3

Chng I
KHI QUT CHUNG V NH X
Trong chng ny chng ti gii thiu s lc v cc tnh cht ca nh x s dng
cho cc chng sau.
1.1. Cc nh ngha
1.1.1. nh ngha 1 - nh x
Cho 2 tp X, Y. Mt nh x t tp X ti tp Y l mt quy tc cho tng ng mi
phn t X x vi mt v ch mt phn t Y y . Khi X gi l tp ngun, Y gi l tp
ch; y gi l nh ca x, x gi l to nh (nghch nh) ca y qua nh x .
K hiu:
:
( )
f X Y
x y f x

= a

V d
Cho X = {a, b, c, d}; Y = {1, 4}. Quy tc f: 4 , , ; 1 a a d c b a l mt nh x.
1.1.2. nh ngha 2 - nh v nghch nh ca mt tp con
Cho nh x

) x ( f y x
Y X : f
=

a
, X, Y A B . Khi

{ } ( ) ( ) : f A f x x A = gi l nh ca A qua nh x f.
{ }
1
( ) : ( ) f B x X f x B

= gi l nghch nh ca B qua nh x f.
V d
Cho : , f
+
R R
2
1 x y x = + a l mt nh x. Cho [-1, 2] A = , ta c (A)=[1, 5].
Cho B=[1, 10], ta c
-1
(B)=[-3, 3].
1.2. n nh, ton nh, song nh
1.2.1. nh ngha
Cho nh x

:
( )
f X Y
x y f x

= a

nh x f c gi l n nh nu ) x ( f ) x ( f x x , X x , x
2 1 2 1 2 1
(hay
2 1 2 1
x x ) x ( f ) x ( f = = ).
nh x f c gi l ton nh nu f(X) = Y, tc l y ) x ( f : X x , Y y = .
nh x f c gi l song nh nu n l n nh v ton nh. Tc l
y ) x ( f : X x ! , Y y =
4
1.2.2. V d
V d 1
Xt nh x:

3
:
( )
f
x y f x x

= = a
R R

nh x f l n nh v
3 3
1 2 1 2
x x x x = =
nh x f l ton nh v
3
R, x y y = sao cho ( ) f x y =
Do nh x f l song nh.
V d 2
Xt nh x:

[ )
2
: 1,
( ) 1
g
x y g x x
+
= = a
R

nh x g khng phi l n nh v g(-1) = g(1) = 0.
nh x g l ton nh v
[ ) 1, , x 1 y y + = + sao cho g(x) = y
Do nh x g khng phi l ton nh.
1.3. nh x ngc
Gi s f: X Y l mt song nh. Khi , mi phn t x X c mt nh xc nh
( ) f x Y . Ngc li, mi phn t y Y c mt v ch mt nghch nh x X . V vy,
song nh f t X ln Y l mt php tng ng 1-1 hai chiu gia X v Y. nh x bin
y Y thnh x X sao cho (x) = y gi l nh x ngc ca song nh f, k hiu l
-1
. Vy

-1
l mt nh x t Y ln X, n cng l mt song nh.
V d
nh x f: R R xc nh bi
3
( ) 1 x f x x = + a l mt song nh. N c nh x ngc

-1
, l:
1
: f

R R xc nh bi
3
1 y y a
1.4. Tch (hp) ca hai nh x
Cho ba tp hp X, Y, Z v hai nh x f: X Y ; g: Y Z . Nh vy, ng vi mi
phn t x X , c mt v ch mt phn t ( ) y f x Y = v ng vi mi phn t y Y ,
c mt v ch mt phn t ( ) z g y Z = . Nh vy, ng vi mi phn t x X , qua trung
gian y, c mt v ch mt phn t ( ) [ ( )] z g y g f x Z = = . nh x t X ti Z xc nh bi:
[ ( )] . x X z g f x Z = a
Gi l tch (hay hp) ca nh x f v g, k hiu l
0
g f .
Vy
0
g f : X Z ,
0
( )( ) [ ( )] x g f x g f x = a
V d
5
Cho 2 nh x:

: [ 1,1],x sin ;
: [0, ],x .
x
f x
g e

+
a
a
R
R

Ta c:

sin
0
0
( )( ) [ ( )] ;
( )( ) [g( )] sin .
x
x
g f x g f x e
f g x f x e
= =
= =

1.5. Bi tp
Chng minh rng
1) Tch ca 2 n nh l 1 n nh
2) Tch ca 2 ton nh l 1 ton nh
3) Tch ca 2 song nh l 1 song nh
Chng 2
MA TRN-NH THC-H PHNG TRNH TUYN TNH
Phn u chng ny c dnh trnh by cc khi nim, cc dng ma trn c bn,
cng nh cc php ton v nhng tnh cht c bn thng gp v ma trn. Cc khi nim,
tnh cht, cch tnh v nh thc, ma trn nghch o, hng ma trn cng c a ra.
Cch gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut c trnh by cui chng.
2.1. Ma trn
2.1.1. Cc nh ngha
1. Ma trn c mn: l mt bng gm m n s c sp xp thnh m hng v n ct
di dng sau:
A =

.
...
. . . .
...
...
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
mn m m
n
n
a a a
a a a
a a a
=
( )
n m
ij
a


vi i l ch s hng, j l ch s ct;
ij
a l phn t hng i v ct j
2. Ma trn cp n: l ma trn c s hng v s ct bng nhau (m = n)
A =
n m ij
nn n n
n
n
a
a a a
a a a
a a a

) (
...
: : : :
...
...
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11

Cc phn t
ij
a n i , 1 = nm trn ng cho chnh ca A
6
Cc phn t
ij
a 1 + = + n j i nm trn ng cho ph ca A
3. Ma trn hng: l ma trn ch c mt hng
V d
A = ( 2 4 6 7 8 9 )
1 6

4. Ma trn ct: l ma trn ch c 1 ct.
V d

4 1
4
0
7
4
x
A



=




2.1.2. Cc dng c bit ca ma trn
1. Ma trn khng: l ma trn m tt c cc phn t ca n u bng 0.
V d

3 3
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0






,
2 4
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0




,
2. Ma trn cho: l ma trn vung c cc phn t khng nm trn ng cho chnh u
bng 0.
V d

3 3
1 0 0
0 3 0
0 0 9

, ma trn khng cp n l ma trn cho c bit.
3. Ma trn n v: l ma trn cho m tt c cc phn t trn ng cho chnh u
bng 1.
V d

2 2
1 0
0 1




,
3 3
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1







4. Ma trn tam gic trn (di): l tam gic c 0 =
ij
a j i ) (< >

V d

3 3
1 3 5
0 2 4
0 0 4






,
4 4
5 0 0 0
6 0 0 0
3 9 4 0
8 0 5 3








5. Ma trn chuyn v ca ma trn A: k hiu l A
T
, l ma trn suy t A bng cch
chuyn cc hng thnh cc ct tng ng.
7
V d

3 4
1 4 6 0
6 4 9 3
2 5 1 7
A

=




4 3
1 6 2
4 4 5
6 9 1
0 3 7
T
A

=




6. Ma trn bc thang: l ma trn tha mn 2 iu sau
* Cc hng khng (c cc phn t u bng 0) nm pha dui cc hng
khc khng (c t nht 1 phn t khc 0).
* Phn t khc 0 u tin ca hng di nm bn phi ct cha phn t khc 0 u
tin ca hng trn.
V d

3 4
2 4 6 3
0 3 0 1
0 0 0 2
A

=




Ch
* Ma trn cho l ma trn bc thang
* Hai ma trn cng c hay cng cp c gi l bng nhau nu cc phn
t tng ng u bng nhau
A = (a
ij
)
mxn
, B = (b
ij
)
mxn
A = B a
ij
= b
ij
i,j

2.1.3. Cc php tnh trn ma trn
1. Cng hai ma trn
a. nh ngha
Cho 2 ma trn
A = (a
ij
)
mxn
, B = (bij )
mxn
.
Tng ( hiu ) ca A v B l mt ma trn, k hiu A B, c mi s hng bng tng (hiu)
ca 2 s hng tng ng ca 2 ma trn thnh phn.
A B =
n m ij ij
b a

] [

b. Tnh cht
* A+ B = B+A ( Tnh giao hon)
* (A+ B) + C = A +(B+C) (Tnh kt hp)
* O: A+O = O+A =A A ( O : Ma trn khng)
* A, -A: A +(-A) = (-A) + A = O (- A: Ma trn i ca A)
8
2. Nhn 1 s vi 1 ma trn
a. nh ngha
Cho ma trn A = (a
ij
)
mxn
v 1 s k. Tch ca s k v ma trn A l mt ma trn, k hiu
kA, c mi s hng bng tch ca s k vi s hng tng ng ca ma trn A.
kA = [
ij
ka
]
mn

b. Tnh cht
* (-1)A = -A A
* k(A + B) = kA + kB k, A, B
* (k + h )A = kA + hA k, h, A
* k(hA) = (kh)A k, h, A
3. Nhn ma trn vi ma trn
a. nh ngha
Cho 2 ma trn [ ]
p m ik
a A

= v [ ]
n p
kj
b B

= .Tch ca 2 ma trn A v B l mt ma trn C,
k hiu C = AB, c phn t
kj
p
k
ik ij
b a c .
1

=
=
.
V d

=
0
3
3
,
3 0 5
4 2 1
B A
[ ] 15 3 = AB
b. Tnh cht
* AB ch c khi s ct ca A bng s hng ca B
* Php nhn ma trn khng c tnh giao hon.
* (AB)C = A(BC) (Tnh kt hp)
* (A + B)C = AC + BC
* C(A+B) = CA + CB (Tnh phn b ca php nh n i vi php cng)
* k(AB) = (kA)B = A(kB) k R
4. Cc php bin i s cp ca ma trn
* Nhn cc phn t ca hng (ct ) r vi mt s khc 0

r r
L L ( hay
S r
C C )
* i ch hai hng (ct) r v s
9

r s
L L ( )
S r
hay C C
* Cng ln hng (ct) r vo hng (ct) s.

S S r
L L L + ( hay
S s r
C C C + )
2.2. nh thc
2.2.1. Php th v hon v ca 1 tp hu hn
1. nh ngha
Gi s tp hu hn X .
Mt song nh X X : c gi l mt php th cu tp X.
Xt X c n phn t: X = { } n ,..., 3 , 2 , 1 = X
n
Biu din ca php th :

=
) ( ... ) ( ... ) 3 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 (
... ... 3 2 1
n i
n i

K hiu S
n
l tp hp cc php th ca X
n

V d

=
n i
n i
... ... 2 1
... ... 2 1
l php th ng nht ca S
n
.

