Vehicledynamics Topics

Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics
Topics Covered

INTRODUCTION
Dawn of the Motor Vehicle Age
Introduction to Vehicle Dynamics
Fundamental Approach to Modeling
Lumped Mass
Vehicle Fixed Coordinate System
Motion Variables
Earth Fixed Coordinate System
Euler Angles
Forces
Newton's Second Law
Dynamic Axle Loads
Static Loads on Level Ground
Low-Speed Acceleration
Loads on Grades
Example Problems
References

ACCELERATION PERFORMANCE
Power-Limited Acceleration
Engines
Power Train
Automatic Transmissions
Example Problems
Traction-Limited Acceleration
Transverse Weight Shift due to Drive Torque
Traction Limits
Example Problems
References

BRAKING PERFORMANCE
Basic Equations
Constant Deceleration
Deceleration with Wind Resistance
Energy/Power
Braking Forces
Rolling Resistance

Aerodynamic Drag
Driveline Drag
Grade
Brakes
Brake Factor
Tire-Road Friction
Velocity
Inflation Pressure
Vertical Load
Example Problems
Federal Requirements for Braking Performance
Brake Proportioning
Anti-Lock Brake Systems
Braking Efficiency
Rear Wheel Lockup
Pedal Force Gain
Example Problem
References

ROAD LOADS
Aerodynamics
Mechanics of Air Flow Around a Vehicle
Pressure Distribution on a Vehicle
Aerodynamic Forces
Drag Components
Aerodynamics Aids
Bumper Spoilers
Air Dams
Deck Lid Spoilers
Window and Pillar Treatments
Optimization
Drag
Air Density
Drag Coefficient
Side Force
Lift Force
Pitching Moment
Yawing Moment
Rolling Moment
Crosswind Sensitivity
Rolling Resistance
Factors Affecting Rolling Resistance
Tire Temperature
Tire Inflation Pressure/Load
Velocity
Tire Material and Design
Tire Slip
Typical Coefficients
Total Road Loads
Fuel Economy Effects
Example Problems
References

RIDE
Excitation Sources
Road Roughness
Tire/Wheel Assembly
Driveline Excitation
Engine/Transmission
Vehicle Response Properties
Suspension Isolation
Example Problem
Suspension Stiffness
Suspension Damping
Active Control
Wheel Hop Resonances
Suspension Nonlinearities
Rigid Body Bounce/Pitch Motions
Bounce/Pitch Frequencies
Special Cases
Example Problem
Perception of Ride
Tolerance to Seat Vibrations
Other Vibration Forms
Conclusion
References

STEADY STATE CORNERING
Introduction
Low-Speed Turning
High-Speed Cornering
Tire Cornering Forces
Cornering Equations
Understeer Gradient
Characteristic Speed
Critical Speed
Lateral Acceleration Gain
Yaw Velocity Gain
Sideslip Angle
Static Margin
Suspension Effects on Cornering
Roll Moment Distribution
Camber Change
Roll Steer
Lateral Force Compliance Steer

Aligning Torque
Effect of Tractive Forces on Cornering
Summary of Understeer Effects
Experimental Measurement of Understeer Gradient
Constant Radius Method
Constant Speed Method
Example Problems

References

SUSPENSIONS
Solid Axles
Hotchkiss
Four Link
De Dion
Independent Suspensions
Trailing Arm Suspension
SLA Front Suspension
MacPherson Strut
Multi-Link Rear Suspension
Trailing-Arm Rear Suspension
Semi-Trailing Arm
Swing Axle
Anti-Squat and Anti-Pitch Suspension Geometry
Equivalent Trailing Arm Analysis
Rear Solid Drive Axle
Independent Rear Drive
Front Solid Drive Axle
Independent Front-Drive Axle
Four-Wheel Drive
Anti-Dive Suspension Geometry
Example Problems
Roll Center Analysis
Solid Axle Roll Centers
Four-Link Rear Suspension
Three-Link Rear Suspension
Four-Link with Parallel Arms
Hotchkiss Suspension
Independent Suspension Roll Centers
Positive Swing Arm Geometry
Negative Swing Arm Geometry
Parallel Horizontal Links
Inclined Parallel Links
MacPherson Strut
Swing Axle
Active Suspensions
Suspension Categories
Functions
Performance
References

