style of literature having the form of a story, but using symbolic figures, actions, or
representations to express truthsChristian truths, in the case of Christian allegory. Beginning with the
parables of Jesus, there has been a long tradition of Christian allegory, including Dante Alighieri's Divine
Comedy, John Bunyan's The Pilgrim's Progress, and Hannah Hurnard's Hinds' Feet on High Places.
Christian fiction[edit source | editbeta]
Main article: Christian fiction

Christian fiction is sometimes harder to define than Christian non-fiction. Christian themes are not
always explicit. Some Christian fiction, such as that of C. S. Lewis, draws on the allegorical writings of the
past. There can also be argument as to whether the works of a Christian author are necessarily Christian
fiction. For example, while there are undoubted Christian themes within J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the
Rings,[1] many might not consider this to be a work of Christian fiction. Other possible examples of
Christian fiction include the works of G. K. Chesterton and George Macdonald.

In the last few decades the existence of a Christian subculture, particularly in North America, has given
rise to a specific genre of Christian novel, written by and for Christians of a particular type (i.e.,
conservative Evangelical Protestants), and generally with explicit Christian themes. Unlike the works of
C.S. Lewis and J.R.R. Tolkien, such novels are often marketed exclusively to Christians and sold in
Christian bookshops. The Christy Awards honour excellence in this genre.

In the late 20th century, with the rise of the Christian Right in American society, Christian-themed fiction
has thrived. Examples include the works of Tim LaHaye, Jerry B. Jenkins, Frank Peretti, Ted Dekker, Tosca
Lee, Randy Alcorn, Francine Rivers, Wayne Thomas Batson, and Janette Oke.

Within the field of Christian fiction smaller niche markets have emerged aimed at specific
denominations, notably Catholic fiction and Latter Day Saints Fiction. There are also Christian fiction that
is aimed at wider mainstream audiences, such as the best selling Left Behind series.

Alfred the Great (Old English: lfrd, lfrd, "elf counsel"; 849 26 October 899) was King of Wessex
from 871 to 899.

Alfred successfully defended his kingdom against the Viking attempt at conquest, and by the time of his
death had become the dominant ruler in England.[1] He is the only English monarch to be accorded the
epithet "the Great".[2][3] Alfred was the first King of the West Saxons to style himself "King of the
Anglo-Saxons". Details of his life are described in a work by the 10th century Welsh scholar and bishop
Asser. Alfred's reputation has been that of a learned and merciful man who encouraged education and
improved his kingdom's legal system and military structure.Contents [hide]
1 Childhood
2 Reigns of Alfred's brothers
3 King at war
3.1 Early struggles, defeat and flight
3.2 Counter-attack and victory
3.3 The quiet years; Restoration of London
3.4 Further Viking attacks repelled
4 Military reorganisation
4.1 Administration and taxation
4.2 Burghal system
4.3 English navy
5 Legal reform
6 Foreign relations
7 Religion and culture
8 Appearance and character
9 Family
10 Ancestry
11 Death, burial and legacy
In literature, an elegy (from the Greek word for "lament") is a mournful, melancholic or plaintive poem,
especially a funeral song or a lament for the dead.Contents [hide]
1 History
2 See also
3 Further Reading
4 References

History[edit source | editbeta]

The Greek term elegeia () originally referred to any verse written in elegiac couplets and
covering a wide range of subject matter (death, love, war). The term also included epitaphs and
commemorative verses.[1] The Latin elegy of ancient Roman literature was most often erotic or
mythological in nature. Because of its structural potential for rhetorical effects, the elegiac couplet was
also used by both Greek and Roman poets for witty, humorous, and satiric subject matter.

Other than epitaphs, examples of ancient elegy as a poem of mourning include Catullus' Carmen 101, on
his dead brother, and elegies by Propertius on his dead mistress Cynthia and a matriarch of the
prominent Cornelian family. Ovid wrote elegies bemoaning his exile, which he likened to a death.

