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14

Student ownership of physics learning

Niedderer H.
Malardalens University, Sweden; University of Bremen, Germany,
http://www.idn.uni-bremen.de/mitarbeiter_eng.php?id=27
The theoretical framework student ownership of learning (SOL) was developed both
theoretically related to self-determination theory (SDT) and with qualitative research from
physics teaching. In the talk, I will give examples and case studies from physics teaching to
show how SOL can help for better motivation and learning. These examples are taken from
upper secondary and university level. The role of SOL in some teaching strategies will be
analysed.
Introduction
The theoretical framework student ownership of learning (SOL) was developed both theoretically and with qualitative research. The metaphor ownership is related to the process towards
meaning making and understanding and is seen as relevant especially to improve physics instruction. The dimension group ownership of learning refers to the groups actions of choice and
control of the management of the task; how the task is determined, performed and finally reported. The other dimension, the individual student ownership of learning, refers to an individual
students own question/idea that comes from own experiences, interests or anomalies of understanding; an idea/question that comes back several times during learning activities and leads to
new insights. As a consequence, we argue for use of the framework student ownership of learning as a way to identify an optimal level of ownership for better learning and higher motivation
in physics teaching.
One example1
The example comes from group work with acceleration in grade 11 (age 17). After some traditional teaching, especially on acceleration and how to measure it, the students got the following
task:
What causes acceleration? a = f(???). Design your own experiment to find out!
Students were first asked to write down their first ideas and expectations, then to look for equipment in the lab to do their experiment. During the next lesson they did their experiments and finally wrote a report.
Here are some of the specific questions and aims that the groups developed:
- How does acceleration of a small car on an inclined plane depend on its weight?
- How does acceleration of a model locomotive depend on the inclination of the tracks?
- How does the acceleration of a body depend on air resistance?
- How does acceleration depend on the surface condition of a road? (For this purpose different sorts of sand were put on the track).
- How does acceleration depend on the height of a car on an inclined plane?
In this example, I want to focus on the third question and the group work done with it: How
does the acceleration of a body depend on air resistance? Students fastened a sail to a small car.
This car was set into motion and then braked by an electric hairdryer. Measurement was taken
1

More examples will be given during the talk

15

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how acceleration depends on the power of the hairdryer and on its distance. Students developed
ownership to their work in the following way: First, the whole question was their own idea.
Second, they brought their own heir dryer from home. Third, the detailed design of what and
how to measure was developed by themselves; the teacher tried to help them but carefully made
sure not to change their own ideas.
From a strictly physical view their results were not very good; they mainly found a proportional
relation between their negative acceleration and the position of the hair dryer switch (1, 2 or 3).
But from a motivational view it was incredibale: These students (three girls) had the lowest
grades in the class, and in spite of that had fun with doing an experiment in physics. One of
the three students two years later by chance met the teacher while working in his garden. She
spontaneously talked about her experience with this experiment and how nice it was.
Theoretical background
The theoretical background for the study is based on earlier studies on ownership of learning
within a constructivist perspective (Milner-Bolotin, 2001; Savery, 1996). Milner-Bolotin defined
ownership in physics education in a problembased learning environment with small-group work,
as the intersection between taking responsibility, finding a personal value and feeling in control;
she measured the individual status of ownership with a questionnaire. Studies using ownership
as a theoretical framework can be found in research in different areas such as language learning,
teacher education, science education in urban settings and in instructional systems technology.
Only more recently, this concept was applied to science education; in physics education at university level it was used by Milner-Bolotin (2001), Enghag (2006) and Enghag & Niedderer
(2008). Other researchers think in the same direction, and find a need for increased student
autonomy: Further support to this is lent by our work (Osborne & Collins, 2000) that found pupils desired more opportunities in science for practical work, extended investigations and opportunities for discussion - all of which provide an enhanced role for personal autonomy (Osborne,
2003, p. 1074). Motivation, performance and development will be maximized within social contexts that provide people with the opportunity to satisfy their basic psychological needs for competence, relatedness, and autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2000, p. 57).
Ownership is mainly defined by actions of choice and control taken by the students during
group work. This is called student ownership of learning (SOL). Some of these actions are obviously more related to the group, e.g. to determine the common understanding of the task, to decide on how to organise the work or how to organise the presentation. Others are more related to
one individual student, e.g. to have a special question or idea. So it seems natural to define student ownership of learning in two dimensions: as group ownership of learning (SOL-g) and as
individual student ownership of learning (SOL-i).
Relation to student-oriented teaching strategies
In an instructional setting that includes small-group work, the success of the lesson is connected
to the choice of the task. Who decides the task, its level of difficulty and if it is open-ended or
has a specific answer? Can students influence the mathematical level of the task, or the connection towards everyday life and real world problems? How are plans and performance executed
and what responsibilities have the students to make progress, and how is the final product assessed? Does the group take these kinds of actions to make choices and get control? We refer to
these issues as to the group ownership of learning (SOL-g).
Some choices are not taken by the whole group; they are taken by single individuals in the
group. We found that individual student ownership of learning (SOL-i) means that a single stu16

dent asks a unique question that initiates a learning process, recurs and develops and finally
gives some new insights to the student. For us, the opportunity to choose a task, as in this study
with a miniproject, does not necessarily mean that students invent a task themselves, instead, is
it more likely that the teacher proposes open-ended tasks including driving questions that trigger
and draw out student-generated questions, which then become the basis of individual student
ownership of learning (SOL-i), see the example above.
In student-oriented teaching in front of the whole class it sometimes happens that in a certain
moment many students come up with different ideas. This would be an excellent possibility to
let them work in groups on their own ideas, thus letting them develop ownership and motivation.
A case study: Mattias individual ownership of learning (SOL-i)
Mattias starts group work with a mini project from a special experience by his son:
Mattias: I was thinking on this... and than I found something I did not understand. Well, the
transformer.... it started with my son, he got hurt because of a torn transformer..
Then the group makes a choice out of a list of possible mini projects given by the teacher. They
decide to work on how an electric transformer can be explained. This choice is influenced by
Mattias. During the group work he comes back to his initial experience and develops ownership
by reformulating his original question:
Mattias: There have to be losses somewhere.
And later:
Mattias: Yes, but my point was to show that there are energy losses even when the lamp is off...
In his part of the final report, he focuses also on the same aspect:
Mattias: Then we go to the reflections of the group. Does the transformer change voltage and
current without losses? Theory said it should. In the practical experiments we have seen that
this is not the whole truth. There are losses somewhere. These were also some of my thoughts,
when I had found at home, in the beginning, that transformers get warm. I took this instrument
home with me (shows the instrument to the class) to measure the power in Watts.
So he came several times back to his first own idea, and he has adapted it to the new knowledge
they got; he thus has developed ownership.
References
Enghag, M. (2006). Two dimensions of Student Ownership of Learning during Small-Group Work with
Miniprojects and Context Rich Problems in Physics. Doctoral thesis, Maelardalens University, Sweden.
http://www.mdh.se/ima/personal/meg03/Thesis/urn_nbn_se_mdh_diva-169-2__fulltext.pdf
Enghag, M., Niedderer, H. (2008): Two Dimensions of Student Ownership of Learning During SmallGroup Work in Physics. In: International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education 6 (4), 629-653
http://www.idn.uni-bremen.de/publikationen_eng.php?&SearchName1=27
Milner-Bolotin, M. (2001). The effects of topic choice in project-based instruction on undergraduate
physical science students interest, ownership, and motivation. PhD Thesis, Austin TX.
Osborne, J. (2003). Attitudes towards science: a review of the literature and its implications. Int J Sci
Educ 25(9), 1049-1079.

17

6 .. ..

Ryan, M.R. & Deci, E.L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions. Contemp Educ Psychol 25, 54-67.
Savery, J.R. (1996). Fostering student ownership for learning. Bloomington IN: PhD Thesis, Indiana
University.

18

Choosing ICT: a matter of learning about learning Science

Pint R.
Centre de Recerca per a lEducaci Cientfica i Matemtica (CRECIM)
University Autnoma de Barcelona (Spain), roser.pinto@uab.cat
From the last two decades and with an increasing and continuous presence, we have new
resources for Science teaching: the information and communication tools (ICT). There is a
proliferation of ICT and, nowadays, our job is to choose the one that best suit our interest
in each moment. It is necessary to think about the process of learning and in the intended
goals of the school at each level to decide which is the best ICT to be used to achieve such
goals. It is appropriate to do some reflection about the possibilities and limits of each ICT
and do not take for granted that using them good achievements can be obtained
Within different international spheres increasingly acknowledged is the relevance of science
education because, as we already know, it is considered that in many situations, problems encountered by individuals in their daily lives require some understanding of science and technology before these problems can be fully appreciated, understood or addressed. It is also considered that a good scientific education leads to more and better scientists and technicians for a
society in which technology is seen as a source of economic progress and the base for social
welfare. Therefore, science needs to be learnt and used lifelong by all; everybody needs some
scientific literacy.
Nowadays, the community of science educators have a diversity of proposals for improving the
learning of science, coming from the analysis of different aspects: teachers discourse, teachers
beliefs, students understanding, students interactions, class resources, materials, equipment,
and so forth. Particular resources for science teaching have been the information and communication technologies (ICTs) with a continuous presence over the last two decades.
There is a general consensus among science educators that ICT can radically improve the possibilities for meaningful learning. However, in many studies, we continuously evidence a scarce
use of ICTs in most school courses and, in fact, the process of using them needs some reflections
(Osborne & Hennessy, 2003).
In a presentation to introduce about any ICT for teaching use, we usually can hear the multiple
possibilities it offers but, very rarely do we hear how to make an efficient use of it in order for
students to learn something specific with it. It seems that educational technologists assume that a
well designed lesson using ICT, when shown to students, will generate automatic learning. It is
taken for granted that using it for teaching, students will learn. Unfortunately, this is not the real
situation. Our assumption, coincident with Jonassens (2006) view, is that students dont learn
from technologies, they learn from thinking. The considerations about the benefits for the students or for the teachers using the introduced ICT do not appear as the most relevant in such
presentations. The use of ICT in teaching is usually well seen in families, where the fashionable
aura associated with these technologies seems to justify their usefulness. However, the real
obstacles for the implementation in classes are usually ignored. What is evident is the disregard
of the big gap between the teachers action of teaching and the students process of learning.