THE STEERING SYSTEM
Introduction
The Steering Linkages
Steering Geometry Error
Toe Change
Roll Steer
Front Wheel Geometry
Steering System Forces and Moments
Vertical Force
Lateral Force
Tractive Force
Aligning Torque
Rolling Resistance and Overturning Moments
Steering System Models
Examples of Steering System Effects
Steering Ratio
Understeer
Braking Stability
Influence of Front-Wheel Drive
Driveline Torque About the Steer Axis
Influence of Tractive Force on Tire Cornering Stiffness
Influence of Tractive Force on Aligning Moment
Fore/Aft Load Transfer
Summary of FWD Understeer Influences
Four-Wheel Steer
Low-Speed Turning
References

ROLLOVER
Quasi-Static Rollover of a Rigid Vehicle
Quasi-Static Rollover of a Suspended Vehicle
Transient Rollover
Simple Roll Models
Yaw-Roll Models
Tripping
Accident Experience
References

TIRES
Tire Construction
Size and Load Rating
Terminology and Axis System
Mechanics of Force Generation
Tractive Properties
Vertical Load

Inflation Pressure
Surface Friction
Speed
Relevance to Vehicle Performance
Cornering Properties
Slip Angle
Tire Type
Load
Inflation Pressure
Size and Width
Tread Design
Other Factors
Camber Thrust
Tire Type
Load
Inflation Pressure
Tread Design
Other Factors
Aligning Moment
Slip Angle
Path Curvature
Combined Braking and Cornering
Friction Circle
Variables
Conicity and Ply Steer
Durability Forces
Tire Vibrations
References

Acceleration Performance Example from Chapter 2

Traction-Limited Acceleration
Problem
Find the traction-limited acceleration for a rear-drive passenger car with and without a locking differential based on the
following information:
Weight
Front 2100 lb
Rear 1850 lb
CG Height 21 in
Wheelbase 108 in
Coefficient of Friction 0.62
Tire size 13.0 in
Tread 59.0 in
Final drive ratio 2.90
Roll stiffness
Front 1150 lb-ft/deg
Rear 280 lb-ft/deg
Model Used
US CUSTOMARY UNITS >>CHAPTER 2 >>Traction Limited
Solution
When filled in ready to solve the Variable Sheet should look like the following one.
St Input Name Output Unit Comment
by Thomas D. Gillespie
Chapter 2: Acceleration Performance
Traction Limits
Page 39, Eqs. 2-23,24,25,26

2100 Wf lb Weight on front axle
1850 Wr lb Weight on rear axle
W lb Total weight
108 L in Wheelbase
b in CG to front axle
c in Rear axle to CG
21 h in CG height
.62 mu Coefficient of friction

Non-locking differential parameters:
13 r in Radius of tires
59 t in Tread
2.9 Nf Final drive ratio
1150 Kphif lb-ft/deg Front suspension roll stiffness
280 Kphir lb-ft/deg Rear suspension roll stiffness
Kphi lb-ft/deg Total roll stiffness

Solid non-locking rear axle:
Fxmax1 lb Maximum tractive force
axmax1 g's Maximum acceleration
Solid locking/independent rear axle:
Solid non-locking front axle:
Solid locking/independent front axle:
Click on or press F9 to solve the model. The Variable Sheet should then appear as follows.
Chapter 2: Acceleration Performance
Traction Limits
Page 39, Eqs. 2-23,24,25,26

2100 Wf lb Weight on front axle
1850 Wr lb Weight on rear axle
W 3950 lb Total weight
108 L in Wheelbase
b 50.582278 in CG to front axle
c 57.417722 in Rear axle to CG
21 h in CG height
.62 mu Coefficient of friction

Non-locking differential parameters:
13 r in Radius of tires
59 t in Tread
2.9 Nf Final drive ratio
1150 Kphif lb-ft/deg Front suspension roll stiffness
280 Kphir lb-ft/deg Rear suspension roll stiffness
Kphi 1430 lb-ft/deg Total roll stiffness