=
2 1 3
3 2 1
l php th ca S
3

Ch
) ) ( ..., ), 2 ( ), 1 ( ( n l 1 hon v ca X
n

Mi php th gy ra mt hon v v ngc li. Do S
n
c n! phn t.
2. Chuyn tr
a. nh ngha
Php th ca S
n
c gi l mt chuyn tr nu

j i k k k
i j
j i
, , ) (
) (
) (
=
=
=

Chuyn tr ny cn c k hiu l: ) , ( j i
b. V d
Vi X
5
,

=
2 4 3 5 1
5 4 3 2 1
) 5 , 2 (
3. Du ca php th
10
a. Nghch th
Gi s l php th ca X
n
. Nu vi j i X j i < , , m ) ( ) ( j i > th cp ) ) ( ), ( ( j i
c gi l 1 nghch th gy bi ( hay l ca )
b. V d
Hon v

=
5 1 3 2 4
5 4 3 2 1

c 5 nghch th: (4,2), (4,3), (4.1), (2,1), (3,1)

Bi tp
Gi s S
n
.Chng minh rng:
{ }
) 1 ( 1
) ( ) (
,
=

hay
j i
j i
j i

tu theo s nghch th l s
chn (hay s l) trong { } j i, chy khp tp hp cc tp con gm 2 phn t ca X
n
.
c. nh ngha du ca php th
Du ca php th , k hiu sgn , c tnh theo cng thc:
{ }

=
j i
j i
j i
,
) ( ) (
sgn


d. Php th chn, php th l
Php th chn l php th c du bng 1( ngha l gy ra 1 s chn nghch th ).
Php th l l php th c du bng 1 ( ngha l gy ra 1 s l nghch th)
e. Mnh
* Mi php chuyn tr u l php th l.
* Du ca tch 2 php th ca X
n
bng tch cc du ca hai php th .
Chng minh:
Gi s ) , ( j i = . Xt 2 trng hp
* j = i + 1 Khi

+
+
=
n i i
n i i
... 1 ... 1
... 1 ... 1
ch c 1 nghch th (i+1, i) nn l php th l.
* j -i >1: Khi

+ +
+ +
=
n j i j i j i
n j j j i i i
... 1 1 ... 1 1 ... 1
... 1 1 ... 1 1 ... 1

gy ra cc nghch th sau:
( j, i+1), ( j, i+2),, ( j, j-1), ( j, i) c j-1- i 1+1+1 = j i nghch th
( i+1, i), (i+2, i),, ( j-1, i) c j 1 ( i+1) +1 = j i +1 nghch th
Tng cng c 2(j i ) + 1 nghch th nn l php th l.
a) Gi s v l 2 phn t thuc S
n
.
11












sgn sgn
) )( ( ) )( (
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) )( ( ) )( (
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) )( ( ) )( (
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) )( ( ) )( (
) sgn(
)) ( ), ( (
) , ( ) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , (
==

=
=

j i
j i
j i
j i
j i
j i
j i
j i
j i
j i
j i
j i
j i
j i
j i
j i j i j i
j i j i
o

Bi tp
Cho cc hon v ca S
4
l:

=
2 1 4 3
4 3 2 1
1
v

=
3 1 4 2
4 3 2 1
2

Tm:
1
2
1
1 1 2 2 1
, , ,

o o
2.2.2. nh ngha nh thc
1. nh ngha
a. nh thc cp n
Cho A l ma trn cp n, nh thc ca A, k hiu detA, l tng c dng sau:

) ( ) 3 ( 3 ) 2 ( 2 ) 1 ( 1
3 2 1
3 33 31 31
2 23 22 21
1 13 12 11
... sgn
...
...
...
...
det
n n
S
nn n n n
n
n
n
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
A
N

=
M M M M M

Tng ny gm n! s hng, mi s hng l tch ca n phn t ca ma trn A m trong
khng c 2 phn t no nm trn cng 1 hng hay 1 ct. Do s php th chn v l ca S
n

bng nhau nn detA c n!/2 s hng mang du cng (+) v n!/2 s hng mang du tr (-).
b. Minh ha
Trng hp n = 2; 3
n = 2;

= =
1 2
2 1
;
2 1
2 1
2 1 2
S

12 21 22 11 ) 2 ( 2 ) 1 ( 1 2 ) 2 ( 1 ) 1 ( 1 1
22 21
12 11
2 2 1 1
sgn sgn a a a a a a a a
a a
a a
= + =



{ }
6 5 4 3 2 1 3
, , , , , = S
Ta c:
12

32 23 11 33 21 12 31 22 13 32 21 13
31 23 12 33 22 11 ) ( ) 3 ( 3 ) 2 2 ) 1 ( 1
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
... sgn
3
a a a a a a a a a a a a
a a a a a a a a a a
a a a
a a a
a a a
n n
S
+
+ + = =

Quy tc Sarrus
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
#
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
+ + + =
a a a
a a a
a a a

Hay mt s khc
+ + +
32 31
22 21
12 11
33 32 31
23 22 21
13 12 11
a a
a a
a a
a a a
a a a
a a a

- - -
c. V d

0 225 225 48 72 105 96 84 45
9 8 7
6 5 4
3 2 1
) 2
24 28 4 ) 8 ( 3 ) 1 ( 4
1 3
8 4
) 1
= = + + =
= + = =

2.2.3. Tnh cht ca nh thc
1. Tnh cht 1
nh thc ca ma trn chuyn v A
t
bng nh thc ca ma trn A, ngha l: detA
t
=
detA.
Chng minh:

n n
S S
n n
nn n n
n
n
nn n n
n
n
t
a a a b b b
b b b
b b b
b b b
a a a
a a a
a a a
A
N N
) ( 2 ) 2 ( 1 ) 1 ( ) ( ) 2 ( 2 ) 1 ( 1
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
2 1
2 22 12
1 21 11
... sgn ... sgn
...
. . . .
...
...
...
. . . .
...
...
det

= =
= = =

t
13

ji ij
a b =
i n j i , 1 , = ;
k
i k = ) ( vi n k , 1 =

A a a a
a a a a a a A
n
n
n n
N
S
n n
S
n n i i
S
i i i i
t
det ... sgn
... sgn ... sgn det
1
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
2
1
2 1
1
1
) ( ) 2 ( 2 ) 1 ( 1
1
) ( ) 2 ( 2 ) 1 ( 1 ) ( ) ( ) (
= =
= = =

Ch
T tnh cht 1 suy ra rng hng v ct c vai tr nh nhau trong nh thc nn tnh cht
no ng i vi hng th cng ng i vi ct.
Do , k t tnh cht 2 tr i ta ch pht biu v chng minh i vi hng v phi hiu
rng chng vn cn ng i vi ct.
2. Tnh cht 2
Nu mi phn t ca mt hng no ca nh thc l tng ca 2 s hng th nh
thc l tng ca 2 nh thc, trong mi nh thc thnh phn c suy t nh thc
cho bng cch thay mi phn t ca hng ni trn bi 1 trong 2 s hng ca n, ngha
l:

/ // / // / // / / / // // //
1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2
. . . . . . .
in in in in i i i i i i i i
a a a a a a a a a a a a = + + + +

Chng minh:
Gi D l nh thc tri, D
1
v D
2
l 2 nh thc v phi.
i
/ //
1 (1) 2 (2) ( ) ( ) ( )
/ //
1 (1) 2 (2) ( ) ( ) 1 (1) 2 (2) (1) ( )
1 2
sgn
sgn sgn
...( )...
... .. ... ...
n
n n
i i i i n n
S
i i n n i n n
S S
D D
D a a a a a
a a a a a a a a

= + =
= +
= +

3. Tnh cht 3
C th a tha s chung ca cc phn t ca 1 hng ra khi du nh thc, ngha l

in i i in i i
a a a
k
ka ka ka ... ...
2 1 2 1
=

Chng minh:
14
Gi D v Dln lt l cc nh thc v tri v v phi.

/
1 (1) 2 ( 2) ( ) ( )
1 (1) 2 ( 2) ( ) ( )
sgn
sgn
... ...
... ...
n
n
i i n n
S
i i n n
S
D
D k k
a a ka a
a a a a

= =
= =

4. Tnh cht 4
Nu nh thc c 1 hng no l hng khng ( cc phn t ca hng u l 0 ) th
nh thc bng 0.
Chng minh:
Suy t nh ngha hay t tnh cht 3.
5. Tnh cht 5
Nu i ch 2 hng ca 1 nh thc th nh thc i du, ngha l

11 12 1 11 12 1
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
... ...
... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
... ...
n n
k k kn h h hn
h h hn k k kn
n n nn n n nn
a a a a a a
a a a a a a
a a a a a a
a a a a a a
=

Chng minh:
Gi D v D ln lt l cc nh thc v phi v v tri.
t b
ij
= a
ij
nu I h, j k
b
hj
= a
kj
, b
kj
= a
hj

n j , 1 =

Ta c

/
1 (1) 2 ( 2) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 (1) 2 ( 2) ( ) ( ) ( )
sgn
sgn
... ... ...
... ... ...
n
n
h h k k n n
S
k h h k n n
S
D b b b b b
a a a a a

= =
=

Gi ) , ( k h =

/
1 (1) 2 (2) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 (1) 2 (2) ( ) ( ) ( )
sgn
sgn
... ... ...
... ... ...
n
n
k k h h n n
S
h h k k n n
S
D a a a a a
a a a a a

=
=

t = , khi
15

/
1 (1) 2 (2) ( ) ( ) ( )
sgn ... ... ...
n
h h k k n n
S
D a a a a a D

= =

6. Tnh cht 6
Nu mt nh thc c 2 hng ging nhau th bng 0.
Chng minh:
Suy t tnh cht 5.
7. Tnh cht 7
Nu mt nh thc c 2 hng t l (Cc phn t tng ng ca chng t l vi nhau)
th n bng 0.
Chng minh:
Suy t tnh cht 3 v tnh cht 4.
8. Tnh cht 8
Nu cng ln hng r vo hng s th nh thc khng thay i (r s), ngha l

. . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . . . .
S
r
r s
L
L L L
=
+

Chng minh Suy t tnh cht 2 v tnh cht 7
9. Tnh cht 9
Nu 1 hng no ca nh thc l t hp tuyn tnh ca cc hng cn li th nh
thc bng 0, ngha l

. . .
0
. . .
r s t
L L L + + =
Chng minh Suy t tnh cht 2 v tnh cht 7.
V d
Khng tnh nh thc, hy chng t
5 5 2
7 2 5
4 0 2
= D
chia ht cho 17.
Gii

17
15 5 2
31 2 5
12 0 2
17
255 5 2
527 2 5
204 0 2
10 100
5 5 2
7 2 5
4 0 2
3 3 2 ` 1
bs C C C C = = + +

Bi tp
1) Khng khai trin, hy chng minh rng
16
a) ) )( )( (
1
1
1
a c c b b a
ab c
ca b
bc a
=
b) ) )( )( )( (
1 1 1
3 3 3
a c c b b a c b a
c b a
c b a + + =
2) Chng minh

// // //
/ / /
// // // // // //
/ / / / / /
2
c b a
c b a
c b a
b a a c c b
b a a c c b
b a a c c b
=
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +

3) Gii phng trnh

2 3
1
1 2 4 8
0
1 3 9 27
1 4 16 64
x x x
=

4) Chng minh
=
1 2
2
1
1
2 2
2
2
1
2 1
...
... ... ... ...
...
...
1 ... 1 1
n
n
n n
n
n
x x x
x x x
x x x
) ( )... )...( ( ) 1 )...( )( (
1 2 2 3 1 3 1 2

n n n n
x x x x x x x x x x x
) (
1
j i
n i j
x x

=
<

5) Khng khai trin nh thc, hy chng t rng
a)
) )( )( )( (
1 1 1
3 3 3
2 2 2
x z z y y x zx yz xy
z y x
z y x + + =

b)
( )( )( )( ) a c c b b a ca bc ab c b a
c c
b b
a a
+ + + + + = . .
1
1
1
2 2 2
4
4
4

c)
( )( )( ) ( ) a c c b b a c b a
c b a
c b a + + = . .
1 1 1
3 3 3

17
d)
c c
b b
a a
sin cos 1
sin cos 1
sin cos 1

2
sin
2
sin
2
sin 4
a c c b b a
=
6) Khng tnh nh thc, chng t rng nh thc
2 3 1
2 5 2
0 2 1
chia ht cho 12
2.2.4. Khai trin nh thc
1. nh thc con - Ph i s ca 1 phn t
a. nh ngha
Gi s A l ma trn cp n:
n n ij
a A

= ] [ , nu b hng i v ct j ca ma trn A ta c ma
trn M
ij
c gi l ma trn con ca A ng vi phn t a
ij
n j i , 1
D
ij
= detM
ij
c gi l nh thc con ng vi phn t a
ij

C
ij
= (-1)
i+j
D
ij
c gi l ph i s ng vi phn t a
ij
.
b. V d
Cho ma trn

=
9 8 7
6 5 4
3 2 1
M
6 ) 1 ( , 6 2 . 7 8 . 1
8 7
2 1
,
8 7
2 1
23
3 2
23 23 23
= = = = =

=
+
D C D M
2. Khai trin nh thc theo cc phn t ca 1 hng (hay 1 ct)
a. nh l
Cho
n n ij
a A

= ] [
, khi ta c

in in i i I i
C a C a C a A D + + + = = ... det
2 2 1 1
n i 1 (1)
(Cng thc khai trin theo hng i )
Hay n j C a C a C a A D
nj nj j j j j
+ + + = = 1 ... det
2 2 1 1

(Cng thc khai trin theo ct j)
Chng minh:
Bao gm 3 bc sau:
Bc 1:
Xt trng hp 0 , 0 , = =
nn nj
a n j a n i
Khi ,
18
1 (1) 1 ( 1)
11 12 1
1 (1)
11 12 1 1
( ) ( )
1
1 ( 1) ( )
1 (1) 1 ( 1)
sgn
0 0 0
sgn sgn
( )
( ) ( ) 1, 1
. .
. . . .
.
. .
...
...
...
...
n
n n
n n nn
n
n n n n S
nn
nn
S S
n n n n
n
n
n n n n
n n
D
S
S
n n
k k k n
a a a
a a a
a
a a a a
Xem
a a a
a a

= =

=
= =
= = =
= = =

1
sgn sgn
S
n

= =

1
1 (1) 1 ( 1)
sgn
( 1)
...
n
nn n n
S
n n
nn nn nn nn nn nn
D
D D C
a a a
a a a

=
= = =

Bc 2:
Xt trng hp 0 , 0 =
ij ik
a j k a

. . . . .
. . . . .
0 ... ... 0
. . . . .
. . . . .
ij
D
a
=
Bng n-i ln i ch 2 hng lin tip v n-j ln i ch 2 ct lin tip, ta a D v nh
thc:

/
/
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
0 0 0 0
nn
D
a
=

Theo tnh cht v bc 1, ta c:

ij ij ij
j i
ij ij ij
j i
nn nn
j i
nn nn
j i j i j i j n i n
C a D a D a
D a C a D D D D D
= = =
= = = = = = =
+ +
+ + + + +
) 1 ( ) 1 (
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 (
/ / / / / ) ( /

Bc 3:
Trng hp D bt k.
19

= =
. . . . .
. . . . .
.
. . . . .
. . . . .
.
2 1 in ij i i
a a a a D

n
nn nj n n
in ij i i
n j
D D D
a a a a
a a a a
a a a a
+ + + =
= + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + =
...
...
... ... ... ... ...
0 ... 0 0 ... 0 0 ... 0 ... 0 ... 0 0 0 ... 0
... ... ... ... ...
...
2 1
2 1
2 1
1 1 12 11

(Cc nh thc D
i
c dng bc 2)

in in ij ij I i I i
C a C a C a C a D ... ...
2 2 1 1
+ + + + =
(.p.c.m)
b. H qu
nh thc ca ma trn tam gic bng tch ca cc phn t nm trn ng cho
chnh, ngha l
nn
nn
n n n n
n
n
a a a a
a
a a
a a
a a
...
0 0 0 0
. 0 0 0
... ... ... ... ...
... ... 0
. ... ... ...
33 22 11
1 1 , 1
2 22
1 11
=


Chng minh
Khai trin theo ct mt n-1 ln lin tip ta nhn c .p.c.m.
3. V d
Dng cc tnh cht ca nh thc, chng t rng

) )( )( (
1 1 1
2 2 2
a c c b b a
c b a
c b a =

Gii
20

) )( )( ( ) )( )( (
0 0
1 0
1
) )( (
1 0
1 0
1
) )( (
0
0
1
1
1
1 1 1 1
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2 2
a c c b b a b c a c a b
b c
a b
a a
a c a b
a c
a b
a a
a c a b
a c a c
a b a b
a a
c c
b b
a a
c b a
c b a
= =
=

+ =
+
+ =
=

= =

Ch

=
= + + +
/
/
2
2
1
1
0
det
...
/ / /
i i khi
i i khi A
C a C a C a
n i
in
i
i
i
i

=
= + + +
/
/
2
2
1
1
0
det
...
/ / /
j j khi
j j khi A
C a C a C a
nj
nj
j
j
j
j

2.3. Ma trn nghch o
Trong cc phn di y chng ta s dng hai kt qu (khng chng minh) sau:
1) det det .det AB A B = (nh thc ca ma trn tch bng tch 2 nh thc thnh phn)
2) C AB BC A ) ( ) ( = (Tnh cht kt hp ca php nhn ma trn)
trong , A,B,C l cc ma trn cp n.
2.3.1. Ma trn kh o v ma trn nghch o
1. nh ngha
Cho A l ma trn cp n, nu tn ti ma trn B cp n sao cho AB = BA = I th A c
gi l ma trn kh o v B c gi l ma trn nghch o ca A, k hiu B = A
-1

2. V d

B A
BA AB
B A
=

=
1
1 0
0 1
4 3
2 1
2 / 1 2 / 3
1 2
,
1 0
0 1
2 / 1 2 / 3
1 2
4 3
2 1
2 / 1 2 / 3
1 2
,
4 3
2 1

3. S duy nht ca ma trn nghch o
Gi s B v C u l cc ma trn nghch o ca A, ta cn chng minh B= C.
Tht vy, ta c
21

C B
C IB
C B CA
CI AB C
I AB
=
=
=
=
=
) (
) (

4. iu kin tn ti ma trn nghch o v biu thc ca n
a. nh l 1 (iu kin cn)
Nu ma trn A cp n kh o th 0 det A .
Chng minh:
A kh o B M
n
: I BA AB = =
0 det 0 det . det 1 det det = = A B A I AB
b. nh l 2 (iu kin )
Nu 0 det A th A kh o v
t
C
A
A
det
1
1
=

, trong ( )
n n
ij
c C

= vi

ij
j i
ij
D c
+
= ) 1 (
.
Chng minh:
Ta c

I
A
A
A
A
C C C
C C C
C C C
a a a
a a a
a a a
A
C
A
A
nn n n
n
n
nn n n
n
n
t
=

=
det 0 ... 0
0 ... ... .
. ... det 0
0 ... 0 det
det
1
...
. .... . .
...
...
...
. ... . .
...
...
det
1
)
det
1
(
2 1
2 22 12
1 21 11
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11

I
A
A
A
A
a a a
a a a
a a a
C C C
C C C
C C C
A
A C
A
nn n n
n
n
nn n n
n
n
t
=

=
det 0 ... 0
0 ... . .
. ... det 0
0 ... 0 det
det
1
...
. ... . .
...
...
...
. ... . .
...
...
det
1
).
det
1
(
2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11
2 1
2 22 12
1 21 11
A kh o v
t
C
A
A
det
1
1
=

c. V d
Tm
1
A bit

=
8 0 1
3 5 2
3 2 1
A

Gii
22

A A =

= = 0 1
1 0 0
3 1 0
3 2 1
5 2 0
3 1 0
3 2 1
8 0 1
3 5 2
3 2 1
det
kh o.

1
5 2
2 1
) 1 ( , 2
0 1
2 1
) 1 ( , 5
0 1
5 2
) 1 (
3
3 2
3 1
) 1 ( , 5
8 1
3 1
) 1 ( , 13
8 1
3 2
) 1 (
9
3 5
3 2
) 1 ( , 16
8 0
3 2
) 1 ( , 40
8 0
3 5
) 1 (
3 3
33
3 2
23
3 1
13
2 3
32
2 2
22
2 1
12
1 3
31
1 2
21
1 1
11
= = = = = =
= = = = = =
= = = = = =
+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
C C C
C C C
C C C

Suy ra

1 2 5
3 5 13
9 16 40
1 2 5
3 5 13
9 16 40
1
1
1
A
2.3.2. Phng php Gauss-Jordan
1. Cc ma trn s cp
* ) , ( r F ) 0 ( suy t ma trn n v cng cp bng cch thay =
rr
a

=
1 0 . 0 0
0 .
. . 0
0 1 0
0 0 . 0 1
) , ( r F r
r
Nhn ) , ( r F bn tri (phi) ma trn cng cp A Nhn hng (ct) r ca A vi
* ) , ( s r P : ) ( s r suy t ma trn n v cng cp bng cch hon v 2 ct r v
s

=
1 0 0 0 0
0 0 . 1 0
0 . 1 . 0
0 1 . 0 0
0 0 0 0 1
) , ( s r P
s r
Nhn P(r, s) bn tri (phi) ma trn cng cp A i ch 2 hng (ct) r v s ca ma
trn A
* Q(r, , s): (r s) suy t ma trn n v cng cp bng cch thay a
sr
=
23

=
1 . ... 0 0
0 1 0
. . .
0 0 1 0
0 0 ... 0 1
) , , ( s r Q s

r
Nhn Q(r, , s) bn tri (phi) ma trn cng cp ACng ln hng (ct) r vo hng
ct) S
2. B
Cho A l 1 ma trn cp n.
- Nu tn ti ma trn B cp n sao cho BA=I th A kh o v B=A
-1
- Nu tn ti ma trn C cp n sao cho BA=I th A kh o v C=A
-1

Chng minh:
Nu tn ti ma trn B cp n sao cho BA=I th A kh o v B=A
-1

BA=I => det BA = 1 => det A0 => A kh o.
Hn na, ta c

1 1 1 1
1 1 1
) (
) (
1


= = =
= =

A B A BI A AA B
A IA A BA

Chng minh:
Nu tn ti ma trn C cp n sao cho AC=I th A kh o v C=A
-1
hon ton tng t.
3. Phng php Gauss-Jordan
a. Ni dung
Tm ma trn nghch o bng cc php bin i s cp ca ma trn v ng dng b
trn.
S :
1 . . . . . .
[ ] ... [ ]
Bd s c Bd s c
A I I A

b. V d
Phng php c trnh by thng qua v d sau
Tm ma trn nghch o ca ma trn:

=
8 0 1
3 5 2
3 2 1
A
Gii:
24

1
1 1 1 1 1
2
1 2 2
1 3 3
(1, 2, 2). (1, 1, 2)
1 2 3 1 0 0 1 2 3 1 0 0
2 5 3 0 1 0 0 1 3 0 1 0
1 0 8 0 0 1 0 2 5 1 0 1
L L L
L L L
A I A E A B E I E
E Q Q
+
+

= = =
=

2
2 2 1 2 2 1
2
2 3 3
(2, 2, 3)
1 2 3 1 0 0
0 1 3 2 1 0
0 0 1 5 2 1
L L L
E Q
A E A B E E
+
=
= =








3
3 3 2 3 3
2
( 1)
3
(3, 1)
1 2 3 1 0 0
0 1 3 2 1 0
0 0 1 5 2 1
L
E F
A E A B E B

=
= =








4
4 4 3 4 4
3
3
3 1 1
3
3 2 2
(3, 3,1). (3, 3, 2)
1 2 0 14 6 3
0 1 0 13 5 3
0 0 1 5 2 1
L L L
L L L
E Q Q
A E A B E B
+
+
=
= =








5
5 5 5 5 5 4 4 3 4 3 2 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 5 5 5 4
4
2
2 1 1
(2, 2,1)
:
1 0 0 40 16 9
0 1 0 13 5 3
0 0 1 5 2 1
L L L
E Q
A E A I B E B
I E A E E A E E E A E E E E A E E E E E A
B E E E E E BA I
+
=
= = =
= = = = =
= =







Do B l tch cc ma trn s cp nn B khng suy bin

=

1 2 5
3 5 13
9 16 40
1
A

Ch
Ta thng dng cc php bin i s cp hng tm A
-1
.
Bi tp
Tm ma trn nghch o ca cc ma trn sau bng 2 cch khc nhau
a)

=
5 2 3
2 1 0
3 2 1
A
b)

=
2 1 1
1 2 1
1 1 2
A
2.4. Hng ca mt ma trn
2.4.1. nh ngha
1. nh thc con cp k ca 1 ma trn
25
Gi s
n m ij
a

= ] [ A , nu trch t A, k hng v k ct no th ta c 1 ma trn con cp
k ca A v nh thc ca n c gi l nh thc con cp k ca A.
Ch
k min(m,n)
V d

=
9 8 7
6 5 4
3 2 1
A
Gii
Cc nh thc con
* cp 1: 9 ..., , 2 , 1 ;
* cp 2:
,...
6 4
3 1
,
5 4
2 1
;
* cp 3 :
9 8 7
6 5 4
3 2 1

2. Hng ca mt ma trn
Hng ca 1 ma trn l cp cao nht ca cc nh thc con khc khng ca ma trn .
K hiu (A)=r
Ch

= = =

=
+ +
0 ...
0
) (
2 1 r r
r
D D
D
r A
3. V d
Tm hng ca ma trn sau
0 det , 0 3 8 5
5 4
2 1
,
9 8 7
6 5 4
3 2 1
3 2
= = = = =

= A D D A
D
3
l nh thc con cp 3 duy nht.
Vy (A)=2
4. Nhn xt
Nu dng nh ngha tm hng ma trn, ni chung ta phi lit k mt s kh ln cc
nh thc con ca n, iu ny l rt phc tp khi n kh ln. Phng php sau y gip ta
trnh c iu ny, ngoi ra n cn gip ta tm c hng m khng pha tnh mt nh
thc con no c.
26
2.4.2. Phng php tm hng nh cc php bin i s cp ca ma trn
1. C s ca phng php
Da vo 2 nhn xt sau
- Cc php bin i s cp ca ma trn khng lm thay i hng ca ma trn .
- Hng ca 1 ma trn bc thang bng ng s hng khc khng ca n.
2. Ni dung
tm hng ca 1 ma trn A cho trc, trc ht ta dng cc php bin i s cp
hng v ct a A v ma trn bc thang A

v s hng khc khng ca A

chnh l hng
ca A.
3. Cc v d
a) Tm hng ca ma trn sau

=
9 8 7
6 5 4
3 2 1
A

Gii

2 ) (
0 0 0
6 3 0
3 2 1
2
12 6 0
6 3 0
3 2 1
7
4
9 8 7
6 5 4
3 2 1
3 3 2
3 3 1
1 2 2
=

+
+

=
A
L L L
L L L
L L L
A

b) Bin lun theo m hng ca ma trn sau

=
1 6 10 1
5 1 2
2 1 1
m
m
A

Gii

=
=

+
+

=
3 3
3 2
) (
3 9 3 0 0
2 1 2 1 0
1 2 1
10 5 1 0
2 1 2 1 0
1 2 1
2
10 6 1 1
1 5 2
1 2 1
1 6 10 1
5 1 2
2 1 1
3 3 2
3 3 1
2 2 1
4 2
m khi
m khi
A
m m
m m
m
L L L
m
m m
m
L L L
L L L
m
m
C C m
m
A

Phng php ny cn gi l phng php Gauss

Bi tp
Bin lun theo m hng ca ma trn sau
27

m
m
m
m
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1

2.5. H phng trnh tuyn tnh c s n bng s phng trnh
2.5.1. Dng tng qut v dng ma trn
1. Dng tng qut

= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
n nn nn n n n n
n n
n n
b x a x a x a
b x a x a x a
b x a x a x a
...
. . . ... .
...
...
2 2 1 1
2 2 2 2 22 1 21
1 1 1 12 12 1 11
(I)
2. Dng ma trn
t ( )
n n
ij
a A

= gi l ma trn h s.

1
2
1
:
n
n
x
x
x
x




=



gi l ma trn n.

1
2
1
:
n
n
b
b
b
b




=



gi l ma trn v phi (ct v phi)
(I) b Ax = Dng ma trn ca h (I).
* b 0 H (I) c gi l h khng thun nht.
* b = 0 H (I) c gi l h thun nht.
Ch
Ma trn
[ ]
1
0
+
=
n n
A A
c gi l ma trn m rng ca h (I)
2.5.2. H Cramer
1. nh ngha
H vung b Ax = c gi l h Cramer nu 0 det A .
2. nh l Cramer
H Cramer b Ax = c nghim duy nht b A x
1
=
28
hay n j
A
A
x
j
j
, 1
det
det
= = , trong A
j
l ma trn suy t A bng cch thay ct th j bi
ct v phi b.
Chng minh:
* S tn ti nghim
V
t
C
A
A A
det
1
0 det
1
=


b A x b A Ix b A x A A b A Ax A b Ax
1 1 1 1 1 1
) ( ) (

= = = = =

+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
=

= = =

nn n n n
n n
n n
n nn n n
n
n
t
n
C b C b C b
C b C b C b
C b C b C b
b
b
b
C C C
C C C
C C C
A
b C
A
x
x
x
x
...
...
...
...
:
...
: ... : :
...
...
det
1
det
1
:
2 1 1 1
2 21 2 12 1
1 21 2 11 1
2
1
2 1
2 22 12
1 21 11
2
1

n j
A
A
C b C b C b
A
x
j
nj n j j j
, 1
det
det
) ... (
det
1
2 2 1 1
= = + + + =
* S duy nht nghim
Gi s x v x l 2 nghim ca h (I) ) ( ) (
/ 1 1 /
Ax A Ax A b Ax Ax

= = =

/ / / 1 1
) ( ) ( x x Ix Ix x A A x A A = = = =

.
3. V d
Gii h sau bng phng php Cramer

= + +
= +
= + +
7 7 11 4
2 2 3
4 3 4 2
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
x x x
x x x
x x x

0 29
29 29
11 10
. 1
29 0 29
2 1 3
11 0 10
11
4
7 11 4
2 1 3
3 4 2
3 3 2
1 1 2
=

+
+
=
L L L
L L L
D

29
29 29
11 12
. 1
29 0 29
2 1 2
11 0 12
11
4
7 11 7
2 1 2
3 4 4
3 3 2
1 1 2
1
= =
+
+
=
L L L
L L L
D


29 ) 8 21 (
7 4
2 3
. 1
7 0 4
2 0 3
3 1 2
7 7 4
2 2 3
3 4 2
2 2 3 2
= + =

= + = C C C D


58
29 29
12 10
. 1
29 0 29
2 1 3
12 0 10
11
4
7 11 4
2 1 3
4 4 2
3 3 2
1 1 2
3
=

+
+
=
L L L
L L L
D

29
H c nghim duy nht l

=
2
1
1
x

2.5.3. H tam gic trn
1. nh ngha
H tam gic trn l h phng trnh c dng

=
=
= + +
= + + +
n n n
n n
n n
b x a
b x a x a
b x a x a x a
1
2 2 2 22
1 1 2 12 1 11
: : :
...
...
b Ax =
trong ,
11 12 1
22 2
0
0 0
...
...
: : : :
...
n
n
nn
a a a
a a
A
a



=



l ma trn tam gic trn n i a
ii
, 1 0 ( = )
2. Cch gii
Gii t di ln
- Phng trnh cui cho x
n

- Phng trnh lin trn cho x
n-1

- Phng trnh u cho x
1

3. p dng
gii h Ax = b cha c dng tam gic trn. Ta dng cc php bin i s cp hng
a ma trn m rng ] [ b A A= v dng ] [
/ / /
b A A = vi A l ma trn tam gic trn.
V d
Bng cch a v ma trn tam gic trn, gii h sau

= + +
= +
= + +
7 7 11 4
2 2 3
4 3 4 2
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
x x x
x x x
x x x

Gii

=
7 7 11 4
2 2 1 3
4 3 4 2
/
A

+
1 1 2
L L L

7 7 11 4
2 2 1 3
6 5 3 1

+
+
3 3
1
2 2
1
4
3
L L L
L L L

30

31 27 23 0
16 13 10 0
6 5 3 1

+
3 3 2
2 L L L


+

2 2 3
3
1 1 3 0
16 13 10 0
6 5 3 1
L L L

1 1 3 0
19 10 1 0
6 5 3 1

+
3 3 2
3 L L L

58 29 0 0
19 10 1 0
6 5 3 1


3 3 2 2 1 1
29 58 2 10.2 19 1 3 1 5.2 6 1 ( ) , , . x x x x x x = = + = = + + = =
Vy h c 1 nghim duy nht l:
1
2
3
1
1
2
x
x
x
=

2.5.4. H thun nht
1. Dng tng qut

1 1 n n n n
A x O

= (II)
2. Nghim tm thng v khng tm thng
H (II) lun lun c nghim
1
0
0
:
0
n
x

=



c gi l nghim tm thng.
Nghim

=
n
x
x
x
x
:
2
1
m 0
j
x vi n j 1 c gi l nghim khng tm thng.
3. iu kin tn ti nghim khng tm thng
a. nh l
H thun nht 0 = Ax c nghim khng tm thng khi v ch khi 0 det = A .
Chng minh
* Cn ?) (
Gi s 0 det A => H Ax = 0 l h Cramer => H c nghim duy nht l nghim tm
thng. iu ny tri vi gi thit. Vy 0 det = A
* ) (?
Bng cc php bin i s cp v hng v nh s li cc n (tc l i ch cc ct), ta
a Av
/
A :
31