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The European Commission (2005) proclaimed that ICTs have to enable learning anywhere, anytime and anyhow. However, very little is said about whether what is intended to be taught is actually meaningfully learnt or not. It is not generally the case, either, to establish what can be
learnt from each technology. To reflect on the benefits that we can obtain from the use of each
ICT can give us criteria to select the most appropriate ICT for each learning situation. This requires us to think about what we want our students to learn and what it means to learn.
Then, the first step is to answer the following questions:

What do we mean by learning? When can we say that students have learnt?

What is intended to be taught in school? Which kind of contents are the targets in the
school?
What do we mean by learning? When can we say that students have learnt?
To answer these questions, it is necessary to have a model or mental representation of learning,
that is, a model of the process leading to learning. After knowing the answers to both questions,
we can decide on which kind of ICT is useful for what to be learnt.
At present, many researchers agree that a meaningful learning supposes learning with understanding (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). Meaningful learning requires that a learner put
new information into an existing cognitive structure in a nonverbatim or non-rote manner,
thereby allowing better use and retention of the knowledge. In contrast, rote learning is arbitrary,
verbatim, and not related to experience with events or objects, and lacks affective commitment
on the part of the learner to relate to new and prior knowledge (Chin & Brown, 2000).
Agreeing with the National Research Council (2005), we assume the three fundamental and
well-established principles of learning as follows:
1. Students come to the classroom with preconceptions about how the world works. If their
initial understanding is not engaged, they may fail to grasp the new concepts and information, or they may learn them for purposes of a test but revert to their preconceptions outside the classroom. The understandings that children bring into the classroom, even before
the start of formal schooling, will significantly shape how they make sense of what they
are taught.
2. To develop competence in an area of inquiry, students must (a) have a deep foundation of
factual knowledge, (b) understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework, and (c) organize knowledge in ways that facilitate its retrieval and applications. Information stored in memory, if organized around core concepts, can be much more effectively retrieved and applied than isolated pieces of information. The reason that experts in a
field remember more than do novices is that the former see information as organized sets
of ideas and novices see it as separate pieces. The experience of learning topics as isolated
chunks of knowledge is less useful, more difficult and a lot less inspiring than a learning
experience that reflects the conceptual integration that characterizes science (Taber, 2008).
3. A metacognitive approach to instruction can help students learn to take control of their
own learning by defining learning goals and monitoring their progress in achieving them.
Metacognition refers to peoples knowledge about themselves as information processors.
This includes knowledge about what we need to do in order to learn and remember information and, the ability to monitor our current understanding to make sure we understand the information. It is said that some teachers introduce the idea of metacognition to
their students by saying, You are the owners and operators of your own brain, but it came
without an instruction book (National Research Council, 2005, p. 11). The concept of
metacognition includes thus an awareness of the need to ask how new knowledge relates
to or challenges what one already knows.
20

We will not develop such principles in-depth. However, we find it appropriate in the present
context to take especially into account the second principle when considering the selection of
ICTs. Which kind of ICT will facilitate students learning to develop their competence in an area
of inquiry that they need:
2. to have a deep foundation of factual knowledge?
3. to understand facts and ideas in the context of a conceptual framework?
4. to rely on the new concepts in a conceptual core of concepts?
5. to organize information?.
Research has evidenced that when students are taught according to such three principles, they
are able to transfer new knowledge to new contexts, different from that which has been taught
(Snyder, 2000). If a new concept is learnt, then it is organized/structured in the individuals mind
and linked to other concepts, and also individuals identify easily other elements of knowledge
that can be related to it. As a consequence, teachers should promote strategies or use resources
having the goal to scaffold students to abstract general principles that lead to such flexible transfer.
We know that some students are more successful than others in learning science and this can be
interpreted to be due to differences in the way they learn (Chin & Brown, 2000) When students
use a deep approach to learning science, they venture their ideas more spontaneously; give
more elaborate explanations which describe mechanisms and cause effect relationships; ask
questions which focused on explanations and causes, on predictions..(p. 109). On the contrary,
students using a surface approach give explanations that are reformulations of the questions, a
black box variety which does not refer to a mechanism, or macroscopic descriptions which
refer only to what is visible. Their questions only refer to more basic factual or procedural information. This is not what we commonly expect in students achievements and hence we will
have to choose strategies and resources for a deep approach of learning. Adequate activities and
strategies will be oriented to encourage students to ask questions, to make predictions, or to give
consistent explanations.
Such views should be applied when we have to select the appropriate ICT for whatever learning
situations.
Selecting an ICT for some purpose
When presented any ICT addressed to teaching, at first look, we can easily recognize an underlying conception of learning. Which ICT to choose in order to favour a deep approach of learning? We can go through different kinds of ICT and analyse their underlying ideas about learning.
ICT and associations

There are ICTs whose purpose is that students associate an answer with a question. In some
cases, the association to be done is to guess a rule, to match a couple of words, to fill in some
gaps, to order some sentences, and so on. Being able to rightly make associations of some words
do not mean any gains in knowledge. Similarly, being able to use the right definitions of a
concept does not mean to understand the concept or to have learnt it. Research has not evidenced that a deep learning has occurred when such behaviour of rightly associating answers to
questions has been successful.
In such cases, the use of the ICT cannot be considered to have as its goal to promote students
deep learning of some scientific content, but merely to match some names, to link some images
to some words, to associate some sentences to be repeated, and so on. Within this sort of teaching approach, learning by rote can be expected from the users of this type of ICT.

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ICTs as organizing tools

In the assumed paradigm, helping students structuring information is a way to help their understanding and learning. There are good tools to help students to organize information, tools that
allow putting each piece of information into categories and hierarchies. The linear texts could
show to students how the written information is organized. However it is not done and the organizing principles are not explicit, Only some teachers intend to help students to be aware of
the knowledge structure by proposing the realisation of charts or any kind of diagrams to highlight the organisation of the information of the text.
Especially helpful for students in restructuring knowledge are the applications for making
concept maps and organisation charts. If people have an available core of information where the
new concepts can be hooked to the previously learnt ones, all the pieces of information can be
effectively learnt throughout their life, irrespective of their age.
ICT and visualizing

A big information processing step was given by the tools designed to show moving pictures on
the screen, representing a variety of processes and objects as happen in animations, simulations,
applets and many internet resources: the dynamic visual representations. They can be valuable
tools for exploring physical (even virtual) worlds, adding to the classical methods of experimenting and doing exercises. But, what could be the role of these tools in school?
It is a rather common belief that observing a process or visualizing a phenomenon results in images that are created remaining strongly in our memory so that the process or phenomenon is
understood and learnt. For graphic or animation designers, such vision is very frequent. The old
Chinese saying a picture is worth a thousand words is only right if the information that the
picture conveys can be read by the learner. Njoo and Yong (1993) found that learners have
problems in making sense of information from computer simulations, such as discerning relevant variables or interpreting the results of experiments. Many researchers have evidenced that
images are not transparent, and that the meaning of an image is structured through quite complex and subtle organizations (Kress & van Leeuwen, 1996; Halkia & Theodoridis, 2001; Pinto
& Ametller, 2002; Stylianidou, 2002).
Observing the dynamism of virtual images on the screen is generally amusing but, obviously, it
does not mean learning. We already know well that after having observed a phenomenon or process (observed the reality), it is necessary to find an adequate explanation of it, to construct a
conceptual model giving reason for such phenomenon or to apply an existent model to justify
what has been observed. Therefore, we should take into account that visualizing is not explaining: visualizing is not building nor applying any conceptual model.
Furthermore, when we visualize or observe a phenomenon or a process we are already interpreting it and this can only be done through our own lens. From research, we know that our observation is always guided by our prior knowledge and so, the observed images will be read
through such lens. We can only perceive what we have enough theoretical background that
makes possible its perception, since any observation is impregnated with theory (Glynn & Duit,
1995). This should be the first warning when talking about the use of dynamic visual representations as a resource for teaching
Moreover, sometimes, the opportunity offered from most ICT tools of visualizing images of processes or phenomena seems to have revived the pedagogically poor idea of learning by observing or by visualizing (a fashionable idea in the 1930s). As it was believed that more coloured attractive pictures, more powerful tools for learning, therefore, pieces of different col22