Solid non-locking rear axle:
Fxmax1 1200.782 lb Maximum tractive force
axmax1 .30399544 g's Maximum acceleration
Solid locking/independent rear axle:
Solid non-locking front axle:
Solid locking/independent front axle:

Braking Performance Example from Chapter 3

Braking Coefficients and Efficiency
Problem
Calculate the braking coefficients and braking efficiency for a passenger car in 100 psi increments of application pressure
up to 700 psi given the following information:
Wheelbase 108.5 inches
Center of gravity height 20.5 inches
Tire radius 12.11 inches
Weights
Front 2210 lb
Rear 1864 lb
Total 4074 lb
Brake Gain
Front 20 in-lb/psi
Rear 14 in-lb/psi
Proportioning change pressure 290
Rate adjustment factor .03
Model Used
US CUSTOMARY UNITS >>CHAPTER 3 >>Efficiency and Braking Coefficient Plot
Solution
This model uses several of TK Solvers features. The Variable Sheet holds the constants for the problem. A table holds
the values of application pressure (Pa) being considered as well as the associated values calculated for rear application
pressure (Pr), front and rear brake forces (F
f
, F
r
), deceleration (D
x
), front and rear axle loads (W
f
, W
r
), braking coefficients
(
f
,
r
), and braking efficiency (
b
). There are also four plots available. The first shows the deceleration and efficiency
over the range of application pressure as per Figure 3.12 of the text. The second shows the front and rear braking
coefficients over the range of ap plication pressures as per Figure 3.13 of the text. The third and fourth show the efficiency
and the braking coefficients vs. deceleration.
The constants from the table shown above are entered on the Variable Sheet. Note that the model does not require that
you enter all three values for front, rear, and total axle static load but only two of the three. In this example, values were
entered for front and rear axle static load. When all values have been entered, the Variable Sheet should look like the
following one. (The outputs will appear after invoking the Solve command as described later on.)
Chapter 3: Braking Performance
Fig. 3.12 Braking efficiency vs. Pa
Fig. 3.13 Braking coefficient vs. Pa
Braking efficiency vs. deceleration
Braking coefficient vs. deceleration

Enter application pressures in table,
other values on Variable Sheet.

108.5 L in Wheelbase
20.5 h in CG height
12.11 r in Tire radius
2210 Wfs lb Front axle static load
1864 Wrs lb Rear axle static load
W 4074 lb Total load
20 Gf in-lb/psi Front brake gain (per brake)
14 Gr in-lb/psi Rear brake gain (per brake)
290 Pdelta psi Proportioning change pressure
.3 raf Rate adjustment factor
g 1 g's Acceleration of gravity: default =1 g
The application pressures are entered in the models table. The table should already be open and only need a mouse
click to gain focus.
Opening an Interactive Table
If a table has been minimized, there will be an icon at the bottom of the TK Solver window that looks similar to the
following one.

Double-clicking on the icon will restore the table window.
If a table is neither open nor minimized, or if its icon is hidden by open windows, you can open it by selecting it from the
Tables listbox in the Object bar.
The values for the application pressure are entered in the Pa column of the table. The values can be entered manually
one at a time or automatically using TKs List Fill command. The following steps would allow you to fill the list with TKs
List Fill command.
1. Click on in the Toolbar, or choose the List Fill option from the Commands menu.
2. Enter Pa in the List Name field. You can also select the name through a listbox activated by pressing the button at
the right end of the field.
3. The List Fill dialog gives you many ways to place values into lists. For this example fill in the dialog as shown
below. Press the Fill List button when finished.