=
+
+
+
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
: 0 0 0 0 : : :
0 ... 0 0
: ... : : : : 0 :
0 ... ... 0
0 . ... ...
/ /
1
/
/
2
/
1 2
/
2
/
22
/
1
/
1 1
/
1
/
12
/
11
/
rn rr rr
n r r
n r r
a a a
a a a a
a a a a a
A A

Trong r i a
ii
, 1 0
/
=
C 2 kh nng
* n r = 0 det 0 ... det
/ /
22
/
11
/
= A a a a A
nn
( tri vi gi thit)
* n r < H thun nht sau c s phng trnh t hn s n nn c v s nghim,
trong ch c 1 nghim tm thng, cn li l v s nghim khng tm thng.
Cc nghim c tm nh sau
Cc n
1 2
, ,...,
n r r
x x x
+ +
(ng vi h cui cng 0
/
= x A ) mang gi tr ty .
Cc n
1 2
, ,...,
r
x x x (ng vi h cui cng 0
/
= x A ) c gii t h tam gic trn.
b. V d
Cho h phng trnh

= +
= + +
= +
0 5
0 2
0 2
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
ax x x
x x x
x x x

1) Vi gi tr no ca a th h c nghim khng tm thng.
2) Tm cc nghim .
Gii
1) H c nghim khng tm thng 0
10 6 0
2 1 1
3 3 0
0
1 5
2 1 1
1 1 2
=


=

a a

4 12 3 0 18 ) 10 ( 3 0
10 6
3 3
= = = =


a a a
a

2) Vi a = 4 ta c h

1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
2 0
2 0
5 4 0
x x x
x x x
x x x
+ =

+ + =

+ =

(II)
32
2 2
3 3
3
1 2 2
1 3 3 21
2 3
2
5
1
3
1
6
2 1 1 0 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 0
1 1 2 0 2 1 1 0 0 3 3 0
5 1 4 0 5 1 4 0 0 6 6 0
1 1 2 0 1 1 2 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
L L L
L L L L L
L L L
L L
L L
A
+
+
+

=










H (II) tng ng vi

1 2 3 1 2 3
2 3 2 3
2 0 2
0
x x x x x x
x x x x
+ + = + =

+ = =


Nghim l:
x
3
= t tu
x
2
= - t
x
1
= - x
2
- 2x
3
= t 2t = - t
Vi t 0 l cc nghim khng tm thng.
Bi tp
Gii cc h sau bng 2 cch (Dng cng thc Cramer, a v h tam gic trn)

= +
= + +
= +
2 5 4 3
5 2 2
4 3 2
) 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
x x x
x x x
x x x

2)

= + +
= + +
= + +
9 3
3 3
1 3
z y x
z y x
z y x

3)

= +
= + +
= +
1 9 3
2 7 2
1 2
y x
z y x
y x

2.6. H phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut
2.6.1. H phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut
1. Dng tng qut

= + + +
= + + +
= + + +
m mn mn m m m m
n n
n n
b x a x a x a
b x a x a x a
b x a x a x a
...
. . . ... .
...
...
2 2 1 1
2 2 2 2 22 1 21
1 1 1 12 12 1 11
(I)
33
2. Dng ma trn
t
( )
n m
ij
a A

=
gi l ma trn h s.

1
2
1
:
n
n
x
x
x
x




=



gi l ma trn n.

1
2
1
:
m
m
b
b
b
b




=



gi l ma trn v phi (ct v phi)
(I) b Ax = Dng ma trn ca h (I).
* b 0 H (I) c gi l h khng thun nht.
* b = 0 H (I) c gi l h thun nht.
[ ]
1 +
=
n m
b A A c gi l ma trn m rng (hay ma trn b sung) ca h (I)
Ch
- Nu m=n H vung
- H tng thch; C nghim
- H xc nh; C 1 nghim duy nht
- H khng xc nh; C v s nghim
- H khng tng thch; H v nghim
2.6.2. nh l Kronecker-Capelli
1. nh l
H tng qut
1 1 m n n m
A x b

= (I) tng thch khi v ch khi ) ( ) ( A A = .
Chng minh:
Bng cc php bin i s cp v hng v nh s li cc n (i ch cc ct) ta a
ma trn A v dng bc thang
/ / / / /
11 12 1 1 1
/ / / /
22 2 2 2
/ / / /
/
1
/
0
0 0
0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
... ...
... ...
: : : : : : :
... ... . ..
... ... ... ...
: ...
...
r n
r n
rr rn r
r
m
a a a a b
a a a b
A A a a b
b
b
+





=






vi ) ( A r =
34
a) Cn ( ? )
Gi s h tng thch, ta cn chng minh ) ( ) ( A A =
Tht vy, gi ) ,..., , (
0 0
2
0
1 n
x x x l 1 nghim no ca h (I)
Thay nghim ny vo n r phng trnh cui, ta c: 0 ...
/ /
2
/
1
= = = =
+ + m r r
b b b
r A = ) ( ) ( ) ( A A =
b) ( ? ) Gi s r A A = = ) ( ) ( , ta cn chng minh h tng thch.
Do r A = ) ( 0 ...
/ /
2
/
1
= = = =
+ + m r r
b b b (V nu 0
/

+i r
b th r A > ) ( )
C 2 kh nng
* Nu r < n; = r A) ( nh thc con 0
r
D , nh thc ny c gi l nh thc
con chnh ca h. H tng ng vi h con ch gm r phng trnh cha nh thc
r
D
ny. r n c cc h s trong nh thc con chnh gi l cc n chnh ca h, cc n cn li
l cc n ph. Trong nghim tng qut cc n ph mang gi tr tu , cn cc n chnh
tnh theo cc n ph v c gii nh h Cramer c nh thc l 0
r
D ni trn.
Nu ta a h v dng bc thang nh trn th nn chn 0
r
D l nh thc tam gic
trn to bi r hng u v r ct u ca h bc thang.
Khi h (I)

=
= + +
= + + +

+ +
+ +
+ +
/ / /
1
/
1
/ / /
/ /
2
/
1
/
1 2
/
2
/ /
2
/
2
/
22
/ /
1
/
1
/
1 1
/
1
/ /
1
/
2
/
12
/
1
/
11
...
... ... ...
... ...
... ...
n rn r rr r rr rr
n n r r r r x
n n r r r r
x a x a b x a
x a x a b x a x a
x a x a b x a x a x a

Nghim tng qut ca h l

=
=
=
=
=
=
+
+
Cramer x
Cramer x
Cramer x
R t x
R t x
R t x
r
n n
r
r
/
/
2
/
1
/
2
/
2
1
/
1
... ... ...
... ... ...

H c v s nghim.
* Nu r = n; H (I) l h Cramer c duy nht nghim.
Tm li, h lun lun tng thch.
2. Cc v d
a. V d 1
35
Cho h phng trnh

1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
2 3
3 2
2 3
x x ax
x x ax
x x x b
+ + =

+ + =

Hy xc nh a v b
* H c nghim duy nht.
* H c v s nghim
* H khng tng thch.
Gii
1 2 3
3 1 2
2 1 3
a
a
b
A


=



1 2 2
1 3 3
3
2
1 2 3
0 7 4 7
0 3 3 2 6
L L L
L L L
a
a
a b
+
+

+
2 2 3
2 L L L

1 2 3
0 1 6 5 2
0 3 3 2 6
a
b
a b








+
3 3 2
3 L L L
1 2 3
0 1 6 5 12
0 0 21 2 7 21
a
a b








* H c nghim duy nht 21 2 0 a
21
,
2
b a R
* H c v s nghim
21
21 2 0
2
7 21 0
3
a a
b
b

= =


=

* H khng tng thch
2
3
( )
( )
A
A

21
2
21 2 0
7 21 0
3
a a
b
b

= =

b. V d 2
Chng t rng h sau khng tng thch

1 2 3 4
1 2 3
1 2 3 4
3 2 2
2 7 1
4 3 2 1
x x x x
x x x
x x x x
+ =

+ =

+ + =

Gii

=
1 2 3 1 4
1 0 1 7 2
2 1 2 3 1
A

+
+
7 2 5 13 0
5 2 5 13 0
2 1 2 3 1
3 3 1
4
2 2 1
2
L L L
L L L

+
3 3 2
L L L

36

2 0 0 0 0
5 2 5 13 0
2 1 2 3 1


H khng tng thch.
c. V d 3
Gii v bin lun h phng trnh sau

1
1
1
mx y z
x my z
x y mz
+ + =

+ + =

+ + =

(I)
Gii

=
1 1 ` 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
m
m
m
A


3 1
L L

1 1 1 `
1 1 1
1 1 1
m
m
m

+
+
1 3 3 1
2 2 1
L L mL
L L L

m m m
m m
m
1 1 1 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 1
2

+

+
m m m
m m
m
L L L
1 2 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 1 1
2
3
3
2

t ) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) 2 )( 1 (
2 2
+ = + = m m m m m P
C 2 trng hp sau
*
1
0
2
m
P
m

3 r n = = H c nghim duy nht

2
1 1 1
2 ( 1)( 2) 2
m m
z
m m m m m

= = =
+ + +

0
2
1
) 1 ( ) 1 ( =
+
+
m
m y m
1
2
y
m
=
+

2
1
2 2
1
1
+
=
+

+
=
m m
m
m
x
Vy nghim duy nht l

+
=
+
=
+
=
2
1
2
1
2
1
m
z
m
y
m
x

* P = 0 1 = m hay 2 = m
Khi 1 m =
H (I) 1 = + + z y x . Nghim tng qut l

=
=
=
R t z
R s y
t s x 1

3 ) ( 2 ) ( = < = A A
37
Khi 2 m = H (I)

=
= +
= +
3 0
0 3 3
1 2
z
z y
z y x
H khng tng thch.
Bi tp
1) Gii h phng trnh sau

1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
3 2 1
9 6 3
3 5 1
x x x
x x x
x x x
+ =

+ + =

+ + =

2) Gii v bin lun h phng trnh sau

1 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
3
( 1) 3
1
m
x x x
x x x
x x mx

+ + =

+ + =

+ + =

3) Gii h phng trnh

3 13
2 5 33
4 3 2 19
3 9
x y z
x y
x y z
x y z
+ =

+ =

+ =

+ + =

4) Cho h phng trnh

2 2 2
1
2
x y z t
x y t
x z mt m
+ + =

+ =

+ =

(I)
a) Gii h khi
2 = m
bng phng php Gauss
b) Xc nh m h tng thch
5) Cho h phng trnh

( )

= + +
= + + +
= + +
1 4 9 3
2 1 2 7 2
1 2
mz y x
z m y x
mz y x

a) Gii h khi m = 0 bng phng php Gauss
b) Xc nh m h c v s nghim. Tm cc nghim y
6) Cho h phng trnh

( )

= + +
= + +
= + +
2
1 1
2
z y x
z a y x
z ay x

38
a) Gii h khi a = 3 bng phng php Gauss
b) Gii v bin lun h theo a
7) Cho h phng trnh

= +
= + +
= + +
= + +
14 3 2
7 5
5 3
2 2
mz y x
z y x
z y x
z y x

a) Gii h phng trnh khi m = 3 bng phng php Gauss
b) Vi gi tr no ca m th h tng thch
8) Cho h phng trnh