oured chalks were used to write on the blackboards. Again, more recently, some of the commercial presentations about new digital class blackboards seem to support such a view and it should
be taken into account.
When can dynamic visual representations support learning?
Seeing does not mean understanding; however, research tells us that the realistic images that
simulations, animations, applets and so forth offer can help students to understand facts and
ideas in the context of a conceptual framework if teachers make the efforts for students to decode the information that images convey and interpret them. The meaning of images (their context and elements) and the meaning of the represented process (its parallelism or analogy to a
real situation) should be interpreted.
Some research studies have evidenced (Monaghan & Clement, 1999, Evagorou et al.2009) that
simulations could be useful tools to assist students in their process of building mental representations of scientific phenomena. Being able to build a right mental representationof the way a
phenomenon is developed, a system behaves or a model runsseems to be a necessary step for
students understanding and learning. Simulations or animations can provide this support to students so that these tools become meaningful when used by students, especially for those without
high mathematical skills. Forming a visual model as a representation that is more general than
single examples, but not as abstract as mathematical formalism is considered by many to be
central in the thinking of practising scientists. And now, there is growing evidence that such
visual model may also be central for understanding within science students (Monaghan & Clement, 1999).
When students are able to understand the meaning conveyed by images of a simulation, it can be
adequate to display such meaning through the multiple representation of the same phenomenon
or the same system. It is frequent to find applications that employ in the same screen a variety of
representations (pictures, animation, graphs, vectors and numerical data displays) of a process.
However, we can wonder if the multi-representationality of a single fact makes any sense for
learning or if it is simply an exhibition of the technical possibility of the application. The answer
is not firmly round but we can make mention of our framework of learning: something (concept,
theory, phenomenon) is learnt when individuals are able to transfer such knowledge to a different context. Being able to interpret different representations corresponding to a single phenomenon as a mere change of language, means being able to integrate different pieces of information. Then, a degree of agility is necessary for such transfer: observing and describing a
single fact using different lenses and languages would be analogous to observing and describing
it using different models. So, the multi-representationality can be seen as another potentiality of
simulations, of which we can take advantage in supporting student learning. In such situations
they could help students in understanding the underlying concepts, relationships and processes.
Nevertheless, even though a simulation can be designed for the purpose of showing simultaneously different representations of a particular process by means of vectorial representations,
different graphical representations, numerical representations, pictures and so on, the integration
of the different representations is not obvious (Saez & Pint, 2005, 2007).

23

6 .. ..

What scientific literacy should students learn?

We can explore more the potentialities of the ICTs taking into account the contents to be learnt
in school.In the previous paragraphs we have clarified what we understand by learning and the
different sorts of learning in which some Information and Communication Technologies can engage the user. However, nothing has been said about what should be learnt/taught for real scientific literacy.
There is a general consensus that students at school should develop scientific literacy, which, according to Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA, 2006), is the ability to use scientific knowledge and processes, not only to understand the natural world but also to participate in
decisions that affect it.
1. To use scientific knowledge or concepts needs a foundation of knowledge facts and a
conceptual framework for understanding and interpreting them.
2. To use scientific processes requires the ability to obtain, interpret and act upon evidence
through
1.
describing, explaining and predicting scientific phenomena
2.
understanding scientific investigation, and
3.
interpreting scientific evidence and conclusion
Acquiring scientific processes
More specifically, when referring to simulations or applets the process that is expected from students is to be able to interact with them modifying certain parameters. A simulation can lead students to questions of what if...? That is, students can be engaged in an inquiry process. The
use of sliders can allow students to explore the role of each of the parameters. This is a relevant
scientific process to be able to identify and control variables affecting a phenomenon: the interaction student-application can encourage mastering it. However, it is not easy that students systematically use the sliders or controllers and, on the contrary students often have a tendency to
run simulations by trial and error without reflection.
In fact, we observed (Pinto & Garcia 2004) relevant two main problems in using simulations.
First, the discovery role assigned to the simulations. Some teachers envisage again (as in the
1960s) that teaching by discovery leads to real learning. Sometimes when students manipulate
the computer they assign values to certain parameters, and they conclude that they have tested
some law. This, of course, could never happen since students are exploring a world through
the simulation with the rules introduced by its designer. These rules contain the mathematical
models of physics, chemistry or biology (e.g., energy conservation is not evidenced using any
simulation). Nothing extra is created when running a simulation. Only the issues contemplated
by the designer can be visualized! The same can be said for any application where students can
interact with the computer.

In the second place, the substitute role assigned to the simulations. Simulations allow students to
show and sometimes to investigate phenomena which are difficult to experience or to analyse in
depth in a classroom or a laboratory due to extreme complexity, technical difficulty or a risk of
danger, or due to its rapid, time-consuming or expensive nature. They allow imitating experiments, which can be used to get quantitative results with a computer under idealized conditions.
Such virtual experiments, in contrast with real laboratory experiments, have the particularity
that all disturbing influences are eliminated from the beginning and that laboratory conditions
are both fixed to suitability and stability. However, this idealised settings are not idyllic for
teaching and learning: there is the risk, evidenced in the following teachers comment: Many
24

students in my lab group appear to be easily frustrated if they take time to build a circuit to test
an idea and it does not work as expected. In contrast, the students in the simulation group appear excited, perhaps because it takes relatively less time to test new ideas and concepts and
they receive immediate accurate feedback (Pinto et al., 2007). Not doing experimental work,
that is, working only in ideal situations as simulations do, could tend to disguise the reality. Students might confuse reality with virtual reality.
ICT and real experimental work
Other specific ICT tools are addressed to analyse real phenomena capturing data with great accuracy. Datalogging or microcomputer-based laboratory (MBL) become especially interesting
for promoting the students gains in acquiring scientific processes such as interpreting graphics,
thinking critically, or linking real phenomena with their graphical representations. Sensors and
interfaces connected to a computer can provide measuring data to analyse processes developing
in time. They offer real-time data and different modalities of representation with minimum effort. This display of representations enables students to visualize the course of the experiments
where changes of temperature, level of sound, intensity of light, pressure, force and so forth take
place. We benefit from the computer facilities to process data taken along the time and to analyse digital data, converted through an interface from analogical measurements. Such technologies offer very accurate data from phenomena that happen very quickly and otherwise can not be
taken. Measuring becomes an easy, quick and precise exercise. And, what is most relevant is that
the time for practical work can be mostly devoted to analysing results of measurements and to
discussing about them, instead of to spending a long period for taking data as in traditional labwork.
Due to these different possibilities of allocating class time, it is plausible to give a pedagogical
direction to the labwork with MBL that favours a deep approach of learning scientific content.
Thus, MBL can be a very useful technology to promote both the learning of scientific knowledge and learning of scientific processes (Russell et al., 2004).
However, it is necessary to be aware of some epistemological problems that may rise often in
the use of MBL. During the rapid process of capturing data many particulars can occur and the
graphs obtained can be very different from the expected ones (mathematical functions of the
ideal models). The causes of the unexpected graphics can be an erroneous configuration of the
software (i.e., capturing too high number of data per second), an inadequate arrangement of the
experimental equipment with respect of the sensor, certain hardware problems (i.e., wrong calibration of sensors) and so on. However the most common cause is the high sensitivity of the
sensors capturing real data. In front of such distorted graphs, different solutions usually are
adopted for the teachers. We could observe (Pint, 2007) different behaviours: to ask students to
repeat the data gathering until they obtain a neat graph, to provide an electronic file with a
correct graph to the students or to eliminate the parts of the graphs not having the expected
shape. When the graphs are adjusted to smooth their disturbances, in fact we are forcing the
graphs to show an idealized pattern of the phenomenon analysed. We subconsciously intend to
make a real phenomenon appear as a simple mathematical function even though the reality is
usually very much more complex. This epistemological precaution should be taken. In a research study (Pint, 2007), when observing many classes of students using MBL, we could not
find any situation where the shape of graphs was analysed and discussed taking into account
their distortions. In fact, the results were very embarrassing for teachers to manage and make
understandable the causes of the distorted shape of complex graphs that appeared on the computer screen. However, as we have said, if working with simulations has the risk of giving the
25

6 .. ..