In English literature, the more modern and restricted meaning, of a lament for a departed beloved or
tragic event, is only current since the sixteenth century; the broader concept was still employed by John
Donne for his elegies, written in the early seventeenth century. For Samuel Taylor Coleridge and others,
the term had come to mean "serious meditative poem",[1] exemplified also by Thomas Gray's Elegy
Written in a Country Churchyard (1750).

"Elegy" (sometimes spelled elgie) may denote a type of musical work, usually of a sad or somber
nature. A well-known example is the lgie, Op. 10, by Jules Massenet. This was originally written for
piano, as a student work; then he set it as a song; and finally it appeared as the "Invocation", for cello
and orchestra, a section of his incidental music to Leconte de Lisle's Les rinnyes.
The Battle of Brunanburh is an Old English poem. It is preserved in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, a
historical record of events in Anglo-Saxon England which was kept from the late ninth to the mid-twelfth
century. The poem records the Battle of Brunanburh, a battle fought in 937 between an English army
and a combined army of Scots, Vikings, and Britons. The battle resulted in an English victory, celebrated
by the poem in style and language like that of traditional Old English battle poetry. The poem is notable
because of those traditional elements and has been praised for its authentic tone, but it is also
remarkable for its fiercely nationalistic tone, which documents the development of a unified England
ruled by the House of Wessex.
The Battle of Brunanburh[nb 1] was a culmination of the conflict between King thelstan and the
northern kings.[2] After thelstan had defeated the Vikings at York in 928, Constantine II, the Scottish
King, recognised the threat posed by the House of Wessex to his own position, and began forging
alliances with neighbouring kingdoms to attempt a pre-emptive strike against thelstan. He married his
daughter to Amlab mac Gofraid (also called Olaf Guthfrithsson, and Anlaf in the poem), the Norse-Gael
King of Dublin. Amlab had a claim to the throne of Northumbria, from which thelstan expelled his
father in 927.[3] Thus, the invading army combined "Vikings, Scots, and Strathclyde Britons."[4] On the
English side, thelstan was joined by his brother, the later King Edmund. In the ensuing battle, the
combined forces of Wessex and Mercia won a decisive victory.[5]
The poem[edit source | editbeta]

The poem is preserved in four of the nine surviving manuscripts of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.[6][nb 2]
In the Parker Chronicle, its verse lines are written out as poetry,[6] following common Anglo-Saxon
scribal practice. The 73-line long poem is written in "indeterminate Saxon," that is, the regular West-
Saxon dialect in which most surviving Old English poetry is copied. It is referred to as a panegyric
celebrating the victory of thelstan and Edmund I.[8]

The text begins by praising King thelstan and his brother Edmund I for their victory. It mentions the fall
of "Scots and seafarers" in a battle that lasted an entire day, while "the battlefield flowed / with dark
blood." "Norse seafarer[s]" and "weary Scot[s]" were killed by "West Saxons [who] / pursued those
hateful people", killing them from behind with their swords; neither did "the Mercians...stint / hard
handplay". "Five young kings" are killed in battle along with "seven / of Anlaf's earls". Amlab mac
Gofraid ("Anlaf") flees by boat, and Constantine flees to the north, leaving "his son / savaged by
weapons on that field of slaughter, / a mere boy in battle." The poem concludes by comparing the battle
to those fought in earlier stages of English history:
Never, before this,
were more men in this island slain
by the sword's edge--as books and aged sages
confirm--since Angles and Saxons sailed here
from the east, sought the Britons over the wide seas,
since those warsmiths hammered the Welsh,
and earls, eager for glory, overran the land.[n
The Battle of Maldon is the name given to an Old English poem of uncertain date celebrating the real
Battle of Maldon of 991, at which the Anglo-Saxons failed to prevent a Viking invasion. Only 325 lines of
the poem are extant; both the beginning and the ending are lost.Contents [hide]
1 The poem
2 History of the text
3 Date of composition
4 Scholarship
5 In popular culture
6 See also
7 Notes
8 Further reading
9 External links

The poem[edit source | editbeta]

The poem is told entirely from the perspective of the English, with many individual and, Mitchell and
Robinson[1] believe, real Englishmen named.