= + +
= +
= +
= +
9
19 2 3 4
33 5 2
13 3
z m y x
z y x
y x
z y x

a) nh m h khng tng thch.
b) Gii h khi m = -3
9) Gii v bin lun h phng trnh sau

= + +
= + +
= + +
2
1
m mz y x
m z my x
z y mx

Chng 3
HM S - GII HN HM S
Trong phn u chng ny chng ti trnh s lc v cc khi nim, tnh cht ca nh
x cng nh hm s. Gii hn dy s cng c gii thiu. Ni dung chnh ca chng
ny c dnh trnh by cc nh ngha, tnh cht, cc tiu chun so snh, v cch tnh
gii hn hm s thng gp. Hm s lin tc, gin on v mt s bi tp c a ra
cui chng.
3.1. B TC HM S
3.1.1. Hm s
1. nh ngha
nh x
) (
:
x f y x
R R D f
f
=

a
c gi l hm thc 1 bin thc (gi tt l hm 1
bin) xc nh trn
f
D .

f
D c gi l min xc nh ca hm . f
39
{ } R x f D x D f T
f f f
= = ) ( / ) ( c gi l min gi tr ca hm f.
Ch
- Ta thng gi tt hm s ) (x f y =
- { } ) ( : / x f y D x R y T
f f
= = = { / R x phng trnh ) (x f y = c t nht 1 nghim
x
f
D
2. V d
Tm min gi tr ca hm s

2
1
2
) (
x
x
x f
+
=
Gii
R D
f
=
, R y xt phng trnh
2
1
2
x
x
y
+
= 0 2 2 ) 1 (
2 2
= + = + y x yx x x y (1)
* Nu 0 y = (1) c nghim 0 = x
* Nu 0 y (1) l phng trnh bc hai thc s
(1) c nghim { } 0 \ ] 1 ; 1 [ 0 1 0
2
y y
Vy ] 1 ; 1 [ =
f
T
3.1.2. th ca hm s
1. nh ngha
Cho hm s
) (
:
x f y x
R R D f
f
=

a

Tp hp ( ) { }
f f
D x x f x G = / ) ( ; c gi l th ca hm s f


ct ti 1 im
khng ct

f
G
0
x

x
2. Tnh cht
Mi ng thng cng phng vi trc tung ct
f
G ti khng qu 1 im.
( ) y f x =
( ) f x
40
3.1.3. Cc php ton trn hm s
Cho 2 hm s f v g c min xc nh ln lt l
f
D v
g
D . Khi , ta c cc nh
ngha sau y
1. Tng ca f v g l 1 hm s k hiu g f + c
* Min xc nh l
g f g f
D D D =
+

* ) ( ) ( ) )( ( x g x f x g f + = +
2. Hiu ca f v g l 1 hm s k hiu g f c
* Min xc nh l
g f g f
D D D =
+

* ) ( ) ( ) )( ( x g x f x g f =
3. Tch ca f v g l 1 hm s k hiu g f . c
* Min xc nh l
g f g f
D D D =
.

* ) ( ). ( ) )( . ( x g x f x g f =
4. Thng ca f v g l 1 hm s k hiu
g
f
c
* Min xc nh l { } 0 ) ( / \ = = x g D x D D D
g g f
g
f

*
) (
) (
) (
x g
x f
x
g
f
=

5. Hp ca f v g l 1 hm s k hiu f g o c
* Min xc nh l { }
g f f g
D x f D x D = ) ( /
o

* )] ( [ ) )( ( x f g x f g = o
Bi tp
Cho 2 hm s
x x
R R f
cos
:
a

v
1 3
:
2

x x
R R g
a

Hy xc nh 2 hm hp f g o v g f o
3.1.4. Cc hm s s cp
1. Hm s s cp c bn
a. nh ngha
Cc hm s sau y c gi l cc hm s s cp c bn
* Hm lu tha:

x y = c min xc nh ph thuc vo
41
* Hm s m:
x
a y = (vi 0 1 > a ) c min xc nh l R v min gi tr
l ) ; 0 ( + =
+
R
* Hm s logarit: x y
a
log = (vi 0 1 > a ) c min xc nh l ) ; 0 ( + =
+
R v min
gi tr l: R
* Hm s lng gic
x y sin = v x y cos = c min xc nh l R v min gi tr l [ 1 ; 1 ]
Hm s tgx y = c min xc nh l

+ Z k k R /
2
\

Hm s gx y cot = c min xc nh l { } Z k k R / \
* Hm s lng gic ngc
x y arcsin = c min xc nh l ] 1 ; 1 [ v min gi tr l ]
2
;
2
[


x y arccos = c min xc nh l ] 1 ; 1 [ v min gi tr l ] ; 0 [
arctgx y = c min xc nh l R v min gi tr l )
2
;
2
(


gx arc y cot = c min xc nh l R v min gi tr l ) ; 0 (
b. V d
x y x y cos ,
3
= = ,
2. Hm s s cp
a. nh ngha
Hm s cho bi 1 biu thc duy nht thu c qua 1 s hu hn cc php trn cc hm
s s cp c bn v cc hng s c gi l hm s s cp.
b. V d
1.
2
sin 2 y x x = +
2.
2
5 ln y tg x x = +
3.
4
3 1
x
x
y
e

= , l cc hm s cp
4.
2 1
5 0
cos2 0
x khi x
y khi x
x khi x
+

= =

<

khng phi l hm s cp
3.1.5. Gii hn dy s
1. nh ngha
42
Cho dy s +
Z n
n
u ) (
, ta c cc nh ngha sau
) 1 ( : ) ( , 0 lim < > = > =

a u N n N N a u
n n
n

) 2 ( : ) ( , 0 lim M u N n M N N M u
n n
n
> > = > =


+ =

n
n
u lim ) 3 ( : ) ( , 0 M u N n M N N M
n
> > = >
=

n
n
u lim ) 4 ( : ) ( , 0 M u N n M N N M
n
< > = >
Ch
Dy s tho ) 1 ( l dy s hi t. Cc trng hp ) 4 ( ), 3 ( ), 2 ( l dy s phn k. Ngoi ra,
nu
n
n
u Lim

khng tn ti th dy s
n
u cng c gi l phn k.
2. V d
Dng nh ngha, chng minh rng
a) 1
1
lim =
+

n
n
n

b) + = +

) 1 2 ( lim n
n

Gii
a) Cho trc 0 > b tu

1 1 1
1
1
> < < <
+
n
n n n
n

t

1
N , khi

<
+
> +

> + > 1
1 1
1
1
1
n
n
N n N n
Vy

<
+
>

= > 1
1
:
1
, 0
n
n
N n N
hay 1
1
lim =
+

n
n
n

b) Cho trc 0 > M ln tu

2
1
1 2

> > +
M
n M n
t

=
2
1 M
N , khi N n >
2
1
1

> +
M
N n M n > + 1 2
Vy M n N n
M
N M > + >

= > 1 2 :
2
1
, 0
Hay + = +

) 1 2 ( lim n
n

3. Cc tnh cht c bn ca dy s hi t
43
a.Tnh cht 1
Nu dy s ) (
n
u hi t v a > p (a<q) th ) ( : q u p u N n N
n n
< > > .
b.Tnh cht 2
Nu dy s ) (
n
u hi t v a v n q p u
n
) ( th ) ( q p a .
c.Tnh cht 3
Nu dy s ) (
n
u hi t th gii hn l duy nht.
d.Tnh cht 4
Nu dy s ) (
n
u hi t th n b chn, ngha l n M u M
n
> : 0 .
4. Cc tiu chun tn ti gii hn
a. Tiu chun Weirstrass
Mi dy s thc
+
Z n
n
u ) ( n iu v b chn th hi t.
p dng
Nu dy s thc
+
Z n
n
u ) ( tng (gim) v b chn trn (di) th hi t.
V d
Chng minh dy s
+
Z n
n
u ) ( vi
n
n
n
u )
1
1 ( + = hi t v gii hn ny c k hiu l e.

1
(1 )
n
n
lim e
n

+ =
Gii
* Dy
+
Z n
n
u ) ( tng
Theo cng thc khai trin nh thc Newton, ta c

) 1 ( )
1
1 )...(
2
1 )(
1
1 (
!
1
... )
2
1 )(
1
1 (
! 3
1
)
1
1 (
! 2
1
! 1
1
1
1
!
) 1 )...( 1 (
...
1
! 3
) 2 )( 1 ( 1
! 2
) 1 ( 1
! 1
1
1
1
3 2
n
n
n n n n n n
n n
n n n n
n
n n n
n
n n
n
n
n
u
n
n
n

+ + + + + =

+
+ +

+ =

+ =


+
+
> Z n u u
n n 1
(So snh trc tip)
* Dy
+
Z n
n
u ) ( b chn trn
T ) 1 ( suy ra
+

= + =

+ <
=

+ = + + + + + < + + + + + <
Z n
n
u
n
n
n
3 2 1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
... ...
2
1
2
1
1 1
!
1
...
! 3
1
! 2
1
! 1
1
1
1 2

44
b. Tiu chun kp
Cho 3 dy s
+ +
Z n
n
Z n
n
v u ) ( , ) ( v
+
Z n
n
w ) ( tho
+
Z n w u v
n n n
.
Khi , nu 2 dy
+
Z n
n
v ) ( v
+
Z n
w) ( cng hi t v a th dy s
+
Z n
n
u ) ( hi t v a
V d
Chng minh rng
0
sin
1
x
x
lim
x

=
Gii
V 0 x nn ta ch cn xt x )
2
;
2
(

\
{ } 0

* Gi s
2
0

< < x
dt tam gic AOM < dt qut trn AOM < dt tam gic AOT
Suy ra 1
sin
cos < <
x
x
x
* Nu x < 0: t x = - t, ta c
1
sin
cos < <
t
t
t

1
) sin(
) cos( <

<
x
x
x

1
sin
cos < <
x
x
x
x { } 0 \ )
2
;
2
(


. .p.c.m
c. Tiu chun Cauchy
Dy s
+
Z n
n
u ) ( hi t < > > = >
q p
u u N q p N N : ) ( , 0 .
V d
Dng tiu chun Cauchy, chng minh dy s
+
Z n
n
u ) ( vi
n
u
n
1
...
3
1
2
1
1 + + + + = phn
k.
Gii

= > = = + + + > + +
+
+
+
= + +
+
+
+
= > = > = =
4
1
3
1
3 3
1
...
3
1
3
1
3
1
...
2 2
1
1 2
1
3
1
...
2 2
1
1 2
1
2 3 , ,
4
1
N
N
N N N N N
N N N N
u u N N q N p N
q p

Bi tp
1) Chng minh rng iu kin cn v dy s (u
n
) hi t v 0 l dy s ) (
n
u
45
hi t v 0.
2) Chng minh rng nu 1 dy s (u
n
) hi t v a th mi dy con ca n cng hi t v
a.
3.2. GII HN HM S
3.2.1. Ln cn ca 1 im
) ; (
0 0
0

+ = x x V
x
Ln cn tm
0
x bn knh .