impression of working with natural phenomena, MBLs have the risk of provoking confusions
between the reality and the ideal.
Undertaking real-time experiments with MBL technology is supposed to be able to overcome
hardware problems of calibration or robustness (connexions, battery, etc.) and software problems. Therefore, teachers should be always ready to surmount surprises that can arise in any moment and so, the inexperienced teachers easily felt uncertain (Sassi et al., 2005). Moreover, the
time constraints and the pressure sensation to cover a lot of topics influence the ways of teaching proceedings. Another important constraint is the space in the lab. In most of the lab sessions
we have observed, teachers organised students in groups of 4-5 students. In the research study
carried out in 2006-07, a high range of classes with teachers having a strong or low control of
students work was also observed. We could evidence that a teachers style and his/her experience with MBL played an important role in teaching. In the firmly controlled groups, teachers
discussed the results and conclusions with the whole class. On the contrary, teachers with a meagre control did not hold general discussion of the results. The extreme situation was seen in the
case of a teacher not even allowing students to use the MBL equipment.
Modelling as a process of learning and modelling as a software
As previously mentioned, an important task for a scientist after having observed a phenomenon
or process is to find its adequate explanation by either constructing a model or applying an
existent model to justify what has been observed (Clement 2000). The model will be more
powerful if it has predictive possibilities for explaining more phenomena. Much of the success
of physics lies in its power to predict the behaviour of increasingly more complex material
systems by constructing models.
The teaching of models and modelling has become a frequent theme in science education
research (Lijnse, 2006). It has been proposed reiteratively that students need a better
understanding about the process of modelling and the role of models in science to understand
the nature of science (e.g., Gilbert & Boulter, 1998).
The relevance of building models as a way to understand the production of scientific models has
led to produce more and more specific computer tools. Using these computer tools, learners can
understand the structure of models, even though some tools have their mathematical formalism
hidden. Ogborn (2002) suggested that pupils since primary school can make models using
objects and events to express their own representations of their world. In the first steps, pupils
can construct environments where objects obey some rules (i.e., through Worldmaker, Stage
Cast, etc.). Later they could build models with relationships among them (VnR). The more
complex computing modelling software packages are those where students can use calculus and
algebra to design iterative computational models. Such kind of applications run according to the
rules, relationships or mathematical equations imposed (mathematical modelling). Students
construct the model writing the relationships or mathematical equations that objects or images
should obey. After it, students verify its correctness running the model and proving that it
behaves as the modellised phenomena would do in the real world. In this stepped introduction of
building models, the ability of modelling will be enhanced from the first stages. Science
education approaches based on enhancing the modelling process have been found to be efficient
procedures of teaching; and there has also been much evidenced that building models of subject
content using technology-based modelling tools facilitates the process of learning.

26

With modelling software, students can construct a model, while using the simulations they run a
model constructed by the designer. In both cases, during teaching students are usually impelled
to reflect on possible scenarios: what would happen if, I am wondering what results will be
like if I change However, the cognitive demand on students when designing a model for a
process or phenomenon consists on analysing all the components of a system, the rules of
relationships among them and also expressing them through a computer application. While,
using a simulation requires decoding some images and relating its dynamism to some known
scientific rules, laws, or principles. Therefore, the cognitive demand on students when using a
simulation, due having an already designed model, is lower than in the former case when they
have to construct their own model.
Conclusions and implications
With ICT tools we can encourage students to develop skills, some of them highly recognised,
such as: capacity of decision-making, capacity of gathering and analysing data, capacity of
presenting information and so on. With the use of ICTs we can also extend the learning
community beyond the classroom or school walls. In this sense, what is really interesting is to
use the ICTs as catalysts to promote students acquisition and development of higher order
cognitive skills, and not only as fashionable tools for implementing the curriculum.
We have also seen that there are ICTs whose role in facilitating learning, particularly in higher
order learning skills or in learning science, is very minor or negligible. This has made us wonder
if their use in the science classroom is justified.
Obviously, the use of new technologies cannot guarantee more successful and interesting
teaching, in the same way that a new game does not guarantee users better game playing. The
most brilliant resources do not necessarily improve learning per se in our classes. The key
element are the pedagogical approaches followed when using the ICTs. First, it is necessary to
select the ICT and clarify the goals that are intended to achieve by taking into account its
potentials and limits. In the second place, it is essential to decide the approach that favours the
sort of intended learning. These are the irreplaceable responsibilities of teachers using ICTs in
the classroom.
In a knowledgebased society, for citizens to be able to use all kind of technological tools is
indispensable. In order to introduce these tools in schools, the critical point is that teachers
should be able to select the most appropriate one for each learning situation and to use it
competently for any real learning of their students. Teachers are pushed to achieve better student
learning outcomes using ICTs but as well they should be provided with more time and consistent
access to resources, encouragement and support. Moreover, they should also receive specific
guidance to adopt a constructivist view of teaching since this is essential for more effective and
deeper learning.
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M. Kalantzis (Eds.), Multiliteracies: Literacy Learning and the Design of Social Futures, 3-8. New York:
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New York: Routledge
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Antonoglou, L. D., Charistos, N. D., & Sigalas M. P. (2008). Design of Molecular Visualization Educational Software for Chemistry Learning. in Leading-Edge Educational Technology, Nova Publishers,
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to chaos and fractals. Journal of Science Education and Technology 1, 191-209.
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Komorek, M. & Duit, R. (2004), The Teaching Experiment as a Powerful Method to Develop and Evaluate Teaching and Learning Sequences in the Domain of Non-Linear Systems. International Journal of
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238

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Galileo, G.: (translated by Crew H., Salvio A) (1638/1914) Dialogue Concerning Two New Sciences,
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Approach for the Chemical Bonding Concept Aligned With Current Scientific and Pedagogical Knowledge. Science Education, 91, 579-603.
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LightHSCI2006, 3rd International Conference on Hands-on Science, University of Minho, Braga, Portugal, September 4-9, 2006
Sarantos Oikonomidis, Dimitrios Sotiropoulos, Nikolaos Voudoukis and George KalkanisFour Handson Activities Obeying the Inverse Square LawHSCI2006, 3rd International Conference on Hands-on
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Particle Duality A Proposal for Scientific to Educational Models Transformation

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Dimopoulos V., Kalkanis G., (2003), An introduction of microcosmos quantum model to students of limited mathematics and science background supported by computer simulations / visualizations, 4th ESERA Conference, Noordwijkerhout, The Netherlands
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modeling system, in Gilbert, J.K. & Boulter, C. (eds.), Developing Models in Science Education,
Dordrecht: Kluwer, pp. 307-324.
Doerr, H. (1997), Experiment, simulation and analysis: an integrated instructional approach to the
concept of force, International Journal of Science Education 19(3), pp. 265-282.
Driver, R., Squires, A., Rushworth, P. & Wood Robinson, V. (1994), Making sense of Secondary Science Research into Childrens Ideas, London: Routledge.
Justi, R.S. & Gilbert, J.K. (2002), Modeling, teachers' views on the nature of modeling, and implications for the education of modelers, International Journal of Science Education 24(4), pp. 369-387.
Osborne, R.Y. & Freyberg, F. (1985), Children learning in Science, London: Heinemann.
Gilbert, J.K. (1997) (Ed). Exploring Models and Modeling in Science and Technology Education. The
University of Reading, The New Bulmershe Papers, UK.

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Duit R., and Haeussler P., (1994), Learning and teaching energy, in Fensman P., Gunstone R., & White
R. (Eds.), The content of science, The Falmer press. ISBN 0 7507 0221 4
Feynman R., (1963) in Feynman et al. The Feynman lectures on Physics, volume I, Addison-Wesley
publishing company p. 4-2.
Garyfallidou D. M., and Ioannidis G. S. Development and educational testing of a novel educational
software to teach energy as a whole: the final educational results, in: Auer M. et al Eds., proceedings of
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assel University Press, (2005), ISBN 3-89958-136-9
Ioannidis G. S., Garyfallidou D. M., & Vavougios D. G., (2002), The development of 1st year education
students ideas on energy, as a result of a specially constructed instruction,
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Ainley, J., Nardi, E., & Pratt, D. (1999). Constructing Meaning for Formal Notation in Active Graphing,
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Arons, A.B. (1990). A Guide to Introductory Physics Teaching, Wiley.
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Biggs, J.B. & Collins, K.F. (1982). Evaluating the quality of learning: The SOLO taxonomy. Academic
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Dunham, P. H. & Osborne, A. (1991). Learning how to see: Students graphing difficulties. Focus on
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in conceptual understanding in volcanism, Electronic Journal of Science Education, 11(1), 38-59
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(1998), , , , 212-214
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(Bulletin Officiel de l Education Nationale) hors srie No. 45 du 12/12/96, No. 1 du 13/02/97,
No. 6 du 12/08/99 Programme du cycle central du collge.
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Duggan, S., Gott, R. (1995). The place of investigations in practical work in the UK National Curriculum
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Research in Science Education, 17, 139-148.
Holding, B. (1987). Investigation of school childrens understanding of the process of dissolving with
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Johnstone, A. H., Al-Shuaili, A. (2001). Learning in the laboratory; some thoughts from the literature.
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Longden, K. A. (1984). Understanding of dissolving by 11-12 year-old children. Unpublished M.Sc,
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Meheut, M., Saltiel, E., Tiberghien, A. (1985). Pupils (11-12 year-old) conceptions of combustion. European Journal of Science Education, 7(1), 83-93.
Millar, R. (1996). Investigations des lves en science: Une approche fonde sur la connaissance. Didaskalia, 9, 9-30.
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Perret-Clermant, A. M. (1979). La construction de lintelligence dards linteraction sociale.