Mitchell and Robinson conjecture that the lost opening of the poem must have related how Byrhtnoth,
the Anglo-Saxon leader, hearing of the Viking invasion, raises his troops and leads them to the shore.[1]

The poem as we have it begins with the Anglo-Saxon warriors dismounting to prepare for battle. A
Viking messenger offers the English ealdorman Byrhtnoth peace if he will consent to pay tribute.
Byrhtnoth angrily refuses, telling the messenger that he will fight the heathen Vikings in defense of his
land, and the land of his king, thelred. However, due to his "ofermde"*, Byrhtnoth allows the Vikings
entry to the mainland, giving them room in which to do battle, rather than keeping them penned in on
the more easily-defended causeway that links the mainland to the small island where the Vikings have
landed.

Individual episodes from the ensuing carnage are described, and the fates of several Anglo-Saxon
warriors depicted notably that of Byrthtnoth himself, who dies urging his soldiers forward and
commending his soul to God. Not all the English are portrayed as heroic however: one, Godric the son of
Odda (there are two Godrics in the poem), flees the battle with his brothers and, most improperly, does
so on Byrhtnoth's horse. Several lines later, the English lord Offa claims that the sight of Byrhtnoth's
horse (easily recognisable from its trappings) fleeing, and so Byrhtnoth, as it would appear from a
distance, has bred panic in the ranks and left the English army in danger of defeat. There follow several
passages in which English warriors voice their defiance and their determination to die with their lord,
and descriptions of how they are then killed by the un-personified "sea-wanderers". The poem as it has
come down to us ends with another Godric disappearing from view. This time, it is Godric, the son of
thelgar, advancing into a body of Vikings and being killed.
"ofermde," occurring in line 89, has caused much discussion. Literally "high spirits" or
"overconfidence", "ofermde" is usually translated as "pride", and occurs in Anglo-Saxon Genesis poems
when referring to Lucifer. Both Glenn and Alexander translate it as "arrogance"[2] and Bradley as
"extravagant spirit"
Of Studies
People often say that this or that person has not yet found
himself. But the self is not something one finds, it is
something one creates, said Thomas Szasz. The saying tells
that self is not sticking by nature, or what one is from the
time of its birth; but it is something nurtured, or developed
through time. Such quotation can be realized from one of the
best essays of all time, which is Of Studies by Francis
Bacon. As the essay generally implies the purposes of written
records such as of history and literature, it can also be
entailed from such how a person can search deeper in
himself. And through examination deeper of ones life, he
can find the purpose in life. Hence, Of Studies, in some
point of view, serves reading of books as a tool in finding his
reason for living.

Reading maketh a full man; conference a ready man; and
writing an exact man is the most impressive statement a
reader can find in Bacons essay. Reading, in such
statement, mainly points out the importance of knowledge in
ones life. Making a full man indicates the importance of a
persons memory in living his life. Conventions, facts,
cultures theories, principles, and ideologies shape a mans
behavior and perspectives towards attaining happiness.
Conferencing a ready man shows the mans ability to
express through declarations of what he knows and
arguments of what he believes is true. Here, reading makes a
man a good conversationalist; as such, one is able to find
meaning in life with upright communication in relationships
with people. Writing an exact man signifies efficiency of his
daily activities in life. In search of his meaning, the use of
logic helps him surpass any kind of natural or human-
related obstacle. Moreover, the quotation extends that And,
therefore, if a man writes little, he had needed have a great
memory; if he confers little, he had need of a ready wit; and
if he read little, he had need of much cunning to seem to
know that he knoweth not. Such statement illustrates the
absence of books; that without them, man would only stick
to what he already has. Here, Bacon can also make his
readers realize, in some perspective, that man needs to grow
and develop through time not only to survive but also to
enjoy life. In search for ones purpose, he should have a
tendency of adapting to new ways of thought and living that
are influenced by literature and history. To internalize the
above statements, as an illustration, a college student dreams
of becoming a lawyer someday. The only to attain the skills
of becoming a lawyer is through reading. Reading does not
only enable the student to know the laws of the land, become
a good debater, and win cases. It also makes him understand
the rationale of the law in helping people, standing up to his
moral principles, and win cases that benefit the public. The
former statement entails the becoming of a lawyer in search
for wealth, while the latter in search for the meaning of life.
Hence, a person reading can either be influenced by what a
society dictates him to be, or he can be dictated by what his
heart tells him to be. And only through following ones heart
can he achieve happiness.