<
0
0
0
x x V x
x

{ } { }
0 0 0 0
\ ) ; ( \
0
x x x x V
x

+ = Ln cn thng tm
0
x bn knh
{ }

< <
0 0
0 \
0 0
x x x V x
x


{ } ) ; ( \
0 0 0
0

+ =
+
x x x V
x
Ln cn thng bn phi tm
0
x bn knh .

{ }

+ < <
+
0 0 0
\
0
x x x x V x
x

{ } ) ; ( \
0 0 0
0
x x x V
x

=
Ln cn thng bn tri tm
0
x bn knh .

{ }
0 0 0
\
0
x x x x V x
x
< <

Ch
i vi v cc khng c khi nim ln cn, tuy nhin ng vi 0 > N ln ta k hiu
N x N x < ) ; ( ch x trong 1 ln cn bn phi ca
N x N x > + ) ; ( ch x trong 1 ln cn bn tri ca +
N x N N x > + ) ; ( ) ; ch x trong 1 ln cn bn tri ca + hoc
ln cn bn tri ca + hoc 1 ln cn bn phi ca .
3.2.2. Gii hn hm s
1. nh ngha
a. nh ngha Heine (theo ngn ng dy)

0
0
0
lim ( ) ( ( ) (1)
n n
x x
x x
n
f x L x x f x L

=
b. nh ngha Cauchy (theo ngn ng ' ' " )
) 2 ( ) ( 0 : 0 , 0 ) ( lim
0
0
< < < > >

L x f x x x f
x x

2. S tng ng ca 2 nh ngha
a) (1) (2)
Gi s L l gii hn ca ) (x f khi
0
x x theo Heine nhng
< < > >
0 0
0 : , 0 : 0 x m
0
) ( L f .
Ta ly dy
0 0
0 : ) ( 0 x Lim x
n
n
n n n n
= < <


46
) ( ) (
0 n n
f L f L mu thun vi gi thit (nh ngha Heine)
b) (2) (1)

0
x x
n
m
0
x x
n
, ta s chng t L x f
n
) (
Tht vy, t gi thit ta c: < < < > > L x f x x ) ( 0 : 0 , 0
0

V
0
x x
n
nn vi 0 > ny < < >
0
0 : x x N n N
n

Vy < > > ; ) ( : , 0 L x f N n N
n
.
3. Cc nh ngha gii hn khc (theo Cauchy)
a. Gi hn 1 bn
< < < > > =
+

L x f x x L x f
x x
) ( 0 : 0 , 0 ) ( lim
0
0

< < < > > =

L x f x x L x f
x x
) ( 0 : 0 , 0 ) ( lim
0
0

b. Gii hn v cc
< > > > =

L x f N x N L x f
x
) ( : 0 , 0 ) ( lim
< > > > =
+
L x f N x N L x f
x
) ( : 0 , 0 ) ( lim
< < > > =

L x f N x N L x f
x
) ( : 0 , 0 ) ( lim
c. Gii hn v cc
M x f x x M x f
x x
> < < > > =

) ( 0 : 0 , 0 ) ( lim
0
0

M x f x x M x f
x x
> < < > > + =
+

) ( 0 : 0 , 0 ) ( lim
0
0

M x f x x M x f
x x
< < < > =

) ( 0 , 0 ) ( lim
0
0

3.2.3. Cc gii hn c bn
1. Gii hn
x
x
x
)
1
1 ( lim +

: (Dng

1 )
Da vo gii hn bit: e
n
Lim
n
n
= +

)
1
1 (
Ta tm
x
x
x
)
1
1 ( lim +


* Xt x + : x > 0, t n = [x]
47

x x x
n x n
n x n n x n
n x n
)
1
1
1 ( )
1
1 ( )
1
1 (
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1 1 1
1
+
+ > + +
+
+ > + +
+
> + <


n x n
n x n
)
1
1
1 ( )
1
1 ( )
1
1 (
1 `
+
+ + > +
+

e
x
x
+ )
1
1 ( khi x +
* Khi x
t t = -( x+1) ta i n kt qu nh trn

1
lim(1 )
x
x
e
x

+ =
V d

2
)
1
1
( lim
+


+
x
x
x
x
=
2
)
1
2
1 ( lim
+


+
x
x
x
t 1 2
1
1
2
+ = =

z x
z x

Thay vo ta c gii hn bng
2
e
Suy ra

1
0
lim(1 ) e

+ = (t
t
1
= )
V d
e x
x
x
= +

2
1
0
) sin 1 ( lim
2. Gi hn
0
ln(1 )
u
u
lim
u

+
( Dng
0
0
)

1
0 0
ln(1 )
ln(1 ) ln 1
u
u u
u
lim lim u e
u

+
= + = =

0
ln(1 )
lim 1
u
u
u

+
=
Suy ra

0
log (1 )
lim log
a
a
x
u
e
u

+
=
V d

3
2
)
3 sin
3
3
2
.
2
) 2 1 ln(
( lim
3 sin
) 2 1 ln(
lim
0 0
=
+
=
+

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x x

3. Gi hn
x
e
x
x
1
lim
0

(Dng
0
0
)
48
t 1 =
x
e u ) 1 ln( u x + =
1
) 1 ln(
lim
1
lim
0 0
=
+
=

u
u
x
e
u
x
x


0
1
lim 1
x
x
e
x

=
Suy ra

0
1
lim ln
x
x
a
a
x

=
V d

5
1
5
2
5
3
)
5
2
.
2
1
( lim )
5
3
.
3
1
( lim )
5
1
5
1
( lim
5
lim
2
0
3
0
2 3
0
2 3
0
= =

x
e
x
e
x
e
x
e
x
e e
x
x
x
x
x x
x
x x
x

4. Gi hn
x
1 x 1
0 x
+

) (
lim

Gii
t ) 1 ln( ) 1 ln( 1 ) 1 ( 1 ) 1 ( a x a x a x + = + + = + = +


Khi

+
+
=
+
+
= =
+
0
) 1 ln(
.
) 1 ln(
.
) 1 ln(
) 1 ln(
.
1 ) 1 (
x
x
x
a
a
a
x
x
a
x
a
x
x


0
(1 ) 1
lim
x
x
x

+
=
Bi tp
1) Dng nh ngha, chng minh rng dy s ( )
+
=
+

Z n u
n
Z n
n
1 ) ( phn k
2) Vit 2 nh ngha khc nhau ca cc gii hn sau
= + = =
+
) ( lim , ) ( lim , ) ( lim x f x f x f
x x x

3) Dng nh ngha Heine, chng t rng
a)
x
x
1
cos lim
0
khng tn ti
b)
2
1
1 2
lim =
+

x
x
x

3.3. V CNG B V V CNG LN
3.3.1. V cng b
1. nh ngha
Hm ) (x c gi l v cng b (vit tt l VCB) trong qu trnh no nu n dn
ti gii hn 0 trong qu trnh y.
49
V d
Khi x0 th sinx l VCB, x
3
cng l VCB
Khi x th
x
1
l VCB
Ch
) (x l VCB khi xx
0
khi v ch khi < < < > > ) ( 0 : 0 , 0
0
x x x
2. Lin h gia VCB v hm c gii hn
iu kin cn v hm ) (x f c gii hn L trong 1 qu trnh no l L x f ) ( l
VCB trong qu trnh y.
3. Cc tnh cht ca VCB
a) Nu ) (x l VCB trong 1 qu trnh no v C l 1 hng s th C ) (x cng l VCB
trong qu trnh y.
b) Nu ) (
1
x , ) (
2
x , , ) (x
n
l 1 s hu hn cc VCB trong cng 1 qu trnh th tng
v tch ca chng cng l cc VCB trong qu trnh y.
c) Nu ) (x l VCB khi xx
0
v f(x) l hm b chn trong 1 ln cn thng no ca
x
0
th ) (x f(x) l VCB khi xx
0
.
3.3.2. V cng ln
1. nh ngha
Hm s f(x) l VCL trong 1 qu trnh no nu f(x) dn ti v cc trong qu trnh
y.
2. Lin h gia VCB v VCL
a) Nu trong 1 qu trnh no , hm f(x) l VCB v lun khc khng th
) (
1
x f
l VCL
trong qu trnh y.
b) Ngc li, nu trong 1 qu trnh no hm f(x) l VCL th
) (
1
x f
l VCB trong qu
trnh y.
3.3.3. So snh cc VCB
1. Cc cp so snh
Gi s ) (x v ) (x l 2 VCB trong cng mt qu trnh. Khi ,
a) Nu t s
) (
) (
x
x

dn ti 0 th ta ni ) (x l VCB cp cao hn ) (x hay ) (x l

VCB cp thp hn ) (x , k hiu ) (x )) ( ( x = .
V d
1-cosx l VCB cp cao hn x
50
b) Nu t s
) (
) (
x
x

dn ti mt hng s khc 0 th ta ni ) (x v ) (x l 2 VCB bng

cp.
V d
Khi 0 x th 1-cosx v x
2
l hai VCB bng cp.
c) Nu ) (x l VCB bng cp vi ( ) (x )
k
vi k > 0 th ta ni ) (x l VCB cp k so vi
VCB ) (x .
V d
Khi 0 x th 1 cosx l VCB cp 2 so vi VCB x
d) Nu t s
) (
) (
x
x

khng c gii hn th ta ni cc VCB ) (x v ) (x khng so snh vi

nhau c.
e) Nu t s
) (
) (
x
x

dn ti v cc th
) (
) (
x
x

dn ti 0 v ta tr li trng hp 1.
2. VCB tng ng
a. nh ngha
Gi s ) (x v ) (x l 2 VCB trong cng 1 qu trnh. Nu t s
) (
) (
x
x

c gii hn bng
1 trong qu trnh th ta ni ) (x v ) (x l 2 VCB tng ng.
K hiu ) (x ~ ) (x
V d
Khi x 0 th sinx~x, ln(1+x) ~ x, e
x
1~x
Ch
Nu ) (x ~ ) (x th ) (x ~ ) (x
b. ng dng VCB tng ng kh dng v nh
Nu ) (x ~ ) (
1
x v ) (x ~ ) (
1
x th lim
) (
) (
x
x

= lim
) (
) (
1
1
x
x

.
V d

0 0
sin5 5 5
sin 2 2 2
x x
x x
lim lim
x x

= =
c. V cng b tng ng ca 1 tng cc VCB ng thi
Nu ) (x v ) (x l 2 VCB trong cng 1 qu trnh v ) (x c cp thp hn th
) (x + ) (x ~ ) (x .
3. Quy tc ngt b VCB cp cao
51
Gi s ) (x v ) (x l 2 VCB trong cng 1 qu trnh no , ) (x v ) (x u l tng
ca nhiu VCB. Khi gii hn ca t s
) (
) (
x
x

bng gii hn ca t s hai VCB cp thp

nht t s v mu s.
V d

2 3
5 7
0
sin 1
2 4 2 2
x
x x tg x x
lim lim
x x x x

+ +
= =
+ +

4. Phn chnh ca mt VCB
Gi s ) (x v ) (x l 2 VCB trong cng 1 qu trnh v nu ) (x ~ C ) (x
k
( k > 0, C
l hng ) th C ) (x
k
c gi l phn chnh ca VCB ) (x so vi VCB ) (x
V d
Khi x dn ti 0 th 1 cosx l v cng b cp cao hn VCB x. So vi x th phn chnh
ca VCB 1- cosx l
2
2
1
x
3.3.4. So snh cc v cng ln (VCL)
1. Cc cp so snh
Gi s ) (x A v ) (x B l 2 VCL trong cng 1 qu trnh. Khi ,
a) Nu t s
) (
) (
x B
x A
dn ti th ta ni ) (x A l VCL cp cao hn ) (x B hay ) (x B l VCL
cp thp hn ) (x A .
V d
Khi x th 1
3
+ x l VCL cp cao hn VCL
2
1
x v