Berne, Peter Lang.
Prieto, J., Blanco, A., Rodriguez, A. (1989). The ideas of 11-14 year-old students about the nature of
solutions. International Journal of Science Education 11(4), 451-463.
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open-ended laboratories in large lecture classes. Journal of Chemical Education, 73 (9), 827-832.

368

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Achinstein P. (1964). On the meaning of scientific terms. The Journal of Philosophy, 61: 17 (Sep. 17,
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experiment: recent insights and new perspectives on their relation, Dortrecht, Reidel.
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pour les diffrents besoins de la vie. Nouvelle dition avec des notes et additions par m. Navier. tom.1,
Paris.
Borda J. C. (publ. 1770). Mmoire sur les roues hydrauliques. Histoire de l Acadmie Royale des
Sciences, anne 1767, 270-287.
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les ingnieurs-savants franais, entre 1819 et 1829. Annales des Ponts et Chausses, No 82, 10-20.
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sur leur valuation, pour servir d introduction a l tude spciale des machines. Paris, Carilian-Goeury.
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scientific method, 44-96, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
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Hempel K. (1970). On the standard conception of scientific theories. Radner M. & Winicour S. (eds),
Analyses of theories and methods of Physics and Psychology, Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of
Science, vol. IV, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press.
Hills R. (1989). Power from the steam, a history of the stationary steam engine. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press.
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Hills R. & Pacey A. J. (1972). The measurement of power in early steam- driven textile mills. Technology and Culture, vol. 13, 25-43.
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vol.1, pp. 135-144.
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and the principle of least action, New York, Arno press.
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Smeaton J. (1759). An experimental enquiry concerning the natural powers of water and wind to turn
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376

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users.sch.gr/kassetas

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13 .

13-jarigen Algemeen Secundair Onderwijs A.S.O.

eerste graad Wetenschappen
ELEKTRICITEIT
In dit onderdeel worden de verschillende elementen
van de elektrische strooming besproken. Begrippen
zoals stroom, serie en parallelschakeling, weerstand,
spanning, en de wet van OHM worden aangehaald.
KRACHT EN DRUK
De leerlingen definieren kracht als oorzaak van
vervorming of beweging. Het gebruik van de
dynamometer als meettoestel om krachten te meten
wordt ook bespoken
De grootheden massa, gewicht en zwaartekracht
worden verder onderzocht.
Verschillende soorten evenwicht worden bestudeerd,
en men onderzoekt hoe het evenwicht vergroot kan
worden. Tenslotte kan er nog een hoofdstuk aan druk
besteed worden. Belangrijk bij zowel het onderdeel over
krachten en het hoofdstuk over druk is dat er steeds veel
voorbeelden( gadgets, toepassingen, verklaringen) uit
het dagelijks leven van de leerlingen komen, zodat de
leerstof zeker niet abstact blijft.
ZWEVEN ZINKEN DRIJVEN
Verklaren waarom bepaalde voorwerpen zinken, en
andere voorwerpen drijven in water. Massadichtheid
berekenen, gadgets bespreken. assadichtheid van
lucht bepalen. Zijn allemaal zaken die in de context
ZWEVEN ZINKEN DRIJVEN kunnen passen.
INDELING VAN STOFFEN
In dit onderdeel kunnen de leerlingen wat proeven
van de chemie: mengsels in zuivere stoffen, chemiste
reacties, etikettering, zure en basische oplossingen . . .
en nog veel meer staat hier op het programma. Indien
er met gevaarlijke stoffenen/of bunsenbrander gewekt
wordt, moet het labo wel voldoen aan bepaalde
veilingheidsvoorschriften.
LICHT EN KLEUR
Man start met het maken van een onderscheid tussen
licht und geluid en gaat den wat verder in op enkele
eigenschappen van het licht. Het elektromagnetisch
spectrum, licht als energievevorm, samengesteld licht,
kleuren. . . Ook hier kan de leerkracht . Zelf selecteren
en aanvullen naar eigen mogelijkheden en interesses
van de leerlingen

378

13
,

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OHM.


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Physique Chemie, .
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Classe de quatrime Physique Chemie

COMPOSITION DE L AIR
De quoi est compos l air que nous respirons ?
VOLUME ET MASSE DE L AIR
L air a-t-il un volume propre?
a-t-il un masse?
UNE DESCRIPTION MOLECULAIRE
Un modele particulaire pour interprter :
la compressibilit de l air
la distinction entre mlange et corps pur pour l air et
le vapeur d eau
la conservation de mass lors des mlanges en solutions
acqueses et des changements d tat de l eau
LES COMBUSTIONS
Quest-ce que brler ?
LES ATOMES POUR COMPRENDRE LA TRANSFORMATION
CHIMIQUE
INTENSIT ET TENSION
Quelles grandeurs lectriques peut-on mesurer dans
un circuit ?
LA RESISTENCE . LA LOI D OHM .
LUMIERE COLORE ET COULEUR DES OBJETS
LENTILLES
MINCES

13


;

;
;



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;




;
. OHM

379

6 .. ..

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13 Ciencias de la
Naturaleza. .

Physique Chemie .
6 - -

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E.S.O SEGUNDO CURSO Ciencias de la

Naturaleza

. (13 )

I. Materia y energa
1. Los sistemas materiales y la energa. Sistemas
materiales. Escalas de observacin macro y
microscpica. La energa como propiedad de los
sistemas materiales. Variacin de la energa en los
sistemas materiales: cambio de posicin, forma y
estado. Tipos de energa. Fuentes de energa
2. Los cambios de posicin en los sistemas materiales.
Representacin grfica de movimientos sencillos. Las
fuerzas como causa del
movimiento y la deformacin. Masa y peso de los
cuerpos. Energa mecnica
3. La energa que percibimos.
Propagacin de la luz y el sonido. Diferencias entre
ellas. Otros tipos de ondas. Percepcin de la luz y del
sonido: el ojo y el odo. El calor: energa en trnsito.
Efectos. Calor y temperatura. Los termmetros.
Propagacin del calor.
Aislantes y conductores.
Percepcin del calor: la piel.
II. Trnsito de energa en la tierra

I.
1.

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380


4. La energa externa del planeta.
Origen de la energa solar. La atmsfera como filtro de
la energa solar: su
estructura. La energa reflejada: efecto invernadero;
ltimas directrices
internacionales. La Hidrosfera como regulador
trmico. Corrientes, mareas,
olas. Distribucin de la energa solar que llega a la
superficie del planeta:
origen de los agentes geolgicos externos.
5. Agentes geolgicos externos.
Agentes atmosfricos. La meteorizacin. Formacin
de suelos. El viento.
Accin geolgica. Energa elica. Aguas salvajes y
torrentes. Los ros. Energa hidrulica. Los glaciares.
Accin geolgica. Las aguas subterrneas. Accin
geolgica. Aprovechamiento. El mar.
Accin geolgica. Energa mareomotriz.
La formacin de rocas sedimentarias. Carbn y
petrleo.
6. La energa interna del planeta.
Origen del calor interno terrestre. Movimientos de los
continentes. Vulcanismo y terremotos. El relieve
terrestre. Continentes y fondos marinos. La formacin
de
rocas magmticas y metamrficas.
III. La energa y los seres vivos
7. Las funciones de los seres vivos y el consumo de
energa.
El mantenimiento de la vida. Nutricin auttrofa y
hetertrofa. Fotosntesis,
respiracin y nutricin celular. La energa consumida
por los seres vivos:crecimiento, calor, movimiento. El
mantenimiento de la especie. La reproduccin
animal y vegetal: analogas y diferencias.
Coordinacin, relacin y adaptacin.
8. Conceptos de Biosfera.
Ecosfera y Ecosistema. Productores y consumidores .
Cadenas y redes trficas. La biomasa como fuente de
energa.

.
II.
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, & , . (2000).
: . , . ().
. . , 85-110
Nussbaum, J. (1993). . R. Driver, E. Guesne &
A. Tibergien (Eds). . : ..., , 110-207.
Ahtee, M. (1994). Finnish pupils ideas of dissolving salt in water. In Bargelini & P.E. Todesco (Eds),
Procceedings ATTI, 2nd European Conference on Research in Chemical Education, Pisa Universita degli
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Andersson, B. (1990). Pupils conception of matter and its transformations (age 12-16). Studies in Science Education, 18, p. 68
Haidar, A & Abraham, M. (1991). A comparison of applied and theoretical knowledge of concepts based
on the particulate nature of matter. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,28, 919-938.
Slone, M. & Bokhurst, F. D. (1992). Childrens understanding of sugar water solutions. International
Journal of Science Education, 9, 221-235.
Vosniadou, S. (2003). Exploring the Relationships between conceptual change and intentional learning.
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428

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. 5
, 5 () 509-518. [http://www.kodipheet.gr]
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Engelhardt, P. V., & Beichner, R. J. (2004). Students understanding of direct current resistive
circuits. American Journal of Physics, 72(1), 98-115.
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actions and their intention to take action. International Journal of Environmental Studies.
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Environmental Studies, 42, 287300.
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climatic change: what are its manifestations? What are its origins? What corrective action can be taken?
Journal of Science Education and Technology, 2(4), 541-557.
Hellenic Republic, MEPPPW (Ministry for the Environment, Physical Planning and Public Works)
(2006). 4th National Communication to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
(http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/grenc4.pdf).
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Journal of Environmental Education, 21, 812.
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(http://www.ipc.ch/: accessed November 2007).
Mason, L. & Santie, M. (1998). Discussing the Greenhouse Effect: children's collaborative discourse
reasoning and conceptual change. Environmental Education Research, 4(1), 67-85.
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children think? Education, 3-13, 23, 28-31.
UN, Human Development Report: Greece, 2007-8.
(http://hdrstats.undp.org/countries/country_fact_sheets/cty_fs_GRC.html).
UNEP (2005). Vital Climate Change Graphics, Based on the Third Assessment Report of IPCC.
(http://www.vitalgraphics.net/climate2.cfm).
Voudrislis, N. & Lambrinos, N. (2006). Sea level rise and Greenhouse effect: Do primary school pupils
think that the two phenomena are connected? In Patroescu M. and Matache M. L. (Eds.), Proceedings of
the 2nd International Conference on Environmental Research and Assessment (ICERA), Bucharest, Romania, pp. 118 127.