The statement of Bacon Read not to contradict and
confute; nor to believe and take for granted; nor to find talk
and discourse; but to weigh and consider is also an effective
one. Open-mindedness is the topic of such statement. First, it
tells the primary aim of reading is not to fill an empty mind,
but to open a closed one. Not only to provided information
for the memory, reading enables a person to consider all
factors that would contribute to his happiness. In other
terms, reading does not really create doubts, but rather it
carries people away from depression as it offers much more
things to think about. Second, it extends the senses of people
due to their physical limitation. Reading cuts the boundaries
as sources of information are passed from one place to
another. In such case, a person cannot be limited to an
existing knowledge in his area and that such is not the only
reason for happiness. In short, a person cannot be pressured
by a certain culture if he couldnt comply with such because
there is a wide variety of ways in order to attain happiness.
Reflecting on Bacons statement, for example, a Business
Management major student is unhappy with what his doing
because he was only forced by his business-inclined parents
as he really wants to be a famous musician and excels
indubitably in that field. Considering that he was pressured
by the fact that a Filipino should be able to get a stable and
high-profit job through being in the field of business rather
than of hobby-related careers, reading inspirational books
taught such student to be rebellious to his parents. In such
case, the books taught him that a person loving what he is
doing is more important than being rich and unhappy. And
as such, reading books open minds to escape from
oppressive thinking.

Lastly, Bacons statement Crafty men contemn studies,
simple men admire them, and wise men use them; for they
teach not their own use; but that is a wisdom without them,
and above them, won by observation also brings a reader to
a deep realization in life. It is a matter of skill versus theories
that comes into the dispute between reading and not
reading. Bacon argues that the one who reads is better than
one who clings to what he already knows and master on his
skills. Such provides that in order to improve in a certain
skill, reading is necessary. It does not only teach the
fundamentals, but also flourishes such abilities due to
extensive studies and research. In relation to attaining ones
purpose in life, contentment can be achieved is curiosity is
continuously satisfied. In explaining this, as an illustration, a
regular basketball player wants to become a star player or a
primary contributor to a team. Not only through daily
practice, in order to be a powerful athlete, has he also
studies past plays of legendary NBA players and reading
books in improving his game. Thus, in contrary to other
athletes regular way of improving their game only by
practice, theories play an important role in mental
conditioning and witty plays overcoming the opponent.

Francis Bacons Of Studies serves reading of books as a
means in finding mans purpose in life. It emphasizes the
importance of knowledge, open-mindedness, and theory
empowering skill. Without books, there would not be any
needed improvement for man hence no other means of
satisfying his curiosity. A mans purpose in life is not limited
to appreciating on what he has for, in some perspective, man
has insatiable desires and needs. Hence, being alive means
wanting to know more. The main point of all of it is that
there will always be new discoveries; always a reason to
obliterate existing knowledge with a new one. As said by
Gelett Burgess, If in the last few years you havent
discarded a major opinion or acquired a new one, check
your pulse. You may be dead.