Once the constants and application pressures have been input, click on in the Toolbar or press F9 to solve the
model. The table should be filled in as shown below.
Pa psi Pr psi Fxf lb Fxr lb Dx g's Wf lb Wr lb muf mur etab %
100 100 330 231 .138 2316 1758 .143 .132 96.6
200 200 661 462 .276 2422 1652 .273 .280 98.5
300 293 991 677 .410 2525 1549 .392 .437 93.6
400 323 1321 747 .508 2601 1473 .508 .507 99.9
500 353 1652 816 .606 2676 1398 .617 .584 98.2
600 383 1982 886 .704 2752 1322 .720 .670 97.7
700 413 2312 955 .802 2827 1247 .818 .766 98.1
This model treats the Pa column as input and all other columns as output. You can make changes to the values in the
other columns, but the next time you solve the model they will all be overwritten by values determined by the entries in the
Pa column.
Closing an Interactive Table
To close a window on an interactive table, click on the Minimize Window-Sizing Icon (the down-arrow button in the upper
right corner of the window). This will minimize the table as an icon that you can double-click to reopen.
You can also single-click the System Menu Icon (the button in the upper left corner of the table window) and select
Minimize from the resulting menu. If you double-click the System Menu Icon the table window will close all right but you
will also lose the table icon.
If you inadvertently double-click the System Menu Icon to close the table window, or if the table icon is hidden by open
windows, follow the steps outlined in Opening an Interactive Table to reopen the table.
The plots for this example are shown below.

Closing a Plot
To close a window on a plot, click on the Minimize Window-Sizing Icon (the down-arrow button in the upper right corner of
the window). This will minimize the plot as an icon that you can double-click to redisplay.
You can also single-click the System Menu Icon (the button in the upper left corner of the plot window) and select
Minimize from the resulting menu. If you double-click the System Menu Icon the plot window will close all right but you will
also lose the plot icon.
If you inadvertently double-click the System Menu Icon to close the plot window, or if the plot icon is hidden by open
windows, follow the steps outlined in Displaying a Plot to redisplay the plot.

Road Loads Example from Chapter 4

Forces and Moments
Problem
A passenger car has a fontal area of 21 square feet and a drag coefficient of 0.42. It is traveling at 55 mph. Calculate the
aerodynamic drag for the cases of a 25 mph headwind and a 25 mph tailwind.

Model Used
US CUSTOMARY UNITS >>CHAPTER 4 >>Forces and Moments

Solution
Since TK Solver does not require a specific set of inputs we can use this model to gain the information we need even
though it contains variables and equations that are not related to the problem at hand. During the solution process, TK will
solve for as many unknowns as possible. This problem requires only three inputs on the Variable Sheet as shown below.
For the case of the headwind the expression 55 +25 can be entered as input for the variable V.
Chapter 4: Road loads
Aerodynamics
Eqs. 4-2, 4-6, 4-7, 4-8, 4-9, 4-10

L in Wheelbase
21 A ft^2 Frontal area of vehicle
80 V mph Total wind velocity
Tr F Air temperature
Pr in Hg Atmospheric pressure
rho .002378 slug/ft^3 Air density (if Tr or Pr not given,
default =.002378 slug/ft^3)
q 16.369084 lb/ft^2 Dynamic pressure, 1/2*rho*V^2

Coefficients:
.42 CD Aerodynamic drag
CS Side force
CL Lift
CPM Pitching moment
CYM Yawing moment
CRM Rolling moment

DA 144.37532 lb Drag force
SA lb Side force
LA lb Lift force
PM lb-ft Pitching moment
YM lb-ft Yawing moment
RM lb-ft Rolling moment
The aerodynamic drag, DA, for the headwind situation is approximately 144 pounds. To find the solution for the tailwind
situation enter the expression 55 25 for the variable V and solve the model again. The aerodynamic drag will be
approximately 20 pounds. Note that you are not stuck with the default air density. You can enter a different value in the
Input field for rho. You can also enter inputs for any two of Tr, Pr and rho, and TK will calculate the value of the third one.
Ride Example from Chapter 5

Pitch and Bounce Centers and Frequencies
Problem
Calculate the pitch and bounce centers and frequencies for a car with the following characteristics.
Ride rate
Front 127 lb/in
Rear 92.3 lb/in
Tire load
Front 957 lb
Rear 730 lb
Wheelbase 100.6
Dynamic Index 1.1
Model Used
US CUSTOMARY UNITS >>CHAPTER 5 >>Bounce/Pitch Frequencies

Solution
Fill in the known values as inputs on the models Variable Sheet, then solve the model ( or F9). The Variable Sheet
will look like the following one after solving.
Chapter 5: Ride
Vehicle Response Properties
Bounce/Pitch Frequencies
Fig. 5.34 Natural Frequency Ratio
vs. Motion Centers