530

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Books,
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Aron, R.H., Francek, M.A., Nelson, B.D. & Bisart, W.J. (1994). Atmospheric Misconceptions.
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(. .-. ),
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(2003). Enhancing teachers' knowledge and use of inquiry through environmental science education. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 14, 1, 49-71
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Henriques, L. (2002). Children's Ideas about Weather: A Review of the Literature. School Science and Mathematics, 102, 5, 202-215
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(. . ),
Mioduser, D., Venezky, R.L. & Gong, B. (1998). The Weather Lab: An Instruction-Based Assessment Tool Built From a Knowledge-Based System. The Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 17, 2-3, 239-263
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Meeting
the
SOLS
using
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Resources.
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at
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Samson, P. J. & Songer, N. B. (2000). Internet-Enabled Multimedia: An Argument for Alternatives to Browser-Based Learning Environments. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the
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of the American Meteorological Society, 83, 7, 970-975

538

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Bakken, J.P., Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. (1997). Reading comprehension of expository science
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education, 5, Research and developments in Teacher education in the Netherlands, 75-90.
Bruner, J. (1986). Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
Driver, R., Squires, A., Rushworth, P., Wood-Robinson, V. (2000).
. : - .
Hammill, D. D. (1990). On defining learning disabilities: An emerging consensus. Journal of Learning
Disabilities, 23, 74-84.
Jodelet, C. (1991). Les reprsentations sociales. Collection " Sociologie D'aujourd'hui ". Paris: PUF.
Lasswell H.D. & Leites W. (1965). The Language of Politics: Studies in Quantitative Semantics. New
York: MIT Press.
Leach, J., Driver, R., Scott, P. & Wood-Robinson, C (1992). Progression in Understanding of Ecological
Concepts by Pupils Aged 5 to 16. Leeds, UK: The University of Leeds, Centre for Studies in Science and
Mathematics Education.
Mastropieri, M. A. & Scruggs, T. E. (1992). Science for students with disabilities. A review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 62, 377-411.
Milandri, M. (2004). Children's views of microbes, current beliefs about bacteria in Italian grade school
children. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 23(12), 1077-1080.
Nagy, M.H. (1953). The representations of germs by children. Journal of General Psychology, 83, 227240.
Sequeira, M. & M. Freitas (1987). Children's alternative conceptions about mould and copper oxide. In
J.D. Novak (ed.) Proceedings of the Second International Seminar: Misconceptions and Educational
Strategies in Science and Mathematics Ithaca, NY: Department of Education, Cornell University.
Simmoneaux, L. (2000). A study of pupils conceptions and reasoning in connection with microbes, as
a contribution to research in biotechnology education. International Journal of Science Education, 22(6),
619-644.
Vasquez, E. (1985). Les representations des enfants sur les microbes. Feuilles d Epistemologie appliquee
et de didactique des sciences, 7, 31-36.
Vosniadou, S. (1994). Capturing and Modeling the Process of Conceptual Change. Learning and Instruction, 4, 45-69.
Wong, B.Y.L. (1994). Instructional parameters promoting transfer of learned strategies in students with
learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 17, 110-120.

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Baird, W., (1984), A Road Atlas for Computer and Teacher Training. The Computing Teacher, 12(3), 1116
Balvoius, A., Bernotait, J., Dagien, V., Brazdeikis, V., Manelis, E., Markauskait, L., Kiveriw, A.,
Linkaityt, G., Otas, R., Teleius, E. (2001), Teachers computer literacy standard. Minister of Education
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Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(51)
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Franklin, Ch., (2007), Factors that influence elementary teachers use of computer. In Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 15(2), 267-293
Geisert, P. & Futrell, M. (1984), Computer Literacy for Teachers, ERIC Digest. In http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-921/literacy.htm
Partridge, H. (2007), Redefining the digital divide: Attitudes do matter!. In Grove, Andrew, Eds. Proceedings 70th American Society for Information Science and Technology (ASIS & T) Annual Meeting,
Joining Research and Practice: Social Computing and Information Science 44, Milwaukee, Wisconsin,
USA
Vryzas, K. & Tsitouridou, M. (2002), Teachers attitudes to Information and Communication Technologies, Paper presented in 3rd International Conference on Information & Communication Technologies in
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AAAS (1993) American Association for the Advancement of Science, Benchmarks for Science Literacy, Oxford University Press, New York.
Barman, C., Griffiths, A., and Okebukola, A. (1995). High school students concepts regarding food
chains and food webs: a multinational study, International Journal of Science Education, 17(6), 775-782.

596

Eilam, B. (2002). Strata of Comprehending Ecology: Looking Through the Prism of Feeding Relations,
International Journal of Science Education, 86, 645-671.
Gallegos, L., Jerezano, M., and Flores, F. (1994), Preconceptions and Relations Used by Children in the
Construction of Food Chains, Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31(3), 259-272.
Hogan, K. (2000). Assessing students systems reasoning in ecology, Journal of Biological Education,
2000, 35, (http://www.iob.org).
Leach, J., Driver, R., and Wood-Robinson, C. (1995). Childrens ideas about ecology 1: theoretical background, design and methodology, International Journal of Science Education, 17(6), 721-732.
Leach, J., Driver, R., and Wood-Robinson, C. (1996a). Childrens ideas about ecology 2: ideas found in
children aged 5-16 about the cycling of matter, International Journal of Science Education, 18(1), 19-34.
Leach, J., Driver, R., and Wood-Robinson, C. (1996b) Childrens ideas about ecology 3: ideas found in
children aged 5-16 about the interdependency of organism, International Journal of Science Education,
18(2), 129-141.
Mullis, I., Martin, M., Smith, T., Garden, R., Gregory, K., Gonzalez, E., Chrostowski, S., & OConnor,
K. (2001). TIMSS Assessment Frameworks and Specifications 2003, IEA The International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement & ISC The International Study Center, Lynch
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NRC National Research Council (U.S.) (1996), National Science Education Standards, National
Academy Press, Washington.
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2003). The PISA 2003 Assessment
Framework Mathematics, Reading, Science and Problem Solving Knowledge and skills, OECD.
Scoullos, M. & Malotidi, V. (2004). Handbook on Methods used in Environmental Education and Education for Sustainable Development, MIO-ECSCE, Athens.
Tamir, P. (1998). Assessment and Evaluation in Science Education: Opportunities and Outcomes, in: International Handbook of Science Education Part Two, Editors: Fraser, B. and Kenneth, T., Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Tuckman, B. (1999). Conducting Educational Research, 5th Edition, Harcourt Brace College Pub-

lishers.

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Brown, D. E. (1994). Facilitating Conceptual Change Using Analogies and Explanatory Models.
International Journal of Science Education, 16(2), 201-214.
diSessa, A. A., & Sherin. (1998). What changes in conceptual change? International Journal of Science
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Driver, R., Asoko, H., Leach, J., Mortimer, E. F., & Scott, P. (1994). Constructing Scientific Knowledge
in the Classroom. Educational Researcher, 23(7), 5-12.

604

Driver, R., & Bell, B. (1986). Students' Thinking and the Learning of Science: A Constructivist View.
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Driver, R., Guesne, E., & Tiberghien, A. (1985). Children's Ideas in Science (T. Kritikos & V.
Spiliotopoulou & A. Stavropoulos, Trans.). London: Open University Press.
Duit, R. (1991). Students' Conceptual Frameworks: Consequences for Learning Science. In S. M. Glynn
& R. H. Yeany & B. K. Britton (Eds.), The Psychology of Learning Science (pp. 65-85). Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum.
Duit, R. (2007). Bibliography: students' alternative frameworks and science education. Kiel: IPN.
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communities in classrooms: A sociocognitive approach. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 8(3&4),
451-493.
Leach, J., & Scott, P. (2003). Individual and sociocultural views on learning in science education.
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Palincsar, A. S., & Brown, A. L. (1984). Reciprocal Teaching of Comprehension-Fostering and
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Community of Learners. In D. R. Olson & N. Torrance (Eds.), The Handbook of Education and Human
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Vosniadou, S. (2001). Conceptual Change Research and the Teaching of Science. In H. Behrendt & H.
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the volume thinking and speech (N. Minick, Trans. Vol. 1). New York: Plenum.