3 3
1 1 1
2 2 2
1 1
x x x
x x
lim lim lim
x x x

+
= + =

b) Nu t s
) (
) (
x B
x A
dn ti 1 hng s k khc 0 th ta ni ) ( x A v ) (x B l 2 VCL ngang
cp. c bit, khi 1 = k ta ni ) ( x A v ) (x B l 2 VCL tng ng
c) Nu t s
) (
) (
x B
x A
dn ti 0 th
) (
) (
x A
x B
dn ti v ta tr li trng hp a)
d) Nu t s
) (
) (
x B
x A
khng c gii hn th ta ni cc VCL ) ( x A v ) (x B khng so snh
vi nhau c
2. ng dng VCL kh dng v nh
a. VCL tng ng
52
Nu ) (x A ~ ) (x A v ) (x B ~ ) (x B th
( )
( )
A x
lim
B x
=
( )
( )
A x
lim
B x
.
b. VCL tng ng ca 1 tng cc VCL ng thi
Nu ) (x A v ) (x B l 2 VCB trong cng 1 qu trnh v ) (x A c cp thp hn
th ) (x A + ) (x B ~ ) (x B .
3.Quy tc ngt b VCL cp thp
Gi s ) (x A v ) (x B l 2 VCB trong cng mt qu trnh no , ) (x A v ) (x B u l
tng ca nhiu VCB. Khi gii hn ca t s
) (
) (
x B
x A
bng gii hn ca t s hai VCB cp
thp nht t s v mu s.
V d
3
2
6
lim
2
6
lim
4 2
7 5 6
lim
2
2
2
2
= = =
+ +
+
x x x
x
x
x x
x x

3.3.5. Kh dng v nh
1)
2
1
1
1
lim
) 1 )( 3 (
3
lim
3 4
) 3 sin(
lim
3 3
2
3
=

=


=
+


x x x
x
x x
x
x x x


4
5
4
5
x 4
x 5
x 4 1
x 5
2
0 x 0 x 0 x
= = =
+

lim lim
) ln(
sin
lim )
=
+ + +
+
=
+ + +
+
=
+ +

) (
sin
lim
) (
sin
lim
sin
lim )
1 x x 1 4
x 4
x 4
x 1
1 x x 1 x 4
x 4
x 4
x x
x 4
1 x x 1
3
2 2
2 2
0 x 0 x 0 x
8
1
) 1 0 0 1 ( 4 . 1
0 1
lim
0
=
+ + +
+
=
x
=

=
/ /
/
/
/
/
cot lim ) ( lim ) ( lim ) x
2
g x x 1
2
xtg
2
x
tg x 1 4
0 x
x 1 x
1 x
0 x

2 2
.
/
/ 0
/
2
cos
2
sin
2
lim
/
=

= x
x
x
x


2
x
1
4
x
x 5 ) (cos lim )

.
t
2
1
0
) (cos lim
x
x
x A

= .
53

2 2
2
1
2
1
) 1 (cos 1 ln[
lim
) ln(cos
lim ] ) [ln(cos lim ) (cos lim ln ln
0 0 0 0
x
x
x
x
x x A
x x
x
x
x
x
+
= = = =


2
1
4
2
2
x
4
2
x
2
x
1 x
0 x
2
0 x
2
0 x
2
= =

lim
sin
lim
cos
lim
2
1

= e A
Bi tp
Tm gii hn sau
1)
x tg
x
tgx
2
4
) ( lim

2)
x tg
x
x
2
2
4
) 2 (sin lim

3)
3
2
0
cos cos
sin
x
x x
lim
x

4)
0
ln cos 6
ln cos 5
x
x
lim
x

3.4. HM S LIN TC
3.4.1. Hm s lin tc
1. nh ngha
a. Lin tc ti 1 im
* Gi s hm ) (x f y = xc nh trong 1 ln cn ca im x
0.

Hm f(x) c gi l lin tc ta im x
0
nu nh ) ( ) ( lim
0
0
x f x f
x x
=

* Gi s hm y = f(x) xc nh trong 1 ln cn bn phi ca im x = x
0
Hm f(x) c gi l lin tc bn phi ta im x
0
nu nh ) ( ) ( lim
0
0
x f x f
x x
=
+

* Gi s hm y = f(x) xc nh trong 1 ln cn bn tri ca im x = x
0
Hm f(x) c gi l lin tc bn tri phi t im x
0
nu nh ) ( ) ( lim
0
0
x f x f
x x
=

b. Lin tc trong 1 khong, trn 1 on
* Gi s hm y = f(x) xc nh trong (a,b). Hm f c gi l lin tc trong (a,b)
nu nh f lin tc ti mi im thuc (a,b)
* Gi s hm y = f(x) xc nh trn [a,b]. Hm f c gi l lin tc trn [a,b]
nu nh f lin tc ti mi im thuc (a,b), f lin tc bn phi ti a v bn tri ti b
54
Ch
* iu kin cn v hm f lin tc ti im x = x
0
l n lin tc tng bn ti
im .
* Mt hm s s cp xc nh trong khong no th lin tc trong khong
* Tng, hiu, tch, thng v hm hp ca 2 hm lin tc l mt hm lin tc.
2. V d
Xc nh a hm s sau lin tc trn R

=
0
0
3
) 2 (
) (
2
x khi a
x khi
x
x x arctg
x f
Gii
* Vi x ) ; 0 ( ) 0 ; ( + : Hm ) (x f l hm s cp nn lin tc
* Ti x = 0 f(0) = a
*
3
2
)
3
2
3
( lim
3
2
lim
3
) 2 (
lim ) ( lim
0
2
0
2
0 0
= =

=

x
x
x x
x
x x arctg
x f
x x x x

f lin tc trn f lin tc ti x = 0 a =
3
2

3. Tnh cht ca hm lin tc trn 1 on
Nu hm s ) (x f y = lin tc trn on [
b a,
]
a) Th f b chn trn on , ngha l: ] , [ ) ( : 0 b a x M x f M >
(nh l Weirestrass I)

f(x)=x^3-4x^2+3
f(x)=7
f(x)=-7
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-8
-6
-4
-2
2
4
6
8
x
y
A
B
M
-M

55
b) Th f t gi tr ln nht v gi tr nh nht trn on ] , [ b a , ngha l

] [
) ( max ) ( : ] , [
0 0
ab
x f x f b a x = v
] [
) ( min ) ( : ] , [
1 1
ab
x f x f b a x =
(nh l Weirestrass II)










c) v 0 ) ( ). ( < b f a f th 0 ) ( : ) , ( = c f b a c , ngha l phng trnh 0 ) ( = x f
c t nht 1 nghim trong khong ). , ( b a (nh l Bolzano-Cauchy I)
f(x)=x^3-3x^2+4
x(t )=1 , y(t )=t
x(t )=-1.5 , y(t )=t
-8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8
-8
-6
-4
-2
2
4
6
8
x
y
a
b
c

d) Th f t mi gi tri trung gian gm gia gi tr ln nht v gi tr nh nht trn
on , ngha l: . ) ( : ] , [ ], , [ = f b a M m
f(x)=x^3-3x^2+4
x(t )=-1.5 , y(t )=t
x(t )=3 , y(t )=t
-8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8
-8
-6
-4
-2
2
4
6
8
x
y
a
b
56
(nh l Bolzano-Cauchy II)
f(x)=x^3-3x^2+4
f(x)=2
-8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8
-8
-6
-4
-2
2
4
6
8
x
y

3.4.2. im gin on ca hm s
1. nh ngha
im x = x
0
c gi l im gin on ca hm s y = f(x) nu f khng lin tc ti x
= x
0

2. Cc trng hp gin on
a. Hm f khng xc nh ti im x = x
0
V d 1
Hm s y =
x
1
gin on ti im x = 0

b. Hm f xc nh ti im x = x
0
nhng khng c gii hn khi
0
x x

V d 2
Hm s

<
=
>
=
0 1
0 0
0 1
) (
x khi
x khi
x khi
x f
khng c gii hn khi 0 x nn gin on ti im
c. Hm f xc nh ti x = x
0
, c gii hn khi
0
x x
nhng gii hn khc vi
) (
0
x f
V d 3
57
Hm s

=

+
=
0 2
0
) 5 1 ln(
) (
x khi
x khi
x
x
x f ti im x = 0 c gii hn bng 5 khi
0 x , nhng f(0) = 2 ) (x f gin on ti im 0 = x
3. Phn loi im gin on
a. im gin on loi 1
x
0
l im gin on loi 1 ca hm f nu f gin on ti im nhng tn ti cc
gii hn ca f(x) khi

0
x x
v hiu f(x
0
+
) - f(x
0
-
) c gi l bc nhy ca f ti im
x = x
0

V d
Hm s trong v d 2 c gin on loi 1 ti im x = 0 vi bc nhy bng 2
c bit
Nu c thm iu kin f(x
0
+
) = f(x
0
-
) th im gin oan loi 1 x
0
c gi l im gin
on b c. v d 2 th 0 = x l im gin on b c.
V d
Hm s trong v d 2 c gin on b c ti im x = 0
Hm s trong v d 2 c gin on loi 1 ti im x = 0 vi bc nhy bng 2
b. im gin on loi 2

0
x l im gin on khng thuc loi 1 th c gi l loi 2.
c bit nu =

) ( lim
0
x f
x x
th x
0
c gi l im gin on v cc ca hm f
V d
Hm s
x
x f
1
) ( = c x = 0 l im gin on v cc.
Bi tp
1)Kho st s lin tc v gin on ca hm s sau trn R
a)

<
=
>

=
0
3 sin
0 5
0
6 cos 1
) (
2
x khi
x
x
x khi
x khi
x
x
x f
b)

<

=
2 1 2
1 0
) (
2
x khi x
x khi x
x f
c)

>

=
1 ` 1
1
) (
x khi
x khi x
x f

58
d)

< < +

=
2
cos
2 2
sin
2
sin 2
) (

x khi x
x khi B x A
x khi x
x f

2) Chng t rng hm s sau lin tc trn R

=
0
2
1
0
1 1
) (
x khi
x khi
x
x
x f
3) Cho hm s

=

+
+
=
1
1
1
sin ) 1 (
) (
2
x khi a
x khi
x
x
x f


Tm a hm s ) (x f lin tc trn R
4) Tm a hm s sau lin tc ti x = 0

= +

+
=
0 1 2
0
5
) 2 (
) (
2
x khi a
x khi
x
x x arctg
x f
5) Tm a v b hm s sau lin tc trn R
2
2 0
1
1 3
) (
2 2
<

< +

=
x khi
x khi bx x a
x khi x
x f