Plot parameters:
ff%frmi .8 Minimum ff/fr (default =.8)
ff%frma 1.2 Maximum ff/fr (default =1.2)

g 386.08858 in/s^2 Acceleration due to gravity
(default =386.08858 in/s^2)
nf 2 Number of front tires (default =2)
nr 2 Number of rear tires (default =2)
127 Kf%t lb/in Front ride rate per tire
92.3 Kr%t lb/in Rear ride rate per tire
Kf 254 lb/in Total front ride rate
Kr 184.6 lb/in Total rear ride rate
957 Wf%t lb Front tire load per tire
730 Wr%t lb Rear tire load per tire
Wf 1914 lb Total front tire load
Wr 1460 lb Total rear tire load
W 3374 lb Weight of vehicle
M 8.7389272 lb-s^2/in Mass of vehicle
b 43.531713 in Front axle to CG
c 57.068287 in CG to rear axle
1.1 DI Dynamic Index
k 52.275313 in Radius of gyration (k^2 =b*c*DI)

Centers and Frequencies:
Z%t1 -233.8588 in/rad CG to oscillation center 1
Z%t2 11.685289 in/rad CG to oscillation center 2
omega1 1.1303897 Hz Frequency 1
omega2 1.0685331 Hz Frequency 2
ff 1.139225 1/s Front suspension natural frequency
fr 1.1119955 1/s Rear suspension natural frequency
ff%fr 1.024487 Ratio ff/fr

Intermediate Variables:
k~2 2732.7083 in^2 k^2
alpha 50.189227 1/s^2 (2*Kf+2*Kr)/M
beta -59.76127 in/s^2 (2*Kr*c-2*Kf*b)/M
gamma 45.33054 1/s^2 (2*Kf*b^2+2*Kr*c^2)/(M*k^2)
Iy 23880.939 in-lb-s^2 Pitch moment of inertia
(Iy=M*k^2)
The model also has a plot available. If it is minimized at the bottom of the TK Window its icon will look like the following.
You can open the plot by double-clicking the icon or pressing the F7 special function key.
Because there is only one plot in this model, you dont need to select it from the Plots listbox on the Object bar. You only
need to press F7 if you cannot see the plot icon. The plot will look like the following one.

TK consistently plots negative numbers on the left and positive numbers on the right. The vertical lines marking the wheel
locations are labeled with f and r to indicate the orientation of the front and rear wheels.
Steady-State Cornering Example from Chapter 6

Steer Angle and Yaw Velocity Gain vs. Speed
Problem
A vehicle has a wheelbase of 104 in and a radius of turn of 100 feet. Analyze the change in steer angle and yaw velocity
gain from 0 to 125 mph under the following conditions.

Dynamic Weight on Axle (lb) Cornering Stiffness of Tires (lb/deg)
Front Rear Front Rear
Case 1 776 950 300 275
Case 2 950 776 100 95
Case 3 800 800 150 150

Model Used
US CUSTOMARY UNITS >>CHAPTER 6 >>Turning Response - High Speed
Solution
The Variable Sheet holds the minimum and maximum speeds for the plot range and the acceleration due to gravity. They
are provided with defaults as shown in the following Variable Sheet, so you dont have to enter any values on the Variable
Sheet unless you want to change the defaults.
Chapter 6: Steady-State Cornering
Fig. 6.5 Steer angle vs. speed
Fig. 6.6 Yaw velocity gain vs. speed
Sideslip angle vs. speed

Enter up to 5 cases in Input table

Plot parameters:
Vmin 0 mph Minimum speed (default =0 mph)
Vmax 125 mph Maximum speed (default =125 mph)

g 1 g's Acceleration due to gravity
(default =1 g)
The values for the radius of turn, wheelbase, dynamic weights on the front and rear axles, and cornering stiffnesses of the
tires are entered into an interactive table named Inputs. While this example uses three cases, the model will plot up to ten
different cases at one time. If the table isnt already visible, it may be minimized at the bottom of the TK Solver window. If
so, the icon will look like the following and double-clicking on the icon will open the table.
If neither the table nor its icon is visible, select the table from the Tables listbox on the Object bar.
Fill in the values for the different cases. When complete the Input table will look like the following.
R ft L in Wf lb Wr lb Caf lb/deg Car lb/deg
100.00 104.00 776.00 950.00 300.00 275.00
100.00 104.00 950.00 776.00 100.00 95.00
100.00 104.00 800.00 800.00 150.00 150.00