605

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Claxton, G. (1993). Minitheories: a Preliminary Model for Learning Science. In P. J. Black & A. M.
Lucas (Eds.), Children's Informal Ideas in Science (pp. 45-61). London: Routledge.
Clement, J. J., Brown, D. E., & Zietsman, A. (1989). Not All Preconceptions Are Misconceptions:
Finding 'Anchoring Conceptions' for Grounding Instruction on Students' Intiuitions. International
Journal of Science Education, 11(Special Issue), 554-565.
diSessa, A. A. (1993). Toward and Epistemology of Physics. Cognition and Instruction, 10(2&3), 105225.
Driver, R., Guesne, E., & Tiberghien, A. (1985). Children's Ideas in Science (T. Kritikos & V.
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Erlbaum.
Duit, R. (2007). Bibliography: students' alternative frameworks and science education. Kiel: IPN.
Dykstra Jr., D. I., Boyle, C. F., & Monarch, I. A. (1992). Studying Conceptual Change in Learning
Physics. Science Education, 76(6), 615-652.
Galili, I., & Bar, V. (1992). Motion Implies Force: Where to Expect Vestiges of the Misconception?
International Journal of Science Education, 14(1), 63-81.
McCloskey, M. (1983). Naive Theories of Motion. In D. Gentner & A. Stevens (Eds.), Mental Models
(pp. 299-324). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Palmer, D. H. (1997). The Effect of Context on Students' Reasoning About Forces. International Journal
of Science Education, 19(6), 681-696.
Simon, S., Black, P. J., Brown, M., & Blondel, E. (1994). Progression in Understanding the Equilibrium
of Forces. Research Papers in Education, 9(2), 249-280.

612

Twigger, D., Byard, M., Driver, R., Draper, S., Hartley, R., Hennessy, S., Mohamed, R., O'Malley, C.,
O'Shea, T., & Scanlon, E. (1994). The Conception of Force and Motion of Students Aged Between 10
and 15 years: An Interview Study Designed to Guide Instruction. International Journal of Science
Education, 16(2), 215-229.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). The collected works of L.S. Vygotsky: Problems of general psychology. Including
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Johnson DW and Johnson RT. (1996) Meaningful and Manageable Assesment Through Cooperative
Learning. Edina, MN:Interaction, 1996.

Linn, Davis, & Bell, (2004) Internet Environments for Science Education
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Rao SP, Collins HL, and DiCarlo SE. (2002).Collaborative testing enhances student learning.
Sarantos Oikonomidis, Vassilis Grigoriou, Dimitrios Sotiropoulos, Vasiliki Serepa, George Kalkanis: The
learner as a co-creator through collaborative task-based learning of a hands-on experimental apparatus,
and potential media, 3rd International Conference on "Hands-on Science", Braga, Portugal, September 4
to 9, 2006
Sneiderman Ben. Leonardos Laptop Human needs and the new computing technologies. The MIT
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Experimental Education, 66, 141-147.
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Andersson, B. (1990). Pupils conceptions of matter and its transformations (age 12-16). Studies in Science Education, 18, 53-85.
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135156.
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alik, M., & Ayas, A. (2005). A comparison of level of understanding of eighth-grade students and science student teachers related to selected chemistry concepts. Journal of Research in Science Teaching,
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alik, M. (2008). Facilitating students conceptual understanding of boiling using a four-step constructivist teaching method. Research in Science & Technological Education, 26(1), 59-74.
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Hashweh, M. Z. (1987). Effects of subject matter knowledge in the teaching of biology and physics.
Teaching & Teacher Education, 3(2), 109120.
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80, 561-577.
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Johnson, P. M. (1998a) Progression in childrens understanding of a basic particle theory: A longitudinal study. International Journal of Science Education, 20(4), 393-412.
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Boi1ing water and the particle theory. International Journal of Science Education, 20(5), 567- 583
Johnson, P. M. (1998c). Childrens understanding of state involving the gas state, Part 2. Evaporation and
condensation below boiling point. International Journal of Science Education, 20(6), 695-709.
Kokkotas, P., Vlachos, I., & Koulaidis, V. (1998). Teaching the topic of the particulate nature of matter in
prospective teachers training courses. International Journal of Science Education, 20(3), 291- 303.
Lee, O., Eichinger, D., Anderson, C., Berkheimer, C., & Blakeslee, T. (1993). Changing middle school
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648

Tytler, R. (2000). A comparison of year 1 and year 6 students conceptions of evaporation and condensation: dimensions of conceptual progression. International Journal of Science Education, 22(5), 447-467.

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Viennot, L. (1979). Spontaneous reasoning in elementary dynamics. European Journal of Science
Education, Vol. 1, pp. 205-221.
Watts, D. (1983). A study of schoolchildren's alternative frameworks of the concept of force. European
Journal of Science Education, Vol. 4, pp. 217-230.

728

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, dpnevmat@uowm.gr

.


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735

6 .. ..

Carey, S., Evans, R., Honda, M., Jay, E., and Unger, C. (1989). An experiment is when you try it and see
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Jacobson, M. J., & Spiro, R. J. (1995). Hypertext learning environments, cognitive flexibility, and the
transfer of complex knowledge: An empirical investigation. Journal of Educational Computing Research,
12, 301333.
Kardash, C. M., & Scholes, R. J. (1996). Effects of preexisting beliefs, epistemological beliefs, and need
for cognition on interpretation of controversial issues. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 260271.
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Sinatra, G. M., & Pintrich, P. R. (Eds.). (2003). The role of intentions in conceptual change learning. In
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large-scale longitudinal study on the impact of certainty beliefs. Contemporary Educational Psychology,
32, 348366.

737

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Abrams, E., Southerland, S. & Cummins, C. (2001). The Hows and Whys of Biological Change: how
Learners Neglect Physical Mechanisms in their Search for Meaning. International Journal of Science
Education, 12, 1271-1281.
Andersson, B. & Wallin, A. (2006). On Developing Content-oriented Theories taking Biological Evolution as an Example. International Journal of Science Education, 28(6), 673695.
Bishop, B. & Anderson, C.W. (1985). Evolution by natural selection: A teaching module (Occasional Paper No. 91). East Lansing, MI: Institute for Research on Teaching, Michigan State University
Brumby, M. N. (1979). Problems in learning the concept of natural selection. Journal of Biological Education, 13, 119-122.
Clough, E.E. & Wood-Robinson, C (1985). How secondary students interpret instances of biological adaptation. Journal of Biological Education. 19, 125-130.
745

6 .. ..

Deadman, J.A. & Kelly, P.J. (1978). What do secondary school boys understand about evolution and
heredity before they are taught the topics Journal of Biological Education 12 (1) 7-15.
Ferrari, M. & Chi, M. T. H. (1998).The nature of naive explanations of natural selection, International
Journal of Science Education, 20(10), 1231-1256.
Jungwirth, E. (1977). Should natural phenomena be described teleologically or anthropomorphically? - a
science educators view. Journal of Biological Education. 11 (3), 191-196.
Lucas, A. (1971). The teaching of adaptation, Journal of Biological Education, 5, 86-90.
Mayr, E. (2001). What volution is, Basic ooks
Southerland, S. A., Abrams, E., Cummins, C. & Anzelmo, J. (2001). Understanding Students Explanations of Biological Phenomena: Conceptual Frameworks or P-prims? Science Education 85,328-348.

746

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Andersson, B. (1986). Pupils' Explanations of Some Aspects of Chemical Reactions. Science Education, 70 (5), 549-563.
Carey, S. & Smith, C. (1993). On understanding the nature of scientific knowledge. Educational Psychology, 28, 235-231.
Carey, S., & Spelke, E. (1996). Science and core knowledge. Journal of Philosophy of Science, 63,
515-533.
IUPAC (1997). Compendium of Chemical Terminology 2nd Edition
Johnson, P. (2000). Childrens understanding of substances, Part 1: recognizing chemical change. International Journal of Science Education, 22, 719-737.
Johnson, P. (2002). Childrens understanding of substances, Part 2: explaining chemical change. International Journal of Science Education, 24, 1037-1054.
Krnel, D., Watson, R., Glazar S.A. (1998). Survey of research related to the development of the
concept of "matter". International Journal of Science Education, 20, 257-289.
Talanquer, V. (2006). Commonsense chemistry: A model for understanding students alternative conception. Journal of Chemical Education, 83, 811-816.
Vosniadou, S. (1994). Capturing and modeling the process of conceptual change. Learning and Instruction, 4, 45-69.