Once the values for the problems have been entered into the Variable Sheet and the table, invoke the Solve command
from the Commands menu. You may also start the Solve command by clicking on the single light bulb button on the
Toolbar or by pressing the F9 special function key.
The model will automatically generate two plots as per figures 6.5 and 6.6 in the text. It will also generate a plot for beta
vs. speed not shown in the text. If the plots are minimized at the bottom of the window, they will have the following icons
and can be viewed by double-clicking on the icon. (You can also display a plot by clicking on the plot button in the
toolbar or by pressing function key F7. The plot displayed depends on which icon is currently highlighted or, if no icon is
highlighted, the row that was highlighted the last time the Plot Sheet was the active window.)
If the plot icons are not visible, follow the steps in Displaying a Plot. The plots for this example are shown below.

The characteristic speeds for understeer cases and critical speeds for oversteer cases are determined in Fig. 6.5 by the
points at which the lines end at the top and bottom of the plot, respectively.

In Fig. 6.6 the characteristic speed for an understeer case is indicated by a vertical line dropping down from the peak of
the curve. The critical speed for an oversteer case is indicated by a vertical line through the entire height of the plot. If
there are multiple cases of oversteer, the quickest way to match critical speeds with the curves is by color. If color is not
available, the steepest curve is matched with the leftmost vertical line. (The vertical lines associated with shallower curves
may be beyond the speed range shown on the plot.)

Suspensions Example from Chapter 7

Anti-Squat & Anti-Pitch Suspension Geometry, Rear-Wheel, Solid Axle Drive.
Problem
Find the geometry that would be necessary to achieve 100% anti-squat in the rear suspension, and the geometry to
achieve full anti-pitch for the solid-axle, rear-wheel-drive vehicle described below. Also, find the pitch rate (degrees pitch/g
acceleration) when the geometry is set for 100% anti-squat in the rear suspension.
Suspension Spring Rates
Front 285 lb/in
Rear 169 lb/in
Center of Gravity Height 20.5 in
Wheelbase 108.5 in
Weight 4074 lb
Model Used
US CUSTOMARY UNITS >>CHAPTER 7 >>Rear Solid Drive Axle

Solution
The variable e%d represents the ratio e/d, and the comment for e%d indicates that the default will be
h/L +h/L*Kr/Kf
if either or both of e and d are unknown. This expression is the right hand side of Equation 7-15, so you can find the
solution to the second case (full anti-pitch) by not giving inputs to both e and d. If you give one of them an input, the other
will be calculated as an output dependent on the default for e%d. To explore this feature, give e an input value of 10.
Since full anti-pitch means that thetap will be extremely close to zero no matter what acceleration the vehicle is
undergoing, the input for ax can be any arbitrary value. Setting ax =1 g will make it easy to translate pitch angle thetap
into a pitch rate for the 100% anti-squat case to be solved later.
When you have finished entering data and solving, your Variable Sheet should look like the following one.
Chapter 7: Suspensions
Anti-Squat and Anti-Pitch Suspension
Geometry
Page 251, Eqs. 7-14, 7-15

1 ax g's Acceleration in x-direction
4074 W lb Total weight
20.5 h in CG height
169 Kr lb/in Total rear suspension spring rate
285 Kf lb/in Total front suspension spring rate
10 e in Height of rear imaginary pivot
d 33.224992 in Imaginary pivot to rear wheel
e%d .30097825 Ratio e/d (if e and/or d unknown,
default =h/L +h/L*Kr/Kf)
thetap 9.574E-16 deg Pitch angle of vehicle
Full anti-pitch therefore occurs when the ratio e/d is approximately .301. The 100% anti-squat case occurs when
e/d =h/L
This condition can be met simply by typing h/L in the Input field for the variable e%d. When you press Enter (or click the
mouse pointer on another field, or use one of the navigation arrow keys), TK evaluates the expression and enters the
result in the field.
When you have finished giving an input to e%d and solving, the Variable Sheet for the 100% anti-squat case should look
like the following one.
Chapter 7: Suspensions
Anti-Squat and Anti-Pitch Suspension
Geometry
Page 251, Eqs. 7-14, 7-15

1 ax g's Acceleration in x-direction
4074 W lb Total weight
20.5 h in CG height
169 Kr lb/in Total rear suspension spring rate
285 Kf lb/in Total front suspension spring rate
10 e in Height of rear imaginary pivot
d 52.926829 in Imaginary pivot to rear wheel
.18894009 e%d Ratio e/d (if e and/or d unknown,
default =h/L +h/L*Kr/Kf)
thetap 1.4262419 deg Pitch angle of vehicle
Since ax is 1 g, the pitch rate is (1.4262419 deg)/(1g), or approximately 1.43 deg/g.

The Steering System Example from Chapter 8

Steering Torque Arising From Lateral Inclination and Caster Angles
Problem
Reproduce Figures 8.12 and 8.14 of the text using the following data.
Vertical Load
Left 800 pounds
Right 600 pounds
Lateral Inclination Angle 10 degrees
Lateral Offset 1 inch
Caster Angle 5 degrees
Minimum Steer Angle -45 degrees
Maximum Steer Angle 45 degrees
Model Used
US CUSTOMARY UNITS >>CHAPTER 8 >>Steering Torque Due to Vertical Forces

Solution
All information in this model is entered on the Variable Sheet. Once the values for the problem have been entered into the
Variable Sheet, select the Solve command from the Commands menu. You may also start the Solve command by clicking
on the single light bulb button on the Toolbar or by pressing function key F9.
When you have finished entering the data and solving the model, the Variable Sheet should look like the following.
Chapter 8: The Steering System
Steering System Forces and Moments
Vertical Force
Fig. 8.12 Steering torque from
lateral inclination angle
Fig. 8.14 Steering torque from
caster angle

Plot parameters:
mindelta -45 deg Minimum steer angle (default =-45 deg)
maxdelta 45 deg Maximum steer angle (default =+45 deg)

800 Fzl lb Vertical load on left wheel
600 Fzr lb Vertical load on right wheel
1 d in Lateral offset at ground
10 lambda deg Lateral inclination angle
-45 delta deg Steer angle
5 nu deg Caster angle

Moments due to vertical force:
MvLatL 98.230243 lb-in from lateral inclination, left wheel
MvLatR 73.672682 lb-in from lateral inclination, right wheel
MvLat 171.90293 lb-in from lateral inclination, total
MvCasL 49.302733 lb-in from caster, left wheel
MvCasR -36.97705 lb-in from caster, right wheel
MvCas 12.325683 lb-in from caster, total
Mv 184.22861 lb-in total moment from both wheels
The model will automatically generate two plots as per Figures 8.12 and 8.14 in the text. If the plots are minimized at the
bottom of the window, they will have the following icons and can be viewed by double-clicking on the icon.
If the plot icons are not visible, follow the steps in Displaying a Plot. The plots for this example are shown below.

Rollover Example from Chapter 9

Road Cross Slope
Problem
Given the following characteristics of a vehicle in a turn, find the cross-slope angle phi such that the occupants experience
a lateral acceleration of .1 g, then backsolve for the neutral speed for that cross-slope.
Velocity 40 mph
Radius of Turn 500 feet
Track width (tread) 60 inches
Height of Center of Gravity 20 inches
Weight 2200 pounds
Model Used
US CUSTOMARY UNITS >>CHAPTER 9 >>Rigid Vehicle