762

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American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). (1993). Benchmarks for Science literacy. New York: Oxford University Press.
Blalock, H. M. (1987). Social statistics, Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
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Guthrie, J. T, Weber, S., & Kimmerly, N. (1993). Searching documents: Cognitive process and deficits in
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770

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771

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Astolfi, J-P. & Peterfalvi, B. (1997). Stratgies de travail des obstacles: Dispositifs et ressorts. Aster, 25,
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Erduran, S., Simon, S. & Osborne, J. (2004). Tapping into argumentation: Developments in the application of Toulmin's Argument Pattern for studying science discourse. Science Education, 88 (6), 915-933.
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Peterfalvi, B. (2001). Obstacles et situations didactiques en sciences: processus intellectuels et constatations. Lexemple des transformations de la matire. Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, University of Rouen,
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780

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787

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(.) : , & (. 169175), 4 , , 26-28 2004.
, ., , ., , . (2007).
. : . , . , .
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(. 202-210), 5 , , 15-18
2007.
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789

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force.pdf
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s10763-008-9147-6.
Roth, W-M. (2008). The nature of scientific conceptions: A discursive psychological perspective,
Educational Research Review, 3(1).
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VanEijck, M., Hsu, P-L. & Roth, W-M. (2008). Translations of Scientific Practice to Students Images
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Atwood, R. K., & Atwood, V. A. (1996). Preservice elementary teachers conceptions of the causes of
seasons. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 33, 553563.
Bailey, J. M., Slater, T. F. (2004). A Review of Astronomy Education Research . Astronomy Education
Review, 2(2), 2045.
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457487.
Galili, I., & Lavrik, V. (1998). Flux concept in learning about light. A critique of the present situation.
Science Education, 82(5), 591614.
Hsy, Y. S. (2008). Flux concept in learning about light. Learning About Seasons in a Technologically Enhanced Environment: The Impact of Teacher-Guided and Student-Centered Instructional Approaches on
the Process of Students Conceptual Change. Science Education, 92(3), 320344.
Mant, J. & Summers, M. (1993). 'Some primary school teachers' understanding of the earth's place in the
universe', Research Papers in Education, 8, 1, 101-29.
Parker, J., & Heywood, D. (1998). The earth and beyond: Developing Primary teachers understanding of
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childhood. Cognitive Psychology, 24, 535-585.

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816

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Edelson D., (2007). Environmental Science for All? Considering Environmental Science for Inclusion in
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701-705
Larssen T., Lydersen ., Tang D., He Y., Gao J., Liu H., Duan L., Seip H., Vogt R., MuLder J., Shao M.,
Wang Y., Shang H., Zhang X., Solberg S., Aas W., kLand T., EiLerTsen O., Angel V., Liu Q., Zhao D.,
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Mahaffy P., (2004). The future shape of chemistry education. Chemistry Education Research and Practice, 5 (3), 229-245
Menz F., Seip H., (2004). Acid rain in Europe and the United States: n update, Environmental Science
& Policy, 7, 253265
Osborne J., Hennessy S., (2004). FUTURELAB SERIES REPORT 6: Literature Review in Science Education and the Role of ICT: Promise, Problems and Future Directions.
Semb A., (2001). Sulphur dioxide: from protection of human lungs to remote lake restoration Environmental issue report No 22 http://reports.eea.europa.eu/environmental_issue_report_2001_22/en
( 23-03-2009)

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Zhiling H. & Degang Z., (2005). Acid rain damages statue (China Daily 04/19/2005 page3) available at
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-04/19/content_435272.htm ( 2303-2009)

826

.
., ., ., .
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s_schgr@yahoo.co.uk, mikelivitzis@yahoo.com, c.p.constantinou@ucy.ac.cy
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, ., , . (2002).
, 3 , .
, . (2002). : ,
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Commission on Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education (CBASSE) (1999). How people learn:
Brain, Mind, Experience, and School, National Academy Press.
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(2005) Europe needs more scientists: Increasing Human Resources for Science and Technology in
Europe. European Commission: DG Research, Science and Society Programme, ISBN 92-894-8458-6.
Grandy, R., Duschl, R. (2007). Reconsidering the character and role of Inquiry in Scholl Science: Analysis of a Conference, Science & Education 16, 141.
International Academy of Education (2001). How children learn, International Bureau of Education.
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Science Teacher, NSTA, 69(2), 34-37.
835

6 .. ..

Lewis, T. (2006). Design and Inquiry: Bases for an Accommodation between Science and Technology
Education in the Curriculum?, J. Research in Science Teaching, Vol.43 (3), 255.
Mc Dermott, L. (1993). How we teach and how students learn. A mismatch?, Am. J. Phys, Vol. 61 (4).
National Research Council (1996). National Science Education Standards, National Academy Press.
Walker, M. (2007). Teaching Inquiry based science: a guide for middle and high school teachers.

836

.
., .

sotiropoulosdimitris@gmail.com, gkalkanis@primedu.uoa.gr






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http://www.primary.edu.uoi.gr/greek/odhgos/odhgos%20spoudwn%20PTDE%202005-6.pdf
: 20/10/08
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http://hermes.di.uoa.gr/lab/cvs/papers/gogoulou/ggg-ODL-2003.pdf. : 12/12/08
Anohina, A., Graudina, V., Grundspenkis, J.,(2007). Using Concept Maps in Adaptive Knowledge Assessment. Advances in Information Systems Development 469-479.
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on Science: Science in a Changing Education 13-16 2005, , .
Barrett, H. & Wilkerson, J., (2004). Conflicting Paradigms in Electronic Portfolio Approaches.
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Collins, A., (1992). Portfolios for Science Education:Issues in Purpose, Structure, and Authenticity. Science Education, 76(4), 451-63.
Clarkson, B. & Brook, C. (2004). A Focus on Graduate Attributes: aligning policy, practice and learning
in an undergraduate multimedia subject. Proceedings of ED-MEDIA 2004.
de Jong, Ton. (2006). Inquiry Learning in Technology Enhanced learning environments, 5
: , .
Dimitriadis, P., Papatsimpa, L., . ., . . ., (2003). Intensive training of educators in the use of Information Technology. Creating a constructivist learning environment. The case of
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Felder, R.M. & Silverman, L. K. (1988). Learning and teaching styles in engineering education. Engr.
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Hofstein, A, Nahum T, Shore R., (2001). Assessment of the Learning Environment of Inquiry-Type
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Linda R. J. Fraser, Geoffrey J. Giddings, Rodney L. Doran (1995).Assessment and Investigation of Science Laboratory Skills Among Year 5 Students. Research in Science Education, 25(3), 253-266.
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teaching, Physics Education 22, 321-238.

845

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:
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Kings College (University of London-UK), filippos.tentolouris@kcl.ac.uk


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Barton, D. (1994). Literacy: an introduction to the ecology of written language. Blackwell, Oxford.
Fairclough, N. (ed) (1992). Critical language awareness. Longman, London.
Halliday, M.A.K. & Martin, J.R. (1993). Writing science: literacy and discursive power. Falmer Press,
London.
Hanks, W. (1996). Language and communicative practices. Westview Press, Boulder.
Hyland, K. (2004). Disciplinary discourses: social interactions in academic writing. University of
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Ivani, R. (1999). Literacies and Epistemologies. In Leung, C. & Tosi, . (eds) Rethinking language education. CILT, London, 139-152.
Kress, G. & Van Leeuwen, T. (1996). Reading imagesthe grammar of visual design. Routledge, London.
Lankshear, C. & Knobel, M. (2004). A Handbook of teacher research: from design to implementation.
Open University Press, Maidenhead.
Latour, B. & and S. Woolgar, S. (1986). Laboratory life: The construction of scientific facts. Princeton
University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
Roberts, C., Byram, M., Barro, A., Jordan, S. & Street, B. (2001). Language learners as ethnographers.
Multilimgual Matters, Clevedon.
Schieffelin, B.B., Woolard, K.A. & Kroskrity, P.V. (eds) (1998). Language ideologies: practice and theory. Oxford University Press, New York.
Street, B. (1984) Literacy in Theory and Practice. Cambridge: CUP.
Street, B. (2000). Literacy events and literacy practices: Theory and practice in the New Literacy Studies.
In Martin-Jones, M. & Jones, K. (eds.) Multilingual Literacies: Reading and Writing different worlds.
John Benjamin, Amsterdam, 17-29.
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Buckingham.
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20% ( 9 36%).
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.

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,
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(Higher-Order Cognitive Skills - HOCS), ,
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Skills - LOCS),
. , PARSEL
(Popularity and Relevance of Science Education for scientific Literacy:
),
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) (role play),
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module .

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,
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PARSEL : http://www.parsel.uni-kiel.de/cms/.

. , .
. , .
.

.. (2005). ITER: ,
4/9/2005, .H04.
.. (2001). :

4 /2/ 2001, .A47.

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. (2001) 4/1/2001,
( ).
., . (2002).
. 3
, ,
, . 325-330. [B. , http://www.kodipheet.gr]
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928

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, . Tsaparlis & Kampourakis 2000), ,
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938

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, . (2006). :
. , 9, 19-21.

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947

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modules on Material Properties, Science and Society Programme, FP6, SAS6-CT -2006042942).

,., (2003).
. , .4:2-3,169182.
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Familiar with Materials around Us through Inquiry, Site Visits and Reading and Writing Activities. Internal report of the MaterialScience project.

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Hofstein A.............................................................................................................................................................................................939
Johnson P..............................................................................................................................................................................................640
Lavonen J..............................................................................................................................................................................................963
Lombardi S............................................................................................................................................................................................960
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