Solution
This model makes a distinction between ac, the centrifugal acceleration due to the vehicle traveling a curved path, and ay,
the lateral acceleration experienced by the occupants where "lateral" is relative to the vehicle coordinate axis system. The
road cross-slope angle, phi, has no affect on ac but has a strong affect on ay.
All inputs required for the solution are handled on the Variable Sheet. When you have finished entering the data, solve the
model by clicking on the single light bulb button on the Toolbar or by pressing function key F9. The Variable Sheet
should then look like the following.
Chapter 9: Rollover
Quasi-Static Rollover of Rigid Vehicle
Eq. 9-1, p. 311, and Fig. 9.2, p. 313

40 V mph Velocity
500 R ft Radius of turn
ac .21394745 g's Centrifugal (horizontal) acceleration
60 t in Track width (tread)
20 h in Height of CG
2200 W lb Weight of vehicle =M*g
g 1 g's Acceleration of gravity (default: 1 g)
M 2200 lbm Mass of vehicle

.1 ay g's Acceleration along vehicle y-axis
az 1.0177296 g's Acceleration along vehicle z-axis
Fzi 1046.1692 lb Normal force on inside tire
Fzo 1192.8359 lb Normal force on outside tire
phi 6.4644744 deg Road cross-slope angle

Rollover thresholds:
Vroll 120.5635 mph Velocity
acroll 1.9436535 g's Centrifugal acceleration
ayroll 1.8187084 g's Acceleration along vehicle y-axis
azroll 1.2124722 g's Acceleration along vehicle z-axis
The cross-slope angle is approximately 6.5 deg.
This model will automatically generate three plots. The first plot shows the equilibrium lateral acceleration in rollover of a
rigid vehicle on a cross-slope of 0 deg as per Figure 9.2 in the text. The second plot is similar except that the cross-slope
is taken as the angle phi given or calculated on the Variable Sheet. The third plot is a vector diagram showing the
relationship between the vectors ac and g (relative to horizontal and vertical) and ay and az (relative to the vehicle axis
system.) A plot can be displayed by double-clicking on its icon.
If a plot icon is not visible for some reason, follow the steps in Displaying a Plot to redisplay the plot. The plots for this
example are shown below.

The point common to the upper left corners of both rectangles represents the location of the center of gravity. The
horizontal line from the CG to the point labeled G represents the centrifugal acceleration, ay, while the vertical line from
the CG to the other point labeled G represents the acceleration due to gravity, g. On the other rectangle, the line slanting
right and slightly upwards from the CG to the point labeled V represents the lateral acceleration experienced by the
occupants, ay, while the line slanting down and slightly right from the CG to the other point labeled V represents the
vertical acceleration experienced by the occupants, az.
The neutral speed is the speed at which the occupants experience no lateral acceleration relative to the vehicle. To
backsolve for this case, change phi from an output variable to an input variable (quickest way: type I in the Status field),
change the input for ay from .1 to 0, and blank the Input field for V (type B in the Status field, or type Spacebar Enter over
the Input field). After making the changes and solving again, the Variable Sheet should look as follows.
Chapter 9: Rollover
Quasi-Static Rollover of Rigid Vehicle
Eq. 9-1, p. 311, and Fig. 9.2, p. 313

V 29.109577 mph Velocity
500 R ft Radius of turn
ac .11330756 g's Centrifugal (horizontal) acceleration
60 t in Track width (tread)
20 h in Height of CG
2200 W lb Weight of vehicle =M*g
g 1 g's Acceleration of gravity (default: 1 g)
M 2200 lbm Mass of vehicle

0 ay g's Acceleration along vehicle y-axis
az 1.0063988 g's Acceleration along vehicle z-axis
Fzi 1107.0387 lb Normal force on inside tire
Fzo 1107.0387 lb Normal force on outside tire
6.4644744 phi deg Road cross-slope angle

Rollover thresholds:
Vroll 120.5635 mph Velocity
acroll 1.9436535 g's Centrifugal acceleration
ayroll 1.8187084 g's Acceleration along vehicle y-axis
azroll 1.2124722 g's Acceleration along vehicle z-axis
The neutral speed for this curve is approximately 29 mph. The equilibrium lateral acceleration plots will be the same for
this solution because the radius, cross-slope, track width (tread), and CG height are unchanged. The plot of acceleration
vectors is different because the centrifugal acceleration, ac, is smaller and the lateral acceleration ay is now 0.

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Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics

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